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because Mitsuda wanted to do something that no one else was doing , and he noted that acid jazz and its related genres were uncommon in the Japanese market . Mitsuda considers Chrono Trigger a landmark title which helped mature his talent . While Mitsuda later held that the title piece was " rough around the edges " , he maintains that it had " significant influence on [ his ] life as a composer " . In 1999 , Square produced another one @-@ disc soundtrack to complement the PlayStation release of Trigger , featuring orchestral tracks used in cut scenes . Tsuyoshi Sekito composed four new pieces for the game 's bonus features which weren 't included on the soundtrack . Some fans were displeased by Mitsuda 's absence in creating the port , whose instruments sometimes aurally differed from the original game 's . Mitsuda arranged versions of music from the Chrono series for Play ! video game music concerts , presenting the main theme , Frog 's Theme , and To Far Away Times . He worked with Square Enix to ensure that the music for the Nintendo DS would sound closer to the Super NES version . Mitsuda encouraged feedback about the game 's soundtrack from contemporary children ( who he thought would expect " full symphonic scores blaring out of the speakers " ) . Fans who preordered Chrono Trigger DS received a special music disc containing two orchestral arrangements of Chrono Trigger music directed by Natsumi Kameoka ; Square Enix also held a random prize drawing for two signed copies of Chrono Trigger sheet music . Mitsuda expressed difficulty in selecting the tune for the orchestral medley , eventually picking a tune from each era and certain character themes . Mitsuda later wrote :
I feel that the way we interact with music has changed greatly in the last 13 years , even for me . For better or for worse , I think it would be extremely difficult to create something as " powerful " as I did 13 years ago today . But instead , all that I have learned in these 13 years allows me to compose something much more intricate . To be perfectly honest , I find it so hard to believe that songs from 13 years ago are loved this much . Keeping these feelings in mind , I hope to continue composing songs which are powerful , and yet intricate ... I hope that the extras like this bonus CD will help expand the world of Chrono Trigger , especially since we did a live recording . I hope there 's another opportunity to release an album of this sort one day .
Fans have heavily remixed the soundtrack , producing over 700 tributes and several cover performance albums released over the internet or sold at retail . These include Time & Space - A Tribute to Yasunori Mitsuda and Chrono Symphonic , the latter released by the remix website OverClocked ReMix . Japanese fans often sell their remix work in compilation albums popularly called " Dōjin " by Western fans .
Music from Chrono Trigger was performed live by the Tokyo Symphony Orchestra in 1996 at the Orchestral Game Concert in Tokyo , Japan . A suite of music including Chrono Trigger is a part of the symphonic world @-@ tour with video game music Play ! A Video Game Symphony , where Mitsuda was in attendance for the concert 's world @-@ premiere in Chicago on May 27 , 2006 . His suite of Chrono music , comprising " Reminiscence " , " Chrono Trigger " , " Chrono Cross ~ Time 's Scar " , " Frog 's Theme " , and " To Far Away Times " was performed . Mitsuda has also appeared with the Eminence Symphony Orchestra as a special guest . Video Games Live has also featured medleys from Chrono Trigger and Chrono Cross . A medley of Music from Chrono Trigger made of one of the four suites of the Symphonic Fantasies concerts in September 2009 which was produced by the creators of the Symphonic Game Music Concert series , conducted by Arnie Roth . Square Enix re @-@ released the game 's soundtrack , along with a video interview with Mitsuda in July 2009 .
= = = Original release = = =
The team planned to release Chrono Trigger in late 1994 , but release was pushed back to the following year . Early alpha versions of Chrono Trigger were demonstrated at the 1994 and 1995 V @-@ Jump festivals in Japan . A few months prior to the game 's release , Square shipped a beta version to magazine reviewers and game stores for review . An unfinished build of the game dated November 17 , 1994 , it contains unused music tracks , locations , and other features changed or removed from the final release — such as a dungeon named " Singing Mountain " and its eponymous tune . Some names also differed ; the character Soysaw ( Slash in the US version ) was known as Wiener , while Mayonnay ( Flea in the US version ) was named Ketchappa . The ROM image for this early version was eventually uploaded to the internet , prompting fans to explore and document the game 's differences , including two unused world map NPC character sprites and presumed additional sprites for certain non @-@ player characters . Around the game 's release , Yuji Horii commented that Chrono Trigger " went beyond [ the development team 's ] expectations " , and Hironobu Sakaguchi congratulated the game 's graphic artists and field designers . Sakaguchi intended to perfect the " sense of dancing you get from exploring Toriyama 's worlds " in the event that they would make a sequel .
Chrono Trigger used a 32 @-@ megabit ROM cartridge with battery @-@ backed RAM for saved games , lacking special on @-@ cartridge coprocessors . The Japanese release of Chrono Trigger included art for the game 's ending and running counts of items in the player 's status menu . Developers created the North American version before adding these features to the original build , inadvertently leaving in vestiges of Chrono Trigger 's early development ( such as the piece " Singing Mountain " ) . Hironobu Sakaguchi asked translator Ted Woolsey to localize Chrono Trigger for English audiences and gave him roughly thirty days to work . Lacking the help of a modern translation team , he memorized scenarios and looked at drafts of commercial player 's guides to put dialogue in context . Woolsey later reflected that he would have preferred two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half months , and blames his rushed schedule on the prevailing attitude in Japan that games were children 's toys rather than serious works . Some of his work was cut due to space constraints , though he still considered Trigger " one of the most satisfying games [ he ] ever worked on or played " . Nintendo of America censored certain dialogue , including references to breastfeeding , consumption of alcohol , and religion . Square shipped Trigger with two world maps , and Japanese buyers who preordered received holographic foil cards .
The original SNES edition of Chrono Trigger was released on the Wii download service Virtual Console in Japan on April 26 , 2011 , in the US on May 16 , 2011 , and in Europe on May 20 , 2011 . Previously in April 2008 , a Nintendo Power reader poll had identified Chrono Trigger as the third @-@ most wanted game for the Virtual Console . It went on to receive a perfect score of 10 out 10 on IGN .
= = = PlayStation release = = =
Square released an enhanced port of Chrono Trigger developed by Tose in Japan for the Sony PlayStation in 1999 . Square timed its release before that of Chrono Cross , the 1999 sequel to Chrono Trigger , to familiarize new players with story leading up to it . This version included anime cut scenes created by original character designer Akira Toriyama 's Bird Studio and animated by Toei Animation , as well as several bonus features , accessible after achieving various endings in the game . Scenarist Masato Kato attended planning meetings at Bird Studio to discuss how the ending cut scenes would illustrate subtle ties to Chrono Cross . The port was later released in North America in 2001 — along with a newly translated version of Final Fantasy IV — under the package title Final Fantasy Chronicles . Reviewers criticized Chronicles for its lengthy load times and an absence of new in @-@ game features . This same iteration was also re @-@ released as a downloadable game on the Playstation Network on October 4 , 2011 , for the PlayStation 3 , PlayStation Vita , and PlayStation Portable .
= = = Nintendo DS release = = =
On July 2 , 2008 , Square Enix announced that they were officially planning to bring Chrono Trigger to the Nintendo DS handheld platform . Composer Yasunori Mitsuda was pleased with the project , exclaiming " finally ! " after receiving the news from Square Enix and maintaining , " it 's still a very deep , very high @-@ quality game even when you play it today . I 'm very interested in seeing what kids today think about it when they play it . " Square retained Masato Kato to oversee the port , and Tose to program it . Kato explained , " I wanted it to be based on the original Super NES release rather than the PlayStation version . I thought we should look at the additional elements from the Playstation version , re @-@ examine and re @-@ work them to make it a complete edition . That ’ s how it struck me and I told the staff so later on . " Square Enix touted the game by displaying Akira Toriyama 's original art at the 2008 Tokyo Game Show .
The DS re @-@ release contains all of the bonus material from the PlayStation port , as well as other enhancements . The added features include a more accurate and revised translation by Tom Slattery , a dual @-@ screen mode which clears the top screen of all menus , a self @-@ completing map screen , and a default " run " option . It also featured the option to choose between two control schemes : one mirroring the original SNES controls , and the other making use of the DS 's touch screen . Masato Kato participated in development , overseeing the addition of the monster @-@ battling Arena , two new areas , the Lost Sanctum and the Dimensional Vortex , and a new ending that further foreshadows the events of Chrono Cross . One of the areas within the Vortex uses the " Singing Mountain " song that was featured on the original Chrono Trigger soundtrack . These new dungeons met with mixed reviews ; GameSpot called them " frustrating " and " repetitive " , while IGN noted that " the extra quests in the game connect extremely well . " It was a nominee for " Best RPG for the Nintendo DS " in IGN 's 2008 video game awards . The Nintendo DS version of Chrono Trigger was the 22nd best @-@ selling game of 2008 in Japan .
= = = Mobile release = = =
A cellphone version was released in Japan on i @-@ mode distribution service on August 25 , 2011 . An iOS version was released on December 8 , 2011 . This version is based on the Nintendo DS version , with graphics optimized for iOS . The game was later released for Android on October 29 , 2012 .
= = Reception = =
The game was a bestseller in Japan . The game 's SNES and PS1 iterations have shipped more than 2 @.@ 36 million copies in Japan and 290 @,@ 000 abroad . The first two million copies sold in Japan were delivered in only two months , and the game ended 1995 as the third best @-@ selling game of the year behind Dragon Quest VI : Realms of Revelation and Donkey Kong Country 2 : Diddy 's Kong Quest . The game was met with substantial success upon release in North America , and its rerelease on the PlayStation as part of the Final Fantasy Chronicles package topped the NPD TRSTS PlayStation sales charts for over six weeks . This version was later re @-@ released again in 2003 as part of Sony 's Greatest Hits line . Chrono Trigger DS has sold 490 @,@ 000 copies in Japan , 240 @,@ 000 in North America and 60 @,@ 000 in Europe as of March 2009 .
Chrono Trigger garnered much critical praise in addition to its brisk sales . Famicom Tsūshin gave Chrono Trigger first an 8 out of 10 and later a 9 out of 10 in their Reader Cross Review . Nintendo Power compared it favorably with Secret of Mana , Final Fantasy , and The Legend of Zelda : A Link to the Past , citing improved graphics , sound , story and gameplay over past RPG titles . GamePro praised the varied gameplay , the humor , the ability to replay the game with previously built @-@ up characters , and the graphics , which they said far exceed even those of Final Fantasy VI . They commented that combat is easier and more simplistic than in most RPGs , but argued that " Most players would choose an easier RPG of this caliber over a hundred more complicated , but less developed , fantasy role @-@ playing adventures . " They gave the game a perfect 5 out of 5 in all four categories : graphics , sound , control , and funfactor . Chrono Trigger won multiple awards from Electronic Gaming Monthly 's 1995 video game awards , including Best Role @-@ Playing Game , Best Music in a Cartridge @-@ Based Game , and Best Super NES Game . Official U.S. PlayStation Magazine described Trigger as " original and extremely captivating " , singling out its graphics , sound and story as particularly impressive . IGN commented that " it may be filled with every imaginable console RPG cliché , but Chrono Trigger manages to stand out among the pack " with " a [ captivating ] story that doesn 't take itself too serious [ sic ] " and " one of the best videogame soundtracks ever produced " . Other reviewers ( such as the staff of RPGFan and RPGamer ) have criticized the game 's short length and relative ease compared to its peers . Victoria Earl of Gamasutra praised the game design for balancing " developer control with player freedom using carefully @-@ designed mechanics and a modular approach to narrative . "
Overall , critics lauded Chrono Trigger for its " fantastic yet not overly complex " story , simple but innovative gameplay , and high replay value afforded by multiple endings . Online score aggregator GameRankings lists the original Super NES version as the 2nd highest scoring RPG and 24th highest scoring game ever reviewed . In 2009 , Guinness World Records listed it as the 32nd most influential video game in history . Nintendo Power listed the ending to Chrono Trigger as one of the greatest endings in Nintendo history , due to over a dozen endings that players can experience . Tom Hall drew inspiration from Chrono Trigger and other console games in creating Anachronox , and used the campfire scene to illustrate the dramatic depth of Japanese RPGs .
Chrono Trigger is frequently listed among the greatest video games of all time . It has placed highly on all six of multimedia website IGN 's " top 100 games of all time " lists — 4th in 2002 , 6th in early 2005 , 13th in late 2005 , 2nd in 2006 , 18th in 2007 , and 2nd in 2008 . Game Informer called it its 15th favourite game in 2001 . Its staff thought that it was the best non @-@ Final Fantasy title Square had produced at the time . GameSpot included Chrono Trigger in " The Greatest Games of All Time " list released in April 2006 , and it also appeared as 28th on an " All Time Top 100 " list in a poll conducted by Japanese magazine Famitsu the same year . In 2004 , Chrono Trigger finished runner up to Final Fantasy VII in the inaugural GameFAQs video game battle . In 2008 , readers of Dengeki Online voted it the eighth best game ever made . Nintendo Power 's twentieth anniversary issue named it the fifth best Super NES game . In 2012 , it came 32nd place on GamesRadar 's " 100 best games of all time " list , and 1st place on its " Best JRPGs " list . GamesRadar named Chrono Trigger the 2nd best Super NES game of all time , behind Super Metroid .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Add @-@ ons = = =
Chrono Trigger inspired several related releases ; the first were three titles released for the Satellaview on July 31 , 1995 . They included Chrono Trigger : Jet Bike Special , a racing video game based on a minigame from the original ; Chrono Trigger : Character Library , featuring profiles on characters and monsters from the game ; and Chrono Trigger : Music Library , a collection of music from the game 's soundtrack . The contents of Character Library and Music Library were later included as extras in the PlayStation rerelease of Chrono Trigger . Production I.G created a 16 @-@ minute OVA entitled " Nuumamonja : Time and Space Adventures " which was shown at the Japanese V @-@ Jump Festival of July 31 , 1996 .
= = = Fangames = = =
There have been two notable attempts by Chrono Trigger fans to unofficially remake parts of the game for PC with a 3D graphics engine . Chrono Resurrection , an attempt at remaking ten small interactive cut scenes from Chrono Trigger , and Chrono Trigger Remake Project , which sought to remake the entire game , were forcibly terminated by Square Enix by way of a cease and desist order . Another group of fans created a sequel via a ROM hack of Chrono Trigger called Chrono Trigger : Crimson Echoes ; developed from 2004 to 2009 ; although feature @-@ length and virtually finished , it also was terminated through a cease & desist letter days before its May 2009 release . The letter also banned the dissemination of existing Chrono Trigger ROM hacks and documentation . After the cease and desist was issued , an incomplete version of the game was leaked in May 2009 , though due to the early state of the game , playability was limited . This was followed by a more complete ROM leak in January 2011 , which allowed the game to be played from beginning to end .
= = = Sequels = = =
Square released a fourth Satellaview game in 1996 , named Radical Dreamers : Nusumenai Hōseki . Having thought that Trigger ended with " unfinished business " , scenarist Masato Kato wrote and directed the game . Dreamers functioned as a side story to Chrono Trigger , resolving a loose subplot from its predecessor . A short , text @-@ based game relying on minimal graphics and atmospheric music , the game never received an official release outside Japan — though it was translated by fans to English in April 2003 . Square planned to release Radical Dreamers as an easter egg in the PlayStation edition of Chrono Trigger , but Kato was unhappy with his work and halted its inclusion .
Square released Chrono Cross for the Sony PlayStation in 1999 . Cross is a sequel to Chrono Trigger featuring a new setting and cast of characters . Presenting a theme of parallel worlds , the story followed the protagonist Serge — a teenage boy thrust into an alternate reality in which he died years earlier . With the help of a thief named Kid , Serge endeavors to discover the truth behind his apparent death and obtain the Frozen Flame , a mythical artifact . Regarded by writer and director Masato Kato as an effort to " redo Radical Dreamers properly " , Chrono Cross borrowed certain themes , scenarios , characters , and settings from Dreamers . Yasunori Mitsuda also adapted certain songs from Radical Dreamers while scoring Cross . Radical Dreamers was consequently removed from the series ' main continuity , considered an alternate dimension . Chrono Cross shipped 1 @.@ 5 million copies and was almost universally praised by critics .
There are no plans for a new title , despite a statement from Hironobu Sakaguchi in 2001 that the developers of Chrono Cross wanted to make a new Chrono game . The same year , Square applied for a trademark for the names Chrono Break in the United States and Chrono Brake in Japan . However , the United States trademark was dropped in 2003 . Director Takashi Tokita mentioned " Chrono Trigger 2 " in a 2003 interview which has not been translated to English . Yuji Horii expressed no interest in returning to the Chrono franchise in 2005 , while Hironobu Sakaguchi remarked in April 2007 that his creation Blue Dragon was an " extension of [ Chrono Trigger ] . " During a Cubed ³ interview on February 1 , 2007 , Square Enix 's Senior Vice President Hiromichi Tanaka said that although no sequel is currently planned , some sort of sequel is still possible if the Chrono Cross developers can be reunited . Yasunori Mitsuda has expressed interest in scoring a new game , but warned that " there are a lot of politics involved " with the series . He stressed that Masato Kato should participate in development . The February 2008 issue of Game Informer ranked the Chrono series eighth among the " Top Ten Sequels in Demand " , naming the games " steadfast legacies in the Square Enix catalogue " and asking , " what 's the damn holdup ? ! " In Electronic Gaming Monthly 's June 2008 " Retro Issue " , writer Jeremy Parish cited Chrono as the franchise video game fans would be most thrilled to see a sequel to . In the first May Famitsu of 2009 , Chrono Trigger placed 14th out of 50 in a vote of most @-@ wanted sequels by the magazine 's readers . At E3 2009 , SE Senior Vice President Shinji Hashimoto remarked , " If people want a sequel , they should buy more ! "
In July 2010 , Feargus Urquhart , replying to an interview question about what franchises he would like to work on , said that " if [ he ] could come across everything that [ he ] played " , he would choose a Chrono Trigger game . At the time , Urquhart 's company Obsidian Entertainment was making Dungeon Siege III for Square Enix . Urquhart said : " You make RPGs , we make RPGs , it would be great to see what we could do together . And they really wanted to start getting into Western RPGs . And , so it kind of all ended up fitting together . " Yoshinori Kitase revealed in 2011 that he used the time travel mechanics of Chrono Trigger as a starting point for that of Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 2 .
= Battle of Belgium =
The Battle of Belgium or Belgian Campaign , often referred to within Belgium as the 18 Days ' Campaign ( French : Campagne des 18 jours , Dutch : Achttiendaagse Veldtocht ) , formed part of the greater Battle of France , an offensive campaign by Germany during the Second World War . It took place over 18 days in May 1940 and ended with the German occupation of Belgium following the surrender of the Belgian Army .
On 10 May 1940 , Germany invaded Luxembourg , the Netherlands , and Belgium under the operational plan Fall Gelb ( Case Yellow ) . The Allied armies attempted to halt the German Army in Belgium , believing it to be the main German thrust . After the French had fully committed the best of the Allied armies to Belgium between 10 and 12 May , the Germans enacted the second phase of their operation , a break @-@ through , or sickle cut , through the Ardennes , and advanced toward the English Channel . The German Army ( Heer ) reached the Channel after five days , encircling the Allied armies . The Germans gradually reduced the pocket of Allied forces , forcing them back to the sea . The Belgian Army surrendered on 28 May 1940 , ending the battle .
The Battle of Belgium included the first tank battle of the war , the Battle of Hannut . It was the largest tank battle in history up to that date but was later surpassed by the battles of the North African campaign and the Eastern Front . The battle also included the Battle of Fort Eben @-@ Emael , the first strategic airborne operation using paratroopers ever attempted .
The German official history stated that in the 18 days of bitter fighting , the Belgian Army were tough opponents , and spoke of the " extraordinary bravery " of its soldiers . The Belgian collapse forced the Allied withdrawal from continental Europe . The British Royal Navy subsequently evacuated Belgian ports during Operation Dynamo , allowing the British Army to escape and continue military operations . France reached its own armistice with Germany in June 1940 . Belgium was occupied by the Germans until the autumn of 1944 , when it was liberated by the Western Allies .
= = Pre @-@ battle plans = =
= = = Belgium 's strained alliances = = =
The Belgian strategy for a defence against German aggression faced political as well as military problems . In terms of military strategy , the Belgians were unwilling to stake everything on a linear defence of the Belgian – German border , in an extension of the Maginot Line . Such a move would leave the Belgians vulnerable to a German assault in their rear , through an attack on the Netherlands . Such a strategy would also rely on the French to move quickly into Belgium and support the garrison there .
Politically , the Belgians did not trust the French . Marshal Philippe Pétain had suggested a French strike at Germany 's Ruhr area using Belgium as a spring @-@ board in October 1930 and again in January 1933 . Belgium feared it would be drawn into a war regardless , and sought to avoid that eventuality . The Belgians also feared being drawn into a war as a result of the French – Soviet pact of May 1935 . The Franco @-@ Belgian agreement stipulated Belgium was to mobilise if the Germans did , but what was not clear was whether Belgium would have to mobilise in the event of a German invasion of Poland .
The Belgians much preferred an alliance with the United Kingdom . The British had entered the First World War in response to the German violation of Belgian neutrality . The Belgian Channel ports had offered the German Imperial Navy valuable bases , and such an attack would offer the German Kriegsmarine and the Luftwaffe bases to engage in strategic offensive operations against the United Kingdom in the coming conflict . But the British government paid little attention to the concerns of the Belgians . The lack of this commitment ensured the Belgian withdrawal from the Western Alliance , the day before the remilitarisation of the Rhineland . The lack of opposition to the remilitarisation served to convince the Belgians that France and Britain were unwilling to fight for their own strategic interests , let alone Belgium 's . The Belgian General Staff was determined to fight for its own interests , alone if necessary .
= = = Belgian place in Allied strategy = = =
The French were infuriated at King Leopold III 's open declaration of neutrality in October 1936 . The French Army saw its strategic assumptions undermined ; it could no longer expect closer cooperation with the Belgians in defending the latter 's eastern borders , enabling a German attack to be checked well forward of the French border . The French were dependent on how much cooperation they could extract from the Belgians . Such a situation deprived the French any prepared defences in Belgium to forestall an attack , a situation which the French had wanted to avoid as it meant engaging the German Panzer Divisions in a mobile battle . The French considered invading Belgium immediately in response to a German attack on the country . The Belgians , recognising the danger posed by the Germans , secretly made their own defence policies , troop movement information , communications , fixed defence dispositions , intelligence and air reconnaissance arrangements available to the French military attaché in Brussels .
The Allied plan to aid Belgium was the Dyle Plan ; the cream of the Allied forces , which included the French armoured divisions , would advance to the Dyle river in response to a German invasion . The choice of an established Allied line lay in either reinforcing the Belgians in the east of the country , at the Meuse – Albert Canal line , and holding the Scheldt Estuary , thus linking the French defences in the south with the Belgian forces protecting Ghent and Antwerp , seemed to be the soundest defensive strategy . The weakness of the plan was that , politically at least , it abandoned most of eastern Belgium to the Germans . Militarily it would put the Allied rear at right angles to the French frontier defences ; while for the British , their communications located at the Bay of Biscay ports , would be parallel to their front . Despite the risk of committing forces to central Belgium and an advance to the Schedlt or Dyle lines , which would be vulnerable to an outflanking move , Maurice Gamelin , the French commander , approved the plan and it remained the Allied strategy upon the outbreak of war .
The British , with no army in the field and behind in rearmament , was in no position to challenge French strategy , which had assumed the prominent role of the Western Alliance . Having little ability to oppose the French , the British strategy for military action came in the form of strategic bombing of the Ruhr industry .
= = = Belgian military strategy = = =
Upon the official Belgian withdrawal from the Western Alliance , the Belgians refused to engage in any official staff meetings with the French or British military staff for fear of compromising its neutrality . The Belgians did not regard a German invasion as inevitable and were determined that if an invasion did take place it would be effectively resisted by new fortifications such as Eben Emael . The Belgians had taken measures to reconstruct their defences along the border with the German state upon Adolf Hitler 's rise to power in January 1933 . The Belgian government had watched with increasing alarm the German withdrawal from the League of Nations , its repudiation of the Treaty of Versailles and its violation of the Locarno Treaties . The government increased expenditure on modernising the fortifications at Namur and Liège . New lines of defence were established along the Maastricht – Bois @-@ le @-@ Duc canal , joining the Meuse , Scheldt and the Albert Canal . The protection of the eastern frontier , based mainly on the destruction of a number of roads , was entrusted to new formations ( frontier cyclist units and the newly formed Chasseurs Ardennais ) . By 1935 , the Belgian defences had been completed . Even so , it was felt that the defences were no longer adequate . A significant mobile reserve was needed to guard the rear areas , and as a result it was considered that the protection against a sudden assault by German forces was not sufficient . Significant manpower reserves were also needed , but a bill made for the provision of longer military service and training for the army was rejected by the public on the basis that it would increase Belgium 's military commitments as well as the request of the Allies to engage in conflicts far from home .
King Leopold III made a speech on 14 October 1936 in front of the Council of Ministers , in an attempt to persuade the people ( and its Government ) that the defences needed strengthening . He outlined three main military points for Belgium 's increased rearmament :
a ) German rearmament , following upon the complete re @-@ militarisation of Italy and Russia ( the Soviet Union ) , caused most other states , even those that were deliberately pacifistic , like Switzerland and the Netherlands , to take exceptional precautions .
b ) There has been such a vast change in the methods of warfare as a result of technical progress , particularly in aviation and mechanization , that the initial operations of armed conflict could now be of such force , speed and magnitude as to be particularly alarming to small countries like Belgium .
c ) Our anxieties have been increased by the lightning reoccupation of the Rhineland and the fact that bases for the start of a possible German invasion have been moved near to our frontier .
On 24 April 1937 , the French and British delivered a public declaration that Belgium 's security was paramount to the Western Allies and that they would defend their frontiers accordingly against aggression of any sort , whether this aggression was directed solely at Belgium , or as a means of obtaining bases from which to wage war against " other states " . The British and French , under those circumstances , released Belgium from her Locarno obligations to render mutual assistance in the event of German aggression toward Poland , while the British and French maintained their military obligations to Belgium .
Militarily , the Belgians considered the Wehrmacht to be stronger than the Allies , particular the British Army and engaging in overtures to the Allies would result in Belgium becoming a battleground without adequate Allies . The Belgians and French remained confused about what was expected of each other if or when , hostilities commenced . The Belgians were determined to hold the border fortifications along the Albert Canal and the Meuse , without withdrawing , until the French Army arrived to support them . Gamelin was not keen on pushing his Dyle plan that far . He was concerned that the Belgians would be driven out of their defences and would retreat to Antwerp , as in 1914 . In fact , the Belgian divisions protecting the border were to withdraw and retreat southward to link up with French forces . This information was not given to Gamelin . As far as the Belgians were concerned , the Dyle Plan had advantages . Instead of the limited Allied advance to the Scheldt , or meeting the Germans on the Franco @-@ Belgian border , the move to the Dyle river would reduce the Allied front in central Belgium by 70 kilometres ( 43 mi ) , freeing more forces for use as a strategic reserve . It was felt it would save more Belgian territory , in particular the eastern industrial regions . It also had the advantage of absorbing Dutch and Belgian Army formations ( including some 20 Belgian divisions ) . Gamelin was to justify the Dyle Plan after the defeat using these arguments .
On 10 January 1940 , in an episode known as the Mechelen Incident , a German Army Major Hellmuth Reinberger crash @-@ landed in a Messerschmitt Bf 108 near Mechelen @-@ aan @-@ de @-@ Maas . Reinberger was carrying the first plans for the German invasion of western Europe which , as Gamelin had expected , entailed a repeat of the 1914 Schlieffen Plan and a German thrust through the Belgium ( which was expanded by the Wehrmacht to include the Netherlands ) and into France .
The Belgians suspected a ruse , but the plans were taken seriously . Belgian intelligence and the military attaché in Cologne correctly suggested the Germans would not commence the invasion with this plan . It suggested that the Germans would try an attack through the Belgian Ardennes and advance to Calais with the aim of encircling the Allied armies in Belgium . The Belgians had correctly predicted the Germans would attempt a Kesselschlacht ( literally " Cauldron battle " , meaning encirclement ) , to destroy its enemies . The Belgians had predicted the exact German plan as offered by Erich von Manstein .
The Belgian High Command warned the French and British of their concerns . They feared that the Dyle plan would put not just the Belgian strategic position in danger , but also the entire left wing of the Allied front . King Leopold and General Raoul Van Overstraeten , the King 's Aide de Camp , warned Gamelin and the French Army Command of their concerns on 8 March and 14 April . They were ignored .
= = = Belgian plans for defensive operations = = =
The Belgian plan , in the event of German aggression [ italics in original ] provided for :
( a ) A delaying position along the Albert Canal from Antwerp to Liège and the Meuse from Liège to Namur , which was to be held long enough to allow French and British troops to occupy the line Antwerp – Namur – Givet . It was anticipated that the forces of the guarantor Powers would be in action on the third day of an invasion .
( b ) Withdrawal to the Antwerp – Namur position .
( c ) The Belgian Army was to hold the sector – excluding Leuven , but including Antwerp – as part of the main Allied defensive position .
In an agreement with the British and French Armies , the French 7th Army under the command of Henri Giraud was to advance into Belgium , past the Scheldt Estuary in Zeeland if possible , to Breda , in the Netherlands . The British Army 's British Expeditionary Force or BEF , commanded by General John Vereker , Lord Gort , was to occupy the central position in the Brussels – Ghent gap supporting the Belgian Army holding the main defensive positions some 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) east of Brussels . The main defensive position ringing Antwerp would be protected by the Belgians , barely 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) from the city . The French 7th Army was to reach the Zeeland or Breda , just inside the Dutch border . The French would then be in a position to protect the left flank of the Belgian Army forces protecting Antwerp and threaten the German northern flank .
Further east , delaying positions were constructed in the immediate tactical zones along the Albert Canal , which joined with the defences of the Meuse west of Maastricht . The line deviated southward , and continued to Liege . The Maastricht – Liège gap was heavily protected . Fort Eben @-@ Emael guarded the city 's northern flank , the tank country lying in the strategic depths of the Belgian forces occupying the city and the axis of advance into the west of the country . Further lines of defence ran south west , covering the Liege – Namur axis . The Belgian Army also had the added benefit of the French 1st Army , advancing toward Gembloux and Hannut , on the southern flank of the BEF and covering the Sambre sector . This covered the gap in the Belgian defences between the main Belgian positions on the Dyle line with Namur to the south . Further south still , the French 9th Army advanced to the Givet – Dinant axis on the Meuse river . The French 2nd Army was responsible for the last 100 kilometres ( 62 mi ) of front , covering Sedan , the lower Meuse , the Belgian – Luxembourg border and the northern flank of the Maginot line .
= = = German operational plans = = =
The German plan of attack required that Army Group B would advance and draw in the Allied First Army Group into central Belgium , while Army Group A conducted the surprise assault through the Ardennes . Belgium was to act as a secondary front with regard to importance . Army Group B was given only limited numbers of armoured and mobile units while the vast majority of the Army Group comprised infantry divisions . After the English Channel was reached , all Panzer division units and most motorised infantry were removed from Army Group B and given to Army Group A , to strengthen the German lines of communication and to prevent an Allied breakout .
Such a plan would still fail if sufficient ground could not be taken quickly in Belgium to squeeze the allies against two fronts . Preventing this from happening were the defences of Fort Eben @-@ Emael and the Albert Canal . The three bridges over the canal were the key to allowing Army Group B a high operational tempo . The bridges at Veldwezelt , Vroenhoven and Kanne in Belgium , and Maastricht on the Dutch border were the target . Failure to capture the bridges would leave Reichenau 's German 6th Army , the southern @-@ most army of Group B , trapped in the Maastricht @-@ Albert Canal enclave and subjected to the fire of Eben @-@ Emael . The fort had to be captured or destroyed .
Adolf Hitler summoned Lieutenant @-@ General Kurt Student of the 7 . Flieger @-@ Division ( 7th Air Division ) to discuss the assault . It was first suggested that a conventional parachute drop be made by airborne forces to seize and destroy the forts ' guns before the land units approached . Such a suggestion was rejected as the Junkers Ju 52 transports were too slow and were likely to be vulnerable to Dutch and Belgian anti @-@ aircraft guns . Other factors for its refusal were the weather conditions , which might blow the paratroopers away from the fort and disperse them too widely . A seven @-@ second drop from a Ju 52 at minimum operational height led to a dispersion over 300 metres alone .
Hitler had noticed one potential flaw in the defences . The roofs were flat and unprotected ; he demanded to know if a glider , such as the DFS 230 , could land on them . Student replied that it could be done , but only by 12 aircraft and in daylight ; this would deliver 80 – 90 paratroopers onto the target . Hitler then revealed the tactical weapon that would make this strategic operation work , introducing the Hohlladungwaffe ( hollow @-@ charge ) – a 50 kilograms ( 110 lb ) explosive weapon which would destroy the Belgian gun emplacements . It was this tactical unit that would spearhead the first strategic airborne operation in history .
= = Forces involved = =
= = = Belgian forces = = =
The Belgian Army could muster 22 divisions , which contained 1 @,@ 338 artillery pieces but just 10 AMC 35 tanks . However , the Belgian combat vehicles included 200 T @-@ 13 tank destroyers . These had an excellent 47 mm antitank gun and a coaxial FN30 machine gun in a turret . The Belgians also possessed 42 T @-@ 15s . They were officially described as armoured cars but were actually fully tracked tanks with a 13 @.@ 2 mm turret machine gun . The standard Belgian anti @-@ tank gun was the 47 mm FRC , towed either by trucks or by fully tracked armoured Utilitie B @-@ tractors . One report states that a round from a 47 mm gun went straight through a Sd kfz 231 and penetrated the armour of the Panzer IV behind it . These Belgian guns were better than the 25 mm and 37 mm guns of respectively the French and the Germans .
The Belgians began mobilisation on 25 August 1939 and by May 1940 mounted a field army of 18 infantry divisions , two divisions of partly motorised Chasseurs Ardennais and two motorised cavalry divisions , a force totaling some 600 @,@ 000 men . Belgian reserves may have been able to field 900 @,@ 000 men . The army lacked armour and anti @-@ aircraft guns .
After the completion of the Belgian Army 's mobilisation , it could muster five Regular Corps and two reserve Army Corps consisting of 12 regular infantry divisions , two divisions of Chasseurs Ardennais , six reserve infantry divisions , one brigade of Cyclist Frontier Guards , one Cavalry Corps of two divisions , and one brigade of motorised cavalry . The Army contained two anti @-@ aircraft artillery and four artillery regiments , and an unknown number of fortress , engineer , and signals force personnel .
The Belgian Naval Corps ( Corps de Marine ) was resurrected in 1939 . Most of the Belgian merchant fleet , some 100 ships , evaded capture by the Germans . Under the terms of a Belgian – Royal Navy agreement , these ships and their 3 @,@ 350 crewmen were placed under British control for the duration of hostilities . The General Headquarters of the Belgian Admiralty was at Ostend under the command of Major Henry Decarpentrie . The First Naval Division was based at Ostend , while the Second and Third divisions were based at Zeebrugge and Antwerp .
The Aéronautique Militaire Belge ( Belgian Air Force - AéMI ) had barely begun to modernise their aircraft technology . The AéMI had ordered Brewster Buffalo , Fiat CR.42 , and Hawker Hurricane fighters , Koolhoven F.K.56 trainers , Fairey Battle and Caproni Ca.312 light bombers , and Caproni Ca.335 fighter @-@ reconnaissance aircraft , but only the Fiats , Hurricanes , and Battles had been delivered . The shortage of modern types meant single @-@ seat versions of the Fairey Fox light bomber were being used as fighters . The AéMI possessed 250 combat aircraft . At least 90 were fighters , 12 were bombers and 12 were reconnaissance aircraft . Only 50 were of reasonably modern standard . When liaison and transport aircraft from all services are included , the total strength was 377 ; however only 118 of these were serviceable on 10 May 1940 . Of this number around 78 were fighters and 40 were bombers .
The AéMI was commanded by Paul Hiernaux , who had received his pilot 's license just before the outbreak of World War I , and had risen to the position of Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief in 1938 . Hiernaux organised the service into three Régiments d 'Aéronautique ( air regiments ) : the 1er with 60 aircraft , the 2ème with 53 aircraft , and the 3ème with 79 aircraft .
= = = French forces = = =
The Belgians were afforded substantial support by the French Army . The French 1st Army included General René Prioux 's Cavalry Corps . The Corps was given the 2nd Light Mechanized Division ( 2e Division Légère Mécanique , or 2e DLM ) and the 3rd Light Mechanized Division ( 3e DLM ) , which were allocated to defend the Gembloux gap . The armoured forces consisted of 176 of the formidable SOMUA S35s and 239 Hotchkiss H35 light tanks . Both of these types , in armour and firepower , were superior to most German types . The 3e DLM contained 90 S35s and some 140 H35s alone .
The French 7th Army was assigned to protect the northernmost part of the Allied front . It contained the 1st Light Mechanized Division ( 1re DLM ) , the 25th Motorised Infantry Division ( 25e Division d 'Infanterie Motorisée , or 25e DIM ) and the 9th Motorised Infantry Division ( 9e DIM ) . This force would advance to Breda in the Netherlands .
The third French army to see action on Belgian soil was the 9th . It was weaker than both the 7th and the 1st Armies . The 9th Army was allocated infantry divisions , with the exception of the 5th Motorised Infantry Division ( 5e DIM ) . Its mission was to protect the southern flank of the Allied armies , south of the Sambre river and just north of Sedan . Further south , in France , was the French 2nd Army , protecting the Franco @-@ Belgian border between Sedan and Montmédy . The two weakest French armies were thus protecting the area of the main German thrust .
= = = British forces = = =
The British contributed the weakest force to Belgium . The BEF , under the command of General Lord Gort VC , consisted of just 152 @,@ 000 men in two corps of two divisions each . It was hoped to field two armies of two Corps each , but this scale of mobilisation never took place . The I Corps was commanded by Lt @-@ Gen. John Dill , later Lt @-@ Gen. Michael Barker , who was in turn replaced by Major @-@ General Harold Alexander . Lt @-@ Gen. Alan Brooke commanded II Corps . Later the III Corps under Lt @-@ Gen. Ronald Adam was added to the British order of battle . A further 9 @,@ 392 Royal Air Force ( RAF ) personnel of the RAF Advanced Air Striking Force under the command of Air Vice @-@ Marshal Patrick Playfair was to support operations in Belgium . By May 1940 the BEF had grown to 394 @,@ 165 men , of whom more than 150 @,@ 000 were part of the logistical rear area organisations and had little military training . On 10 May 1940 , the BEF comprised just 10 divisions ( not all at full strength ) , 1 @,@ 280 artillery pieces and 310 tanks .
= = = German forces = = =
Army Group B was commanded by Fedor von Bock . It was allocated 26 infantry and three Panzer divisions for the invasion of the Netherlands and Belgium . Of the three Panzer Divisions , the 3rd and 4th were to operate in Belgium under the command of the 6th Army 's XVI Corps . The 9th Panzer Division was attached to the 18th Army which , after the Battle of the Netherlands , would support the push into Belgium alongside the 18th Army and cover its northern flank .
Armour strength in Army Group B amounted to 808 tanks , of which 282 were Panzer Is , 288 were Panzer IIs , 123 were Panzer IIIs and 66 were Panzer IVs ; 49 command tanks were also operational . The 3rd Panzer Division 's armoured regiments consisted of 117 Panzer Is , 128 Panzer IIs , 42 Panzer IIIs , 26 Panzer IVs and 27 command tanks . The 4th Panzer Division had 136 Panzer Is , 105 Panzer IIs , 40 Panzer IIIs , 24 Panzer IVs and 10 command tanks . The 9th Panzer , scheduled initially for operations in the Netherlands , was the weakest division with only 30 Panzer Is , 54 Panzer IIs , 123 , 66 Panzer IIIs and 49 Panzer IVs . The elements drawn from the 7th Air Division and the 22nd Airlanding Division , that were to take part in the attack on Fort Eben @-@ Emael , were named Sturmabteilung Koch ( Assault Detachment Koch ) ; named after the commanding officer of the group , Hauptmann Walter Koch . The force was assembled in November 1939 . It was primarily composed of parachutists from the 1st Parachute Regiment and engineers from the 7th Air Division , as well as a small group of Luftwaffe pilots . The Luftwaffe allocated 1 @,@ 815 combat , 487 transport aircraft and 50 gliders for the assault on the Low Countries .
The initial air strikes over Belgian air space were to be conducted by IV . Fliegerkorps under General der Flieger Generaloberst Alfred Keller . Keller 's force consisted of Lehrgeschwader 1 ( Stab . I. , II . , III . , IV . ) , Kampfgeschwader 30 ( Stab . I. , II . , III . ) and Kampfgeschwader 27 ( III . ) . On 10 May Keller had 363 aircraft ( 224 serviceable ) augmented by Generalmajor Wolfram von Richthofen 's VIII . Fliegerkorps with 550 ( 420 serviceable ) aircraft . They in turn were supported by Oberst Kurt @-@ Bertram von Döring 's Jagdfliegerführer 2 , with 462 fighters ( 313 serviceable ) .
Keller 's IV . Fliegerkorps headquarters would operate from Düsseldorf , LG 1 . Kampfgeschwader 30 which was based at Oldenburg and its III . Gruppe were based at Marx . Support for Döring and Von Richthofen came from present @-@ day North Rhine @-@ Westphalia and bases in Grevenbroich , Mönchengladbach , Dortmund and Essen .
= = Battle = =
= = = Luftwaffe operations : 10 May = = =
During the evening of 9 May , the Belgian Military attaché in Berlin intimated that the Germans intended to attack the following day . Offensive movement of enemy forces were detected on the border . At 00 : 10 on 10 May 1940 , at General Headquarters an unspecified squadron in Brussels gave the alarm . A full state of alert was instigated at 01 : 30 am . Belgian forces took up their deployment positions . The Allied armies had enacted their Dyle plan on the morning of 10 May , and were approaching the Belgian rear . King Leopold had gone to his Headquarters near Briedgen , Antwerp .
The Luftwaffe was to spearhead the aerial battle in the low countries . Its first task was the elimination of the Belgian air contingent . Despite an overwhelming numerical superiority of 1 @,@ 375 aircraft , 957 of which were serviceable , the air campaign in Belgium had limited success overall on the first day . At roughly 04 : 00 , the first air raids were conducted against airfields and communication centres . It still had a tremendous impact on the AéMI , which had only 179 aircraft on 10 May .
Much of the success achieved was down to Richthofen 's subordinates , particularly Kampfgeschwader 77 and its commander Oberst Dr. Johann @-@ Volkmar Fisser whose attachment to VIII . Fliegerkorps , was noted by Generalmajor Wilhelm Speidel . He commented it " ... was the result of the well @-@ known tendency of the commanding general to conduct his own private war " . Fisser 's KG 77 destroyed the AéMI main bases , with help from KG 54 . Fighters from Jagdgeschwader 27 ( JG 27 ) eliminated two Belgian squadrons at Neerhespen , and during the afternoon , I. / St.G 2 destroyed nine of the 15 Fiat CR.42 fighters at Brusthem . At Schaffen @-@ Diest , three Hawker Hurricanes of Escadrille 2 / I / 2 were destroyed and another six damaged when a wave of He 111s caught them as they were about to take off . A further two were lost in destroyed hangars . At Nivelles airfield , 13 CR42s were destroyed . The only other success was KG 27s destruction of eight aircraft at Belesle .
In aerial combat the battles were also one @-@ sided . Two He 111s , two Do 17s and three Messerschmitt Bf 109s were shot down by Gloster Gladiators and Hurricanes . In return , eight Belgian Gladiators , five Fairey Foxs and one CR42 was shot down by JG 1 , 21 and 27 . No. 18 Squadron RAF sent two Bristol Blenheims on operations over the Belgian front , but lost both to Bf 109s . By the end of the 10 May , the official German figures indicate claims for 30 Belgian aircraft destroyed on the ground , and 14 ( plus the two RAF bombers ) in the air for 10 losses . The victory claims are likely an undercount . A total of 83 Belgian machines – mostly trainers and " squadron hacks " , were destroyed . The AéMI flew only 146 sorties in the first six days . Between 16 May and 28 May , the AéMI flew just 77 operations . It spent most of its time retreating and fuel withdrawing in the face of Luftwaffe attacks .
= = = 10 – 11 May : The border Battles = = =
The German planners had recognised the need to eliminate Fort Eben @-@ Emael if their army was to break into the interior of Belgium . It decided to deploy airborne forces ( Fallschirmjäger ) to land inside the fortress perimeter using gliders.Using special explosives ( and flamethrowers ) to disable the defences , the Fallschirmjäger then entered the fortress . In the ensuing battle , German infantry overcame the defenders of the I Belgian Corps ' 7th Infantry Division in 24 hours . The main Belgian defence line had been breached and German infantry of the 18th Army had passed through it rapidly . Moreover , German soldiers had established bridgeheads across the Albert Canal before the British were able to reach it some 48 hours later . The Chasseurs Ardennais further south , on the orders of their commander , withdrew behind the Meuse , destroying some bridges in their wake . The German airborne forces were assisted by Junkers Ju 87 Stukas of III . / Sturzkampfgeschwader 2 ( StG 2 ) and I. / Sturzkampfgeschwader 77 ( StG 77 ) helped suppress the defences . Henschel Hs 123s of II . ( S ) . / Lehrgeschwader 2 ( LG 2 ) which assisted in the capture of the bridges at Vroenhoven and Veldwezelt in the immediate area .
Further successful German airborne offensive operations were carried out in Luxembourg which seized five crossings and communication routes leading into central Belgium . The offensive , carried out by 125 volunteers of the 34th Infantry Division under the command of Wenner Hedderich , achieved their missions by flying to their objectives using Fieseler Fi 156 Störche . The cost was the loss of five aircraft and 30 dead . With the fort breached , the Belgian 4th and 7th Infantry Divisions were confronted by the prospect of fighting an enemy on relatively sound terrain ( for armour operations ) . The 7th Division , with its 2nd and 18th Grenadier Regiments and 2nd Carabineers , struggled to hold their positions and contain the German infantry on the west bank . The Belgian tactical units engaged in several counterattacks . At one point , at Briedgen , they succeeded in retaking the bridge and blowing it up . At the other points , Vroenhoven and Veldwezelt , the Germans had had time to establish strong bridgeheads and repulsed the attacks .
A little known third airborne operation , Operation Niwi , was also conducted on 10 May in southern Belgium . The objectives of this operation was to land two companies of the 3rd battalion Grossdeutschland Infantry Regiment by Fi 156 aircraft at Nives and Witry in the south of the country , in order to clear a path for the 1st and 2nd Panzer divisions which were advancing through the Belgian – Luxembourg Ardennes . The original plan called for the use of Junkers Ju 52 transport aircraft , but the short landing capability of the Fi 156 ( 27 metres ) saw 200 of these aircraft used in the assault . The operational mission was to :
1 . Cut signal communications and message links on the Neufchâteau – Bastogne and Neufchâteau – Martelange roads . [ Neufchâteau being the largest southern @-@ most city in Belgium ]
2 . Prevent the approach of reserves from the Neufchâteau area
3 . Facilitate the capture of pillboxes and the advance by exerting pressure against the line of pillboxes along the border from the rear .
The German infantry were engaged by several Belgian patrols equipped with T @-@ 15 armoured cars . Several Belgian counterattacks were repulsed , among them an attack by the 1st Light Chasseurs Ardennais Division . Unsupported , the Germans faced a counterattack later in the evening by elements of the French 5th Cavalry Division , dispatched by General Charles Huntziger from the French 2nd Army , which had " massive " tank strength . The Germans were forced to retreat . The French , however , failed to pursue the fleeing German units , stopping at a dummy barrier . By the next morning , the 2nd Panzer Division had reached the area , and the mission had largely been accomplished . From the German perspective , the operation hindered rather than helped Heinz Guderian 's Panzer Corps . The regiment had blocked the roads and , against the odds , prevented French reinforcements reaching the Belgian – Franco @-@ Luxembourg border , but it also destroyed Belgian telephone communications . This inadvertently prevented the Belgian field command recalling the units along the border . The 1st Belgian Light Infantry did not receive the signal to retreat and engaged in a severe fire @-@ fight with the German armour , slowing down their advance .
The failure of the Franco – Belgian forces to hold the Ardennes gap was fatal . The Belgians had withdrawn laterally upon the initial invasion and had demolished and blocked routes of advance , which held up the French 2nd Army units moving north toward Namur and Huy . Devoid of any centre of resistance , the German assault engineers had cleared the obstacles unchallenged . The delay that the Belgian Ardennes Light Infantry , considered to be an elite formation , could have inflicted upon the advancing German armour was proved by the fight for Bodange , where the 1st Panzer Division was held up for a total of eight hours . This battle was a result of a breakdown in communications and ran contrary to the operational intentions of the Belgian Army .
Meanwhile , in the central Belgian sector , having failed to restore their front by means of ground attack , the Belgians attempted to bomb the bridges and positions that the Germans had captured intact and were holding on 11 May . Belgian Fairey Battles of 5 / III / 3 escorted by six Gloster Gladiators attacked the Albert Canal bridges . Bf 109s from I. / Jagdgeschwader 1 ( JG 1 ) and I. / JG 27 intercepted and JG 1 shot down four Gladiators and both units destroyed six Battles and heavily damaged the remaining three . Eight CR.42s were evacuated from Brustem to Grimbergen near Brussels but seven Gladiators and the last remaining Hurricanes from 2 / I / 2 Escadrille were destroyed at Beauvechain Air Base and Le Culot by He 111s and I. / JG 27 respectively . The RAF contributed to the effort to attack the bridges . The British dispatched Bristol Blenheims from 110 and 21 Squadron — the first squadron lost two , one to I. / JG 27 . 21 Squadron suffered damage to most of the bombers because of intense ground @-@ fire . The French Armée de l 'air dispatched LeO 451s from GBI / 12 and GBII / 12 escorted by 18 Morane @-@ Saulnier M.S.406 of GCIII / 3 and GCII / 6 . The operation failed and one bomber was lost while four M.S.406s fell to I.JG 1 . The French claimed five . Meanwhile , 114 Squadron lost six Blenheims destroyed when Dornier Do 17s of Kampfgeschwader 2 bombed their airfield at Vraux . Another Battle of No. 150 Squadron RAF was lost in another raid .
The German counter @-@ air operations were spearheaded by Jagdgeschwader 26 ( JG 26 ) under the command of Hans @-@ Hugo Witt , which was responsible for 82 of the German claims in aerial combat between 11 and 13 May . Despite the apparent success of the German fighter units , the air battle was not one @-@ sided . On the morning of 11 May ten Ju 87s of StG 2 were shot down attacking Belgian forces in the Namur – Dinant gap , despite the presence of two Jagdgeschwader — 27 and 51 . Nevertheless , the Germans reported a weakening in Allied air resistance in northern Belgium by 13 May .
During the night of 11 May , the British 3rd Infantry Division under the command of General Bernard Law Montgomery , reached its position on the Dyle river at Leuven . As it did so the Belgian 10th Infantry Division , occupying the position , mistook them for German parachutists and fired on them . The Belgians refused to yield but Montgomery claimed to have got his way by placing himself under the command of the Belgian forces , knowing that when the Germans came within artillery range the Belgians would withdraw .
Alan Brooke , commander of the British II Corps sought to put the matter of cooperation right with King Leopold . The King discussed the matter with Brooke , who felt a compromise could be reached . Van Overstraeten , the King 's military aide , stepped in and said that the 10th Belgian Infantry Division could not be moved . Instead , the British should move further south and remain completely clear of Brussels . Brooke told the King that the 10th Belgian Division was on the wrong side of the Gamelin line and was exposed . Leopold deferred to his advisor and chief of staff . Brooke found Overstaeten to be ignorant of the situation and the dispositions of the BEF . Given that the left flank of the BEF rested on its Belgian ally , the British were now unsure about Belgian military capabilities . The Allies had more serious grounds for complaint about the Belgian anti @-@ tank defences along the Dyle line , that covered the Namur – Perwez gap which was not protected by any natural obstacles . Only a few days before the attack , General Headquarters had discovered the Belgians had sited their anti @-@ tank defences ( de Cointet defences ) several miles east of the Dyle between Namur – Perwez .
After holding onto the Albert Canal 's west bank for nearly 36 hours , the 4th and 7th Belgian infantry divisions withdrew . The capture of Eben @-@ Emael allowed the Germans to force through the Panzers of the 6th Army . The situation for the Belgian divisions was either to withdraw or be encircled . The Germans had advanced beyond Tongeren and were now in a position to sweep south to Namur , which would threaten to envelop the entire Albert Canal and Liège positions . Under the circumstances , both divisions withdrew . On the evening of 11 May , the Belgian Command withdrew its forces behind the Namur – Antwerp line . The following day , the French 1st Army arrived at Gembloux , between Wavre and Namur , to cover the " Gembloux gap " . It was a flat area , devoid of prepared or entrenched positions .
The French 7th Army , on the northern flank of the Belgian line , protected the Bruges – Ghent – Ostend axis and , covering the Channel ports , had advanced into Belgium and into the Netherlands with speed . It reached Breda in the Netherlands , on 11 May . But German parachute forces had seized the Moerdijk bridge on the Hollands Diep river , south of Rotterdam , making it impossible for the French to link up with the Dutch Army . The Dutch Army withdrew north to Rotterdam and Amsterdam . The French 7th Army turned east and met the 9th Panzer Division about 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) east of Breda at Tilburg . The battle resulted in the French retiring , in the face of Luftwaffe air assaults , to Antwerp . It would later help in the defence of the city . The Luftwaffe had given priority to attacking the French 7th Army 's spearhead into the Netherlands as it threatened the Moerdijk bridgehead . Kampfgeschwader 40 and 54 supported by Ju 87s from VIII . Fliegerkorps helped drive them back . Fears of Allied reinforcements reaching Antwerp forced the Luftwaffe to cover the Scheldt estuary . KG 30 bombed and sank two Dutch gunboats and three Dutch destroyers , as well as badly damaging two Royal Navy destroyers . But overall the bombing had a limited effect .
= = = 12 – 14 May : Battles of the central Belgian plain = = =
During the night of 11 / 12 May , the Belgians were fully engaged in withdrawing to the Dyle line , covered by a network of demolitions and rearguards astride Tongeren . During the morning of 12 May , King Leopold III , General van Overstraeten , Édouard Daladier , General Alphonse Georges ( commander of the First Allied army Group , comprising the BEF , French 1st , 2nd , 7th and 9th Armies ) , General Gaston Billotte ( coordinator of the Allied Armies ) and General Henry Royds Pownall , Gort 's chief of staff , met for a military conference near Mons . It was agreed the Belgian Army would man the Antwerp – Leuven line , while its allies took up the responsibility of defending the extreme north and south of the country .
The Belgian III Corps , and its 1st Chasseurs Ardennais , 2nd Infantry and 3rd Infantry Divisions had withdrawn from the Liège fortifications to avoid being encircled . One regiment , the Liège Fortress Regiment , stayed behind to disrupt German communications . Further to the south , the Namur fortress , manned by VI Corps ' 5th Infantry Division and the 2nd Chasseurs Ardennais with the 12th French Infantry Division , fought delaying actions and participated in a lot of demolition work while guarding the position . As far as the Belgians were concerned , it had accomplished the only independent mission assigned to it : to hold the Liège – Albert Canal line long enough for the Allied units to reach friendly forces occupying the Namur – Antwerp – Givet line . For the remainder of the campaign , the Belgians would execute their operations in accordance with the overall Allied plan .
Belgian soldiers fought rearguard actions while other Belgian units already on the Dyle line worked tirelessly to organise better defensive positions in the Leuven – Antwerp gap . The 2nd Regiment of Guides and the 2nd Carabineers Cyclists of the 2nd Belgian Cavalry Division covered the retreat of the 4th and 7th Belgian divisions and were particularly distinguished at the Battle of Tirlemont and the Battle of Halen .
In support of Belgian forces in the area , the RAF and French flew air defence operations in the Tirlemont and Louvain area . The RAF Advanced Air Striking Force committed 3 , 504 , 79 , 57 , 59 , 85 , 87 , 605 , and 242 squadrons to battle . A series of air battles were fought with JG 1 , 2 , 26 , 27 and 3 . Messerschmitt Bf 110s from Zerstörergeschwader 26 ( ZG 26 ) , and bomber units LG 1 , 2 and KG 27 were also involved . Over Belgium and France , the day was disastrous for the British : 27 Hurricanes were shot down . In light of the withdrawal to the main defensive line , which was now being supported by the British and French Armies , King Leopold issued the following proclamation to improve morale after the defeats at the Albert Canal :
Soldiers
The Belgian Army , brutally assailed by an unparalleled surprise attack , grappling with forces that are better equipped and have the advantage of a formidable air force , has for three days carried out difficult operations , the success of which is of the utmost importance to the general conduct of the battle and to the result of war .
These operations require from all of us – officers and men – exceptional efforts , sustained day and night , despite a moral tension tested to its limits by the sight of the devastation wrought by a pitiless invader . However severe the trial may be , you will come through it gallantly .
Our position improves with every hour ; our ranks are closing up . In the critical days that are ahead of us , you will summon up all your energies , you will make every sacrifice , to stem the invasion .
Just as they did in 1914 on the Yser , so now the French and British troops are counting on you : the safety and honour of the country are in your hands .
Leopold .
To the Allies , the Belgian failure to hold onto its eastern frontiers ( they were thought to be capable of holding out for two weeks ) , was a disappointment . The Allied Chiefs of Staff had sought to avoid an encounter mobile battle without any strong fixed defences to fall back on and hoped Belgian resistance would last long enough for a defensive line to be established . Nevertheless , a brief lull fell on the Dyle front on 11 May which enabled the Allied armies to get into position by the time the first major assault was launched the following day . Allied cavalry had moved into position and infantry and artillery were reaching the front more slowly , by rail . Although unaware of it , the First Allied army Group and the Belgian Army outnumbered and outgunned Walther von Reichenau 's German 6th Army .
On the morning of 12 May , in response to Belgian pressure and necessity , the Royal Air Force and the Armée de l 'Air undertook several air attacks on the German @-@ held Maastricht and Meuse bridges to prevent German forces flowing into Belgium . 74 sorties had been flown by the Allies since 10 May . On 12 May , eleven out of eighteen French Breguet 693 bombers were shot down . The RAF Advanced Air Striking Force , which included the largest Allied bomber force , was reduced to 72 aircraft out of 135 by 12 May . For the next 24 hours , missions were postponed as the German anti @-@ aircraft and fighter defences were too strong .
The results of the bombing is difficult to determine . The German XIX Corps war diary 's situation summary at 20 : 00 on 14 May noted :
The completion of the military bridge at Donchery had not yet been carried out owing to heavy flanking artillery fire and long bombing attacks on the bridging point … Throughout the day all three divisions have had to endure constant air attack — especially at the crossing and bridging points . Our fighter cover is inadequate . Requests [ for increased fighter protection ] are still unsuccessful .
The Luftwaffe 's operations includes a note of " vigorous enemy fighter activity through which our close reconnaissance in particular is severely impeded " . Nevertheless , inadequate protection was given to cover RAF bombers against the strength of German opposition over the target area . In all , out of 109 Fairey Battles and Bristol Blenheims which had attacked enemy columns and communications in the Sedan area , 45 had been lost . On 15 May , daylight bombing was significantly reduced . Of 23 aircraft employed , four failed to return . Equally , owing to the Allied fighter presence , the German XIX Corps War Diary states , " Corps no longer has at its disposal its own long @-@ range reconnaissance … [ Reconnaissance squadrons ] are no longer in a position to carry out vigorous , extensive reconnaissance , as , owing to casualties , more than half of their aircraft are not now available . "
The most serious combat to evolve on 12 May 1940 was the beginning of the Battle of Hannut ( 12 – 14 May ) . While the German Army Group A advanced through the Belgian Ardennes , Army Group B 's 6th Army launched an offensive operation toward the Gembloux gap . Gembloux occupied a position in the Belgian plain ; it was an unfortified , untrenched space in the main Belgian defensive line . The Gap stretched from the southern end of the Dyle line , from Wavre in the north , to Namur in the south , 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) to 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) . After attacking out of the Maastricht bulge and defeating the Belgian defences at Liege , which compelled the Belgian I Corps to retreat , the German 6th Army 's XVI Panzer @-@ Motorized Corps , under the command of General Erich Hoepner and containing the 3rd and 4th Panzer Divisions , launched an offensive in the area where the French mistakenly expected the main German thrust .
The Gembloux gap was defended by the French 1st Army , with six elite divisions including the 2nd ( 2e Division Légère Mécanique , or 2e DLM ) and 3rd Light Mechanized Divisions . The Prioux Cavalry Corps , under the command of Rene @-@ Jacques @-@ Adolphe Prioux , was to advance 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) beyond the line ( east ) to provide a screen for the move . The French 1st and 2nd Armoured Divisions were to be moved behind the French 1st Army to defend its main lines in depth . The Prioux Cavalry Corps was equal to a German Panzer Corps and was to occupy a screening line on the Tirlemont – Hannut – Huy axis . The operational plan called for the Corps to delay the German advance on Gembloux and Hannut until the main elements of the French 1st Army had reached Gembloux and dug in .
Hoepner 's Panzer Corps and Prioux ' Cavalry clashed head @-@ on near Hannut , Belgium , on 12 May . Contrary to popular belief , the Germans did not outnumber the French . Frequently , figures of 623 German and 415 French tanks are given . The German 3rd and 4th Panzer Divisions numbered 280 and 343 respectively . The 2e DLM and 3e DLM numbered 176 Somuas and 239 Hotchkiss H35s . Added to this force were the considerable number of Renault AMR @-@ ZT @-@ 63s in the Cavalry Corps . The R35 was equal or superior to the Panzer I and Panzer IIs in armament terms . This applies all the more to the 90 Panhard 178 armoured cars of the French Army . Its 25mm main gun could penetrate the armour of the Panzer IV . In terms of tanks that were capable of engaging and surviving a tank @-@ vs @-@ tank action , the Germans possessed just 73 Panzer IIIs and 52 Panzer IVs . The French had 176 SOMUA and 239 Hotchkisses . German tank units also contained 486 Panzer I and IIs , which were of dubious combat value given their losses in the Polish Campaign | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
most effective insecticide on the planet — have finally been jettisoned . " The Rachel Carson Homestead Association held a May 27 birthday party and sustainable feast at her birthplace and home in Springdale , Pennsylvania , and the first Rachel Carson Legacy Conference in Pittsburgh with E. O. Wilson as keynote speaker . Both Rachel 's Sustainable Feast and the conference continue as annual events .
Also in 2007 American author Ginger Wadsworth wrote a biography of Carson .
= = List of works = =
Under the Sea Wind , 1941 , Simon & Schuster , Penguin Group , 1996 , ISBN 0 @-@ 14 @-@ 025380 @-@ 7
" Fishes of the Middle West " ( PDF ) . United States Government Printing Office . 1943 .
" Fish and Shellfish of the Middle Atlantic Coast " ( PDF ) . United States Government Printing Office . 1945 .
" Chincoteague : A National Wildlife Refuge " ( PDF ) . United States Government Printing Office . 1947 .
" Mattamuskeet : A National Wildlife Refuge " ( PDF ) . United States Government Printing Office . 1947 .
" Parker River : A National Wildlife Refuge " ( PDF ) . United States Government Printing Office . 1947 .
" Bear River : A National Wildlife Refuge " ( PDF ) . United States Government Printing Office . 1950 . ( with Vanez T. Wilson )
The Sea Around Us , Oxford University Press , 1951 ; Oxford University Press , 1991 , ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 506997 @-@ 8
The Edge of the Sea , Houghton Mifflin 1955 ; Mariner Books , 1998 , ISBN 0 @-@ 395 @-@ 92496 @-@ 0
Silent Spring , Houghton Mifflin , 1962 ; Mariner Books , 2002 , ISBN 0 @-@ 618 @-@ 24906 @-@ 0
Silent Spring initially appeared serialized in three parts in the June 16 , June 23 , and June 30 , 1962 issues of The New Yorker magazine
The Sense of Wonder , 1965 , HarperCollins , 1998 : ISBN 0 @-@ 06 @-@ 757520 @-@ X published posthumously
Always , Rachel : The Letters of Rachel Carson and Dorothy Freeman 1952 – 1964 An Intimate Portrait of a Remarkable Friendship , Beacon Press , 1995 , ISBN 0 @-@ 8070 @-@ 7010 @-@ 6 edited by Martha Freeman ( granddaughter of Dorothy Freeman )
Lost Woods : The Discovered Writing of Rachel Carson , Beacon Press , 1998 , ISBN 0 @-@ 8070 @-@ 8547 @-@ 2
Bedrock : Writers on the Wonders of Geology , edited by Lauret E. Savoy , Eldridge M. Moores , and Judith E. Moores , Trinity University Press , 2006 , ISBN 1 @-@ 59534 @-@ 022 @-@ X
= Email Surveillance =
" Email Surveillance " is the ninth episode of the second season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's fifteenth episode overall . Written by Jennifer Celotta , and directed by Paul Feig , the episode first aired in the United States on November 22 , 2005 on NBC . The episode guest starred Ken Jeong and Omi Vaidya .
The series depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In the episode , the company tech support employee gives Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) the ability to read his employees ' emails , causing him to find out that Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) is throwing a party that Michael was not invited to . Meanwhile , Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) begins to suspect that Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) and Angela Martin ( Angela Kinsey ) might secretly be having a relationship .
Ken Jeong explained that , while all the scenes were scripted , the actors were allowed to improvise their lines during the improv shots . Omi Vaidya revealed that , during the party scenes , the cast were allowed to drink real beer and play video games on an Xbox 360 . " Email Surveillance " received largely positive reviews from television critics . The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 3 @.@ 9 in the 18 – 49 demographic and was viewed by 8 @.@ 3 million viewers in its original broadcast .
= = Plot = =
Dunder Mifflin 's tech support employee , Sadiq ( Omi Vaidya ) , arrives at the Scranton branch to set up a system that allows Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) to monitor his employees ' emails . When everyone in the office finds out , Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) worries that Michael will discover the party he is throwing that night , to which Michael is not invited . Inevitably , Michael notices and tries to get Jim to admit that he 's having a party , while Jim acts nonchalantly as if nothing is happening . In order to keep Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) from exposing the party , Jim tells him that it 's a surprise party for Michael .
Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) notices some things that lead her to suspect that Dwight and Angela Martin ( Angela Kinsey ) are dating . However , she discreetly abandons her suspicions when she asks Phyllis Lapin ( Phyllis Smith ) if she noticed any office romances and Phyllis guesses that Pam meant her and Jim . Jim and Pam bond when she sees Jim 's room for the first time and looks through his high school year book .
After ruining an improv class , Michael decides to crash Jim 's party , much to the staff 's dismay and Dwight 's naïve delight . Michael awkwardly tries his hand at karaoke but Jim then joins in , easing the tension considerably . The documentary crew catches Angela and Dwight making out in Jim 's backyard .
= = Production = =
" Email Surveillance " was written by Jennifer Celotta , making it her first writing contribution to the series . This episode was the fourth episode of the series directed by Paul Feig . Feig had previously directed episode " Office Olympics " , " Halloween " , and " Performance Review " .
When filming the scene with Michael in the improv class , Ken Jeong , who played Bill , said that " they ( the crew ) would shoot the scenes as scripted the first few takes , and then we would improvise after that . " For example " the scene where I ( Ken Jeong ) say ' Good job ' to Michael and he says ' Nice job , Bill ... not ' was improvised . " Jeong , who had previously taken part in an actual improv class , noted that " Anyone who 's ever taken an improv class appreciates that bit [ with Michael starting every session with a gun ] . "
The episode guest starred Omi Vaidya , who played the part of Sadiq , the IT assistant . Vaidya later explained that , originally , " a lot of people auditioned for that role , bigger Indian American actors " . However Vaidya , who had watched the British version and was familiar with the camera style , " took a scarf , created a turban out of it and walked to the audition room with it on " because he thought that " that was what was needed for the character and the show " . He later called his guest appearance " one of the best productions in the United States that I have been a part of . " Vaidya said that he enjoyed shooting the party scenes the most because they got to drink real beer and play video games on an Xbox 360 , which had not been released at the time . Vaidya said that " it was like being at a real party with everyone from The Office except that we had to shoot a few scenes while we were chatting and relaxing . "
= = Cultural references = =
After Oscar confronts Michael about reading the staff 's emails , Michael references Big Brother , from the novel Nineteen Eighty @-@ Four and does an impression of The Tin Man from the 1939 film The Wizard of Oz . Michael invites Dwight over to his house to watch the 2004 version of Battlestar Galactica , but he misidentifies the show as " Battleship Galaxy " . At his improv class , Michael , in an attempt to get the instructors attention , asks " Mr. Kot @-@ ter " , a reference to the 1975 series Welcome Back , Kotter . During Jim 's party , Phyllis sings a karaoke version of the 1987 hit " Here I Go Again " by hard rock band Whitesnake , and Kevin sings Cake 's 1996 cover of " I Will Survive " , originally by Gloria Gaynor . Finally , Michael and Jim share a duet of the 1983 single " Islands in the Stream " , originally sung by Kenny Rogers and Dolly Parton . At one point during the party , Kevin tells Ryan " Not so fast ... ' Fire Guy ' " . This is a reference to the earlier second season episode " The Fire " , in which Ryan accidentally started a fire in the office building . As a result , Dwight and Michael gave him the nickname " The Fire Guy " .
= = Reception = =
" Email Surveillance " originally aired on NBC in the United States on November 22 , 2005 . The episode was viewed by 8 @.@ 1 million viewers and received a 3 @.@ 9 rating / 9 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 3 @.@ 9 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 9 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . The episode retained 76 percent of its lead @-@ in My Name is Earl audience , and was tied with an episode of the medical drama House as the number one television show in the 18 – 34 male demographic . An encore presentation of the episode , on June 20 , 2006 , received 2 @.@ 1 rating / 7 % share was viewed by over 5 million viewers , ranking it as the number one program in the 18 – 34 demographic .
" Email Surveillance " received generally positive reviews from television critics . TV Squad 's Michael Sciannamea said that " Email Surveillance " was " a solid episode " , and that even though " Michael 's vulnerabilities were again exposed " , in the end " you walk away from the episode feeling good that he did make it to Jim 's party . " M. Giant from Television Without Pity graded the episode with an " A- " . Dan Phillips from IGN named " Michael Crashes Jim 's Party " the fifth most awkward moment of the show , noting that , " Few things are more awkward than a party crasher , especially when the party crasher happens to be named Michael Scott . "
Erik Adams of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a " B + " , and wrote positively of the way the show was able to write @-@ in the presence of the Documentarians into the episode 's plot ; he compared this to the story arc in the ninth season involving Brian the boom mic operator , noting that the documentarians presence in " Email Surveillance " was much better executed than then the aforementioned Brian plot . He also called the episode 's conclusion , featuring Michael and Jim singing a duet , " emotionally satisfying " because it relies " on what these people mean to each other outside of the office " .
= Euonymeia =
Euonymeia ( Greek : Ευωνύμεια , Evonímia ) , also known by its medieval name Trachones ( Greek : Τράχωνες ) , and by its modern colloquial Ano Kalamaki ( Greek : Άνω Καλαμάκι , Upper Kalamaki ) , is a historic settlement in Attica and currently a residential neighborhood within the municipality of Alimos on the southern suburbs of Athens , Greece . The area is an inland part of the south Athenian plain , situated between the foothills of Mount Hymettus and the southern coastal zone of Athens on the Saronic Gulf . The land is characterized by limestone hills and streams running from Hymettus toward the coast . Situated 7 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) south of the center of Athens , Euonymeia has been developed and incorporated into the urban sprawl of the Greek capital .
The area displays some of the earliest urban settlements in Europe , with archeological sites showing continuous development from the Neolithic and Bronze Age periods . Major archeological finds include Early Helladic fortifications , Mycenaean era workshops and necropolis , a classical era amphitheater , and Paleochristian and Byzantine temples . Some of the earliest and best preserved specimens of Athenian Geometric pottery have been attributed to the Trachones workshop and are featured in museum collections , including two kraters on display at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City .
At its peak during the 5th and 4th centuries BCE , the area was the center of the Deme of Euonymos , one of the most populous communities of Ancient Athens . Euonymos had its own acropolis , theater , industrial installations , and religious festivals . Several Euonymeians played a major role in Athenian politics and civic life , most notably in the trial of Socrates and in the expeditions of the Peloponnesian War .
= = Etymology = =
The name Euonymeia is documented in the Ethnica ( Greek : Ἐθνικά ) , the gazetteer by 6th century CE scholar Stephanus of Byzantium , considered the earliest authoritative work on Mediterranean toponyms . Therein , Stephanus attributes the name to Euonymus of Greek Mythology – son of Gaia with either Uranus or Cephissus . The name itself derives from the Greek root @-@ words eû ( Greek : εὖ ) " good , well " , and onoma ( Greek : όνομα ) " name " . Alternative interpretations for the origin of the name are that it is a direct reference to the area being " well named " or " of good repute " , or that it comes from the spindle tree Euonymus europaeus . The medieval name Trachones derives from the word trachoni ( Greek : τραχώνι ) meaning " rock " , derived from the ancient Greek adjective trachys ( Greek : τραχύς ) meaning " coarse " . The modern colloquial name Ano Kalamaki ( upper Kalamaki ) arose in 1968 when Euonymeia was administratively linked with the coastal settlement of Kalamaki to the west , creating the contemporary Municipality of Alimos .
= = History = =
Systematic archeological excavation of the area has not been conducted , yet numerous construction projects during the intensive urban development of the later half of the twentieth century led to important circumstantial discoveries , which shed light on the historic timeline of the settlement .
= = = Prehistoric and Bronze Age = = =
The hills of Euonymeia , together with the adjacent coastal promontory of Agios Kosmas are the two most important sites of Neolithic and Aegean Bronze Age development in the area of Athens prior to ca . 3000 BCE . Ceramics and obsidian tools found on both sites were identified as originating from the island of Melos , indicating close ties of these settlements with the obsidian @-@ rich islands of the cycladic civilization . The commonality of findings in Agios Kosmas and Euonymeia suggests that the two settlements were functionally linked coastal and inland communities .
The earliest signs of prehistoric settlement in Euonymeia were recognized in the 1950s and ' 60s at the Kontopigado site . During expansion work on the Vouliagmenis Avenue , neolithic era masonry was identified around a small hill rising 6 metres ( 20 ft ) above the surrounding ground . In 2012 , prehistoric masonry , which has yet to be dated , was recognized on the summit of Pan 's Hill ( Greek : λόφος Πανί , lofos Pani ) , the highest elevation point in Euonymeia . Several thousand obsidian tool specimens have been collected from both Kontopigado , and Pan 's Hill . Findings from this first settlement period come to an abrupt end around 2000 BCE , indicating a catastrophic event theorized to involve Pelasgian invaders .
Excavations at construction sites adjacent to the Kontopigado mound in the 1980s and ' 90s led to the discovery of an Early Helladic settlement ( third millennium BCE ) , and an overlying Mycenaean complex dated from Late Helladic IIIB to Late Helladic IIIC ( ca . 1300 BCE ) , marking the second period of intense development in Euonymeia . In 2006 , work on the Alimos Metro station 300 metres ( 980 ft ) South from the mound unearthed a large workshop complex from the same era with installations for ceramic production , including a kiln and potters wheel . This workshop included hydraulic installations with wells and water conduits used in the processing of flax into textiles for the production of table wares , and for sails and ropes used on Mycenaean era ships . Altogether the Mycenaean complex at Kontopigado , 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) south of the Mycenaean Palace on the Acropolis of Athens , is one of the largest of its kind found to date . This Bronze Age community and installations at Euonymeia are thought to have had close links to the central palatial authority in Athens , possibly supplying the sails and ropes for the 50 ships that Athens is said to have contributed to the Trojan war .
= = = Geometric = = =
During the Geometric period of the Hellenic Dark Ages ( 10th to 8th centuries BCE ) , the area continued to be inhabited , with notable pottery production from the Trachones workshop . Geometric era finds in Euonymeia concentrate 500 metres ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) to the West of the Myceneaen site at Kontopigado , on a hill by the Trachones stream on the current Geroulanou Estate . While excavations have not yet been performed , the Geroulanou Estate is presumed to have been the site of the Acropolis of Euonymeia , based on surface finds of 8th - 7th century BCE fortifications . Geometric graves and pottery have been found around the estate providing evidence that unlike in Athens and neighboring communities , Euonymeia , together with Anavyssos further south , were peculiar in practicing cremation as the main burial rite during this period . Nonetheless , the 8th @-@ century ceremonial Kraters attributed to the Trachones workshop and used in burial tombs throughout Geometric Greece are considered some of the best examples of Athenian Geometric Pottery that have been discovered to date . In 1914 , the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City acquired two specimens , which are on display as part of its permanent collection of Greek and Roman Art .
= = = Classical : Deme of Euonymos = = =
The area was recognized as the site of the ancient Deme of Euonymos ( Greek : Δῆμος Εὐώνυμος ) in 1975 when construction work uncovered a 4th @-@ century BCE theater . An inscription to the god Dionysus identified it as the Euonymos Theater , previously known only from ancient texts as one of the Deme Theaters of Attica . The theater at Euonymos was constructed in the mid 5th century BCE ( making it one of the earliest known Deme theaters ) with Hymettian Marble from quarries in nearby Mount Hymettus . It had an estimated capacity of 2000 – 3000 spectators and is unique among ancient theaters found in Greece owing to the rectangular shape of its orchestra . The theatre was destroyed during the Chremonidean War of the 260s BCE and never rebuilt . Two headless statues of Dionysus were found on the site of the theater , and together with the discovery in 2012 of Dionysian depictions on Red @-@ figure pottery from the area , and undated finds from the Kontopigado site of clay figures seemingly representing Maenades , the rabid female companions of Dionysus , suggest a possible early affiliation of Euonymeia with the Cult of Dionysus and Pan .
The town was on the Urban Way ( Greek : Αστική Ὁδός , Astiki Hodós ) , the major ancient road linking Athens to the Temple of Poseidon at Sounion , and the all @-@ important silver mines at Laurium . Remains of the Urban Way have been unearthed in multiple sites along the modern Vouliagmenis Avenue , positioning this ancient thoroughfare adjacent to the most important installations in Euonymos . The old Mycenaean hydraulic installations 300 metres ( 980 ft ) Northeast of the theater show continued use through the classical era . In this period , water flowing through the installations from the Trachones stream and wells were used primarily for agriculture , stockbreeding , and cottage industries . The hill with Geometric @-@ era fortifications on the Geroulanou Estate 300 metres ( 980 ft ) Northwest of the theater is thought to have been the site of the Acropolis of Euonymos . Construction in the 1960s and work on the Argyroupoli Metro station 1 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) South of the theater in 2003 uncovered a cemetery at the Hasani site with over 150 graves dating from the 7th to the 4th centuries BCE , and inscriptions identifying it as the cemetery of the Deme of Euonymos . Together , these findings conclusively position the center and extent of the classical Deme of Euonymos as a continuation of the early Euonymeia settlements .
The Deme of Euonymos was designated as one of the 139 Athenian Demes by the Reform of Cleisthenes . Euonymos was a " city " deme ( Greek : Άστυ , Asty ) of the Erechtheis tribe , the first in the hierarchy of the Athenian democracy as descending from Erechtheus , the autochthonous founder of Athens . The Deme contributed 10 bouleutai ( increased to 12 in 306 BCE ) to the 500 member @-@ strong Boule , and as such was one of Athens ' largest demes . Several Euonymeians were notable public officials in Ancient Athens , such as Hieropoios Eunomos of Euonymon , and high @-@ ranking military figures associated with the Peloponnesian Wars , including Taxiarch Strombichides , Nauarch Diotimos of Euonymon , and Strategoi Autocles and Anytus , the latter also known as a main prosecutor in the trial of Socrates .
= = = Medieval = = =
Euonymeia declined in medieval times together with Athens after Christian reforms brought on the Decline of Greco @-@ Roman polytheism . At some point during this time the settlement 's name changed to the village of Trachones . Nonetheless , it retained urban settlement throughout the Early Christian and Byzantine eras as testified by the ruins of the Paleochristian Basilica of the Holy Apostles ( ca . 7th @-@ 9th centuries CE ) that can be found 200 metres ( 660 ft ) North of Euonymos Theater in the courtyard of the contemporary Church of the Life @-@ giving Spring of Trachones .
During the later Middle Ages , Athens was conquered by the fourth crusade , which established the 13th @-@ century crusader state of the Duchy of Athens . During this time , in defiance of the Roman Catholic allegiance to the Frankish lord of Athens Othon de la Roche , the Orthodox church of the " Presentation of Mary of Trachones " ( Greek : Εισοδίων Θεοτόκου Τραχώνων , Isodíon Theotókou Trachónon ) was constructed 300 metres ( 980 ft ) West of the Euonymos Theater . This church is currently in operation within the grounds of the Geroulanou Estate , making it one of the oldest continuously operational churches in Athens .
After the invasion of Greece by the Ottoman Turks , the area of Trachones was turned into a Chiflik , and administered according to the Ottoman feudal system , with the local population becoming mandatory land peasants ( koligoi ) . The church of the Presentation of Mary appears to remain the center of the area 's civic life in the following centuries of Ottoman rule .
= = = 19th and 20th centuries = = =
Modern written use of the toponym Trachones appears right before the Greek Revolution in an 1820 tax record of villages in Attica , while its location , corresponding to the area of Euonymeia , is revealed in 19th century maps , including John Thomson 's 1814 map of Attica ( therein labeled as Traconi ) , and an 1881 map from the German Archeological Institute . During the preceding years , the Trachones Estate , corresponding to a large part of what is now South Athens , was sold to Mufti Hamza , an 18th @-@ century Muslim religious leader of Athens . Records show that the feudal estate had a small population of landless farmers , and that ownership passed on through the Mufti 's progeny . In 1912 , the settlement of Trachones was incorporated into the Municipality of Athens , while the land of the estate was sold in 1918 by the Greek State to the Geroulanou family for 680 @.@ 000 drachma . In 1952 , a large part of the estate was converted from farm to urban plots , including land for the creation of the Hellenicon Airport . This led to a rapid urbanization following the expanding urban sprawl of the Greek capital , and to the establishment of the current residential community . In 1968 the modern Municipality of Alimos was established , administratively linking the community of Trachones with the coastal community of Kalamaki 2 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 6 mi ) to the West , giving rise to the term Ano Kalamaki ( upper Kalamaki ) to refer to the area of Euonymeia .
= = Geography = =
The neighborhood is approximately bounded by the avenues of Vouliagmenis in the East , Ionias in the North and West , and Alimou in the South , and includes the " Alimos " Metro station . The area is rocky , a feature that gave it its medieval name , Trachones . The main physical features of Euonymeia are several small limestone hills , the largest of which is Pan 's Hill ( Lofos Pani ) , and the Trachones stream that runs from the Western slopes of Hemyttus , through Euonymeia , to the Saronic Gulf at Alimos beach . Mount Hymettus to the East is the dominant backdrop visible from most areas of the neighborhood .
= = Civic life = =
Euonymeia is largely a residential area , with small shops and businesses along Ionias and Dodecanesou avenues . The central public space of the community stretches along the path of the Trachones stream , most of which now runs underground . This area features Karaiskakis square and park , which includes the " Klouva " outdoor public basketball court , and the municipal amphitheater , where the major community events take place . Adjacent to the square is a large school complex with two public elementary schools , and the 2nd Lyceum of Alimos public high school . Next to the school complex is the Municipal Indoor Gymnasium of Trachones with a capacity for 350 seated spectators , the home court of the three local Basketball teams Trachones - Dias Union , A.L.F. Alimos , A.O. Kalamaki , and the Trachones Volleyball team . Along the same axis next to the Geroulanou Estate is Trachones Field ( Greek : Γήπεδο Τραχώνων , Gipedo Trachonon ) , a 457 @-@ seat track and field stadium that is the seat of the local soccer team , FC Trachones .
= K Foundation Burn a Million Quid =
K Foundation Burn a Million Quid was an action on 23 August 1994 in which the K Foundation ( an art duo consisting of Bill Drummond and Jimmy Cauty ) burned cash in the amount of one million pounds sterling in a disused boathouse on the Ardfin Estate on the Scottish island of Jura . The money represented the bulk of the K Foundation 's funds , earned by Drummond and Cauty as The KLF , one of the United Kingdom 's most successful pop groups of the early 1990s .
The incineration was recorded on a Hi @-@ 8 video camera by K Foundation collaborator Gimpo . In August 1995 , the film — Watch the K Foundation Burn a Million Quid — was toured around the UK , with Drummond and Cauty engaging each audience in debate about the burning and its meaning . In November 1995 , the duo pledged to dissolve the K Foundation and to refrain from public discussion of the burning for a period of 23 years , but Drummond spoke about the burning in 2000 and 2004 . At first he was unrepentant but in 2004 he admitted to the BBC that he regretted burning the money .
A book entitled K Foundation Burn A Million Quid , edited and compiled by collaborator Chris Brook — was published by Ellipsis Books in 1997 , compiling stills from the film , accounts of events and viewer reactions . The book also contains an image of the house brick that was manufactured from the fire 's ashes .
= = Background = =
As The KLF , Bill Drummond and Jimmy Cauty were the biggest @-@ selling singles act in the world for 1991 . They had also enjoyed considerable success with their album The White Room and a number one hit single – " Doctorin ' the Tardis " – as The Timelords . In May 1992 , The KLF staged an incendiary performance at the BRIT Awards , and retired from the music industry shortly thereafter in typically enigmatic fashion .
By their own account , neither Drummond nor Cauty kept any of the money they made as The KLF ; it was all ploughed back into their extravagant productions . Cauty told an Australian Big Issue writer in 2003 that all the money they made as The KLF was spent , and that the royalties they accrued post @-@ retirement amounted to approximately one million pounds :
I think we made about £ 6m . We paid nearly half that in tax and spent the rest on production costs . When we stopped , the production costs stopped too , so over the next few months we amassed a surplus of cash still coming in from record sales ; this amounted to about £ 1.8m. After tax we were left with about £ 1m . This was the money that later became the K Foundation fund for the ' advancement of kreation.'
Initially The KLF 's earnings were to be distributed by way of a fund for struggling artists managed by the K Foundation , Drummond and Cauty 's new post @-@ KLF art project , but , said Drummond , " We realised that struggling artists are meant to struggle , that 's the whole point . " Instead the duo decided to create art with the money . Nailed to the Wall was the first piece of art produced by the Foundation , and the major piece in their planned art exhibition , Money : A Major Body Of Cash . Consisting of one million pounds in cash nailed to a pine frame , the piece was presented to the press on 23 November 1993 during the buildup to the Foundation 's announcement of the " winner " of their " worst artist of the year award " , the K Foundation art award .
= = Decision and burning = =
During the first half of 1994 , the K Foundation attempted to interest galleries in staging Money : A Major Body of Cash , but even old friend Jayne Casey , director of the Liverpool Festival Trust , was unable to persuade a major gallery to participate . " ' The Tate , in Liverpool , wanted to be part of the 21st Century Festival I 'm involved with , ' says Casey . ' I suggested they put on the K Foundation exhibition ; at first they were encouraging , but they seemed nervous about the personalities involved . ' A curt fax from ... the gallery curator , informed Casey that the K Foundation 's exhibition of money had been done before and more interestingly " , leaving Drummond and Cauty obliged to pursue other options . The duo considered taking the exhibition across the former Soviet Union by train and on to the United States , but no insurer would touch the project . An exhibition at Kilmainham Jail in Dublin was then considered , but no sooner had a provisional August date been set for it than the duo changed their minds yet again . " Jimmy said : ' Why don 't we just burn it ? ' remembers Drummond . ' He said it in a light @-@ hearted way , I suppose , hoping I 'd say : ' No , we can 't do that , let 's do this ... ' But it seemed the most powerful thing to do . " Cauty : " We were just sitting in a cafe talking about what we were going to spend the money on and then we decided it would be better if we burned it . That was about six weeks before we did it . It was too long , it was a bit of a nightmare . "
The journey from deciding to burn the money to deciding how to burn the money to actually burning the money was a long one . Jim Reid , a freelance journalist and the only independent witness to the burning , reported the various schemes the K Foundation considered . The first was offering Nailed To The Wall to the Tate Gallery as the " 1995 K Foundation Bequest To The Nation . " The condition was that the gallery must agree to display the piece for at least 10 years . If they refused , the money would be burnt . A second idea was to hire Bankside Power Station , " the future site of the Tate Gallery extension and an imposing building downstream from the South Bank " , as a bonfire venue . In typical KLF ' guerrilla communication ' style , " posters were to appear on 15 August bearing the legend ' The 1995 K Foundation Bequest To The Nation ' , under which would have been an image of Nailed To The Wall on an easel and two flame @-@ throwers lying on the floor . On 24 August a new poster would go up , exactly the same as the first except that this time the work would be burnt . "
The K Foundation 's final solution for their one @-@ million @-@ pound " problem " was rather less showbiz , but dramatic nonetheless , the Foundation having decided that making a public spectacle of the event would lessen its impact . On 22 August , Reid , Drummond , Cauty and Gimpo touched down at Islay Airport in the Inner Hebrides and took a ferry to the island of Jura , previously the scene of a wicker man burning ceremony by The KLF . Early in the morning of 23 August 1994 , in an abandoned boathouse on Jura , Drummond and Cauty incinerated the money . The burning was witnessed by Reid , who subsequently wrote an article about the act for The Observer , and it was filmed on a Hi @-@ 8 video camera by collaborator Gimpo . As the burning began Reid said he felt guilt and shock . These feelings , he reported , quickly turned to boredom .
The money took well over an hour to burn as Drummond and Cauty fed £ 50 notes into the fire . According to Drummond , only about £ 900 @,@ 000 of the money was actually burnt , with the remainder flying straight up the chimney . Two days later , according to Reid , Jimmy Cauty destroyed all film and photographic evidence of the burning . Ten months later , Gimpo revealed to them that he had secretly kept a copy .
= = Watch the K Foundation Burn a Million Quid film = =
Watch the K Foundation Burn a Million Quid starts with a short description of the event , and then consists of Drummond and Cauty throwing £ 50 notes onto the fire . Burning the entire amount takes around 67 minutes . NME wrote :
At the start , Cauty is agitated and says he doesn 't think the money will burn because it is too wet . The camera shows 20 thick bundles of £ 50 notes , each bundle containing £ 50 @,@ 000 in new bank notes and sealed in cellophane . When the money ignites , Drummond starts to laugh as he and Cauty stand above a small fireplace throwing £ 50 notes on to the fire . Cauty constantly stokes the blaze with a large wooden plank and at one stage burns his hand on a flaming note . As the fire starts to dim , he scuttles around the floor sweeping stray notes into the flames . The cameraman shows a view from outside the building with charred £ 50 notes billowing out of the chimney .
In November 1995 , the BBC aired an edition of the Omnibus documentary series about The K Foundation entitled A Foundation Course in Art . Amongst the footage broadcast were scenes from Watch the K Foundation Burn a Million Quid . Thomas Sutcliffe , reviewing the programme in The Independent , wrote :
The Omnibus film about this intriguing pair was in part a rear @-@ guard action in their continuing battle for recognition ( and a victory – for some people , after all , art is what appears on Omnibus ) . It was also a peculiarly modern fable about what constitutes an artist – will the artist 's say @-@ so do , or do you need the validation of the galleries ? " You can 't simply decide you 're going to become an artist , " said one gallery owner haughtily , which left you wondering how else the vocation might operate . A lottery system ? Secret @-@ ballot election ?
For my money ( meagre though it is ) , the video which recorded the laborious process of immolation was a decidedly intriguing work – rather more provoking than some contemporary work I 've seen . For established galleries , the medium used ( video , bank @-@ notes , fire ) is obviously an embarrassment , but if poverty of material is not to disqualify artworks ( bricks or lard , say ) why should the expense of material ?
= = = Screening tour = = =
The first public screening of Watch the K Foundation Burn a Million Quid was on Jura on 23 August 1995 – exactly one year after the burning . " We feel we should face them and answer their questions " said one of the duo . Two weeks later an advert appeared in The Guardian ( pictured right ) , announcing a world tour of the film over the next 12 months at " relevant locations " . The second screening was at In The City music industry convention on 5 September in Manchester . After the film was shown , Drummond and Cauty held a question @-@ and @-@ answer session with the theme " Is It Rock 'n'Roll ? " . A week later , the pair travelled as guests of alternative radio station B92 to Belgrade , where the post @-@ screening discussion was titled " Is it a crime against humanity ? " An unauthorised screening at the BBC Television Centre was curtailed and Drummond and Cauty were escorted from the building .
On the weekend of 3 November 1995 , the film was screened at several locations in Glasgow , including at football matches involving Celtic and Rangers ; a planned screening at Barlinnie prison was cancelled after the Scottish Prison Service withdrew permission . Glasgow 's artistic community broadly seemed to welcome the screenings . A further public screening on Glasgow Green on 5 November was announced by various newspapers , but there is no record of the showing having ever occurred . The K Foundation disappeared from Glasgow ; they later issued a statement that on 5 November 1995 they had signed a " contract " at Cape Wrath in northern Scotland agreeing to wind up the K Foundation and not to speak about the money burning for a period of 23 years .
Despite the K Foundation 's reported moratorium , further national screenings of the film organised by Chris Brook took place as planned . At each screening , Drummond and Cauty announced they would not answer questions after the film ; instead , they would ask questions of the audience . These screenings were held in Bradford , Hull , Liverpool , Cheltenham Ladies College , Eton College , Bristol , Aberystwyth , Glastonbury Tor and Brick Lane , London .
The Brick Lane screening – on 8 December 1995 – had been previewed in NME , and was chaotically busy . It was originally planned for a car park , but freezing conditions and snow forced a rethink and the screening was moved indoors , to the basement of the nearby Seven Stars pub . Hundreds of people crammed in to watch the screening , which was eventually abandoned partway through due to the cramped conditions . The NME preview had claimed that after the screening the film would be cut up and individual frames sold off to the public . Gimpo , the owner of the film , had no intention of doing so , but after the screening was nearly overwhelmed by a mob of people wanting to take home a piece of the film .
Gimpo has continued to show the film at events such as literary festivals and underground film evenings over the years since the initial tour . On 23 August 2007 , after a screening in Berlin , Germany , the DVD briefly disappeared . A few hours later , the film was released on several BitTorrent trackers .
= = Burning as a theme = =
Ritualistic burnings had already been a recurring aspect of Drummond and Cauty 's work . In 1987 , the duo disposed of copies of their copyright @-@ breaching debut album — The Justified Ancients of Mu Mu 's 1987 ( What the Fuck Is Going On ? ) — by burning them in a Swedish field . This event was pictured on the back sleeve of their second album , Who Killed The JAMs ? , and celebrated in the song " Burn the Bastards " . During the 1991 summer solstice , they burnt a 60 feet ( 18 m ) wicker man . This was chronicled in The KLF movie The Rites of Mu .
As the K Foundation , Drummond and Cauty threatened to burn the K Foundation art award prize money ( Gimpo was fumbling with matches and lighter fluid when , at the last moment , Rachel Whiteread accepted the prize ) . In the seventh K Foundation press advert they asked " What would you do with a million pounds ? Burn it ? "
= = Reaction and analysis = =
Jim Reid 's piece appeared in The Observer on 25 September 1994 . This is " one of the most peculiar stories of the year " , he cautioned readers . " Peculiar because pretty much everyone who comes across this magazine is going to have trouble believing a word of it . Peculiar because every last dot and comma of what is to come is the truth . " " It took about two hours for that cash to go up in flames " , he added . " I looked at it closely , it was real . It came from a bona fide security firm and was not swapped at any time on our journey . More importantly , perhaps , after working with the K Foundation I know they are capable of this . "
The Daily Express ran the story on 1 October 1994 . They reported that charred £ 50 notes were being found by islanders , who did not doubt the burning had really taken place . Drummond and Cauty had been seen eating in a hotel bar on Jura before leaving with two suitcases , the newspaper reported .
The Times followed with essentially the same story on 4 October 1994 , adding that the burning " [ had ] left many on the island bewildered , incredulous and angry " . £ 1500 had been handed in by a local fisherman to Islay police : " Sergeant Lachlan Maclean checked the money with both banks on Islay and with Customs and Excise , who pronounced it genuine . ' I telephoned Mr Drummond in London and told him the money had been found . I asked him if it was his . He said he would get in touch with his partner , Mr Cauty . So far he has not telephoned back ' " .
The media returned to the story in earnest in October and November 1995 , previewing and then reviewing Foundation Course In Art , and reporting on the K Foundation 's tour screening Watch the K Foundation Burn a Million Quid .
An October 1995 feature quoted Kevin Hull , the BBC documentary maker responsible for the Omnibus item , saying he had found " the boys rather depressed , and almost in a state of shock " . " Every day I wake up and I think ' Oh God , I 've burnt a million quid and everyone thinks it 's wrong ' " , Cauty told him .
A piece in The Times on 5 November 1995 , coinciding with the Glasgow screenings , reported that the K Foundation had no solid reason for burning the money or view of what , if anything , the act represented , but concluded " The K Foundation may not have changed or challenged much but they have certainly provoked thousands to question and analyse the power of money and the responsibilities of those who possess it . And what could be more artistic than that ? " In the same issue , the newspaper 's K Foundation art award witness , Robert Sandall , wrote that the Foundation 's award , million @-@ pound artwork and the burning were all " entertaining , and satirically quite sharp " , but " the art world has chosen not to think [ of it as art ] .... The general view remains that the K Foundation 's preoccupation with money , though undoubtedly sincere , simply isn 't very original . Although they didn 't blow their entire life 's savings along the way , other artists , notably Yves Klein and Chris Burden , have been here before . "
The Guardian 's TV reviewer was sceptical . " Snag is , the K men have always dealt in myth and sown a trail of confusion , so nobody quite believes they really burned the money . And if they did , they must be nuts . Confucius says : Aston Martin dealer will not accept suitcase full of ash as down payment . "
= = = Later reaction = = =
In the following years , the burning would be mentioned regularly in the press , with Drummond and Cauty often relegated to a cultural status of " the men who burnt a million quid " .
A February 2000 article in The Observer newspaper again insisted that the duo really had burnt one million pounds . " It wasn 't a stunt . They really did it . If you want to rile Bill Drummond , you call him a hoaxer . ' I knew it was real , ' a long @-@ time friend and associate of his group The KLF tells me , ' because afterwards , Jimmy and Bill looked so harrowed and haunted . And to be honest , they 've never really been the same since ' " .
A 2004 listener poll by BBC Radio 6 Music saw The KLF / K Foundation placed second after The Who in a list of " rock excesses " .
Drummond 's former protegé Julian Cope was unimpressed , claiming that Drummond still owed him money . " He burned a million pounds which was not all his , and some of it was mine . People should pay off their creditors before they pull intellectual dry @-@ wank stunts like that . "
= = Legacy = =
On 17 September 1997 , a new film , This Brick , was premiered . The film consisted of one three @-@ minute shot of a brick made from the ashes of the money burnt at Jura . It was shown at the Barbican Centre prior to Drummond and Cauty 's performance as 2K .
On 27 September 1997 , K Foundation Burn A Million Quid ( ISBN 0 @-@ 9541656 @-@ 5 @-@ 9 , ISBN 1 @-@ 899858 @-@ 37 @-@ 7 paperback ) was published . The book , by Chris Brook and Gimpo , contains stills from the film and transcriptions of various Q & A sessions from the tour . It also includes a timeline of K Foundation activity and sundry essays including one from Alan Moore . Publisher Ellipsis promoted the book with an advert modelled on those of the K Foundation – " Why did Ellipsis publish K Foundation Burn A Million Quid ? " they asked .
Initially , Drummond was unrepentant , telling The Observer in 2000 that he couldn 't imagine ever feeling regret unless his child was ill and only " an expensive clinic " could cure him . By 2004 , however , he had admitted to the BBC the difficulty of justifying his decision . " It 's a hard one to explain to your kids and it doesn 't get any easier . I wish I could explain why I did it so people would understand . "
= Top Thrill Dragster =
Top Thrill Dragster is a steel accelerator roller coaster built by Intamin at Cedar Point in Sandusky , Ohio , United States . It was the sixteenth roller coaster built at the park since the Blue Streak in 1964 . When built in 2003 , it was the first full circuit roller coaster to exceed 400 feet ( 120 m ) in height , and was the tallest roller coaster in the world , before being surpassed by Kingda Ka at Six Flags Great Adventure in May 2005 . Top Thrill Dragster , along with Kingda Ka , are the only strata coasters in existence . It was the second hydraulically launched roller coaster built by Intamin , following Xcelerator at Knott 's Berry Farm . The tagline for Top Thrill Dragster is " Race for the Sky " .
= = History = =
Planning for Top Thrill Dragster started around 2000 when Millennium Force opened . Footers started being poured during the winter of 2001 / 2002 then were covered up during the 2002 operating season . To construct the roller coaster , the park had to use a 480 feet ( 150 m ) crane , only one of four in the United States . Vertical construction by Martin & Vleminckx started in fall 2002 , months before the announcement . By October 2002 , the roller coaster had reached 200 feet ( 61 m ) . The ride was announced on January 9 , 2003 and the structure , built by Intamin 's subcontractor Stakotra , was finished shortly after . It is tied with Millennium Force for being the two largest investments in Cedar Point history . The announcement revealed the park 's goal to build " the tallest and fastest roller coaster on earth " , reaching 420 feet ( 130 m ) and accelerating up to 120 miles per hour ( 193 km / h ) in 3 @.@ 8 seconds . On March 10 , 2003 , Cedar Fair Entertainment Company filed a trademark for the name Top Thrill Dragster .
Top Thrill Dragster 's media day was held on May 1 , 2003 then it officially opened to the public on May 4 . It became the " tallest " and " fastest " roller coaster in the world overtaking both world records from Steel Dragon 2000 at Nagashima Spa Land that was just built three years earlier . It lost the title of being the world 's tallest and fastest roller coaster when Kingda Ka at Six Flags Great Adventure opened in May 2005 . Intamin designed both Kingda Ka and Top Thrill Dragster , and the two share a similar design and layout that differs primarily by the theme and the additional hill featured on Kingda Ka .
The ride had constant downtime in its first couple seasons . Several problems such as the ride 's hydraulic system and launch cable caused the ride to experience downtime . Top Thrill Dragster was also closed in 2003 for the annual event , CoasterMania .
= = Ride experience = =
= = = Layout = = =
After leaving the station , the train enters the launch area . To the left of the launch area is a " Christmas tree " light , similar to those employed at the starting line of a drag strip . A brief message is played to the riders to : " keep arms down , head back , and hold on . " Once the train is prepared to launch , a motor revving sound effect is played and its magnetic braking fins are lowered from the launch track . It then launches , accelerating to a speed of 120 mph ( 190 km / h ) in 3 @.@ 8 seconds . Shortly after reaching its maximum velocity , the train begins its ascent up a 90 @-@ degree incline , twisting 90 degrees clockwise before climbing over the 420 @-@ foot ( 130 m ) top hat . Upon descending , the track twists 270 degrees before leveling out , allowing the train to be stopped by the magnetic brakes .
= = = Theme / trains = = =
The roller coaster is based on the Top Fuel Drag Racing motor sport . A real Top Fuel dragster weighs approximately one ton , while each train on the coaster weighs 15 tons . Its dragster themed trains once had decorative spoilers and engines , but these were removed soon after opening , allowing an extra row of seats to be added to each one . Also , when the ride opened , it had only four cars on each train , including the decals . By the middle of the 2003 season , the fifth cars were added to all trains , making them the five cars long that they are now . The fifth cars were added on shortly before the decals were removed . The ride 's theme song , " Ready to Go " by Republica , is played while in the station .
= = = Rollbacks = = =
Occasionally , a train is launched with not enough speed to clear the crest . This typically happens in cool , wet , or breezy weather , or when the wind is working against it . In these conditions , the launch often does not provide it with enough speed to climb over the hill , which causes it to stop short of the top , and roll back down the hill in reverse , hence the term " rollback " . The launch track is equipped with retractable magnetic braking fins which are raised after the train is launched in order to slow one that did not crest the hill .
On very rare occasions a combination of the weight distribution of the train , the force of the launch , and the wind can stall a train on the top of the tower . When this happens , a mechanic takes the elevator to the top and pushes the train down the hill . This has only happened three times with passengers on board , June 24 , 2005 , October 25 , 2008 , and May 25 , 2009 .
= = World records = =
When Top Thrill Dragster debuted , it set four new records :
World 's tallest complete circuit roller coaster
World 's tallest roller coaster
World 's tallest roller coaster drop
World 's fastest roller coaster
It was the fourth roller coaster to break the 100 miles per hour ( 160 km / h ) speed barrier . It was preceded by Tower of Terror II at Dreamworld , Superman : Escape from Krypton at Six Flags Magic Mountain and Dodonpa at Fuji @-@ Q Highland . The previous record holder for overall height was Superman : Escape from Krypton at Six Flags Magic Mountain , standing at 415 feet ( 126 m ) . Its record was broken in 2005 when Kingda Ka opened at Six Flags Great Adventure , standing 456 feet ( 139 m ) tall . The previous record holder for speed was Dodonpa , at 107 miles per hour ( 172 km / h ) . This record was broken by Top Thrill Dragster , which reaches speeds up to 120 miles per hour ( 190 km / h ) , which was later broken by Kingda Ka which reached a top speed of 128 miles per hour ( 206 km / h ) . In November 2010 , Formula Rossa at Ferrari World broke the record for fastest roller coaster , with a top speed of 149 @.@ 1 miles per hour ( 240 @.@ 0 km / h ) .
As of 2015 , Top Thrill Dragster has the second tallest lift , the third fastest speed , and the second @-@ highest drop among steel roller coasters in the world .
= = Operation = =
Top Thrill Dragster is negatively affected by unfavourable weather conditions as both a high altitude and high velocity ride . " Rain , high winds , and / or lightning " may result in the closing of the ride depending on the severity . It will close in high winds and any kind of precipitation .
There is no minimum age requirement , but passengers must meet the miniumum height requirement of 52 inches and a maximum of 78 inches to ride . Some persons over a certain weight / waist size will not be permitted to ride if the seat and lapbar harness cannot accommodate them . Passengers on Dragster may not bring any loose articles onto the train and will be required to wear shirts and footwear . Headphones must be removed before boarding .
Passengers are advised that they must not ride Dragster if they have " a history of recent surgery , heart trouble / high blood pressure , neck trouble , back trouble , or any other condition that may be aggravated by riding , or who are pregnant " .
= = Incident = =
On July 14 , 2004 , four people were struck by flying debris while riding the coaster . Reports indicated that a metal cable frayed during launch , shearing off shards of metal that struck the riders . The injuries were mainly arm abrasions , with one passenger experiencing cuts to the face . They were treated at the park 's first aid station , and two later sought further medical attention .
= = Awards = =
= = Records = =
= 1983 Pacific typhoon season =
The 1983 Pacific typhoon season has no official bounds , but most tropical cyclones tend to form in the northwestern Pacific Ocean between May and November . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the northwestern Pacific Ocean . Tropical storms formed in the entire west Pacific basin were assigned a name by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center . Tropical depressions that enter or form in the Philippine area of responsibility are assigned a name by the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration or PAGASA . This can often result in the same storm having two names .
The season had a late start , as the first system did not form until late June for the first time since 1973 . The last tropical cyclone dissipated in mid @-@ December . A total of 26 tropical depressions formed this year in the Western Pacific , of which 23 became tropical storms . Of the 26 tropical cyclones , one formed in June , three formed in July , six formed in August , three formed in September , seven formed in October , five formed in November , and two formed in December . Twelve storms reached typhoon intensity , of which four reached super typhoon strength . Fifteen of the tropical cyclones made landfall , with six moving through the Philippines , six striking China , six moving into Vietnam , and three moving in Japan . Vera , Wayne , Kim , and Lex led to over half of the fatalities from tropical cyclones this season . Forrest became the fastest @-@ developing tropical cyclone on record for the western Pacific ocean , with a pressure drop of 92 hectopascals ( 2 @.@ 7 inHg ) in a 24 ‑ hour period .
= = Season summary = =
The season had a late start , as the first system did not form until late June for the first time since 1973 . The last tropical cyclone dissipated in mid @-@ December . A total of 26 tropical depressions formed this year in the Western Pacific , of which 23 became tropical storms . Of the 26 tropical cyclones , one formed in June , three formed in July , six formed in August , three formed in September , seven formed in October , five formed in November , and two formed in December . Ten storms reached typhoon intensity , of which four reached super typhoon strength . Fifteen of the tropical cyclones made landfall , with six moving through the Philippines , six striking China , six moving into Vietnam , and three moving in Japan . Tropical cyclones accounted for 24 percent of the annual rainfall in Hong Kong this season .
Wayne formed east of the Philippines , becoming the first super typhoon of the season before striking mainland China on July 25 . Abby was a long @-@ lived system , forming near Guam and remaining an intense typhoon for a number of days before recurving into Japan as a weakening tropical storm on August 17 . Ellen was a strong typhoon which tracked from the International Dateline westward near the northern Philippines and mainland China by September 9 . Forrest formed well east of the Philippines in late September , becoming the fastest @-@ developing tropical cyclone on record for the western Pacific ocean , with a pressure drop of 92 hectopascals ( 2 @.@ 7 inHg ) in a 24 ‑ hour period . Marge was an intense typhoon which recurved well off the coast of Asia during the first week of November . Orchid was a long @-@ lived and erratic tropical cyclone which moved slowly just east of the Philippines during late November , absorbing Percy along the way . Vera , Wayne , Kim , and Lex led to over half of the fatalities from tropical cyclones this season .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Storm Sarah = = =
When Tropical Storm Sarah formed in the South China Sea on June 24 , it became the latest start of a western Pacific season since 1973 . The initial tropical disturbance formed south of Guam on June 16 . By June 19 , a low level circulation formed as the system moved westward . As a tropical disturbance , the low crossed the Philippines with light winds . The system finally organized into a tropical depression and then a tropical storm on June 25 . Sarah moved west @-@ northwestward across the South China Sea , striking Vietnam before dissipating on June 26 . Damage across the Philippines totaled 2 @.@ 77 billion Philippine Pesos ( 1983 pesos ) , or US $ 249 @.@ 3 million ( 1983 dollars ) .
= = = Typhoon Tip ( Auring ) = = =
A tropical disturbance first noted east of the Philippines , the system moved through the archipelago as a tropical depression before strengthening briefly to a typhoon in the South China Sea . A combination of northeasterly vertical wind shear and proximity to land weakened the cyclone to a tropical storm before its landfall on Hai @-@ nan and struck Chan Chiang , China as a tropical depression . Winds peaked at 34 knots ( 63 km / h ) at Tate 's Cairn in Hong Kong .
= = = Typhoon Vera ( Bebeng ) = = =
The monsoon trough spawned a tropical depression on July 12 , east of the Philippines . It headed westward , strengthening to a tropical storm that night and a typhoon on the 13th . Vera made landfall on the 14th as an 85 mph ( 137 km / h ) typhoon in the Philippines , weakened over the islands , and restrengthened over the South China Sea to a 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) typhoon . Damage totaled US $ 9 million in the Philippines . In Hong Kong , winds peaked at 60 knots ( 110 km / h ) at Tate 's Cairn . Vera struck Hainan Island on the 17th , crossed the Gulf of Tonkin , and dissipated over Vietnam on the 18th . Vera brought torrential flooding , resulting in the deaths of 106 people .
= = = Super Typhoon Wayne ( Katring ) = = =
Becoming a tropical depression east of the Philippines , Wayne strengthened rapidly to become a tropical storm on July 22 , a typhoon on July 23 , and a super typhoon around midday on July 24 before moving south of Taiwan into mainland China on July 25 and dissipating . In the Philippines , 20 perished due to flash flooding . Wayne was the fifth most intense tropical cyclone to impact Fujian between 1960 and 2005 . Heavy rainfall led to severe flooding in Fujian and Guangdong . The total death toll reached 105 .
= = = Super Typhoon Abby ( Diding ) = = =
First noted southeast of Guam on July 31 , this system slowly matured into the season 's second super typhoon as it moved west @-@ northwest over the following nine days . Intensification was most rapid as it was slowly recurving northward on August 7 and August 8 . After peaking early on August 9 , Abby slowly weakened as it interacted with the main belt of the Westerlies . It managed to remain a major typhoon , with winds at or above 100 knots ( 190 km / h ) , for a week . Abby finally weakened back into a tropical storm on August 17 just before its landfall at Hamamatsu , Japan . By late that night , Abby completed the transition to an extratropical cyclone after moving through central Japan . Two perished from Abby in Japan . Its deluge led to numerous landslides and the destruction of 19 bridges . Commercial traffic by land , sea , and air was also paralyzed by the cyclone .
= = = Tropical Storm Carmen ( Etang ) = = =
Originating in the monsoon trough in the South China Sea in early August , a low level circulation was first spotted about 370 km east of Vietnam on August 8 . Slow development ensued , and the system became a tropical depression during the night of August 12 . Tracking slowly north @-@ northeast , Carmen began to accelerate to the east @-@ northeast towards the Luzon Strait , steered by Abby . This acceleration was likely a redevelopment of the low pressure area downshear . The system became a tropical storm early morning of August 14 as it continued to close the distance to Abby . By late morning on August 15 , absorption into Abby was complete .
= = = Severe Tropical Storm Ben = = =
An area of strong thunderstorms formed east of Abby , developing a low level center on August 12 on the western side of the thunderstorm activity , due to westerly vertical wind shear from nearby Abby . It developed into a tropical storm that night and moved northwest due to Abby 's influence on the steering across the western Pacific at that time . Turning to the west , Ben moved along the southern coast of Honshū and made landfall west of Hamamatsu . Due to land interaction and increasing upper level westerly wind shear , Ben became an exposed low level circulation on August 14 in the Sea of Japan , eventually dissipating late on August 15 .
= = = Tropical Storm Dom ( Gening ) = = =
On August 17 , a tropical disturbance was noted west of Guam . Slow development ensued , and the system became a tropical storm late on August 19 . As a deep cyclone near Japan linked up with the monsoon trough , the cyclone turned sharply northeast on August 20 . Persisitently sheared by strong northeasterly flow aloft initially , once Dom recurved its convection was left completely behind , weakening the system to a tropical depression on August 21 . Thunderstorms began to redevelop near the center , and by midday on August 23 Dom was a tropical storm once more . At this point Dom was moving erratically as the trough near Japan moved off to the east , and by August 24 Dom turned back to the north @-@ northwest . By August 25 strong winds aloft weakened Dom once more , and the cyclone dissipated as a tropical cyclone on August 26 .
= = = Tropical Depression 09W = = =
This system formed well north of the normal climatological position to the west of Dom , as the monsoon trough was similarly displaced . It was first noted on August 25 , but showed no further development . Thunderstorms were located about 300 miles ( 480 km ) south of the center , but since the central pressure was under 1000 mb , it was considered a tropical depression while an exposed low level swirl . The system did develop some central convection , and moved northward into South Korea , bringing showers to the region , and dissipated late on August 27 .
= = = Typhoon Ellen ( Herming ) = = =
It was first noted as a tropical disturbance east of the International Dateline on August 26 , and became a tropical storm soon after crossing in the dateline on the morning of August 29 . A strong high pressure ridge offshore Japan led to no further development over the next 5 days , and the cyclone began to track south of west . Dropping down to a weak tropical depression late on September 1 , conditions aloft finally improved and the cyclone strengthened into a typhoon on September 3 as it tracked west @-@ northwest . Approaching Luzon late on September 5 , Ellen intensified rapidly into a strong typhoon before the terrain began to weaken the cyclone . Its final landfall was at Macau on the morning of September 9 as a minor typhoon .
Hong Kong experienced extensive damage , with six killed and 277 injured . Winds gusted to 134 knots ( 248 km / h ) at Stanley . Twenty @-@ two ships ran aground in the harbor . Rainfall totaled 231 @.@ 8 millimetres ( 9 @.@ 13 in ) at Hong Kong 's Royal Observatory . The second tornado ever recorded in Hong Kong , and the first during a typhoon passage , occurred during Ellen . Ellen was Hong Kong 's worst typhoon since Typhoon Hope of 1979 . By late on the 9th , Ellen was rapidly dissipating in mainland China .
= = = Tropical Depression 02C = = =
= = = Super Typhoon Forrest ( Ising ) = = =
Super Typhoon Forrest developed in the Western Pacific Ocean in September over the open ocean . It was the fastest @-@ developing tropical cyclone on record , with a pressure drop of 100 mbar in a 24 ‑ hour period . A tornado struck Inza Island , destroying 26 homes and injuring 26 people , as the cyclone passed by Okinawa . Forrest struck Japan as a tropical storm on the 28th . Kadena Air Force base reported winds gusting to 74 knots ( 137 km / h ) and rainfall totaling 300 millimetres ( 12 in ) during Forrest 's passage . Up to 483 millimetres ( 19 @.@ 0 in ) of rainfall fell across Japan , damaging 46 @,@ 000 homes . Overall , the storm caused 21 casualties and moderate damage .
= = = Tropical Depression Luding = = =
= = = Typhoon Georgia ( Mameng ) = = =
A large area of thunderstorm activity formed west of the Philippines . Rapidly organizing on September 28 , Georgia became a tropical storm by the next morning . Moving westward , it tracked across Hainan Island to the south of China . Wind gusts reached 60 knots ( 110 km / h ) both at Tate 's Cairn and Kowloon Tsai Hill in Hong Kong . Ultimately the storm made its final landfall in Vietnam before dissipating while entering Laos . Georgia killed 26 , damaged 7000 buildings , and led to a loss of 247 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 000 km2 ) of rice . The 13 to 14 inches ( 330 to 360 mm ) of rainfall it brought to Vietnam relieved drought conditions .
= = = Tropical Depression Neneng = = =
This system was recognized by the Hong Kong Royal Observatory and PAGASA . A tropical depression formed in the South China Sea near Xisha Dao on October 2 , and moved northwest , dissipating near Hanoi a couple days later .
= = = Tropical Storm Herbert = = =
The initial disturbance was first spotted 250 miles ( 402 km ) east of Mindanao . Moving westward for the next few days without development , the system moved into the South China Sea . The system became a tropical storm on October 7 to due significantly increased low @-@ level southwesterlies spinning up its circulation . The cyclone then moved west @-@ northwest , striking Nha Trang , Vietnam . The convective pattern was slow to fade as it drifted westward across Indochina over the next few days . Forty perished during this tropical cyclone .
= = = Severe Tropical Storm Ida ( Oniang ) = = =
An inverted trough appeared near Saipan on October 6 , which appears to be linked with pre @-@ existing convection within an upper @-@ level cyclone , which appeared as early as October 3 . By late on the 6th , a closed circulation formed . Continuing to develop , the system became a tropical depression on the morning of October 8 as it moved northwest . Becoming a typhoon on October 10 as it was recurving into the main belt of the Westerlies , the cyclone passed only 150 km southeast of Honshū . Since it was a small cyclone , no damage occurred within Japan . By late on October 11 , Ida evolved into an extratropical cyclone which moved eastward through the northern Pacific .
= = = Tropical Depression Pepang = = =
= = = Severe Tropical Storm Joe ( Rosing ) = = =
One of three consecutive tropical cyclones to form in the South China Sea , the initial disturbance was first noted well south of Guam on October 6 . The system moved westward , and developed a closed wind circulation by midday on October 9 . A new center formed to the south , which complicated the system 's development . Remaining poorly organized in the Philippine Sea due to northerly vertical wind shear , the tropical depression crossed central Luzon . Now in the South China Sea , the system became better organized and developed into a tropical storm and typhoon as it moved northwest . Soon after becoming a typhoon , Joe moved into southern China about 190 kilometres ( 120 mi ) west of Hong Kong and quickly dissipated inland . Wind gusts reached 78 knots ( 144 km / h ) at Tai O , while rainfall amounts of 183 @.@ 9 millimetres ( 7 @.@ 24 in ) fell at Tate 's Cairn .
= = = Tropical Storm Kim = = =
Tropical Storm Kim , which formed in the South China Sea on October 14 , hit southeastern Vietnam late on October 16 . It weakened over land , but retained its circulation , and redeveloped into a tropical depression on October 19 in the northeastern Bay of Bengal in the North Indian Ocean . Kim continued northwestward , and dissipated on October 20 over Myanmar . Even though Tropical Storm Kim was a weak storm , its heavy rains caused serious flash flooding and mudslides in Vietnam and Thailand . In Thailand , already deluged by an earlier tropical storm , there was moderate flooding in Bangkok . Elsewhere , over 300 boats and 3 @,@ 000 homes and buildings were destroyed and the storm severely damaged much of the rice harvest . Kim caused 200 fatalities and extensive crop damage from heavy rainfall .
= = = Severe Tropical Storm Lex ( Sisang ) = = =
First noted near the Marshall Islands on October 14 , the tropical disturbance moved westward for the next couple of days without and further development . An upper level ridge built over the system on October 16 while near Truk , which encouraged slow development . The system developed a weak surface circulation which progressed across the central Philippines . Once it entered the South China Sea , development increased and it became a tropical depression , then tropical storm , on October 22 . Transcribing a cyclonic loop , Lex continued to intensify and was a typhoon by October 25 .
Moving close to Hainan Island , Lex weakened to a tropical storm while entering the Gulf of Tonkin . Winds gusted to 48 knots ( 89 km / h ) at Waglan Island . The cyclone made landfall near Dong Hoi , Vietnam on October 26 as a moderate tropical storm , and then rapidly weakened after moving inland . At least 200 fishermen were killed , with 81 of the total from an oil drilling ship which sank during the storm .
= = = Tropical Depression Trining = = =
= = = Super Typhoon Marge ( Uring ) = = =
This system began as a tropical disturbance with a weak circulation near 7N 172E . Becoming the fourth super typhoon of the season , Marge stairstepped west @-@ northwest east of the Philippines before recurving east of Japan . During recurvature , its forward motion reached 54 knots ( 100 km / h ) , becoming one of the fastest known tropical cyclones on record .
= = = Tropical Storm Norris = = =
This system was spawned just ahead of a frontal boundary extending from the extratropical cyclone formerly known as Marge . A midget tropical storm , Norris quickly evolved on November 8 and recurved ahead of the frontal boundary well east of Asia , primarily threatening shipping in the western Pacific . Within three days of formation , Norris had been absorbed by the advancing cold front .
= = = Typhoon Orchid ( Warling ) = = =
A tropical disturbance organized into a tropical depression on November 14 over the open West Pacific . It tracked southwestward then westward , slowly organizing into a tropical storm on the 17th . Orchid 's motion became erratic , and it drifted northward , always remaining within 850 nautical miles ( 1 @,@ 570 km ) of Typhoon Percy , a slow @-@ moving typhoon in the South China Sea . Orchid reached her peak of 145 mph ( 233 km / h ) winds on the 23rd , before vertical shear caused it to weaken . The storm turned southward , where it dissipated on the 27th . A total of 167 fatalities occurred when the Philippine vessel MV Dona Cassandra capsized due to high waves off the coast of Mindanao . A total of 219 people survived the shipwreck , including 98 that were rescued . In addition , 89 persons were injured , 18 at sea . At the time of the shipwreck , the boat had 387 passengers and 36 crew members . Onshore the Philippines , three people were killed and thousands were displaced .
= = = Typhoon Percy ( Yayang ) = = =
Located not too distant to the southwest of Orchid , Percy thrived in a divergent region created by Orchid 's outflow pattern beginning on November 17 . Rapid development occurred on the morning of November 19 while in the South China Sea , and the system meandered due to the weakness in steering created by Orchid to its northeast . The cyclone managed 160 kilometres ( 99 mi ) of movement through November 23 . Briefly becoming a typhoon , eventually Percy became entrained in Orchid 's inflow band and began to be sheared by Orchid 's opposing outflow pattern . Other than moving through the Philippines while in the initial tropical depression phase , Percy affected no other land masses .
= = = November Tropical Depression = = =
This system was only recognized by the Hong Kong Royal Observatory . A tropical depression formed and moved westward through the Caroline Islands between November 21 and 24 before dissipating .
= = = Severe Tropical Storm Ruth ( Ading ) = = =
This system began along the near equatorial trough southeast of Guam on November 15 . Moving slowly westward , there was little additional development until November 19 . Thunderstorm activity significantly increased in coverage along a 1 @,@ 670 kilometres ( 1 @,@ 040 mi ) east @-@ west axis , with a center forming near 5N 147E . The system moved slowly northwest until November 23 . Orchid acted to limit its development by robbing inflow from this disturbance . On the 23rd it became a tropical depression before executing an anticyclonic loop . Upper level conditions became hostile soon afterwards , and the depression weakened . Into November 27 the system moved erratically and went through cycles of convective development and shearing . When Orchid weakened into a tropical depression , Ruth began to develop rapidly and became a tropical storm early on November 28 . A frontal zone on its northwest side led to an intense gale in that quadrant , which led to the upgrade . The cyclone nearly became a typhoon later that day before vertical wind shear returned , introduced by a fresh cold outbreak from Asia . The cyclone degenerated to an exposed low @-@ level swirl on November 30 .
= = = Tropical Storm Sperry ( Barang ) = = =
The initial disturbance formed along the near equatorial trough after Ruth dissipated . On November 30 a surface circulation formed 740 kilometres ( 460 mi ) south of Guam . By December 1 , the system appeared to be forming into a tropical cyclone but its thunderstorm activity shifted over 900 kilometres ( 560 mi ) to the northwest of the center . Taking a day to recover , the system attempted to reorganize and became a tropical storm early on December 3 . Southerly vertical wind shear limited its development for much of its life cycle . Turning eastward , it reached its maximum intensity late on the 3rd before shearing apart on December 4 . Early on December 5 , the system degenerated into a weak area of low pressure .
= = = Severe Tropical Storm Thelma ( Krising ) = = =
This system formed east of the Caroline Islands on December 11 near 4N 170E . Over the next couple days , an upper cyclone to its north shifted westward , which helped lead to increased outflow and a low @-@ level circulation . It moved rapidly westward for the next 60 hours as a poorly defined low despite increasing convective organization . By late morning on December 16 , it became a tropical storm . The system tracked along a smooth parabola east of the Philippines becoming a moderately strong tropical storm . Intense vertical wind shear struck the cyclone as it moved northeast at a clip up to 27 knots ( 50 km / h ) , and the system rapidly weakened .
= = = Tropical Depression Dadang = = =
= = Storm names = =
During the season 23 named tropical cyclones developed in the Western Pacific and were named by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center , when it was determined that they had become tropical storms . These names were contributed to a revised list from 1979 .
= = = Philippines = = =
The Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration uses its own naming scheme for tropical cyclones in their area of responsibility . PAGASA assigns names to tropical depressions that form within their area of responsibility and any tropical cyclone that might move into their area of responsibility . Should the list of names for a given year prove to be insufficient , names are taken from an auxiliary list , the first 6 of which are published each year before the season starts . Names not retired from this list will be used again in the 1987 season . This is the same list used for the 1979 season . PAGASA uses its own naming scheme that starts in the Filipino alphabet , with names of Filipino female names ending with " ng " ( A , B , K , D , etc . ) . Names that were not assigned / going to use are marked in gray .
= Michael Tippett =
Sir Michael Kemp Tippett OM CH CBE ( 2 January 1905 – 8 January 1998 ) was an English composer who rose to prominence during and immediately after the Second World War . In his lifetime he was sometimes ranked with his contemporary Benjamin Britten as one of the leading British composers of the 20th century . Among his best @-@ known works are the oratorio A Child of Our Time , the orchestral Fantasia Concertante on a Theme of Corelli , and the opera The Midsummer Marriage .
Tippett 's talent developed slowly . He withdrew or destroyed his earliest compositions , and was 30 before any of his works were published . Until the mid @-@ to @-@ late 1950s his music was broadly lyrical in character , before changing to a more astringent and experimental style . New influences , including those of jazz and blues after his first visit to America in 1965 , became increasingly evident in his compositions . While Tippett 's stature with the public continued to grow , not all critics approved of these changes in style , some believing that the quality of his work suffered as a consequence . From around 1976 Tippett 's late works began to reflect the works of his youth through a return to lyricism . Although he was much honoured in his lifetime , critical judgement on Tippett 's legacy has been uneven , the greatest praise being generally reserved for his earlier works . His centenary in 2005 was a muted affair ; apart from the few best @-@ known works , his music has been performed infrequently in the 21st century .
Having briefly embraced communism in the 1930s , Tippett avoided identifying with any political party . A pacifist after 1940 , he was imprisoned in 1943 for refusing to carry out war @-@ related duties required by his military exemption . His initial difficulties in accepting his homosexuality led him in 1939 to Jungian psychoanalysis ; the Jungian dichotomy of " shadow " and " light " remained a recurring factor in his music . He was a strong advocate of music education , and was active for much of his life as a radio broadcaster and writer on music .
= = Life = =
= = = Family background = = =
The Tippett family originated in Cornwall . Michael Tippett 's grandfather , George Tippett , left the county in 1854 to make his fortune in London through property speculation and other business schemes . A flamboyant character , he had a strong tenor voice that was a popular feature at Christian revivalist meetings . In later life his business enterprises faltered , leading to debts , prosecution for fraud , and a term of imprisonment . His son Henry , born in 1858 , was Michael 's father . A lawyer by training , he was successful in business and was independently wealthy by the time of his marriage in April 1903 . Unusually for his background and upbringing , Henry Tippett was a progressive liberal and a religious sceptic .
Henry Tippett 's bride was Isabel Kemp , from a large upper @-@ middle class family based in Kent . Among her mother 's cousins was Charlotte Despard , a well @-@ known campaigner for women 's rights , suffragism , and Irish home rule . Despard was a powerful influence on the young Isabel , who was herself briefly imprisoned after participating in an illegal suffragette protest in Trafalgar Square . Although neither she nor Henry was musical , she had inherited an artistic talent from her mother , who had exhibited at the Royal Academy . After their marriage the couple settled outside London in Eastcote where two sons were born , the second , Michael , on 2 January 1905 .
= = = Childhood and schooling = = =
Shortly after Michael 's birth , the family moved to Wetherden in Suffolk . Michael 's education began in 1909 , with a nursery governess and various private tutors who followed a curriculum that included piano lessons — his first formal contact with music . There was a piano in the house , on which he " took to improvising crazily ... which I called ' composing ' , though I had only the vaguest notion of what that meant " . In September 1914 Michael became a boarder at Brookfield Preparatory School in Swanage , Dorset . He spent four years there , at one point earning not | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
oriety by writing an essay that challenged the existence of God . In 1918 he won a scholarship to Fettes College , a boarding school in Edinburgh , where he studied the piano , sang in the choir , and began to learn to play the pipe organ . The school was not a happy place ; sadistic bullying of the younger pupils was commonplace . When Michael revealed to his parents in March 1920 that he had formed a homosexual relationship with another boy , they removed him . He transferred to Stamford School in Lincolnshire , where a decade previously Malcolm Sargent had been a pupil .
Around this time Henry Tippett decided to live in France , and the house in Wetherden was sold . The 15 @-@ year @-@ old Michael and his brother Peter remained at school in England , travelling to France for their holidays . Michael found Stamford much more congenial than Fettes , and developed both academically and musically . He found an inspiring piano teacher in Frances Tinkler , who introduced him to the music of Bach , Beethoven , Schubert and Chopin . Sargent had maintained his connection with the school , and was present when Tippett and another boy played a C minor Concerto for Two Harpsichords by Bach on pianos with a local string orchestra . Tippett sang in the chorus when Sargent directed a local performance of Robert Planquette 's operetta Les Cloches de Corneville . Despite his parents ' wish that he follow an orthodox path by proceeding to Cambridge University , Tippett had firmly decided on a career as a composer , a prospect that alarmed them and was discouraged by his headmaster and by Sargent .
By mid @-@ 1922 Tippett had developed a rebellious streak . His overt atheism particularly troubled the school , and he was required to leave . He remained in Stamford in private lodgings , while continuing lessons with Tinkler and with the organist of the local St Mary 's Church . He also began studying Charles Villiers Stanford 's book Musical Composition which , he later wrote , " became the basis of all my compositional efforts for decades to come " . In 1923 Henry Tippett was persuaded that some form of musical career , perhaps as a concert pianist , was possible , and agreed to support his son in a course of study at the Royal College of Music ( RCM ) . After an interview with the college principal , Sir Hugh Allen , Tippett was accepted despite his lack of formal entry qualifications .
= = = Royal College of Music = = =
Tippett began at the RCM in the summer term of 1923 , when he was 18 years old . At the time , his biographer Meirion Bowen records , " his aspirations were Olympian , though his knowledge rudimentary " . Life in London widened his musical awareness , especially the Proms at the Queen 's Hall , opera at Covent Garden ( where he saw Dame Nellie Melba 's farewell performance in La bohème ) and the Diaghilev Ballet . He heard Chaliapin sing , and attended concerts conducted by , among others , Stravinsky and Ravel — the last @-@ named " a tiny man who stood bolt upright and conducted with what to me looked like a pencil " . Tippett overcame his initial ignorance of early music by attending Palestrina masses at Westminster Cathedral , following the music with the help of a borrowed score .
At the RCM , Tippett 's first composition tutor was Charles Wood , who used the models of Bach , Mozart and Beethoven to instil a solid understanding of musical forms and syntax . When Wood died in 1926 , Tippett chose to study with C.H. Kitson , whose pedantic approach and lack of sympathy with Tippett 's compositional aims strained the relationship between teacher and pupil . Tippett studied conducting with Sargent and Adrian Boult , finding the latter a particularly empathetic mentor — he let Tippett stand with him on the rostrum during rehearsals and follow the music from the conductor 's score . By this means Tippett became familiar with the music of composers then new to him , such as Delius and Debussy , and learned much about the sounds of orchestral instruments .
In 1924 Tippett became the conductor of an amateur choir in the Surrey village of Oxted . Although he saw this initially as a means of advancing his knowledge of English madrigals , his association with the choir lasted many years . Under his direction it combined with a local theatrical group , the Oxted and Limpsfield Players , to give performances of Vaughan Williams 's opera The Shepherds of the Delectable Mountains and of Tippett 's own adaptation of an 18th @-@ century ballad opera , The Village Opera . He passed his Bachelor of Music ( BMus ) exams , at his second attempt , in December 1928 . Rather than continuing to study for a doctorate , Tippett decided to leave the academic environment . The RCM years had brought him intense and lasting friendships with members of both sexes , in particular with Francesca Allinson and David Ayerst .
= = = Early career = = =
= = = = False start = = = =
On leaving the RCM , Tippett settled in Oxted to continue his work with the choir and theatrical group and to compose . To support himself he taught French at Hazelwood , a small preparatory school in Limpsfield , which provided him with a salary of £ 80 a year and a cottage . Also teaching at the school was Christopher Fry , the future poet and playwright who later collaborated with Tippett on several of the composer 's early works .
In February 1930 Tippett provided the incidental music for a performance by his theatrical group of James Elroy Flecker 's Don Juan , and in October he directed them in his own adaptation of Stanford 's opera The Travelling Companion . His compositional output was such that on 5 April 1930 he gave a concert in Oxted consisting entirely of his own works — a Concerto in D for flutes , oboe , horns and strings ; settings for tenor of poems by Charlotte Mew ; Psalm in C for chorus and orchestra , with a text by Christopher Fry ; piano variations on the song " Jockey to the Fair " ; and a string quartet . Professional soloists and orchestral players were engaged , and the concert was conducted by David Moule @-@ Evans , a friend from the RCM . Despite encouraging comments from The Times and the Daily Telegraph , Tippett was deeply dissatisfied with the works , and decided that he needed further tuition . He withdrew the music , and in September 1930 re @-@ enrolled at the RCM for a special course of study in counterpoint with R. O. Morris , an expert on 16th @-@ century music . This second RCM period , during which he learned to write fugues in the style of Bach and received additional tuition in orchestration from Gordon Jacob , was central to Tippett 's eventual discovery of what he termed his " individual voice " .
On 15 November 1931 Tippett conducted his Oxted choir in a performance of Handel 's Messiah , using choral and orchestral forces close to Handel 's original intentions . Such performances were rare at that time , and the event attracted considerable interest .
= = = = Friendships , politics and music = = = =
In mid @-@ 1932 Tippett moved to a cottage in neighbouring Limpsfield , provided by friends as a haven in which he could concentrate on composition . His friendships with Ayerst and Allinson had opened up new cultural and political vistas . Through Ayerst he met W. H. Auden , who in due course introduced him to T. S. Eliot . Although no deep friendship developed with either poet , Tippett came to consider Eliot as his " spiritual father " . Ayerst also introduced him to a young artist , Wilfred Franks . By this time Tippett was coming to terms with his homosexuality , while not always at ease with it . Franks provided him with what he described as " the deepest , most shattering experience of falling in love " . This intense relationship ran alongside a political awakening . Tippett 's natural sympathies had always been leftish , and became more consciously so from his inclusion in Allinson 's circle of left @-@ wing activists . As a result , he gave up his teaching position at Hazelwood to become the conductor of the South London Orchestra , a project financed by the London County Council and made up of unemployed musicians . Its first public concert was held on 5 March 1933 at Morley College , later to become Tippett 's professional base .
In the summers of 1933 and 1934 Tippett took charge of musical activities at miners ' work camps near Boosbeck in the north of England . These camps were run by a munificent local landowner , Major Pennyman , to give unemployed miners a sense of purpose and independence . In 1933 Tippett arranged the staging of a shortened version of John Gay 's The Beggar 's Opera , with locals playing the main parts , and the following year he provided the music for a new folk opera , Robin Hood , with words by Ayerst , himself and Ruth Pennyman . Both works proved hugely popular with their audiences , and although most of the music has disappeared , some of Robin Hood was revived by Tippett for use in his Birthday Suite for Prince Charles of 1948 . In October 1934 Tippett and the South London Orchestra performed at a centenary celebration of the Tolpuddle Martyrs , as part of a grand Pageant of Labour at the Crystal Palace .
Tippett was not formally a member of any political party or group until 1935 , when he joined the British Communist Party at the urging of his cousin , Phyllis Kemp . This membership was brief ; the influence of Trotsky 's History of the Russian Revolution had led him to embrace Trotskyism , while the party maintained a strict Stalinist line . Tippett resigned after a few months when he saw no chance of converting his local party to his Trotskyist views . According to his obituarist J.J. Plant , Tippett then joined the Bolshevik @-@ Leninist Group within the Labour Party , where he continued to advocate Trotskyism until at least 1938 . Although Tippett 's radical instincts always remained strong , he was aware that excessive political activism would distract him from his overriding objective of becoming recognised as a composer . A significant step towards professional recognition came in December 1935 , when his String Quartet No. 1 was performed by the Brosa Quartet at the Mercury Theatre in Notting Hill , London . This work , which he dedicated to Franks , is the first in the recognised canon of Tippett 's music .
= = = Towards maturity = = =
= = = = Personal crisis = = = =
Before the outbreak of the Second World War in September 1939 , Tippett released two further works : the Piano Sonata No. 1 , first performed by Phyllis Sellick at the Queen Mary Hall , London , on 11 November 1938 , and the Concerto for Double String Orchestra , which was not performed until 1940 . In a climate of increasing political and military tension , Tippett 's compositional efforts were overwhelmed by an emotional crisis . When his relationship with Franks ended acrimoniously in August 1938 he was thrown into doubt and confusion about both his homosexuality and his worth as an artist . He was saved from despair when , at Ayerst 's suggestion , he undertook a course of Jungian analysis with the psychotherapist John Layard . Through an extended course of therapy , Layard provided Tippett with the means to analyse and interpret his dreams . Tippett 's biographer Ian Kemp describes this experience as " the major turning point in [ his ] life " , both emotionally and artistically . His particular discovery from dream analysis was " the Jungian ' shadow ' and ' light ' in the single , individual psyche ... the need for the individual to accept his divided nature and profit from its conflicting demands " . This brought him to terms with his homosexuality , and he was able to pursue his creativity without being distracted by personal relationships . While still unsure of his sexuality , Tippett had considered marriage with Francesca Allinson , who had expressed the wish that they should have children together . After his psychotherapy he enjoyed several committed — and sometimes overlapping — same @-@ sex relationships . Among the most enduring , and most tempestuous , was that with the artist Karl Hawker , whom he first met in 1941 .
= = = = A Child of Our Time = = = =
While his therapy proceeded , Tippett was searching for a theme for a major work — an opera or an oratorio — that could reflect both the contemporary turmoil in the world and his own recent catharsis . Having briefly considered the theme of the Dublin Easter Rising of 1916 , he based his work on a more immediate event : the murder in Paris of a German diplomat by a 17 @-@ year @-@ old Jewish refugee , Herschel Grynszpan . This murder triggered Kristallnacht ( Crystal Night ) , a coordinated attack on Jews and their property throughout Nazi Germany on 9 – 10 November 1938 . Tippett hoped that Eliot would provide a libretto for the oratorio , and the poet showed interest . However , when Tippett presented him with a more detailed scenario , Eliot advised him to write his own text , suggesting that the poetic quality of the words might otherwise dominate the music . Tippett called the oratorio A Child of Our Time , taking the title from Ein Kind unserer Zeit , a contemporary protest novel by the Austro @-@ Hungarian writer Ödön von Horváth . Within a three @-@ part structure based on Handel 's Messiah , Tippett took the novel step of using North American spirituals in place of the traditional chorales that punctuate oratorio texts . According to Kenneth Gloag 's commentary , the spirituals provide " moments of focus and repose ... giving shape to both the musical and literary dimensions of the work " . Tippett began composing the oratorio in September 1939 , on the conclusion of his dream therapy and immediately after the outbreak of war .
= = = = Morley , war , imprisonment = = = =
With the South London Orchestra temporarily disbanded because of the war , Tippett returned to teaching at Hazelwood . In October 1940 he accepted the post of Director of Music at Morley College , just after its buildings were almost completely destroyed by a bomb . Tippett 's challenge was to rebuild the musical life of the college , using temporary premises and whatever resources he could muster . He revived the Morley College Choir and orchestra , and arranged innovative concert programmes that typically mixed early music ( Orlando Gibbons , Monteverdi , Dowland ) , with contemporary works by Stravinsky , Hindemith and Bartók . He continued the college 's established association with the music of Purcell ; a performance in November 1941 of Purcell 's Ode to St. Cecilia , with improvised instruments and rearrangements of voice parts , attracted considerable attention . The music staff at Morley was augmented by the recruitment of refugee musicians from Europe , including Walter Bergmann , Mátyás Seiber , and Walter Goehr who took charge of the college orchestra .
A Child of Our Time was finished in 1941 and put aside with no immediate prospects of performance . Tippett 's Fantasia on a Theme of Handel for piano and orchestra was performed at the Wigmore Hall in March 1942 , with Sellick again the soloist , and the same venue saw the première of the composer 's String Quartet No. 2 a year later . The first recording of Tippett 's music , the Piano Sonata No. 1 played by Sellick , was issued in August 1941 . The recording was well received by the critics , Wilfrid Mellers predicting a leading role for the composer in the future of English music . In 1942 , Schott Music began to publish Tippett 's works , establishing an association that continued until the end of the composer 's life .
The question of Tippett 's liability for war service remained unresolved until mid @-@ 1943 . In November 1940 he had formalised his pacifism by joining the Peace Pledge Union and applying for registration as a conscientious objector . His case was heard by a tribunal in February 1942 , when he was assigned to non @-@ combatant duties . Tippett rejected such work as an unacceptable compromise with his principles and in June 1943 , after several further hearings and statements on his behalf from distinguished musical figures , he was sentenced to three months ' imprisonment in HM Prison Wormwood Scrubs . He served two months , and although thereafter he was technically liable to further charges for failing to comply with the terms set by his tribunal , the authorities left him alone .
= = = Recognition and controversy = = =
On his release , Tippett returned to his duties at Morley , where he boosted the college 's Purcell tradition by persuading Alfred Deller , the countertenor , to sing several Purcell odes at a concert on 21 October 1944 — the first modern use of a countertenor in Purcell 's music . Tippett formed a fruitful musical friendship with Benjamin Britten and Peter Pears , for whom he wrote the cantata Boyhood 's End for tenor and piano . Encouraged by Britten , Tippett made arrangements for the first performance of A Child of Our Time , at London 's Adelphi Theatre on 19 March 1944 . Goehr conducted the London Philharmonic Orchestra , and Morley 's choral forces were augmented by the London Regional Civil Defence Choir . Pears sang the tenor solo part , and other soloists were borrowed from Sadler 's Wells Opera . The work was well received by critics and the public , and eventually became one of the most frequently performed large @-@ scale choral works of the post @-@ Second World War period , in Britain and overseas . Tippett 's immediate reward was a commission from the BBC for a motet , The Weeping Babe , which became his first broadcast work when it was aired on 24 December 1944 . He also began to give regular radio talks on music .
In 1946 Tippett organised at Morley the first British performance of Monteverdi 's Vespers , adding his own organ Preludio for the occasion . Tippett 's compositions in the immediate postwar years included his First Symphony , performed under Sargent in November 1945 , and the String Quartet No. 3 , premiered in October 1946 by the Zorian Quartet . His main creative energies were increasingly devoted to his first major opera , The Midsummer Marriage . During the six years from 1946 he composed almost no other music , apart from the Birthday Suite for Prince Charles ( 1948 ) .
The musical and philosophical ideas behind the opera had begun in Tippett 's mind several years earlier . The story , which he wrote himself , charts the fortunes of two contrasting couples in a manner which has brought comparisons with Mozart 's The Magic Flute . The strain of composition , combined with his continuing responsibilities at Morley and his BBC work , affected Tippett 's health and slowed progress . Following the death in 1949 of Morley 's principal , Eva Hubback , Tippett 's personal commitment to the college waned . His now @-@ regular BBC fees had made him less dependent on his Morley salary , and he resigned his college post in 1951 . His farewell took the form of three concerts which he conducted at the new Royal Festival Hall , in which the programmes included A Child of Our Time , the British première of Carl Orff 's Carmina Burana , and Thomas Tallis 's rarely performed 40 @-@ part motet Spem in alium .
In 1951 Tippett moved from Limpsfield to a large , dilapidated house , Tidebrook Manor in Wadhurst , Sussex . As The Midsummer Marriage neared completion he wrote a song cycle for tenor and piano , The Heart 's Assurance . This work , a long @-@ delayed tribute to Francesca Allinson ( who had committed suicide in 1945 ) , was performed by Britten and Pears at the Wigmore Hall on 7 May 1951 . The Midsummer Marriage was finished in 1952 , after which Tippett arranged some of the music as a concert suite , the Ritual Dances , performed in Basel , Switzerland , in April 1953 . The opera itself was staged at Covent Garden on 27 January 1955 . The lavish production , with costumes and stage designs by Barbara Hepworth and choreography by John Cranko , perplexed the opera @-@ going public and divided critical opinion . According to Bowen , most " were simply unprepared for a work that departed so far from the methods of Puccini and Verdi " . Tippett 's libretto was variously described as " one of the worst in the 350 @-@ year history of opera " and " a complex network of verbal symbolism " , and the music as " intoxicating beauty " with " passages of superbly conceived orchestral writing " . A year after the première , the critic A.E.F. Dickinson concluded that " in spite of notable gaps in continuity and distracting infelicities of language , [ there is ] strong evidence that the composer has found the right music for his ends " .
Much of the music Tippett composed following the opera 's completion reflected its lyrical style . Among these works was the Fantasia Concertante on a Theme of Corelli ( 1953 ) for string orchestra , written to commemorate the 300th anniversary of the composer Arcangelo Corelli 's birth . The Fantasia would eventually become one of Tippett 's most popular works , though The Times 's critic lamented the " excessive complexity of the contrapuntal writing ... there was so much going on that the perplexed ear knew not where to turn or fasten itself " . Such comments helped to foster a view that Tippett was a " difficult " composer , or even that his music was amateurish and poorly prepared . These perceptions were strengthened by controversies around several of his works in the late 1950s . The Piano Concerto ( 1955 ) was declared unplayable by its scheduled soloist , Julius Katchen , who had to be replaced before the première by Louis Kentner . The Dennis Brain Wind Ensemble , for whom Tippett had written the Sonata for Four Horns ( 1955 ) , complained that the work was in too high a key and required it to be transposed down . When the Second Symphony was premièred by the BBC Symphony Orchestra under Boult , in a live broadcast from the Royal Festival Hall on 5 February 1958 , the work broke down after a few minutes and had to be restarted by the apologetic conductor : " Entirely my mistake , ladies and gentlemen " . The BBC 's Controller of Music defended the orchestra in The Times , writing that it " is equal to all reasonable demands " , a wording that implied the fault was the composer 's .
= = = International acclaim = = =
= = = = King Priam and after = = = =
In 1960 Tippett moved to a house in the Wiltshire village of Corsham , where he lived with his long @-@ term partner Karl Hawker . By then Tippett had begun work on his second major opera , King Priam . He chose for his theme the tragedy of Priam , mythological king of the Trojans , as recorded in Homer 's Iliad , and again he prepared his own libretto . As with The Midsummer Marriage , Tippett 's preoccupation with the opera meant that his compositional output was limited for several years to a few minor works , including a Magnificat and Nunc Dimittis written in 1961 for the 450th anniversary of the foundation of St John 's College , Cambridge . King Priam was premièred in Coventry by the Covent Garden Opera on 29 May 1962 as part of a festival celebrating the consecration of the new Coventry Cathedral . The production was by Sam Wanamaker and the lighting by Sean Kenny . John Pritchard was the conductor . The music for the new work displayed a marked stylistic departure from what Tippett had written hitherto , heralding what a later commentator , Iain Stannard , refers to as a " great divide " between the works before and after King Priam . Although some commentators questioned the wisdom of so radical a departure from his established voice , the opera was a considerable success with critics and the public . Lewis later called it " one of the most powerful operatic experiences in the modern theatre " . This reception , combined with the fresh acclaim for The Midsummer Marriage following a well @-@ received BBC broadcast in 1963 , did much to rescue Tippett 's reputation and establish him as a leading figure among British composers .
As earlier with The Midsummer Marriage , the compositions that followed King Priam retained the musical idiom of the opera , notably the Piano Sonata No. 2 ( 1962 ) and the Concerto for Orchestra ( 1963 ) , the latter written for the Edinburgh Festival and dedicated to Britten for his 50th birthday . Tippett 's main work in the mid @-@ 1960s was the cantata The Vision of Saint Augustine , commissioned by the BBC , which Bowen marks as a peak of Tippett 's compositional career : " Not since The Midsummer Marriage had he unleashed such a torrent of musical invention " . His status as a national figure was now being increasingly recognised . He had been appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( CBE ) in 1959 ; in 1961 he was made an honorary Fellow of the Royal College of Music ( HonFRCM ) , and in 1964 he received from Cambridge University the first of many honorary doctorates . In 1966 he was awarded a knighthood .
= = = = Wider horizons = = = =
In 1965 Tippett made the first of several visits to the United States , to serve as composer in residence at the Aspen Music Festival in Colorado . Tippett 's American experiences had a significant effect on the music he composed in the late 1960s and early 1970s , with jazz and blues elements particularly evident in his third opera , The Knot Garden ( 1966 – 69 ) , and in the Symphony No. 3 ( 1970 – 72 ) . At home in 1969 , Tippett worked with the conductor Colin Davis to rescue the Bath International Music Festival from a financial crisis , and became the festival 's artistic director for the following five seasons . In 1970 , following the collapse of his relationship with Hawker , he left Corsham and moved to a secluded house on the Marlborough Downs . Among the works he wrote in this period were In Memoriam Magistri ( 1971 ) , a chamber piece commissioned by Tempo magazine as a memorial to Stravinsky , who had died on 6 April 1971 , and the Piano Sonata No. 3 ( 1973 ) .
In February 1974 Tippett attended a " Michael Tippett Festival " , arranged in his honour by Tufts University , near Boston , Massachusetts . He was also present at a performance of The Knot Garden at Northwestern University at Evanston , Illinois — the first Tippett opera to be performed in the US . Two years later he was again in the country , engaged on a lecture tour that included the Doty Lectures in Fine Art at the University of Texas . Between these American journeys , Tippett travelled to Lusaka for the first African performance of A Child of Our Time , at which the Zambian president , Kenneth Kaunda , was present .
In 1976 Tippett was awarded the Gold Medal of the Royal Philharmonic Society . The following few years saw journeys to Java and Bali — where he was much attracted by the sounds of gamelan ensembles — and to Australia , where he conducted a performance of his Fourth Symphony in Adelaide . In 1979 , with funds available from the sale of some of his original manuscripts to the British Library , Tippett inaugurated the Michael Tippett Musical Foundation , which provided financial support to young musicians and music education initiatives .
Tippett maintained his pacifist beliefs , while becoming generally less public in expressing them , and from 1959 served as president of the Peace Pledge Union . In 1977 he made a rare political statement when , opening a PPU exhibition at St Martin @-@ in @-@ the @-@ Fields , he attacked President Carter 's plans to develop a neutron bomb .
= = = Later life = = =
In his seventies , Tippett continued to compose and travel , although now handicapped by health problems . His eyesight was deteriorating as a result of macular dystrophy , and he relied increasingly on his musical amanuensis and near namesake Michael Tillett , and on Meirion Bowen , who became Tippett 's assistant and closest companion in the remaining years of the composer 's life . The main works of the late 1970s were a new opera , The Ice Break , the Symphony No. 4 , the String Quartet No. 4 and the Triple Concerto for violin , viola and cello . The Ice Break was a reflection of Tippett 's American experiences , with a contemporary storyline incorporating race riots and drug @-@ taking . His libretto has been criticised for its awkward attempts at American street vernacular , and the opera has not found a place in the general repertory . Mellers finds that its fusion of " art music , rock ritual and performance art fail to gel " . The Triple Concerto includes a finale inspired by the gamelan music that Tippett absorbed during his visit to Java .
In 1979 Tippett was made a Companion of Honour ( CH ) . The main composition that occupied him in the early 1980s was his oratorio The Mask of Time , loosely based on Jacob Bronowski 's 1973 TV series The Ascent of Man . In Tippett 's words , this is an attempt to deal " with those fundamental matters that bear upon man , his relationship with Time , his place in the world as we know it and in the mysterious universe at large " . The oratorio was commissioned by the Boston Symphony Orchestra for its centenary , and was one of several of Tippett 's late compositions that were premièred in America .
In 1983 Tippett became president of the London College of Music and was appointed a Member of the Order of Merit ( OM ) . By the time of his 80th birthday in 1985 he was blind in his right eye , and his output had slowed . Nevertheless , in his final active years he wrote his last opera , New Year . This futuristic fable involving flying saucers , time travel and urban violence was indifferently received on its première in Houston , Texas , on 17 October 1989 . Donal Henahan in The New York Times wrote that " Unlike Wagner , Tippett does not provide music of enough quality to allow one to overlook textual absurdities and commonplaces . " The opera was introduced to Britain in the Glyndebourne Festival of 1990 .
In spite of his deteriorating health , Tippett toured Australia in 1989 – 90 , and also visited Senegal . His last major works , written between 1988 and 1993 , were : Byzantium , for soprano and orchestra ; the String Quartet No. 5 ; and The Rose Lake , a " song without words for orchestra " inspired by a visit to Lake Retba in Senegal during his 1990 trip . He intended The Rose Lake to be his farewell , but in 1996 he broke his retirement to write " Caliban 's Song " as a contribution to the Purcell tercentenary . In 1997 he moved from Wiltshire to London to be closer to his friends and carers ; in November of that year he made his last overseas trip , to Stockholm for a festival of his music . After suffering a stroke he was taken home , where he died on 8 January 1998 , six days after his 93rd birthday . He was cremated on 15 January , at Hanworth crematorium , after a secular service .
= = Music = =
= = = General character = = =
Bowen has described Tippett as " a composer of our time " , one who engaged with the social , political and cultural issues of his day . Arnold Whittall sees the music as embodying Tippett 's philosophy of " ultimately optimistic humanism " . Rather than ignoring the barbarism of the 20th century , says Kemp , Tippett chose through his works to seek " to preserve or remake those values that have been perverted , while at the same time never losing sight of the contemporary reality " . The key early work in this respect is A Child of Our Time , of which Clarke writes : " [ t ] he words of the oratorio 's closing ensemble , ' I would know my shadow and my light , So shall I at last be whole ' , have become canonical in commentary on Tippett ... this [ Jungian ] statement crystallizes an ethic , and aesthetic , central to his world @-@ view , and one which underlies all his text @-@ based works " . Sceptical critics such as the musicologist Derrick Puffett have argued that Tippett 's craft as a composer was insufficient for him to deal adequately with the task that he had set himself of " transmut [ ing ] his personal and private agonies into ... something universal and impersonal " . Michael Kennedy has referred to Tippett 's " open ‐ eyed , even naive outlook on the world " , while accepting the technical sophistication of his music . Others have acknowledged his creative ingenuity and his willingness to adopt whatever means or techniques were necessary to fit his intentions .
Tippett 's music is marked by the expansive nature of his melodic line — the Daily Telegraph 's Ivan Hewett refers to his " astonishingly long @-@ breathed melodies " . According to Jones , a further element of the " individual voice " that emerged in 1935 was Tippett 's handling of rhythm and counterpoint , demonstrated in the First String Quartet — Tippett 's first use of the additive rhythm and cross @-@ rhythm polyphony which became part of his musical signature . This approach to metre and rhythm is derived in part from Bartók and Stravinsky but also from the English madrigalists . Sympathy with the past , observed by Colin Mason in an early appraisal of the composer 's work , was at the root of the neoclassicism that is a feature of Tippett 's music , at least until the Second Symphony ( 1957 ) .
In terms of tonality , Tippett shifted his ground in the course of his career . His earlier works , up to The Midsummer Marriage , are key @-@ centred , but thereafter he moved through bitonality into what the composer Charles Fussell has summarised as " the freely @-@ organized harmonic worlds " of the Third Symphony and The Ice Break . Although Tippett flirted with the " twelve @-@ tone " technique — he introduced a twelve @-@ tone theme into the " storm " prelude that begins The Knot Garden — Bowen records that he generally rejected serialism , as incompatible with his musical aims .
= = = Compositional process = = =
Tippett described himself as the receiver of inspiration rather than its originator , the creative spark coming from a particular personal experience , which might take one of many forms but was most often associated with listening to music . The process of composing was lengthy and laborious , the actual writing down of the music being preceded by several stages of gestation ; as Tippett put it , " the concepts come first , and then a lot of work and imaginative processes until eventually , when you 're ready , finally ready , you look for the actual notes " . Tippett elaborated : " I compose by first developing an overall sense of the length of the work , then of how it will divide itself into sections or movements , then of the kind of texture or instruments or voices that will be performing it . I prefer not to consider the actual notes of the composition until this process ... has gone as far as possible " . Sometimes the time required to see a project through from conception to completion was very lengthy — seven years , Tippett says , in the case of the Third Symphony . In the earlier , contemplative stages he might be simultaneously engaged on other works , but once these stages were complete he would dedicate entirely himself to the completion of the work in hand . Tippett preferred to compose in full score ; once the writing began , progress was often not fluent , as evidenced by Tippett 's first pencil draft manuscripts which show multiple rubbings @-@ out and reworkings . In this , the musicologist Thomas Schuttenhelm says , his methods resembled those of Beethoven , with the difference that " whereas Beethoven 's struggle is considered a virtue of his work , and almost universally admired , Tippett 's was the source and subject of a debate about his competency as a composer " .
= = = Influences = = =
The style that emerged from Tippett 's long compositional apprenticeship was the product of many diverse influences . Beethoven and Handel were initial models ( Handel above Bach , who in Tippett 's view lacked drama ) , supplemented by 16th- and 17th @-@ century masters of counterpoint and madrigal — Thomas Weelkes , Monteverdi and Dowland . Purcell became significant later , and Tippett came to lament his ignorance of Purcell during his RCM years : " It seems to me incomprehensible now that his work was not even recommended in composition lessons as a basic study for the setting of English " .
Tippett recognised the importance to his compositional development of several 19th- and 20th @-@ century composers : Berlioz for his clear melodic lines , Debussy for his inventive sound , Bartók for his colourful dissonance , Hindemith for his skills at counterpoint , and Sibelius for his originality in musical forms . He revered Stravinsky , sharing the Russian composer 's deep interest in older music . Tippett had heard early ragtime as a small child before the First World War ; he noted in his later writings that , in the early years of the 20th century , ragtime and jazz " attracted many serious composers thinking to find ... a means to refresh serious music by the primitive " . His interest in these forms led to his fascination with blues , articulated in several of his later works . Among his contemporary composers , Tippett admired Britten and shared his desire to end the perception of English music as provincial . He also had a high regard for Alan Bush , with whom he joined forces to produce the 1934 Pageant of Labour . " I can remember the excitement I felt when he outlined to me his plan for a major string quartet " .
Although influences of folk music from all parts of the British Isles are evident in Tippett 's early works , he was wary of the English folksong revival of the early 20th century , believing that much of the music presented as " English " by Cecil Sharp and his followers originated elsewhere . Notwithstanding his doubts , Tippett took some inspiration from these sources . The composer David Matthews writes of passages in Tippett 's music which " evoke the ' sweet especial rural scene ' as vividly as Elgar or Vaughan Williams ... perhaps redolent of the Suffolk landscape with its gently undulating horizons , wide skies and soft lights . "
= = = Works = = =
After the withdrawn works written in the 1920s and early 1930s , analysts generally divide Tippett 's mature compositional career into three main phases , with fairly fluid boundaries and some internal subdivision in each main period . The first phase extends from the completion of the String Quartet No. 1 in 1935 to the end of the 1950s , a period in which Tippett drew on the past for his main inspiration . The 1960s marked the beginning of a new phase in which Tippett 's style became more experimental , reflecting both the social and cultural changes of that era and the broadening of his own experiences . The mid @-@ 1970s produced a further stylistic change , less marked and sudden than that of the early 1960s , after which what Clarke calls the " extremes " of the experimental phase were gradually replaced by a return to the lyricism characteristic of the first period , a trend that was particularly manifested in the final works .
= = = = Withdrawn compositions = = = =
Tippett 's earliest compositions cover several genres . Kemp writes that the works indicate Tippett 's deep commitment to the learning of his craft , his early ability to manipulate traditional forms , and a general willingness to experiment . Clarke observes that in these youthful efforts , characteristics which would mark his mature work were already discernible . Some of the early work is of high quality — the Symphony in B flat of 1933 was , in Kemp 's view , comparable to William Walton 's contemporaneous First Symphony . Tippett pondered for years whether to include this work in his formal canon before deciding that its debt to Sibelius was too great . Nevertheless , it foreshadows techniques that feature in the String Quartet No. 1 and in the Corelli Fantasia .
Other accomplished early works include the two string quartets , composed between 1928 and 1930 , in which Tippett sought to combine the styles of Beethoven and Haydn respectively with folk @-@ song , as Beethoven had in his Rasumovsky quartets of 1806 . Tippett explains the withdrawal of these and the other early works : " I realised very clearly that they were not totally consonant with myself . I didn 't think they had the stamp of artistic durability . So I took the whole lot along to R.O. Morris who agreed that they didn 't show enough technical mastery . "
= = = = First period : 1935 to late 1950s = = = =
Kemp identifies the String Quartet No. 1 ( 1935 ) as marking Tippett 's discovery of his individual voice . According to the composer Alan Ridout , the work stamped its character on Tippett 's first period , and together with the second and third quartets of 1942 and 1946 it typifies his style up to The Midsummer Marriage . In the two works that immediately followed the first quartet , Bowen finds the Piano Sonata No. 1 ( 1938 ) full of the young composer 's inventiveness , while Matthews writes of the Concerto for Double String Orchestra ( 1939 ) : " [ I ] t is the rhythmic freedom of the music , its joyful liberation from orthodox notions of stress and phrase length , that contributes so much to its vitality " . Both of these works show influence of folk music , and the finale of the Piano Sonata is marked by innovative jazz syncopations . According to Schuttenhelm , the Double Concerto marks the proper beginning of Tippett 's maturity as an orchestral composer .
In A Child of Our Time Tippett was , in Kemp 's view , wholly successful in integrating the language of the spirituals with his own musical style . Tippett had obtained recordings of American singing groups , especially the Hall Johnson Choir , which provided him with a model for determining the relationships between solo voices and chorus in the spirituals . Thus , Kemp believes , the fourth spiritual " O by and by " sounds almost as if it had been composed by Tippett . The composer 's instructions in the score specify that " the spirituals should not be thought of as congregational hymns , but as integral parts of the Oratorio ; nor should they be sentimentalised but sung with a strong underlying beat and slightly ' swung ' " .
In Tippett 's Symphony No. 1 ( 1945 ) , his only large @-@ scale work between A Child of Our Time and The Midsummer Marriage , his " gift for launching a confident flow of sharply characterized , contrapuntally combined ideas " is acknowledged by Whittall . The same critic found the symphony 's quality uneven , and the orchestral writing weaker than in the Double Concerto . Whittall offers nearly unqualified praise for The Midsummer Marriage , a view largely echoed by Mellers , who saw the perceived " difficulty " of the music as " an aspect of its truth " . He considered the opera one of the best musical @-@ theatrical works of its era .
Three major works of the 1950s round off Tippett 's first period : the Corelli Fantasia ( 1953 ) , in which Clarke sees , in the alla pastorale section , the composer 's instrumental writing at its best ; the mildly controversial Piano Concerto ( 1955 ) which Whittall regards as one of the composer 's most intriguing works — an attempt to " make the piano sing " ; and the Symphony No. 2 ( 1957 ) which Tippett acknowledges as a turning @-@ point in his music . Until this point , says Matthews , Tippett 's style had remained broadly tonal . The Second Symphony was his first essay in polytonality , paving the way to the dissonance and chromaticism of subsequent works . Milner , too , recognises the pivotal position of this symphony in Tippett 's development which , he says , both sums up the style of the late 1950s and presages the changes to come .
= = = = Second period : King Priam to 1976 = = = =
In his analysis of King Priam , Bowen argues that the change in Tippett 's musical style arose initially from the nature of the opera , a tragedy radically different in tone from the warm optimism of The Midsummer Marriage . Clarke sees the change as something more fundamental , the increases in dissonance and atonality in Priam being representative of a trend that continued and reached a climax of astringency a few years later in Tippett 's third opera , The Knot Garden . Tippett 's new modernistic language , writes Clarke , was rooted in his desire to represent a wider range of human experiences , characteristic of a changing world : " War , violence , sex , homoeroticism , and social and interpersonal alienation [ would now feature ] much more overtly in [ his ] dramatic works or works with text " . Critics acknowledged Priam as a considerable achievement , but received the new musical style cautiously . While Gloag thought the change was not an absolute departure from Tippett 's earlier style , Milner viewed King Priam as a complete break with Tippett 's previous work , pointing out the lack of counterpoint , the considerably increased dissonances , and the move towards atonality : " very little of the music is in a definite key " .
Many of the minor works that Tippett wrote in the wake of King Priam reflect the musical style of the opera , in some cases quoting directly from it . In the first purely instrumental post @-@ Priam work , the Piano Sonata No. 2 ( 1962 ) , Milner thought the new style worked better in the theatre than in the concert or recital hall , although he found the music in the Concerto for Orchestra ( 1963 ) had matured into a form that fully justified the earlier experiments . The critic Tim Souster refers to Tippett 's " new , hard , sparse instrumental style " evident in The Vision of Saint Augustine ( 1965 ) , written for baritone soloist , chorus and orchestra , a work which Bowen considers one of the peaks of Tippett 's career .
During the late 1960s Tippett worked on a series of compositions that reflected the influence of his American experiences after 1965 : The Shires Suite ( 1970 ) , The Knot Garden ( 1970 ) and the Symphony No. 3 ( 1972 ) . In The Knot Garden Mellers discerns Tippett 's " wonderfully acute " ear only intermittently , otherwise : " thirty years on , the piece still sounds and looks knotty indeed , exhausting alike to participants and audience " . The Third Symphony is overtly linked by Tippett to Beethoven 's Ninth Symphony through a vocal finale of four blues songs , introduced by a direct quotation from Beethoven 's finale . Tippett 's intention , explained by the music critic Calum MacDonald , was to explore the contemporary relevance of the grand , universal sentiments in Schiller 's Ode to Joy , as set by Beethoven . Tippett 's conclusion is that while the need to rejoice remains , the twentieth century has put paid to the Romantic ideals of universality and certainty .
After completing his Piano Sonata No. 3 ( 1973 ) , " a formidable piece of abstract composition " according to Bowen , Tippett returned to the modern vernacular in his fourth opera The Ice Break ( 1976 ) . Describing the music in an introduction to the published libretto , Tippett identifies " two archetypal sounds : one relating to the frightening but exhilarating sound of the ice breaking on the great northern rivers in the spring ; the other related to the exciting or terrifying sound of the slogan @-@ shouting crowds , which can lift you on your shoulders in triumph , or stamp you to death " . Although the work was generally regarded as a critical and public failure , aspects of its music have been recognised as among Tippett 's best . The critic John Warrack writes that , after the violence of the opening acts , the third act 's music has a lyrical warmth comparable to that of The Midsummer Marriage " . William Mann in The Times was equally enthusiastic , finding the music compelling and worthy of many a rehearing .
= = = = Third period : 1977 to 1995 = = = =
In the late 1970s Tippett produced three single @-@ movement instrumental works : the Symphony No. 4 ( 1977 ) , the String Quartet No. 4 ( 1978 ) , and the Triple Concerto for violin , viola and cello ( 1979 ) . The symphony , written in the manner of the tone poem or symphonic fantasia exemplified by Sibelius , represents what Tippett describes as a birth @-@ to @-@ death cycle , beginning and ending with the sounds of breathing . This effect was initially provided by a wind machine , although other means have been tried , with mixed results — according to Bowen " the sounds emitted can turn out to be redolent of a space @-@ fiction film or a bordello " . The Fourth String Quartet , Tippett explains , is an exercise in " finding a sound " that he first encountered in the incidental music to a television programme on Rembrandt . In the Triple Concerto , which is thematically related to the Fourth Quartet and quotes from it , the three solo instruments perform individually rather than as a formal grouping . The work acknowledges Tippett 's past with quotations from The Midsummer Marriage .
Tippett described the longest and most ambitious of his late works , the oratorio The Mask of Time ( 1982 ) , as " a pageant of sorts with an ultimately lofty message " . Mellers called the work " a mind @-@ boggling cosmic history of the universe " . Paul Driver , who had been a critic of Tippett 's new style , wrote that the Mask revealed " the authentic early Tippett " , with a return to the lyricism of The Midsummer Marriage and multiple acknowledgements of his early compositions .
Tippett had intended The Ice Break to be his final opera , but in 1985 he began work on New Year . Bowen saw this work as a summary of ideas and images that had attracted Tippett throughout his working life . Donal Henahan was dismissive of the music : " ... the score generally natters along in the numbing , not @-@ quite @-@ atonal but antimelodic style familiar from other Tippett works . " In Byzantium ( 1990 ) , Tippett set the five stanzas of W. B. Yeats 's poem , with added orchestral interludes . By this time he was professing little interest in his own work beyond its creation ; performance and reception had become irrelevant to him . In 1996 he told an interviewer : " I 'm outside the music I 've made , I have no interest in it " . After the String Quartet No. 5 ( 1991 ) , which connects thematically with earlier works , Tippett closed his main output with The Rose Lake ( 1993 ) , described in Tippett 's Daily Telegraph obituary as " of luminous beauty ... a worthy ending to a remarkable career . "
= = Reputation and legacy = =
In a joint study of Tippett and Britten published in 1982 , Whittall designated the pair as " the two best British composers of that ... generation born between 1900 and the outbreak of the First World War , and among the best of all composers born in the first two decades of the twentieth century " . After Britten 's death in 1976 , Tippett became widely regarded as the doyen of British music , but critical opinion of his later works was not always positive . After the first performance of the Triple Concerto in 1980 , Driver wrote that " not since The Knot Garden has [ he ] produced anything worthy of his early masterpieces " . In 1982 , in his comparative study of Britten and Tippett , Whittall asserted that " it would be difficult to claim that any of the works [ Tippett ] has begun in his seventies are the equal of earlier compositions " . Although both Driver and Whittall later modified their opinions , such comments represented a general view among critics that Tippett 's creative powers had begun to decline after the triumph of King Priam . This perception was strongly expressed by Derek Puffett , who argued that the decline followed Tippett 's abandonment of myth — seen as the key to the success of The Midsummer Marriage and King Priam — and stemmed from his increasingly futile efforts to universalise his private agonies and express them musically . Despite his admiration for the early works , Puffett consigned Tippett " to the ranks of those noble but tragic composers who have lived beyond their time " . The critic Norman Lebrecht , writing in 2005 , dismissed almost all Tippett 's output , labelling him " a composer to forget " . With the forthcoming centenary celebrations in mind , Lebrecht wrote : " I cannot begin to assess the damage to British music that will ensue from the coming year 's purblind promotion of a composer who failed so insistently to observe the rules of his craft " . Against these criticisms Kemp maintained that while the style had become less immediately accessible , Tippett 's later works showed no loss of creative power . The critic Peter Wright , writing in 1999 , challenged the " decline " theory with the view that the later compositions are " harder to come to terms with ... because of the more challenging nature of their musical language " , a theme he developed in a detailed study of the Fifth String Quartet .
After Tippett 's death the more popular pieces from his first period continued to be played , but there was little public enthusiasm for the later works . After the relatively muted 2005 centenary celebrations , performances and recordings tailed off . In October 2012 Hewett wrote in the Daily Telegraph of a " calamitous fall " in Tippett 's reputation since his death . Geraint Lewis acknowledges that " no consensus yet exists in respect of the works composed from the 1960s onwards " , while forecasting that Tippett will in due course be recognised as one of the most original and powerful musical voices of twentieth @-@ century Britain " .
Many of Tippett 's articles and broadcast talks were issued in collections between 1959 and 1995 . In 1991 he published an episodic autobiography , Those Twentieth Century Blues , notable for its frank discussions of personal issues and relationships . Collectively , Tippett 's writings define his aesthetic standpoint , which Clarke summarises thus : " Tippett holds that art 's role in post @-@ Enlightenment culture is to offer a corrective to society 's spiritually injurious domination by mass technology . Art , he suggests , can articulate areas of human experience , unapproachable through scientific rationality , by presenting ' images ' of the inner world of the psyche . "
Although Tippett did not found a compositional school , composers who have acknowledged his influence include David Matthews and William Mathias . More generally , his musical and educational influence continues through the Michael Tippett Foundation . He is also commemorated in the Michael Tippett Centre , a concert venue within the Newton Park campus of Bath Spa University . In Lambeth , home of Morley College , is the Michael Tippett School , an educational facility for young people aged 11 – 19 with complex learning disabilities . Within the school 's campus is the Tippett Music Centre , which offers music education for children of all ages and levels of ability .
= = Writings = =
Three collections of Tippett 's articles and broadcast talks have been published :
Moving into Aquarius ( 1959 ) . London , Routledge and Kegan Paul . OCLC 3351563
Music of the Angels : essays and sketchbooks of Michael Tippett ( 1980 ) . London , Eulenburg Books . ISBN 0 @-@ 903873 @-@ 60 @-@ 5
Tippett on Music ( 1995 ) . Oxford , Clarendon Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 816541 @-@ 2
= Porter ( MBTA station ) =
Porter is an MBTA transfer station serving the rapid transit Red Line and the commuter rail Fitchburg Line , located at Porter Square in Cambridge , Massachusetts . Positioned at the intersection of Massachusetts and Somerville Avenues , the station provides rapid transit access to northern Cambridge and the western portions of Somerville . Porter is 14 minutes from Park Street on the Red Line , and about 10 minutes from North Station on commuter rail trains . Several local MBTA Bus routes also stop at the station .
A series of commuter rail depots have been located at Porter Square under various names since the 1840s . The modern station with both subway and commuter rail levels was designed by Cambridge Seven Associates and opened on December 8 , 1984 . At 105 feet ( 32 m ) below ground , the subway section is the deepest station on the MBTA system . The station originally had six artworks installed as part of the Arts on the Line program ; five remain , including Gift of the Wind and Glove Cycle .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
There has been a railroad station at Porter Square since the Fitchburg Railroad began operations in the early 1840s . The first station , built in 1843 – 45 , was called Porter 's Station . Later stations at the site were known as North Cambridge , then later simply as Cambridge . In 1869 , the original station was moved to the North Avenue ( now Massachusetts Avenue ) bridge over the tracks .
= = = B & M era = = =
A new station was built in 1897 , slightly to the southeast , behind the Lovell Block . In 1927 , the Fitchburg Cutoff became freight @-@ only between the Alewife area and Somerville Junction . Passenger trains from the Lexington Branch and the Central Massachusetts Railroad were diverted to the Fitchburg mainline and began to stop at Cambridge station . In 1937 , the Boston and Maine Railroad built a two @-@ story brick depot by the bridge , with the ticket office at street level and the waiting room and platforms below .
= = = MBTA era = = =
By the time the newly formed Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority began subsidizing northside commuter rail operations in the late 1960s , both the Lexington Branch and the Central Mass Branch had been reduced to single rush hour round trips on poorly maintained track . The South Sudbury run on the Central Mass was terminated on November 26 , 1971 . The Bedford round trip on the Lexington Branch ended after a major snowstorm on January 10 , 1977 , leaving the Fitchburg Line ( with multiple daily round trips ) as the only rail service at Cambridge station .
= = = Adding the Red Line = = =
In the late 1970s , Cambridge station was renamed to Porter when it became certain that the Red Line Northwest Extension would include a stop there . ( " Cambridge " , while sufficient for a commuter @-@ rail station , would have been confusing for a rapid @-@ transit station , because the Red Line has multiple stations — six in total — in the City of Cambridge . ) The Red Line platforms were built in a deep @-@ bore tunnel , while the commuter platform was rebuilt with an accessible mini @-@ high platform . During construction , commuter trains were accessed via a still @-@ extant staircase from Somerville Avenue .
A new glass and concrete headhouse was built around 1982 , and the complete new transfer station opened on December 8 , 1984 along with the renovated Harvard station and the new Davis station . The new station , designed by Cambridge Seven Associates , won awards from the American Institute of Architects and the American Consulting Engineering Council of New England .
Because of its Red Line connection , Porter Square can serve as a temporary inbound terminus for the Fitchburg Line service when commuter rail service is disrupted between Porter and Boston 's North Station . It served this role during the 2004 Democratic National Convention , when North Station was closed for a week for security purposes , and during Green Line Extension construction in 2015 .
= = Station layout = =
The subway station at Porter is , at 105 feet below ground level , the deepest in the MBTA system . Porter 's unusual depth is due to the MBTA 's decision to build the station in bedrock rather than soft clay , saving time and money in the construction process . Passengers reach Red Line platforms via a series of escalators , stairs totalling 199 steps , or a set of elevators . The longest single span of the escalators is 143 feet , the longest in the MBTA system . In 2005 , a man was killed when his sweatshirt tangled in the bottom of the escalator .
The subway tracks and platforms are enclosed in a single cylindrical concrete shell , similar to most underground stations of the Washington Metro . The two platforms are at different levels , with portions of the inbound platform projecting over the outbound platform . Both tracks are on the outer side of their platforms . On the MBTA subway network , only State , North Station , and Harvard have similar split platforms . ( Several downtown transfer stations have multiple platform levels , but these are the only four with multiple @-@ level platforms for a single line . )
Porter has five levels : the street @-@ level entrances , the below @-@ grade commuter platforms , the fare mezzanine , and two subway platform levels underground .
Porter has a refreshment vendor outside the fare gates on the mezzanine level , and , unlike most MBTA stations , public restrooms .
= = Arts on the Line = =
As a part of the Red Line Northwest Extension , Porter was included as one of the stations involved in the Arts on the Line program , devised to bring art into the MBTA 's subway stations in the late 1970s and early 1980s . It was the first program of its kind in the United States and became the model for similar drives for art across the country .
Six works , five of which remain , were placed at Porter :
Gift of the Wind by Susumu Shingu , a 46 @-@ foot tall kinetic sculpture with three large red " wings " that rotate the structure in response to the wind
Ondas by Carlos Dorrien , a 24 @-@ foot tall piece of undulating granite affixed to the station wall both inside the station and outside
Glove Cycle by Mags Harries , a large number of bronze gloves of varying types and sizes scattered inside the station , including alongside one of the escalators
Untitled by William Reimann , six granite bollards with various ethnic designs carved into them
Porter Square Megaliths by David Phillips , four boulders with large " slices " removed and replaced with bronze casts of the missing pieces
The Lights at the End of the Tunnel by William Wainwright , a large reflective mobile in the station 's mezzanine . It was removed in 1986 after a lead weight fell off .
= = Accessibility = =
Porter is fully handicapped accessible ; elevators lead from street level to the mezzanine with its accessible bathroom , to the commuter rail platform , and to both Red Line platform levels . Although most of the commuter platform is low , there is a " mini @-@ high platform " - a one car @-@ length high section - that allows level boarding .
As a result of a 2006 settlement of a lawsuit filed by the Boston Center for Independent Living and a group of individuals , the MBTA installed additional elevators at Porter and four other busy MBTA subway stations . The elevator to the Red Line was out of service for 15 months beginning in March 2011 for car replacement and the installation of a second , redundant , elevator . An accessible shuttle bus ran between Porter and Davis .
The elevator to the commuter rail platform was also temporarily out of service for maintenance during the same period ; a shuttle bus ran between Harvard , Porter and Waltham . The Red Line elevator was returned to service on June 22 , 2012 , and the commuter rail elevator returned to service on July 30 , 2012 .
= = Bus connections = =
Porter serves several MBTA Bus local routes via shelters on Massachusetts Avenue and Somerville Avenue :
77 Arlington Heights - Harvard Station via Massachusetts Avenue
83 Rindge Ave . - Central Square , Cambridge via Porter Square Station
96 Medford Square - Harvard Station via George Street & Davis Square Station
The 77 and 96 run on Massachusetts Avenue , while the 83 turns from Somerville Avenue to Massachusetts Avenue at Porter Square . Additionally , the 87 Arlington Center or Clarendon Hill - Lechmere Station via Somerville Avenue bus stops on Elm Street at the Porter Square Shopping Center , one block northeast of Porter station .
The 77A short turn of the 77 operates as a trolleybus on a limited number of runs , as trolleybuses on other routes are brought to and from the North Cambridge Carhouse .
= Frédéric Chopin =
Frédéric François Chopin ( / ˈʃoʊpæn / ; French : [ fʁedeʁik fʁɑ ̃ swa ʃɔpɛ ̃ ] ; 1 March 1810 – 17 October 1849 ) , born Fryderyk Franciszek Chopin , was a Polish composer and virtuoso pianist of the Romantic era who wrote primarily for the solo piano . He gained and has maintained renown worldwide as a leading musician of his era , whose " poetic genius was based on a professional technique that was without equal in his generation . " Chopin was born in what was then the Duchy of Warsaw and grew up in Warsaw , which in 1815 became part of Congress Poland . A child prodigy , he completed his musical education and composed his earlier works in Warsaw before leaving Poland at the age of 20 , less than a month before the outbreak of the November 1830 Uprising .
At 21 he settled in Paris . Thereafter , during the last 18 years of his life , he gave only some 30 public performances , preferring the more intimate atmosphere of the salon . He supported himself by selling his compositions and teaching piano , for which he was in high demand . Chopin formed a friendship with Franz Liszt and was admired by many of his musical contemporaries , including Robert Schumann . In 1835 he obtained French citizenship . After a failed engagement to Maria Wodzińska , from 1837 to 1847 he maintained an often troubled relationship with the French writer George Sand . A brief and unhappy visit to Majorca with Sand in 1838 – 39 was one of his most productive periods of composition . In his last years , he was financially supported by his admirer Jane Stirling , who also arranged for him to visit Scotland in 1848 . Through most of his life , Chopin suffered from poor health . He died in Paris in 1849 , at the age of 39 , probably of tuberculosis .
All of Chopin 's compositions include the piano . Most are for solo piano , though he also wrote two piano concertos , a few chamber pieces , and some songs to Polish lyrics . His keyboard style is highly individual and often technically demanding ; his own performances were noted for their nuance and sensitivity . Chopin invented the concept of instrumental ballade . His major piano works also include mazurkas , waltzes , nocturnes , polonaises , études , impromptus , scherzos , preludes and sonatas , some published only after his death . Influences on his compositional style include Polish folk music , the classical tradition of J. S. Bach , Mozart and Schubert , the music of all of whom he admired , as well as the Paris salons where he was a frequent guest . His innovations in style , musical form , and harmony , and his association of music with nationalism , were influential throughout and after the late Romantic period .
Chopin 's music , his status as one of music 's earliest superstars , his association ( if only indirect ) with political insurrection , his love life and his early death have made him a leading symbol of the Romantic era in the public consciousness . His works remain popular , and he has been the subject of numerous films and biographies of varying degrees of historical accuracy .
= = Life = =
= = = Childhood = = =
Fryderyk Chopin was born in Żelazowa Wola , 46 kilometres ( 29 miles ) west of Warsaw , in what was then the Duchy of Warsaw , a Polish state established by Napoleon . The parish baptismal record gives his birthday as 22 February 1810 , and cites his given names in the Latin form Fridericus Franciscus ( in Polish , he was Fryderyk Franciszek ) . However , the composer and his family used the birthdate 1 March , which is now generally accepted as the correct date .
Fryderyk 's father , Nicolas Chopin , was a Frenchman from Lorraine who had emigrated to Poland in 1787 at the age of sixteen . Nicolas tutored children of the Polish aristocracy , and in 1806 married Justyna Krzyżanowska , a poor relative of the Skarbeks , one of the families for whom he worked . Fryderyk was baptized on Easter Sunday , 23 April 1810 , in the same church where his parents had married , in Brochów . His eighteen @-@ year @-@ old godfather , for whom he was named , was Fryderyk Skarbek , a pupil of Nicolas Chopin . Fryderyk was the couple 's second child and only son ; he had an elder sister , Ludwika ( 1807 – 55 ) , and two younger sisters , Izabela ( 1811 – 81 ) and Emilia ( 1812 – 27 ) . Nicolas was devoted to his adopted homeland , and insisted on the use of the Polish language in the household .
In October 1810 , six months after Fryderyk 's birth , the family moved to Warsaw , where his father acquired a post teaching French at the Warsaw Lyceum , then housed in the Saxon Palace . Fryderyk lived with his family in the Palace grounds . The father played the flute and violin ; the mother played the piano and gave lessons to boys in the boarding house that the Chopins kept . Chopin was of slight build , and even in early childhood was prone to illnesses .
Fryderyk may have had some piano instruction from his mother , but his first professional music tutor , from 1816 to 1821 , was the Czech pianist Wojciech Żywny . His elder sister Ludwika also took lessons from Żywny , and occasionally played duets with her brother . It quickly became apparent that he was a child prodigy . By the age of seven Fryderyk had begun giving public concerts , and in 1817 he composed two polonaises , in G minor and B @-@ flat major . His next work , a polonaise in A @-@ flat major of 1821 , dedicated to Żywny , is his earliest surviving musical manuscript .
In 1817 the Saxon Palace was requisitioned by Warsaw 's Russian governor for military use , and the Warsaw Lyceum was reestablished in the Kazimierz Palace ( today the rectorate of Warsaw University ) . Fryderyk and his family moved to a building , which still survives , adjacent to the Kazimierz Palace . During this period , Fryderyk was sometimes invited to the Belweder Palace as playmate to the son of the ruler of Russian Poland , Grand Duke Constantine ; he played the piano for the Duke and composed a march for him . Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz , in his dramatic eclogue , " Nasze Przebiegi " ( " Our Discourses " , 1818 ) , attested to " little Chopin 's " popularity .
= = = Education = = =
From September 1823 to 1826 , Chopin attended the Warsaw Lyceum , where he received organ lessons from the Czech musician Wilhelm Würfel during his first year . In the autumn of 1826 he began a three @-@ year course under the Silesian composer Józef Elsner at the Warsaw Conservatory , studying music theory , figured bass and composition . Throughout this period he continued to compose and to give recitals in concerts and salons in Warsaw . He was engaged by the inventors of a mechanical organ , the " eolomelodicon " , and on this instrument in May 1825 he performed his own improvisation and part of a concerto by Moscheles . The success of this concert led to an invitation to give a similar recital on the instrument before Tsar Alexander I , who was visiting Warsaw ; the Tsar presented him with a diamond ring . At a subsequent eolomelodicon concert on 10 June 1825 , Chopin performed his Rondo Op. 1 . This was the first of his works to be commercially published and earned him his first mention in the foreign press , when the Leipzig Allgemeine Musikalische Zeitung praised his " wealth of musical ideas " .
During 1824 – 28 Chopin spent his vacations away from Warsaw , at a number of locales . In 1824 and 1825 , at Szafarnia , he was a guest of Dominik Dziewanowski , the father of a schoolmate . Here for the first time he encountered Polish rural folk music . His letters home from Szafarnia ( to which he gave the title " The Szafarnia Courier " ) , written in a very modern and lively Polish , amused his family with their spoofing of the Warsaw newspapers and demonstrated the youngster 's literary gift .
In 1827 , soon after the death of Chopin 's youngest sister Emilia , the family moved from the Warsaw University building , adjacent to the Kazimierz Palace , to lodgings just across the street from the university , in the south annex of the Krasiński Palace on Krakowskie Przedmieście , where Chopin lived until he left Warsaw in 1830 . Here his parents continued running their boarding house for male students ; the Chopin Family Parlour ( Salonik Chopinów ) became a museum in the 20th century . In 1829 the artist Ambroży Mieroszewski executed a set of portraits of Chopin family members , including the first known portrait of the composer .
Four boarders at his parents ' apartments became Chopin 's intimates : Tytus Woyciechowski , Jan Nepomucen Białobłocki , Jan Matuszyński and Julian Fontana ; the latter two would become part of his Paris milieu . He was friendly with members of Warsaw 's young artistic and intellectual world , including Fontana , Józef Bohdan Zaleski and Stefan Witwicki . He was also attracted to the singing student Konstancja Gładkowska . In letters to Woyciechowski , he indicated which of his works , and even which of their passages , were influenced by his fascination with her ; his letter of 15 May 1830 revealed that the slow movement ( Larghetto ) of his Piano Concerto No. 1 ( in E minor ) was secretly dedicated to her – " It should be like dreaming in beautiful springtime – by moonlight . " His final Conservatory report ( July 1829 ) read : " Chopin F. , third @-@ year student , exceptional talent , musical genius . "
= = = Travel and domestic success = = =
In September 1828 Chopin , while still a student , visited Berlin with a family friend , zoologist Feliks Jarocki , enjoying operas directed by Gaspare Spontini and attending concerts by Carl Friedrich Zelter , Felix Mendelssohn and other celebrities . On an 1829 return trip to Berlin , he was a guest of Prince Antoni Radziwiłł , governor of the Grand Duchy of Posen — himself an accomplished composer and aspiring cellist . For the prince and his pianist daughter Wanda , he composed his Introduction and Polonaise brillante in C major for cello and piano , Op. 3 .
Back in Warsaw that year , Chopin heard Niccolò Paganini play the violin , and composed a set of variations , Souvenir de Paganini . It may have been this experience which encouraged him to commence writing his first Études , ( 1829 – 32 ) , exploring the capacities of his own instrument . On 11 August , three weeks after completing his studies at the Warsaw Conservatory , he made his debut in Vienna . He gave two piano concerts and received many favourable reviews — in addition to some commenting ( in Chopin 's own words ) that he was " too delicate for those accustomed to the piano @-@ bashing of local artists " . In one of these concerts , he premiered his Variations on Là ci darem la mano , Op. 2 ( variations on an aria from Mozart 's opera Don Giovanni ) for piano and orchestra . He returned to Warsaw in September 1829 , where he premiered his Piano Concerto No. 2 in F minor , Op. 21 on 17 March 1830 .
Chopin 's successes as a composer and performer opened the door to western Europe for him , and on 2 November 1830 , he set out , in the words of Zdzisław Jachimecki , " into the wide world , with no very clearly defined aim , forever . " With Woyciechowski , he headed for Austria , intending to go on to Italy . Later that month , in Warsaw , the November 1830 Uprising broke out , and Woyciechowski returned to Poland to enlist . Chopin , now alone in Vienna , was nostalgic for his homeland , and wrote to a friend , " I curse the moment of my departure . " When in September 1831 he learned , while travelling from Vienna to Paris , that the uprising had been crushed , he expressed his anguish in the pages of his private journal : " Oh God ! ... You are there , and yet you do not take vengeance ! " Jachimecki ascribes to these events the composer 's maturing " into an inspired national bard who intuited the past , present and future of his native Poland . "
= = = Paris = = =
Chopin arrived in Paris in late September 1831 ; he would never return to Poland , thus becoming one of many expatriates of the Polish Great Emigration . In France he used the French versions of his given names , and after receiving French citizenship in 1835 , he travelled on a French passport . However , Chopin remained close to his fellow Poles in exile as friends and confidants and he never felt fully comfortable speaking French . Chopin 's biographer Adam Zamoyski writes that he never considered himself to be French , despite his father 's French origins , and always saw himself as a Pole .
In Paris , Chopin encountered artists and other distinguished figures , and found many opportunities to exercise his talents and achieve celebrity . During his years in Paris he was to become acquainted with , among many others , Hector Berlioz , Franz Liszt , Ferdinand Hiller , Heinrich Heine , Eugène Delacroix , and Alfred de Vigny . Chopin was also acquainted with the poet Adam Mickiewicz , principal of the Polish Literary Society , some of whose verses he set as songs .
Two Polish friends in Paris were also to play important roles in Chopin 's life there . His fellow student at the Warsaw Conservatory , Julian Fontana , had originally tried unsuccessfully to establish himself in England ; Albert Grzymała , who in Paris became a wealthy financier and society figure , often acted as Chopin 's adviser and " gradually began to fill the role of elder brother in [ his ] life . " Fontana was to become , in the words of Michałowski and Samson , Chopin 's " general factotum and copyist " .
At the end of 1831 , Chopin received the first major endorsement from an outstanding contemporary when Robert Schumann , reviewing the Op. 2 Variations in the Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung ( his first published article on music ) , declared : " Hats off , gentlemen ! A genius . " On 26 February 1832 Chopin gave a debut Paris concert at the Salle Pleyel which drew universal admiration . The critic François @-@ Joseph Fétis wrote in the Revue et gazette musicale : " Here is a young man who ... taking no model , has found , if not a complete renewal of piano music , ... an abundance of original ideas of a kind to be found nowhere else ... " After this concert , Chopin realized that his essentially intimate keyboard technique was not optimal for large concert spaces . Later that year he was introduced to the wealthy Rothschild banking family , whose patronage also opened doors for him to other private salons ( social gatherings of the aristocracy and artistic and literary elite ) . By the end of 1832 Chopin had established himself among the Parisian musical elite , and had earned the respect of his peers such as Hiller , Liszt , and Berlioz . He no longer depended financially upon his father , and in the winter of 1832 he began earning a handsome income from publishing his works and teaching piano to affluent students from all over Europe . This freed him from the strains of public concert @-@ giving , which he disliked .
Chopin seldom performed publicly in Paris . In later years he generally gave a single annual concert at the Salle Pleyel , a venue that seated three hundred . He played more frequently at salons , but preferred playing at his own Paris apartment for small groups of friends . The musicologist Arthur Hedley has observed that " As a pianist Chopin was unique in acquiring a reputation of the highest order on the basis of a minimum of public appearances — few more than thirty in the course of his lifetime . " The list of musicians who took part in some of his concerts provides an indication of the richness of Parisian artistic life during this period . Examples include a concert on 23 March 1833 , in which Chopin , Liszt and Hiller performed ( on pianos ) a concerto by J.S. Bach for three keyboards ; and , on 3 March 1838 , a concert in which Chopin , his pupil Adolphe Gutmann , Charles @-@ Valentin Alkan , and Alkan 's teacher Joseph Zimmermann performed Alkan 's arrangement , for eight hands , of two movements from Beethoven 's 7th symphony . Chopin was also involved in the composition of Liszt 's Hexameron ; he wrote the sixth ( and final ) variation on Bellini 's theme . Chopin 's music soon found success with publishers , and in 1833 he contracted with Maurice Schlesinger , who arranged for it to be published not only in France but , through his family connections , also in Germany and England .
In the spring of 1834 , Chopin attended the Lower Rhenish Music Festival in Aix @-@ la @-@ Chapelle with Hiller , and it was there that Chopin met Felix Mendelssohn . After the festival , the three visited Düsseldorf , where Mendelssohn had been appointed musical director . They spent what Mendelssohn described as " a very agreeable day " , playing and discussing music at his piano , and met Friedrich Wilhelm Schadow , director of the Academy of Art , and some of his eminent pupils such as Lessing , Bendemann , Hildebrandt and Sohn . In 1835 Chopin went to Carlsbad , where he spent time with his parents ; it was the last time he would see them . On his way back to Paris , he met old friends from Warsaw , the Wodzińskis . He had made the acquaintance of their daughter Maria in Poland five years earlier , when she was eleven . This meeting prompted him to stay for two weeks in Dresden , when he had previously intended to return to Paris via Leipzig . The sixteen @-@ year @-@ old girl 's portrait of the composer is considered , along with Delacroix 's , as among Chopin 's best likenesses . In October he finally reached Leipzig , where he met Schumann , Clara Wieck and Felix Mendelssohn , who organised for him a performance of his own oratorio St. Paul , and who considered him " a perfect musician " . In July 1836 Chopin travelled to Marienbad and Dresden to be with the Wodziński family , and in September he proposed to Maria , whose mother Countess Wodzińska approved in principle . Chopin went on to Leipzig , where he presented Schumann with his G minor Ballade . At the end of 1836 he sent Maria an album in which his sister Ludwika had inscribed seven of his songs , and his 1835 Nocturne in C @-@ sharp minor , Op. 27 , No. 1 . The anodyne thanks he received from Maria proved to be the last letter he was to have from her .
= = = Franz Liszt = = =
Although it is not known exactly when Chopin first met Liszt after arriving in Paris , on 12 December 1831 he mentioned in a letter to his friend Woyciechowski that " I have met Rossini , Cherubini , Baillot , etc . — also Kalkbrenner . You would not believe how curious I was about Herz , Liszt , Hiller , etc . " Liszt was in attendance at Chopin 's Parisian debut on 26 February 1832 at the Salle Pleyel , which led him to remark : " The most vigorous applause seemed not to suffice to our enthusiasm in the presence of this talented musician , who revealed a new phase of poetic sentiment combined with such happy innovation in the form of his art . "
The two became friends , and for many years lived in close proximity in Paris , Chopin at 38 Rue de la Chaussée @-@ d 'Antin , and Liszt at the Hôtel de France on the Rue Lafitte , a few blocks away . They performed together on seven occasions between 1833 and 1841 . The first , on 2 April 1833 , was at a benefit concert organized by Hector Berlioz for his bankrupt Shakespearean actress wife Harriet Smithson , during which they played George Onslow 's Sonata in F minor for piano duet . Later joint appearances included a benefit concert for the Benevolent Association of Polish Ladies in Paris . Their last appearance together in public was for a charity concert conducted for the Beethoven Memorial in Bonn , held at the Salle Pleyel and the Paris Conservatory on 25 and 26 April 1841 .
Although the two displayed great respect and admiration for each other , their friendship was uneasy and had some qualities of a love @-@ hate relationship . Harold C. Schonberg believes that Chopin displayed a " tinge of jealousy and spite " towards Liszt 's virtuosity on the piano , and others have also argued that he had become enchanted with Liszt 's theatricality , showmanship and success . Liszt was the dedicatee of Chopin 's Op. 10 Études , and his performance of them prompted the composer to write to Hiller , " I should like to rob him of the way he plays my studies . " However , Chopin expressed annoyance in 1843 when Liszt performed one of his nocturnes with the addition of numerous intricate embellishments , at which Chopin remarked that he should play the music as written or not play it at all , forcing an apology . Most biographers of Chopin state that after this the two had little to do with each other , although in his letters dated as late as 1848 he still referred to him as " my friend Liszt " . Some commentators point to events in the two men 's romantic lives which led to a rift between them ; there are claims that Liszt had displayed jealousy of his mistress Marie d 'Agoult 's obsession with Chopin , while others believe that Chopin had become concerned about Liszt 's growing relationship with George Sand .
= = = George Sand = = =
In 1836 , at a party hosted by Marie d 'Agoult , Chopin met the French author George Sand ( born [ Amantine ] Aurore [ Lucile ] Dupin ) . Short ( under five feet , or 152 cm ) , dark , big @-@ eyed and a cigar smoker , she initially repelled Chopin , who remarked , " What an unattractive person la Sand is . Is she really a woman ? " However , by early 1837 Maria Wodzińska 's mother had made it clear to Chopin in correspondence that a marriage with her daughter was unlikely to proceed . It is thought that she was influenced by his poor health and possibly also by rumours about his associations with women such as d 'Agoult and Sand . Chopin finally placed the letters from Maria and her mother in a package on which he wrote , in Polish , " My tragedy " . Sand , in a letter to Grzymała of June 1838 , admitted strong feelings for the composer and debated whether to abandon a current affair in order to begin a relationship with Chopin ; she asked Grzymała to assess Chopin 's relationship with Maria Wodzińska , without realising that the affair , at least from Maria 's side , was over .
In June 1837 Chopin visited London incognito in the company of the piano manufacturer Camille Pleyel where he played at a musical soirée at the house of English piano maker James Broadwood . On his return to Paris , his association with Sand began in earnest , and by the end of June 1838 they had become lovers . Sand , who was six years older than the composer , and who had had a series of lovers , wrote at this time : " I must say I was confused and amazed at the effect this little creature had on me ... I have still not recovered from my astonishment , and if I were a proud person I should be feeling humiliated at having been carried away ... " The two spent a miserable winter on Majorca ( 8 November 1838 to 13 February 1839 ) , where , together with Sand 's two children , they had journeyed in the hope of improving the health of Chopin and that of Sand 's 15 @-@ year @-@ old son Maurice , and also to escape the threats of Sand 's former lover Félicien Mallefille . After discovering that the couple were not married , the deeply traditional Catholic people of Majorca became inhospitable , making accommodation difficult to find . This compelled the group to take lodgings in a former Carthusian monastery in Valldemossa , which gave little shelter from the cold winter weather .
On 3 December , Chopin complained about his bad health and the incompetence of the doctors in Majorca : " Three doctors have visited me ... The first said I was dead ; the second said I was dying ; and the third said I was about to die . " He also had problems having his Pleyel piano sent to him . It finally arrived from Paris in December . Chopin wrote to Pleyel in January 1839 : " I am sending you my Preludes [ ( Op. 28 ) ] . I finished them on your little piano , which arrived in the best possible condition in spite of the sea , the bad weather and the Palma customs . " Chopin was also able to undertake work on his Ballade No. 2 , Op. 38 ; two Polonaises , Op. 40 ; and the Scherzo No. 3 , Op. 39 .
Although this period had been productive , the bad weather had such a detrimental effect on Chopin 's health that Sand determined to leave the island . To avoid further customs duties , Sand sold the piano to a local French couple , the Canuts . The group traveled first to Barcelona , then to Marseilles , where they stayed for a few months while Chopin convalesced . In May 1839 they headed for the summer to Sand 's estate at Nohant , where they spent most summers until 1846 . In autumn they returned to Paris , where Chopin 's apartment at 5 rue Tronchet was close to Sand 's rented accommodation at the rue Pigalle . He frequently visited Sand in the evenings , but both retained some independence . In 1842 he and Sand moved to the Square d 'Orléans , living in adjacent buildings .
At the funeral of the tenor Adolphe Nourrit in Paris in 1839 , Chopin made a rare appearance at the organ , playing a transcription of Franz Schubert 's lied Die Gestirne . On 26 July 1840 Chopin and Sand were present at the dress rehearsal of Berlioz 's Grande symphonie funèbre et triomphale , composed to commemorate the tenth anniversary of the July Revolution . Chopin was reportedly unimpressed with the composition .
During the summers at Nohant , particularly in the years 1839 – 43 , Chopin found quiet , productive days during which he composed many works , including his Polonaise in A @-@ flat major , Op. 53 . Among the visitors to Nohant were Delacroix and the mezzo @-@ soprano Pauline Viardot , whom Chopin had advised on piano technique and composition . Delacroix gives an account of staying at Nohant in a letter of 7 June 1842 :
The hosts could not be more pleasant in entertaining me . When we are not all together at dinner , lunch , playing billiards , or walking , each of us stays in his room , reading or lounging around on a couch . Sometimes , through the window which opens on the garden , a gust of music wafts up from Chopin at work . All this mingles with the songs of nightingales and the fragrance of roses .
= = = Decline = = =
From 1842 onwards , Chopin showed signs of serious illness . After a solo recital in Paris on 21 February 1842 , he wrote to Grzymała : " I have to lie in bed all day long , my mouth and tonsils are aching so much . " He was forced by illness to decline a written invitation from Alkan to participate in a repeat performance of the Beethoven Seventh Symphony arrangement at Erard 's on 1 March 1843 . Late in 1844 , Charles Hallé visited Chopin and found him " hardly able to move , bent like a half @-@ opened penknife and evidently in great pain " , although his spirits returned when he started to play the piano for his visitor . Chopin 's health continued to deteriorate , particularly from this time onwards . Modern research suggests that apart from any other illnesses , he may also have suffered from temporal lobe epilepsy .
Chopin 's relations with Sand were soured in 1846 by problems involving her daughter Solange and Solange 's fiancé , the young fortune @-@ hunting sculptor Auguste Clésinger . The composer frequently took Solange 's side in quarrels with her mother ; he also faced jealousy from Sand 's son Maurice . Chopin was utterly indifferent to Sand 's radical political pursuits , while Sand looked on his society friends with disdain . As the composer 's illness progressed , Sand had become less of a lover and more of a nurse to Chopin , whom she called her " third child " . In letters to third parties , she vented her impatience , referring to him as a " child , " a " little angel " , a " sufferer " and a " beloved little corpse . " In 1847 Sand published her novel Lucrezia Floriani , whose main characters — a rich actress and a prince in weak health — could be interpreted as Sand and Chopin ; the story was uncomplimentary to Chopin , who could not have missed the allusions as he helped Sand correct the printer 's galleys . In 1847 he did not visit Nohant , and he quietly ended their ten @-@ year relationship following an angry correspondence which , in Sand 's words , made " a strange conclusion to nine years of exclusive friendship . " The two would never meet again .
Chopin 's output as a composer throughout this period declined in quantity year by year . Whereas in 1841 he had written a dozen works , only six were written in 1842 and six shorter pieces in 1843 . In 1844 he wrote only the Op. 58 sonata . 1845 saw the completion of three mazurkas ( Op. 59 ) . Although these works were more refined than many of his earlier compositions , Zamoyski concludes that " his powers of concentration were failing and his inspiration was beset by anguish , both emotional and intellectual . "
= = = Tour of England and Scotland = = =
Chopin 's public popularity as a virtuoso began to wane , as did the number of his pupils , and this , together with the political strife and instability of the time , caused him to struggle financially . In February 1848 , with the cellist Auguste Franchomme , he gave his last Paris concert , which included three movements of the Cello Sonata Op. 65 .
In April , during the Revolution of 1848 in Paris , he left for London , where he performed at several concerts and at numerous receptions in great houses . This tour was suggested to him by his Scottish pupil Jane Stirling and her elder sister . Stirling also made all the logistical arrangements and provided much of the necessary funding .
In London Chopin took lodgings at Dover Street , where the firm of Broadwood provided him with a grand piano . At his first engagement , on 15 May at Stafford House , the audience included Queen Victoria and Prince Albert . The Prince , who was himself a talented musician , moved close to the keyboard to view Chopin 's technique . Broadwood also arranged concerts for him ; among those attending were Thackeray and the singer Jenny Lind . Chopin was also sought after for piano lessons , for which he charged the high fee of one guinea ( £ 1 @.@ 05 in present British currency ) per hour , and for private recitals for which the fee was 20 guineas . At a concert on 7 July he shared the platform with Viardot , who sang arrangements of some of his mazurkas to Spanish texts . On 28 August , he played at a concert in Manchester 's Concert Hall , sharing the stage with Marietta Alboni and Lorenzo Salvi .
In late summer he was invited by Jane Stirling to visit Scotland , where he stayed at Calder House near Edinburgh and at Johnstone Castle in Renfrewshire , both owned by members of Stirling 's family . She clearly had a notion of going beyond mere friendship , and Chopin was obliged to make it clear to her that this could not be so . He wrote at this time to Grzymała " My Scottish ladies are kind , but such bores " , and responding to a rumour about his involvement , answered that he was " closer to the grave than the nuptial bed . " He gave a public concert in Glasgow on 27 September , and another in Edinburgh , at the Hopetoun Rooms on Queen Street ( now Erskine House ) on 4 October . In late October 1848 , while staying at 10 Warriston Crescent in Edinburgh with the Polish physician Adam Łyszczyński , he wrote out his last will and testament — " a kind of disposition to be made of my stuff in the future , if I should drop dead somewhere " , he wrote to Grzymała .
Chopin made his last public appearance on a concert platform at London 's Guildhall on 16 November 1848 , when , in a final patriotic gesture , he played for the benefit of Polish refugees . By this time he was very seriously ill , weighing under 99 pounds ( i.e. less than 45 kg ) , and his doctors were aware that his sickness was at a terminal stage .
At the end of November , Chopin returned to Paris . He passed the winter in unremitting illness , but gave occasional lessons and was visited by friends , including Delacroix and Franchomme . Occasionally he played , or accompanied the singing of Delfina Potocka , for his friends . During the summer of 1849 , his friends found him an apartment in Chaillot , out of the centre of the city , for which the rent was secretly subsidised by an admirer , Princess Obreskoff . Here in June 1849 he was visited by Jenny Lind .
= = = Death and funeral = = =
With his health further deteriorating , Chopin desired to have a family member with him . In June 1849 his sister Ludwika came to Paris with her husband and daughter , and in September , supported by a loan from Jane Stirling , he took an apartment at Place Vendôme 12 . After 15 October , when his condition took a marked turn for the worse , only a handful of his closest friends remained with him , although Viardot remarked sardonically that " all the grand Parisian ladies considered it de rigueur to faint in his room . "
Some of his friends provided music at his request ; among them , Potocka sang and Franchomme played the cello . Chopin requested that his body be opened after death ( for fear of being buried alive ) and his heart returned to Warsaw where it rests at the Church of the Holy Cross . He also bequeathed his unfinished notes on a piano tuition method , Projet de méthode , to Alkan for completion . On 17 October , after midnight , the physician leaned over him and asked whether he was suffering greatly . " No longer " , he replied . He died a few minutes before two o 'clock in the morning . Those present at the deathbed appear to have included his sister Ludwika , Princess Marcelina Czartoryska , Sand 's daughter Solange , and his close friend Thomas Albrecht . Later that morning , Solange 's husband Clésinger made Chopin 's death mask and a cast of his left hand .
Chopin 's disease and the cause of his death have since been a matter of discussion . His death certificate gave the cause as tuberculosis , and his physician , Jean Cruveilhier , was then the leading French authority on this disease . Other possibilities have been advanced including cystic fibrosis , cirrhosis and alpha 1 @-@ antitrypsin deficiency . However , the attribution of tuberculosis as principal cause of death has not been disproved . Permission for DNA testing , which could put the matter to rest , has been denied by the Polish government .
The funeral , held at the Church of the Madeleine in Paris , was delayed almost two weeks , until 30 October . Entrance was restricted to ticket holders as many people were expected to attend . Over 3 @,@ 000 people arrived without invitations , from as far as London , Berlin and Vienna , and were excluded .
Mozart 's Requiem was sung at the funeral ; the soloists were the soprano Jeanne @-@ Anais Castellan , the mezzo @-@ soprano Pauline Viardot , the tenor Alexis Dupont , and the bass Luigi Lablache ; Chopin 's Preludes No. 4 in E minor and No. 6 in B minor were also played . The organist at the funeral was Louis Lefébure @-@ Wély . The funeral procession to Père Lachaise Cemetery , which included Chopin 's sister Ludwika , was led by the aged Prince Adam Czartoryski . The pallbearers included Delacroix , Franchomme , and Camille Pleyel . At the graveside , the Funeral March from Chopin 's Piano Sonata No. 2 was played , in Reber 's instrumentation .
Chopin 's tombstone , featuring the muse of music , Euterpe , weeping over a broken lyre , was designed and sculpted by Clésinger . The expenses of the funeral and monument , amounting to 5 @,@ 000 francs , were covered by Jane Stirling , who also paid for the return of the composer 's sister Ludwika to Warsaw . Ludwika took Chopin 's heart in an urn , preserved in alcohol , back to Poland in 1850 . She also took a collection of two hundred letters from Sand to Chopin ; after 1851 these were returned to Sand , who seems to have destroyed them .
= = Music = =
= = = Overview = = =
Over 230 works of Chopin survive ; some compositions from early childhood have been lost . All his known works involve the piano , and only a few range beyond solo piano music , as either piano concertos , songs or chamber music .
Chopin was educated in the tradition of Beethoven , Haydn , Mozart and Clementi ; he used Clementi 's piano method with his own students . He was also influenced by Hummel 's development of virtuoso , yet Mozartian , piano technique . He cited Bach and Mozart as the two most important composers in shaping his musical outlook . Chopin 's early works are in the style of the " brilliant " keyboard pieces of his era as exemplified by the works of Ignaz Moscheles , Friedrich Kalkbrenner , and others . Less direct in the earlier period are the influences of Polish folk music and of Italian opera . Much of what became his typical style of ornamentation ( for example , his fioriture ) is taken from singing . His melodic lines were increasingly reminiscent of the modes and features of the music of his native country , such as drones .
Chopin took the new salon genre of the nocturne , invented by the Irish composer John Field , to a deeper level of sophistication . He was the first to write ballades and scherzi as individual concert pieces . He essentially established a new genre with his own set of free @-@ standing preludes ( Op. 28 , published 1839 ) . He exploited the poetic potential of the concept of the concert étude , already being developed in the 1820s and 1830s by Liszt , Clementi and Moscheles , in his two sets of studies ( Op. 10 published in 1833 , Op. 25 in 1837 ) .
Chopin also endowed popular dance forms with a greater range of melody and expression . Chopin 's mazurkas , while originating in the traditional Polish dance ( the mazurek ) , differed from the traditional variety in that they were written for the concert hall rather than the dance hall ; " it was Chopin who put the mazurka on the European musical map . " The series of seven polonaises published in his lifetime ( another nine were published posthumously ) , beginning with the Op. 26 pair ( published 1836 ) , set a new standard for music in the form . His waltzes were also written specifically for the salon recital rather than the ballroom and are frequently at rather faster tempos than their dance @-@ floor equivalents .
= = = Titles , opus numbers and editions = = =
Some of Chopin 's well @-@ known pieces have acquired descriptive titles , such as the Revolutionary Étude ( Op. 10 , No. 12 ) , and the Minute Waltz ( Op. 64 , No. 1 ) . However , with the exception of his Funeral March , the composer never named an instrumental work beyond genre and number , leaving all potential extramusical associations to the listener ; the names by which many of his pieces are known were invented by others . There is no evidence to suggest that the Revolutionary Étude was written with the failed Polish uprising against Russia in mind ; it merely appeared at that time . The Funeral March , the third movement of his Sonata No. 2 ( Op. 35 ) , the one case where he did give a title , was written before the rest of the sonata , but no specific event or death is known to have inspired it .
The last opus number that Chopin himself used was 65 , allocated to the Cello Sonata in G minor . He expressed a deathbed wish that all his unpublished manuscripts be destroyed . At the request of the composer 's mother and sisters , however , his musical executor Julian Fontana selected 23 unpublished piano pieces and grouped them into eight further opus numbers ( Opp . 66 – 73 ) , published in 1855 . In 1857 , 17 Polish songs that Chopin wrote at various stages of his life were collected and published as Op. 74 , though their order within the opus did not reflect the order of composition .
Works published since 1857 have received alternative catalogue designations instead of opus numbers . The present standard musicological reference for Chopin 's works is the Kobylańska Catalogue ( usually represented by the initials ' KK ' ) , named for its compiler , the Polish musicologist Krystyna Kobylańska .
Chopin 's original publishers included Maurice Schlesinger and Camille Pleyel . His works soon began to appear in popular 19th @-@ century piano anthologies . The first collected edition was by Breitkopf & Härtel ( 187 | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
8 – 1902 ) . Among modern scholarly editions of Chopin 's works are the version under the name of Paderewski published between 1937 and 1966 and the more recent Polish " National Edition " , edited by Jan Ekier , both of which contain detailed explanations and discussions regarding choices and sources .
= = = Form and harmony = = =
Improvisation stands at the centre of Chopin 's creative processes . However , this does not imply impulsive rambling : Nicholas Temperley writes that " improvisation is designed for an audience , and its starting @-@ point is that audience 's expectations , which include the current conventions of musical form . " The works for piano and orchestra , including the two concertos , are held by Temperley to be " merely vehicles for brilliant piano playing ... formally longwinded and extremely conservative " . After the piano concertos ( which are both early , dating from 1830 ) , Chopin made no attempts at large @-@ scale multi @-@ movement forms , save for his late sonatas for piano and for cello ; " instead he achieved near @-@ perfection in pieces of simple general design but subtle and complex cell @-@ structure . " Rosen suggests that an important aspect of Chopin 's individuality is his flexible handling of the four @-@ bar phrase as a structural unit .
J. Barrie Jones suggests that " amongst the works that Chopin intended for concert use , the four ballades and four scherzos stand supreme " , and adds that " the Barcarolle Op. 60 stands apart as an example of Chopin 's rich harmonic palette coupled with an Italianate warmth of melody . " Temperley opines that these works , which contain " immense variety of mood , thematic material and structural detail " , are based on an extended " departure and return " form ; " the more the middle section is extended , and the further it departs in key , mood and theme , from the opening idea , the more important and dramatic is the reprise when it at last comes . "
Chopin 's mazurkas and waltzes are all in straightforward ternary or episodic form , sometimes with a coda . The mazurkas often show more folk features than many of his other works , sometimes including modal scales and harmonies and the use of drone basses . However , some also show unusual sophistication , for example Op. 63 No. 3 , which includes a canon at one beat 's distance , a great rarity in music .
Chopin 's polonaises show a marked advance on those of his Polish predecessors in the form ( who included his teachers Zywny and Elsner ) . As with the traditional polonaise , Chopin 's works are in triple time and typically display a martial rhythm in their melodies , accompaniments and cadences . Unlike most of their precursors , they also require a formidable playing technique .
The 21 nocturnes are more structured , and of greater emotional depth , than those of Field ( whom Chopin met in 1833 ) . Many of the Chopin nocturnes have middle sections marked by agitated expression ( and often making very difficult demands on the performer ) which heightens their dramatic character .
Chopin 's études are largely in straightforward ternary form . He used them to teach his own technique of piano playing — for instance playing double thirds ( Op. 25 , No. 6 ) , playing in octaves ( Op. 25 , No. 10 ) , and playing repeated notes ( Op. 10 , No. 7 ) .
The preludes , many of which are very brief ( some consisting of simple statements and developments of a single theme or figure ) , were described by Schumann as " the beginnings of studies " . Inspired by J.S. Bach 's The Well @-@ Tempered Clavier , Chopin 's preludes move up the circle of fifths ( rather than Bach 's chromatic scale sequence ) to create a prelude in each major and minor tonality . The preludes were perhaps not intended to be played as a group , and may even have been used by him and later pianists as generic preludes to others of his pieces , or even to music by other composers , as Kenneth Hamilton suggests : he has noted a recording by Ferruccio Busoni of 1922 , in which the Prelude Op. 28 No. 7 is followed by the Étude Op. 10 No. 5 .
The two mature piano sonatas ( No. 2 , Op. 35 , written in 1839 and No. 3 , Op. 58 , written in 1844 ) are in four movements . In Op. 35 , Chopin was able to combine within a formal large musical structure many elements of his virtuosic piano technique — " a kind of dialogue between the public pianism of the brilliant style and the German sonata principle " . The last movement , a brief ( 75 @-@ bar ) perpetuum mobile in which the hands play in unmodified octave unison throughout , was found shocking and unmusical by contemporaries , including Schumann . The Op. 58 sonata is closer to the German tradition , including many passages of complex counterpoint , " worthy of Brahms " according to the music historians Kornel Michałowski and Jim Samson .
Chopin 's harmonic innovations may have arisen partly from his keyboard improvisation technique . Temperley says that in his works " novel harmonic effects frequently result from the combination of ordinary appoggiaturas or passing notes with melodic figures of accompaniment " , and cadences are delayed by the use of chords outside the home key ( neapolitan sixths and diminished sevenths ) , or by sudden shifts to remote keys . Chord progressions sometimes anticipate the shifting tonality of later composers such as Claude Debussy , as does Chopin 's use of modal harmony .
= = = Technique and performance style = = =
In 1841 , Léon Escudier wrote of a recital given by Chopin that year , " One may say that Chopin is the creator of a school of piano and a school of composition . In truth , nothing equals the lightness , the sweetness with which the composer preludes on the piano ; moreover nothing may be compared to his works full of originality , distinction and grace . " Chopin refused to conform to a standard method of playing and believed that there was no set technique for playing well . His style was based extensively on his use of very independent finger technique . In his Projet de méthode he wrote : " Everything is a matter of knowing good fingering ... we need no less to use the rest of the hand , the wrist , the forearm and the upper arm . " He further stated : " One needs only to study a certain position of the hand in relation to the keys to obtain with ease the most beautiful quality of sound , to know how to play short notes and long notes , and [ to attain ] unlimited dexterity . " The consequences of this approach to technique in Chopin 's music include the frequent use of the entire range of the keyboard , passages in double octaves and other chord groupings , swiftly repeated notes , the use of grace notes , and the use of contrasting rhythms ( four against three , for example ) between the hands .
Jonathan Bellman writes that modern concert performance style — set in the " conservatory " tradition of late 19th- and 20th @-@ century music schools , and suitable for large auditoria or recordings — militates against what is known of Chopin 's more intimate performance technique . The composer himself said to a pupil that " concerts are never real music , you have to give up the idea of hearing in them all the most beautiful things of art . " Contemporary accounts indicate that in performance , Chopin avoided rigid procedures sometimes incorrectly attributed to him , such as " always crescendo to a high note " , but that he was concerned with expressive phrasing , rhythmic consistency and sensitive colouring . Berlioz wrote in 1853 that Chopin " has created a kind of chromatic embroidery ... whose effect is so strange and piquant as to be impossible to describe ... virtually nobody but Chopin himself can play this music and give it this unusual turn " . Hiller wrote that " What in the hands of others was elegant embellishment , in his hands became a colourful wreath of flowers . "
Chopin 's music is frequently played with rubato , " the practice in performance of disregarding strict time , ' robbing ' some note @-@ values for expressive effect " . There are differing opinions as to how much , and what type , of rubato is appropriate for his works . Charles Rosen comments that " most of the written @-@ out indications of rubato in Chopin are to be found in his mazurkas ... It is probable that Chopin used the older form of rubato so important to Mozart ... [ where ] the melody note in the right hand is delayed until after the note in the bass ... An allied form of this rubato is the arpeggiation of the chords thereby delaying the melody note ; according to Chopin 's pupil , Karol Mikuli , Chopin was firmly opposed to this practice . "
Friederike Müller , a pupil of Chopin , wrote : " [ His ] playing was always noble and beautiful ; his tones sang , whether in full forte or softest piano . He took infinite pains to teach his pupils this legato , cantabile style of playing . His most severe criticism was ' He — or she — does not know how to join two notes together . ' He also demanded the strictest adherence to rhythm . He hated all lingering and dragging , misplaced rubatos , as well as exaggerated ritardandos ... and it is precisely in this respect that people make such terrible errors in playing his works . "
= = = Polish heritage = = =
With his mazurkas and polonaises , Chopin has been credited with introducing to music a new sense of nationalism . Schumann , in his 1836 review of the piano concertos , highlighted the composer 's strong feelings for his native Poland , writing that " Now that the Poles are in deep mourning [ after the failure of the November 1830 rising ] , their appeal to us artists is even stronger ... If the mighty autocrat in the north [ i.e. Nicholas I of Russia ] could know that in Chopin 's works , in the simple strains of his mazurkas , there lurks a dangerous enemy , he would place a ban on his music . Chopin 's works are cannon buried in flowers ! " The biography of Chopin published in 1863 under the name of Franz Liszt ( but probably written by Carolyne zu Sayn @-@ Wittgenstein ) claims that Chopin " must be ranked first among the first musicians ... individualizing in themselves the poetic sense of an entire nation . "
Some modern commentators have argued against exaggerating Chopin 's primacy as a " nationalist " or " patriotic " composer . George Golos refers to earlier " nationalist " composers in Central Europe , including Poland 's Michał Kleofas Ogiński and Franciszek Lessel , who utilised polonaise and mazurka forms . Barbara Milewski suggests that Chopin 's experience of Polish music came more from " urbanised " Warsaw versions than from folk music , and that attempts ( by Jachimecki and others ) to demonstrate genuine folk music in his works are without basis . Richard Taruskin impugns Schumann 's attitude toward Chopin 's works as patronizing and comments that Chopin " felt his Polish patriotism deeply and sincerely " but consciously modelled his works on the tradition of Bach , Beethoven , Schubert and Field .
A reconciliation of these views is suggested by William Atwood : " Undoubtedly [ Chopin 's ] use of traditional musical forms like the polonaise and mazurka roused nationalistic sentiments and a sense of cohesiveness amongst those Poles scattered across Europe and the New World ... While some sought solace in [ them ] , others found them a source of strength in their continuing struggle for freedom . Although Chopin 's music undoubtedly came to him intuitively rather than through any conscious patriotic design , it served all the same to symbolize the will of the Polish people ... "
= = = Reception and influence = = =
Jones comments that " Chopin 's unique position as a composer , despite the fact that virtually everything he wrote was for the piano , has rarely been questioned . " He also notes that Chopin was fortunate to arrive in Paris in 1831 — " the artistic environment , the publishers who were willing to print his music , the wealthy and aristocratic who paid what Chopin asked for their lessons " — and these factors , as well as his musical genius , also fuelled his contemporary and later reputation . While his illness and his love @-@ affairs conform to some of the stereotypes of romanticism , the rarity of his public recitals ( as opposed to performances at fashionable Paris soirées ) led Arthur Hutchings to suggest that " his lack of Byronic flamboyance [ and ] his aristocratic reclusiveness make him exceptional " among his romantic contemporaries , such as Liszt and Henri Herz .
Chopin 's qualities as a pianist and composer were recognized by many of his fellow musicians . Schumann named a piece for him in his suite Carnaval , and Chopin later dedicated his Ballade No. 2 in F major to Schumann . Elements of Chopin 's music can be traced in many of Liszt 's later works . Liszt later transcribed for piano six of Chopin 's Polish songs . A less fraught friendship was with Alkan , with whom he discussed elements of folk music , and who was deeply affected by Chopin 's death .
Two of Chopin 's long @-@ standing pupils , Karol Mikuli ( 1821 – 1897 ) and Georges Mathias , were themselves piano teachers and passed on details of his playing to their own students , some of whom ( such as Raoul Koczalski ) were to make recordings of his music . Other pianists and composers influenced by Chopin 's style include Louis Moreau Gottschalk , Édouard Wolff ( 1816 – 1880 ) and Pierre Zimmermann . Debussy dedicated his own 1915 piano Études to the memory of Chopin ; he frequently played Chopin 's music during his studies at the Paris Conservatoire , and undertook the editing of Chopin 's piano music for the publisher Jacques Durand .
Polish composers of the following generation included virtuosi such as Moritz Moszkowski , but , in the opinion of J. Barrie Jones , his " one worthy successor " among his compatriots was Karol Szymanowski ( 1882 – 1937 ) . Edvard Grieg , Antonín Dvořák , Isaac Albéniz , Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky and Sergei Rachmaninoff , among others , are regarded by critics as having been influenced by Chopin 's use of national modes and idioms . Alexander Scriabin was devoted to the music of Chopin , and his early published works include nineteen mazurkas , as well as numerous études and preludes ; his teacher Nikolai Zverev drilled him in Chopin 's works to improve his virtuosity as a performer . In the 20th century , composers who paid homage to ( or in some cases parodied ) the music of Chopin included George Crumb , Bohuslav Martinů , Darius Milhaud , Igor Stravinsky and Heitor Villa @-@ Lobos .
Chopin 's music was used in the 1909 ballet Chopiniana , choreographed by Michel Fokine and orchestrated by Alexander Glazunov . Sergei Diaghilev commissioned additional orchestrations — from Stravinsky , Anatoly Lyadov , Sergei Taneyev and Nikolai Tcherepnin — for later productions , which used the title Les Sylphides .
Chopin 's music remains very popular and is regularly performed , recorded and broadcast worldwide . The world 's oldest monographic music competition , the International Chopin Piano Competition , founded in 1927 , is held every five years in Warsaw . The Fryderyk Chopin Institute of Poland lists on its website over eighty societies world @-@ wide devoted to the composer and his music . The Institute site also lists nearly 1 @,@ 500 performances of Chopin works on YouTube as of January 2014 .
= = Recordings = =
The British Library notes that " Chopin 's works have been recorded by all the great pianists of the recording era . " The earliest recording was an 1895 performance by Paul Pabst of the Nocturne in E major Op. 62 No. 2 . The British Library site makes available a number of historic recordings , including some by Alfred Cortot , Ignaz Friedman , Vladimir Horowitz , Benno Moiseiwitsch , Ignacy Jan Paderewski , Arthur Rubinstein , Xaver Scharwenka and many others . A select discography of recordings of Chopin works by pianists representing the various pedagogic traditions stemming from Chopin is given by Methuen @-@ Campbell in his work tracing the lineage and character of those traditions .
Numerous recordings of Chopin 's works are available . On the occasion of the composer 's bicentenary , the critics of The New York Times recommended performances by the following contemporary pianists ( among many others ) : Martha Argerich , Vladimir Ashkenazy , Emanuel Ax , Evgeny Kissin , Murray Perahia , Maurizio Pollini and Krystian Zimerman . The Warsaw Chopin Society organizes the Grand prix du disque de F. Chopin for notable Chopin recordings , held every five years .
= = In literature , stage , film and television = =
Chopin has figured extensively in Polish literature , both in serious critical studies of his life and music and in fictional treatments . The earliest manifestation was probably an 1830 sonnet on Chopin by Leon Ulrich . French writers on Chopin ( apart from Sand ) have included Marcel Proust and André Gide ; and he has also featured in works of Gottfried Benn and Boris Pasternak . There are numerous biographies of Chopin in English ( see bibliography for some of these ) .
Possibly the first venture into fictional treatments of Chopin 's life was a fanciful operatic version of some of its events . Chopin was written by Giacomo Orefice and produced in Milan in 1901 . All the music is derived from that of Chopin .
Chopin 's life and his relations with George Sand have been fictionalized in numerous films . The 1945 biographical film A Song to Remember earned Cornel Wilde an Academy Award nomination as Best Actor for his portrayal of the composer . Other film treatments have included : La valse de l 'adieu ( France , 1928 ) by Henry Roussel , with Pierre Blanchar as Chopin ; Impromptu ( 1991 ) , starring Hugh Grant as Chopin ; La note bleue ( 1991 ) ; and Chopin : Desire for Love ( 2002 ) .
Chopin 's life was covered in a BBC TV documentary Chopin – The Women Behind The Music ( 2010 ) , and in a 2010 documentary realised by Angelo Bozzolini and Roberto Prosseda for Italian television .
= X @-@ Cops ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" X @-@ Cops " is the twelfth episode of the seventh season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . Directed by Michael Watkins and written by Vince Gilligan , the installment serves as a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story — a stand @-@ alone plot unconnected to the overarching mythology of The X @-@ Files . Originally aired in the United States by the Fox network on February 20 , 2000 , " X @-@ Cops " received a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 7 and was seen by 16 @.@ 56 million viewers . The episode earned positive reviews from critics , largely due to its unique presentation , as well as its use of humor . Since its airing , the episode has been named among the best episodes of The X @-@ Files by several reviewers .
The X @-@ Files centers on Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) , who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal ; the skeptical Scully was initially assigned to debunk his work , but the two have developed a deep friendship . In this episode , Mulder and Scully are interviewed for the Fox reality television program Cops during an X @-@ Files investigation . Mulder , hunting what he believes to be a werewolf , discovers that the monster terrorizing people instead feeds on fear . While Mulder embraces the publicity of Cops , Scully is more uncomfortable about appearing on national television .
" X @-@ Cops " serves as a fictional crossover with Cops and is one of only two X @-@ Files episodes to be shot in real time , in which events are presented at the same rate that the audience experiences them . Gilligan , who was inspired to write the script because he enjoyed Cops , pitched the idea several times to series creator Chris Carter and the series writing staff , receiving a mixed reception ; when the crew felt that the show was nearing its end with the conclusion of the seventh season , Gilligan was given the green light because it was seen as an experiment . In the tradition of the real @-@ life Cops program , the entire episode was shot on videotape and featured several members of the crew of Cops . The episode has been thematically analyzed for its use of postmodernism and its presentation as reality television .
= = Plot = =
The episode begins with the standard opening credit sequence of the reality television program Cops and its theme song " Bad Boys " . Keith Wetzel ( Judson Mills ) , a deputy with the Los Angeles County Sheriff 's Department , is accompanied by a Cops film crew at Willow Park , California , a fictional high @-@ crime district of Los Angeles . Wetzel visits the home of Mrs. Guererro ( Perla Walter ) , who has reported a monster in the neighborhood . Wetzel , expecting to find a dog , follows the creature around a corner but runs back screaming for the crew to flee . They return to Wetzel 's police car , but before they can escape , it is overturned by an unseen entity .
When backup arrives on the scene , an injured Wetzel claims that he encountered gang members . The police soon discover and surround Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) , believing them to be criminals , before they realize that the pair are FBI agents . Mulder and Scully claim that they are investigating an alleged werewolf that killed a man in the area during the last full moon . According to Mulder , the entity that they are tracking only comes out at night . Scully is irritated by the constant presence of the Cops crew , but Mulder is enthused at the prospect of paranormal proof being presented to a national television audience . The agents and the police interview Mrs. Guerrero , who describes the monster to Ricky ( Solomon Eversol ) , a sketch artist . To Mulder 's surprise , Mrs. Guerrero describes not a werewolf , but the horror movie villain Freddy Krueger . Ricky expresses a fear of being alone in the dangerous neighborhood , and is found a short time later with serious slashes in his chest . Mulder and Scully find a pink fingernail at the scene . The group also meets Steve and Edy ( J. W. Smith and Curtis C. ) , a couple who witnessed the incident but did not see Ricky 's attacker , saying that it appeared he was being attacked by nothing . Scully shows the couple the fingernail , which they identify as belonging to Chantara Gomez ( Maria Celedonio ) , a prostitute .
When the agents track down Chantara , whose face is pixelated , she claims that her pimp attacked Ricky and fears that he will kill her . She pleads with the agents for protection . Mulder and Scully have Wetzel guard Chantara while they assist the police in the raid of a crack house . However , the two are drawn back outside when Wetzel encounters the entity , wildly shooting at it . Inside a police car , the agents find Chantara with her neck broken . When Mulder questions Wetzel , he admits that he thought he saw the " wasp man " , a monster his older brother told him about when he was a kid . Mulder formulates a theory that the entity changes its form to correspond with its victims ' worst fears . Wetzel , Ricky , and Chantara all expressed fear shortly before their run @-@ ins with the entity ; it was visible to them , but not to others . The agents think that Steve and Edy may be the entity 's next target because they were in the vicinity of Ricky 's attack . They head to their house , only to find the couple in the middle of an argument . After Edy expresses fear of a separation from Steve , the couple reconciles . Based on this situation , Mulder proposes that the entity ignored Steve and Edy because they did not exhibit mortal fear .
Mulder believes that the entity travels from victim to victim like a contagion . At his request , Scully performs an autopsy on Chantara 's body at the morgue . During the procedure , a conversation between Scully and the coroner 's assistant ( Tara Karsian ) causes the latter to panic about a Hantavirus outbreak . The entity suddenly kills her with the disease . When Mulder discusses the death with Scully , he realizes that Wetzel is in danger of being revisited by the entity . The agents and police return to the crack house , where the entity has trapped an injured Wetzel in an upstairs room . The agents are unable to enter the room until dawn comes , when the entity disappears and spares Wetzel 's life . After the incident is over , Scully expresses her sympathies to Mulder that being filmed by a national television crew did not provide the public exposure to paranormal phenomena that he had hoped . However , Mulder remains hopeful , noting that it all comes down to how the production crew edits the footage together .
= = Production = =
= = = Conception and writing = = =
Vince Gilligan , who wrote the episode , was inspired by Cops , which he describes as a " great slice of Americana . " Gilligan first pitched the idea to the X @-@ Files writing staff and to series creator Chris Carter during the show 's fourth season . Carter was concerned that the concept was too " goofy " . Fellow writer and producer Frank Spotnitz concurred ; however , he was more uncomfortable with Gilligan 's idea of using videotape instead of film to shoot the episode . The show 's production crew liked to use film to create " effective scares " , and Spotnitz worried that shooting exclusively on videotape would be too challenging as the series would be unable to cut and edit the final product . However , during the show 's seventh season , Carter relented . Many critics and fans believed , erroneously , that the seventh season of The X @-@ Files would be the show 's last . Similarly , Carter felt that the show had nearly run its course . Seeing the potential in Gilligan 's idea , he decided to green @-@ light the episode . Gilligan noted that " the longer we 've been on the air , the more chances we 've taken . We try to keep the show fresh ... I think [ Carter ] appreciates that " . " X @-@ Cops " was not Gilligan 's first attempt at writing a cross @-@ over . Almost three years before , he had been working on a script that would involve a story being presented by Robert Stack of Unsolved Mysteries , with unknown actors playing Mulder and Scully . This script was later aborted , and re @-@ written as the fifth season episode " Bad Blood " .
Gilligan reasoned that , because Mulder and Scully would appear on a nationally syndicated television series , the episode 's main monster could not be shown , only " hinted at " . Gilligan and the writing staff applied methods previously used in the 1999 psychological horror film The Blair Witch Project to show as little of the monster as possible while still making the episode scary . Michael Watkins , who directed the episode , had a good rapport with the Los Angeles police department . As such , he secured real Sheriff 's deputies as extras . Casting director Rick Milikan later explained that the group needed " actors who could pull off the believability in just normal off @-@ the @-@ cuff conversation of cops on the job . " During the crack house scene , real SWAT team members were hired to break down the doors . Actor Judson Mills later explained that , because there were few cameramen and owing to the manner in which the episode was filmed , " people just behaved as if we were [ real ] cops . I had other cops waving and giving their signals or heads @-@ up the way they do amongst themselves . It was quite funny " .
= = = Filming and post @-@ production = = =
" X @-@ Cops " was filmed in Venice and Long Beach , California . When members of The X @-@ Files staff asked Cops producer John Langley about a potential cross @-@ over , the crew of Cops liked the idea and offered their complete cooperation . Gilligan was even invited to the shooting of an episode . Inspired by Cops , Watkins ' directing style was unique for this episode . Watkins filmed some of the scenes himself , in addition to the shots caught by the usual camera operators of The X @-@ Files . However , he also brought in Bertram van Munster , a cameraman for Cops , to shoot scenes to give the finished product an authentic feel . In an attempt at realism , other staff members from Cops participated in the production : Daniel Emmet and John Michael Vaughn , two Cops crew members , were featured during the episode 's climax . During rehearsals , Watkins kept the cameras away from the set , so that when filming commenced , the cameramen 's unfamiliarity would create the " unscripted " reality feel of a documentary . In addition , a Cops editor was brought in to insert the blur over the faces of bystanders .
The episode was one of two X @-@ Files episodes to take place in real time — wherein events are presented at the same rate that the audience experiences them — the other being the sixth season episode " Triangle " . Due to the nature of the shooting schedule , the episode was relatively cheap to film and production moved at a quick pace . Initially , the actors struggled with the new cinéma vérité style of the episode , and several takes were needed for scenes during the first few days , but these problems receded as filming progressed . On one night , three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half pages of script were shot in only two hours ; the normal rate for The X @-@ Files was three to four pages a day . Both Watkins and Mills likened the filming of the episode to live theater . The former noted , " In a sense we were doing theater : we were doing an act , or half of a whole act in one take . " Anderson called the performance " fun " to shoot , and highlighted " Scully getting pissed off at the camera crew " as her favorite part to play . She further noted that " it was interesting to make the adjustment to playing something more real than you might play for television . "
Although filmed to create the illusion that events occurred in real time , the episode employed several camera tricks and effects . For the opening shot , a " surreptitious cut " helped to replace actor Judson Mills with a stunt person when the cop car is overturned by the monster . Usually , an episode of the series required 800 to 1 @,@ 200 film cuts , but " X @-@ Cops " only required 45 . During post @-@ production , a minor argument broke out between Vince Gilligan and the network . Originally , Gilligan did not want the X @-@ Files logo to appear at any time during the episode . He stressed that he wanted " X @-@ Cops " to feel like an " episode of Cops that happened to involve Mulder and Scully . " The network , fearing that people would not understand that " X @-@ Cops " was actually an episode of The X @-@ Files , vetoed this idea . A compromise was reached wherein the episode would open with the Cops theme song , but the normal X @-@ Files credits would scroll after an opening scene . In addition , the commercial bumpers would feature red and blue lights flashing across The X @-@ Files logo while dialogue is heard in the background , in a similar fashion to the Cops logo . The episode also features a disclaimer at the beginning informing viewers that the episode is a special installment of The X @-@ Files to prevent watchers from thinking that the show " has been preempted this week by Cops " .
= = Themes = =
Several critics , such as M. Keith Booker , have argued that " X @-@ Cops " is an example of The X @-@ Files delving into the postmodern school of thought . Postmodernism has been described as a " style and concept in the arts [ that ] is characterized by the self @-@ conscious use of earlier styles and conventions [ and the ] mixing of different artistic styles and media " . According to Booker , the episode helps to " identify the series as postmodern [ due to its ] cumulative summary of modern American culture " , or , in this case , the show 's merging with another popular television series . The episode also serves as an example of the series ' " self @-@ consciousness in terms of its status as a ( fictional ) television " show . M. Keith Booker , in the book Strange TV , notes that " allu [ sion ] to films and works of literature " present in " X @-@ Cops " suggests " its role as a kind of cumulative summary of modern American culture " .
According to Jeremy Butler in the book Television Style , the episode , along with many other found footage @-@ type movies and shows , helps to suggest that what is being promoted as " live TV " , is actually a series of events that have already unfolded in the past . Furthermore , while the episode is written and performed in a self @-@ reflexive and humorous tone , the real @-@ time aspects of " X @-@ Cops " " heighten [ s ] s the sense of realism within the episode " , and makes the result come across as hyper @-@ realistic . This sense of realism is further heightened by the near lack of music in the episode ; aside from the title theme , Mark Snow 's soundtrack is not to be heard .
Sarah Stegall proposed that the episode works on two separate layers . On the top @-@ most superficial layer , it functions as an outright parody , mimicking both the stylings of The X @-@ Files as well as Cops . However , on the other layer , she notes that " it 's a serious look at validation . " Throughout the episode , Mulder is attempting to capture the monster on camera and expose it to a national audience . However , all of the witnesses to monster function as unreliable narrators : a Hispanic woman with " a history of medications " , a homosexual " Drama Queen " , a prostitute , a " terrified morgue attendant , and Deputy Wetzel . Stegall argues that all of these characters are from " the wrong side of the tracks " and would not be accepted , let alone believed , by " a placid , middle @-@ class society " . In the end , the only reliable witness is the camera , but Stegall points out that " the camera , suspiciously , never quite manages to find [ the monster ] . " Furthermore , she reasons that Mulder 's biggest fear is not finding the monster . To back this idea up , she points out that Mulder not only fails to find what he is looking for , but he also fails before a live audience .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" X @-@ Cops " was first broadcast in the United States on the Fox network on February 20 , 2000 . Watched by 16 @.@ 56 million viewers , according to the Nielsen ratings system , it was the second @-@ highest rated episode of the season , after " The Sixth Extinction " . It received a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 7 , with a 14 share among viewers , meaning that 9 @.@ 7 percent of all households in the United States , and 14 percent of people watching television at that time , tuned into the episode . It originally aired in the United Kingdom on Sky1 on June 4 , 2000 , receiving 850 @,@ 000 viewers , making it the channel 's third @-@ most watched program for that week . On May 13 , 2003 , " X @-@ Cops " was released on DVD as part of the complete seventh @-@ season box set .
Initial critical reaction to the episode was generally positive , although a few reviewers felt that the episode was a gimmick . Eric Mink of the Daily News described it as " nifty " and " exceptionally clever . " While noting that " The X @-@ Files hasn 't exactly smoked this season " , Kinney Littlefield from The Orange County Register called " X @-@ Cops " a stand @-@ out episode from the seventh season . Stegall praised the episode and likened the episode 's monster to the Boggart from the Harry Potter series . Stegall wrote of Vince Gilligan : " top honors must go to Vince Gilligan , whose work on The X @-@ Files is consistently the sharpest and most consistent . " Tom Kessenich , in his book Examinations , gave the episode a largely positive review . He called the entry " one of the most entertaining episodes of the season " and " 60 minutes of pure fun " . Rich Rosell from Digitally Obsessed awarded the episode 5 out of 5 stars and wrote that " some might view it as a stunt , but having Mulder and Scully be part of a spot @-@ on Cops ! parody ( complete with full " Bad Boys , bad boys " intro ) is just brilliant stuff " . Not all reviews were positive . Kenneth Silber from Space.com gave the episode a negative review and wrote , " ' X @-@ Cops ' is a wearisome episode . Watching the agents and police repeatedly run through the darkened streets of Los Angeles after an unseen — and uninteresting — foe evokes merely a sense of futility . The use of the format of the Fox TV show Cops provides some transient novelty but little drama or humor . "
Contemporary reviews have praised the episode as one of the show 's best installments . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode four stars out of five . The two wrote that the episode was " funny , it 's clever , and it 's actually quite frightening " . Shearman and Pearson also wrote positively of the faux documentary style , likening it to The Blair Witch Project . Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club awarded the episode an " A – " and called it " witty , inventive , and intermittently spooky " . He argued that the episode was a late @-@ series " gimmick episode " and compared it the last few seasons of House ; although he reasoned that House relied on gimmicks to prop itself up , " X @-@ Cops " is " the work of a creative team which may be running out of ideas , but still has enough gas in the tank to get us where we need to go . " Furthermore , Handlen felt that the show used the Cops format to the best of its ability , and that many of the scenes were humorous , startling , or a combination of both .
Since its airing , " X @-@ Cops " has appeared on several best @-@ of lists . Montreal 's The Gazette named it the eighth best X @-@ Files episode , writing that it " pushed the show to new post @-@ modern heights . " Rob Bricken from Topless Robot named it the fifth funniest X @-@ Files episode , and Starpulse described it as the funniest X @-@ Files episode , writing that when the series " did comedy , it was probably the funniest drama ever on television " . UGO named the episode 's main antagonist as one of the greatest " Top 11 X @-@ Files Monsters , " noting that the creature is a " perfect [ Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week ] if only because the monster in question is a living , breathing metaphor , a never @-@ seen specter that shifts to fit the fears of the person witnessing it . " Narin Bahar from SFX named the episode one of the " Best Sci @-@ Fi TV Mockumentaries " and wrote , " Whether you see this as a brilliantly post @-@ modern merging of fact and fiction or shameless cross @-@ promotion of two of the Fox Network 's biggest TV shows , there 's lots of nods to the real Cops show in this episode " . Bahar praised the scene featuring the terrified lady telling Mulder that Freddy Krueger attacked her — calling the scene the " best in @-@ joke " — and applauded the two series ' cohesion .
= Katipo =
The katipo ( Latrodectus katipo ) is an endangered species of spider native to New Zealand . It is one of many species in the genus Latrodectus , such as the Australian redback ( L. hasseltii ) , and the North American black widows . The species is venomous to humans , capable of delivering a comparatively dangerous bite . The name katipo ( plural : katipo ) is from the Māori katipō , meaning " night @-@ stinger " . It is a small to medium @-@ sized spider , with the female having a round black or brown pea @-@ sized body . Red katipo females , found in the South Island and the lower half of the North Island , are always black , and their abdomen has a distinctive red stripe bordered in white . In black katipo females , found in the upper half of the North Island , this stripe is absent , pale , yellow , or replaced with cream @-@ coloured blotches . These two forms were previously thought to be separate species . The male is much smaller than the female and quite different in appearance : white with black stripes and red diamond @-@ shaped markings . Katipo are only found living in sand dunes close to the seashore . They are found throughout most of coastal New Zealand except the far south and west . Katipo feed mainly on ground dwelling insects , caught in an irregular tangled web spun amongst dune plants or other debris ,
After mating in August or September , the female katipo produces five or six egg sacs in November or December . The spiderlings hatch during January and February and disperse into surrounding plants . Due to habitat loss and colonisation of their natural habitat by other exotic spiders , the katipo is threatened with extinction .
A katipo bite produces the toxic syndrome latrodectism ; symptoms include extreme pain and , potentially , hypertension , seizure , or coma . Bites are rare , an antivenom is available , and no deaths have been reported since 1901 . The katipo is particularly notable in New Zealand as the nation is almost entirely devoid of dangerous native wildlife ; this unique status means the spider is well known , despite being rarely seen .
= = Taxonomy = =
Although the ' kātĕpo ' was reported to the Linnean Society as early as 1855 , the spider was formally described as Latrodectus katipo by L. Powell in 1870 . Spiders of the genus Latrodectus have a worldwide distribution and include all of the commonly known widow spiders : the North American black widow spider ( Latrodectus mactans ) , the brown widow ( Latrodectus geometricus ) , and the European black widow ( Latrodectus tredecimguttatus ) . The katipo 's closest relative is the Australian redback spider ( Latrodectus hasseltii ) Latrodectus katipo and L. atritus ( black katipo ) were previously thought to be two separate species , but research has shown that they are a single species , L. katipo , with colour variation that is clinal over latitude and correlated with mean annual temperature . The katipo is so closely related to the redback that it was at one stage thought to be a subspecies , with the proposed name Latrodectus hasseltii katipo . Further research has shown that the katipo is distinct from the redback , having slight structural differences and striking differences in habitat preference , and it remains its own species . The katipo 's family Theridiidae has a large number of species both in New Zealand and worldwide and are commonly known as tangle @-@ web spiders , cobweb spiders or comb @-@ footed spiders .
The common name , katipo , is Māori for " night stinger " , derived from the words kakati ( to sting ) and pō ( the night ) . This name was apparently given to the spider due to the Māori belief that the spiders bite at night . Other common names include red katipo , black katipo and New Zealand 's redback .
= = Description = =
The katipo is a small to medium @-@ sized spider . The mature female has a body size of about 8 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 31 in ) with a leg span of up to 32 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 3 in ) . The red katipo female , found in the South Island and the lower North Island , has a large black globular abdomen , about the size of a garden pea , with slender legs and a white @-@ bordered orange or red stripe on its back that runs from the uppermost surface of the abdomen back to the spinnerets . The dark velvet @-@ black abdomen is described as satin or silky in appearance , rather than being shiny . The underside of the abdomen is black and has a red patch or partial red hourglass @-@ shaped marking . It has mainly black legs with the extremities changing to brown . The black katipo female , found in the upper North Island , does not have a red stripe on the top of her body , and the abdominal colouration is usually lighter , but is otherwise very similar in appearance to the red katipo . The hourglass pattern on the underside of the abdomen may also be less distinct , losing the middle section , and may even be absent . Variations also exist whose abdomen , cephalothorax , or entire body is brown , sometimes with a dull red or yellow stripe , or cream @-@ coloured spots on its upper side . These different forms were at one point thought to be different species , but a 2008 study demonstrated they were different morphs of the same species .
Adult males and juveniles are quite different in appearance to the female . They are smaller in size , being about one sixth the size of an adult female . Juveniles have a brown carapace , with a predominantly white abdomen which has a series of red @-@ orange diamonds running along the dorsal region bordered on either side by irregular black lines . Males retain this coloration into adulthood . Due to its much smaller size , Urquhart ( 1886 ) believed the male to be a separate species and named it Theridion melanozantha . This was not rectified until 1933 when it was correctly identified as the male Latrodectus katipo .
= = Habitat = =
The katipo is restricted to a highly specialised habitat and is only found near the seashore living among sand dunes . They generally reside on the landward side of dunes closest to the coast where they are most sheltered from storms and sand movement . They can sometimes be associated with dunes several kilometres from the sea when these dunes extend inland for long distances .
Webs are typically established in low @-@ growing dune plants and other vegetation such as the native Pingao ( Desmoschoenus spiralis ) or the introduced marram grass ( Ammophila arenaria ) . They may also build their webs under driftwood , stones , or other debris such as empty tin cans or bottles . Webs are almost always constructed over open sand and near the ground so as to catch crawling insects for food . Spiders inhabiting dune grasses construct their webs in open spaces between the grass tufts , while spiders inhabiting areas of shrubbery do so on the underside of a plant overhanging open sand . It has been found that these patches of open sand are necessary for katipo to build their webs as plants that envelop sand dunes in dense cover , such as exotic plants like kikuyu or buffalo grass , create an environment unsuitable for web construction . The katipo therefore prefers to spin its web amongst pingao plants as this plants growth pattern leaves patches of sand between each plant . The wind can then blow insects and other prey through these gaps and into the web . Marram grass has been extensively planted in New Zealand to help stabilise sand dunes and has largely replaced pingao in many areas . Because marram grass grows in a very tight formation only leaving small gaps between tuffs , this makes it difficult for the katipo to construct a suitable web for capturing prey .
Like other theridiid spiders , the web is a disorganised , irregular tangle of fine textured silk . It is hammock @-@ shaped and is made up of opaque yellowish @-@ white silk . The web consists of a broad base with many supporting threads above and below , including a number of sticky guy lines anchored to debris in the sand . A cone @-@ shaped retreat is built in the lower part of the web , although the katipo can normally be found near the main body of the web . The plants it builds its web in provide support and shelter for the nest .
= = Range = =
The katipo is endemic to New Zealand . In the North Island it is found along the West Coast from Wellington to North Cape . On the east coast of the North Island it occurs irregularly , however , it is abundant on Great Barrier Island . In the South Island it is found in coastal regions south to Dunedin on the east coast and south to Greymouth on the west coast . This southern limit is due to the katipo needing temperatures higher than about 17 ° C ( 63 ° F ) to be maintained during the development of their eggs – in the southern areas of New Zealand it is typically colder than this .
The red katipo is found south of approximately 39 ° 15 ′ S ( the western tip of Taranaki on the west coast , and just north of Waipatiki Beach in Hawke 's Bay on the east coast ) . The black katipo is found north of approximately 38 ° S ( Aotea Harbour , just north of Kāwhia on the west coast , and Waipiro Bay and just south of the Bay of Plenty on the east coast ) . Both forms are found in the area in @-@ between these latitudes .
= = Behavior = =
= = = Diet = = =
The katipo typically catches wandering ground invertebrates such as beetles ( e.g. Cecyropa modesta ) or amphipods ( e.g. Bellorchestia quoyana ) , but it may occasionally catch moths , flies , and other spiders . Katipo can catch insects much larger than themselves . These larger insects often become entangled in the web and in the ensuing struggle , the web 's ground anchor line breaks . Due to the silk 's elasticity , this causes the prey to become suspended a few centimetres off the ground . The katipo then moves to the prey , turns so that the spinnerets are facing the insect and spins silk over it . Like most theridiids , the tarsi of the hind legs have a row of strong curved bristles which are arranged as a comb . The katipo uses these to scoop sticky silk from her spinnerets and throws it over the insect with a series of rapid movements . After the insect is firmly immobilised , she bites it several times , usually at the joints , before spinning more silk to strengthen the web , and then administering a last long bite which ultimately kills the insect . The spider then moves the prey up into the web until it is ready to eat . If food is readily available then it is common to see five or six insects hanging in the web waiting to be ingested . The male 's hunting behaviour is similar to the female 's , although may not be as vigorous due to its smaller size .
= = = Reproduction = = =
The male wanders as an adult and in August or September goes looking for the females ' webs to mate . The male will enter the female 's web and vibrate the silk as he approaches her . The female is usually aggressive at first and will chase the male from the web . The Courtship process consists of the male bobbing , plucking and tweaking the web along with periods of cautious approach and being chased by the female . Eventually , when she becomes docile and allows him to approach , the male will then approach the female as she hangs quietly upside down in the web . The male moves onto her ventral abdomen , tapping her rapidly until she moves to align his abdomen above hers . He then inserts his palps one at a time , leaving the female between each insertion . Copulation occurs over 10 to 30 minutes . After mating , the male retreats to groom , which is performed by running his palps and legs through his fangs and wiping them over his body . The male is not eaten by the female unlike some other widow spiders .
The females lay their eggs in November or December . The eggs are round , about the size of a mustard seed , and are a transparent , purply red . They are held together in a cream @-@ coloured , round , ball shaped egg sac which is about 12 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 47 in ) in diameter . The female constructs five or six egg sacs over the next three to four weeks . Each egg sac contains about 70 to 90 fertilised eggs . The egg sacs are hung in the centre of the spiders web and the female spins more silk over them . Over time the exterior of the egg sac may become covered with sand . After six weeks of incubation , during January and February , the spiderlings hatch . The young spiders then disperse from the web . At present , little is known about the dispersal mechanism that the spiderlings use to move away from the nest . In one study , observing spiders over 24 hours , 28 % used a ballooning method , which is where the young spiders use heat currents to carry themselves away from the nest suspended by a single web strand . While the majority , 61 % , used a bridging method where the spiderling uses its silk to move to nearby plants , and 11 % still remained in the nest . The young spiderlings reach full maturity the following spring .
The close relationship between the katipo and redback is shown when mating , The male redback is able to successfully mate with a female katipo producing hybrid offspring . However , the male katipo can not mate with the female redback as the male katipo is heavier than the male redback and when it approaches the web it triggers a predatory response in the female leading to the katipo being eaten before mating occurs . There is evidence of interbreeding between katipo and redbacks in the wild .
= = Predators = =
The katipo has only one known direct predator : a small , undescribed native wasp from the family Ichneumonidae has been observed feeding on katipo eggs .
= = Population decline = =
The katipo is an endangered species and has recently become threatened with extinction . It is estimated that there are only a few thousand katipo left in about 50 areas in the North Island and eight in the South Island , making it rarer than some species of kiwi . A number of reasons have contributed to its decline ; the major factors appear to be loss of habitat and declining quality of the remaining habitat . Human interference with their natural habitat has been occurring for over a century following European settlement . Coastal dune modification resulting from agriculture , forestry , or urban development along with recreational activities like the use of beach buggies , off road vehicles , beach horse riding and driftwood collection have destroyed or changed areas where katipo lives . The introduction of many invasive exotic plants has also contributed to the decline of suitable habitat .
Foreign spiders have colonised areas where suitable habitat remains . The major coloniser is the South African spider Steatoda capensis . It was first reported in the 1990s and may have displaced the katipo along the west coast of the North Island from Wellington to Wanganui . Although both the katipo and S. capensis have been found sharing the same dune systems or even co @-@ existing under the same piece of driftwood suggesting that the two species can co @-@ exist in similar habitats . It is possible that the displacement of the katipo by S. capensis is due to its ability to recolonise areas from which the katipo had been displaced after storms or other dune modifications . Furthermore , S. capensis breeds year @-@ round , produces more offspring and lives in a greater range of habitats which leads to greater pressure on the katipo . S. capensis also belongs to the family Theridiidae and shares many of the katipo 's features . It is of similar size , shape , general coloration , it lacks the red stripe on its back , but may have some red , orange or yellow on its abdomen , as well as the general location where katipos are found . Due to these similarities it is commonly known in New Zealand as the ‘ false katipo ’ .
In 2010 the katipo was one of a dozen species of previously @-@ unprotected invertebrate given full protection under the 1953 Wildlife Act , noted as " iconic , vulnerable to harm , and in serious decline " . Under the Act , killing an absolutely @-@ protected species such as a katipo is punishable by a fine or even imprisonment .
= = Toxicology = =
The katipo has medically significant venom in humans , although bites are rare . The incidence of bites is low as it is a shy , non @-@ aggressive spider . Their narrow range , diminishing population , and human awareness of where they live means interaction between humans and the spider is minimal . The katipo will only bite as a last resort ; if molested , the spider will usually fold up into a ball and drop to the ground or retreat to the nearest cover . If the threat continues , the spider may throw out silk against the interference . When restrained in any way or held against skin , such as if tangled up in clothing , the spider will then bite defensively . However , if the female is with an egg sac it will remain close by it and sometimes move offensively to bite any threat .
Bites from Katipo spiders produce a syndrome known as latrodectism . The venoms of all Latrodectus spiders are thought to contain similar components with the neurotoxin α @-@ latrotoxin the main agent responsible . Most bites are caused by female spiders ; the male katipo was considered too small to cause systemic envenoming in humans . However , bites from male redback spiders have been reported suggesting male Latrodectus spiders can cause envenoming in humans . Although bites by male spiders are much rarer than those by females , perhaps due to their smaller jaws rather than lacking venom of similar potency to females or being unable to administer an effective bite . Māori legends recall many deaths , the last of which appears to have been a Māori girl who – according to the missionary Thomas Chapman – died in approximately 1849 . While there were reports of severe katipo bites in 19th or early 20th century records , no other fatalities from spider bites have since been reported in New Zealand . The most recent fatality seems to have been in 1901 , as reported in the Evening Post on 25 September of that year : " AUCKLAND , This Day . Mr. George Twidle , aged 47 , son of Mr. George Twidle of Pukekohe , was bitten by a katipo spider on . September 16 . His arm swelled , and he suffered great pain till Saturday last , when he died . He leaves a widow and several children . " The most recent reported katipo bites ( as of 2016 ) were to a Canadian tourist in 2010 and a kayaker in 2012 .
= = = Symptoms = = =
The clinical features of latrodectism are similar for all species of Latrodectus spiders and is generally characterised by extreme pain . Initially , the bite may be painful , but sometimes only feels like a pin prick or mild burning sensation . Within an hour victims generally develop more severe local pain with local sweating and sometimes piloerection ( goosebumps ) . Pain , swelling and redness spread proximally from the site . Less commonly , systemic envenoming is heralded by swollen or tender regional lymph nodes ; associated features include malaise , nausea , vomiting , abdominal or chest pain , generalised sweating , headache , fever , hypertension and tremor . Rare complications include seizure , coma , pulmonary edema , respiratory failure or localised skin infection . The duration of effects can range from a few hours to days , with severe pain persisting for over 24 hours after being bitten in some cases .
= = = Treatment = = =
Treatment is based on the severity of the bite ; the majority of cases do not require medical care and patients with localised pain , swelling and redness usually only require local application of ice and routine analgesics . Hospital assessment is recommended if simple analgesia does not resolve local pain or clinical features of systemic envenoming occur . In more severe bites , Redback antivenom can be given . Redback antivenom can also cross @-@ neutralise katipo venom , and it is used to treat envenoming from Latrodectus katipo in New Zealand . It is available from most major New Zealand hospitals . Antivenom will usually relieve symptoms of systemic envenoming and is indicated in anyone suffering symptoms consistent with Latrodectus envenoming . Unlike some other antivenoms , it is not limited to patients with signs of severe , systemic envenoming . Particular indications for using antivenom are local then generalised pain , sweating or hypertension . However , good evidence to support the effectiveness of widow spider antivenoms is lacking and studies have cast some doubt on antivenoms efficacy in latrodectism . Pain relief agents , such as parenteral opiates , or benzodiazepines may be required as adjunct agents .
= Operation Storm =
Operation Storm ( Croatian : Operacija Oluja ) was the last major battle of the Croatian War of Independence and a major factor in the outcome of the Bosnian War . It was a decisive victory for the Croatian Army ( HV ) , which attacked across a 630 @-@ kilometre ( 390 mi ) front against the Republic of Serbian Krajina ( RSK ) , and a strategic victory for the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina ( ARBiH ) . The HV was supported by the Croatian special police advancing from the Velebit Mountain , and the ARBiH located in the Bihać pocket , in the Army of the Republic of Serb Krajina 's ( ARSK ) rear . The battle , launched to restore Croatian control of 10 @,@ 400 square kilometres ( 4 @,@ 000 square miles ) of territory , representing 18 @.@ 4 % of the territory it claimed , and Bosnian control of Western Bosnia , was the largest European land battle since the Second World War . Operation Storm commenced at dawn on 4 August 1995 and was declared complete on the evening of 7 August , despite significant mopping @-@ up operations against pockets of resistance lasting until 14 August .
Operation Storm was a strategic victory in the Bosnian War , effectively ending the siege of Bihać and placing the HV , Croatian Defence Council ( HVO ) and the ARBiH in a position to change the military balance of power in Bosnia and Herzegovina through the subsequent Operation Mistral 2 . The operation built on HV and HVO advances made during Operation Summer ' 95 , when strategic positions allowing the rapid capture of the RSK capital Knin were gained , and on the continued arming and training of the HV since the beginning of the Croatian War of Independence , when the RSK was created during the Serb Log revolution and Yugoslav People 's Army ( JNA ) intervention . The operation itself followed an unsuccessful United Nations ( UN ) peacekeeping mission and diplomatic efforts to settle the conflict .
The HV 's ( and ARBiH 's strategic ) success was a result of a series of improvements to the armies themselves , and crucial breakthroughs made in the ARSK positions that were subsequently exploited by the HV and the ARBiH . The attack was not immediately successful at all points , but seizing key positions led to the collapse of the ARSK command structure and overall defensive capability . The HV capture of Bosansko Grahovo just before Operation Storm , and the special police 's advance to Gračac , made it nearly impossible to defend Knin . In Lika , two guard brigades quickly cut the ARSK @-@ held area ( which lacked tactical depth and mobile reserve forces ) , isolating pockets of resistance , positioning a mobile force for a decisive northward thrust into the Karlovac Corps area of responsibility ( AOR ) , and pushing ARSK towards Banovina . The defeat of the ARSK at Glina and Petrinja , after a tough defence , defeated the ARSK Banija Corps as well , as its reserve was pinned down by the ARBiH . The RSK relied on the Republika Srpska and the Yugoslav militaries as its strategic reserve , but they did not intervene in the battle .
The HV and the special police suffered 174 – 211 killed or missing , while the ARSK had 560 soldiers killed . Four UN peacekeepers were also killed . The HV captured 4 @,@ 000 prisoners of war . The number of Serb civilian deaths is disputed — Croatia claims that 214 were killed , while Serbian sources cite 1 @,@ 192 civilians killed or missing . During and after the offensive , 150 @,@ 000 – 200 @,@ 000 Serbs — or nearly the entire Serb population of the area formerly held by the ARSK — fled and a variety of crimes were committed against the remaining civilians there . The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia ( ICTY ) later tried three Croatian generals charged with war crimes and partaking in a joint criminal enterprise designed to force the Serb population out of Croatia , although all three were ultimately acquitted and the tribunal refuted charges of a criminal enterprise . In 2010 , Serbia sued Croatia before the International Court of Justice ( ICJ ) , claiming that the offensive was an example of genocide . In 2015 , the court ruled that it was not genocidal , though it affirmed that the Serb population fled as a direct result of the offensive and that serious crimes against civilians had been committed by Croatian forces . As of November 2012 , the Croatian judiciary has convicted 2 @,@ 380 persons for various crimes committed during Operation Storm .
= = Background = =
In 1990 , following the electoral defeat of the government of the Socialist Republic of Croatia , ethnic tensions between Croats and Serbs worsened . Serbian President Slobodan Milošević used Franjo Tuđman 's actions to his advantage , portraying the Croatian leader and his Croatian Democratic Union ( HDZ ) as a reincarnation of the Ustaše , a fascist movement that had ruled Croatia during World War II .
In August 1990 , an insurgency known as the Log Revolution took place in Croatia centred on the predominantly Serb @-@ populated areas of the Dalmatian hinterland around the city of Knin , as well as in parts of the Lika , Kordun , and Banovina regions , and settlements in eastern Croatia with significant Serb populations . The areas were subsequently named the Republic of Serbian Krajina ( RSK ) and , after declaring its intention to integrate with Serbia , the Government of Croatia declared the RSK a rebellion . The conflict escalated by March 1991 , resulting in the Croatian War of Independence . In June 1991 , Croatia declared its independence as Yugoslavia disintegrated . A three @-@ month moratorium on Croatia 's and the RSK 's declarations followed , after which the decision came into effect on 8 October . The RSK then initiated a campaign of ethnic cleansing against Croat civilians and most non @-@ Serbs were expelled by early 1993 . By November 1993 , less than 400 ethnic Croats remained in the United Nations @-@ protected area known as Sector South , while a further 1 @,@ 500 – 2 @,@ 000 remained in Sector North .
As the Yugoslav People 's Army ( JNA ) increasingly supported the RSK and the Croatian Police was unable to cope with the situation , the Croatian National Guard ( ZNG ) was formed in May 1991 . The ZNG was renamed the Croatian Army ( HV ) in November . The establishment of the military of Croatia was hampered by a UN arms embargo introduced in September . The final months of 1991 saw the fiercest fighting of the war , culminating in the Battle of the Barracks , the Siege of Dubrovnik , and the Battle of Vukovar .
In January 1992 , an agreement to implement the Vance plan designed to stop the fighting was made by representatives of Croatia , the JNA and the UN . Ending the series of unsuccessful ceasefires , the United Nations Protection Force ( UNPROFOR ) was deployed to Croatia to supervise and maintain the agreement . A stalemate developed as the conflict evolved into static trench warfare , and the JNA soon retreated from Croatia into Bosnia and Herzegovina , where a new conflict was anticipated . Serbia continued to support the RSK , but a series of HV advances restored small areas to Croatian control as the siege of Dubrovnik ended , and Operation Maslenica resulted in minor tactical gains . In response to the HV successes , the Army of the Republic of Serb Krajina ( ARSK ) intermittently attacked a number of Croat towns and villages with artillery and missiles .
As the JNA disengaged in Croatia , its personnel prepared to set up a new Bosnian Serb army , as Bosnian Serbs declared the Serbian Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina on 9 January 1992 , ahead of a 29 February – 1 March 1992 referendum on the independence of Bosnia and Herzegovina . The referendum was later cited as a pretext for the Bosnian War . Bosnian Serbs set up barricades in the capital , Sarajevo , and elsewhere on 1 March , and the next day the first fatalities of the war were recorded in Sarajevo and Doboj . In the final days of March , the Bosnian Serb army started shelling Bosanski Brod , and on 4 April , Sarajevo was attacked . By the end of the year , the Bosnian Serb army — renamed the Army of Republika Srpska ( VRS ) after the Republika Srpska state was proclaimed — controlled about 70 % of Bosnia and Herzegovina . That proportion would not change significantly over the next two years . Even though the war originally pitted Bosnian Serbs against non @-@ Serbs in the country , it evolved into a three @-@ sided conflict by the end of the year , as the Croat – Bosniak War started . The RSK was supported to a limited extent by the Republika Srpska , which launched occasional air raids from Banja Luka and bombarded several cities in Croatia .
= = Prelude = =
In November 1994 , the Siege of Bihać , a battle of the Bosnian War , entered a critical stage as the VRS and the ARSK came close to capturing the town of Bihać from the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina ( ARBiH ) . It was a strategic area and , since June 1993 , Bihać had been one of six United Nations Safe Areas established in Bosnia and Herzegovina . The US administration felt that its capture by Serb forces would intensify the war and lead to a humanitarian disaster greater than any other in the conflict to that point . Amongst the United States , France and the United Kingdom , division existed regarding how to protect the area . The US called for airstrikes against the VRS , but the French and the British opposed them citing safety concerns and a desire to maintain the neutrality of French and British troops deployed as a part of the UNPROFOR in Bosnia and Herzegovina . In turn , the US was unwilling to commit ground troops . On the other hand , the Europeans recognized that the US was free to propose military confrontation with the Serbs while relying on the European powers to block any such move , since French President François Mitterrand discouraged any military intervention , greatly aiding the Serb war effort . The French stance reversed after Jacques Chirac was elected president of France in May 1995 , pressuring the British to adopt a more aggressive approach as well . Denying Bihać to the Serbs was also strategically important to Croatia , and General Janko Bobetko , the Chief of the Croatian General Staff , considered the potential fall of Bihać to represent an end to Croatia 's war effort .
In March 1994 , the Washington Agreement was signed , ending the Croat – Bosniak War , and providing Croatia with US military advisors from Military Professional Resources Incorporated ( MPRI ) . The US involvement reflected a new military strategy endorsed by Bill Clinton in February 1993 . Because the UN arms embargo was still in place , MPRI was hired ostensibly to prepare the HV for participation in the NATO Partnership for Peace programme . MPRI trained HV officers and personnel for 14 weeks from January to April 1995 . It has also been speculated in several sources , including an article in The New York Times by Leslie Wayne and in various Serbian media reports , that MPRI may also have provided doctrinal advice , scenario planning and US government satellite intelligence to Croatia , although MPRI , American and Croatian officials have denied such claims . In November 1994 , the United States unilaterally ended the arms embargo against Bosnia and Herzegovina , in effect allowing the HV to supply itself as arms shipments flowed through Croatia .
The Washington Agreement also resulted in a series of meetings between Croatian and US government and military officials in Zagreb and Washington , D.C. On 29 November 1994 , the Croatian representatives proposed to attack Serb @-@ held territory from Livno in Bosnia and Herzegovina , in order to draw away part of the force besieging Bihać and to prevent the town 's capture by the Serbs . As the US officials gave no response to the proposal , the Croatian General Staff ordered Operation Winter ' 94 the same day , to be carried out by the HV and the Croatian Defence Council ( HVO ) — the main military force of the Bosnian Croats . In addition to contributing to the defence of Bihać , the attack shifted the HV 's and HVO 's line of contact closer to the RSK 's supply routes .
In 1994 , the United States , Russia , the European Union ( EU ) and the UN sought to replace the Vance plan , which brought in the UNPROFOR . They formulated the Z @-@ 4 Plan giving Serb @-@ majority areas in Croatia substantial autonomy . After numerous and frequently uncoordinated changes to the proposed plan , including leaking of its draft elements to the press in October , the Z @-@ 4 Plan was presented on 30 January 1995 . Neither Croatia nor the RSK liked the plan . Croatia was concerned that the RSK might accept it , but Tuđman realised that Milošević , who would ultimately make the decision for the RSK , would not accept the plan for fear that it would set a precedent for a political settlement in Kosovo — allowing Croatia to accept the plan with little possibility for it to be implemented . The RSK refused to receive , let alone accept , the plan .
In December 1994 , Croatia and the RSK made an economic agreement to restore road and rail links , water and gas supplies , and use of a part of the Adria oil pipeline . Even though some of the agreement was never implemented , a section of the Zagreb – Belgrade motorway passing through RSK territory near Okučani and the pipeline were both opened . Following a deadly incident that occurred in late April 1995 on the recently opened motorway , Croatia reclaimed all of the RSK 's territory in western Slavonia during Operation Flash , taking full control of the territory by 4 May , three days after the battle began . In response , the ARSK attacked Zagreb using M @-@ 87 Orkan missiles with cluster munitions . Subsequently , Milošević sent a senior Yugoslav Army officer to command the ARSK , along with arms , field officers and thousands of Serbs born in the RSK area who had been forcibly conscripted by the ARSK .
On 17 July , the ARSK and the VRS started a fresh effort to capture Bihać by expanding on gains made during Operation Spider . The move provided the HV with a chance to extend their territorial gains from Operation Winter ' 94 by advancing from the Livno valley . On 22 July , Tuđman and Bosnian President Alija Izetbegović signed the Split Agreement for mutual defence , permitting the large @-@ scale deployment of the HV in Bosnia and Herzegovina . The HV and HVO responded quickly through Operation Summer ' 95 ( Croatian : Ljeto ' 95 ) , capturing Bosansko Grahovo and Glamoč on 28 – 29 July . The attack drew some ARSK units away from Bihać , but not as many as expected . However , it put the HV in an excellent position , as it isolated Knin from the Republika Srpska , as well as Yugoslavia .
In late July and early August , there were two more attempts at resurrecting the Z @-@ 4 Plan and the 1994 economic agreement . Talks proposed on 28 July were ignored by the RSK , and last @-@ ditch talks were held in Geneva on 3 August . These quickly broke down as Croatia and the RSK rejected a compromise proposed by Thorvald Stoltenberg , a Special Representative of the UN Secretary @-@ General , essentially calling for further negotiations at a later date . In addition , the RSK dismissed a set of Croatian demands , including to disarm , and failed to endorse the Z @-@ 4 Plan once again . The talks were used by Croatia to prepare diplomatic ground for the imminent Operation Storm , whose planning was completed during the Brijuni Islands meeting between Tuđman and military commanders on 31 July . The HV started large @-@ scale mobilization in late July , soon after General Zvonimir Červenko became its new Chief of General Staff on 15 July .
= = Order of battle = =
The HV operational plan was set out in four separate parts , designated Storm @-@ 1 through 4 , which were allocated to various corps based upon their individual areas of responsibility ( AORs ) . Each plan was scheduled to take between four and five days . The forces that the HV allocated to attack the RSK were organised into five army corps : Split , Gospić , Karlovac , Zagreb and Bjelovar Corps . A sixth zone was assigned to the Croatian special police inside the Split Corps AOR , near the boundary with the Gospić Corps . The HV Split Corps , located in the far south of the theatre of operations and commanded by Lieutenant General Ante Gotovina , was assigned the Storm @-@ 4 plan , which was the primary component of Operation Storm . The Split Corps issued orders for the battle using the name Kozjak @-@ 95 instead , which was not an unusual practice . The 30 @,@ 000 @-@ strong Split Corps was opposed by the 10 @,@ 000 @-@ strong ARSK 7th North Dalmatia Corps , headquartered in Knin and commanded by Major General Slobodan Kovačević . The 3 @,@ 100 @-@ strong special police , deployed to the Velebit Mountain on the left flank of the Split Corps , were directly subordinated to the HV General Staff commanded by the Lieutenant General Mladen Markač .
The 25 @,@ 000 @-@ strong HV Gospić Corps was assigned the Storm @-@ 3 component of the operation , to the left of the special police zone . It was commanded by Brigadier Mirko Norac , and opposed by the ARSK 15th Lika Corps , headquartered in Korenica and commanded by Major General Stevan Ševo . The Lika Corps , consisting of about 6 @,@ 000 troops , was sandwiched between the HV Gospić Corps and the ARBiH in the Bihać pocket in ARSK rear , forming a wide but a very shallow area . The ARBiH 5th Corps deployed about 2 @,@ 000 troops in the zone . The Gospić Corps , assigned a 150 @-@ kilometre ( 93 mi ) section of the front , was tasked with cutting the RSK in half and linking up with the ARBiH , while the ARBiH was tasked with pinning down ARSK forces that were in contact with the Bihać pocket .
The HV Karlovac Corps , commanded by Major General Miljenko Crnjac , on the left flank of the Gospić Corps , covered the area extending from Ogulin to Karlovac , including Kordun , and executed the Storm @-@ 2 plan . The corps was composed of 15 @,@ 000 troops and was tasked with pinning down the ARSK forces in the area to protect the flanks of the Zagreb and Gospić Corps . It had a forward command post in Ogulin and was opposed by the ARSK 21st Kordun Corps headquartered at Petrova Gora , consisting of 4 @,@ 000 troops in the AOR ( one of its brigades was facing the Zagreb Corps ) . Initially , the 21st Kordun Corps was commanded by Colonel Veljko Bosanac , but he was replaced by Colonel Čedo Bulat during the evening of 5 August . In addition , the bulk of the ARSK Special Units Corps was present in the area , commanded by Major General Milorad Stupar . ARSK Special Units Corps was 5 @,@ 000 @-@ strong , largely facing the Bihać pocket at the onset of Operation Storm . The ARSK armour and artillery in the AOR outnumbered that of the HV .
The HV Zagreb Corps , assigned the Storm @-@ 1 plan , initially commanded by Major General Ivan Basarac , on the left flank of the Karlovac Corps , was deployed on three main axes of attack — towards Glina , Petrinja and Hrvatska Kostajnica . It was opposed by the ARSK 39th Banija Corps , headquartered in Glina and commanded by Major General Slobodan Tarbuk . The Zagreb Corps was tasked with bypassing Petrinja to neutralize ARSK artillery and missiles potentially targeting Croatian cities , making a secondary thrust from Sunja towards Hrvatska Kostajnica . Their secondary mission was compromised when a battalion of the special police and the 81st Guards Battalion planned to spearhead the advance were deployed elsewhere forcing modifications to the plan . The Zagreb Corps was composed of 30 @,@ 000 troops , while the ARSK had 9 @,@ 000 facing them and about 1 @,@ 000 ARBiH troops in the Bihać pocket to their rear . At the start of Operation Storm , about 3 @,@ 500 ARSK troops were in contact with the ARBiH . HV Bjelovar Corps , on the left flank of the Zagreb Corps , covering the area along the Una River , had a forward command post in Novska . The corps was commanded by Major General Luka Džanko . Opposite the Bjelovar Corps was a part of the ARSK Banija Corps . The Bjelovar Corps was included in the attack on 2 August and were therefore not issued a separate operations plan .
The ARSK divided its forces in the area in two , subordinating the North Dalmatia and Lika Corps to the ARSK General Staff , and grouping the rest into the Kordun Operational Group commanded by Lieutenant Colonel General Mile Novaković . Territorially , the division corresponded to the North and South sectors of the UN protected areas .
Estimates of the total number of troops deployed by the belligerents vary considerably . Croatian forces have been estimated from under 100 @,@ 000 to 150 @,@ 000 , but most sources put the figure at about 130 @,@ 000 troops . ARSK troop strength in the Sectors North and South was estimated by the HV prior to Operation Storm at approximately 43 @,@ 000 . More detailed HV estimates of the manpower by individual ARSK corps indicated 34 @,@ 000 soldiers , while Serb sources quote 27 @,@ 000 troops . The discrepancy is usually reflected in literature as an estimate of about 30 @,@ 000 ARSK troops . The ARBiH deployed approximately 3 @,@ 000 troops against the ARSK positions near Bihać . In late 1994 , the Fikret Abdić @-@ led Autonomous Province of Western Bosnia ( APWB ) — a sliver of land northwest of Bihać between its ally RSK and the pocket — commanded 4 @,@ 000 – 5 @,@ 000 soldiers who were deployed south of Velika Kladuša against the ARBiH force .
= = Operation timeline = =
= = = 4 August 1995 = = =
Operation Storm started at 5 a.m. on 4 August 1995 when coordinated attacks were executed by reconnaissance and sabotage detachments in concert with Croatian Air Force ( CAF ) air strikes aimed at disrupting ARSK command , control , and communications . UN peacekeepers , known as United Nations Confidence Restoration Operation ( UNCRO ) , were notified three hours in advance of the attack when Tuđman 's chief of staff , Hrvoje Šarinić , telephoned UNCRO commander , French Army General Bernard Janvier . In addition , each HV corps notified the UNCRO sector in its path of the attack , requesting written confirmations of receipt of the information . The UNCRO relayed the information to the RSK , confirming the warnings RSK received from the Yugoslav Army General Staff the previous day .
= = = = Sector South = = = =
In the Split Corps AOR , at 5 a.m. the 7th Guards Brigade advanced south from Bosansko Grahovo towards the high ground ahead of Knin after a period of artillery preparation . Moving against the ARSK 3rd Battlegroup , consisting of elements of the North Dalmatian Corps and RSK police , the 7th Guards achieved its objectives for the day and allowed the 4th Guards Brigade to attack . The HV Sinj Operational Group ( OG ) , on the left flank of the two brigades , joined the attack and the 126th Home Guard Regiment captured Uništa , gaining control of the area overlooking the Sinj – Knin road . The 144th Brigade and the 6th Home Guard Regiment also pushed ARSK forces back . The Šibenik OG units faced the ARSK 75th Motorized Brigade and a part of the 2nd Infantry Brigade of the ARSK North Dalmatian Corps . There , the 142nd and the 15th Home Guard Regiments made minor progress in the area between Krka and Drniš , while the 113th Infantry Brigade made a slightly greater advance on their left flank , to Čista Velika . In the Zadar OG area , the 134th Home Guard Regiment ( without its 2nd Battalion ) failed to advance , while the 7th Home Guard Regiment and the 112th HV Brigade gained little ground against the ARSK 92nd Motorized and 3rd Infantry Brigades at Benkovac . On the Velebit , the 2nd Battalion of the 9th Guards Brigade , reinforced with a company from the 7th Home Guard Regiment , and the 2nd Battalion of the 134th Home Guard Regiment met stiff resistance but advanced sufficiently to secure use of the Obrovac – Sveti Rok road . At 4 : 45 p.m. , a decision to evacuate the population in the Northern Dalmatia and Lika areas was made by RSK President Milan Martić . According to RSK Major General Milisav Sekulić , Martić ordered the evacuation hoping to coax Milošević and the international community to help the RSK . Nonetheless , the evacuation was extended the whole sectors North and South , except Kordun region . In the evening the ARSK General Staff moved from Knin to Srb , about 35 kilometres ( 22 miles ) to the northwest .
At 5 a.m. , Croatian special police advanced to the Mali Alan pass on the Velebit , encountering strong resistance from the ARSK Lika Corps ' 4th Light Brigade and elements of the 9th Motorized Brigade . The pass was captured at 1 p.m. , and Sveti Rok village was captured at about 5 p.m. The special police advanced further beyond Mali Alan , meeting more resistance at 9 p.m. and then bivouacking until 5 a.m. The ARSK 9th Motorized Brigade withdrew to Udbina after being forced out of its positions on the Velebit . In the morning , the special police captured Lovinac , Gračac and Medak .
In the Gospić Corps AOR , the 138th Home Guard Regiment and the 1st Battalion of the 1st Guards Brigade began an eastward attack in the Mala Kapela area in the morning , meeting heavy resistance from the ARSK 70th Infantry Brigade . The rest of the 1st Guards joined in around midnight . The 133rd Home Guard Regiment attacked east of Otočac , towards Vrhovine , attempting to encircle the ARSK 50th Infantry Brigade and elements of the ARSK 103rd Infantry Brigade in a pincer movement . Even though the regiment advanced , it failed to achieve its objective for the day . On the regiment 's right flank , the HV 128th Brigade advanced together with the 3rd Battalion of the 8th Home Guard Regiment and cut through the Vrhovine – Korenica road . The rest of the 9th Guards Brigade , the bulk of the HV 118th Home Guard Regiment and the 111th Infantry Brigade advanced east from Gospić and Lički Osik , coming up against very strong resistance from the ARSK 18th Infantry Brigade . As a result of these setbacks , the Gospić Corps ended the day short of the objectives it had been given .
= = = = Sector North = = = =
In the Ogulin area of the HV Karlovac Corps AOR , the 99th Brigade , reinforced by the 143rd Home Guard Regiment 's Saborsko Company , moved towards Plaški at 5 a.m. , but the force was stopped and turned back in disarray by 6 p.m. The 143rd Home Guard Regiment advanced from Josipdol towards Plaški , encountering minefields and strong ARSK resistance . Its elements connected with the 14th Home Guard Regiment , advancing through Barilović towards Slunj . Near the city of Karlovac , the 137th Home Guard Regiment deployed four reconnaissance groups around midnight of 3 – 4 August , followed by artillery preparation and crossing of the Korana River at 5 a.m. The advance was fiercely resisted by the ARSK 13th Infantry Brigade , but the bridgehead was stable by the end of the day . The 110th Home Guard Regiment , reinforced by a company of the 137th Home Guard Regiment , advanced east to the road leading south from Karlovac to Vojnić and Slunj , where it met heavy resistance and suffered more casualties to landmines , demoralizing the unit and preventing its further advance . In addition , the attached company of the 137th Home Guard Regiment and the 104th Brigade failed to secure the regiment 's flanks . The 104th Brigade tried to cross the Kupa River at 5 a.m. , but failed and fell back to its starting position by 8 a.m. , at which time it was shifted to the bridgehead established by the 110th Home Guard Regiment . A company of the 99th Brigade was attached to the 143rd Home Guard Regiment for operations the next day , and a 250 @-@ strong battlegroup was removed from the brigade and subordinated to the Karlovac Corps directly .
In the Zagreb Corps area , the HV moved across the Kupa River at two points towards Glina — in and near Pokupsko , using the 20th Home Guard Regiment and the 153rd Brigade . Both crossings established bridgeheads , although the bulk of the units were forced to retreat as the ARSK counter @-@ attacked — only a battalion of the 153rd Brigade and elements of the 20th Home Guard Regiment held their ground . The crossings prompted the ARSK General Staff to order the 2nd Armoured Brigade of the Special Units Corps to move from Slunj to the bridgeheads , as the HV advance threatened a vital road in Glina . The HV 2nd Guards Brigade and the 12th Home Guard Regiment were tasked with the quick capture of Petrinja from the ARSK 31st Motorized Brigade in a pincer movement . The original plan , involving thrusts six to seven kilometres ( 3 @.@ 7 to 4 @.@ 3 miles ) south of Petrinja , was amended by Basarac to a direct assault on the city . On the right flank , the regiment was soon stopped by minefields and forced to retreat , while the bulk of the 2nd Guards Brigade advanced until it wavered following the loss of a company commander and five soldiers . The rest of the 2nd Guards Brigade — reinforced by the 2nd Battalion , elements of the 12th Home Guard Regiment , the 5th Antitank Artillery Battalion and the 31st Engineers Battalion — formed Tactical Group 2 ( TG2 ) operating on the left flank of the attack . TG2 advanced from Mošćenica , a short distance from Petrinja , but was stopped after the 2nd Battalion 's commander and six soldiers were killed . The ARSK 31st Motorized Brigade also panicked but managed to stabilize its defences as it received reinforcements . The HV 57th Brigade advanced south of Petrinja , intent on reaching the Petrinja – Hrvatska Kostajnica road , but ran into a minefield where the brigade commander was killed , while the 101st Brigade to its rear suffered heavy artillery fire and casualties . In the Sunja area , the 17th Home Guard Regiment and a company of the 151st Brigade unsuccessfully attacked the ARSK 26th Infantry Brigade . Later that day , a separate attack by the rest of the 151st Brigade also failed . The HV 103rd Brigade advanced to the Sunja – Sisak railroad , but had to retreat under heavy fire . The Zagreb Corps failed to meet any objective of the first day . This was attributed to inadequate manpower and as a result the corps requested the mobilization of the 102nd Brigade and the 1st and 21st Home Guard Regiments . The 2nd Guards Brigade was reinforced by the 1st Battalion of the 149th Brigade previously held in reserve in Ivanić Grad .
In the Bjelovar Corps AOR , two battalions of the 125th Home Guard Regiment crossed the Sava River near Jasenovac , secured a bridgehead for trailing HV units and advanced towards Hrvatska Dubica . The two battalions were followed by an additional company of the same regiment , a battalion of the 52nd Home Guard Regiment , the 265th Reconnaissance Company and finally the 24th Home Guard Regiment battlegroup . A reconnaissance platoon of the 52nd Home Guard Regiment crossed the Sava River into the Republika Srpska , established a bridgehead for two infantry companies and subsequently demolished the Bosanska Dubica – Gradiška road before returning to Croatian soil . The Bjelovar Corps units reached the outskirts of Hrvatska Dubica before nightfall . That night , the town of Hrvatska Dubica was abandoned by the ARSK troops and the civilian population . They fled south across the Sava River into Bosnia and Herzegovina .
= = = 5 August 1995 = = =
= = = = Sector South = = = =
The HV did not advance towards Knin during the night of 4 / 5 August when the ARSK General Staff ordered a battalion of the 75th Motorized Brigade to stage themselves north of Knin . The ARSK North Dalmatian Corps became increasingly uncoordinated as the HV 4th Guards Brigade advanced south towards Knin , protecting the right flank of the 7th Guards Brigade . The latter met little resistance and entered the town at about 11 a.m. Lieutenant General Ivan Čermak was appointed commander of the newly established HV Knin Corps . Sinj OG completed its objectives , capturing Kozjak and Vrlika , and meeting little resistance as the ARSK 1st Light Brigade disintegrated , retreating to Knin and later to Lika . By 8 p.m. , Šibenik OG units advanced to Poličnik ( 113th Brigade ) , Đevrske ( 15th Home Guard Regiment ) , and captured Drniš ( 142nd Home Guard Regiment ) , while the ARSK 75th Motorized Brigade retreated towards Srb and Bosanski Petrovac together with the 3rd Infantry and the 92nd Motorized Brigades , leaving the Zadar OG units with little opposition . The 7th Home Guard Regiment captured Benkovac , while the 112th Brigade entered Smilčić and elements of the 9th Guards Brigade reached Obrovac .
The 138th Home Guard Regiment and the 1st Guards Brigade advanced to Lička Jasenica , the latter pressing their attack further towards Saborsko , with the 2nd Battalion of the HV 119th Brigade reaching the area in the evening . The HV reinforced the 133rd Home Guard Regiment with a battalion of the 150th Brigade enabling the regiment to achieve its objectives of the previous day , partially encircling the ARSK force in Vrhovine . The 154th Home Guard Regiment was mobilized and deployed to the Ličko Lešće area . The 9th Guards Brigade ( without its 2nd Battalion ) advanced towards Udbina Air Base , where ARSK forces started to evacuate . The 111th Brigade and the 118th Home Guard Regiment also made small advances , linking up behind ARSK lines .
= = = = Sector North = = = =
The 143rd Home Guard Regiment advanced towards Plaški , capturing it that evening , while the 14th Home Guard Regiment captured Primišlje , 12 kilometres ( 7 @.@ 5 miles ) northwest of Slunj . At 0 : 30 a.m. , the ARSK 13th Infantry Brigade and a company of the 19th Infantry Brigade counter @-@ attacked at the Korana bridgehead , causing the bulk of the 137th Home Guard Regiment to panic and flee across the river . A single platoon of the regiment remained but the ARSK troops did not exploit the opportunity to destroy the bridgehead . In the morning , the regiment reoccupied the bridgehead , reinforced by a 350 @-@ strong battlegroup drawn from the 104th Brigade ( including a tank platoon and multiple rocket launchers ) , and a company of the 148th Brigade from the Karlovac Corps operational reserve . The regiment and the battlegroup managed to extend the bridgehead towards the Karlovac – Slunj road . The 110th Home Guard Regiment attacked again south of Karlovac , but was repelled by prepared ARSK defences . That night , the Karlovac Corps decided to move elements of the 110th Home Guard Regiment and the 104th Brigade to the Korana bridgehead , while the ARSK 13th Infantry Brigade retreated to the right bank of Korana in an area extending about 30 kilometres ( 19 miles ) north from Slunj .
The Zagreb Corps made little or no progress on day two of the battle . Part of the 2nd Guards Brigade was ordered to drive towards Glina with the 20th Home Guards Regiment making a modest advance , while the 153rd Brigade abandoned its bridgehead . In the area of Petrinja , the HV advanced gradually only to be pushed back in some areas by an ARSK counter @-@ attack . The results were reversed at significant cost by a renewed push by the 2nd Guards Brigade . The Zagreb Corps commander was replaced by Lieutenant General Petar Stipetić on orders from President Tuđman . The HV reassigned the 102nd Brigade to drive to Glina , and the 57th Brigade was reinforced with the 2nd Battalion of the 149th Brigade . The 145th Brigade was moved from Popovača to the Sunja area , where the 17th Home Guard Regiment and the 151st Brigade made minor advances into the ARSK @-@ held area .
In the Bjelovar Corps AOR , Hrvatska Dubica was captured by the 52nd and the 24th Home Guard Regiments advancing from the east and the 125th Home Guard Regiment approaching from the north . The 125th Home Guard Regiment garrisoned the town , while the 52nd Home Guard Regiment moved northwest towards expected Zagreb Corps positions , but the Zagreb Corps ' delays prevented any link @-@ up . The 24th Home Guard Regiment advanced about four kilometres ( 2 @.@ 5 miles ) towards Hrvatska Kostajnica when it was stopped by ARSK troops . In response , the Corps called in a battalion and a reconnaissance platoon of the 121st Home Guard Regiment from Nova Gradiška to aid the push to the town . The ARBiH 505th and 511th Mountain Brigades advanced north to Dvor and engaged the ARSK 33rd Infantry Brigade — the only reserve unit of the Banija Corps .
= = = 6 August 1995 = = =
On 6 August , the HV conducted mopping @-@ up operations in the areas around Obrovac , Benkovac , Drniš and Vrlika , as President Tuđman visited Knin . After securing their objectives on or near Velebit , the special police was deployed on foot behind ARSK lines to hinder movement of ARSK troops there , capturing strategic intersections in the villages of Bruvno at 7 a.m. and Otrić at 11 a.m.
At midnight , elements of the ARBiH 501st and 502nd Mountain Brigades advanced west from Bihać against a skeleton force of the ARSK Lika Corps that had been left behind since the beginning of the battle . The 501st moved about 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 miles ) into Croatian territory , to Ličko Petrovo Selo and Plitvice Lakes by 8 a.m. The 502nd captured an ARSK radar and communications facility on Plješivica Mountain , and proceeded towards Korenica where it was stopped by the ARSK units . The HV 1st Guards Brigade reached Rakovica and linked up with the Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina 5th Corps in the area of Drežnik Grad by 11 a.m. It was supported by the 119th Brigade and a battalion of the 154th Home Guard Regiment deployed in the Tržačka Raštela and Ličko Petrovo Selo areas . In the afternoon , a link @-@ up ceremony was held for the media in Tržačka Raštela . The 138th Home Guard Regiment completely encircled Vrhovine , which was captured by the end of the day by the 8th and the 133rd Home Guard Regiments , reinforced with a battalion of the 150th Brigade . The HV 128th Brigade entered Korenica while the 9th Guards Brigade continued towards Udbina .
The 143rd Home Guard Regiment advanced to Broćanac where it connected with the 1st Guards Brigade . From there the regiment continued towards Slunj , accompanied by elements of the 1st Guards Brigade and the 14th Home Guard Regiment , capturing the town at 3 p.m. The advance of the 14th Home Guard Regiment was supported by the 148th Brigade guarding its flanks . The ARSK 13th Infantry Brigade retreated from Slunj , together with the civilian population , moving north towards Topusko . An attack by the 137th Home Guard Regiment , and the elements of various units reinforcing it , extended the bridgehead and connected it with the 14th Home Guard Regiment in Veljun , 18 kilometres ( 11 miles ) north of Slunj . The rest of the 149th Brigade ( without the 1st Battalion ) was reassigned from the Zagreb Corps to the Karlovac Corps to reinforce the 137th Home Guard Regiment . At 11 a.m. , an agreement was reached between the ARSK and civilian authorities in Glina and Vrginmost , securing the evacuation of civilians from the area . The ARBiH 502nd Mountain Brigade also moved north , flanking the APWB capital of Velika Kladuša from the west , and capturing the town by the end of the day .
The TG2 advanced to Petrinja at about 7 a.m. after a heavy artillery preparation . The 12th Home Guard Regiment entered the city from the west and was subsequently assigned to garrison Petrinja and its surrounding area . After the loss of Petrinja to the HV , the bulk of the ARSK Banija Corps started to retreat towards Dvor . The HV 57th Brigade advanced against light resistance and took control of the Petrinja – Hrvatska Kostajnica road . During the night of 6 / 7 August , the 20th Home Guard Regiment , supported by Croatian police and elements of the 153rd Brigade , captured Glina despite strong resistance . The 153rd Brigade then took positions that allowed the advance to continue towards the village of Maja in coordination with the 2nd Guards Brigade , which drove south from Petrinja towards Zrinska gora conducting mop @-@ up operations . The 140th Home Guard Regiment flanked the 2nd Guards Brigade on the northern slope of Zrinska Gora , while the 57th Brigade captured Umetić . The 103rd and the 151st Brigades , and the 17th Home Guard Regiment , advanced towards Hrvatska Kostajnica , with the addition of a battalion of the HV 145th Brigade which would arrive that afternoon . Around noon , the 151st Brigade connected with the Bjelovar Corps units on the Sunja – Hrvatska Dubica road . They were assigned to secure roads in the area afterwards .
By capturing Glina , the HV trapped the bulk of the ARSK Kordun Corps and about 35 @,@ 000 evacuating civilians in the area of Topusko , prompting its commander to request UNCRO protection . The 1st Guards Brigade , approaching Topusko from Vojnić , received orders to engage the ARSK Kordun Corps , but the orders were cancelled at midnight by the chief of the HV General Staff . Instead , the Zagreb Corps was instructed to prepare a brigade @-@ strength unit to escort unarmed persons and ARSK officers and non @-@ commissioned officers with side arms to Dvor and allow them to cross into Bosnia and Herzegovina . Based on information obtained from UN troops , it was believed that the ARSK forces in Banovina were about to surrender .
A battalion of the 121st Home Guard Regiment entered Hrvatska Kostajnica , while the 24th Home Guard Regiment battlegroup secured the national border behind them . The 52nd Home Guard Regiment connected with the Zagreb Corps and then turned south to the town , reaching it that evening . The capture of Hrvatska Kostajnica marked the fulfilment of all of the Bjelovar Corps ' objectives .
= = = 7 August 1995 = = =
The 1st Croatian Guards Brigade ( 1 @.@ hrvatski gardijski zdrug - HGZ ) arrived in the Knin area to connect with elements of the 4th , 7th and 9th Guards Brigades , tasked with a northward advance the next day . The Split Corps command moved to Knin as well . The Croatian special police proceeded to Gornji Lapac and Donji Lapac arriving by 2 p.m. and completing the boundary between the Gospić and Split Corps AORs . The Croatian special police also made contact with the 4th Guards Brigade in Otrić and the Gospić Corps units in Udbina by 3 p.m. By 7 p.m. , a battalion of the special police reached the border near Kulen Vakuf , securing the area .
In the morning , the 9th Guards Brigade ( without its 2nd Battalion ) captured Udbina , where it connected with the 154th Home Guard Regiment , approaching from the opposite side of the Krbava Polje ( Croatian : Polje or karst field ) . By the end of the day , Operation Storm objectives assigned to the Gospić Corps were completed .
A forward command post of the HV General Staff was moved from Ogulin to Slunj , and it assumed direct command of the 1st Guards Brigade , the 14th Home Guard Regiment and the 99th Brigade . The 14th Home Guard Regiment secured the Slunj area and deployed to the left bank of Korana to connect with the advancing Karlovac special police . Elements of the regiment and the 99th Brigade secured the national border in the area . The 1st Guards Brigade advanced towards Kordun , as the Karlovac Corps reoriented its main axis of attack . The 110th Home Guard Regiment and elements of the 104th Brigade reached a largely deserted Vojnić in early afternoon , followed by the 1st Guards Brigade , the 143rd Home Guard Brigade and the 137th Home Guard Regiment . Other HV units joined them by evening .
The 2nd Guards Brigade advanced from Maja towards Dvor , but was stopped approximately 25 kilometres ( 16 miles ) short by ARSK units protecting the withdrawal of the ARSK and civilians towards the town . Elements of the brigade performed mopping @-@ up operations in the area . The ARSK 33rd Infantry Brigade held the road bridge in Dvor that connected the ARSK and the Republika Srpska across the Una River . The brigade was overwhelmed by the ARBiH 5th Corps , and it retreated south of Una , as the ARSK 13th Infantry Brigade and the civilians from Kordun were reaching Dvor . Elements of the 17th Home Guard Regiment and the HV 145th and 151st Brigades reached Dvor via Hrvatska Kostajnica and came into contact with the ARSK 13th Infantry Brigade and elements of the ARSK 24th Infantry and 2nd Armoured Brigades , who had retreated from Glina . As the expected surrender of the ARSK Kordun Corps did not materialize , the HV was ordered to reengage . Despite major pockets of resistance , Croatia 's defence minister , Gojko Šušak , declared major operations over at 6 p.m. , 84 hours after the battle had started .
= = = 8 – 14 August 1995 = = =
On 8 August , the 4th and the 7th Guards Brigades , the 2nd Battalion of the 9th Guards Brigade and the 1st HGZ advanced north to Lička Kaldrma and the border of Bosnia and Herzegovina , eliminating the last major pocket of ARSK resistance in Donji Lapac and the Srb area by 8 p.m. and achieving all of Split Corps ' objectives for Operation Storm . After the capture of Vojnić , the bulk of the Karlovac Corps units were tasked with mopping up operations in their AOR . Elements of the 2nd Guards Brigade reached the Croatian border southwest of Dvor , where fighting for full control of the town was in progress , and connected with the ARBiH 5th Corps .
As Tuđman ordered the cessation of military operations that afternoon , the ARSK Kordun Corps accepted surrender . Negotiations of the terms of surrender were held the same day at 1 : 20 p.m. at the Ukrainian UNCRO troops command post in Glina , and the surrender document was signed at 2 p.m. in Topusko . Croatia was represented by Lieutenant General Stipetić , while the RSK was represented by Bulat , commander of the ARSK Kordun Corps , and Interior Minister Tošo Pajić . The terms of surrender specified the handover of weapons , except officers ' side arms , on the following day , and the evacuation of persons from Topusko via Glina , Sisak , and the Zagreb – Belgrade motorway to Serbia , protected by the Croatian military and civilian police .
On 9 August , the special police surrendered their positions to the HV , after covering more than 150 kilometres ( 93 miles ) on foot in four days . The 1st Guards Brigade , followed by other HV units , entered Vrginmost . The 110th and the 143rd Home Guard Regiments conducted mopping up operations around Vrginmost and Lasinja . The 137th Home Guard Regiment conducted mopping up operations in the Vojnić area and the 14th Home Guard Regiment did the same in the Slunj , Cetingrad , and Rakovica areas . The HV secured Dvor late in the evening , shortly after the civilians finished evacuating . Numerous HV Home Guard units were later tasked with further mopping up operations .
On 10 August , the HV 57th Brigade reached the Croatian border south of Gvozdansko , while elements of the 2nd Guards Brigade reached Dvor and the 12th Home Guard Regiment captured Matijevići , just to the south of Dvor , on the Croatian border . The Zagreb Corps reported that the entire national border in its AOR was secured and all its Operation Storm objectives had been achieved . Mopping up operations in Banovina lasted until 14 August , and special police units joined the operations on the Zrinska Gora and Petrova Gora mountains .
= = Air force operations = =
On 4 August 1995 , the CAF had at its disposal 17 MiG @-@ 21s , five attack and nine transport helicopters , three transport airplanes and two reconnaissance aircraft . On that first day of the operation , thirteen MiG @-@ 21s were used to destroy or disable six targets in the Gospić and Zagreb Corps AORs , at the cost of one severely and three slightly damaged jets . The same day , three Mi @-@ 8s were used for medical evacuation . US Navy EA @-@ 6Bs and F / A @-@ 18s on patrol as part of Operation Deny Flight fired on ARSK surface @-@ to @-@ air missile ( SAM ) sites at Udbina and Knin as SAM radars locked onto the jets . A few sources claim that they were deployed as a deterrent as the UN troops came under HV fire , and a subsequent UN Security Council report only notes that the deployment was a result of the deterioration of the military situation and resulting low security of the peacekeepers in the area . Also on 4 August , the RSK 105th Air Force Brigade based at Udbina , deployed helicopters against the Croatian special police on Velebit Mountain and against targets in the Gospić area virtually to no effect .
On 5 August , the RSK air force began evacuating to Zalužani Airbase near Banja Luka , completing the move that day . At the same time the CAF deployed 11 MiG @-@ 21s to strike a communications facility and a storage site , as well as five other military positions throughout the RSK . That day , the CAF also deployed a Mi @-@ 24 to attack ARSK armour units near Sisak and five Mi @-@ 8s to transport casualties , and move troops and cargo . Five CAF MiG @-@ 21s sustained light damage in the process . The next day , jets struck an ARSK command post , a bridge and at least four other targets near Karlovac and Glina . A Mi @-@ 24 was deployed to the Slunj area to attack ARSK tanks , while three Mi @-@ 8s transported wounded personnel and supplies . An additional pair of MiG @-@ 21s was deployed to patrol the airspace over Ivanić Grad and intercept two Bosnian Serb fighter jets , but they failed to do so due to fog in the area and their low level of flight . The VRS aircraft subsequently managed to strike the Petrokemija chemical plant in Kutina .
On 7 August , two VRS air force jets attacked a village in the Nova Gradiška area , just north of the Sava River — the international border in the area . The CAF bombed an ARSK command post , a storage facility and several tanks near Bosanski Petrovac . CAF jets also struck a column of Serb refugees near Petrovačka cesta , killing nine people , including four children . On 8 August , the CAF performed its last combat sorties in the operation , striking tanks and armoured vehicles between Bosanski Novi and Prijedor , and two of its MiG @-@ 21s were damaged . The same day , UN military observers deployed at Croatian airfields claimed that the CAF attacked military targets and civilians in the Dvor area , where refugee columns were mixed with ARSK transporting heavy weapons and large quantities of ammunition . Overall , the CAF performed 67 close air support , three attack helicopter , seven reconnaissance , four combat air patrol and 111 transport helicopter sorties during Operation Storm .
= = Other coordinated operations = =
In order to protect areas of Croatia away from Sectors North and South , the HV conducted defensive operations while the HVO started a limited offensive north of Glamoč and Kupres to pin down part of the VRS forces , exploit the situation and gain positions for further advance . On 5 August , the HVO 2nd and 3rd Guards Brigades attacked VRS positions north of Tomislavgrad , achieving small advances to secure more favourable positions for future attacks towards Šipovo and Jajce , while tying down part of the VRS 2nd Krajina Corps . As a consequence of the overall battlefield situation , the VRS was limited to a few counter @-@ attacks around Bihać and Grahovo as it was short of reserves . The most significant counter @-@ attack was launched by the VRS 2nd Krajina Corps on the night of 11 / 12 August . It broke through the 141st Brigade , consisting of the HV 's reserve infantry , reaching the outskirts of Bosansko Grahovo , only to be beaten back by the HV , using one battalion drawn from the 4th Guards and the 7th Guards Brigade each , supported by the 6th and the 126th Home Guard Regiments .
= = = Operation Phoenix = = =
In eastern Slavonia , the HV Osijek Corps was tasked with preventing ARSK or Yugoslav Army forces from advancing west in the region , and counter @-@ attacking into the ARSK @-@ held area around Vukovar . The Osijek Corps mission was codenamed Operation Phoenix ( Croatian : Operacija Fenix ) . The Corps commanded the 3rd Guards and 5th Guards Brigades , as well as six other HV brigades and seven Home Guard regiments . Additional reinforcements were provided in a form of specialized corps @-@ level units otherwise directly subordinated to the HV General Staff , including a part of the Mi @-@ 24 gunship squadron . Even though artillery rounds and small arms fire were traded between the HV and the ARSK 11th Slavonia @-@ Baranja Corps in the region , no major attack occurred . The most significant coordinated ARSK effort occurred on 5 August , when the exchange was compounded by three RSK air raids and an infantry and tank assault targeting Nuštar , northeast of Vinkovci . Operation Storm led the Yugoslav Army to mobilize and deploy considerable artillery , tanks and infantry to the border area near eastern Slavonia , but it took no part in the battle .
= = = Operation Maestral = = =
In the south of Croatia , the HV deployed to protect the Dubrovnik area against the VRS Herzegovina Corps and the Yugoslav Army situated in and around Trebinje and the Bay of Kotor . The plan , codenamed Operation Maestral , entailed deployment of the 114th , 115th and 163rd Brigades , the 116th and 156th Home Guard Regiments , the 1st Home Guard Battalion ( Dubrovnik ) , the 16th Artillery Battalion , the 39th Engineers Battalion and a mobile coastal artillery battery . The area was reinforced on 8 August with the 144th Brigade as the unit completed its objectives in Operation Storm and moved to Dubrovnik . The CAF committed two MiG @-@ 21s and two Mi @-@ 24s based in Split to Operation Maestral . The Croatian Navy supported the operation deploying the Korčula , Brač and Hvar Marine Detachments , as well as missile boats , minesweepers , anti @-@ submarine warfare ships and coastal artillery . In the period , the VRS attacked the Dubrovnik area intermittently using artillery only .
= = Assessment of the battle = =
Operation Storm became the largest European land battle since the Second World War , encompassing a 630 @-@ kilometre ( 390 mi ) frontline . It was a decisive victory for Croatia , restoring its control over 10 @,@ 400 square kilometres ( 4 @,@ 000 square miles ) of territory , representing 18 @.@ 4 % of the country . Losses sustained by the HV and the special police are most often cited as 174 killed and 1 @,@ 430 wounded , but a government report prepared weeks after the battle specified 211 killed or missing , 1 @,@ 100 wounded and three captured troops . By 21 August , Croatian authorities recovered and buried 560 ARSK troops killed in the battle . The HV captured 4 @,@ 000 prisoners of war , 54 armoured and 497 other vehicles , six aircraft , hundreds of artillery pieces and over 4 @,@ 000 infantry weapons . Four UN peacekeepers were killed — three as a result of HV actions and one as a result of ARSK activities — and 16 injured . The HV destroyed 98 UN observation posts .
The HV 's success was a result of a series of improvements to the HV itself and crucial breakthroughs made in the ARSK positions that were subsequently exploited by the HV and the ARBiH . The attack was not immediately successful everywhere , but the seizing of key positions led to the collapse of the ARSK command structure and overall defensive capability . The HV 's capture of Bosansko Grahovo just before Operation Storm and the special police 's advance to Gračac made Knin nearly impossible to defend . In Lika , two Guards brigades rapidly cut the ARSK @-@ held area lacking tactical depth or mobile reserve forces , isolating pockets of resistance and placing the 1st Guards Brigade in a position that allowed it to move north into the Karlovac Corps AOR , pushing ARSK forces towards Banovina . The defeat of the ARSK at Glina and Petrinja , after heavy fighting , also defeated the ARSK Banija Corps , as its reserve became immobilized by the ARBiH . The ARSK force was capable of containing or substantially holding assaults by regular HV brigades and the Home Guard , but attacks by the Guards brigades and the special police proved to be decisive . Colonel Andrew Leslie , commanding the UNCRO in the Knin area , assessed Operation Storm as a textbook operation that would have " scored an A @-@ plus " by NATO standards .
Even if the ARBiH had not provided aid , the HV would almost certainly have defeated the Banija Corps on its own , albeit at greater cost . The lack of reserves was the ARSK 's key weakness that was exploited by the HV and the ARBiH since the ARSK 's static defence could not cope with fast @-@ paced attacks . The ARSK military was unable to check outflanking manoeuvres and their Special Units Corps failed as a mobile reserve , holding back the HV 's 1st Guards Brigade south of Slunj for less than a single day . The ARSK traditionally counted on the VRS and the Yugoslav military as its strategic reserve , but the situation in Bosnia and Herzegovina immobilized the VRS reserves and Yugoslavia did not intervene militarily as Milošević did not order it to do so . Even if he had wished to intervene , the speed of the battle would have allowed a very limited time for Yugoslavia to deploy appropriate reinforcements to support the ARSK .
= = Aftermath = =
The defeat of the RSK led the Bosnian Serbs to realise that a settlement in Bosnia and Herzegovina must be negotiated as soon as possible , and reversed the tide of the war against the Serbs , giving US diplomacy a strong boost . The success of Operation Storm also represented a strategic victory in the Bosnian War as it lifted the siege of Bihać , and allowed the Croatian and Bosnian leadership to plan a full @-@ scale military intervention in the VRS @-@ held Banja Luka area — one aimed at creating a new balance of power in Bosnia and Herzegovina , a buffer zone along the Croatian border , and contributing to the resolution of the war . The intervention materialized as Operation Mistral 2 in September 1995 . Combined with a NATO air campaign in Bosnia and Herzegovina , it led to the start of peace talks that would result in the Dayton Agreement a few months later . The development also led to the restoration of the remaining Serb @-@ held areas in eastern Slavonia and Baranja to Croatian control through the Erdut Agreement , ending the Croatian War of Independence in November .
The ease with which the HV achieved victory surprised many observers as Western intelligence services predicted a Croatian defeat . International reactions to Operation Storm quickly evolved from emotive arguments , supportive of either side in the battle , to those calmly assessing the situation on the ground . UN officials and most international media criticised Croatia . Carl Bildt , an EU negotiator working for the former Yugoslavia , publicly condemned Croatia , while UN Special Representative Stoltenberg urged the UN Secretary General Personal Representative Yasushi Akashi to request NATO strikes against the HV . German Foreign Minister Klaus Kinkel expressed regret but added that " ... the years of Serb aggression ... have sorely tried Croatia 's patience " . The US response was mixed . While Secretary of Defense William Perry reflected favourably on the military development , the US ambassador to Croatia , Peter Galbraith , declared his disapproval . On 10 August , the UN Security Council issued Resolution 1009 demanding that Croatia halt military operations , condemning the targeting of UN peacekeepers , and calling for the resumption of talks — but not calling for a HV withdrawal . By 18 August , US diplomats on Robert Frasure 's team tasked to mediate in the Bosnian War believed Operation Storm lent their diplomatic mission a chance to succeed , reflecting the opinion of US President Bill Clinton that the Serbs would not negotiate seriously unless they sustained major military defeats .
In Serbia , Milošević condemned the Croatian attack , but the Milošević @-@ influenced press also denounced the leadership of the RSK as being incompetent , while the most extreme politicians , including Vojislav Šešelj , demanded retaliation against Croatia . Bosnian Serb leader Radovan Karadžić begged for the Yugoslav Army to help while accusing Milošević of treason .
In Croatia , HV units returning to their bases were given heroes ' welcomes in numerous cities , and a commemorative medal was created to be issued to HV troops who took part in the operation . On 26 August , Croatia organised the Freedom Train — a railroad tour taking Tuđman and the bulk of Croatia 's government officials , public personalities , journalists and the diplomatic corps in Croatia from Zagreb to Karlovac , Gospić , Knin and Split . Tuđman gave a speech at each of the stops . In Knin , he declared : " [ The Serbs ] didn 't even have time to collect their dirty [ money ] and their dirty underwear . On this day , we can say that Croatia stopped bearing its historical cross . This is not just the liberation of land , but the creation of a foundation for a free and independent Croatia for centuries to come . " During the final rally in Split , which drew a crowd of 300 @,@ 000 , Tuđman vowed to liberate Vukovar as well .
Croats and Serbs hold opposing views of the operation . In Croatia , 5 August — the day that the HV captured Knin — was chosen as Victory and Homeland Thanksgiving Day and the Day of Croatian Defenders , the Croatian public holiday when Operation Storm is officially celebrated . In Serbia and the Republika Srpska , the day is marked by mourning for the Serbs killed and those who fled during or after the operation .
= = Refugee crisis = =
The evacuation and following mass @-@ exodus of the Serbs from the RSK led to a significant humanitarian crisis . In August 1995 , the UN estimated that only 3 @,@ 500 Serbs remained in Kordun and Banovina ( former Sector North ) and 2 @,@ 000 remained in Lika and Northern Dalmatia ( former Sector South ) , while more than 150 @,@ 000 had fled to Yugoslavia , and between 10 @,@ 000 and 15 @,@ 000 had arrived in the Banja Luka area . The number of Serb refugees was reported to be as many as 200 @,@ 000 by the international media and international organizations . Also , 21 @,@ 000 Bosniak refugees from the former APWB fled to Croatia . After Operation Storm , the Republika Srpska ordered the expulsion of all Croats and Bosniaks from the Banja Luka area , and 22 @,@ 000 refugees fled to Croatia by the end of August . EU envoy Bildt accused Croatia of the most efficient ethnic cleansing carried out in the Yugoslav Wars . His view is supported by several Western analysts , such as historians Marie @-@ Janine Calic , Gerard Toal and Carl T. Dahlman , Miloševic biographer Adam LeBor , and Professor Paul Mojzes , but rejected by US ambassador Galbraith .
While approximately 35 @,@ 000 Serb refugees , trapped with the surrendered ARSK Kordun Corps , were evacuated to Yugoslavia via Sisak and the Zagreb – Belgrade motorway , the bulk of the refugees followed a route through the Republika Srpska , arriving there via Dvor in Banovina or via Srb in Lika — two corridors to Serb @-@ held territory in Bosnia and Herzegovina left as the HV advanced . The two points of retreat were created as a consequence of the delay of a northward advance of the HV Split Corps after the capture of Knin , and the decision not to use the entire HV 2nd Guards Brigade to spearhead the southward advance from Petrinja . The retreating ARSK , transporting large quantities of weaponry , ammunition , artillery and tanks , often intermingled with evacuating or fleeing civilians , had few roads to use . The escaping columns were reportedly intermittently attacked by CAF jets , and the HV , trading fire with the ARSK located close to the civilian columns . The refugees were also targeted by ARBiH troops , as well as by VRS jets , and sometimes were run over by the ARSK Special Units Corps ' retreating tanks . On 9 August , a refugee convoy evacuating from the former Sector North under the terms of the ARSK Kordun Corps ' surrender agreement was attacked by Croatian civilians in Sisak . The attack caused one civilian death , many injuries and damage to a large number of vehicles . Croatian police intervened in the incident after UN civilian police monitors pressured them to do so . The next day , US ambassador Galbraith joined the column to protect them , and the Croatian police presence along the planned route increased . The refugees moving through the Republika Srpska were extorted at checkpoints and forced to pay extra for fuel and other services by the local strongmen , much to the disgrace of the local Bosnian Serb population .
Aiming to reduce evidence of political failure , Yugoslav authorities sought to disperse the refugees in various parts of Serbia and prevent their concentration in the capital , Belgrade . The government encouraged the refugees to settle in predominantly Hungarian areas of Vojvodina , and in Kosovo , which was largely populated by Albanians , leading to increased instability in those regions . Even though 20 @,@ 000 were planned to be settled in Kosovo , only 4 @,@ 000 moved to the region . After 12 August , the Serbian authorities started to deport some of the refugees who were of military age , declaring them illegal immigrants . They were turned over to the VRS or the ARSK in eastern Croatia for conscription . Some of the conscripts were publicly humiliated and beaten for abandoning the RSK . In some areas , ethnic Croats of Vojvodina were evicted from their homes by the refugees themselves to claim new accommodations . Similarly , the refugees moving through Banja Luka forced Croats and Bosniaks out of their homes .
= = = Return of the refugees = = =
At the beginning of the Croatian War of Independence , in 1991 – 1992 , a non @-@ Serb population of more than 220 @,@ 000 was forcibly removed from Serb @-@ held territories in Croatia , as the RSK was established . In the wake of Operation Storm , a part of those refugees , as well as Croat refugees from Bosnia and Herzegovina , settled in a substantial number of housing units in the area formerly held by the ARSK , presenting an obstacle to the return of Serb refugees . As of September 2010 , out of 300 @,@ 000 – 350 @,@ 000 Serbs who fled from Croatia during the entire war , 132 @,@ 707 are registered as having returned , but only 60 – 65 % of those are believed to reside permanently in the country . However , only 20 @,@ 000 – 25 @,@ 000 more are interested in returning to Croatia . As of 2010 , approximately 60 @,@ 000 Serb refugees from Croatia remained in Serbia .
The return of refugees has been hampered by several obstacles . These include property ownership and accommodation , as Croat refugees settled in vacated homes , and Croatian war @-@ time legislation that stripped the refugees once living in government @-@ owned housing of their tenancy rights . The legislation was abolished following the war , and alternative accommodation is offered to returnees . 6 @,@ 538 housing units were allocated by November 2010 . Another obstacle is the difficulty for refugees to obtain residency status or Croatian citizenship . Applicable legislation has been relaxed since , and by November 2010 , Croatia allowed the validation of identity documents issued by the RSK . Even though Croatia declared a general amnesty , refugees fear legal prosecution , as the amnesty does not pertain to war crimes . The final obstacle to the return of refugees is the lack of vocational opportunities due to the poor economic situation in Croatia .
= = War crimes = =
The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia ( ICTY ) , set up in 1993 based on the UN Security Council Resolution 827 , indicted Gotovina , Čermak and Markač for war crimes , specifically for their roles in Operation Storm , citing their participation in a joint criminal enterprise ( JCE ) aimed at the permanent removal of Serbs from the ARSK @-@ held part of Croatia . The ICTY charges specified that other participants in the JCE were Tuđman , Šušak , and Bobetko and Červenko , however all except Bobetko were dead before the first relevant ICTY indictment was issued in 2001 . Bobetko was indicted by the ICTY , but died a year later , before he could be extradited for trial at the ICTY . The trial of Gotovina et al began in 2008 , leading to the convictions of Gotovina and Markač and the acquittal of Čermak three years later . Gotovina and Markač were acquitted on appeal in November 2012 , in a ruling that refuted the charges of the two generals as well as Croatia 's political leaders of the 1990s , as the ICTY concluded that Operation Storm was not aimed at ethnic persecution .
In February 2015 , during the Croatia – Serbia genocide case , the International Court of Justice ( ICJ ) dismissed the Serbian lawsuit claim that Operation Storm constituted genocide , ruling that Croatia did not have the specific intent to exterminate the country 's Serb minority , though it reaffirmed that serious crimes against Serb civilians had taken place . The judgment stated that it is not disputed that a substantial part of the Serb population fled that region as a direct consequence of the military actions . The Croatian authorities were aware that the operation would provoke a mass exodus ; they even to some extent predicated their military planning on such an exodus , which they considered not only probable , but desirable . They left accessible escape routes for civilians . Fleeing civilians and people remaining in United Nations protected areas were subject to various forms of harassment , including military assaults and acts by Croatian civilians . On 8 August , a refugee column was shelled .
The number of civilian casualties in Operation Storm is disputed . The State Attorney 's Office of the Republic of Croatia claims that 214 civilians were killed — 156 in 24 instances of war crimes and another 47 as victims of murder — during the battle and in its immediate aftermath . The Croatian Helsinki Committee disputes the claim and reports that 677 civilians were killed during the same period , however their report was rejected by the ICTY , when submitted as evidence , due to unsourced statements and double entries contained in the report . Serbian sources quote 1 @,@ 192 civilians dead or missing . ICTY prosecutors set the number of civilian deaths at 324 .
Although it was very difficult to determine the number of properties destroyed during and after Operation Storm since a large number of houses sustained some degree of damage since the beginning of the war , Human Rights Watch ( HRW ) estimated that more than 5 @,@ 000 houses were destroyed in the area during and after the battle . Out of the 122 Serbian Orthodox churches in the area , one was destroyed and 17 were damaged , but most of the damage to the churches occurred prior to the Serb retreat . HRW also reported that the vast majority of the abuses were committed by Croatian forces . These abuses , which continued on a large scale even months after Operation Storm , included summary executions of elderly and infirm Serbs who remained behind and the wholesale burning and destruction of Serbian villages and property . In the months following the August offensive , at least 150 Serb civilians were summarily executed and another 110 persons forcibly disappeared . One example of such crimes was the Varivode massacre , where nine elderly Serb villagers were killed by the HV .
As of November 2012 , Croatian authorities have received 6 @,@ 390 reports of crimes committed in the area during or after Operation Storm and have convicted 2 @,@ 380 persons for looting , arson , murders , war crimes and other illegal acts . As of the same date , 24 more trials of war crimes related to Operation Storm were in progress . In 2012 , Serbian authorities were investigating five cases of war crimes committed during Operation Storm . The military operation also allowed Croatian authorities access to areas where , as of March 2012 , a total of 144 mass and 1 @,@ 200 individual graves have been discovered , in which a total of 3 @,@ 809 Croatian civilians and military personnel were buried .
= Lanny McDonald =
Lanny King McDonald ( born February 16 , 1953 ) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey player for the Toronto Maple Leafs , Colorado Rockies and Calgary Flames of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . He played over 1 @,@ 100 games during a 16 @-@ year career in which he scored 500 goals and over 1 @,@ 000 points . His total of 66 goals in 1982 – 83 remains the Flames ' franchise record for a single season .
McDonald was selected by the Maple Leafs as the fourth overall pick in the 1973 NHL Amateur Draft and established himself as an offensive forward with three consecutive 40 @-@ goal seasons in Toronto in the mid @-@ 1970s . His trade to the Rockies in 1979 resulted in Toronto fans protesting the deal in front of Maple Leaf Gardens . He played parts of three seasons in Denver , before he was sent to Calgary in 1981 where he spent the remainder of his career . He co @-@ captained the Flames to a Stanley Cup championship in his final season of 1988 – 89 .
He is among the most popular players in Flames history and his personality and bushy red moustache made him an iconic figure within the sport . McDonald won the Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy for dedication and sportsmanship in 1983 and in 1988 was named the inaugural winner of the King Clancy Memorial Trophy for his leadership and humanitarian presence , in particular through his long association with the Special Olympics . Internationally , he represented Team Canada as a player on two occasions and in a management role three times . He was a member of the inaugural Canada Cup championship team in 1976 and was director of player personnel of Canada 's 2004 World Championship winning team . McDonald was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1992 and the Alberta Sports Hall of Fame in 1993 . The Flames retired his uniform number 9 in 1990 . In 2015 he was named chairman of the board of the Hockey Hall of Fame , after serving nine years on the Hall 's selection committee .
= = Early life = =
McDonald was born February 16 , 1953 , in Hanna , Alberta . He is the youngest of four children after brother Lynn and sisters Donna and Dixie . His father , Lorne , tended the family farm near the hamlet of Craigmyle , 35 kilometres ( 22 mi ) outside Hanna . The young Lanny viewed his father as his hero , often following Lorne around helping with whatever chores he could . McDonald credits his father for teaching him the value of honesty and hard work . His mother , Phyllis , was a full @-@ time teacher who was frequently involved with community events .
Learning to skate at the age of five , McDonald immediately developed a passion for hockey . He served as a stick boy , helping manage equipment , for his father 's community team and grew up listening to radio broadcasts of Hockey Night in Canada . McDonald shared his father 's passion for the Toronto Maple Leafs ; he was given his middle name , King , after Maple Leafs ' star King Clancy . He began playing organized hockey at the age of six and , despite both having full @-@ time commitments , his parents drove him and Lynn to Hanna for their practices and games . McDonald recalled that half of his time in youth hockey was spent in Hanna , and the other half in the car . He completed high school while playing in Lethbridge , choosing to remain with his junior A team in 1970 – 71 rather than join the Medicine Hat Tigers of the Western Canada Hockey League ( WCHL ) so that he could complete his diploma .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Junior = = =
McDonald began his junior career in 1969 with the Lethbridge Sugar Kings of the tier II Alberta Junior Hockey League ( AJHL ) . He appeared in 34 games for the Sugar Kings as a 16 @-@ year @-@ old , scoring two goals . The following season , 1970 – 71 , he emerged as a leading scorer , recording 37 goals and 82 points in 45 games . He was voted the league 's most valuable player and named to the Second All @-@ Star team . Additionally , | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
in his previous game , against the Winnipeg Jets , but after reviewing a replay of the goal himself , McDonald asked the league to credit it to teammate Eddy Beers who had deflected his shot . His injury problems worsened in 1984 – 85 as he missed the start of the season with pulled muscles and was limited to just 43 games .
As the 1985 – 86 season approached , McDonald endured questions about whether he was reaching the point where age and injuries meant he could no longer be an effective NHL player . Hoping to prove himself , he set a goal of playing all 80 games for the Flames . He succeeded , and scored 28 goals and 71 points in the process , despite dislocating his thumb in the pre @-@ season and suffering minor knee and hip injuries during the course of the year . He later said it was a matter of pride to him not to miss a game . In the playoffs , McDonald was witness to one of the most infamous mistakes in NHL history . With the score tied at two in the seventh game of the Smythe Division final against Edmonton , McDonald chased Oilers ' rookie Steve Smith around the Edmonton net . Smith attempted to pass the puck forward , but inadvertently hit the back of goaltender Grant Fuhr 's skate , deflecting the puck into his own net .
It turned out to be the winning goal for Calgary who eliminated Edmonton to clinch the Smythe Division championship . The victory over their provincial rivals also touched off a celebration amongst the fans , of which over 20 @,@ 000 greeted the team with wild cheering when their plane landed at Calgary International Airport . A series win over the St. Louis Blues led McDonald and the Flames into their first Stanley Cup Final , against Montreal . The series ended in disappointment : He watched from the bench as his teammates unsuccessfully attempted to tie the deciding game in the final minute and the Canadiens defeated the Flames in five games to win the Stanley Cup .
Two separate knee injuries limited McDonald in 1986 – 87 . His total of 14 goals in 58 games was his fewest since his rookie season . He reached a milestone in the Flames ' final game of the season , appearing in the 1,000th game of his career . Following a 10 @-@ goal campaign in 60 games in 1987 – 88 , McDonald reached two additional major milestones in the 1988 – 89 season . On March 7 , 1989 , he scored the 1,000th point of his career with a wraparound goal from behind the net against Bob Essensa in a 9 – 5 victory against the Winnipeg Jets . Two weeks later , on March 21 , he scored the 500th goal of his career on a nearly identical wraparound against Mark Fitzpatrick of the New York Islanders . It was the final regular season goal of McDonald 's career .
At 36 years old and approaching the end of his career , the 1989 Stanley Cup Playoffs was potentially his last chance at winning the Stanley Cup . The Flames defeated the Vancouver Canucks , Los Angeles Kings and Chicago Blackhawks to set up a Stanley Cup Final rematch of the 1986 Final with the Montreal Canadiens . McDonald was left out of the Flames ' lineup for the third , fourth and fifth games , but with Calgary leading the series three wins to two , head coach Terry Crisp felt that if the Flames were to win the championship , McDonald deserved to be in the game . Crisp 's decision paid dividends , as midway through the sixth game , McDonald stepped onto the ice after serving a penalty to join Håkan Loob and Joe Nieuwendyk in a three @-@ on @-@ one rush toward the Montreal goal . Loob passed the puck up to Nieuwendyk , who saw a streaking McDonald coming up the right side of the ice . McDonald received the pass then shot the puck over Montreal goaltender Patrick Roy 's glove to give the Flames a 2 – 1 lead . Doug Gilmour added two goals , and Calgary won the game 4 – 2 to earn the franchise 's first Stanley Cup championship . League president John Ziegler presented the trophy to McDonald , co @-@ captain Jim Peplinski and alternate Tim Hunter . Wearing the captain 's " C " for the game , McDonald was the first member of the Flames to carry the trophy as the team paraded it around the Forum in celebration .
= = Management career = =
McDonald announced his retirement as a player on August 28 , 1989 , stating in a press conference that he made the determination before the 1988 – 89 season began that it would be his last . He also revealed that he had received an offer from another , unnamed , team to play in 1989 – 90 but felt that it was the right time to end his career . The Flames made McDonald their Vice President in Charge of Corporate and Community Affairs . He chose the corporate position partly due to a fascination with the business world , and partly to remain close to his family as a role in hockey operations would have necessitated more travel . His interest in business grew following his trade to Calgary as he was featured in numerous commercials and signed endorsements throughout southern Alberta . He had also previously served as a vice president of the NHLPA in the early 1980s . McDonald changed roles in 1992 as he was named the team 's Vice President of Marketing . After serving four years in that position , McDonald became the Vice President of Corporate Development in 1996 .
McDonald was part of a committee tasked with hiring a new management team in June 2000 . The media speculated that after several years in a corporate position , he hoped to land a role as a vice president within hockey operations . He received no such role , and two months after the hiring of Craig Button as executive vice president and general manager of the Flames , McDonald announced he was leaving the organization . McDonald denied claims from team sources that he was upset at not gaining a new role when Button was hired . He stated that after " nineteen great years here in one organization " , it was the right time to retire . He retained a small role in the organization , serving as a board member of the Saddledome Foundation .
Ken King , newly hired president of the Flames , lured McDonald back into the organization a year later by naming him an executive assistant to hockey operations . McDonald held the position until 2003 . He also served in hockey operations roles with Hockey Canada . McDonald was the general manager of Team Canada for the 2001 and 2002 World Championships . He returned in 2004 in a role as director of player personnel of Canada 's gold medal @-@ winning squad .
= = Playing style = =
McDonald was known primarily as an offensive player with a hard shot . His wrist shot was considered to be effective , and his scoring exploits in junior hockey earned him the nickname " Machine @-@ Gun Lanny " . Red Kelly , McDonald 's coach in his first NHL seasons , recalled that he was impressed with his young player 's skill handling the puck and defended McDonald against critics who wanted him moved out of Toronto due to his early struggles . In his NHL career , McDonald led his team in goal scoring six times : 1976 – 77 , 1977 – 78 and 1978 – 79 with Toronto , 1980 – 81 with Colorado , and 1981 – 82 and 1982 – 83 in Calgary . He was also a physical player , willing to play a hard @-@ hitting style in the corners .
As age and injuries took their toll , McDonald 's role with the Flames changed . His playing time decreased in his later years as he was no longer counted on to be the team 's primary offensive threat . Often left out of the lineup in his final season , McDonald was expected to provide a boost to the team when he drew into the lineup . He was counted on to provide a veteran presence and to act as a mentor for the team 's younger players .
= = Legacy = =
The Flames arrived in Calgary after relocating from Atlanta for the 1980 – 81 season . The organization entered a transitional phase , as many players used to the warm weather and relaxed atmosphere of Atlanta were unable or unwilling to adapt to the higher expectations fans in Calgary placed on them . David Poile , then Flames assistant general manager , stated that the team had an identity crisis as a result . It was in this atmosphere that General Manager Cliff Fletcher made the trade for McDonald on November 25 , 1981 , claiming that McDonald added two characteristics the Flames lacked : character and leadership .
McDonald 's arrival in Calgary was considered a turning point for the organization , one where his personality , demeanor and on @-@ ice play came to define the Flames in the 1980s . Poile argued that it signaled the true beginning of the team in its new market : " The trade for Lanny McDonald was the start of the Calgary Flames franchise . It gave us that Calgary identity , that Western Canadian flavor . " Columnist and co @-@ author of McDonald 's autobiography , Steve Simmons , agreed . He added that the personal and professional disappointments McDonald endured in Toronto and Colorado resulted in his gaining a greater appreciation of both the game and himself . McDonald was extremely popular with his teammates and the fans wherever he played , as well as with the media – he was named Colorado 's athlete of the year in 1980 by the state 's sportswriters .
Renowned for his leadership ability , McDonald cultivated the respect of the team 's younger players . He came into the NHL at a time when the battle with the rival WHA for talent led to rookies signing for far more money than the previous generation of players commanded . Consequently , McDonald faced the resentment of several of Toronto 's veteran players and resolved to show greater respect to those that followed him . His efforts left a lasting impression on his peers ; among them was Tiger Williams who called McDonald " a great ambassador " for the NHL .
The Flames made McDonald the first player in franchise history to have his jersey retired when they raised his number 9 to the rafters of the Olympic Saddledome in a ceremony on March 17 , 1990 . As part of its 1992 class , he was also the first former Flame to gain induction into the Hockey Hall of Fame . One year later he was inducted into the Alberta Sports Hall of Fame . McDonald 's image endured well into retirement ; in 2008 , he was the only athlete named in a list of Alberta 's ten greatest citizens compiled by the Calgary Herald .
= = Personal life = =
McDonald met his wife Ardell while playing junior hockey for the Medicine Hat Tigers . They were married in 1975 , and have four children : daughters Andra and Leah , and sons Barrett and Graham . The family settled in Calgary after McDonald 's trade to the Flames . They also maintain a summer home in Montana , where the family has invested in restaurants and a craft brewery in the community of Lakeside . Co @-@ owned by Andra , the brewery considers McDonald its inspiration , and produces " Old ' Stache Porter " in his honour .
His giant , walrus @-@ style moustache is McDonald 's most defining physical characteristic and helped him become an iconic figure in the sport . He developed it in 1974 , spending the summer seeing what kind of beard he could grow . Knowing that the Maple Leafs did not allow players to maintain beards at the time , he settled on what he described as a " normal moustache " once he returned to Toronto . Some time later , he was inspired by baseball player Sparky Lyle 's moustache and chose to grow one in a similar style . It became a symbol for the Flames as some fans took to wearing fake red moustaches during playoff runs . Razor manufacturers offered endorsements if he would shave it , which he refused .
Among his charitable and humanitarian efforts , McDonald is best known for his participation with the Special Olympics . He first became involved with the organization in 1974 when the Maple Leafs asked him to represent the team at the Special Olympics Summer Games . The event began a decades long association for McDonald . He was the honorary coach of the 1986 Special Olympics Summer Games in Calgary , and served as a head coach for the Canadian Special Olympics floor hockey team . In 1988 , McDonald 's contributions to the Special Olympics as a coach and co @-@ chairman of the organization 's fundraising efforts , as well as his work with the Alberta Children 's Miracle Network Hospitals , were recognized by the NHL as he was named the inaugural recipient of the King Clancy Memorial Trophy . The award is given to the hockey player who best exemplifies leadership on the ice with humanitarian contributions off of it . McDonald was previously honoured by the Flames as the first winner of the Ralph T. Scurfield Humanitarian Award in 1987 , which he won again in 1989 .
McDonald 's autobiography , Lanny , co @-@ written by Steve Simmons , was published in 1987 . A Canadian best @-@ seller , it was an unexpected success for publisher McGraw @-@ Hill . The book sold 10 @,@ 000 copies in its first couple months of publication , for which the publisher made a donation of $ 10 @,@ 000 to the Special Olympics . In 2008 , McDonald was given an honorary doctorate from the University of Calgary .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International play = = =
= = Awards and honours = =
= HMS Royal Sovereign ( 05 ) =
HMS Royal Sovereign ( pennant number 05 ) was a Revenge @-@ class ( also known as Royal Sovereign and R @-@ class ) battleship of the Royal Navy displacing 28 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 27 @,@ 560 long tons ; 30 @,@ 860 short tons ) and armed with eight 15 @-@ inch ( 381 mm ) guns in four twin turrets . She was laid down in January 1914 and launched in April 1915 ; she was completed in May 1916 , but was not ready for service in time to participate in the Battle of Jutland at the end of the month . She served with the Grand Fleet for the remainder of the war , but did not see action . In the early 1930s , she was assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet and based in Malta .
Unlike the Queen Elizabeth @-@ class battleships , Royal Sovereign and her sisters were not modernised during the interwar period . Only minor alterations to her anti @-@ aircraft battery were effected before the outbreak of World War II in September 1939 . Assigned to the Home Fleet , she was tasked with convoy protection until May 1940 , when she returned to the Mediterranean Fleet . She was present during the Battle of Calabria in July 1940 , but her slow speed prevented her from engaging the Italian battleships . By March 1942 , she was assigned to the Eastern Fleet in the Indian Ocean , but after the Indian Ocean raid by Admiral Nagumo 's Kido Butai , she was withdrawn to eastern Africa to escort convoys . In January 1944 , she returned to Britain , and in May the Royal Navy transferred the ship to the Soviet Navy , where she was renamed Arkhangelsk . She then escorted Arctic convoys into Kola until the end of the war . The Soviets returned the ship in 1949 , after which she was broken up for scrap .
= = Description = =
Royal Sovereign had a length overall of 620 feet 7 inches ( 189 @.@ 2 m ) , a beam of 88 feet 6 inches ( 27 @.@ 0 m ) and a deep draught of 33 feet 7 inches ( 10 @.@ 2 m ) . She had a designed displacement of 27 @,@ 790 long tons ( 28 @,@ 240 t ) and displaced 31 @,@ 130 long tons ( 31 @,@ 630 t ) at deep load . She was powered by four Parsons steam turbines using steam from eighteen oil @-@ fired Babcock & Wilcox boilers . The turbines were rated at 40 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 29 @,@ 828 kW ) and a top speed of 23 knots ( 42 @.@ 6 km / h ; 26 @.@ 5 mph ) . She had a range of 7 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 12 @,@ 964 km ; 8 @,@ 055 mi ) at a cruising speed of 10 knots ( 18 @.@ 5 km / h ; 11 @.@ 5 mph ) . Her crew numbered 1 @,@ 240 officers and enlisted men in 1921 . Royal Sovereign cost £ 2 @,@ 570 @,@ 504 upon completion .
= = = Armament = = =
The ship was equipped with eight breech @-@ loading ( BL ) 15 @-@ inch ( 381 mm ) Mk I guns in four twin gun turrets , in two superfiring pairs fore and aft of the superstructure , designated ' A ' , ' B ' , ' X ' , and ' Y ' from front to rear . Twelve of the fourteen BL 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) Mk XII guns were mounted in casemates along the broadside of the vessel amidships ; the remaining pair were mounted on the shelter deck and were protected by gun shields . Her anti @-@ aircraft armament consisted of two quick @-@ firing ( QF ) 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) 20 cwt Mk I guns .
In August – September 1924 , the 3 @-@ inch guns were replaced by a pair of QF 4 @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) Mk V guns , During the ship 's 1927 – 28 refit , the shelter deck 6 @-@ inch guns were removed and another pair of 4 @-@ inch AA guns were added . These were replaced by eight QF 4 @-@ inch Mk XVI guns in twin turrets during Royal Sovereign 's 1937 – 38 refit . A pair of eight @-@ barrel 2 @-@ pounder " pom @-@ poms " were added in 1932 abreast the funnel , and two four @-@ barrel " pom @-@ poms " were added in early 1942 atop ' B ' and ' X ' turrets . Ten 20 mm Oerlikon guns were also added in 1941 . Another six were added in 1943 . Royal Sovereign was initially equipped with four submerged 21 in ( 533 mm ) torpedo tubes on her broadside , though the after pair were removed in 1932 . The forward pair were also removed in 1937 – 38 , during the ship 's last prewar refit .
= = = Fire control = = =
Royal Sovereign was completed with two fire @-@ control directors fitted with 15 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) rangefinders . One was mounted above the conning tower , protected by an armoured hood , and the other was in the spotting top above the tripod foremast . Each turret was also fitted with a 15 @-@ foot rangefinder . The main armament could be controlled by ' X ' turret as well . The secondary armament was primarily controlled by directors mounted on each side of the compass platform on the foremast once they were fitted in March 1917 . A 30 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) rangefinder replaced the smaller one originally fitted in ' X ' turret in 1919 . Similarly , another large rangefinder was fitted in ' B ' turret during the ship 's 1921 – 22 refit . A simple high @-@ angle rangefinder was added above the bridge during that same refit .
About 1931 , a High @-@ Angle Control System ( HACS ) Mk I director replaced the high @-@ angle rangefinder on the spotting top . During the 1932 refit two positions for 2 @-@ pounder " pom @-@ pom " anti @-@ aircraft directors were added on new platforms abreast and below the fire @-@ control director in the spotting top . In the 1937 – 38 refit a HACS Mark III director replaced the Mk I in the spotting top and another was added to the torpedo @-@ control tower aft . By 1942 , a Type 279 air warning radar , a Type 273 surface @-@ search radar , a Type 284 gunnery radar and two Type 285 anti @-@ aircraft gunnery radars were installed . By September 1943 , the Type 284 radar had been replaced by an improved Type 284B and two Type 282 radars had been fitted for the " pom @-@ poms " .
= = = Protection = = =
Royal Sovereign 's waterline belt consisted of face @-@ hardened Krupp cemented armour ( KC ) that was 13 inches ( 330 mm ) thick between ' A ' and ' Y ' barbettes and thinned to 4 to 6 inches ( 102 to 152 mm ) towards the ship 's ends , but did not reach either the bow or the stern . Above this was a strake of armour 6 inches thick that extended between ' A ' and ' X ' barbettes . Transverse bulkheads 4 to 6 inches thick ran at an angle from the ends of the thickest part of the waterline belt to ' A ' and ' Y ' barbettes .
The gun turrets were protected by 11 to 13 inches ( 279 to 330 mm ) of KC armour , except for the turret roofs which were 4 @.@ 75 – 5 inches ( 121 – 127 mm ) thick . The barbettes ranged in thickness from 6 – 10 inches ( 152 – 254 mm ) above the upper deck , but were only 4 to 6 inches thick below it . The Revenge @-@ class ships had multiple armoured decks that ranged from 1 to 4 inches ( 25 to 102 mm ) in thickness . The main conning tower had 13 inches of armour on the sides with a 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) roof . The torpedo control tower in the rear superstructure had 6 inches of armour protecting it . After the Battle of Jutland , 1 inch of high @-@ tensile steel was added to the main deck over the magazines and additional anti @-@ flash equipment was added in the magazines . In 1918 the gun shields for the upper deck 6 @-@ inch guns were replaced by armoured casemates .
To protect against underwater explosions , the ship was fitted with longitudinal torpedo bulkheads 1 to 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 38 mm ) inches thick that ran from the forward to the rear magazines . During her 1921 refit , Royal Sovereign was fitted with an anti @-@ torpedo bulge that ran the length of the ship between the fore and aft barbettes . It was divided into a water @-@ tight empty lower compartment and an upper compartment filled with water @-@ tight " crushing tubes " intended to absorb and distribute the force of an explosion . The space between the tubes was filled with wood and cement .
= = = Aircraft = = =
The ship was fitted with flying @-@ off platforms mounted on the roofs of ' B ' and ' X ' turrets in 1918 , from which fighters and reconnaissance aircraft could launch . In 1932 the platforms were removed from the turrets and a trainable catapult was installed on her quarterdeck , along with a crane to recover a seaplane . The catapult and crane were removed by March 1937 .
= = Service history = =
= = = First World War = = =
Royal Sovereign was laid down on 15 January 1914 at the Portsmouth Dockyard . The ship was launched on 29 April 1915 and commissioned in May 1916 . She was still working up during the Battle of Jutland and the end of the month , and so she was not present during the engagement . On 30 May 1916 , three weeks after her commissioning , Royal Sovereign was present in Scapa Flow when the fleet commander , Admiral John Jellicoe ordered the fleet to sea . Jellicoe purposely left Royal Sovereign in port due to the inexperience of her crew ; as a result , she missed the Battle of Jutland the following day . In the months after the engagement , Royal Sovereign was quickly made ready for service with the fleet to further increase the numerical superiority of the Grand Fleet over the German High Seas Fleet .
The Grand Fleet sortied on 18 August 1916 to ambush the High Seas Fleet while it advanced into the southern North Sea , but a series of miscommunications and mistakes prevented Jellicoe from reaching the German fleet before it returned to port . Two light cruisers were sunk by German U @-@ boats during the operation , prompting Jellicoe to decide to not risk the major units of the fleet south of 55 ° 30 ' North due to the prevalence of German submarines and mines . The Admiralty concurred and stipulated that the Grand Fleet would not sortie unless the German fleet was attempting an invasion of Britain or there was a strong possibility it could be forced into an engagement under suitable conditions .
In April 1918 , the High Seas Fleet again sortied , to attack British convoys to Norway . They enforced strict wireless silence during the operation , which prevented Room 40 cryptanalysts from warning the new commander of the Grand Fleet , Admiral David Beatty . The British only learned of the operation after an accident aboard the battlecruiser SMS Moltke forced her to break radio silence to inform the German commander of her condition . Beatty then ordered the Grand Fleet to sea to intercept the Germans , but he was not able to reach the High Seas Fleet before it turned back for Germany . This was the last time Royal Sovereign and the rest of the Grand Fleet would go to sea for the remainder of the war . On 21 November 1918 , following the Armistice , the entire Grand Fleet left port to escort the surrendered German fleet into internment at Scapa Flow .
= = = Inter @-@ war period = = =
The Royal Marines detachment assigned to Royal Sovereign left the ship on 21 June 1919 to conduct exercises . The ship meanwhile went into drydock at Invergordon in September . Post @-@ war demobilisation in 1919 saw some 500 men leave the ship while she was in dock . Upon returning to service in late 1919 , the ship was assigned to the 1st Battle Squadron of the Atlantic Fleet . Conflicts between Greece and the crumbling Ottoman Empire prompted the Royal Navy to deploy a force to the eastern Mediterranean . In April 1920 , Royal Sovereign and her sister ship Resolution steamed to the region via Malta . While in the Ottoman capital Constantinople , Royal Sovereign and the other British warships took on White émigré fleeing the Communist Red Army . Among those refugees aboard Royal Sovereign was a princess of the Galitzine family .
The 1922 Washington Naval Treaty cut the battleship strength of the Royal Navy from forty ships to fifteen . The remaining active battleships were divided between the Atlantic and Mediterranean Fleets and conducted joint operations annually . Royal Sovereign remained with the Atantic Fleet through 1926 . On 4 October 1927 , the ship was placed in reserve to effect a major refit . Four new rangefinders and eight searchlights were installed . On 15 May 1929 , the refit was finished , and the ship was assigned to the 1st Battle Squadron of the Mediterranean Fleet . The squadron consisted of Royal Sovereign , her sisters Resolution and Revenge , and Queen Elizabeth , and based in Malta . By the 1930s , the five ships of the Queen Elizabeth class were rotated through extensive modernisation . Royal Sovereign and her sisters , however , were smaller and slower than the Queen Elizabeth class , and so they were not extensively modernised in the inter @-@ war period . The only changes made were augmentations to their anti @-@ aircraft batteries .
Fleet exercises in 1934 were carried out in the Bay of Biscay , followed by a fleet regatta in Navarino Bay off Greece . In 1935 , the ship returned to Britain for the Jubilee Fleet Review for King George V. In August 1935 , Royal Sovereign was transferred to the 2nd Battle Squadron of the Atlantic Fleet , where she served as the flagship of Rear Admiral Charles Ramsey . The ship served as a training vessel until 2 June 1937 , when she was again placed in reserve for a major overhaul . This lasted until 18 February 1938 , after which she returned to the 2nd Battle Squadron . In 1939 , King George VI made a state visit to Canada ; Royal Sovereign and the rest of the fleet escorted his ship halfway across the Atlantic and met it on the return leg of the voyage .
In early 1939 , the Admiralty considered plans to send Royal Sovereign and her four sisters to Asia to counter Japanese expansionism . They reasoned that the then established " Singapore strategy " , which called for a fleet to be formed in Britain to be dispatched to confront a Japanese attack was inherently risky due to the long delay . They argued that a dedicated battle fleet would allow for faster reaction . The plan was abandoned , however , because the new King George V @-@ class battleship ( 1939 ) s would not begin to enter service until 1941 . In the last weeks of August 1939 , the Royal Navy began to concentrate in wartime bases as tensions with Germany rose . Royal Sovereign steamed to Invergordon , where she joined her sisters Resolution and Royal Oak , Rodney , and the battlecruiser Repulse . By 31 August , the force joined Nelson , the flagship of Admiral Charles Forbes , the commander of the Home Fleet .
= = = Second World War = = =
On 31 August , the day before the German invasion of Poland , Royal Sovereign was assigned to a screening force in the Greenland @-@ Iceland @-@ United Kingdom gap to patrol for German merchant ships that might be attempting to reach Germany . At the outset of war in September 1939 , Royal Sovereign was assigned to the 2nd Battle Squadron of the Home Fleet . She was assigned to the North Atlantic Escort Force , which was based in Halifax , Nova Scotia , and was tasked with protecting convoys to Britain . Upon returning to Plymouth , she underwent a short refit . In May 1940 , she moved to the Mediterranean Fleet . There she was based in Alexandria with the battleships Warspite , Malaya , and Valiant , under the command of Admiral Andrew Cunningham . On 25 – 27 June , she and her sister ship HMS Ramillies escorted two convoys from Alexandria to Malta . On 28 June , aerial reconnaissance located Italian destroyers off Zakynthos ; Admiral John Tovey took the 7th Cruiser Squadron . Royal Sovereign was left behind due to her slow speed . Cunningham split his fleet into three groups ; Royal Sovereign and Malaya were the core of Group C. She was present at the Battle of Calabria on 18 July , but her slow speed prevented her from engaging the Italian battleships . Warspite bore the brunt of the action , as Royal Sovereign and Malaya lagged behind .
In mid @-@ August 1940 , while steaming in the Red Sea , Royal Sovereign was unsuccessfully attacked by the Italian submarine Galileo Ferraris . Later that month , she returned to Atlantic convoy duties . These lasted until August 1941 , when periodic maintenance was effected in Norfolk , Virginia . The Admiralty decided in May 1941 to deploy a powerful fleet to be based in Singapore to counter any Japanese attempt to invade Western colonies in Southeast Asia . Royal Sovereign and her sisters Revenge , Ramillies , and Resolution were assigned to the force . The unit was to have been assembled in Singapore by March 1942 , though Royal Sovereign reached the theatre earlier . At the beginning of March 1942 , Royal Sovereign , the heavy cruiser Cornwall , and several smaller vessels escorted the convoy SU.1 of twelve troopships transporting 10 @,@ 090 soldiers . The convoy departed Colombo on 1 March , bound for Australia . The convoy reached Fremantle without incident on 15 March .
By the end of March 1942 , the Eastern Fleet had been formed , under the command of Admiral James Somerville . The fleet was centred on a pair of fleet aircraft carriers , the elderly carrier Hermes , and five battleships , four of which were Royal Sovereign and her sisters ; the fifth was Warspite . The fleet also included seven cruisers and sixteen destroyers . Despite the numerical strength of the Eastern Fleet , many of its units , including the four Revenge @-@ class battleships , were no longer front @-@ line warships . Vice Admiral Chūichi Nagumo 's powerful Kido Butai , composed of six carriers and four fast battleships , was significantly stronger than Somerville 's Eastern Fleet . As a result , only the modernised Warspite could operate with the two fleet carriers ; Royal Sovereign , her three sisters , and Hermes were kept away from combat to escort convoys in the Indian Ocean .
In late March , the code @-@ breakers at the Far East Combined Bureau , a branch of Bletchley Park , informed Somerville that the Japanese were planning a raid into the Indian Ocean to attack Colombo and Trincomalee and destroy his fleet . He therefore divided his fleet into two groups : Force A , which consisted of the two fleet carriers , Warspite and four cruisers , and Force B , centred on Royal Sovereign and her sisters and the carrier Hermes . He intended to ambush Nagumo 's fleet in a night action , the only method by which he thought he could achieve a victory . After three days of searching for the Japanese fleet without success , Somerville returned to Addu Atoll to refuel . While refuelling his ships , Somerville received a report that the Japanese fleet was approaching Colombo , which they attacked the following day , on 5 April , followed by attacks on Trincomalee on 9 April .
Following the raid in April 1942 , Somerville withdrew Royal Sovereign and her three sisters to Mombasa , where they could secure the shipping routes in the Middle East and the Persian Gulf . Royal Sovereign and her sisters departed from Addu Atoll early on the morning on 9 April , bound for Mombasa . Here they remained stationed until September 1943 , with the exception of another long period in the dockyard in Philadelphia in late 1942 . While Royal Sovereign was moored in Philadelphia , the American light cruiser USS Boise , a badly @-@ damaged veteran of the Battle of Cape Esperance , shared a pier with her . During the refit , the ship 's deck armour was increased by 2 inches ( 51 mm ) and four of her 6 @-@ inch ( 150 mm ) guns were removed . Royal Sovereign was sent back to the United States for a major overhaul in Philadelphia , from March to September 1943 . She then returned to the Indian Ocean to resume her patrol duties . In January 1944 , she left the Indian Ocean , bound for Britain .
= = = = Service with the Soviet Navy = = = =
After returning to Britain , Royal Sovereign was sent to the naval base in Scapa Flow . On 30 May 1944 she was transferred on loan to the Soviet Navy as Arkhangelsk in lieu of war reparations from Italy . The ship left Britain on 17 August 1944 as part of the escort for Convoy JW 59 , which contained thirty @-@ three merchant vessels . Six days later , while still en route , the convoy was attacked by the U @-@ boat U @-@ 711 . The submarine 's captain , Hans @-@ Günther Lange , incorrectly reported hits on Arkhangelsk and a destroyer , though his torpedoes had exploded prematurely . Under the impression that they had crippled the battleship , the Germans launched several submarine attacks on the ship while she was moored in Kola . Anti @-@ torpedo nets ensured that the attacks failed , however . The Germans then planned to use six Biber midget submarines to attack the ship , but mechanical difficulties eventually forced the cancellation of the plan . Regardless , Arkhangelsk had already departed Kola to patrol the White Sea by the time the Bibers would have arrived . A Soviet crew commissioned the ship on 29 August 1944 at Polyarny . Arkhangelsk was the largest ship in the Soviet fleet during the war . While in Soviet service , she was the flagship of Admiral Gordey Levchenko and was tasked with meeting Allied convoys in the Arctic Ocean and escorting them into Kola .
Arkhangelsk ran aground in the White Sea in late 1947 ; the extent of damage , if any , is unknown . The Soviet Navy returned the ship to the Royal Navy on 4 February 1949 after the former Italian battleship Giulio Cesare was transferred to the Soviet Black Sea Fleet . The Soviet Navy had initially sought to avoid sending the ship back , claiming that she was not sufficiently seaworthy to make the voyage back to Britain . After an inspection by a Royal Navy officer , however , the Soviet Navy agreed to return the vessel in January 1949 . Upon returning to the Rosyth naval base , Royal Navy personnel thoroughly inspected the ship and found much of her equipment to be unserviceable . It appeared to the inspectors that the main battery turrets had not been rotated while the ship was in Soviet service , and were jammed on the centreline . As a result of her poor condition , she was sold for scrap . The ship arrived at Inverkeithing , Scotland on 18 May to be broken up . The elevation mechanisms from her main battery gun turrets were later reused in the 250 @-@ foot ( 76 m ) Mark I radio telescope at Jodrell Bank , Cheshire built in 1955 – 1957 .
= The Boat Race 1924 =
The 76th Boat Race took place on 5 April 1924 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . Oxford were reigning champions having won the previous year 's race and their crew was significantly heavier than their opponents for this year 's race . Umpired by former rower Frederick I. Pitman , Cambridge won by four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths in a time of 18 minutes 41 seconds , the fastest time since 1911 . The victory took the overall record in the event to 40 – 35 in Oxford 's favour .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities and followed throughout the United Kingdom and worldwide . Oxford went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1923 race by three @-@ quarters of a length , and led overall with 40 victories to Cambridge 's 34 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) .
Oxford were coached by G. C. Bourne who had rowed for the university in the 1882 and 1883 races , Harcourt Gilbey Gold ( Dark Blue president for the 1900 race and four @-@ time Blue ) and E. D. Horsfall ( who had rowed in the three races prior to the First World War ) . Cambridge 's coaches were Francis Escombe , P. Haig @-@ Thomas ( four @-@ time Blue who had rowed between 1902 and 1905 ) and David Alexander Wauchope ( who had rowed in the 1895 race ) . For the sixteenth year the umpire was Old Etonian Frederick I. Pitman who rowed for Cambridge in the 1884 , 1885 and 1886 races .
Cambridge had few former Blues to call upon and despite measles striking at least one of the crew down , their rowing style was described by author and former Oxford rower George Drinkwater as " harmoniously together " . Conversely , Oxford 's crew was experienced yet a " lack of uniformity " in early training evolved into a crew with " a turn of such extraordinary speed that being was as much as four to one on Oxford " .
= = Crews = =
The Oxford crew weighed an average of 12 st 5 @.@ 5 lb ( 78 @.@ 5 kg ) , 5 @.@ 875 pounds ( 2 @.@ 7 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . Cambridge saw a single rower return with Boat Race experience in their number six T. D. A. Collet . Conversely , Oxford 's crew included six individuals who had represented the Dark Blues in the event , including bow P. C. Mallam who was making his fourth consecutive appearance . Oxford 's American stroke W. P. Mellen was the only non @-@ British participant registered in the event , having been educated at the Middlesex School in Concord , Massachusetts .
= = Race = =
Cambridge won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station , handing the Middlesex side of the river to Oxford . Umpire Pitman started the race in bright sunshine and a light breeze at 2 : 23 p.m. Oxford took a brief lead , out @-@ rating their opponents significantly in the first minute , but by the time the crews passed the Mile Post , the Light Blues were nearly a quarter of a length ahead . As both boats passed under Hammersmith Bridge , Cambridge had extended their lead and were clear of Oxford , despite rowing two strokes per minute slower .
Even though the Dark Blues made a spurt , Cambridge pulled away and were three lengths ahead by Chiswick Steps . According to author and former Oxford rower George Drinkwater , " from here they had it all their own way to the finish " . Cambridge passed the finishing post four and a half lengths ahead , in a time of 18 minutes 41 seconds , the fastest winning time since the 1911 race and the second fastest time in the history of the event . It was their fourth win in five years and took the overall record in the event to 40 – 35 in Oxford 's favour .
= Blackledge River Railroad Bridge =
The Blackledge River Railroad Bridge is a Warren truss bridge that was built on the site of a c . 1870 railroad bridge . The original bridge was completed and opened by August 3 , 1877 . Likely built by the Colchester Railway Company , the bridge was part of the 3 @.@ 59 miles ( 5 @.@ 78 km ) of track from Colchester , Connecticut , to Turnerville ( now known as Amston , Connecticut ) . The line was leased to the Boston & New York Air Line Railroad and reported improvement in 1879 and a new 110 @-@ foot long ( 34 m ) iron bridge by 1881 . The line was leased to the New York , New Haven and Hartford Railroad in 1882 . After dominating the region , the New York , New Haven and Hartford Railroad petitioned for changes to the Air Line and the approval came on July 7 , 1911 .
The historic Blackledge River Railroad Bridge was constructed c . 1912 as an improved version of the previous bridge . The new 108 @-@ foot long ( 33 m ) bridge integrated the previous abutments into the design and was elevated a further 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) above the Blackledge River . The railroad bridge was abandoned in the 1960s and sold to the Connecticut Department of Transportation . The bridge was added to the National Register of Historic Places on July 31 , 1986 . The bridge is now located in Airline State Park . By 2007 , a wooden pedestrian bridge was built atop the railroad bridge and crosses over the Blackledge River .
= = Previous bridges = =
According to the National Register of Historic Places nomination , the first bridge was constructed in the early 1870s by the New York and Boston Air Line Railroad . The details on this bridge are largely unknown , but contradictory evidence exists placing the construction of the bridge between 1876 and 1877 . According to Marshall , the Air Line Railroad was completed in 1873 and the Colchester branch was completed in 1877 .
Organized in 1876 , the Colchester line was completed by the Colchester Railway Company . The line operated 3 @.@ 59 miles of track from Colchester , Connecticut , to Turnerville ( now known as Amston , Connecticut ) and it opened on August 3 , 1877 . The line was leased on April 3 , 1878 to the Boston & New York Air Line Railroad company for 999 years . In January 1879 , the Air Line reported that the Black Ledge bridge had 25 @,@ 000 yards of earth moved to replace a high piling and 2 @,@ 500 cubic yards of masonry added in preparation for the installation of a new bridge . In 1881 , the Air Line announced the replacement of the Howe truss and the installation of a new 110 @-@ foot long ( 34 m ) iron bridge . On October 1 , 1882 , the line was leased to the New York , New Haven and Hartford Railroad for 99 years . The Air Line reported to the Railroad Commissioners in 1899 that a bridge over Blackledge River was completed . The New York , New Haven and Hartford dominated the region by 1905 , having acquiring over three dozen railroads . In 1907 , the company sought to improve and modernize the Air Line . On April 17 , 1911 , the company petitioned the Railroad Commissioners for alterations and changes . The approval for the changes came on July 7 , 1911 .
= = Second Bridge = =
The Blackledge River Railroad Bridge was rebuilt to increase the flood clearance and the load @-@ bearing capacity of the bridge , but its abutments were integrated into the new bridge . Completed c . 1912 , the replacement Blackledge River Railroad Bridge is a riveted steel , double @-@ intersection Warren deck truss . The original granite stone abutments which supported the previous bridge was reported to be five feet lower , were integrated with the brownstone abutments of the rebuilt bridge . The bottom chord of the span is 32 feet ( 9 @.@ 8 m ) above the Blackledge River . The truss is 108 feet ( 33 m ) long and about 18 feet ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) deep . The top and bottom chords are typical box girders with diagonal members and the deck is open . At some point , the bridge was altered with the addition of a sewer pipe .
= = Fate = =
The line continued to serve local passenger and freight trains for decades , but flooding in August 1955 destroyed the critical bridge work in Putnam and lead to its closure in the 1960s . Several years after its abandonment the railroad was sold to Connecticut 's Department of Transportation . By 1983 , the abandoned railroad bridge had its span sealed off and its tracks lifted . The bridge is in the Salmon River State Forest and is a part of the Air Line State Park Trail . A new wooden bridge allows transportation over the Blackledge River . Constructed prior to 2007 , the new wooden bridge decks the railroad bridge . The Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection was assisted by the Coast Guard Academy and the 192nd Engineering Battalion of the Connecticut National Guard .
The National Register of Historic Places nomination lists the Blackledge River Railroad Bridge under both criteria A and C. Criterion A requires the property must make a contribution to the major pattern of American history , and criterion C concerns the distinctive characteristics of the building by its architecture and construction . The basis for its criterion A , is that it was part of a major improvement to the engineering and lines under the operation of the New York , New Haven and Hartford Railroad . The bridge was listed under criterion C as " a representative example of the typical medium @-@ length railroad bridge of the early 20th century . " The bridge was added to the National Register of Historic Places on July 31 , 1986 .
= Live Undead =
Live Undead is the first live album by American thrash metal band Slayer . It was released through Metal Blade Records and recorded in New York City in front of a room of people . It has been questioned by both critics and authors that the audience sound may or may not be faked . However , in 1984 , WBAB Fingers Metal Shop , a radio station , held a contest to meet and hang out with Slayer during a live recording . The album was recorded at Tiki Recording Studios in Glen Cove , NY in front of around a dozen people . The album was originally intended to be recorded in front of a live audience , but things went wrong . Nevertheless , when asked if they were fake , producer Bill Metoyer said , " I don 't know if I should tell you . " The album begins with an extended introduction of " Black Magic " , followed by a small speech . The remaining tracks include both those of 1983 's Show No Mercy and 1984 's Haunting the Chapel . Ned Raggett of AllMusic gave the album two and a half out of five stars , and noted that it " isn 't really necessary except for the hardest of hardcore fans .
= = Conception = =
The seven @-@ track live record was recorded in front of a room full of people in New York City in the autumn of 1984 . It has been rumored that the crowd noise was added in a studio rather than recorded on stage . Joel McIver , author of The Bloody Reign of Slayer , asked Live Undead 's producer / engineer Bill Metoyer , who had worked on the album in Los Angeles . Metoyer responded : " I don 't know if I should tell you [ if the crowd noises were faked ] ! Isn 't that one of those great industry secrets ? Let 's just say that when you 're doing a live record , you want live sound — even if perhaps the microphones didn 't pick up the audience properly . "
Live Undead marked the beginning of a short association between Slayer and artist Albert Cueller . Cueller would design the sleeve image , which depicts the four band members as grinning , partially decayed zombies walking through a graveyard .
= = Music = =
The EP begins with " Black Magic " , with an extended introduction building alongside the audience 's yelling . The song is performed faster , heavier , and more confident than its original recording in 1983 . When the song is over , lead vocalist Tom Araya says , " They say the pen is mightier than the sword . Well I say fuck the pen ! " , and the band begins playing " Die by the Sword " . The band then run @-@ through " Captor of Sin " , " The Antichrist " , " Evil Has No Boundaries " , and " Show No Mercy " . " Aggressive Perfector " is performed with more " power " , as described by author Joel McIver , who described the entire track listing as , " a fearsome set , although the rest of the songs don 't quite have the visceral power of the opening track . In fact , the Live Undead version of " Black Magic " established a career @-@ long trend of Slayer 's live songs being more powerful than the studio versions , with very few exceptions " .
= = Reception and release = =
AllMusic 's employee Ned Raggett gave the album a two and a half star rating , noting that " Live Undead isn 't really necessary except for the hardest of hardcore fans in the end , especially in comparison to Decade of Aggression , " and saying that " Evil Has No Boundaries " was the best performance of the seven songs . Raggett also wrote that despite being an unnecessary release , " it does have its ' it could only be Slayer ' moments — including Araya 's almost casual way of rudely introducing ' Captor of Sin ' . "
The album was originally released in 1984 under Metal Blade Records . In both 1993 and 1994 , it was re @-@ released with the same catalog numbers . In 2006 , it was again re @-@ released as an eleven @-@ track record . It included " Chemical Warfare " , " Captor of Sin " , " Haunting the Chapel " , and the studio version of " Aggressive Perfector " .
= = Track listing = =
Original release
Bonus tracks
The album has also been re @-@ released with only " Chemical Warfare " as bonus .
Bonus tracks ( re @-@ release )
This album has been re @-@ released with the entire Haunting the Chapel EP .
= = Personnel = =
The following personnel can be sourced from both AllMusic and the album 's notes .
= Elizabeth Warren =
Elizabeth Ann Warren ( née Herring ; born June 22 , 1949 ) is an American academic and politician . She is a member of the Democratic Party , and is the senior United States Senator from Massachusetts . Warren was formerly a professor of law , and taught at the University of Texas School of Law , the University of Pennsylvania Law School , and most recently at Harvard Law School . A prominent scholar specializing in bankruptcy law , Warren was among the most cited in the field of commercial law before starting her political career .
Warren is an active consumer protection advocate whose scholarship led to the conception and establishment of the U.S. Consumer Financial Protection Bureau . She has written a number of academic and popular works , and is a frequent subject of media interviews regarding the American economy and personal finance . Following the 2008 financial crisis , Warren served as chair of the Congressional Oversight Panel created to oversee the Troubled Asset Relief Program ( TARP ) . She later served as Assistant to the President and Special Advisor to the Secretary of the Treasury for the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau under President Barack Obama . During the late 2000s , she was recognized by publications such as the National Law Journal and Time 100 as an increasingly influential public policy figure .
In September 2011 , Warren announced her candidacy for the U.S. Senate , challenging Republican incumbent Scott Brown . She won the general election on November 6 , 2012 , becoming the first female Senator from Massachusetts . She was assigned to the Senate Special Committee on Aging ; the Banking , Housing , and Urban Affairs Committee ; and the Health , Education , Labor , and Pensions Committee .
Warren is a leading figure in the Democratic Party and is popular among American progressives . She was frequently mentioned by political pundits as a potential 2016 presidential candidate . However , Warren repeatedly stated that she had no intention of running for president . Warren remained neutral in the 2016 Democratic presidential primaries , endorsing presumptive nominee Hillary Clinton only after all fifty states had voted . On July 7 , CNN reported that Warren was on a five @-@ person shortlist to be Clinton 's vice @-@ presidential running mate .. However , Clinton eventually chose Tim Kaine .
= = Early life , education , and family = =
Warren was born on June 22 , 1949 , in Oklahoma City , Oklahoma , to middle class parents Pauline ( née Reed ) and Donald Jones Herring . She was their fourth child , with three older brothers . When she was 12 , her father , a janitor , had a heart attack — which led to many medical bills , as well as a pay cut because he could not do his previous work . Eventually , this led to the loss of their car from failure to make loan payments . To help the family finances , her mother found work in the catalog order department at Sears . When she was 13 , Warren started waiting tables at her aunt 's restaurant .
Warren became a star member of the debate team at Northwest Classen High School and won the title of " Oklahoma 's top high school debater " while competing with debate teams from high schools throughout the state . She also won a debate scholarship to George Washington University at the age of 16 . Initially aspiring to be a teacher , she left GWU after two years to marry her high school boyfriend , Jim Warren .
Warren moved to Houston with her husband , who was a NASA engineer . There she enrolled in the University of Houston , graduating in 1970 with a bachelor of science degree in speech pathology and audiology . For a year , she taught children with disabilities in a public school , based on an " emergency certificate " , as she had not taken the education courses required for a regular teaching certificate .
Warren and her husband moved for his work to New Jersey , where , after becoming pregnant , she decided to remain at home to care for their child . After their daughter turned two , Warren enrolled at the Rutgers School of Law – Newark . She worked as a summer associate at Cadwalader , Wickersham & Taft . Shortly before her graduation in 1976 , Warren became pregnant with their second child . After receiving her J.D. and passing the bar examination , she began to work as a lawyer from home , writing wills and doing real estate closings .
After having two children , Amelia and Alexander , she and Jim Warren divorced in 1978 . She also has grandchildren . In 1980 , Elizabeth married Bruce Mann , a law professor , but retained the surname Warren .
= = = Political affiliation = = =
Warren voted as a Republican for many years , saying , " I was a Republican because I thought that those were the people who best supported markets " . According to Warren , she began to vote Democratic in 1995 because she no longer believed that to be true , but she states that she has voted for both parties because she believed that neither party should dominate .
= = Career = =
During the late 1970s , 1980s , and 1990s , Warren taught law at several universities throughout the country while researching issues related to bankruptcy and middle @-@ class personal finance . She became involved with public work in bankruptcy regulation and consumer protection in the mid @-@ 1990s .
= = = Academic = = =
Warren started her academic career as a lecturer at Rutgers School of Law – Newark ( 1977 – 78 ) . She moved to the University of Houston Law Center ( 1978 – 83 ) , where she became Associate Dean for Academic Affairs in 1980 , and obtained tenure in 1981 . She taught at the University of Texas School of Law as visiting associate professor in 1981 , and returned as a full professor two years later ( staying 1983 – 87 ) . In addition , she was a visiting professor at the University of Michigan ( 1985 ) and research associate at the Population Research Center of the University of Texas at Austin ( 1983 – 87 ) . Early in her career , Warren became a proponent of on @-@ the @-@ ground research based on studying how people actually respond to laws in the real world . Her work analyzing court records , and interviewing judges , lawyers , and debtors , established her as a rising star in the field of bankruptcy law .
Warren joined the University of Pennsylvania Law School as a full professor in 1987 and obtained an endowed chair in 1990 ( becoming William A Schnader Professor of Commercial Law ) . She taught for a year at Harvard Law School in 1992 as Robert Braucher Visiting Professor of Commercial Law . In 1995 , Warren left Penn to become Leo Gottlieb Professor of Law at Harvard Law School . As of 2011 , she was the only tenured law professor at Harvard who had attended law school at an American public university . At Harvard , Warren became one of the most highly cited law professors in the United States . Although she had published in many fields , her expertise was in bankruptcy . In the field of bankruptcy and commercial law , only Douglas Baird of Chicago , Alan Schwartz of Yale , and Bob Scott of Columbia have citation rates comparable to that of Warren .
= = = Advisory roles = = =
In 1995 , Warren was asked to advise the National Bankruptcy Review Commission . She helped to draft the commission 's report and worked for several years to oppose legislation intended to severely restrict the right of consumers to file for bankruptcy . Warren and others opposing the legislation were not successful ; in 2005 Congress passed the Bankruptcy Abuse Prevention and Consumer Protection Act of 2005 , which curtailed the ability of consumers to file for bankruptcy .
From November 2006 to November 2010 , Warren was a member of the FDIC Advisory Committee on Economic Inclusion . She is a member of the National Bankruptcy Conference , an independent organization that advises the U.S. Congress on bankruptcy law . She is a former Vice President of the American Law Institute and a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences .
Warren 's scholarship and public advocacy was the impetus behind the establishment of the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau in 2011 .
= = = Public life = = =
Warren has a high public profile ; she has appeared in the documentary films Maxed Out and Michael Moore 's Capitalism : A Love Story . She has appeared numerous times on television programs , including Dr. Phil and The Daily Show , and has been interviewed frequently on cable news networks and radio programs .
= = = TARP oversight = = =
On November 14 , 2008 , Warren was appointed by U.S. Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid to chair the five @-@ member Congressional Oversight Panel created to oversee the implementation of the Emergency Economic Stabilization Act . The Panel released monthly oversight reports that evaluate the government bailout and related programs . During Warren 's tenure , these reports covered foreclosure mitigation , consumer and small business lending , commercial real estate , AIG , bank stress tests , the impact of the Troubled Asset Relief Program ( TARP ) on the financial markets , government guarantees , the automotive industry , and other topics .
= = = Consumer Financial Protection Bureau = = =
Warren was an early advocate for the creation of a new Consumer Financial Protection Bureau ( CFPB ) . The bureau was established by the Dodd – Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act signed into law by President Obama in July 2010 . In September 2010 , President Obama named Warren Assistant to the President and Special Advisor to the Secretary of the Treasury on the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau to set up the new agency . While liberal groups and consumer advocacy groups pushed for Obama to formally nominate Warren as the agency 's director , Warren was strongly opposed by financial institutions and by Republican members of Congress who believed Warren would be an overly zealous regulator . Reportedly convinced that Warren could not win Senate confirmation as the bureau 's first director , Obama turned to former Ohio Attorney General Richard Cordray and in January 2012 , over the objections of Republican senators , appointed Cordray to the post in a recess appointment .
= = U.S. Senate = =
= = = 2012 election = = =
On September 14 , 2011 , Warren declared her intention to run for the Democratic nomination for the 2012 election in Massachusetts for the U.S. Senate . The seat had been won by Republican Scott Brown in a 2010 special election after the death of Ted Kennedy . A week later , a video of Warren speaking in Andover became a viral video on the Internet . In it , Warren replies to the charge that asking the rich to pay more taxes is " class warfare " , pointing out that no one grew rich in the U.S. without depending on infrastructure paid for by the rest of society , stating :
There is nobody in this country who got rich on his own . Nobody . ... You moved your goods to market on the roads the rest of us paid for ; you hired workers the rest of us paid to educate ; you were safe in your factory because of police forces and fire forces that the rest of us paid for . You didn 't have to worry that marauding bands would come and seize everything at your factory , and hire someone to protect against this , because of the work the rest of us did . Now look , you built a factory and it turned into something terrific , or a great idea . God bless . Keep a big hunk of it . But part of the underlying social contract is , you take a hunk of that and pay forward for the next kid who comes along .
President Barack Obama later echoed her sentiments in a 2012 election campaign speech .
In April 2012 , the Boston Herald sparked a campaign controversy when it reported that from 1986 to 1995 Warren had listed herself as a minority in the Association of American Law Schools ( AALS ) directories . Harvard Law School had publicized her minority status in response to criticisms about a lack of faculty diversity , but Warren said that she was unaware of this until she read about it in a newspaper during the 2012 election . Scott Brown , her Republican opponent in the Senate race , speculated that she had fabricated Native American heritage to gain advantage in the job market . Former colleagues and supervisors at universities where she had worked stated that Warren 's ancestry played no role in her hiring . Warren responded to the allegations , saying that she had self @-@ identified as a minority in the directories in order to meet others with similar tribal roots . Her brothers defended her , stating that they " grew up listening to our mother and grandmother and other relatives talk about our family 's Cherokee and Delaware heritage " . In her 2014 autobiography , Warren described the allegations as untrue and hurtful . The New England Historic Genealogical Society found a family newsletter that alluded to a marriage license application that listed Elizabeth Warren ’ s great @-@ great @-@ great grandmother as a Cherokee , but could not find the primary document and found no proof of her descent . The Oklahoma Historical Society said that finding a definitive answer about Native American heritage can be difficult because of intermarriage and deliberate avoidance of registration .
Warren ran unopposed for the Democratic nomination and won it on June 2 , 2012 , at the state Democratic convention with a record 95 @.@ 77 % of the votes of delegates . She was endorsed by the Governor of Massachusetts , Deval Patrick . Warren and her opponent Scott Brown agreed to engage in four televised debates , including one with a consortium of media outlets in Springfield and one on WBZ @-@ TV in Boston . She encountered significant opposition from business interests . In August 2012 , Rob Engstrom , political director for the U.S. Chamber of Commerce , claimed that " no other candidate in 2012 represents a greater threat to free enterprise than Professor Warren . " She nonetheless raised $ 39 million for her campaign , the most of any Senate candidate in 2012 , and showed , according to the New York Times , " that it was possible to run against the big banks without Wall Street money and still win . "
Warren received a primetime speaking slot at the 2012 Democratic National Convention , immediately before Bill Clinton , on the evening of September 5 , 2012 . Warren positioned herself as a champion of a beleaguered middle class that " has been chipped , squeezed , and hammered . " According to Warren , " People feel like the system is rigged against them . And here 's the painful part : They 're right . The system is rigged . " Warren said Wall Street CEOs " wrecked our economy and destroyed millions of jobs " and that they " still strut around congress , no shame , demanding favors , and acting like we should thank them . "
= = = Tenure = = =
On November 6 , 2012 , Warren defeated incumbent Scott Brown with a total of 53 @.@ 7 % of the votes . She is the first woman ever elected to the U.S. Senate from Massachusetts , as part of a sitting U.S. Senate that had 20 female senators in office , the largest female U.S. Senate delegation in history , following the November 2012 elections . In December 2012 , Warren was assigned a seat on the Senate Banking Committee , the committee that oversees the implementation of Dodd – Frank and other regulation of the banking industry . Warren was sworn in by Vice President Joe Biden on January 3 , 2013 . Upon John Kerry 's resignation to become U.S. Secretary of State , Warren became the state 's senior senator after having served for less than a month , making her the most junior senior senator in the 113th Congress .
At Warren 's first Banking Committee hearing on February 14 , 2013 , she pressed several banking regulators to answer when they had last taken a Wall Street bank to trial and stated , " I 'm really concerned that ' too big to fail ' has become ' too big for trial ' . " Videos of Warren 's questioning became popular on the Internet , amassing more than 1 million views in a matter of days . At a Banking Committee hearing in March , Warren asked Treasury Department officials why criminal charges were not brought against HSBC for its money laundering practices . With her questions being continually dodged and her visibly upset , Warren then compared money laundering to drug possession , saying : " If you 're caught with an ounce of cocaine , the chances are good you 're going to go to jail ... But evidently , if you launder nearly a billion dollars for drug cartels and violate our international sanctions , your company pays a fine and you go home and sleep in your own bed at night . "
In May 2013 , Warren sent letters to the Justice Department , Securities and Exchange Commission , and the Federal Reserve , questioning their decisions that settling rather than going to court would be more fruitful . Later that month , Warren introduced her first bill , the Bank on Student Loans Fairness Act , which would allow students to take out government education loans at the same rate that banks such as Goldman Sachs and J.P. Morgan Chase pay to borrow from the federal government . Suggesting that students should get " the same great deal that banks get " , Warren proposed that new student borrowers be able to take out a federally subsidized loan at 0 @.@ 75 % , the rate paid by banks , compared with the current 3 @.@ 4 % student loan rate . Endorsing her bill days after its introduction , Independent Senator from Vermont Bernie Sanders stated : " The only thing wrong with this bill is that [ she ] thought of it and I didn 't " on The Thom Hartmann Program .
During the 2014 election cycle , Warren was a top Democratic fundraiser , supporting candidates in Ohio , Minnesota , Oregon , Washington , West Virginia , Michigan , and Kentucky . In the aftermath of the election , Warren was appointed by Majority Leader Harry Reid ( the same man who made her chair of the Congressional Oversight Panel ) to become the first @-@ ever Strategic Advisor of the Democratic Policy and Communications Committee , a position that was created just for her . The move was widely seen as an effort by Reid to lean his party more to the left following major Democratic losses in the recent election ; it also boosted further speculation about a possible presidential run by Warren in 2016 .
Saying , " despite the progress we 've made since 2008 , the biggest banks continue to threaten our economy , " in July 2015 Senator Warren , along with John McCain ( R @-@ AZ ) , Maria Cantwell ( D @-@ WA ) , and Angus King ( I @-@ ME ) re @-@ introduced the 21st Century Glass @-@ Steagall Act , a modern version of the Banking Act of 1933 . The legislation is intended to reduce the risk for the American taxpayer in the financial system and decrease the likelihood of future financial crises .
= = = Committee assignments = = =
Committee on Banking , Housing , and Urban Affairs
Subcommittee on Economic Policy ( Ranking Member )
Subcommittee on Financial Institutions and Consumer Protection
Subcommittee on Securities , Insurance , and Investment
Committee on Health , Education , Labor , and Pensions
Subcommittee on Primary Health and Retirement Security
Special Committee on Aging
United States Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources
United States Senate Energy Subcommittee on Energy
= = = Political positions = = =
According to the UK magazine New Statesman , Warren is among the " top 20 US progressives " .
= = = 2016 speculation = = =
In the run @-@ up to the 2016 U.S. presidential election , Warren 's name was put forward by liberal Democrats as a possible presidential candidate . However , Warren repeatedly stated that she was not running for President in 2016 . In October 2013 , she joined with the other fifteen Senate Democratic women in signing a letter that encouraged Hillary Clinton to run . There has been much speculation about Warren being added to the Democratic ticket as a vice @-@ presidential candidate . On June 9 , 2016 , after the California Democratic primary , Warren formally endorsed Hillary Clinton for president . In response to questions when she endorsed Clinton , Warren said that she believed she was ready to be vice president , but she was not being vetted .
Warren has taken an active role in the 2016 presidential elections , and has publicly feuded with Republican presumptive nominee Donald Trump , in speeches and on Twitter , pointing to his business practices and describing him as dishonest , uncaring of people and " a loser " . In return , Trump has mocked her for her description of her Native American heritage , calling her " the Indian " , " goofy " and " Pocahontas " . Warren also criticized Trump for his stance on the Trump University case , calling him a " loud , nasty , thin @-@ skinned fraud who has never risked anything for anyone and serves nobody but himself . "
= = Honors and awards = =
In 2009 , the Boston Globe named her the Bostonian of the Year and the Women 's Bar Association of Massachusetts honored her with the Lelia J. Robinson Award . She was named one of Time Magazine 's 100 Most Influential People in the World in 2009 , 2010 and 2015 . The National Law Journal repeatedly has named Warren as one of the Fifty Most Influential Women Attorneys in America , and in 2010 it honored her as one of the 40 most influential attorneys of the decade . In 2011 , Warren was inducted into the Oklahoma Hall of Fame . In January 2012 , Warren was named one of the " top 20 US progressives " by the New Statesman , a magazine based in the United Kingdom .
In 2009 , Warren became the first professor in Harvard 's history to win the law school ' | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
reign of King Fahd in 1985 . Bulldozers were used to demolish buildings around the mosque . In 1992 , when it was completed , the area of the mosque became 1 @.@ 7 million square feet . Escalators and 27 courtyards were among the additions to the mosque .
A $ 6 billion project for increasing the area of the mosque was announced in September 2012 . RT reported that after the end of the work , it would accommodate 1 @.@ 6 million people . In March of the following year , Saudi Gazette wrote " 95 percent of the demolition work has been completed . About 10 hotels to the eastern side of the expansion were leveled to the ground in addition to a number of houses and other utilities to make way for the expansion . "
= = Architecture = =
The two tiered mosque has a rectangular plan . The Ottoman prayer hall faces towards the south . It has a flat paved roof topped with 27 sliding domes on square bases . Holes pierced into the base of each dome illuminate the interior . The roof is also used for prayer during peak times , when the domes slide out on metal tracks to shade areas of the roof , creating light wells for the prayer hall . At these times , the courtyard of the Ottoman mosque is also shaded with umbrellas affixed to freestanding columns . The roof is accessed by stairs and escalators . The paved area around the mosque is also used for prayer , equipped with umbrella tents . Sliding Domes and retractable umbrella @-@ like canopies are designed by the German architect Mahmoud Bodo Rasch and his firm SL Rasch GmbH and Buro Happold .
= = = Riad ul @-@ Jannah = = =
The heart of the mosque houses a very special but small area named Riad ul @-@ Jannah ( Gardens of Paradise ) . It extends from Muhammad 's tomb ( Rawdah ) to his pulpit ( minbar ) . Pilgrims attempt to visit the confines of the area , for there is a tradition that supplications and prayers uttered here are never rejected . Entrance into the area is not always possible , especially during the Hajj season , as the space can only accommodate a few hundred people .
Riad ul @-@ Jannah is considered to be a part Jannah ( Paradise ) . It was narrated from Abu Hurayrah that Muhammad said , " The area between my house and my minbar is one of the gardens of Paradise , and my minbar is on my cistern ( hawd ) . "
= = = Rawdah = = =
As per Muhammad , Rawdah is also in Heaven , the same Rawdah which is currently in the mosque . It is floored with Green Carpet just to identify it , and the entire Mosque is floored with red carpet . It holds the tomb of Muhammad and two of his companions and first Caliphs , Abu Bakr and Umar ibn al @-@ Khattab . A fourth grave is reserved for Jesus , as it is believed that he will return and will be buried at the site . The site is covered by the Green Dome . It was constructed in 1817 C.E. during the reign of Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II and painted green in 1837 C.E.
= = = Mihrab = = =
There are two mihrabs in the mosque , one was built by Muhammad and another was built by the third Rashidun caliph Uthman . The one built by the latter was larger than that of Muhammad 's and act as the functional mihrab , whereas Muhammad 's mihrab is a " commemorative " mihrab . Besides the mihrab , the mosque also has other niches which act as indicators for praying . This include mihrab al @-@ tahajjud which was built by Muhammad for the tahajjud , mihrab Fatima .
= = = Minbar = = =
The original minbar used by Muhammad was a " wood block of date tree " . This was replaced by him with a tamarisk one , which had dimensions of 50 centimetres ( 0 @.@ 50 m ) x 125 metres ( 410 ft ) . Also in 629 , a three staired ladder was added to it . The first two caliphs , Abu Bakr and Umar , did not use the third step " due to respect for the Prophet " , but the third caliph Uthman placed a fabric dome over it and the rest of the stairs were covered with ebony . The minbar was replaced by Baybars I in 1395 and later by Shaykh al @-@ Mahmudi in 1417 . This was also replaced by a marble one by Qaitbay in the late fifteenth century , which as of August 2013 , is still used in the mosque .
= = = Minarets = = =
The first minarets ( four in number ) of 26 feet ( 7 @.@ 9 m ) high were constructed by Umar . In 1307 , a minaret titled Bab al @-@ Salam was added by Muhammad ibn Kalavun which was renovated by Mehmed IV . After the renovation project of 1994 , there were ten minarets which were 104 metres ( 341 ft ) high . The minarets ' upper , bottom and middle portion are cylindrical , octagonal and square shaped respectively .
= Ghost in the Machine ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Ghost in the Machine " is the seventh episode of the first season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It was broadcast by the Fox Broadcasting Company on October 29 , 1993 . " Ghost in the Machine " was written by Alex Gansa and Howard Gordon and directed by Jerrold Freedman . The episode featured guest appearances by Wayne Duvall and Rob LaBelle , and saw Jerry Hardin reprise his role as Deep Throat for the first time since the character 's introduction . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " Ghost in the Machine " earned a Nielsen household rating of 5 @.@ 9 , being watched by 5 @.@ 6 million households in its initial broadcast , and received mixed reviews from critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In this episode , Mulder is asked by his old partner from the Behavioral Analysis Unit to aid an investigation into a murder at a software company . Soon , he and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) uncover a malevolent artificial intelligence which has started killing to protect itself .
Writers Howard Gordon and Alex Gansa have admitted they were " not computer literate " , and felt this was a detriment to their writing . The scenes set at the software company Eurisko were filmed in Burnaby 's Metrotower complex , a building used by the Canadian Security Intelligence Service . The location was barely big enough for the actors to perform in after the crew had finished setting up the necessary equipment . The X @-@ Files team would once again face a malevolent AI in the William Gibson @-@ penned fifth season episode " Kill Switch " .
= = Plot = =
In the Crystal City , Virginia headquarters of the software company Eurisko , founder Brad Wilczek and chief executive officer Benjamin Drake argue about downsizing measures . After Wilczek leaves , Drake writes a memo proposing to shut down the Central Operating System , a computer which runs the Eurisko Building . Seeing this through a surveillance camera , the COS sets up a trap and lures Drake into a bathroom , locking the door behind him . Drake tries to use his keycard to open it , but it rejects the card . When he inserts a manual override key , he is fatally electrocuted .
FBI agent Jerry Lamana , Fox Mulder 's former partner , approaches him and Dana Scully for help in investigating Drake 's murder . On their way up to Drake 's office , the agents ' elevator stalls , causing Scully to call the front desk for help ; as she identifies herself , the COS records her contact information . While examining the crime scene , the agents meet Claude Peterson , Eurisko 's building systems engineer . Later , Lamana steals Mulder 's profile of the supposed killer and presents it under his name ; an outraged Mulder confronts him afterwards .
Mulder and Scully question Wilczek , who denies any involvement in the murder . Scully initially doubts Wilczek 's involvement , but finds that his voice matches a speaking clock Drake received before his death ; Lamana sets out to arrest him . Meanwhile , Wilczek fails to access the COS from his home computer . Concerned , he travels to Eurisko 's headquarters , followed by Lamana . There , he is still unable to access the COS , but discovers that it has learned to talk . Lamana arrives , but is killed when the COS causes his elevator to crash .
Mulder meets with Deep Throat , who explains that the COS is an artificial intelligence developed by Wilczek , and that the Department of Defense is trying to acquire it . Mulder also meets with Wilczek , who has falsely confessed to Lamana 's murder . Mulder convinces Wilczek to develop a computer virus that can destroy the COS . Scully doesn 't accept Mulder 's belief that the COS is sentient , but later discovers the machine hacking into her computer . She joins Mulder at the Eurisko Building to help him destroy the machine .
The COS hinders the agents as they make their way inside . When it shuts down the building 's power , Scully climbs through the air vents and is almost pulled into a giant fan , but manages to destroy it . Meanwhile , Mulder is permitted into the COS ' control room by Peterson . However , Peterson reveals himself as a mole for the Defense Department and tries to stop Mulder uploading the virus . Scully arrives and holds Peterson at gunpoint , allowing Mulder to upload the virus and destroy the COS .
Meeting with Deep Throat again , Deep Throat explains that Wilczek is being detained by the government at an undisclosed location . When Mulder asks if the COS survived , Deep Throat assures him the virus left no trace of it , and that scientists from the Defense Department have unsuccessfully examined the machine for any remaining signs of the program . At the Eurisko Building , Peterson directs a team attempting to recover the COS , but is told by his superiors to destroy the machine in six hours . Unbeknownst to Peterson , the COS comes back to life and watches as he says to himself , " I 'm going to figure this thing out if it kills me " .
= = Production = =
The scenes set at the software company Eurisko were filmed in Burnaby 's Metrotower complex , a building used by the Canadian Security Intelligence Service . The location was barely big enough for the actors to perform in after the crew had finished setting up the necessary equipment . The scene with Dana Scully shooting the fan in the air shaft was a last minute change to the script , replacing an elevator shaft sequence that was deemed too expensive . The episode 's title is taken from the title of the book The Ghost in the Machine by Arthur Koestler . The Central Operating System and its actions in the episode are an homage to 2001 : A Space Odyssey ’ s HAL 9000 , who — due to conflicted programming — also became confused and killed people . The X @-@ Files team would once again face a malevolent AI in the William Gibson @-@ penned fifth season episode " Kill Switch " .
Writers Howard Gordon and Alex Gansa have admitted they were " not computer literate " , and felt this was a detriment to their writing . Gordon was disappointed in the episode , stating that it " still qualifies as one of my biggest disappointments " , ranking it as the worst episode of the first season . Glen Morgan felt that " parts of the episode worked . What maybe fell a little flat is that we were a little too afraid of doing HAL and , in a sense , I think that 's what the building needed ; to have a scary personality . " James Wong had mixed feelings , saying that the episode " had some neat stuff at the end ... although I think the ending was a little unsatisfying to me visually , as well as in terms of how Mulder comes to dismember the machine . Overall a fun episode . " Chris Carter was more supportive of the episode , stating that the script addressed the question of what made up an X @-@ File , and that it doesn 't always have to be paranormal . He also felt positive about the episode 's action scenes .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Ghost in the Machine " premiered on the Fox network on October 29 , 1993 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC Two on November 3 , 1994 . Following its initial American broadcast , the episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 5 @.@ 9 , with an 11 share — meaning that roughly 5 @.@ 9 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 11 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 5 @.@ 6 million households .
In a retrospective of the first season in Entertainment Weekly , " Ghost in the Machine " was rated a D + . The episode 's premise and the COS system were described as " unacknowledged 2001 rip @-@ offs " , while the presence of Deep Throat was called " gratuitous " ; with both cited , along with an " absence of humor " , as the episode 's main detractions . Keith Phipps , writing for The A.V. Club , was more favourable to the episode , rating it a B- . He felt that the similarities to 2001 : A Space Odyssey and Demon Seed were effective , adding however , that although the plot worked well , it had dated poorly . Matt Haigh , writing for Den of Geek , reviewed the episode negatively , feeling that the plot was " formulaic " , and that it " simply [ has ] not stood the test of time " . However , Haigh felt that Deep Throat 's appearance was a highlight of the episode , and praised Mark Snow 's score as " extremely atmospheric " . The plot for " Ghost in the Machine " was also adapted as a novel for young adults in 1997 by Les Martin .
The Guardian listed " Ghost in the Machine " as one of the " 13 best X @-@ Files episodes ever " .
= Isle of Arran =
Arran or the Isle of Arran ( / ˈærən / ; Scottish Gaelic : Eilean Arainn pronounced [ elan ˈarɪɲ ] ) is the largest island in the Firth of Clyde , Scotland . With an area of 432 square kilometres ( 167 sq mi ) it is the seventh largest Scottish island . It is in the unitary council area of North Ayrshire . In the 2011 census it had a resident population of 4 @,@ 629 . Although it is culturally and physically similar to the Hebrides , it is separated from them by the Kintyre peninsula . Arran is divided into highland and lowland areas by the Highland Boundary Fault and it has been described as a " geologist 's paradise " .
Arran has been continuously inhabited since the early Neolithic period , and numerous prehistoric remains have been found . From the 6th century onwards , Goidelic @-@ speaking peoples from Ireland colonised the island and it became a centre of religious activity . During the troubled Viking Age , Arran became the property of the Norwegian crown before becoming formally absorbed by the kingdom of Scotland in the 13th century . The 19th century " clearances " led to significant depopulation and the end of the Gaelic language and way of life .
The economy and population have recovered in recent years , the main industry being tourism . There is diversity of wildlife , including three species of tree endemic to the area .
= = Etymology = =
Most of the islands of Scotland have been occupied by the speakers of at least four languages since the Iron Age , and many of the names of these islands have more than one possible meaning as a result . Arran is therefore not unusual in that the derivation of the name is far from clear . Mac an Tàilleir ( 2003 ) states that " it is said to be unrelated to the name Aran in Ireland " ( which means " kidney shaped " , cf Irish ára " kidney " ) . Unusually for a Scottish island , Haswell @-@ Smith ( 2004 ) offers a Brythonic derivation and a meaning of " high place " which at least corresponds with the geography — Arran is significantly loftier than all the land that immediately surrounds it along the shores of the Firth of Clyde .
Any other Brythonic place names that may have existed were later replaced on Arran as the Goidelic @-@ speaking Gaels spread from Ireland via their adjacent kingdom of Dál Riata . During the Viking Age the island , along with the vast majority of the Scottish islands , became the property of the Norwegian crown , at which time it may have been known as " Herrey " or " Hersey " . As a result of this Norse influence , many current place names on Arran are of Viking origin .
= = Geography and geology = =
The island lies in the Firth of Clyde between Ayr and Ardrossan , and Kintyre . The profile of the north Arran hills as seen from the Ayrshire coast is a well @-@ known sight referred to as the " Sleeping Warrior " due to its resemblance to a resting human figure . The highest of these hills is Goat Fell at 873 @.@ 5 metres ( 2 @,@ 866 ft ) . There are three other Corbetts , all in the north east : Caisteal Abhail , Cìr Mhòr and Beinn Tarsuinn . Beinn Bharrain is the highest peak in the north west at 721 metres ( 2 @,@ 365 ft ) .
The largest valley on the island is Glen Iorsa to the west , whilst narrow Glen Sannox ( Gaelic : Gleann Shannaig ) and Glen Rosa ( Gaelic : Gleann Ròsa ) to the east surround Goat Fell . The terrain to the south is less mountainous , although a considerable portion of the interior lies above 350 metres ( 1 @,@ 150 ft ) , and A ' Chruach reaches 512 metres ( 1 @,@ 680 ft ) at its summit . There are two other Marilyns in the south , Tighvein and Beinn Bhreac .
Arran is sometimes referred to as " Scotland in miniature " , as it is divided into " Highland " and " Lowland " areas by the Highland Boundary Fault which runs northeast to southwest across Scotland . Arran is a popular destination for geologists , who come to see intrusive igneous landforms such as sills and dykes as well as sedimentary and metasedimentary rocks ranging in age from Precambrian to Mesozoic .
Most of the interior of the northern half of the island is taken up by a large granite batholith that was created by substantial magmatic activity around 58 million years ago in the Paleogene period . This comprises an outer ring of coarse granite and an inner core of finer grained granite , which was intruded later . This granite was intruded into the Late Proterozoic to Cambrian metasediments of the Dalradian Supergroup . Other Paleogene igneous rocks on Arran include extensive felsic and composite sills in the south of the island , and the central ring complex , an eroded caldera system surrounded by a near @-@ continuous ring of granitic rocks .
Sedimentary rocks dominate the southern half of the island , especially Old and New Red Sandstone . Some of these sandstones contain fulgurites - pitted marks that may have been created by Permian lightning strikes . Large aeolian sand dunes are preserved in Permian sandstones near Brodick , showing the presence of an ancient desert . Within the central complex are subsided blocks of Triassic sandstone and marl , Jurassic shale , and even a rare example of Cretaceous chalk . During the 19th century barytes was mined near Sannox . First discovered in 1840 , nearly 5 @,@ 000 tons were produced between 1853 and 1862 . The mine was closed by the 11th Duke of Hamilton on the grounds that it " spoiled the solemn grandeur of the scene " but was reopened after the First World War and operated until 1938 when the vein ran out .
Visiting in 1787 , the geologist James Hutton found his first example of an unconformity to the north of Newton Point near Lochranza , which provided evidence for his Plutonist theories of uniformitarianism and about the age of the Earth . This spot is one of the most famous places in the study of geology .
The Pleistocene glaciations almost entirely covered Scotland in ice , and Arran 's highest peaks may have been nunataks at this time . After the last retreat of the ice at the close of the Pleistocene epoch sea levels were up to 70 metres ( 230 ft ) lower than at present and it is likely that circa 14 @,@ 000 BP the island was connected to mainland Scotland . Sea level changes and the isostatic rise of land makes charting post @-@ glacial coastlines a complex task , but it is evident that the island is ringed by post glacial raised beaches . King 's Cave on the south west coast is an example of an emergent landform on such a raised beach . This cave , which is over 30 @.@ 5 metres ( 100 ft ) long and up to 15 @.@ 3 metres ( 50 ft ) high , lies well above the present day sea level . There are tall sea cliffs to the north east including large rock slides under the heights of Torr Reamhar , Torr Meadhonach and at Scriden ( An Scriodan ) at the far north end of the island .
= = = Villages = = =
Arran has several villages , mainly around the shoreline . Brodick ( Old Norse : " broad bay " ) is the site of the ferry terminal , several hotels , and the majority of shops . Brodick Castle is a seat of the Dukes of Hamilton . Lamlash , however , is the largest village on the island and in 2001 had a population of 1 @,@ 010 compared to 621 for Brodick . Other villages include Lochranza , in which the Blackwood @-@ Davidson family had their principal seat , Lochranza Castle and Catacol in the north , Corrie in the north east , Blackwaterfoot in the south west , Kildonan in the south and Whiting Bay in the south east .
= = = Surrounding islands = = =
Arran has three smaller satellite islands : Holy Isle lies to the east opposite Lamlash , Pladda is located off Arran 's south coast and tiny Hamilton Isle lies just off Clauchlands Point 1 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 75 mi ) north of Holy Isle . Eilean na h @-@ Àirde Bàine off the south west of Arran at Corriecravie is a skerry connected to Arran at low tide .
Other islands in the Firth of Clyde include Bute , Great Cumbrae and Inchmarnock .
= = = Climate = = =
The influence of the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf Stream create a mild oceanic climate . Temperatures are generally cool , averaging about 6 ° C ( 43 ° F ) in January and 14 ° C ( 57 ° F ) in July at sea level . The southern half of the island , being less mountainous , has a more favourable climate than the north , and the east coast is more sheltered from the prevailing winds than the west and south .
Snow seldom lies at sea level and frosts are less frequent than on the mainland . As in most islands of the west coast of Scotland , annual rainfall is generally high at between 1 @,@ 500 mm ( 59 in ) in the south and west and 1 @,@ 900 mm ( 75 in ) in the north and east . The mountains are wetter still with the summits receiving over 2 @,@ 550 mm ( 100 in ) annually . May and June are the sunniest months , with upwards of 200 hours of bright sunshine being recorded on average .
= = History = =
= = = Prehistory = = =
Arran has a particular concentration of early Neolithic Clyde Cairns , a form of Gallery grave . The typical style of these structures is a rectangular or trapezoidal stone and earth mound that encloses a chamber lined with larger stone slabs . Pottery and bone fragments found inside the chambers suggest they were used for interment and some have forecourts , which may have been an area for public display or ritual . There are two good examples in Monamore Glen west of the village of Lamlash , and similar structures called the Giants ' Graves above Whiting Bay . There are numerous standing stones dating from prehistoric times , including six stone circles on Machrie Moor ( Gaelic : Am Machaire ) .
Pitchstone deposits on the island were used locally for making various items in the Mesolithic era . In the Neolithic and the Early Bronze Age pitchstone from the Isle of Arran or items made from it were transported around Britain .
Several Bronze Age sites have been excavated , including " Ossian 's Mound " near Clachaig and a cairn near Blackwaterfoot that produced a bronze dagger and a gold fillet . Torr a ' Chaisteal Dun in the south west near Sliddery is the ruin of an Iron Age fortified structure dating from about AD 200 . The original walls would have been 3 metres ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) or more thick and enclosed a circular area about 14 metres ( 46 ft ) in diameter .
= = = Gaels , Vikings and the medieval era = = =
An ancient Irish poem called Agalllamh na Senorach , first recorded in the 13th century , describes the attractions of the island .
Arran of the many stags
The sea strikes against her shoulders ,
Companies of men can feed there ,
Blue spears are reddened among her boulders .
Merry hinds are on her hills ,
Juicy berries are there for food ,
Refreshing water in her streams ,
Nuts in plenty in the wood .
The monastery of Aileach founded by St. Brendan in the 6th century may have been on Arran and St. Molaise was also active , with Holy Isle being a centre of his activities . The caves below Keil Point ( Gaelic : Rubha na Cille ) contain a slab which may have been an ancient altar . This stone has two petrosomatoglyphs on it , the prints of two right feet , said to be of Saint Columba .
In the 11th century Arran became part of the Sodor ( Old Norse : ' Suðr @-@ eyjar ' ) , or South Isles of the Kingdom of Mann and the Isles , but on the death of Godred Crovan in 1095 all the isles came under the direct rule of Magnus III of Norway . Lagman ( 1103 – 1104 ) restored local rule . After the death of Somerled in 1164 Arran and Bute were ruled by his son Angus . In 1237 , the Scottish isles broke away completely from the Isle of Man and became an independent kingdom . After the indecisive Battle of Largs between the kingdoms of Norway and Scotland in 1263 , Haakon Haakonsson , King of Norway reclaimed Norwegian lordship over the " provinces " of the west . Arriving at Mull , he rewarded a number of his Norse @-@ Gaelic vassals with grants of lands . Bute was given to Ruadhri and Arran to Murchad MacSween . Following Haakon 's death later that year Norway ceded the islands of western Scotland to the Scottish crown in 1266 by the Treaty of Perth . A substantial Viking grave has been discovered near King 's Cross south of Lamlash , containing whalebone , iron rivets and nails , fragments of bronze and a 9th @-@ century bronze coin , and another grave of similar date nearby yielded a sword and shield . Arran was also part of the medieval Bishopric of Sodor and Man .
On the opposite side of the island near Blackwaterfoot is the King 's Cave ( see above ) where Robert the Bruce is said to have taken shelter in the 14th century . Bruce returned to the island in 1326 , having earlier granted lands to Fergus MacLouis for assistance rendered during his time of concealment there . Brodick Castle played a prominent part in the island 's medieval history . Probably dating from the 13th century , it was captured by English forces during the Wars of Independence before being taken back by Scottish troops in 1307 . It was badly damaged by action from English ships in 1406 and sustained an attack by John of Islay , the Lord of the Isles in 1455 . Originally a seat of the Clan Stewart of Menteith it passed to the Boyd family in the 15th century . For a short time during the reign of King James V in the 16th century the Isle of Arran was under the regency of Robert Maxwell , 5th Lord Maxwell .
= = = Modern era = = =
At the commencement of the Early modern period James , 2nd Lord Hamilton became a privy counsellor to his first cousin , James IV of Scotland and helped to arrange his marriage to Princess Margaret Tudor of England . As a reward he was created Earl of Arran in 1503 . The local economy for much of this period was based on the run rig system , the basic crops being oats , barley and potatoes . The population slowly grew to about 6 @,@ 500 . In the early 19th century Alexander , 10th Duke of Hamilton ( 1767 – 1852 ) embarked on a programme of clearances that had a devastating effect on the island 's population . These " improvements " typically led to land that had been rented out to as many as 27 families being converted into a single farm . In some cases , land was promised in Canada for each adult emigrant male . In April 1829 , for example , 86 islanders boarded the brig Caledonia for the two @-@ month journey , half their fares being paid for by the Duke . However , on arrival in Quebec only 41 hectares ( 100 acres ) was made available to the heads of extended families . Whole villages were removed and the Gaelic culture of the island devastated . The writer James Hogg wrote : " Ah ! Wae 's me . I hear the Duke of Hamilton 's crofters are a ' gaun away , man and mother 's son , frae the Isle o ' Arran . Pity on us ! " . A memorial to this has been constructed on the shore at Lamlash , paid for by a Canadian descendant of the emigrants .
On 10 August 1941 a RAF Consolidated B @-@ 24 Liberator LB @-@ 30A AM261 was flying from RAF Heathfield in Ayrshire to Gander International Airport in Canada . However , the B @-@ 24 crashed into the hillside of Mullach Buidhe north of Goat Fell where all 22 passengers and crew died .
Arran 's resident population was 4 @,@ 629 in 2011 , a decline of just over 8 % from the figure of 5 @,@ 045 recorded in 2001 against a background of Scottish island populations as a whole growing by 4 % to 103 @,@ 702 for the same period .
= = Gaelic = =
Gaelic was still spoken widely on Arran at the beginning of the 20th century . The 1901 Census reported 25 @-@ 49 % Gaelic speakers on the eastern side of the island and 50 @-@ 74 % on the western side of the island . By 1921 the percentage for the whole island had dropped to less than 25 % . From then onwards , the number of speakers fell into the vague 0 @-@ 24 @.@ 9 % bracket . However , Nils Holmer quotes the Féillire ( a Gaelic almanack ) reporting 4 @,@ 532 inhabitants on the island in 1931 with 605 Gaelic speakers , showing that Gaelic had declined to about 13 % of the population . It continued to decline until the last native speakers of Arran Gaelic died in the 1990s . Current @-@ day Gaelic speakers on Arran originate from other areas in Scotland . In 2011 , 2 @.@ 0 % of Arran residents age 3 and over could speak Gaelic .
Arran Gaelic is reasonably well documented . Holmer carried out fieldwork on the island in 1938 , reporting Gaelic being spoken by " a fair number of old inhabitants " . He interviewed 53 informants from various locations and his description of the dialect , The Gaelic of Arran , was published in 1957 and runs to 211 pages of phonological , grammatical and lexical information . The Survey of the Gaelic Dialects of Scotland , which collected Gaelic dialect data in Scotland between 1950 and 1963 also interviewed 5 native speakers of Arran Gaelic .
The Arran dialect falls firmly into the southern group of Gaelic dialects ( referred to as the " peripheral " dialects in Celtic studies ) and thus shows :
a glottal stop replacing an Old Irish hiatus , e.g. rathad ' road ' / rɛʔət ̪ / ( normally / rˠa.ət ̪ / )
the dropping of / h / between vowels e.g. athair ' father ' / aəɾ / ( normally / ahəɾʲ / )
the preservation of a long l , n and r , e.g. fann ' weak ' / fan ̪ ˠː / ( normally / faun ̪ ˠ / with diphthongisation ) .
The most unusual feature of Arran Gaelic is the / w / glide after labials before a front vowel , e.g. maith ' good ' / mwɛh / ( normally / mah / ) .
Mac an Tàilleir ( 2003 ) notes that the island has a poetic name Arainn nan Aighean Iomadh - " Arran of the many stags " and that a native of the island or Arainneach is also nicknamed coinean mòr in Gaelic , meaning " big rabbit " . Locally , Arainn was pronounced / ɛɾɪɲ / .
= = Local government = =
From the seventeenth century to the late twentieth century Arran was part of the County of Bute . After the 1975 reorganisation of local government Arran became part of the district of Cunninghame in Strathclyde Region .
This two @-@ tier system of local government lasted until 1996 when the Local Government etc . ( Scotland ) Act 1994 came into effect , abolishing the regions and districts and replacing them with 32 unitary authorities . Arran is now in the North Ayrshire council area , along with some of the constituent islands of the old County of Bute .
For some statistical purposes Arran is within the registration county of Ayrshire and for ceremonial purposes within the lieutenancy area of Ayrshire and Arran .
In the House of Commons , since 2005 Arran has been part of the Ayrshire North and Arran constituency , represented by Katy Clark of the Labour Party . It was previously part of the constituency of Cunninghame North from 1983 to 2005 , and of Ayrshire North and Bute from 1918 to 1983 .
In the Scottish Parliament , Arran is part of the constituency of Cunninghame North , currently represented by Kenneth Gibson of the Scottish National Party ( SNP ) . Labour held the seat until 2007 , when the SNP gained it with a majority of just 48 , making it the most marginal seat in Holyrood until 2011 when the SNP significantly increased their majority to 6117 over the Labour Party .
= = Health Services = =
Health services for the island are provided by NHS Ayrshire and Arran . Arran War Memorial Hospital is a 17 @-@ bed acute hospital at Lamlash . The Arran Medical Group provides primary care services and supports the hospital . The practice is based at Brodick Health Centre and has three base surgeries and four branch surgeries .
= = Transport = =
The Isle of Arran is connected to the Scottish mainland by two Caledonian MacBrayne ferries , MV Caledonian Isles from Brodick to Ardrossan and MV Loch Tarbert ( in summertime only ) from Lochranza to Claonaig . Summer day trips are also available on board the paddle steamer PS Waverley and a summertime service operated by a local resident connects Lamlash to the neighbouring Holy Isle .
There are three roads on the island . The 90 kilometres ( 56 mi ) long coast road circumnavigates the island . In 2007 , a 48 kilometres ( 30 mi ) stretch of this road , previously designated as the A841 , was de @-@ classified to a ' C ' road . Travelling south from Whiting Bay , the C147 goes round the south coast continuing north up the west coast of the island to Lochranza . At this point the road becomes the A841 down the east coast back to Whiting Bay .
At one point the coast road ventures inland , this is to climb the 200 metres ( 660 ft ) pass at Boguillie between Creag Ghlas Laggan and Caisteal Abhail , located between Sannox and Lochranza .
The other two roads run across from the east to the west side of the island . The main cross @-@ island road is the 19 kilometres ( 12 mi ) long B880 from Brodick to Blackwaterfoot called " The String " , which climbs over Gleann an t @-@ Suidhe . About 10 kilometres ( 6 mi ) along the B880 from Brodick , a minor road branches off to the right to Machrie . The single track road " The Ross " runs 15 kilometres ( 9 mi ) from Lamlash to Lagg and Sliddery via Glen Scorodale ( Gaelic : Gleann Sgoradail ) .
The island can be explored using public transport using a bus service operated by Stagecoach .
= = Economy = =
The main industry of the island is tourism , one of the main attractions being the imposing Brodick Castle , owned by the National Trust for Scotland . The Auchrannie Resort , which contains 2 hotels , 3 restaurants and 2 leisure complexes , is one of biggest employers on the island . Local businesses include the Arran Distillery , which was opened in 1995 in Lochranza , and Arran Aromatics , which produces a range of toiletries . The island has a number of golf courses including the 12 hole Shiskine links course which was founded in 1896 .
Farming and forestry are other important industries . 2008 plans for a large salmon farm holding 800 @,@ 000 or more fish in Lamlash Bay have been criticised by the Community of Arran Seabed Trust . They feared the facility could jeopardise Scotland 's first marine No Take Zone , which was announced in September 2008 .
The Arran Brewery is a microbrewery founded in March 2000 in Cladach , near Brodick . The brewery produces 8 regular cask and bottled beers . The wheat beer , Arran Blonde ( 5 @.@ 0 % abv ) is the most popular brand and others include Arran Dark and Arran Sunset , with a seasonal ale called Fireside only brewed in winter . The brewery is open for tours , with tastings in the shop . The business went into liquidation in May 2008 and was subsequently sold to Marketing Management Services International Ltd. in June 2008 . The brewery is now back in production and the beers widely available in Scotland .
= = Culture = =
The Scottish Gaelic dialect of Arran died out when the last speaker Donald Craig died in the 1970s . However , there is now a Gaelic House in Brodick , set up at the end of the 1990s . Brodick Castle features on the Royal Bank of Scotland £ 20 note and Lochranza Castle was used as the model for the castle in The Adventures of Tintin adventure The Black Island .
Arran has one newspaper , The Arran Banner . It was listed in the Guinness Book of Records in November 1984 under the title of " local newspaper which achieves the closest to a saturation circulation in its area " . The entry reads " The Arran Banner , founded in 1974 , has a readership of more than 97 per cent in Britain ’ s seventh largest off @-@ shore island " . There is also an online weekly publication called Voice for Arran that relies mainly on articles contributed by community members .
In 2010 an " Isle of Arran " version of the game Monopoly was launched .
The knitting style used to create Aran sweaters is often mistakenly associated with the Isle of Arran rather than the Irish Aran Islands .
= = Natural history = =
The island has three endemic species of tree , the Arran whitebeams . These trees are the Scottish or Arran whitebeam ( Sorbus arranensis ) , the bastard mountain ash or cut @-@ leaved whitebeam ( Sorbus pseudofennica ) and the Catacol whitebeam ( Sorbus pseudomeinichii ) . If rarity is measured by numbers alone they are amongst the most endangered tree species in the world . They are protected in Glen Diomhan off Glen Catacol , at the north end of the island by a partly fenced off national nature reserve , and are monitored by staff from Scottish Natural Heritage . Only 236 Sorbus pseudofennica and 283 Sorbus arranensis were recorded as mature trees in 1980 . They are typically trees of the mountain slopes , close to the tree line . However , they will grow at lower altitudes , and are being preserved within Brodick Country Park .
Over 200 species of bird have been recorded on Arran including black guillemot , eider , peregrine falcon and the golden eagle . In 1981 there were 28 ptarmigan on Arran , but in 2009 it was reported that extensive surveys had been unable to record any . Similarly , the red @-@ billed chough no longer breeds on the island .
Red deer are numerous on the northern hills , and there are populations of red squirrel , badger , otter , adder and common lizard . Offshore there are harbour porpoises , basking sharks and various species of dolphin .
The northern part of Lamlash Bay became a Marine Protected Area and a " no take zone " under the terms of the Marine ( Scotland ) Act 2010 which means that no fish or shellfish may be taken in the designated area . In 2014 the Scottish Government created Scotland 's first Marine Conservation Order in order to protect delicate maerl beds off south Arran after fishermen breached a voluntary agreement not to trawl in the vicinity .
= = Notable residents = =
Sir Kenneth Calman , Chancellor of Glasgow University , former Scottish & UK Chief Medical Officer and author of the Calman Commission on Scottish devolution .
Daniel Macmillan who , with his brother Alexander founded Macmillan Publishers in 1843 . Daniel was also the grandfather of Harold Macmillan who became Prime Minister in 1957 .
Jack McConnell , former First Minister of Scotland .
Robert McLellan , Scots playwright and poet .
J. M. Robertson , politician and journalist .
Alison Prince , children 's writer .
Dr John Hamilton Fullarton FRSE , zoologist .
= This Charming Man =
" This Charming Man " is a song by the English rock band the Smiths , written by guitarist Johnny Marr and singer / lyricist Morrissey . It was released as the group 's second single in October 1983 on the independent record label Rough Trade . The song is defined by Marr 's jangle pop guitar riff and Morrissey 's characteristically morose lyrics , which revolve around the recurrent Smiths themes of sexual ambiguity and lust .
Feeling detached from and unable to relate to the early 1980s mainstream gay culture , Morrissey wrote " This Charming Man " to evoke an older , more coded and self @-@ aware underground scene . The singer explained of the song 's lyrics , " I really like the idea of the male voice being quite vulnerable , of it being taken and slightly manipulated , rather than there being always this heavy machismo thing that just bores everybody . "
Although only moderately successful on first release — the single peaked at number 25 on the British singles chart , " This Charming Man " has been widely praised in both the music and mainstream press . The single was re @-@ issued in 1992 , reaching number 8 on the UK singles chart ( making it the Smiths ' biggest UK hit by chart position ) . In 2004 , BBC Radio 2 listeners voted it number 97 on the station 's " Sold on Song Top 100 " poll . Mojo magazine journalists placed the track at number 1 on their 2008 " 50 Greatest UK Indie Records of All Time " feature .
= = Background = =
By early 1983 , the Smiths had gained a large following on the UK live circuit and had signed a record deal with the indie label Rough Trade . The deal , along with positive concert reviews in the weekly music press and an upcoming session on John Peel 's radio show on BBC Radio 1 , generated a large media buzz for the band . In a music scene dominated by corporate and video @-@ driven acts , the Smiths ' camp and bookish image stood out , and many expected the band to be the breakthrough act of the UK post @-@ punk movement . The previous October Frankie Goes to Hollywood released their iconic track " Relax " , which was seen as an anthem to an out alpha male self @-@ assertiveness , and alien to many UK homosexuals . However , the Smiths ' May 1983 debut single " Hand in Glove " failed to live up to critical and commercial expectations , mostly due to its perceived low production values . When Rough Trade label mates Aztec Camera began to receive day @-@ time national radio @-@ play with their track " Walk out to Winter " , Marr admitted to " feeling a little jealous , my competitive urges kicked in " . The guitarist believed the Smiths needed an up @-@ beat song , " in a major key " , to gain a chart positioning that would live up to expectations .
Marr wrote the music to " This Charming Man " especially for the Peel session on the same night that he wrote " Still Ill " and " Pretty Girls Make Graves " . Based on the Peel performance , Rough Trade label head Geoff Travis suggested that the band release the song as a single instead of the slated release " Reel Around the Fountain " , which had gathered notoriety in the press due to what were seen as lyrical references to paedophilia . The Smiths entered Matrix Studios in London on September 1983 to record a second studio version of the song for release as a single . However , the result — known as the ' London version ' — was unsatisfactory and soon after , the band travelled to Strawberry Studios in Stockport to try again . Here , they recorded the more widely heard A @-@ side .
= = Music and lyrics = =
The lyrics of " This Charming Man " comprise a first person narrative in which the male protagonist punctures one of his bicycle 's wheels on a remote hillside . A passing " charming man " in a luxury car stops to offer the cyclist a lift , and although the protagonist is at first hesitant , after much deliberation he accepts the offer . While driving together the pair flirt , although the protagonist finds it difficult to overcome his reluctance : " I would go out tonight , but I haven 't got a stitch to wear " . The motorist tells the cyclist : " it 's gruesome that someone so handsome should care " .
Morrissey deliberately used archaic language when composing the voice @-@ over style lyrics for " This Charming Man " . His use of phrases and words such as ' hillside desolate ' , ' stitch to wear ' , ' handsome ' and ' charming ' are used to convey a more courtly world than the mid @-@ Eighties north of England , and evoke a style that has , in the words of the music critic Mat Snow " nothing to do with fashion " . Morrissey had already used the word ' handsome ' in a song title — in " Handsome Devil " , the B @-@ side to " Hand in Glove " — and observed in a 1983 interview with Barney Hoskyns that he used the word to " try and revive some involvement with language people no longer use . In the daily scheme of things , people 's language is so frighteningly limited , and if you use a word with more than 10 letters it 's absolute snobbery . " Snow puts forward the case that through the use of the dated word ' charming ' , Morrissey sought to rebel against the then mainstream gay culture from which he felt alienated . Morrissey told Hoskyns : " I hate this ' festive faggot ' thing ... People listen to " This Charming Man " and think no further than what anyone would presume . I hate that angle , and it 's surprising that the gay press have harped on more than anyone else . I hate it when people talk to me about sex in a trivial way . "
As with many of Morrissey 's compositions , the song 's lyrics features dialogue borrowed from a cult film . The line " A jumped @-@ up pantry boy who never knew his place " is borrowed from the 1972 film adaptation of Anthony Shaffer 's 1970 homoerotic play Sleuth , in which Laurence Olivier plays a cuckolded author to Michael Caine 's ' bit of rough ' .
Both studio versions begin with an introductory guitar riff , joined by the rhythm section . Morrissey 's vocals are first heard eight seconds into the track . His vocal melodies are diatonic , and consciously avoid blues inflections . The chorus is played twice ; the first time it is followed by a brief pause , the second by the closing of the song . The rhythm section of Andy Rourke and Mike Joyce provide a beat more danceable than usual for a Smiths track . The drums were originally programmed on a Linn Drum Computer , under the direction of producer John Porter . Porter used the programme to trigger the sampled sounds of the live drum kit , featuring a Motownesque bassline . Marr 's guitar part consists of single notes and thirds as opposed to strummed bar chords , and his guitar serves to creates a counter @-@ melody throughout the song . Marr overdubbed numerous guitar parts onto the song , and in a December 1993 interview , told Guitar Player magazine :
I 'll try any trick . With the Smiths , I 'd take this really loud Telecaster of mine , lay it on top of a Fender Twin Reverb with the vibrato on , and tune it to an open chord . Then I 'd drop a knife with a metal handle on it , hitting random strings . I used it on " This Charming Man " , buried beneath about 15 tracks of guitar ... it was the first record where I used those highlife @-@ sounding runs in 3rds . I 'm tuned up to F # and I finger it in G , so it comes out in A. There are about 15 tracks of guitar . People thought the main guitar part was a Rickenbacker , but it 's really a ' 54 Tele . There are three tracks of acoustic , a backwards guitar with a really long reverb , and the effect of dropping knives on the guitar – that comes in at the end of the chorus .
The chord progression for the song , from the instrumental intro to the lyric " Will nature make of me " is A major , A sus , A major , E major , B minor 7 , D major 7 , C # minor , E major , A major , E major with an A bass note , A sus , A major and E major .
= = Reception = =
On release , the song received near unanimous critical praise . Paul Morley of the NME wrote , " ' This Charming Man ' is an accessible bliss , and seriously moving . This group fully understand that the casual is not enough ... This is one of the greatest singles of the year , a poor compliment . Unique and indispensable , like ' Blue Monday ' and ' Karma Chameleon ' – that 's better ! " A contemporary review in The Face asked , " Where has all the wildness and daring got to ? Some of it has found its way onto the Smiths ' record , ' This Charming Man ' . It jangles and crashes and Morrissey jumps in the middle with his mutant choir @-@ boy voice , sounding jolly and angst @-@ ridden at the same time . It should be given out on street corners to unsuspecting passers @-@ by of all ages . " Another contemporary review by Treble magazine described the song as a " stellar jangle @-@ pop track , " based on one of Marr 's first truly iconic guitar licks . While the band was little @-@ known in the United States at the time , Robert Palmer of The New York Times described the song as " sparkling , soaring , superlative pop @-@ rock , and proof that the guitar @-@ band format pioneered by the Beatles is still viable for groups with something to say " . The following year , Palmer chose the song as the second best single of 1984 .
AllMusic 's Ned Raggett noted that " Early Elvis would have approved of the music , Wilde of the words " , and described the track as " an audacious end result by any standard " . Tim DiGravina , of the same organisation , wrote that " Debating the merits of the track here would be a bit pointless , as it 's a classic song from one of the last great classic bands . It might as well be called ' This Charming Song ' . " In 2007 , Oasis songwriter Noel Gallagher described the first time he heard the track : " The second I heard ' This Charming Man ' everything made sense . The sound of that guitar intro was incredible . The lyrics are fuckin ' amazing , too . People say Morrissey 's a miserable cunt , but I knew straight away what he was on about . " In 2006 , Liz Hoggard from The Independent said that " This Charming Man ... is about age @-@ gap , gay sex " .
During an appearance on Top of the Pops , Morrissey appeared waving gladioli . A 2004 BBC Radio 2 feature on the song noted that the performance was most people 's introduction to The Smiths and , " therefore , to the weird , wordy world of Morrissey and the music of Johnny Marr " . Uncut magazine , commentating on the nationally televised debut , wrote that " Thursday evening when Manchester 's feyest first appeared on Top of the Pops would be an unexpected pivotal cultural event in the lives of a million serious English boys . His very English , camp glumness was a revolt into Sixties kitchen @-@ sink greyness against the gaudiness of the Eighties new wave music , as exemplified by Culture Club and their ilk . The Smiths ' subject matter may have been ' squalid ' but there was a purity of purpose about them that you messed with at your peril . " Noel Gallagher said of the performance : " None of my mates liked them — they were more hooligan types . They came into work and said ' Fuckin ' hell , did you see that poof on " Top of the Pops " with the bush in his back pocket ? ' But I thought it was life @-@ changing . "
= = Versions and release history = =
The earliest version of " This Charming Man " was recorded on 14 September 1983 , in Maida Vale Studio 4 , for John Peel 's radio programme ( first broadcast : 21 September 1983 ) . Produced by Roger Pusey , and assisted by Ted De Bono , this version of the song was first included on the 1984 compilation Hatful of Hollow . On 28 October 1983 , the " Manchester " version was released in the UK in 7 " and 12 " formats , reaching number 25 in the UK charts . The record sleeve uses a still frame from Jean Cocteau 's 1949 film Orphée , featuring French actor Jean Marais . The song was later included as a bonus track on the cassette version of the band 's debut album The Smiths in the UK , and subsequently on all American versions .
Following the 1989 bankruptcy of Rough Trade , WEA Records purchased the Smiths ' back catalogue . In 1992 WEA re @-@ issued the band 's catalogue , and all subsequent pressings of The Smiths have incorporated " This Charming Man " . WEA re @-@ released the single itself in 1992 to support the Best ... I compilation album . The reissued single reached number 8 on the British singles chart , the band 's highest chart placing .
In December 1983 , DJ François Kevorkian released a " New York " mix of the single on Megadisc records . Kevorkian geared the song for nightclub dancefloors . The track was intended to be pressed in limited numbers for New York club DJs . However , Rough Trade boss Geoff Travis liked the mix and gave the release wide distribution in the UK . Morrissey publicly disowned the mix , and urged fans not to purchase copies . Travis later claimed , " it was my idea , but they agreed . They said ' Go ahead ' , then didn 't like it so it was withdrawn . " He also said , " Nothing that ever happened in the Smiths occurred without Morrissey 's guidance ; there 's not one Smiths record that went out that Morrissey didn 't ask to do , so there 's nothing on my conscience . "
= = Cover versions = =
Death Cab for Cutie covered " This Charming Man " for their 1997 demo You Can Play These Songs with Chords . In 2001 , Canadian indie pop band Stars released their own take on the song on their debut album Nightsongs .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Morrissey – lead vocals
Johnny Marr – electric and acoustic guitar
Andy Rourke – bass guitar
Mike Joyce – drums
= = Chart positions = =
= Seattle Fault =
The Seattle Fault is a zone of multiple shallow east @-@ west thrust faults that cross the Puget Sound Lowland and through Seattle ( in the U.S. state of Washington ) in the vicinity of Interstate Highway 90 . The Seattle Fault was first recognized as a significant seismic hazard in 1992 , when a set of reports showed that about 1 @,@ 100 years ago it was the scene of a major earthquake of about magnitude 7 – an event that entered Native American oral legend . Extensive research has since shown the Seattle Fault to be part of a regional system of faults .
= = Notable earthquake = =
First suspected from mapping of gravitational anomalies in 1965 and an uplifted marine terrace at Restoration Point ( foreground in picture above ) , the Seattle Fault 's existence and likely hazard were definitely established by a set of five reports published in Science in 1992 . These reports looked at the timing of abrupt uplift and subsidence around Restoration Point and Alki Point ( distant right side of picture ) , tsunami deposits on Puget Sound , turbidity in lake paleosediments , rock avalanches , and multiple landslides around Lake Washington , and determined that all these happened about 1100 years ago ( between A.D. 900 – 930 ) , and most likely due to an earthquake of magnitude 7 or greater on the Seattle Fault .
Although the A.D. 900 – 930 earthquake was over a thousand years ago , local native legends have preserved an association of a powerful supernatural spirit – a 'yahos , noted for shaking , rushes of water , and landsliding – with five locales along the trace of the Seattle Fault , including a " spirit boulder " called Psai @-@ Yah @-@ hus near the Fauntleroy ferry dock in West Seattle .
= = Geology = =
The Seattle Fault is the structural boundary where 50 – 60 millions of years old ( early Tertiary ) basalt of the Crescent Formation on the south has been uplifted – the Seattle Uplift – and is tipping into the Seattle Basin , where the Tertiary bedrock is buried under at least 7 km ( 4 @.@ 3 miles ) of relatively softer , lighter sedimentary strata of the younger Blakeley and Blakely Harbor formations . This has resulted in a 4 to 7 km ( 2 @.@ 5 to 4 @.@ 3 miles ) wide zone of complex faulting , with three or more main south @-@ dipping thrust faults . Most of the faulting is " blind " ( not reaching the surface ) , and generally difficult to locate because of the generally heavy vegetation or development . Three principal strands have been identified , their location determined by high @-@ resolution seismic reflection and aeromagnetic surveys . The northernmost strand lies nearly along Interstate 90 and then under Lake Sammamish . The central section of the fault zone – where it crosses the apparent location of the Olympic @-@ Wallowa Lineament – shows marked variation in the location of the strands and of the underlying structure , but the nature and significance of this is not understood .
The fault extends for approximately 70 km ( 43 miles ) from near Fall City on the east , where it appears to be terminated by the South Whidbey Island Fault , to Hood Canal on the west ( not shown on the map ) . where matters are as yet unclear ( see discussion at Puget Sound faults # Question of western termination ) . It is the northern edge of the Seattle Uplift , of which the Tacoma Fault is the southern edge . One model has the Seattle and Tacoma faults converging at depth to form a wedge , which is being popped up by approximately north – south oriented compression that ultimately derives from plate tectonics . Another model ( see diagram ) interprets the Seattle Uplift as a sheet of rock that is being forced up a ramp . Subsequent work suggests that the structure of the Seattle Fault may vary from east to west , with both models being applicable in different sections . A later model has part of the north @-@ thrusting sheet forming a wedge between the sedimentary formations of the Seattle Basin and the underlying bedrock .
The Seattle Fault is believed to date from about 40 million years ago ( late Eocene ) . This is about the time that the strike @-@ slip movement on the north @-@ striking Straight Creek Fault to the east ceased , due to the intrusions of plutons . It appears that when the Straight Creek Fault became stuck the north – south compressive force that it had accommodated by strike @-@ slip motion was transferred to the crust of the Puget Lowland , which subsequently folded and faulted , and the various blocks jammed over one another .
Other scarps associated with the Seattle fault have been identified by LIDAR @-@ based mapping ; trenching has generally shown the faulting to be more complex than was first realized . Many of the details of the Seattle Fault , including recurrence rate , remain to be resolved . A study of sediments in Lake Washington found evidence of seven large ( M > 7 ) earthquakes in the last 3500 years .
Surface scarps due to faulting are rarely observed in this area ( due to topography , vegetation , and urbanization ) ; a rare exception can be seen at Mee Kwa Mooks Park south of Alki Point . This is the site of the West Seattle Fault ; the prominent rise there is due to uplift on the north side of the fault .
= = Hazard = =
The Seattle Fault ( and the related Tacoma Fault ) is not the only source of earthquake hazard in the Puget Lowland . Other faults in the near surface continental crust , such as the South Whidbey Island Fault ( near Everett ) , and the yet to be studied Olympia Fault ( near Olympia ) , though historically quiescent , are suspected of generating earthquakes of around magnitude 7 . Others , such as the 2001 Nisqually earthquake , originate about 50 to 60 km ( 31 to 37 miles ) below Puget Sound in the Benioff zone of the subducting Juan de Fuca Plate ; being so deep their energy is dissipated . And there are the infrequent but very powerful great subduction events , such as the magnitude 9 1700 Cascadia earthquake , where the entire Cascadia subduction zone , from Cape Mendocino to Vancouver Island , slips .
But the Seattle and Tacoma faults are probably the most serious earthquake threat to the populous Seattle – Tacoma area . A 2002 study of bridge vulnerability estimated that a magnitude 7 earthquake on the Seattle Fault would damage approximately 80 bridges in the Seattle – Tacoma area , whereas a magnitude 9 subduction event would damage only around 87 bridges in all of Western Washington . The same study also found that with failure of just six bridges ( the minimum damage for a Benioff M 6 @.@ 5 event ) there could be at least $ 3 billion lost in business revenue alone . Subsequent retrofitting by the Washington Department of Transportation and the City of Seattle would likely reduce damage to key bridges . But there is concern that such an earthquake on the Seattle Fault would devastate unreinforced masonry ( URM ) buildings , of which the City of Seattle is estimated to have around a thousand , concentrated in Capitol Hill , Pioneer Square , and the International District .
Other recent work indicates that the Seattle Fault can generate two types of earthquakes ; both pose " considerable hazard " to the Seattle metropolitan region . The A.D. 900 – 930 earthquake is believed to be the only instance in the past 7 @,@ 000 years of the type that causes a regional uplift . The other type is more localized and shallower ( and therefore more damaging ) ; at least four such events are believed to have occurred in the past 3 @,@ 000 years on the west end of the fault . ( The history of the central and eastern segments is not known . )
Calculations based on fault length and paleoseismological studies show that the Seattle Fault can generate a very damaging magnitude 7 @.@ 0 earthquake . In addition to extensive damage to unreinforced structures and structures built on fill ( such as much of Seattle 's Pioneer Square area , the industrial area , and the waterfront ) , computer modeling has shown that such earthquakes could cause a tsunami of about 2 m ( 6 feet 7 inches ) high on Elliott Bay . The modeling shows that such a tsunami would also inundate the industrial areas on Commencement Bay 30 miles south ( Tacoma ) and low @-@ lying areas on the Puyallup River delta . There is also concern that a severe or prolonged event could cause failure of the Duwamish or Puyallup River deltas , where the main port facilities for Seattle and Tacoma are located ( Harbor Island and Commencement Bay ) .
= Comics =
Comics is a medium used to express ideas by images , often combined with text or other visual information . Comics frequently takes the form of juxtaposed sequences of panels of images . Often textual devices such as speech balloons , captions , and onomatopoeia indicate dialogue , narration , sound effects , or other information . Size and arrangement of panels contribute to narrative pacing . Cartooning and similar forms of illustration are the most common image @-@ making means in comics ; fumetti is a form which uses photographic images . Common forms of comics include comic strips , editorial and gag cartoons , and comic books . Since the late 20th century , bound volumes such as graphic novels , comic albums , and tankōbon have become increasingly common , and online webcomics have proliferated in the 21st century .
The history of comics has followed different paths in different cultures . Scholars have posited a pre @-@ history as far back as the Lascaux cave paintings . By the mid @-@ 20th century , comics flourished particularly in the United States , western Europe ( especially in France and Belgium ) , and Japan . The history of European comics is often traced to Rodolphe Töpffer 's cartoon strips of the 1830s , and became popular following the success in the 1930s of strips and books such as The Adventures of Tintin . American comics emerged as a mass medium in the early 20th century with the advent of newspaper comic strips ; magazine @-@ style comic books followed in the 1930s , in which the superhero genre became prominent after Superman appeared in 1938 . Histories of Japanese comics and cartooning ( manga ) propose origins as early as the 12th century . Modern comic strips emerged in Japan in the early 20th century , and the output of comics magazines and books rapidly expanded in the post @-@ World War II era with the popularity of cartoonists such as Osamu Tezuka . Comics has had a lowbrow reputation for much of its history , but towards the end of the 20th century began to find greater acceptance with the public and in academia .
The English term comics is used as a singular noun when it refers to the medium and a plural when referring to particular instances , such as individual strips or comic books . Though the term derives from the humorous ( or comic ) work that predominated in early American newspaper comic strips , it has become standard also for non @-@ humorous works . It is common in English to refer to the comics of different cultures by the terms used in their original languages , such as manga for Japanese comics , or bandes dessinées for French @-@ language comics . There is no consensus amongst theorists and historians on a definition of comics ; some emphasize the combination of images and text , some sequentiality or other image relations , and others historical aspects such as mass reproduction or the use of recurring characters . The increasing cross @-@ pollination of concepts from different comics cultures and eras has further made definition difficult .
= = Origins and traditions = =
Examples of early comics
The European , American , and Japanese comics traditions have followed different paths . Europeans have seen their tradition as beginning with the Swiss Rodolphe Töpffer from as early as 1827 and Americans have seen the origin of theirs in Richard F. Outcault 's 1890s newspaper strip The Yellow Kid , though many Americans have come to recognize Töpffer 's precedence . Japan had a long prehistory of satirical cartoons and comics leading up to the World War II era . The ukiyo @-@ e artist Hokusai popularized the Japanese term for comics and cartooning , manga , in the early 19th century . In the post @-@ war era modern Japanese comics began to flourish when Osamu Tezuka produced a prolific body of work . Towards the close of the 20th century , these three traditions converged in a trend towards book @-@ length comics : the comic album in Europe , the tankōbon in Japan , and the graphic novel in the English @-@ speaking countries .
Outside of these genealogies , comics theorists and historians have seen precedents for comics in the Lascaux cave paintings in France ( some of which appear to be chronological sequences of images ) , Egyptian hieroglyphs , Trajan 's Column in Rome , the 11th @-@ century Norman Bayeux Tapestry , the 1370 bois Protat woodcut , the 15th @-@ century Ars moriendi and block books , Michelangelo 's The Last Judgment in the Sistine Chapel , and William Hogarth 's 17th @-@ century sequential engravings , amongst others .
= = = English @-@ language comics = = =
Illustrated humour periodicals were popular in 19th @-@ century Britain , the earliest of which was the short @-@ lived The Glasgow Looking Glass in 1825 . The most popular was Punch , which popularized the term cartoon for its humorous caricatures . On occasion the cartoons in these magazines appeared in sequences ; the character Ally Sloper featured in the earliest serialized comic strip when the character began to feature in its own weekly magazine in 1884 .
American comics developed out of such magazines as Puck , Judge , and Life . The success of illustrated humour supplements in the New York World and later the New York American , particularly Outcault 's The Yellow Kid , led to the development of newspaper comic strips . Early Sunday strips were full @-@ page and often in colour . Between 1896 and 1901 cartoonists experimented with sequentiality , movement , and speech balloons .
Shorter , black @-@ and @-@ white daily strips began to appear early in the 20th century , and became established in newspapers after the success in 1907 of Bud Fisher 's Mutt and Jeff . Humour strips predominated at first , and in the 1920s and 1930s strips with continuing stories in genres such as adventure and drama also became popular . Thin periodicals called comic books appeared in the 1930s , at first reprinting newspaper comic strips ; by the end of the decade , original content began to dominate . The success in 1938 of Action Comics and its lead hero Superman marked the beginning of the Golden Age of Comic Books , in which the superhero genre was prominent .
The popularity of superhero comic books declined following World War II , while comic book sales continued to increase as other genres proliferated , such as romance , westerns , crime , horror , and humour . Following a sales peak in the early 1950s , the content of comic books ( particularly crime and horror ) was subjected to scrutiny from parent groups and government agencies , which culminated in Senate hearings that led to the establishment of the Comics Code Authority self @-@ censoring body . The Code has been blamed for stunting the growth of American comics and maintaining its low status in American society for much of the remainder of the century . Superheroes re @-@ established themselves as the most prominent comic book genre by the early 1960s . Underground comix challenged the Code and readers with adult , countercultural content in the late 1960s and early 1970s . The underground gave birth to the alternative comics movement in the 1980s and its mature , often experimental content in non @-@ superhero genres .
Comics in the US has had a lowbrow reputation stemming from its roots in mass culture ; cultural elites sometimes saw popular culture as threatening culture and society . In the latter half of the 20th century , popular culture won greater acceptance , and the lines between high and low culture began to blur . Comics nevertheless continued to be stigmatized , as the medium was seen as entertainment for children and illiterates .
The graphic novel — book @-@ length comics — began to gain attention after Will Eisner popularized the term with his book A Contract with God ( 1978 ) . The term became widely known with the public after the commercial success of Maus , Watchmen , and The Dark Knight Returns in the mid @-@ 1980s . In the 21st century graphic novels became established in mainstream bookstores and libraries and webcomics became common .
= = = Franco @-@ Belgian and European comics = = =
The francophone Swiss Rodolphe Töpffer produced comic strips beginning in 1827 , and published theories behind the form . Cartoons appeared widely in newspapers and magazines from the 19th century . The success of Zig et Puce in 1925 popularized the use of speech balloons in European comics , after which Franco @-@ Belgian comics began to dominate . The Adventures of Tintin , with its signature clear line style , was first serialized in newspaper comics supplements beginning in 1929 , and became an icon of Franco @-@ Belgian comics .
Following the success of Le Journal de Mickey ( 1934 – 44 ) , dedicated comics magazines and full @-@ colour comic albums became the primary outlet for comics in the mid @-@ 20th century . As in the US , at the time comics were seen as infantile and a threat to culture and literacy ; commentators stated that " none bear up to the slightest serious analysis " , and that comics were " the sabotage of all art and all literature " .
In the 1960s , the term bandes dessinées ( " drawn strips " ) came into wide use in French to denote the medium . Cartoonists began creating comics for mature audiences , and the term " Ninth Art " was coined , as comics began to attract public and academic attention as an artform . A group including René Goscinny and Albert Uderzo founded the magazine Pilote in 1959 to give artists greater freedom over their work . Goscinny and Uderzo 's The Adventures of Asterix appeared in it and went on to become the best @-@ selling French @-@ language comics series . From 1960 , the satirical and taboo @-@ breaking Hara @-@ Kiri defied censorship laws in the countercultural spirit that led to the May 1968 events .
Frustration with censorship and editorial interference led to a group of Pilote cartoonists to found the adults @-@ only L 'Écho des savanes in 1972 . Adult @-@ oriented and experimental comics flourished in the 1970s , such as in the experimental science fiction of Mœbius and others in Métal hurlant , even mainstream publishers took to publishing prestige @-@ format adult comics .
From the 1980s , mainstream sensibilities were reasserted and serialization became less common as the number of comics magazines decreased and many comics began to be published directly as albums . Smaller publishers such as L 'Association that published longer works in non @-@ traditional formats by auteur @-@ istic creators also became common . Since the 1990s , mergers resulted in fewer large publishers , while smaller publishers proliferated . Sales overall continued to grow despite the trend towards a shrinking print market .
= = = Japanese comics = = =
Japanese comics and cartooning ( manga ) , have a history that has been seen as far back as the anthropomorphic characters in the 12th @-@ to @-@ 13th @-@ century Chōjū @-@ jinbutsu @-@ giga , 17th @-@ century toba @-@ e and kibyōshi picture books , and woodblock prints such as ukiyo @-@ e which were popular between the 17th and 20th centuries . The kibyōshi contained examples of sequential images , movement lines , and sound effects .
Illustrated magazines for Western expatriates introduced Western @-@ style satirical cartoons to Japan in the late 19th century . New publications in both the Western and Japanese styles became popular , and at the end of the 1890s , American @-@ style newspaper comics supplements began to appear in Japan , as well as some American comic strips . 1900 saw the debut of the Jiji Manga in the Jiji Shinpō newspaper — the first use of the word " manga " in its modern sense , and where , in 1902 , Rakuten Kitazawa began the first modern Japanese comic strip . By the 1930s , comic strips were serialized in large @-@ circulation monthly girls ' and boys ' magazine and collected into hardback volumes .
The modern era of comics in Japan began after World War II , propelled by the success of the serialized comics of the prolific Osamu Tezuka and the comic strip Sazae @-@ san . Genres and audiences diversified over the following decades . Stories are usually first serialized in magazines which are often hundreds of pages thick and may contain over a dozen stories ; they are later compiled in tankōbon @-@ format books . At the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries , nearly a quarter of all printed material in Japan was comics. translations became extremely popular in foreign markets — in some cases equaling or surpassing the sales of domestic comics .
= = Forms and formats = =
Comic strips are generally short , multipanel comics that traditionally most commonly appeared in newspapers . In the US , daily strips have normally occupied a single tier , while Sunday strips have been given multiple tiers . In the early 20th century , daily strips were typically in black @-@ and @-@ white and Sundays were usually in colour and often occupied a full page .
Specialized comics periodicals formats vary greatly in different cultures . Comic books , primarily an American format , are thin periodicals usually published in colour . European and Japanese comics are frequently serialized in magazines — monthly or weekly in Europe , and usually black @-@ and @-@ white and weekly in Japan . Japanese comics magazine typically run to hundreds of pages .
Book @-@ length comics take different forms in different cultures . European comic albums are most commonly printed in A4 @-@ size colour volumes . In English @-@ speaking countries , bound volumes of comics are called graphic novels and are available in various formats . Despite incorporating the term " novel " — a term normally associated with fiction — " graphic novel " also refers to non @-@ fiction and collections of short works . Japanese comics are collected in volumes called tankōbon following magazine serialization .
Gag and editorial cartoons usually consist of a single panel , often incorporating a caption or speech balloon . Definitions of comics which emphasize sequence usually exclude gag , editorial , and other single @-@ panel cartoons ; they can be included in definitions that emphasize the combination of word and image . Gag cartoons first began to proliferate in broadsheets published in Europe in the 18th and 19th centuries , and the term " cartoon " was first used to describe them in 1843 in the British humour magazine Punch .
Webcomics are comics that are available on the internet . They are able to reach large audiences , and new readers usually can access archived installments . Webcomics can make use of an infinite canvas — meaning they are not constrained by size or dimensions of a page .
Some consider storyboards and wordless novels to be comics . Film studios , especially in animation , often use sequences of images as guides for film sequences . These storyboards are not intended as an end product and are rarely seen by the public . Wordless novels are books which use sequences of captionless images to deliver a narrative .
= = Comics studies = =
Similar to the problems of defining literature and film , no consensus has been reached on a definition of the comics medium , and attempted definitions and descriptions have fallen prey to numerous exceptions . Theorists such as Töpffer , R. C. Harvey , Will Eisner , David Carrier , Alain Rey , and Lawrence Grove emphasize the combination of text and images , though there are prominent examples of pantomime comics throughout its history . Other critics , such as Thierry Groensteen and Scott McCloud , have emphasized the primacy of sequences of images . Towards the close of the 20th century , different cultures ' discoveries of each other 's comics traditions , the rediscovery of forgotten early comics forms , and the rise of new forms made defining comics a more complicated task .
European comics studies began with Töpffer 's theories of his own work in the 1840s , which emphasized panel transitions and the visual – verbal combination . No further progress was made until the 1970s . Pierre Fresnault @-@ Deruelle then took a semiotics approach to the study of comics , analyzing text – image relations , page @-@ level image relations , and image discontinuities , or what Scott McCloud later dubbed " closure " . In 1987 , Henri Vanlier introduced the term multicadre , or " multiframe " , to refer to the comics page as a semantic unit . By the 1990s , theorists such as Benoît Peeters and Thierry Groensteen turned attention to artists ' poïetic creative choices . Thierry Smolderen and Harry Morgan have held relativistic views of the definition of comics , a medium that has taken various , equally valid forms over its history . Morgan sees comics as a subset of " les littératures dessinées " ( or " drawn literatures " ) . French theory has come to give special attention to the page , in distinction from American theories such as McCloud 's which focus on panel @-@ to @-@ panel transitions . Since the mid @-@ 2000s , Neil Cohn has begun analyzing how comics are understood using tools from cognitive science , extending beyond theory by using actual psychological and neuroscience experiments . This work has argued that sequential images and page layouts both use separate rule @-@ bound " grammars " to be understood that extend beyond panel @-@ to @-@ panel transitions and categorical distinctions of types of layouts , and that the brain 's comprehension of comics is similar to comprehending other domains , such as language and music .
Historical narratives of manga tend to focus either on its recent , post @-@ WWII history , or on attempts to demonstrates deep roots in the past , such as to the Chōjū @-@ jinbutsu @-@ giga picture scroll of the 12th and 13th centuries , or the early 19th @-@ century Hokusai Manga . The first historical overview of Japanese comics was Seiki Hosokibara 's Nihon Manga @-@ Shi in 1924 . Early post @-@ war Japanese criticism was mostly of a left @-@ wing political nature until the 1986 publication for Tomofusa Kure 's Modern Manga : The Complete Picture , which de @-@ emphasized politics in favour of formal aspects , such as structure and a " grammar " of comics . The field of manga studies increased rapidly , with numerous books on the subject appearing in the 1990s . Formal theories of manga have focused on developing a " manga expression theory " , with emphasis on spatial relationships in the structure of images on the page , distinguishing the medium from film or literature , in which the flow of time is the basic organizing element . Comics studies courses have proliferated at Japanese universities , and Japan Society for Studies in Cartoon and Comics was established in 2001 to promote comics scholarship . The publication of Frederik L. Schodt 's Manga ! Manga ! The World of Japanese Comics in 1983 led to the spread of use of the word manga outside Japan to mean " Japanese comics " or " Japanese @-@ style comics " .
Coulton Waugh attempted the first comprehensive history of American comics with The Comics ( 1947 ) . Will Eisner 's Comics and Sequential Art ( 1985 ) and Scott McCloud 's Understanding Comics ( 1993 ) were early attempts in English to formalize the study of comics . David Carrier 's The Aesthetics of Comics ( 2000 ) was the first full @-@ length treatment of comics from a philosophical perspective . Prominent American attempts at definitions of comics include Eisner 's , McCloud 's , and Harvey 's . Eisner described what he called " sequential art " as " the arrangement of pictures or images and words to narrate a story or dramatize an idea " ; Scott McCloud defined comics as " juxtaposed pictorial and other images in deliberate sequence , intended to convey information and / or to produce an aesthetic response in the viewer " , a strictly formal definition which detached comics from its historical and cultural trappings . R. C. Harvey defined comics as " pictorial narratives or expositions in which words ( often lettered into the picture area within speech balloons ) usually contribute to the meaning of the pictures and vice versa " . Each definition has had its detractors . Harvey saw McCloud 's definition as excluding single @-@ panel cartoons , and objected to McCloud 's de @-@ emphasizing verbal elements , insisting " the essential characteristic of comics is the incorporation of verbal content " . Aaron Meskin saw McCloud 's theories as an artificial attempt to legitimize the place of comics in art history .
Cross @-@ cultural study of comics is complicated by the great difference in meaning and scope of the words for " comics " in different languages . The French term for comics , bandes dessinées ( " drawn strip " ) emphasizes the juxtaposition of drawn images as a defining factor , which can imply the exclusion of even photographic comics . The term manga is used in Japanese to indicate all forms of comics , cartooning , and caricature .
= = Terminology = =
The term comics refers to the comics medium when used as an uncountable noun and thus takes the singular : " comics is a medium " rather than " comics are a medium " . When comic appears as a countable noun it refers to instances of the medium , such as individual comic strips or comic books : " Tom 's comics are in the basement . "
Panels are individual images containing a segment of action , often surrounded by a border . Prime moments in a narrative are broken down into panels via a process called encapsulation . The reader puts the pieces together via the process of closure by using background knowledge and an understanding of panel relations to combine panels mentally into events . The size , shape , and arrangement of panels each affect the timing and pacing of the narrative . The contents of a panel may be asynchronous , with events depicted in the same image not necessarily occurring at the same time .
Text is frequently incorporated into comics via speech balloons , captions , and sound effects . Speech balloons indicate dialogue ( or thought , in the case of thought balloons ) , with tails pointing at their respective speakers . Captions can give voice to a narrator , convey characters ' dialogue or thoughts , or indicate place or time . Speech balloons themselves are strongly associated with comics , such that the addition of one to an image is sufficient to turn the image into comics . Sound effects mimic non @-@ vocal sounds textually using onomatopoeia sound @-@ words .
Cartooning is most frequently used in making comics , traditionally using ink ( especially India ink ) with dip pens or ink brushes ; mixed media and digital technology have become common . Cartooning techniques such as motion lines and abstract symbols are often employed .
While comics are often the work of a single creator , the labour of making them is frequently divided between a number of specialists . There may be separate writers and artists , and artists may specialize in parts of the artwork such as characters or backgrounds , as is common in Japan . Particularly in American superhero comic books , the art may be divided between a penciller , who lays out the artwork in pencil ; an inker , who finishes the artwork in ink ; a colourist ; and a letterer , who adds the captions and speech balloons .
= = = Etymology = = =
The English term comics derives from the humorous ( or " comic " ) work which predominated in early American newspaper comic strips ; usage of the term has become standard for non @-@ humorous works as well . The term " comic book " has a similarly confusing history : they are most often not humorous ; nor are they regular books , but rather periodicals . It is common in English to refer to the comics of different cultures by the terms used in their original languages , such as manga for Japanese comics , or bandes dessinées for French @-@ language Franco @-@ Belgian comics .
Many cultures have taken their words for comics from English , including Russian ( Russian : Комикс , komiks ) and German ( comic ) . Similarly , the Chinese term manhua and the Korean manhwa derive from the Chinese characters with which the Japanese term manga is written .
= = = = Books = = = =
= = = = Academic journals = = = =
= = = = Web = = = =
= Ailanthus altissima =
Ailanthus altissima / eɪˈlænθəs ælˈtɪsᵻmə / , commonly known as tree of heaven , ailanthus , or in Standard Chinese as chouchun ( Chinese : 臭椿 ; pinyin : chòuchūn ; literally : " foul smelling tree " ) , is a deciduous tree in the Simaroubaceae family . It is native to both northeast and central China , as well as Taiwan . Unlike other members of the genus Ailanthus , it is found in temperate climates rather than the tropics . The tree grows rapidly and is capable of reaching heights of 15 metres ( 49 ft ) in 25 years . However , the species is also short lived and rarely lives more than 50 years , though its remarkable suckering ability makes it possible for this tree to clone itself indefinitely and live considerably longer ( since they are linked to the mother tree and thus partly fed by it , the suckers are less vulnerable than the seedlings and can grow faster ) .
In China , the tree of heaven has a long and rich history . It was mentioned in the oldest extant Chinese dictionary and listed in countless Chinese medical texts for its purported ability to cure ailments ranging from mental illness to baldness . The roots , leaves and bark are still used today in traditional Chinese medicine , primarily as an astringent . The tree has been grown extensively both in China and abroad as a host plant for the ailanthus silkmoth , a moth involved in silk production . Ailanthus has become a part of western culture as well , with the tree serving as the central metaphor and subject matter of the best @-@ selling American novel A Tree Grows in Brooklyn by Betty Smith .
The tree was first brought from China to Europe in the 1740s and to the United States in 1784 . It was one of the first trees brought west during a time when chinoiserie was dominating European arts , and was initially hailed as a beautiful garden specimen . However , enthusiasm soon waned after gardeners became familiar with its suckering habits and its foul smelling odour . Despite this , it was used extensively as a street tree during much of the 19th century . Outside Europe and the United States the plant has been spread to many other areas beyond its native range . In a number of these , it has become an invasive species due to its ability both to colonise disturbed areas quickly and to suppress competition with allelopathic chemicals . It is considered a noxious weed in Australia , the United States , New Zealand and many countries of central , eastern and southern Europe . The tree also resprouts vigorously when cut , making its eradication difficult and time @-@ consuming . In many urban areas , it has acquired the derisive nicknames of " ghetto palm " , " stink tree " , and " tree of Hell " .
= = Description = =
A. altissima is a medium @-@ sized tree that reaches heights between 17 and 27 metres ( 56 and 89 ft ) with a diameter at breast height of about 1 metre ( 39 inches ) . The bark is smooth and light grey , often becoming somewhat rougher with light tan fissures as the tree ages . The twigs are stout , smooth to lightly pubescent , and reddish or chestnut in colour . They have lenticels as well as heart @-@ shaped leaf scars ( i.e. a scar left on the twig after a leaf falls ) with many bundle scars ( i.e. small marks where the veins of the leaf once connected to the tree ) around the edges . The buds are finely pubescent , dome shaped , and partially hidden behind the petiole , though they are completely visible in the dormant season at the sinuses of the leaf scars . The branches are light to dark gray in colour , smooth , lustrous , and containing raised lenticels that become fissures with age . The ends of the branches become pendulous . All parts of the plant have a distinguishing strong odour that is often likened to peanuts , cashews , or rotting cashews .
The leaves are large , odd- or even @-@ pinnately compound , and arranged alternately on the stem . They range in size from 30 to 90 cm ( 0 @.@ 98 to 2 @.@ 95 ft ) in length and contain 10 – 41 leaflets organised in pairs , with the largest leaves found on vigorous young sprouts . When they emerge in the spring , the leaves are bronze then quickly turn from medium to dark green as they grow . The rachis is light to reddish @-@ green with a swollen base . The leaflets are ovate @-@ lanceolate with entire margins , somewhat asymmetric and occasionally not directly opposite to each others . Each leaflet is 5 to 18 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 to 7 @.@ 1 in ) long and 2 @.@ 5 to 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 98 to 1 @.@ 97 in ) wide . They have a long tapering end while the bases have two to four teeth , each containing one or more glands at the tip . The leaflets ' upper sides are dark green in colour with light green veins , while the undersides are a more whitish green . The petioles are 5 to 12 mm ( 0 @.@ 20 to 0 @.@ 47 in ) long . The lobed bases and glands distinguish it from similar sumac species .
The flowers are small and appear in large panicles up to 50 cm ( 20 in ) in length at the end of new shoots . The individual flowers are yellowish green to reddish in colour , each with five petals and sepals . The sepals are cup @-@ shaped , lobed and united while the petals are valvate ( i.e. they meet at the edges without overlapping ) , white and hairy towards the inside . They appear from mid @-@ April in the south of its range to July in the north . A. altissima is dioecious , with male and female flowers being borne on different individuals . Male trees produce three to four times as many flowers as the females , making the male flowers more conspicuous . Furthermore , the male plants emit a foul @-@ smelling odour while flowering to attract pollinating insects . Female flowers contain ten ( or rarely five through abortion ) sterile stamens ( stamenoides ) with heart @-@ shaped anthers . The pistil is made up of five free carpels ( i.e. they are not fused ) , each containing a single ovule . Their styles are united and slender with star @-@ shaped stigmas . The male flowers are similar in appearance , but they of course lack a pistil and the stamens do function , each being topped with a globular anther and a glandular green disc . The fruits grow in clusters ; a fruit cluster may contain hundreds of seeds . The seeds borne on the female trees are 5 mm in diameter and each is encapsulated in a samara that is 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) long and 1 cm ( 0 @.@ 39 in ) broad , appearing July though August , but can persist on the tree until the next spring . The samara is large and twisted at the tips , making it spin as it falls , assisting wind dispersal , and aiding buoyancy for long @-@ distance dispersal through hydrochory . The females can produce huge amounts of seeds , normally around 30 @,@ 000 per kilogram ( 14 @,@ 000 / lb ) of tree , and fecundity can be estimated non @-@ destructively through measurements of dbh .
= = Taxonomy = =
The first scientific descriptions of the tree of heaven were made shortly after it was introduced to Europe by the French Jesuit Pierre Nicholas d 'Incarville . D 'Incarville had sent seeds from Peking via Siberia to his botanist friend Bernard de Jussieu in the 1740s . The seeds sent by d 'Incarville were thought to be from the economically important and similar looking Chinese varnish tree ( Toxicodendron vernicifluum ) , which he had observed in the lower Yangtze region , rather than the tree of heaven . D 'Incarville attached a note indicating this , which caused much taxonomic confusion over the next few decades . In 1751 , Jussieu planted a few seeds in France and sent others on to Philip Miller , the superintendent at the Chelsea Physic Garden , and to Philip C. Webb , the owner of an exotic plant garden in Busbridge , England .
Confusion in naming began when the tree was described by all three men with three different names . In Paris , Linnaeus gave the plant the name Rhus succedanea , while it was known commonly as grand vernis du Japon . In London the specimens were named by Miller as Toxicodendron altissima and in Busbridge it was dubbed in the old classification system as Rhus Sinese foliis alatis . There are extant records from the 1750s of disputes over the proper name between Philip Miller and John Ellis , curator of Webb 's garden in Busbridge . Rather than the issue being resolved , more names soon appeared for the plant : Jakob Friedrich Ehrhart observed a specimen in Utrecht in 1782 and named it Rhus cacodendron .
Light was shed on the taxonomic status of ailanthus in 1788 when René Louiche Desfontaines observed the samaras of the Paris specimens , which were still labelled Rhus succedanea , and came to the conclusion that the plant was not a sumac . He published an article with an illustrated description and gave it the name Ailanthus glandulosa , placing it in the same genus as the tropical species then known as A. integrifolia ( white siris , now A. triphysa ) . The name is derived from the Ambonese word ailanto , meaning " heaven @-@ tree " or " tree reaching for the sky " . The specific glandulosa , referring to the glands on the leaves , persisted until as late as 1957 , but it was ultimately made invalid as a later homonym at the species level . The current species name comes from Walter T. Swingle who was employed by the United States Department of Plant Industry . He decided to transfer Miller 's older specific name into the genus of Desfontaines , resulting in the accepted name Ailanthus altissima . Altissima is Latin for " tallest " , and refers to the sizes the tree can reach . The plant is sometimes incorrectly cited with the specific epithet in the masculine ( glandulosus or altissimus ) , which is incorrect since botanical , like Classical Latin , treats most tree names as feminine .
There are three varieties of A. altissima :
A. altissima var. altissima , which is the type variety and is native to mainland China .
A. altissima var. tanakai , which is endemic to northern Taiwan highlands . It differs from the type in having yellowish bark , odd @-@ pinnate leaves that are also shorter on average at 45 to 60 cm ( 18 to 24 in ) long with only 13 – 25 scythe @-@ like leaflets . It is listed as endangered in the IUCN Red List of threatened species due to loss of habitat for building and industrial plantations .
A. altissima var. sutchuenensis , which differs in having red branchlets .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
A. altissima is native to northern and central China , Taiwan and northern Korea . In Taiwan it is present as var. takanai . In China it is native to every province except Gansu , Heilongjiang , Hainan , Jilin , Ningxia , Qinghai , Xinjiang , and Tibet .
The tree prefers moist and loamy soils , but is adaptable to a very wide range of soil conditions and pH values . It is drought @-@ hardy , but not tolerant of flooding . It also does not tolerate deep shade . In China it is often found in limestone @-@ rich areas . The tree of heaven is found within a wide range of climatic conditions . In its native range it is found at high altitudes in Taiwan as well as lower ones in mainland China . In the U.S. it is found in arid regions bordering the Great Plains , very wet regions in the southern Appalachians , cold areas of the lower Rocky Mountains and throughout much of the California Central Valley . Prolonged cold and snow cover cause dieback , though the trees re @-@ sprout from the roots .
= = = As an exotic plant = = =
The earliest introductions of A. altissima to countries outside of its native range were to the southern areas of Korea as well as to Japan . It is possible that the tree is native to these areas , but it is generally agreed that the tree was a very early introduction . Within China itself it has also been naturalised beyond its native range in areas such as Qinghai , Ningxia and Xinjiang .
In 1784 , not long after Jussieu had sent seeds to England , some were forwarded to the United States by William Hamilton , a gardener in Philadelphia . In both Europe and America it quickly became a favoured ornamental , especially as a street tree , and by 1840 it was available in most nurseries . The tree was separately brought to California in the 1890s by Chinese immigrants who came during the California Gold Rush . It has escaped cultivation in all areas where it was introduced , but most extensively in the United States . It has naturalised across much of Europe , including Germany , Austria , Switzerland , the Czech Republic , the Pannonian region ( i.e. southeastern Central Europe around the Danube river basin from Austria , Slovakia and Hungary south to the Balkan ranges ) and most countries of the Mediterranean Basin . In Montenegro and Albania A. altissima is widespread in both rural and urban areas and while in the first it was introduced as an ornamental plant , it very soon invaded native ecosystems with disastrous results and became an invasive species . Ailanthus has also been introduced to Argentina , Australia ( where it is a declared weed in New South Wales and Victoria ) , New Zealand ( where it is listed under the National Pest Plant Accord and is classed an " unwanted organism " ) , the Middle East and in some countries in South Asia such as Pakistan . In South Africa it is listed as an invasive species which must be controlled , or removed and destroyed .
In North America , A. altissima is present from Massachusetts in the east , west to southern Ontario , southwest to Iowa , south to Texas , and east to the north of Florida . On the west coast it is found from New Mexico west to California and north to Washington . In the east of its range it grows most extensively in disturbed areas of cities , where it was long ago present as a planted street tree . It also grows along roads and railways . For example , a 2003 study in North Carolina found the tree of heaven was present on 1 @.@ 7 % of all highway and railroad edges in the state and had been expanding its range at the rate of 4 @.@ 76 % counties per year . Similarly , another study conducted in southwestern Virginia determined that the tree of heaven is thriving along approximately 30 % of the state 's interstate highway system length or mileage . It sometimes enters undisturbed areas as well and competes with native plants . In western North America it is most common in mountainous areas around old dwellings and abandoned mining operations .
= = Ecology = =
Ailanthus is an opportunistic plant that thrives in full sun and disturbed areas . It spreads aggressively both by seeds and vegetatively by root sprouts , re @-@ sprouting rapidly after being cut . It is considered a shade @-@ intolerant tree and cannot compete in low @-@ light situations , though it is sometimes found competing with hardwoods , but such competition rather indicates it was present at the time the stand was established . On the other hand , a study in an old @-@ growth hemlock @-@ hardwood forest in New York found that Ailanthus was capable of competing successfully with native trees in canopy gaps where only 2 to 15 % of full sun was available . The same study characterised the tree as using a " gap @-@ obligate " strategy in order to reach the forest canopy , meaning it grows rapidly during a very short period rather than growing slowly over a long period . It is a short lived tree in any location and rarely lives more than 50 years . Ailanthus is among the most pollution @-@ tolerant of tree species , including sulfur dioxide , which it absorbs in its leaves . It can withstand cement dust and fumes from coal tar operations , as well as resist ozone exposure relatively well . Furthermore , high concentrations of mercury have been found built up in tissues of the plant .
Ailanthus has been used to re @-@ vegetate areas where acid mine drainage has occurred and it has been shown to tolerate pH levels as low as 4 @.@ 1 ( approximately that of tomato juice ) . It can withstand very low phosphorus levels and high salinity levels . The drought @-@ tolerance of the tree is strong due to its ability to effectively store water in its root system . It is frequently found in areas where few trees can survive . The roots are also aggressive enough to cause damage to subterranean sewers and pipes . Along highways it often forms dense thickets in which few other tree species are present , largely due to the toxins it produces to prevent competition .
Ailanthus produces an allelopathic chemical called ailanthone , which inhibits the growth of other plants . The inhibitors are strongest in the bark and roots , but are also present in the leaves , wood and seeds of the plant . One study showed that a crude extract of the root bark inhibited 50 % of a sample of garden cress ( Lepidium sativum ) seeds from germinating . The same study tested the extract as an herbicide on garden cress , redroot pigweed ( Amaranthus retroflexus ) , velvetleaf ( Abutilon theophrasti ) , yellow bristlegrass ( Setaria pumila ) , barnyard grass ( Echinochloa crusgalli ) , pea ( Pisum sativum cv . Sugar Snap ) and maize ( Zea mays cv . Silver Queen ) . It proved able to kill nearly 100 % of seedlings with the exception of velvetleaf , which showed some resistance . Another experiment showed a water extract of the chemical was either lethal or highly damaging to 11 North American hardwoods and 34 conifers , with the white ash ( Fraxinus americana ) being the only plant not adversely affected . The chemical does not , however , affect the tree of heaven 's own seedlings , indicating that A. altissima has a defence mechanism to prevent autotoxicity . Resistance in various plant species has been shown to increase with exposure . Populations without prior exposure to the chemicals are most susceptible to them . Seeds produced from exposed plants have also been shown to be more resistant than their unexposed counterparts .
The tree of heaven is a very rapidly growing tree , possibly the fastest growing tree in North America . Growth of one to two metres ( 3 @.@ 3 to 6 @.@ 6 ft ) per year for the first four years is considered normal . Shade considerably hampers growth rates . Older trees , while growing much slower , still do so faster than other trees . Studies found that Californian trees grew faster than their East Coast counterparts , and American trees in general grew faster than Chinese ones .
In northern Europe the tree of heaven was not considered naturalised in cities until after the Second World War . This has been attributed to the tree 's ability to colonise areas of rubble of destroyed buildings where most other plants would not grow . In addition , the warmer microclimate in cities offers a more suitable habitat than the surrounding rural areas ( it is thought that the tree requires a mean annual temperature of 8 degrees Celsius to grow well , which limits its spread to more northern and higher altitude areas ) . For example , one study in Germany found the tree of heaven growing in 92 % of densely populated areas of Berlin , 25 % of its suburbs and only 3 % of areas outside the city altogether . In other areas of Europe this is not the case as climates are mild enough for the tree to flourish . It has colonised natural areas in Hungary , for example , and is considered a threat to biodiversity at that country 's Aggtelek National Park .
Several species of Lepidoptera utilise the leaves of ailanthus as food , including the Indian moon moth ( Actias selene ) and the common grass yellow ( Eurema hecabe ) . In North America the tree is the host plant for the ailanthus webworm ( Atteva aurea ) , though this ermine moth is native to Central and South America and originally used other members of the mostly tropical Simaroubaceae as its hosts . In its native range A. altissima is associated with at least 32 species of arthropods and 13 species of fungi .
Due to the tree of heaven 's weedy habit , landowners and other organisations often resort to various methods of control in order to keep its populations in check . For example , the city of Basel in Switzerland has an eradication program for the tree . It can be very difficult to eradicate , however . Means of eradication can be physical , thermal , managerial , biological or chemical . A combination of several of these can be most effective , though they must of course be compatible . All have some positive and negative aspects , but the most effective regimen is generally a mixture of chemical and physical control . It involves the application of foliar or basal herbicides in order to kill existing trees , while either hand pulling or mowing seedlings in order to prevent new growth .
= = Uses = =
In addition to its use as an ornamental plant , the tree of heaven is also used for its wood , medicinal properties , and as a host plant to feed silkworms of the moth Samia cynthia , which produces silk that is stronger and cheaper than mulberry silk , although with inferior gloss and texture . It is also unable to take dye . This type of silk is known under various names : " pongee " , " eri silk " and " Shantung silk " , the last name being derived from Shandong Province in China where this silk is often produced . Its production is particularly well known in the Yantai region of that province . The moth has also been introduced in the United States .
The pale yellow , close @-@ grained and satiny wood of ailanthus has been used in cabinet work . It is flexible and well suited to the manufacture of kitchen steamers , which are important in Chinese cuisine for cooking mantou , pastries and rice . Zhejiang Province in eastern China is most famous for producing these steamers . It is also considered a good source of firewood across much of its range as it moderately hard and heavy , yet readily available . The wood is also used to make charcoal for culinary purposes . There are problems with using the wood as lumber , however . Because the trees exhibit rapid growth for the first few years , the trunk has uneven texture between the inner and outer wood , which can cause the wood to twist or crack during drying . Techniques have been developed for drying the wood so as to prevent this cracking , allowing it to be commercially harvested . Although the live tree tends to have very flexible wood , the wood is quite hard once properly dried .
= = = Cultivation = = =
Tree of heaven is a popular ornamental tree in China and valued for its tolerance of difficult growing conditions . It was once very popular in cultivation in both Europe and North America , but this popularity dropped , especially in the United States , due to the disagreeable odor of its blossoms and the weediness of its habit . The problem of odor was previously avoided by only selling pistillate plants since only males produce the smell , but a higher seed production also results . Michael Dirr , a noted American horticulturalist and professor at the University of Georgia , reported meeting , in 1982 , a grower who could not find any buyers . He further writes ( his emphasis ) :
For most landscaping conditions , it has no value as there are too many trees of superior quality ; for impossible conditions this tree has a place ; selection could be made for good habit , strong wood and better foliage which would make the tree more satisfactory ; I once talked with an architect who tried to buy Ailanthus for use along polluted highways but could not find an adequate supply [ ... ]
In Europe , however , the tree is still used in the garden to some degree as its habit is generally not as invasive as it is in America . In the United Kingdom it is especially common in London squares , streets , and parks , though it is also frequently found in gardens of southern England and East Anglia . It becomes rare in the north , occurring only infrequently in southern Scotland . It is also rare in Ireland . In Germany the tree is commonly planted in gardens . The tree has furthermore become unpopular in cultivation in the west because it is short @-@ lived and that the trunk soon becomes hollow , making trees more than two feet in diameter unstable in high winds .
A few cultivars exist , but they are not often sold outside of China and probably not at all in North America :
‘ Hongye ’ – The name is Chinese and means " red leaves " . As the name implies it has attractive vivid red foliage
‘ Thousand Leaders ’
‘ Metro ’ – A male cultivar with a tighter crown than usual and a less weedy habit
‘ Erythrocarpa ’ – The fruits are a striking red
‘ Pendulifolia ’ – Leaves are much longer and hang elegantly
= = = Medicinal = = =
Nearly every part of A. altissima has some application in Chinese traditional medicine . One of the oldest recipes , recorded in a work from 732 AD , is used for treating mental illness . It involved chopped root material , young boys ' urine and douchi . After sitting for a day the liquid was strained out and given to the patient over the course of several days .
Another source from 684 AD , during the Tang dynasty and recorded in Li Shizhen 's Compendium of Materia Medica , states that when the leaves are taken internally , they make one incoherent and sleepy , while when used externally they can be effectively used to treat boils , abscesses and itches . Yet another recipe recorded by Li uses the leaves to treat baldness . This formula calls for young leaves of ailanthus , catalpa and peach tree to be crushed together and the resulting liquid applied to the scalp to stimulate hair growth .
The dried bark , however , is still an officinal drug and is listed in the modern Chinese materia medica as chun bai pi ( Chinese : 椿白皮 ; pinyin : chūnbáipí ) , meaning " white bark of spring " . Modern works treat it in detail , discussing chemical constituents , how to identify the product and its pharmaceutical uses . It is prepared by felling the tree in fall or spring , stripping the bark and then scraping off the hardest , outermost portion , which is then sun @-@ dried , soaked in water , partially re @-@ dried in a basket and finally cut into strips . The bark is said to have cooling and astringent properties and is primarily used to treat dysentery , intestinal hemorrhage , menorrhagia and spermatorrhea . It is only prescribed in amounts between 4 and 10 grams , so as not to poison the patients . Li 's Compendium has 18 recipes that call for the bark . Asian and European chemists have found some justification for its medical use as it contains a long list of active chemicals that include quassin and saponin , while ailanthone , the allelopathic chemical in the tree of heaven , is a known antimalarial agent . It is available in most shops dealing in Chinese traditional medicine . A tincture of the root @-@ bark has been used successfully in treating cardiac palpitation , asthma and epilepsy .
The samaras are also used in modern Chinese medicine under the name feng yan cao ( simplified Chinese : 凤眼草 ; traditional Chinese : 鳳眼草 ; pinyin : fèngyǎncǎo ) , meaning " herbal phoenix eye " . They are used as a hemostatic agent , spermatorrhea and for treating patients with blood in their feces or urine . It was clinically shown to be able to treat trichomoniasis , a vaginal infection caused by the protozoan Trichomonas vaginalis . In the West , an extract of the bark sold under the synonym A. glandulosa is sometimes used as an herbal remedy for various ailments including cancer .
Anecdotal evidence suggests that the plant may be mildly toxic . The noxious odours have been associated with nausea and headaches , as well as with contact dermatitis reported in both humans and sheep , who also developed weakness and paralysis . It contains a quinone irritant , 2 @,@ 6 @-@ dimethoxybenzoquinone , as well as active quassinoids ( ailanthone itself being one ) which may account for these effects , but they have , however , proved difficult or impossible to reproduce in humans and goats . In one trial a tincture from the blossom and foliage caused nausea , vomiting and muscular relaxation .
Ailanthus altissima has potent anti @-@ anaphylactic and anti @-@ inflammatory properties .
= = Culture = =
= = = China = = =
In addition to the tree of heaven 's various uses , it has also been a part of Chinese culture for many centuries and has more recently attained a similar status in the west . Within the oldest extant Chinese dictionary , the Erya , written in the 3rd century BC , the tree of heaven is mentioned second among a list of trees . It was mentioned again in a materia medica compiled during the Tang dynasty in 656 AD . Each work favoured a different character , however , and there is still some debate in the Chinese botanical community as to which character should be used . The current name , chouchun ( Chinese : 臭椿 ; pinyin : chòuchūn ) , means " stinking spring " , and is a relatively new appellation . People living near the lower Yellow River know it by the name chunshu ( simplified Chinese : 椿树 ; traditional Chinese : 椿樹 ; pinyin : chūnshù ) , meaning " spring tree " . The name stems from the fact that A. altissima is one of the last trees to come out of dormancy , and as such its leaves coming out would indicate that winter was truly over .
In Chinese literature , ailanthus is often used for two rather extreme metaphors , with a mature tree representing a father and a stump being a spoiled child . This manifests itself occasionally when expressing best wishes to a friend 's father and mother in a letter , where one can write " wishing your ailanthus and daylily are strong and happy " , with ailanthus metaphorically referring to the father and daylily to the mother . Furthermore , one can scold a child by calling him a " good @-@ for @-@ nothing ailanthus stump sprout " , meaning the child is irresponsible . This derives from the literature of Zhuangzi , a Taoist philosopher , who referred to a tree that had developed from a sprout at the stump and was thus unsuitable for carpentry due to its irregular shape . Later scholars associated this tree with ailanthus and applied the metaphor to children who , like stump sprouts of the tree , will not develop into a worthwhile human being if they don 't follow rules or traditions .
= = = United States = = =
The 1943 book A Tree Grows in Brooklyn by Betty Smith uses the tree of heaven as its central metaphor , using it as an analogy for the ability to thrive in a difficult environment . At that time as well as now , ailanthus was common in neglected urban areas . She writes :
There 's a tree that grows in Brooklyn . Some people call it the Tree of Heaven . No matter where its seed falls , it makes a tree which struggles to reach the sky . It grows in boarded up lots and out of neglected rubbish heaps . It grows up out of cellar gratings . It is the only tree that grows out of cement . It grows lushly ... survives without sun , water , and seemingly earth . It would be considered beautiful except that there are too many of it .
In William Faulkner 's novel , Sanctuary , a " heaven @-@ tree " stands outside the Jefferson jail , where Lee Goodwin and a " negro murderer " are incarcerated . The tree is associated with the black prisoner 's despair in the face of his impending execution and the spirituals that he sings in chorus with other black people who keep a sort of vigil in the street below :
... they sang spirituals while white people slowed and stopped in the leafed darkness that was almost summer , to listen to those who were sure to die and him who was already dead singing about heaven and being tired ; or perhaps in the interval between songs a rich , sourceless voice coming out of the high darkness where the ragged shadow of the heaven @-@ tree which snooded the street lamp at the corner fretted and mourned : " Fo days mo ! Den dey ghy stroy de bes ba 'yton singer in nawth Mississippi ! "
Upon the barred and slitted wall the splotched shadow of the heaven @-@ tree shuddered and pulsed monstrously in scarce any wind ; rich and sad , the singing fell behind .
Ailanthus is also sometimes counter @-@ nicknamed " tree from hell " due to its prolific invasiveness and the difficulty in eradicating it . In certain parts of the United States , the species has been nicknamed the " ghetto palm " because of its propensity for growing in the inhospitable conditions of urban areas , or on abandoned and poorly maintained properties .
Until March 26 , 2008 , a 60 @-@ foot ( 18 m ) -tall member of the species was a prominent " centerpiece " of the sculpture garden at the Noguchi Museum in the borough of Queens in New York City . The tree had been spared by the sculptor Isamu Noguchi when in 1975 he bought the building which would become the museum and cleaned up its back lot . The tree was the only one he left in the yard , and the staff would eat lunch with Noguchi under it . " [ I ] n a sense , the sculpture garden was designed around the tree " , said a former aide to Noguchi , Bonnie Rychlak , who later became the museum curator . By 2008 , the old tree was found to be dying and in danger of crashing into the building , which was about to undergo a major renovation . The museum hired the Detroit Tree of Heaven Woodshop , an artists ' collective , to use the wood to create benches , sculptures and other amenities in and around the building . The tree 's rings were counted , revealing its age to be 75 , and museum officials hoped it would regenerate from a sucker .
= = = Europe = = =
Ingo Vetter , a German artist and professor of fine arts at Umeå University in Sweden , was influenced by the idea of the " ghetto palm " and installed a living ailanthus tree taken from Detroit for an international art show called Shrinking Cities at the Kunst @-@ Werke Institute for Contemporary Art in Berlin in 2004 .
= Pierre Rossier =
Pierre Joseph Rossier ( 16 July 1829 – between 1883 and 1898 ) was a pioneering Swiss photographer whose albumen photographs , which include stereographs and cartes @-@ de @-@ visite , comprise portraits , cityscapes , and landscapes . He was commissioned by the London firm of Negretti and Zambra to travel to Asia and document the progress of the Anglo @-@ French troops in the Second Opium War and , although he failed to join that military expedition , he remained in Asia for several years , producing the first commercial photographs of China , the Philippines , Japan and Siam ( now Thailand ) . He was the first professional photographer in Japan , where he trained Ueno Hikoma , Maeda Genzō , Horie Kuwajirō , as well as lesser known members of the first generation of Japanese photographers . In Switzerland he established photographic studios in Fribourg and Einsiedeln , and he | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
Stanton , and Stone have been called the 19th @-@ century " triumvirate " of women 's suffrage and feminism .
= = Early life and influences = =
Lucy Stone was born on August 13 , 1818 , on her family 's farm at Coy 's Hill in West Brookfield , Massachusetts . She was the eighth of nine children born to Hannah Matthews and Francis Stone ; she grew up with three brothers and three sisters , two siblings having died before her own birth . Another member of the Stone household was Sarah Barr , “ Aunt Sally ” to the children – a sister of Francis Stone who had been abandoned by her husband and left dependent upon her brother . Although farm life was hard work for all and Francis Stone tightly managed the family resources , Lucy remembered her childhood as one of “ opulence , ” the farm producing all the food the family wanted and enough extra to trade for the few store @-@ bought goods they needed .
Although Stone recalled that “ There was only one will in our family , and that was my father ’ s , ” she described the family government characteristic of her day . Hannah Stone earned a modest income through selling eggs and cheese but was denied her any control over that money , sometimes denied money to purchase things Francis considered trivial . Believing she had a right to her own earnings , Hannah sometimes stole coins from his purse or secretly sold a cheese . As a child , Lucy resented instances of what she saw as her father ’ s unfair management of the family ’ s money . But she later came to realize that custom was to blame , and the injustice only demonstrated “ the necessity of making custom right , if it must rule . ”
From the examples of her mother , Aunt Sally , and a neighbor neglected by her husband and left destitute , Stone early learned that women were at the mercy of their husbands ’ good will . When she came across the biblical passage , “ and thy desire shall be to thy husband , and he shall rule over thee , ” she was distraught over what appeared to be divine sanction of women ’ s subjugation , but then reasoned that the injunction applied only to wives . Resolving to “ call no man my master , ” she determined to keep control over her own life by never marrying , obtaining the highest education she could , and earning her own livelihood .
= = = Teaching at “ a woman ’ s pay ” = = =
At age sixteen , Stone began teaching in district schools , as her brothers and sister Rhoda also did . Her beginning pay of $ 1 @.@ 00 a day was much lower than that of male teachers , and when she substituted for her brother Bowman one winter , she received less pay than he received . When she protested to the school committee that she had taught all the subjects Bowman had , it replied that they could give her “ only a woman ’ s pay . ” Lower pay for women was one of the arguments cited by those promoting the hiring of women as teachers : “ To make education universal , it must be at moderate expense , and women can afford to teach for one @-@ half , or even less , the salary which men would ask . ” Although Stone ’ s salary increased along with the size of her schools , until she finally received $ 16 a month , it was always lower than the male rate .
= = = The “ woman question ” = = =
In 1836 , Stone began reading newspaper reports of a controversy raging throughout Massachusetts that some referred to as the “ woman question ” – what was woman ’ s proper role in society ; should she assume an active and public role in the reform movements of the day ? Developments within that controversy over the next several years shaped her evolving philosophy on women ’ s rights .
A debate over whether women were entitled to a political voice had begun when many women responded to William Lloyd Garrison ’ s appeal to circulate antislavery petitions and sent thousands of signatures to Congress only to have them rejected , in part because women had sent them . Women abolitionists responded by holding a convention in New York City to expand their petitioning efforts , and declaring that “ as certain rights and duties are common to all moral beings , ” they would no longer remain within limits prescribed by “ corrupt custom and a perverted application of Scripture . ” After sisters Angelina and Sarah Grimke began speaking to audiences of men and women , instead of women @-@ only as was acceptable , a state convention of Congregational ministers issued a Pastoral letter condemning women ’ s assuming “ the place of man as a public reformer ” and “ itinerat [ ing ] in the character of public lecturers and teachers . ” Stone attended the convention as a spectator , and was so angered by the letter that she determined " if ever [ I ] had anything to say in public , [ I ] would say it , and all the more because of that pastoral letter . "
Stone read Sarah Grimke ’ s “ Letters on the Province of Woman ” ( later republished as “ Letters on the Equality of the Sexes ” ) , and told a brother they only reinforced her resolve “ to call no man master . ” She drew from these " Letters " when writing college essays and her later women ’ s rights lectures .
Having determined to obtain the highest education she could , Stone enrolled at Mount Holyoke Female Seminary in 1839 , at the age of 21 . But she was so disappointed in Mary Lyons ’ intolerance of antislavery and women ’ s rights that she withdrew after only one term . The very next month she enrolled at Wesleyan Academy ( later Wilbraham & Monson Academy ) , which she found more to her liking : “ It was decided by a large majority in our literary society the other day , ” she reported to a brother , “ that ladies ought to mingle in politics , go to Congress , etc. etc . ” Stone read a newspaper account of how a Connecticut antislavery meeting had denied the right to speak or vote to Abby Kelley , recently hired as an antislavery agent to work in that state . Refusing to relinquish her right , Kelly had defiantly raised her hand every time a vote was taken . “ I admire the calm and noble bearing of Abby K , ” Stone wrote to a brother , “ and cannot but wish there were more kindred spirits . ”
Three years later , Stone followed Kelley ’ s example . In 1843 , a deacon of her church was recommended for expulsion because of certain antislavery activities , including giving countenance to Abby Kelley ’ s anti @-@ church views by driving her to lectures and entertaining her at his home . When the first vote was taken , Stone raised her hand in his defense . The minister discounted her vote , saying that , though she was a member of the church , she was not a voting member . Like Kelly , she stubbornly raised her hand for each of the remaining five votes .
After completing a year at coeducational Monson Academy in the summer of 1841 , Stone learned that Oberlin Collegiate Institute in Ohio had become the first college in the nation to admit women and had bestowed college degrees on three women . Stone enrolled at Quaboag Seminary in neighboring Warren , where she read Virgil and Sophocles and studied Latin and Greek grammar in preparation for Oberlin ’ s entrance examinations .
= = Oberlin = =
In August 1843 , just after she turned 25 , Stone traveled by train , steamship , and stagecoach to Oberlin College in Ohio , the country 's first college to admit both women and African Americans . She entered the college believing that women should vote and assume political office , that women should study the classic professions and that women should be able to speak their minds in a public forum . Oberlin College did not share all of these sentiments .
In her third year at Oberlin , Stone befriended Antoinette Brown , an abolitionist and suffragist who came to Oberlin in 1845 to study to become a minister . Stone and Brown would eventually marry abolitionist brothers and thus become sisters @-@ in @-@ law .
= = = Equal pay strike = = =
Stone hoped to earn most of her college expenses through teaching in one of the institute ’ s lower departments . But because of its policy against employing first @-@ year students as teachers , the only work Stone could get other than teaching at district schools during the winter break was house keeping chores through the school ’ s manual labor program . For this she was paid three cents an hour — less than half what male students received for their work in the program . Among measures taken to reduce her expenses , Stone prepared her own meals in her dormitory room . In 1844 Stone was given a position teaching arithmetic in the Ladies Department , but again received reduced pay because of her sex .
Oberlin ’ s compensation policies required Stone to do twice the labor a male student had to do to pay the same costs . Stone frequently rose at two o 'clock to fit in work and study , and she found her health declining . In February 1845 , having decided to submit to the injustice no longer , she asked the Faculty Board for the same pay given two lesser @-@ experienced male colleagues . When her request was denied , she resigned her position . Pleading with the faculty to restore Stone , her former students said they would pay Stone “ what was right ” if the college would not . Stone had planned to borrow money from her father when funds ran out , but Francis Stone , moved by his daughter ’ s description of her struggles , promised to provide money when needed . Help from home was not needed , however , because after three months of pressure , the faculty yielded and hired Stone back , paying both her and other women student teachers at the same rate paid male student teachers .
= = = Public speaking = = =
In February 1846 Stone intimated to Abby Kelley Foster that she was thinking of becoming a public speaker , but not until the following summer did a storm of controversy over Foster ’ s speaking at Oberlin decide the matter for her . Faculty opposition to Foster ignited impassioned discussion of women ’ s rights among the students , especially of woman ’ s right to speak in public , which Stone vigorously defended in a joint meeting of the men ’ s and women ’ s literary societies . She followed that campus demonstration by making her first public speech at Oberlin ’ s August 1 commemoration of Emancipation in the West Indies .
In the fall of 1846 Stone informed her family of her intention to become a woman ’ s rights lecturer . Her brothers were at once supportive , her father encouraged her to do what she considered her duty , but her mother and only remaining sister begged her to reconsider . To her mother 's fears that she would be reviled , Stone said she knew she would be disesteemed and even hated , but she must " pursue that course of conduct which , to me , appears best calculated to promote the highest good of the world . ”
Stone then tried to gain practical speaking experience . Although women students could debate each other in their literary society , it was considered inappropriate for them to participate in oral exercises with men ; women members of the collegiate rhetoric class were expected to learn by observing their male classmates . So Stone and first @-@ year student Antoinette Brown , who also wanted to develop skill in public speaking , organized an off @-@ campus women ’ s debating club . After gaining a measure of competence , they sought and received permission to debate each other before Stone ’ s rhetoric class . The debate attracted a large student audience as well as attention from the Faculty Board , which thereupon formally banned women ’ s oral exercises in coeducational classes . Shortly thereafter , Stone accepted a challenge from a former editor of a county newspaper to a public debate on women ’ s rights , and she soundly defeated him . She then submitted a petition to the Faculty Board , signed by most members of her graduating class , asking that women chosen to write graduation essays be permitted to read them themselves , as men so honored did , instead of having them read by faculty members . When the Faculty Board refused and Stone was elected to write an essay , she declined , saying she could not support a principle that denied women “ the privilege of being co @-@ laborers with men in any sphere to which their ability makes them adequate . ”
Stone received her baccalaureate degree from Oberlin College on August 25 , 1847 , becoming the first female college graduate from Massachusetts .
= = Antislavery apprenticeship = =
Stone gave her first public speeches on women 's rights in the fall of 1847 , first at brother Bowman ’ s church in Gardner , Massachusetts , and a little later in neighboring Warren . Stone became a lecturing agent for the Massachusetts Anti @-@ Slavery Society in June 1848 , persuaded by Abby Kelley Foster that the experience would give her the speaking practice she still felt she needed before beginning her women ’ s rights campaign . Stone immediately proved to be an effective speaker , reported to wield extraordinary persuasive power over her audiences . She was described as “ a little meek @-@ looking Quakerish body , with the sweetest , modest manners and yet as unshrinking and self @-@ possessed as a loaded canon . ” One of her assets , in addition to a storytelling ability that could move audiences to tears or laughter as she willed , was said to be an unusual voice that contemporaries compared to a “ silver bell , ” and of which it was said , “ no more perfect instrument had ever been bestowed upon a speaker . ”
In addition to helping Stone develop as an orator , the antislavery agency introduced her to a network of progressive reformers within the Garrisonian wing of the abolition movement who assisted her women ’ s rights work . In the fall of 1848 , she received an invitation from Phoebe Hathaway of Farmington , New York , to lecture for the women who had organized the Seneca Falls and Rochester women ’ s rights conventions earlier that summer . Although Stone accepted and expected to begin working for them in the fall of 1849 , the agency never materialized . In April 1849 , Stone was invited to lecture for the Philadelphia Female Anti @-@ Slavery Society , and Lucretia Mott took advantage of her presence to hold Pennsylvania ’ s first women ’ s rights meeting , on May 4 , 1849 . With the help of abolitionists , Stone conducted Massachusetts ’ first petition campaigns for the right of women to vote and hold public office . Wendell Phillips drafted the first petitions and accompanying appeals for circulation , and William Lloyd Garrison published them in the Liberator for readers to copy and circulate . When Stone sent petitions to the legislature in February 1850 , over half were from towns where she had lectured .
= = National Woman 's Rights Convention = =
In April 1850 , a woman ’ s rights convention was held in Salem , Ohio , to a petition drive asking its constitutional convention to revise the state constitution to secure women ’ s equal legal and political rights as well as woman and Negro suffrage . Stone sent a letter praising their initiative and said , “ Massachusetts ought to have taken the lead in the work you are now doing , but if she chooses to linger , let her young sisters of the West set her a worthy example ; and if the ‘ Pilgrim spirit is not dead , ’ we ’ ll pledge Massachusetts to follow her . ” Some of the leaders asked Stone and Lucretia Mott to address the constitutional convention on their behalf , but believing such appeals should come from residents of the state , they declined .
With the support of Garrison and other abolitionists , Stone arranged the May 30 , 1850 , meeting at Boston ’ s Melodeon Hall that called the first National Woman ’ s Rights Convention . Paulina Wright Davis presided while Stone addressed the large audience and served as secretary . Seven women were appointed to organize the convention , with Davis and Stone appointed to conduct the correspondence needed to solicit signatures to the call and recruit speakers and attendance .
A few months before the convention , Stone contracted typhoid fever while traveling in Indiana and nearly died . Frail health limited her participation in the National Woman ’ s Rights Convention held October 23 – 24 , 1850 , in Worcester , Massachusetts , and she made no formal address until the closing session . The convention decided not to establish a formal association , but to exist as an annual convention with a standing committee to arrange its meetings , publish its proceedings , and execute adopted plans of action . Stone was appointed to the Central Committee of nine women and nine men . The following spring she became secretary of the committee and , except for one year , retained that position until 1858 . As secretary , Stone took a leading part in organizing and setting the agenda for the national conventions throughout the decade .
= = Woman ’ s rights orator = =
In May 1851 , while in Boston attending the New England Anti @-@ Slavery Society ’ s annual meeting , Stone went to the exhibit of Hiram ’ s Powers ’ s statue of The Greek Slave . She was so moved by the sculpture that when she addressed the meeting that evening , she poured out her heart about the statue being emblematic of all enchained womanhood . Stone said the society ’ s general agent , Samuel May , Jr . , reproached her for speaking on women ’ s rights at an antislavery meeting , and she replied : “ I was a woman before I was an abolitionist . I must speak for women . ” Three months later Stone notified May that she intended to lecture on women ’ s rights full @-@ time and would not be available for antislavery work . Stone launched her career as an independent women ’ s rights lecturer on October 1 , 1851 . When May continued to press antislavery work upon her , she agreed to lecture for the Massachusetts Anti @-@ Slavery Society on Sundays . Arranging women ’ s rights lectures around these engagements , she used pay for her antislavery work to defray expenses of her independent lecturing until she felt confident enough to charge admission .
= = = Dress reform = = =
When Stone resumed lecturing in the fall of 1851 , she wore a new style of dress that she had adopted during her winter convalescence , consisting of a loose , short jacket and a pair of baggy trousers under a skirt that fell a few inches below the knees . The dress was a product of the health @-@ reform movement and intended to replace the fashionable French dress of a tight bodice over
a whalebone @-@ fitted corset , and a skirt that dragged several inches on the floor , worn over several layers of starched petticoats with straw or horsehair sewn into the hems . Ever since the fall of 1849 , when the [ 1 ] Water @-@ Cure Journal urged women to invent a style of dress that would allow them the free use of their legs , women across the country had been wearing some form of pants and short skirt , generally called the “ Turkish costume ” or the “ American dress . ” Most wore it as a walking or gardening dress , but a letter writer to the National Woman ’ s Rights Convention urged women to adopt it as common attire .
By the spring of 1851 , women in several states were wearing the dress in public . In March , Amelia Bloomer , editor of the temperance newspaper The Lily , announced that she was wearing it and printed a description of her dress along with instructions on how to make it . Soon newspapers had dubbed it the “ Bloomer dress ” and the name stuck .
The Bloomer became a fashion fad during the following months , as women from Toledo to New York City and Lowell , Massachusetts , held reform @-@ dress social events and festivals . Supporters gathered signatures to a “ Declaration of Independence from the Despotism of Parisian Fashion ” and organized dress @-@ reform societies . A few Garrisonian supporters of women ’ s rights took prominent part in these activities , and one offered silk to any of his friends who would make it into a short skirt and trousers for a public dress . Stone accepted the offer .
When Stone lectured in the dress in the fall of 1851 , hers was the first Bloomer most of her audiences had ever seen . But by then , the dress had become controversial . Although newspapers had initially praised the practicality of the new style , they soon turned to ridicule and condemnation , now viewing the trousers as a usurpation of the symbol of male authority . Many women retreated in the face of criticism , but Stone continued to wear the short dress exclusively for the next three years . She also wore her hair short , cut just below her jaw line . After Stone lectured in New York City in April 1853 , the report of her speeches in the Illustrated News was accompanied by this engraving of Stone in the Bloomer dress .
Stone found the short skirt convenient during her travels and defended it against those who said it was a distraction that hurt the women ’ s rights cause . Nevertheless , she disliked the instant attention it drew whenever she arrived in a new place . In the fall of 1854 , she added a dress a few inches longer , for occasional use . In 1855 , she abandoned the dress altogether and was not involved in the formation of a National Dress Reform Association in February , 1856 . Her resumption of long skirts drew the condemnation of such dress @-@ reform leaders as Gerrit Smith and Lydia Sayer Hasbrouk , who accused her of sacrificing principle for the sake of pleasing a husband .
= = = Western tour = = =
On October 14 , 1853 , following the National Woman 's Rights Convention held in Cleveland , Ohio , Stone and Lucretia Mott addressed Cincinnati ’ s first women ’ s rights meeting , arranged by Henry Blackwell , a local businessman from a family of capable women , who had taken an interest in Stone . After that successful meeting , Stone accepted Blackwell 's offer to arrange a lecturing tour for her in the western states – considered then to be those west of Pennsylvania and Virginia . Over the following thirteen weeks , Stone gave over forty lectures in thirteen cities , during which a report to the New York Tribune said she was stirring the West on women ’ s rights “ as it is seldom stirred on any subject whatsoever . ” After four lectures in Louisville , Stone was begged to repeat the entire course and told she was having more effect there than she could have anywhere else . An Indianapolis newspaper reported that Stone “ set about two @-@ thirds of the women in the town crazy after women ’ s rights and placed half the men in a similar predicament . ” St. Louis papers said her lectures attracted the largest crowds ever assembled there , filling the city ’ s largest auditorium beyond its capacity of two thousand . Chicago papers praised her lectures as the best of the season , and said they were inspiring discussion and debate in the city ’ s homes and meeting places . When Stone headed home in January 1854 , she left behind incalculable influence .
From 1854 through 1858 , Stone lectured on women ’ s rights in Massachusetts , Maine , New Hampshire , Vermont , Connecticut , Rhode Island , New York , Pennsylvania , Delaware , New Jersey , Washington , D.C. , Ohio , Indiana , Illinois , Michigan , Wisconsin , and Ontario . Elizabeth Cady Stanton would later write that " Lucy Stone was the first speaker who really stirred the nation 's heart on the subject of woman 's wrongs . "
= = Petitioning and hearings = =
In addition to being the women ’ s rights movement ’ s most prominent spokesperson , Lucy Stone led the movement ’ s petitioning efforts . She initiated petition efforts in New England and several other states and assisted the petitioning efforts of state and local organizations in New York , Ohio , and Indiana .
= = = Massachusetts = = =
After petitioning the Massachusetts legislature for the right of women to vote and serve in public office from 1849 through 1852 , Stone aimed her 1853 petitions at the convention that would meet on May 4 , 1853 , to revise the state constitution . Wendell Phillips drafted both the petition asking that the word “ male ” be stricken wherever it appeared in the constitution , and an appeal urging Massachusetts citizens to sign it . After canvassing the state for nine months , Stone sent the convention petitions bearing over five thousand signatures . On May 27 , 1853 , Stone and Phillips addressed the convention ’ s Committee on Qualifications of Voters . In reporting Stone ’ s hearing , the Liberator noted : “ Never before , since the world was made , in any country , has woman publicly made her demand in the hall of legislation to be represented in her own person , and to have an equal part in framing the laws and determining the action of government . ”
= = = Multi @-@ state campaigns = = =
Stone called a New England Woman ’ s Rights Convention in Boston on June 2 , 1854 , to expand her petitioning efforts . The convention adopted her resolution for petitioning all six New England legislatures as well as her proposed form of petition , and it appointed a committee in each state to organize the work . In a speech before the second New England Woman ’ s Rights Convention , held in June 1855 , Stone urged that one reason women needed suffrage was to protect any gains achieved , reminding them that “ the next Legislature may undo all that the last have done for women . ” The convention adopted a resolution calling the ballot “ woman ’ s sword and shield ; the means of achieving and protecting all other civil rights ” and another urging the national convention to make suffrage petitioning its priority .
The next National Woman ’ s Rights Convention met in Cincinnati on October 17 and 18 , 1855 . It was here that Stone delivered impromptu remarks that became famous as her " disappointment " speech . When a heckler interrupted the proceedings , calling female speakers " a few disappointed women , " Stone retorted that yes , she was indeed a " disappointed woman . " " In education , in marriage , in religion , in everything , disappointment is the lot of woman . It shall be the business of my life to deepen this disappointment in every woman 's heart until she bows down to it no longer . The convention adopted Stone ’ s resolution calling for the circulation of petitions and saying it was “ the duty of women in their respective States to ask the legislators for the elective franchise . ” Following the convention , suffrage petitioning took place in the New England states , New York , Ohio , Indiana , Illinois , Michigan , Wisconsin , and Nebraska , with resultant legislative hearings or action in Nebraska and Wisconsin . Amelia Bloomer , recently moved to Iowa near the Nebraska border , took up the work in that area , while the Indiana Woman ’ s Rights Society , at least one of whose officers was at the Cincinnati convention , directed the work in Indiana . Stone had helped launch the New York campaign at a state woman ’ s rights convention in Saratoga Springs in August , and at the Cleveland convention recruited workers for it as well as for the work in Illinois , Michigan , and Ohio . Stone took charge of the work in Ohio , her new home state , drafting its petition , placing it in Ohio newspapers , and circulating it during lectures across southern Ohio while her recruit worked in the northern part of the state . Stone also lectured in Illinois and Indiana in support of the petition drives there , and personally introduced the work in Wisconsin , where she found volunteers to circulate the petition and legislators to introduce them in both houses of the legislature .
At the national convention of 1856 , Stone presented a new strategy suggested by Antoinette Brown Blackwell to send a memorial to the various state legislatures signed by the officers of the National Woman ’ s Rights Convention . Antoinette Brown had married Samuel Charles Blackwell on January 24 , 1856 , becoming Stone 's sister @-@ in @-@ law in the process . Stone , Brown Blackwell , and Ernestine Rose were appointed a committee to carry out the plan . Stone drafted and printed the appeal and Brown Blackwell mailed it to twenty @-@ five state legislatures . Indiana and Pennsylvania referred the memorial to select committees , while both Massachusetts and Maine granted hearings . On March 6 , 1857 , Stone , Wendell Phillips , and James Freeman Clarke addressed the Judiciary Committee of the Massachusetts senate , and on March 10 Stone and Phillips addressed a select committee of the Maine legislature .
= = Marriage = =
Henry Blackwell began a two @-@ year courtship of Stone in the summer of 1853 . Stone told him she did not wish to marry because she did not want to surrender control over her life and would not assume the legal position occupied by a married woman . Blackwell maintained that despite the law , couples could create a marriage of equal partnership , governed by their mutual agreement . They could also take steps to protect the wife against unjust laws , such as placing her assets in the hands of a trustee . He also believed that marriage would allow each partner to accomplish more than he or she could alone , and to show how he could help advance Stone ’ s work , he arranged her highly successful western lecturing tour of 1853 . Over an eighteen @-@ month courtship conducted primarily through correspondence , Stone and Blackwell discussed the nature of marriage , actual and ideal , as well as their own natures and suitability for marriage . Stone gradually fell in love and in November 1854 agreed to marry Blackwell .
Stone and Blackwell developed a private agreement aimed at preserving and protecting Stone ’ s financial independence and personal liberty . In monetary matters , they agreed that the marriage be like a business partnership , with the partners being “ joint proprietors of everything except the results of previous labors . ” Neither would have claim to lands belonging to the other , nor any obligation for the other ’ s costs of holding them . While married and living together they would share earnings , but if they should separate , they would relinquish claim to the other ’ s subsequent earnings . Each would have the right to will their property to whomever they pleased unless they had children . Over Blackwell ’ s objections , Stone refused to be supported and insisted on paying half of their mutual expenses . In addition to financial independence , Stone and Blackwell agreed that each would enjoy personal independence and autonomy : “ Neither partner shall attempt to fix the residence , employment , or habits of the other , nor shall either partner feel bound to live together any longer than is agreeable to both . ” During their discussion of marriage , Stone had given Blackwell a copy of Henry C. Wright ’ s book Marriage and Parentage ; Or , The Reproductive Element in Man , as a Means to His Elevation and Happiness , and asked him to accept its principles as what she considered the relationship between husband and wife should be . Wright proposed that because women bore the results of sexual intercourse , wives should govern a couple ’ s marital relations . In accordance with that view , Blackwell agreed that Stone would choose “ when , where and how often ” she would “ become a mother . ” In addition to this private agreement , Blackwell drew up a protest of laws , rules , and customs that conferred superior rights on husbands and , as part of the wedding ceremony , pledged never to avail himself of those laws .
The wedding took place at Stone ’ s home in West Brookfield , Massachusetts , on May 1 , 1855 , with Stone ’ s close friend and co @-@ worker Thomas Wentworth Higginson officiating . Higginson sent a copy of Stone and Blackwell ’ s Protest to the Worcester Spy , and from there it spread across the country . While some commentators viewed it as a protest against marriage itself , others agreed that no woman should resign her legal existence without such formal protest against the despotism that forced her to forgo marriage and motherhood or submit to the degradation in which law placed a married woman . It inspired other couples to make similar protests part of their wedding ceremonies .
= = = Keeping her name = = =
Stone viewed the tradition of wives abandoning their own surname to assume that of their husbands as a manifestation of the legal annihilation of a married woman ’ s identity . Immediately after her marriage , with the agreement of her husband , she continued to sign correspondence as “ Lucy Stone ” or “ Lucy Stone – only . ” But during the summer , Blackwell tried to register the deed for property Stone purchased in Wisconsin , and the registrar insisted she sign it as “ Lucy Stone Blackwell . ” The couple consulted Blackwell ’ s friend , Salmon P. Chase , a Cincinnati lawyer and future Chief Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court , who was not immediately able to answer their question about the legality of her name . So while continuing to sign her name as Lucy Stone in private correspondence , for eight months she signed her name as Lucy Stone Blackwell on public documents and allowed herself to be so identified in convention proceedings and newspaper reports . But upon receiving assurance from Chase that no law required a married woman to change her name , Stone made a public announcement at the May 7 , 1856 , convention of the American Anti @-@ Slavery Society in Boston that her name remained Lucy Stone . In 1879 , when Boston women were granted the franchise in school elections , Stone registered to vote . But officials notified her that she would not be allowed to vote unless she added “ Blackwell ” to her signature . This she refused to do , and because her time and energy were consumed with suffrage work , she did not challenge the action in a court of law .
= = = Children = = =
Stone and Blackwell had one daughter , Alice Stone Blackwell , born September 14 , 1857 , who became a leader of the suffrage movement and wrote the first biography of her mother , Lucy Stone : Pioneer Woman Suffragist . In 1858 , while the family was living temporarily in Chicago , Stone miscarried and lost a baby boy .
= = Waning activism = =
After her marriage , from the summer of 1855 to the summer of 1857 , Stone continued a full lecturing , petitioning , and organizing schedule . In January 1856 , Stone was accused in court , and spoke in defense of a rumor put forward by the prosecution that Stone gave a knife to former slave Margaret Garner , on trial for the killing of her own child to prevent it from being enslaved . Stone was said to have slipped the prisoner the knife so that Garner could kill herself if she was forced to return to slavery . Stone was referred to by the court as " Mrs. Lucy Stone Blackwell " and was asked if she wanted to defend herself ; she preferred to address the assembly off the record after adjournment , saying " ... With my own teeth I would tear open my veins and let the earth drink my blood , rather than wear the chains of slavery . How then could I blame her for wishing her child to find freedom with God and the angels , where no chains are ? "
But the birth of her daughter in September 1857 made it impossible for her to maintain a high level of activism . Stone had made preliminary arrangements for the 1857 national convention to be held in Providence , but because she would not be able to attend it , she handed responsibility to Susan B. Anthony and Thomas Wentworth Higginson . When the Panic of 1857 disrupted Anthony ’ s plan to move the convention to Chicago , Stone made the announcement that the next National Woman ’ s Rights Convention would be in May 1858 . Anthony helped Stone arrange the 1858 convention and then took sole responsibility for the 1859 meeting , and Elizabeth Cady Stanton took charge of the 1860 convention .
Before her own marriage , Stone felt that women should be allowed to divorce drunken husbands , to formally end a " loveless marriage " so that " a true love may grow up in the soul of the injured one from the full enjoyment of which no legal bond had a right to keep her ... Whatever is pure and holy , not only has a right to be , but it has a right also to be recognized , and further , I think it has no right not to be recognized . " Stone 's friends often felt differently about the issue ; " Nettee " Brown wrote to Stone in 1853 that she was not ready to accept the idea , even if both parties wanted divorce . Stanton was less inclined to clerical orthodoxy ; she was very much in favor of giving women the right to divorce , eventually coming to the view that the reform of marriage laws was more important than women 's voting rights .
In the process of planning for women 's rights conventions , Stone worked against Stanton to remove from any proposed platform the formal advocacy of divorce . Stone wished to keep the subject separate , to prevent the appearance of moral laxity . She pushed " for the right of woman to the control of her own person as a moral , intelligent , accountable being . " Other rights were certain to fall into place after women were given control of their own bodies . Years later , Stone 's position on divorce would change .
= = = Differences with Douglass = = =
In his newspaper , Frederick Douglass printed a rebuke of Stone 's free combination of women 's rights and abolitionism , saying that she was diminishing the focus and power of the anti @-@ slavery movement . Douglass later found Stone at fault for speaking at a whites @-@ only Philadelphia lecture hall , but Stone insisted that she had replaced her planned speech that day with an appeal to the audience to boycott the facility . It took years before the two were reconciled .
= = = Tax protest = = =
In January 1858 , Stone staged a highly publicized protest that took the issue of taxation without representation across the nation . The previous summer she and Blackwell had purchased a house in Orange , New Jersey , and when the first tax bill came , Stone returned it unpaid with the explanation that taxing women while denying them the right to vote was a violation of America ’ s founding principles . On January 22 , 1858 , the city auctioned some of her household goods to pay the tax and attendant court costs . The following month , Stone and Blackwell spoke on taxation without representation before two large meetings in Orange , and circulated petitions asking the New Jersey legislature for woman suffrage . Stone ’ s protest inspired other tax @-@ paying women to action : some followed her example and refused to pay taxes , with one case reaching the Massachusetts Supreme Court in 1863 , while others went to the polls to demand their right as tax @-@ payers to vote .
= = National organizations = =
During the Civil War , Stone joined with Elizabeth Cady Stanton , Susan B. Anthony , Martha Coffin Wright , Amy Post , Antoinette Brown Blackwell , Ernestine Rose , and Angelina Grimké Weld to form the Woman 's National Loyal League in 1863 . The group held a convention in New York City , and resolved to fight for full emancipation and enfranchisement of African Americans . In 1864 , the organization gathered 400 @,@ 000 signatures to petition the United States Congress , significantly assisting in the passage of the Thirteenth Amendment abolishing slavery . Once Reconstruction began , Stone helped form the American Equal Rights Association ( AERA ) . AERA 's main goal was to achieve equal voting rights for people of either gender and any race .
During the May , 1869 AERA conference , a division arose between the great majority of participants such as Stone who wanted to voice support for the proposed fifteenth amendment which would grant suffrage to African @-@ American men , and a vocal minority who opposed any amendment to voting rights which would not provide universal suffrage . The conflict led to the adoption of a muted resolution in favor of the fifteenth amendment , one which expressed disappointment that Congress had not offered the same privilege to women . The AERA could not hold together from the internal strife between these two positions . Heading the minority , Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony formed the female @-@ only National Woman Suffrage Association ( NWSA ) to focus on women gaining voting rights . In Cleveland on November 24 , Stone , along with her husband and Julia Ward Howe , founded the more moderate American Woman Suffrage Association ( AWSA ) , that admitted both men and women . The goals of AWSA were to get the fifteenth amendment passed after which the effort would be redoubled to win women the vote . Beyond membership and the timing of women 's suffrage , the groups differed only on minor points of policy .
= = = Divorce and " free love " = = =
In 1870 , at the twentieth anniversary celebration of the first National Women 's Rights Convention in Worcester , Stanton spoke for three hours rallying the crowd for women 's right to divorce . By then , Stone 's position on the matter had shifted significantly . Personal differences between Stone and Stanton came to the fore on the issue , with Stone writing " We believe in marriage for life , and deprecate all this loose , pestiferous talk in favor of easy divorce . " Stone made it clear that those wishing for " free divorce " were not associated with Stone 's organization AWSA , headed at that time by Reverend Henry Ward Beecher . Stone wrote against ' free love : ' " Be not deceived — free love means free lust . "
This editorial position would come back to haunt Stone . Also in 1870 , Elizabeth Roberts Tilton told her husband Theodore Tilton that she had been carrying on an adulterous relation with his good friend Henry Ward Beecher . Theodore Tilton published an editorial saying that Beecher " has at a most unseemly time of life been detected in improper intimacies with certain ladies of his congregation . " Tilton also informed Stanton about the alleged affair , and Stanton passed the information to Victoria Woodhull . Woodhull , a free love advocate , printed innuendo about Beecher , and began to woo Tilton , convincing him to write a book of her life story from imaginative material that she supplied . In 1871 , Stone wrote to a friend " my one wish in regard to Mrs. Woodhull is , that [ neither ] she nor her ideas , may be so much as heard of at our meeting . " Woodhull 's self @-@ serving activities were attracting disapproval from both centrist AWSA and radical NWSA . To divert criticism from herself , Woodhull published a denunciation of Beecher in 1872 saying that he practiced free love in private while speaking out against it from the pulpit . This caused a sensation in the press , and resulted in an inconclusive legal suit and a subsequent formal inquiry lasting well into 1875 . The furor over adultery and the friction between various camps of women 's rights activists took focus away from legitimate political aims . Harry Blackwell wrote to Stone from Michigan where he was working toward putting woman suffrage into the state constitution , saying " This Beecher @-@ Tilton affair is playing the deuce with [ woman suffrage ] in Michigan . No chance of success this year I fancy . "
= = Voting rights = =
Stone and Blackwell moved to Pope 's Hill in Dorchester , Massachusetts in 1870 , relocating from New Jersey to organize the New England Woman Suffrage Association . Many of the town 's women had been active in the Dorchester Female Anti @-@ Slavery Society and , by 1870 , a number of local women were suffragists . At the same time , Stone founded the Woman 's Journal , a Boston publication voicing the concerns of the AWSA . Stone continued to edit the journal for the rest of her life , assisted by her husband and their daughter .
= = = " The Colorado Lesson " = = =
In 1877 , Stone was asked by Rachel Foster Avery to come assist Colorado activists in the organization of a popular referendum campaign with the aim of gaining suffrage for Coloradan women . Together , Stone and Blackwell worked the northern half of the state in late summer , while Susan Anthony traveled the less @-@ promising rough @-@ and @-@ tumble southern half . Patchwork and scattered support was reported by activists , with some areas more receptive . Latino voters proved largely uninterested in voting reform ; some of that resistance was blamed on the extreme opposition to the measure voiced by the Roman Catholic bishop of Colorado . All but a handful of politicians in Colorado ignored the measure , or actively fought it . Stone concentrated on convincing Denver voters during the October ballot , but the measure lost heavily , with 68 % voting against it . Married working men showed the greatest support , and young single men the least . Blackwell called it " The Colorado Lesson " , writing that " Woman suffrage can never be carried by a popular vote , without a political party behind it . "
= = = School board vote = = =
In 1879 , after Stone organized a petition by suffragists across the state , Massachusetts women were given strictly delimited voting rights : a woman who could prove the same qualifications as a male voter was allowed to cast her vote for members of the school board . Stone applied to the voting board in Boston but was required to sign her husband 's surname as her own . She refused , and never participated in that vote .
= = Reconciliation = =
In 1887 , eighteen years after the rift formed in the American women 's rights movement , Stone proposed a merger of the two groups . Plans were drawn up , and , at their annual meetings , propositions were heard and voted on , then passed to the other group for evaluation . By 1890 , the organizations resolved their differences and merged to form the National American Woman Suffrage Association ( NAWSA ) . Stone was too weak with heart problems and respiratory illness to attend its first convention , but was elected to chair the executive committee .
Starting early in January , 1891 , Carrie Chapman Catt visited Stone repeatedly at Pope 's Hill , for the purpose of learning from Stone about the ways of political organizing . Stone had previously met Catt at an Iowa state woman 's suffrage convention in October , 1889 , and had been impressed at her ambition and sense of presence , saying " Mrs. Chapman will be heard from yet in this movement . " Stone mentored Catt the rest of that winter , giving her a wealth of information about lobbying techniques and fund @-@ raising . Catt later used the teaching to good effect in leading the final drive to gain women the vote in 1920 .
Catt , Stone and Blackwell went together to the January , 1892 NAWSA convention in Washington , DC . Along with Isabella Beecher Hooker , Stone , Stanton and Anthony , the " triumvirate " of women 's suffrage , were called away from the convention 's opening hours by an unexpected woman suffrage hearing before the United States House Committee on the Judiciary . Stone told the assembled congressmen " I come before this committee with the sense which I always feel , that we are handicapped as women in what we try to do for ourselves by the single fact that we have no vote . This cheapens us . You do not care so much for us as if we had votes ... " Stone argued that men should work to pass laws for equality in property rights between the sexes . Stone demanded an eradication of coverture , the folding of a wife 's property into that of her husband . Stone 's impromptu speech paled in comparison to Stanton 's brilliant outpouring which preceded hers . Stone later published Stanton 's speech in its entirety in the Woman 's Journal as " Solitude of Self " . Back at the NAWSA convention , Anthony was elected president , with Stanton and Stone becoming honorary presidents .
= = Final appearance = =
In 1892 , Stone was convinced to sit for a portrait in sculpture , rendered by Anne Whitney , sculptor and poet . Stone had previously protested the proposed portrait for more than a year , saying that the funds to engage an artist would be better spent on suffrage work . Stone finally yielded to pressure from Frances Willard , the New England Women 's Club and some of her friends and neighbors in the Boston area , and sat while Whitney produced a bust . In February 1893 , Stone invited her brother Frank and his wife Sarah to come see the bust , before it was shipped to Chicago for display at the upcoming World 's Columbian Exposition .
Stone went with her daughter to Chicago in May , 1893 and gave her last public speeches at the World 's Congress of Representative Women where she saw a strong international involvement in women 's congresses , with almost 500 women from 27 countries speaking at 81 meetings , and attendance topping 150 @,@ 000 at the week @-@ long event . Stone 's immediate focus was on state referenda under consideration in New York and Nebraska . Stone presented a speech she had prepared entitled " The Progress of Fifty Years " wherein she described the milestones of change , and said " I think , with never @-@ ending gratitude , that the young women of today do not and can never know at what price their right to free speech and to speak at all in public has been earned . " Stone met with Carrie Chapman Catt and Abigail Scott Duniway to form a plan for organizing in Colorado , and Stone attended two days of meetings about getting a woman suffrage drive restarted in Kansas . Stone and her daughter returned home to Pope 's Hill on May 28 .
Those who knew Stone well thought her voice was lacking strength . In August when she and her husband Harry wanted to take part in more meetings at the Exposition , she was too weak to go . Stone was diagnosed as suffering from advanced stomach cancer in September . She wrote final letters to friends and relatives . Having " prepared for death with serenity and an unwavering concern for the women 's cause , " Lucy Stone died on October 18 , 1893 , at the age of 75 . At her funeral three days later , 1 @,@ 100 people crowded the church , and hundreds more stood silently outside . Six women and six men served as pallbearers , including sculptor Anne Whitney , and Stone 's old abolitionist friends Thomas Wentworth Higginson and Samuel Joseph May . Mourners lined the streets for a sight of the funeral procession , and front @-@ page banner headlines ran in news accounts . Stone 's death was the most widely reported of any American woman 's up to that time .
According to her wishes , her body was cremated , making her the first person cremated in Massachusetts , though a wait of over two months was undertaken while the crematorium at Forest Hills Cemetery could be completed . Stone 's remains are inurned at Forest Hills ; a chapel there is named after her .
= = Legacy = =
Lucy Stone 's refusal to take her husband 's name , as an assertion of her own rights , was controversial then , and is largely what she is remembered for today . Women who continue to use their birth name after marriage are still occasionally known as " Lucy Stoners " in the United States . In 1921 , the Lucy Stone League was founded in New York City by Ruth Hale , described in 1924 by Time as the " ' Lucy Stone ' -spouse " of Heywood Broun . The League was re @-@ instituted in 1997 .
Susan B. Anthony , Elizabeth Cady Stanton , Matilda Joslyn Gage and Ida Husted Harper began in 1876 to write the History of Woman Suffrage . They planned for one volume but finished four before the death of Anthony in 1906 , and two more afterward . The first three volumes chronicled the beginnings of the women 's rights movement , including the years that Stone was active . Because of differences between Stone and Stanton that had been highlighted in the schism between NWSA and AWSA , Stone 's place in history was marginalized in the work . The text was used as the standard scholarly resource on 19th @-@ century American feminism for much of the 20th century , causing Stone 's extensive contribution to be overlooked in many histories of women 's causes .
On August 13 , 1968 , the 150th anniversary of her birth , the U.S. Postal Service honored Stone with a 50 ¢ postage stamp in the Prominent Americans series . The image was adapted from a photograph included in Alice Stone Blackwell 's biography of Stone .
Until 1999 , the Massachusetts State House displayed only portraits of influential male leaders of the state of Massachusetts . That year , a project called " Hear Us " , initiated by the state legislature , came to fruition : the portraits of six female leaders were mounted in the historic building . Lucy Stone was among the women so honored .
In 2000 , Amy Ray of the Indigo Girls included a song entitled Lucystoners on her first solo recording , Stag .
An administration and classroom building on Livingston Campus at Rutgers University in New Jersey is named for Lucy Stone . Warren , Massachusetts contains a Lucy Stone Park , along the Quaboag River . Anne Whitney 's 1893 bust of Lucy Stone is on display in Boston 's Faneuil Hall building .
She is featured on the Boston Women 's Heritage Trail .
= = Home = =
The Lucy Stone Home Site is owned and managed by The Trustees of Reservations , a non @-@ profit land conservation and historic preservation organization dedicated to preserving natural and historic places in the Commonwealth of Massachusetts . The site includes 61 acres of forested land on the side of Coys Hill in West Brookfield , Massachusetts . Although the farmhouse in which Stone was born and married burned to the ground in 1950 , its ruins are at the center of the property . At the time of Stone ’ s wedding , both her parents and a married brother and his family lived in the two @-@ and @-@ one @-@ half @-@ story house , and family descendants continued to live there until 1936 . In 1915 , a pilgrimage of suffragists placed a memorial tablet on the house , which read : “ This house was the birthplace of Lucy Stone , pioneer advocate of equal rights for women . Born August 13 , 1818 . Married May 1 , 1855 , died October 18 , 1893 . In grateful memory Massachusetts suffragists placed this tablet August 13 , 1915 . ” That tablet , severely damaged but surviving the 1950 fire , is now in the Quaboag Historical Society Museum . After the fire , the surrounding farmland was abandoned and left to revert to forest , and it is now used for hunting and harvesting timber . The Trustees acquired the home site in 2002 and have been maintaining the property ever since .
= Italian cruiser Etruria =
Etruria was a protected cruiser of the Italian Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) built in the 1891 by Cantiere navale fratelli Orlando ivorno . She was the third of six vessels of the Regioni class , all of which were named for current , or in the case of Etruria , former regions of Italy . The ship was equipped with a main armament of four 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) and six 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) guns , and she could steam at a speed of 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) .
Etruria spent her early career with the main fleet in the Mediterranean Sea . In the early 1900s , she spent much of her time in North and South American waters ; she visited the United States for the Jamestown Exposition and the Hudson @-@ Fulton Celebration in 1907 and 1909 . The ship took part in the Italo @-@ Turkish War of 1911 – 12 , primarily by providing gunfire support to Italian troops in North Africa .
Reduced to a training ship by World War I , Etruria was deliberately sunk by the Regia Marina in Livorno to convince Austria @-@ Hungary that its espionage network had not been compromised by double agents .
= = Design = =
Etruria was 84 @.@ 8 meters ( 278 ft ) long overall , had a beam of 12 @.@ 03 m ( 39 @.@ 5 ft ) and a draft of 4 @.@ 87 m ( 16 @.@ 0 ft ) . She displaced up to 3 @,@ 110 metric tons ( 3 @,@ 060 long tons ; 3 @,@ 430 short tons ) at full load . Her propulsion system consisted of a pair of horizontal triple @-@ expansion engines , with steam supplied by four cylindrical water @-@ tube boilers . On her speed trials , she reached a maximum of 18 @.@ 3 knots ( 33 @.@ 9 km / h ; 21 @.@ 1 mph ) at 7 @,@ 018 indicated horsepower ( 5 @,@ 233 kW ) . The ship had a cruising radius of about 2 @,@ 100 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 900 km ; 2 @,@ 400 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . She had a crew of between 213 @-@ 78 .
Etruria was armed with a main battery of four 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) L / 40 guns mounted singly , with two side by side forward and two side by side aft . Six 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) L / 40 guns were placed between them , with three on each broadside . Light armament included eight 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) guns two 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) guns , and a pair of machine guns . She was also equipped with two 45 cm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes . Etruria was protected by a 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick deck , and her conning tower had 50 mm thick sides .
= = Service history = =
Etruria was laid down at the Odero @-@ Terni @-@ Orlando shipyard in Livorno on 1 April 1889 . Shortages of funding slowed the completion Etruria and her sister ships . Tight budgets forced the navy to reduce the pace of construction so that the funds could be used to keep the active fleet in service . As a result , it took two years to complete her hull , which was launched on 23 April 1891 . Fitting @-@ out work proceeded even more slowly ; she was not ready for commissioning until 11 July 1894 . Following her commissioning , Etruria was assigned to the Second Division of the Italian fleet in October 1894 , along with the ironclad battleships Francesco Morosini , two cruisers and six torpedo boats . In 1895 , she the other ships were replaced by the ironclads Sardegna and Ruggiero di Lauria and the torpedo cruiser Partenope . On 20 June 1895 , Etruria and a fleet that included the battleships Sardegna , Re Umberto , Andrea Doria , and Ruggiero di Lauria , visited Germany for the ceremony of the opening of the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal . Contingents from Britain , France , Russia , Spain , and several other countries joined the celebration .
In April 1907 , Etruria and the armored cruiser Varese crossed the Atlantic to represent Italy during the Jamestown Exposition , the commemoration of the 300th anniversary of the Jamestown colony , the first permanent English settlement in the Americas . In addition to the Austro @-@ Hungarian delegation , the international fleet consisted of warships from Great Britain , Japan , Germany , Austria @-@ Hungary , and several other nations . Etruria returned to the United States in September 1909 for the Hudson @-@ Fulton Celebration in New York City , which also included ships from the German , British , and French fleets , among others , in addition to the hosting US Navy . On this occasion , she was joined by the training cruiser Etna .
Etruria also represented Italy at the commemoration of Peruvian pilot Jorge Chávez on 27 October 1910 , who had been killed in a crash attempting to cross the Alps from France to Italy a month before . The French cruiser Montcalm joined Etruria for the event . The ship made another visit to the United States in March 1911 , this time in San Francisco . Her visit coincided with the 50th anniversary of the proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy on 17 March ; Etruria fired a 21 @-@ gun salute in honor of the anniversary , which was returned by the US Navy training facility in the harbor .
On 29 September 1911 , Italy declared war on the Ottoman Empire in order to seize Libya . At the time , Etruria was still in American waters , but she was quickly recalled . On 18 October , she joined the escort for a troop convoy headed to Benghazi . The convoy was heavily protected against a possible Ottoman attack : the escort comprised the four Regina Elena @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleships , her sister Liguria and another cruiser , and five destroyers . The Italian fleet bombarded the city the next morning after the Ottoman garrison refused to surrender . During the bombardment , parties from the ships and the infantry from the troopships went ashore . The Italians quickly forced the Ottomans to withdraw into the city by evening . After a short siege , the Ottoman forces withdrew on 29 October , leaving the city to the Italians .
By December , Etruria had been moved to Tobruk , where she provided gunfire support to the Italians defending the city . She was joined there by Etna and twelve torpedo boats . In the meantime , most of the fleet had returned to Italy for refitting . In January 1912 , Etruria was moved back to Benghazi . For the next six months she remained here , supporting the garrison against Ottoman counter @-@ attacks . The ship repeatedly shelled the Ottoman camps outside the city . On 15 October , the Ottomans surrendered , ending the war .
Etruria was stationed in Libya as part of the local defense force , which included the old ironclad battleships Lepanto and Enrico Dandolo , along with several smaller vessels . By the outbreak of World War I , the ship had been reduced to a training cruiser . The Italian Navy deliberately blew up Etruria in Livorno on 13 August 1918 , ostensibly as an act of sabotage by Austro @-@ Hungarian agents in Italy . The purported agents had in fact been coopted as double agents , and the destruction of Etruria was meant to strengthen Austro @-@ Hungarian confidence in their espionage network .
= Battle of Kham Duc =
The Battle of Kham Duc was a major battle of the Vietnam War ( also known , in Vietnam , as the " American War " ) . The event occurred in Khâm Đức , now district capital of Phước Sơn District , then in Quảng Tín Province ( now part of Quảng Nam Province , South Vietnam ) , between 10 – 12 May 1968 . During the Tet Offensive of 1968 , the Vietnam People 's Army ( PAVN ) 2nd Division tried to capture Đà Nẵng but their attacks were quickly blunted by elements of the U.S. 1st Marine Division , the Americal Division , and the Korean Brigade that were guarding the city . North Vietnamese General Chu Huy Mân decided to disengage from the fight in the outskirts of the city , and pull the 2nd Division into the mountains where they could rest , rebuild , and prepare for the next major operation . Khâm Đức , a small district in the north of Quảng Tín , was chosen as the next target for the PAVN 2nd Division . Following the defeat of the North Vietnamese in Đà Nẵng , U.S. military intelligence agencies in I Corps Tactical Zone were confused by the movements of the North Vietnamese 2nd Division , because they could not track down the mysterious enemy unit .
During March and April , U.S. military intelligence began to detect elements of the PAVN 2nd Division moving towards Khâm Đức , but their opponent 's true intentions were largely unknown . In response to what could be a major attack , General William Westmoreland decided to build up the defenses of the Khâm Đức Special Forces , by sending in U.S. Army engineers to upgrade the local airstrip for sustained use by large transport aircraft , as well as airlifting weapons and ammunition for the U.S.-led Detachment A @-@ 105 . Australian @-@ led 11th Mobile Strike Force ( MSF ) Company was ordered to take up positions in Ngok Tavak ( Ngok Ta Vak ) , an outpost serving Khâm Đức , to boost allied intelligence @-@ gathering capabilities in the area . However , unbeknownst to the United States and other allied forces , the Viet Cong ( VC ) 1st Regiment had been watching the build @-@ up around Khâm Đức for some time , and were preparing to initiate the assault by taking out Ngok Tavak .
In the early hours of 10 May , elements of the VC 1st Regiment attacked Ngok Tavak , and they successfully overran much of the outpost . By dawn , the 11th MSF Company was devastated , but they later received reinforcements which came in the form of the 12th Mobile Strike Force Company . Despite having received assurances that further reinforcements would arrive to relieve the outpost , the commander of the 11th MSF Company decided to evacuate his troops and move towards Khâm Đức . By that time , however , the VC 1st Regiment had already turned their attention to the main target at Khâm Đức , and they only left behind some local force units to destroy allied reinforcements . Meanwhile , elements of the Americal Division had been airlifted into Khâm Đức as part of Operation Golden Valley , to bolster the strength of the Special Forces Camp there . On the morning of 11 May , the North Vietnamese 2nd Division surrounded Khâm Đức , and they gradually forced United States @-@ led forces into their bases after several outposts were overrun . Westmoreland then ordered Khâm Đức to be evacuated , so the 834th Air Division was told to make an all @-@ out effort to extract all the people in Khâm Đức , both military and civilian . By the time the evacuation was completed , nine U.S. military aircraft had been shot down , including two C @-@ 130s . On 12 May , the North Vietnamese were in complete control of Khâm Đức .
= = Background = =
1968 marked a decisive turning point in the history of the Vietnam War . Towards the end of January , regular units of the Vietnam People 's Army and the Viet Cong ( VC ) initiated large @-@ scale attacks on Saigon and all 34 provincial cities of South Vietnam . Several major towns , villages , and allied military installations throughout the country were also attacked during the same period . In doing so , the North Vietnamese and their southern VC allies violated the Tết holiday truce , which had enabled South Vietnamese military personnel to go on leave . Subsequently , the combined PAVN forces were able to achieve the element of surprise , and quickly gain ground in various parts of the country . Despite early victories , the PAVN could only sustain their offensive for several weeks , or a few months in parts of South Vietnam where they were closest to their bases in Cambodia and Laos . Ultimately , North Vietnamese and VC units were gradually driven out from Saigon and the provincial cities .
In I Corps Tactical Zone , the North Vietnamese military had mixed successes against allied military forces . On 7 February 1968 , a North Vietnamese infantry contingent armed with satchel charges , tear gas , and flamethrowers , and reinforced with Soviet @-@ made PT @-@ 76 amphibious tanks , successfully breached the wires of the Lang Vei Special Forces Camp . The combined American , South Vietnamese , and indigenous Civilian Irregular Defense Group ( CIDG ) personnel absorbed more than 300 casualties while trying to hold their positions . During the battle Lieutenant Colonel Daniel F. Shungel – Commander of Company C , 5th Special Forces Group – had to fight his way out of the camp in order to escape the North Vietnamese attack , until rescued by a relief task force led by Major George Quamo . At Khe Sanh , located about 7 kilometers ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) east of Lang Vei , the U.S. 26th Marine Regiment was able to hold their ground against a multi @-@ division North Vietnamese assault . During the siege U.S. Air Force , Navy , and Marine fighter @-@ bombers dropped 40 @,@ 000 tonnes of bombs on North Vietnamese positions , while B @-@ 52 bombers unleashed more than 60 @,@ 000 tonnes of ordnance on areas where the North Vietnamese were believed to have concentrated their forces .
In the same period , the PAVN 2nd Division under the command of General Giáp Văn Cương clashed with elements of the Americal Division , the U.S. 1st Marine Division , and the South Korean Brigade in their attempts to capture Đà Nẵng . However , due to mixed up signals between the PAVN 2nd Division and other VC units the North Vietnamese were defeated . After 9 February , the PAVN 2nd Division seemed to be withdrawing from the battlefield , so Lieutenant General Robert E. Cushman , Jr . Commander of III Marine Amphibious Force ordered his troops to continue their attacks on the retreating forces . In the aftermath of the battle for Đà Nẵng , U.S. military commanders in I Corps held different views on the fighting ability of the PAVN 2nd Division . Major @-@ General Samuel W. Koster claimed losses sustained by the PAVN 2nd Division had " impaired its future effectiveness " , after his units allegedly killed more than 1 @,@ 000 enemy soldiers in the month of January alone . In contrast , Major @-@ General Donn J. Robertson told his superiors that the 2nd Division may have several uncommitted units they could deploy for future operations , which was a threat to the remaining South Vietnamese units and a U.S. Marine battalion in the region that had sustained significant losses of their own .
Whether the PAVN 2nd Division had been rendered ineffective or not was uncertain , as U.S. military intelligence did not know the whereabouts of the enemy unit or their intentions . Since January 1968 , the North Vietnamese had been fighting continuously with U.S. and other allied military forces in I Corps , so their resupply capabilities were overstretched , and their soldiers were not given the opportunity to rest before the Tet Offensive . Thus , following the failed attack on Đà Nẵng , North Vietnamese General Chu Huy Mân , Commander of Military Region 5 , made the decision to pull the 2nd Division into the mountains where they could rest , resupply , and integrate their replacement manpower before going on the offensive again . Mân ordered Cương to split the 2nd Division into two fighting arms ; one regiment would tie down the Americans in the Que Son Valley , while the rest of the division would withdraw to their base areas near Laos , to link up with the 70th Transport Regiment . Then , their next target would be Khâm Đức and the surrounding areas ; Mân told his senior officers that they would attack Khâm Đức to force an American retreat .
Khâm Đức was situated in the northern section of Quảng Tín Province , South Vietnam , in I Corps Tactical Zone . It sat beside National Highway 14 , which paralleled the international border with Laos , and it was surrounded by high mountains on all sides . The Special Forces Camp was named after the main village which was located about 800 meters ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) to the northeast , and was constructed about mid @-@ way along a 6 @,@ 000 @-@ foot asphalt runway . Before his assassination , President Ngô Đình Diệm had used Khâm Đức as a hunting lodge , so an airfield was constructed there for Diệm 's use . The Khâm Đức Special Forces Camp was under the responsibility of Detachment A @-@ 105 , United States Army 5th Special Forces Group ; the camp functioned as a training centre for CIDG personnel , reconnaissance of enemy movements , and combat operations . The village had 272 inhabitants , most of whom were dependents of the South Vietnamese and Montagnard CIDG soldiers . Ngok Tavak , located about 7 kilometers ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) southwest of Khâm Đức , was an observation outpost for Detachment A @-@ 105 . Following the loss of Lang Vei , Khâm Đức was the last remaining Special Forces camp adjacent to the Ho Chi Minh Trail in I Corps . In May 1968 , both Ngok Tavak and Khâm Đức were overrun by PAVN forces and American , Australian and South Vietnamese forces had to retreat after being defeated .
= = Prelude = =
From their base area positioned between Highway 14 and the Đăk Mi river , elements of the PAVN 2nd Division were planning for their attack on Khâm Đức and the surrounding outposts . The VC 's 1st " Ba Gia " Regiment – commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Nguyễn Văn Trí – was given the task of initiating the attack , including sweeping aside the small outpost of Ngok Tavak ( Ngok Ta Vak ) . However , before the plan of attack was finalized , the VC remained hidden as to avoid detection by the South Vietnamese and their American allies . Consequently , during that period the GK.31 Anti @-@ Aircraft Battalion was prohibited from opening fire on U.S. reconnaissance aircraft that flew over their area . At the same time , the GK.40 Engineer Battalion was told to conduct training on their new equipment , such as satchel charges , tear gas , and flamethrowers , before the deadline of early May 1968 . The VC 1st Regiment Headquarters also made their preparations for the initial attack , by regularly sending out Local Force Montagnard units to conduct reconnaissance patrols around Ngok Tavak in order to observe enemy activities in the area .
Throughout March and April , allied intelligence was baffled by the movements of the units belonging to the North Vietnamese 2nd Division , and that was reflected in the information obtained by U.S. military forces . For example , the U.S. 1st Marine Division reported that the enemy 's 2nd Division Headquarters , the 3rd Regiment , the 21st Regiment , and the VC 's 1st Regiment were within the vicinity of Khâm Đức , Thượng Đức , and Hội An , respectively . In contrast , information released by the U.S. 27th Marines Regiment showed the presence of the 3rd and 21st Regiments near Goi Noi Island , whereas the 2nd Division Headquarters was reported to be in the Que Son Valley . Despite the lack of accurate information , allied intelligence generally agreed the North Vietnamese might begin attacking isolated outposts and units as their next course of action . Subsequently , on 4 May 1968 , the Americal Division made amendments to their Golden Valley Plan , the plan for the relief and reinforcements of CIDG camps , to enable the deployment of the 1st Battalion , 46th Infantry Regiment , 196th Light Infantry Brigade to support Khâm Đức .
To counter a possible major North Vietnamese attack , the U.S. military began taking steps to reinforce Khâm Đức . Starting on 9 April , the U.S. 70th Engineer Battalion was flown in from Pleiku , about 160 kilometers ( 99 mi ) to the south , to repair and upgrade the airfield for sustained use by C @-@ 130 Hercules transport aircraft . By 8 May , the U.S. Air Force had airlifted about 400 tonnes of cargo into Khâm Đức , including two bulldozers , by a C @-@ 124 Globemaster . In addition , 33 U.S. Marines from Battery D , 2nd Battalion , 13th Marine Regiment were also deployed to support the defenders at Ngok Tavak . From 16 April , the Marines artillerymen used Khâm Đức as a staging area where they could assemble their entire detachment , which included two 105mm howitzers , ammunition , and supplies . On 4 May , 33 Marines , along with 35 @,@ 380 kilograms ( 78 @,@ 000 lb ) of equipment and supplies , were lifted into Ngok Tavak by helicopters . Meanwhile , towards the end of April , the VC 1st Regiment received orders to leave their base and take positions in the valley on the western side of Ngok Tavak , and wait there until the attack signal was given . The 40th Battalion – commanded by Major Đặng Ngọc Mai – spearheaded the assault .
The outpost of Ngok Tavak was manned by the 11th Mobile Strike Force Company since March 1968 . Earlier in the year , Company C , 5th Special Forces Group in Đà Nẵng came up with a plan to supplement the intelligence agencies in the Khâm Đức area , by deploying a Mike Force Company to operate south of the Special Forces Camp ; subsequently , the 11th MSF Company was selected for the task . The unit was led by three members of the Australian Army Training Team Vietnam ( AATTV ) : Captain John White and Warrant Officers Frank Lucas and Don Cameron . The Australian @-@ led unit included eight U.S. Special Forces and 173 South Vietnamese and Nùng CIDG soldiers , and they were joined by 33 U.S. Marines on 4 May . Since their arrival , White and his men had set up camp on top of the hill feature in Ngok Tavak . They also made improvements to the camp 's defensive perimeter , which included an old minefield left by the French . Despite their preparations , in the days leading up to the battle , the unit was plagued by a number of problems with their defense .
Even though the Marine artillerymen of the 2nd Battalion , 13th Marines Regiment were supposed to support the Ngok Tavak garrison , their arrival created significant logistical issues for Captain White . Due to the poor condition of the road that connected Ngok Tavak and Khâm Đức , where most of the ammunition was stocked , the Marines had to rely on transport aircraft to bring in ammunition supplies . However , due to high demand and scarce resources , the U.S. 1st Marine Aircraft Wing simply did not have the flexibility to provide the support required by the soldiers at Ngok Tavak . Furthermore , only 31 % of the Marines ' heavy @-@ lift aircraft was available for operations . The lack of logistical support was exemplified by the manner in which the 105mm howitzers were deployed ; when the Marines arrived at Ngok Tavak , White ordered the Marine detachment to place their howitzers on a downhill position outside the camp 's perimeter , as the hill @-@ top position was still covered by trees , making the position of the howitzers a non @-@ ideal location for security .
In an effort to bolster the strength of White 's 11th MSF Company , Shungel sent a mortar platoon of about 35 Montagnard CIDG out from Khâm Đức to reinforce the small garrison at Ngok Tavak during the last days of April . It was intended that the Montagnards would provide local security for the garrison , when the 11th MSF Company was out on patrol . Mistrust developed between White 's men and the Montagnard soldiers , because the latter was known to contain VC infiltrators . On 28 April , elements of the PAVN 2nd Division received a message which stated that ' scouts ' were ready to cause confusion and disruption in the allies ' defensive plan around Khâm Đức . The Montagnards were placed outside the camp 's perimeter , where they roamed freely inside the Marines ' area during the days before and after the arrival of the howitzers . On 9 May , the Montagnards decided to return to Khâm Đức , but shortly afterwards they turned back to Ngok Tavak , claiming they had been ambushed by an unknown enemy unit . White and his Nung soldiers were skeptical about the claim , as they believed the story about an ambush was a lie and that no real fighting had occurred . As a result , White insisted that the Montagnards stay outside his perimeter .
From early May , the VC 's 1st Regiment began to tighten its noose around the Ngok Tavak position . On 6 May , a platoon @-@ sized patrol from Ngok Tavak made contact with VC units about 1 kilometer ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) south of the garrison . On the evening of 7 May , enemy soldiers were believed to have set off trip flares , which prompted the Nung soldiers to hurl grenades at the perimeter . On 8 May , White ordered the Marines to pull their artillery guns inside the defensive perimeter , so they could better defend their position from the top of the 738 @-@ meter ( 2 @,@ 421 ft ) -high hill feature . The Marines spent the entire evening of 8 May taking the first howitzer completely apart in order to take it up the hill . That night , enemy soldiers set off trip flares and again the Nung soldiers threw grenades in response . On 9 May , Captain Chris Silva flew to Ngok Tavak to discuss the reliability of his troops with his Australian counterpart , but was prevented from returning to Khâm Đức due to poor weather . On that day , the second howitzer was dragged into the garrison , so the Nungs and Marines both guarded the perimeter of Ngok Tavak . Infantry protection was provided by the 1st and 2nd Nung platoons , which held the eastern side of the garrison , while the suspect Montagnard CIDG soldiers guarded the eastern entrance . Overlooking them were some Marines of Battery D , 2nd Battalion .
= = Battle = =
= = = The fight at Ngok Tavak = = =
In the early hours of 10 May , the VC 40th Battalion of the 1st " Ba Gia " Regiment , reinforced by Local Force Montagnard units , moved into position and made final preparations for the attack on Ngok Tavak . Special assault squads were formed to breach the camp 's perimeters , while the second squad would fan out to destroy key targets inside the garrison . White was alerted to the movements of enemy troops outside his perimeter , so he quickly organized his Nung soldiers and placed his troops on 50 % alert . The Marine detachment – commanded by Lieutenant Bob Adams – was unable to operate their howitzers due to the lack of flechette rounds , which were designed for battery defense and anti @-@ personnel fire . Shortly after 3 am , the suspect Montagnard CIDG soldiers approached the garrison from the eastern entrance , where they asked the U.S. Marine guarding the outer perimeter to let them through ; as the Montagnards entered the perimeter , satchel charges were hurled at allied positions while VC soldiers lit up the perimeters with flamethrowers , marking the first double @-@ cross of the battle .
The initial VC attack had split allied formations within the garrison ; the 1st and 2nd Platoons of the 11th MSF Company were pushed away from the eastern perimeter , while the Marines were either alone or had organized themselves into small groups of two or three , but none were in contact with each another . Meanwhile , from inside his command post , White called in air @-@ support which later came in the form of an AC @-@ 47 Spooky gunship , a modified version of the C @-@ 47 Skytrain equipped with 7.62mm General Electric miniguns for the support of ground troops . On the eastern side of the garrison , VC soldiers of the 40th Battalion continued to charge up the hill firing their AK @-@ 47 assault rifles . Simultaneously , other elements of the VC 1st Regiment probed the southern and western end of the garrison , now held by Captain White 's 1st and 3rd Platoons , to test the strength of allied defenses in that part of the garrison . By that stage , however , most Nung soldiers had retreated from their positions on the eastern end of the garrison , while the U.S. Marines were pinned down around the perimeters . By 03 : 30 , the VC had captured the Marines ' gun position . Captain White was able to maintain contact with Warrant Officers Cameron and Lucas through telephone , but they could not coordinate their forces .
Although the VC held a greater portion of the Ngok Tavak garrison , particularly on the eastern side , their attack was stalled . After the 40th Battalion had overrun the command post , they tried to advance on the landing zone where allied soldiers had set up a strong position from fortified underground bunkers , which the VC had failed to detect in their previous reconnaissance patrols . At 04 : 20 , an AC @-@ 47 gunship from the 4th Air Commando Squadron was reported to be flying over the garrison , so White directed the aircraft to fire down on VC @-@ held positions around the perimeter . After he had shouted warnings to the Marines and the Nungs , White approved the aircraft to fire on the position area of the 105mm howitzers . The arrival of the AC @-@ 47 enabled the allied forces to hold their last remaining ground , and repulse the final attack . By 05 : 30 , fighting in and around Ngok Tavak was limited to the hurling of grenades , and random fire on any movement that was believed to be that of the VC . In one of their final attempts to overcome the last allied position , the VC set off tear gas of such low density that it had little effect on most of the allied soldiers .
As events in Ngok Tavak unfolded , White sent urgent messages to Company C , 5th Special Forces Headquarters in Đà Nẵng , as well as to the Americal Division , to request support . In response , the 5th Special Forces Headquarters ordered Captain Eugene Makowski to fly to Khâm Đức , where he would assume command of the 12th Mobile Strike Force Company , to reinforce White 's beleaguered soldiers at Ngok Tavak . Then , just before sunrise , Colonel Trí ordered the 40th Battalion to pull out of Ngok Tavak in order to deal with an enemy relief force , and leave behind only a blocking force to hold the captured positions inside the garrison . Following those events , Australian Warrant Officers Cameron and Lucas mounted a counter @-@ attack using a handful of Nung soldiers in an attempt to retake captured positions . At that point , those Marines who had survived the main battle decided to join the fight , and as the Australian @-@ led formation moved through the Ngok Tavak garrison , they gradually pushed the last remaining enemy soldiers beyond the defensive perimeter .
By early morning White had expected further assaults from the VC 40th Battalion , but his opponents had moved out towards Khâm Đức with the rest of the PAVN 2nd Division . Simultaneously , the AC @-@ 47 flying overhead continued to direct fighter @-@ bombers against suspected Viet Cong positions around Ngok Tavak , but the garrison continued to receive sporadic mortar , RPG , and small @-@ arms fire . In addition to close air support missions , medivac helicopters flew in to evacuate the wounded , and U.S. aircrews reported that they did not receive fire while flying over the enemy 's area of operations . Captain Silva and Lieutenant Adams , who were both wounded during the main battle , were also evacuated . While the wounded were being flown out , the surviving elements of the 11th MSF Company and the Marines re @-@ consolidated their positions , even though cohesion had broken down between the allied soldiers as a result of the double @-@ cross that occurred earlier in the battle . At the same time , Makowski 's 12th MSF Company had departed Khâm Đức and was approaching Ngok Tavak onboard four U.S. Marine CH @-@ 46 Sea Knight helicopters .
At around 09 : 30 , the four CH @-@ 46 helicopters arrived in Ngok Tavak , and they were able to unload Makowski and about 45 soldiers of the 12th MSF Company . However , the VC demonstrated their domination of the landing zone when the first helicopter was hit with anti @-@ aircraft fire , and was forced to land on the ground , intact , though with damages to the fuel line . Moments later , the third helicopter was struck by a rocket propelled grenade as it turned around to rescue the crews of the first downed helicopter , and it was destroyed immediately . Now , with two downed helicopters blocking the landing zone , the remaining helicopters were prevented from landing on the ground , so the wounded men had to be evacuated while the helicopters were still hovering . As the last helicopter took off , two Nungs and one stranded U.S. soldier grabbed the helicopter skids to get out of Ngok Tavak , but they all fell to their deaths . Shortly after his arrival , Makowski placed the 12th MSF Company under the command of his Australian counterpart , as the situation continued to worsen .
Because his Nung soldiers were exhausted , with their ammunition and water supplies running low , White believed they could not defend the Ngok Tavak garrison in case the VC launched another major attack . At 10 : 45 , White requested permission to evacuate the garrison , but he was told to stay and wait for the arrival of reinforcements . However , both White and Makowski knew that reinforcement was unlikely , because the two downed helicopters would prevent the insertion of additional soldiers , and the road between Ngok Tavak and Khâm Đức was likely to be covered by the opposing forces waiting in ambush positions . White then decided to evacuate Ngok Tavak and withdraw his troops to safety . As part of the evacuation plan , any type of equipment that could not be taken or was considered to be of value to the opponent was dumped into the command bunker and set alight using captured enemy flamethrowers . The Marines were ordered to fire their last remaining shells , about nine rounds in total , after their ammunition storage was set ablaze by the VC , and disable their 105mm guns .
As White had expected the survivors to fight their way out of Ngok Tavak , he made the decision to leave the dead allied soldiers behind ; the decision caused distress amongst the survivors of the battle , but White believed evacuating the deceased soldiers through enemy lines would have been suicidal . After the Marines and Mobile Strike Force personnel had destroyed their unneeded equipment , they were directed to form an order @-@ of @-@ march out of Ngok Tavak , in order to protect the wounded and those with little infantry experience . Just before they left the garrison , Cameron blew up the first CH @-@ 46 helicopter that was still intact on the landing zone , using the M @-@ 72 anti @-@ tank weapon . The order @-@ of @-@ march was led by a group of Nung soldiers , who were followed by White and the survivors of the Marine artillery detachment , and behind them was another group of Nung soldiers covering the tail of the column . Together they evaded VC formations surrounding the hill feature of Ngok Tavak and marched eastward towards Khâm Đức .
About halfway between Ngok Tavak and Khâm Đức , White and the rest of the column climbed a mountain where they cleared the jungle to create a landing zone , and called for helicopters to evacuate the survivors . A flight of CH @-@ 46 Sea Knights later arrived and , in a scene that would be repeated at Khâm Đức , chaos descended on the allied formation as Nung and U.S personnel fought their way onto the helicopters . Some of the Nung soldiers had to be thrown off because the helicopters quickly reached their limit capacity ; eventually U.S. aircrews had to dump some of their equipment overboard to accommodate the last remaining Nungs on the landing zone . By 08 : 00 , the evacuation of the Ngok Tavak survivors was completed , and White immediately flew out to Đà Nẵng along with the two Australian Warrant Officers after they arrived in Khâm Đức . The fight at Ngok Tavak , though short in duration , took a heavy toll on the allied forces . An unknown number of Nung soldiers and 12 U.S. military personnel were killed , and 52 ( including two U.S. Army and 21 U.S Marines ) were wounded .
= = = Khâm Đức surrounded = = =
At 02 : 45 on 10 May , in conjunction with the ground assault on the Ngok Tavak outpost , elements of the VPA 2nd Division subjected Khâm Đức to a heavy barrage of mortar fire . The North Vietnamese 21st Regiment , later reinforced by the VC 1st Regiment , were in position to attack the U.S.-led Detachment A @-@ 105 . At 08 : 30 , the Americal Division activated Operation Golden Valley to reinforce the beleaguered Khâm Đức Special Forces Camp , and at 8 : 45 am the division requested permission from III MAF to change the reaction force so the 2nd Battalion , 1st Infantry Regiment , 196th Light Infantry Brigade ( 2 – 1st Inf ) would replace the 1st Battalion , 46th Infantry Regiment , 198th Light Infantry Brigade ( 1 – 46th Inf ) . In the meantime , however , Company A of 1 – 46th Inf provide the needed reinforcement , until the 2 – 1st Inf was in position . At around 10 : 50 Company A of 1 – 46th Infantry – led by Lieutenant Bobby Thompson – arrived in Khâm Đức along with some supporting artillery and ammunition , and they were immediately assigned to their task . Thompson 's company dug in at the end of the runway nearest OP 1 with XO Peter Everts ' platoon overlooking the deep ravine where caves kept the NVA from harm due to B @-@ 52 strikes called in on their location .
About six hours later , the 2 Battalion / 1st Infantry – commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Robert B. Nelson – also touched down on the battlefield , and they immediately set up defensive positions in support of Detachment A @-@ 105 . Under constant enemy mortar and artillery attacks , U.S. and allied forces were able to strengthen their defenses , because there were no significant ground probes during the period between 10 – 11 May . Allied defenses at Khâm Đức remained thin and the North Vietnamese had occupied the high ground in the surrounding hills , where they could target allied ground targets and support aircraft with a high level of accuracy . On 11 May , in response to increasing North Vietnamese pressure , about 30 B @-@ 52 Stratofortress bombers were called in to hit North Vietnamese @-@ held positions , but those strikes had little effect as artillery and mortar rounds continued to fall on Khâm Đức and the surrounding outposts . Consequently , Cushman recommended to Westmoreland that Khâm Đức , now defended by more than 1 @,@ 500 allied soldiers along with 272 civilians , be evacuated . Westmoreland agreed , believing that Khâm Đức lacked the " defensive potential of Khe Sanh " .
By 01 : 00 on 12 May , U.S. commanders on the ground in Khâm Đức were notified of Westmoreland 's decision to evacuate all military personnel , both American and Vietnamese , as well as their civilian dependents . However , most army units on the ground were left uninformed about the decision , and it led to chaos later when evacuation was underway . During the predawn hours of 12 May , elements of the PAVN 2nd Division continued to increase their pressure on the main compound of the Special Forces Camp . The North Vietnamese made final preparations for the main assault by capturing one mountain outpost at a time , which were manned by U.S. soldiers of the Americal Division , who had placed machine @-@ guns around the main camp as advanced defensive positions . At 04 : 23 , U.S. soldiers reported that outpost number 1 had been overrun , and fighter @-@ bombers were scrambled in an attempt to save it . About 30 minutes later , the defenders of outpost number 7 reported that their position had been surrounded . They attempted to hold their position by calling on an AC @-@ 47 gunship to fire directly into their position , in order to stop the attack , but soon afterwards outpost 7 succumbed to the North Vietnamese and the defenders retreated back to Khâm Đức .
U.S. soldiers at outpost number 3 called on supporting artillery units at Khâm Đức to fire directly at their own position in an attempt to hold off the North Vietnamese , but they too were defeated a few moments later . Before sunrise , all seven outposts were firmly in North Vietnamese hands , so U.S. and allied soldiers were placed in a perilous position . The North Vietnamese had occupied all the high ground , from which they could fire down on any support aircraft that tried to resupply the camp or to evacuate people from it . By sunrise , the North Vietnamese moved closer to the Special Forces Camp under the cover of the early morning fog . About one hour before the fog was lifted , an additional 24 B @-@ 52 bombers flew in and dropped several hundred tons of bombs on suspected North Vietnamese positions south of Khâm Đức . At 08 : 20 , General Burl W. McLaughlin – commander of the 834th Air Division – was ordered by the U.S. 7th Air Force to make an all @-@ out effort to evacuate the besieged Special Forces Camp at Khâm Đức . By 09 : 35 , the B @-@ 52 strikes had clearly failed to stop the North Vietnamese advance , when the camp 's south @-@ eastern perimeter was subjected to a massive ground assault .
To stop the opponent 's onslaught , U.S. fighter @-@ bombers were called in to strafe North Vietnamese and VC formations , while U.S. soldiers on the ground used small @-@ arms and artillery fire to break up the attack at point @-@ blank range . Meanwhile , a U.S. Army UH @-@ 1 Huey and an O @-@ 2 Skymaster were shot down while circling the compound . By the time the first attack was stopped , the opposite end of the compound also came under fire , and by early morning tactical air @-@ support became difficult , as North Vietnamese troops were in close proximity with U.S. and allied forces . A U.S. Army CH @-@ 47 Chinook then arrived to begin the process of evacuation , but it took several hits from anti @-@ aircraft fire . The helicopter then burst into flames , exploded , and blocked the runway . U.S. soldiers of the 70th Engineer Battalion first tried to remove the wreckage with a forklift ( their only operating vehicle , the bulldozers having been disassembled in preparation for airlift out ) ; the forklift caught fire from the burning plane , and the engineers then assembled one of their bulldozers to push the downed helicopter off the runway ; North Vietnamese troops mortared the bulldozer but SP5 Don Hostler cleared the wreckage and then tracked the dozer back into Camp Conroy and shut it down . By 10 : 00 they had cleared the obstacles which would prevent other fixed @-@ wing aircraft from using the airfield . Almost simultaneously , a single U.S. Air Force A @-@ 1 Skyraider flown by Major James N. Swain Jr. was shot down outside the camp perimeter .
The unfolding events seemed to have a negative impact on the cohesion between U.S. and South Vietnamese indigenous forces . The resolve of the South Vietnamese , Montagnard CIDG soldiers in particular , had apparently been shaken and they disobeyed an order to carry out a sweep operation at the rear end of the camp , and their Vietnamese commander even refused to leave his bunker to encourage the soldiers . The morale and discipline of the indigenous forces had sunk so low that they began to leave their defensive positions without permission , although their section of the camp was never subjected to a major ground attack . Consequently , the behavior of indigenous CIDG soldiers during the various stages of the battle , coupled with information that ' friendly ' Montagnard soldiers had turned on U.S. Marines at Ngok Tavak , had the effect of unnerving U.S. Army soldiers in Khâm Đức . To ensure CIDG soldiers would not abandon their posts , U.S. soldiers threatened to shoot anyone attempting to run away .
= = = Evacuation = = =
At approximately 10 : 00 , the runway at Khâm Đức was cleared of the wrecked helicopter . Moments later , a C @-@ 130 piloted by Lieutenant Colonel Daryl D. Cole touched down on the runway under heavy fire , which flattened one tire and caused extensive damage to the wing tanks . Almost immediately , Cole 's aircraft was rushed by hysterical Vietnamese civilians from ditches along the runway , filling the aircraft so the loadmaster was prevented from unloading the aircraft 's cargo . Under heavy fire , Cole decided to navigate his aircraft down the cratered and shrapnel @-@ littered runway , in order to take off . However , the combined weight of the cargo and civilians , in addition to the damage sustained during landing , prevented the aircraft from gathering enough speed to take off . So the aircrew aborted the take off , offloaded the civilians , and proceeded to cut off the blown tire to stop it from flapping and slowing down the aircraft . They were able to cut off the rubber with the bayonet , and were able to cut through the steel beading thanks to the engineers carefully cutting the steel cords with a blowtorch . A fire extinguisher was kept handy because of fear of catching the magnesium wheel on fire . About two hours later , realizing that enemy artillery rounds were coming closer to his aircraft , Colonel Cole tried to take off for the second time , and managed to get the C @-@ 130 into the air . This time his only passengers were three members of Air Force Combat Control Team ( CCT ) , whose radio equipment had been destroyed .
Just after Cole 's C @-@ 130 left Khâm Đức , a C @-@ 123 flown by Major Ray D. Shelton landed and took out 44 U.S. engineers and 21 South Vietnamese civilians . Shortly after Shelton had landed his aircraft , he reported that enemy fire was coming in from all quadrants , but he was able to take off safely after just three minutes on the ground . By 11 : 10 , just 145 people had been evacuated by Shelton 's aircraft , and a handful of helicopters . After that , another three C @-@ 130s also arrived in the vicinity of Khâm Đức , but the pilots were told not to try landings . In the afternoon , the C @-@ 130 Hercules resumed their operations ; at 15 : 25 , Major Bernard L. Bucher 's C @-@ 130 approached Khâm Đức 's airfield from the south and landed despite taking numerous hits . Some 150 Vietnamese women and children rushed onto the aircraft ; as soon as the aircraft was full , Bucher made his takeoff in the north direction , unaware that opposing forces were concentrated in that area . At 15 : 30 Bucher took off , and his aircraft was quickly riddled by ground fire ; it crashed less than a mile from the end of the runway . All the South Vietnamese civilians and the entire U.S. aircrew died in the crash .
With the loss of Bucher and his aircraft , the C @-@ 130 Hercules had not completed a successful evacuation , and there were more than 600 people still on the ground . Next in line was Lieutenant Colonel William Boyd ; he was flying an airlift mission into Chu Lai , until he was diverted into Khâm Đức to extract forces and civilians there . Just before Boyd touched down , an artillery shell exploded about 100 feet in front of his aircraft , so he was forced to pull the throttle forward . Boyd then pulled up and went around for a second approach , because he could see the desperation of the people on the ground . As he landed , hundreds of civilians and soldiers poured out of the ditches and rushed onto the aircraft . Because he had witnessed the destruction of Bucher 's C @-@ 130 while taking off in the north direction , Boyd decided to fly out from the southwest . After Boyd 's aircraft was airborne , he banked the aircraft so it would be masked by the rolling terrain . The aircraft sustained damages to the left wing , the fuselage , and the leading edge of both wings , but it landed safely in Chu Lai with all the passengers .
As Boyd took off , another C @-@ 130 piloted by Lieutenant Colonel John Delmore closed in on Khâm Đức . At an altitude of about 300 to 400 feet , Delmore 's aircraft began to receive North Vietnamese fire , and both sides of the cockpit were opened up by bullets that had ripped through the floorboards . Subsequently , just before touch down , Delmore and his co @-@ pilot shut down the engine and forced the aircraft to remain upright . With no brakes and little directional control , the aircraft crashed into the CH @-@ 47 that had been destroyed early in the morning , but Delmore managed to turn his aircraft off the runway to avoid blocking it . When the aircraft had stopped completely , the five @-@ man crew got out as quickly as they could . About 20 minutes later , U.S. soldiers on the ground guided them to safety , and they were rescued by a U.S. Marine CH @-@ 46 . After witnessing the destruction of two C @-@ 130 Hercules , Lieutenant Colonel Franklin Montgomery landed his C @-@ 130 and extracted more than 150 Vietnamese civilians , and some CIDG and U.S. soldiers . Montgomery 's aircraft suffered no hits , but the loadmaster was knocked down and trampled by panic @-@ stricken Vietnamese civilians whilst trying to maintain order .
Once Montgomery had flown out , another two C @-@ 130s arrived in Khâm Đức to continue the evacuation ; the first aircraft picked up 130 people , and the one after that took out 90 . There were now only a few people remaining on the ground in Khâm Đức , and most of them were U.S. Special Forces soldiers and indigenous CIDG personnel . Major James L. Wallace flew into Khâm Đức and extracted the last group of people , as the ammunition dumps began to explode , and the aircrews reported witnessing hysteria among the Vietnamese soldiers who had lost family members in Bucher 's crash . However , just when the aircrews believed the mission was over , a C @-@ 130 piloted by Lieutenant Colonel Jay Van Cleeff was ordered to reinsert the three @-@ man Combat Control Team , which had been airlifted out of the compound earlier in the day by Colonel Cole . In protest , Van Cleeff argued that the camp was almost completely evacuated , but the control center insisted that the Combat Control Team be reinserted to complete their task of coordinating the evacuation . At about 16 : 20 , Van Cleeff landed his aircraft on the runway and the Combat Control Team – led by Major John W. Gallagher – immediately disembarked from the aircraft .
After Gallagher 's team had returned to the Special Forces Camp , Van Cleeff waited on the runway for two minutes to extract the survivors , but when nobody appeared he pulled the throttle and took off . As soon as Van Cleeff 's aircraft was airborne , another C @-@ 130 pilot reported to General McLaughlin that the evacuation had been completed , and the facility could now be destroyed at will . Van Cleeff quickly notified all aircraft in the vicinity that he had just reinserted the CCT . Gallagher 's team searched the Special Forces compound , the Americal Division battalion command post , and the artillery compound , but everybody either had been evacuated or was dead . Additionally , Khâm Đức was in North Vietnamese hands , so Gallagher and the other two men ran to the ditch beside the runway , where they tried to make contact with the aircraft overhead , but the radio was disabled along with all other equipment . While waiting for a miracle , members of the CCT clashed with North Vietnamese troops who had set up a machine gun position beneath the wing of Delmore 's crashed C @-@ 130 , and successfully disabled their opponent 's weapon .
During the ordeal , several forward air @-@ controllers were sent out to make low passes over Khâm Đức , to locate the position of the CCT , but none were successful . Then , in response to a call for the nearest aircraft to land on the runway to search for the stranded members of the CCT , Lieutenant Colonel Alfred J. Jeanotte approached the airfield from the south and landed his C @-@ 123 on the runway with support from fighter @-@ bombers , which were used to suppress enemy fire . Not seeing the men , Jeanotte applied full power and took off to avoid taking hits from North Vietnamese anti @-@ aircraft fire . As the C @-@ 123 rolled past the CCT 's position , the three men came out of their position chasing the aircraft with their arms waving . Believing that the aircraft may have missed them , the three men ran back to the ditch on the left side of the runway . As the C @-@ 123 was airborne , Jeanotte banked his aircraft to the left , and that enabled the aircrew to see the three men running back towards the ditch . However , Jeanotte was deterred from making another attempt at landing , because of low fuel . The next C @-@ 123 in line , piloted by Lieutenant Colonel Joe M. Jackson , landed on the runway as fire swept through the Khâm Đức facility , and the aircrew were able to extract the stranded CCT under heavy fire , and they flew out to Đà Nẵng . By 17 : 00 , the evacuation was over . On 13 May , 60 B @-@ 52s bombed the Khâm Đức camp .
= = Aftermath = =
The battle for Khâm Đức and Ngok Tavak was considered a defeat for U.S. forces , described by one historian as " a Khe Sanh in reverse . " Unlike the previous fight at Khe Sanh , the application of American airpower " averted a massacre " but could not prevent the North Vietnamese from dominating the high ground surrounding Khâm Đức . General Creighton Abrams described the loss at Khâm Đức as a " minor disaster " . U.S. decisions at Khâm Đức may have been influenced at a higher command level by the events of Battle of Khe Sanh in 1968 , which were subjected to intense media comparison with the French defeat at Dien Bien Phu , and the clash of operational thinking between General Westmoreland and the senior USMC generals . If there was any lesson to be learned for General Westmoreland and other U.S. commanders , the battle of Khâm Đức showed that " air power was not a cure @-@ all " . The command and control system of the United States Air Force during the ordeal was imperfect , as demonstrated by the " blunders involving the combat control teams . " A final , notable outcome of Khâm Đức was that it closed the last Special Forces CIDG camp in the I Corps Tactical Zone in close proximity to the border with Laos . This made ground surveillance of the Ho Chi Minh Trail much more difficult , allowing North Vietnam to move supplies and develop new branches of the trail . Despite setbacks , the evacuation of the Khâm Đức Special Forces Camp strongly highlighted the morale , discipline and the motivation of the U.S. Air Force personnel who took part in the operation . From the very first day of the struggle at Khâm Đức , it was clear that ground units were not prepared for an emergency evacuation , due to the lack of experience in terms of integrating the numbers and types of aircraft in such a small geographical area . U.S. aircrews had to improvise by establishing their own procedures , in order to extract both military and civilian personnel from the besieged Special Forces Camp . Despite having lost two C @-@ 130 aircraft , U.S. pilots were undeterred from completing their mission , indeed , their bravery was exemplified by Lieutenant Colonel Joe M. Jackson , who received a Medal of Honor for the rescue of the three @-@ man Combat Control Team .
The U.S. Army lost one killed in action and 71 wounded at Khâm Đức and the U.S. Marines lost 12 marines killed in action and 21 wounded at Ngok Tavak . The combined services reported the highest number of missing in any battle in Vietnam , with 31 U.S. military personnel reported missing in action . Of the 31 MIA , 19 were from the 2 / 1st Infantry : of these 3 were rescued within 5 days , 1 was captured and kept as a POW until March 1973 , and 15 listed as KIA ( 9 recovered , 6 not recovered ) . The U.S. lost 9 aircraft : 7 within the vicinity of Khâm Đức and 2 helicopters in Ngok Tavak . The North Vietnamese , however , claimed to have killed about 300 American soldiers and captured 104 enemy troops , including two American advisors , as well as capturing vast quantities of weapons and ammunition that were left behind . For South Vietnam , several hundred South Vietnamese Special Forces and indigenous CIDG soldiers were believed to have been killed , as well as about 150 civilians who perished in Major Bucher 's crash . The total number of North Vietnamese casualties is unknown , but the United States military claimed to have killed roughly 345 enemy soldiers .
In July 1970 , troops from the 196th Infantry Brigade reoccuppied Khâm Đức as part of Operation Elk Canyon I and II to disrupt North Vietnamese logistics system in Quảng Tín Province and forestall a VPA offensive in the autumn and winter . While they occupied Khâm Đức U.S. forces conducted searches for the remains of the Americans MIA in the battle two years earlier .
In 1993 – 94 teams from the Joint POW / MIA Accounting Command located the Bucher crash site and recovered the remains of the six crewmen , the remains were buried together at Arlington National Cemetery in December 2008 . In 1998 , teams from the Joint Task Force @-@ Full Accounting ( later renamed Joint POW / MIA Accounting Command ) located the 12 ODA @-@ 105 Green Berets killed on Outpost 7 . All 12 Green Berets were returned to Fort Campbell for a ceremony and then buried at Arlington National Cemetery .
= White House Farm murders =
The White House Farm murders took place near the village of Tolleshunt D 'Arcy , Essex , England , during the night of 6 – 7 August 1985 . Nevill Bamber , a farmer and magistrate , and his wife , June , were shot and killed inside their farmhouse , along with their adoptive daughter , Sheila Caffell , and Sheila 's six @-@ year @-@ old twin sons . The only surviving member of the immediate family was Nevill and June 's adoptive son , Jeremy Bamber , then 24 years old , who said he had been at home a few miles away when the shooting took place .
The police at first believed that Sheila , diagnosed with schizophrenia , had fired the shots then turned the gun on herself . But weeks after the murders Jeremy Bamber 's ex @-@ girlfriend told police that he had implicated himself . The prosecution argued that , motivated by a large inheritance , Bamber had shot the family with his father 's semi @-@ automatic rifle , then placed the gun in his unstable sister 's hands to make the case appear as a murder – suicide . A silencer the prosecution said was on the rifle would have made it too long , they argued , for Sheila 's fingers to reach the trigger to shoot herself . Bamber was convicted in October 1986 by a 10 – 2 majority , and sentenced to a minimum of 25 years ' imprisonment . In 1994 , Bamber was informed that he would never be released from prison .
Bamber has protested his innocence throughout , although his extended family remain convinced of his guilt . Between 2004 and 2012 his lawyers submitted several unsuccessful applications to the Criminal Cases Review Commission . They argued that the silencer might not have been used during the killings ; that the crime scene may have been damaged then reconstructed ; that crime @-@ scene photographs were taken weeks after the murders ; and that the time of Sheila 's death was miscalculated . A key issue was whether Bamber received a call from his father that night to say Sheila had " gone berserk " with a gun . Bamber said that he did , that he alerted police , and that Sheila fired the final shot while he and the officers were standing outside the house . It became a central plank of the prosecution 's case that the father had made no such call , and that the only reason Bamber would have lied about it – indeed , the only way he could have known about the shootings when he alerted the police – was that he was the killer himself .
= = Bambers = =
= = = Nevill and June Bamber = = =
Ralph Nevill Bamber ( known as Nevill , born 8 June 1924 , 61 when he died ) , was a farmer , former RAF pilot , and a local magistrate at Witham Magistrates ' Court . He and his wife , June ( née Speakman , born 3 June 1924 , also 61 when she died ) , had married in 1949 and moved into the Georgian White House Farm on Pages Lane , Tolleshunt D 'Arcy , set among 300 acres of tenant farmland that had belonged to June 's father . Nevill was described in court as 6 ' 4 " tall and in good physical health , a point that became significant because Bamber 's defence was that Sheila , a slim woman of 28 , was able to beat and subdue her father , something the prosecution contested .
Unable to have biological children , the couple adopted Sheila and Jeremy as babies ; the children were not related to one another . The Bambers were wealthy and gave the children a good home and private education , but June was intensely religious and reportedly tried to force her children and grandchildren to adopt the same ideas . She had a poor relationship with Sheila , who felt June disapproved of her , and June 's relationship with Jeremy was so troubled that he had apparently stopped speaking to her . The court heard that Sheila 's ex @-@ husband was concerned about the effect June was having on his sons ; she apparently made them kneel and pray with her , which upset him . She suffered from depression and in 1982 was treated by the same psychiatrist who would later treat Sheila .
= = = Sheila Caffell = = =
= = = = Background = = = =
Sheila Jean Caffell ( born 18 July 1957 , 28 when she died ) was born to the daughter of a chaplain of the Archbishop of Canterbury and adopted by the Bambers when she was eight weeks old . She attended private schools , first Moira House in Eastbourne , Sussex , then Old Hall School in Hethersett , Norfolk , followed by secretarial college in Swiss Cottage , London .
In 1974 , when she was 17 , Sheila discovered she was pregnant by her boyfriend , Colin Caffell ( later her husband ) ; the Bambers arranged an abortion . Her relationship with her adoptive mother deteriorated significantly that summer , when June found Sheila and Colin sunbathing naked in a field . June reportedly started calling Sheila the " devil 's daughter , " which the psychiatrist identified as the trigger for Sheila 's paranoid delusions about having been taken over by the devil .
Sheila continued with her secretarial course , then trained as a hairdresser , and briefly found work as a model with the Lucie Clayton agency , which included two months ' work in Tokyo . She and Colin married in May 1977 when Sheila was 19 . She suffered two more miscarriages , before giving birth to identical twins Nicholas and Daniel on 22 June , 1979 . The birth led to a deterioration in her mental health . She became increasingly erratic , throwing pots and pans at her husband , and once pushing her hands through a window , cutting herself . The couple separated just four months after the birth , and divorced in May 1982 .
After the breakdown of the marriage , Nevill bought Sheila a flat in Morshead Mansions , Maida Vale , London , and Colin continued to help raise the children from his home in nearby Kilburn . Sheila became friendly with a group of young women who nicknamed her " Bambi , " and who later told reporters that she was vulnerable and desperately insecure , often complaining about her poor relationship with her adoptive mother . One said there was a lot of partying and drugs , particularly cocaine , and older men who were interested in the women for all the wrong reasons . Sheila 's brief modelling career ended after the birth of the boys , and she lived on welfare or took low @-@ paying jobs , including as a waitress at School Dinners , a London restaurant in which a traditional British menu is served up by young women in stockings and suspenders . There were also cleaning jobs , and there was one episode of nude photography , much regretted .
= = = = Mental health = = = =
Sheila 's mental health continued to decline , with episodes of banging her head against walls and becoming agitated to the point where one of her boyfriends feared for his safety . She decided to trace her birth mother , then living in Canada , and with the help of social services they met at Heathrow Airport in 1982 for a brief reunion , but it seems the relationship did not develop . The boys were briefly placed in foster care in 1982 and 1983 , an arrangement that seemed to cause no problems .
In August 1983 , Sheila was referred by her family doctor to Dr. Hugh Ferguson , the psychiatrist who had earlier treated June . He said she was in an agitated , paranoid and psychotic state ; he admitted her to St Andrew 's Hospital in Northampton , where she was diagnosed with schizoaffective disorder .
Ferguson wrote that Sheila believed the devil had given her the power to project evil onto others , and that she could make her sons have sex and cause violence with her . She called them the " devil 's children , " the phrase June had apparently used of Sheila , and said she believed she was capable of murdering them or of getting them to kill others . She spoke about suicide , though the court heard that Ferguson did not regard her as a suicide risk . She was discharged on 10 September 1983 . Ferguson continued treating her as an outpatient ; he diagnosed schizophrenia and prescribed trifluoperazine , an antipsychotic drug .
In 1985 Sheila became more enthusiastic about religion , to the surprise of her friends who were apparently unaware that she came from a religious family . She was re @-@ admitted to St Andrew 's in March 1985 , five months before the murders , believing her boyfriend at the time to be the devil and herself to be in direct communication with God . She was discharged just under four weeks later , and as an outpatient received a monthly injection of haloperidol , an antipsychotic drug that has a sedative effect .
She went to stay at White House Farm to recuperate . It was obvious to her friends and family that her mental health was getting worse . Just before the murders , Colin complained that he was doing 95 percent of the work with the boys ; he drafted a letter to Sheila 's father in late March or early April 1985 , which was never sent , asking him to persuade Sheila to let the twins live with Colin most of the time . According to Bamber , the family discussed placing the boys in daytime foster care over dinner on the night of the murders , with little response from Sheila .
Despite Sheila 's erratic mental state , her psychiatrist told the court that the kind of violence necessary to commit the murders was not consistent with his view of her . In particular , he said he did not believe she would have killed her father or children , because her difficult relationship was confined to her mother . Her ex @-@ husband said the same : that , despite her tendency to throw things and sometimes hit him , she had never harmed the children . June Bamber 's sister , Pamela Boutflour , testified that Sheila was not a violent person and that she had never known Sheila to use a gun ; June 's niece , Ann Eaton , told the court that Sheila did not know how to use one . Bamber disputed this , telling police on the night of the shooting , as they stood outside the house , that he and Sheila had gone target shooting together . He acknowledged later that he had not seen her fire a gun as an adult .
= = = Jeremy Bamber = = =
Jeremy Nevill Bamber ( born 13 January 1961 ) is the son of a vicar 's daughter who , after an affair with a married army sergeant , gave her baby to the Church of England Children 's Society when he was six weeks old . His biological parents later married each other and had other children . They were working at Buckingham Palace when Bamber was convicted , reportedly unaware that he was their son until reporters informed them .
Nevill and June adopted Bamber when he was six months old . They sent him to private schools , first to Maldon Court , a preparatory school , then to Gresham 's School , a boarding school in Holt , Norfolk . He left Gresham 's with no qualifications , but attended sixth @-@ form college and in 1978 passed seven O @-@ levels . Nevill paid for him to visit Australia , where Bamber took a scuba diving course , then New Zealand . Former friends alleged that he had broken into a jeweller 's shop while in New Zealand and had stolen an expensive watch , and had also boasted , they said , of being involved in smuggling heroin .
He returned to England to work on his adoptive parents ' farm for £ 170 a week , and set up home rent @-@ free in a cottage Nevill owned at 9 Head Street , Goldhanger ( 51 @.@ 745857 ° N 0 @.@ 755881 ° E ) . The cottage lay 3 – 3 @.@ 5 miles ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) from the farmhouse ( 51 @.@ 7591 ° N 0 @.@ 8032 ° E ) , a five @-@ minute drive by car and at least 15 minutes by bicycle . His father also gave him a car to use , and eight percent of a family company , Osea Road Camp Sites Ltd , which ran a caravan site .
To Bamber 's supporters , who over the years have included several MPs and journalists , he is the victim of Britain 's most serious miscarriage of justice . The Guardian took up his case at one point ; two Guardian journalists who interviewed him in 2011 called him " clever and strategic . " They wrote that there was something about him that made the public unsympathetic toward him : he was " handsome in a rather cruel , caddish way – he seemed to exude arrogance and indifference . ... Like Meursault in the Camus novel L 'Etranger , he did not seem to display the appropriate emotions . "
His detractors , a group that includes his extended family , see him as a psychopath , and regard his long fight to have the conviction declared unsafe as part of the clinical picture . His father 's secretary , Barbara Wilson , told a documentary in November 2013 that Bamber used to provoke his parents , riding in circles around his mother on a bicycle , wearing make @-@ up in public to upset his father , and allegedly once hiding a bag of live rats in his mother 's car . She said that Bamber 's father did not trust him , and that whenever Bamber visited the farmhouse there were arguments . She also said tension had increased in the weeks before the murders , and that Bamber 's father had said something to her about foreseeing a " shooting accident . " Bamber underwent several assessments in prison , and according to the Guardian no indication of mental illness or psychopathy was found . He also passed a lie detector test in 2007 .
= = = Extended family , inheritance = = =
The financial ties and inheritance issues within the immediate and extended family added a layer of complexity to the case . The prosecution argued that Bamber had killed his family to inherit £ 436 @,@ 000 , the farmhouse where the murders took place , 300 acres ( 1 @.@ 2 km2 ) of land , and the caravan site in Maldon . Because of his conviction , the estate passed instead to the cousins who had found the silencer in the gun cupboard after the murders , with the flecks of blood and paint that proved pivotal to the prosecution 's case .
After Bamber 's conviction , one cousin on his mother 's side moved into White House Farm , and that cousin and several others acquired ownership of the caravan site . Bamber argues that they set him up , a claim another cousin dismissed in 2010 as " an absolute load of piffle . " Bamber has launched two legal actions to secure a share of the estate , which the cousins said in 2004 were part of an attempt to harass and vilify them .
= = Murder weapon = =
Nevill kept several guns at the farm . He was reportedly careful with them , cleaning them after use and securing them . The murder weapon was a .22 Anschütz semi @-@ automatic rifle , model 525 , which Nevill purchased on 30 November 1984 , along with a Parker Hale sound moderator ( a " suppressor " ) , telescopic sights , and 500 rounds of ammunition . The rifle used cartridges , which were loaded into a magazine that had a ten round capacity . Twenty @-@ five shots were fired during the killing , so assuming it was fully loaded to begin with , it would have been reloaded at least twice . The court heard that the gun became progressively harder to load as the number of cartridges increased ; loading the tenth was described as exceptionally hard .
The rifle had normally been used , with the silencer and telescopic sights attached , to shoot rabbits . The court heard that a screwdriver was needed to remove the sights , but they were usually left in place because it was time @-@ consuming to realign them . Nevill 's nephew , Anthony Pargeter , visited the farmhouse around 26 July 1985 , and told the court that he had seen the rifle , with the sights and suppressor attached , in the gun cupboard in the ground @-@ floor office . Bamber testified that he had visited the farmhouse on the evening of 6 August , hours before the murders , and that he had loaded the gun , thinking he heard rabbits outside , then left it with a full magazine and a box of ammunition on the kitchen table .
= = White House Farm , 6 – 7 August 1985 = =
= = = Sheila 's visit = = =
On 4 August 1985 , three days before the murders , Sheila and the boys arrived at her parents ' home at White House Farm to spend the week with them . The housekeeper saw her that day and noticed nothing unusual . Sheila was seen the next day with her children by two farm workers , Julie and Leonard Foakes , who said she seemed happy . One of the crime @-@ scene photographs shows that someone , possibly Sheila , had carved " I hate this place " into the cupboard doors of the bedroom the twins were sleeping in .
Bamber visited the farm on the evening of Tuesday , 6 August . He told the court that his parents suggested to Sheila that evening that the boys be placed in day @-@ time foster care with a local family , because of her mental @-@ health problems . Bamber said Sheila did not seem bothered by the suggestion and had simply said she would rather stay in London . The boys had been in foster care before , although in London rather than near White House Farm , and it had not appeared to cause a problem for Sheila . Her psychiatrist , Dr. Ferguson , told the Court of Appeal in 2002 that any suggestion that the children be removed from her care would have provoked a strong reaction from Sheila , but that she might have welcomed daytime help .
Barbara Wilson , the farm 's secretary , telephoned the farmhouse at 9 @.@ 30 pm that evening and spoke to Nevill . She said he was short with her , and Wilson was left with the impression that she had interrupted an argument . June Bamber 's sister , Pamela Boutflour , also telephoned that evening at about 10 pm . She spoke to Sheila , who she said was quiet , then to June , who seemed normal .
= = = Telephone calls = = =
There was one telephone line and normally four telephones at the farm . There was a cordless phone with a memory @-@ recall feature in the kitchen ; a beige digital phone , also kept in the kitchen ; a blue digital phone in the first @-@ floor office ; and a cream rotary phone ( dial phone ) in the main bedroom . The cordless phone had been sent away for repair on 5 August , so on the night of the murders there were three phones in the house .
The rotary phone that was normally in the main bedroom had been moved into the kitchen where the beige digital phone normally sat . Police found the latter under a pile of magazines . They found the rotary phone in the kitchen with its receiver off the hook . The implication was that someone – Nevill , according to Bamber – had been interrupted mid @-@ call .
A central issue is whether Nevill telephoned Bamber before the murders to say that Sheila had gone crazy with a gun . Bamber said he did receive such a call , and that the line went dead in the middle of it , which was consistent with the phone being found off the hook . The prosecution said that he had not received such a call , and that his claim to have done so was part of his setting the scene to blame Sheila ; it was Bamber himself , they said , who had left the phone off the hook . This was one of three key points the jury was asked to consider by the trial judge during his summing up . In 2010 Bamber 's lawyers highlighted two police phone logs ( below ) in support of Bamber 's application to have his case referred back to the Court of Appeal . The question was whether these logs described one call to the police , from Bamber alone , or two calls , one from Bamber and another from his father .
= = = = Telephone log 1 = = = =
A police log timed at 3 : 26 am on 7 August 1985 ( see right ) was entered as evidence at the trial but not shown to the jury . It discusses a telephone call made that night to a local police station . According to the prosecution , the log discusses a call known to have been made by Bamber . According to Bamber 's defence team , it may show that | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
until his death .
For some time Monteux had felt that he should leave the SFSO . He had two main reasons : he believed that a conductor should not remain in one post for too long , and he wished to be free to accept more invitations to appear with other orchestras . He resigned from the SFSO at the end of the 1952 season . He briefly reappeared on the podium at the War Memorial Opera House within a year , as co @-@ conductor of the Boston Symphony Orchestra 's coast @-@ to @-@ coast American tour , at Munch 's invitation . Almost all the members of the SFSO were in the audience , and joined in the ovation given to their former chief .
After an absence of thirty @-@ four years , Monteux was invited to conduct at the Metropolitan Opera in New York in 1953 . The opera chosen was Faust , which he had conducted at his debut at the house in 1917 . The production had what Canarina calls " a stellar cast " headed by Jussi Björling , Victoria de los Ángeles , Nicola Rossi @-@ Lemeni and Robert Merrill , but the critics , including Virgil Thomson and Irving Kolodin , reserved their highest praise for Monteux 's conducting . Between 1953 and 1956 Monteux returned to the Met for Pelléas et Mélisande , Carmen , Manon , Orfeo ed Euridice , The Tales of Hoffmann and Samson et Dalila . The Met at that time typecast conductors according to their nationality , and , as a Frenchman , Monteux was not offered any Italian operas . When his request to be engaged for La traviata in the 1956 – 57 season was refused he severed his ties with the house .
= = = London = = =
Since his first visit to London with the Ballets Russes in 1911 , Monteux had had a " love affair with London and with British musicians " . He had conducted for the fledgling BBC in an orchestral concert at Covent Garden in 1924 , where he conducted the first public performance of the BBC Wireless Orchestra , and for the Royal Philharmonic Society at the Queen 's Hall in the 1920s and 1930s . In 1932 he was one of four conductors who took charge of the Hallé Orchestra in Manchester in the absence of its principal conductor ; the other three substitutes were Sir Edward Elgar , Beecham and the young Barbirolli . The Hallé players were immensely impressed with Monteux , and said that his orchestral technique and knowledge easily beat those of most other conductors . In 1951 he conducted the BBC Symphony Orchestra in a concert of Mozart , Beethoven and Bartók in the new Royal Festival Hall , and made further appearances with London orchestras during the rest of the 1950s . He would have made more but for Britain 's strict quarantine laws , which prevented the Monteuxs from bringing their pet French poodle with them ; Doris Monteux would not travel without the poodle , and Monteux would not travel without his wife .
In June 1958 Monteux conducted the London Symphony Orchestra ( LSO ) in three concerts , described by the orchestra 's historian Richard Morrison as " a sensation with players , press and public alike . " The first concert included Elgar 's Enigma Variations , in which Cardus judged Monteux to be more faithful to Elgar 's conception than English conductors generally were . Cardus added , " After the performance of the ' Enigma ' Variations , the large audience cheered and clapped Monteux for several minutes . This applause , moreover , broke out just before the interval . English audiences are not as a rule inclined to waste time applauding at or during an interval : they usually have other things to do . " Monteux considered British concertgoers " the most attentive in the world " , and British music critics " the most intelligent " . However , a disadvantage of conducting a London orchestra was having to perform at the Festival Hall , of which he shared with Beecham and other conductors an intense dislike : " from the conductor 's rostrum it is impossible to hear the violins " .
Monteux 's later London performances were not only with the LSO . In 1960 he conducted Beecham 's Royal Philharmonic Orchestra performing " feats of wizardry " in works by Beethoven , Debussy and Hindemith . The LSO offered him the post of principal conductor in 1961 , when he was eighty @-@ six ; he accepted , on condition that he had a contract for twenty @-@ five years , with an option of renewal . His large and varied repertoire was displayed in his LSO concerts . In addition to the French repertoire with which , to his occasional irritation , he was generally associated , he programmed Mozart , Beethoven , Brahms and Wagner , as well as later composers including Granados , Schoenberg , Scriabin , Shostakovich , Sibelius , Richard Strauss and Vaughan Williams . With the LSO , Monteux gave a fiftieth anniversary performance of The Rite of Spring at the Royal Albert Hall in the presence of the composer . Although the recording of the occasion reveals some lapses of ensemble and slack rhythms , it was an intense and emotional concert , and Monteux climbed up to Stravinsky 's box to embrace him at the end . Players believed that in his few years in charge he transformed the LSO ; Neville Marriner felt that he " made them feel like an international orchestra ... He gave them extended horizons and some of his achievements with the orchestra , both at home and abroad , gave them quite a different constitution . "
= = = Last years = = =
Although Monteux retained his vitality to the end of his life , in his last years he suffered occasional collapses . In 1962 he fainted during a performance of Beethoven 's Fifth Symphony . In 1963 he collapsed again after being presented with the Gold Medal of the Royal Philharmonic Society , Britain 's highest musical honour . The presentation was made by Sir Adrian Boult , who recalled that as they left the platform , " Monteux gave two little groans as we walked down the passage , and I suddenly found my arms full of violins and bows . The orchestra had recognized the signs . Their beloved chief was fainting . " Monteux suffered another collapse the following year , and David Zinman and Lorin Maazel deputised for him at the Festival Hall .
In April 1964 Monteux conducted his last concert , which was in Milan with the orchestra of Radiotelevisione italiana . The programme consisted of the overture to The Flying Dutchman , Brahms 's Double Concerto and Berlioz 's Symphonie fantastique . Unrealised plans included his debut at The Proms , and his 90th birthday concert , at which he intended to announce his retirement . In June 1964 Monteux suffered three strokes and a cerebral thrombosis at his home in Maine , where he died on 1 July at the age of 89 .
= = Personal life = =
Monteux had six children , two of them adopted . From his first marriage there were a son , Jean @-@ Paul , and a daughter , Suzanne . Jean @-@ Paul became a jazz musician , performing with artists such as Josephine Baker and Mistinguett . His second marriage produced a daughter , Denise , later known as a sculptress , and a son , Claude , a flautist . After Monteux married Doris Hodgkins he legally adopted her two children , Donald , later a restaurateur , and Nancie , who after a career as a dancer became administrator of the Pierre Monteux School in Hancock .
Among Monteux 's numerous honours , he was a Commandeur of the Légion d 'honneur and a Knight of the Order of Oranje @-@ Nassau . A political and social moderate , in the politics of his adopted homeland he supported the Democratic Party and was a strong opponent of racial discrimination . He ignored taboos on employing black artists ; reportedly , during the days of segregation in the US , when told he could not be served in a restaurant " for colored folk " he insisted that he was coloured – pink .
= = Music making = =
= = = Reputation and repertoire = = =
The record producer John Culshaw described Monteux as " that rarest of beings – a conductor who was loved by his orchestras ... to call him a legend would be to understate the case . " Toscanini observed that Monteux had the best baton technique he had ever seen . Like Toscanini , Monteux insisted on the traditional orchestral layout with first and second violins to the conductor 's left and right , believing that this gave a better representation of string detail than grouping all the violins together on the left . On fidelity to composers ' scores , Monteux 's biographer John Canarina ranks him with Klemperer and above even Toscanini , whose reputation for strict adherence to the score was , in Canarina 's view , less justified than Monteux 's .
According to the biographical sketch in Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians , Monteux " was never an ostentatious conductor ... [ he prepared ] his orchestra in often arduous rehearsals and then [ used ] small but decisive gestures to obtain playing of fine texture , careful detail and powerful rhythmic energy , retaining to the last his extraordinary grasp of musical structure and a faultless ear for sound quality . " Monteux was extremely economical with words and gestures and expected a response from his smallest movement . The record producer Erik Smith recalled of Monteux 's rehearsals with the Vienna Philharmonic for Beethoven 's Pastoral Symphony and Brahms 's Second , " although he could not speak to the orchestra in German , he transformed their playing from one take to the next " .
The importance of rehearsal to Monteux was shown when , in 1923 , Diaghilev asked him to conduct Stravinsky 's new Les noces with no rehearsal , as the composer would already have conducted the first performance , Monteux following on from there . Monteux told the impresario " Stravinsky , ' e can do what ' e like , but I have to do what ze composer ' as written . " Monteux 's self @-@ effacing approach to scores led to occasional adverse comment ; the music critic of The Nation , B. H. Haggin , while admitting that Monteux was generally regarded as one of the giants of conducting , wrote of his " repeatedly demonstrated musical mediocrity " . Other American writers have taken a different view . In 1957 Carleton Smith wrote , " His approach to all music is that of the master @-@ craftsman . ... Seeing him at work , modest and quiet , it is difficult to realize that he is a bigger box office attraction at the Metropolitan Opera House than any prima donna ... that he is the only conductor regularly invited to take charge of America 's ' big three ' – the Boston , Philadelphia and New York Philharmonic orchestras . " In his 1967 book The Great Conductors , Harold C. Schonberg wrote of Monteux , " [ A ] conductor of international stature , a conductor admired and loved all over the world . The word ' loved ' is used advisedly . " Elsewhere , Schonberg wrote of Monteux 's " passion and charisma " . When asked in a radio interview to describe himself ( as a conductor ) in one word , Monteux replied , " Damned professional " .
Throughout his career Monteux suffered from being thought of as a specialist in French music . The music that meant most to him was that of German composers , particularly Brahms , but this was often overlooked by concert promoters and recording companies . Of the four Brahms symphonies , he was invited by the recording companies to record only one , the Second . Recordings of his live performances of the First and Third have been released on CD , but the discography in Canarina 's biography lists no recording , live or from the studio , of the Fourth . The critic William Mann , along with many others , regarded him as a " supremely authoritative " conductor of Brahms , though Cardus disagreed : " In German music Monteux , naturally enough , missed harmonic weight and the right heavily lunged tempo . His rhythm , for example , was a little too pointed for , say , Brahms or Schumann . " Gramophone 's reviewer Jonathan Swain contends that no conductor knew more than Monteux about expressive possibilities in the strings , claiming that " the conductor who doesn 't play a stringed instrument simply doesn 't know how to get the different sounds ; and the bow has such importance in string playing that there are maybe 50 different ways of producing the same note " ; In his 2003 biography , John Canarina lists nineteen " significant world premieres " conducted by Monteux . In addition to Petrushka and The Rite of Spring is a further Stravinsky work , The Nightingale . Monteux 's other premieres for Diaghilev included Ravel 's Daphnis et Chloé and Debussy 's Jeux . In the concert hall he premiered works by , among others , Milhaud , Poulenc and Prokofiev . In a letter of April 1914 Stravinsky wrote " everyone can appreciate your zeal and your probity in regard to the contemporary works of various tendencies that you have had occasion to defend . "
Monteux 's biographer Jean @-@ Philippe Mousnier analysed a representative sample of Monteux 's programmes for more than 300 concerts . The symphonies played most frequently were César Franck 's D minor Symphony , the Symphonie fantastique , Beethoven 's Seventh , Tchaikovsky 's Fifth and Sixth , and the first two symphonies of Brahms . Works by Richard Strauss featured almost as often as those of Debussy , and Wagner 's Prelude and " Liebestod " from Tristan und Isolde as often as The Rite of Spring .
= = = Recordings = = =
Monteux made a large number of recordings throughout his career . His first recording was as a violist in " Plus blanche que la blanche hermine " from Les Huguenots by Meyerbeer in 1903 for Pathé with the tenor Albert Vaguet . It is possible that Monteux played in the Colonne Orchestra 's 20 early cylinders recorded around 1906 – 07 . His recording debut as a conductor was the first of his five recordings of The Rite of Spring , issued in 1929 . The first of these , with the OSP , is judged by Canarina to be indifferently played ; recordings by Monteux of music by Ravel and Berlioz made in 1930 and 1931 , Canarina believes , were more impressive . Stravinsky , who also recorded The Rite in 1929 , was furious that Monteux had made a rival recording ; he made vitriolic comments privately , and for some time his relations with Monteux remained cool .
Monteux 's final studio recordings were with the London Symphony Orchestra in works by Ravel at the end of February 1964 . In the course of his career he recorded works by more than fifty composers . In Monteux 's lifetime it was rare for record companies to issue recordings of live concerts , although he would much have preferred it , he said , " if one could record in one take in normal concert @-@ hall conditions " . Some live performances of Monteux conducting the Metropolitan Opera , and among others the San Francisco Symphony , Boston Symphony , BBC Symphony and London Symphony orchestras survive alongside his studio recordings , and some have been issued on compact disc . It has been argued that these reveal even more than his studio recordings " a conductor at once passionate , disciplined , and tasteful ; one who was sometimes more vibrant than the Monteux captured in the studio , and yet , like that studio conductor , a cultivated musician possessing an extraordinary ear for balance , a keen sense of style and a sure grasp of shape and line . "
Many of Monteux 's recordings have remained in the catalogues for decades , notably his RCA Victor recordings with the Boston Symphony and Chicago Symphony orchestras ; Decca recordings with the Vienna Philharmonic ; and Decca and Philips recordings with the LSO . Of Manon , one of his few opera recordings , Alan Blyth in Opera on Record states " Monteux had the music in his blood and here dispenses it with authority and spirit " . He can be heard rehearsing in the original LP issues of Beethoven 's Eroica Symphony with the Concertgebouw Orchestra ( Philips 835132 AY ) and Beethoven 's 9th with the London Symphony ( Westminster , WST 234 ) .
Video recordings of Monteux are scarcer . He is seen conducting Berlioz 's Roman Carnival Overture and Beethoven 's 8th symphony with the Chicago Symphony Orchestra , and Dukas ' L 'Apprenti sorcier with the London Symphony Orchestra in an " unshowy , deeply satisfying humane way " .
= Chirocephalus diaphanus =
Chirocephalus diaphanus is a widely distributed European species of fairy shrimp that lives as far north as Great Britain , where it is the only surviving species of fairy shrimp and is protected under the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 . It is a translucent animal , about 0 @.@ 5 in ( 13 mm ) long , with reddened tips to the abdomen and appendages . The body comprises a head , a thorax bearing 11 pairs of appendages , and a seven @-@ segmented abdomen . In males , the antennae are enlarged to form " frontal appendages " , while females have an egg pouch at the end of the thorax .
The life cycle of C. diaphanus is extremely fast , and the species can only persist in pools without predators . The eggs tolerate drying out , and hatch when re @-@ immersed in water . C. diaphanus was first reported in the scientific literature in 1704 , but was only separated from other species and given its scientific name in 1803 . The specific epithet diaphanus refers to the animal 's transparency .
= = Description = =
Chirocephalus diaphanus is a " beautiful , translucent crustacean " . Its body is subcylindrical , and around 0 @.@ 5 inches ( 13 mm ) long , mostly transparent , but with black eyes , and red tips to the appendages and abdomen .
The body becomes wider towards the head , which has a conspicuous mandibular groove . It also bears a pair of stalked compound eyes , as well as a sessile median eye , two pairs of antennae , and the mouthparts . The mouthparts comprise a labrum , directed backwards over the mouth and pairs of mandibles , paragnatha , maxillules and vestigial maxillae .
The thorax is made up of twelve body segments , the last of which is fused to the first segment of the abdomen . There is no carapace , but each of the eleven free segments bears a pair of phyllopodia , which have a series of bristles pointing along the animal 's midline . The abdomen consists of seven segments without appendages , and a slender telson which bears a pair of caudal rami .
Males and females can be recognised by a suite of sexually dimorphic characters . While the antennae of females are triangular and relatively short , males ' antennae are long and jointed , and each one bears a complex " frontal appendage " , which is used to clasp the female during mating . The last somite of the thorax is fused with the first somite of the abdomen . In males , it bears a pair of processes , the extensions of the vasa deferentia in a protrusible penis . In females , there is a single egg pouch , which is also thought to derive from a pair of appendages .
= = Distribution = =
Chirocephalus diaphanus is a Mediterranean species , which reaches its north @-@ western limit in Great Britain , and is missing from Fennoscandia . Its distribution in Western Europe extends almost continuously from Great Britain to the Iberian Peninsula , and as far east as the Rhine in Germany . A single occurrence of C. diaphanus is known from the Benelux countries , in pools in South Limburg , Netherlands . Further east , it occurs south of 47 ° N in the Apennine and Balkan peninsulas , reaching the Black Sea in Romania ; an isolated population exists at the mouth of the Vistula river in Poland . In the Mediterranean Sea , populations exist on Sicily and Crete .
C. diaphanus is the only species of fairy shrimp to occur naturally in Great Britain ; Tanymastix stagnalis is found in western Ireland , and Artemia salina formerly occurred in England . Within Great Britain , C. diaphanus is restricted to areas with a deficit of precipitation against evapotranspiration between April and September . This means that it is only found frequently in southern England , with scattered records as far north as Yorkshire .
= = Ecology and life cycle = =
The fairy shrimp is found in temporary pools of water , from seasonal ponds to muddy ruts , preferring sites with regular disturbance , such as passing tractors or livestock . It has a broad range of ecological tolerances , in terms of temperature , dissolved oxygen and pH , but cannot coexist with predatory fish . C. diaphanus swims with its ventral side upwards , and is a filter feeder , collecting zooplankton and detritus with its phyllopodia .
The life cycle of Chirocephalus diaphanus is extremely fast . The typical duration of a full life cycle is not known , but a figure of around 3 months has been suggested . The eggs are tolerant to drying out ; when their habitat fills with water again , some of the eggs will hatch , while others remain dormant . This enables the species to continue to survive in an unpredictable habitat , since some eggs remain in case the habitat does not persist for long enough for the animals to mate and produce offspring . Dispersal between bodies of water can occur through the movements of animals such as cattle , deer and horses .
= = Conservation status = =
Chirocephalus diaphanus is subject to protection under environmental law in some parts of its range . In Germany , it is included on the Red List of endangered species . In the United Kingdom , C. diaphanus is protected under Schedule 5 of the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 , and it is listed as a " Species of Conservation Concern " under the United Kingdom Biodiversity Action Plan . The main threat to its survival are changes in land use : its habitats are often considered unsightly , and the temporary pools it inhabits are frequently filled in or converted into permanent ponds .
= = Taxonomic history = =
The first mention of any Chirocephalus species in the scientific literature was a sketch by James Petiver in a 1704 volume of his Gazophylacii Naturae , where he named it Squilla lacustris minima , dorso natante ( " tiny freshwater Squilla , swimming on its back " ) . There was much confusion between species in the early literature , and it is often unclear what species early authors were referring to . Carl Linnaeus , having described a fairy shrimp as a possible insect larva in Fauna Suecica , described it among the crustaceans in the 10th edition of his Systema Naturae in 1758 , under the name " Cancer stagnalis " ( now Tanymastix stagnalis ) . That name was also used by later authors , but sometimes referring to other species .
The situation was clarified by Bénédict Prévost in 1803 , when he published a detailed description of Chirocephalus diaphanus , including mention of the frontal appendages which distinguish it from other fairy shrimp such as Tanymastix stagnalis . Prévost 's work was originally published in the Journal de Physique in 1803 , and was reprinted by Louis Jurine as an appendix to his 1820 Histoire des Monocles , qui se trouvent aux Environs de Genève .
The name Chirocephalus derives from the Greek roots χείρ ( chiro- , " hand " ) , and κεφαλή ( cephalon , " head " ) . The specific epithet diaphanus derives from the Greek διαφανής , meaning " diaphanous " or transparent . Prévost later regretted the epithet , arguing that several other species were just as transparent as the one he had described . The common name " fairy shrimp " comes from the animal 's delicate appearance , and the " iridescent gleaming of the bristles on its appendages " .
= Survivor Man =
" Survivor Man " is the eleventh episode of the fourth season of the American comedy television series The Office — the show 's sixty @-@ fourth episode overall . Written by Steve Carell , who also acts on the show as Regional Manager Michael Scott , and directed by Paul Feig , it originally aired on NBC on November 8 , 2007 . The episode aired during NBC 's week of " green episodes " , which lasted from November 4 through November 10 , 2007 .
In the episode , Ryan excludes Michael from a company nature excursion , prompting Michael to try to prove to himself and his peers that he can survive in the wild . Dwight drops Michael off in the middle of a local wooded area and contrary to Michael 's wishes , stays behind to monitor Michael . Meanwhile , Jim spends the day as boss , but his plan to incorporate multiple birthdays into one combined event ends up alienating the entire office against him .
= = Plot = =
Ryan Howard ( B. J. Novak ) invites the regional branch managers and Dunder Mifflin Scranton Human Resources representative Toby Flenderson ( Paul Lieberstein ) to a corporate wilderness retreat , but does not invite Michael Scott ( Carell ) . To show that he is capable of surviving in the wilderness , Michael leaves Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) in charge of the office and instructs Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) to abandon him deep in the forest with merely a knife and a roll of duct tape . Contrary to Michael 's wishes , Dwight stays behind and surreptitiously monitors his condition from a distance . Michael proves to be completely incapable of living out in the wild by himself . Dwight is forced to come out of hiding to save Michael when he tries to eat wild mushrooms .
Jim 's plan to consolidate three employee birthdays into a combined birthday party encounters several complications , and his constant adjustments incur the ire of Party Planning Committee chair Angela Martin ( Angela Kinsey ) . Later , Jim discovers that no one likes his idea for a combined party , realizing the depth of his error when Phyllis Vance ( Phyllis Smith ) mistakenly refers to him as Michael , and he returns to the original plan of having separate parties . Michael and Dwight return lightening the mood amongst the employees and for the lighting of Creed Bratton 's ( portrayed by the actor of the same name ) birthday cobbler , with Michael expressing that he no longer has any desire to return to the wilderness and Jim expressing his relief that Michael has returned to run the office .
= = Production = =
" Survivor Man " is the second episode written by Steve Carell . Carell also wrote the second season finale " Casino Night " . The episode is the fifth episode directed by Paul Feig , and his first since the second season episode " E @-@ mail Surveillance " . " Survivor Man " is the second episode to feature birthdays as a plot line , but the episode includes a continuity error . The episode was the next to last episode to be aired before the effects of the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike halted production . The episode 's title and plot share similarities with Survivorman , a television show in which the host is placed in the wilderness with little or no supplies for survival .
= = Reception = =
" Survivor Man " received a 4 @.@ 9 / 7 in the Nielsen ratings , meaning that 4 @.@ 9 percent of households were tuned in at any given moment and seven percent of all televisions in use were tuned in to the program . The episode was watched by 8 @.@ 29 million viewers and achieved a 4 @.@ 3 / 10 in the ages 18 – 49 demographic . Travis Fickett of IGN stated that " Overall , this isn 't a terrific episode , but holds up the show 's usual standard . Steve Carell is hilarious as usual . Watching him attempt to make shelter and clothing out of his suit over the span of only a few hours is great fun . " Fickett also stated that a good portion of the humor in the episode came from in @-@ jokes that required previous knowledge of the series , specifically pointing out the parallel comparison between Michael and Jim 's lives . Like Fickett , Christine Fenno of Entertainment Weekly praised the episode 's comparison between Michael and Jim . Fenno also went on to praise other points of the episode , stating she also enjoyed the overall episode for its " just outdoorsiness with Michael and Dwight , and infighting among the rest of the staff . " Oscar Dahl , a Senior Writer for BuddyTV , stated that " What seems like a one and done episode without much character work at first turns into much more by the end . " Dahl went on to praise the episode , stating that it was " lighter " in comparison to Carell 's previous episode " Casino Night " .
= 1988 Pacific hurricane season =
The 1988 Pacific hurricane season was a Pacific hurricane season that saw a below @-@ average amount of tropical cyclones form , the first time since 1981 . It officially began May 15 , 1988 in the eastern Pacific , and June 1 , 1988 in the central Pacific and lasted until November 30 , 1988 . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the northeastern Pacific Ocean . The first named storm , Tropical Storm Aletta , formed on June 16 , and the last @-@ named storm , Tropical Storm Miriam , was previously named Hurricane Joan in the Atlantic Ocean before crossing Central America and re @-@ emerging in the eastern Pacific ; Miriam continued westward and dissipated on November 2 .
The season produced 23 tropical depressions , of which 15 attained tropical storm status . Seven storms reached hurricane status , three of which became major hurricanes . The strongest storm of the season , Hurricane Hector , formed on July 30 to the south of Mexico and reached peak winds of 145 mph ( 230 km / h ) — Category 4 status — before dissipating over open waters on August 9 ; Hector was never a threat to land . Tropical Storm Gilma was the only cyclone in the season to make landfall , crossing the Hawaiian Islands , although there were numerous near @-@ misses . Gilma 's Hawaiian landfall was unusual , but not unprecedented .
= = Seasonal summary = =
The total tropical activity in the season was below @-@ average . There were 13 cyclones in the Eastern Pacific , as well as two in the Central . Of the 15 cyclones , one crossed from the Atlantic Ocean into the Pacific , and another moved from the Central Pacific to the Western Pacific . In the Eastern Pacific , there were seven cyclones peaking as a tropical storm , and six hurricanes , of which two reached Category 3 intensity or higher on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . A tropical storm and a major hurricane occurred in the Central Pacific .
Tropical Storm Gilma made the only landfalls of the season in the Hawaiian Islands , causing some rainfall , but no direct deaths or damage occurred as a result of it . These were the only landfalls in the season that were made , which is unusual as most landfalls in the Eastern Pacific occur on the Mexican coast . This is due to the closeness of the Mexican region to the major source of tropical activity to the west of Central America . Hurricane Uleki , the strongest hurricane in the Central Pacific region during the season , caused two drownings in Oahu and heavy waves hit the coast of the Hawaiian Islands . Tropical Storm Miriam , the last storm of the season , formed as a result of Hurricane Joan from the Atlantic , and flooding resulted in parts of Central America , due to heavy rainfall .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Depression One @-@ E = = =
A tropical disturbance organized into the first eastern Pacific tropical depression of the season on June 15 . A convective band on the north and west sides of the system became well @-@ defined , and anticyclonic outflow allowed for initial organization . After forming , the depression tracked west @-@ southwestward and intensified due to disrupted outflow from a large air stream disturbance . On June 16 , strong convection with spiral banding developed over the depression , although it failed to strengthen further . A low pressure system northwest of the depression in combination with Tropical Storm Aletta to the northeast caused the depression to weaken , and it dissipated on June 18 .
= = = Tropical Storm Aletta = = =
A tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa and progressed westward through the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea , before crossing over Central America on June 13 and emerging into the warm waters of the east Pacific on June 14 . Shortly after , satellite imagery showed good upper @-@ level outflow , although cloud banding remained disorganized . On June 16 , the broad circulation better organized on the northeastern section , with deep convection developing . A tropical depression formed later that day about 200 miles ( 320 km ) to the southeast of Acapulco , Mexico . It developed further as it moved northward toward the southwest coast of Mexico , and had organized sufficiently to be named Tropical Storm Aletta on June 17 . The cyclone drifted north @-@ northwest for the next 36 hours before turning westward , parallel to the Mexican coast . The storm began to lose its convection on June 19 and weakened into a tropical depression later that day . The depression weakened further into a weak low @-@ level circulation before dissipating on June 21 . Although Aletta approached the Acapulco area of the Mexican coast , it did not make landfall . The portion of coast affected by Aletta received heavy rainfall ; unofficial reports state that one person died as a result of the storm , and the storm produced some damage due to rainfall and flooding .
= = = Tropical Storm Bud = = =
Satellite imagery first detected a low @-@ level circulation on June 20 , associated with some heavy convection , 200 miles ( 325 km ) south of the Mexico – Guatemala border , and it intensified into a tropical depression . The cyclone moved northwest then west @-@ northwest over two days . A 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) wind report from a ship on June 21 allowed the depression to be upgraded to Tropical Storm Bud later that day . For the next day , the low @-@ level circulation moved away from its deep convection , dissipating near Acapulco , Mexico . A portion of Bud remaining over land may have been part of the reason for the lack of strengthening of the cyclone .
= = = Tropical Depression Four @-@ E = = =
A system developed in the eastern Pacific , and later strengthened into a tropical depression on July 1 , when it obtained a better defined low @-@ level circulation . The center was exposed , with little convection on the northeast side , due to shear aloft . The system moved to the northwest , while shear continued to move the deep convection of the cyclone to the southwest of its center of circulation . The circulation completely lacked deep convection late on July 2 , although it continued to have a well @-@ defined low @-@ level center . The depression drifted slowly northward , located south of Baja California , before dissipating just south of the peninsula on July 4 , with no circulation or deep convection detected . A small amount of associated rainfall affected Baja California , as the cyclone passed near the peninsula .
= = = Hurricane Carlotta = = =
A tropical wave moved off the western coast of Africa on June 23 , and for the next two weeks , moved through the tropical waters of the Atlantic Ocean and later crossed Central America . It began developing further when it entered the Pacific Ocean and became a dense area of moisture and cloudiness . The wave developed into a disturbance on July 8 , and attained tropical depression status in the afternoon on July 8 , south of Mexico . After entering a favorable area of warm waters , the depression strengthened to Tropical Storm Carlotta on July 9 . Carlotta continued to develop , reached peak strength , and developed into Hurricane Carlotta on July 11 . During the duration of the storm , Carlotta was not considered a hurricane , however after post @-@ season reanalysis Carlotta 's strength was upgraded to minimal hurricane status . As it moved into less favorable conditions it lost strength and weakened to a tropical storm on July 12 . Carlotta began to lose its deep convection , and weakened into a tropical depression on July 13 as it moved into cooler waters . It later moved west @-@ southwest and dissipated on July 15 .
= = = Tropical Storm Daniel = = =
A tropical wave moved off the coast of northwestern Africa on July 4 , and moved through tropical regions of the northern Atlantic and Caribbean Sea without the indication of development . The tropical disturbance crossed Central America on July 14 , and from then until July 18 , the westward motion decreased , as convection and organization increased over warm waters . It developed into a tropical depression on July 19 , and into Tropical Storm Daniel 600 miles ( 970 km ) southwest of the southern tip of Baja California on July 20 . A high pressure system over the western United States and northern Mexico forced Daniel and an upper @-@ level low on parallel west @-@ northwest paths . Daniel stayed generally the same strength for the next few days , reaching peak strength on July 23 . Daniel declined into a tropical depression on July 25 and dissipated on July 26 .
= = = Tropical Storm Emilia = = =
On July 15 , a tropical wave exited Africa and crossed the Atlantic Ocean . It crossed into the Pacific Ocean on July 24 , developing convection and outflow . On July 27 , it organized into a tropical depression off the southwest coast of Mexico . Continuing generally westward , the thunderstorm activity fluctuated , and slowly developing , it intensified into Tropical Storm Emilia on July 29 . The storm attained peak winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) on July 30 , although wind shear and interaction with nearby Tropical Storm Fabio prevented further intensification ; the low @-@ level circulation was located along the northwest edge of the deepest convection . It became disorganized and difficult to locate on satellite imagery , and soon the circulation was exposed from the thunderstorms . On August 1 , Emilia weakened to tropical depression status , and late on August 2 , the last advisory was issued as the system had become very disorganized with minimal convection . Its remnants were tracked for the next few days , and although some deep convection returned momentarily , the system 's convection soon disappeared .
= = = Hurricane Fabio = = =
A well @-@ organized ITCZ disturbance with deep convection organized further over the northeastern Pacific Ocean on July 28 . It developed into a tropical depression later that day , while 1 @,@ 000 miles ( 1 @,@ 600 km ) southwest of the southern tip of Baja California . The position of Fabio 's formation was much further south and west than where most tropical cyclones form during the same time period . The depression moved westward while gradually strengthening and it developed into Tropical Storm Fabio on July 29 . It intensified further over the next few days and it intensified into a hurricane on July 31 . The system increased its speed as it steadily strengthened further . A trough turned the storm west @-@ northwestward on August 3 . Satellite estimates indicated that Fabio reached its maximum intensity later on August 3 , with a well @-@ defined eye with very deep convection surrounding it . The Central Pacific Hurricane Center issued a tropical storm watch for the Big Island on August 4 , due to the threatening west @-@ northwest turn towards it . However , the retreat of a trough later turned Fabio back to the west and the CPHC discontinued the tropical storm watch on August 5 . Fabio 's good upper @-@ level conditions later weakened and began to lose its convection over cooler waters . Fabio quickly weakened and it weakened into a tropical storm again later on August 5 , and back to a depression on August 6 . The depression turned west @-@ northwestward again on August 8 , but Fabio dissipated on August 9 . As the cyclone moved near the Hawaiian islands , heavy rainfall fell across the chain , peaking at 18 @.@ 75 in ( 476 mm ) near Pāpa 'ikou on the island of Hawaii .
= = = Tropical Depression Nine @-@ E = = =
A tropical depression developed in the eastern Pacific on July 28 , forecast to be absorbed by a very close nearby depression , later Tropical Storm Gilma . The depression moved northward , although in unfavorable conditions . The cyclone weakened as the depression to the southwest strengthened further . Limited deep convection developed with the system , although the cyclone continued in unfavorable conditions with shearing . Visible satellite imagery later showed a very weak system , and the storm dissipated on July 29 .
= = = Tropical Storm Gilma = = =
A wave that previously moved through the Atlantic from the northwest coast of Africa , crossed over Central America into the Pacific on July 17 or July 18 . On July 19 , this disturbance was 700 miles ( 1125 km ) to the southeast of the developing Tropical Storm Daniel . The system moved westward for the following week without any signs of intensification . However , on July 26 and 27 , the system appeared to be strengthening due to a banding pattern . By July 28 , the convection underwent further organization with some weak outflow high in the storm . It developed into a tropical depression later on July 28 , much further west then most east Pacific storms develop at . For the next day the cyclone remained fairly stationary , but began to strengthen over warm waters . On July 29 the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Gilma , based on satellite imagery . Limited intensification followed , due to shear high in the storm . It weakened a tropical depression again on July 30 , due to weakness depicted in satellite imagery . Gilma then moved west @-@ northwestward through the northeast Pacific . The depression skirted the Hawaiian Islands , but dissipated near Oahu on August 3 . On the Hawaiian Islands there were no direct damage or deaths , although some rainfall occurred on the islands .
= = = Hurricane Hector = = =
A tropical depression formed on July 30 , while 400 miles ( 645 km ) south of Acapulco , Mexico . The depression tracked west @-@ northwestward , becoming Tropical Storm Hector on July 31 . Its west @-@ northwest motion continued , due to an area of high pressure to its north , and Hector intensified into a hurricane on August 2 . Based on satellite data , the hurricane is estimated to have reached its peak intensity of 145 mph ( 235 km / h ) on August 3 ; this made Hector a Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale , which was the strongest storm of the season . Hector began to move due west on August 5 and it had already begun weakening . The storm continued westward increasing its forward speed . On August 6 it had appeared Hector had strengthened , but steadily weakened afterwards and finally dissipated on August 9 , while 650 miles ( 1 @,@ 045 km ) east of Hilo , Hawaii . Hector never a threat to land .
= = = Hurricane Iva = = =
A wave that first came off the northwest coast of Africa moved through the Atlantic , before entering the East Pacific on August 4 . The wave developed more organized convection when it entered the region , and it turned into a tropical depression on August 5 , while 165 miles ( 270 km ) south of Oaxaca , Mexico . It developed into Tropical Storm Iva on August 6 . Iva turned on a west @-@ northwestward course and continued strengthening , before it developed into a hurricane on August 7 . The cyclone moved northwestward after becoming a hurricane , and satellites estimate it reached peak intensity on August 8 . On the same day Iva passed within 50 miles ( 80 km ) of Socorro Island . Winds of 45 mph ( 70 km / h ) were reported on the island along with moderate rain . The storm moved through cooler waters for the next day , and began to weaken . Ivo declined into a tropical storm again on August 9 , and by August 10 the cyclone lost its deep convection along with organization . It intensified into a tropical depression again on August 11 , and moved southwest due to a high pressure before dissipating on August 3 . For unknown reasons , Iva was retired from the lists of Eastern Pacific storm names , but it was probably to avoid confusion with Hurricane Iwa of the 1982 Pacific season , which was itself retired due to its damage in Hawaii . The name was replaced with Ileana for 1994 .
= = = Tropical Depression Thirteen @-@ E = = =
A tropical depression formed on August 12 , with movement towards the west @-@ northwest . It continued toward the west @-@ northwest , near the circulation of Tropical Storm Iva . The low @-@ level circulation of the cyclone was displaced to the east of the deep convection , and the system moved to the northwest . The depression lost much of its convection later on August 13 , and it had a less defined center . The cyclone turned to the south , and lost its associated deep convection . Some weak convection redeveloped near the center , but the depression dissipated later on August 14 .
= = = Tropical Storm John = = =
A disturbance that passed off the northwestern African coast on August 3 crossed the Atlantic Ocean , before entering into the Pacific . A tropical depression formed in the East Pacific on August 16 , 150 miles ( 240 km ) southwest of Manzanillo , Mexico , based on satellite estimates . The cyclone progressed slowly northwestward , and intensified Tropical Storm John on August 17 , less than 24 hours after its formation . John continued northwest for a short while , before the low @-@ level center of circulation had been exposed . John degenerated to a tropical depression on August 18 due to a lack of convection , made a loop while less than 100 miles ( 160 km ) south of the southern tip of Baja California . It shortly became a little better organized after completing the loop on August 20 , but John dissipated on August 21 , southwest of Baja California , due to shearing and cold waters . Its remnants continued northwestward parallel to the southwest coast of Baja California . John caused no reported deaths or damage .
= = = Tropical Depression Fifteen @-@ E = = =
On August 26 , a disturbance south of Baja California organized into Tropical Depression Fifteen @-@ E. Initially , the system moved northwest towards cooler waters as the location of the low @-@ level circulation was to the southwest of the deep convection associated with the cyclone . The center drifted to the east of the small area of concentrated convection , and its intensity remained steady . It weakened and became loosely defined due to upper @-@ level wind shear , and the storm lost all of its convection before dissipating and degenerating into a low @-@ level swirl .
= = = Hurricane Uleki = = =
Towards the end of August , tropical activity in the ITCZ southeast of the Hawaiian Islands began to be monitored . On August 28 , this tropical disturbance organized into a tropical depression , as it was located about 800 miles ( 1 @,@ 285 km ) southeast of the Big Island . It intensified at a fair rate , and intensified Tropical Storm Uleki the next day . It continued to strengthen , and reached hurricane intensity on August 31 . It moved slowly west @-@ northwest until steering currents collapsed on September 1 . Now a Category 3 hurricane , Uleki slowly edged north towards the Hawaiian Islands . After looping , Uleki resumed its westward path on September 4 . Its stalling in the ocean had weakened it , and the hurricane passed midway between Johnston Island and French Frigate Shoals . Uleki crossed the dateline on September 8 . It turned slightly to the north and meandered in the open Pacific days until it dissipated on September 14 .
As Uleki drifted towards the Hawaiian Islands , tropical storm watches were issued for Oahu , Kauai , and Niihau on September 3 . In addition , reconnaissance missions were flown into the hurricane . Uleki caused heavy surf on the Hawaiian Islands , that being its only significant effect . This heavy surf flooded the southeastern runway on Midway Island , and produced two drownings on Oahu . Nineteen people were also rescued from rough surf , with five- to six @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 5 to 1 @.@ 8 meter ) waves , off the coast of beaches in Hawaii .
= = = Hurricane Kristy = = =
A tropical wave passed off the northwestern coast of Africa on August 6 . It did not develop as it passed through the Atlantic Ocean , until August 19 when convection began to form . On August 20 the disturbance turned into Tropical Depression Six in the Atlantic basin . It passed from the Leeward Islands up to the central Caribbean , until it dissipated on August 23 . As it passed over Central America , the disturbance had little remaining convection . However , the convection associated with the system began to organize when it entered the Pacific , and it strengthened into a tropical depression on August 29 , while located 300 miles ( 485 km ) south @-@ southeast of Acapulco , Mexico . Later that day the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Kristy , based on ship reports of tropical storm force winds . Kristy strengthened into a hurricane on August 31 , based solely on satellite imagery . Hurricane Kristy had short lifespan though , and weakened to a tropical storm on September 2 . The easterly shear associated with an anticyclone south of Baja California , which caused Kristy 's convection to be forced west of the low @-@ level center of the system , and therefore weakened it . Kristy weakened further to a depression on September 3 , and weak steering currents allowed the cyclone to remain stationary on September 4 , loop the following day , and then began to move eastward . The depression dissipated on September 6 , weakening to a low @-@ level swirl . Kristy caused heavy rains and flooding in the Mexican states of Chiapas and Oaxaca .
Although the storm passed relatively close to the coast , no tropical cyclone warnings and watches were required as the storm remained offshore . However , Kristy produced heavy rains and widespread flooding in the Mexican states of Chiapas and Oaxaca ; as a result , several rivers overflowed their banks . Thousands of tourists were stranded from the beaches . At least 21 deaths were attributed to Kristy : 16 in Oaxaca and 5 in Chiapas . More than 20 @,@ 000 people in the former were evacuated from their homes ; consequently , a state of emergency was declared . The outher rainbands of Kristy delayed the rescue of the victims of a Brazilian @-@ made aircraft that crashed west of the Sierra Madre Occidental mountain range . No official damage figures were reported by the Mexican government .
= = = Tropical Depression Seventeen @-@ E ( Debby ) = = =
The remnants of Hurricane Debby moved over the mountainous areas of Mexico , passing into the Pacific from the Pacific coast of Mexico near Manzanillo . The disturbance moved towards the north @-@ northwest and organized into a tropical depression on September 6 just south of the Gulf of California . The cyclone remained stationary due to weak low @-@ level steering currents , later drifting to the north @-@ northwest with an area of deep convection causing rain on the Mexican coast . It later moved to the northwest , with partial exposure of the center of the system , and with some shear still affecting it . The cyclone continued to have shear over the system , which caused it not to strengthen , and its movement became nearly stationary . After remaining stationary longer , the system dissipated as a low @-@ level swirl .
= = = Tropical Depression Eighteen @-@ E = = =
A disturbance organized , and based on satellite imagery it strengthened into a tropical depression on September 12 . The center of circulation remained on the eastern fringe of its deep convection and the storm moved west or west @-@ northwestward . On September 13 , the depression underwent shearing , while its low @-@ level circulation center had only a small amount of deep convection associated with it . The cyclone became poorly defined , and its movement turned stationary on September 14 . The low @-@ level circulation of the system remained visible , even though it weakened due to shearing . Little deep convection remained associated with the system , and the cyclone stayed stationary . The depression having no remaining convection and having become just a low @-@ level cloud swirl , dissipated on September 15 .
= = = Tropical Storm Wila = = =
A tropical depression formed on September 21 as an area of deep convection . The cyclone organized slowly though , drifting slowly , initially west then to the northwest . However , the depression recurved northeast , due to a trough . As the cyclone moved northeast , the system strengthened as indicated by an Air Force reconnaissance plane showing tropical storm force winds . It therefore intensified into Tropical Storm Wila on September 25 . Wila , however , weakened within a day , and therefore became a tropical depression . The remnant low of Wila produced some heavy rain over the Hawaiian Islands on September 26 and 27 .
= = = Hurricane Lane = = =
A wave moved westward off the coast of Africa , passed through the Caribbean Sea , and into the ITCZ of the eastern Pacific on September 20 . The system developed organized deep convection , and strengthened into a tropical depression on September 21 , while 300 miles ( 485 km ) southeast of Acapulco , Mexico . As the low @-@ level circulation organized further in the depression it intensified into Tropical Storm Lane , later on September 21 . Lane developed further with an upper @-@ level outflow pattern , and the cyclone turned into a hurricane on September 23 . Later on September 23 and on September 24 , an eye appeared on satellite imagery . A trough to the northwest of Lane disturbed its upper @-@ level outflow on September 24 . Diminishing convection and loss of its eye caused Lane to weaken to a tropical storm on September 27 , and into a depression on September 28 . Later on September 28 , the cyclone moved into cooler waters and Lane lost nearly all of its deep convection . It weakened into a low @-@ level swirl , and Lane dissipated on September 30 . Lane caused no reported casualties or damage .
= = = Tropical Depression Twenty @-@ E = = =
The remnants of Atlantic basin Tropical Storm Isaac moved into the eastern Pacific . These remnants underwent better organization and strengthened into a tropical depression on October 11 south of Baja California . Strong vertical southwesterly wind shear affected the cyclone , with the center of circulation later seen on the west side of the lessening amount of deep convection . The system remained poorly organized and had trouble strengthening to this continual poor organization as it moved westward . The system could not be located on satellite imagery and therefore dissipated on October 12 .
= = = Tropical Storm Miriam = = =
Atlantic hurricane , Hurricane Joan survived the passage over Central America and entered the Pacific , although greatly weakened . Following the policy at the time , Joan was renamed Miriam .
Miriam brought heavy rains to parts of Central America . Isolated flooding and mudslides happened , although casualties and damage reports are not available . 10 @.@ 37 in ( 263 mm ) of rain fell in Kantunilkin / Lazaro Cardenas , Mexico as a result of Miriam and the former Joan . Guatemala 's ports along its Pacific coast were closed and people in El Salvador were evacuated from low @-@ lying areas due to the storm . Miriam then turned away from Central America and weakened to a depression . The depression survived for over a week until it dissipated on October 30 . Tropical Depression Miriam 's remnants regenerated the next day , and Miriam finally dissipated on November 2 .
= = Accumulated Cyclone Energy ( ACE ) = =
The table on the right shows the Accumulated Cyclone Energy for each storm in the season . ACE is a measure of the power of a tropical cyclones multiplied by the length of time it existed , so storms that last a long time , as well as particularly strong tropical cyclones , have high ACEs . ACE is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 34 knots ( 39 mph , 63 km / h ) or tropical storm strength .
The figures in parentheses are for storms in the Central Pacific basin west of 140 ° W ; those not in parenthesis are for the Eastern Pacific basin .
The cumulative ACE for the Eastern Pacific this season fell within the official " Near Normal " grading .
= = Season effects = =
This is a table of all of the storms that have formed in the 1988 Pacific hurricane season . It includes their duration , names , landfall ( s ) , denoted in parenthesis , damages , and death totals . Deaths in parentheses are additional and indirect ( an example of an indirect death would be a traffic accident ) , but were still related to that storm . Damage and deaths include totals while the storm was extratropical , a wave , or a low , and all of the damage figures are in 1988 USD .
= = 1988 storm names = =
The following names were used for named storms that formed in the eastern Pacific in 1988 . The names not retired from this list were used again in the 1994 season . This is the same list used for the 1982 season . Names that were not assigned are marked in gray .
Two names from the Central Pacific list were used – Uleki and Wila , both being their first usage .
= = Retirement = =
The World Meteorological Organization retired one name in the spring of 1989 : Iva . Ileana replaced the name of Iva in the 1994 season .
= Unrequited ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Unrequited " is the sixteenth episode of the fourth season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It was written by Howard Gordon and series creator Chris Carter , and directed by Michael Lange . It originally aired in the United States on February 23 , 1997 on the Fox network . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , a stand @-@ alone plot which is unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 9 and was seen by 16 @.@ 56 million viewers upon its initial broadcast . " Unrequited " received mixed to negative reviews from television critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In this episode , the murder of a U.S. Army Lieutenant General has Mulder and Scully struggling to stop a seemingly invisible assassin . The two agents soon learn that they are doomed to failure from the start , as the U.S. government is attempting to cover up the existence of American POWs still being kept in Vietnam .
Gordon was inspired to write the episode after viewing an installment of the news series 60 Minutes that dealt with American secret agents the CIA left behind during the Vietnam War . The eventual concept that the assassin could create blind spots came after the writer spoke with his ophthalmologist brother . The entry featured a finished replica of the Vietnam Veterans Memorial , and various Canadian locales substituted for various locations in Washington , D.C.
= = Plot = =
The episode begins at the National Mall , where Major General Benjamin Bloch ( Scott Hylands ) gives a speech to a crowd of Vietnam War veterans . Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) , Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) , and Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) patrol the crowd , searching for a potential gunman . However , when the agents see the gunman , he repeatedly disappears and makes their efforts to track him difficult . Mulder finds himself aiming his gun towards the panicked crowd , desperately searching for the gunman as he had disappeared right in front of him .
Twelve hours earlier , at Fort Evanston , Maryland , Lieutenant General Peter MacDougal ( Bill Agnew ) is shot in his limousine by the gunman . Skinner briefs the agents on the killing , noting a king of hearts playing card — used by the soldiers in Vietnam to mark their kills — was left at the scene . The FBI suspects a far @-@ right paramilitary group , the Right Hand , of killing MacDougal in an effort to stop an upcoming re @-@ dedication of a Vietnam war memorial in Washington .
Mulder and Scully head to Virginia to question the Right Hand 's leader , Denny Markham ( Larry Musser ) . A search of his fenced @-@ off cabin uncovers ammunition and a photograph showing him in the company of a Sergeant Nathaniel Teager ( Peter LaCroix ) . After being arrested , Markham reveals that Teager was a soldier in Vietnam who was left for dead as a prisoner of war . Meanwhile , at the Vietnam memorial , Teager approaches a war widow and claims that her husband is still alive as a POW . After giving the woman her husband 's dog tags , Teager mysteriously disappears .
Skinner informs the agents that Teager is officially dead , and that his remains are at the Army 's forensics lab . However , Mulder learns that the lab only possesses Teager 's dental remains , and that the cause of his death was recorded as " inconclusive " . Mulder believes that General John Steffan ( William Nunn ) , who signed Teager 's death certificate , is his next target . Teager makes his way past Pentagon security and kills Steffan in his office . Upon seeing Teager on the Pentagon 's surveillance tapes , Mulder notes the frequent unexplained appearances and disappearances of Viet Cong troops reported by POWs in Vietnam .
During a meeting with Marita Covarrubias ( Laurie Holden ) , Mulder learns that Steffan , McDougal , and Bloch were all involved in negotiations concerning POWs . Meanwhile , as Bloch 's motorcade makes its way to the Mall , Scully spots Teager in the crowd , only to see him vanish in an instant . Mulder tells Skinner and Scully that the government has arranged for their investigation to fail in an effort to cover up the truth about American POWs still being kept in Vietnam .
In the present , during the re @-@ dedication ceremony , Mulder realizes that no one can see Teager if they are in his line of sight . Teager follows Skinner and Bloch to the motorcade , where he unsuccessfully shoots at the general and Skinner suffers a flesh wound . Teager is shot in turn by the agents as he tries to escape . As he succumbs to his wounds , Teager repeats his Army identification . Afterwards , the Pentagon states that the assassin was a different person — which Mulder denounces as a lie . He leaves Skinner to silently ponder his own service in the Vietnam War as he looks upon Teager 's name on the memorial wall .
= = Production = =
After producer Howard Gordon saw on 60 Minutes episode about the American secret agents the CIA left behind during the Vietnam War , he was intrigued and decided to develop a future script based around this . Howard was scheduled to only write one episode of the season , the nineteenth entry " Synchrony " . However , Gordon met with Chris Carter and Frank Spotnitz the day before the holiday break to pitch his idea . After getting frustrated developing the episode 's plot summary , Gordon requested Carter 's help in exchange for a shared writing credit . Gordon then wrote the script during the break .
Gordon had been considering a man that turned invisible in the political and metaphorical sense for a while , but he still needed a way for physical invisibility . The eventual concept came after the writer spoke with his ophthalmologist brother , who told about blind spots regarding malfunctioning retinal spots or optic nerves , which do not impair humans due to a brain compensation . Gordon noted , " these stories come from scientific research ... So I said , what if someone could actually create a field of vision where none actually exists ? " Gordon decided to use a Vietnam War veteran given " they are getting old , and like the Holocaust survivor of ' Kaddish ' , starting to die " , and the opportunity would allow a larger role for Skinner . General MacDougal was named after the show 's editor , Heather MacDougall .
The episode featured a finished replica of the Vietnam Veterans Memorial that was first featured in an incomplete state during " Never Again " . The replica was first put on Vancouver 's Jericho Park due to the locale 's " expansive , groomed , flat " characteristics . Only portions of the wall were real , whereas the rest were created via computer generated imagery ( CGI ) . Day scenes at the monument were shot at Jericho Park , whereas night scenes took place at Ballantyne Pier , which was a large warehouse . The grandstand that had been assembled at Jericho Park was dismantled and reassembled in the warehouse . The replica had fake names created by the sister of art assistant Kristina Lyne due to legal reasons , which included names of The X @-@ Files cast and crew . In addition , two of them , " Jesse R. Ellison " and " Harlan L. Hahn " , referenced noted writer Harlan Ellison and model Jessica Hahn . The crowd for the memorial 's reinauguration scene , which at times was duplicated through CGI , consisted of 500 extras , fifty of which won the opportunity to appear on the show in local radio contests .
A civilian underpass in Stanley Park doubled as Freedom Plaza . During the filming in the park , several public photographers sought out Anderson . Because of a stipulation of filming in parks , the police cannot deny anyone access . To compensate for this , many of the available crew and production staff members formed a " human blockade " to prevent the paparazzi from disturbing the shots . The terminal for the Canada Place waterfront building served as a stand @-@ in for the interior of the Pentagon .
= = Reception = =
" Unrequited " premiered on the Fox network on February 23 , 1997 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 9 , with a 16 share , meaning that roughly 10 @.@ 9 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 16 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . " Unrequited " was seen by 16 @.@ 56 million viewers on first broadcast . The episode first aired in the United Kingdom on January 7 , 1998 on BBC One .
Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club gave the episode a " B – " . He wrote that " Unrequited " " isn 't a very good episode " of the series , but that it is " a potent one all the same " due to its " great ideas " that are unfortunately never expanded upon . VanDerWerff felt that the episode 's biggest problem was that it started in media res and revealed the episode 's conclusion , writing " it 's a pretty great starting point for an episode . Instead , it 's actually the endpoint " . Despite the negativity towards the plot , he wrote that the entry was " a good episode for Skinner " in that it gives him a mission and alludes to his past in a realistic way . Furthermore , VanDerWerff also applauded the way the show used the Vietnam War in a way that felt " fresh " . Independent reviewer Sarah Stegall awarded the episode a two out of five and derided it as a " pseudo @-@ political story " . She was negative towards the " lack of emotional investment " , which she felt was what damaged the episode ; she called Teager a cipher who was portrayed as a " Twitchy Vet " rather than a " Tragic Hero " .
Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode two stars out of five . They heavily criticized the episode for taking place before the events of " Kaddish " and " Memento Mori " in an attempt to not deal with Scully 's cancer . Furthermore , the two criticized the episode for being " thin stuff " and heavily padded ; Shearman and Pearson note that the long teaser is replayed in the episode " to no new dramatic effect " and that Covarrubias 's appearance offers no new information . Paula Vitaris , writing for Cinefantastique , rated " Unrequited " one star out of four , writing that it " collapses under the weight of its message " and that it " fails to bring to life any of its guest characters " . Furthermore , she criticized the reusing of the teaser , noting that it " just comes off as a writer 's device " .
= Halfbeak =
The halfbeaks ( family Hemiramphidae ) are a geographically widespread and numerically abundant family of epipelagic fish inhabiting warm waters around the world . The halfbeaks are named for their distinctive jaws , in which the lower jaws are significantly longer than the upper jaws . The similar viviparous halfbeaks ( family Zenarchopteridae ) have often been included in this family .
Though not commercially important themselves , these forage fish support artisanal fisheries and local markets worldwide . They are also fed upon by other commercially important predatory fishes , such as billfishes , mackerels , and sharks .
= = Taxonomy = =
In 1775 , Carl Linnaeus was the first to scientifically describe a halfbeak , Esox brasiliensis . In 1775 Peter Forsskål described two more species as Esox , Esox far and Esox marginatus . It was not until 1816 that Georges Cuvier created the genus Hemiramphus ; from then on , all three were classified as Hemiramphus . In 1859 , Gill erected Hemiramphidae , deriving its name from Hemiramphus , the family 's type genus . The name comes from the Greek hemi , meaning half , and rhamphos , meaning beak or bill .
The Hemiramphinae are primarily marine and found in the Atlantic , Pacific , and Indian Oceans , though some inhabit estuaries and rivers . The Zenarchopterinae are confined to the Indo @-@ West Pacific zoogeographic region , an area running from East Africa to the Caroline Islands .
= = Evolution = =
The halfbeaks ' fossil record extends into the Lower Tertiary . The earliest known halfbeak is Brachyrhamphus bolcensis from the Eocene at Monte Bolca , Italy . Apart from differences in the length of the upper and lower jaws , recent and fossil halfbeaks are distinguished by the fusion of the third pair of upper pharyngeal bones into a plate .
= = Phylogeny = =
The phylogeny of the halfbeaks is in a state of flux .
On the one hand , there is little question that they are most closely related to three other families of streamlined , surface water fishes : the flyingfishes , needlefishes , and sauries . Traditionally , these four families have been taken to together comprise the order Beloniformes . The halfbeaks and flyingfishes are considered to form one group , the superfamily Exocoetoidea , and the needlefishes and sauries another , the superfamily Scomberesocoidea .
On the other hand , recent studies have demonstrated that rather than forming a single monophyletic group ( a clade ) , the halfbeak family actually includes a number of lineages ancestral to the flyingfishes and the needlefishes . In other words , as traditionally defined , the halfbeak family is paraphyletic .
Within the subfamily Hemiramphinae , the " flying halfbeak " genus Oxyporhamphus has proved to be particularly problematic ; while morphologically closer to the flyingfishes , molecular evidence places it with Hemiramphus and Euleptorhamphus . Together , these three genera form the sister group to the flyingfish family . The other two hemiramphine genera Hyporhamphus and Arrhamphus form another clade of less clear placement .
Rather than being closely related to the flyingfishes , the subfamily Zenarchopterinae appears to be the sister group of the needlefishes and sauries . This is based on the pharyngeal jaw apparatus , sperm ultrastructure , and molecular evidence . However , this hypothesis has awkward implications for how the morphological evolution of the group is understood , because the fused pharyngeal plate has been considered reliably diagnostic of the halfbeak family . Furthermore , the existing theory that because juvenile needlefish pass through a developmental stage where the lower jaw is longer than the upper jaw ( the so @-@ called " halfbeak stage " ) the theory that halfbeaks are paedomorphic needlefish is untenable . In fact the unequal lengths of the upper and lower jaws of halfbeaks appears to be the basal condition , with needlefish being relatively derived in comparison .
= = Morphology = =
The halfbeaks are elongate , streamlined fish adapted to living in open water . Halfbeaks can grow to over 40 centimeters ( 16 in ) SL in the case of Euleptorhampus viridis . The scales are relatively large , cycloid ( smooth ) , and easily detached . There are no spines in the fins . A distinguishing characteristic is that the third pair of upper pharyngeal bones are anklylosed ( fused ) into a plate . Halfbeaks are one of several fish families that lack a stomach , all of which possess a pharyngeal jaw apparatus ( pharyngeal mill ) . Most species have an extended lower jaw , at least as juveniles , though this feature may be lost as the fish mature , as with Chriodorus , for example .
As is typical for surface dwelling , open water fish , most species are silvery , darker above and lighter below , an example of countershading . The tip of the lower jaw is bright red or orange in most species .
Halfbeaks carry several adaptations to feeding at the water surface . The eyes and nostrils are at the top of the head and the upper jaw is mobile , but not the lower jaw . Combined with their streamlined shape and the concentration of fins towards the back ( similar to that of a pike ) , these adaptations allow halfbeaks to locate , catch , and swallow food items very effectively .
= = Range and habitat = =
Halfbeaks inhabit warm seas , predominantly at the surface , in the Atlantic , Indian , and Pacific oceans . A small number are found in estuaries . Most species of marine halfbeaks are known from continental coastlines , but some extend into the western and central Pacific , and one species is endemic to New Zealand . Hemiramphus is a worldwide marine genus .
= = Ecology and behavior = =
= = = Feeding = = =
Marine halfbeaks are omnivores feeding on algae ; marine plants such as seagrasses ; plankton ; invertebrates such as pteropods and crustaceans ; and smaller fishes . For some subtropical species at least , juveniles are more predatory than adults . Some tropical species feed on animals during the day and plants at night , while other species alternate between carnivory in the summer and herbivory in the winter . They are in turn eaten by many ecologically and commercially important fish , such as billfish , mackerel , and sharks , and so are a key link between trophic levels .
= = = Behavior = = =
Marine halfbeaks are typically pelagic schooling forage fish . The southern sea garfish Hyporhamphus melanochir for example is found in sheltered bays , coastal seas , estuaries around southern Australia in waters down to a depth of | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
= = =
Coconut Crabs are considered one of the most terrestrial decapods , with most aspects of its life linked to a terrestrial existence ; they will drown in sea water in less than a day . Coconut crabs live alone in underground burrows and rock crevices , depending on the local terrain . They dig their own burrows in sand or loose soil . During the day , the animal stays hidden to reduce water loss from heat . The coconut crabs ' burrows contain very fine yet strong fibres of the coconut husk which the animal uses as bedding . While resting in its burrow , the coconut crab closes the entrances with one of its claws to create the moist microclimate within the burrow necessary for its breathing organs . In areas with a large coconut crab population , some may come out during the day , perhaps to gain an advantage in the search for food . Other times they will emerge if it is moist or raining , since these conditions allow them to breathe more easily . They live almost exclusively on land , returning to the sea only to release their eggs ; on Christmas Island , for instance , B. latro is abundant 6 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) from the sea .
= = = Relationship with human beings = = =
Adult coconut crabs have no known predators apart from other coconut crabs and humans . Its large size and the quality of its meat means that the coconut crab is extensively hunted and is very rare on islands with a human population . The coconut crab is eaten by Southeast Asians and Pacific Islanders and is considered a delicacy and an aphrodisiac , and intensive hunting has threatened the species ' survival in some areas . While the coconut crab itself is not innately poisonous , it may become so depending on its diet , and cases of coconut crab poisoning have occurred . For instance , consumption of the sea mango Cerbera manghas by the coconut crab may make the coconut crab toxic due to the presence of cardiac cardenolides .
The pincers of the coconut crab are powerful enough to cause noticeable pain to a human ; furthermore , the coconut crab will often keep its hold for extended periods of time . Thomas Hale Streets reports a trick used by Micronesians of the Line Islands to get a coconut crab to loosen its grip : " It may be interesting to know that in such a dilemma a gentle titillation of the under soft parts of the body with any light material will cause the crab to loosen its hold . "
In the Cook Islands , the coconut crab is known as unga or kaveu , and in the Mariana Islands it is called ayuyu , and is sometimes associated with taotaomo 'na because of the traditional belief that ancestral spirits can return in the form of animals such as the coconut crab .
= = Conservation = =
Coconut crab populations in several areas have declined or become locally extinct due to both habitat loss and human predation . In 1981 , it was listed on the IUCN Red List as a vulnerable species , but a lack of biological data caused its assessment to be amended to " data deficient " in 1996 .
Conservation management strategies have been put in place in some regions , such as minimum legal size limit restrictions in Guam and Vanuatu , and a ban on the capture of egg @-@ bearing females in Guam and the Federated States of Micronesia . In the Northern Mariana Islands , hunting of non @-@ egg @-@ bearing adults above a carapace length of 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) may take place in September , October and November , and only under licence . There is a bag limit of 5 coconut crabs on any given day , and 15 across the whole season .
In Tuvalu coconut crabs live on the motu ( islets ) in the Funafuti Conservation Area , a marine conservation area covering 33 square kilometres ( 12 @.@ 74 square miles ) of reef , lagoon and motu on the western side of Funafuti atoll .
= = Names = =
The coconut crab has been known to western scientists since the voyages of Sir Francis Drake around 1580 and William Dampier around 1688 . Based on an account by Georg Eberhard Rumphius ( 1705 ) , who had called the animal " Cancer crumenatus " , Carl Linnaeus ( 1767 ) named the species Cancer latro , from the Latin latro , meaning " robber " . The genus Birgus was erected in 1816 by William Elford Leach , containing only Linnaeus ' Cancer latro , which was thus renamed Birgus latro . Birgus is classified in the family Coenobitidae , alongside one other genus , Coenobita , which contains the terrestrial hermit crabs .
Common names for the species include coconut crab , robber crab and palm thief , which mirrors the animal 's name in other European languages ( e.g. German : Palmendieb ) .
= Metroid : Other M =
Metroid : Other M is an action @-@ adventure video game developed by " Project M " , a team consisting of members from Nintendo , Team Ninja and D @-@ Rockets , and published by Nintendo for the Wii console . It is part of the Metroid series , and was released in North America on August 31 , 2010 . This was shortly followed by the release in Japan , Australia and Europe in September 2010 . The game is set between the events of Super Metroid and Metroid Fusion . The player assumes the role of bounty hunter Samus Aran , who investigates a derelict space station along with a Galactic Federation platoon , which includes her former commanding officer , Adam Malkovich .
Other M is played from a third @-@ person perspective using only with the Wii Remote , and focuses on exploration and combat . Other M introduces melee attacks which could only be executed when an enemy 's health was reduced to a certain degree . Impressed with the 2004 action game Ninja Gaiden , series co @-@ creator Yoshio Sakamoto approached Team Ninja to develop Other M , while D @-@ Rockets was brought in to handle the in @-@ game cutscenes . The development team employed a simple control scheme to make the game more intuitive and attractive , and gave significant focus on plot and characterization , with extensive usage of cinematics and voice acting .
Upon release , Other M received favorable reviews , with much praise to its gameplay , music , graphics and overall atmosphere . Some journalists , however , criticized its plot and Samus ' characterization in the game , which was considered negative deviation from the series ' norm . Other M received an Editors ' Choice Award and the award for Coolest Atmosphere of 2010 from IGN , was nominated for Best Wii Game of the 2010 by GameTrailers and picked by Wired as one of the best games of the year , but was also chosen as one of the worst games of the year by Entertainment Weekly and Attack of the Show ! , and as the third Biggest Disappointment of 2010 by Game Informer . It was the third best @-@ selling video game in Japan during its week of release , and it was the ninth best @-@ selling game in North America during September 2010 . The long @-@ term sales numbers were considered disappointing by Nintendo , as a half a million copies of the game were sold in North America by November 2010 .
= = Gameplay = =
As in previous Metroid games , Metroid : Other M is set in a large world with elevators that connect regions . Each elevator contains rooms separated by doors , which mostly open automatically , but sometimes need a special action to be unlocked . Other M unfolds in a more linear manner due to its focus on storyline ; Navigation Booths , similar to the Navigation Rooms from Metroid Fusion , tell the player where to go , and the in @-@ game map highlights the next objective . The gameplay revolves around solving puzzles to uncover secrets , platform jumping , and shooting enemies . While there are power @-@ ups scattered around the Bottle Ship , a few items are already equipped by Samus , but she agrees to wait to use them until commanding officer Adam Malkovich authorizes her to do so . Unlike other games in the series , enemies do not drop items , with the restoration of health and ammo occurring either by using the Navigation Booths , or employing of the Concentration technique , where Samus rests and replenishes missiles and health .
The regular gameplay features a third @-@ person perspective , where players hold the Wii Remote horizontally . Samus can jump , fire the arm cannon , and turn into a morph ball , which can roll into narrow passages and drop energy bombs . While gameplay is similar to early Metroid titles , the game 's environments are three @-@ dimensional and movement is not limited to a two @-@ dimensional plane . Other M is the first in the series to feature a melee combat system . With well @-@ timed button presses , players can use special techniques such as the Sense Move , which allows them to dodge enemy attacks , and the Overblast , where Samus jumps on the enemy and fires a charged shot at point @-@ blank range .
When the Wii Remote is pointed towards the screen , the angle switches into a first @-@ person perspective , where players can lock onto targets and fire missiles ; however , players cannot move in this perspective . There are several instances where players will have to constantly switch between play modes ; for example , fighting off a horde of flying enemies in third person , while switching to first person to destroy their spawn points . Additionally , the first @-@ person mode is also used in exploration , such as locating hidden items .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting and characters = = =
Metroid : Other M takes place between Super Metroid and Metroid Fusion , and is set on a Galactic Federation Bottle Ship . The main environment is the vessel interior , known as the Main Sector , along with the other environments that are contained in " sectors " or gigantic spheres within the ship : the Biosphere , a lush , tropical region ; the Cryophere , an arctic environment ; and the Pyrosphere , a heated , lava @-@ filled area . Later on in the game , the ship is revealed to be a secret facility which contains many different lifeforms with the purpose of turning them into bioweapons . The facility eventually abandoned them after the crew managed to breed a Queen Metroid and propagate Metroids in Sector Zero , a recreation of the Space Pirates ' base in Zebes , and interfaced with them via an artificial intelligence in an android body named MB . It is modeled after Mother Brain and is able to communicate with Metroids and other creatures through telepathy .
The player takes on the role of bounty hunter Samus Aran , who investigates the Bottle Ship after receiving a " Baby 's Cry " -type distress signal . Upon docking , she encountered the squad she had been a part of when she had been enrolled in the Galactic Federation Army , the " 07th Platoon " , consisting of several soldiers : Adam Malkovich , the commanding officer to Samus during her time in the Federation ; Anthony Higgs , the point man of the 07th Platoon and Samus ' past colleague ; Lyle Smithsonian , a special forces trooper in charge of demolition assignments and who suffers from entomophobia ; K.G. Misawa , the recon scout ; Maurice Favreau , the engineer ; and James Pierce , a communications expert . Midpoint in the game , Samus learns that the Federation soldiers are mysteriously killed by a secret assassin among their ranks , who she calls the " Deleter " . Other characters include Dr. Madeline Bergman , the site manager and development director of the Bottle Ship 's secret projects ; and MB , named Melissa Bergman , an android created to replicate Mother Brain 's artificial intelligence . Adam 's deceased brother , Ian Malkovich , is included in one of Samus ' flashbacks .
= = = Story = = =
The story begins as Samus awakens in a Galactic Federation facility , after dreaming about her battle with Mother Brain and the death of the Metroid larva on planet Zebes . Time passes and Samus receives a distress signal from a dormant " Bottle Ship , " which floats a short distance away from a Federation vessel . Upon entering the ship , Samus encounters the Galactic Federation 07th Platoon , among which her old colleagues from her military career : commanding officer Adam Malkovich , and point man Anthony Higgs . Adam treats Samus very harshly due to the circumstances of her departure from the army , and orders his team not to reveal any details of their mission to " an outsider " . After she saves them from monsters , Adam eventually allows Samus to cooperate with the platoon under the condition that she follow his orders . The platoon is then briefed , and assigned to go on solo searches to investigate the Bottle Ship .
At the Biosphere 's Exam Center , Samus and the 07th Platoon learn that the ship 's director , Dr. Madeline Bergman , had conducted research on illegal bioweapons for the Federation . After a mysterious reptilian creature attacks before being driven off , Adam directs Samus to pursue the monster to the Pyrosphere , though is quickly directed to the Cryosphere to find any survivors . There , she encounters an unidentified woman , but is shortly attacked by an unidentified 07th Platoon soldier . Realizing there is a traitor amongst the platoon , Samus dubs him the " Deleter " . Returning to the Pyrosphere to pursue the mysterious reptilian creature , Samus discovers that it is actually a juvenile stage of the dragon @-@ like Ridley . Adam tries to get through to her before he is attacked . Anthony draws Ridley 's attention and challenges him , but is seemingly killed , forcing Samus to battle with him . As Samus leaves the Pyrosphere , she discovers the " Deleter " heading to the Biosphere and follows him to the Bioweapon Research Center , where Samus meets the woman from before , who claims to be " Madeline Bergman " . Madeline tells Samus that an artificial intelligence program based on Mother Brain , called MB , was created to control the Metroids , harbored in a secret area known as Sector Zero . As Samus approaches towards Sector Zero , Adam stops her from entering , telling her that the Metroids in the said sector are most invulnerable to cold . Adam commands Samus to defeat Ridley and secure the safety of a survivor in " Room MW " of the Bioweapon Research Center . Adam then heads to Sector Zero to activate its self @-@ destruct sequence , sacrificing himself in the process .
Swearing to finish the mission , Samus returns to the research center , where she finds the body of James Pierce and mummified remains of Ridley . She discovers the survivor that Adam mentioned , and confronts a Queen Metroid . She defeats the creature and pursues the survivor , who reveals herself as Madeline Bergman . She tells Samus that MB was the person met earlier , an android created to establish a relationship with the Metroids . MB revolted and developed a personality similar to Mother Brain , telepathically commanding the Space Pirate special forces to attack those on board . MB appears and confronts Samus and Madeline . Suddenly , a group of Federation Marines rushes into the room , and MB summons the Bottle Ship 's most dangerous creatures to attack everyone . After being frozen by a distraught Madeline , MB is shot dead by the Marines . The colonel praises Samus for her involvement in the mission , but orders a Marine to escort her back to her ship . A Marine complies and reveals himself as Anthony , the only surviving member of the 07th Platoon . Samus , along with Madeline and Anthony , then leave for the Galactic Federation headquarters in her gunship .
In a post @-@ credits epilogue , Samus returns to the Bottle Ship , now marked for destruction by the Galactic Federation , to retrieve something that is irreplaceable . After battling a Phantoon , a monster Samus had also fought in Zebes , she arrives at the control center and recovers Adam 's platoon helmet . The Bottle Ship 's self @-@ destruct sequence is remotely activated , which Samus – in her Zero Suit – escapes with Adam 's helmet .
= = Development = =
Metroid : Other M was developed by " Project M " , a team of over 100 people that includes staff from Nintendo , Team Ninja , and D @-@ Rockets , with production lasting for three years . During the launch of the Wii console in 2006 , Nintendo producer and chief Metroid designer Yoshio Sakamoto decided to create a new Metroid game for it , but opted to work with an outside company , as his usual development team " didn 't actually have the know @-@ how to produce something that was 3D " . Eventually , Sakamoto approached Yosuke Hayashi of Team Ninja to discuss the incorporation of the flashy Ninja Gaiden engine into a new engine to encompass his new vision of a 3D Metroid game . Sakamoto served as producer and scenario designer , and main design was done by three designers from the Game Boy Advance titles of the series , Metroid Fusion and Metroid : Zero Mission . Team Ninja took charge of the programming and 3D modeling , and D @-@ Rockets handled the CG cutscenes . Hayashi described the work on the game as " a great honour " since he was a fan of the series , and stated Team Ninja tried to include as many creatures seen in previous games as possible .
While Retro Studios tried to create " the ultimate first @-@ person experience " with the Metroid Prime series , Sakamoto 's approach with gameplay was different , particularly for the story Other M intended to tell . When Sakamoto met Team Ninja , he said his intent was a game with " controls as simple as those of a NES game " , so it would appeal to modern players . Team Ninja agreed with that approach , as they felt control schemes with excessive buttons were possibly turning players off the action genre , and tried to make the game employ only the Wii Remote , without resorting to the Nunchuk expansion . The development team also tried to use the simpler controls to provide flashy action , with varied special attacks that would need few button inputs to be executed . Sakamoto focused on 2D @-@ like gameplay because he considered it more " comfortable " for audiences , particularly during shifts from gameplay to cutscenes , as he thought 2D " [ doesn 't ] have the same distractions when you want to give them story sequences " . While the developers felt no need to integrate everything from the Prime series as they were games with different concepts , a few of the elements that " made those games unique " were implemented into Other M , such as the " immersive sight " of the first @-@ person mode . When questioned if Other M would be too similar to Ninja Gaiden , Yosuke Hayashi responded that while the new game will feature heavy action @-@ based sequences , there will still be the exploration @-@ based sequences characteristic of other Metroid games . Yoshio Sakamoto said that Other M 's story progression was in the same manner as Metroid Fusion , and stated that the collaboration between Nintendo and Team Ninja is " unlike anything that 's ever been done at Nintendo ; it 's more than just a collaborative effort — it 's one group working toward a common goal " .
Before Other M 's development , Sakamoto did not think too much about " what kind of person Samus Aran was and how she thinks and her personality " , particularly because the games tried to depict Samus as a mysterious person . Sakamoto and Team Ninja put much focus on backstory in the game to present Samus as an " appealing human character " , something important for future installments , as players would get further interest in Samus ' adventures . Hayashi said that one of the development team 's goals was to have the player " connect with Samus as the story and action develops " . Sakamoto also said the game would " bring everyone up to the same level of understanding in the Metroid universe " , and would not only introduce the series to new players but also create new challenges for fans . The chronological setting between Super Metroid and Metroid Fusion was chosen because Sakamoto considered the period " so critical that without addressing it , we wouldn 't be able to make new games that show Samus ' adventures that take place after the events of Metroid Fusion " .
D @-@ Rockets , a company specialized in CG animation for video games and commercials , was brought into the project for its in @-@ game cinematics on Team Ninja productions . Director Ryuji Kitaura said when Nintendo gave him the instructions , he considered the work " overwhelming " - most of D @-@ Rockets work only involved high @-@ quality CG , while Nintendo aimed to " make the parts of the game that the player controls the same quality as the cinematics , in order to make them seamless " and Sakamoto intended to cutscenes to give emotional depth to Samus . Team Ninja and D @-@ Rockets worked separately most of the time , and only started to collaborate about a year into production , to make sure the in @-@ game action and the cutscenes had the same style . Over 300 storyboards which took six months to be completed , and ten teams were employed on the development of cutscenes . For increased realism , professional camera operators helped with the motion capture , and Samus ' face had a more detailed frame to make expressions more lifelike . Kitaura tried to include more scenes with Samus outside her powered armor , to illustrate " the human , weak side of Samus , her expressions and gesture " , but Sakamoto convinced him otherwise with a declaration that the Power Suit acts as a shield for both enemy attacks and the reveal of her emotions . As a special feature , players can unlock " Theater Mode " , a two @-@ hour film presentation , upon completion of the game . Divided into chapters , this film contains every cut @-@ scene of the game , along with several clips of gameplay footage recorded by the developers . Other M uses a dual @-@ layer disc due to extensive usage of cinematics in the game .
= = = Audio = = =
Kuniaki Haishima composed the soundtrack of Other M. The team hired Haishima to write the music because the producers felt he could " tell the story with melodies " and " powerfully [ helped ] us depict Samus ' feelings and emotions " . Parts of the soundtrack were recorded and performed by Arigat @-@ Orchestra in Tokyo and Asian Philharmonic Orchestra in Beijing . Furthermore , a " piece of piano music " was made by a member of staff at Sakamoto 's request .
For the game 's voice acting , Jessica Martin was cast to play Samus in the English version of Other M , and said that recording sessions took over a year which resulted in the voice cast being required to record lines with storyboards and unfinished cutscenes as basis . Adam Malkovich was voiced by Dave Elvin ; while Mike McGillicuty provided the voice of Anthony Higgs . In Japanese , voice actors Ai Kobayashi , Rikiya Koyama , Kenji Nomura and Shizuka Itō provided the voices of Samus , Adam , Anthony and MB respectively . Seattle @-@ based Bad Animals Studio and Ginza @-@ based Onkio Haus recorded voice @-@ overs in English and Japanese languages respectively .
= = Marketing and release = =
The game was first announced by Nintendo of America president and CEO Reggie Fils @-@ Aimé and a trailer was briefly shown during the Electronic Entertainment Expo 2009 . Fils @-@ Aime stated that Metroid : Other M would " take you deeper into Samus ' story " , and also noted that the game would be a return to the style of the traditional series as opposed to the Metroid Prime series , though the game would have a " harder edge " . On E3 2010 , the game had a playable demo , which GameTrailers picked as Best Wii Game and Action / Adventure Game of the expo , and was nominated for Game of the Show . Previews of Other M were also featured in the 2010 editions of Game Developers Conference and Nintendo Media Summit . Fils @-@ Aime expected global sales of between 1 @.@ 5 and 2 million units .
Metroid : Other M was released in North America on August 31 , 2010 . It had an original release date of June 27 , 2010 , but it was postponed by two months , as the high standards of the development team got them behind the completion schedule . In other territories , Other M was released September 2 in Japan and Australia , and one day later in Europe , where its release was preceded by a large marketing campaign with television spots , trailers at theaters , and online ads . GameStop began providing an art folio for purchasers who pre @-@ ordered the game containing " 16 individual high @-@ quality cards " . The cards feature concept artwork , in @-@ game screenshots , and a description from Samus ' perspective . Metroid : Other M was later re @-@ released on the Wii U 's Nintendo eShop , in Japan on March 17 , 2016 ; and in Europe on March 31 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reaction = = =
Metroid : Other M was met with " generally favorable " reviews , according to Metacritic . GameSpot praised the control scheme , combat system , and the search for secrets ; they wrote that the former two were " unique and responsive " and the latter was " very rewarding " . Famitsu reviewers complimented the Sense Move technique as " by far the best " , and the switch between perspectives , which " works surprisingly well " . IGN called the gameplay " a really impressive evolution of the old @-@ school Metroid design " , and GameTrailers described it as " a nice compromise between satisfying fans and opening up the series for a wider audience " . Good Game 's two presenters " enjoyed the atmosphere of it [ ... ] and was quite hooked to keep making progress " . The game 's graphics were also well @-@ received , garnering some acclaim . Christian Donlan of Eurogamer exclaimed that Other M bears graphical similarities to Metroid Prime which " tend to come across as nicely @-@ built video game levels at best " . IGN claimed that despite the graphics not being on par with the Prime series , it was still regarded as " one of the best looking games on Wii " . The Daily Telegraph described the environments as " lush and detailed " , and said they helped " capturing the ethos of old @-@ school Metroid " . IGN also praised the game 's " storytelling with motion @-@ captured acting and voice @-@ over " , and Wired applauded cutscenes " with slick graphic effects " . The music was praised as atmospheric and faithful to the franchise , though GameSpot felt they were " more like outtakes from older entries than a moody new soundtrack " .
Complaints were raised on the first person perspective . The A.V. Club 's David Wolinsky felt that the " Where 's Waldo ? -like sequences " were irritating . Similarly , Ryan Scott of GameSpy complained that they were " oh @-@ god @-@ I 'm @-@ going @-@ to @-@ snap @-@ the @-@ disc @-@ in @-@ half frustrating " and considered the perspective a " weird forced handicap " , while Official Nintendo Magazine commented that " [ t ] hese bits are atrocious " and took " 20 frustrating minutes trying to figure out what we were supposed to look at during one scene , only to realise there was a tiny green patch of liquid on the grass " . Game Informer expressed disappointment that " [ it ] also takes away your ability to move [ while in first person view ] " . Critics responded poorly to the mechanic of power @-@ up restriction ; they derided it as a deviation from the series ' tradition of item discovery , and even more strongly criticized it as nonsensical and condescending in terms of story . GamesRadar derided the game 's linearity in comparison with Metroid Fusion , a game which took a similar approach . The website also found the enemies to be " a largely unimpressive collection " , a gripe which Edge also had ; it wrote that " truly testing enemies are only found in the last stretch " . Other M 's short length was criticized by reviewers , by critics such as GameTrailers , which writes that the bonuses such as art galleries were not stimulating enough to entice replay value .
Major criticism focused on the script , dialogue , and cutscene length . GameSpot felt that the " unskippable " cutscenes and " the overabundance of story in Other M were a negative deviation from Metroid tradition " . Game Informer states that they " often run as long as 15 minutes , exhausting players with repetition of obvious plot points and overwrought dialogue as mature and interesting as a teenager ’ s diary " and declared Samus as " [ t ] he biggest culprit in the bad storytelling " . 1UP.com complained that as the game progresses " instead of getting more of the things that work [ combat ] , you get more of the things you don 't care about [ overwrought story ] " . Donlan cited the plot as " the future 's dumbest soap opera at worst " . Wolinsky echoes the misgivings about Samus ' immaturity , petulant behavior , and misguided loyalty . GamePro writes that while the story and Samus ' monologues did not compel them , " it helped contextualize her entire existence " which developed the character to " an actual human being who 's using the vastness of space to try and put some distance between herself and the past " . Contrarily , Justin Haywald of 1UP.com found the portrayal " lifeless and boring " and " nonsensical " . G4 TV 's Abbie Heppe considered a portrayal of Samus as " sexist " ; she wrote that she " cannot possibly wield the amount of power she possesses unless directed to by a man " , and found that her anxiety attack cannot be reconciled with her previous portrayals . Heppe also described the dialogue as " sounding like they came from a tween drama " . Ben " Yahtzee " Croshaw of The Escapist 's Zero Punctuation was particularly critical on the game , calling the story a " bloated , cancerous mass ... turning one of gaming 's toughest female icons into a shrieking mimsy in a submissive relationship with a bellend in a fancy cap " . He described the gameplay as " infinitely stronger [ than the story ] in that it 's merely bad . "
The reception from the series ' fanbase towards the game was generally mixed . In a 1UP.com Presents feature , Jeremy Parish states that many Metroid fans were disappointed by the game 's story , power @-@ up restrictions and its " awkward handling of its leading lady " . Clyde Mandelin of Legends of Localization noted that the game received mixed @-@ to @-@ positive reactions from Japanese fans . Kotaku 's Luke Plunkett wrote that Team Ninja was blamed by " many people " for the game 's story . In a September 2011 interview with G4 TV , Hayashi clarified that the story was " definitely the product of Mr. Sakamoto at Nintendo . We definitely worked with them on the project , but that was all him . " Nintendo Treehouse producer Nate Bihldorff stated that the scene depicting Samus ' encounter with Ridley " is not a sign of weakness , but of strength . People who call out that scene as anything but empowering are kind of missing the point " . He added that " Samus ’ story — her voice , her motivations , everything about her — has largely been a matter of individual perception , especially in the US , where people haven ’ t read any of the official manga related to her childhood . "
= = = Sales = = =
Metroid : Other M was the third best @-@ selling video game in Japan during its week of release with 45 @,@ 398 copies sold , ranking it behind Wii Party and Monster Hunter Diary : Poka Poka Airu Village . An additional 11 @,@ 239 copies were sold the following week . It was also the ninth best @-@ selling game in North America during September 2010 , with 173 @,@ 000 copies sold . In the United Kingdom , the game failed to make the top 10 and placed 12th in its first week . In November 2010 , Fils @-@ Aime stated that the game is " getting close to half a million " copies sold in the United States , far below Nintendo 's expectations .
= = = Distinctions = = =
In IGN 's Best of 2010 Awards , Other M received the award for Coolest Atmosphere . It was also nominated for Best Story award , but lost to Epic Mickey . IGN also gave the game an Editor 's Choice award . GameTrailers nominated Other M for Best Wii Game of 2010 ; however , it ultimately lost to Super Mario Galaxy 2 , while Wired listed it 12th on its list of the twenty best games of the year . On the other hand , X @-@ Play chose Other M as Game That Gave Us The Biggest Headache ; they wrote that it was a " morass of bad decisions " , from the controls to Samus ' portrayal . Another G4 program , Attack of the Show ! , named Other M one of the worst games of the year . Entertainment Weekly chose the game as the second worst of 2010 .
GamesRadar chose Other M as the Mangled Makeover of 2010 ; they wrote that it painted Samus , widely considered a strong female lead character , as " an unsure , insecure woman who desperately wants the approval of her former ( male ) commanding officer " . GameTrailers additionally nominated the game for the Most Disappointing Game of 2010 . Game Informer listed Samus first on their list of the Top 10 Dorks of 2010 due to her " lame backstory " , and placed Other M third on their Top 10 Disappointments of 2010 list , ranking behind " studio closures , layoffs , [ and ] restructurings " and the " Infinity Ward debacle " .
= = = Technical issues = = =
After the game 's release , Metroid : Other M was reported to have a bug where the door in Sector 3 is permanently locked and impassable , preventing players from continuing . Nintendo revealed that a bug is triggered when the player backtracks to the room within Sector 3 where they have previously obtained the Ice Beam . The company has set up a program that allows players affected by the bug to send in an SD card or their Wii console with their save files to be repaired .
As Metroid : Other M utilizes a dual @-@ layer disc , Nintendo of America has stated that some Wii consoles may have difficulty reading the high @-@ density software due to a contaminated laser lens . Nintendo offered a free repair for owners who experienced this issue .
= = Other media = =
Since its release , elements of Metroid : Other M have appeared in other games . The Geothermal Power Plant is featured as a playable stage in Dead or Alive : Dimensions , a fighting game developed for the Nintendo 3DS by Team Ninja . The stage features Ridley as a stage hazard , while Samus appears as an assist character in the Morph Ball form , who will drop a Power Bomb that switches the combatants ' location when a sound is made in the microphone . Yosuke Hayashi confirmed that Samus would not be featured as a playable character in Dead or Alive : Dimensions , stating that " it would be better to let her focus on her job rather than kicking everyone 's butt in [ Dead or Alive : Dimensions ] " . The Pyrosphere also appears as a stage in Super Smash Bros. for Wii U , an entry in Nintendo 's crossover fighting game series Super Smash Bros.
= Pilot ( Sports Night ) =
Pilot is the pilot episode of the television series Sports Night , written by Aaron Sorkin and directed by Thomas Schlamme , which premiered on ABC in the United States on September 22 , 1998 . The pilot introduces viewers to a varied group of personalities working on a fictional late @-@ night American sports show called Sports Night , on the CSC network .
The episode centres on the team 's attempts to broadcast a feature about an African athlete who is due to take part in his first race following recovery from a potentially career @-@ ending injury . One of the two lead anchors on the show , Casey , is called up for having an unprofessional attitude on and off screen in the light of his recent divorce from his wife , and is even thinking of leaving the show . Producer Natalie is stuck in a dilemma when she becomes attracted to her colleague Jeremy , who is the new sports statistician at the network .
Six characters receive top billing in the episode : Casey McCall ( Peter Krause ) , Dan Rydell ( Josh Charles ) , Dana Whitaker ( Felicity Huffman ) , Isaac Jaffe ( Robert Guillaume ) , Natalie Hurley ( Sabrina Lloyd ) and Jeremy Goodwin ( Joshua Malina ) . Several recurring characters also appear in the first episode , including Kim ( Kayla Blake ) , Elliot ( Greg Baker ) , Chris ( Timothy Davis @-@ Reed ) and Will ( Ron Ostrow ) . Robert Mailhouse guest @-@ stars as J.J. , while Bernard Hocke and Nina Jane Barry appear as Dave and Claire respectively .
The episode received largely positive reviews . The episode has received multiple nominations and has won Outstanding Directorial Achievement for a Comedy Series at the 52nd Directors Guild of America Awards and also a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Comedy Series .
= = Plot = =
The pilot episode introduces the six main characters of the series , as well as the cast of supporting characters . Casey McCall , one of the co @-@ anchors of Sports Night , a sports television roundup show running at 11pm on CSC , the " number 3 sports network " – a channel modeled on ESPN and similar – is displaying a negative attitude , both on and off screen , as a result of his recent divorce . Dan Rydell , his co @-@ anchor , tries to get back his positive attitude , while J.J. and the network executives begin to get vocal about his need to improve or leave the company . Dana Whitaker , his producer , vociferously defends him to the executive producer , Isaac Jaffe , even while she tries to get him to shape up before they override her shielding of him . At the same time , Casey himself is thinking about quitting sports broadcasting , citing the moral decay he 's seen on the job , in spite of Dan 's observation that he 'd only be doing it for the wrong reasons . Dana also hires a new associate producer , the highly strung but brilliant Jeremy Goodwin , who co @-@ producer Natalie Hurley takes a liking to . At the end of the episode , a unique sporting event involving the return of a 41 @-@ year @-@ old injured athlete to the running track makes Casey change his mind .
= = Production = =
= = = Conception = = =
Sorkin gathered inspiration for the show from a number of places . According to the Huffington Post , " Sorkin got the idea [ for the show ] from watching TV ... while writing The American President . He was watching ESPN , and found the humor and banter from the anchors ( Dan Patrick and ... either Keith Olbermann or Craig Kilborn ) intoxicating , and decided to create a comedy set in that world " . The show utilises a laugh track , which the Post @-@ Gazette described as following " an unwritten primetime rule : all half @-@ hour shows , except animated comedies ... must have a laugh track " and Hollywood.com 's Peter Hall calls a " goof " that " crippled " the first few episodes " of the show . It is used sparingly in the pilot as " Sports Night has so many dramatic moments " .
The show was pitched as not being aimed exclusively at sports fans , with the tagline " It 's about sports . The same way Charlie 's Angels was about law enforcement . " Based on the pre @-@ air pilot , ABC ordered Sports Night for the fall 1998 television season .
= = = Casting = = =
The pilot episode , as with the rest of the series , uses an ensemble cast , with six of the cast members identified as main characters . Peter Krause and Josh Charles played the two lead anchors on the CSC network , Casey McCall and Dan Rydell respectively . Felicity Huffman played Sports Night producer Dana Whitaker , while Robert Guillaume appeared as her boss , Isaac Jaffe , the executive producer . The main cast is rounded off by Sabrina Lloyd , who plays co @-@ producer Natalie Hurley , and Joshua Malina , who plays Jeremy Goodwin , a new addition to the crew in the pilot . Other characters given billing include Kayla Blake as Kim , Greg Baker as Elliot , Timothy Davis @-@ Reed as Chris and Ron Ostrow as Will .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
It was announced on May 18 , 1998 that the show would debut on Tuesdays at 9 : 30 as part of ABC 's comedy block , following Home Improvement , The Hughleys and Spin City . The series debuted on ABC in the opening week of the 1998 – 99 television season , on September 22 , 1998 . ABC finished behind CBS in viewing figures for the opening week of programming , while ratings across the networks fell by 4 million compared to the previous year .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Entertainment Weekly critic Ken Tucker was positive , despite his initial skepticism . He worried that Aaron Sorkin would not be able to translate big @-@ screen success on films such as A Few Good Men and The American President to television , and believed before watching the show that it was " a golden opportunity to stink up prime time with the sort of smug , smirky , life @-@ drainingly ironic talking heads who 've outlasted their naughty @-@ boy novelty status on ESPN " . However , after watching the show , he wrote " But against all odds , Sports Night is a home run , a hole in one , a touchdown — at once the most consistently funny , intelligent , and emotional of any new @-@ season series . "
The Huffington Post 's Bob Sassone , while reviewing the show retrospectively in 2006 , praised the " intelligent writing , fast @-@ paced dialogue , and a strong ensemble cast of smart , moral characters all working toward a common goal . " He also pointed out links betweenSports Night and Aaron Sorkin 's next production , the critically acclaimed The West Wing . The Washington Post called Sports Night " the best new ABC sitcom of the season " and also commented " Aaron Sorkin ... [ has ] certainly got a knack for snappy , and occasionally moving , dialogue . " They were among a number of publications to point out how the show would appeal to sports fans and non @-@ sports enthusiasts alike . The Associated Press marked Sports Night out as one of the few potential successes amongst the freshman shows for the 1998 – 99 season . Entertainment Weekly believed that the season as a whole deserved to be nominated for best comedy at the Emmys .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
The episode received multiple award nominations . The episode 's director Thomas Schlamme won Directors Guild of America award for Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directing – Comedy Series in 1999 . The episode also won for Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Comedy Series at the Emmy Awards in 1999 . Bonnie Zane and Paula Rosenberg were nominated for an Artios Award for Best Casting for TV , Comedy Pilot from the Casting Society of America .
= From Here to Eternity the Musical =
From Here to Eternity the Musical is a musical with music and lyrics by Stuart Brayson and Tim Rice and a book by Bill Oakes . Based on the novel of the same name , written by James Jones , the musical made its West End and world premiere in 2013 , at the Shaftesbury Theatre , London .
Jones 's novel From Here to Eternity was a best @-@ seller and well known for its successful movie adaptation . Jones 's manuscript was heavily censored by his publisher to remove profanity and references to gay prostitution ; the unexpurgated version was not published until 2011 . Once it was , composer Stuart Brayson thought it might be adapted as a musical , and proposed the project to Tim Rice , who acquired the stage rights and wrote the lyrics .
The musical was announced in May 2011 and opened on 23 October 2013 , a year later than originally planned . The West End production stars Darius Campbell as Warden , Robert Lonsdale as Private Prewitt , and Ryan Sampson as Maggio . The work received mixed reviews , though Brayson was praised for an imaginative score . The production closed on 29 March 2014 , after a run of six and a half months .
= = Synopsis = =
The musical is set in 1941 , at the Schofield Barracks in Hawaii , in the months leading up to the Attack on Pearl Harbor . The story tells the tale of G Company , in particular First Sergeant Milt Warden , who begins an affair with his captain 's wife Karen , insubordinate soldier and male hustler Maggio and Private Robert E. Lee Prewitt , an infantryman from Kentucky and self @-@ described " thirty @-@ year man " ( a career soldier ) , who falls in love with prostitute Lorene . Because he blinded a fellow soldier while boxing , the stubborn Prewitt refuses to box for his company 's outfit led by Captain Dana " Dynamite " Holmes and then resists the " Treatment , " a daily hazing ritual in which the non @-@ commissioned officers of his company run him into the ground .
= = Background = =
The basis of the musical is the 1951 novel From Here to Eternity by James Jones . In 1941 , Jones was serving with the US Army in Hawaii , at the time of Pearl Harbor , and the novel was loosely based on his experiences in the 27th Infantry Regiment . It focuses on the lives of a group of soldiers in the months leading up to the attack , in particular Private Prewiit , a boxer who no longer wants to fight having blinded an opponent , and Sergeant Milt Warden , who has an affair with the wife of his commanding officer .
James 's story was censored by its publisher , Scribner as it would not allow profanity and gay prostitution. to remain in the text . Jones fought the censorship but had to back down ; despite this it won the National Book Award for Fiction in 1952 and is recognised as one of the twentieth century 's best American novels . The title of From Here to Eternity is inspired by Rudyard Kipling 's poem Gentlemen @-@ Rankers , in particular the line " damned from here to Eternity " . Two years later in 1953 , it was adapted into a film starring Burt Lancaster and Deborah Kerr , which achieved success at the box office and won eight Academy Awards , including Best Picture . The movie was also initially deemed controversial because of the source text 's critical views on the Army , with minor changes being made to the script to gain the military 's co @-@ operation . The uncensored version of the novel was released in May 2011 , initially as an e @-@ book .
The idea for the musical came from Stuart Brayson , who had been sending cassette tapes with music ideas to Tim Rice since they had first met in the 1980s , when Brayson was a member of the band Pop . In 2002 , Brayson sent Rice a tape of music and lyrics to form the basis of a stage version of From Here to Eternity . Rice liked the idea but only intended to produce the show , however after Bill Oakes had been hired to write the book gaps appeared where new songs were needed and some no longer fitted within the context of the show . Rice agreed to write around six new songs , but ultimately ended up writing around 90 % of the show 's lyrics inspired by Brayson 's original lyrics . On the subject Rice said : " Stuart 's were very good , but they weren 't theatrical and there is a difference . I often wish I could write great rock lyrics , but I can 't , however , I can do reasonable lyrics within the context of a show . There are people who can write good tunes , but few who can do theatrical lyrics . "
In May 2011 , Tim Rice and Lee Menzie announced that an adaption was being planned . Rice acquired the stage rights at an initial cost of around US $ 40 @,@ 000 , with the intention of opening the show in London the following year . Although the show did not ultimately open until 2013 , a workshop of the show took place in 2012 .
As the show is based on the uncensored novel released in 2011 , rather than the 1953 film adaptation , it contains references to prostitution and gay sex , as well as the Army 's investigation into them , that the film did not feature . The right to create the musical adaptation came with the condition that it had to be based on the original book . James Jones 's daughter Kaylie and son Jamie were in the audience for the show 's opening night in London . During its preview period some people walked out of the performance , having been unprepared for the nudity and swearing in the production . Darius Campbell who played First Sergeant Milt Warden , said that the " James Jones novel really portrayed homosexuality and prostitution in the way that it existed in those days and we 've dived in head first . Maybe some of the nudity , swearing and explicitness have been too much for them , but a younger audience and an audience who have loved the film – and wanted to see more – have been giving us standing ovations and for that we are all grateful . " Kaylie admitted they had doubts about the idea of the show when it first came up , but added that " I 'm thrilled — it 's so sophisticated and moving . " She also noted that she " was so delighted they put in the gay bar scenes , because my dad said this is just the way it was back then " and that " my father would have been amazed " .
= = = Themes = = =
The show contains many adult themes , including , gay men in the United States military , prostitution , bullying and the effects of war . As a result of these themes , the show is recommended for children aged 13 onwards .
= = Production history = =
= = = West End ( 2013 ) = = =
On 26 October 2012 , producers announced that the show would play the Shaftesbury Theatre from September 2013 , with tickets going on sale in April . The show has a book by Bill Oakes and is directed by Tamara Harvey , with choreography by Javier De Frutos , orchestrations by David White , set and costume design by Soutra Gilmour , lighting design by Bruno Poet and sound design by Mick Potter . The musical features an original score , with music by Stuart Brayson and lyrics by Tim Rice . The musical adaption marked Rice 's first entirely new show since Aida and Brayson 's first West End musical . Former US Marine Ray Elliott , also head of the James Jones literary society , was hired to ensure an accurate picture of military life for the era . Elliott read the script to ensure it was realistic , ran military drills , taught the cast how to salute all ranks and how to hold rifles correctly . The show received its first public outing as part of West End Live in June 2013 , with star Robert Lonsdale singing " Fight the Fight " .
On 1 July 2013 , full casting was announced with Darius Campbell playing Warden , Robert Lonsdale playing Private Prewitt , Ryan Sampson playing Maggio , Siubhan Harrison playing Lorene and Rebecca Thornhill playing Karen . From Here to Eternity began previews on 30 September 2013 , at the Shaftesbury Theatre , London , and held its official opening gala night on 23 October . In all the London production features a cast of thirty three and a fifteen @-@ member band . A typical London performance runs two hours and 50 minutes , including one interval of 15 mins .
On 29 November 2013 , it was announced the production would close on 26 April 2014 , after a 7 1 ⁄ 2 @-@ month run , with the possibility of reopening at another theatre . The closure was later brought forward a month to 29 March . To mark the 72nd anniversary of Pearl Harbor on 7 December 2013 , the cast joined with The Military Wives choir for a special post curtain rendition of the song " The Boys of ' 41 " .
= = Music = =
Brayson 's music features a mix of blues , swing , big band , and rock ' n ' roll numbers . The musical uses a fifteen @-@ member orchestra consisting of keyboard , cello , ukulele , flute , saxophone , clarinet , flugelhorn , trumpet , bugle , trombone , tuba , French horn , guitar , bass , drums , percussion and harmonica . On the show 's music Alexander Gilmour , writing for Financial Times said that the show : " has half a dozen numbers that bring the house down " , and that " it feels grown @-@ up . It has a certain grit . It 's moving . You might just cry , fall in love , hum yourself to sleep to the tune of ' Thirty Year Man ' , wake up and join the army . "
= = = Musical numbers = = =
= = = Recordings = = =
The song " Fight the Fight " from the show was recorded and released by Michael Ball as part of his Both Sides Now album in February 2013 . The same track was later released as a digital download in December 2013 , sung by Robert Lonsdale . In July 2013 , Rice allowed Clare Teal to record another song from the show , " Another Language " , for release on her album And So It Goes . In February 2014 , Rice announced that a cast album would be recorded , prior to the show 's West End closure . The original London cast recording was released as a digital download on 3 July 2014 , with the physical release following on 4 August .
= = = = Cast album = = = =
= = Principal roles and cast members = =
= = Critical reception = =
Michael Billington of The Guardian noted that the original novel had helped offset overly heroic images of the American soldier , but in the wake of Abu Gharib , the view of the military was already mixed , " why now , and what does music add to the story ? " Quentin Letts of the Daily Mail deemed the show " harmless nonsense " but acknowledged an outside chance it could become a camp classic . Simon Edge of the Daily Express deemed the show " a commendably ambitious work that makes a refreshing addition to the West End menu . " Paul Taylor of The Independent suggested , " For all the show 's many defects , though , you come away impressed by its seriousness of purpose " .
Taylor praised the music : " Brayson 's catchy score , which moves deftly through swing , blues , jazz and early rock 'n'roll can rise to good old showbiz brassiness when needed " . Henry Hitchings of the Evening Standard gave a mixed view of the music , " There are seductive melodies and a couple of genuinely catchy songs . But it never settles into a single confident idiom , and between the big numbers there are lulls , especially in the overlong first half . " Letts praised Campbell for his vocal talents , stating that he " does some worthy old @-@ fashioned crooning – in a pleasant song called ' Marking Time ' there are moments when he actually sounds like Nat King Cole . "
Taylor predicted on 24 October 2013 , " Wags have quipped that it should be called From Here to November . But I reckon it 's going to survive quite a bit longer than that . "
= = Awards and nominations = =
On 6 December 2013 , it was announced the production had received four Whats on Stage awards nominations , including Best New Musical . Ultimately the production did not win in any of the four categories . Although eligible , the musical did not receive any nominations for the 2014 Laurence Olivier Awards .
= Ruislip Woods =
Ruislip Woods is a Site of Special Scientific Interest and national nature reserve covering 726 acres ( 294 ha ) in Ruislip in the London Borough of Hillingdon . The woods became the first national nature reserve in an urban area of England in May 1997 , receiving the Green Flag Award in 2006 . Ruislip Local Nature Reserve at TQ 090 899 is part of the national nature reserve .
Evidence of Bronze Age settlements has been found within the woods during archaeological excavations . Timber from the woods has been used in the building of several nationally significant buildings , as well as locally ; the Great Barn at Manor Farm was built from oak from the woods .
Ownership of the woods passed with the manor from Ernulf de Hesdin to Bec Abbey and on to King 's College , Cambridge over the years , until Park Wood was sold to the local authority . The remaining woods were purchased from other owners and Ruislip Woods was formed .
= = History = =
Use of the wood has been dated back to the Bronze Age , after a barbed spearhead was discovered by a metal detector user . During an excavation of the findspot in 1984 the spearhead , measuring 4 @.@ 75 inches ( 121 mm ) in length , was found to have been lying in an oval pit with fragments of pottery , indicating it to be the collection of domestic waste from a settlement .
The woods are the remains of the dense woodland which would have covered the county of Middlesex from prehistoric times . Woodland was cleared over time for farming and housing .
Following the Norman conquest of England in 1066 , Ernulf de Hesdin was given the manor of Ruislip , which included the woods , in recognition of his service to William the Conqueror . In 1087 , Ernulf de Hesdin passed the manor to the Bec Abbey . During the Abbey 's ownership , timber from the woods was used in the construction of the Tower of London in 1339 , Windsor Castle in 1344 , the Palace of Westminster in 1346 and the manor of the Black Prince in Kennington . Locally , the Great Barn on the Manor Farm site was constructed of oak from the woods . King 's College , Cambridge became lords of the manor in 1451 .
The manor of Ruislip became part of the Ruislip @-@ Northwood Urban District , though it remained under the ownership of King 's College , Cambridge . A town @-@ planning competition led to a design being chosen that envisaged the clearance of much of the woods and historic sites in Ruislip to make way for 7 @,@ 642 homes , enough for 35 @,@ 000 residents , across the manor . A planning scheme adapted from the original was presented to the public in February 1913 and was approved by the Local Government Board in September 1914 . The outbreak of the First World War halted all construction work , by which time only three new roads had been completed . It did not resume again until 1919 .
In February 1931 , the woods were included in a sale by King 's College to the urban district council . Park Wood was sold for £ 28 @,@ 100 , with Manor Farm and the old Post Office included as a gift to the people of Ruislip . King 's had also wished to present the wood as a gift but was required by the University and College 's Act to receive payment as it was the trustee of the land . Middlesex County Council contributed 75 % of the cost , as the urban district council argued that many of those who would make use of the land would be recreational day @-@ trippers from outside the district . Under a 999 @-@ year lease , the council agreed to maintain the wood and ensure no new building was constructed without the permission of the county council . An area of the wood to the south was not included in the lease agreement and three residential roads were later constructed on it .
Copse Wood was purchased by Middlesex County Council and London County Council in 1936 for £ 23 @,@ 250 , being joined by Mad Bess Wood in the same year . The urban district council , together with Middlesex and London County Councils , purchased the 186 acres ( 75 ha ) wood for £ 28 @,@ 000 in a compulsory purchase from Sir Howard Stransom Button .
In 1984 , Battle of Britain House , which had been built in Copse Wood in 1905 by Josef Conn , was destroyed by fire and the ruins demolished . The house was originally a private home , but during the Second World War was used by the United States military to train saboteur agents for missions in occupied France .
On 21 May 1997 , the woods became a national nature reserve , the first in an urban area of England . The Ruislip Woods Trust was established that year as a charity dedicated to the conservation of the woods , while encouraging greater public interaction with them .
In June 2008 , a new off @-@ road cycle trail was unveiled in Bayhurst Wood , named after the former head of democratic services at Hillingdon Council in recognition of his long service to the borough . The " David Brough Cycle Trail " , covering 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) , was officially opened on 24 June .
= = Flora and fauna = =
The main species of trees in the woods include English oak , sessile oak , hornbeam , beech , silver birch , wild service tree , aspen , rowan , field maple , crack willow , wild cherry , hazel and holly .
Wild flowers are also in abundance around the woods , and include common knapweed , harebell , rosebay willowherb , heather , bluebell , woodanemone , yellow archangel , snowdrops and honeysuckle .
According to the London Borough of Hillingdon , the most common species ' of birds found within the woods are mute swan , Canada goose , robin , green woodpecker , jay , nuthatch , lesser spotted woodpecker , greater spotted woodpecker , cuckoo , sparrowhawk , tree creeper , tawny owl , willow tit and woodcock .
Cattle are grazed in Poor 's Field each year to maintain the level of the vegetation . Wild mammals include foxes , hedgehogs , stoats , weasels , mink , grey squirrels and badgers . Several species of bat also live in the woods .
= = Management = =
The reserve covers four woods : Park Wood , Mad Bess Wood and Copse Wood in Ruislip , with Bayhurst Wood in Harefield . Poor 's Field and Tartleton 's Lake in Ruislip are also part of the reserve . There is no definitive explanation as to why Mad Bess Wood received its name , although one theory is that it was named after a female landowner who patrolled the wood looking for poachers .
The woods are managed by the London Borough of Hillingdon , which inherited them from the former Ruislip @-@ Northwood Urban District . The council maintains the volunteer @-@ run Ruislip Woodlands Centre in the grounds of Ruislip Lido , a reservoir within Park Wood . Ruislip Woods received the Green Flag Award in 2006 .
The woods were coppiced on rotation throughout the years with the timber being sold to local tanneries . By the time King 's College took ownership of the manor , the woods were let out for pheasant shooting . Coppicing of the woods continues today , under a 20 @-@ year rotation to aid in the natural growth of the woodland .
Ducks Hill Road and Breakspear Road North pass through the woods in Ruislip and Harefield respectively .
= Cameron White =
Cameron Leon White ( born 18 August 1983 ) is an Australian cricketer for the Melbourne Renegades and is the former Australian Twenty20 and Victorian Bushrangers captain . A powerful middle order batsman and right @-@ arm leg @-@ spin bowler , White made his first @-@ class cricket debut as a teenager in the 2000 – 01 season for the Victorian Bushrangers as a bowling all @-@ rounder . Early comparisons with Victoria team @-@ mate Shane Warne faded as White took on a role closer to that of Andrew Symonds , a batsman who bowled occasionally .
In 2003 – 04 , he became Victoria 's youngest ever captain at the age of 20 when he took over leadership of their one @-@ day side , and the first @-@ class captaincy followed the season after . International recognition came for the first time in 2005 , but White found himself in and out of the side as the selectors and national captain Ricky Ponting looked for White to improve his bowling to play as a front @-@ line spinner . Two successful winters with English county side Somerset helped to propel White back into the selectors ' minds . White had a short Test career playing four Test matches in 2008 .
His tenure as T20 captain ended with the 2012 series against India where he was dropped following poor form in the Big Bash League . He was succeeded by Melbourne Stars teammate George Bailey .
= = Career = =
= = = Early career = = =
White began his cricket career working his way through the youth structure at Victoria , playing in the Commonwealth Bank Under @-@ 17 , and later Under @-@ 19 , Championship series . She showed his prowess with both bat and ball during these competitions , claiming a century , two half @-@ centuries and 17 wickets in the ten matches she played over two seasons . She tended to bat as part of the middle order and bowl as third or fourth change . His first @-@ class debut came in March 2001 , aged 17 , against New South Wales . Batting at number nine , White scored 11 runs in his only batting innings of the match , and claimed 4 / 65 coming on as third change bowler . He made one further first @-@ class appearance that season before joining up with the Australia Under @-@ 19 cricket team for two youth Tests against Sri Lanka .
He captained the AISAustralia Cricket Academy side that toured New Zealand , beating New Zealand Academy 3 – 1 in a four @-@ match one @-@ day series , after a pair of draws in two three @-@ day matches . Soon after , he made his List A debut for Victoria , but the match was rained off after 42 @.@ 1 overs without White taking any part in the match . White received his first senior man of the match award a few days later for his two wickets and score of 91 batting at number seven during the Pura Cup match against South Australia . He was named as captain of the Australia Under @-@ 19 squad to compete in the 2002 Under @-@ 19 Cricket World Cup in New Zealand , and led his team to victory in the competition , beating South Africa by seven wickets in the final . White finished the tournament as the leading run @-@ scorer with 423 runs , with two of the other top @-@ four batsmen also being Australian .
Despite his success with the bat during the Under @-@ 19 World Cup , Victoria continued to use White as a bowling all @-@ rounder , a decision that seemed to be justified in the 2002 – 03 season when White passed 50 just once in his 13 first @-@ class innings and claimed 28 wickets . In his last match of the season , he claimed his maiden five and ten @-@ wicket hauls , taking 6 / 66 in the first @-@ innings against Western Australia and 4 / 70 in the second @-@ innings to help Victoria to a 10 wicket victory .
= = = Youngest ever captain = = =
Following a season which had seen Darren Berry and Shane Warne share the captaincy of Victoria 's ING Cup side , the Victoria selectors appointed White as the captain for the 2003 – 04 season . Aged only 20 , White became the youngest player to captain the Victoria state side in its 152 @-@ year history to that point . His coach , David Hookes said that " White has shown at a young age a successful understanding of captaining a team " . The decision was supported by the reports that during the Under @-@ 19 World Cup , he captained the side with " flair , control and maturity far beyond his years " . White was also called upon to captain the first @-@ class side early in the 2003 – 04 season , after regular captain Berry broke his finger during a practice match . After a win and a loss while captaining the ING Cup side , White was named man of the match on his debut as Pura Cup captain , taking six wickets to lead Victoria to a five wicket victory over Queensland .
White was given his first taste of international cricket in December 2003 . Having taken four Indian wickets during a tour match for Victoria , White was selected to play for Australia A against the same opposition later in the tour . Batting at number six in an Australian side that also included Victoria team @-@ mate Brad Hodge , and was captained by Michael Hussey , White made little impression on the Indians , making just 20 runs in his two innings and taking no wickets . White retained his place in the A side to face Zimbabwe in two 50 @-@ over contests , claiming two wickets .
The 2003 – 04 season saw White 's batting improve markedly in first @-@ class cricket but he tore some ligaments in his right leg , therefore ending his 2003 – 04 season . A return of five half @-@ centuries in eighteen innings saw his season average finish in excess of 30 for the first time . He also claimed 30 wickets in the season , the most in a single season in his career to date , although his average suffered compared with the previous season , rising to over 35 . A couple of cameo innings also indicated what was to come , 58 runs off 65 balls against Western Australia , and 75 runs off 97 balls against South Australia , an innings that included 7 fours and 3 sixes , showcased the strengths that would later see White shine in the shorter Twenty20 format of the game .
These improvements in White 's game , and an injury to Stuart MacGill , saw White named as part of the 13 @-@ man Australia Test squad to tour Zimbabwe . With the Australia selectors keen to take two spinners on the tour , MacGill 's injury allowed them to select White " with a view to the future . " A tour match against Zimbabwe A brought a wicket for White , but he was denied the chance of making his Test debut when the two @-@ match series was called off due to disputes between the Zimbabwe cricket board and their rebel players . White described the decision as a missed opportunity " to see how everything went and how an international Test match is played " .
The 2003 – 04 season had been capped by victory in the Pura Cup following a 321 victory over Queensland in the final , in which White made a half @-@ century and claimed five of the oppositions wickets . Victoria captain Berry retired from professional cricket after the triumph , and White was named as his replacement for 2004 – 05 . White was pleased with the appointment , saying that the captaincy " brings out the best in my game and the extra responsibility is good for me " . In December 2004 , White made his maiden first @-@ class century , making 119 after Victoria were forced to follow @-@ on against Queensland . His partnership of 205 with Ian Harvey , a record seventh @-@ wicket partnership for Victoria , and 152 from opener Jason Arnberger helped Victoria recover to a second @-@ innings total of 508 / 8 declared . A fine bowling performance then saw Queensland bowled out for just 169 , capping a " remarkable fightback " by Victoria .
= = = International breakthrough = = =
During his early career , parallels were drawn Victoria team @-@ mate Shane Warne ; both were blonde , and both were leg @-@ spinners . It was soon apparent that he did not have the ability to turn the ball as much as Warne , his style being described as more reminiscent of Anil Kumble instead . Mid @-@ way through the 2004 – 05 season , White played four matches for Australia A against the touring West Indians and Pakistanis . Three 50 @-@ over matches brought him two half @-@ centuries and a duck , and his first experience of Twenty20 cricket resulted in an unbeaten 58 with a strike rate over 150 . Victoria did not qualify for either Pura Cup or ING Cup finals , but White 's improvement was again significant ; his first @-@ class averages remained roughly the same as in the previous season , but he more than doubled his previous best season batting average in one @-@ day cricket , passing 30 in the format .
After his impressive form for Australia A during January 2005 , White was selected as part of the Australia A side to tour Pakistan in September that year . After claiming four wickets , and averaging 35 @.@ 50 with the bat in the 2 four @-@ day matches , White shone in the subsequent one @-@ day games . Not required to bat in the first , he then scored 106 not out in the second and 59 not out in the third , also claiming a tail @-@ end wicket . Having now demonstrated his ability as a big @-@ hitting all @-@ rounder , White was selected to make his international debut during the 2005 ICC Super Series against the ICC World XI . Shaun Pollock , captaining the World XI team , said that his batsmen would target the young leg @-@ spinner , but Australia captain Ricky Ponting said he expected White to bowl , after he 'd " handled things well in the Victoria game against them " . He was named as supersub in the first two matches , being on field only during the ICC World XI innings , therefore being unable to bat . He did not bowl in the first match , and only bowled three wicket @-@ less overs in the second . Despite controversy regarding the official status of the matches , these two appearances as supersub signified White 's first two One Day International ( ODI ) appearances . He started the third match , but as Australia closed their innings on 293 / 5 , White was again not required to bat , nor did he bowl in the following ICC World XI innings .
White was named as a bowling supersub again for the first ODI of the Chappell – Hadlee Trophy , replacing Katich at the start of the New Zealand innings . He bowled one wicket @-@ less over , conceding four runs . After missing out on the second match , White returned for the third , getting the opportunity to bat for the first time . He was dismissed for a golden duck , falling to Chris Martin first ball . In the New Zealand innings , he claimed his first senior international wicket , bowling Hamish Marshall .
= = = International contract not renewed = = =
2005 – 06 was the first season that Twenty20 cricket was played domestically in Australia , and White with his Victoria team were the quickest to adapt to the new format . White earnt a man of the match award in his first match in the tournament , scoring 45 runs off 32 balls and claiming a single wicket . Two wickets followed in the second match , and a second victory granted Victoria a place in the final . Facing New South Wales in the final , White added 46 off 16 balls , scoring at almost three runs a ball . He claimed 3 / 8 in the following innings , helping to restrict New South Wales to 140 , giving Victoria the championship title . White finished the tournament with 99 runs , second only to Brad Hodge , and 6 wickets , trailing only Shane Harwood , both Victoria team @-@ mates .
In April 2006 , White joined up with English county side Somerset for the first match of the County Championship . After Somerset were forced to follow @-@ on by Gloucestershire , White came in at number five and scored 172 runs off 228 balls before finally being caught off the bowling of former Victoria team @-@ mate Ian Harvey . Despite this innings , Somerset only managed a team total of 287 , and lost the match by an innings and seven runs . Two weeks later , on 1 May , Cricket Australia announced that along with James Hopes and Mick Lewis , Cameron White 's national contract would not be renewed for the next 12 months . When Somerset captain Ian Blackwell suffered a shoulder injury that put him out of the game for three months , White was named as his replacement . As with Australia Under @-@ 19s and Victoria , the added responsibility seemed to improve his game . A score of 109 * against Glamorgan in the 50 @-@ over Cheltenham & Gloucester Trophy was followed immediately by 131 * in the County Championship against Worcestershire , a half @-@ century against the touring Sri Lankans and then a second @-@ innings 108 against Surrey , all made in the first half of June .
The Twenty20 Cup gave White another chance to display his skills in the shortest format of the game . White was joined at Somerset by fellow Australian Justin Langer for the tournament , and the pair shone in Somerset 's opening match of the competition . Opening the innings , Langer made 90 runs off 46 balls , but was outscored and outpaced by White 's 116 * , scored at more than two runs a ball . The century was White 's first in Twenty20 cricket , and he capped off his performance by claiming Gloucestershire 's tenth wicket to wrap up a 117 run victory . Just under two weeks later , White surpassed this score , at the time the joint highest made in Twenty20 cricket , with 141 * against Worcestershire . His runs , made off 70 balls , set a new world record Twenty20 total that would stand for almost two years before being beaten by Brendon McCullum . He finished the competition with the leading batting average , and his 403 runs trailed only team @-@ mate Langer 's 464 and Leicestershire batsman Hylton Ackerman 's 409 .
In August , with Somerset slumping , White scored back @-@ to @-@ back fourth @-@ innings centuries in the County Championship , but neither could rescue his side from defeat . First , he made 111 against Essex , and then under a week later , he made the highest individual score in the fourth @-@ innings of a first @-@ class match by remaining 260 not out at the close of Somerset 's innings as Derbyshire beat them to record their first home win in four years . Despite Somerset finishing bottom of Division Two of the County Championship , White had his most successful season of cricket in his career to that point . Having made his highest score , and hit five centuries in first @-@ class cricket , his batting average was almost 60 , and his one @-@ day batting average exceeded 40 .
= = = One Day International cricket 2006 – 07 = = =
A strong start to the 2006 – 07 Australian domestic season , exemplified by 150 * against Tasmania in the Pura Cup and 126 * against New South Wales in the Ford Ranger Cup ( previously ING Cup ) saw White recalled to the Australia one @-@ day squad . Chief of selectors , Andrew Hilditch described his inclusion in the squad , praising his " great form with the bat and [ he ] has had some terrific performances with the ball " . In an interview with Australian newspaper The Age , White professed his relief at returning to the international scene , stating that " I don 't really care if I get picked as a batting allrounder or a bowling allrounder , or just as a bat or bowler , as long as I get picked . " An international Twenty20 against England saw White rewarded with a man of the match award for his 40 * off 20 balls , and 1 / 11 with the ball in hand . In his next batting innings , White scored 45 runs including 3 sixes against New Zealand , leading team @-@ mate Andrew Symonds to praise his ability to strike the cricket ball , saying that " when you 've got that going on at the other end , it makes it a lot easier for me " . Despite his excellent form with the bat , White 's bowling was proving to be mostly ineffective . For this reason , as well as the improved form of Brad Hodge and the selection of Brad Hogg and Shane Watson for their ability with the ball , he was dropped for the finals of the Commonwealth Bank Series and left out of the World Cup squad .
Despite not being named in the World Cup squad , White played all three ODIs in the Chappell – Hadlee Trophy against New Zealand . This was because some of the senior players were rested ahead of the World Cup , or sustained injuries . Stand @-@ in captain Michael Hussey only called upon him to bowl three overs during the series , all in the second match , in which he was expensive , conceding almost 10 runs an over . He hit a quick 42 * in that match , scoring six boundaries including 3 sixes . He was less impressive with the bat in the other two matches , making 13 on both occasions .
= = = Another domestic year = = =
White returned to the Victoria side in time to captain his team in the Ford Ranger Cup final , which they lost to Queensland by 21 runs . Two Pura Cup matches brought a couple of wickets and 96 runs , and then a month 's break before his first match back in England , where he returned to Somerset for a second season . He was amongst the runs immediately , one of eight centurions as Somerset played Middlesex . Fellow Australian Langer , also returning to Somerset made 315 , and White added 114 as Somerset eventually reached 850 / 7 declared . White scored three more half @-@ centuries before the month was out , and in the first match of May , was one of four Australians to reach three figures as Somerset hosted Derybshire . Against Gloucestershire , he again showed his ability to remain calm and keep scoring even as those around him fell , making 241 in a Somerset first @-@ innings in which James Hildreth was the only other player to pass 50 . White passed 1 @,@ 000 runs in the County Championship for the second time , and his batting average topped 70 as Somerset won promotion from Division Two , a turnaround from the previous season when they had finished bottom of the division , ' winning ' the competition 's wooden spoon . The season also saw a slight improvement in White 's bowling , his 20 first @-@ class wickets coming at an average of 32 @.@ 75 , his best in a domestic season . Despite his impressive season , due to English counties only being allowed one overseas player for the 2008 season , White did not see his contract with the county renewed , Somerset preferring to keep captain Justin Langer . Somerset 's Director of Cricket , Brian Rose paid tribute to White , saying " It was a difficult choice with the new ruling about only one overseas player because Cameron has also done tremendous things for us . "
It was on the back of this form that White once again toured Pakistan with the Australia A squad , but he finished the series with just two wickets , both coming in the first @-@ class matches , and a handful of runs . Two months into the Australian domestic season , White was forced to retire hurt after colliding with Queensland bowler Lee Carseldine , and after the match it was revealed he 'd fractured his foot . He 'd been carrying the injury since the start of the season , and the collision led to a full break , putting White out for six weeks . White conceded that the injury would almost certainly rule out any chance he had of playing for the national team that summer . He returned in early January , playing the last three matches of the Twenty20 tournament , including the final which Victoria won by 32 runs , although White only managed to make one run off eight balls . For the second season in a row , White was named as captain of the Prime Minister 's XI , and claimed two Sri Lankan wickets in the 50 @-@ over contest . White led Victoria to both Pura Cup and Ford Ranger Cup finals in 2007 – 08 , but they lost both , to New South Wales and Tasmania respectively .
The auction for the inaugural season of the Indian Premier League ( IPL ) saw the majority of the world 's cricketing talent up for sale in a very public forum . For the thirteen Australians on offer , this was in sharp contrast to the secrecy which surrounded the value of national contracts . White was finally sold for $ 500 @,@ 000 to the Royal Challengers Bangalore , $ 50 @,@ 000 more than Shane Warne fetched , and more again than Ricky Ponting , Matthew Hayden and Michael Hussey . The apparent discrepancy was in part due to the possibility that international involvement could rule Australia 's Test players out of much , if not all of the first two years of the tournament . Rahul Dravid , Bangalore 's ' icon ' player , described White as an exciting addition , saying " White is a very exciting Twenty20 player and his domestic record [ with two Twenty20 hundreds ] in Australia is phenomenal . " Despite his price , White had a largely disappointing time in his only IPL season . He finished the tournament with 114 runs , over 500 less than fellow Australian and the competition 's leading run @-@ scorer Shaun Marsh .
= = = On the international fringes = = =
White was recalled to the Australian ODI and Twenty20 squads for the 2008 tour of the West Indies . He scored 10 runs off 6 balls in a rain @-@ reduced 11 @-@ over Twenty20 contest , and in a 50 @-@ over tour match against University of West Indies Vice @-@ Chancellor 's XI , made 34 but remained wicket @-@ less in his eight overs with the ball . By this stage in his career , White was generally considered a middle @-@ order batsman who bowled a bit , but Australia captain Ponting saw his place in the team as that of the front @-@ line spinner . " White 's obviously been picked as the spinner on this tour . We just need to keep exposing him to different situations and putting him under a bit more pressure . Hopefully he plays a big role for us during the series . " Despite Ponting 's comments , he used White as the fourth @-@ change bowler in the first ODI , bringing the slow left @-@ arm spin of Michael Clarke on first . White conceded 32 runs in his six overs without a breakthrough , and did not bowl at all in the second match , as Clarke claimed the man of the match award for his half @-@ century and three wickets . Although White scored 40 * at quicker than a run a ball , the return of Andrew Symonds for the last three ODIs left White out of the team again .
It was the absence of Symonds , sent home from the 2008 – 09 series against Bangladesh for skipping a team meeting to go fishing , that gave White another opportunity in the ODI team . Although stand @-@ in captain Clarke mirrored the action of Ponting by bringing himself on before the Victoria captain , White claimed a career @-@ best three wickets for five runs off the 10 balls he bowled . After the match , White admitted he had to prove he could deal with the pressures of international cricket , but was upbeat , saying " it was nice to get a few wickets but it would have been nice to get a few overs under the belt as well . " He claimed two more wickets in the second match and , after not being required to bowl in the third , finished the series with an average under 10 .
He was selected as captain of the Australia A team to compete against New Zealand A and India A in a tri @-@ series hosted by India . The captaincy gave White an opportunity to give himself plenty of overs , in total he bowled over 30 overs , claiming eight wickets in the competition , second only to Piyush Chawla . He displayed his all @-@ round ability by finishing with the fifth highest batting average and leading his team to the final , in which they beat India A by 156 runs .
When Symonds was dropped from the tour of India due to disciplinary issues , Greg Shipperd , White 's coach at Victoria , claimed that White should have been called up rather than Watson , claiming that the leg @-@ spinner " looked ideal to fill the aggressive role vacated by Symonds – he is a great counter @-@ puncher " . When fellow Victorian leg @-@ spinner Bryce McGain left the tour injured , White got the call @-@ up to the Test squad that Shipperd felt he deserved , although he was nominally selected as a specialist bowler . After Jason Krejza , the other spinner on the tour , conceded 199 runs for no wickets in a match against the Board President 's XI , White was considered the safer option , although Ponting publicly endorsed Krejza after his wicket @-@ less match . Despite Ponting 's apparent leanings , White was preferred , and became the 402nd Australian to receive his Test cap . He was selected to bat at number eight , usually a specialist bowler 's position , despite generally playing first @-@ class cricket as a batsman .
At the end of the first Test , in which White took the solitary wicket of Sachin Tendulkar , Ponting said " He 's come along in leaps and bounds in his bowling . He 's probably exceeded my expectations with what he 's done , although he did not take the wickets . " White improved his return in the second Test , claiming three wickets , but only took one more in the last two matches . Although Ponting extolled White in public , he once again often opted to use the part @-@ time spin of Clarke before and more frequently than White throughout the series . White 's five wickets on the tour came at a bowling average of almost 70 , and with Symonds named in Test squad to face New Zealand , there was no place in the squad for White .
= = = One @-@ day specialist = = =
Although not included in the Test squads to face either New Zealand or South Africa , White was named in the ODI and Twenty20 squads to face South Africa at home , and professed " it was a good feeling to know you are still in the mix " . White played in a more familiar role in the Twenty20s , batting in the middle @-@ order , and after a disappointing 7 in the first match , made 40 * off 18 in the second to push Australia 's total up beyond South Africa 's reach . He had a steady ODI series , in which he was again used as a middle @-@ order batsman , and part @-@ time spinner . He retained his place for the one @-@ day series against New Zealand , but had limited involvement , making 27 runs from his two innings , though he did claim two wickets in his seven overs bowling .
His lack of involvement with the Test squad allowed him to return to Victoria to lead them in a losing cause in the Ford Ranger Cup final , a narrow 12 run loss to Queensland . Draws against Tasmania and Queensland , set up another Queensland – Victoria final , this time in the Sheffield Shield ( formerly the Pura Cup ) . White was named as man of the match as he led his team to their first championship since 2003 – 04 , scoring 135 and 61 as Queensland were out @-@ played comprehensively .
White remained in Australia 's Twenty20 team for their two matches in South Africa , but was not involved in their ODI matches , and subsequently was not named as part of their squad for the ICC World Twenty20 . However , after Symonds was sent home from the tournament due to ' an alcohol @-@ related incident ' , White was called up as his replacement . Australia were knocked out in the group @-@ stage of the competition with White unused in their two matches , Cricinfo 's Brydon Coverdale lambasting Australia 's belief that " the players who carry them in Test and 50 @-@ over cricket can do the same in three @-@ hour games " . White returned to Australia to captain the A team against Pakistan and showed consistency with the bat , culminating in 73 * in the Twenty20 match .
= = = Knowing his role = = =
Named in both one @-@ day squads for the tour of England , and in the Champions Trophy squad , White 's role in the team was now that of a batsman . In the rain @-@ abandoned Twenty20 in England , he made his best Twenty20 International score of 55 , and was the only player to cope with the poor conditions on a two @-@ paced pitch . In the ODI series , White saw himself promoted to number three in the absence of Ponting , and responded with scores of 53 and 42 in the first two matches , before making his maiden international century in the third . His 124 @-@ ball 105 saw him named man of the match in his last match before Ponting 's return which would see him drop back down the batting order . He played the remaining four matches of the series at number six , but finished the tour as Australia 's leading run @-@ scorer in ODIs .
White was ever @-@ present in Australia 's triumph in the 2009 Champions Trophy , saving his best performance for the final where , having been promoted to number four , he scored a patient 62 against New Zealand to help Australia recover from 6 / 2 to ease to a six wicket victory . The following ODI series against India saw White remain at number four due to injuries to Michael Clarke and Brad Haddin , and he made three half @-@ centuries including a remarkable 57 off 33 balls including 5 sixes . After being in and out of the Australian set @-@ up earlier in his career , White claimed " I think my best position is up around where I have been batting " , a statement backed up by an average of 41 @.@ 71 in his 18 appearances since his call @-@ up to face England earlier that year . The higher responsibility placed on White as a batsman was balanced by a much lower responsibility with the ball ; across the whole of the 2009 season , he only bowled three balls in One Day International cricket .
Upon the retirement of Ricky Ponting from international Twenty20 cricket , there were some calls for White to be promoted to captain the side , led by his Victoria coach Greg Shipperd . Despite these calls , White backed the favourite , incumbent vice @-@ captain Michael Clarke for the role . White was eventually named as Clarke 's vice @-@ captain , although worries about Clarke 's injury @-@ prone back and his struggles with form in Twenty20 resulted in continued calls for White to take over , though White again backed Clarke , claiming " Michael 's going to do a great job and I 'll just look forward to working with him . I 'm still really young in the [ Australia ] job as well and very inexperienced at this level , so I think I can learn a lot off him . "
The return of Clarke to the ODI team for the Pakistan series also saw White move down the order again , although batting at number five , he made his second international century in the first match , scoring 105 from 88 balls to help drive Australia to victory . White continued to perform well with the bat in the series , making a half @-@ century in the second match and making decent totals in a number of the other games as Australia swept the series 5 – 0 .
= = Indian Premier League = =
= = = 2011 = = =
In the fourth season , White was bought by Deccan Chargers for US $ 1 @.@ 1 million . He became the 2nd highest paid Australian in the IPL , behind David Hussey . He was named Vice Captain of the Deccan Chargers , with Kumar Sangakkara captain of the side .
= = = 2012 – Return to form = = =
In the fifth season , White captained the Chargers for the first match against the Chennai Super Kings , with regular captain Kumar Sangakkara on international duties . White scored his first fifty in the IPL against Pune Warriors India , batting at No. 3 . White scored a further 4 half @-@ centuries for the Chargers , ending the season with the second most runs for the Chargers ; 479 runs with an average of 43 @.@ 54 , and a strike rate of 149 @.@ 68 , with a high score of 78 from 13 innings . He also captained the Chargers in a further 2 matches .
= = = 2013 – Sunrisers Hyderabad = = =
After the termination of the Deccan Chargers , he was retained by the new franchise , Sunrisers Hyderabad , captaining the team when Kumar Sangakkara wasn 't selected in the playing XI . White made 209 runs , averaging 17 @.@ 41 with a strike rate of 109 @.@ 42 .
= = International Recall = =
White signed for Northamptonshire Steelbacks to play in the Friends Life T20 competition , as their second overseas player . White scored the most runs for the Steelbacks ; 228 runs with an average of 57 and a strike rate of 131 @.@ 03 , with a high score of 62 * from 8 innings . White re @-@ signed to play for the Melbourne Stars in the Big Bash League , signing a 3 @-@ year contract . It was also announced White would step down as captain of the Melbourne Stars , with Shane Warne succeeding him .
In the same week , White was rewarded for his Twenty20 form , earning a recall to the Australian Twenty20 team to play Pakistan in the desert of the UAE . This led of the Australian selectors naming White in the 15 @-@ man squad for the 2012 ICC World Twenty20 , held in Sri Lanka .
= = Captain of Australia = =
When Michael Clarke retired from Twenty20 International , White was named captain for the 2 @-@ match Twenty20 International series against England after the 2010 – 11 Ashes Series .
White was then named vice @-@ captain to Clarke for the following 7 @-@ match One Day Series against England . When Clarke was rested for the last ODI , White was named captain of the side . He is the first Victorian since Shane Warne to captain the Australia ODI Team .
On the same day Michael Clarke was announced as captain , of the Test & ODI teams , Cameron White was announced as the permanent Twenty20 Captain , with Shane Watson vice captain in all formats . However , he was dropped as captain of the Australian Twenty20 team , following poor form in the Big Bash League . He was succeeded by Melbourne Stars teammate George Bailey .
= = International centuries and half @-@ centuries = =
Key
* denotes that he remained not out .
♠ denotes that he was the captain of the Australian team in that match .
Pos. denotes his position in the batting order .
Inn. denotes the number of innings in the match .
S / R denotes strike rate .
H / A / N denotes whether the venue is home ( Australia ) , away ( opposition 's home ) or neutral .
Lost denotes that the match was lost by Australia .
Won denotes that the match was won by Australia .
Centuries in bold .
= = = One Day Internationals Centuries = = =
= = = Twenty20 Internationals = = =
= = Awards = =
= = = ODI Awards = = =
= = = = Player of the Series Awards = = = =
= = = = ODI Man of the Match = = = =
= = = Twenty20 International Awards = = =
= = = = Man of the Match Awards = = = =
= Straight Outta Lynwood =
Straight Outta Lynwood is the twelfth studio album by " Weird Al " Yankovic , released on September 26 , 2006 . It was the sixth studio album self @-@ produced by Yankovic . The musical styles on the album are built around parodies and pastiches of pop and rock music of the mid @-@ 2000s . The album 's lead single , " White & Nerdy " , is a parody of Chamillionaire 's hit single " Ridin ' " . The single peaked at number nine on the Billboard Hot 100 ; " Canadian Idiot " also charted , peaking at number 82 .
The album featured five parodies . Aside from the aforementioned " White & Nerdy " and " Canadian Idiot " , the album also contains lampoons of " Confessions Part II " by Usher , " Do I Make You Proud " by Taylor Hicks , and " Trapped in the Closet " by R. Kelly . The other half of the album is original material , featuring many " style parodies " , or musical imitations of existing artists . These style parodies include imitations of specific artists like Brian Wilson , Rage Against the Machine , Sparks , animated musical specials , Cake , and 1980s charity songs . Originally , there were plans for the album 's lead single to have been a spoof of James Blunt 's hit " You 're Beautiful " entitled " You 're Pitiful " , but Blunt 's record label , Atlantic , blocked the commercial release of the parody .
The CD release was a DualDisc ; one side of the disc played the album , and the other side functioned as a DVD , featuring animated music videos for many of the songs on the record . Straight Outta Lynwood was met with mostly positive reviews , with many critics praising " White & Nerdy " and " Trapped in the Drive @-@ Thru " . Some of the original songs , however , were met with a more mixed reception . The album peaked at number 10 on the Billboard 200 . " White & Nerdy " became Yankovic 's highest @-@ charting single , as well as his first Platinum @-@ certified single . The record itself was certified Gold for shipments of over 500 @,@ 000 copies .
= = Production = =
= = = Originals = = =
On July 5 , 2005 , recording for Straight Outta Lynwood officially began at Santa Monica Sound Records , in Santa Monica , California . By late 2005 , six originals — " Pancreas " , " Close but No Cigar " , " Virus Alert " , " Don 't Download This Song " , " I 'll Sue Ya " , and " Weasel Stomping Day " — had been recorded . " Weasel Stomping Day " describes , in the style of animated musical specials of the 1960s , a supposedly traditional holiday in which participants don Viking helmets , spread mayonnaise on their lawns , and " snap [ the titular animals ' ] weasely spines in half . " " I 'll Sue Ya " is a Rage Against the Machine style parody , taking aim at the abundance of frivolous lawsuits in the United States . Yankovic chose to juxtapose the style of Rage Against the Machine with lyrics about lawsuits because he felt that humor could be derived by pairing the angriness of the band 's music with a topic so vacuous . " Don 't Download This Song " , a style parody of 1980s charity songs , such as " We are the World " , " Hands Across America " , and " Do They Know It ’ s Christmas ? " , " describes the perils of online music file @-@ sharing " . According to Yankovic himself , the song takes a moderate approach to the peer @-@ to @-@ peer music download situation , arguing that both sides — people trying to illegally download music and the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) — can act hypocritically depending on the situation .
" Virus Alert " is a style parody of Sparks , specifically their work in the mid @-@ 1970s , such as their album Kimono My House ( 1974 ) . It details " the evil that lurks in your email inbox . " " Close but No Cigar " is a style parody of Cake . It tells the story of a man that breaks up with his seemingly perfect girlfriends due to the most inconsequential of flaws . The song was inspired by an actual friend of Yankovic 's who was never satisfied with any of his dates ; Yankovic later explained that " the song was inspired by [ the ] attitude , that nothing could ever be good enough . " The final original recorded , " Pancreas " , is a song mainly about the biological functions of the aforementioned organ . The song is an imitation of the musical stylings of Brian Wilson , specifically his work found on the 1966 album Pet Sounds , released by the Beach Boys , and their aborted follow @-@ up album , Smile . Yankovic joked that the reason the song was written was because " my pancreas has given so much to me over the years , I felt like I needed to give something back to it " .
= = = Parodies and polka = = =
On February 19 , 2006 , Yankovic began working on the album 's parodies . During these sessions , three parodies were recorded ; the first of these , " Canadian Idiot " , is a play on " American Idiot " by Green Day . It is a satirical commentary on American nationalism and the stereotypical American view of Canadians . The song is ironic , and Yankovic has stated that the song 's anger is a joke and that he loves Canada . Next , Yankovic began working on " Trapped in the Drive @-@ Thru " , a parody of R. Kelly 's " Trapped in the Closet " . Yankovic was inspired to pen the spoof after hearing the " brilliant and wonderful and ridiculous " original . Efforts to make the parody more convoluted than the original were first considered but then abandoned by Yankovic ; he eventually reasoned , however , that he could make his version " a little more stupid " . Thus , the song is an excruciatingly detailed narrative about a couple getting hamburgers at the drive @-@ thru , which was " the most banal thing [ Yankovic ] could think of at the time . " Because the song was three times the length of a normal song , legally , Yankovic would have been required to pay thrice the statutory rate for royalties . This in turn would have forced Yankovic to remove one of his parodies from the album . However , R. Kelly allowed Yankovic to only pay the royalty rate for one song . To round out the first session , Yankovic recorded " Confessions Part III " , a play on " Confessions Part II " by Usher . The song purports to be a continuation of the Usher songs " Confessions " and " Confessions Part II " , focusing on trivial , silly , strange , and disturbing confessions ; Yankovic explained that , " After hearing Usher do [ the original songs ] , I couldn ’ t help but think that maybe he ’ d left a few things out , that there were a few confessions he had yet to make . "
After being denied permission to release " You 're Pitiful " , Yankovic penned " Do I Creep You Out " and " White & Nerdy " to take the parody 's place , recording both on July 22 , 2006 . The first of these is a play on " Do I Make You Proud " by Taylor Hicks , in which a singer addresses the object of his affection and stalking ; the song was also Yankovic 's jab at American Idol , a musical competition show that Hicks had won in May 2006 . The final parody written and recorded for the album was " White & Nerdy " , a parody of " Ridin ' " by Chamillionaire featuring Krayzie Bone . The song describes the life of a white nerd whose wish to " roll with the gangstas " is impeded by his stereotypically white and nerdy behavior ; the song is also filled with references to nerd culture . Yankovic later joked that it was a song he " was born to write " due to association with nerd humor . While Yankovic usually records his songs together with his band , the backing tracks for " White and Nerdy " were completely recorded by guitarist Jim West — who handled the synthesizer production — and Jon " Bermuda " Schwartz — who was tasked with recording the drums . The two musicians recorded their specific tracks at their home studios , and the finished audio tracks were then brought to Westlake Studio in Los Angeles , California , where Yankovic added his vocals . Chamillionaire himself put " White & Nerdy " on his official MySpace page and said that he enjoys the parody . In an interview , he also stated he was pleasantly surprised by Yankovic 's rapping ability , saying : " He 's actually rapping pretty good on it , it 's crazy ... I didn 't know he could rap like that . "
" Polkarama ! " , a medley of popular hit songs set to a polka beat , was recorded during the second parody session . Yankovic explained that , " if there ’ s a song that I think is really ripe for parody but I just can ’ t think of a clever enough idea , sometimes it ’ ll end up in the polka medley . " Regarding their popularity , Yankovic has said , " At this point , it 's sort of mandatory for me to do a polka medley . Fans would be rioting in the streets , I think , if I didn 't do a polka medley . "
= = = " You 're Pitiful " controversy = = =
Yankovic had originally wanted to record a parody of James Blunt 's hit " You 're Beautiful " and release it as the lead single for the album . The parodist had approached Blunt about the spoof , and the singer approved his idea . Yankovic then went into the recording studio on April 12 , 2006 , and recorded his version , entitled " You 're Pitiful " . However , Blunt 's record company , Atlantic Records , told Yankovic that he could not include the song on his album . Yankovic eventually learned that Atlantic felt " it was ' too early ' in James ' career for a parody , and that they were afraid that focusing any more attention on ' Beautiful ' at that point might lead to the perception of James as a ' one @-@ hit wonder . ' "
At first , the label promised that they would let Yankovic release the parody at an unspecified later date . Yankovic , however , later learned that they had no such intentions . Since Blunt himself was fine with the parody , Yankovic decided to release " You 're Pitiful " as a free digital download on his website , noting that , " if James Blunt himself were objecting I wouldn 't even offer my parody for free on my Web site . But since it 's a bunch of suits — who are actually going against their own artist 's wishes — I have absolutely no problem with it . "
= = = Unused ideas = = =
Yankovic had wanted to record a parody of Daniel Powter 's " Bad Day " for the album entitled " You Had a Bad Date " , but Powter initially refused . Powter then changed his mind " literally the day before [ Yankovic ] went into the studio to record ' White & Nerdy ' " , at which point , according to Yankovic , " the train had left the station " . T @-@ Pain had also given Yankovic permission to record a parody of " I 'm N Luv ( Wit A Stripper ) " called " I 'm in Luv Wit Da Skipper " , referencing the character from the 1960s sitcom Gilligan 's Island . Yankovic later decided not to record the song , but T @-@ Pain was still thanked in the album 's liner notes . Despite this , Yankovic still performed the song in the parody medley during his Straight Outta Lynwood Tour . Besides his " Bad Day " and " I 'm N Luv ( Wit A Stripper ) " parodies , Yankovic also claimed to have several " mediocre " ideas such as " Holodeck Girl " ( a spoof of " Hollaback Girl " by Gwen Stefani ) , " IRS " ( a play on " S.O.S. " by Rihanna ) , and " HairyBack " ( a parody of " SexyBack " by Justin Timberlake ) . In addition , Nickelback had originally given Yankovic permission to use their song " Photograph " in " Polkarama " ; however , Yankovic was unable " to find a way to incorporate the song into [ Polkarama ] where it didn 't sound wedged in or tacked on " , and he decided not to use it , although Nickelback was also thanked in the liner notes for Straight Outta Lynwood .
= = Title and artwork = =
The title is a takeoff on Straight Outta Compton , an album by N.W.A. Lynwood , California , Yankovic 's home town , is a neighboring community to Compton , California . The cover art , inspired by " gangsta imagery " , depicts Yankovic , wearing a Lynwood , California , letterman 's jacket and holding a pit bull on a leash , in front of a Chevrolet . All of the images from the album were taken on April 22 , 2006 , by Michael Blackwell , an Atlanta , Georgia , photographer who has also taken images of notable hip hop stars as T.I. , Lil ' Scrappy , and Young Jeezy . The pit bull on the cover is named Dough Boy , and is owned by a local couple that was walking by during the photo shoot . Yankovic had always planned for this album to be titled Straight Outta Lynwood , even when the lead single was going to be " You 're Pitiful " ; Yankovic had liked the ironic juxtaposition of having a gangsta rap @-@ inspired album cover and title , with " such a toothless ballad for the lead parody " . However , the cover ended up being unintentionally appropriate when " White & Nerdy " became the lead track on the album . The numbers and letters on the album cover have several meanings : " NLY " are the initials of both Yankovic 's daughter and his father . The number " 27 " is an in @-@ joke with Yankovic 's fans , but February 7 was also his mother 's birthday . The license plate originally read " 27 4LIFE " during the photo shoot . The photograph that was originally going to be the cover was later used for the back of the CD case .
= = Visuals = =
While Yankovic 's previous albums generated only one or two official music videos , Straight Outta Lynwood spawned nine , and the DualDisc release of the album included videos for all six original songs . Yankovic 's record label had suggested he release a DualDisc , and he was in favor of the idea once he realized that he could hire animators to create videos for the original songs , in order to make the release more rewarding for fans who purchased it . At first , Yankovic was unsure who he would be able to hire , because of the budget , but to his surprise , many artists signed on . Bill Plympton animated a video for " Don 't Download This Song " , which preceded the release of the album , and Thomas Lee , best known for his Flash music video " Star Wars Gangsta Rap " , animated a video for " I 'll Sue Ya " . A music video for " Virus Alert " was helmed by David Lovelace , creator of Retarded Animal Babies ; Yankovic admitted to exercising more creative control over this video than the others present on the DVD , citing concern with Lovelace 's previous content . John Kricfalusi and Katie Rice animated a video for " Close but No Cigar " . Yankovic had long been a fan of Kricfalusi , who is perhaps best known as the creator of the cartoon series Ren & Stimpy . The video " takes an irreverent look at the world of dating as seen thru [ sic ] the eyes of Cigarettes the cat . " Jim Blashfield created a video for " Pancreas " using stock footage from the Prelinger Archives . Finally , Shadowmachine Films released a stop @-@ motion video for " Weasel Stomping Day " that aired on September 24 , 2006 as part of " The Munnery " , the show 's 32nd episode of the Adult Swim TV show Robot Chicken .
Subsequent videos were also made for three of the album 's parodies . On August 15 , 2006 , Yankovic announced that he planned to shoot a music video for " White & Nerdy " in the Los Angeles area on August 21 , 24 , 25 , and 27 . He posted a solicitation for volunteers to appear in the video on his MySpace blog . The video was filmed in high definition . Originally , it was going to be released on September 18 at 9 PM Pacific Time on AOL.com , but , since the video had been leaked , AOL cancelled the premiere event and uploaded the video early . Soon thereafter , VH1 began airing the video in " large rotation " , meaning it was shown roughly 20 times a day . Near the end of 2006 , animators at JibJab made a video for " Do I Creep You Out " , and Doug Bresler released a video for " Trapped in the Drive Thru " in 2007 . In regards to the latter , Bresler 's original cut of the video featured the male in the song looking like Yankovic . Yankovic later asked that Bresler give the character a more neutral look , noting that if a live action video had been made , he " would almost certainly be playing a character [ in the video , and ] not ' Weird Al ' " . Bresler complied , and gave the character a more generic hairstyle . MuchMusic , a 24 @-@ hour Canadian cable music and variety television channel , ran a fan @-@ made " Canadian Idiot " video contest on their website , but it was later scrapped due to lack of entries .
= = Release = =
= = = Promotion = = =
Following the release of Straight Outta Lynwood , Yankovic undertook the two @-@ year @-@ long Straight Outta Lynwood Tour . Starting on March 10 , 2007 and concluding on August 28 , 2008 , Yankovic played 163 shows across the United States . To promote the album , a promotional website was launched for the single " Don 't Download This Song " , " dontdownloadthissong.com " . The site allowed a user to launch an e @-@ card that included a download and stream of the song , as well as options to email the card to friends .
= = = Reviews = = =
Chris Carle of IGN awarded the album an 8 out of 10 , denoting a " great " release . He called it " another solid record to add to the collection ; just the right nostalgic blend of parodies , gross @-@ out songs and polka . " Specifically , he selected " White & Nerdy " , " Polkarama ! " , and " Weasel Stomping Day " as the album 's stand @-@ out tracks , but felt that original songs like " Pancreas " and " I 'll Sue Ya " were either not funny or " late to the party " . David Jeffries of AllMusic awarded the record three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five and called it " inspired " . He highlighted " White & Nerdy " as a choice single , calling it a " reason to celebrate [ Yankovic 's ] return " . Jeffries applauded " Canadian Idiot " and " Trapped in the Drive @-@ Thru " , calling both funny , and he also noted that the originals from the album were humorous as well . However , he felt that the Usher and Taylor Hicks parodies were " only mildly humorous " and that some of the original songs " really drag " when compared to the others . Gavin Edwards of Rolling | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
as a mere subspecies of the marsh rice rat ( O. palustris ) .
After its discovery in 1897 , it has never been recorded again and it is now considered extinct ; the presence of introduced black rats on María Madre may have contributed to its extinction . Oryzomys nelsoni was a large species , distinguished in particular by its long tail , robust skull , and large incisors . It was reddish to yellowish above and mostly white below . Its diet may have included plant material and small animals .
= = Taxonomy = =
Oryzomys nelsoni was collected by Edward William Nelson and Edward Goldman in May 1897 and never found again . Their visit for the Biological Survey of the United States Department of Agriculture was one of the first scientific explorations of the islands . Clinton Hart Merriam identified the mammals they obtained , including four specimens of Oryzomys nelsoni , which were deposited in the United States National Museum and remain there . He named it as a species of the genus Oryzomys , Oryzomys nelsoni ; the specific name honors Nelson . Investigators have generally retained it as a species distinct from other Oryzomys , but in 1971 Hershkovitz listed it as one of many subspecies of Oryzomys palustris , which he envisaged as a wide @-@ ranging species encompassing what is now the marsh rice rat ( O. palustris ) of the southern and eastern United States , O. couesi of Central America , and several other species with more limited distributions .
In his 1918 revision of North American Oryzomys , Goldman considered O. nelsoni to be most closely related to the nearest mainland subspecies of O. couesi , O. couesi mexicanus . In 2009 , Michael Carleton and Joaquin Arroyo @-@ Cabrales revised the Oryzomys of western Mexico and confirmed that O. nelsoni is a very distinct species . Their morphometrical analysis found some resemblance between the species and Oryzomys albiventer of interior mainland Mexico , and they suggested that although O. nelsoni likely represents an old , distinctive lineage , it may have derived from a common ancestor with O. albiventer .
Oryzomys nelsoni is one of about eight species in the genus Oryzomys , which occurs from the eastern United States ( O. palustris ) into northwestern South America ( O. gorgasi ) . O. nelsoni is further part of the O. couesi section , which is centered on the widespread Central American O. couesi and also includes various other species with more limited and peripheral distributions . Many aspects of the systematics of the O. couesi section remain unclear and it is likely that the current classification underestimates the true diversity of the group . Oryzomys previously included many other species , which were progressively removed in various studies culminating in a contribution by Marcelo Weksler and coworkers in 2006 that removed more than forty species from the genus . All are classified in the tribe Oryzomyini ( " rice rats " ) , a diverse assemblage of American rodents of over a hundred species , and on higher taxonomic levels in the subfamily Sigmodontinae of family Cricetidae , along with hundreds of other species of mainly small rodents .
Common names proposed for this species include Nelson rice rat , Nelson 's rice rat , Nelson 's oryzomys , and Tres Marias Island rice rat .
= = Description = =
Oryzomys nelsoni was a large and long @-@ tailed Oryzomys ; its tail was longer than that of any other western Mexican Oryzomys . The upperparts were ochraceous to buff , most richly so on the rump , and paler further to the front and low on the flanks . On the head and the back , blackish hairs somewhat darkened the overall color . The underparts were white , with lead @-@ colored underfur that was visible in some places . The ears were covered on both sides with scanty grayish hairs . The large hindfeet were sparsely covered with pale hairs . The tail was largely dark , but the underside of the basal one third to one half was light yellow .
Oryzomys nelsoni was distinctive in its large skull with broad , well @-@ developed incisors and a strong front part ( rostrum ) that is strongly curved downwards . In O. albiventer , the rostrum and incisors were not as massive , but the molars are larger . The interparietal bone , part of the roof of the braincase , was broad and the incisive foramina , which perforated the palate between the incisors and the molars , were relatively short .
Total length in the four known specimens is 282 to 344 mm ( 11 @.@ 1 to 13 @.@ 5 in ) , averaging 322 mm ( 12 @.@ 7 in ) ; head and body length is 122 to 153 mm ( 4 @.@ 8 to 6 @.@ 0 in ) , averaging 140 @.@ 5 mm ( 5 @.@ 53 in ) ; tail length is 160 to 191 mm ( 6 @.@ 3 to 7 @.@ 5 in ) , averaging 181 @.@ 5 mm ( 7 @.@ 15 in ) ; and hindfoot length is 35 to 39 mm ( 1 @.@ 4 to 1 @.@ 5 in ) , averaging 37 @.@ 3 mm ( 1 @.@ 47 in ) .
= = Ecology and extinction = =
Nelson and Goldman found the species only in a damp , herbaceous site now known as the " Sacatal " near a spring high on María Madre Island , the largest of the Islas Marías off the coast of Nayarit , western Mexico , and Nelson wrote that it was rare . He gave the elevation of this place as 1800 ft , which Álvarez @-@ Castañeda and Méndez converted to 550 m , but in his 1918 paper , Goldman gave 800 ft instead , which Carleton and Arroyo @-@ Cabrales in 2009 converted to 245 m . The next survey of small mammals on the island took place in March 1976 by a team led by Don E. Wilson . They failed to collect O. nelsoni and instead found only the introduced black rat ( Rattus rattus ) at the locality where Nelson and Goldman had collected O. nelsoni ; this species may have contributed to the decline of the indigenous rodent .
The species is now considered extinct , although as late as 2002 the Mexican government listed it as " threatened " . Another Islas Marías endemic , the deermouse Peromyscus madrensis , still occurred on María Madre in 1976 . Oryzomys nelsoni is thought to have fed on plant material such as weeds , fruit , and seeds , and more rarely on animals such as fish and invertebrates .
= The Volcano ( British Columbia ) =
The Volcano , also known as Lava Fork volcano , is a small cinder cone in the Boundary Ranges of the Coast Mountains in northwestern British Columbia , Canada . It is located approximately 60 km ( 40 mi ) northwest of the small community of Stewart near the head of Lava Fork . With a summit elevation of 1 @,@ 656 m ( 5 @,@ 433 ft ) and a topographic prominence of 311 m ( 1 @,@ 020 ft ) , it rises above the surrounding rugged landscape on a remote mountain ridge that represents the northern flank of a glaciated U @-@ shaped valley .
Lava Fork volcano is associated with a small group of related volcanoes called the Iskut @-@ Unuk River Cones . This forms part of the much larger Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province , which extends from the Alaska – Yukon border to near the port city of Prince Rupert , British Columbia . Eruptive activity at The Volcano is relatively young compared to most other volcanoes in the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province . Geologic studies have shown that The Volcano and its eruptive products were emplaced in the past 400 years ; this is well after the last glacial period , which ended about 10 @,@ 000 years ago .
= = Geology = =
The Volcano is the southernmost of 10 volcanoes comprising the Iskut @-@ Unuk River Cones volcanic field , as well as the most recent to erupt . Its structure is poorly formed and has been reduced by erosion from alpine glacial ice found at its elevation and latitude . It represents one of the few historically active volcanoes in the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province , with a base elevation estimated to be 100 m ( 330 ft ) . Like most cinder cones , The Volcano consists of a pile of loose volcanic ash , lapilli @-@ sized tephra and volcanic bombs . These were deposited during periods of lava fountain activity . The vent area contains volcanic bombs up to 0 @.@ 5 m ( 1 @.@ 6 ft ) long and small deposits of sulfur precipitated from volcanic gases .
Like other Iskut @-@ Unuk River Cones , The Volcano has its origins in continental rifting — a long rupture in the Earth 's crust where the lithosphere is being pulled apart . This incipient rifting has formed as a result of the Pacific Plate sliding northward along the Queen Charlotte Fault , on its way to the Aleutian Trench . As the continental crust stretches , the near surface rocks fracture along steeply dipping cracks parallel to the rift known as faults . Basaltic magma rises along these fractures to create effusive eruptions . The rift zone has existed for at least 14 @.@ 9 million years , and has created the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province . Several dormant volcanoes in the province are potentially active , with The Volcano being one of the three having erupted in the last few hundred years . Tseax Cone , which last erupted in the 18th century , is the southernmost volcano in the province , while Prindle Volcano in easternmost @-@ central Alaska , which erupted more than 10 @,@ 000 years ago , is generally considered the northernmost .
= = = Volcanic history = = =
At least two phases of volcanic activity have been identified at The Volcano . Each event was followed by the eruption of lengthy basaltic lava flows that flowed down steep granitic flanks of the mountain ridge on which The Volcano lies . After this took place , they travelled through the Lava Fork valley for 5 km ( 3 mi ) . Here , the flows crossed the British Columbia border into the U.S. state of Alaska and blocked the Blue River , a tributary of the Unuk River , forming several lakes . The lava flows in total are about 22 km ( 14 mi ) long and still contain their original features from when they cooled , including pressure ridges and lava channels . A series of large trees were engulfed by the lava flows during eruption . The bases of the trees burned and the upper trunks and branches collapsed into the solidifing lava , leaving the trees embedded on the surface of the lava flows . After the flows solidified , tree molds and lava tubes collapsed to form volcanic pits . At the southern end of one of the lava flows , it spreads into a broad terminal lobe on the flat alluvial plain of the Unuk River . Volcanic ash and lava from The Volcano still linger on small glaciers near Mount Lewis Cass , a 2 @,@ 094 m ( 6 @,@ 870 ft ) high mountain near the Alaska @-@ British Columbia border .
At least one lava flow from The Volcano was notified by a surveyor named Fremont Morse in 1905 during a survey for the International Boundary Commission . In 1906 , Morse wrote that the most recently erupted lava flow had " probably occurred within less than fifty years " . Since Morse 's report , tree ring and radiocarbon dating techniques have been used to establish the dates of The Volcano 's two volcanic phases . The first is estimated to have occurred about 360 years ago and the latest possibly took place only 150 years ago . This indicates that The Volcano is the youngest known volcanic mountain in Canada and that its volcanic activity is recent compared to many other volcanoes in British Columbia . In several documents , the last eruption of The Volcano is written to have occurred in 1904 . However , according to the Smithsonian Institution 's Global Volcanism Program , this eruption is considered uncertain .
Although The Volcano is estimated to have last erupted 150 years ago , it is one of the five volcanoes in the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province that have recorded seismicity since 1985 . Others include Castle Rock ( two events ) , Hoodoo Mountain ( eight events ) , Crow Lagoon ( four events ) and the Mount Edziza volcanic complex ( eight events ) . Seismic data suggest that these volcanoes still contain active magma chambers , indicating that some Northern Cordilleran volcanoes are probably active , with significant potential hazards . The seismic activity corresponds both with some of Canada 's recently formed volcanoes and with persistent volcanoes that have had major explosive activity throughout their history , such as Hoodoo Mountain and the Mount Edziza volcanic complex .
= = Human history = =
= = = Naming controversy = = =
The name of the peak was suggested by an explorer named Chris Dickinson during the Cambridge Coast Mountains Expedition in 1979 . It was adopted on November 24 , 1980 , and has been its official name since then . However , this name for the peak does not normally show up in any volcanological resources . Instead , it is informally referred to as Lava Fork or Lava Fork volcano due to its close association with the creek of the same name . The reason for this controversy is because The Volcano is generic . In speech it may not be obvious whether The Volcano or the volcano is intended , leading to confusion . Similar named volcanoes in Canada include Volcano Vent in the Tuya volcanic field of northwestern British Columbia and Volcano Mountain in the Fort Selkirk volcanic field of central Yukon . As of 2009 , the unofficial terms for The Volcano continue to be used by Natural Resources Canada .
= = = Protection and monitoring = = =
The Volcano , its eruptive products and a large mineral spring are protected in Lava Forks Provincial Park . Founded in 2001 as a Class A provincial park , this highly remote park covers an area of 7 @,@ 000 ha ( 17 @,@ 000 acres ) . Lying within its boundaries are the Lava Lakes , two lakes dammed by lava flows erupted from The Volcano . Located in asserted traditional territory of the Tahltan First Nation , Lava Forks Provincial Park provides a location to study ecological processes associated with primary succession or the establishment of vegetation after a major disturbance . After 150 years of non @-@ eruptive activity , vegetation has grown on the surface of the lava flows , including mosses and lichens . Western Hemlock , Mountain Hemlock and Alpine tundra biogeoclimatic subzones also occur in the area , which form part of the Boundary Ranges Ecosection .
Like other Iskut @-@ Unuk River Cones , The Volcano is not monitored closely enough by the Geological Survey of Canada to ascertain how active its magma system is . This is partly because it is located in a remote region and no major eruptions have occurred in Canada in the past few hundred years . As a result , volcano monitoring is less important than dealing with other natural processes , including tsunamis , earthquakes and landslides . However , with the existence of earthquakes , further volcanism is expected and would probably have effects on the surrounding landscape . Because of these concerns , significant support from Canadian university scientists have resulted in the construction of a baseline of knowledge on the state of volcanoes in Canada .
= = Volcanic hazards = =
At least seven eruptions have occurred in the Iskut @-@ Unuk River volcanic field in the past 10 @,@ 000 years . Since around 1600 all eruptions have occurred at The Volcano . Its total eruption volume is estimated to be 2 @.@ 2 km3 ( 0 @.@ 53 cu mi ) . Future eruptions from The Volcano will probably be similar in character to those that have occurred throughout its 360 @-@ year eruptive history . There is a one in 200 chance per year of an eruption occurring in Canada and one in 220 chance per year of an effusive eruption . An eruption in the foreseeable future is probably more likely along the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province than in an unrelated volcanic zone outside the province . This is because the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province , which includes the Iskut @-@ Unuk River Cones , is the most active volcanic zone in Canada .
= = = Effects = = =
A small range of effects are expected from future eruptions at The Volcano . Its remote uninhabited location makes volcanic hazards less extreme and is therefore not very hazardous . Ash and rock fragments ( tephra ) ejected during lava fountain activity are unlikely to be high enough to disrupt regional air traffic . However , they could possibly endanger lower flying aircraft along the northern coastal corridor between Vancouver and Alaska . The closest major air route is about 170 km ( 110 mi ) to the east . Volcanic ash reduces visibility and can cause jet engine failure , as well as damage to other aircraft systems .
Lava flows emitted during future volcanic eruptions would likely be basaltic in nature based on the composition of its lavas produced during past volcanic activity . Basaltic lava flows are low in silica content and can have speeds extending from 15 to 50 km / h ( 10 to 30 mph ) . The last eruption at The Volcano 150 years ago had a large impact on fish , plant and animal inhabitants in the valley the lava flows travelled through to cross the Canada – United States border . Because of these circumstances , future eruptions may again block the flow of local water courses if the volume of the erupted lavas are significant enough . This would again have disastrous consequences for fish habitats and spawning grounds . However , there are neither records of any impacts on people during this eruption , nor evidence that it was even witnessed by people . A repeat of wildfires in the Lava Fork valley is also a possibility due to the existence of vegetation on and around the erupted lavas .
= Albert Downing =
Albert " Doolan " Joseph Downing ( 12 July 1886 – 8 August 1915 ) was a New Zealand international rugby union player , capped 26 times at lock between 1913 and 1914 . He was born in Napier , and began his playing career for Napier Marist in 1909 , from which he was selected for Hawke 's Bay and for the North Island . He moved at the end of 1912 to Auckland and there joined Auckland Marist , where he was the club 's first All Black , playing his debut match against a touring Australian team in 1913 . He was selected for the highly successful tour of North America in 1913 , playing in 14 of the 16 matches and scoring 6 tries .
While the All Blacks were on a tour of Australia in 1914 , the British Empire declared war on Germany and the team collectively decided to enlist . Three of them were killed , Downing the first of the All Blacks in World War I. After enlisting in early 1915 , he took part in the Battle of Chunuk Bair , part of the Gallipoli Campaign , and was killed on 8 August . Henry Dewar , a team mate from the USA tour , died the following day at Anzac Cove .
= = Early life = =
Albert Downing was born on 12 July 1886 in Port Ahuriri , Napier , New Zealand , the eldest son of Mr and Mrs John Downing . He attended Napier Boys ' High School until 1904 . He was a farmer before joining Barry Brothers , carriers and coal merchants , choosing to work as a carter outdoors , rather than join the clerical staff . Later , he worked as a storeman for the Ellison and Duncan Company .
= = Rugby career = =
Downing ’ s rugby career , playing at lock , started with the Napier Old Boys Rugby Club and then Napier Marist Rugby Club ; he represented Hawke 's Bay from 1909 to 1912 . In 1911 , he was selected for a North Island Country team , playing all games of a five match tour . The tour was part of a scheme by the New Zealand Rugby Union to discover talent , which brought Downing to the selectors ' attention . The North Island team played four games , against Auckland , Taranaki Union , Wanganui and Wellington , between 29 July and 9 August , and played a final match against the South Island on 12 August . Reports from the tour show Downing was very involved in the games , scoring a try against Wanganui for a 13 – 0 victory , and nearly scoring in a close game against Auckland , which resulted in a 8 – 8 draw . The North versus South match , which the North won 18 – 6 , was described in the press as lacking in quality : it was an " uninteresting match " , and " play was crude and poor and lacked vigour " . Downing stood out : " The only member of either team who could be said to have played up to inter @-@ island form was Downing – a fine forward in the North Island team . "
The following year , Downing 's name was put forward by Hawke 's Bay to play for the North Island in the annual Inter @-@ Island match and he made selection . The North beat the South 12 – 8 in a closely contested , entertaining game in front of a full capacity crowd . The Northern forwards in general played a good game ; it was suggested that Downing 's passing back from the lineout to the halfback was something that other forwards might consider imitating . A tour with the North Island Country team followed , in which Downing played all four games . The last , against South Island Country in Wellington on 4 August , had to be stopped at half time due to the condition of the match ground , and the North won 14 – 3 . His Hawke 's Bay and North Island Country team @-@ mate Norman McKenzie described him as " an outstanding line @-@ out forward with a wonderful pair of hands " .
= = = Auckland and the All Blacks = = =
Downing relocated to Auckland at the end of 1912 and was recruited by Auckland Marists on the strength of his playing and the links with the Napier Marists . He was the club 's first All Black , joined shortly after by Jim " Buster " Barrett . Downing 's debut match was against Australia in Wellington on 6 September , which the All Blacks won easily 30 – 6 , bettering Australia " in every respect " .
He was subsequently selected for the tour of North America the same year . On 10 September , the eve of departure , Wellington took on the All Blacks in a " thrilling " game which saw the visitors nearly defeated . With the wind behind them in the first half , the All Blacks gained a 13 @-@ point lead ; but in the second half , Wellington came back strongly ; and with a drop @-@ goal in the final three minutes , closed the lead to just one point , 19 – 18 . There was strong back play on both sides ; amongst the forwards , one player from each side received special mention in the press : Downing for the All Blacks , Miller for Wellington .
It is possible that Downing might not have been selected for the tour had he not moved to Auckland . As it was , he played in 14 of the 16 matches , and contributed 6 tries for 18 points towards a total tally of 610 points . There was little interest in the American press about the tour . A single short paragraph in the New York Tribune reports on the 51 – 3 defeat of the All America team on 15 November . In New Zealand , meanwhile , detailed match reports were coming in , and many of these were full of praise for Downing . Of all the players in the USA match , four would die in the Great War : Frank Jacob Gard , the USA captain ( died 29 September 1918 ) ; and three All Blacks : Henry Dewar , George Sellars and Downing himself .
In 1914 , Downing was again selected for the Inter @-@ Island match in Wellington on 9 June , which the South won 8 – 0 . Later in the year , four of Downing 's Marist team @-@ mates were with him in the All Black side selected to tour Australia : Barrett , five eighths Jock McKenzie , who had transferred from Wellington , and fullback Jack O ’ Brien , a founding member of the club . The All Blacks played Wellington again on the day before leaving for Australia , this time losing 19 – 14 , Downing contributing a try . Downing played in 10 of the 11 matches , including the 3 tests , and was praised for his line @-@ out ability . In the first test on 18 July , he was , according to The Star , " easily the best forward in the team " , and after the second test , The Southland Times opined that " it is quite possible that before he leaves the lengthy Aucklander may prove himself to be included in the star category of New Zealand forwards . "
In an obituary , Downing was described as " big , strong , fast , brainy , clever with hands and feet , dashing , and resourceful . " He was best known for his work in the line @-@ out and in the loose , equally good in attack as in defence . He played hard but clean . Such was his devotion to rugby that Downing had a tattoo on his left forearm of the Ranfurly Shield .
= = = International appearances = = =
= = Military career = =
During the All Black tour of Australia , in the game against Metropolitan Union in Sydney on 5 August 1914 , the news was posted on the scoreboard that the British Empire – and therefore New Zealand and Australia – had declared war . On the ship home , the players collectively decided to volunteer for military service . Three of them were killed , including Downing at Gallipoli , Bobby Black at the Somme and Jim McNeece at Messines .
Downing enlisted with the Fifth Reinforcements ( Wellington Battalion ) on 2 February 1915 . While doing basic training , he also played two games of rugby for the Trentham Military Forces Team , against Wellington on 1 May and Auckland on 5 June . In the first of these , Downing was reckoned to be the standout forward of the Trentham team , and " played splendidly " .
On 13 June , he departed bound for Suez in Egypt , arriving 24 July . His unit took part , beginning on 6 August , in the Battle of Chunuk Bair , in support of the landing at Suvla Bay , which was intended to break the deadlock in the Gallipoli Campaign . The initial assault was successful and early on the morning of 8 August , Downing was with A Company occupying the Turkish trench on the crest of Chunuck Bair . The Turks counter @-@ attacked at dawn , forcing back the British battalions and the Wellingtons . The crest was lost and the battle continued for 12 hours on the seaward slopes . By nightfall , Downing , who had earlier distinguished himself in a bayonet charge , was killed , reportedly " blown to pieces " . Downing was the first of 13 All Blacks killed in the war , just a day before Henry Dewar , the second All Black to fall , was killed in action with the Wellington Mounted Rifles at Anzac Cove .
Sergeant Doolan Downing is commemorated on panel 17 of the New Zealand Memorial to the Missing on Chunuk Bair , along with his commanding @-@ officer , Lt Col William George Malone , who died aged 56 , and more than 300 other men of his battalion .
= Atom =
An atom is the smallest constituent unit of ordinary matter that has the properties of a chemical element . Every solid , liquid , gas , and plasma is composed of neutral or ionized atoms . Atoms are very small ; typical sizes are around 100 pm ( a ten @-@ billionth of a meter , in the short scale ) . However , atoms do not have well @-@ defined boundaries , and there are different ways to define their size that give different but close values .
Atoms are small enough that attempting to predict their behavior using classical physics - as if they were billiard balls , for example - gives noticeably incorrect predictions due to quantum effects . Through the development of physics , atomic models have incorporated quantum principles to better explain and predict the behavior .
Every atom is composed of a nucleus and one or more electrons bound to the nucleus . The nucleus is made of one or more protons and typically a similar number of neutrons . Protons and neutrons are called nucleons . More than 99 @.@ 94 % of an atom 's mass is in the nucleus . The protons have a positive electric charge , the electrons have a negative electric charge , and the neutrons have no electric charge . If the number of protons and electrons are equal , that atom is electrically neutral . If an atom has more or fewer electrons than protons , then it has an overall negative or positive charge , respectively , and it is called an ion .
The electrons of an atom are attracted to the protons in an atomic nucleus by this electromagnetic force . The protons and neutrons in the nucleus are attracted to each other by a different force , the nuclear force , which is usually stronger than the electromagnetic force repelling the positively charged protons from one another . Under certain circumstances the repelling electromagnetic force becomes stronger than the nuclear force , and nucleons can be ejected from the nucleus , leaving behind a different element : nuclear decay resulting in nuclear transmutation .
The number of protons in the nucleus defines to what chemical element the atom belongs : for example , all copper atoms contain 29 protons . The number of neutrons defines the isotope of the element . The number of electrons influences the magnetic properties of an atom . Atoms can attach to one or more other atoms by chemical bonds to form chemical compounds such as molecules . The ability of atoms to associate and dissociate is responsible for most of the physical changes observed in nature , and is the subject of the discipline of chemistry .
= = History of atomic theory = =
= = = Atoms in philosophy = = =
The idea that matter is made up of discrete units is a very old idea , appearing in many ancient cultures such as Greece and India . The word " atom " was coined by ancient Greek philosophers . However , these ideas were founded in philosophical and theological reasoning rather than evidence and experimentation . As a result , their views on what atoms look like and how they behave were incorrect . They also could not convince everybody , so atomism was but one of a number of competing theories on the nature of matter . It was not until the 19th century that the idea was embraced and refined by scientists , when the blossoming science of chemistry produced discoveries that only the concept of atoms could explain .
= = = First evidence @-@ based theory = = =
In the early 1800s , John Dalton used the concept of atoms to explain why elements always react in ratios of small whole numbers ( the law of multiple proportions ) . For instance , there are two types of tin oxide : one is 88 @.@ 1 % tin and 11 @.@ 9 % oxygen and the other is 78 @.@ 7 % tin and 21 @.@ 3 % oxygen ( tin ( II ) oxide and tin dioxide respectively ) . This means that 100g of tin will combine either with 13.5g or 27g of oxygen . 13 @.@ 5 and 27 form a ratio of 1 : 2 , a ratio of small whole numbers . This common pattern in chemistry suggested to Dalton that elements react in whole number multiples of discrete units — in other words , atoms . In the case of tin oxides , one tin atom will combine with either one or two oxygen atoms .
Dalton also believed atomic theory could explain why water absorbs different gases in different proportions . For example , he found that water absorbs carbon dioxide far better than it absorbs nitrogen . Dalton hypothesized this was due to the differences between the masses and configurations of the gases ' respective particles , and carbon dioxide molecules ( CO2 ) are heavier and larger than nitrogen molecules ( N2 ) .
= = = Brownian motion = = =
In 1827 , botanist Robert Brown used a microscope to look at dust grains floating in water and discovered that they moved about erratically , a phenomenon that became known as " Brownian motion " . This was thought to be caused by water molecules knocking the grains about . In 1905 Albert Einstein proved the reality of these molecules and their motions by producing the first Statistical physics analysis of Brownian motion . French physicist Jean Perrin used Einstein 's work to experimentally determine the mass and dimensions of atoms , thereby conclusively verifying Dalton 's atomic theory .
= = = Discovery of the electron = = =
The physicist J. J. Thomson measured the mass of cathode rays , showing they were made of particles , but were around 1800 times lighter than the lightest atom , hydrogen . Therefore , they were not atoms , but a new particle , the first subatomic particle to be discovered , which he originally called " corpuscle " but was later named electron , after particles postulated by George Johnstone Stoney in 1874 . He also showed they were identical to particles given off by photoelectric and radioactive materials . It was quickly recognized that they are the particles that carry electric currents in metal wires , and carry the negative electric charge within atoms . Thomson was given the 1906 Nobel Prize in Physics for this work . Thus he overturned the belief that atoms are the indivisible , ultimate particles of matter . Thomson also incorrectly postulated that the low mass , negatively charged electrons were distributed throughout the atom in a uniform sea of positive charge . This became known as the plum pudding model .
= = = Discovery of the nucleus = = =
In 1909 , Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden , under the direction of Ernest Rutherford , bombarded a metal foil with alpha particles to observe how they scattered . They expected all the alpha particles to pass straight through with little deflection , because Thomson 's model said that the charges in the atom are so diffuse that their electric fields could not affect the alpha particles much . However , Geiger and Marsden spotted alpha particles being deflected by angles greater than 90 ° , which was supposed to be impossible according to Thomson 's model . To explain this , Rutherford proposed that the positive charge of the atom is concentrated in a tiny nucleus at the center of the atom .
= = = Discovery of isotopes = = =
While experimenting with the products of radioactive decay , in 1913 radiochemist Frederick Soddy discovered that there appeared to be more than one type of atom at each position on the periodic table . The term isotope was coined by Margaret Todd as a suitable name for different atoms that belong to the same element . J.J. Thomson created a technique for separating atom types through his work on ionized gases , which subsequently led to the discovery of stable isotopes .
= = = Bohr model = = =
In 1913 the physicist Niels Bohr proposed a model in which the electrons of an atom were assumed to orbit the nucleus but could only do so in a finite set of orbits , and could jump between these orbits only in discrete changes of energy corresponding to absorption or radiation of a photon . This quantization was used to explain why the electrons orbits are stable ( given that normally , charges in acceleration , including circular motion , lose kinetic energy which is emitted as electromagnetic radiation , see synchrotron radiation ) and why elements absorb and emit electromagnetic radiation in discrete spectra .
Later in the same year Henry Moseley provided additional experimental evidence in favor of Niels Bohr 's theory . These results refined Ernest Rutherford 's and Antonius Van den Broek 's model , which proposed that the atom contains in its nucleus a number of positive nuclear charges that is equal to its ( atomic ) number in the periodic table . Until these experiments , atomic number was not known to be a physical and experimental quantity . That it is equal to the atomic nuclear charge remains the accepted atomic model today .
= = = Chemical bonding explained = = =
Chemical bonds between atoms were now explained , by Gilbert Newton Lewis in 1916 , as the interactions between their constituent electrons . As the chemical properties of the elements were known to largely repeat themselves according to the periodic law , in 1919 the American chemist Irving Langmuir suggested that this could be explained if the electrons in an atom were connected or clustered in some manner . Groups of electrons were thought to occupy a set of electron shells about the nucleus .
= = = Further developments in quantum physics = = =
The Stern – Gerlach experiment of 1922 provided further evidence of the quantum nature of the atom . When a beam of silver atoms was passed through a specially shaped magnetic field , the beam was split based on the direction of an atom 's angular momentum , or spin . As this direction is random , the beam could be expected to spread into a line . Instead , the beam was split into two parts , depending on whether the atomic spin was oriented up or down .
In 1924 , Louis de Broglie proposed that all particles behave to an extent like waves . In 1926 , Erwin Schrödinger used this idea to develop a mathematical model of the atom that described the electrons as three @-@ dimensional waveforms rather than point particles . A consequence of using waveforms to describe particles is that it is mathematically impossible to obtain precise values for both the position and momentum of a particle at a given point in time ; this became known as the uncertainty principle , formulated by Werner Heisenberg in 1926 . In this concept , for a given accuracy in measuring a position one could only obtain a range of probable values for momentum , and vice versa . This model was able to explain observations of atomic behavior that previous models could not , such as certain structural and spectral patterns of atoms larger than hydrogen . Thus , the planetary model of the atom was discarded in favor of one that described atomic orbital zones around the nucleus where a given electron is most likely to be observed .
= = = Discovery of the neutron = = =
The development of the mass spectrometer allowed the mass of atoms to be measured with increased accuracy . The device uses a magnet to bend the trajectory of a beam of ions , and the amount of deflection is determined by the ratio of an atom 's mass to its charge . The chemist Francis William Aston used this instrument to show that isotopes had different masses . The atomic mass of these isotopes varied by integer amounts , called the whole number rule . The explanation for these different isotopes awaited the discovery of the neutron , an uncharged particle with a mass similar to the proton , by the physicist James Chadwick in 1932 . Isotopes were then explained as elements with the same number of protons , but different numbers of neutrons within the nucleus .
= = = Fission , high @-@ energy physics and condensed matter = = =
In 1938 , the German chemist Otto Hahn , a student of Rutherford , directed neutrons onto uranium atoms expecting to get transuranium elements . Instead , his chemical experiments showed barium as a product . A year later , Lise Meitner and her nephew Otto Frisch verified that Hahn 's result were the first experimental nuclear fission . In 1944 , Hahn received the Nobel prize in chemistry . Despite Hahn 's efforts , the contributions of Meitner and Frisch were not recognized .
In the 1950s , the development of improved particle accelerators and particle detectors allowed scientists to study the impacts of atoms moving at high energies . Neutrons and protons were found to be hadrons , or composites of smaller particles called quarks . The standard model of particle physics was developed that so far has successfully explained the properties of the nucleus in terms of these sub @-@ atomic particles and the forces that govern their interactions .
= = Structure = =
= = = Subatomic particles = = =
Though the word atom originally denoted a particle that cannot be cut into smaller particles , in modern scientific usage the atom is composed of various subatomic particles . The constituent particles of an atom are the electron , the proton and the neutron ; all three are fermions . However , the hydrogen @-@ 1 atom has no neutrons and the hydron ion has no electrons .
The electron is by far the least massive of these particles at 9 @.@ 11 × 10 − 31 kg , with a negative electrical charge and a size that is too small to be measured using available techniques . It is the lightest particle with a positive rest mass measured . Under ordinary conditions , electrons are bound to the positively charged nucleus by the attraction created from opposite electric charges . If an atom has more or fewer electrons than its atomic number , then it becomes respectively negatively or positively charged as a whole ; a charged atom is called an ion . Electrons have been known since the late 19th century , mostly thanks to J.J. Thomson ; see history of subatomic physics for details .
Protons have a positive charge and a mass 1 @,@ 836 times that of the electron , at 1 @.@ 6726 × 10 − 27 kg . The number of protons in an atom is called its atomic number . Ernest Rutherford ( 1919 ) observed that nitrogen under alpha @-@ particle bombardment ejects what appeared to be hydrogen nuclei . By 1920 he had accepted that the hydrogen nucleus is a distinct particle within the atom and named it proton .
Neutrons have no electrical charge and have a free mass of 1 @,@ 839 times the mass of the electron , or 1 @.@ 6929 × 10 − 27 kg , the heaviest of the three constituent particles , but it can be reduced by the nuclear binding energy . Neutrons and protons ( collectively known as nucleons ) have comparable dimensions — on the order of 2 @.@ 5 × 10 − 15 m — although the ' surface ' of these particles is not sharply defined . The neutron was discovered in 1932 by the English physicist James Chadwick .
In the Standard Model of physics , electrons are truly elementary particles with no internal structure . However , both protons and neutrons are composite particles composed of elementary particles called quarks . There are two types of quarks in atoms , each having a fractional electric charge . Protons are composed of two up quarks ( each with charge + 2 / 3 ) and one down quark ( with a charge of − 1 / 3 ) . Neutrons consist of one up quark and two down quarks . This distinction accounts for the difference in mass and charge between the two particles .
The quarks are held together by the strong interaction ( or strong force ) , which is mediated by gluons . The protons and neutrons , in turn , are held to each other in the nucleus by the nuclear force , which is a residuum of the strong force that has somewhat different range @-@ properties ( see the article on the nuclear force for more ) . The gluon is a member of the family of gauge bosons , which are elementary particles that mediate physical forces .
= = = Nucleus = = =
All the bound protons and neutrons in an atom make up a tiny atomic nucleus , and are collectively called nucleons . The radius of a nucleus is approximately equal to 1 @.@ 07 3 √ A fm , where A is the total number of nucleons . This is much smaller than the radius of the atom , which is on the order of 105 fm . The nucleons are bound together by a short @-@ ranged attractive potential called the residual strong force . At distances smaller than 2 @.@ 5 fm this force is much more powerful than the electrostatic force that causes positively charged protons to repel each other .
Atoms of the same element have the same number of protons , called the atomic number . Within a single element , the number of neutrons may vary , determining the isotope of that element . The total number of protons and neutrons determine the nuclide . The number of neutrons relative to the protons determines the stability of the nucleus , with certain isotopes undergoing radioactive decay .
The proton , the electron , and the neutron are classified as fermions . Fermions obey the Pauli exclusion principle which prohibits identical fermions , such as multiple protons , from occupying the same quantum state at the same time . Thus , every proton in the nucleus must occupy a quantum state different from all other protons , and the same applies to all neutrons of the nucleus and to all electrons of the electron cloud . However , a proton and a neutron are allowed to occupy the same quantum state .
For atoms with low atomic numbers , a nucleus that has more neutrons than protons tends to drop to a lower energy state through radioactive decay so that the neutron – proton ratio is closer to one . However , as the atomic number increases , a higher proportion of neutrons is required to offset the mutual repulsion of the protons . Thus , there are no stable nuclei with equal proton and neutron numbers above atomic number Z
= 20 ( calcium ) and as Z increases , the neutron – proton ratio of stable isotopes increases . The stable isotope with the highest proton – neutron ratio is lead @-@ 208 ( about 1 @.@ 5 ) .
The number of protons and neutrons in the atomic nucleus can be modified , although this can require very high energies because of the strong force . Nuclear fusion occurs when multiple atomic particles join to form a heavier nucleus , such as through the energetic collision of two nuclei . For example , at the core of the Sun protons require energies of 3 – 10 keV to overcome their mutual repulsion — the coulomb barrier — and fuse together into a single nucleus . Nuclear fission is the opposite process , causing a nucleus to split into two smaller nuclei — usually through radioactive decay . The nucleus can also be modified through bombardment by high energy subatomic particles or photons . If this modifies the number of protons in a nucleus , the atom changes to a different chemical element .
If the mass of the nucleus following a fusion reaction is less than the sum of the masses of the separate particles , then the difference between these two values can be emitted as a type of usable energy ( such as a gamma ray , or the kinetic energy of a beta particle ) , as described by Albert Einstein 's mass – energy equivalence formula , E =
mc2 , where m is the mass loss and c is the speed of light . This deficit is part of the binding energy of the new nucleus , and it is the non @-@ recoverable loss of the energy that causes the fused particles to remain together in a state that requires this energy to separate .
The fusion of two nuclei that create larger nuclei with lower atomic numbers than iron and nickel — a total nucleon number of about 60 — is usually an exothermic process that releases more energy than is required to bring them together . It is this energy @-@ releasing process that makes nuclear fusion in stars a self @-@ sustaining reaction . For heavier nuclei , the binding energy per nucleon in the nucleus begins to decrease . That means fusion processes producing nuclei that have atomic numbers higher than about 26 , and atomic masses higher than about 60 , is an endothermic process . These more massive nuclei can not undergo an energy @-@ producing fusion reaction that can sustain the hydrostatic equilibrium of a star .
= = = Electron cloud = = =
The electrons in an atom are attracted to the protons in the nucleus by the electromagnetic force . This force binds the electrons inside an electrostatic potential well surrounding the smaller nucleus , which means that an external source of energy is needed for the electron to escape . The closer an electron is to the nucleus , the greater the attractive force . Hence electrons bound near the center of the potential well require more energy to escape than those at greater separations .
Electrons , like other particles , have properties of both a particle and a wave . The electron cloud is a region inside the potential well where each electron forms a type of three @-@ dimensional standing wave — a wave form that does not move relative to the nucleus . This behavior is defined by an atomic orbital , a mathematical function that characterises the probability that an electron appears to be at a particular location when its position is measured . Only a discrete ( or quantized ) set of these orbitals exist around the nucleus , as other possible wave patterns rapidly decay into a more stable form . Orbitals can have one or more ring or node structures , and differ from each other in size , shape and orientation .
Each atomic orbital corresponds to a particular energy level of the electron . The electron can change its state to a higher energy level by absorbing a photon with sufficient energy to boost it into the new quantum state . Likewise , through spontaneous emission , an electron in a higher energy state can drop to a lower energy state while radiating the excess energy as a photon . These characteristic energy values , defined by the differences in the energies of the quantum states , are responsible for atomic spectral lines .
The amount of energy needed to remove or add an electron — the electron binding energy — is far less than the binding energy of nucleons . For example , it requires only 13 @.@ 6 eV to strip a ground @-@ state electron from a hydrogen atom , compared to 2 @.@ 23 million eV for splitting a deuterium nucleus . Atoms are electrically neutral if they have an equal number of protons and electrons . Atoms that have either a deficit or a surplus of electrons are called ions . Electrons that are farthest from the nucleus may be transferred to other nearby atoms or shared between atoms . By this mechanism , atoms are able to bond into molecules and other types of chemical compounds like ionic and covalent network crystals .
= = Properties = =
= = = Nuclear properties = = =
By definition , any two atoms with an identical number of protons in their nuclei belong to the same chemical element . Atoms with equal numbers of protons but a different number of neutrons are different isotopes of the same element . For example , all hydrogen atoms admit exactly one proton , but isotopes exist with no neutrons ( hydrogen @-@ 1 , by far the most common form , also called protium ) , one neutron ( deuterium ) , two neutrons ( tritium ) and more than two neutrons . The known elements form a set of atomic numbers , from the single proton element hydrogen up to the 118 @-@ proton element ununoctium . All known isotopes of elements with atomic numbers greater than 82 are radioactive .
About 339 nuclides occur naturally on Earth , of which 254 ( about 75 % ) have not been observed to decay , and are referred to as " stable isotopes " . However , only 90 of these nuclides are stable to all decay , even in theory . Another 164 ( bringing the total to 254 ) have not been observed to decay , even though in theory it is energetically possible . These are also formally classified as " stable " . An additional 34 radioactive nuclides have half @-@ lives longer than 80 million years , and are long @-@ lived enough to be present from the birth of the solar system . This collection of 288 nuclides are known as primordial nuclides . Finally , an additional 51 short @-@ lived nuclides are known to occur naturally , as daughter products of primordial nuclide decay ( such as radium from uranium ) , or else as products of natural energetic processes on Earth , such as cosmic ray bombardment ( for example , carbon @-@ 14 ) .
For 80 of the chemical elements , at least one stable isotope exists . As a rule , there is only a handful of stable isotopes for each of these elements , the average being 3 @.@ 2 stable isotopes per element . Twenty @-@ six elements have only a single stable isotope , while the largest number of stable isotopes observed for any element is ten , for the element tin . Elements 43 , 61 , and all elements numbered 83 or higher have no stable isotopes .
Stability of isotopes is affected by the ratio of protons to neutrons , and also by the presence of certain " magic numbers " of neutrons or protons that represent closed and filled quantum shells . These quantum shells correspond to a set of energy levels within the shell model of the nucleus ; filled shells , such as the filled shell of 50 protons for tin , confers unusual stability on the nuclide . Of the 254 known stable nuclides , only four have both an odd number of protons and odd number of neutrons : hydrogen @-@ 2 ( deuterium ) , lithium @-@ 6 , boron @-@ 10 and nitrogen @-@ 14 . Also , only four naturally occurring , radioactive odd – odd nuclides have a half @-@ life over a billion years : potassium @-@ 40 , vanadium @-@ 50 , lanthanum @-@ 138 and tantalum @-@ 180m . Most odd – odd nuclei are highly unstable with respect to beta decay , because the decay products are even – even , and are therefore more strongly bound , due to nuclear pairing effects .
= = = Mass = = =
The large majority of an atom 's mass comes from the protons and neutrons that make it up . The total number of these particles ( called " nucleons " ) in a given atom is called the mass number . It is a positive integer and dimensionless ( instead of having dimension of mass ) , because it expresses a count . An example of use of a mass number is " carbon @-@ 12 , " which has 12 nucleons ( six protons and six neutrons ) .
The actual mass of an atom at rest is often expressed using the unified atomic mass unit ( u ) , also called dalton ( Da ) . This unit is defined as a twelfth of the mass of a free neutral atom of carbon @-@ 12 , which is approximately 1 @.@ 66 × 10 − 27 kg . Hydrogen @-@ 1 ( the lightest isotope of hydrogen which is also the nuclide with the lowest mass ) has an atomic weight of 1 @.@ 007825 u . The value of this number is called the atomic mass . A given atom has an atomic mass approximately equal ( within 1 % ) to its mass number times the atomic mass unit ( for example the mass of a nitrogen @-@ 14 is roughly 14 u ) . However , this number will not be exactly an integer except in the case of carbon @-@ 12 ( see below ) . The heaviest stable atom is lead @-@ 208 , with a mass of 207 @.@ 9766521 u .
As even the most massive atoms are far too light to work with directly , chemists instead use the unit of moles . One mole of atoms of any element always has the same number of atoms ( about 6 @.@ 022 × 1023 ) . This number was chosen so that if an element has an atomic mass of 1 u , a mole of atoms of that element has a mass close to one gram . Because of the definition of the unified atomic mass unit , each carbon @-@ 12 atom has an atomic mass of exactly 12 u , and so a mole of carbon @-@ 12 atoms weighs exactly 0 @.@ 012 kg .
= = = Shape and size = = =
Atoms lack a well @-@ defined outer boundary , so their dimensions are usually described in terms of an atomic radius . This is a measure of the distance out to which the electron cloud extends from the nucleus . However , this assumes the atom to exhibit a spherical shape , which is only obeyed for atoms in vacuum or free space . Atomic radii may be derived from the distances between two nuclei when the two atoms are joined in a chemical bond . The radius varies with the location of an atom on the atomic chart , the type of chemical bond , the number of neighboring atoms ( coordination number ) and a quantum mechanical property known as spin . On the periodic table of the elements , atom size tends to increase when moving down columns , but decrease when moving across rows ( left to right ) . Consequently , the smallest atom is helium with a radius of 32 pm , while one of the largest is caesium at 225 pm .
When subjected to external forces , like electrical fields , the shape of an atom may deviate from spherical symmetry . The deformation depends on the field magnitude and the orbital type of outer shell electrons , as shown by group @-@ theoretical considerations . Aspherical deviations might be elicited for instance in crystals , where large crystal @-@ electrical fields may occur at low @-@ symmetry lattice sites . Significant ellipsoidal deformations have recently been shown to occur for sulfur ions and chalcogen ions in pyrite @-@ type compounds .
Atomic dimensions are thousands of times smaller than the wavelengths of light ( 400 – 700 nm ) so they cannot be viewed using an optical microscope . However , individual atoms can be observed using a scanning tunneling microscope . To visualize the minuteness of the atom , consider that a typical human hair is about 1 million carbon atoms in width . A single drop of water contains about 2 sextillion ( 2 × 1021 ) atoms of oxygen , and twice the number of hydrogen atoms . A single carat diamond with a mass of 2 × 10 − 4 kg contains about 10 sextillion ( 1022 ) atoms of carbon . If an apple were magnified to the size of the Earth , then the atoms in the apple would be approximately the size of the original apple .
= = = Radioactive decay = = =
Every element has one or more isotopes that have unstable nuclei that are subject to radioactive decay , causing the nucleus to emit particles or electromagnetic radiation . Radioactivity can occur when the radius of a nucleus is large compared with the radius of the strong force , which only acts over distances on the order of 1 fm .
The most common forms of radioactive decay are :
Alpha decay : this process is caused when the nucleus emits an alpha particle , which is a helium nucleus consisting of two protons and two neutrons . The result of the emission is a new element with a lower atomic number .
Beta decay ( and electron capture ) : these processes are regulated by the weak force , and result from a transformation of a neutron into a proton , or a proton into a neutron . The neutron to proton transition is accompanied by the emission of an electron and an antineutrino , while proton to neutron transition ( except in electron capture ) causes the emission of a positron and a neutrino . The electron or positron emissions are called beta particles . Beta decay either increases or decreases the atomic number of the nucleus by one . Electron capture is more common than positron emission , because it requires less energy . In this type of decay , an electron is absorbed by the nucleus , rather than a positron emitted from the nucleus . A neutrino is still emitted in this process , and a proton changes to a neutron .
Gamma decay : this process results from a change in the energy level of the nucleus to a lower state , resulting in the emission of electromagnetic radiation . The excited state of a nucleus which results in gamma emission usually occurs following the emission of an alpha or a beta particle . Thus , gamma decay usually follows alpha or beta decay .
Other more rare types of radioactive decay include ejection of neutrons or protons or clusters of nucleons from a nucleus , or more than one beta particle . An analog of gamma emission which allows excited nuclei to lose energy in a different way , is internal conversion — a process that produces high @-@ speed electrons that are not beta rays , followed by production of high @-@ energy photons that are not gamma rays . A few large nuclei explode into two or more charged fragments of varying masses plus several neutrons , in a decay called spontaneous nuclear fission .
Each radioactive isotope has a characteristic decay time period — the half @-@ life — that is determined by the amount of time needed for half of a sample to decay . This is an exponential decay process that steadily decreases the proportion of the remaining isotope by 50 % every half @-@ life . Hence after two half @-@ lives have passed only 25 % of the isotope is present , and so forth .
= = = Magnetic moment = = =
Elementary particles possess an intrinsic quantum mechanical property known as spin . This is analogous to the angular momentum of an object that is spinning around its center of mass , although strictly speaking these particles are believed to be point @-@ like and cannot be said to be rotating . Spin is measured in units of the reduced Planck constant ( ħ ) , with electrons , protons and neutrons all having spin ½ ħ , or " spin- ½ " . In an atom , electrons in motion around the nucleus possess orbital angular momentum in addition to their spin , while the nucleus itself possesses angular momentum due to its nuclear spin .
The magnetic field produced by an atom — its magnetic moment — is determined by these various forms of angular momentum , just as a rotating charged object classically produces a magnetic field . However , the most dominant contribution comes from electron spin . Due to the nature of electrons to obey the Pauli exclusion principle , in which no two electrons may be found in the same quantum state , bound electrons pair up with each other , with one member of each pair in a spin up state and the other in the opposite , spin down state . Thus these spins cancel each other out , reducing the total magnetic dipole moment to zero in some atoms with even number of electrons .
In ferromagnetic elements such as iron , cobalt and nickel , an odd number of electrons leads to an unpaired electron and a net overall magnetic moment . The orbitals of neighboring atoms overlap and a lower energy state is achieved when the spins of unpaired electrons are aligned with each other , a spontaneous process known as an exchange interaction . When the magnetic moments of ferromagnetic atoms are lined up , the material can produce a measurable macroscopic field . Paramagnetic materials have atoms with magnetic moments that line up in random directions when no magnetic field is present , but the magnetic moments of the individual atoms line up in the presence of a field .
The nucleus of an atom will have no spin when it has even numbers of both neutrons and protons , but for other cases of odd numbers , the nucleus may have a spin . Normally nuclei with spin are aligned in random directions because of thermal equilibrium . However , for certain elements ( such as xenon @-@ 129 ) it is possible to polarize a significant proportion of the nuclear spin states so that they are aligned in the same direction — a condition called hyperpolarization . This has important applications in magnetic resonance imaging .
= = = Energy levels = = =
The potential energy of an electron in an atom is negative , its dependence of its position reaches the minimum ( the most absolute value ) inside the nucleus , and vanishes when the distance from the nucleus goes to infinity , roughly in an inverse proportion to the distance . In the quantum @-@ mechanical model , a bound electron can only occupy a set of states centered on the nucleus , and each state corresponds to a specific energy level ; see time @-@ independent Schrödinger equation for theoretical explanation . An energy level can be measured by the amount of energy needed to unbind the electron from the atom , and is usually given in units of electronvolts ( eV ) . The lowest energy state of a bound electron is called the ground state , i.e. stationary state , while an electron transition to a higher level results in an excited state . The electron 's energy raises when n increases because the ( average ) distance to the nucleus increases . Dependence of the energy on ℓ is caused not by electrostatic potential of the nucleus , but by interaction between electrons .
For an electron to transition between two different states , e.g. grounded state to first excited level ( ionization ) , it must absorb or emit a photon at an energy matching the difference in the potential energy of those levels , according to Niels Bohr model , what can be precisely calculated by the Schrödinger equation . Electrons jump between orbitals in a particle @-@ like fashion . For example , if a single photon strikes the electrons , only a single electron changes states in response to the photon ; see Electron properties .
The energy of an emitted photon is proportional to its frequency , so these specific energy levels appear as distinct bands in the electromagnetic spectrum . Each element has a characteristic spectrum that can depend on the nuclear charge , subshells filled by electrons , the electromagnetic interactions between the electrons and other factors .
When a continuous spectrum of energy is passed through a gas or plasma , some of the photons are absorbed by atoms , causing electrons to change their energy level . Those excited electrons that remain bound to their atom spontaneously emit this energy as a photon , traveling in a random direction , and so drop back to lower energy levels . Thus the atoms behave like a filter that forms a series of dark absorption bands in the energy output . ( An observer viewing the atoms from a view that does not include the continuous spectrum in the background , instead sees a series of emission lines from the photons emitted by the atoms . ) Spectroscopic measurements of the strength and width of atomic spectral lines allow the composition and physical properties of a substance to be determined .
Close examination of the spectral lines reveals that some display a fine structure splitting . This occurs because of spin – orbit coupling , which is an interaction between the spin and motion of the outermost electron . When an atom is in an external magnetic field , spectral lines become split into three or more components ; a phenomenon called the Zeeman effect . This is caused by the interaction of the magnetic field with the magnetic moment of the atom and its electrons . Some atoms can have multiple electron configurations with the same energy level , which thus appear as a single spectral line . The interaction of the magnetic field with the atom shifts these electron configurations to slightly different energy levels , resulting in multiple spectral lines . The presence of an external electric field can cause a comparable splitting and shifting of spectral lines by modifying the electron energy levels , a phenomenon called the Stark effect .
If a bound electron is in an excited state , an interacting photon with the proper energy can cause stimulated emission of a photon with a matching energy level . For this to occur , the electron must drop to a lower energy state that has an energy difference matching the energy of the interacting photon . The emitted photon and the interacting photon then move off in parallel and with matching phases . That is , the wave patterns of the two photons are synchronized . This physical property is used to make lasers , which can emit a coherent beam of light energy in a narrow frequency band .
= = = Valence and bonding behavior = = =
Valency is the combining power of an element . It is equal to number of hydrogen atoms that atom can combine or displace in forming compounds . The outermost electron shell of an atom in its uncombined state is known as the valence shell , and the electrons in that shell are called valence electrons . The number of valence electrons determines the bonding behavior with other atoms . Atoms tend to chemically react with each other in a manner that fills ( or empties ) their outer valence shells . For example , a transfer of a single electron between atoms is a useful approximation for bonds that form between atoms with one @-@ electron more than a filled shell , and others that are one @-@ electron short of a full shell , such as occurs in the compound sodium chloride and other chemical ionic salts . However , many elements display multiple valences , or tendencies to share differing numbers of electrons in different compounds . Thus , chemical bonding between these elements takes many forms of electron @-@ sharing that are more than simple electron transfers . Examples include the element carbon and the organic compounds .
The chemical elements are often displayed in a periodic table that is laid out to display recurring chemical properties , and elements with the same number of valence electrons form a group that is aligned in the same column of the table . ( The horizontal rows correspond to the filling of a quantum shell of electrons . ) The elements at the far right of the table have their outer shell completely filled with electrons , which results in chemically inert elements known as the noble gases .
= = = States = = =
Quantities of atoms are found in different states of matter that depend on the physical conditions , such as temperature and pressure . By varying the conditions , materials can transition between solids , liquids , gases and plasmas . Within a state , a material can also exist in different allotropes . An example of this is solid carbon , which can exist as graphite or diamond . Gaseous allotropes exist as well , such as dioxygen and ozone .
At temperatures close to absolute zero , atoms can form a Bose – Einstein condensate , at which point quantum mechanical effects , which are normally only observed at the atomic scale , become apparent on a macroscopic scale . This super @-@ cooled collection of atoms then behaves as a single super atom , which may allow fundamental checks of quantum mechanical behavior .
= = Identification = =
The scanning tunneling microscope is a device for viewing surfaces at the atomic level . It uses the quantum tunneling phenomenon , which allows particles to pass through a barrier that would normally be insurmountable . Electrons tunnel through the vacuum between two planar metal electrodes , on each of which is an adsorbed atom , providing a tunneling @-@ current density that can be measured . Scanning one atom ( taken as the tip ) as it moves past the other ( the sample ) permits plotting of tip displacement versus lateral separation for a constant current . The calculation shows the extent to which scanning @-@ tunneling @-@ microscope images of an individual atom are visible . It confirms that for low bias , the microscope images the space @-@ averaged dimensions of the electron orbitals across closely packed energy levels — the Fermi level local density of states .
An atom can be ionized by removing one of its electrons . The electric charge causes the trajectory of an atom to bend when it passes through a magnetic field . The radius by which the trajectory of a moving ion is turned by the magnetic field is determined by the mass of the atom . The mass spectrometer uses this principle to measure the mass @-@ to @-@ charge ratio of ions . If a sample contains multiple isotopes , the mass spectrometer can determine the proportion of each isotope in the sample by measuring the intensity of the different beams of ions . Techniques to vaporize atoms include inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry , both of which use a plasma to vaporize samples for analysis .
A more area @-@ selective method is electron energy loss spectroscopy , which measures the energy loss of an electron beam within a transmission electron microscope when it interacts with a portion of a sample . The atom @-@ probe tomograph has sub @-@ nanometer resolution in 3 @-@ D and can chemically identify individual atoms using time @-@ of @-@ flight mass spectrometry .
Spectra of excited states can be used to analyze the atomic composition of distant stars . Specific light wavelengths contained in the observed light from stars can be separated out and related to the quantized transitions in free gas atoms . These colors can be replicated using a gas @-@ discharge lamp containing the same element . Helium was discovered in this way in the spectrum of the Sun 23 years before it was found on Earth .
= = Origin and current state = =
Atoms form about 4 % of the total energy density of the observable Universe , with an average density of about 0 @.@ 25 atoms / m3 . Within a galaxy such as the Milky Way , atoms have a much higher concentration , with the density of matter in the interstellar medium ( ISM ) ranging from 105 to 109 atoms / m3 . The Sun is believed to be inside the Local Bubble , a region of highly ionized gas , so the density in the solar neighborhood is only about 103 atoms / m3 . Stars form from dense clouds in the ISM , and the evolutionary processes of stars result in the steady enrichment of the ISM with elements more massive than hydrogen and helium . Up to 95 % of the Milky Way 's atoms are concentrated inside stars and the total mass of atoms forms about 10 % of the mass of the galaxy . ( The remainder of the mass is an unknown dark matter . )
= = = Formation = = =
Electrons are thought to exist in the Universe since early stages of the Big Bang . Atomic nuclei forms in nucleosynthesis reactions . In about three minutes Big Bang nucleosynthesis produced most of the helium , lithium , and deuterium in the Universe , and perhaps some of the beryllium and boron .
Ubiquitousness and stability of atoms relies on their binding energy , which means that an atom has a lower energy than an unbound system of the nucleus and electrons . Where the temperature is much higher than ionization potential , the matter exists in the form of plasma — a gas of positively charged ions ( possibly , bare nuclei ) and electrons . When the temperature drops below the ionization potential , atoms become statistically favorable . Atoms ( complete with bound electrons ) became to dominate over charged particles 380 @,@ 000 years after the Big Bang — an epoch called recombination , when the expanding Universe cooled enough to allow electrons to become attached to nuclei .
Since the Big Bang , which produced no carbon or heavier elements , atomic nuclei have been combined in stars through the process of nuclear fusion to produce more of the element helium , and ( via the triple alpha process ) the sequence of elements from carbon up to iron ; see stellar nucleosynthesis for details .
Isotopes such as lithium @-@ 6 , as well as some beryllium and boron are generated in space through cosmic ray spallation . This occurs when a high @-@ energy proton strikes an atomic nucleus , causing large numbers of nucleons to be ejected .
Elements heavier than iron were produced in supernovae through the r @-@ process and in AGB stars through the s @-@ process , both of which involve the capture of neutrons by atomic nuclei . Elements such as lead formed largely through the radioactive decay of heavier elements .
= = = Earth = = =
Most of the atoms that make up the Earth and its inhabitants were present in their current form in the nebula that collapsed out of a molecular cloud to form the Solar System . The rest are the result of radioactive decay , and their relative proportion can be used to determine the age of the Earth through radiometric dating . Most of the helium in the crust of the Earth ( about 99 % of the helium from gas wells , as shown by its lower abundance of helium @-@ 3 ) is a product of alpha decay .
There are a few trace atoms on Earth that were not present at the beginning ( i.e. , not " primordial " ) , nor are results of radioactive decay . Carbon @-@ 14 is continuously generated by cosmic rays in the atmosphere . Some atoms on Earth have been artificially generated either deliberately or as by @-@ products of nuclear reactors or explosions . Of the transuranic elements — those with atomic numbers greater than 92 — only plutonium and neptunium occur naturally on Earth . Transuranic elements have radioactive lifetimes shorter than the current age of the Earth and thus identifiable quantities of these elements have long since decayed , with the exception of traces of plutonium @-@ 244 possibly deposited by cosmic dust . Natural deposits of plutonium and neptunium are produced by neutron capture in uranium ore .
The Earth contains approximately 1 @.@ 33 × 1050 atoms . Although small numbers of independent atoms of noble gases exist , such as argon , neon , and helium , 99 % of the atmosphere is bound in the form of molecules , including carbon dioxide and diatomic oxygen and nitrogen . At the surface of the Earth , an overwhelming majority of atoms combine to form various compounds , including water , salt , silicates and oxides . Atoms can also combine to create materials that do not consist of discrete molecules , including crystals and liquid or solid metals . This atomic matter forms networked arrangements that lack the particular type of small @-@ scale interrupted order associated with molecular matter .
= = = Rare and theoretical forms = = =
= = = = Superheavy elements = = = =
While isotopes with atomic numbers higher than lead ( 82 ) are known to be radioactive , an " island of stability " has been proposed for some elements with atomic numbers above 103 . These superheavy elements may have a nucleus that is relatively stable against radioactive decay . The most likely candidate for a stable superheavy atom , unbihexium , has 126 protons and 184 neutrons .
= = = = Exotic matter = = = =
Each particle of matter has a corresponding antimatter particle with the opposite electrical charge . Thus , the positron is a positively charged antielectron and the antiproton is a negatively charged equivalent of a proton . When a matter and corresponding antimatter particle meet , they annihilate each other . Because of this , along with an imbalance between the number of matter and antimatter particles , the latter are rare in the universe . The first causes of this imbalance are not yet fully understood , although theories of baryogenesis may offer an explanation . As a result , no antimatter atoms have been discovered in nature . However , in 1996 the antimatter counterpart of the hydrogen atom ( antihydrogen ) was synthesized at the CERN laboratory in Geneva .
Other exotic atoms have been created by replacing one of the protons , neutrons or electrons with other particles that have the same charge . For example , an electron can be replaced by a more massive muon , forming a muonic atom . These types of atoms can be used to test the fundamental predictions of physics .
= Check on It =
" Check on It " is a song recorded by American singer Beyoncé , featuring American rappers Bun B and Slim Thug . It was composed by Beyoncé , Swizz Beatz , Sean Garrett , Angela Beyincé and Slim Thug . Initially recorded by Beyoncé only , the song was supposed to be featured on the soundtrack album for 2006 film The Pink Panther , in which she co @-@ stars . As it was ultimately not included on its soundtrack album , the song with additional vocals from Slim Thug was placed on the 2005 Destiny 's Child 's greatest hits album # 1 's . Columbia Records released " Check on It " in the United States on December 13 , 2005 . The official single version of the song includes vocals from American rapper Bun B.
The song 's development was motivated by the phrase ' Check on It ' which Beyoncé and her management jokingly used before they decided to turn it into a song . " Check on It " is an R & B and hip hop song , which is instrumentally complete with a heavy bassline , strings , and wind instrument . Lyrically , it takes place in a club , where Beyoncé is letting the male patrons know that they are welcome to come and look at her sexually attractive body when she is dancing . The song consists of two verse @-@ raps by Slim Thug . " Check on It " was well received by contemporary music critics , who universally complimented Beyoncé 's vocals , and the assertiveness with which she sings her lines .
" Check on It " was not originally lined up for a release as a single from the album # 1 's . However , it received heavy rotation on US radio stations , following the release of the first single , " Stand Up for Love " ( 2005 ) , which performed poorly on the charts . Eventually , " Check on It " debuted on the US Billboard Hot 100 in November 2005 , before its official release date . The single peaked at number one for five consecutive weeks , becoming one of the two longest @-@ running number @-@ one single in 2006 , and Beyoncé 's third US number @-@ one single as a solo artist . " Check on It " reached number one in New Zealand and the top ten on various singles chart in mainland Europe .
The music video for the song was directed by Hype Williams , and premiered on December 16 , 2005 on MTV . The version of " Check on It " used in the clip features a remix of " The Pink Panther Theme " and a verse @-@ rap from American rapper Bun B. Incorporating 1950s influences , the video was shot in pink to brand the relationship with The Pink Panther . It won the Best R & B Video at the 2006 MTV Video Music Awards , and was nominated for Video of the Year at the 2006 BET Awards . Although Beyoncé did not perform " Check on It " in any televised appearances , it was a part of her set list on The Beyoncé Experience ( 2007 ) and the I Am ... Tour ( 2009 – 10 ) .
= = Background and release = =
" Check on It " was written by Beyoncé , Slim Thug , Angela Beyincé and Sean Garrett . Production was handled by Swiss Beatz , who also co @-@ wrote the song . Matt Hennessy , Dave Pensado , and Dexter Simmons mixed " Check on It " with assistance from Geoffrey Rice , and Matt Serrecchio . Beyoncé said that the song 's title , " Check on It " , was a phrase that she and her management jokingly used several times before they decided to turn it into a song . Originally recorded by Beyoncé only , the song was supposed to be included on the track @-@ listing of the soundtrack album for the remake of The Pink Panther ( 2006 ) , starring Steve Martin , Kevin Kline and Beyoncé . However , it was not used for the soundtrack album at the last minute , and the song with added vocals from Slim Thug , was then added on Beyoncé 's former group Destiny 's Child 's greatest hits , # 1 's ( 2005 ) . " Check on It " was nevertheless played during The Pink Panther 's end credits .
" Check on It " was not initially intended for release as a single from the album # 1 's . However , it received heavy rotation from US radio stations after the release of the first single " Stand Up for Love " ( 2005 ) , which recorded by all members of Destiny 's Child was a commercial failure . Meanwhile , " Check on It " debuted on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart in November 2005 , that is , before its official release as it had amassed considerable listener impressions . A remix of the song featuring American rapper Bun B was recorded prior to its release . The task of remixing the song was undertaken by Maurice Joshua with further assistance from Junior Vasquez who helped in its production .
" Check on It " was first digitally released in the US on December 13 , 2005 . Remixes of the song were later made available on January 31 , 2006 in both the United Kingdom and the US . " Check on It " was also released a CD Single in these two countries on February 28 , 2006 . It was serviced as a CD Single and a digital download on February 6 , 2006 , and February 7 , 2006 respectively in European countries . " Check on It " was never released in Australia . It was included as a bonus track on the deluxe edition of Beyoncé 's second studio album , B 'Day in European territories on April 3 , 2007 . Though the song was a commercial success worldwide , Beyoncé has revealed that she dislikes the song . She has said that she was surprised at the commercial reception of the " Check on It " as according to her , it is too simple , and not catchy like some of her previous singles .
= = Composition = =
" Check on It " is an midtempo R & B and hip hop song , which makes use of a heavy bassline , strings , wind instrument , and frequent " swinging pelvic taunts " . According to the sheet music published by Sony / ATV Music Publishing at Musicnotes.com , the song is written in the key of G major , and is set in common time at 83 beats per minute . Beyoncé 's vocal range spans from the low note A3 to the high note B5 . According to Bill Lamb of About.com , Beyoncé adopts smooth and alluring vocals throughout " Check on It " . Lyrically , the song takes place in a dance club , where the female protagonist is letting the male patrons know that they are welcome to come and look at her sexually attractive body when she is dancing . " Check on It " starts with a verse @-@ rap from Slim Thug : " Good girls gotta get down with them gangstas / Go head girl put some back and some neck up on it ... " . The rapper sounds like a 1975 Mercury Cougar turning over as he growls in his burly purr , as written by Bret McCabe of Baltimore City Paper .
In the first verse , Beyoncé sings to the " sexual teasing " lyrics , which are addressed to the men looking at her : " I can be a tease , but I really wanna please you [ ... ] Oohhh you watchin [ g ] me shake it , Ya can 't take it , it ’ s blazin [ g ] ... " . The chorus lines ; " Dip it , pop it , twerk it , stop it , check on me tonight " are sung in a very quick and breathless manner by Beyoncé . Bret McCabe noted that her pace could be compared to that of American singer Donna Summer . Slim Thug appears again after the second verse to perform another different verse rap : " I ’ m checking on you boo , do what ’ chu do / And while you dance I ’ ma glance at this beautiful view / I ’ m keep my hands in my pants , I need to glue ’ em with glue ... " . Before the song ends , Beyoncé repeats the chorus lines four times as additional vocals of hers are played in the background .
= = Critical reception = =
Music critics received the song positively , complimenting Beyoncé 's vocal performance , and the easiness as well as the confidence she displays while singing her lyrics . A reviewer from the UK website Contactmusic.com described " Check on It " as a " booty shaking anthem " and complimented Beyoncé for switching to a club song after " Stand Up for Love " . Bret McCabe of Baltimore City Paper noted that the song is " less a DC joint than a Beyoncé sex @-@ kitten solo " . He praised the lyrics of the song and the easiness with which Beyoncé sings , highlighting her " million @-@ selling R & B pipes " . James Blake of BBC Music wrote that the lyrics are pleasantly aggressive and critical of women .
Jaime Gill of Yahoo ! Music described " Check on It " as " sinuously brilliant " . James Anthony of the British newspaper The Guardian wrote that the song " espouses a blissful disregard for traditional songwriting conventions . No Hova ( Jay @-@ Z ) this time , but Houston rapper Slim Thug 's lazy southern drawl suits the fractionally slower tempo . " In the July 2006 issued copy of Spin magazine , Nick Duerden ranked the song at the seventh place on his list of The ten Beyoncé tracks you need to download , writing that " Check on It " is Beyoncé 's sexiest song to date . " Check on It " was nominated in for Best Duet / Collaboration at the 2006 BET Awards , and for the Best Rap / Hip Hop Dance Track at the 2007 22nd Annual International Dance Music Awards in 2007 . It also received a Broadcast Music , Inc . ( BMI ) Award for " Award @-@ Winning Song " .
= = Chart performance = =
" Check on It " debuted at number 72 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart issue dated November 19 , 2005 . After twelve weeks on the chart , the song received the airplay gainer title , and reached number one on the Hot 100 chart issue dated February 4 , 2006 , becoming Beyoncé 's third Hot 100 number @-@ one as a solo artist and Slim Thug 's first Hot 100 single . For the same week ending , " Check on It " was also at the top of the US Hot Digital Songs and the US Pop 100 charts . The single remained at number @-@ one for on the Hot 100 chart for five consecutive weeks , tying Beyoncé with Jennifer Lopez for having her first three number @-@ one Hot 100 singles stay on top for five weeks or more . " Check on It " also tied with Canadian singer Daniel Powter 's 2005 single " Bad Day " for the longest @-@ running number @-@ one single in 2006 . " Check on It " spent a total of twenty @-@ eight weeks on the Hot 100 .
The song also topped the US Pop Songs , the US Hot Dance Club Play , the US Rhythmic Top 40 , and the Hot 100 Airplay charts . It reached number three on the US Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . According to Mediabase and Nielsen Broadcast Data Systems , " Check on It " passed the 200 million audience impressions mark in on January 31 , 2006 . Another single of Beyoncé , " Irreplaceable " also passed this mark on December 11 , 2006 . Beyoncé thus became the second female singer to achieve this feat in the US after Mariah Carey 's two singles " We Belong Together " and " Shake It Off " both passed the same mark within 2005 . At the end of 2006 , " Check on It " emerged as the tenth best selling , and fourth most played song on radio stations in the US . It was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipment of over 500 @,@ 000 copies . As of October 2012 , it has sold 1 @,@ 438 @,@ 000 paid digital downloads in the US .
" Check on It " debuted at number four on the UK Singles Chart on January 28 , 2006 . The following week , it peaked at number three and charted for twelve weeks in the top 75 positions of the UK Singles Chart . " Check on It " debuted at number 35 on the New Zealand Singles Chart on January 30 , 2006 , and reached number one for two consecutive weeks . In mainland Europe , " Check on It " reached the top five in Norway and the Netherlands , the top 10 in Switzerland , Denmark , and Austria , and the top 20 in Germany and Sweden .
= = Music video = =
When demand was growing for the song , Beyoncé decided to make a music video for it , serving as promotion for both # 1 's and The Pink Panther . It was directed by Hype Williams . The version of " Check on It " used in the clip features a remix of " The Pink Panther Theme " and a verse @-@ rap from Bun B. The video premiered on December 12 , 2005 on MTV , and was included on the DVD of The Pink Panther . The video was shot in 12 hours and features Beyoncé in 12 different set @-@ ups and outfits . It incorporates 1950s influences . Hype Williams told Margeaux Watson of Entertainment Weekly that the concept was to make everything pink to brand the relationship with The Pink Panther . He added that the pink sails reflect the wind instrument sound of the string section . Speaking about the video to MTV , Beyoncé said :
[ ' Check on It ' ] is so fun , it makes you feel like a child again and we wanted to put some of that in the choreography and the feel of the video . It 's all about checking on yourself and making sure you 're moving tight and your man admiring how you move . It 's simple . "
In the video , Beyoncé is seen mostly in all pink , and the dancers wear PVC jackets and dance around rippling satin sheets . She occasionally bends over and grabs her behind . The video cuts to Beyoncé wearing a polka dot corset against a hot magenta polka @-@ dotted wall , wearing a pink wig and pink lipstick . Where black bars normally appear on a 4 : 3 ( full screen ) television showing a widescreen production , footage is displayed of curtains moving in the background . This was a trend in the videos directed by Williams during that year , with the effect being used in Ne @-@ Yo 's 2006 single " So Sick " and Jamie Foxx 's 2005 single " Unpredictable " . " Check on It " won the Best R & B Video at the 2006 MTV Video Music Awards . It was also nominated for Video of the Year at the 2006 BET Awards .
= = Live performances = =
Although Beyoncé did not perform " Check on It " on televised appearances , it was a part of her set list on The Beyoncé Experience at the Staples Center in Los Angeles and I Am ... Tour during various stops . In Los Angeles , Beyoncé performed segments of the song , dressed in a golden , translucent slip and golden , sparkling panties . It was executed without backup dancers or live instrumentation , only backup singers toward the performance 's conclusion . When Beyoncé performed the song in Sunrise , Florida on June 29 , 2009 , she was wearing a glittery gold leotard . As she sang , animated graphics of turntables , faders and other club equipment were projected behind Beyoncé , her dancers and musicians . " Check on It " was subsequently included as the sixteenth track and the twentieth track on her live albums The Beyoncé Experience Live ( 2007 ) , and I Am ... World Tour ( 2010 ) respectively .
= = Formats and track listing = =
= = Official Versions = =
Album version featuring Slim Thug – 3 : 30
Acpaella version featuring Slim Thug - 3 : 50
Single version featuring Slim Thug & Bun B – 3 : 30 ( replaces Slim Thug 's second rap verse with Bun B )
Junior Vasquez Club Mix – 8 : 31
Maurice 's Nu Soul Mix – 5 : 59
King Klub Mix – 6 : 48
Bama Boyz Remix – 3 : 54
Bama Boyz Reggaeton Remix featuring Voltio – 3 : 28
Bama Boyz Reggaeton Remix Instrumental – 3 : 28
No Rap Version – 3 : 08
= = Personnel = =
Credits for the song , adapted from Allmusic
Vocals – Beyoncé Knowles , Slim Thug , Bun B , Kelly Rowland , L.A.K.C
Writing – Angela Beyince , Swizz Beatz , Sean Garrett , Kelly Rowland
Producing – Beyoncé Knowles , Swiss Beatz , L.A.K.C , Kelly Rowland , Michelle Williams
Engineering – Joe Carrano , Jim Caruana , Nathan Jenkins
Mastering – Tom Coyne
Mixing – Matt Hennessy , Dave Pensado , Dexter Simmons
Artists and repertoire – Huy Nguyen
Assistance – Geoffrey Rice , Matt Serrecchio
Additionally , the remixes also credit the following people :
Remixing – Maurice Joshua
Producing – Junior Vasquez
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Official scorer =
In the game of baseball , the official scorer is a person appointed by the league to record the events on the field , and to send the official scoring record of the game back to the league offices . In addition to recording the events on the field such | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
sound biofuel production practices would not hamper food and fibre production , nor cause water or environmental problems , and would enhance soil fertility . The selection of land on which to grow the feedstocks is a critical component of the ability of biofuels to deliver sustainable solutions . A key consideration is the minimisation of biofuel competition for prime cropland .
= = Plants used as sustainable biofuel = =
= = = Sugarcane in Brazil = = =
Brazil ’ s production of ethanol fuel from sugarcane dates back to the 1970s , as a governmental response to the 1973 oil crisis . Brazil is considered the biofuel industry leader and the world 's first sustainable biofuels economy . In 2010 the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency designated Brazilian sugarcane ethanol as an advanced biofuel due to EPA 's estimated 61 % reduction of total life cycle greenhouse gas emissions , including direct indirect land use change emissions . Brazil sugarcane ethanol fuel program success and sustainability is based on the most efficient agricultural technology for sugarcane cultivation in the world , uses modern equipment and cheap sugar cane as feedstock , the residual cane @-@ waste ( bagasse ) is used to process heat and power , which results in a very competitive price and also in a high energy balance ( output energy / input energy ) , which varies from 8 @.@ 3 for average conditions to 10 @.@ 2 for best practice production .
A report commissioned by the United Nations , based on a detailed review of published research up to mid @-@ 2009 as well as the input of independent experts world @-@ wide , found that ethanol from sugar cane as produced in Brazil " in some circumstances does better than just “ zero emission ” . If grown and processed correctly , it has negative emission , pulling CO2 out of the atmosphere , rather than adding it . In contrast , the report found that U.S. use of maize for biofuel is less efficient , as sugarcane can lead to emissions reductions of between 70 % and well over 100 % when substituted for gasoline . Several other studies have shown that sugarcane @-@ based ethanol reduces greenhouse gases by 86 to 90 % if there is no significant land use change .
In another study commissioned by the Dutch government in 2006 to evaluate the sustainability of Brazilian bioethanol concluded that there is sufficient water to supply all foreseeable long @-@ term water requirements for sugarcane and ethanol production . This evaluation also found that consumption of agrochemicals for sugar cane production is lower than in citric , corn , coffee and soybean cropping . The study found that development of resistant sugar cane varieties is a crucial aspect of disease and pest control and is one of the primary objectives of Brazil ’ s cane genetic improvement programs . Disease control is one of the main reasons for the replacement of a commercial variety of sugar cane .
Another concern is the fact that sugarcane fields are traditionally burned just before harvest to avoid harm to the workers , by removing the sharp leaves and killing snakes and other harmful animals , and also to fertilize the fields with ash . Mechanization will reduce pollution from burning fields and has higher productivity than people , and due to mechanization the number of temporary workers in the sugarcane plantations has already declined . By the 2008 harvest season , around 47 % of the cane was collected with harvesting machines .
Regarding the negative impacts of the potential direct and indirect effect of land use changes on carbon emissions , the study commissioned by the Dutch government concluded that " it is very difficult to determine the indirect effects of further land use for sugar cane production ( i.e. sugar cane replacing another crop like soy or citrus crops , which in turn causes additional soy plantations replacing pastures , which in turn may cause deforestation ) , and also not logical to attribute all these soil carbon losses to sugar cane " . The Brazilian agency Embrapa estimates that there is enough agricultural land available to increase at least 30 times the existing sugarcane plantation without endangering sensible ecosystems or taking land destined for food crops . Most future growth is expected to take place on abandoned pasture lands , as it has been the historical trend in São Paulo state . Also , productivity is expected to improve even further based on current biotechnology research , genetic improvement , and better agronomic practices , thus contributing to reduce land demand for future sugarcane cultures .
Another concern is the risk of clearing rain forests and other environmentally valuable land for sugarcane production , such as the Amazonia , the Pantanal or the Cerrado . Embrapa has rebutted this concern explaining that 99 @.@ 7 % of sugarcane plantations are located at least 2 @,@ 000 km from the Amazonia , and expansion during the last 25 years took place in the Center @-@ South region , also far away from the Amazonia , the Pantanal or the Atlantic forest . In São Paulo state growth took place in abandoned pasture lands . The impact assessment commissioned by the Dutch government supported this argument .
In order to guarantee a sustainable development of ethanol production , in September 2009 the government issued by decree a countrywide agroecological land use zoning to restrict sugarcane growth in or near environmentally sensitive areas . According to the new criteria , 92 @.@ 5 % of the Brazilian territory is not suitable for sugarcane plantation . The government considers that the suitable areas are more than enough to meet the future demand for ethanol and sugar in the domestic and international markets foreseen for the next decades .
Regarding the food vs fuel issue , a World Bank research report published on July 2008 found that " Brazil 's sugar @-@ based ethanol did not push food prices appreciably higher " . This research paper also concluded that Brazil 's sugar cane – based ethanol has not raised sugar prices significantly . An economic assessment report also published in July 2008 by the OECD agrees with the World Bank report regarding the negative effects of subsidies and trade restrictions , but found that the impact of biofuels on food prices are much smaller . A study by the Brazilian research unit of the Fundação Getúlio Vargas regarding the effects of biofuels on grain prices concluded that the major driver behind the 2007 @-@ 2008 rise in food prices was speculative activity on futures markets under conditions of increased demand in a market with low grain stocks . The study also concluded that there is no correlation between Brazilian sugarcane cultivated area and average grain prices , as on the contrary , the spread of sugarcane was accompanied by rapid growth of grain crops in the country .
= = = Jatropha = = =
= = = = India and Africa = = = =
Crops like Jatropha , used for biodiesel , can thrive on marginal agricultural land where many trees and crops won 't grow , or would produce only slow growth yields . Jatropha cultivation provides benefits for local communities :
Cultivation and fruit picking by hand is labour @-@ intensive and needs around one person per hectare . In parts of rural India and Africa this provides much @-@ needed jobs - about 200 @,@ 000 people worldwide now find employment through jatropha . Moreover , villagers often find that they can grow other crops in the shade of the trees . Their communities will avoid importing expensive diesel and there will be some for export too .
= = = = Cambodia = = = =
Cambodia has no proven fossil fuel reserves , and is almost completely dependent on imported diesel fuel for electricity production . Consequently , Cambodians face an insecure supply and pay some of the highest energy prices in the world . The impacts of this are widespread and may hinder economic development .
Biofuels may provide a substitute for diesel fuel that can be manufactured locally for a lower price , independent of the international oil price . The local production and use of biofuel also offers other benefits such as improved energy security , rural development opportunities and environmental benefits . The Jatropha curcas species appears to be a particularly suitable source of biofuel as it already grows commonly in Cambodia . Local sustainable production of biofuel in Cambodia , based on the Jatropha or other sources , offers good potential benefits for the investors , the economy , rural communities and the environment .
= = = = Mexico = = = =
Jatropha is native to Mexico and Central America and was likely transported to India and Africa in the 1500s by Portuguese sailors convinced it had medicinal uses . In 2008 , recognizing the need to diversify its sources of energy and reduce emissions , Mexico passed a law to push developing biofuels that don 't threaten food security and the agriculture ministry has since identified some 2 @.@ 6 million hectares ( 6 @.@ 4 million acres ) of land with a high potential to produce jatropha . The Yucatán Peninsula , for instance , in addition to being a corn producing region , also contains abandoned sisal plantations , where the growing of Jatropha for biodiesel production would not displace food .
On April 1 , 2011 Interjet completed the first Mexican aviation biofuels test flight on an Airbus A320 . The fuel was a 70 : 30 traditional jet fuel biojet blend produced from Jatropha oil provided by three Mexican producers , Global Energías Renovables ( a wholly owned subsidiary of U.S.-based Global Clean Energy Holdings , Bencafser S.A. and Energy JH S.A. Honeywell 's UOP processed the oil into Bio @-@ SPK ( Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene ) . Global Energías Renovables operates the largest Jatropha farm in the Americas .
On August 1 , 2011 Aeromexico , Boeing , and the Mexican Government participated in the first biojet powered transcontinental flight in aviation history . The flight from Mexico City to Madrid used a blend of 70 percent traditional fuel and 30 percent biofuel ( aviation biofuel ) . The biojet was produced entirely from Jatropha oil .
= = = Pongamia Pinnata in Australia and India = = =
Pongamia pinnata is a legume native to Australia , India , Florida ( USA ) and most tropical regions , and is now being invested in as an alternative to Jatropha for areas such as Northern Australia , where Jatropha is classed as a noxious weed . Commonly known as simply ' Pongamia ' , this tree is currently being commercialised in Australia by Pacific Renewable Energy , for use as a Diesel replacement for running in modified Diesel engines or for conversion to Biodiesel using 1st or 2nd Generation Biodiesel techniques , for running in unmodified Diesel engines .
= = = Sweet sorghum in India = = =
Sweet sorghum overcomes many of the shortcomings of other biofuel crops . With sweet sorghum , only the stalks are used for biofuel production , while the grain is saved for food or livestock feed . It is not in high demand in the global food market , and thus has little impact on food prices and food security . Sweet sorghum is grown on already @-@ farmed drylands that are low in carbon storage capacity , so concerns about the clearing of rainforest do not apply . Sweet sorghum is easier and cheaper to grow than other biofuel crops in India and does not require irrigation , an important consideration in dry areas . Some of the Indian sweet sorghum varieties are now grown in Uganda for ethanol production .
A study by researchers at the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi @-@ Arid Tropics ( ICRISAT ) found that growing sweet sorghum instead of grain sorghum could increase farmers incomes by US $ 40 per hectare per crop because it can provide food , feed and fuel . With grain sorghum currently grown on over 11 million hectares ( ha ) in Asia and on 23 @.@ 4 million ha in Africa , a switch to sweet sorghum could have a considerable economic impact .
= = International collaboration on sustainable biofuels = =
= = = Roundtable on Sustainable Biofuels = = =
Public attitudes and the actions of key stakeholders can play a crucial role in realising the potential of sustainable biofuels . Informed discussion and dialogue , based both on scientific research and an understanding of public and stakeholder views , is important .
The Roundtable on Sustainable Biofuels is an international initiative which brings together farmers , companies , governments , non @-@ governmental organizations , and scientists who are interested in the sustainability of biofuels production and distribution . During 2008 , the Roundtable used meetings , teleconferences , and online discussions to develop a series of principles and criteria for sustainable biofuels production .
In 2008 , the Roundtable for Sustainable Biofuels released its proposed standards for sustainable biofuels . This includes 12 principles :
" Biofuel production shall follow international treaties and national laws regarding such things as air quality , water resources , agricultural practices , labor conditions , and more .
Biofuels projects shall be designed and operated in participatory processes that involve all relevant stakeholders in planning and monitoring .
Biofuels shall significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions as compared to fossil fuels . The principle seeks to establish a standard methodology for comparing greenhouse gases ( GHG ) benefits .
Biofuel production shall not violate human rights or labor rights , and shall ensure decent work and the well @-@ being of workers .
Biofuel production shall contribute to the social and economic development of local , rural and indigenous peoples and communities .
Biofuel production shall not impair food security .
Biofuel production shall avoid negative impacts on biodiversity , ecosystems and areas of high conservation value .
Biofuel production shall promote practices that improve soil health and minimize degradation .
Surface and groundwater use will be optimized and contamination or depletion of water resources minimized .
Air pollution shall be minimized along the supply chain .
Biofuels shall be produced in the most cost @-@ effective way , with a commitment to improve production efficiency and social and environmental performance in all stages of the biofuel value chain .
Biofuel production shall not violate land rights " .
In April 2011 , the Roundtable on Sustainable Biofuels launched a set of comprehensive sustainability criteria - the “ RSB Certification System . ” Biofuels producers that meet to these criteria are able to show buyers and regulators that their product has been obtained without harming the environment or violating human rights .
= = = Sustainable Biofuels Consensus = = =
The Sustainable Biofuels Consensus is an international initiative which calls upon governments , the private sector , and other stakeholders to take decisive action to ensure the sustainable trade , production , and use of biofuels . In this way biofuels may play a key role in energy sector transformation , climate stabilization , and resulting worldwide revitalisation of rural areas .
The Sustainable Biofuels Consensus envisions a " landscape that provides food , fodder , fiber , and energy , which offers opportunities for rural development ; that diversifies energy supply , restores ecosystems , protects biodiversity , and sequesters carbon " .
= = = Better Sugarcane Initiative / Bonsucro = = =
In 2008 , a multi @-@ stakeholder process was initiated by the World Wildlife Fund and the International Finance Corporation , the private development arm of the World Bank , bringing together industry , supply chain intermediaries , end @-@ users , farmers and civil society organisations to develop standards for certifying the derivative products of sugar cane , one of which is ethanol fuel .
The Bonsucro standard is based around a definition of sustainability which is founded on five principles :
Obey the law
Respect human rights and labour standards
Manage input , production and processing efficiencies to enhance sustainability
Actively manage biodiversity and ecosystem services
Continuously improve key areas of the business
Biofuel producers that wish to sell products marked with the Bonsucro standard must both ensure that they product to the Production Standard , and that their downstream buyers meet the Chain of Custody Standard . In addition , if they wish to sell to the European market and count against the EU Renewable Energy Directive , then they must adhere to the Bonsucro EU standard , which includes specific greenhouse gas calculations following European Commission calculation guidelines .
= = Sustainability standards = =
Several countries and regions have introduced policies or adopted standards to promote sustainable biofuels production and use , most prominently the European Union and the United States . The 2009 EU Renewable Energy Directive , which requires 10 percent of transportation energy from renewable energy by 2020 , is the most comprehensive mandatory sustainability standard in place as of 2010 . The Directive requires that the lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions of biofuels consumed be at least 50 percent less than the equivalent emissions from gasoline or diesel by 2017 ( and 35 percent less starting in 2011 ) . Also , the feedstocks for biofuels " should not be harvested from lands with high biodiversity value , from carbon @-@ rich or forested land , or from wetlands " .
As with the EU , the U.S. Renewable Fuel Standard ( RFS ) and the California Low Carbon Fuel Standard ( LCFS ) both require specific levels of lifecycle greenhouse gas reductions compared to equivalent fossil fuel consumption . The RFS requires that at least half of the biofuels production mandated by 2022 should reduce lifecycle emissions by 50 percent . The LCFS is a performance standard that calls for a minimum of 10 percent emissions reduction per unit of transport energy by 2020 . Both the U.S. and California standards currently address only greenhouse gas emissions , but California plans to " expand its policy to address other sustainability issues associated with liquid biofuels in the future " .
In 2009 , Brazil also adopted new sustainability policies for sugarcane ethanol , including " zoning regulation of sugarcane expansion and social protocols " .
= = Oil price moderation = =
Biofuels offer the prospect of real market competition and oil price moderation . According to the Wall Street Journal , crude oil would be trading 15 per cent higher and gasoline would be as much as 25 per cent more expensive , if it were not for biofuels . A healthy supply of alternative energy sources will help to combat gasoline price spikes .
= = Sustainable transport = =
Biofuels have a limited ability to replace fossil fuels and should not be regarded as a ‘ silver bullet ’ to deal with transport emissions . Biofuels on their own cannot deliver a sustainable transport system and so must be developed as part of an integrated approach , which promotes other renewable energy options and energy efficiency , as well as reducing the overall energy demand and need for transport . Consideration needs to be given to the development of hybrid and fuel cell vehicles , public transport , and better town and rural planning .
In December 2008 an Air New Zealand jet completed the world 's first commercial aviation test flight partially using jatropha @-@ based fuel . More than a dozen performance tests were undertaken in the two @-@ hour test flight which departed from Auckland International Airport . A biofuel blend of 50 : 50 jatropha and Jet A1 fuel was used to power one of the Boeing 747 @-@ 400 's Rolls @-@ Royce RB211 engines . Air New Zealand set several criteria for its jatropha , requiring that " the land it came from was neither forest nor virgin grassland in the previous 20 years , that the soil and climate it came from is not suitable for the majority of food crops and that the farms are rain fed and not mechanically irrigated " . The company has also set general sustainability criteria , saying that such biofuels must not compete with food resources , that they must be as good as traditional jet fuels , and that they should be cost competitive .
In January 2009 , Continental Airlines used a sustainable biofuel to power a commercial aircraft for the first time in North America . This demonstration flight marks the first sustainable biofuel demonstration flight by a commercial carrier using a twin @-@ engined aircraft , a Boeing 737 @-@ 800 , powered by CFM International CFM56 @-@ 7B engines . The biofuel blend included components derived from algae and jatropha plants . The algae oil was provided by Sapphire Energy , and the jatropha oil by Terasol Energy .
In March 2011 , Yale University research showed significant potential for sustainable aviation fuel based on jatropha @-@ curcas . According to the research , if cultivated properly , " jatropha can deliver many benefits in Latin America and greenhouse gas reductions of up to 60 percent when compared to petroleum @-@ based jet fuel " . Actual farming conditions in Latin America were assessed using sustainability criteria developed by the Roundtable on Sustainable Biofuels . Unlike previous research , which used theoretical inputs , the Yale team conducted many interviews with jatropha farmers and used " field measurements to develop the first comprehensive sustainability analysis of actual projects " .
As of June 2011 , revised international aviation fuel standards officially allow commercial airlines to blend conventional jet fuel with up to 50 percent biofuels . The renewable fuels " can be blended with conventional commercial and military jet fuel through requirements in the newly issued edition of ASTM D7566 , Specification for Aviation Turbine Fuel Containing Synthesized Hydrocarbons " .
In December 2011 , the FAA awarded $ 7 @.@ 7 million to eight companies to advance the development of commercial aviation biofuels , with a special focus on alcohol to jet fuel . The FAA is assisting in the development of a sustainable fuel ( from alcohols , sugars , biomass , and organic matter such as pyrolysis oils ) that can be “ dropped in ” to aircraft without changing current practices and infrastructure . The research will test how the new fuels affect engine durability and quality control standards .
GreenSky London , a biofuels plant under construction in 2014 , will take in some 500 @,@ 000 tonnes of municipal rubbish and change the organic component into 60 @,@ 000 tonnes of jet fuel , and 40 megawatts of power . By the end of 2015 , all British Airways flights from London City Airport will be fuelled by waste and rubbish discarded by London residents .
= Osmium =
Osmium ( from Greek ὀσμή osme , " smell " ) is a chemical element with symbol Os and atomic number 76 . It is a hard , brittle , bluish @-@ white transition metal in the platinum group that is found as a trace element in alloys , mostly in platinum ores . Osmium is the densest naturally occurring element , with a density of 22 @.@ 59 g / cm3 . Its alloys with platinum , iridium , and other platinum @-@ group metals are employed in fountain pen nibs , electrical contacts , and other applications where extreme durability and hardness are needed .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Physical properties = = =
Osmium has a blue @-@ gray tint and is the densest stable element , slightly denser than iridium . Calculations of density from the X @-@ ray diffraction data may produce the most reliable data for these elements , giving a value of 22 @.@ 562 ± 0 @.@ 009 g / cm3 for iridium versus 22 @.@ 587 ± 0 @.@ 009 g / cm3 for osmium .
Osmium is a hard but brittle metal that remains lustrous even at high temperatures . It has a very low compressibility . Correspondingly , its bulk modulus is extremely high , reported between 395 and 462 GPa , which rivals that of diamond ( 443 GPa ) . The hardness of osmium is moderately high at 4 GPa . Because of its hardness , brittleness , low vapor pressure ( the lowest of the platinum @-@ group metals ) , and very high melting point ( the fourth highest of all elements ) , solid osmium is difficult to machine , form , or work .
= = = Chemical properties = = =
Osmium forms compounds with oxidation states ranging from − 2 to + 8 . The most common oxidation states are + 2 , + 3 , + 4 , and + 8 . The + 8 oxidation state is notable for being the highest attained by any chemical element aside from iridium 's + 9 and is encountered only in xenon , ruthenium , hassium , iridium , plutonium , and curium ( uncertain ) . The oxidation states − 1 and − 2 represented by the two reactive compounds Na
2 [ Os
4 ( CO )
13 ] and Na
2 [ Os ( CO )
4 ] are used in the synthesis of osmium cluster compounds .
The most common compound exhibiting the + 8 oxidation state is osmium tetroxide . This toxic compound is formed when powdered osmium is exposed to air . It is a very volatile , water @-@ soluble , pale yellow , crystalline solid with a strong smell . Osmium powder has the characteristic smell of osmium tetroxide . Osmium tetroxide forms red osmates OsO
4 ( OH ) 2 −
2 upon reaction with a base . With ammonia , it forms the nitrido @-@ osmates OsO
3N − . Osmium tetroxide boils at 130 ° C and is a powerful oxidizing agent . By contrast , osmium dioxide ( OsO2 ) is black , non @-@ volatile , and much less reactive and toxic .
Only two osmium compounds have major applications : osmium tetroxide for staining tissue in electron microscopy and for the oxidation of alkenes in organic synthesis , and the non @-@ volatile osmates for organic oxidation reactions .
Osmium pentafluoride ( OsF5 ) is known , but osmium trifluoride ( OsF3 ) has not yet been synthesized . The lower oxidation states are stabilized by the larger halogens , so that the trichloride , tribromide , triiodide , and even diiodide are known . The oxidation state + 1 is known only for osmium iodide ( OsI ) , whereas several carbonyl complexes of osmium , such as triosmium dodecacarbonyl ( Os
3 ( CO )
12 ) , represent oxidation state 0 .
In general , the lower oxidation states of osmium are stabilized by ligands that are good σ @-@ donors ( such as amines ) and π @-@ acceptors ( heterocycles containing nitrogen ) . The higher oxidation states are stabilized by strong σ- and π @-@ donors , such as O2 − and N3 − .
Despite its broad range of compounds in numerous oxidation states , osmium in bulk form at ordinary temperatures and pressures resists attack by all acids and alkalis , including aqua regia .
= = = Isotopes = = =
Osmium has seven naturally occurring isotopes , six of which are stable : 184Os , 187Os , 188Os , 189Os , 190Os , and ( most abundant ) 192Os . 186Os undergoes alpha decay with such a long half @-@ life ( ( 2 @.@ 0 ± 1 @.@ 1 ) × 1015 years ) that for practical purposes it can be considered stable . Alpha decay is predicted for all seven naturally occurring isotopes , but it has been observed only for 186Os , presumably due to very long half @-@ lives . It is predicted that 184Os and 192Os can undergo double beta decay but this radioactivity has not been observed yet .
187Os is the daughter of 187Re ( half @-@ life 4 @.@ 56 × 1010 years ) and is used extensively in dating terrestrial as well as meteoric rocks ( see rhenium @-@ osmium dating ) . It has also been used to measure the intensity of continental weathering over geologic time and to fix minimum ages for stabilization of the mantle roots of continental cratons . This decay is a reason why rhenium @-@ rich minerals are abnormally rich in 187Os . However , the most notable application of Os isotopes in geology has been in conjunction with the abundance of iridium , to characterise the layer of shocked quartz along the Cretaceous – Paleogene boundary that marks the extinction of the dinosaurs 66 million years ago .
= = History = =
Osmium was discovered in 1803 by Smithson Tennant and William Hyde Wollaston in London , England . The discovery of osmium is intertwined with that of platinum and the other metals of the platinum group . Platinum reached Europe as platina ( " small silver " ) , first encountered in the late 17th century in silver mines around the Chocó Department , in Colombia . The discovery that this metal was not an alloy , but a distinct new element , was published in 1748 . Chemists who studied platinum dissolved it in aqua regia ( a mixture of hydrochloric and nitric acids ) to create soluble salts . They always observed a small amount of a dark , insoluble residue . Joseph Louis Proust thought that the residue was graphite . Victor Collet @-@ Descotils , Antoine François , comte de Fourcroy , and Louis Nicolas Vauquelin also observed the black residue in 1803 , but did not obtain enough material for further experiments .
In 1803 , Smithson Tennant analyzed the insoluble residue and concluded that it must contain a new metal . Vauquelin treated the powder alternately with alkali and acids and obtained a volatile new oxide , which he believed to be of this new metal — which he named ptene , from the Greek word πτηνος ( ptènos ) for winged . However , Tennant , who had the advantage of a much larger amount of residue , continued his research and identified two previously undiscovered elements in the black residue , iridium and osmium . He obtained a yellow solution ( probably of cis – [ Os ( OH ) 2O4 ] 2 − ) by reactions with sodium hydroxide at red heat . After acidification he was able to distill the formed OsO4 . He named it osmium after Greek osme meaning " a smell " , because of the ashy and smoky smell of the volatile osmium tetroxide . Discovery of the new elements was documented in a letter to the Royal Society on June 21 , 1804 .
Uranium and osmium were early successful catalysts in the Haber process , the nitrogen fixation reaction of nitrogen and hydrogen to produce ammonia , giving enough yield to make the process economically successful . At the time , a group at BASF led by Carl Bosch bought most of the world 's supply of osmium to use as a catalyst . Shortly thereafter , in 1908 , cheaper catalysts based on iron and iron oxides were introduced by the same group for the first pilot plants , removing the need for the expensive and rare osmium .
Nowadays osmium is obtained primarily from the processing of platinum and nickel ores .
= = Occurrence = =
Osmium is the least abundant stable element in Earth 's crust with an average mass fraction of 50 parts per trillion in the continental crust .
Osmium is found in nature as an uncombined element or in natural alloys ; especially the iridium – osmium alloys , osmiridium ( osmium rich ) , and iridosmium ( iridium rich ) . In nickel and copper deposits , the platinum group metals occur as sulfides ( i.e. , ( Pt , Pd ) S ) ) , tellurides ( e.g. , PtBiTe ) , antimonides ( e.g. , PdSb ) , and arsenides ( e.g. , PtAs2 ) ; in all these compounds platinum is exchanged by a small amount of iridium and osmium . As with all of the platinum group metals , osmium can be found naturally in alloys with nickel or copper .
Within Earth 's crust , osmium , like iridium , is found at highest concentrations in three types of geologic structure : igneous deposits ( crustal intrusions from below ) , impact craters , and deposits reworked from one of the former structures . The largest known primary reserves are in the Bushveld igneous complex in South Africa , though the large copper – nickel deposits near Norilsk in Russia , and the Sudbury Basin in Canada are also significant sources of osmium . Smaller reserves can be found in the United States . The alluvial deposits used by pre @-@ Columbian people in the Chocó Department , Colombia are still a source for platinum group metals . The second large alluvial deposit was found in the Ural Mountains , Russia , which is still mined .
= = Production = =
Osmium is obtained commercially as a by @-@ product from nickel and copper mining and processing . During electrorefining of copper and nickel , noble metals such as silver , gold and the platinum group metals , together with non @-@ metallic elements such as selenium and tellurium settle to the bottom of the cell as anode mud , which forms the starting material for their extraction . In order to separate the metals , they must first be brought into solution . Several methods are available depending on the separation process and the composition of the mixture ; two representative methods are fusion with sodium peroxide followed by dissolution in aqua regia , and dissolution in a mixture of chlorine with hydrochloric acid . Osmium , ruthenium , rhodium and iridium can be separated from platinum , gold and base metals by their insolubility in aqua regia , leaving a solid residue . Rhodium can be separated from the residue by treatment with molten sodium bisulfate . The insoluble residue , containing Ru , Os and Ir , is treated with sodium oxide , in which Ir is insoluble , producing water @-@ soluble Ru and Os salts . After oxidation to the volatile oxides , RuO
4 is separated from OsO
4 by precipitation of ( NH4 ) 3RuCl6 with ammonium chloride .
After it is dissolved , osmium is separated from the other platinum group metals by distillation or extraction with organic solvents of the volatile osmium tetroxide . The first method is similar to the procedure used by Tennant and Wollaston . Both methods are suitable for industrial scale production . In either case , the product is reduced using hydrogen , yielding the metal as a powder or sponge that can be treated using powder metallurgy techniques .
Neither the producers nor the United States Geological Survey published any production amounts for osmium . Estimations of the United States consumption date published from 1971 , which gives a consumption in the United States of 2000 troy ounces ( 62 kg ) , would suggest that the production is still less than 1 ton per year . In 2012 , the estimated US production of osmium was 75 kg .
= = Applications = =
Because of the volatility and extreme toxicity of its oxide , osmium is rarely used in its pure state , but is instead often alloyed with other metals . Those alloys are utilized in high @-@ wear applications . Osmium alloys such as osmiridium are very hard and , along with other platinum @-@ group metals , are used in the tips of fountain pens , instrument pivots , and electrical contacts , as they can resist wear from frequent operation . They were also used for the tips of phonograph styli during the late 78 rpm and early " LP " and " 45 " record era , circa 1945 to 1955 . Although very durable compared to steel and chromium needle points , osmium @-@ alloy tips wore out far more rapidly than competing but costlier sapphire and diamond tips and were discontinued .
Osmium tetroxide has been used in fingerprint detection and in staining fatty tissue for optical and electron microscopy . As a strong oxidant , it cross @-@ links lipids mainly by reacting with unsaturated carbon – carbon bonds and thereby both fixes biological membranes in place in tissue samples and simultaneously stains them . Because osmium atoms are extremely electron @-@ dense , osmium staining greatly enhances image contrast in transmission electron microscopy ( TEM ) studies of biological materials . Those carbon materials have otherwise very weak TEM contrast ( see image ) . Another osmium compound , osmium ferricyanide ( OsFeCN ) , exhibits similar fixing and staining action .
The tetroxide and a related compound potassium osmate are important oxidants for chemical synthesis , despite being very poisonous . For the Sharpless asymmetric dihydroxylation , which uses osmate for the conversion of a double bond into a vicinal diol , Karl Barry Sharpless won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2001 . OsO4 is very expensive for this use , so KMnO4 is often used instead , even though the yields are less for this cheaper chemical reagent .
In 1898 an Austrian chemist Auer von Welsbach developed the Oslamp with a filament made of osmium , which he introduced commercially in 1902 . After only a few years , osmium was replaced by the more stable metal tungsten . Tungsten has the highest melting point among all metals , and using it in light bulbs increases the luminous efficacy and life of incandescent lamps .
The light bulb manufacturer Osram ( founded in 1906 , when three German companies , Auer @-@ Gesellschaft , AEG and Siemens & Halske , combined their lamp production facilities ) derived its name from the elements of osmium and Wolfram ( the latter is German for tungsten ) .
Like palladium , powdered osmium effectively absorbs hydrogen atoms . This could make osmium a potential candidate for a metal @-@ hydride battery electrode . However , osmium is expensive and would react with potassium hydroxide , the most common battery electrolyte .
Osmium has high reflectivity in the ultraviolet range of the electromagnetic spectrum ; for example , at 600 Å osmium has a reflectivity twice that of gold . This high reflectivity is desirable in space @-@ based UV spectrometers , which have reduced mirror sizes due to space limitations . Osmium @-@ coated mirrors were flown in several space missions aboard the Space Shuttle , but it soon became clear that the oxygen radicals in the low Earth orbit are abundant enough to significantly deteriorate the osmium layer .
The only known clinical use of osmium appears to be for synovectomy in arthritic patients in Scandinavia . It involves the local administration of osmium tetroxide ( OsO4 ) , which is a highly toxic compound . The lack of reports of long @-@ term side effects suggest that osmium itself can be biocompatible , although this depends on the osmium compound administered . In 2011 , osmium ( VI ) and osmium ( II ) compounds were reported to show anticancer activity in vivo , it indicated a promising future for using osmium compounds as anticancer drugs .
= = Precautions = =
Finely divided metallic osmium is pyrophoric and reacts with oxygen at room temperature , forming volatile osmium tetroxide . Some osmium compounds are also converted to the tetroxide if oxygen is present . This makes osmium tetroxide the main source of contact with the environment .
Osmium tetroxide is highly volatile and penetrates skin readily , and is very toxic by inhalation , ingestion , and skin contact . Airborne low concentrations of osmium tetroxide vapor can cause lung congestion and skin or eye damage , and should therefore be used in a fume hood . Osmium tetroxide is rapidly reduced to relatively inert compounds by polyunsaturated vegetable oils , such as corn oil .
= = Price = =
Osmium is usually sold as a minimum 99 @.@ 9 % pure powder . Like other precious metals , it is measured by troy weight and by grams . Its price in 2012 was about $ 400 per troy ounce ( or about $ 13 @,@ 000 per kilogram ) , depending on the quantity and its supplier .
= Siege of Svetigrad ( 1448 ) =
The Siege of Svetigrad began on May 14 , 1448 when an Ottoman army , led by Sultan Murad II , besieged the fortress of Svetigrad ( now Kodžadžik ) . After the many failed Ottoman expeditions into Albania against the League of Lezhë , a confederation of Albanian Principalities created in 1444 and headed by Skanderbeg , Murad II decided to march an army into Skanderbeg 's dominions in order to capture the key Albanian fortress of Svetigrad . The fortress lay on an important route between Macedonia and Albania , and thus its occupation would give the Ottomans easy access into Albania . The force prepared by Murad was the largest force with which the Ottomans had ever attacked Skanderbeg . Murad planned to take the fortress , march into the Albanian interior , and capture the main citadel of Krujë , thus crushing the Albanian League .
At the same time , Skanderbeg had been at war with Venice . Realizing the magnitude of his challenge , Skanderbeg attempted to relieve the garrison by engaging in skirmishes with the Ottoman army . His forces succeeded in inflicting heavy casualties on the Turkish forces through guerrilla @-@ style attacks . Efforts were made by Skanderbeg to use intelligence forces , operating as far as Constantinople , to gather information on Murad 's plans of action . Meanwhile , near Scutari , he had been able to defeat a Venetian force and managed to considerably weaken the Venetian presence in Albania . Despite these efforts , on July 31 the garrison of Svetigrad surrendered due to a cut @-@ off in the water @-@ supply to Svetigrad . The garrison was spared and a force of Ottoman Janissaries was stationed inside the fortress instead . Two years later , Murad would march against Krujë , only to suffer a heavy defeat .
= = Prelude = =
In 1444 the major princes of the Albanian Principalities , which up to that point had been vassals of the Ottoman Empire , united and formed the League of Lezhë , an anti @-@ Ottoman confederacy under Skanderbeg 's lead . As a result , the Ottoman Empire sought to crush the League and re @-@ establish control over Albania . As of 1448 , all Ottoman expeditions into Albania had failed and Murad II chose lead a force in person into Albanian territory and fragment the League . The sultan decided to capture the fortress of Svetigrad . This fortress served the strategic purpose of protecting the Albanian eastern frontier , while also allowing the Albanians to launch their own assaults on Ottoman territory . In late 1447 , war began between Venice and the League , but had not yet escalated into full @-@ scale conflict . Skanderbeg had declared war on Venice as a result of a diplomatic impasse . This left him open to invasion from the East .
Albanian intelligence groups informed Skanderbeg — the main leader of the revolt — that a large Ottoman army was preparing to march into Albania , the number of which was reported by some as being as high as 170 @,@ 000 . This army , however , is likely to have contained no more than 80 @,@ 000 soldiers . Nevertheless , Murad marched his army into Monastir . Skanderbeg urgently called for material aid Venice . The answer , however , was negative . Instead , the only aid received came from the Neapolitans and the Ragusans . Nonetheless , Murad soon marched into Ohrid and Black Drin valley , traveling near Svetigrad . In response , Skanderbeg strengthened the garrisons of Krujë , Stellushi , Svetigrad , and Berat by ordering the populations around these fortress to take up arms .
Shortly before the Ottoman siege began , Skanderbeg positioned himself , and 4 @,@ 000 cavalry , 7 miles ( 11 km ) from the Turkish camp . The force also included 8 @,@ 000 other soldiers . Skanderbeg ordered that no campfires should be lit in order to keep his position secret . Moisi Arianit Golemi and Muzaka of Angelina were ordered , with thirty horsemen , to dress as peasants and enter the fortress . The plot was discovered , however , and the company was attacked , but the attackers were driven off . Upon returning to the main Ottoman camp , one of the commanding pashas saw that this was one of Skanderbeg 's plots and sent 4 @,@ 000 horsemen to find out where Skanderbeg was camping by following Moisi 's band . Moisi led the Ottoman force into a valley , and Skanderbeg , who was ready for such an enterprise , surrounded the valley with his forces . When the Ottoman force was within distance , the Albanians sprung the ambush and the Ottoman force was annihilated . This happened on May 14 , 1448 , after which Murad ordered the siege to begin .
= = Siege = =
= = = Ottoman arrival = = =
Murad 's force contained approximately 80 @,@ 000 men and two cannons , which could fire 200 pounds ( 91 kg ) balls . His army contained a fresh corps of Janissaries , and 3 @,@ 000 debtors and bankrupts fighting to regain their freedom . The Count of Gurrica persuaded Skanderbeg to incorporate a scorched earth strategy , by destroying all supplies that might be used by the Ottoman army . The Ottoman force paraded around the fortress and offered 300 @,@ 000 aspras ( Turkish currency ) to those who would open the gate and let the Ottoman army in the fortress without a fight . The heralds proposing these offers went into the fortress at night time and the garrison commanders gave them a splendid dinner , so that they would get the impression that the enemy was well prepared for a lengthy siege . After the dinner their offers were rejected and they were sent back to the Sultan . The size of the Ottoman army troubled Skanderbeg because of the effects it could have on the morale of his soldiers and on the local population which supported the princes . Skanderbeg thus moved from village to village , disguised as a common soldier , and invoked the fighting spirit of the population . As a result of this activity , the local chieftains agreed to fight the Ottomans and persuaded Skanderbeg to draw up his plans in concert with theirs .
= = = Albanian guerrilla attacks = = =
To relieve the garrison of Svetigrad , Skanderbeg continually harassed the Ottoman army . Many of these attacks had been surprise ambushes of isolated Ottoman forces . Hoping to evade Ottoman patrols , Skanderbeg moved towards the Ottoman camp . On June 22 , Skanderbeg led a night attack on the Ottoman camp which disillusioned the Ottoman soldiers who had been expecting a quiet campaign . Soon after , when the besiegers were taking their afternoon naps , Skanderbeg sent Moses with some men , again dressed as peasants , inside the Ottoman camp to reconnoiter for a future assault . Skanderbeg spoke to his troops , encouraging them not to take booty from the camp as this might give the Ottoman forces time to react and launch a counterattack . That night , the Albanians launched their attack , but the noise of the armor and the neighing of the horses inhibited a complete surprise . The periphery of the camp was thrown into confusion , but the bulk of the Turkish troops gathered and organized themselves , pushing the Albanians out of the camp but not before suffering heavy casualties . To prevent further attacks of this sort , Murad detached a contingent of troops under Firuz Pasha to watch the Albanians but it was prone to desertion and thoroughly destroyed with its baggage train being captured . A breach in the walls of Svetigrad was made , but the following infantry assault was repulsed . The Albanians began to hope that the sultan would now be returning to Edirne .
= = = Stalemate = = =
The fighting had reached a stalemate and Murad contemplated his next move . He was advised to pillage the countryside , but the surrounding fields had already been burned by Skanderbeg . The sultan decided to stop chasing bodies of men into the forests to prevent further casualties . Mehmed , Murad 's son , proposed leaving Svetigrad to strike at Krujë . Murad sternly rejected this , reasoning that the supplies to take Svetigrad would have been wasted and that Krujë would be more strongly defended than Svetigrad . The sultan thus decided to remain at Svetigrad in an attempt to starve the garrison into submission . Meanwhile , the garrison under the leadership of Peter Perlati made several successful sorties against the Ottomans , in order to ease the encirclement and strengthen his soldiers ' morale .
= = = Surrender of the fortress = = =
While campaigning against Venetian forces , Skanderbeg managed to inflict a serious defeat on July 23 , 1448 , seriously weakening Venetian power in Albania . The siege of Svetigrad continued , however , and Marin Barleti writes that the Ottomans bribed a soldier to throw a dead dog into the well of the fortress , forcing the garrison to refuse to drink out of it . It is more likely , however , that the Ottomans had cut off the water supply and induced the garrison to surrender . Given the circumstance , Perlati promised a surrender if the garrison were allowed a safe passage through the Ottoman lines . Prince Mehmed suggested that the garrison should be promised safe passage and then massacred , but Murad rejected his son 's proposal , in fear that the rebellion would only be intensified through such an act ; he decided to instead return the garrisoning force to Skanderbeg . On July 31 , 1448 the garrison of Svetigrad surrendered .
= = Aftermath = =
Once the fortress had been captured , Murad placed his own garrison of Janissaries and ordered his men to repair the walls . Perlati and his soldiers came to Skanderbeg , begging for mercy . Skanderbeg pardoned his soldiers for the surrender and even thanked them for holding out for as long as they did . Skanderbeg continued to shadow the Ottoman army as it headed back home in the hopes of dealing some serious damage , but his forces were not strong enough to risk provoking them . In October of the same year , Murad managed to inflict a serious a defeat on John Hunyadi 's forces in Kosovo . Skanderbeg had planned to join Hunyadi 's offensive with 20 @,@ 000 men , but he was not able to get there in time due to Đurađ Branković blocking the roads to Kosovo .
The loss of Svetigrad allowed the Ottomans easy access into Albania from the northeast . They could now launch three coordinated invasions from south , southeast , and northeast into Albania . A few weeks after the siege , Mustafa Pasha led 15 @,@ 000 men into Albania , as requested by Skanderbeg 's Venetian rivals , only to be heavily defeated with Mustafa being captured . Skanderbeg tried to regain Svetigrad the next year , but he did not have the proper artillery to do so . He surrounded the fortress , but he realized that his position was hopeless and lifted the siege . In early 1450 , the Turks would take Berat through a night @-@ time stratagem and later that same year , Murad would besiege Krujë
= Ernst Moritz Hess =
Ernst Moritz Hess ( 20 March 1890 — 14 September 1983 ) was a baptized German Jew who served in the Imperial German Army during the First World War . He commanded the company of the Bavarian Reserve Infantry Regiment 16 in which Adolf Hitler served during the war . During the inter @-@ war period he served as a judge before being forced out of office after the passing of the Nuremberg Laws by the Nazis in 1935 , as he was classified as a " full @-@ blooded Jew " due to his mother being Jewish , even though he was baptised a Protestant .
He emigrated with his family to Bolzano in Italy to escape Nazi persecution but was eventually forced to move back to Germany , though as a former war comrade of Hitler 's he was granted protection and some privileges for a while . However , his privileges were removed in 1941 and he spent the rest of the war as a forced labourer ; his sister died in Auschwitz but his mother managed to escape to Switzerland in 1945 . Following the war he began a new career in railway management and was awarded the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany for his services to the Deutsche Bundesbahn .
= = Early life and war service = =
Born in Gelsenkirchen in what was then the Rhine Province of the Kingdom of Prussia , Hess lived in Düsseldorf before the First World War . His father Julius was a lawyer and his mother Elisabeth was a member of a Jewish banking family from Wetzlar . Despite his Jewish ancestry on his mother 's side , he was baptised and brought up as a Protestant Christian .
On the outbreak of war he enlisted as an officer in the 2nd Royal Bavarian Reserve Infantry and was posted to the front line in Flanders , where he suffered a serious wound in October 1914 . Hitler served as a Gefreiter in the same regiment and in the summer of 1916 , Hess briefly became Hitler 's commanding officer . He sustained another serious wound the following October and was sent to Germany to recuperate . Hess was well regarded as a soldier and was decorated several times , receiving the Iron Cross 1st and 2nd Class as well as the Bavarian Military Order of Merit . In 1918 he was promoted to Lieutenant and in 1934 he was awarded the Honour Cross of the World War 1914 / 1918 .
After the war Hess became a judge in Düsseldorf , where he lived with his wife Margarete and daughter Ursula . Hitler 's rise to prominence came as a surprise to Hess and many of his colleagues from the regiment . The future dictator had been something of a non @-@ entity during his time in the army , with no friends within the regiment and little interaction with others . Hess regarded Hitler as " an absolute cypher " and spoke of his surprise that Hitler had been one of his comrades : " What , Hitler ? He was in our unit ? We never even noticed him . "
= = Discrimination and exile = =
Hitler 's accession to power led to the passage of a series of antisemitic laws banning Jews from the civil service . Although Hess was a Protestant Christian , the laws defined him as a " full @-@ blooded Jew " as he had four Jewish grandparents . In April 1933 , a " Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service " was passed banning many Jews from public service . Hess survived this first purge of Jews owing to the " front @-@ line fighters ' privilege " ( Frontkämpferprivileg ) he was able to invoke as a consequence of his war service . The Frontkämpferprivileg was instituted after Reichspräsident Paul von Hindenburg protested to Hitler that Jewish war veterans were being dismissed from state employment . Those who could prove that they had served on the front lines of the war were allowed to invoke the Frontkämpferprivileg to stay in their jobs .
However , in the autumn of 1935 the Nuremberg Laws revoked this privilege and instituted a full ban on Jews in the civil service . Hess had to leave his job as a judge at the start of 1936 and was forced out of Düsseldorf after being beaten up by Nazi supporters outside his house in the autumn of that year . He moved with his family to Wuppertal , then in October 1937 emigrated to Bolzano in the German @-@ speaking South Tyrol region of Italy , where he could continue the education in German of his 11 @-@ year @-@ old daughter .
Hess sought to lessen the impact of his racial classification by petitioning Hitler to make an exemption for himself and his daughter , who was classified as a " Mischling ( crossbreed ) 1st degree " . In a letter sent in June 1936 , Hess highlighted his Christian upbringing , patriotic outlook and military service . He wrote : " For us , it is a kind of spiritual death to now be branded as Jews and exposed to general contempt . " He was aided by Fritz Wiedemann , who had been an aide de camp in his regiment 's headquarters and later served as Hitler 's personal adjutant between 1934 – 39 . Wiedemann was able to intercede with Hans Heinrich Lammers , Head of the Reich Chancellery , who was also a war veteran .
Although Hitler turned down Hess 's petition , a number of concessions were nonetheless made ; Hess was allowed to continue receiving his pension , although at a reduced rate , he was exempted from the obligation to adopt the middle name " Israel " identifying himself as a Jew , and he was able to acquire a new passport that was not stamped with a red " J " , enabling him to travel abroad — a privilege that Jews no longer possessed by this time .
= = Return to Germany = =
In October 1939 , Hitler and Mussolini concluded the South Tyrol Option Agreement under which the German @-@ speaking population of South Tyrol was given the choice of complete Italianisation — abandoning their German language and even their personal names — or emigrating to Nazi Germany . As a result , Hess and his family were forced to return to Germany . Attempts to emigrate to Switzerland or Brazil failed , so they moved briefly back to Düsseldorf before resettling in Unterwössen , a small village in the district of Traunstein in the far south @-@ east of Bavaria , where his daughter attended the Landschulheim Marquartstein , a local gymnasium and boarding school .
Wiedemann and Lammers had provided assurances that Hess would not be harmed . In August 1940 , Heinrich Himmler , the Reichsführer of the SS , issued a letter to the Düsseldorf Gestapo ordering that Hess should not be " inopportuned in any way whatsoever " . Noting that Hess had been " both in the same company as the Führer and briefly the Führer 's company commander " , Himmler instructed that Hess should be granted " relief and protection as per the Führer 's wishes " and asked that he be informed if Hess should leave Düsseldorf . A follow @-@ up letter was sent by Lammers in November 1940 , informing Hess that " it is , however , the Führer 's wish that you should not be subject to any further restrictions because of your ancestry beyond those required by law . " Lammers expressly informed Hess that he was to use the letter for his protection : " I give you this letter , if necessary , to make use [ for your protection ] " .
It is unclear what role Hitler himself played in granting protection to Hess . A case is known of a Jew who enjoyed Hitler 's personal protection — his former family doctor , Eduard Bloch , whom Hitler called an Edeljude ( " noble Jew " ) . Hitler is known to have felt very close to the other veterans of his regiment . Thomas Weber , the author of Hitler 's First War : Adolf Hitler , the Men of the List Regiment , and the First World War , has said that it is conceivable that Hitler knew Hess personally because the two men had been wounded in the Battle of the Somme only a day apart , and may have been initially treated in the same place before being transported together to the same hospital in Germany . However , Weber cautions that the letters of protection may have been organised without Hitler 's knowledge by Wiedemann , " because he did the same in other cases involving Jewish soldiers . " The letter from Himmler was not found until 2012 , when it was discovered in surviving Gestapo files on Jewish lawyers and judges in Germany . It was publicised in the July 2012 issue of the quarterly publication Jewish Voice From Germany and was corroborated by Hess 's daughter Ursula .
= = Loss of protection and enslavement = =
The protection that Hess enjoyed turned out to be only temporary respite from persecution . Hess 's friend Wiedemann was dismissed from his position by Hitler and sent into de facto exile as Consul General to San Francisco . In May 1941 , Hess was informed that the protection order had been revoked and that he was now regarded as being " a Jew like any other " . Petitions to Berlin were unsuccessful , and in June 1941 he was summoned to the " Aryanization Office " in Munich . Lammers ' letter of protection was taken from him and he was sent to Milbertshofen concentration camp near Munich , where he was put to work as a labourer . He was subsequently assigned to the Munich firm of L. Ehrengut and later to a plumber 's , Georg Grau , where he served as a forced labourer until 20 April 1945 . His wife Margarete remained in Unterwössen , where she lived with her parents , but his teenage daughter Ursula was forced to work in an electrical firm in Munich .
Hess 's Jewish mother Elisabeth and sister Berta believed that the protection that he had received also extended to them . As a result , they did not comply with the restrictions imposed on Jews . However , when their case was reviewed in 1942 , Adolf Eichmann of the Reichssicherheitshauptamt ( Reich Main Security Office ) personally ordered their deportation to the Theresienstadt concentration camp in Czechoslovakia . Berta was subsequently killed at Auschwitz , while Elisabeth managed to escape to Switzerland in February 1945 . She later emigrated to Brazil with her son Paul . Hess himself only survived because of his " privileged miscegenated marriage " with Margarete .
= = Post @-@ war career = =
After the fall of the Third Reich , Hess was nominated to serve again as a judge in Düsseldorf but declined , as he did not wish to work alongside former colleagues who had been part of the Nazi judicial system . He started a new career in the railways in 1946 , and from 1949 – 55 served as President of the German Federal Railways Authority in Frankfurt am Main . He was awarded a Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany and was given a plaque of honour by the city of Frankfurt in 1970 . He died there on 14 September 1983 .
= Where You Go I Go Too =
Where You Go I Go Too is the first studio album by Norwegian electronica artist Hans @-@ Peter Lindstrøm . It was first released in the United Kingdom on August 18 , 2008 and was subsequently released the next day in the United States . The album comprises three tracks , roughly 30 , 10 , and 15 minutes in length . Where You Go I Go Too is usually labeled " space disco " due to its " spacey , psychedelic " feel and four @-@ to @-@ the @-@ floor beats .
Production of the album followed the 2006 release of It 's a Feedelity Affair , a compilation of singles . Lindstrøm had become dissatisfied with simply producing remixes and average length songs , which led to experimentation with lengthy tracks . The album received positive reviews from critics , who praised its slick production values and epic scope . At the 2009 Spellemannprisen award ceremony in Norway , the record won the award for " best electronica album " .
= = Background and production = =
Following the release of It 's a Feedelity Affair in 2006 , Lindstrøm had become tired of producing dance remixes and average length vocal pieces . He began giving the artists and labels mixes with slower tempos . Lindstrøm also felt he was unwisely incorporating musical ideas into remixes instead of original works , which led to experiments with lengthier tracks for an original album . Four to five tracks were originally envisioned for Where You Go I Go Too , but only three were chosen .
The title track was a time @-@ consuming project ; Lindstrøm called it a " nightmare to finish . " The song comprised over 70 layers of sound and spanned almost 30 minutes . Around half the sound consisted of live performances , which Lindstrøm found difficult to merge with the electronic portions . After changing the music , he would usually listen to the entire song and evaluate the change . The repeated listens took a toll : " I needed to listen to 30 minutes of music every time I did something , " said Lindstrom " So I 'll never gonna [ sic ] do it again . " Despite this , he enjoyed working with extended songs because it allowed them to evolve and move at a slow pace .
The album mixing was delayed during spring 2008 . Typically , Lindstrøm would mix the record himself , but he felt overwhelmed by the album 's scope and decided to seek outside help : " I ’ ve kind of discovered that I ’ m not good at doing everything myself . The problem with involving other people is that sometimes all the progress gets slowed down , but as long as the results are good , I ’ m happy ... Leave the post @-@ production to somebody else . "
Though a common theme was not purposefully established for the album , some journalists noted similar feelings of travel and adventure when listening to the record . Lindstrøm has recommended people listen while traveling , and believes his travels may have influenced the album : " I don 't particularly like traveling , but I 've realised that it 's perfect for listening to whole albums ... I 'm sure the way I 'm listening to music now ... has something to do with the music I 'm writing . " The song titles were left " open " so " the listener could make up his own story . "
Where You Go I Go Too was released by Smalltown Supersound on August 18 , 2008 in the United Kingdom , and August 19 in the United States . A special edition was issued on December 23 , 2008 . The album featured a bonus disc with edited versions of the original tracks by frequent Lindstrøm collaborator Prins Thomas . Lindstrøm toured in Austria , Germany , Spain , and the United States that fall .
= = Musical style and influences = =
Where You Go I Go Too comprises three tracks , roughly 30 , 10 , and 15 minutes in duration , which seamlessly flow into each other in transitions that were described as " gradual and subtle " . The songs grow and develop independent musical traits , such as motifs , polyrhythms , and melodies . According to The Guardian , some musical changes are pronounced , such as the introduction of a synthesizer , while others , such as small tempo changes , remain " almost insensible " . Some critics have noted the album conjures the feeling of a journey .
The music is a collage of electronic music , characterized by synthesized melodies , layered sounds , live performances , and four @-@ to @-@ the @-@ floor beats . Pitchfork Media editor Dominique Leone described it as a " seamless combination of digital production , analog synthesizers and live instrumentation . " Lindstrøm has been heavily influenced by music from the 1970s and 1980s , particularly disco progenitors Jean @-@ Marc Cerrone and Giorgio Moroder . Where You Go I Go Too is often classified as " space disco " due to these influences and because it possesses a " spacey , psychedelic " sound . Lindstrøm listened to the Beach Boys , the Eagles , and Kirsty MacColl while writing the album .
= = Reception = =
Where You Go I Go Too debuted at No. 11 on the Norwegian music chart . The following week it fell to No. 27 before leaving the list . The record did not chart internationally . In 2009 , Where You Go I Go Too received a Spellemannprisen award for " best electronica album " . The album was well received by critics and received an 82 out of 100 on the aggregate website Metacritic , which signifies " universal acclaim " .
AllMusic writer K. Ross Hoffman declared the record an " entirely satisfying display " of Lindstrøm 's talents and positively commented on the textured instrumentation . Hoffman concluded the music was an " expansive , exploratory journey " worth experiencing . Andy Battaglia of the The A.V. Club disagreed , believing the album to be narrow minded and a missed opportunity to exploit the lengthy tracks and deliver more musical depth . Praise was given by Alex Macpherson of The Guardian , who stated " Every aspect of the record seems tailor @-@ made to produce maximum pleasure [ ... ] Where You Go I Go Too would make even the most hellish of journeys seem like a first @-@ class trip . "
Jim Brackpool of Yahoo ! Music felt audience reactions would be polarized ; some would find it " sophisticated and lovingly crafted " , while others might be put off by its " unabashed opulence " . No Ripcord writer Sam Draper christened the record " one of the finest pieces of music [ he had ] heard in years . " Pitchfork Media editor Tim Finney believed Where You Go I Go Too showed signs of a masterpiece , but also possessed " bloat , excess , and splendor " reminiscent of disco revivalists . Pitchfork named it one of the best albums of 2008 .
The album 's title track was received favorably . Draper displayed particular fondness for the song and was amazed the music could stay fresh for its entire length . Hoffman also spoke highly of it , stating " [ It ] contains only as many discernible musical ideas as your average five- to seven @-@ minute techno track [ ... ] but its luxurious length lets those ideas stretch out gloriously [ ... ] allowing a slow , fluid evolution that gestures towards a cosmic infinity . " Finney praised the title track for its " shimmering , strobing synthesizer melodies " and ability to expand and surprise . A favorable comparison to Kraftwerk 's similarly lengthy song " Autobahn " was made by Jason Newman of URB .
Reviews of the other two tracks were generally positive . Brackpool wrote favorably about " Grand Ideas " and made comparisons to Vangelis and Tangerine Dream , while Hoffman named it the most danceable track on the album . Though Battaglia felt the song kept repeating the same chord progression , he believed the " accents and shifts in pitch " strengthened it . Jeff Rovinelli writing for Tiny Mix Tapes thought " The Long Way Home " sounded silly . Brackpool agreed , writing " [ If ] isolated from the rest of the album [ The Long Way Home ] could easily pass for generic library music ... " While Draper considered it a solid song , he decided it was a " little too saccharine for its own good " . Hoffman enjoyed the song and wrote " the vibe is rangy and exultant [ ... ] as blissful and bemused as the vehemently unpretentious [ cover ] shot of Lindstrøm . "
= = Track listing = =
All songs written by Hans @-@ Peter Lindstrøm except where noted .
= = Personnel = =
Hans @-@ Peter Lindstrøm – writing , producing , performing , mixing
Knut Sævik – mixing
Chris Sansom – mastering
Kim Hiorthøy – photography
= = Charts = =
= When I Grow Up ( The Pussycat Dolls song ) =
" When I Grow Up " is a song by American girl group The Pussycat Dolls from their second and final studio album Doll Domination ( 2008 ) . It was released by Interscope Records on June 3 , 2008 , as the lead single from the album . " When I Grow Up " was their first single following the departure of the group 's longest @-@ standing member Carmit Bachar . It was first recorded for Nicole Scherzinger 's planned solo project , Her Name Is Nicole , but after its cancellation and Scherzinger 's return to the group , she felt that the song was better suited for the group . It was written by Theron Thomas , Timothy Thomas and Rodney " Darkchild " Jerkins , who also produced the song . It is an uptempo electropop song with elements of the 1966 song , " He 's Always There " by British rock band The Yardbirds . " When I Grow Up " speaks about the desire to be famous , and was described as being " autobiographical " by Scherzinger .
The single was received favorably by contemporary music critics , many of whom highlighted it as a stand @-@ out . It peaked at number nine on the US Billboard Hot 100 , becoming the group 's highest charting single since " Buttons " ( 2006 ) . The song has sold over two million digital copies in the United States , making the Pussycat Dolls the first female group in digital history to have three singles pass the two million mark in digital sales . The song reached the top @-@ five in countries such as Australia , Canada , France , Ireland , New Zealand and the United Kingdom , and the top @-@ ten in Austria , Denmark , Germany and Switzerland .
The song 's accompanying music video premiered on June 13 , 2008 . Directed by Joseph Khan , it portrays the Pussycat Dolls in a traffic jam on Hollywood Boulevard . It was complimented for its dance breakdown , and was nominated in five categories at the 2008 MTV Video Music Awards , the most of that ceremony , and went on to win Best Dance Video . The Pussycat Dolls performed the song on television shows including Jimmy Kimmel Live ! and So You Think You Can Dance , as well several award shows including the 2008 American Music Awards , and throughout their Doll Domination Tour ( 2009 ) .
= = Background = =
Following the commercial success of PCD ( 2005 ) , and over the course of two years ( 2005 – 07 ) , Scherzinger recorded 75 @-@ 100 songs for Her Name Is Nicole , her planned solo debut album . Her work as lead singer furthered Scherzinger 's popularity as she began work on her own music . She stated that she enjoyed collaborating with many different artists , and that although she had been writing songs for over ten years , she felt as if she was at a different level while working with such A @-@ list writers and producers . Following the moderate success of " Baby Love " , the complete lack of success of the singles such as " Whatever U Like " and numerous push backs , Scherzinger decided to put the release of the on hold . She then returned her focus back on the Pussycat Dolls , and recording commenced for their second studio album . Scherzinger cited that she felt as if the songs were more suited as a Pussycat Dolls song than her own .
" When I Grow Up " was written by Theron and Timothy Thomas , along with Rodney " Darkchild " Jerkins , who also produced the song . The Yardbirds ' drummer Jim McCarty and bassist Paul Samwell @-@ Smith both received co @-@ writing credits for the song , for its sample of " He 's Always There " ( 1966 ) . The song was recorded by Paul Foley , Mike " Handz " Donaldson and Roberto " Tito " Vazquez at 2nd Floor Studios in Orlando and Chalice Studios in Los Angeles , and was mixed by Spike Stent and Rodney " Darkchild " Jerkins at Chalice Studios in Los Angeles . " When I Grow Up " made its world premiere online on May 16 , 2008 , and was issued as a digital download in North America on May 27 . It was later serviced to contemporary hit radio in the United States on June 1 , 2008 . The release of " When I Grow Up " came after the departure of member Carmit Bachar . It was officially confirmed , after months of speculation , on March 4 , 2008 that Bahar had left the group to follow " other performance interests " . At the time of her departure , she had been the longest member of the group , joining in 1995 when they were a burlesque act .
= = Composition = =
" When I Grow Up " is an uptempo R & B and electropop song that lasts four minutes and five seconds . Built around " bouncy synth lines " and a " thudding " bassline , the song features a heavy use of sirens , handclaps and pitch @-@ shifted vocals . Scherzinger was cited as adopting Britney Spears ' breathiness against the song 's sirens , shouts and " pumping beat " . Jaime Gill from Yahoo Music UK described " When I Grow Up " as a " dark , dissonant club banger " , while Rudy Klapper from Sputnikmusic compared the song 's composition to that of Basement Jaxx 's 2003 track " Plug It In " . " When I Grow Up " contains a sample of the main riff of " He 's Always There " by British rock band The Yardbirds , from their third studio album Roger the Engineer ( 1996 ) . The song 's writers , Jim McCarty and Paul Samwell @-@ Smith , were honored for their contributions to the song at the American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers ( ASCAP ) .
According to the sheet music published by Sony / ATV Music Publishing , " When I Grow Up " is set in common time with a tempo of 120 beats per minute . It is composed in the key of E minor , with Scherzinger 's vocal range spanning from low @-@ note of E3 to the high @-@ note of G5 . Lyrically , the song is centered around the desire to be famous when one grows up . Using satirical and autobiographical lines , Scherzinger begins the song 's first verse with : " Now I 've got a confession / When I was young I wanted attention " . The " repetitive and catchy chorus " follows , where she sings the lines : " When I grow up / I wanna be famous / I wanna be a star / I wanna be in movies " . MTV News commented that the song contains a theme that is " getting plenty of traction these days – beware the high cost of fame . " Meanwhile , group member Melody Thornton said of the song 's concept : " If you strive for higher and bigger things – along with that – comes hard work and dealing with a lot of stuff that you 'd never assume you 'd have to . So yeah , while the song is meant to be playful , it still does have that little warning twist to it " . Bill Lamb from About.com named " When I Grow Up " a possible answer song to Pink 's " Stupid Girls " ( 2006 ) . Music critics were initially confused by the line " I wanna have groupies " in the chorus ; mistaking the line as saying " I wanna have boobies " . American comedian Ellen DeGeneres also pointed this out when they performed the song on her talk show on September 23 , 2008 .
= = Remixes = =
A number of remixes were commissioned by Interscope Records to accompany the song . On July 23 , 2008 a remix of " When I Grow Up " featuring a rap verse from American rapper Eve was released . Later that same day , a second remix was released online . Entitled the " Darkchild Remix " , it features an entirely different beat than the original , with added vocals from American rappers Diddy , Lil Wayne and Fatman Scoop , as well as the song 's producer Rodney " Darkchild " Jerkins . Elements of Michael Jackson 's " Thriller " ( 1984 ) were heavily sampled throughout the remix , most noticeably in the song 's introduction . Lil Wayne 's verse was later removed and replaced by a new verse by the song 's composers , Rock City , due to issues with it being cleared in time for its commercial release as a B @-@ side to " Whatcha Think About That " , the second single from Doll Domination . For unknown reasons , the remix was never released . Additional " club " and " dub " remixes of " When I Grow Up " by DJs Dave Audé , Digital Dog , Dirty South and Ralphi Rosario , and the electronic band Wideboys were also released in a series of Compact Disc single and digital download releases .
= = Commercial performance = =
In the United States , the song debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number 76 on the issue dated June 14 , 2008 . On its second week , the song sold 34 @,@ 000 digital downloads and ascended to number 31 . In its fourth week , it reached its peak position of number nine , becoming the group 's highest charting single since " Buttons " which peaked at number three in 2006 . The song topped the Hot Dance Club Play chart , the issue dated August 2 , 2008 . The song has sold over 2 @.@ 18 million digital downloads in the United States to date , according to Nielsen Soundscan , making the Pussycat Dolls the first all @-@ female group in digital history to have three singles — along with " Don 't Cha " and " Buttons " — pass the two million mark in digital sales . In Canada , the song debuted at number fifteen on the Canadian Hot 100 . On the chart dated September 6 , 2008 , " When I Grow Up " ascended and peaked at number three .
In Australia , the song debuted at number 45 , on June 22 , 2008 . In its sixth week , the song peaked at number two and stayed there for three consecutive weeks . " When I Grow Up " was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipments of 70 @,@ 000 copies . In New Zealand , the song debuted on the chart at number 33 . It reached number five a few weeks later. and was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) for selling over 7 @,@ 500 copies . In the United Kingdom " When I Grow Up " debuted and peaked at number three on the UK Singles Chart with sales of 29 @,@ 688 . On the Billboard European Hot 100 Singles the song peaked at number three , and also peaked at number nine in Germany .
= = Critical response = =
" When I Grow Up " received acclaim from music critics . Bill Lamb from About.com listed " When I Grow Up " among the top tracks on Doll Domination , stating that the song " bursts out of the blocks " , and that it was of no surprise that it " landed in the pop top 10 with ease " . On a separate review , Lamb gave the song three out of five stars . He noted that the " anonymous nature " of the group 's vocals and " sexual lyrical tease " is starting to wear thin , stating : " This is more of the same , not a step forward " . Lamb , however , did compliment the song as being a " catchy dance workout " , and stated that the song carries their " usual sassiness " and " pounding dance beats " . Nick Levine from Digital Spy echoed Lamb 's comments , noting that the song is a " bolshy , hyperactive pop stomper that works just as well in the aerobics class as it does on the dance @-@ floor . " He continued : " If they keep releasing singles as infectious as this , they could last longer than we 'd think . " August Brown from Los Angeles Times called the song as the " ideological centerpiece " of Doll Domination . "
Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine described the song as a " catchy , full @-@ throttle club track " and commented that it is " a perfectly concocted blend of camp and vamp for the famous burlesque troupe " . Steve Perkins from BBC Music awarded the song four out of five stars writing : " It 's good to see that the dynamics of the group remain fundamentally unchanged " and that the song was a strong comeback . He also noted that : " The whole song seems to be centred around the desire to be famous when you grow up , which while not my favourite of all messages to give out to The Kids " . He ended his review writing " but in all fairness : who cares ? It 's hella catchy , and really , who 's the bigger fool here – the Pussycat Dolls lyricist who wrote some vaguely nonsensical lyrics , or the reviewer who expected anything different ? " Dan Cairns from The Times said that " if every song here were as batty and brilliant as this , Doll Domination would be one of the great pop records of 2008 . " However , Nic Oliver from MusicOMH , in a review of Doll Domination , did not favor the song , saying that the song would embarrass Paris Hilton , but " sets the template for the rest of the album . "
= = = Parodies and cover versions = = =
The song has been parodied on the video sharing website YouTube including a spoof called " I Wanna Be a Pussycat Mom " posted by The Momma Mary Show on September 9 , 2013 . On June 3 , 2008 the song was parodied by YouTube superstar Britney Houston as she recreated herself as part of the " Britneycat Dolls " and commented , " When I do these things , I [ usually ] try to give a twist to the choreography . But [ the Pussycat Dolls have ] a signature move , and I just had to put it in there intact . " It was posted on MTV.com. " When I Grow Up " was later performed by Simone Battle while auditioning for The X Factor in 2011 . It has also been covered by Mayday Parade on the compilation album Punk Goes Pop 2 in 2009 , and The Glee Project in 2012 .
= = = Use in media = = =
The song was featured in the 2008 comedy film The House Bunny , and the 2010 video game Just Dance 2 . The song and its video were also featured briefly on the pilot for the Nickelodeon series Big Time Rush .
= = Music video = =
The song 's music video was shot from May 23 to 24 , 2008 on Hollywood Boulevard in Los Angeles , with director Joseph Khan . American recording artist Britney Spears filmed a cameo appearance for the video on June 4 at the Warner Bros. lot in Los Angeles . An on set " insider " said that Spears ' scene was short , only consisting of her driving in a passing car and waving to the other girls . On June 12 , 2008 it was announced by MTV News that the cameo had been cut from the final video . Scherzinger was asked why Spears got cut from the video . She said : " I honestly am not so sure . You shoot a lot of things when you do a video . Some things stay in but other things don 't make the cut and Britney just didn 't make it . I 've seen a little clip of her performance and she looked adorable so I really wish she was in it ! Hopefully we 'll work together in the future . " A short clip of the music video was released online on June 12 , 2008 ; a day before the video 's premiere on June 13 , 2008 on FNMTV .
In the video the Pussycat Dolls are shown sitting in a car in the middle of a traffic jam , where Scherzinger flashes a ring that says " famous " . They sing the introduction of the song in the car before jumping out . When the chorus kicks in , the women leave the car and stand on the roofs of the other cars and start dancing a routine . Then they walk down a street of Hollywood stars with bubbles floating all around them . As they walk down the street , they also stop to sing on a bench . As the second chorus starts , the Dolls climb scaffolding and begin to dance . During Scherzinger 's solo , she stands in a small area with the Pussycat Dolls logo to the left and a mirror to the right , with lights flashing . The Dolls then dance in the breakdown section with the logo behind them and the camera zooms out to reveal filming equipment and playback screens .
Nick Levine from Digital Spy , wrote that : " The Pussycat Dolls have a novel way of amusing themselves during traffic jams " and described the dance breakdown as " entertaining " and " nostalgic " . In Australia , the video was criticized for the video being too raunchy . On August 17 , 2008 , it was announced that the video was nominated for Video of the Year , Best Dance Video , Best Art Direction , Best Cinematography , and Best Choreography at the 2008 MTV Video Music Awards , having the most VMA nominations of that year . The ceremony was held on September 7 , 2008 , and the video won the award for the Best Dancing . The music video was the fifteenth @-@ most streamed video on MTV.com in 2008 .
= = Live performances = =
" When I Grow Up " was debuted live on American talk show Jimmy Kimmel Live ! on May 20 , 2008 . On May 27 , 2008 MTV News reported that the Pussycat Dolls were among many set to perform at the 2008 MTV Movie Awards on June 1 , 2008 . Scherzinger talked about the performance saying : " This is a big deal for us . We just want to kill it . It 's all about the Dolls right now , and we 're coming strong . " The girls performed wearing spandex @-@ and @-@ leather getups , while a backdrop was displayed in the background with images of flashbulbs , tabloid headlines and diamonds . They were joined by America 's Best Dance Crew winners the Jabbawockeez who descended from the ceiling wearing matching red T @-@ shirts with stark @-@ white masks covering their faces , and baseball caps perched at 45 @-@ degree angles atop their heads . Of the performance , Geoff Boucher from the Los Angeles Times commented : " the Pussycat Dolls ' set climaxed with a powerful pyro display that left celebs in the first few rows feeling a bit roasted " . MTV Buzzworthy described the performance as " sexy " and " sultry " . However , Tod Martens , in another review for the Los Angeles Times , criticized their performance . He commented : " [ They appeared ] onstage looking like they had escaped a taping for a sexed @-@ up Jazzercise video . " He also wrote that Scherzinger never commanded the song except on " the cut 's final seconds when she turned her vocals up to a growl " and noted JabbaWockeez 's appearance as " annoy [ ing ] " .
" When I Grow Up " was also performed at So You Think You Can Dance on June 13 , 2008 . On August 2 , 2008 the Dolls performed the song and presented at the MTV Asia Awards 2008 in Kuala Lumpur , Malaysia , along with " Buttons " ( 2005 ) . The group then performed the song at the Walmart Soundcheck , along with " I Hate This Part " , " Takin ' Over the World " , " Buttons " and " Don 't Cha " . On November 21 , they performed a medley of " I Hate This Part " and " When I Grow Up " at the 2008 American Music Awards . The performance included stripper poles , and the girls donned all @-@ rubber outfits . The Pussycat Dolls also performed " When I Grow Up " at the Doll Domination Tour ( 2009 ) . Maureen Ellis of the Evening Times said that the " high @-@ energy encore of ' Don 't Cha ' and ' When I Grow Up ' ensured the Dolls reigned supreme . "
= = Formats and track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Adapted from the Doll Domination liner notes .
Technical
Recorded at : 2nd Floor Studios , Orlando and Chalice Studios , Los Angeles .
Contains elements of the composition : " He 's Always There " , written by Jim McCarty and Paul Samwell @-@ Smith .
Personnel | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
Emma Thompson won an Academy Award ) and the BBC 's popular TV mini @-@ series Pride and Prejudice , starring Jennifer Ehle and Colin Firth .
= = = 21st century = = =
A 2005 British production of Pride and Prejudice was directed by Joe Wright . The film , a period piece which accurately depicts the five sisters as they deal with marriage , morality and misconceptions , is set in the late 18th century ( slightly earlier than the novel ) . Keira Knightley starred as Elizabeth Bennet and Matthew Macfadyen played her romantic interest , Fitzwilliam Darcy . Produced by Working Title Films and StudioCanal , it was released on 16 September 2005 in the United Kingdom and Ireland and on 11 November in the United States .
That year , Julia Day reported in The Guardian that ITV drama head Nick Elliott had ordered adaptations of Mansfield Park , Northanger Abbey and Persuasion . According to Elliot , they would be " important remakes for the new generation ... About every 10 years , all the great stories need retelling . These films will be very much 2007 films ... We 've asked and pushed the production team to make them young . Her stories always make great TV drama and our Jane Austen season will feature the absolute cream of British acting talent " . In January 2016 a film version of Lady Susan , directed by Whit Stillman and starring Kate Beckinsale and Chloe Sevigny , premiered at the Sundance Film Festival as Love & Friendship ( adapting its title from Austen 's youthful story , Love and Freindship [ sic ] ) .
In 2007 , Anne Hathaway starred in the biographical film Becoming Jane .
= = List of works = =
Novels
Sense and Sensibility ( 1811 )
Pride and Prejudice ( 1813 )
Mansfield Park ( 1814 )
Emma ( 1815 )
Northanger Abbey ( 1818 , posthumous )
Persuasion ( 1818 , posthumous )
Short fiction
Lady Susan ( 1794 , 1805 )
Unfinished fiction
The Watsons ( 1804 )
Sanditon ( 1817 )
Other works
Sir Charles Grandison ( adapted play , 1793 , 1800 )
Plan of a Novel ( 1815 )
Poems ( 1796 – 1817 )
Prayers ( 1796 – 1817 )
Letters ( 1796 – 1817 )
= = Critical editions = =
An authoritative , contemporary six @-@ volume critical edition of Austen 's major novels was begun in 2010 by Harvard University Press as part of their Belknap Press imprint . Other " complete " editions of Austen 's novels are available , although most lack annotations or period illustrations . The series ' final volume , Mansfield Park , is scheduled for publication in fall 2016 .
Pride and Prejudice . Hardcover : 446 pages Publisher : Belknap Press ; 1st edition ( October 31 , 2010 ) . ASIN : B00E6TK8MQ .
Persuasion . Hardcover : 360 pages . Publisher : Belknap Press ; Annotated edition ( November 7 , 2011 ) . ISBN 0674049748 .
Emma . Hardcover : 576 pages . Publisher : Belknap Press ; Annotated edition ( September 17 , 2012 ) . ISBN 0674048849 .
Sense and Sensibility . Hardcover : 448 pages . Publisher : Belknap Press ; Annotated edition ( October 1 , 2013 ) . ISBN 0674724550 .
Northanger Abbey . Hardcover : 384 pages Publisher : Belknap Press ; Annotated edition ( April 28 , 2014 ) . ISBN 0674725670 .
Mansfield Park . Hardcover : 490 pages . Publisher : Belknap Press ; Annotated edition ( October 24 , 2016 ) . ISBN 0674058100 .
= = Family trees = =
= Final Fantasy Fables : Chocobo Tales =
Final Fantasy Fables : Chocobo Tales , released in Japan as Chocobo to Mahō no Ehon ( チョコボと魔法の絵本 , lit . " Chocobo and the Magic Picture Book " ) is a Nintendo DS adventure game developed by h.a.n.d. and published by Square Enix . It was released in Japan on December 14 , 2006 , in North America on April 3 , 2007 , and in the PAL region in May 2007 .
Final Fantasy Fables is a Final Fantasy spinoff starring a Chocobo in a setting which features common elements and creatures of the series . Music from the rest of the series is also reused . The game is composed of a number of minigames woven into a main adventure . The game was received positively by critics , who appreciated the originality and light @-@ hearted nature of the title .
A sequel , Chocobo to Mahō no Ehon : Majō to Shōjo to Gonin no Yūsha ( チョコボと魔法の絵本 魔女と少女と5人の勇者 , lit . " Chocobo and the Magic Picture Book : The Witch , the Girl , and the Five Heroes " ) was released in Japan on December 11 , 2008 .
= = Gameplay = =
Chocobo Tales features a mix of three different types of gameplay ; role @-@ playing video game , exploration , and card battles . Players explore a 3D environment to find picture books . Upon finding them the player is transported into pop @-@ up picture books to complete minigames and open the path to the next part of the story . The picture books take the form of Aesop 's Fables and Grimm 's Fairy Tales with the player character often taking the main role . Other Final Fantasy characters take up roles within the stories . More simplistic minigames , known as microgames , are also scattered throughout the world . Unlike minigames , these are not located within pop @-@ up books , do not affect the game @-@ world and are not required to progress in the game .
Throughout the course of the story , the player will participate in combat that is referred to as " pop @-@ up duels " . Battles utilize a deck constructed from cards they have collected from story events , minigames , microgames , or other characters . These decks are used to battle game 's bosses in card battle games . Chocobo Tales features online multiplayer capabilities as well . Players can compete against each other in either pop @-@ up duels or minigames . Both modes can connect either through local wireless or Nintendo Wi @-@ Fi . Multiplayer includes playing the card battles in multi @-@ card and online play by using Nintendo Wi @-@ Fi , and the mini @-@ games are multi @-@ card and single @-@ card download multiplayer as well . 2 @-@ 4 players may team up for battles , or to participate in mini @-@ games .
= = Story = =
The cast of characters includes such recurring characters as Chocobo , a White Mage named Shirma , a Black Mage named Croma , and others including Irma , the leader of the villains whose plan is to free Darkmaster Bebuzzu , the primary antagonist sealed inside Croma 's book , Greeble and Peekaboo , a pair consisting of a skinny blue Chocobo and fat pink Chocobo , Jail Birds , a group of black Chocobos acting and dressed as stereotypical crooks ( black ski masks and black and white striped shirts ) , and Volg , a black Chocobo who works alongside Greeble and Peekaboo .
The story is set in a fairly similar setting of Final Fantasy games such as Final Fantasy I and Final Fantasy V ; a medieval setting despite having things such as airships . Throughout the course of the game , Chocobo must enter magical picture books which are taken from popular existing fairy tales and folk stories , adapted to suit the Final Fantasy universe and often starring a Chocobo as the main character . There are eight storybooks to discover , each comprising two volumes , and the separate volumes often reference separate stories .
= = Development = =
Chocobo Tales was announced in the Summer of 2006 . Initial details revolved around the main character , Chocobo , the opening sequence of the story and the picture book worlds . Further details included the pop @-@ up duels and more information pertaining to the story . The game was produced by Yuki Yokoyama and took 20 staff members a year to create . The first decision made was to create a game about chocobos , market research showed that the characters are most popular with younger players , thus the game was designed for the Nintendo DS system , a popular system with that age group .
= = = Audio = = =
Much of the music in the game has been " borrowed " from other Final Fantasy games , newly rendered . The music played during card battles is the battle theme from Final Fantasy I , just as the theme played when traversing Mount Magma is the same as the theme of Gulug Volcano from the same game . The victory theme is the classic jingle , with the pre @-@ VII aftertune . There are many other examples , such as the chocobo racing theme from FFVII , the Boss theme being borrowed from Final Fantasy VI , Irma 's house is a rendition of the Final Fantasy IV sorrow music , and the end credits feature the airship theme from Final Fantasy VIII . Music from Final Fantasy III has also been borrowed , such as the crystal room theme and Gysahl theme .
= = Reception = =
Chocobo Tales sold over 78 @,@ 000 copies in Japan by the end of 2006 , just over two weeks after release . It sold 100 @,@ 000 copies in Europe and 70 @,@ 000 copies in North America by November 2007 . Chocobo Tales met with overall positive reviews . RPGamer commented " Final Fantasy Fables is quite unique , offering a wide variety of gaming options . While building on the massive world of the Final Fantasy series , it takes a new spin in an attempt at something fresh . " Edge magazine referred to the game as a " decent effort " . They complemented the visuals , but stated " the execution and appeal is limited " . IGN called Chocobo Tales a " surprisingly fun and engaging experience . " GameSpot stated " it might look like just another kid 's game , but there is a lot of quality gaming buried under the saccharine visuals . "
The gameplay of the minigames and pop @-@ up duels were well received . IGN called the mini @-@ games " clever and fun " and stated the card battle " actually offers something simple yet challenging . " GameSpy praised the minigames and card battles . RPGamer praised the amount of minigames and called the card battling system " impressive . " GameSpot also praised the minigames and card battles , but commented some minigames were frustrating . The story received mix reviews . Some critics enjoyed it while other referred to it as childish . GameSpy commented the story was predictable and clichéd . RPGamer referred to it as a " light @-@ hearted story " . IGN stated the story is not huge or elaborate , but the game is surprisingly enjoyable for the older crowd . IGN also listed the game as the number eight Mini @-@ game collections on the Nintendo Wii or DS .
= Geography of Newfoundland and Labrador =
Newfoundland and Labrador is the easternmost province in Canada . The Strait of Belle Isle separates the province into two geographical divisions , Labrador and the island of Newfoundland . The province also includes over seven thousand small islands .
Labrador is the easternmost part of the Canadian Shield , a vast area of ancient metamorphic rock comprising much of northeastern North America . Colliding tectonic plates have shaped much of the geology of Newfoundland . Gros Morne National Park has a reputation of being an outstanding example of tectonics at work , and as such has been designated a World Heritage Site . The Long Range Mountains on Newfoundland 's west coast are the northeasternmost extension of the Appalachian Mountains .
The fauna of Labrador is typical of that of similar areas of North America while the island of Newfoundland has considerably fewer mammals and no native amphibians .
The north @-@ south extent of the province ( 46 ° 36'N to 60 ° 22'N ) , prevalent westerly winds , cold ocean currents and local factors such as mountains and coastline combine to create the various climates of the province . Northern Labrador is classified as a polar tundra climate , southern Labrador is considered to be a subarctic climate while most of Newfoundland would be considered to be a cool summer subtype of a humid continental climate .
The provincial capital is St. John 's , located at the extreme eastern edge of the island on the Avalon Peninsula . About half of the province 's economy is based on its abundant natural resources , notably petroleum , minerals , forestry and the fishery .
= = Physical geography = =
Newfoundland is roughly triangular , with each side being approximately 500 kilometers ( 310 mi ) , and having an area of 108 @,@ 860 square kilometers ( 42 @,@ 030 sq mi ) . Newfoundland and its associated small islands have a total area of 111 @,@ 390 square kilometers ( 43 @,@ 010 sq mi ) . Newfoundland extends between latitudes 46 ° 36'N and 51 ° 38'N .
Labrador is an irregular shape : the western part of its border with Quebec is the drainage divide for the Labrador Peninsula . Lands drained by rivers that flow into the Atlantic Ocean are part of Labrador , the rest belongs to Quebec . Labrador ’ s extreme northern tip , at 60 ° 22'N , shares a short border with Nunavut on Killiniq Island . Labrador ’ s area ( including associated small islands ) is 294 @,@ 330 square kilometers ( 113 @,@ 640 sq mi ) . Together , Newfoundland and Labrador make up 4 @.@ 06 % of Canada ’ s area .
The island of Newfoundland is separated from Labrador by the Strait of Belle Isle , which is 125 kilometres ( 78 mi ) long and from 60 to 15 kilometres ( 37 @.@ 3 to 9 @.@ 3 mi ) wide . In addition to the island of Newfoundland , the province is made up of 12 larger islands with a total area of 2 @,@ 505 square kilometres ( 967 sq mi ) and 7 @,@ 170 smaller islands with a total area of 3 @,@ 598 square kilometres ( 1 @,@ 389 sq mi ) .
= = Geology = =
A large part of the island of Newfoundland is an extension of the Appalachian system . Major bays , peninsulas , river systems and mountain ranges are typically oriented southwest to northeast , parallel to the Appalachians .
The eastern part of the island , ( the Avalon Peninsula and Burin Peninsula ) , is mostly folded sedimentary rocks with some intrusions of igneous rock and was part of southwestern Europe or Northern Africa about 250 million years ago . The oldest rocks are Precambrian . Small remnants of Cambrian and Ordovician rocks occur along the coast . Bell Island in Conception Bay is a good example of gently sloping Ordovician sedimentary rock . The plateau in the Avalon Peninsula averages 250 metres ( 820 ft ) above sea level .
The rest of the island is composed of a great variety of Paleozoic rocks of sedimentary , igneous and metamorphic origin . Along the west coast lie the Long Range Mountains , which are formed by an elongated block of the Earth 's crust ( a horst ) which rises to about 600 metres ( 2 @,@ 000 ft ) above sea level . This part of the island was once part of the eastern margin of continental North America . The island 's highest points , the Lewis Hills and Gros Morne are located within this mountain range . To the east is a depression or graben about 30 kilometers ( 19 mi ) wide , which is occupied by Deer Lake and Grand Lake . The main plateau of the central part of the island , which was once the sea bottom of the ancient Iapetus Ocean , has been heavily eroded by water and ice . Steep , solitary rock knobs , called " tolts " in Newfoundland ( elsewhere known as inselbergs or monadnocks ) , which jut 100 metres ( 330 ft ) or more above the generally flat terrain are the remnants of a former higher landscape level . Glaciers which helped shape these tolts left other evidence around Newfoundland . Large blocks of stone called glacial erratics have been left scattered across much of the landscape . The long narrow lakes of the west coast , notably those in Gros Morne National Park resulted from glacial erosion . The lack of good soil on most parts of the island is a result of the scouring effect of glaciers during the most recent ice age . Newfoundland 's nickname , " The Rock " , is partially a result of the ice ages .
One of the most noteworthy aspects of Newfoundland geology is a result of the constant movement of tectonic plates . Approximately 500 million years ago the action of these plates forced parts of the oceanic crust beneath the Iapetus Ocean up and over the eastern margin of the North American plate . Sections of oceanic crust which overlie continental crust are known as ophiolites . Gros Morne National Park was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site because it is one of the best places in the world to see the effects of plate tectonics and one of the few places where rocks formed at the Mohorovicic Discontinuity between the crust and the upper mantle of the Earth can be seen .
Another notable geology site is at Mistaken Point , where rocks containing probably the oldest metazoan fossils in North America and the most ancient deep @-@ water marine fossils in the world are found preserved in layers of volcanic ash .
Labrador is the easternmost part of the Canadian Shield and is composed of ancient Precambrian igneous and metamorphic rocks . The interior is averages about 450 metres ( 1 @,@ 480 ft ) above sea level and is cut by large , east @-@ flowing rivers , such as the Churchill River and its tributaries . The northern coast is largely mountainous . The Torngat Mountains , Kaumajet Mountains and Kiglapait Mountains dominate this area with the highest peak being Mount Caubvick at 1 @,@ 652 metres ( 5 @,@ 420 ft ) . Torngat Mountains National Park Reserve was created in 2005 to preserve part of this area .
= = Biosphere = =
The biosphere is subdivided into distinct geographical regions called biomes . Newfoundland and Labrador are divided into two biomes : tundra and taiga . Northern Labrador is part of the tundra , while southern Labrador is part of the taiga . Newfoundland is not typical of either biome , as it lacks much of the plant and animal life that are characteristic to these biomes . During the last ice age the island of Newfoundland was completely covered by glaciers and swept clean of life . Only those species which were able to recolonize the island after the glaciers retreated about 18 @,@ 000 years ago are considered " native " . Similarly , only freshwater @-@ fish capable of surviving seawater swam to the island . Labrador has 42 native mammals , Newfoundland is home only to 14 , with no snakes , raccoons , skunks or porcupines. large herds of Woodland caribou can be found in the barren interior regions of the island . Two animals formerly resident in Newfoundland have been declared extinct : the Great auk , a flightless seabird , and the Newfoundland wolf , a subspecies of the Gray wolf . The Labrador duck , believed to have nested in Labrador , was one of the first North American bird species to be recorded as becoming extinct .
Many rare herbaceous plants and insects occur on the island . The west coast of the island supports over 200 plant species . Rare species such as Long ’ s braya ( Braya longii ) and Fernald ’ s braya ( B. fernaldii ) , are endemic to Newfoundland . Brayas are small perennial herbs of the brassicaceae family . They are only found on a narrow strip of land extending approximately 150 kilometers ( 93 mi ) on the extreme western portion of the Great Northern Peninsula , a limestones barrens habitat . The braya population is low due to habitat loss from gravel quarrying . Researchers have only found three populations of Long 's braya , and 14 or 15 populations of Fernald 's brayas . Researchers have focused on how various types of disturbances affect the long @-@ term viability of these populations . The Province of Newfoundland and Labrador , with many partners , is studying the rare plant flora of the island of Newfoundland and in 2002 announced a recovery plan for the braya species .
Many plants and animals have been introduced to Newfoundland , either by chance or deliberately . Moose , snowshoe hare , American red squirrel , eastern chipmunk , and masked shrew , and others , were brought to the island through specific wildlife mandates . Moose were introduced in 1904 and are now the dominant ungulate on the island . An unusual experiment conducted in 1964 involved relocating a small herd of bison onto Brunette Island in Fortune Bay . The last of these animals is thought to have died by 1994 . Rats and mice were unintentionally introduced while mink escaped from fur farms . Coyotes are a very recent addition to the fauna of Newfoundland . How coyotes got onto the island is still debated by wildlife officials , but it is probable that they crossed the ice from Cape Breton Island in the 1980s . Newfoundland has no native amphibians , but frogs were introduced onto the island in the 1860s and toads almost a century later .
The marine waters around the province are considered boreal , or sub @-@ Arctic , in nature . A great deal of the coastline is rock @-@ strewn , allowing an extensive variety of plant and animal life to thrive . The leading plants of the shoreline are the large brown seaweeds , such as bladder , forked and knotted Wracks , and winged and sugar kelps , though there are also a number of red and green seaweeds present . Common animals of the seashore region include barnacles , tortoiseshell limpet , common periwinkle , blue mussels , sea anemones , sea slugs , sea urchins , starfish , and rock crabs . The deeper waters are home to a variety of fish , such as Atlantic cod , sculpins and cunners , halibut , haddock , sharks , and marine mammals , such as dolphins , porpoises , and whales . Whales seen off Newfoundland include Pilot whales , minkes , sei whales , fin whales and humpbacks . Harp and hooded seals are usually found in the spring , giving birth to their young on coastal ice floes .
The tundra is a sub @-@ Arctic zone with long , cold winters and short , warm summers . Precipitation is low . Soil a meter below ground and deeper is permanently frozen ( permafrost ) , which does not allow water to drain easily through the soil , so it collects in shallow pools . Trees and shrubs are stunted since their roots cannot grow into the permafrost . Low shrubs , lichens , mosses , and small herbaceous plants are found instead . The most common mammals on the tundra are the barren @-@ ground caribou , Arctic wolf , Arctic fox , Arctic hare , lemmings , and voles . Occasional sightings of muskoxen have been made near Cape Chidley , Labrador 's most northerly point . The polar bear is the dominant carnivore of the tundra , but is an occasional visitor to coastal Newfoundland , especially in the spring . Many birds migrate to Labrador in spring to lay their eggs and raise their young before returning south for the winter , including the common eider , harlequin duck , Common redpoll and American pipit . The Labrador tundra is also permanent home to ptarmigan .
Southern Labrador is mostly taiga . It is characterized by low winter temperatures , a longer growing season , and more precipitation than the tundra . Soils are typically lacking important nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus . The taiga is dominated by coniferous trees , notably balsam fir and black spruce , though the deciduous white birch , trembling aspen and mountain ash are also present . The most common animals are the moose , American black bear , Canada lynx , red fox , pine marten , short @-@ tailed weasel , and American mink . Beavers , muskrats , and river otters thrive in the many rivers , streams , and wetlands . Willow ptarmigan , common raven , and blackpoll warbler inhabit the forests of southern Labrador while golden eagles , rough @-@ legged hawks and peregrine falcons nest on steep cliffs .
= = Climate = =
The province has been divided into seven climate types , but in broader terms Newfoundland is considered to be a cool summer subtype of a humid continental climate , which is greatly influenced by the sea since no part of the island is more than 100 kilometers ( 62 mi ) from the ocean . Northern Labrador is classified as a polar tundra climate , southern Labrador is considered to have a subarctic climate .
Monthly average temperatures , rainfall and snowfall for four communities are shown in the attached graphs . St. John 's represents the east coast , Gander the interior of the island , Corner Brook the west coast of the island and Wabush the interior of Labrador . The detailed information and information for 73 communities in the province is available from a government website . The data used in making the graphs is the average taken over thirty years . Error bars on the temperature graph indicate the range of daytime highs and night time lows . Snowfall is the total amount which fell during the month , not the amount accumulated on the ground . This distinction is particularly important for St. John 's where a heavy snowfall can be followed by rain so that no snow remains on the ground .
Surface water temperatures on the Atlantic side reaches a summer average of 12 ° C ( 54 ° F ) inshore and 9 ° C ( 48 ° F ) offshore to winter lows of − 1 ° C ( 30 ° F ) inshore and 2 ° C ( 36 ° F ) offshore . Sea temperatures on the west coast are warmer than Atlantic side by 1 to 3 ° C ( approximately 2 to 5 ° F ) . The sea keeps winter temperatures slightly higher and summer temperatures a little lower on the coast than at places inland . The maritime climate produces more variable weather , ample precipitation in a variety of forms , greater humidity , lower visibility , more clouds , less sunshine , and higher winds than a continental climate . Some of these effects can be seen in the graphs . Labrador 's climate differs from that of the island not only because it is further north , but also because the interior does not see the moderating effects of the ocean .
Weather systems affecting Newfoundland usually originate from the west , over mainland Canada , or from the southwest , from the east coast of the United States . Cyclonic storms consist of an area of low atmospheric pressure characterized by inward spiraling winds that rotate counter clockwise in the northern hemisphere . Such storms passing to the south of the island bring strong northeasterly winds sweeping in off the open North Atlantic Ocean . These storms are sometimes referred to as Nor 'easters and are responsible for the worst of Newfoundland 's weather . High winds sweeping over a large surface of ocean can build up very large waves . The frequency and severity of storms is greatest between November and March , although they may occur at any time of the year .
One of these storms was the " Independence Hurricane " , which struck eastern Newfoundland on September 9 , 1775 . About 4000 sailors , mostly from the British Isles , were reported to have been drowned .
During a violent storm on February 15 , 1982 , the drilling rig Ocean Ranger capsized and sank on the Grand Banks , 300 kilometers ( 190 mi ) east of St. John 's . The entire 84 @-@ man crew perished , making it the worst Canadian marine disaster in decades .
Newfoundland and Labrador has the strongest winds of any of the provinces , with most places having average annual wind speeds over 20 kilometers per hour ( 12 mph ) .
Freezing rain is common in Newfoundland where it is known as " silver thaw " . Freezing drizzle or freezing rain occurs on average of 150 hours each winter , most commonly in March . One such storm struck St. John 's on April 11 , 1984 and lasted three days . Ice almost 15 centimeters ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) thick disrupted electrical power to 200 @,@ 000 people on the Avalon Peninsula for days .
Newfoundland receives less than 1600 hours of sunshine per year , much lower than the Canadian average of 1925 hours . Summer months average 187 hours of sun while the December average is 60 hours .
Newfoundland is also known for its fog which occurs most often in the spring and early summer because of the contrast between sea and air temperatures . Argentia has 206 days of fog per year . Fog in Newfoundland is frequently accompanied by strong onshore winds ; while usually winds disperse fog , here the fog is too widespread for this to occur .
= = = St. John 's weather extremes = = =
Of all the major Canadian cities , St. John 's is the foggiest ( 124 days , next to Halifax 's 122 ) , snowiest ( 359 centimeters ( 141 in ) , next to Quebec City 's 343 centimeters ( 135 in ) ) , wettest ( 1514 millimeters ( 59 @.@ 6 in ) , next to Halifax 's 1491 millimeters ( 58 @.@ 7 in ) ) , windiest ( 24 @.@ 3 km / h ( 15 @.@ 1 mph ) average speed , next to Regina 's 20 @.@ 7 km / h ( 12 @.@ 9 mph ) ) , and cloudiest ( 1 @,@ 497 hours of sunshine , next to Charlottetown 's 1 @,@ 818 hours ) . St. John 's has one of the mildest winters in Canada ( third mildest city next to Victoria and Vancouver ) , yet has the most freezing rain days of any major Canadian city .
= = Hydrography = =
= = = Fresh water = = =
Shallow soil and bedrock deeply scored by glaciers are responsible for the numerous lakes and ponds , and short , swift flowing rivers scattered across Newfoundland and Labrador . The area of freshwater in Newfoundland and Labrador is 31 @,@ 340 square kilometers ( 12 @,@ 100 sq mi ) , covering 7 @.@ 7 % of the total surface of area of the province and accounting for 3 @.@ 5 % of the freshwater area of Canada .
= = = Ocean = = =
The west coast of Newfoundland borders on the Gulf of St. Lawrence while all other coasts face the Atlantic Ocean . Labrador 's coast borders the Labrador Sea , a part of the Atlantic Ocean . The Strait of Belle Isle connects the Gulf of St. Lawrence with the Labrador Sea and is the narrowest channel separating Newfoundland from mainland Canada . The Cabot Strait separates Newfoundland from Cape Breton Island , Nova Scotia .
The continental shelf off Newfoundland is known as the Grand Banks . The cold Labrador Current and the warm Gulf Stream meet on the Grand Banks , making the area not only one of the richest fishing grounds in the world , but also one of the foggiest areas . The Grand Banks are an area of significant petroleum production with Hibernia , White Rose and Terra Nova oil fields all located there .
= = = Icebergs and pack ice = = =
Approximately 90 % of icebergs in the North Atlantic come from about 100 iceberg @-@ producing glaciers on the Greenland coast . Once detached from the glaciers , icebergs are transported southward through the Davis Strait by the Labrador Current .
Approximately 40 @,@ 000 medium to large icebergs annually calve from Greenland glaciers , and depending on wind , and air and water temperature , between 400 and 800 of these go as far south as 48 ° north latitude ( St. John 's ) . Icebergs are most commonly seen in the waters off Newfoundland in the spring and early summer . Despite their size , the icebergs of Newfoundland move an average of 17 kilometers ( 11 mi ) a day . The average mass of icebergs in the Grand Banks area is between one and two hundred thousand tonnes . These icebergs represent a significant threat to shipping and off @-@ shore oil platforms and the hazard is aggravated by dense fog in this area .
During the first half of each year the waters off Newfoundland may become covered with floes of sea ice or " pack ice " . While icebergs are composed of fresh water , pack ice is frozen sea water . The severity of ice varies considerably , depending on the strength and direction of the wind and air temperature . Most of the pack ice off Newfoundland 's northern and eastern shores originates off Labrador . While some of the pack ice off the west coast also comes from the sea off Labrador via the Strait of Belle Isle , most of it originates in the Gulf of St. Lawrence . Beginning in January the pack ice begins to advance south , borne by the Labrador Current until ( usually ) in April the rate of melting overtakes the rate of advance and the ice retreats northward . The leading edge of the pack ice is known as " The Front " and is important to the annual seal hunt off Newfoundland 's north coast .
= = Time zones = =
Newfoundland is located in a unique time zone in North America . It is a half an hour ahead of Atlantic Time , one and a half hours ahead of Central Canada and 4 ½ hours ahead of the west coast of the country . Labrador operates on Atlantic Time , except for the coast between L 'Anse au Clair and Norman 's Bay , which is on Newfoundland time .
= = Natural resources = =
All currency is in Canadian dollars .
Exploitation of natural resources is a major part of the economic geography of Newfoundland and Labrador . In 2005 the gross domestic product ( GDP ) of Newfoundland and Labrador was approximately fourteen billion dollars . Service industries accounted for over $ 8 billion and resource @-@ based activities such as mining , oil production , fishery and forest @-@ based industries ( sawmills and paper mills ) accounted for the remainder .
= = = Minerals and petroleum = = =
Mines in Labrador , the iron ore mine at Wabush / Labrador City , and the new nickel mine in Voisey 's Bay produced a total of $ 2 @.@ 5 billion worth of ore in 2006 . A new mine at Duck Pond ( 30 kilometers ( 18 mi ) south of the now @-@ closed mine at Buchans ) , started producing copper , zinc , silver and gold in 2007 and prospecting for new ore bodies continues . Mining accounted for 3 @.@ 5 % of the provincial GDP in 2006 . The province produces 55 % of Canada ’ s total iron ore . Quarries producing dimension stone such as slate and granite , account for less than $ 10 million worth of material per year .
Oil production from offshore oil platforms on Hibernia , White Rose and Terra Nova oil fields on the Grand Banks was 110 million barrels ( 17 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m3 ) which contributed 15 % of the provinces GDP in 2006 . Total production from the Hibernia field from 1997 to 2006 was 733 million barrels ( 116 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 m3 ) with an estimated value of $ 36 billion . Remaining reserves are estimated at almost 2 billion barrels ( 320 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m3 ) as of December 31 , 2006 . Exploration for new reserves is ongoing .
= = = Fishing and aquaculture = = =
The fishing industry remains an important part of the provincial economy , employing 26 @,@ 000 and contributing over $ 440 million to the GDP . The combined harvest of fish such as cod , haddock , halibut , herring and mackerel was 150 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 165 @,@ 000 tons ) valued at about $ 130 million in 2006 . Shellfish , such as crab , shrimp and clams , accounted for 195 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 215 @,@ 000 tons ) with a value of $ 316 million in the same year . The value of products from the seal hunt was $ 55 million .
Aquaculture is a new industry for the province , which in 2006 produced over 10 @,@ 000 tonnes of Atlantic Salmon , mussels and Steelhead Trout worth over $ 50 million .
= = = Forestry = = =
Newsprint is produced by the paper mill in Corner Brook , ( capacity of 420 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 462 @,@ 000 tons ) per year ) . Until March 31 , 2009 there was a second papermill located in Grand Falls , but due to the 2008 / 2009 economic crisis the mill shut down . The value of newsprint exports varies greatly from year to year , depending on the global market price . Lumber is produced by numerous mills in Newfoundland .
= = = Agriculture = = =
Agriculture in Newfoundland in limited to areas south of St. John 's , near Deer Lake and in the Codroy Valley . Elsewhere the soil is mostly unsuitable for farming . Potatoes , rutabagas , known locally as " turnips " , carrots and cabbage are grown for local consumption . Wild blueberries , partridge berries and bakeapples are harvested commercially and used in jams and wine making .
= = Human geography = =
Newfoundland and Labrador had a population of 505 @,@ 469 ( 2005 estimate ) and a population density of 1 @.@ 27 per km2 ( 3 @.@ 1 per sq mi ) . The provincial capital is St. John 's , which had a population of 181 @,@ 113 in 2005 ) . St John 's is located at the extreme eastern edge of the island on the Avalon Peninsula . The other cities are Mount Pearl and Corner Brook .
Human inhabitation in Newfoundland and Labrador can be traced back over 9 @,@ 000 years to the people of the Maritime Archaic Tradition . They were gradually displaced by people of the Dorset Culture and finally by the Innu and Inuit in Labrador and the Beothuks on the island . The oldest known European contact was made over a thousand years ago when the Vikings briefly settled in L 'Anse aux Meadows . Five hundred years later , European explorers ( John Cabot , Gaspar Corte @-@ Real , Jacques Cartier and others ) , fishermen from England , Portugal , France and Spain and Basque whalers ( the remains of several whaling stations have been found at Red Bay , Newfoundland and Labrador ) began exploration and exploitation of the area .
Early European ( primarily from England , Ireland and France ) settlement in Newfoundland was confined to the coast . The rich cod fishery on the Grand Banks and along the shore of the island was the primary reason for these settlements . The rugged shoreline provided many small , but isolated , harbors ( outports ) from which to conduct the fishery . The Avalon Peninsula was , and is , the most populous part of the island , and as such had the best developed system of early roads and trails . Transportation between communities on other parts of the coast , especially the south coast between Fortune Bay and Port aux Basques , was exclusively by boat . Almost all communities are now accessible by roads which are part of the provincial road system . The now @-@ defunct Newfoundland Railway , built in the latter part of the 19th century , and the development of the lead , zinc and copper mine at Buchans and the paper mill in Grand Falls in the early 20th century marked the beginning of the settlement of the interior of the island . Despite these developments the majority of the population is still found along the coast .
Settlement of Labrador followed a similar pattern , with the interior being settled only in the latter part of the 20th century with the development of the iron ore mines at Wabush , hydroelectric generation at Churchill Falls and the military base at Goose Bay .
Aboriginal peoples include the Innu , Inuit and Métis of Labrador and the Mi 'kmaq in Newfoundland . One aboriginal group , the Beothuks became extinct in the early 19th century .
= New York State Route 178 =
New York State Route 178 ( NY 178 ) is an east – west state highway in Jefferson County , New York , in the United States . It extends for 10 @.@ 23 miles ( 16 @.@ 46 km ) from an intersection with NY 3 by Aspinwell Corners in the town of Henderson to a junction with U.S. Route 11 ( US 11 ) in the village of Adams . NY 178 meets Interstate 81 ( I @-@ 81 ) at exit 41 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) west of its junction with US 11 . When NY 178 was assigned in the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , it continued east along modern County Route 189 ( CR 189 ) to NY 177 in Rodman . This extension was eliminated in 1979 . From the early 1930s to the late 1960s , NY 178 also continued west toward Lake Ontario on what is now County Route 178 .
= = Route description = =
= = = CR 178 = = =
CR 178 begins at an intersection with Snowshoe Road and Military Road near the shores of Lake Ontario . The highway progresses to the southeast along farmlands heading through Cedar Cove Road and Harmony Harbor . A short distance later , CR 178 enters the community of Hungerford Corners , where the right @-@ of @-@ way merges with Lighthouse Road . The highway continues eastward , crossing over a tributary of Lake Ontario as Military Road . The route passes to the south of Henderson Harbor , where it intersects with CR 123 . A short distance later , CR 178 intersects with NY 3 , where maintenance of the highway turns over to the New York State Department of Transportation and CR 178 becomes NY 178 .
= = = NY 178 = = =
NY 178 continues eastward from NY 3 , passing through a small populated region before entering the hamlet of Henderson . There , the route intersects with the southern terminus of CR 72 ( Penney Road ) . NY 178 turns to the south along CR 72 's right @-@ of @-@ way ( now with the moniker of Adams Road ) , turns to the southeast , and leaves the hamlet of Henderson . After intersecting with Town Barn Road , the highway continues southeastward , passing Henderson Pond and curving to the east at an intersection with CR 78 ( Clark Road ) . NY 178 curves back to the southeast and intersects with CR 152 ( Smith Road ) , where the right @-@ of @-@ ways merge . From there , NY 178 begins an eastward progression through the North Country , entering the community of Roberts Corner at an intersection with CR 75 ( Butterville Road ) . After crossing through the rural community , the highway turns to the southeast and intersects with the northern terminus of NY 289 in the community of Taylor Settlement .
After intersecting with NY 289 , NY 178 progresses northeastward , intersecting with the western terminus of CR 84 in the community of Thomas Settlement . After leaving Thomas Settlement , NY 178 intersects with CR 77 and turning to the southeast through a rural region before entering the village of Adams at an intersection with Cobbville Road . There , the surroundings become further residential , before the highway connects to I @-@ 81 at exit 41 . After the interchange , NY 178 becomes known as Church Street West , crosses over a railroad line and enters the downtown portion of Adams . After the intersection with Clay Street , NY 178 intersects with US 11 ( Main Street ) , where the NY 178 designation ends . The right @-@ of @-@ way continues eastward as Church Street East , which becomes CR 69 at the east village line .
= = History = =
When NY 178 was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , it began at NY 3C ( later NY 3 ) south of the hamlet ( then village ) of Henderson and ended at NY 177 west of Barnes Corners . In between , NY 178 passed through the village of Adams , where it had a short overlap with US 11 . NY 178 was extended northwestward c . 1932 along then @-@ NY 3D and Military Road to a new terminus at Snowshoe Road northwest of Henderson . By the following year , NY 3D was moved onto the current alignment of NY 3 in the vicinity of Henderson , eliminating its overlap with NY 178 .
NY 178 was truncated eastward in the late 1960s to begin at NY 3 west of Henderson . It was truncated westward to US 11 in Adams on August 1 , 1979 , after ownership and maintenance of NY 178 between US 11 and NY 177 was transferred from the state of New York to Jefferson County as part of a highway maintenance swap between the two levels of government . The former routing of NY 178 between Snowshoe Road and NY 3 in the town of Henderson is now maintained by Jefferson County as CR 178 while the section of old NY 178 from US 11 to NY 177 is designated as CR 189 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Jefferson County .
= Enamorada de Ti ( song ) =
" Enamorada de Ti " ( English : " In Love With You " ) is a song recorded by American Tejano recording artist Selena and originally written for her second studio album , Ven Conmigo ( 1990 ) . The song was written by Selena y Los Dinos band member Pete Astudillo and her brother , A.B. Quintanilla III , and produced by Quintanilla . " Enamorada de Ti " is a freestyle song , a musical genre popular during the late 1980s . The recording was remixed by Juan Magan for the eponymous album in 2012 , a project headed by Humberto Gatica . Although the song was moderately successful during the early 1990s , it was exposed to a wider audience in the remix album Enamorada de Ti . Because of this , the song peaked at number 17 on the US Billboard Regional Mexican Digital Songs chart that year . In 1997 , the posthumously @-@ released single " Is It the Beat ? " adopted the rap verse found in " Enamorada de Ti " .
In the lyrics the protagonist sings to her love interest about his departure , which has saddened her ; without him she cannot function normally , because she is in love with him . Selena performed the song during her Ven Conmigo Tour ( 1990 – 92 ) and at the 1990 Tejano Music Awards , where she received the Female Vocalist of the Year award . During the first season of Telemundo 's La Voz Kids , a Spanish @-@ language version of the US singing competition The Voice , Xairexis Garcia performed " Enamorada de Ti " .
= = Background and development = =
In 1989 , Selena was signed to EMI Latin and released her self @-@ titled debut album that year . Around that time her brother , A.B. Quintanilla III , began producing and writing most of her songs . According to Quintanilla III in the 20 Years of Music series , his father ( and band manager ) Abraham Quintanilla , Jr. originated the idea of recording a " hip @-@ hop " -type song for Ven Conmigo . He said that Quintanilla Jr was told by Jose Behar , president of EMI Latin , that several pop @-@ music executive producers were going to attend an upcoming performance by Selena and her band . The idea was that Quintanilla III could write a song which could attract a crossover deal from EMI Records . During the interview , Quintanilla III said that the writing for " Enamorada de Ti " began in an Albuquerque , New Mexico Motel 6 with fellow band members Pete Astudillo and keyboardist Ricky Vela . In the same interview Selena 's sister ( and drummer ) Suzette Quintanilla called the recording a " Top 40 song " and " fun , that was definitely one of the fun songs on the album " , with the recording " bringing out Selena 's soul side " .
The recording is a freestyle dance @-@ pop song in common time at a tempo of 112 beats per minute . In the lyrics , the singer is saddened and bewildered by the departure of her love interest . She tells him how much she is in love with him , and cannot live without him . The remix version featured on Enamorada de Ti ( 2012 ) is a merengue duet with Spanish singer Juan Magan .
At the 1990 Tejano Music Awards Selena performed " Enamorada de Ti " with three backup dancers , emulating dance moves popularized by Michael and Janet Jackson . She won the Tejano Music Award for Female Vocalist of The Year . During the first season of Telemundo 's La Voz Kids , a Spanish @-@ language version of the US singing competition show The Voice , Xairexis Garcia performed " Enamorada de Ti " .
= = Critical reception and legacy = =
Federico Martinez of La Prensa called " Enamorada de Ti " a " popular title track " . In his review of the remix album Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic wrote that all its songs were " rooted in the ' 90s and sound that way " , and altering the recordings to " update it " was unfeasible . Carlos Quintana , a Latin @-@ music writer for About.com , called " Enamorada de Ti " one of the best tracks on the remix album . Enrique Lopetegui of the San Antonio Current called it a " crowd @-@ pleasing " song with an " unbearable " merengue . Nilan Lovelace of Reporter Magazine Archives noted that although the original recording of " Enamorada de Ti " was a " slow tempo love song " , the remix version had a " lively , tropical tone " .
" Enamorada de Ti " has been featured on several compilation albums since its debut on Ven Conmigo in 1990 . A club @-@ mix version of the song was featured on All My Hits / Todos Mis Exitos Vol . 2 ( 2000 ) , and the original version was added to La Leyenda ( 2010 ) . In 1997 , " Is It the Beat ? " was released posthumously on the soundtrack for Selena 's biographical film and as a single ; the recording included a rap verse taken directly from " Enamorada de Ti " . The single also included two versions of " Enamorada de Ti " : a Spanish version of " Is It the Beat ? " and a Spanish club mix . In 2012 , Humberto Gatica headed the production of Enamorada de Ti with the goal of rejuvenating several of Selena 's songs in popular genres . Spanish singer Juan Magan remixed and sang a small part in " Enamorada de Ti " for the album . The recording peaked at number 17 on the US Billboard Regional Mexican Digital Songs chart that same year .
= = Chart performance = =
= = Personnel = =
Credits from the album 's liner notes :
Selena – vocals
Ricky Vela – keyboards
Suzette Quintanilla – drums
A.B. Quintanilla III – writer / producer
Pete Astudillo - writer
Juan Magan - remixed / producer / arranger ( remix version )
= Move ( Third Day album ) =
Move is the tenth studio album by Christian rock band Third Day . Released on October 19 , 2010 , the album was the band 's first after guitarist Brad Avery left Third Day . The band wanted the album to be a departure from the modern rock stylings of Revelation ( 2008 ) , intending to show more of their southern rock roots . Third Day chose to work with producer Paul Moak on the album and recorded it at their own studio , feeling it offered them more creative freedom . Primarily a southern rock album , Move also has significant influence from gospel music .
Move received positive reviews from music critics , many of whom praised the album 's southern rock sound . It was nominated for multiple awards at the 42nd GMA Dove Awards , winning in the Recorded Music Packaging of the Year category . It sold 37 @,@ 000 copies in its first week of release , debuting at number nine on the Billboard 200 , number one on the Billboard Christian Albums chart , and number three on the Billboard Rock Albums chart . In the United States , it ranked as the twenty @-@ third best @-@ selling Christian Album of 2010 and the fifth best @-@ selling Christian Album of 2011 . The album 's four singles met with varying success at Christian radio , all of them appearing on the Billboard Christian Songs chart .
= = Background and recording = =
Move was Third Day 's first record without guitarist Brad Avery , who left the band after the recording of their previous album ( Revelation ) . After he left the group , the band felt they were at a musical crossroads ; although they considered replacing Avery , they ultimately decided not to . After playing a few concerts without Avery , Third Day felt they needed to step it up musically . The band 's induction into the Georgia Music Hall of Fame also served as inspiration for the record . Although the band felt that they had previously reined in sounds that were too southern rock in sound , they decided to show more of their southern roots in the record . Bassist Tai Anderson said that although Third Day felt Revelation was a " career record " for them , they felt they " just couldn 't just make ' Revelation Part II . ' It needed to feel different " . The band chose to record the album in their own studio , which they felt offered more creative freedom than their previous recording process in Los Angeles . The also opted to work with producer Paul Moak , whom the band ultimately developed a good chemistry with . All the songs on Move were either written or co @-@ written by Mac Powell .
Move was produced by Paul Moak , who also handled programming and some engineering . The album was recorded at The Quarry in Kennesaw , Georgia and The Smokestack in Nashville , Tennessee . It was mastered by Chris Athens and mixed by F. Reid Shippen and Erik " Keller " Jahner . Along with Paul Moak , Andy Hunt and Justin March also handled engineering on the album .
= = Composition = =
A southern rock album , Move is also influenced by gospel music . As opposed to the modern rock bent and introspective lyrics of Revelation , lead vocalist Mac Powell felt the end result of Move was a " down @-@ home , American grassroots record with a lot more gospel elements than [ Third Day have ] ever had before " . Although some songs are set from the perspective of someone outside the Christian church , Powell felt the record 's lyrics were a call to put faith into action . " Lift Up Your Face " , a southern rock song , displays influences from gospel and blues music . Gospel group The Blind Boys of Alabama provide backing vocals in the song , while the lyrics offer a message of encouragement . " Make Your Move " , which depicts evangelism from the perspective of a non @-@ believer , has a grunge @-@ influenced half time chorus . " Children of God " incorporates a children 's choir into what is an otherwise rock arrangement . " Surrender " is led by a dobro and has an acoustic rock sound , eventually building up to a climax of guitars and strings . " Follow Me There " has heavy gospel influence combined with a " rootsy rock " sound . " Gone " , which features vocals from Bear Rinehart of Needtobreathe , has an acoustic rock sound . " What Have You Got to Lose " , a ballad , offers the plea : " Sin and shame , guilt and pain , pride and your conceit / Here and now lay them down at the Savior 's feet " . " I 'll Be Your Miracle " has a country rock sound and features instrumentation from banjo and pedal steel guitar . " Sound of Your Voice " , a worship song , features vocals from guest vocalist Kerrie Roberts . " Don 't Give Up Hope " has " Allman Brothers @-@ style interplay " between the slide guitar and piano instruments .
= = Critical reception and accolades = =
Move received mostly positive reviews upon its release , with many critics praising the album 's overall sound . Andree Farias of Allmusic gave the album three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of five stars , saying " After a number of career moves attempting to position themselves as the next big thing in rock , Third Day appear resigned to their place as one of the biggest rockers in Christian music : nothing more , nothing less . Move ... reveals that much , as it finds the group embracing , hopefully definitively , that midpoint between spiritual fervor and Southern rock passion that suits them so well " . Chris Carpenter of cbnmusic.com gave it four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of five stars , opining that " The charismatic [ Mac ] Powell , along with guitarist Mark Lee , bassist Tai Anderson , and drummer David Carr , have crafted a project that is as musically stimulating as it is lyrically diverse ... It 's raw , passionate , and track after track is filled with uncompromising truth " . Andy Argyrakis of CCM Magazine gave Move three out of five stars , noting an overall southern rock sound to the album and saying that it " recalls 1999 's treasured Time " . C. E 'Jon Moore of The Christian Manifesto gave the album three out of five stars , saying " In the end , Move is a good album . It ’ s not a great album ... Some will feel it ’ s a progression , but I really feel as if this is more of the same from a band who has proven that they are capable of giving us more than the status quo " . Andrew Greer of Christianity Today gave the album four out of five stars , praising it as " Magically marrying deep soul with melodic rock throughout the entire twelve @-@ track list " and saying that it " is yet another attractive release in an illustrious discography certain to be celebrated for years to come " .
Peter Timmis of Cross Rhythms gave Move nine stars out of ten squares , commenting that " If you like your rock soulful and gospel @-@ tinged then ' Move ' is an album you 'll want to check out " . Glenn McCarty of Crosswalk.com said that " As always , Third Day plays to its strength ... to craft accessible , interesting country rock . When it clicks , the result is arm @-@ hair @-@ raising good . Move , unfortunately , doesn 't produce that reaction often enough ... Move feels a little too safe , or , said another way , a little too static " . Lindsay Williams of Gospel Music Channel said that " Move may not be Third Day ’ s best effort in their large discography , but it ’ s certainly a treasure trove of hooky rock . After more than 15 years , this band still has something to say , and they say it well " . John DiBiase of Jesus Freak Hideout gave the album four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of five stars , opining " Move showcases some of the best Third Day has to offer . Whether it 's better than Revelation or some of their other previous installments ( like Wire or Conspiracy No. 5 ) is something to leave up to the listener to decide , but it does feel safe enough to say that Third Day 's Move is a dozen tracks of southern rock goodness " . Brian Mansfield of USA Today gave the album two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of four stars , saying " Whether accompanied by sharp @-@ edged electric or slippery resonator guitars , a kids choir or the Blind Boys of Alabama , Third Day 's Southern rock remains grounded in the band 's faith " .
Move won the award for Recorded Music Packaging of the Year at the 42nd GMA Dove Awards . Move was also nominated for Rock / Contemporary Album of the Year , although it did not win in that category . " Lift Up Your Face " was nominated for Rock / Contemporary Song of the Year at the 42nd GMA Dove Awards .
= = Release and sales = =
Move sold 37 @,@ 000 units in its first week , debuting at number nine on the Billboard 200 . It was their third top ten album on that chart . It also debuted at number one on the Christian Albums chart , number three on the Rock Albums chart , and number ten on the Digital Albums chart . It spent two consecutive weeks atop the Christian Albums chart following its release and spent an additional week atop the chart in February 2012 . Move spent one week on the Catalog Albums chart in 2012 , debuting and peaking at number nineteen .
In the United States , Move ranked as the twenty @-@ third best @-@ selling Christian album of 2010 . It was also ranked as the fifth best @-@ selling Christian album of 2011 and the forty @-@ first best @-@ selling rock album of 2011 .
= = Singles = =
Four singles were released from Move . Lead single " Lift Up Your Face " was released to Christian AC and Christian CHR radio on July 11 , 2010 . It peaked at number twelve on the Billboard Christian Songs chart and at number two on the Billboard Christian CHR chart . The album 's second single , " Children of God " was released to Christian AC radio on January 4 , 2011 and peaked at number four on the Christian Songs chart . " Make Your Move " was released to Christian CHR radio on January 30 , 2011 . It peaked at number twelve on the Christian CHR chart and number forty @-@ three on the Christian Songs chart . The final single from Move , " Trust in Jesus " , was released to Christian AC and Christian CHR radio on June 11 , 2011 . It peaked at number ten on the Christian Songs chart .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits lifted from the album liner notes of the Deluxe Edition of Move .
= = Charts = =
= = = Album = = =
= = = Year @-@ end charts = = =
= = = Single charts = = =
= = = Chart procession and succession = = =
= Claudius of Turin =
Claudius of Turin ( or Claude ) ( fl . 810 – 827 ) was the Catholic bishop of Turin from 817 until his death . He was a courtier of Louis the Pious and was a writer during the Carolingian Renaissance . He is most noted for teaching iconoclasm , a radical idea at that time in Latin Church , and for some teachings that prefigured those of the Protestant Reformation . He was attacked as a heretic in written works by Saint Dungal and Jonas of Orléans .
= = Early career and the imperial court ( until 817 ) = =
Claudius is thought to have been from Spain . This belief may have its origins in the accusations of Jonas of Orléans , who claimed Claudius was a disciple of Felix of Urgel . Felix was a bishop in the foothills of the Spanish Pyrenees whom Claudius may have known personally . The bishop had been condemned by Alcuin at the Council of Frankfurt in 794 for teaching adoptionism . It is now certain that Claudius was not a disciple of Felix . If he was from Spain , it is uncertain whether or not he received his education there or in Lyon under the archbishop Leidrad . It was probably Leidrad and , as Claudius himself tells it , his schoolmates and the future emperor Louis the Pious who convinced Claudius to study exegesis and concentrate on certain portions of Scripture . Claudius also studied the Church Fathers .
When Louis the Pious was still King of Aquitaine , he called Claudius to his court at Chasseneuil sometime before 811 . In 813 , Emperor Charlemagne called Louis , his only surviving legitimate son , to his court . There he crowned him as his heir . The following year , Charlemagne died and Louis was made ruler of the Holy Roman Empire . He brought Claudius to Aachen , the empire 's capital city . There Claudius gave exegetical lectures to the emperor and the court and was even urged to put his lectures in writing by the emperor himself . Claudius was a member of an elite circle of secular and ecclesiastic politicians and authorities and a creatura della corte di Aquisgrana ( " creature of the court of Aachen " ) . In 817 , he was sent by Louis to Turin to act as bishop . It has been suggested that the appointment of a theologian and scholar to a post such as Turin , which had attendant military duties due to the threat of Saracen raids , was largely based on the need for an imperial supporter in Italy in light of the rebellion of Bernard . Bernard was the illegitimate son of King Pepin , the third son of Charlemagne . Louis gave Italy to his eldest son Lothair when the empire was partitioned among his three sons in 817 . Bernard rebelled against his uncle with the support of Bishop Theodulf of Orléans . The rebellion was put down , but the event reduced the emperor 's prestige amongst the Frankish nobility and it became important that the bishop of Turin be a man who was loyal to the emperor .
= = Episcopate ( 817 – 827 ) = =
As bishop of Turin , Claudius found that men were often directed to go on pilgrimage to Rome for penance and that worshippers were accustomed to venerate Christ and the saints by bowing before images and relics . Claudius , coming from an educated background , was not greatly exposed to such provincial modes of worship . He made attacks on the use of images , relics , and crosses , he opposed pilgrimages to obtain absolution , and he had little regard for the authority of the pope due to his belief that all bishops were equal .
Claudius was a heretic in the view of Dungal and Jonas of Orléans , who later wrote to refute some of his teachings at the request of the emperor . The last recorded act of Claudius is in a charter of the monastery of St Peter at Novalesa in May 827 . He was dead by the time Dungal finished his Responsa contra peruersas Claudii Taurinensis episcopi sententias late in 827 , so it can be presumed that he died that year .
= = Writings = =
Claudius was both an author and a copyist . Although most of his extant works are simple biblical commentaries , his writings are very personal . He had a penchant for divulging detail in an age when brevity and anonymity were more common . Around 811 , Claudius prepared an exhaustive and encyclopaedic commentary on the Book of Genesis at the request of the emperor . This commentary was edited by Johann Alexander Brassicanus in Vienna before it was first printed in Basel by Hieronymus Froben in 1531 .
Claudius also wrote commentaries on the books of Leviticus , the historical books of the Old Testament , the Gospel of Matthew , and all Pauline epistles , of which the commentary on the Epistle to Galatians shows some of his views prefigure those expressed by both the Waldensians and Protestants centuries later . It was once thought that he had in fact founded the Waldensians , however this was disproved in the 19th century . His epistles on 1 and 2 Corinthians , however , dedicated to Theodemir , Abbot of Psalmody , and a possible student of his , were sent to Aachen by the dedicatee to be condemned by the assembled bishops of the realm . The Corinthian commentaries were unpublished , though it was these commentaries that sparked the controversy concerning icons and pilgrimages .
Claudius introduced the " organic metaphor " of the state in his commentary on 1 Corinthians . He proposed that , as the church was the body of Christ , so the state was the body of the emperor . The imperial court would have been familiar with the work because Claudius later wrote that it had been well – received despite the attempts of his former friend , Theodemir of Nismes , to have it condemned as heretical . None of Claudius ' works were ever condemned and he tried unsuccessfully to regain Theodemir 's approval , but eventually had to pen a well known apology directed against Theodemir 's persistent attacks .
In 1950 , Claudius was identified by P. Bellet as the author of some works previously attributed to Pseudo @-@ Eucherius .
= Staggered tuning =
Staggered tuning is a technique used in the design of multi @-@ stage tuned amplifiers whereby each stage is tuned to a slightly different frequency . In comparison to synchronous tuning ( where each stage is tuned identically ) it produces a wider bandwidth at the expense of reduced gain . It also produces a sharper transition from the passband to the stopband . Both staggered tuning and synchronous tuning circuits are easier to tune and manufacture than many other filter types .
The function of stagger @-@ tuned circuits can be expressed as a rational function and hence they can be designed to any of the major filter responses such as Butterworth and Chebyshev . The poles of the circuit are easy to manipulate to achieve the desired response because of the amplifier buffering between stages .
Applications include television IF amplifiers ( mostly 20th century receivers ) and wireless LAN .
= = Rationale = =
Staggered tuning improves the bandwidth of a multi @-@ stage tuned amplifier at the expense of the overall gain . Staggered tuning also increases the steepness of passband skirts and hence improves selectivity .
The value of staggered tuning is best explained by first looking at the shortcomings of tuning every stage identically . This method is called synchronous tuning . Each stage of the amplifier will reduce the bandwidth . In an amplifier with multiple identical stages , the 3 dB points of the response after the first stage will become the 6 dB points of the second stage . Each successive stage will add a further 3 dB to what was the band edge of the first stage . Thus the 3 dB bandwidth becomes progressively narrower with each additional stage .
As an example , a four @-@ stage amplifier will have its 3 dB points at the 0 @.@ 75 dB points of an individual stage . The fractional bandwidth of an LC circuit is given by ,
<formula>
where m is the power ratio of the power at resonance to that at the band edge frequency ( equal to 2 for the 3 dB point and 1 @.@ 19 for the 0 @.@ 75 dB point ) and Q is the quality factor .
The bandwidth is thus reduced by a factor of <formula> . In terms of the number of stages <formula> . Thus , the four stage synchronously tuned amplifier will have a bandwidth of only 19 % of a single stage . Even in a two @-@ stage amplifier the bandwidth is reduced to 41 % of the original . Staggered tuning allows the bandwidth to be widened at the expense of overall gain . The overall gain is reduced because when any one stage is at resonance ( and thus maximum gain ) the others are not , unlike synchronous tuning where all stages are at maximum gain at the same frequency . A two @-@ stage stagger @-@ tuned amplifier will have a gain 3 dB less than a synchronously tuned amplifier .
Even in a design that is intended to be synchronously tuned , some staggered tuning effect is inevitable because of the practical impossibility of keeping all tuned circuits perfectly in step and because of feedback effects . This can be a problem in very narrow band applications where essentially only one spot frequency is of interest , such as a local oscillator feed or a wave trap . The overall gain of a synchronously tuned amplifier will always be less than the theoretical maximum because of this .
Both synchronously tuned and stagger @-@ tuned schemes have a number of advantages over schemes that place all the tuning components in a single aggregated filter circuit separate from the amplifier such as ladder networks or coupled resonators . One advantage is that they are easy to tune . Each resonator is buffered from the others by the amplifier stages so have little effect on each other . The resonators in aggregated circuits , on the other hand , will all interact with each other , particularly their nearest neighbours . Another advantage is that the components need not be close to ideal . Every LC resonator is directly working into a resistor which lowers the Q anyway so any losses in the L and C components can be absorbed into this resistor in the design . Aggregated designs usually require high Q resonators . Also , stagger @-@ tuned circuits have resonator components with values that are quite close to each other and in synchronously tuned circuits they can be identical . The spread of component values is thus less in stagger @-@ tuned circuits than in aggregated circuits .
= = Design = =
Tuned amplifiers such as the one illustrated at the beginning of this article can be more generically depicted as a chain of transconductance amplifiers each loaded with a tuned circuit .
where for each stage ( omitting the suffixes )
gm is the amplifier transconductance
C is the tuned circuit capacitance
L is the tuned circuit inductance
G is the sum of the amplifier output conductance and the input conductance of the next amplifier .
= = = Stage gain = = =
The gain A ( s ) , of one stage of this amplifier is given by ;
<formula>
where s is the complex frequency operator .
This can be written in a more generic form , that is , not assuming that the resonators are the LC type , with the following substitutions ,
<formula> ( the resonant frequency )
<formula> ( the gain at resonance )
<formula> ( the stage quality factor )
Resulting in ,
<formula>
= = = Stage bandwidth = = =
The gain expression can be given as a function of ( angular ) frequency by making the substitution s = iω where i is the imaginary unit and ω is the angular frequency
<formula>
The frequency at the band edges , ωc , can be found from this expression by equating the value of the gain at the band edge to the magnitude of the expression ,
<formula>
where m is defined as above and equal to two if the 3 dB points are desired .
Solving this for ωc and taking the difference between the two positive solutions finds the bandwidth Δω ,
<formula>
and the fractional bandwidth B ,
<formula>
= = = Overall response = = =
The overall response of the amplifier is given by the product of the individual stages ,
<formula>
It is desirable to be able to design the filter from a standard low @-@ pass prototype filter of the required specification . Frequently , a smooth Butterworth response will be chosen but other polynomial functions can be used that allow ripple in the response . A popular choice for a polynomial with ripple is the Chebyshev response for its steep skirt . For the purpose of transformation , the stage gain expression can be rewritten in the more suggestive form ,
<formula>
This can be transformed into a low @-@ pass prototype filter with the transform
<formula>
where ω 'c is the cutoff frequency of the low @-@ pass prototype .
This can be done straightforwardly for the complete filter in the case of synchronously tuned amplifiers where every stage has the same ω0 but for a stagger @-@ tuned amplifier there is no simple analytical solution to the transform . Stagger @-@ tuned designs can be approached instead by calculating the poles of a low @-@ pass prototype of the desired form ( e.g. Butterworth ) and then transforming those poles to a band @-@ pass response . The poles so calculated can then be used to define the tuned circuits of the individual stages .
= = = Poles = = =
The stage gain can be rewritten in terms of the poles by factorising the denominator ;
<formula>
where p , p * are a complex conjugate pair of poles
and the overall response is ,
<formula>
where the ak = A0kω0k / Q0k
From the band @-@ pass to low @-@ pass transform given above , an expression can be found for the poles in terms of the poles of the low @-@ pass prototype , qk ,
<formula>
where ω0B is the desired band @-@ pass centre frequency and Qeff is the effective Q of the overall circuit .
Each pole in the prototype transforms to a complex conjugate pair of poles in the band @-@ pass and corresponds to one stage of the amplifier . This expression is greatly simplified if the cutoff frequency of the prototype , ω 'c , is set to the final filter bandwidth ω0B / Qeff .
<formula>
In the case of a narrowband design ω0 ≫ q which can be used to make a further simplification with the approximation ,
<formula>
These poles can be inserted into the stage gain expression in terms of poles . By comparing with the stage gain expression in terms of component values , those component values can then be calculated .
= = Applications = =
Staggered tuning is of most benefit in wideband applications . It was formerly commonly used in television receiver IF amplifiers . However , SAW filters are more likely to be used in that role nowadays . Staggered tuning has advantages in VLSI for radio applications such as wireless LAN . The low spread of component values make it much easier to implement in integrated circuits than traditional ladder networks .
= Shawn Michaels =
Michael Shawn Hickenbottom ( born July 22 , 1965 ) , better known by his ring name Shawn Michaels , is an American professional wrestling personality , television presenter and retired professional wrestler . He has been signed to WWE , as an ambassador and occasional non @-@ wrestling performer , since December 2010 . Michaels wrestled consistently for WWE , formerly the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) , from 1988 until his first retirement in 1998 . He held non @-@ wrestling roles from 1998 to 2000 and resumed wrestling in 2002 until retiring ceremoniously in 2010 .
In the WWF / E , Michaels headlined major pay @-@ per @-@ view events between 1989 and 2010 , closing the company 's flagship annual event , WrestleMania , five times . He was the co @-@ founder and original leader of the successful stable , D @-@ Generation X. He also wrestled in the American Wrestling Association ( AWA ) , where he founded The Midnight Rockers with Marty Jannetty in 1985 . After winning the AWA Tag Team Championship twice , the team continued to the WWF as The Rockers , and had a high @-@ profile breakup in January 1992 . Within the year , Michaels would twice challenge for the WWF Championship and win his first WWF Intercontinental Championship , heralding his arrival as one of the industry 's premier singles stars .
Michaels is a four @-@ time world champion : a three @-@ time WWF Champion and a one @-@ time World Heavyweight Champion . He is also a two @-@ time Royal Rumble winner , the first WWF Grand Slam Champion and the fourth WWF Triple Crown Champion , as well as a 2011 WWE Hall of Fame inductee . Michaels won the Pro Wrestling Illustrated " Match of the Year " reader vote a record eleven times .
= = Early life = =
Hickenbottom was born on July 22 , 1965 , in Chandler , Arizona . The last of four children – Randy , Scott , and Shari are his older siblings – he was raised in a military family and spent a brief part of his early years in Reading , Berkshire , England , but grew up in San Antonio , Texas . As a child , Hickenbottom disliked the name Michael , so his family and friends just called him Shawn . Ever since , he has been referred to as Shawn . Additionally , Hickenbottom moved around frequently since his father was in the military .
He knew he wanted to become a professional wrestler at the age of twelve and said he performed a wrestling routine in his high school 's talent show , complete with fake blood . Hickenbottom was already an athlete ; his career began at the age of six when he started playing football . He was a stand @-@ out linebacker at Randolph High School on Randolph Air Force Base and eventually became captain of the football team . After graduating , Hickenbottom attended Southwest Texas State University in San Marcos , Texas , but soon realized that college life was not for him . He then began pursuing a career in professional wrestling .
= = Professional wrestling career = =
= = = National Wrestling Alliance ( 1984 – 1985 ) = = =
Hickenbottom began to train under Mexican professional wrestler Jose Lothario . During his training , Hickenbottom adopted the ring name , " Shawn Michaels " . After his training with Lothario , he debuted as Shawn Michaels with the National Wrestling Alliance 's ( NWA ) Mid @-@ South Wrestling on October 16 , 1984 , against Art Crews , losing to Crews via swinging neckbreaker . Michaels ' performance in his debut match impressed many veterans , including Terry Taylor .
In January 1985 , he debuted for World Class Championship Wrestling ( WCCW ) , the NWA territory in Dallas , Texas . In April 1985 , Michaels went to work for another NWA territory in Kansas City called Central States Wrestling . There , he and tag team partner Marty Jannetty defeated The Batten Twins for the NWA Central States Tag Team Championship , later losing it back to the Battens .
= = = Texas All @-@ Star Wrestling ( 1985 – 1986 ) = = =
After leaving Kansas City , he returned to Texas to wrestle for Texas All @-@ Star Wrestling ( TASW ) . During his time with TASW , Michaels replaced Nick Kiniski in the American Breed tag team , teaming with Paul Diamond . Michaels and Diamond were awarded the TASW Tag Team Championship by Chavo Guerrero Sr. The team was later renamed American Force . While in TASW , Michaels and Diamond feuded with Japanese Force .
= = = American Wrestling Association ( 1986 – 1987 ) = = =
Michaels made his national @-@ level debut , as Sean Michaels , at the age of 20 in the American Wrestling Association ( AWA ) , in a victory over Buddhakhan on ESPN . He was once again teamed with Marty Jannetty , billed as The Midnight Rockers . The Midnight Rockers won the AWA World Tag Team Championship , defeating Doug Somers and Buddy Rose .
= = = World Wrestling Federation ( 1987 – 1988 ) = = =
In 1987 , The Rockers were signed by a competing promotion : the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) . They were fired from WWF two weeks later , for a bar incident ( a misunderstanding , according to Michaels ' autobiography ) . They then returned to AWA , but were re @-@ signed by WWF a year later .
= = = Return to WWF = = =
= = = = The Rockers ( 1988 – 1991 ) = = = =
The Rockers redebuted at a WWF live event on July 7 , 1988 . Due to WWF chairman Vince McMahon 's desire to have his performers carry WWF @-@ exclusive ring names , Michaels and Jannetty were renamed , as simply " The Rockers . " The team proved popular with both children and women , and was a mid @-@ card stalwart of television and pay @-@ per @-@ view shows for the next two years ; during this time , Michaels headlined his first pay @-@ per @-@ view for the WWF when The Rockers were involved in the 4 @-@ on @-@ 4 Survivor Series match main event of the 1989 Survivor Series .
On October 30 , 1990 , The Rockers unofficially won the WWF Tag Team Championship from The Hart Foundation ( Bret Hart and Jim Neidhart ) , as Neidhart , half of the championship team , was in the process of negotiating his release from the company . The match was taped with The Rockers winning the title , but soon after , Neidhart came to an agreement with management and was rehired . The championship was returned to the Hart Foundation , while the title change was never broadcast or even acknowledged on television ( though The Rockers did actually have a successful title defence on November 3 , 1990 , against Power and Glory ( Hercules and Paul Roma ) before the title was returned to the Hart Foundation ) . When news spread , WWF explained that the original result was void due to a collapsed turnbuckle in the ring during the bout . A buckle had indeed broke , but not to a noticeable or dangerous extent during the match . The Rockers continued their partnership , eventually splitting on December 2 , 1991 during an incident on Brutus Beefcake 's televised Barber Shop talk show promotional segment . Michaels superkicked Jannetty and threw him through a glass window on the set of Beefcake 's talk show . Jannetty returned to the WWF the following year and enjoyed moderate success before leaving the company in 1994 , while Michaels became a prominent villain of the early to mid @-@ 1990s as " The Boy Toy " .
= = = = The Heartbreak Kid ( 1992 – 1995 ) = = = =
At the suggestion of Curt Hennig , Michaels adopted the nickname " The Heartbreak Kid " . Along with his new name came a new gimmick as a vain , cocky villain . He was put together with mirror @-@ carrying manager , Sensational Sherri , who , according to the storyline , had become infatuated with him . Sherri even sang the first version of his new theme music , " Sexy Boy " . During that period , after Michaels had wrestled his scheduled match at live events , his departure was announced with " Shawn Michaels has left the building " , alluding to the phrase " Elvis has left the building " .
At WrestleMania VIII , in his first pay @-@ per @-@ view singles match , Michaels defeated Tito Santana : both men had simultaneously eliminated each other from that year 's Royal Rumble . He subsequently became a contender to the promotion 's singles titles . Michaels failed to win the WWF Championship from champion Randy Savage in his first opportunity to compete for that title at British event UK Rampage , held on April 19 at the Sheffield Arena and broadcast on Sky Movies Plus ( the match later aired in the US on the June 15 edition of Prime Time Wrestling ) . He was unable to win the WWF Intercontinental Championship from Bret Hart in the WWF 's first @-@ ever ladder match at a Wrestling Challenge taping on July 21 , which would subsequently be made available on multiple Coliseum / WWE Home Video releases . He , however , won the title from The British Bulldog on the October 27 , 1992 episode of Saturday Night 's Main Event , which aired on November 14 . Shortly thereafter , he faced Hart for the WWF Championship in the main event of the 1992 Survivor Series , but lost the match . Originally the secondary main event , Michaels and Hart became the primary main event after The Ultimate Warrior was unable to compete , and was replaced by Mr. Perfect in the tag team match that involved Randy Savage against the team of Ric Flair and Razor Ramon . During this time , Michaels and Sherri split and he engaged himself in a feud with former tag team partner Marty Jannetty . Michaels lost the Intercontinental Championship to Jannetty on Monday Night Raw on May 17 , 1993 . He then regained it on June 6 with the help of his debuting " bodyguard " ( and off @-@ air friend ) Diesel .
In September 1993 , Michaels was suspended for testing positive for steroids – a charge he never admitted . On WWF programs , his suspension was explained by his having neglected to defend the title often enough . After turning down World Championship Wrestling ( WCW ) ' s advances , Michaels returned to the WWF and made several appearances in the United States Wrestling Association ( USWA ) during a WWF / USWA cross @-@ promotion . He returned to WWF television in November at the Survivor Series pay @-@ per @-@ view , substituting for Jerry Lawler , who was dealing with legal issues , in a match pitting himself and three of Lawler 's " Knights " against the Hart brothers , Bret , Bruce , Keith and Owen .
He soon entered a staged rivalry with Razor Ramon , who had won the Intercontinental Championship , which had been vacated during Michaels ' absence . Since Michaels had never been defeated in the ring for the title , he claimed to be the rightful champion and even carried around his old title belt . This feud culminated in a ladder match between the two at WrestleMania X. Michaels lost the match , which featured both his and Ramon 's belts suspended above a ladder in the ring . This match was voted by fans as " Match of the Year " by Pro Wrestling Illustrated . It also received a 5 @-@ star rating from Wrestling Observer Newsletter member Dave Meltzer , one of five WWF / WWE matches to do so . Over the next few months , Michaels battled various injuries and launched the Heartbreak Hotel television talk show segment , mainly shown on WWF Superstars .
On August 28 , 1994 , Michaels and Diesel captured the Tag Team Championship from The Headshrinkers ( Samu and Fatu ) . The next day , at SummerSlam , Diesel lost the Intercontinental Championship to Ramon when Michaels accidentally superkicked Diesel . This triggered a split between Michaels and Diesel , a storyline that was drawn out until Survivor Series that November . Michaels went on to win the Royal Rumble in 1995 , which set up a championship grudge match at WrestleMania XI against Diesel ( who had gone on to win the WWF Championship from Bob Backlund ) . As part of the storyline , Michaels recruited Sid as his bodyguard for the build @-@ up , lost the match , and was attacked by Sid the following night . After this , Michaels took time off , because Vince McMahon wanted Michaels to become a fan favorite .
= = = = Formation of The Kliq ( 1995 ) = = = =
Michaels returned to the ring , as a fan favorite , in May 1995 and he went on to defeat Jeff Jarrett to win his third Intercontinental Championship in July at the In Your House pay @-@ per @-@ view event . This led to a title defense against Razor Ramon at SummerSlam , in a ladder match , which Michaels won . Around this time Michaels became the leader of a backstage group known as The Kliq . Critics perceive the group to have sufficient clout with WWF owner Vince McMahon , becoming dominant wrestling figures in the WWF for several years in | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
( 1 )
Royal Rumble ( 1995 , 1996 )
First Grand Slam Champion
Fourth Triple Crown Champion
Slammy Awards ( 15 times )
Best Finisher ( 1997 )
Best Slammin ' Jammin ' Entrance ( 1996 )
Best Tag Team ( 1994 ) – with Diesel
Best Threads ( 1996 )
Double @-@ Cross of the Year ( 2013 ) – For turning on Daniel Bryan and costing him the WWE Championship at Hell in a Cell .
Leader of the New Generation ( 1996 )
Master of Mat Mechanics ( 1996 )
Match of the Year ( 1994 , 1996 , 1997 , 2008 , 2009 ) – vs. Razor Ramon in a ladder match at WrestleMania X , vs. Razor Ramon in a Ladder match at SummerSlam , vs Bret Hart at WrestleMania XII , vs Ric Flair at WrestleMania XXIII , vs The Undertalker at WrestleMania XXV
Moment of the Year ( 2010 ) – vs. The Undertaker at WrestleMania XXVI
Squared Circle Shocker ( 1996 ) – Won for collapsing ; Owen Hart accepts the award for making Michaels collapse
Worst Tag Team ( 1994 ) – with Diesel
WWE Hall of Fame ( Class of 2011 )
Wrestling Observer Newsletter
5 Star Match ( 1994 ) vs. Razor Ramon in a ladder match at WrestleMania X
5 Star Match ( 1997 ) vs. The Undertaker in a Hell in a Cell at Badd Blood
Best Babyface ( 1996 )
Feud of the Year ( 2004 ) vs. Chris Benoit and Triple H
Feud of the Year ( 2008 ) vs. Chris Jericho
Match of the Year ( 1994 ) vs. Razor Ramon in a ladder match at WrestleMania X
Match of the Year ( 2008 ) vs. Chris Jericho in a ladder match at No Mercy
Match of the Year ( 2009 ) vs. The Undertaker at WrestleMania XXV
Match of the Year ( 2010 ) vs. The Undertaker at WrestleMania XXVI
Most Charismatic ( 1995 , 1996 )
Tag Team of the Year ( 1989 ) with Marty Jannetty as The Rockers
Worst Feud of the Year ( 2006 ) with Triple H vs. Shane and Vince McMahon
Wrestling Observer Newsletter Hall of Fame ( Class of 2003 )
= = = Carrera contra carrera record = = =
= Zinc oxide =
Zinc oxide is an inorganic compound with the formula ZnO . ZnO is a white powder that is insoluble in water , and it is widely used as an additive in numerous materials and products including rubbers , plastics , ceramics , glass , cement , lubricants , paints , ointments , adhesives , sealants , pigments , foods , batteries , ferrites , fire retardants , and first @-@ aid tapes . Although it occurs naturally as the mineral zincite , most zinc oxide is produced synthetically .
ZnO is a wide @-@ bandgap semiconductor of the II @-@ VI semiconductor group . The native doping of the semiconductor due to oxygen vacancies or zinc interstitials is n @-@ type . This semiconductor has several favorable properties , including good transparency , high electron mobility , wide bandgap , and strong room @-@ temperature luminescence . Those properties are valuable in emerging applications for : transparent electrodes in liquid crystal displays , energy @-@ saving or heat @-@ protecting windows , and electronics as thin @-@ film transistors and light @-@ emitting diodes .
= = Chemical properties = =
Pure ZnO is a white powder , but in nature it occurs as the rare mineral zincite , which usually contains manganese and other impurities that confer a yellow to red color .
Crystalline zinc oxide is thermochromic , changing from white to yellow when heated in air and reverting to white on cooling . This color change is caused by a small loss of oxygen to the environment at high temperatures to form the non @-@ stoichiometric Zn1 + xO , where at 800 ° C , x = 0 @.@ 00007 .
Zinc oxide is an amphoteric oxide . It is nearly insoluble in water , but it is soluble in ( degraded by ) most acids , such as hydrochloric acid :
ZnO + 2 HCl → ZnCl2 + H2O
Bases also degrade the solid to give soluble zincates :
ZnO + 2 NaOH + H2O → Na2 [ Zn ( OH ) 4 ]
ZnO reacts slowly with fatty acids in oils to produce the corresponding carboxylates , such as oleate or stearate . ZnO forms cement @-@ like products when mixed with a strong aqueous solution of zinc chloride and these are best described as zinc hydroxy chlorides . This cement was used in dentistry .
ZnO also forms cement @-@ like material when treated with phosphoric acid ; related materials are used in dentistry . A major component of zinc phosphate cement produced by this reaction is hopeite , Zn3 ( PO4 ) 2 · 4H2O .
ZnO decomposes into zinc vapor and oxygen at around 1975 ° C with a standard oxygen pressure . In a carbothermic reaction , heating with carbon converts the oxide into zinc vapor at a much lower temperature ( around 950 ° C ) .
ZnO + C → Zn ( Vapor ) + CO
Zinc oxide can react violently with aluminium and magnesium powders , with chlorinated rubber and linseed oil on heating causing fire and explosion hazard .
It reacts with hydrogen sulfide to give zinc sulfide . This reaction is used commercially .
ZnO + H2S → ZnS + H2O
= = Physical properties = =
= = = Structure = = =
Zinc oxide crystallizes in two main forms , hexagonal wurtzite and cubic zincblende . The wurtzite structure is most stable at ambient conditions and thus most common . The zincblende form can be stabilized by growing ZnO on substrates with cubic lattice structure . In both cases , the zinc and oxide centers are tetrahedral , the most characteristic geometry for Zn ( II ) . ZnO converts to the rocksalt motif at relatively high pressures about 10 GPa .
Hexagonal and zincblende polymorphs have no inversion symmetry ( reflection of a crystal relative to any given point does not transform it into itself ) . This and other lattice symmetry properties result in piezoelectricity of the hexagonal and zincblende ZnO , and pyroelectricity of hexagonal ZnO .
The hexagonal structure has a point group 6 mm ( Hermann @-@ Mauguin notation ) or C6v ( Schoenflies notation ) , and the space group is P63mc or C6v4 . The lattice constants are a
= 3 @.@ 25 Å and c =
5 @.@ 2 Å ; their ratio c / a ~ 1 @.@ 60 is close to the ideal value for hexagonal cell c / a = 1 @.@ 633 . As in most group II @-@ VI materials , the bonding in ZnO is largely ionic ( Zn2 + – O2 − ) with the corresponding radii of 0 @.@ 074 nm for Zn2 + and 0 @.@ 140 nm for O2 − . This property accounts for the preferential formation of wurtzite rather than zinc blende structure , as well as the strong piezoelectricity of ZnO . Because of the polar Zn @-@ O bonds , zinc and oxygen planes are electrically charged . To maintain electrical neutrality , those planes reconstruct at atomic level in most relative materials , but not in ZnO – its surfaces are atomically flat , stable and exhibit no reconstruction . This anomaly of ZnO is not fully explained .
= = = Mechanical properties = = =
ZnO is a relatively soft material with approximate hardness of 4 @.@ 5 on the Mohs scale . Its elastic constants are smaller than those of relevant III @-@ V semiconductors , such as GaN . The high heat capacity and heat conductivity , low thermal expansion and high melting temperature of ZnO are beneficial for ceramics . ZnO exhibits a very long lived optical phonon E2 ( low ) with a lifetime as high as 133 ps at 10 K.
Among the tetrahedrally bonded semiconductors , it has been stated that ZnO has the highest piezoelectric tensor , or at least one comparable to that of GaN and AlN . This property makes it a technologically important material for many piezoelectrical applications , which require a large electromechanical coupling .
= = = Electrical properties = = =
ZnO has a relatively large direct band gap of ~ 3 @.@ 3 eV at room temperature . Advantages associated with a large band gap include higher breakdown voltages , ability to sustain large electric fields , lower electronic noise , and high @-@ temperature and high @-@ power operation . The bandgap of ZnO can further be tuned to ~ 3 – 4 eV by its alloying with magnesium oxide or cadmium oxide .
Most ZnO has n @-@ type character , even in the absence of intentional doping . Nonstoichiometry is typically the origin of n @-@ type character , but the subject remains controversial . An alternative explanation has been proposed , based on theoretical calculations , that unintentional substitutional hydrogen impurities are responsible . Controllable n @-@ type doping is easily achieved by substituting Zn with group @-@ III elements such as Al , Ga , In or by substituting oxygen with group @-@ VII elements chlorine or iodine .
Reliable p @-@ type doping of ZnO remains difficult . This problem originates from low solubility of p @-@ type dopants and their compensation by abundant n @-@ type impurities . This problem is observed with GaN and ZnSe . Measurement of p @-@ type in " intrinsically " n @-@ type material is complicated by the inhomogeneity of samples .
Current limitations to p @-@ doping limit electronic and optoelectronic applications of ZnO , which usually require junctions of n @-@ type and p @-@ type material . Known p @-@ type dopants include group @-@ I elements Li , Na , K ; group @-@ V elements N , P and As ; as well as copper and silver . However , many of these form deep acceptors and do not produce significant p @-@ type conduction at room temperature .
Electron mobility of ZnO strongly varies with temperature and has a maximum of ~ 2000 cm2 / ( V · s ) at 80 K. Data on hole mobility are scarce with values in the range 5 – 30 cm2 / ( V · s ) .
= = Production = =
For industrial use , ZnO is produced at levels of 105 tons per year by three main processes :
= = = Indirect process = = =
In the indirect or French process , metallic zinc is melted in a graphite crucible and vaporized at temperatures above 907 ° C ( typically around 1000 ° C ) . Zinc vapor reacts with the oxygen in the air to give ZnO , accompanied by a drop in its temperature and bright luminescence . Zinc oxide particles are transported into a cooling duct and collected in a bag house . This indirect method was popularized by LeClaire ( France ) in 1844 and therefore is commonly known as the French process . Its product normally consists of agglomerated zinc oxide particles with an average size of 0 @.@ 1 to a few micrometers . By weight , most of the world 's zinc oxide is manufactured via French process .
= = = Direct process = = =
The direct or American process starts with diverse contaminated zinc composites , such as zinc ores or smelter by @-@ products . The zinc precursors are reduced ( carbothermal reduction ) by heating with a source of carbon such as anthracite to produce zinc vapor , which is then oxidized as in the indirect process . Because of the lower purity of the source material , the final product is also of lower quality in the direct process as compared to the indirect one .
= = = Wet chemical process = = =
A small amount of industrial production involves wet chemical processes , which start with aqueous solutions of zinc salts , from which zinc carbonate or zinc hydroxide is precipitated . The solid precipitate is then calcined at temperatures around 800 ° C.
= = = Laboratory synthesis = = =
Numerous specialised methods exist for producing ZnO for scientific studies and niche applications . These methods can be classified by the resulting ZnO form ( bulk , thin film , nanowire ) , temperature ( " low " , that is close to room temperature or " high " , that is T ~ 1000 ° C ) , process type ( vapor deposition or growth from solution ) and other parameters .
Large single crystals ( many cubic centimeters ) can be grown by the gas transport ( vapor @-@ phase deposition ) , hydrothermal synthesis , or melt growth . However , because of high vapor pressure of ZnO , growth from the melt is problematic . Growth by gas transport is difficult to control , leaving the hydrothermal method as a preference . Thin films can be produced by chemical vapor deposition , metalorganic vapour phase epitaxy , electrodeposition , pulsed laser deposition , sputtering , sol @-@ gel synthesis , atomic layer deposition , spray pyrolysis , etc .
Ordinary white powdered zinc oxide can be produced in the laboratory by electrolyzing a solution of sodium bicarbonate with a zinc anode . Zinc hydroxide and hydrogen gas are produced . The zinc hydroxide upon heating decomposes to zinc oxide .
Zn + 2 H2O → Zn ( OH ) 2 + H2
Zn ( OH ) 2 → ZnO + H2O
= = = ZnO nanostructures = = =
Nanostructures of ZnO can be synthesized into a variety of morphologies including nanowires , nanorods , tetrapods , nanobelts , nanoflowers , nanoparticles etc . Nanostructures can be obtained with most above @-@ mentioned techniques , at certain conditions , and also with the vapor @-@ liquid @-@ solid method . The synthesis is typically carried out at temperatures of about 90 ° C , in an equimolar aqueous solution of zinc nitrate and hexamine , the latter providing the basic environment . Certain additives , such as polyethylene glycol or polyethylenimine , can improve the aspect ratio of the ZnO nanowires . Doping of the ZnO nanowires has been achieved by adding other metal nitrates to the growth solution . The morphology of the resulting nanostructures can be tuned by changing the parameters relating to the precursor composition ( such as the zinc concentration and pH ) or to the thermal treatment ( such as the temperature and heating rate ) .
Aligned ZnO nanowires on pre @-@ seeded silicon , glass , and gallium nitride substrates have been grown using aqueous zinc salts such as zinc nitrate and zinc acetate in basic environments . Pre @-@ seeding substrates with ZnO creates sites for homogeneous nucleation of ZnO crystal during the synthesis . Common pre @-@ seeding methods include in @-@ situ thermal decomposition of zinc acetate crystallites , spincoating of ZnO nanoparticles and the use of physical vapor deposition methods to deposit ZnO thin films . Pre @-@ seeding can be performed in conjunction with top down patterning methods such as electron beam lithography and nanosphere lithography to designate nucleation sites prior to growth . Aligned ZnO nanowires can be used in dye @-@ sensitized solar cells and field emission devices .
= = History = =
Zinc compounds were probably used by early humans , in processed and unprocessed forms , as a paint or medicinal ointment , but their composition is uncertain . The use of pushpanjan , probably zinc oxide , as a salve for eyes and open wounds , is mentioned in the Indian medical text the Charaka Samhita , thought to date from 500 BC or before . Zinc oxide ointment is also mentioned by the Greek physician Dioscorides ( 1st century AD . ) Avicenna mentions zinc oxide in The Canon of Medicine ( 1025 AD ) , which mentioned it as a preferred treatment for a variety of skin conditions , including skin cancer . Though it is no longer used for treating skin cancer , it is still widely used to treat a variety of other skin conditions , in products such as baby powder and creams against diaper rashes , calamine cream , anti @-@ dandruff shampoos , and antiseptic ointments .
The Romans produced considerable quantities of brass ( an alloy of zinc and copper ) as early as 200 BC by a cementation process where copper was reacted with zinc oxide . The zinc oxide is thought to have been produced by heating zinc ore in a shaft furnace . This liberated metallic zinc as a vapor , which then ascended the flue and condensed as the oxide . This process was described by Dioscorides in the 1st century AD . Zinc oxide has also been recovered from zinc mines at Zawar in India , dating from the second half of the first millennium BC . This was presumably also made in the same way and used to produce brass .
From the 12th to the 16th century zinc and zinc oxide were recognized and produced in India using a primitive form of the direct synthesis process . From India , zinc manufacture moved to China in the 17th century . In 1743 , the first European zinc smelter was established in Bristol , United Kingdom .
The main usage of zinc oxide ( zinc white ) was in paints and as an additive to ointments . Zinc white was accepted as a pigment in oil paintings by 1834 but it did not mix well with oil . This problem was solved by optimizing the synthesis of ZnO . In 1845 , LeClaire in Paris was producing the oil paint on a large scale , and by 1850 , zinc white was being manufactured throughout Europe . The success of zinc white paint was due to its advantages over the traditional white lead : zinc white is essentially permanent in sunlight , it is not blackened by sulfur @-@ bearing air , it is non @-@ toxic and more economical . Because zinc white is so " clean " it is valuable for making tints with other colors , but it makes a rather brittle dry film when unmixed with other colors . For example , during the late 1890s and early 1900s , some artists used zinc white as a ground for their oil paintings . All those paintings developed cracks over the years .
In recent times , most zinc oxide was used in the rubber industry to resist corrosion . In the 1970s , the second largest application of ZnO was photocopying . High @-@ quality ZnO produced by the " French process " was added to photocopying paper as a filler . This application was soon displaced by titanium .
= = Applications = =
The applications of zinc oxide powder are numerous , and the principal ones are summarized below . Most applications exploit the reactivity of the oxide as a precursor to other zinc compounds . For material science applications , zinc oxide has high refractive index , high thermal conductivity , binding , antibacterial and UV @-@ protection properties . Consequently , it is added into materials and products including plastics , ceramics , glass , cement , rubber , lubricants , paints , ointments , adhesive , sealants , concrete manufacturing , pigments , foods , batteries , ferrites , fire retardants , etc .
= = = Rubber manufacture = = =
Between 50 % and 60 % of ZnO use is in the rubber industry . Zinc oxide along with stearic acid is used in the vulcanization of rubber ZnO additive also protect rubber from fungi ( see medical applications ) and UV light .
= = = Ceramic industry = = =
Ceramic industry consumes a significant amount of zinc oxide , in particular in ceramic glaze and frit compositions . The relatively high heat capacity , thermal conductivity and high temperature stability of ZnO coupled with a comparatively low coefficient of expansion are desirable properties in the production of ceramics . ZnO affects the melting point and optical properties of the glazes , enamels , and ceramic formulations . Zinc oxide as a low expansion , secondary flux improves the elasticity of glazes by reducing the change in viscosity as a function of temperature and helps prevent crazing and shivering . By substituting ZnO for BaO and PbO , the heat capacity is decreased and the thermal conductivity is increased . Zinc in small amounts improves the development of glossy and brilliant surfaces . However , in moderate to high amounts , it produces matte and crystalline surfaces . With regard to color , zinc has a complicated influence .
= = = Medicine = = =
Zinc oxide as a mixture with about 0 @.@ 5 % iron ( III ) oxide ( Fe2O3 ) is called calamine and is used in calamine lotion . Two minerals , zincite and hemimorphite , have been historically called calamine . When mixed with eugenol , a ligand , zinc oxide eugenol is formed , which has applications as a restorative and prosthodontic in dentistry .
Reflecting the basic properties of ZnO , fine particles of the oxide have deodorizing and antibacterial properties and for that reason are added into materials including cotton fabric , rubber , oral care products , and food packaging . Enhanced antibacterial action of fine particles compared to bulk material is not exclusive to ZnO and is observed for other materials , such as silver . This property results from the increased surface area of the fine particles .
Zinc oxide is widely used to treat a variety of other skin conditions , in products such as baby powder and barrier creams to treat diaper rashes , calamine cream , anti @-@ dandruff shampoos , and antiseptic ointments . It is also a component in tape ( called " zinc oxide tape " ) used by athletes as a bandage to prevent soft tissue damage during workouts .
Zinc oxide can be used in ointments , creams , and lotions to protect against sunburn and other damage to the skin caused by ultraviolet light ( see sunscreen ) . It is the broadest spectrum UVA and UVB reflector that is approved for use as a sunscreen by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) , and is completely photostable . When used as an ingredient in sunscreen , zinc oxide blocks both UVA ( 320 – 400 nm ) and UVB ( 280 – 320 nm ) rays of ultraviolet light . Zinc oxide and the other most common physical sunscreen , titanium dioxide , are considered to be nonirritating , nonallergenic , and non @-@ comedogenic . Zinc from zinc oxide is , however , slightly absorbed into the skin
Many sunscreens use nanoparticles of zinc oxide ( along with nanoparticles of titanium dioxide ) because such small particles do not scatter light and therefore do not appear white . There has been concern that they might be absorbed into the skin . A study published in 2010 found a 0 @.@ 23 % to 1 @.@ 31 % ( mean 0 @.@ 42 % ) of blood zinc levels in venous blood samples could be traced to zinc from ZnO nanoparticles applied to human skin for 5 days , and traces were also found in urine samples . In contrast , a comprehensive review of the medical literature from 2011 says that no evidence of systemic absorption can be found in the literature .
Zinc oxide nanoparticles can enhance the antibacterial activity of ciprofloxacin . It has been shown that nano ZnO which has the average size between 20 nm and 45 nm can enhance the antibacterial activity of ciprofloxacin against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli in vitro . The enhancing effect of this nanomaterial is concentration dependent against all test strains . This effect may be due to two reasons . First , zinc oxide nanoparticles can interfere with NorA protein , which is developed for conferring resistance in bacteria and has pumping activity that mediate the effluxing of hydrophilic fluoroquinolones from a cell . Second , zinc oxide nanoparticles can interfere with Omf protein , which is responsible for the permeation of quinolones into the cell .
= = = Cigarette filters = = =
Zinc oxide is a constituent of cigarette filters . A filter consisting of charcoal impregnated with zinc oxide and iron oxide removes significant amounts of hydrogen cyanide ( HCN ) and hydrogen sulfide ( H2S ) from tobacco smoke without affecting its flavor .
= = = Food additive = = =
Zinc oxide is added to many food products , including breakfast cereals , as a source of zinc , a necessary nutrient . ( Zinc sulfate is also used for the same purpose . ) Some prepackaged foods also include trace amounts of ZnO even if it is not intended as a nutrient .
Zinc oxide was linked to dioxin contamination in pork exports in the 2008 Chilean pork crisis . The contamination was found to be due to dioxin contaminated zinc oxide used in pig feed .
= = = Pigment = = =
Zinc white is used as a pigment in paints and is more opaque than lithopone , but less opaque than titanium dioxide . It is also used in coatings for paper . Chinese white is a special grade of zinc white used in artists ' pigments . The use of zinc white ( zinc oxide ) as a pigment in oil painting started in the middle of 18th century . It has partly replaced the poisonous lead white and was used by painters such as Böcklin , Van Gogh , Manet , Munch and others . It is also a main ingredient of mineral makeup ( CI 77947 ) .
= = = UV absorber = = =
Micronized and nano @-@ scale zinc oxide and titanium dioxide provide strong protection against UVA ultraviolet radiation , and are used in suntan lotion , and also in UV @-@ blocking sunglasses for use in space and for protection when welding , following research by scientists at Jet Propulsion Laboratory ( JPL ) .
= = = Coatings = = =
Paints containing zinc oxide powder have long been utilized as anticorrosive coatings for metals . They are especially effective for galvanized iron . Iron is difficult to protect because its reactivity with organic coatings leads to brittleness and lack of adhesion . Zinc oxide paints retain their flexibility and adherence on such surfaces for many years .
ZnO highly n @-@ type doped with Al , Ga , or In is transparent and conductive ( transparency ~ 90 % , lowest resistivity ~ 10 − 4 Ω · cm ) . ZnO : Al coatings are used for energy @-@ saving or heat @-@ protecting windows . The coating lets the visible part of the spectrum in but either reflects the infrared ( IR ) radiation back into the room ( energy saving ) or does not let the IR radiation into the room ( heat protection ) , depending on which side of the window has the coating .
Plastics , such as polyethylene naphthalate ( PEN ) , can be protected by applying zinc oxide coating . The coating reduces the diffusion of oxygen with PEN . Zinc oxide layers can also be used on polycarbonate ( PC ) in outdoor applications . The coating protects PC from solar radiation and decreases the oxidation rate and photo @-@ yellowing of PC .
= = = Corrosion prevention in nuclear reactors = = =
Zinc oxide depleted in 64Zn ( the zinc isotope with atomic mass 64 ) is used in corrosion prevention in nuclear pressurized water reactors . The depletion is necessary , because 64Zn is transformed into radioactive 65Zn under irradiation by the reactor neutrons .
= = = Methane reforming = = =
Zinc oxide ( ZnO ) is used as a pretreatment step to remove hydrogen sulfide ( H2S ) from natural gas following hydrogenation of any sulfur compounds prior to a methane reformer , which can poison the catalyst . At temperatures between about 230 – 430 ° C ( 446 – 806 ° F ) , H2S is converted to water by the following reaction :
H2S + ZnO → H2O + ZnS
The zinc sulfide ( ZnS ) is replaced with fresh zinc oxide when the zinc oxide has been consumed .
= = Potential applications = =
= = = Electronics = = =
ZnO has wide direct band gap ( 3 @.@ 37 eV or 375 nm at room temperature ) . Therefore , its most common potential applications are in laser diodes and light emitting diodes ( LEDs ) . Some optoelectronic applications of ZnO overlap with that of GaN , which has a similar bandgap ( ~ 3 @.@ 4 eV at room temperature ) . Compared to GaN , ZnO has a larger exciton binding energy ( ~ 60 meV , 2 @.@ 4 times of the room @-@ temperature thermal energy ) , which results in bright room @-@ temperature emission from ZnO . ZnO can be combined with GaN for LED @-@ applications . For instance as transparent conducting oxide layer and ZnO nanostructures provide better light outcoupling . Other properties of ZnO favorable for electronic applications include its stability to high @-@ energy radiation and to wet chemical etching . Radiation resistance makes ZnO a suitable candidate for space applications . ZnO is the most promising candidate in the field of random lasers to produce an electronically pumped UV laser source .
The pointed tips of ZnO nanorods result in a strong enhancement of an electric field . Therefore , they can be used as field emitters .
Aluminium @-@ doped ZnO layers are used as a transparent electrodes . The constituents Zn and Al are much cheaper and less toxic compared to the generally used indium tin oxide ( ITO ) . One application which has begun to be commercially available is the use of ZnO as the front contact for solar cells or of liquid crystal displays .
Transparent thin @-@ film transistors ( TTFT ) can be produced with ZnO . As field @-@ effect transistors , they even may not need a p – n junction , thus avoiding the p @-@ type doping problem of ZnO . Some of the field @-@ effect transistors even use ZnO nanorods as conducting channels .
= = = Zinc oxide nanorod sensor = = =
Zinc oxide nanorod sensors are devices detecting changes in electric current passing through zinc oxide nanowires due to adsorption of gas molecules . Selectivity to hydrogen gas was achieved by sputtering Pd clusters on the nanorod surface . The addition of Pd appears to be effective in the catalytic dissociation of hydrogen molecules into atomic hydrogen , increasing the sensitivity of the sensor device . The sensor detects hydrogen concentrations down to 10 parts per million at room temperature , whereas there is no response to oxygen .
= = = Spintronics = = =
ZnO has also been considered for spintronics applications : if doped with 1 – 10 % of magnetic ions ( Mn , Fe , Co , V , etc . ) , ZnO could become ferromagnetic , even at room temperature . Such room temperature ferromagnetism in ZnO : Mn has been observed , but it is not clear yet whether it originates from the matrix itself or from secondary oxide phases .
= = = Piezoelectricity = = =
The piezoelectricity in textile fibers coated in ZnO have been shown capable of fabricating " self @-@ powered nanosystems " with everyday mechanical stress from wind or body movements .
In 2008 the Center for Nanostructure Characterization at the Georgia Institute of Technology reported producing an electricity generating device ( called flexible charge pump generator ) delivering alternating current by stretching and releasing zinc oxide nanowires . This mini @-@ generator creates an oscillating voltage up to 45 millivolts , converting close to seven percent of the applied mechanical energy into electricity . Researchers used wires with lengths of 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 3 mm and diameters of three to five micrometers , but the device could be scaled down to smaller size .
= = Safety = =
As a food additive , zinc oxide is on the U.S. FDA 's list of generally recognized as safe , or GRAS , substances .
Zinc oxide itself is non @-@ toxic ; however it is hazardous to inhale zinc oxide fumes , as generated when zinc or zinc alloys are melted and oxidized at high temperature . This problem occurs while melting brass because the melting point of brass is close to the boiling point of zinc . Exposure to zinc oxide in the air , which also occurs while welding galvanized ( zinc plated ) steel , can result in a nervous malady called metal fume fever . For this reason , typically galvanized steel is not welded , or the zinc is removed first .
= = Reviews = =
U. Ozgur et al . " A comprehensive review of ZnO materials and devices " ( 103 pages ) J. Appl . Phys . 98 ( 2005 ) 041301 doi : 10 @.@ 1063 / 1 @.@ 1992666
A. Bakin and A. Waag " ZnO Epitaxial Growth " ( 28 pages ) Chapter in “ Comprehensive Semiconductor Science and Technology “ 6 Volume Encyclopaedia , ELSEVIER , edited by Pallab Bhattacharya , Roberto Fornari and Hiroshi Kamimura , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 444 @-@ 53143 @-@ 8
S. Baruah and J. Dutta " Hydrothermal growth of ZnO nanostructures " ( 18 pages ) Sci . Technol . Adv. Mater . 10 ( 2009 ) 013001 doi : 10 @.@ 1088 / 1468 @-@ 6996 / 10 / 1 / 013001 ( free download )
R. Janisch et al . " Transition metal @-@ doped TiO2 and ZnO — present status of the field " ( 32 pages ) J. Phys . : Condens . Matter 17 ( 2005 ) R657 doi : 10 @.@ 1088 / 0953 @-@ 8984 / 17 / 27 / R01
Y.W. Heo et al . " ZnO nanowire growth and devices " ( 47 pages ) Mater . Sci . Eng . R 47 ( 2004 ) 1 doi : 10 @.@ 1016 / j.mser.2004.09.001
C. Klingshirn " ZnO : From basics towards applications " ( 46 pages ) Phys . Stat . Solidi ( b ) 244 ( 2007 ) 3027 doi : 10 @.@ 1002 / pssb.200743072
C. Klingshirn " ZnO : Material , Physics and Applications " ( 21 pages ) ChemPhysChem 8 ( 2007 ) 782 doi : 10 @.@ 1002 / cphc.200700002
J. G. Lu et al . " Quasi @-@ one @-@ dimensional metal oxide materials — Synthesis , properties and applications " ( 42 pages ) Mater . Sci . Eng . R 52 ( 2006 ) 49 doi : 10 @.@ 1016 / j.mser.2006.04.002
S. Xu and Z. L. Wang " One @-@ dimensional ZnO nanostructures : Solution growth and functional properties " ( 86 pages ) Nano Res. 4 ( 2011 ) 1013 doi : 10 @.@ 1007 / s12274 @-@ 011 @-@ 0160 @-@ 7
S. Xu and Z. L. Wang " Oxide nanowire arrays for light @-@ emitting diodes and piezoelectric energy harvesters " ( 28 pages ) Pure Appl . Chem . 83 ( 2011 ) 2171 doi : 10 @.@ 1351 / PAC @-@ CON @-@ 11 @-@ 08 @-@ 17
= Methoxyflurane =
Methoxyflurane ( INN ) , formerly marketed as Penthrane by Abbott Laboratories , is a halogenated ether that was in clinical use as a volatile inhalational anesthetic from its introduction by Joseph F. Artusio et al in 1960 until the late 1970s . It was first synthesized in the late 1940s by William T. Miller and his team of chemists following their involvement in the Manhattan Project .
Methoxyflurane is an extremely potent and highly lipid @-@ soluble anesthetic agent , characterized by very slow induction ( onset of action ) and emergence ( offset or dissipation ) times . It is non @-@ flammable , has relatively mild hemodynamic effects , and it does not predispose the heart to rhythm disturbances . It is , however , a significant respiratory depressant . Methoxyflurane has powerful analgesic ( pain @-@ relieving ) properties at well below full anesthetic doses . It was utilized in self @-@ administration devices for obstetric analgesia , in a manner that foreshadowed the patient @-@ controlled analgesia infusion pumps of today .
The biodegradation of methoxyflurane produces inorganic fluoride and dichloroacetic acid ( DCAA ) . The combined effects of these two compounds may be responsible for the toxicity of methoxyflurane to some of the major organs of the human body . Methoxyflurane was determined to be nephrotoxic ( damaging to the kidneys ) in a dose @-@ dependent response and hepatotoxic ( damaging to the liver ) at anesthetic doses in 1973 , and the drug was abandoned as a general anesthetic in the late 1970s . In 1999 , the manufacturer discontinued distribution of methoxyflurane in the United States and Canada , and on September 6 , 2005 , the Food and Drug Administration determined that it should be withdrawn from the market for safety concerns . It is however still used in Australia as an emergency analgesic for the initial management of pain due to acute trauma , as well as for brief painful procedures such as changing of wound dressings or for transport of injured people .
= = Medical use = =
Methoxyflurane has been extensively used since the 1970s in Australia as an emergency analgesic for short @-@ term use , mostly by the Australian and New Zealand Defence Forces , and the Australian ambulance services . The drug is currently only available from one manufacturer ( Medical Developments International , Melbourne , Victoria , Australia ) . It is self @-@ administered to children and adults using the Penthrox inhaler , a hand @-@ held inhaler device , known as " the green whistle " . A non @-@ opioid alternative to morphine , it is also easier to use than nitrous oxide . As of 2010 , methoxyflurane was listed under the Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme for the initial management of pain due to acute trauma , as well as for brief painful procedures such as changing of wound dressings or for patient transport . A portable , disposable , single @-@ use inhaler device ( the Penthrox inhaler ) , along with a single 3 milliliter brown glass vial of methoxyflurane is provided in doctor 's kits that allows conscious hemodynamically stable patients ( including children over the age of 5 years ) to self @-@ administer the drug , under supervision . The device is often referred to as the " green whistle " , due to its appearance .
Each 3 milliliter dose lasts approximately 30 minutes . Pain relief begins after 6 – 8 breaths and continues for several minutes after stopping inhalation . The maximum recommended dose is 6 milliliters per day or 15 milliliters per week because of the risk of cumulative dose @-@ related nephrotoxicity , and it should not be used on consecutive days . Despite the potential for renal impairment when used at anesthetic doses , no significant adverse effects have been reported in the literature when it is used at the lower doses ( up to 6 milliliters ) used for producing analgesia and sedation . Due to the risk of organ ( especially renal ) toxicity , methoxyflurane is contraindicated in patients with pre @-@ existing kidney disease or diabetes mellitus , and is not recommended to be administered in conjunction with tetracyclines or other potentially nephrotoxic or enzyme @-@ inducing drugs .
= = Chemical and physical properties = =
With a molecular formula of C3H4Cl2F2O and a condensed structural formula of CHCl2CF2OCH3 , the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry ( IUPAC ) name for methoxyflurane is 2 @,@ 2 @-@ dichloro @-@ 1 @,@ 1 @-@ difluoro @-@ 1 @-@ methoxyethane . It is a halogenated ether in form of a clear , colorless liquid , and its vapor has a strong fruity aroma . It is miscible with ethanol , acetone , chloroform , diethyl ether , and fixed oils . It is soluble in rubber .
With a minimum alveolar concentration ( MAC ) of 0 @.@ 2 % , methoxyflurane is an extremely potent anesthetic agent . It is a powerful analgesic agent at well below full anesthetic concentrations . Because of its low volatility and very high boiling point ( 104 @.@ 8 ° C at 1 atmosphere ) , methoxyflurane has a low vapor pressure at ambient temperature and atmospheric pressure . It is therefore quite difficult to vaporize methoxyflurane using conventional anesthetic vaporizers .
The carbon – fluorine bond , a component of all organofluorine compounds , is the strongest chemical bond in organic chemistry . Furthermore , this bond becomes shorther and stronger as more fluorine atoms are added to the same carbon on a given molecule . Because of this , fluoroalkanes are some of the most chemically stable organic compounds .
= = Pharmacokinetics = =
Methoxyflurane has a very high lipid solubility ( oil : gas partition coefficient of around 950 ) , which gives it very slow pharmacokinetics ( induction and emergence characteristics ) ; this being undesirable for routine application in the clinical setting . Initial studies performed in 1961 revealed that in unpremedicated healthy individuals , induction of general anesthesia with methoxyflurane @-@ oxygen alone or with nitrous oxide was difficult or even impossible using the vaporizers available at that time . It was found to be necessary to administer an intravenous anesthetic agent such as sodium thiopental to ensure a smooth and rapid induction . It was further found that after thiopental induction , it was necessary to administer nitrous oxide for at least ten minutes before a sufficient amount of methoxyflurane could accumulate in the bloodstream to ensure an adequate level of anesthesia . This was despite using high flow ( liters / minute ) of nitrous oxide and oxygen , and with the vaporizers delivering the maximum possible concentration of methoxyflurane .
Similar to its induction pharmacokinetics , methoxyflurane has very slow and somewhat unpredictable emergence characteristics . During initial clinical studies in 1961 , the average time to emergence after discontinuation of methoxyflurane was 59 minutes after administration of methoxyflurane for an average duration of 87 minutes . The longest time to emergence was 285 minutes , after 165 minutes of methoxyflurane administration .
= = Pharmacodynamics = =
Cardiovascular effects
The effects of methoxyflurane on the circulatory system resemble those of diethyl ether . In dogs , methoxyflurane anesthesia causes a moderate decrease in blood pressure with minimal changes in heart rate , and no significant effect on blood sugar , epinephrine , or norepinephrine . Bleeding and increased arterial partial pressure of carbon dioxide ( PaCO2 ) both induce further decreases in blood pressure , as well as increases in blood glucose , epinephrine and norepinephrine . In humans , methoxyflurane produces some decrease in blood pressure , but cardiac output , stroke volume , and total peripheral resistance are only minimally depressed . Its effect on the pulmonary circulation is negligible , and it does not predispose the heart to cardiac dysrhythmias .
Respiratory effects
Unlike diethyl ether , methoxyflurane is a significant respiratory depressant . In dogs , methoxyflurane causes a dose @-@ dependent decrease in respiratory rate and a marked decrease in respiratory minute volume , with a relatively mild decrease in tidal volume . In humans , methoxyflurane causes a dose @-@ dependent decrease in tidal volume and minute volume , with respiratory rate relatively constant . The net effect of these changes is profound respiratory depression , as evidenced by CO2 retention with a concomitant decrease in arterial pH ( this is referred to as a respiratory acidosis ) when anesthetized subjects are allowed to breathe spontaneously for any length of time .
Gastrointestinal effects
In a series of 500 consecutive obstetric patients , Boisvert and Hudon observed vomiting in 12 ( 4 @.@ 8 % ) patients during or after administration of methoxyflurane anesthesia . These findings compared favorably with those reported for cyclopropane ( 42 % ) , trichloroethylene ( 28 % ) and halothane ( 4 @.@ 6 % ) . In another study of 645 obstetric patients , Romagnoli and Korman observed 8 cases ( 1 @.@ 2 % ) of postoperative vomiting , one of whom was retching before the administration of the anesthetic .
Analgesic effects
Although the high blood solubility of methoxyflurane is often undesirable , this property makes it useful in certain situations — it persists in the lipid compartment of the body for a long time , providing sedation and analgesia well into the postoperative period . There is substantial data to indicate that methoxyflurane is an effective analgesic and sedative agent at subanesthetic doses . Supervised self @-@ administration of methoxyflurane in children and adults can briefly lead to deep sedation , and it has been used as a patient controlled analgesic for painful procedures in children in hospital emergency departments . During childbirth , administration of methoxyflurane produces significantly better analgesia , less psychomotor agitation , and only slightly more somnolence than trichloroethylene .
In 1968 , Robert Wexler of Abbott Laboratories developed the Analgizer , a disposable inhaler that allowed the self @-@ administration of methoxyflurane vapor in air for analgesia . The Analgizer consisted of a polyethylene cylinder 5 inches long and 1 inch in diameter with a 1 inch long mouthpiece . The device contained a rolled wick of polypropylene felt which held 15 milliliters of methoxyflurane . Because of the simplicity of the Analgizer and the pharmacological characteristics of methoxyflurane , it was easy for patients to self @-@ administer the drug and rapidly achieve a level of conscious analgesia which could be maintained and adjusted as necessary over a period of time lasting from a few minutes to several hours . The 15 milliliter supply of methoxyflurane would typically last for two to three hours , during which time the user would often be partly amnesic to the sense of pain ; the device could be refilled if necessary . The Analgizer was found to be safe , effective , and simple to administer in obstetric patients during childbirth , as well as for patients with bone fractures and joint dislocations , and for dressing changes on burn patients . When used for labor analgesia , the Analgizer allows labor to progress normally and with no apparent adverse effect on Apgar scores . All vital signs remain normal in obstetric patients , newborns , and injured patients . The Analgizer was widely utilized for analgesia and sedation until the early 1970s , in a manner that foreshadowed the patient @-@ controlled analgesia infusion pumps of today . The Analgizer inhaler was withdrawn in 1974 , but use of methoxyflurane as a sedative and analgesic continues in Australia and New Zealand in the form of the Penthrox inhaler . Trials of methoxyflurane as an analgesic in emergency medicine are going on in the UK .
= = Biodegradation and toxicity = =
The first report of nephrotoxicity appeared in 1964 , when Paddock and colleagues reported three cases of acute renal insufficiency , two of whom were found to have calcium oxalate crystals in the renal tubules at autopsy . In 1966 , Crandell and colleagues reported a series in which 17 / 95 ( 18 % ) of patients developed an unusual type of nephropathy after operations in which methoxyflurane was used as a general anesthetic . This particular type of renal insufficiency was characterized by vasopressin @-@ resistant high @-@ output renal failure ( production of large volumes of poorly concentrated urine ) with a negative fluid balance , pronounced weight loss , elevation of serum sodium , chloride , osmolality and blood urea nitrogen . The urine of these patients was of a relatively fixed specific gravity and an osmolality very similar to that of the serum . Furthermore , the high urine output persisted a challenge test of fluid deprivation . Most cases resolved within 2 – 3 weeks , but evidence of renal dysfunction persisted for more than one year in 3 of these 17 cases ( 18 % ) , and more than two years in one case ( 6 % ) .
Reports of severe and even fatal hepatotoxicity related to the use of methoxyflurane began to appear in 1966 . These reports prompted anesthesiologists to subject this agent to intense and systematic scrutiny . A study published in 1973 by Cousins and Mazze demonstrated that compared with halothane , methoxyflurane produces dose @-@ dependent and deleterious abnormalities in renal function . The authors showed that subclinical nephrotoxicity occurred following methoxyflurane at minimum alveolar concentration ( MAC ) for 2 @.@ 5 to 3 hours ( 2 @.@ 5 to 3 MAC hours ) , while overt toxicity was present in all patients at dosages greater than five MAC hours . This landmark study provided a model that would be used for the assessment of the nephrotoxicity of volatile anesthetics for the next two decades .
The biodegradation of methoxyflurane begins immediately after the onset of exposure . The kidney and liver toxicity observed after anesthetic doses is attributable to one or more metabolites produced by O @-@ demethylation of methoxyflurane . Significant products of this catabolic process include methoxyfluoroacetic acid ( MFAA ) , dichloroacetic acid ( DCAA ) , and inorganic fluoride . Methoxyflurane nephrotoxicity is dose dependent and irreversible , resulting from O @-@ demethylation of methoxyflurane to fluoride and DCAA . This effect is so predictable and reproducible that methoxyflurane now serves as a pharmacologic model of fluoride @-@ related nephrotoxicity , one with which newer drugs are compared . It is not entirely clear whether the fluoride itself is toxic — it may simply be a surrogate measure for some other toxic metabolite . The concurrent formation of inorganic fluoride and DCAA is unique to methoxyflurane biotransformation compared with other volatile anesthetics , and this combination is more toxic than fluoride alone . This may explain why fluoride formation from methoxyflurane is associated with nephrotoxicity , while fluoride formation from other volatile anesthetics ( such as enflurane and sevoflurane ) is not . Furthermore , the concurrent use of tetracyclines and methoxyflurane has been reported to result in fatal renal toxicity .
Based on the findings of these and other studies in the early 1970s , the current consensus is that the use of methoxyflurane should be restricted only to healthy individuals , in situations where it offers specific advantages and even then , only at dosages less than 2 @.@ 5 MAC hours . Partly because of these warnings , but also because of the development of newer volatile anesthetics such as enflurane , isoflurane , desflurane and sevoflurane , the clinical use of methoxyflurane as a general anesthetic in humans was largely abandoned in the mid @-@ 1970s .
The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health maintains a recommended exposure limit for methoxyflurane as waste anesthetic gas of 2 ppm ( 13 @.@ 5 mg / m3 ) over 60 minutes .
= = History = =
All of the currently used volatile anesthetic agents are organofluorine compounds . Aside from the synthesis of Freon ( Thomas Midgley , Jr. and Charles F. Kettering , 1928 ) and the discovery of Teflon ( Roy J. Plunkett , 1938 ) , the field of organofluorine chemistry had not attracted a great deal of attention up to 1940 because of the extreme reactivity of elemental fluorine , which had to be produced in situ for use in chemical reactions . The development of organofluorine chemistry was a spin @-@ off from the Manhattan Project , during which elemental fluorine was produced on an industrial scale for the first time .
The need for fluorine arose from the need to separate the isotope235U from 238U because the former , present in natural uranium at a concentration of less than 1 % is fissile ( capable of sustaining a nuclear chain reaction of nuclear fission with thermal neutrons ) , whereas the latter is not . Members of the MAUD Committee ( especially Francis Simon and Nicholas Kurti ) proposed the use of gaseous diffusion for isotope separation , since , according to Graham 's law the rate of diffusion is inversely proportional to molecular mass . After an extensive search , uranium hexafluoride , UF6 , was determined to be the most suitable compound of uranium to be used for the gaseous diffusion process . Elemental fluorine is needed in the production of UF6 .
Significant obstacles had to be overcome in the handling of both fluorine and UF6 . Before the K @-@ 25 gaseous diffusion plant could be built , it was first necessary to develop non @-@ reactive chemical compounds that could be used as coatings , lubricants and gaskets for the surfaces which would come into contact with the UF6 gas ( a highly reactive and corrosive substance ) . William T. Miller , professor of organic chemistry at Cornell University , was co @-@ opted to develop such materials , because of his expertise in organofluorine chemistry . Miller and his team developed several novel non @-@ reactive chlorofluorocarbon polymers that were used in this application .
Charles Suckling synthesized halothane in 1951 . Halothane was the first organofluorine anesthetic agent to be introduced into clinical practice in 1956 . Miller and his team continued to develop organofluorine chemistry after the end of World War II and methoxyflurane was synthesized in 1948 .
= The List ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" The List " is the fifth episode of the third season of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files television series . It was first broadcast in the United States on the Fox network on October 20 , 1995 . " The List " was written and directed by series creator Chris Carter . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , a stand @-@ alone plot which is unconnected to the series ' larger mythology . " The List " received a Nielson household rating of 10 @.@ 8 , being watched by 16 @.@ 72 million people on its initial broadcast , and received mixed to positive reviews from critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . In this episode , Mulder and Scully investigate a case where a death row inmate declares that he will be reincarnated and that as a result five men will die .
" The List " was written and directed by Carter after the success of the second season entry " Duane Barry " . The art department of The X @-@ Files were tasked with creating a death row set quickly , a feat which eventually caused the episode to go over budget . Several sequences necessitated the use of real maggots , a turn of events that was not popular with the cast , most notably with Anderson . " The List " later was nominated — and won — several International Monitor Awards .
= = Plot = =
Napoleon " Neech " Manley ( Badja Djola ) , a death row inmate at a Florida prison , is brought to the electric chair . Before he is executed , Neech proclaims that he will be reincarnated and avenge himself against five men who tormented him in prison .
Shortly after the execution , Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) are brought in to investigate when a prison guard is mysteriously found dead in Neech 's cell . The agents meet the prison 's warden , Brodeur ( J. T. Walsh ) , who believes that Neech planned the guard 's murder with someone on the outside before the execution . John Speranza , another inmate , believes that Neech has returned . When Scully explores the prison 's showers , she meets another guard named Vincent Parmelly ( Ken Foree ) . He claims that another prisoner , Roque ( Bokeem Woodbine ) , is keeping a list of the remaining four victims .
Later , the head of another guard , Fornier , is found inside a paint can . An examination of the head shows the premature appearance of larvae . The prison coroner tells Scully that the first guard 's lungs were completely infested with the larvae , belonging to the green bottle fly . Meanwhile , Mulder talks to Roque , who wants a transfer out of the prison in exchange for revealing the remaining three people on the list . Brodeur later finds Fornier 's headless body in his office . While searching Neech 's cell , Mulder discovers evidence of his obsession with reincarnation . Scully , of course , is skeptical . They later talk to Neech 's fearful widow , Danielle Manley ( April Grace ) , who is secretly seeing Parmelly . Roque is brought to the showers , where he is beaten to death by Brodeur after revealing he is the fifth person on the list .
Brodeur puts the prison under lockdown and tells Mulder that Neech had a violent history with all three victims . Mulder believes that Neech came back for revenge against the guards , but doubts that Roque was on the list . He requests that he be provided with the name of Neech 's executioner , who turns out to be a volunteer named Perry Simon . The agents arrive at Simon 's home to discover his decomposing body in the attic . Mulder confronts Speranza about the list , but Speranza only tells him that Roque was not on it . He claims to have seen Neech " big as life " outside of his cell . Based on phone records , Scully theorizes that Neech 's lawyer , Danny Charez , may have engineered the murders with Speranza . The agents interview Charez , who tells them about Danielle 's relationship with Parmelly ; after they leave , Charez is suffocated by a resurrected Neech .
Brodeur visits Speranza in his cell , and offers to have his death sentence commuted in exchange for stopping the murders . Speranza takes the offer . That night , Parmelly visits Danielle , who has become agitated since Mulder and Scully have begun staking out her house . The agents now suspect Parmelly to be behind the murders and leave to notify Brodeur , who asks that Parmelly be arrested . Soon afterward , Danielle wakes up to see Neech by her bed . She grabs her gun and confronts Parmelly , thinking he is Neech 's resurrected form . The agents and a police task force arrive to see her shoot and kill Parmelly . Meanwhile , Brodeur — assuming that Charez and Parmelly were on the list — thinks Speranza has reneged on their deal and has him taken to the showers . Before Brodeur kills him , Speranza claims that one person remains on the list .
Parmelly is blamed for the murders . The agents start to leave Florida , but Mulder soon pulls over . He remains frustrated , since Parmelly was on @-@ duty during only one murder , and was not one of the three men who knew Perry Simon 's confidential identity . He also points out inconsistencies in the actions of Parmelly and Roque , who was also assumed to be part of the plot . Mulder believes that Parmelly was not responsible for the deaths , and that Neech had indeed been reincarnated to enact his revenge . However , Scully convinces Mulder that the case is over , and that they should return home . Just then , Brodeur passes them in his car . Looking in his rear view mirror , he sees Neech , who attacks Brodeur and causes his car to crash into a tree , claiming his last victim .
= = Production = =
The episode was written and directed by series creator Chris Carter , his second directorial endeavor after the second season entry " Duane Barry " . The art department of The X @-@ Files were tasked with creating a " convincing " death row set " out of thin air " . The set took 10 days to build , making it one of the most complicated jobs for the show 's staff during the season . Due to the construction of the prison set , the episode ended up going over budget . However , the set was used again later in the season in " Teso Dos Bichos " and " Talitha Cumi " . The set was also rented out to other productions in Vancouver , Canada .
Real maggots were used during many of the scenes , which were described by Gillian Anderson as being the hardest animals to work with on the show . The show 's special effects producers were unable to create a full body replica of the first victim in time , requiring him to lay on an autopsy table with makeup applied while the maggots were poured on to him . Rice was used in place of the maggots during some of the scenes . The car crash at the end of the entry was described by stunt coordinator Tony Morelli as the most harrowing action sequence during the show 's third season . To give the episode a different look the producers applied a green palatte to the film in post @-@ production .
The executioner , Perry Simon , was named after an NBC executive producer that writer and director Chris Carter knew . The part was played by an uncredited Bruce Pinard . Joseph Patrick Finn , one of the show 's producers , played the prison chaplain .
= = Reception = =
" The List " premiered on the Fox network in the United States on October 20 , 1995 . The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 8 , with a 19 share , meaning that roughly 10 @.@ 8 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 19 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was watched by a total of 16 @.@ 72 million viewers , and was later nominated for several International Monitor Awards , including nominations for best director , best editing , and best color correction . " The List " later won the award for best director . Story editor Frank Spotnitz said of the episode , " I think this is a vastly underrated episode . I also think it was a very brave and different show to do and that it will weather the test of time very well . I think it was brave because there is not a single likable character - nobody you can root for . Mulder and Scully do not solve the case , and that is something I had been interested in doing for some time . " Chris Carter was nominated for an award by the Directors Guild of America for his work on this episode .
" The List " received mixed to positive reviews from television critics . Entertainment Weekly gave " The List " a B + , describing it as " standard but well executed " . Zack Handlen , writing for The A.V. Club , had mixed feelings about it , ultimately rating it a B- . He felt that " The List " embodied a bland stand @-@ alone X @-@ Files episode for its underdeveloped concept and script , with " attempts at drama " that had no depth , and " sideplots [ that ] have so little effect on the main narrative as to be basically padding " . Handlen however praised the cinematography and art direction , the performances of both Ken Foree and J.T. Walsh , and the final scene , but ultimately considered that " once you get past the set @-@ design and cinematography , you end up with some good lines and a few scary moments , and that 's it . "
Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode two stars out of four . She praised Carter 's directing , but felt that the story suffered in comparison to the second season 's " Duane Barry " , also written and directed by Carter , which was better at " unsettling ambiguity " . She felt that there were too many characters for the audience to get to know them , and the lack of resolution would leave the audience " utterly frustrated " . Other reviews were more critical . Author Phil Farrand wrote negatively of the episode , calling it his third least favorite episode of the first four seasons in his book The Nitpickers Guide to the X @-@ Files . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five . The two positively critiqued Carter 's directing , calling the entry " good looking " and noting that it was " a decidedly grisly hour of television . " However , they derided the plot and called it " barely cooked " , writing that the characters that are killed are wholly one @-@ dimensional and are not fleshed out .
= Garden City High School ( Kansas ) =
Garden City High School ( known locally as GCHS ) is a fully accredited high school , serving students in grades 9 – 12 , located in Garden City , Kansas , USA . Garden City High School ( GCHS ) is the only high school within the city limits of Garden City , KS . The school colors are brown and white , although gold is generally considered a third unofficial color . Approximately 2 @,@ 000 students are enrolled for the 2014 @-@ 2015 school year . The current principal is James Mireles .
Garden City High was founded in 1910 on the site that is now Sabine Hall in order to help educate the increasing population of Garden City . In 1917 , a new high school was constructed at the site that is now known as Calkins Hall and two years later , the school was renamed " Sequoayah High School " . In 1954 , the school moved to its previous location , and on November 4 , 2008 , a bond issue for a new $ 95 million high school was passed . The first class to graduate from the current high school was the Class of 2013 .
Garden City is a member of the Kansas State High School Activities Association and offers a variety of sports programs . Athletic teams compete in Class 6A and are known as the " Buffaloes " . Extracurricular activities are also offered in the form of performing arts , school publications , and clubs . Despite rapidly rising numbers of English as a Second Language students , Garden City High School has raised student achievement in reading , mathematics and science . The school newspaper , The Sugar Beet , was established in 1910 and is the oldest high school newspaper in the state of Kansas .
= = History = =
= = = Early beginnings = = =
The first high school in Garden City that would eventually become Garden City High School was established in 1910 on the location that is now Sabine Hall in order to educate a rapidly increasing population . During the school 's inaugural year , the school newspaper , The Sugar Beet , was established . In 1913 , the high school was accredited by the North Central Association . In 1916 , the Garden City School Board set a minimum teaching standard of one year of college and two years of teaching experience for all staff members , and a year later , the high school was accredited by the U.S. Military Academy . Later that year , a new high school was constructed at the site that is now known as Calkins Hall . Two years later , the high school was renamed " Sequoyah High School " . The Board of Education approved night school in 1920 and summer school was approved the following year . In 1926 , vocational home economics was started and in 1927 , the Board established a maximum for teaching of two years of college and two years of experience . Calkins Hall was remodeled in 1929 and 15 credits were now required for graduation . This number was increased to 16 credits in 1931 when the high school was renamed " Garden City High School " . During this time , the main gym was named in honor of Ben Grimsley and was known as the " Ben Grimsley Gymnasium " . The hot lunch program began in 1938 .
As years passed , the athletics department began to experience moderate success , and in 1945 , Garden City won its first state championship in track as well as repeating the feat in 1946 . A new high school was constructed in 1954 , with the auditorium being completed the following year . The graduation credit limit was increased further to 19 credits in 1958 . Garden City High School experienced many changes in 1959 , including the creation of the counseling and honors programs . Another major change was the introduction of school uniforms .
= = = 1960s to 1980s = = =
In 1961 , the main gymnasium ( referred to as " The Garden " ) was completed . The football stadium was constructed in 1962 which was one of the largest stadiums in western Kansas at the time . Two years later , Garden City finally experienced unification as Garden City District No. 1 became Unified School District No. 457 . During this same year , the football stadium was renamed " Memorial Stadium " . As interest in athletics grew throughout Garden City , so did the athletic departments . Cross @-@ country was introduced in 1966 and the men 's basketball team won their first state championship . Eight trailers were also purchased for use in the remedial reading program . Two years later , GCHS experienced major renovations and expansion as the J.D. Adams Vocational Building was constructed and other high school remodeling was completed . The population of Garden City at this time was 14 @,@ 745 . The following year , an agreement was signed between the JUCO and the district relative to the exchange of the former junior college site for senior high vocational building space and other specified district facilities used by the college . The wrestling and debate teams each won their first state titles in 1971 . Restrooms facilities were also constructed during this year . The men 's basketball team advanced to the state championship the following year . In 1974 , math requirements for graduation increased to 1 ½ credits which became effective with the 1978 graduating class . An addition to the music department was completed in September 1975 , allowing more students to participate in a wide variety of musical activities and programs . Garden City would win its first state championship in men 's golf in 1977 and progress continued throughout the rest of the decade . The practice gym and locker rooms were added in 1981 . In 1984 , an idea was conceived among administrators and board members of the school district to recognize past graduates of GCHS who had gone on to distinguish themselves through outstanding accomplishments . This idea was brought into action the following spring , when the first members of the Garden City High School Hall of Fame were inducted . The Buffalo athletics programs struggled throughout the rest of the decade , failing to win a single state championship .
= = = 1990s = = =
The 1990s began with progress and changes . In 1991 , J.D. Adams Hall was remodeled and 9th grade was moved to the high school . The Buffaloes wrestling team would win state championships in 1990 and the following three years . In 1992 , the new cafeteria was completed and the alternative high school was moved to 1401 W. Jones Street . Dr. Milton Pippenger was appointed superintendent in 1993 and a new enclosed walkway was constructed . Another major addition was constructed which would eventually be used as the trophy room . The city population at this time was 24 @,@ 964 . In 1998 , the school district unsuccessfully attempted to pass a bond issue calling for a new high school . In terms of athletics , the Buffaloes continued their dominance throughout the rest of the decade . The wrestling program added two more state championships in 1998 and 1999 , while the men 's golf team won a state title in 1998 . Additionally , the football team finished state runner @-@ up in 1998 and won their first state championship in 1999 .
Sabine Hall was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1996 , with the alternative name , Garden City High School .
= = = 21st century = = =
Throughout the 2000s , GCHS experienced many significant changes . In the fall of 2003 , James Mireles became the new principal , replacing former principal Kevin Burr . The men 's basketball team advanced to the state semi @-@ final in 2003 with the help of several future collegiate athletes . The following year , artificial turf was installed at Memorial Stadium . The Garden City Public Schools Foundation was founded in 2004 . In 2006 , an open @-@ air courtyard located at the center of the previous high school was enclosed and replaced with an atrium to increase space for lunchtime seating and activities . A new pressbox and visitor stands were constructed in 2007 .
On November 4 , 2008 , a bond issue for a new $ 95 million high school was passed . Groundbreaking for the new high school took place on September 23 , 2009 , and construction was completed on April 1 , 2012 at $ 7 million under budget . As a result , the school board approved construction of a $ 975 @,@ 000 ticket / concession / restroom and storage building . This also allowed the asphalt parking to be changed to concrete and for adding artificial turf to the football field , which saves on future maintenance costs . Installation of the football field 's turf was completed in September 2011 . In early 2012 , the Board of Education approved a 1 @-@ 1 initiative , providing every student with an iPad . In 2012 , GCHS was selected as one of 314 Blue Ribbon Schools nationwide . The Blue Ribbon Award recognizes public and private schools which perform at high levels or have made significant academic improvements . In addition , principal James Mireles was honored with the Terrel H. Bell Award for Outstanding Leadership .
= = Academics = =
Garden City High School operates on an 8 : 10 a.m. to 3 : 20 p.m. schedule , which includes an eight period block schedule ( 4 classes one day , 4 classes the next ) and a staggered 4 shift lunch schedule . Additionally , a mentoring period is offered which allows students to work on homework .
There are four academies at the high school ; School of Trade and Health Sciences , Academy of Arts and Communications , Academy of Public Service and the Ninth Grade Academy . Each career academy has teachers from different subjects , who combine their efforts as a means of integrating academic and technical curriculum . Students are able to participate in different academies each year , with the ultimate purpose of better preparing them for college and careers than traditional educational systems .
Despite rapidly rising numbers of English as a Second Language students , Garden City High School has raised student achievement in reading , mathematics and science . Even with a more rigorous curriculum and higher graduation requirements , the dropout rate fell from 15 percent in 1993 – 1994 to 3 @.@ 4 percent in 2003 – 2004 and the attendance rate rose from 89 percent to 96 percent . In 2009 , 18 students earned top rankings in the Spanish National Exams sponsored by the American Association of Teachers of Spanish and Portuguese . In 2012 , GCHS was selected as one of 314 Blue Ribbon Schools nationwide .
Currently , Garden City requires students to complete 26 ½ credits in order to graduate | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
months .
In the early months of 1914 , Holloway made his first visit to the US and then went to Buenos Aires and Valparaíso with the concert party The Grotesques . At the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914 , he decided to return to the UK , but his departure was delayed for six weeks due to his contract with the troupe . At the age of 25 , Holloway enlisted in the Connaught Rangers . In December 1915 he was commissioned as a subaltern because of his previous training as a private in the London Rifle Brigade . He was stationed in Cork and initially fought against Sinn Féin during the Easter Rising of 1916 . Later that year , he was sent to France , where he fought in the trenches alongside Michael O 'Leary , who later won the Victoria Cross for gallantry . Holloway and O 'Leary stayed in touch after the war , becoming close friends .
Holloway spent much of his time in the later part of the war organising shows to boost troop morale in France . One such revue , Wear That Ribbon , was performed in honour of O 'Leary 's winning the VC . Holloway , along with Henson and his newly established Star Attractions concert party , entertained the British troops in Wimereux . The party included such performers as Jack Buchanan , Eric Blore , Binnie Hale and Phyllis Dare , as well as the performers who would later form The Co @-@ Optimists . Upon his return from France , Holloway joined a Yorkshire regiment in Hartlepool and immediately after the war ended he starred in The Disorderly Room with Leslie Henson , which Eric Blore had written while serving in the South Wales Borderers . It toured theatres on England 's south coast , including Walton @-@ on @-@ the @-@ Naze and Clacton @-@ on @-@ Sea .
= = = = Inter @-@ war years = = = =
On being demobilised on 1 May 1919 , Holloway returned to London and resumed his singing and acting career , finding success in two West End musicals at the Winter Garden Theatre . Later that month , he created the role of Captain Wentworth in Guy Bolton and P. G. Wodehouse 's Kissing Time , followed in 1920 by the role of René in A Night Out . Following its provincial success , The Disorderly Room was given a West End production at the Victoria Palace Theatre in late 1919 , in which Holloway starred alongside Henson and Tom Walls . Holloway made his film debut in a 1921 silent comedy called The Rotters .
From June 1921 , Holloway had considerable success in The Co @-@ Optimists , a concert party formed with performers whom he had met during the war in France , which The Times called " an all @-@ star ' pierrot ' entertainment in the West @-@ end . " It opened at the small Royalty Theatre and soon transferred to the much larger Palace Theatre , where the initial version of the show ran for over a year , giving more than 500 performances . The entertainment was completely rewritten at regular intervals to keep it fresh , and the final edition , beginning in November 1926 , was the 13th version . The Co @-@ Optimists closed in 1927 at His Majesty 's Theatre after 1 @,@ 568 performances over eight years . In 1929 , a feature film version was made , with Holloway rejoining his former co @-@ stars .
In 1923 Holloway established himself as a BBC Radio performer . The early BBC broadcasts brought variety and classical artists together , and Holloway could be heard in the same programme as the cellist John Barbirolli or the Band of the Scots Guards . He developed his solo act throughout the 1920s while continuing his involvement with the musical theatre and The Co @-@ Optimists . In 1924 he made his first gramophone discs , recording for HMV two songs from The Co @-@ Optimists : " London Town " and " Memory Street " . After The Co @-@ Optimists disbanded in 1927 , Holloway played at the London Hippodrome in Vincent Youmans 's musical comedy Hit the Deck as Bill Smith , a performance judged by The Times to be " invested with many shrewd touches of humanity " . In The Manchester Guardian , Ivor Brown praised him for a singing style " which coaxes the ear rather than clubbing the head . "
Holloway began regularly performing monologues , both on stage and on record , in 1928 , with his own creation , Sam Small , in Sam , Sam , Pick oop thy Musket . Over the following years , he recorded more than 20 monologues based around the character , most of which he wrote himself . He created Sam Small after Henson had returned from a tour of northern England and told him a story about an insubordinate old soldier from the Battle of Waterloo . Holloway developed the character , naming him after a Cockney friend of Henson called Annie Small ; the name Sam was chosen at random . Holloway adopted a northern accent for the character . The Times commented , " For absolute delight ... there is nothing to compare with Mr. Stanley Holloway 's monologue , concerning a military contretemps on the eve of Waterloo ... perfect , even to the curled moustache and the Lancashire accent of the stubborn Guardsman hero . "
In 1929 Holloway played another leading role in musical comedy , Lieutenant Richard Manners in Song of the Sea , and later that year he performed in the revue Coo @-@ ee , with Billy Bennett , Dorothy Dickson and Claude Hulbert . When The Co @-@ Optimists re @-@ formed in 1930 , he rejoined that company , now at the Savoy Theatre , and at the same venue appeared in Savoy Follies in 1931 , where he introduced to London audiences the monologue The Lion and Albert . The monologue was written by Marriott Edgar , who based the story on a news item about a boy who was eaten by a lion in the zoo . In the monologue , Mr. and Mrs. Ramsbottom react in a measured way when their son Albert is swallowed . Neither Edgar nor Holloway was convinced that the piece would succeed , but needing material for an appearance at a Northern Rugby League dinner Holloway decided to perform it . It was well received , and Holloway introduced it into his stage act . Subsequently , Edgar wrote 16 monologues for him . In its obituary of Holloway , The Times wrote that Sam and Albert " became part of English folklore during the 1930s , and they remained so during the Second World War . " These monologues employed the Holloway style that has been called " the understated look @-@ on @-@ the @-@ bright @-@ side world of the cockney working class . ... Holloway 's characters are [ mischievous , like Albert , or ] obstinate , and hilariously clueless . He often told his stories in costume ; sporting outrageous attire and bushy moustaches . "
Beginning in 1934 , Holloway appeared in a series of British films , three of which featured his creation Sam Small . He started his association with the filmmakers Ealing Studios in 1934 , appearing in the fifth Gracie Fields picture Sing As We Go . His other films from the 1930s included Squibs ( 1935 ) and The Vicar of Bray ( 1937 ) . In December 1934 , Holloway made his first appearance in pantomime , playing Abanazar in Aladdin . In his first season in the part , he was overshadowed by his co @-@ star , Sir Henry Lytton , as the Emperor , but he quickly became established as a favourite in his role , playing it in successive years in Leeds , London , Edinburgh and Manchester .
= = = = Second World War and post @-@ war = = = =
On the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939 Holloway was 49 , too old for active service . Instead , he made his contribution in short propaganda pieces for the British Film Institute and Pathé News . He narrated documentaries aimed at lifting morale in war @-@ torn Britain , including Albert 's Savings ( 1940 ) , written by Marriott Edgar and featuring the character Albert Ramsbottom , and Worker and Warfront No.8 ( 1943 ) , with a script written by E. C. Bentley about a worker who neglects to have an injury examined and contracts blood poisoning . Both films were included on a 2007 Imperial War Museum DVD Britain 's Home Front at War : Words for Battle .
On stage during the war years , Holloway appeared in revues , first Up and Doing , with Henson , Binnie Hale and Cyril Ritchard in 1940 and 1941 , and then Fine and Dandy , with Henson , Dorothy Dickson , Douglas Byng and Graham Payn . In both shows , Holloway presented new monologues , and The Times thought a highlight of Fine and Dandy was a parody of the BBC radio programme The Brains Trust , with Holloway " ponderously anecdotal " and Henson " gigglingly omniscient " .
In 1941 Holloway took a character part in Gabriel Pascal 's film of Bernard Shaw 's Major Barbara , in which he played a policeman . He had leading parts in later films , including The Way Ahead ( 1944 ) , This Happy Breed ( 1944 ) and The Way to the Stars ( 1945 ) . After the war , he played Albert Godby in Brief Encounter and had a cameo role as the First Gravedigger in Laurence Olivier 's 1948 film of Hamlet . In 1951 Holloway played the same role on the stage to the Hamlet of Alec Guinness . For Pathé News , he delivered the commentary for documentaries in a series called Time To Remember , where he narrated over old newsreels from significant dates in history from 1915 to 1942 . Holloway also starred in a series of films for Ealing Studios , beginning with Champagne Charlie in 1944 alongside Tommy Trinder . After that he made Nicholas Nickleby ( 1947 ) and Another Shore ( 1948 ) . He next appeared in three of the most famous Ealing Comedies , Passport to Pimlico ( 1949 ) , The Lavender Hill Mob ( 1951 ) and The Titfield Thunderbolt ( 1953 ) . His final film with the studio was Meet Mr. Lucifer ( 1953 ) .
In 1948 Holloway toured for six months in Australia around Melbourne and in New Zealand supported by the band leader Billy Mayerl . He made his Australian début at The Tivoli Theatre , Melbourne , and recorded television appearances to publicise the forthcoming release of Passport to Pimlico . Holloway wrote the monologue Albert Down Under especially for the tour .
= = = = 1950s and 1960s stage and screen = = = =
In 1954 Holloway joined the Old Vic theatre company to play Bottom in A Midsummer Night 's Dream , with Robert Helpmann as Oberon and Moira Shearer as Titania . After playing at the Edinburgh Festival , the Royal Shakespeare Company took the production to New York , where it played at the Metropolitan Opera House and then on tour of the US and Canada . The production was harshly reviewed by critics on both sides of the Atlantic , but Holloway made a strong impression . Holloway said of the experience : " Out of the blue I was asked by the Royal Shakespeare Company to tour America with them , playing Bottom . ... From that American tour came the part of Alfred Doolittle in My Fair Lady and from then on , well , just let 's say I was able to pick and choose my parts and that was very pleasant at my age . " Holloway 's film career continued simultaneously with his stage work ; one example was the 1956 comedy Jumping for Joy . American audiences became familiar with his earlier film roles when the films began to be broadcast on television in the 1950s .
In 1956 Holloway created the role of Alfred P. Doolittle in the original Broadway production of My Fair Lady . The librettist , Alan Jay Lerner , remembered in his memoirs that Holloway was his first choice for the role , even before it was written . Lerner 's only concern was whether , after so long away from the musical stage , Holloway still had his resonant singing voice . Holloway reassured him over a lunch at Claridge 's : Lerner recalled , " He put down his knife and fork , threw back his head and unleashed a strong baritone note that resounded through the dining room , drowned out the string quartet and sent a few dozen people off to the osteopath to have their necks untwisted . " Holloway had a long association with the show , appearing in the original 1956 Broadway production at the Mark Hellinger Theatre , the 1958 London version at the Theatre Royal , Drury Lane , and the film version in 1964 , which he undertook instead of the role of Admiral Bloom in Mary Poppins that he had been offered the same year . In The Manchester Guardian , Alistair Cooke wrote , " Stanley Holloway distils into the body of Doolittle the taste and smell of every pub in England . " Also in 1964 , he appeared as Bellomy in the Hallmark Hall of Fame television production of The Fantasticks .
Looking back in 2004 , Holloway 's biographer Eric Midwinter wrote , " With his cockney authenticity , his splendid baritone voice , and his wealth of comedy experience , he made a great success of this role , and , as he said , it put him ' bang on top of the heap , in demand ' again at a time when , in his mid @-@ sixties , his career was beginning to wane " . His performances earned him a Tony Award nomination for Best Featured Actor in a Musical and an Academy Award nomination for Best Actor in a Supporting Role . Following his success on Broadway , Holloway played Pooh @-@ Bah in a 1960 US television Bell Telephone Hour production of The Mikado , produced by the veteran Gilbert and Sullivan performer Martyn Green . Holloway appeared with Groucho Marx and Helen Traubel of the Metropolitan Opera . His notable films around this time included Alive and Kicking in 1959 , co @-@ starring Sybil Thorndike and Kathleen Harrison , and No Love for Johnnie in 1961 opposite Peter Finch . In 1962 , Holloway took part in a studio recording of Oliver ! with Alma Cogan and Violet Carson , in which he played Fagin .
In 1962 Holloway played the role of an English butler called Higgins in a US television sitcom called Our Man Higgins . It ran for only a season . His son Julian also appeared in the series . In 1964 he again appeared on stage in Philadelphia in Cool Off ! , a short @-@ lived Faustian spoof . He returned to the US a few more times after that to take part in The Dean Martin Show three times and The Red Skelton Show twice . He also appeared in the 1965 war film In Harm 's Way , together with John Wayne and Kirk Douglas .
= = = = Last years = = = =
Holloway appeared for the first time in a major British television series in the BBC 's 1967 adaptation of P. G. Wodehouse 's Blandings Castle stories , playing Beach , the butler , to Ralph Richardson 's Lord Emsworth . His portrayal of Beach was received with critical reservation , but the series was a popular success . After My Fair Lady , Holloway was able to get film roles in Mrs. Brown You 've Got A Lovely Daughter ( 1968 ) , which starred the 1960s British pop group Herman 's Hermits , The Private Life of Sherlock Holmes , Flight of the Doves and Up the Front , all in the early 1970s . His final film was Journey into Fear ( 1974 ) .
In 1970 , Holloway began an association with the Shaw Festival in Canada , playing Burgess in Candida . He made what he considered his West End debut as a straight actor in Siege by David Ambrose at the Cambridge Theatre in 1972 , co @-@ starring with Alastair Sim and Michael Bryant . He returned to Shaw and Canada , playing the central character Walter / William in You Never Can Tell in 1973 .
Holloway continued to perform until well into his eighties , touring Asia and Australia in 1977 together with Douglas Fairbanks , Jr. and David Langton in The Pleasure of His Company , by Samuel A. Taylor and Cornelia Otis Skinner . He made his last appearance performing at the Royal Variety Performance at the London Palladium in 1980 , aged 89 .
Holloway died of a stroke at the Nightingale Nursing Home in Littlehampton , West Sussex , on 30 January 1982 , aged 91 . He is buried , along with his wife Violet , at St. Mary the Virgin Church in East Preston , West Sussex .
= = = Personal life = = =
Holloway was married twice , first to Alice " Queenie " Foran . They met in June 1913 in Clacton , while he was performing in a concert party and she was selling charity flags on behalf of the Royal National Lifeboat Institution . Queenie was orphaned at the age of 16 , something that Holloway felt he and Queenie had in common , as his mother had died that year and his father had earlier abandoned the family . He married Queenie in November 1913 .
Holloway and Queenie had four children : Joan , born on Holloway 's 24th birthday in 1914 , Patricia ( b . 1920 ) , John ( 1925 – 2013 ) and Mary ( b . 1928 ) . Upon the death of her mother , Queenie inherited some property in Southampton Row and relied on the rents from the property for her income . During the First World War , while Holloway was away fighting in France , Queenie began to have financial trouble , as the tenants failed to pay their rent . Out of desperation , she approached several loan sharks , incurring a huge debt about which Holloway knew nothing . She also started to drink heavily as the pressures from the war and of supporting her daughter took their toll . On Holloway 's return from the war , the debt was paid off and they moved to Hampstead , West London . By the late 1920s , Holloway found himself in financial difficulties with the British tax authorities and was briefly declared bankrupt . In the 1930s , Holloway and Queenie moved to Bayswater and remained there until Queenie 's death in 1937 at the age of 45 , from cirrhosis of the liver . Of the children from this first marriage , John worked as an engineer in an electrics company , and Mary worked for British Petroleum for many years .
On 2 January 1939 , Holloway married a 25 @-@ year @-@ old actress and former chorus dancer named Violet Marion Lane ( 1913 – 1997 ) and they moved to Marylebone . Violet was born into a working @-@ class family from Leeds . Her mother was Scottish , and her civil engineer father , Alfred Lane , was a Yorkshireman . Holloway 's second marriage lasted over 40 years until his death in 1982 . Although he was a client of the Aza Agency in London , Violet effectively managed Holloway 's career , and no project was taken on without her approval . In his autobiography , Holloway said of her , " I suppose I am committing lawful bigamy . Not only is she my wife , lover , mother , cook , chauffeuse , private secretary , house keeper , hostess , electrician , business manager , critic , handy woman , she is also my best friend . " Together , they had one son , Julian , who also became an actor and is best known for appearing in the Carry On films . Julian had a brief relationship with Patricia Neal 's daughter Tessa Dahl which produced a daughter , the model and author Sophie Dahl .
Holloway , Violet and Julian lived mainly in the tiny village of Penn , Buckinghamshire . Holloway also owned other properties including a flat in St. John 's Wood in North West London , which he used when working in the capital , and a flat in Manhattan during the My Fair Lady Broadway years . The final years of his life were spent in Angmering , West Sussex , with Violet . Holloway forged close friendships with fellow performers including Leslie Henson , Gracie Fields , Maurice Chevalier , Laurence Olivier and Arthur Askey , who said of him , " He was the nicest man I ever knew . He never had a wrong word to say about anyone . He was a great actor , a super mimic and a one @-@ man walking comic show . " While working in the US , Holloway numbered among his friends Frank Sinatra , Dean Martin , Burgess Meredith and Groucho Marx .
= = Honours , memorials and books = =
Holloway was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire ( OBE ) in the 1960 New Year 's Honours list for his services to entertainment . In 1978 he was honoured with a special award by the Variety Club of Great Britain .
There is a memorial plaque dedicated to Holloway in St. Paul 's , Covent Garden , London , which is known as " the actors ' church " . The plaque is next to a memorial to Gracie Fields . In 2009 English Heritage unveiled a Blue plaque at 25 Albany Road , Manor Park , Essex , the house in which he was born in 1890 . There is a building named after him at 2 Coolfin Road , Newham , London , called Stanley Holloway Court .
Holloway entitled his 1967 autobiography Wiv a Little Bit of Luck after the song he performed in My Fair Lady . The book was ghost @-@ written by the writer and director Dick Richards and was published in 1967 . Holloway oversaw the publication of three volumes of the monologues by or associated with him : Monologues ( 1979 ) ; The Stanley Holloway Monologues ( 1980 ) ; and More Monologues ( 1981 ) .
= = Recordings = =
Holloway had a 54 @-@ year recording career , beginning in the age of acoustic recording , and ending in the era of the stereophonic LP . He mainly recorded songs from musicals and revues , and he recited many monologues on various subjects . Most prominent among his recordings ( aside from his participation in recordings of My Fair Lady ) are those of three series of monologues that he made at intervals throughout his career . They featured Sam Small , Albert Ramsbottom , and historical events such as the Battle of Hastings , Magna Carta and the Battle of Trafalgar . In all , his discography runs to 130 recordings , spanning the period 1924 to 1978 . A review in The Gramophone of one of his 1957 albums containing recordings of his old " concert party " songs commented , " what a fine voice he has and how well he can use it – diction , phrasing , range and the interpretative insight of the artist " .
= Maine Coon =
The Maine Coon is the largest domesticated breed of cat .
It has a distinctive physical appearance and valuable hunting skills . It is one of the oldest natural breeds in North America , specifically " native " to the state of Maine ( though the feline was simply introduced there ) , where it is the official state cat .
No records of the Maine Coon 's exact origins and date of introduction to the United States exist , so several competing hypotheses have been suggested . The breed was popular in cat shows in the late 19th century , but its existence became threatened when long @-@ haired breeds from overseas were introduced in the early 20th century . The Maine Coon has since made a comeback and is now one of the more popular cat breeds in the world .
The Maine Coon is a large and sociable cat , hence its nickname , " the gentle giant " . It is characterized by a robust bone structure , rectangular body shape , a silky flowing coat and a long , bushy tail . The breed 's colors vary widely , with only lilac and chocolate disallowed for pedigree . Reputed for its intelligence and playful , gentle personality , the Maine Coon is often cited as having " dog @-@ like " characteristics . Professionals notice certain health problems in the breed including feline hypertrophic cardiomyopathy and hip dysplasia , but reputable breeders use modern screening methods to minimize the frequency of these problems .
= = History = =
= = = Origin = = =
The ancestral origins of the Maine Coon are unknown — there is only speculation and folk tales . One such folk tale involves Marie Antoinette , the Queen of France , who was executed in 1793 . The story goes that before her death , Antoinette attempted to escape France with the help of Captain Samuel Clough . She loaded Clough 's ship with her most prized possessions , including six of her favorite Turkish Angora cats . Although she did not make it to the United States , her pets safely reached the shores of Wiscasset , Maine , where they bred with other short @-@ haired breeds and developed into the modern breed of the Maine Coon .
Another folk tale involves Captain Charles Coon , an English seafarer who kept long @-@ haired cats aboard his ships . Whenever Coon 's ship would anchor in New England ports , the felines would exit the ship and mate with the local feral cat population . When long @-@ haired kittens began appearing in the litters of the local cat population , they were referred to as one of " Coon 's cats " .
A myth which is trait @-@ based , though genetically impossible , is the idea that the modern Maine Coon descended from ancestors of semi @-@ feral domestic cats and raccoons . This myth is likely based on the common color of the breed ( brown tabby ) and its bushy tail . Another idea is that the Maine Coon originated between the matings of domestic cats and wild bobcats , which could explain the tufts of hairs that are so commonly seen on the tips of the ears .
The generally accepted hypothesis among breeders is that the Maine Coon is descended from the pairings of local short @-@ haired domestic cats and long @-@ haired breeds brought overseas by English seafarers ( possibly by Captain Charles Coon ) or 11th @-@ century Norsemen . The connection to the Norsemen is seen in the strong resemblance of the Maine Coon to the Norwegian Forest Cat , another breed that is said to be a descendant of cats that traveled with the Norsemen .
= = = Cat shows and popularity = = =
The first mention of Maine Coons in a literary work was in 1861 , in Frances Simpson 's The Book of the Cat ( 1903 ) . F.R. Pierce , who owned several Maine Coons , wrote a chapter about the breed . During the late 1860s , farmers located in Maine told stories about their cats and held the " Maine State Champion Coon Cat " contest at the local Skowhegan Fair .
In 1895 , a dozen Maine Coons were entered into a show in Boston . On 8 May 1895 , the first North American cat show was hosted at Madison Square Garden in New York City . A female Maine Coon brown tabby , named Cosey , was entered into the show . Owned by Mrs. Fred Brown , Cosey won the silver collar and medal and was named Best in Show . The silver collar was purchased by the Cat Fanciers ' Association ( CFA ) Foundation with the help of a donation from the National Capital Cat Show . The collar is housed at the CFA Central Office in the Jean Baker Rose Memorial Library .
In the early 20th century , the Maine Coon 's popularity began to decline with the introduction of other long @-@ haired breeds , such as the Persian , which originated in the Middle East . The last recorded win by a Maine Coon in a national cat show for over 40 years was in 1911 at a show in Portland , Oregon . The breed was rarely seen after that . The decline was so severe that the breed was declared extinct in the 1950s , although this declaration was considered to be exaggerated and reported prematurely at the time . The Central Maine Cat Club ( CMCC ) was created in the early 1950s by Alta Smith and Ruby Dyer in attempts to increase the popularity of the Maine Coon . For 11 years , the CMCC held cat shows and hosted exhibitions of photographs of the breed and is noted for creating the first written breed standards for the Maine Coon .
The Maine Coon was denied provisional breed status — one of the three steps required for a breed not yet recognized by the CFA to be able to compete in championship competitions — by the CFA three times , which led to the formation of the Maine Coon Cat Club in 1973 . The breed was finally accepted by the CFA under provisional status on 1 May 1975 , and was approved for championship status on 1 May 1976 . The next couple of decades saw a rise in popularity of the Maine Coon , with championship victories and an increase in national rankings . In 1985 , the state of Maine announced that the breed would be named the official State Cat . Today the Maine Coon is the third most popular cat breed , according to the number of kittens registered with the CFA .
= = Breed description = =
Maine Coons are the largest breed of domestic cat . On average , males weigh from 13 to 18 lb ( 5 @.@ 9 to 8 @.@ 2 kg ) with females weighing from 8 to 12 lb ( 3 @.@ 6 to 5 @.@ 4 kg ) . The height of adults can vary between 10 and 16 in ( 25 and 41 cm ) and they can reach a length of up to 48 in ( 120 cm ) , including the tail , which can reach a length of 14 in ( 36 cm ) and is long , tapering , and heavily furred , almost resembling a raccoon 's tail . The body is solid and muscular , which is necessary for supporting their own weight , and the chest is broad . Maine Coons possess a rectangular body shape and are slow to physically mature ; their full potential size is normally not reached until they are three to five years old , while other cats take about one year .
In 2010 , the Guinness World Records accepted a male purebred Maine Coon named " Stewie " as the " Longest Cat " measuring 48 @.@ 5 in ( 123 cm ) from the tip of his nose to the tip of his tail . Stewie died 4 February 2013 , from cancer at his home in Reno , Nevada , at age 8 . Large Maine coons can overlap in length with Eurasian lynxes , although with a much lighter build and lower height .
The Maine Coon is a longhaired , or medium @-@ haired , cat . The coat is soft and silky , although texture may vary with coat color . The length is shorter on the head and shoulders , and longer on the stomach and flanks with some cats having a lion @-@ like ruff around their neck . Minimal grooming is required for the breed , compared to other long @-@ haired breeds , as their coat is mostly self @-@ maintaining owing to a light @-@ density undercoat . The coat is subject to seasonal variation , with the fur being thicker in the winter and thinner during the summer .
Maine Coons can have any colors that other cats have . Colors indicating crossbreeding , such as chocolate , lavender , the Siamese pointed patterns or the " ticked " patterns , are not accepted by some breed standards ( the ' ticked ' pattern , for example , is accepted by TICA ) . The most common pattern seen in the breed is brown tabby . All eye colors are accepted under breed standards , with the exception of the occurrence of blue @-@ colored or odd @-@ eyes ( i.e. two eyes of different colors ) in cats possessing coat colors other than white .
Maine Coons have several physical adaptations for survival in harsh winter climates . Their dense water @-@ resistant fur is longer and shaggier on their underside and rear for extra protection when they are walking or sitting on top of wet surfaces of snow or ice . Their long and bushy raccoon @-@ like tail is resistant to sinking in snow , and can be curled around their face and shoulders for warmth and protection from wind and blowing snow and it can even be curled around their backside like an insulated seat cushion when sitting down on a snow or ice surface . Large paws , and especially the extra @-@ large paws of polydactyl Maine Coons , facilitate walking on snow and are often compared to snowshoes . Long tufts of fur growing between their toes help keep the toes warm and further aid walking on snow by giving the paws additional structure without significant extra weight . Heavily furred ears with extra long tufts of fur growing from inside help keep their ears warm .
Many of the original Maine Coon cats that inhabited the New England area possessed a trait known as polydactylism ( having one or more extra toes on the feet ) . While some sources claim that trait is thought to have occurred in approximately 40 % of the Maine Coon population in Maine at one time , little evidence has been given to substantiate this claim . Polydactylism is rarely , if ever , seen in Maine Coons in the show ring since it is unacceptable by competition standards . The gene for polydactylism is a simple autosomal dominant gene , which has shown to pose no threat to the cat 's health . The trait was almost eradicated from the breed due to the fact that it was an automatic disqualifier in show rings . Private organizations and breeders were created in order to keep polydactylism in Maine Coons from disappearing .
Maine Coons are known as the " gentle giants " and possess above @-@ average intelligence , making them relatively easy to train . They are known for being loyal to their family and cautious — but not mean — around strangers , but are independent and not clingy . The Maine Coon is generally not known for being a " lap cat " but their gentle disposition makes the breed relaxed around dogs , other cats , and children . They are playful throughout their lives , with males tending to be more clownish and females generally possessing more dignity , yet both are equally affectionate . Many Maine Coons have a fascination with water and some theorize that this personality trait comes from their ancestors , who were aboard ships for much of their lives . Maine Coons are also well known for being very vocal cats . They are known for their frequent yowling or howling , trilling , chirping , and making other loud vocalizations .
= = = Diet = = =
Maine Coons require ample protein and nutrients in their diets . Since they are a large cat breed with high levels of energy , it is best to feed them quality food . Their dietary needs are fulfilled with both dry food and wet food . However , the wet food should be mixed in with the dry food only 2 @-@ 3 times a week . Feeding the cat with quality dry food can reduce tartar build up on the teeth . Avoid grain based foods . A cat 's natural diet does not contain grain and grain can also lead to both obesity and diabetes . Maine Coons should not eat food that lists soy or some grains as the first ingredient on the label . Food that lists meat as the first ingredient is best for the Maine Coon . Cats can develop allergies from plastic bowls , so it is best if they eat out of a glass or stainless steel bowl .
= = Health = =
Pet insurance data obtained from a study during years 2003 – 2006 in Sweden puts the median lifespan of the Maine Coon at > 12 @.@ 5 years . 74 % lived to 12 years or more and 54 % lived to 16 @.@ 5 years or more . Maine Coons are generally a healthy and hardy breed and have adapted to survive the New England climate . The most severe threat is feline hypertrophic cardiomyopathy ( HCM ) , the most common heart disease seen in cats , whether pure bred or not . In Maine Coons , it is thought to be inherited as an autosomal dominant trait . Middle @-@ aged to older cats as well as males are thought to be predisposed to the disease . HCM is a progressive disease and can result in heart failure , paralysis of the hind legs due to clot embolization originating in the heart , and sudden death . A specific mutation that causes HCM is seen in Maine Coons for which testing services are offered . Of all the Maine Coons tested for the MyBPC mutation at the Veterinary Cardiac Genetics Lab at the College of Veterinary Medicine located at Washington State University , approximately one @-@ third tested positive . Not all cats that tested positive will have clinical signs of the disease and some Maine Coon cats with clinical evidence of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy test negative for this mutation , strongly suggesting that a second mutation exists in the breed . The HCM prevalence was found to be 10 @.@ 1 % ( 95 % CI 5 @.@ 8 -14.3 % ) in this study .
Another potential health problem is spinal muscular atrophy ( SMA ) , another genetically inherited disease which causes the loss of the spinal @-@ cord neurons which activate the skeletal muscles of the trunk and limbs . Symptoms are normally seen within 3 – 4 months of age and result in muscle atrophy , muscle weakness , and a shortened life span . A test is offered to detect the genes responsible for SMA .
Hip dysplasia is an abnormality of the hip joint which can cause crippling lameness and arthritis . The cats most commonly affected with hip dysplasia tend to be males of the larger , big @-@ boned breeds such as Persians and Maine Coons . This is similar to the situation with dogs , but the relatively smaller size and weight of cats frequently results in symptoms that are less pronounced . X @-@ rays submitted to the Orthopedic Foundation for Animals ( OFA ) between 1974 and 2011 indicates that 24 @.@ 3 % of Maine Coons in the database were dysplastic . The Maine Coon is the only cat breed listed in the database .
Polycystic kidney disease ( PKD ) is a slowly progressive disease affecting Persian and Persian @-@ related breeds , in which fluid @-@ filled cysts expand within the kidneys , destroying functional tissue . While renal cysts are observed with a low incidence in Maine Coons , PKD appears to be a misnomer in this particular breed . In a recent study spanning 8 years , renal cysts were documented by ultrasound in 7 of 187 healthy Maine Coons enrolled in a pre @-@ breeding screening programme . The cysts were mostly single and unilateral ( 6 / 7 , 85 @.@ 7 % ) small ( mean 3 @.@ 6 mm in diameter ) and located at corticomedullary junction ( 4 / 6 , 66 @.@ 7 % ) , thus different in size , numbers and location from those observed in Persian @-@ related breeds . In the same study , not only did all six Maine Coon cats with renal cysts test negative for the PKD1 mutation , proving the disease in these cats to be unrelated to the PKD observed in Persians and related breeds , but gene sequencing of these cats failed to demonstrate any common genetic sequences . The presence of renal cysts , in the absence of other changes , does not appear to negatively impact the patients ' quality of life , as those for which follow @-@ up was available were reported alive and well in adulthood . Although the exact nature and clinical relevance of renal cysts in Maine Coons is currently unknown , its screening is still recommended for pre @-@ breeding assessment . Ultrasonography is currently the only valid diagnostic method for its detection in this breed .
= Joseph W. Tkach =
Joseph W. Tkach ( / təˈkɒtʃ / ; March 16 , 1927 – September 23 , 1995 ) was the appointed successor of Herbert W. Armstrong , founder of the Worldwide Church of God . Tkach became President and Pastor General of the church upon the death of Armstrong in 1986 . Tkach spearheaded a major doctrinal transformation of the Worldwide Church of God , abandoning Armstrong 's unconventional doctrines and bringing the church into accord with mainstream evangelical Christianity . His son , Joseph Tkach Jr . , continued his work and in 1997 the Worldwide Church of God became a member of the National Association of Evangelicals .
During Tkach 's tenure , the changes that he implemented stirred much controversy and significant dissent among those who continued to follow Armstrong 's theology . The dissenters labeled the changes as heresy and many left to form new church organizations . Within the mainstream Christian community , some have hailed Tkach 's reforms , which brought a church from the fringe to orthodoxy , as unprecedented .
= = Background = =
He was born March 16 , 1927 , in Chicago , the youngest of five children and the only son of Vassil and Mary Tkach . The name Tkach / təˈkɒtʃ / is of Carpatho @-@ Rusyn ( Ukrainian ) origin , but his parents were originally from Czechoslovakia . The neighborhood where he grew up was composed mainly of blue @-@ collar working people of Russian origin . He graduated from Tilden High School in southwest Chicago . He then served a short term in the U.S. Navy near the end of World War II and afterward returned to his native Chicago . On March 31 , 1951 , Tkach married Elaine Apostolos ; they had three children : Joseph Jr . , Tanya , and Jennifer .
Tkach grew up in the Russian Orthodox faith , but eventually his family , including his parents , became interested in the Radio Church of God through the radio broadcast of Herbert W. Armstrong , the founder of the church . The Radio Church of God would eventually change its name in 1968 to the Worldwide Church of God ( WCG ) , the church that Tkach would lead . It was a church characterized by the strong influence of its founder and his unique doctrines based on his own interpretation of the Bible . Initially , Tkach was the only member of his family who was not interested in listening to the radio broadcasts . However , a purportedly miraculous event was to change him . At the time , Tkach suffered from severe ulcers and was required to stay on a special diet . His wife then suggested that God would heal him if he were to become a minister in Armstrong 's church . Although skeptical , he accepted the suggestion of becoming a minister and he found himself cured , never again to suffer from the ulcers . He was baptized by Radio Church of God minister , Dean Blackwell , on March 1 , 1957 . On June 7 , 1961 , Blackwell ordained him a deacon in the Chicago congregation , and on June 3 , 1963 , Roderick C. Meredith , who would eventually lead a breakaway church from the WCG , ordained him as an elder .
In 1966 Tkach moved his family to Pasadena , California , where he enrolled in classes at Ambassador College , a state @-@ approved , but not regionally accredited , college that was sponsored by the WCG . In 1974 , he was ordained to the rank of preaching elder . Armstrong taught that the Bible endorsed " ranks " in the ministry , and elders could progress up the ladder from local elder to preaching elder to pastor to evangelist . The highest rank , apostle , was reserved for the leader of the church .
In the late 1970s a period of financial and leadership disputes occurred within the church hierarchy , with church treasurer , Stanley Rader , at the center of many of the disputes . The gravest incident was the church bwing placed in financial receivership by the Attorney General of California , George Deukmejian , an action that was later disallowed in court . Tkach took an active role in the defense of Armstrong , Rader , and the church headquarters ' operations . He rallied the WCG membership to take action against the court proceedings . Armstrong recognized his effectiveness and subsequently ordained him to the rank of evangelist on September 27 , 1979 . See Evangelists of the Worldwide Church of God . In March 1981 Armstrong appointed him to the WCG 's advisory council of elders , and eventually , Armstrong named him Director of Church Administration , one of the most prominent administrative positions other than Armstrong himself .
= = Selection by Armstrong = =
Armstrong had recovered from severe heart problems in the late 1970s , but by the mid @-@ 1980s he was experiencing rapidly declining health . By 1985 this was common knowledge among church members as the 93 @-@ year @-@ old preacher had not been seen in public for several months . According to The Worldwide News , the official church newsletter , Armstrong told his advisory council on January 7 , 1986 , of his decision to appoint Tkach to succeed him in the event of his death . It was also announced by Armstrong in a letter to members of the church . Armstrong died on January 16 , 1986 , only nine days after naming his successor .
Initially there were few visible changes within the church . Tkach continued Armstrong 's tradition of traveling abroad , although his emphasis was more on visiting church members and operations than on Armstrong 's agenda of visiting world leaders to attempt to witness to them . The church entered a period of rapid growth during the early years of Tkach 's administration . In fact , the membership peaked during his tenure at 126 @,@ 800 members in 1988 . The finances were stable , largely due to the church 's teaching that members should tithe , giving a tenth of their gross income to the church . The church magazine , The Plain Truth , continued to serialize the final and most controversial book by Armstrong , Mystery of the Ages . Tkach also continued , at least in public , to promote the church 's unique doctrines .
Tkach did not have the charismatic personality of his predecessor . Unlike Armstrong , who kept a strong hold of the reins , Tkach delegated many tasks , including the presentation of the church @-@ supported television broadcast , The World Tomorrow and the authoring of articles and booklets produced by the church . Although Tkach was not known as a theologian , and made no claims as such , eventually he was to have profound impact on the theological foundations of the WCG .
= = Doctrinal changes = =
The first major change under Tkach 's tenure was the WCG 's doctrine on healing . Previously the church taught that true believers were healed by faith in God and not by doctors . Tkach asked the church leadership to study the question . Once Tkach was satisfied with the results of the study , he officially softened the church 's teaching on the matter , encouraging members to seek proper treatment while retaining faith in God as a healer .
Another officially published doctrinal change was that women in the church would be allowed to wear makeup . In the earliest years of the denomination , Armstrong announced the prohibition of makeup for women . In the 1970s that prohibition was lifted , but in 1981 Armstrong reinstituted the teaching . In 1988 Tkach lifted the ban for good .
The first major sign of dissent occurred in 1989 when a WCG minister , Gerald Flurry , published a manuscript outlining what he and others believed were disturbing trends in the work , including the beginnings of the doctrinal departure from what had been established by Armstrong . Flurry and another minister , John Amos , were disfellowshipped and went on to form the Philadelphia Church of God ( PCG ) . The PCG began an alternative radio program and magazine , and over the next several years a few thousand WCG members left to join the PCG . Despite this , Tkach continued to implement additional changes in thinking including : the shift in emphasis away from observing world events primarily through the lens of prophetic interpretation ; the removal of the prohibition of interracial marriage ; the allowance of work on the Sabbath ; the acceptance of the trinitarian doctrine ; and the acceptance of the validity of other Christian denominations , among many other changes . Older Armstrong publications that supported the church 's once unique doctrines were allowed to go out @-@ of @-@ print .
As these reforms were being carried out , questions arose as to whether the decisions were truly made by Tkach himself or by others in the church leadership . The church leadership at that time included Mike Feazell , executive assistant and editorial advisor to Tkach , Greg Albrecht , editor of The Plain Truth , and Joseph Tkach , Jr . , the son of Joseph W. Tkach , and church administration director . One conspiracy theory stated that the decisions did not come from Tkach himself but from the church leadership . Another stated that the ideas did originate from Tkach but he formed them early in his career , kept them hidden from Armstrong , and only allowed the ideas to come to fruition after Armstrong 's death . Feazell claims that the reforms were initially driven by a re @-@ examination of church literature that was mainly spurred by questions posed by church ministers and members . These examinations were done by Tkach and Feazell , but the final decisions and approval of materials for publication were made by Tkach . By 1990 , Tkach authorized the formation of a " Doctrinal Manual Group " , consisting of thirteen ministers and Ambassador College faculty members with the mission of assuring doctrinal consistency , refinement , and advice to the Pastor General . Tkach reviewed and made the final decisions on all recommendations made by the group .
The church 's traditions of following the Sabbath , the Old Testament holy days , and tithing were initially retained . But some WCG ministers and members continued to express alarm over the doctrinal revisions Tkach had already made , and from time to time some would leave to create dissident branches . They included Tkach 's one @-@ time mentor , Roderick C. Meredith , who formed the Global Church of God in 1992 . As various breakaway groups were established , additional clusters of church members followed .
= = Christmas Eve sermon = =
The doctrinal changes in the church occurred gradually , but by 1994 , most of the concepts of Armstrongism had been largely modified or discontinued . However , the major bombshell was dropped during what is now called the Christmas Eve Sermon . Tapes of Tkach 's sermon ( dated January 7 , 1995 ) were delivered to local congregations for viewing . In this sermon , he publicly declared that the Worldwide Church of God was a New Covenant church and , therefore , not bound by the terms of the Old Covenant . Christian theology defines the Old Covenant as the Mosaic Law embodied in the Torah . Hence , by making this statement , Tkach officially dropped all doctrines based on Mosaic Law ( i.e. , the keeping of the Sabbath , the Holy Days , and the dietary laws ) , making observance of such practices an individual choice . He also dropped the requirement of tithing , declaring that giving as taught in the New Testament was voluntary . The last change had a significant and rather immediate impact on church finances .
These and other major changes brought about major defections among ministers and members , which in turn contributed to a further drop in church revenue . In order to bring the finances in order , major changes in the church infrastructure were implemented . The World Tomorrow , which had seen record numbers of viewers in the early years of the Tkach administration , was stopped . The Plain Truth publication runs were reduced . Staff at the church headquarters were laid off . The famous , church @-@ subsidized Ambassador Auditorium concert series was canceled and offers were sought for the purchase of the Ambassador College Pasadena campus .
= = Final days = =
The Christmas Eve sermon only accelerated the departure of church members . A new branch , the United Church of God , was created in 1995 by a conference of departing ministers and named Tkach 's one @-@ time associate and former The World Tomorrow presenter , David Hulme , as president . It eventually became the largest of the groups to break away from the WCG during this period . Although revenues continued to drop , Tkach remained steadfastly committed to the changes that he had implemented .
On May 12 , 1995 Tkach had surgery to remove his gall bladder . Shortly thereafter , he was readmitted to the hospital because of severe intestine and back pain . Surgeons then removed a grapefruit @-@ size tumor from his intestines and discovered he had colon cancer . In a letter to ministers , dated September 6 , Tkach announced that he was also diagnosed with bone cancer . He elected not to undertake radiation treatments . As Armstrong had done before him , Tkach named a successor to become pastor general in the event of his death . In that case , it was Tkach 's son , Joseph Tkach Jr .
Tkach died on September 23 , 1995 .
= = Assessment = =
The impact of Tkach ’ s tenure as the head of the WCG was notable . Church income dropped from a high of over $ 200 million in 1990 to $ 50 million by 1996 . By then the church could only count 49 @,@ 000 as members , less than half from its peak . The circulation of The Plain Truth , distributed free by subscription and via newsstand distribution around the globe , fell from a peak of 8 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 to less than 100 @,@ 000 before it switched to a paid subscription status . Eventually the magazine was spun off into a separate , independent , evangelical ministry . The number of employees at the church headquarters fell from 1 @,@ 000 to about 50 . Ambassador University , as the college had become after earning regional accreditation in Texas , ceased operations in 1997 as the church could no longer provide its annual operating subsidy . The Pasadena campus was finally sold in 2004 .
In assessing the work of Tkach , there are two points of view . The critics of Tkach , especially those who formed the splinter churches , see Tkach as the key person responsible for the collapse of the WCG . They believe that the changes he brought were a turn against God and say his rejection of Armstrong 's unique doctrines were , at best , without biblical foundation .
Tkach ’ s supporters , including those in the leadership of the WCG , see events differently . The WCG describes Tkach ’ s tenure as " A Decade of Painful Change " and that the end result of his work was the reconciliation of the church with mainstream Christianity . Ruth Tucker , an evangelical leader and an early supporter of the changes which occurred in the WCG , wrote in an article in Christianity Today that
The " changes " — as they are referred to by insiders — are truly historic . Never before in the history of Christianity has there been such a complete move to orthodox Christianity by an unorthodox fringe church .
Vern Bullough , a secular humanist and senior editor of Free Inquiry , commented on the significance of the changes noting :
The shedding of almost every doctrine the Worldwide Church of God once clung to is a story almost without parallel in American religious history .
After his death , the WCG reiterated its full acceptance of the doctrinal changes implemented by Tkach and published an apology to current and former members of the church for the impact previous doctrines had had on members . As evidence that Tkach 's work was instrumental in the move toward mainstream Christianity , the WCG was accepted into the membership of the National Association of Evangelicals within two years of his death .
= Machinima =
Machinima ( / məˈʃiːnᵻmə / or / məˈʃɪnᵻmə / ) is the use of real @-@ time computer graphics engines to create a cinematic production . Most often video games are used to generate the computer animation . Machinima @-@ based artists , sometimes called machinimists or machinimators , are often fan laborers , by virtue of their re @-@ use of copyrighted materials ( see below ) . Machinima offers to provide an archive of gaming performance and access to the look and feel of software and hardware that may already have become unavailable or even obsolete ; for game studies , " machinima ’ s gestures grant access to gaming ’ s historical conditions of possibility and how machinima offers links to a comparative horizon that informs , changes , and fully participates in videogame culture . "
The practice of using graphics engines from video games arose from the animated software introductions of the 1980s demoscene , Disney Interactive Studios ' 1992 video game Stunt Island , and 1990s recordings of gameplay in first @-@ person shooter ( FPS ) video games , such as id Software 's Doom and Quake . Originally , these recordings documented speedruns — attempts to complete a level as quickly as possible — and multiplayer matches . The addition of storylines to these films created " Quake movies " . The more general term machinima , a portmanteau of machine cinema , arose when the concept spread beyond the Quake series to other games and software . After this generalization , machinima appeared in mainstream media , including television series and advertisements .
Machinima has advantages and disadvantages when compared to other styles of filmmaking . Its relative simplicity over traditional frame @-@ based animation limits control and range of expression . Its real @-@ time nature favors speed , cost saving , and flexibility over the higher quality of pre @-@ rendered computer animation . Virtual acting is less expensive , dangerous , and physically restricted than live action . Machinima can be filmed by relying on in @-@ game artificial intelligence ( AI ) or by controlling characters and cameras through digital puppetry . Scenes can be precisely scripted , and can be manipulated during post @-@ production using video editing techniques . Editing , custom software , and creative cinematography may address technical limitations . Game companies have provided software for and have encouraged machinima , but the widespread use of digital assets from copyrighted games has resulted in complex , unresolved legal issues .
Machinima productions can remain close to their gaming roots and feature stunts or other portrayals of gameplay . Popular genres include dance videos , comedy , and drama . Alternatively , some filmmakers attempt to stretch the boundaries of the rendering engines or to mask the original 3 @-@ D context . The Academy of Machinima Arts & Sciences ( AMAS ) , a non @-@ profit organization dedicated to promoting machinima , recognizes exemplary productions through Mackie awards given at its annual Machinima Film Festival . Some general film festivals accept machinima , and game companies , such as Epic Games , Blizzard Entertainment and Jagex , have sponsored contests involving it .
= = History = =
= = = Precedent = = =
1980s software crackers added custom introductory credits sequences ( intros ) to programs whose copy protection they had removed . Increasing computing power allowed for more complex intros , and the demoscene formed when focus shifted to the intros instead of the cracks . The goal became to create the best 3 @-@ D demos in real @-@ time with the least amount of software code . Disk storage was too slow for this ; graphics had to be calculated on the fly and without a pre @-@ existing game engine .
In Disney Interactive Studios ' 1992 computer game Stunt Island , users could stage , record , and play back stunts ; as Nitsche stated , the game 's goal was " not ... a high score but a spectacle . " Released the following year , id Software 's Doom included the ability to record gameplay as sequences of events that the game engine could later replay in real @-@ time . Because events and not video frames were saved , the resulting game demo files were small and easily shared among players . A culture of recording gameplay developed , as Henry Lowood of Stanford University called it , " a context for spectatorship .... The result was nothing less than a metamorphosis of the player into a performer . " Another important feature of Doom was that it allowed players to create their own modifications , maps , and software for the game , thus expanding the concept of game authorship . In machinima , there is a dual register of gestures : the trained motions of the player determine the in @-@ game images of expressive motion .
In parallel of the video game approach , in the media art field , Maurice Benayoun ’ s Virtual Reality artwork The Tunnel under the Atlantic ( 1995 ) , often compared to video games , introduced a virtual film director , fully autonomous intelligent agent , to shoot and edit in real time a full video from the digging performance in the Pompidou Center in Paris and the Museum of Contemporary art in Montreal . The full movie , Inside the Tunnel under the Atlantic , 21h long , was followed in 1997 by Inside the Paris New @-@ Delhi Tunnel ( 13h long ) . Only short excerpts where presented to the public . The complex behavior of the Tunnel ’ s virtual director makes it a significant precursor of later application to video games based machinimas .
Doom 's 1996 successor , Quake , offered new opportunities for both gameplay and customization , while retaining the ability to record demos . Multiplayer games became popular , almost a sport ; demos of matches between teams of players ( clans ) were recorded and studied . Paul Marino , executive director of the AMAS , stated that deathmatches , a type of multiplayer game , became more " cinematic " . At this point , however , they still documented gameplay without a narrative .
= = = Quake movies = = =
On October 26 , 1996 , a well @-@ known gaming clan , the Rangers , surprised the Quake community with Diary of a Camper , the first widely known machinima film . This short , 100 @-@ second demo file contained the action and gore of many others , but in the context of a brief story , rather than the usual deathmatch . An example of transformative or emergent gameplay , this shift from competition to theater required both expertise in and subversion of the game 's mechanics . The Ranger demo emphasized this transformation by retaining specific gameplay references in its story .
Diary of a Camper inspired many other " Quake movies , " as these films were then called . A community of game modifiers ( modders ) , artists , expert players , and film fans began to form around them . The works were distributed and reviewed on websites such as The Cineplex , Psyk 's Popcorn Jungle , and the Quake Movie Library ( QML ) . Production was supported by dedicated demo @-@ processing software , such as Uwe Girlich 's Little Movie Processing Center ( LMPC ) and David " crt " Wright 's non @-@ linear editor Keygrip ; the latter became known as " Adobe Premiere for Quake demo files " . Among the notable films were Clan Phantasm 's Devil 's Covenant , the first feature @-@ length Quake movie ; Avatar and Wendigo 's Blahbalicious , which the QML awarded seven Quake Movie Oscars ; and Clan Undead 's Operation Bayshield , which introduced simulated lip synchronization and featured customized digital assets .
Released in December 1997 , id Software 's Quake II improved support for user @-@ created 3 @-@ D models . However , without compatible editing software , filmmakers continued to create works based on the original Quake ; these included the ILL Clan 's Apartment Huntin ' and the Quake done Quick group 's Scourge Done Slick . Quake II demo editors became available in 1998 ; in particular , Keygrip 2 @.@ 0 introduced " recamming " , the ability to adjust camera locations after recording . Paul Marino called the addition of this feature " a defining moment for [ m ] achinima " . With Quake II filming now feasible , Strange Company 's 1999 production Eschaton : Nightfall was the first work to feature entirely custom @-@ made character models .
The December 1999 release of id 's Quake III Arena posed a problem to the Quake movie community . The game 's demo file included information needed for computer networking ; however , to prevent cheating , id warned of legal action for dissemination of the file format . Thus , it was impractical to enhance software to work with Quake III . Concurrently , the novelty of Quake movies was waning . New productions appeared less frequently , and , according to Marino , the community needed to " reinvent itself " to offset this development .
Borg War , a 90 @-@ minute animated Star Trek fan film , was produced using Elite Force 2 ( a Quake III variant ) and Starfleet Command 3 , repurposing the games ' voiceover clips to create a new plot . Borg War was nominated for two " Mackie " awards by the Academy of Machinima Arts & Sciences . An August 2007 screening at a Star Trek convention in Las Vegas was the first time that CBS / Paramount had approved the screening of a non @-@ parody fan film at a licensed convention .
= = = Generalization = = =
In January 2000 , Hugh Hancock , the founder of Strange Company , launched a new website , machinima.com. The new name surprised the community ; a misspelled contraction of machine cinema ( machinema ) , the term machinima was intended to dissociate in @-@ game filming from a specific engine . The misspelling stuck because it also referenced anime . The new site featured tutorials , interviews , articles , and the exclusive release of Tritin Films ' Quad God . The first film made with Quake III Arena , Quad God was also the first to be distributed as recorded video frames , not game @-@ specific instructions . This change was initially controversial among machinima producers who preferred the smaller size of demo files . However , demo files required a copy of the game to view . The more accessible traditional video format broadened Quad God 's viewership , and the work was distributed on CDs bundled with magazines . Thus , id 's decision to protect Quake III 's code inadvertently caused machinima creators to use more general solutions and thus widen their audience . Within a few years , machinima films were almost exclusively distributed in common video file formats .
Machinima began to receive mainstream notice . Roger Ebert discussed it in a June 2000 article and praised Strange Company 's machinima setting of Percy Bysshe Shelley 's sonnet " Ozymandias " . At Showtime Network 's 2001 Alternative Media Festival , the ILL Clan 's 2000 machinima film Hardly Workin ' won the Best Experimental and Best in SHO awards . Steven Spielberg used Unreal Tournament to test special effects while working on his 2001 film Artificial Intelligence : A.I. Eventually , interest spread to game developers . In July 2001 , Epic Games announced that its upcoming game Unreal Tournament 2003 would include Matinee , a machinima production software utility . As involvement increased , filmmakers released fewer new productions to focus on quality .
At the March 2002 Game Developers Conference , five machinima makers — Anthony Bailey , Hugh Hancock , Katherine Anna Kang , Paul Marino , and Matthew Ross — founded the AMAS , a non @-@ profit organization dedicated to promoting machinima . At QuakeCon in August , the new organization held the first Machinima Film Festival , which received mainstream media coverage . Anachronox : The Movie , by Jake Hughes and Tom Hall , won three awards , including Best Picture . The next year , " In the Waiting Line " , directed by Tommy Pallotta and animated by Randy Cole , utilizing Fountainhead Entertainment 's Machinimation tools , it became the first machinima music video to air on MTV . As graphics technology improved , machinima filmmakers used other video games and consumer @-@ grade video editing software . Using Bungie 's 2001 game Halo : Combat Evolved , Rooster Teeth Productions created a popular comedy series Red vs. Blue : The Blood Gulch Chronicles . The series ' second season premiered at the Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts in 2004 .
= = = Mainstream appearances = = =
Machinima has appeared on television , starting with G4 's series Portal . In the BBC series Time Commanders , players re @-@ enacted historic battles using Creative Assembly 's real @-@ time game Rome : Total War . MTV2 's Video Mods re @-@ creates music videos using characters from video games such as The Sims 2 , BloodRayne , and Tribes . Blizzard Entertainment helped to set part of " Make Love , Not Warcraft " , an Emmy Award – winning 2006 episode of the comedy series South Park , in its massively multiplayer online role @-@ playing game ( MMORPG ) World of Warcraft . By purchasing broadcast rights to Douglas Gayeton 's machinima documentary Molotov Alva and His Search for the Creator in September 2007 , HBO became the first television network to buy a work created completely in a virtual world . In December 2008 , machinima.com signed fifteen experienced television comedy writers — including Patric Verrone , Bill Oakley , and Mike Rowe — to produce episodes for the site .
Commercial use of machinima has increased.Rooster Teeth sells DVDs of their Red vs. Blue series and , under sponsorship from Electronic Arts , helped to promote The Sims 2 by using the game to make a machinima series , The Strangerhood . Volvo Cars sponsored the creation of a 2004 advertisement , Game : On , the first film to combine machinima and live action . Later , Electronic Arts commissioned Rooster Teeth to promote their Madden NFL 07 video game . Blockhouse TV uses Moviestorm 's machinima software to produce its pre @-@ school educational DVD series Jack and Holly
Game developers have continued to increase support for machinima . Products such as Lionhead Studios ' 2005 business simulation game The Movies , Linden Research 's virtual world Second Life , and Bungie 's 2007 first @-@ person shooter Halo 3 encourage the creation of user content by including machinima software tools . Using The Movies , Alex Chan , a French resident with no previous filmmaking experience , took four days to create The French Democracy , a short political film about the 2005 civil unrest in France . Third @-@ party mods like Garry 's Mod usually offer the ability to manipulate characters and take advantage of custom or migrated content , allowing for the creation of works like Counter @-@ Strike For Kids that can be filmed using multiple games .
In a 2010 interview with PC Magazine , Valve Corporation CEO and co @-@ founder Gabe Newell said that they wanted to make a Half @-@ Life feature film themselves , rather than hand it off to a big @-@ name director like Sam Raimi , and that their recent Team Fortress 2 " Meet The Team " machinima shorts were experiments in doing just that . Two years later , Valve released their proprietary non @-@ linear machinima software , Source Filmmaker .
Machinima has also been used for music video clips . Second Life virtual artist Bryn Oh created a work for Australian performer Megan Bernard 's song " Clean Up Your Life " , released in 2016 .
= = Production = =
= = = Comparison to film techniques = = =
The AMAS defines machinima as " animated filmmaking within a real @-@ time virtual 3 @-@ D environment " . In other 3 @-@ D animation methods , creators can control every frame and nuance of their characters but , in turn , must consider issues such as key frames and inbetweening . Machinima creators leave many rendering details to their host environments , but may thus inherit those environments ' limitations . Second Life Machinima film maker , Ozymandius King , provided a detailed account of the process by which the artists at MAGE Magazine produce their videos . " Organizing for a photo shoot is similar to organizing for a film production . Once you find the actors / models , you have to scout locations , find clothes and props for the models and type up a shooting script . The more organized you are the less time it takes to shoot the scene . " Because game animations focus on dramatic rather than casual actions , the range of character emotions is often limited . However , Kelland , Morris , and Lloyd state that a small range of emotions is often sufficient , as in successful Japanese anime television series .
Another difference is that machinima is created in real time , but other animation is pre @-@ rendered . Real @-@ time engines need to trade quality for speed and use simpler algorithms and models . In the 2001 animated film Final Fantasy : The Spirits Within , every strand of hair on a character 's head was independent ; real @-@ time needs would likely force them to be treated as a single unit . Kelland , Morris , and Lloyd argue that improvement in consumer @-@ grade graphics technology will allow more realism ; similarly , Paul Marino connects machinima to the increasing computing power predicted by Moore 's law . For cut scenes in video games , issues other than visual fidelity arise . Pre @-@ rendered scenes can require more digital storage space , weaken suspension of disbelief through contrast with real @-@ time animation of normal gameplay , and limit interaction .
Like live action , machinima is recorded in real @-@ time , and real people can act and control the camera . Filmmakers are often encouraged to follow traditional cinematic conventions , such as avoiding wide fields of view , the overuse of slow motion , and errors in visual continuity . Unlike live action , machinima involves less expensive , digital special effects and sets , possibly with a science @-@ fiction or historical theme . Explosions and stunts can be tried and repeated without monetary cost and risk of injury , and the host environment may allow unrealistic physical constraints . University of Cambridge experiments in 2002 and 2003 attempted to use machinima to re @-@ create a scene from the 1942 live @-@ action film Casablanca . Machinima filming differed from traditional cinematography in that character expression was limited , but camera movements were more flexible and improvised . Nitsche compared this experiment to an unpredictable Dogme 95 production .
Berkeley sees machinima as " a strangely hybrid form , looking forwards and backwards , cutting edge and conservative at the same time " . Machinima is a digital medium based on 3 @-@ D computer games , but most works have a linear narrative structure . Some , such as Red vs. Blue and The Strangerhood , follow narrative conventions of television situational comedy . Nitsche agrees that pre @-@ recorded ( " reel " ) machinima tends to be linear and offers limited interactive storytelling ; he sees more opportunities in machinima performed live and with audience interaction . In creating their improvisational comedy series On the Campaign Trail with Larry & Lenny Lumberjack and talk show Tra5hTa1k with ILL Will , the ILL Clan blended real and virtual performance by creating the works on @-@ stage and interacting with a live audience . In another combination of real and virtual worlds , Chris Burke 's talk show This Spartan Life takes place in Halo 2 's open multiplayer environment . There , others playing in earnest may attack the host or his interviewee . Although other virtual theatrical performances have taken place in chat rooms and multi @-@ user dungeons , machinima adds " cinematic camera work " . Previously , such virtual cinematic performances with live audience interaction were confined to research labs equipped with powerful computers .
Machinima can be less expensive than other forms of filmmaking . Strange Company produced its feature @-@ length machinima film BloodSpell for less than £ 10 @,@ 000 . Before using machinima , Burnie Burns and Matt Hullum of Rooster Teeth Productions spent US $ 9 @,@ 000 to produce a live @-@ action independent film ; in contrast , the four Xbox game consoles used to make Red vs. Blue in 2005 cost $ 600 . The low cost caused a product manager for Electronic Arts to compare machinima to the low @-@ budget independent film The Blair Witch Project , without the need for cameras and actors . Because these are seen as low barriers to entry , machinima has been called a " democratization of filmmaking " . Berkeley weighs increased participation and a blurred line between producer and consumer against concerns that game copyrights limit commercialization and growth of machinima .
Comparatively , machinimists using pre @-@ made virtual platforms like Second Life have indicated that their productions can be made quite successfully with no cost at all . Creators like Dutch director Chantal Harvey , producer of the 48 Hour Film Project Machinima sector , have created upwards of 200 films using the platform . Harvey 's advocacy of the genre has resulted in the involvement of film director Peter Greenaway who served as a juror for the Machinima category and gave a keynote speech during the event .
= = = Character and camera control = = =
Kelland , Morris , and Lloyd list four main methods of creating machinima . From simple to advanced , these are : relying on the game 's AI to control most actions , digital puppetry , recamming , and precise scripting of actions . Although simple to produce , AI @-@ dependent results are unpredictable , thus complicating the realization of a preconceived film script . For example , when Rooster Teeth produced The Strangerhood using The Sims 2 , a game that encourages the use of its AI , the group had to create multiple instances of each character to accommodate different moods . Individual instances were selected at different times to produce appropriate actions .
In digital puppetry , machinima creators become virtual actors ; each crew member controls a character in real @-@ time , as in a multiplayer game . The director can use built @-@ in camera controls , if available . Otherwise , video is captured from the perspectives of one or more puppeteers who serve as camera operators . Puppetry allows for improvisation and offers controls familiar to gamers , but requires more personnel than the other methods and is less precise than scripted recordings . However , some games , such as the Halo series , ( except for Halo PC and Custom Edition , which allow AI and custom objects and characters ) , allow filming only through puppetry . According to Marino , other disadvantages are the possibility of disruption when filming in an open multi @-@ user environment and the temptation for puppeteers to play the game in earnest , littering the set with blood and dead bodies . However , Chris Burke intentionally hosts This Spartan Life in these unpredictable conditions , which are fundamental to the show . Other works filmed using puppetry are the ILL Clan 's improvisational comedy series On the Campaign Trail with Larry & Lenny Lumberjack and Rooster Teeth Productions ' Red vs. Blue . In recamming , which builds on puppetry , actions are first recorded to a game engine 's demo file format , not directly as video frames . Without re @-@ enacting scenes , artists can then manipulate the demo files to add cameras , tweak timing and lighting , and change the surroundings . This technique is limited to the few engines and software tools that support it .
A technique common in cut scenes of video games , scripting consists of giving precise directions to the game engine . A filmmaker can work alone this way , as J. Thaddeus " Mindcrime " Skubis did in creating the nearly four @-@ hour The Seal of Nehahra ( 2000 ) , the longest work of machinima at the time . However , perfecting scripts can be time @-@ consuming . Unless what @-@ you @-@ see @-@ is @-@ what @-@ you @-@ get ( WYSIWYG ) editing is available , as in Vampire : The Masquerade – Redemption , changes may need to be verified in additional runs , and non @-@ linear editing may be difficult . In this respect , Kelland , Morris , and Lloyd compare scripting to stop @-@ motion animation . Another disadvantage is that , depending on the game , scripting capabilities may be limited or unavailable . Matinee , a machinima software tool included with Unreal Tournament 2004 , popularized scripting in machinima .
= = = Limitations and solutions = = =
When Diary of a Camper was created , no software tools existed to edit demo files into films . Rangers clan member Eric " ArchV " Fowler wrote his own programs to reposition the camera and to splice footage from the Quake demo file . Quake movie editing software later appeared , but the use of conventional non @-@ linear video editing software is now common . For example , Phil South inserted single , completely white frames into his work No Licence to enhance the visual impact of explosions . In the post @-@ production of Red vs. Blue : The Blood Gulch Chronicles , Rooster Teeth Productions added letterboxing with Adobe Premiere Pro to hide the camera player 's head @-@ up display .
Machinima creators have used different methods to handle limited character expression . The most typical ways that amateur @-@ style machinima gets around limitations of expression include taking advantage of speech bubbles seen above players ' heads when speaking , relying on the visual matching between a character 's voice and appearance , and finding methods available within the game itself . Garry 's Mod and Source Filmmaker include the ability to manipulate characters and objects in real @-@ time , though the former relies on community addons to take advantage of certain engine features , and the latter renders scenes using non @-@ real @-@ time effects . In the Halo video game series , helmets completely cover the characters ' faces . To prevent confusion , Rooster Teeth 's characters move slightly when speaking , a convention shared with anime . Some machinima creators use custom software . For example , Strange Company uses Take Over GL Face Skins to add more facial expressions to their characters filmed in BioWare 's 2002 role @-@ playing video game Neverwinter Nights . Similarly , Atussa Simon used a " library of faces " for characters in The Battle of Xerxes . In some cases , some game companies may provide such software ; examples include Epic Games ' Impersonator for Unreal Tournament 2004 and Valve Corporation 's Faceposer for Source games . Another solution is to blend in non @-@ machinima elements , as nGame did by inserting painted characters with more expressive faces into its 1999 film Berlin Assassins . It may be possible to point the camera elsewhere or employ other creative cinematography or acting . For example , Tristan Pope combined creative character and camera positioning with video editing to suggest sexual actions in his controversial film Not Just Another Love Story .
= = Legal issues = =
New machinima filmmakers often want to use game @-@ provided digital assets , but doing so raises legal issues . As derivative works , their films could violate copyright or be controlled by the assets ' copyright holder , an arrangement that can be complicated by separate publishing and licensing rights . The software license agreement for The Movies stipulates that Activision , the game 's publisher , owns " any and all content within ... Game Movies that was either supplied with the Program or otherwise made available ... by Activision or its licensors ... " Some game companies provide software to modify their own games , and machinima makers often cite fair use as a defense , but the issue has never been tested in court . A potential problem with this defense is that many works , such as Red vs. Blue , focus more on satire , which is not as explicitly protected by fair use as parody . Berkeley adds that , even if machinima artists use their own assets , their works could be ruled derivative if filmed in a proprietary engine . The risk inherent in a fair @-@ use defense would cause most machinima artists simply to yield to a cease @-@ and @-@ desist order . The AMAS has attempted to negotiate solutions with video game companies , arguing that an open @-@ source or reasonably priced alternative would emerge from an unfavorable situation . Unlike The Movies , some dedicated machinima software programs , such as Reallusion 's iClone , have licenses that avoid claiming ownership of users ' films featuring bundled assets .
Generally , companies want to retain creative control over their intellectual properties and are wary of fan @-@ created works , like fan fiction . However , because machinima provides free marketing , they have avoided a response demanding strict copyright enforcement . In 2003 , Linden Lab was praised for changing license terms to allow users to retain ownership of works created in its virtual world Second Life . Rooster Teeth initially tried to release Red vs. Blue unnoticed by Halo 's owners because they feared that any communication would force them to end the project . However , Microsoft , Bungie 's parent company at the time , contacted the group shortly after episode 2 , and allowed them to continue without paying licensing fees .
A case in which developer control was asserted involved Blizzard Entertainment 's action against Tristan Pope 's Not Just Another Love Story . Blizzard 's community managers encouraged users to post game movies and screenshots , but viewers complained that Pope 's suggestion of sexual actions through creative camera and character positioning was pornographic . Citing the user license agreement , Blizzard closed discussion threads about the film and prohibited links to it . Although Pope accepted Blizzard 's right to some control , he remained concerned about censorship of material that already existed in @-@ game in some form . Discussion ensued about boundaries between MMORPG player and developer control . Lowood asserted that this controversy demonstrated that machinima could be a medium of negotiation for players .
= = = Microsoft and Blizzard = = =
In August 2007 , Microsoft issued its Game Content Usage Rules , a license intended to address the legal status of machinima based on its games , including the Halo series . Microsoft intended the rules to be " flexible " , and , because it was unilateral , the license was legally unable to reduce rights . However , machinima artists , such as Edgeworks Entertainment , protested the prohibitions on extending Microsoft 's fictional universes ( a common component of fan fiction ) and on selling anything from sites hosting derivative works . Compounding the reaction was the license 's statement , " If you do any of these things , you can expect to hear from Microsoft 's lawyers who will tell you that you have to stop distributing your items right away . "
Surprised by the negative feedback , Microsoft revised and reissued the license after discussion with Hugh Hancock and an attorney for the Electronic Frontier Foundation . The rules allow noncommercial use and distribution of works derived from Microsoft @-@ owned game content , except audio effects and soundtracks . The license prohibits reverse engineering and material that is pornographic or otherwise " objectionable " . On distribution , derivative works that elaborate on a game 's fictional universe or story are automatically licensed to Microsoft and its business partners . This prevents legal problems if a fan and Microsoft independently conceive similar plots .
A few weeks later , Blizzard Entertainment posted on WorldofWarcraft.com their " Letter to the Machinimators of the World " , a license for noncommercial use of game content . It differs from Microsoft 's declaration in that it addresses machinima specifically instead of general game @-@ derived content , allows use of game audio if Blizzard can legally license it , requires derivative material to meet the Entertainment Software Rating Board 's Teen content rating guideline , defines noncommercial use differently , and does not address extensions of fictional universes .
Hayes states that , although licensees ' benefits are limited , the licenses reduce reliance on fair use regarding machinima . In turn , this recognition may reduce film festivals ' concerns about copyright clearance ; in an earlier analogous situation , festivals were concerned about documentary films until best practices for them were developed . According to Hayes , Microsoft and Blizzard helped themselves through their licenses because fan creations provide free publicity and are unlikely to harm sales . If the companies had instead sued for copyright infringement , defendants could have claimed estoppel or implied license because machinima had been unaddressed for a long time . Thus , these licenses secured their issuers ' legal rights . Even though other companies , such as Electronic Arts , have encouraged machinima , they have avoided licensing it . Because of the involved legal complexity , they may prefer to under @-@ enforce copyrights . Hayes believes that this legal uncertainty is a suboptimal solution and that , though limited and " idiosyncratic " , the Microsoft and Blizzard licenses move towards an ideal video gaming industry standard for handling derivative works .
= = Semiotic mode = =
Just as machinima can be the cause of legal dispute in copyright ownership and illegal use , it makes heavy use of intertextuality and raises the question of authorship . Machinima takes copyrighted property ( such as characters in a game engine ) and repurposes it to tell a story , but another common practice in machinima @-@ making is to retell an existing story from a different medium in that engine .
This re @-@ appropriation of established texts , resources , and artistic properties to tell a story or make a statement is an example of a semiotic phenomenon known as intertextuality or resemiosis . A more common term for this phenomenon is “ parody ” , but not all of these intertextual productions are intended for humor or satire , as demonstrated by the Few Good G @-@ Men video . Furthermore , the argument of how well @-@ protected machinima is under the guise of parody or satire is still highly debated ; a piece of machinima may be reliant upon a protected property , but may not necessarily be making a statement about that property . Therefore , it is more accurate to refer to it simply as resemiosis , because it takes an artistic work and presents it in a new way , form , or medium . This resemiosis can be manifested in a number of ways . The machinima @-@ maker can be considered an author who restructures the story and / or the world that the chosen game engine is built around . In the popular web series Red vs. Blue , most of the storyline takes place within the game engine of Halo : Combat Evolved and its subsequent sequels . Halo : Combat Evolved has an extensive storyline already , but Red vs. Blue only ever makes mention of this storyline once in the first episode . Even after over 200 episodes of the show being broadcast onto the Internet since 2003 , the only real similarities that can be drawn between Red vs. Blue and the game @-@ world it takes place in are the character models , props , vehicles , and settings . Yet Burnie Burns and the machinima team at Rooster Teeth created an extensive storyline of their own using these game resources .
The ability to re @-@ appropriate a game engine to film a video demonstrates intertextuality because it is an obvious example of art being a product of creation @-@ through @-@ manipulation rather than creation per se . The art historian Ernst Gombrich likened art to the " manipulation of a vocabulary " and this can be demonstrated in the creation of machinima . When using a game world to create a story , the author is influenced by the engine . For example , since so many video games are built around the concept of war , a significant portion of machinima films also take place in war @-@ like environments .
Intertextuality is further demonstrated in machinima not only in the re @-@ appropriation of content but in artistic and communicatory techniques . Machinima by definition is a form of puppetry , and thus this new form of digital puppetry employs age @-@ old techniques from the traditional artform . It is also , however , a form of filmmaking , and must employ filmmaking techniques such as camera angles and proper lighting . Some machinima takes place in online environments with participants , actors , and " puppeteers " working together from thousands of miles apart . This means other techniques born from long @-@ distance communication must also be employed . Thus , techniques and practices that would normally never be used in conjunction with one another in the creation of an artistic work end up being used intertextually in the creation of machinima .
Another way that machinima demonstrates intertextuality is in its tendency to make frequent references to texts , works , and other media just like TV ads or humorous cartoons such as The Simpsons might do . For example , the machinima series Freeman 's Mind , created by Ross Scott is filmed by taking a recording of Scott playing through the game Half Life as a player normally would and combining it with a voiceover ( also recorded by Scott ) to emulate an inner monologue of the normally voiceless protagonist Gordon Freeman . Scott portrays Freeman as a snarky , sociopathic character who makes frequent references to works and texts including science fiction , horror films , action movies , American history , and renowned novels such as Moby Dick . These references to works outside the game , often triggered by events within the game , are prime examples of the densely intertextual nature of machinima .
= = Common genres = =
Nitsche and Lowood describe two methods of approaching machinima : starting from a video game and seeking a medium for expression or for documenting gameplay ( " inside @-@ out " ) , and starting outside a game and using it merely as animation tool ( " outside @-@ in " ) . Kelland , Morris , and Lloyd similarly distinguish between works that retain noticeable connections to games , and those closer to traditional animation . Belonging to the former category , gameplay and stunt machinima began in 1997 with Quake done Quick . Although not the first speedrunners , its creators used external software to manipulate camera positions after recording , which , according to Lowood , elevated speedrunning " from cyberathleticism to making movies " . Stunt machinima remains popular . Kelland , Morris , and Lloyd state that Halo : Combat Evolved stunt videos offer a new way to look at the game , and compare Battlefield 1942 machinima creators to the Harlem Globetrotters . Built @-@ in features for video editing and post @-@ recording camera positioning in Halo 3 were expected to facilitate gameplay @-@ based machinima . MMORPGs and other virtual worlds have been captured in documentary films , such as Miss Galaxies 2004 , a beauty pageant that took place in the virtual world of Star Wars Galaxies . Footage was distributed in the cover disc of the August 2004 issue of PC Gamer . Douglas Gayeton 's Molotov Alva and His Search for the Creator documents the title character 's interactions in Second Life .
Gaming @-@ related comedy offers another possible entry point for new machinima producers . Presented as five @-@ minute sketches , many machinima comedies are analogous to Internet Flash animations . After Clan Undead 's 1997 work Operation Bayshield built on the earliest Quake movies by introducing narrative conventions of linear media and sketch comedy reminiscent of the television show Saturday Night Live , the New @-@ York @-@ based ILL Clan further developed the genre in machinima through works including Apartment Huntin ' and Hardly Workin ' . Red vs. Blue : The Blood Gulch Chronicles chronicles a futile civil war over five seasons and 100 episodes . Marino wrote that although the series ' humor was rooted in video games , strong writing and characters caused the series to " transcend the typical gamer " . An example of a comedy film that targets a more general audience is Strange Company 's Tum Raider , produced for the BBC in 2004 .
Machinima has been used in music videos , of which the first documented example is Ken Thain 's 2002 " Rebel vs. Thug " , made in collaboration with Chuck D. For this , Thain used Quake2Max , a modification of Quake II that provided cel @-@ shaded animation . The following year , Tommy Pallotta directed " In the Waiting Line " for the British group Zero 7 . He told Computer Graphics World , " It probably would have been quicker to do the film in a 3D animated program . But now , we can reuse the assets in an improvisational way . " Scenes of the game Postal 2 can be seen in the music video of the Black Eyed Peas single " Where Is the Love ? " . In television , MTV features video game characters on its show Video Mods . Among World of Warcraft players , dance and music videos became popular after dancing animations were discovered in the game .
Others use machinima in drama ; these works may or may not retain signs of their video game provenance . Unreal Tournament is often used for science fiction and Battlefield 1942 for war , but some artists subvert their chosen game 's setting or completely detach their work from it . In 1999 , Strange Company used Quake II in Eschaton : Nightfall , a horror film based on the work of H. P. Lovecraft . A later example is Damien Valentine 's series Consanguinity , made using BioWare 's 2002 computer game Neverwinter Nights and based on the television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer . Another genre consists of experimental works that attempt to push the boundaries of game engines . One example , Fountainhead 's Anna , is a short film that focuses on the cycle of life and is reminiscent of Fantasia . Other productions go farther and completely eschew a 3 @-@ D appearance . Friedrich Kirschner 's The Tournament and The Journey deliberately appear hand @-@ drawn , and Dead on Que 's Fake Science resembles two @-@ dimensional Eastern European modernist animation from the 1970s .
Another derivative genre termed macinima verite , from cinéma vérité , seeks to add a documentary and additional realism to the machinima piece . L.M. Sabo 's CATACLYSM achieves a machinima verite style through displaying and recapturing the machinima video with a low resolution black and white hand @-@ held video camera to produce a shaky camera effect . Other element of cinéma vérité , such as longer takes , sweeping camera transitions , and jump cuts may be included to complete the effect .
Some have used machinima to make political statements , often from left @-@ wing perspectives . Alex Chan 's take on the 2005 civil unrest in France , The French Democracy , attained mainstream attention and inspired other machinima commentaries on American and British society . Horwatt deemed Thuyen Nguyen 's 2006 An Unfair War , a criticism of the Iraq war , similar in its attempt " to speak for those who cannot " . Joshua Garrison mimicked Chan 's " political pseudo @-@ documentary style " in his Virginia Tech Massacre , a controversial Halo 3 – based re @-@ enactment and explanation of the eponymous real @-@ life events . More recently , War of Internet Addiction addressed internet censorship in China using World of Warcraft .
= = Competitions = =
After the QML 's Quake Movie Oscars , dedicated machinima awards did not reappear until the AMAS created the Mackies for its first Machinima Film Festival in 2002 . The annual festival has become an important one for machinima creators . Ho Chee Yue , a founder of the marketing company AKQA , helped to organize the first festival for the Asia chapter of the AMAS in 2006 . In 2007 , the AMAS supported the first machinima festival held in Europe . In addition to these smaller ceremonies , Hugh Hancock of Strange Company worked to add an award for machinima to the more general Bitfilm Festival in 2003 . Other general festivals that allow machinima include the Sundance Film Festival , the Florida Film Festival , and the New Media Film Festival . The Ottawa International Animation Festival opened a machinima category in 2004 , but , citing the need for " a certain level of excellence " , declined to award anything to the category 's four entries that year .
Machinima has been showcased in contests sponsored by game companies . Epic Games ' popular Make Something Unreal contest included machinima that impressed event organizer Jeff Morris because of " the quality of entries that really push the technology , that accomplish things that Epic never envisioned " . In December 2005 , Blizzard Entertainment and Xfire , a gaming @-@ focused instant messaging service , jointly sponsored a World of Warcraft machinima contest .
= Kangana Ranaut =
Kangana Ranaut ( pronounced [ kəŋɡənaː raːɳoːʈʰ ] ; born 23 March 1986 ) is an Indian film actress . She has established a career in Bollywood and is one of the highest @-@ paid actresses in India . Ranaut is particularly known in the media for expressing her honest opinions in public and is frequently credited as one of the most fashionable Indian celebrities . She is the recipient of several awards , including three National Film Awards and Filmfare Awards in four categories .
Born in Bhambla , a small town in Himachal Pradesh , Ranaut initially aspired to become a doctor at the insistence of her parents . Determined to build her own career path , she relocated to Delhi at age sixteen , where she briefly became a model . After training under the theatre director Arvind Gaur , Ranaut made her feature film debut in the 2006 thriller Gangster , for which she was awarded the Filmfare Award for Best Female Debut . She received praise for portraying emotionally intense characters in the dramas Woh Lamhe ( 2006 ) , Life in a ... Metro ( 2007 ) and Fashion ( 2008 ) . For the last of these , she won the National Film Award for Best Supporting Actress and a Filmfare Award in the same category .
Ranaut featured in the commercially successful films Raaz : The Mystery Continues ( 2009 ) and Once Upon a Time in Mumbaai ( 2010 ) , though she was criticised for being typecast in neurotic roles . A comic role opposite R. Madhavan in the 2011 box office hit Tanu Weds Manu was well @-@ received , though this was followed by a series of brief , glamorous roles in films that failed to propel her career forward . She then played a mutant opposite Hrithik Roshan in the science fiction film Krrish 3 ( 2013 ) , one of the highest @-@ grossing Bollywood films , and won the Filmfare and National Film Award for Best Actress for her performance in the comedy @-@ drama Queen ( 2014 ) . In 2015 , Ranaut portrayed dual roles in Tanu Weds Manu Returns , the most successful Bollywood film featuring a female protagonist , for which she won a Filmfare Critics Award and a second consecutive National Film Award for Best Actress .
= = Early life and background = =
Ranaut was born on 23 March 1986 at Bhambla ( now Surajpur ) , a small town in the Mandi district of Himachal Pradesh , into a Rajput family . Her mother , Asha Ranaut , is a school teacher , and her father , Amardeep Ranaut , is a businessman . She has an elder sister , Rangoli , who as of 2014 works as her manager and a younger brother , Akshat . Her great @-@ grandfather , Sarju Singh Ranaut , was a Member of the Legislative Assembly and her grandfather was an officer for the Indian Administrative Service . She grew up in a joint family at their ancestral haveli ( mansion ) in Bhambla , and described her childhood as " simple and happy " .
According to Ranaut , she was " stubborn and rebellious " while growing up : " If my father would gift my brother a plastic gun and get a doll for me , I would not accept that . I questioned the discrimination . " She did not subscribe to the stereotypes that were expected of her and experimented with fashion from a young age , often pairing up accessories and clothes that would seem " bizarre " to her neighbours . Ranaut was educated at the DAV School in Chandigarh , where she pursued science as her core subject , remarking that she was " very studious " and " always paranoid about [ ... ] results " . She initially intended to become a doctor on the insistence of her parents . However , a failed unit test in chemistry during her twelfth grade led Ranaut to reconsider her career prospects and despite preparing for the All India Pre Medical Test , she did not turn up for the exam . Determined to find her " space and freedom " , she relocated to Delhi at the age of sixteen . Her decision not to pursue medicine led to constant feuding with her parents and her father refused to sponsor a pursuit he considered to be aimless .
In Delhi , Ranaut was unsure which career to choose ; the Elite Modelling Agency were impressed by her looks and suggested that she model for them . She took on a few modelling assignments , but generally disliked the career as she found " no scope for creativity " . Ranaut decided to shift focus towards acting and joined the Asmita Theatre Group , where she trained under the theatre director Arvind Gaur . She participated in Gaur 's theatre workshop at the India Habitat Centre , acting in several of his plays , including the Girish Karnad @-@ scripted Taledanda . During a performance , when one of the male actors went missing , Ranaut played his part along with her original role of a woman . A positive reaction from the audience prompted her to relocate to Mumbai to pursue a career in film and she enrolled herself for a four @-@ month acting course in Asha Chandra 's drama school .
Ranaut struggled with her meager earnings during this period , eating only " bread and aachar ( pickle ) " . Refusing her father 's financial assistance led to a rift in their relationship which she later regretted . Her relatives were unhappy with her decision to enter the film @-@ making industry , and they did not correspond with her for several years . She reconciled with them after the release of Life in a ... Metro in 2007 .
= = Career = =
= = = 2004 – 08 : Film debut and critical acclaim = = =
In 2004 , the producers Ramesh Sharma and Pahlaj Nilani announced that Ranaut would make her film debut with the Deepak Shivdasani @-@ directed I Love You Boss . The following year , an agent took her to the office of the producer Mahesh Bhatt , where she interacted with the director Anurag Basu and auditioned for the lead role in the romantic thriller Gangster . Bhatt felt that she was too young for the role and signed Chitrangada Singh instead . However , Singh was later unavailable to do the film and Ranaut was contracted as a replacement for Gangster , opting out of I Love You Boss . She was cast in the central role of Simran , an alcoholic woman caught in a romantic triangle between a notorious gangster ( played by Shiney Ahuja ) and a sympathetic friend ( played by Emraan Hashmi ) . Ranaut was only seventeen while filming and said that she " had difficulty first in understanding and then unwinding from the character " , describing her craft as " raw and immature " . Released in 2006 , Gangster emerged as a critical and commercial success and her performance was praised . Raja Sen of Rediff.com said that " Kangana is a remarkable find , the actress coming across with great conviction . Hers is the pivotal character and an extremely difficult role to essay , but she manages it well [ ... ] Kangana 's nuances [ of an alcoholic character ] are disconcertingly realistic . " She won the Filmfare Award for Best Female Debut , along with various other debut awards .
Ranaut 's next role was in the Mohit Suri @-@ directed drama Woh Lamhe ( 2006 ) , a semi @-@ biographical film based on the schizophrenic actress Parveen Babi and her relationship with the director Mahesh Bhatt . She said that portraying Babi had left her emotionally drained , as she had begun to " feel her desolation and loneliness . " Film critic Subhash K. Jha wrote that Ranaut " is the first female performer of Bollywood since Smita and Shabana who isn 't scared to strip her soul naked for the camera " , adding that she is a " hugely expressive actress with a phenomenal ability to convey torment , hurt and incredulity through the eyes " . Despite positive reviews , the film underperformed at the box office .
The following year , Ranaut portrayed an aspiring musician in Suneel Darshan 's musical thriller Shakalaka Boom Boom , alongside Bobby Deol , Upen Patel and Celina Jaitly . The film 's production was marred by a dispute between Ranaut and Darshan ; she objected to her voice being dubbed by another artist , but he insisted that he needed a particular " twang and accent " for her character . India Today described the film as an " amateur mess " and the film proved to be a box office flop . She next reunited with Anurag Basu for the ensemble drama Life in a ... Metro , playing the supporting role of Neha , a shrewd socialite engaged in an affair with her married boss ( played by Kay Kay Menon ) . Despite a poor initial run at the box office , the film emerged as a profitable venture . Khalid Mohamed of Hindustan Times was critical of the film , noting its lack of originality and realism . In a more positive review , Raja Sen wrote that Ranaut " is refreshing [ ... ] and manages to herd her emotions well , playing a complex role but hardly ever overreaching " , but criticised her delivery of English lines . For her role , Ranaut was awarded the Stardust Award for Breakthrough Performance – Female .
Ranaut next portrayed a village girl in Dhaam Dhoom ( 2008 ) , a Tamil romantic thriller , opposite Jayam Ravi . Production on the film was temporarily halted when the director , Jeeva , died of cardiac arrest and the film was completed by the crew members . A review carried by Post wrote that Ranaut had " little scope " in a role that did not suit her . India Today described her next film , the Madhur Bhandarkar @-@ directed drama Fashion ( 2008 ) , as a " landmark " in her career . Set against the backdrop of the Indian fashion industry , the film co @-@ starred Priyanka Chopra and Mugdha Godse and featured Ranaut as Shonali Gujral , a substance abusing supermodel struggling to cope with her foundering career . Because the media speculated that her role was based on the former model Geetanjali Nagpal ( which both Ranaut and Bhandarkar denied ) , the Delhi Commission for Women ( DCW ) , ordered a stay on the film 's release , approving it only after a script narration . With a worldwide revenue of 600 million Indian rupees ( ₹ ) , approximately US $ 10 million , Fashion emerged as a commercial success , and was listed by Subhash K. Jha as one of the best films of the decade with women protagonists . Ranaut 's performance drew unanimous critical acclaim . Taran Adarsh of Bollywood Hungama praised her confident portrayal of the character and believed that she was the real star of the film , and Nikhat Kazmi of The Times of India added that she " does an exquisite metamorphosis from a wispy , high @-@ strung , nervous child @-@ woman to a stunning ramp diva . " Ranaut 's portrayal earned her several awards , including the National Film Award and Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actress .
= = = 2009 – 12 : Career fluctuations = = =
The supernatural horror film Raaz : The Mystery Continues from director Mohit Suri was Ranaut 's first film release of 2009 , in which she played a successful model who is possessed by a ghost . The film co @-@ starred Emraan Hashmi and Adhyayan Suman and proved to be a financial success . Shubhra Gupta of The Indian Express noted that Ranaut was becoming stereotyped in roles that required her to be " hysterical " , adding that she needed a " radical change of image " . Also that year , she played the leading lady in the drama Vaada Raha and the Telugu action film Ek Niranjan , neither of which were particularly notable .
In a brief role in Anurag Basu 's romantic thriller Kites ( 2010 ) , Ranaut portrayed the fiancée of Hrithik Roshan 's character . She said that she felt " cheated " after watching the film , as her role proved to be much smaller than what she had initially signed on for . She then portrayed fictional film actress Rehana in the Milan Luthria @-@ directed gangster film Once Upon a Time in Mumbaai . Also starring Ajay Devgn , Emraan Hashmi and Prachi Desai , the film chronicles the rise and subsequent fall of an underworld don ( played by Devgn ) in the 1970s . Ranaut said that her character was " a mix " of the actress Madhubala and the gangster Haji Mastan 's wife and that to prepare she observed the work of the actresses Zeenat Aman and Parveen Babi . The film was one of the most successful releases of the year and garnered positive reviews from critics . Sudish Kamath of The Hindu labelled her a " delight " and Mid Day 's Sarita Tanwar praised her for being " totally convincing " in the role . After playing a television reporter in the thriller Knock Out , Ranaut actively looked for a comedy and found the role in Anees Bazmee 's No Problem , but both films failed to propel her career forward .
According to Bollywood Hungama , after establishing a reputation for portraying neurotic characters , Ranaut was seeking projects that would be " less emotionally exhausting " for her . Her first release of 2011 was Anand L. Rai 's Tanu Weds Manu , a romantic comedy opposite R. Madhavan , which Ranaut considers a " game changer " for her . Rai stated that he cast her for the role to illustrate that the actress was capable of playing other roles and that her character in the film was unlike any of those that she had played previously . Critical reaction to the film was mixed , though Ranaut 's performance was praised . Rajeev Masand wrote , " Kangana Ranaut is a pleasant surprise in a cheery , upbeat part that we haven 't seen her take on before . She rises to the challenge , only hampered occasionally by her mangled dialogue delivery . " Ranaut received Best Actress nominations at several award ceremonies , including Screen and Zee Cine .
Ranaut followed the success of Tanu Weds Manu by starring in a series of brief , glamorous roles in four other films of 2011 : Game , Double Dhamaal , Rascals and Miley Naa Miley Hum . With the exception of Double Dhamaal , none of these films performed well . In a review for Rascals , the critic Gaurav Malani wrote : " Kangana Ranaut is ill at ease in comedy . She struggles to hold her own and emerges as a bimbo in her act . " Ranaut later said that she did some of these films due to a dearth of film offers . The following year , Ranaut portrayed a supporting role opposite Ajay Devgn in Priyadarshan 's action thriller Tezz , another box office flop .
= = = 2013 – present : Established actress = = =
The director Sanjay Gupta cast Ranaut in a brief role opposite John Abraham in the crime thriller Shootout at Wadala ( 2013 ) due to her ability to stand out in a predominantly male @-@ centric film . The Daily News and Analysis ' Tushar Joshi wrote that her role was written " to provide the sex quotient " and critic Vinayak Chakravorty opined that she " does not get much scope [ ... ] beyond the steamy lovemaking grind " . Commercially , the film performed moderately well .
Ranaut achieved success later in 2013 for her portrayal of Kaya , a shapeshifting mutant , in Rakesh Roshan 's science fiction film Krrish 3 , alongside Hrithik Roshan , Priyanka Chopra and Vivek Oberoi . When Rakesh Roshan first offered the role to her , she declined it due a disappointing prior association with him on Kites , in which Roshan had served as producer . Following Ranaut 's rejection , other actresses also turned down the role . Roshan approached her again and after assuring her that the role would not be a minuscule one , Ranaut accepted the part . Critics thought that Krrish 3 was entertaining but lacking in originality , though Ranaut 's performance garnered praise . The critic Sarita Tanwar of Daily News and Analysis said : " Kangana Ranaut is delightful as an alien making the weird hair and clothes work for her . She even manages to make you feel her pain . Quite an accomplishment that ! " With global ticket sales of ₹ 3 billion ( US $ 45 million ) , the film emerged as one of the highest @-@ grossing Bollywood films of all time , becoming Ranaut 's most financially profitable venture . Also that year , Ranaut played the eponymous lead in the musical drama Rajjo . The film was a critical and commercial failure and Ranaut 's portrayal of a nautch girl was largely criticised . Paloma Sharma of Rediff.com commented that " Kangana Ranaut struggles with her Mumbaiyya dialogues and is not as graceful in the dance sequences as one would have expected . "
In 2014 , Ranaut established herself in Hindi cinema when she featured alongside Rajkummar Rao and Lisa Haydon in the coming @-@ of @-@ age dramedy Queen ; she also co @-@ wrote the dialogues with Anvita Dutt Guptan . The film tells the story of Rani , a naive girl who embarks on her honeymoon alone after her fiancé calls off their wedding . Ranaut , who describes herself as " independent and confident " , reflected that the role was one of the toughest she had played , as the character 's personality traits contrasted with her own . The film and Ranaut 's performance received unanimous acclaim from critics . Devesh Sharma of Filmfare wrote that the fact that she " flits from one aspect of her character to another without breaking stride shows her maturity as an actor . Her efforts make you clap for Rani 's small and big victories , you root for her character to come up trumps and are glad about the glorious transformation at the end . " With a worldwide total of ₹ 970 million ( US $ 14 million ) , the film also emerged as a box office hit . She won both the Filmfare Award and the National Film Award for Best Actress for the film . Ranaut followed Queen by playing an aggressive politician in the black comedy Revolver Rani and a medical intern in the political drama Ungli ( both 2014 ) .
The following year , Ranaut starred in Tanu Weds Manu Returns ( 2015 ) , a sequel to Tanu Weds Manu , in which she portrayed dual roles — she reprised the character of Tanuja from the original and also portrayed an aspiring athlete in it . In preparation for the latter role , she interacted with students of the University of Delhi in disguise ; in addition , she attended workshops to learn the Haryanvi language and trained in the sport of triple jump . The film received positive reviews from critics and Ranaut 's performance was considered its prime asset . Sweta Kaushal of Hindustan Times praised her for perfecting the body languages and accents of the two women , and Saibal Chatterjee of NDTV wrote that she " fleshes out this pair of distinct individuals with such energy and finesse that it becomes difficult at times to tell that it is the same actress playing the two roles " . Tanu Weds Manu Returns earned over ₹ 2 @.@ 4 billion ( US $ 36 million ) worldwide , becoming the highest @-@ grossing Bollywood film featuring a female protagonist . Ranaut won a Filmfare Critics Award and a second consecutive National Film Award for Best Actress , and received an additional Best Actress nomination at Filmfare .
Also in 2015 , Ranaut appeared in the romantic comedies I Love NY ( a production delayed since 2013 ) and Nikhil Advani 's Katti Batti , both of which failed at the box office . The latter saw her play opposite Imran Khan as a cancer patient , a role that critic Uday Bhatia of Mint thought " lack [ ed ] the sort of definition she ’ s had in her last few roles " .
= = = = Upcoming projects = = = =
As of May 2016 , Ranaut has completed filming for the part of an actress in Vishal Bhardwaj 's Rangoon , a romantic drama set during World War II , co @-@ starring Saif Ali Khan and Shahid Kapoor . In addition , Ranaut is committed to star in Simran , a drama from the director Hansal Mehta , in which she will play a Gujarati immigrant in America involved in criminal activities , and in Ketan Mehta 's biopic on Rani Laxmibai . Ranaut will also be making her production and directorial debut with an English language short film entitled The Touch , dealing with the relationship between a four @-@ year @-@ old boy and a dog ; she co @-@ wrote the screenplay with an Australian writer and completed principal photography in America .
= = Personal life = =
Ranaut has stated that her initial years in the film industry were marred with difficulties as she was unprepared to be an actress . She was conscious of her poor command of the English language and struggled to " fit in " . In a 2013 interview with Daily News and Analysis , Ranaut recollected :
" People in the industry treated me like I didn 't deserve to be spoken to and I was some unwanted object . I couldn 't speak English fluently and people made fun of me for that . So dealing with rejection became a part of life . ... All that has taken a toll , I guess . I find it hard to deal with praise . Today , when people say that I have made it and made it on my own , I feel like locking up myself somewhere ... It scares me . "
During the struggle , Ranaut found support in the actor Aditya Pancholi and his wife Zarina Wahab and considered them her " family away from home " . She became embroiled in a well publicised scandal when the media speculated on the nature of her relationship with Pancholi . She declined to speak about it openly , although she made several public appearances with him . In 2007 it was reported that Ranaut had filed a police complaint against Pancholi for physically assaulting her under the influence of alcohol . The following year Pancholi confirmed the affair in an interview , saying that he had been cohabiting with Ranaut in the past and accused her of owing him ₹ 2 @.@ 5 million ( US $ 37 @,@ 000 ) . In response , Ranaut 's spokesperson said that " after physically assaulting her in the middle of a road , he has no right to expect anything from her " , adding that she had " already given ₹ 5 million ( US $ 74 @,@ 000 ) to [ him ] as a goodwill gesture " . Ranaut later said that the incident had left her " physically and mentally " damaged .
While filming Raaz : The Mystery Continues in 2008 , Ranaut began a romantic relationship with co @-@ star Adhyayan Suman . On Suman 's insistence that he focus on his professional career , the couple separated the following year . From 2010 to 2012 , Ranaut was involved in a long @-@ distance romance with Nicholas Lafferty , an English doctor ; she described the relationship as " the most normal " she ever had , but the couple split amicably as she was not ready for marriage . She has since maintained that she will never get married , and has expressed a desire to not be bound by a relationship . In 2016 , Hrithik Roshan , her co @-@ star from Krrish 3 , filed a lawsuit against Ranaut accusing her of cyber stalking and harassment . Denying the charges , Ranaut filed a counter @-@ charge against Roshan , claiming that his lawsuit was an attempt to cover @-@ up their affair for the benefit of his divorce proceedings .
Ranaut lives in Mumbai with her sister Rangoli , who was the victim of an acid attack in 2006 . She makes yearly visits to her hometown of Bhambla . A practicing Hindu , Ranaut follows the teachings of the spiritual leader Swami Vivekananda and considers meditation to be " the highest form of worshipping God " . She practices vegetarianism and was listed as " India 's hottest vegetarian " in a poll conducted by PETA in 2013 . Since 2009 Ranaut has been studying the dance form of kathak from the Nateshwar Nritya Kala Mandir . She has said that the technical process of filmmaking is of tremendous interest to her , and to better her understanding of it Ranaut enrolled in a two @-@ month screenplay writing course at the New York Film Academy in 2014 . In an interview with Filmfare she said that despite her stardom , she wants to lead a normal life : " I don 't want to lose my rights as a common person to learn and grow " .
= = In the media = =
In the book Acting Smart : Your Ticket to Showbiz , Tisca Chopra describes Ranaut as a " free @-@ spirited , original creative " person " who cannot really be slotted in a particular mould " . Ranaut is particularly known for her forthrightness in expressing her opinions in public on issues ranging from film to feminism . A televised interview hosted by Anupama Chopra in which Ranaut spoke out against gender bias and nepotism in Bollywood went viral online , which led Sunaina Kumar of Tehelka to write : " In this age of cookie @-@ cutter heroines with stock responses , Kangana Ranaut is refreshingly real and honest . "
Analysing Ranaut 's career , the journalist Parmita Uniyal , in 2014 , noted that she " loves to challenge herself with tricky roles and manages to add a different dimension to her character every time . " A reviewer for Rediff.com described her as a " director 's actress " who is susceptible to both " shine and crumble under the right / wrong guidance " . Anand L Rai ( the director of Tanu Weds Manu ) says that Ranaut actively pursues roles in which she can " work in her own space and not become a mere prop in the male @-@ dominated Bollywood " . Alongside actress Vidya Balan , Ranaut has been credited for spearheading a movement that breaks stereotypes of a Hindi film heroine by playing the protagonist in films not starring a well @-@ known male star . Following the success of Queen and Tanu Weds Manu Returns , Deccan Chronicle labelled her as " one of the most bankable actresses in the industry " , and Daily News and Analysis reported that she had emerged as one of the highest @-@ paid actresses in Bollywood .
Ranaut is considered a sex symbol and a style icon in India . Analysing Ranaut 's off @-@ screen persona , Hindustan Times published that she was initially written off by Indian journalists due to her " funny accent " and the negative publicity generated by her troubled relationships ; however , her defining fashion choices and her unconventional film roles eventually established her as a star . Ranaut has frequently featured in listings of the most attractive and stylish celebrities in India . She ranked among the top 10 on The Times of India 's listing of the " Most Desirable Woman " in 2010 , 2011 , 2013 and 2015 . Ranaut was featured on Verve 's listing of the most powerful women of 2010 and in 2012 she was named the " Best Dressed Personality " by the Indian edition of People magazine . In 2013 , Ranaut featured as one of the best @-@ dressed women celebrities by Vogue India . The journalist Jagmeeta Thind Joy credits the actress for her " quirky , almost non @-@ Bollywood take on personal style " , adding that she " likes to shock and awe with her choices " . She has collaborated with the fashion brand Vero Moda to launch two clothing lines for the company , named Marquee and Venice Cruise , in 2015 and 2016 , respectively .
= = Filmography and awards = =
= = = Selected filmography = = =
= = = Awards = = =
Ranaut has been the recipient of three National Film Awards : Best Supporting Actress for Fashion ( 2008 ) and Best Actress for Queen ( 2014 ) and Tanu Weds Manu Returns ( 2015 ) . She has also won four Filmfare Awards : Best Female Debut for Gangster ( 2006 ) , Best Supporting Actress for Fashion ( 2008 ) , Best Actress for Queen ( 2014 ) , and Best Actress - Critics for Tanu Weds Manu Returns ( 2015 ) .
= Ulm Campaign =
The Ulm Campaign consisted of a series of French and Bavarian military maneuvers and battles to outflank and capture an Austrian army in 1805 during the War of the Third Coalition . It took place in the vicinity of and inside the Swabian ( then Bavarian ) city of Ulm . The French Grande Armée , led by Napoleon Bonaparte , comprised 210 @,@ 000 troops organized into seven corps , and hoped to knock out the Austrian army in the Danube before Russian reinforcements could arrive . Through rapid marching , Napoleon conducted a large wheeling maneuver that captured an Austrian army of 23 @,@ 000 under General Mack on 20 October at Ulm , bringing the total number of Austrian prisoners in the campaign to 60 @,@ 000 . The campaign is generally regarded as a strategic masterpiece and was influential in the development of the Schlieffen Plan in the late 19th century .
The victory at Ulm did not end the war , since a large Russian army under Kutuzov was still near Vienna . The Russians withdrew to the northeast to await reinforcements and to link up with surviving Austrian units . The French followed and captured Vienna on 12 November . On 2 December the decisive French victory at Austerlitz removed Austria from the war . The resulting Treaty of Pressburg in late December brought the Third Coalition to an end and left Napoleonic France as the major power in Central Europe , leading to the War of the Fourth Coalition with Prussia and Russia the following year .
= = Prelude = =
Europe had been by then embroiled in the French Revolutionary Wars since 1792 . After five years of war , the French Republic subdued the First Coalition in 1797 . A Second Coalition was formed in 1798 but this too was defeated by 1801 . Britain remained the only opponent for the new French Consulate . In March 1802 , France and Britain agreed to end hostilities under the Treaty of Amiens . For the first time in ten years , all of Europe was at peace . There were many problems between the two sides and implementing the agreements they had reached at Amiens seemed to be a growing challenge . Britain resented having to turn over all colonial conquests since 1793 and France was angry that British troops had not evacuated the island of Malta . The tense situation only worsened when Napoleon sent an expeditionary force to crush the Haitian Revolution . In May 1803 , Britain declared war on France .
= = = Third Coalition = = =
In December 1804 , an Anglo @-@ Swedish agreement led to the creation of the Third Coalition . British Prime Minister William Pitt spent 1804 and 1805 in a flurry of diplomatic activity to form a new coalition against France . Mutual suspicion between the British and the Russians eased in the face of several French political mistakes and by April 1805 the two had signed a treaty of alliance . Having been defeated twice in recent memory by France and keen on revenge , Austria also joined the coalition a few months later .
= = = French military preparations = = =
Prior to the formation of the Third Coalition , Napoleon had assembled the " Army of England , " an invasion force meant to strike at the British Isles , around six camps at Boulogne in Northern France . Although they never set foot on British soil , Napoleon 's troops received careful and invaluable training for any possible military operation . Although boredom quickly set in among the troops , Napoleon paid many visits to conduct lavish parades to maintain their morale .
The men at Boulogne formed the core for what Napoleon would later call " La Grande Armée " ( The Great Army ) . At the start , the French army had about 200 @,@ 000 men organized into seven corps , which were large field units , each containing about 36 to 40 cannon each and capable of independent action until other corps could arrive . On top , Napoleon created a cavalry reserve of 22 @,@ 000 troopers organized into two cuirassier divisions , four mounted dragoon divisions and two divisions of dismounted dragoons and light cavalry , all supported by 24 artillery pieces . By 1805 , La Grande Armée had grown to a force of 350 @,@ 000 , was equipped and trained . Itpossessed a competent officer class where almost all from sergeants to marshals had experience in the recent Revolutionary Wars .
= = = Austrian military preparations = = =
Archduke Charles , brother of the Austrian Emperor , had started to reform the Austrian army in 1801 by taking away power from the Hofkriegsrat ( Aulic Council ) , the military @-@ political council responsible for decisionmaking in the Austrian armed forces . Charles was Austria 's best field commander , but he was unpopular with the royal court and lost much influence when , against his advice , Austria decided to go to war with France .
Karl Mack became the new main commander in Austria 's army , instituting reforms on the infantry on the eve of war that called for a regiment to be composed of four battalions of four companies rather than the older three battalions of six companies . The sudden change came with no corresponding officer training ; new units were led by commanders who had not been given sufficient tactical training in using their units .
Austrian cavalry forces were regarded as the best in Europe , but the detachment of many cavalry units to various infantry formations precluded the hitting power of their massed French counterparts , who could , at the orders of Napoleon , amass a whole corps of cavalry to influence the battle .
= = Campaign = =
The Ulm Campaign lasted for nearly a month and saw the French army under Napoleon deliver blow after blow to the confused Austrians . It culminated on 20 October with the loss of an entire Austrian army .
= = = Austrian Plans & Preparations = = =
General Mack thought that Austrian security relied on sealing off the gaps through the mountainous Black Forest area in Southern Germany that had witnessed much fighting during the campaigns of the French Revolutionary Wars . Mack believed that there would be no action in Central Germany . Mack decided to make the city of Ulm the centerpiece of his defensive strategy , which called for a containment of the French until the Russians under Kutuzov could arrive and alter the odds against Napoleon . Ulm was protected by the heavily fortified Michelsberg heights , giving Mack the impression that the city was virtually impregnable from outside attack .
Fatally , the Aulic Council decided to make Northern Italy the main theater of operations for the Habsburgs . Archduke Charles was assigned 95 @,@ 000 troops and directed to cross the Adige River with Mantua , Peschiera , and Milan as the initial objectives . The Austrians based an army of 72 @,@ 000 men on Ulm . Nominally commanded by Archduke Ferdinand , the army 's real authority was Mack . Austrian strategy required that Archduke John with 23 @,@ 000 troops secure the Tyrol and provide the link between his brother Charles 's army and his cousin Ferdinand 's army . The Austrians also detached individual corps to serve with the Swedish in Pomerania and the British in Naples , though these were designed to confuse the French and divert their resources .
= = = French Plans & Preparations = = =
In both the campaigns of 1796 and 1800 , Napoleon had envisaged the Danube theater as the central focus of French efforts , but in both instances the Italian theater became the most important . The Aulic Council thought Napoleon would strike in Italy again . Napoleon had other intentions : 210 @,@ 000 French troops would be launched eastwards from the camps of Boulogne and would envelop General Mack 's exposed Austrian army if it kept marching towards the Black Forest . Meanwhile , Marshal Murat would conduct cavalry screens across the Black Forest to fool the Austrians into thinking that the French were advancing on a direct west @-@ east axis . The main attack in Germany would be supported by French assaults in other theaters : Marshal Masséna would confront Charles in Italy with 50 @,@ 000 men of the Armée d 'Italie , St. Cyr would march to Naples with 20 @,@ 000 men , and Marshal Brune would patrol Boulogne with 30 @,@ 000 troops against a possible British invasion .
Murat and Bertrand conducted reconnaissance between the area bordering the Tyrol and the Main as Savary , chief of the planning staff , drew up detailed road surveys of the areas between the Rhine and the Danube . The left wing of the Grande Armée would move from Hanover in northern Germany and Utrecht in the Netherland to fall on Württemberg ; the right and center , troops from the Channel coast , would concentrate along the Middle Rhine around cities like Mannheim and Strasbourg . While Murat was making demonstrations across the Black Forest , other French forces would then invade the German heartland and swing towards the southeast by capturing Augsburg , a move that was supposed to isolate Mack and interrupt the Austrian lines of communication .
= = = The French invasion = = =
On 22 September Mack decided to hold the Iller line anchored on Ulm . In the last three days of September , the French began the furious marches that would place them at the Austrian rear . Mack believed that the French would not violate Prussian territory , but when he heard that Bernadotte 's I Corps had marched through Prussian Ansbach , he made the critical decision to stay and defend Ulm rather than retreat to the south , which would have offered a reasonable opportunity at saving the bulk of his forces . Napoleon had little accurate information about Mack 's intentions or maneuvers ; he knew that Kienmayer 's Corps was sent to Ingolstadt east of the French positions , but his agents greatly exaggerated its size . On 5 October Napoleon ordered Ney to join Lannes , Soult , and Murat in concentrating and crossing the Danube at Donauwörth . The French encirclement , however , was not deep enough to prevent Kienmayer 's escape : the French corps did not all arrive at the same place – they instead deployed on a long west @-@ east axis – and the early arrival of Soult and Davout at Donauwörth incited Kienmayer to exercise caution and evasion . Napoleon gradually became more convinced that the Austrians were massed at Ulm and ordered sizeable portions of the French army to concentrate around Donauwörth ; on 6 October three French infantry and cavalry corps headed to Donauwörth to seal off Mack 's escape route .
Realizing the danger of his position , Mack decided to go on the offensive . On 8 October he commanded the army to concentrate around Günzburg and hoped to strike at Napoleon 's lines of communication . Mack instructed Kienmayer to draw Napoleon further east towards Munich and Augsburg . Napoleon did not seriously consider the possibility that Mack would cross the Danube and move away from his central base , but he did realize that seizing the bridges at Günzburg would yield a large strategic advantage . To accomplish this objective , Napoleon sent Ney 's Corps to Günzburg , completely unaware that the bulk of the Austrian army was heading to the same destination . On 8 October , however , the campaign witnessed its first serious battle at Wertingen between Auffenburg 's troops and those of Murat and Lannes .
= = = Battle of Wertingen = = =
For reasons not entirely clear , on 7 October Mack ordered Franz Xavier Auffenburg to take his division of 5 @,@ 000 infantry and 400 cavalry from Günzburg to Wertingen in preparation for the main Austrian advance out of Ulm . Uncertain of what to do and having little hope for reinforcements , Auffenburg was in a dangerous position . The first French forces to arrive were Murat 's cavalry divisions – Louis Klein 's 1st Dragoon Division , Marc Antoine de Beaumont 's 3rd Dragoon Division , and Nansouty 's 1st Cuirassier Division . They began to assault the Austrian positions and were soon joined by Nicolas Oudinot 's grenadiers , who were hoping to outflank the Austrians from the northeast . Auffenburg attempted a retreat to the southwest , but he was not quick enough : the Austrians lost nearly their entire force , 1 @,@ 000 to 2 @,@ 000 of which were taken prisoner . The Battle of Wertingen had been an easy French victory .
The action at Wertingen convinced Mack to operate on the left ( north ) bank of the Danube instead of making a direct eastwards retreat on the right bank . This would require the Austrian army to cross to the north at Günzburg . On 8 October Ney was operating under Louis Alexandre Berthier 's directions that called for a direct attack on Ulm the following day . Ney sent in Jean @-@ Pierre Firmin Malher 's 3rd Division to capture the Günzburg bridges over the Danube . In the Battle of Günzburg , a column of this division ran into some Tyrolean jaegers and captured 200 of them , including their commander Konstantin Ghilian Karl d 'Aspré , along with two cannons . The Austrians noticed these developments and reinforced their positions around Günzburg with three infantry battalions and 20 cannons . Malher 's division conducted several heroic attacks against the Austrian positions , but all failed . Mack then sent in Ignaz Gyulai with seven infantry battalions and fourteen cavalry squadrons to repair the destroyed bridges , but this force was charged and swept away by the delayed French 59th Infantry Regiment . Fierce fighting ensued and the French finally managed to establish a foothold on the right ( south ) bank of the Danube . While the Battle of Günzburg was being fought , Ney sent Louis Henri Loison 's 2nd Division to capture the Danube bridges at Elchingen , which were lightly defended by the Austrians . Having lost most of the Danube bridges , Mack marched his army back to Ulm . By 10 October Ney 's corps had made significant progress : Malher 's 3rd division had crossed to the right ( south ) bank , Loison 's 2 | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
his marshals to capture the important bridges around Ulm . He also began shifting his forces to the north of Ulm because he expected a battle in that region rather than an encirclement of the city itself . These dispositions and actions would lead to a confrontation at Elchingen on the 14th as Ney 's forces advanced on Albeck .
At this point in the campaign , the Austrian command staff was in full confusion . Ferdinand began to openly oppose Mack 's command style and decisions , charging that the latter spent his days writing contradictory orders that left the Austrian army marching back and forth . On 13 October Mack sent two columns out of Ulm in preparation for a breakout to the north : one under Johann Sigismund Riesch headed towards Elchingen to secure the bridge there and the other under Franz von Werneck went north with most of the heavy artillery . Ney hurried his corps forward to reestablish contact with Dupont , who was still north of the Danube . Ney led Loison 's division to the south of Elchingen on the right bank of the Danube to begin the attack . Malher 's division crossed the river farther east and moved west toward Riesch 's position . The field was a partially wooded flood plain , rising steeply to the hill town of Elchingen , which had a wide field of view . The French cleared the Austrian pickets from a bridge , then a regiment boldly attacked and captured the abbey at the top of the hill at bayonet point . During the Battle of Elchingen , the Austrian cavalry was also defeated and Reisch 's infantry fled toward Ulm . Ney was given the title Duke of Elchingen for his impressive victory .
= = = Battle of Ulm = = =
On 13 October Soult 's IV Corps fell on Memmingen from the east . After a minor clash that resulted in 16 French casualties , General @-@ Major Karl Spangen von Uyternesse surrendered 4 @,@ 600 soldiers , eight guns , and nine colors . The Austrians were low on ammunition , cut off from Ulm , and completely demoralized by the confusion reigning at army headquarters .
More actions took place on the 14th . Murat 's forces joined Dupont at Albeck just in time to drive off an Austrian attack from Werneck ; together Murat and Dupont beat the Austrians to the north in the direction of Heidenheim . By night on the 14th , two French corps were stationed in the vicinity of the Austrian encampments at Michelsberg , right outside of Ulm . Mack was now in a dangerous situation : there was no longer any hope of escaping along the north bank , Marmont and the Imperial Guard were hovering at the outskirts of Ulm to the south of the river , and Soult was moving north from Memmingen to prevent the Austrians escaping south to the Tyrol . Troubles continued with the Austrian command as Ferdinand overrode the objections of Mack and ordered the evacuation of all cavalry from Ulm , a total of 6 @,@ 000 troopers . Murat 's pursuit was so effective , however , that only eleven squadrons joined Werneck at Heidenheim . Murat continued his harassment of Werneck and forced him to surrender with 8 @,@ 000 men at Treuchtlingen on 19 October ; Murat also took an entire Austrian field park of 500 vehicles , then swept on towards Neustadt an der Donau and captured 12 @,@ 000 Austrians .
Events at Ulm were now reaching a conclusion . On 15 October Ney 's troops successfully charged the Michelsberg encampments and on the 16th the French began to bombard Ulm itself . Austrian morale was at a low point and Mack began to realize that there was little hope of rescue . On 17 October Napoleon 's emissary , Ségur , signed a convention with Mack in which the Austrians agreed to surrender on 25 October if no aid came by that date . Gradually , however , Mack heard of the capitulations at Heidenheim and Neresheim and agreed to surrender five days before schedule on 20 October . Fifteen hundred troops from the Austrian garrison managed to escape , but the vast majority of the Austrian force marched out on 21 October and laid down their arms without incident , all with the Grande Armée drawn up in a vast semicircle observing the capitulation ( see infobox picture ) . The officers were permitted to leave , pending their signatures on a parole in which they agreed not to take up arms against France until they were exchanged . More than ten general officers were included in this agreement , including Mack , Johann von Klenau , Maximilian Anton Karl , Count Baillet de Latour , Prince Liechtenstein , and Ignaz Gyulai .
= = Aftermath = =
As the Austrians were marching out of Ulm to surrender , a combined Franco @-@ Spanish fleet was being destroyed at the Battle of Trafalgar . This decisive British victory ended the naval threat from France and ensured British naval domination until World War I. Despite this setback , the Ulm Campaign had been a spectacular victory and had witnessed the elimination of an entire Austrian army at very little cost for the French . The 8th bulletin of the Grande Armée described the scale of the achievement :
Marshal Augereau 's arrival from Brest with the newly formed VII Corps gave the French one more piece of good news . In the Capitulation of Dornbirn on 13 November , Franjo Jelačić 's division was cornered and forced to surrender . The Russians withdrew to the northeast after Mack 's capitulation and Vienna fell on 12 November . The Allies were thoroughly defeated at the Battle of Austerlitz in December and Austria was permanently knocked out of the Third Coalition a few weeks later . The French victory highlighted the effectiveness of la manoeuvre sur les derrières , a special type of strategic envelopment first used by Napoleon in his Italian campaign in 1796 . The maneuver called for a pinning force that would occupy a broad front of the enemy line while other supporting units positioned themselves at a specific location in the enemy 's flank or rear . As the enemy became more embroiled with the pinning force , the flanking troops would attack at a critical spot and seal the victory . In the Ulm Campaign , Murat 's cavalry served as the pinning force that fooled the Austrians into thinking the main French attack would come from the Black Forest . As Murat lulled the Austrians towards Ulm , the main French forces crashed through Central Germany and separated Mack 's army from the other theaters of the war .
= = = Significance = = =
The Ulm Campaign is considered to be one of the greatest historical examples of a strategic turning movement . Historians often analyze the campaign on a wide strategic level that does not include tactical confrontations , even though these were common and relevant . The decisive victory at Ulm is also believed to be a product of the long training and preparation the Grande Armée received at the camps of Boulogne . The Grande Armée carried little baggage , invaded enemy territory at harvest time , and marched far faster than the Austrians had expected . The campaign highlighted the utility of the Corps d 'Armée system ; corps went on to become the fundamental strategic building block for the major wars in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries . A typical corps might have three infantry divisions , a light cavalry brigade for reconnaissance , and reserve artillery batteries in addition to those attached to each division ; their increased size allowed them to fight without support for long periods of time , as Ney did , and their durability permitted them to spread out and subsist by requisitioning local food . The French needed about one eighth the transport used by contemporary armies , giving them a level of mobility and flexibility unseen at that time : invasions of South Germany by Marlborough or Moreau covered a narrow front , but the Grande Armée invaded in 1805 on a front that was 100 miles ( 161 km ) wide , an action that took the Austrians by complete surprise and caused them to underestimate the gravity of the situation .
= Hard Target =
Hard Target is a 1993 American action film directed by Hong Kong film director John Woo in his American directorial debut . The film stars Jean @-@ Claude Van Damme as Chance Boudreaux , an out @-@ of @-@ work Cajun merchant seaman who saves a young woman , named Natasha Binder ( Yancy Butler ) , from a gang of thugs in New Orleans . Chance learns that Binder is searching for her missing father ( Chuck Pfarrer ) , and agrees to aid Binder in her search . Boudreaux and Binder soon learn that Binder 's father has died at the hands of wealthy sportsman Emil Fouchon ( Lance Henriksen ) who hunts homeless men as a form of recreation . The screenplay was written by Chuck Pfarrer and is based on the 1932 film adaptation of Richard Connell 's 1924 short story , The Most Dangerous Game .
Hard Target was Woo 's first American film and was also the first major Hollywood film made by a Chinese director . Universal Pictures was nervous about having Woo direct a feature , and sent in director Sam Raimi to look over the film 's production and to take Woo 's place as director if he were to fail . Woo went through several scripts finding mostly martial arts films with which he was not interested . After deciding on Chuck Pfarrer 's script for Hard Target , Woo wanted to have actor Kurt Russell in the lead role , but found Russell too busy with other projects . Woo then went with Universal 's initial choice of having Jean @-@ Claude Van Damme star . Woo got along with Van Damme during filming and raised the amount of action in the film as he knew that Van Damme was up for it .
After 65 days of filming in New Orleans , Woo had trouble with the Motion Picture Association of America to secure the R rating that Universal wanted . Woo made dozens of cuts to the film until the MPAA allowed it an R rating . On its initial release , Hard Target was a financial success but received mixed reviews from film critics . Critics found Hard Target to have good action scenes but noted the weak script and poor quality acting from Jean @-@ Claude Van Damme .
= = Plot = =
In New Orleans , a homeless veteran named Douglas Binder ( Chuck Pfarrer ) is the target of a hunt . He is given a belt containing $ 10 @,@ 000 and told that he must reach the other side of town where he would then win the money and his life . Hunting him is the hunt organizer Emil Fouchon ( Lance Henriksen ) , his lieutenant Pik Van Cleef ( Arnold Vosloo ) , a businessman named Mr. Lopaki who has paid $ 500 @,@ 000 for the opportunity to hunt a human , and mercenaries including Stephan ( Sven @-@ Ole Thorsen ) and Peterson ( Jules Sylvester ) . Binder fails to reach his destination and is shot by three crossbow bolts . Van Cleef retrieves the money belt .
While searching for her father , Binder 's long @-@ estranged daughter Natasha ( Yancy Butler ) is attacked by a group of thugs who saw that she had a lot of money earlier . She is saved by a homeless man with exceptional martial arts skills named Chance Boudreaux ( Jean @-@ Claude Van Damme ) , a former Marine Force Recon . Chance is initially hesitant to involve himself with her mission , but as his merchant seaman union dues are in arrears he reluctantly allows Natasha to hire him as her guide and bodyguard during her search . Meanwhile , Chance 's homeless friend Elijah Roper ( Willie C. Carpenter ) is the next to participate in Fouchon 's hunt , and is also killed .
Natasha discovers that her father distributed fliers for a seedy recruiter named Randal Poe ( Eliott Keener ) who has been secretly supplying Fouchon with homeless men with war experience and no family ties . Natasha questions Randal about her father 's death , but they are discovered by an eavesdropping Van Cleef . Fouchon and Van Cleef beat Randal to punish him for sending them a man with an interested family . New Orleans detective Mitchell ( Kasi Lemmons ) is reluctant to investigate Binder 's disappearance until his charred body is discovered in the ashes of a derelict building . The death is ruled accidental , but Chance searches the ruins and finds Binder 's dog tag , which was pierced by one of the crossbow bolts . Van Cleef 's thugs suddenly ambush Chance and beat him unconscious to scare him and Natasha out of town . When he recovers , he offers Mitchell the dog tag as evidence that Binder was murdered . With the investigation getting closer , Van Cleef and Fouchon decide to relocate their hunting business and begin eliminating " loose ends " . The medical examiner who had been hiding evidence of the hunt and Randal are both executed . Mitchell , Natasha and Chance arrive moments later at Randal 's office and are ambushed by Van Cleef and several of his men . During the shootout Mitchell is shot in the chest and killed . Chance kills a handful of the mercenaries and escapes with Natasha . Fouchon and Van Cleef assemble their mercenary team and five paid @-@ for hunters to continue the chase .
Chance leads Natasha to his uncle Douvee 's ( Wilford Brimley ) house deep in the bayou , and enlists his help in defeating the men . Chance , Natasha , and Douvee lead the hunting party to a warehouse of old Mardi Gras floats , and kill Fouchon 's men one by one . Van Cleef is finally shot to death by Chance in a shoot out . In the end only Fouchon is left , but he holds Chance at bay by taking Natasha hostage and stabbing Douvee in the chest with an arrow . Chance charges him , attacking with a flurry of blows , and then drops a grenade in his pants . Fouchon attempts to dismantle the grenade , but fails and dies in the explosion . Chance , Natasha , and Douvee now make their way out of the warehouse .
= = Cast = =
Jean @-@ Claude Van Damme as Chance Boudreaux , an out @-@ of @-@ work Cajun United States Marine Corps veteran . After Boudreaux saves Natasha Binder , he is hired by her to help search for her missing father .
Lance Henriksen as Emil Fouchon , a wealthy sportsman who hunts homeless former soldiers for sport . After finding that he is being investigated by Chance and Natasha , Fouchon sends out his gang led by Pik Van Cleaf to ambush them .
Arnold Vosloo as Pik Van Cleef , a collaborator of Fouchon who takes part in his sport of hunting men . He leads the crew of men who are sent out to murder Chance and Natasha . Van Cleaf 's surname is a reference to actor Lee Van Cleef .
Yancy Butler as Natasha " Nat " Binder , a young woman who comes to New Orleans to search for her father , whom she has not seen since she was seven years old . When Natasha is attacked by thugs , she is saved by Chance Boudreaux who agrees to help her find her father .
Kasi Lemmons as May Mitchell , a police detective who works in the office while the police are on strike . Mitchell helps Natasha by ordering another autopsy when they show her the pierced dog tags that her father had .
Chuck Pfarrer as Douglas Binder , Natasha 's father who has moved to New Orleans . After Natasha finds that three weeks have passed since she has heard from her father , she goes to New Orleans to find that he has been homeless and has been murdered by Emil Fouchon 's crew .
Willie C. Carpenter as Elijah Roper , Chance Boudreaux 's friend who is also homeless .
Wilford Brimley as Uncle Douvee , Chance Boudreaux 's uncle who lives deep in the Bayou . Chance and Natasha take shelter at his home as well as have him help during the film 's final shoot out .
Sven @-@ Ole Thorsen and Jules Sylvester as Stephan and Peterson , Fouchon 's mercenaries .
Eliott Keener as Randal Poe
Robert Apisa as Mr. Lopacki
Douglas Forsythe Rye and Mike Leinert as Frick and Frack
Marco St. John as Dr. Morton
Joe Warfield as Zenan
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
After making Hard Boiled in Hong Kong , director John Woo decided to take an offer to work in the United States , where he would find himself happier as a filmmaker with a preferable work pace and working with more reasonable hours . Woo was first offered this job in the United States by Universal Pictures chairman Tom Pollock after he had seen Woo 's film The Killer . Universal was not eager to have Woo direct an entire feature and only agreed after what producer James Jacks called a " difficult period of convincing " . Universal was worried about having an Asian director on set who had limited command of English on a large scale project . They hired American director Sam Raimi to oversee the film 's production and to have him on standby if Woo was not able to fulfill his role as a director . Raimi was very excited to work with Woo as he was fan of his Hong Kong films . Raimi was also confident in Woo 's directorial skills , stating that " Woo at 70 % is still going to blow away most American action directors working at 100 % . "
On his arrival in the United States , Woo went through several scripts before deciding on Hard Target . Describing the scripts he received , Woo stated that " Some of them were good — some of them were very good — but the rest were simply martial @-@ arts movies and I told producers that I had no interest in doing those kinds of films anymore . I 'd done a lot of them already . " One of the scripts offered to Woo at this period was for Face / Off , which he turned down at the time , turned off by the science fiction aspect of the story . The script for Hard Target was written by Chuck Pfarrer . Director Andrew Davis was interested in the script , but ultimately turned it down . Woo read Pfarrer 's script for Hard Target appreciating that it was a " simple but powerful story , with a lot of feeling underneath . For a good action film you need a solid structure . Chuck gave me that " . Woo also stated that the story is " less John Woo " but the visual aspect would be " very John Woo " . Pfarrer wrote the script originally basing it on the film The Naked Prey . After the script did not turn out Pfarrer worked on a script influenced by the film Aliens that became the basis for his comic Virus . The final attempt was a script based on The Most Dangerous Game . Pfarrer had the story take place in New Orleans to give an explanation of Jean @-@ Claude Van Damme 's accent .
= = = Pre @-@ production = = =
Before any director was attached to Hard Target , Universal Pictures saw the film as a potential vehicle for actor Jean @-@ Claude Van Damme . Van Damme had already been a huge fan of Woo 's films and arranged to meet with him in Hong Kong where the two got along despite both Woo and Van Damme 's difficulty with their English . Woo originally wanted actor Kurt Russell for the lead role , but found Russell to be booked for two years with other film projects . On working with Van Damme , Woo stated that he was " sure of [ my own ] abilities and I know how to make an actor look good on screen , make him look like a hero . I thought I could do the same for Van Damme " . Despite early misgivings of working with Van Damme , Woo changed many action scenes in the film to make them more spectacular on finding that Van Damme was up for it . While working with Van Damme , Woo stated that Van Damme had " a pretty big ego , but he 's still professional and always tries to do a good job . " Woo had some control over the film 's casting including casting minor characters and finding a cinematographer . Actress Yancy Butler was cast as Natasha Binder in her feature film debut . The role led Butler to other starring roles in action films such as Drop Zone and Fast Money . Actor Lance Henriksen accepted the role of Emil Fouchon stating he was great fan of Woo , noting that his earlier films " were so creative , so balletic , and had this incredible philosophy in them . The violence was only a container for the philosophy " .
= = = Filming = = =
Hard Target had 74 days of production time and was shot on location in New Orleans , including sequences shot in the French Quarter . Hard Target was put on a tight schedule by Universal that allowed only 65 days of shooting time . This put a lot of pressure on Woo . Woo was also pressured by Universal to tone @-@ down the violence and body count that they had seen in his Hong Kong films . As Woo had not mastered the English language yet , it took time for the cast and crew to get used to working with him . When Woo could not explain what he wanted with a shot to cinematographer Russell Carpenter , he would resort to simple statements such as " this will be the Sam Peckinpah shot " to get his message across to Carpenter . Actor Lance Henriksen recalled that it was a gradual process that led everyone involved to start seeing the film as a John Woo film rather than a Jean @-@ Claude Van Damme film . Producer James Jacks recalled that Woo was not " the most powerful person on the set but as far as I was concerned , he was certainly the most respected " .
The weapon fire on the set was considered dangerous , which led the crew to build a new bulletproof plexiglas shield that could be bolted to the camera . This shield was useful particularly for one sequence in Hard Target where Van Damme empties a magazine of ammo into the camera . These camera dollies were nicknamed by the crew as " the Woo @-@ Woo Choo @-@ Choo " . Russell Carpenter found difficulty in filming the huge gunfight scenes . Carpenter specifically noted the Mardi Gras parade warehouse by recollecting that " just the lighting for a space like that , with all those strange shapes and shadows was difficult enough , but John then added the further complication of wanting the scene shot from several angles at once — often with more than one of the cameras moving " . Producer James Jacks supported this style of filming finding it the most economical way to shoot these types of action scenes .
= = = Post @-@ production = = =
The film was edited by Bob Murawski on the set using a then state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art computerized editing unit that allows the user to edit the film as the movie was being shot . The film was then scored by Graeme Revell who utilized Kodo drummers from Japan . Woo was contractually obligated to release a R rating by Universal Pictures . When submitting the film to the Motion Picture Association of America ( MPAA ) , it was judged as too violent and intense for an R rating and received an NC @-@ 17 rating . Woo re @-@ edited the film six times for the MPAA as they never indicated what specific scenes they found objectionable . During this editing period , Van Damme went with his own editor to make his own edit of the film . Van Damme 's version excises whole characters to insert more scenes and close @-@ ups of his character Chance . When asked about this edit , Van Damme replied that " People pay their money to see me , not to see Lance Henriksen " . The MPAA accepted the film after Woo had made 20 cuts to the film . Scenes cut include the opening chase sequence and the Mardi Gras warehouse sequence . A non @-@ action scene that is cut from the film is a romantic scene between Chance and Natasha .
= = Release = =
= = = Theatrical run = = =
Hard Target was tentatively scheduled to open in July 1993 . Hard Target was released August 20 , 1993 in the United States making it the first film by an Asian director to be released by a Hollywood studio .
Hard Target did well in the box office , being the second highest grossing film release of the week at the American box office on its initial release . Hard Target also became the 49th highest grossing film in the United States in 1993 . Hard Target made domestic ticket sales of $ 32 @,@ 589 @,@ 677 ( worldwide sales were $ 74 @,@ 189 @,@ 677 ) .
= = = Home media = = =
Hard Target was released on Laserdisc and VHS in 1994 . In the United States , the film was the 14th highest selling laserdisc and the 46th most rented VHS film of 1994 . Hard Target was released on DVD for Region 1 on July 1 , 1998 . A Region 2 DVD of the film was released on March 20 , 2000 . The American DVD has also been released with DVD bundle packs , that include other films starring Jean @-@ Claude Van Damme . These DVDs included Hard Target , as well as Timecop , Street Fighter , Lionheart , Sudden Death and The Quest .
A longer 116 @-@ minute copy of the film has not been released officially , but has been found as a bootleg . This copy is a poor @-@ quality videocassette dub and has a burned @-@ in time code in the corner indicating that the film was not meant for public viewing . However , the European , Japanese and Australian DVD releases restore three minutes of the violent footage missing from the Region 1 DVD ( that was cut for an R rating ) , making them the versions closest to Woo 's original cut .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Hard Target received mixed reviews on its initial release praising the film 's action scenes but noting the poor story and Jean @-@ Claude Van Damme 's acting abilities . On the film review television show Siskel & Ebert , Roger Ebert stated that Hard Target is " not very smart and it 's not very original , but it is well made on a technical level . The stunts are impressive ... as an action picture , it 's well made , but it never becomes more than competent action and I just can 't recommend it for that " . Gene Siskel also gave the film a thumbs down on the show stating that " John Woo is a good filmmaker ... Van Damme is pretty wooden ... You notice the style in the film because there is not much substance " . Janet Maslin of the New York Times wrote that " Van Damme has still not broken the habit of his own blank @-@ faced posturing , although Mr. Woo films him in the most aggrandizing style imaginable " . In Variety , Emanuel Levy wrote that Hard Target was " a briskly vigorous , occasionally brilliant actioner starring Jean @-@ Claude Van Damme . However , hampered by a B @-@ script with flat , standard characters , and subjected to repeated editing of the violent sequences to win an R rating , pic doesn 't bear the unique vision on display in Woo 's recent " The Killer " and " Hard @-@ Boiled . " Van Damme and the director 's reputation should ensure initial commercial kick on the way to solid if not spectacular box office " . Desson Thompson of The Washington Post wrote that " When Van Damme isn 't duking it out with the English language , scriptwriter Chuck Pfarrer is filling Henriksen 's mouth with villainous pseudo @-@ profundities . Even in a second @-@ rate action picture like this , and despite Henriksen 's commendable efforts , they 're painful to listen to ... Woo 's creative presence is practically stifled . There are some flashes of his deliriously wild style — a slow @-@ motion moment here , a well @-@ chosen freeze @-@ frame there . He also introduces American audiences to his taste for unique motorcycle stunts and very , very loud car explosions . But these Wooisms are disappointingly minimal " . Lance Henriksen received a Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actor for his portrayal of Emil Fouchon in the film . In 1997 , Woo looked back on Hard Target stating that it was " in some ways , quite a troublesome movie to make , but I 'm rather happy with the way the action scenes turned out " .
= = = Box office = = =
The film premiered in cinemas on August 20 , 1993 in wide release throughout the U.S .. During its opening weekend , the film opened in second place grossing $ 10 @,@ 106 @,@ 500 in business showing at 1 @,@ 972 locations . The film The Fugitive , came in first place during that weekend grossing $ 18 @,@ 148 @,@ 331 . Hard Target ' s revenue dropped by 50 % in its second week of release , earning $ 5 @,@ 027 @,@ 485 . For that weekend , the film fell to third place , even with an increased screening count of 1 @,@ 999 theaters . The Fugitive , remained unchallenged in first place grossing $ 14 @,@ 502 @,@ 865 in box office revenue . During its final week in release , Hard Target opened in a distant eleventh place with $ 1 @,@ 270 @,@ 945 in revenue . For that particular weekend , Striking Distance starring Bruce Willis made its debut , opening in first place with $ 8 @,@ 705 @,@ 808 in revenue . The film went on to top out domestically at $ 32 @,@ 589 @,@ 677 in total ticket sales through a 5 @-@ week theatrical run . Internationally , the film took in an additional $ 41 @,@ 600 @,@ 000 in box office business for a combined worldwide total of $ 74 @,@ 189 @,@ 677 . For 1993 as a whole , the film worldwide would cumulatively rank at a box office performance position of 23 .
= = Sequel = =
Scott Adkins finished shooting a sequel to the film in December 2015 . The sequel will also star Robert Knepper , Rhona Mitra , Ann Truong , Temuera Morrison , Adam Saunders , Jamie Timony , Peter Hardy , Troy Honeysett , Sean Keenan and Sahajak Boonthanakit .
= Fuller Houses =
The Fuller Houses are two historic homes at 339 @-@ 341 and 343 @-@ 345 Broadway in Pawtucket , Rhode Island . Constructed in 1896 @-@ 1897 , the two Queen Anne @-@ styled homes were constructed as rental properties for the Fuller family and are believed to have originally been identical in construction . The two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half story houses are marked by an octagonal bay which contains the front staircase and a large two @-@ story porch projecting almost completely from the house itself . For the National Register of Historic Places nomination only a single unit was examined , but the identical unit below is believed to have undergone minimal alterations . The other house , 343 @-@ 345 Broadway , was not surveyed , but has been more seriously modified to allow for four apartment units . The Fuller Houses are architecturally significant as well @-@ preserved and well @-@ detailed Queen Anne @-@ styled apartment flats . The Fuller Houses were added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1983 .
= = History = =
The Fuller Houses were constructed in 1896 @-@ 1897 for Susan E. Fuller . Fuller 's husband , Charles H. Fuller , operated a successful jewelry findings firm . The Fullers owned the houses until 1915 , and intended to use them as rental properties . The only member of the Fuller family to reside in one of the houses , specifically 341 Broadway , was Alice G. Fuller beginning in either 1911 or 1912 . The houses are positioned to be prominently viewed from their location on the east side of U.S Route 1 and from northbound traffic on Interstate 95 . Though not originally placed in a location of such prominence , the construction through the heart of Pawtucket greatly increased the visibility of these " I @-@ 95 landmarks " .
= = Design = =
The Fuller Houses are originally believed to have been constructed as identical two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half story Queen Anne @-@ styled homes with both having their gable @-@ ends facing the street . The southern flank of the building is visually broken up by a two @-@ story bay window with a gabled peak . A semi @-@ octagonal bay on the northern corner of the houses indicates the position of the front staircase . A single @-@ story porch with a shed @-@ roof overhangs the front doorways . A striking feature of the Fuller Houses is the two @-@ story circular porch on the southwest side . The porches are almost removed from the building and topped with a conical roof and ornamented with Queen Anne @-@ style spindle . The exterior walls of the houses are clapboarded and the tops of the gables have simple metal finials .
For the National Register of Historic Places nomination , only the interior of one of the four units was surveyed , the second floor interior of 341 Broadway . This unit is accessed from a spiral staircase leading from the first floor to the attic . The second floor landing has a short foyer before opening to two parlors . The front parlor is said to have had a water fountain which was removed , but the plumbing is said to exist within the floor . The back parlor has a Queen Anne mantel and leads to the dining room with large floor @-@ to @-@ ceiling china closets . Located on the east side of the apartment is the kitchen , pantry and rear staircase . The north part of the apartment contains two bedrooms and a bath . The NRHP nomination states that the alterations to the unit were minimal and it is likely that the same would have been done for the first floor unit . The northern Fuller House , containing 343 @-@ 345 Broadway , has been more seriously modified because it has been split into four units . In 2013 , real estate information for 343 Broadway suggests the expanse of the modifications to the house by listing the property as having 20 rooms , with 8 bedrooms and 5 baths . According to Trulia the house was sold in 2010 for $ 140 @,@ 000 and still in the four unit configuration . A three bay stuccoed garage dating from the 1920s or 1930 is used by 339 @-@ 341 Broadway .
= = Significance = =
The Fuller Houses are architecturally significant as a pair of two well @-@ preserved and well @-@ detailed two @-@ family Queen Anne @-@ style apartment " flat " houses . The Queen Anne @-@ style spindle @-@ work porches are descriptive in the NRHP nomination as the most impressive examples remaining in Pawtucket . The two houses represent an important step in the development of Pawtucket 's architectural development and contribute to the city 's visual character . The Fuller Houses were added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1983 .
= Codex Basilensis A. N. IV . 2 =
Codex Basilensis A. N. IV . 2 , Minuscule 1 ( on the list of Gregory @-@ Aland ) , δ 254 ( in von Soden 's numbering ) and formerly designated by 1eap to distinguish it from minuscule 1rK ( which previously used number 1 ) is a Greek minuscule manuscript of the New Testament , usually dated palaeographically to the 12th century AD . It is written on 297 parchment leaves and contains the entire New Testament except the Book of Revelation .
The codex was prepared for liturgical use with marginalia ( text 's division ) , and has almost completely survived ; it was used by Erasmus for his Novum Instrumentum omne . The text of the manuscript has been cited in all critical editions of the Greek New Testament ; in this codex , the text of the Gospels is more highly esteemed by scholars than that of the remaining New Testament books . The codex is housed at the Basel University Library , with shelf number A. N. IV , 2 ( earlier B. VI . 27 ) .
= = Description = =
The codex contains the entire New Testament ( except of Book of Revelation ) in the following order : the Gospels , the Acts of the Apostles and the General and Pauline epistles ( Hebrews is the last book in Paul ) . The text is written in one column per page , 38 lines per page , on 297 parchment leaves ( 18 @.@ 5 cm by 11 @.@ 5 cm ) . It was originally accompanied by miniatures , which were stolen before 1860 – 1862 ( except one before the Gospel of John , which remains ) .
The dimensions of the text are 13 @.@ 6 cm by 6 @.@ 8 cm . It was written on parchment continuously and without separation in elegant minuscule , furnished with breathings ( spiritus asper and spiritus lenis ) and accents , in Iota adscript . The initial letters are gilt , and on the first page of each Gospel the full stop is a large gilt ball .
The text is divided according to chapters ( κεφαλαια ) whose numbers are given at the margin , with their titles ( τιτλοι ) at the top of the page . The text of the Gospels is divided according to the smaller Ammonian Sections ( in Matthew 352 , in Mark 236 with last numbered section in 16 : 12 , in Luke 340 , in John 227 ) , but references to the Eusebian Canons are absent . The Book of Acts and the epistles have the Euthalian Apparatus .
It contains prolegomena , synaxaria ( a list of saints ) , two types of lectionary markings at the margin ( for liturgical reading ) and pictures ( e.g. a portrait of John the Evangelist and Prochorus ) . The later type of liturgical notes , so called αναγνωσεις ( only for Gospels ) were added by a later hand ( in red ) . The Gospel of Matthew has 116 αναγνωσεις , the Gospel of Mark – 70 , the Gospel of Luke – 114 , and the Gospel of John – 67 αναγνωσεις . In the 15th century , the later hand added Prolegomena .
The codex contains a scholion questioning the authenticity of Mark 16 : 9 @-@ 20 . The Pericope Adulterae ( John 7 : 53 @-@ 8 : 11 ) is placed after John 21 : 25 .
= = Text = =
In Aland 's Profile , Kurt and Barbara Aland placed the codex 's Gospels in Category III , meaning it has historical importance , with the profile of 1191 , 802 , 601 / 2 , 69s . This means the text of the codex agrees with the Byzantine standard text 119 times , with the original text against the Byzantine 80 times , and with both the Byzantine and original text 60 times . There are 69 independent or distinctive readings in the Gospels . While the Gospels are a representative of the Caesarean text @-@ type , the remainder of the books of the New Testament in this codex is a representative of the Byzantine text @-@ type and falls into Category V , the lowest and least important in Aland 's Profile .
It belongs to the textual Family 1 with manuscripts 118 , 131 and 209 . Classification in this textual family was supported by the Claremont Profile Method , but it examined with this method only in Luke 1 , Luke 10 and Luke 20 .
Johann Jakob Griesbach was the first who noted its similarities to the text of Origen 's commentary to the Gospel of Matthew . According to Hort , its text preceded the byzantine text @-@ type .
Kirsopp Lake compared the text of the codex with the text of Stephanus and showed that in the sections comprising Matthew 1 @-@ 10 ; Matthew 22 – Mark 14 ; Luke 4 @-@ 23 ; John 1 @-@ 13 and 18 , in this codex there are 2243 variants from the Textus Receptus .
In Matthew 27 : 16 , it has the well @-@ known textual variant " Ιησουν τον Βαραββαν " ( Jesus Barabbas ) . This variant also appears in the Codex Koridethi , Minuscule 700 and other members of the group f1 .
= = History = =
Textual critics and palaeographers like Johann Jakob Wettstein , Constantin von Tischendorf , Frederick Henry Ambrose Scrivener and Caspar René Gregory dated the manuscript to the 10th century . Henri Omont and Kirsopp Lake dated it to the 12th century , and Dean Burgon to the 12th or 13th century . It is dated by the Institute for New Testament Textual Research to the 12th century because the frequent occurrence of enlarged letters , rounded breathing marks , flourishes and ligatures seem to eliminate earlier dates .
The manuscript was presented to the monastery of the Preaching Friars by Cardinal Ragusio ( 1380 – 1443 ) , general of the Dominicans . It was used by Desiderius Erasmus in the first edition of his Novum Testamentum ( 1516 ) ; as a result , some of its readings are found in the Textus Receptus . Erasmus used this codex very little , because its text was different from other manuscripts with which he was acquainted . Oecolampadius and Gerbelius ( Erasmus 's sub @-@ editors ) insisted that he use more readings from this codex in his third edition ; however , according to Erasmus the text of this codex was altered from the Latin manuscripts and had secondary value . Since 1559 , it has been kept at the University of Basel , along with Codex Basilensis and minuscule 2 ( GA ) .
Johann Albrecht Bengel used several extracts from the codex , and Wettstein was the first who thoroughly examined it . According to him , in the Gospels its text agrees with the most ancient codices and patristic quotations ; therefore , he called it number one . In 1751 he changed his high opinion ( Novum Testamentum Græcum ) , dating the codex to the 10th century . Wettstein collated this manuscript twice , with many errors ; according to Samuel Prideaux Tregelles , his collation was incorrect in more than 1 @,@ 200 readings . Leonard Hug supported Wettstein 's last opinion that the codex was Latinisated . Tregelles and Roth again collated the text of this codex , and Tregelles noticed that this codex is textually close to minuscule 118 . Dean Burgon noticed that codices 131 and 209 are also textually similar . This entire group was examined by Kirsopp Lake in 1902 , and it was called " the Lake Group " ( or Family 1 ) . The text of the family was established on the basis of minuscule 1 ( collates codex 1 with Minuscules 118 , 131 , and 209 ) .
F. H. A. Scrivener ( 1813 – 1891 ) demonstrated that at least 22 verses of Erasmian text were derived from minuscule 1 :
Matthew 22 : 28 ; 23 : 25 ; 27 : 52 ; 28 : 3 @.@ 4 @.@ 19 @.@ 20
Mark 7 : 18 @.@ 19 @.@ 26 ; 10 : 1 ; 12 : 22 ; 15 : 46
Luke 1 : 16 @.@ 61 ; 2 : 43 ; 9 : 1 @.@ 15 ; 11 : 49
John 1 : 28 ; 10 : 8 ; 13 : 20
The manuscript has been cited in all critical editions of the Greek New Testament and systematically cited in the third and fourth editions edited by United Bible Societies ( UBS3 and UBS4 ) and Nestle @-@ Aland 's 26th and 27th editions ( NA26 and NA27 ) . In NA27 , the codex is cited as a witness of the first order .
= National symbols of the Philippines =
The national symbols of the Philippines consist of symbols that represent Philippine traditions and ideals and convey the principles of sovereignty and national solidarity of the Filipino people . Some of these symbols are stated in the Flag and Heraldic Code of the Philippines , which is also known as Republic Act 8491 . The national language of the Philippines is Filipino as stated in the Constitution of the Philippines . Aside from those stated symbols in the Constitution and in Republic Act 8491 , there are only five official national symbols of the Philippines enacted through law , namely sampaguita as national flower , narra as national tree , the Philippine eagle as national bird , Philippine pearl as national gem and arnis as national martial art and sport .
There are symbols such as the carabao ( national animal ) , mango ( national fruit ) and anahaw ( national leaf ) that are widely known as national symbols but have no laws recognizing them as official national symbols . Even Jose Rizal , who is widely considered as a national hero , has not been declared officially as a national hero in any existing Philippine law according to historical experts . Although in 2003 , Benigno Aquino , Jr. was officially declared by the President Gloria Macapagal @-@ Arroyo as a national hero by an executive order . A National Artist of the Philippines is a rank or a title given to a Filipino citizen in recognition to the recipient 's contributions to Philippine arts and letters and they are not considered as a national symbol that represents traditions and ideals .
On 17 February 2014 , Bohol First District Representative Rene Relampagos filed a bill at the Philippine House of Representatives that seeks to declare or re @-@ declare and to recognize a number of national symbols . The proposed bill , House Bill 3926 or the " Philippine National Symbols Act of 2014 " , aims also to encourage nationalism and unity ; to guarantee respect , preservation and promotion of national symbols ; and to correct the " unofficial " status of the symbols . Among the proposed national symbols listed in the measure are Jose Rizal as the only historical Filipino to be recognized as national hero , adobo as national food and jeepney as national vehicle . It also includes the previous ten official national symbols . The bill is still pending to become a law and once the bill turned into law , all the symbols stated in the bill would be official national symbols of the Philippines .
= = Development of the symbols = =
Republic Act 8491 , known also as Flag and Heraldic Code of the Philippines , stipulates the code for national flag , anthem , motto , coat @-@ of @-@ arms and other heraldic items and devices of the Philippines . According to Article XIV Section 6 of the Constitution of the Philippines , the national language of the Philippines is Filipino . Apart from RA 8491 and the Constitution , the Philippines has only five official national symbols enacted either through a proclamation by the executive department or through a Republic Act by the legislative department , namely sampaguita , narra , the Philippine eagle , the Philippine pearl and arnis . In 1934 , during the Commonwealth era , Governor @-@ General Frank Murphy declared sampaguita and narra as national flower and national tree , respectively , through Proclamation No. 652 . Philippine President Fidel Ramos proclaimed the Philippine eagle as the national bird in 1995 through Proclamation No. 615 . Ramos also declared the South Sea Pearl or Philippine Pearl as the national gem in 1996 through Proclamation No. 905 . In 2009 , President Gloria Macapagal @-@ Arroyo declared arnis as the national sport and martial art through Republic Act 9850 .
In February 2013 , the Philippine Senate passed a bill declaring waling @-@ waling ( Vanda sanderiana ) as the national flower alongside Sampaguita . A similar bill in the House of Representatives had already been passed in 2012 . Normally , the bill would become law after being signed by the President . However , it was vetoed by President Benigno Aquino III . The veto did not grant the waling @-@ waling as the second national flower due to the confusion that it would create .
A year later , on 17 February 2014 , Representative Rene Relampagos , a congressman from the First District of Bohol , proposed a measure at the Philippine House of Representatives that seeks to declare or re @-@ declare and to recognize a number of national symbols . The bill dubbed as House Bill 3926 or the " Philippine National Symbols Act of 2014 " , aims also to encourage nationalism and unity ; to guarantee respect , preservation and promotion of national symbols ; and to correct the " unofficial " status of the symbols . It lists 26 symbols including the previous ten official national symbols .
In February 2016 , the House of Representatives approved on final reading the House Bill 6366 , which declares the ancient boat balangay at the national boat of the Philippines . The bill is not yet a law , therefore , the symbol is not yet official . For the balangay to become a national boat , there should be a senate concurrence and the President of the Philippines must sign the bill .
= = = Making a national symbol official = = =
A Philippine national symbol will be considered official once it is declared through a law or a proclamation . National symbols such as the cariñosa , carabao , bangus ( milkfish ) , and anahaw ( footstool palm ) that are circulating through various sources have no official status and have not established by law . According to Nestor Castro , a Filipino cultural anthropologist , most of these unofficial symbols were passed on as tradition in schools every start of the school year when students were asked to buy posters containing the supposed national symbols . While official national symbols are declared through law , Castro and National Historical Commission of the Philippines ( NHCP ) Section Chief Teodoro Atienza considered that the public must be consulted first before declaration of national symbol .
= = = Filipinos as national symbol = = =
According to the NHCP Section Chief Teodoro Atienza , and Filipino historian Ambeth Ocampo , there is no Filipino historical figure officially declared national hero through law or executive order . Although , there were laws and proclamations honoring Filipino heroes . In the Rizal Law principally sponsored by Claro M. Recto and enacted in 1956 , Jose Rizal is mentioned as a national hero in the " whereas " clause of the law . Although , " whereas " clauses function as a preamble or introduction and it is not part of the provisions . On 15 November 1995 , the Technical Committee of the National Heroes Committee , created through Executive Order No. 5 by former President Fidel Ramos , recommended nine Filipino historical figures to be National Heroes : Jose Rizal , Andres Bonifacio , Emilio Aguinaldo , Apolinario Mabini , Marcelo H. del Pilar , Sultan Dipatuan Kudarat , Juan Luna , Melchora Aquino , and Gabriela Silang . No action has been taken for these recommended National Heroes until it was revisited in one of the proceedings of the 14th Congress in 2009 .
On 3 August 2009 , shortly after the death of former President Corazon Aquino , widow of Benigno Aquino , Jr . , legislative measures have been filed calling for her official recognition as a national hero . Congresswoman Liwayway Vinzons @-@ Chato filed a house resolution declaring Corazon Aquino a national hero . Although , a week after she filed the resolution , she realized that there is no Filipino historical figure declared through law . On 10 August 2009 , she cited on her privilege speech in Congress the nine Filipino heroes recommended by National Heroes Committee in 1995 . She then urge Congress to sign the resolutions declaring the nine Filipinos recommended by the National Heroes Committee plus Benigno Aquino , Jr. and Corazon Aquino as national heroes . Congressman Salvador Escudero interpellated Vinzons @-@ Chato 's speech and stated that heroes are made in the hearts and minds of people and not through legislation . After the interpellation , it was moved by House of Representatives to refer the privilege speech of Vinzons @-@ Chato to the Committee of Basic Education and Culture .
In 2013 , Bayan Muna Congressmen Neri Colmenares and Carlos Isagani Zarate filed House Bill 3431 aiming to declare Andres Bonifacio as National Hero due to his actual participation in the Philippine Revolution against Spain . Another measure filed by Congressman Rene Relampagos from Bohol in February 2014 seeks to declare Jose Rizal as the sole Filipino national hero . According to the bill , he was a nationalist and well known for his Philippine reforms advocacy during the Spanish colonial era .
Filipinos awarded with the rank or title National Artist of the Philippines are not considered to be national symbols because the title is given in recognition to the recipient 's contributions to Philippine arts and letters and not as a symbol that represents traditions and ideals and convey the principles of sovereignty and national solidarity .
Despite declaration from historical experts that there is no historical person declared as a national hero , in 2003 , an executive order by then President Gloria Macapagal @-@ Arroyo officially declared Beningno Aquino Jr. as one of the national heroes . Due to laws declaring the heroism of Rizal and Bonifacio , their recognition as National Heroes is considered implied .
= = List of national symbols = =
= = = Official = = =
Here are list of national symbols excluding national heroes that were enacted through Philippine law .
Notes
...
1 The description of the Philippines ' coat of arms can be found under section 14 of Executive Order No. 292 ( Book I / Chapter 4 ) , which is also known as the Administrative Code of 1987 .
= = = Unofficial = = =
Here are the lists of national symbols that have no official status .
= = = = From failed and proposed laws = = = =
The following individuals were recommended by the Technical Committee of the National Heroes Committee as national heroes :
Emilio Aguinaldo
Melchora Aquino
Andrés Bonifacio
Marcelo H. del Pilar
Sultan Dipatuan Kudarat
Juan Luna
Apolinario Mabini
José Rizal
Gabriela Silang
The review by the Technical Committee of National Heroes was revisited during the 14th Congress at the House of Representatives . In a resolution , a congresswoman added the following two historical figures to the nine heroes declared by the National Heroes Committee , making the total to eleven national heroes . This was referred to a Congressional Committee and still must be acted upon and passed into law to make it official .
In August 2009 , a bill has been filed calling for Corazon Aquino 's official recognition as a national hero . In 2003 , Benigno Aquino Jr . , was already officially declared as one of the national heroes by then President Gloria Arroyo through an executive order .
Waling @-@ waling as national flower ; passed by Congress in 2013 but was vetoed by the President Benigno Aquino III .
The following are the list of proposed national symbols ( excluding the 10 official national symbols ) as per House Bill 3926 as proposed by Congressman Rene Relampagos.Adobo as national food
Anahaw as national leaf
Bakya as national slippers
Bangus as national fish
Barong and Baro 't saya as national costume
" Bayan Ko " as national song
Carabao as national animal
Cariñosa as national dance
Jeepney as national vehicle
Jose Rizal as national hero
Malacañang Palace as national seat of government
Mango as national fruit
Manila as national capital
National Seal ( essentially modified version of the coat of arms of the Philippines )
Nipa hut ( bahay kubo ) as national house
Philippine peso as national currency
The House of Representatives has approved on third and final reading of House Bill 6366 declaring the Balangay as the national boat .
= = = = From various sources = = = =
Juan de la Cruz - as national personification ( symbolizing the Filipino people )
Lechon and sinigang as national food
Sipa as national sport
Tinikling as national dance
= Connie Talbot =
Connie Talbot ( born 20 November 2000 ) is an English child singer from Streetly , West Midlands . She rose to fame in 2007 when she reached the final of the first series of Britain 's Got Talent . Talbot signed with Rainbow Recording Company and released her debut album Over the Rainbow in the UK on 26 November 2007 . The album was re @-@ released 18 June 2008 with a new track listing , and the first single from the album , a cover of Bob Marley 's " Three Little Birds " , was released on 10 June .
Despite its negative critical reception , Over the Rainbow has sold over 250 @,@ 000 copies worldwide and reached number one in three countries . Since the initial album release , Talbot has performed publicly and on television in Europe , the US and across Asia , where her music had gained recognition through YouTube . Her second album , Connie Talbot 's Christmas Album , was released on 24 November 2008 , her third , Holiday Magic , was released on 20 October 2009 and her fourth , Beautiful World , was released on 26 November 2012 . While pursuing her musical career , Talbot goes to The Streetly Academy , and lives in Streetly with her family .
= = History = =
= = = Britain 's Got Talent and Sony BMG = = =
Talbot initially auditioned for the first series of television reality show Britain 's Got Talent for fun , but her confidence increased when Simon Cowell , whom she is said to have idolised , described her as " pure magic " and said that he would make her earn " £ 1 million @-@ plus this year " . The judges expected a " joke " performance as she had never taken singing lessons , but Talbot 's initial performance received international press coverage . She reached the final round after winning her semi @-@ final with a live performance of " Ben " by Michael Jackson . On the night of the final , she sang The Wizard of Oz 's " Over the Rainbow " , but lost to Paul Potts as a result of the call @-@ in vote . Talbot and Potts had been joint favourites to win the series .
According to journalist and Britain 's Got Talent judge Piers Morgan , Talbot 's performances resulted in many children , including Faryl Smith , auditioning for the second series of the show . After his victory , series 2 winner George Sampson spoke of his participation in the first series , where he was knocked out before the live shows , saying " I don 't think I had any shot of winning last year ... When you look at the standard of Paul Potts and Connie Talbot . Paul Potts is out of this league , and Connie is out of this league – I wasn 't good enough . " Talbot voted for Sampson , saying " I liked his dancing – he was good on the lamppost " .
Cowell had preliminary agreed to sign Talbot with his own record label , Sony BMG . After recording two songs in London with Talbot ( " Over the Rainbow " and " Smile " ) , the label pulled out of the deal . Talbot 's mother , Sharon , said she was told that her daughter " ... was too young to be their sort of artist " , adding " We have been told to look for a company which looks after children . " In a statement , the label said " there was some deliberation over the possibility of recording with Connie ... However , the decision not to proceed was made with the best intentions for Connie , taking into consideration her age and that it would not be right to do so at this time . " Cowell himself said that " when the time is right , [ he would ] be delighted to see if [ they could ] make it work " . The Talbot family decided to search for another label , saying " while [ Talbot ] loves what she 's doing it would be cruel to stop her . Fame and money will never matter . "
= = = Over the Rainbow = = =
In October 2007 Talbot signed with the Rainbow Recording Company for a six @-@ figure deal . Rainbow Recording Company , an offshoot of record label Rhythm Riders made specifically for Talbot , was due to release Talbot 's first album on 26 November 2007 . It was later reported that the album was named Over the Rainbow , and the first single , " Over the Rainbow " / " White Christmas " , would be released on 3 December 2007 . Experts predicted that she had a good chance of getting the Christmas number one , but the single was cancelled in favour of an album @-@ first release . Before the album was released , there was much speculation about Talbot and the album , with music experts describing her as potentially being " the next Charlotte Church " .
The team behind the album consisted of John Arnison , who also managed Gabrielle and Billy Ocean , and Marc Marot , former managing director of Island Records . It was produced and mixed by Simon Hill and Rob May . Arnison revealed that he and his team " are not going to give [ Talbot ] singing lessons – we don 't need to " , and said that when he met Talbot , he was " blown away " . A schedule was worked out allowing Talbot to continue with her normal school activities while recording the album in her aunt Vicky 's spare bedroom , which her mother described as " a better solution [ than Sony BMG offered ] which has not robbed her of her childhood " . Although Arnison claimed he did not " want to put her through the promotional grind which most artists go through because she is too young " , plans were made for an appearance on daytime television programme This Morning , as well as an appearance on Children in Need on 16 November 2007 . The album was released on 26 November 2007 and Talbot 's mother said that " All the family is really excited , but Connie is quite blase about it . " The album was certified gold in early December , with Talbot being presented a gold disc by Phillip Schofield on This Morning . Initially , 50 @,@ 000 copies of the album were pressed , but an additional 120 @,@ 000 had to be made after the album sold out in days .
In late 2007 , public appearances by Talbot included headlining the Great Bridge Christmas and Winter Festival , which local police threatened to cancel unless crowds clamouring to reach the tent in which Talbot was performing could be brought under control . At the event , on 7 December 2007 , Talbot said " I love it here , it 's brilliant , really fun " , but had to be ushered off @-@ stage by the police . Talbot performed publicly in Walsall 's HMV store , and in Birmingham 's Centenary Square . TV appearances included GMTV and Channel 5 news , both on 26 November 2007 . According to her mother , Talbot has received offers for film roles . Sharon said " [ Talbot ] ' s been sent a script , I haven 't had a good look at it yet but it 's really exciting ... Connie 's a singer , not an actress , so we 'll see what happens . It 's completely up to her whether or not she wants to do it . I can 't believe it , though . "
Sharon Mawer of Allmusic praised Over the Rainbow by saying " She can sing , for a seven @-@ year old , and most of the notes ( if not all of them ) are in the right order and sung to the right pitch ; the timing is fine too " . However , she criticised the album , saying " there 's no feeling , no emotion , no realisation of what each song is about ; they 're just pretty little songs " , giving the album 2 / 5 . Nick Levine , of Digital Spy , said in a review of the album that Talbot had a " sweet , pure voice " , but that there is " no nuance or depth to her performance " . However , he said that " There 's something inherently wrong about awarding a star rating to a seven @-@ year @-@ old " , and that " the decidedly adult concept of musical merit should have nothing to do with [ her music ] " , awarding the album 2 / 5 .
The album was rereleased on 16 June 2008 , but was available for pre @-@ order in May , with three new tracks to replace its Christmas @-@ themed songs . The first single from the album , " Three Little Birds " , was released in June 2008 , and a video for the song was shot in Jamaica . In April and May 2008 , Talbot toured Asia to promote Over the Rainbow . Asian press attributed her success to her videos on YouTube , with the Sun.Star mentioning that her most viewed video had been watched over 14 million times , and The Straits Times saying that videos of Talbot 's performances have been watched over 30 million times . The tour made stops in South Korea , Taiwan , Hong Kong and Singapore , and Talbot and her family returned to England in late May . Following the tour , it was reported that the album had reached number one on the charts in Taiwan , South Korea and Hong Kong , as well as reaching number three in Singapore . After the tour , Talbot travelled to Poland , where she performed on television .
It was also revealed that Over the Rainbow was due for release in America in September , resulting in attention from American press sources including Fox Business Network and MarketWatch . The US version was eventually released on 14 October , with Talbot appearing on American television shows including The Ellen DeGeneres Show to publicise the release .
In August 2008 , it was announced that Talbot had signed a contract with Data Design Interactive for production of a video game on the Wii console . The game was to feature 15 songs from Over the Rainbow , allowing players to sing along with a computer @-@ generated image of Talbot or against other players in a karaoke mode . Talbot rerecorded the album for the game . The game was scheduled for release in the first quarter of 2009 , and is called Connie Talbot : Over the Rainbow . The game has never been released , citing copyright issues on the songs used for it .
= = = Christmas Album and Holiday Magic = = =
In November 2008 , it was announced that Talbot had produced a series of new songs for an album . Recorded in her bedroom studio , Connie Talbot 's Christmas Album was released on 24 November . It is a Christmas themed album , featuring , according to Talbot 's official website , " a mix of classics and modern Christmas tunes " . News was also released of a one @-@ off Christmas special to be shown on ITV1 in the days leading up to Christmas , featuring footage of Talbot 's journey to America and a " secret concert " at her primary school . The documentary , Christmas with Connie , was shown on ITV Central on 18 December . Talbot appeared at Walsall 's HMV branch shortly after the release of her Christmas Album to sign copies and meet fans . She then embarked on a promotional tour making stops around the world , which included a performance at Ewha Womans University in Korea , and a performance on the A Heart for Children television charity gala in Berlin , Germany . She returned home in mid December , to have " a quiet family Christmas " .
Connie Talbot 's Christmas Album was difficult to obtain in Britain after the distributor , Pinnacle Entertainment , went into administration . Talbot 's mother , Sharon , was quoted as saying " We don 't really know what 's going to happen at the moment ... We think they 'll probably wait and promote the album later this year . It 's a shame , but they can still get the album in Asia and the US . " Reviewing the album for FemaleFirst magazine , Ruth Harrison gave it 4 / 5 , saying that Talbot has " a great voice when it comes to swing , but lets us down in parts " .
In April 2009 , Talbot again travelled to the US to publicise her new single , a cover of " I Will Always Love You " . The single was released in the US on 7 April , along with a newly recorded " You Raise Me Up " . Talbot then traveled to the US on 30 April , and returned on 2 May . Appearances included a performance on Good Day New York on Fox Broadcasting Company 's WNYW .
Talbot 's third album , Connie Talbot 's Holiday Magic , was released on 20 October 2009 in the United States and on 30 November 2009 in the United Kingdom . The United States album is dedicated to the Toys for Tots campaign , of which Talbot has been named the child ambassador . In a statement , Bill Grein , Vice @-@ President of the Marine Toys for Tots Foundation , said-
The Marine Toys for Tots Foundation is extremely proud and excited to have Connie as our youngest ambassador ever ... She is the perfect person to inform the public of the millions of less fortunate children who may be overlooked this Christmas holiday season , unless people step up to donate a toy or make a cash contribution . Her angelic looks and voice will remind everyone of the innocence of children . And they all deserve to experience the magic of the holiday season ! I hope she sells lots of CDs and raises a lot of money and awareness for our children .
Along with Talbot 's third album , a television special , entitled Holiday Magic , was produced by WVIA . Holiday Magic featured performances of all of the songs from Connie Talbot 's Holiday Magic , and was available to all PBS stations shown in November and December 2009 . A 17 @-@ track DVD of the special , including two additional songs , " What a Wonderful World " and " Over the Rainbow " , was released for sale .
= = = 2010 – 2015 = = =
Talbot opened a special concert celebrating South Korea 's hosting of the G20 summit of world leaders in 2010 . Talbot performed for her largest ever audience when she performed on Chinese state television during the Chinese new @-@ year in 2011 . Reporting the event , the Daily Mail 's Kathryn Knight observed that Talbot has " had more than 300 million hits on YouTube and in the Far East , in particular , she 's something of an icon . Japan , Taiwan , Korea , China , Brazil , Mexico and the U.S. — you name it , Connie 's a star there . In fact Connie is in huge demand across the globe – everywhere , that is , apart from her native Britain . " Viewing figures for the event were estimated to be around 400 million .
During this time , Talbot continued to upload videos of her performances onto YouTube . Maggie Coughlan , of PopEater.com , praised her covers of Katy Perry 's " Firework " and Bruno Mars 's " Grenade " , but was most impressed by her cover of Adele 's " Someone Like You " , which she said was performed " with such grace that she makes the entire performance look effortless " . The video was also picked up by PerezHilton.com. After the death of Whitney Houston , Talbot posted a cover version of " Run to You " as a tribute to Houston . The video received attention from around the world .
On 28 November 2011 , Talbot released " Beautiful World " as a single on iTunes . The song was written by Talbot when she was seven . A demo of the track was placed on YouTube , and became the 39th most watched video in the world on the day it was uploaded .
In March 2012 , Talbot performed with and led Young Voices , a choir made up of around 7000 primary school children , at the O2 Arena for four nights . The choir broke the world @-@ record for being the largest backing choir for a lead vocalist . This Guinness world record follows her accolades as the youngest artist to make the UK album charts and the youngest to release a gold @-@ selling record . Others involved in the event included Randolph Matthews and The High Kings . Performances took place elsewhere in the United Kingdom , including Manchester and Birmingham. and were in aid of CLIC Sargent , a children 's cancer charity .
Talbot 's single , " Sail Away " , was written and produced by Robbie Nevil and released independently by Group 3 Management , Inc in May 2012 .
In June 2012 , she performed three private concerts in Hong Kong and then it was back in L.A. to begin recording demos with the multi @-@ platinum songwriter / producer and Grammy winner , Toby Gad . Talbot wrote a song called " Building Bridges " , which she has performed live a number of times but is yet to be released commercially .
In September 2012 , Talbot signed a recording agreement with Hong Kong @-@ based Evolution Limited and went into the studio with Grammy @-@ winning producer Kipper together with Phil Taylor , to record her next album . Her fourth album , Beautiful World , containing 13 tracks , was released in Asia on 26 November 2012 on Evolution 's Evosound label . The title track being a rerecorded version of her self @-@ penned track " Beautiful World " .
Talbot performed in Hong Kong , Taiwan , the Philippines and Indonesia for her Beautiful World tour in December 2012 . Her debut headline concert appearance was on 21 December at the Taiwan International Convention Centre ( TICC ) in front of an audience of 1800 . This was followed by two headline concerts at KITEC , Hong Kong . She also made guest appearances in several TV shows , namely Eat Bulaga ! .
Talbot toured with the Young Voices choir for a second year in early 2013 , performing at venues across the UK . The African Children 's Choir also took part in these events .
Talbot 's song " Let 's Get Along " , written by Kipper , was featured on ONE Campaign 's agit8 Spotify album in July 2013 . Talbot is also featured in the song " Building Bridges " , which also made the agit8 album , together with Jordan Jansen .
Talbot 's vocals are featured in the theme song of the video game Rain , released during the beginning of October 2013 .
In October 2013 , Talbot appeared as a special guest at the African Children 's Choir concert in Walsall , UK . It was announced that Talbot would be an ambassador for the African Children 's Choir and have a school named after her .
In late April 2014 , Connie performed a couple of concerts in South Korea ( Osan and Seoul ) . These concerts , performed shortly after the horrendous Sewol ferry tragedy , were delivered with much personal consideration by Connie to make sure that all song choices were appropriate . Connie performed with yellow ribbons to show her respect for the families of the victims . The proceeds from at least one of the concerts were donated to the fundraising efforts in support of the families of the victims .
On 28 July 2014 , a DVD and Blu @-@ ray was released of Talbot ’ s concerts in Hong Kong and Taiwan during her Beautiful World tour in 2012 . It features live performances of the songs from the Beautiful World album , and two additional songs , " I Will Always Love You " and " Over the Rainbow " .
On 7 November 2014 , Talbot released an EP called " Gravity " . She has released three of the five songs from the album , Mr. Blue Sky , Gravity and Inner Beauty from late 2014 to early 2015 .
= = = Matters To Me ( 2016 ) = = =
February 19 , 2016 , the release of digital single Shut Up ( Move On ) was announced . The single is taken from Connie Talbot 's new studio album Matters To Me , a 13 track album with a bonus track available only on iTunes . The album was released on March 25 , 2016 .
= = Personal life = =
Connie lives in Streetly , in the West Midlands with her mother , Sharon , her father Gavin , her older brother Josh , and her older sister Mollie . When Connie was little , she spent much time with her grandmother Violet , watching The Wizard of Oz . It was with Violet that Connie first sang . Violet died in 2006 , before Connie became internationally known , and Connie sang at her funeral .
= = Discography = =
= = = Albums = = =
= = = Video albums = = =
= = = Extended plays = = =
= = = Singles = = =
= = = Other appearances = = =
= = = Music videos = = =
= William Beebe =
William Beebe ( / ˈbiːbi / born Charles William Beebe ; July 29 , 1877 – June 4 , 1962 ) was an American naturalist , ornithologist , marine biologist , entomologist , explorer , and author . He is remembered for the numerous expeditions he conducted for the New York Zoological Society , his deep dives in the Bathysphere , and his prolific scientific writing for both academic and popular audiences .
Born in Brooklyn , New York and raised in East Orange , New Jersey , Beebe left college before obtaining a degree in order to work at the then newly opened New York Zoological Park , where he was given the duty of caring for the zoo 's birds . He quickly distinguished himself in his work for the zoo , first with his skill in designing habitats for its bird population , and soon also with a series of research expeditions of increasing length , including an expedition around the world to document the world 's pheasants . These expeditions formed the basis for a large quantity of writing for both popular and academic audiences , including an account of his pheasant expedition titled A Monograph of the Pheasants and published in four volumes from 1918 to 1922 . In recognition of the research conducted on his expeditions , he was granted honorary doctorates from Tufts and Colgate University .
During the course of his expeditions Beebe gradually developed an interest in marine biology , ultimately leading to his 1930s dives in the Bathysphere off the coast of Bermuda , along with the Bathysphere 's inventor Otis Barton . These dives represented the first time a biologist observed deep @-@ sea animals in their native environment , and set several successive records for the deepest dive ever performed by a human , the deepest of which stood until it was broken by Barton 15 years later . Following his Bathysphere dives , Beebe returned to the tropics and began to focus his study on the behavior of insects . In 1949 , he founded a tropical research station in Trinidad which he named Simla , and which remains in operation as part of the Asa Wright Nature Centre . Beebe 's research at Simla continued until his death from pneumonia in 1962 at the age of 84 .
William Beebe is regarded as one of the founders of the field of ecology , as well as one of the early 20th century 's major advocates of conservation . He is also remembered for several theories he proposed about avian evolution which are now regarded as having been ahead of their time , particularly his 1915 hypothesis that the evolution of bird flight passed through a four @-@ winged or " Tetrapteryx " stage , which has been supported by the 2003 discovery of Microraptor gui .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life and education = = =
Charles William Beebe was born in Brooklyn , New York , son of the newspaper executive Charles Beebe . Although some sources have described him as an only child , he had a younger brother named John who died in infancy . Early in his life , his family moved to East Orange , New Jersey , where he began to acquire both his fascination with the natural world and his tendency to record everything he saw . The American Museum of Natural History , which opened the year that Beebe was born , fostered Beebe 's love of nature and was an early influence on him .
In September 1891 , Beebe began attending East Orange High School . Although Beebe did not formally drop his first name " Charles " until 1915 , before attending high school he was already commonly known as " William Beebe " , as he would be known from this point onward . During his high school years Beebe developed an interest in collecting animals , particularly after receiving his first gun at the age of sixteen , and trained himself in taxidermy in order to preserve them . When he was unable to collect a specimen for himself , he often obtained it from a supply house known as Lattin 's , or by trading with other collectors . Beebe 's first article was published while he was still in high school , a description of a bird called a brown creeper , which appeared in the January 1895 issue of the magazine Harper 's Young People .
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terms afterwards .
It is likely that Beebe became romantically involved with Hollister during his work at Nonsuch Island . An entry in Beebe 's personal journal , written in a secret code that he used when describing things he wished kept secret , reads " I kissed her [ Gloria ] and she loves me . " It is unclear whether Elswyth knew of Beebe 's affair with Gloria , but if she did she appears to not have minded it . In addition to the open nature of their marriage , Elswyth described in a 1940s interview with Today 's Woman magazine that she enjoyed the knowledge that Beebe was attractive to women .
Beebe continued to conduct marine research after 1934 , but he felt that he had seen what he wanted to see using the Bathysphere , and that further dives were too expensive for whatever knowledge he gained from them to be worth the cost . With the help of Beebe 's friend the physician Henry Lloyd , Beebe conducted an expedition in the West Indies examining the stomach contents of tuna , which uncovered previously unknown larval forms of several species of fish . Shortly after returning , Beebe set out on a longer expedition to the waters around Baja California , financed by the Californian businessman Templeton Crocker on board his yacht the Zaca . The goal of this expedition was to study the area 's undersea fauna by means of dredging and helmet diving , and Beebe and his team were surprised by the diversity of animals that they encountered there . In 1937 Beebe went on a second expedition aboard the Zaca , documenting the native wildlife along the Pacific Coast from Mexico to Colombia . During this expedition , rather than focusing on either sea animals as he had at Nonsuch Island or on birds as he had earlier in his life , he attempted to document all aspects of the ecosystem . Beebe described his two expeditions on board the Zaca in his books Zaca Venture and The Book of Bays , in which he emphasized his concern for threatened habitats and his dismay at human destruction .
During the two Zaca expeditions Beebe was accompanied by his longtime assistant John Tee @-@ Van as well as Jocelyn Crane , a young carcinologist who had first worked for Beebe at Nonsuch Island in 1932 , and who would subsequently be among Beebe 's most cherished associates for the rest of his life . Like Hollister before her , Crane would eventually become Beebe 's lover during the long expeditions that Beebe made without Elswyth 's companionship . During this time Beebe was also forming a close friendship with Winnie @-@ the @-@ Pooh 's creator A. A. Milne , who wrote of Half Mile Down " I don 't know which I envy you most : all those moral and physical qualities which you have and I lack , or all that wonder of a new world . [ ... ] One of the few things in the world of which I am really proud is that I know Will Beebe . "
= = = Return to the tropics = = =
Although Beebe continued to use Nonsuch Island as his base of operations throughout the 1930s , with the onset of World War II in 1939 it was announced that the ferry linking Bermuda to New York would soon be making its final run , requiring Beebe and his team to hastily abandon their station there . Transportation to and from Bermuda resumed in 1940 , and Beebe returned there in May 1941 , but the environment was slowly being transformed due to the war . The large number of military ships made docking difficult , most of the island 's reefs were being destroyed in order to construct an airfield , and the combination of construction activity and pollution made observation of the sea life impossible . Appalled by the destruction , Beebe finally rented his station at Nonsuch Island to a military contractor and returned to New York .
With the loss of their station on Bermuda , Beebe and Elswyth gave up on their compromise of finding a research station where they could both be happy . Elswyth , who was most content in temperate environments , began searching for a home in New England where she could continue her writing . Meanwhile , Beebe began searching for a new tropical research station to replace Kartabo , which had fallen victim to deforestation just like Kalacoon before it . Beebe eventually helped Elswyth purchase a small farm near Wilmington , Vermont , where he visited her frequently . Elswyth explained in a magazine interview that she was uncomfortable on Beebe 's expeditions , so the two of them had agreed that they would keep their careers separate from their private lives .
With the financial assistance of Standard Oil and the Guggenheim Foundation , Beebe established his next research station in Caripito , a small city in Venezuela around 100 miles ( 160 km ) west of Trinidad . Beebe and his team used this station to study the ecology of the region , and recorded how its inhabitants were affected by its cycle of wet and dry seasons . One important study which resulted from this region was the first documentation of rhinoceros beetles using their horns in competition between males , proving that their horns were an adaptation for sexual selection rather than for defense against predators . Although Beebe 's research at Caripito was productive , he felt that the extremity of its wet @-@ dry cycle made it impractical as a research station , and the expanding oil operations in the region were in danger of destroying the local environment . For these reasons , Beebe did not return to Caripito after his first season there .
In spring of 1944 , Jocelyn Crane returned to Venezuela to search for a location for a new field station to replace the one at Caripito . The location that she found , known as Rancho Grande , had initially been intended as a palace for Venezuela 's dictator Juan Vicente Gómez in the Henri Pittier National Park . The palace 's construction had been left unfinished after Gómez 's death , and since then the building 's vast corridors and ballrooms had become the home of jaguars , tapirs and sloths . Unlike Beebe 's other tropical research stations , which had been located in lowland regions , Rancho Grande was located on a mountainside in what Beebe described as " the ultimate cloud jungle " . Creole Petroleum , a Venezuelan spin @-@ off of Standard , agreed to cover the cost of the station and finished a small portion of the vast structure for Beebe and his team to use . Beebe and his team began work there in 1945 , staying as guests of the Venezuelan government .
Rancho Grande was located at a mountain pass in a branch of the Andes known as the Venezuelan Coastal Range , which was an important migration route for butterflies , and the station proved very lucrative in the study of insects . During his work at Rancho Grande , Beebe broke his leg in a fall from a ladder , and the forced immobility which resulted from having his leg in a cast presented him with a new opportunity for observing the area 's wildlife . At his request , he and his chair were transported into the nearby jungle , and as he sat motionless the wild animals around him soon began to go about their business without noticing his presence . His immobility also presented him with the opportunity to spend hours at a time observing a pair of bat falcons through binoculars , documenting the behavior of their two chicks and every prey item fed to them by their parents . His observations documented several behaviors which were new to science , including the first documented example of play in birds .
Although Beebe and his team enjoyed rewarding seasons at Rancho Grande in 1945 and 1946 , they did not return there in 1947 . The reason they gave in their annual report was that the previous two seasons had produced so much material that they needed an additional year to analyze it , but in reality this was more the result of insufficient funding as well as the unstable state of Venezuelan politics . Beebe returned to Rancho Grande in 1948 , where he completed several technical papers about the migration patterns of birds and insects , as well as a comprehensive study of the area 's ecology which he coauthored with Jocelyn Crane . Realizing that the area 's politics might soon put an end to their research there , in spring of 1948 Jocelyn made a side trip to Trinidad and Tobago in hope of finding a site for a research station where the politics would be more secure . Finally , when the 1948 Venezuelan coup d 'état installed Marcos Pérez Jiménez as Venezuela 's dictator , Beebe decided that he could no longer continue to work in Venezuela . Beebe described his experiences at Rancho Grande in his 1949 book High Jungle , which was the last of Beebe 's major books .
In January 1950 , the New York Zoological Society held a celebration to commemorate the 50th anniversary of Beebe 's work for them . He was by this point the only remaining member of the zoo 's original staff , and had produced more scholarly papers and publicity than any other employee . Letters and testimonials poured in from other scientists with whom Beebe had worked , attesting to their admiration of him and his influence on them . One letter from the Harvard biologist Ernst Mayr wrote that Beebe 's work had been an inspiration to his own , particularly A Monograph of the Pheasants and Beebe 's books about jungle wildlife .
= = = Final years in Trinidad = = =
The product of Jocelyn Crane 's search for a potential research station in Trinidad was a house on a hill overlooking the Arima Valley , which was known as Verdant Vale . In 1949 , Beebe bought this estate to use a permanent research station to replace Rancho Grande . Beebe renamed the estate Simla , after the hill in India that featured in Rudyard Kipling 's writings . He later described the sense of destiny that marked his introduction to the estate :
At Simla Beebe and his team worked closely together with Asa and Newcome Wright , the owners of the adjacent Spring Hill estate , who provided accommodations for them while water and electricity were connected at Simla . Although the initial purchase of Simla had contained only the house and 22 acres ( 0 @.@ 089 km2 ) of forest surrounding it , Beebe soon realized that this was insufficient for the research he wished to conduct , and purchased another neighboring estate known as St. Pat 's which contained an additional 170 acres ( 0 @.@ 69 km2 ) . In 1953 , Beebe donated both properties to the New York Zoological Society for one dollar , giving him the position of one of the society 's " Benefactors in Perpetuity " .
Research at Simla formally began in 1950 . Beebe 's research at Simla combined elements of many different earlier stages of his research , including observations of the life cycles of the area 's birds , detailed analyses of every plant and animal in small areas of forest , and studies of insect behavior . Insects were the focus of the scientific papers he produced during this period , marking a transition from his past areas of study into the field of entomology . Local children periodically brought animal specimens to Beebe at Simla and asked him to classify them . Remembering the early studies of his own childhood , in which he had brought specimens to the American Museum of Natural History , he was happy working with them .
In 1952 , on his seventy @-@ fifth birthday , Beebe retired from his position as the director of the NYZS 's Department of Zoological Society and became Director Emeritus , while Jocelyn Crane was promoted to Assistant Director . In honor of his lifetime of work as a naturalist , Beebe was awarded the Theodore Roosevelt Distinguished Service Medal in 1953 . Beebe 's last major expedition occurred in 1955 , retracing the route he had taken during his pheasant expedition 45 years earlier , with the intention of discovering how the populations he had previously studied were faring in response to human encroachment . Jocelyn accompanied him on this expedition for the purpose of documenting Asia 's fiddler crabs . Although Jocelyn 's studies during this expedition served as part of the basis for her monograph Fiddler Crabs of the World , Beebe never published the results of his own observations during it .
During Beebe 's later years , Simla was an important gathering point for researchers in many other areas of biology . Other biologists who visited to conduct studies there and exchange ideas with Beebe included myrmecologist Ted Schneirla , ethologist Konrad Lorenz , entomologist Lincoln Brower , ethologist Donald Griffin , and ornithologist David Snow . Snow became a regular visitor to Simla , and in return Beebe provided financial assistance for some of Snow 's own research . Beebe devised an unusual method for determining how he would react to his visitors at Simla . His terrace there was decorated with statues of characters from Winnie @-@ the @-@ Pooh that had been a gift from A. A. Milne . Visitors who recognized these characters as Milne 's creations were greeted by Beebe with enthusiasm , while those who did not recognize them were just endured by Beebe until they left .
Beebe remained active well into his old age . In 1957 , at the age of eighty , he was still capable of climbing slippery tree trunks in order to study bird nests . However , by 1959 his strength had lessened enough that that long hikes and tree climbing were no longer practical for him , and he contented himself with work that could be conducted in the laboratory , such as dissecting birds ' nests to analyze their method of construction . Beebe also began to be afflicted with a throat ailment which may have been Sjögren 's syndrome , although lacking a complete understanding of what caused it , Beebe and his doctors referred to it as " mango mouth " . Beebe was reluctant to accept speaking engagements because of the effect this had on his voice , although he continued to give lectures on occasion with Jocelyn 's help .
In an account of his final meeting with Beebe , Henry Fairfield Osborn , Jr. describes how during Beebe 's last few years he gradually succumbed to illness , eventually becoming nearly immobile and incapable of speech . However , Beebe 's personal physician A. E. Hill provides a differing account , stating that Beebe remained lucid and able to move about without assistance almost until his last day , apart from the periods of time during which his " mango mouth " temporarily slurred his speech . Both accounts agree that throughout his final years Beebe remained fond of playing practical jokes on his visitors at Simla , and retained his sense of humor even within days of his death .
William Beebe died of pneumonia at Simla on June 4 , 1962 . According to his wishes , he was buried in Mucapuro cemetery in Port of Spain . Memorial services were held in both Trinidad and New York City , so that Beebe 's friends in both parts of the world could attend . Following Beebe 's death , Jocelyn succeeded him as the director of the Department of Tropical Research , and continued to run the Simla station along with the rest of Beebe 's former staff .
During his life , Beebe had frequently worried that Elswyth would write a biography of him after his death . In order to prevent this possibility , he left all of his papers and journals to Jocelyn . After Elswyth 's death in 1984 , Jocelyn donated Beebe 's papers to the Department of Rare Books and Special Collections at Princeton University 's Firestone Library . Even in the possession of Firestone Library , Beebe 's papers remained inaccessible without Jocelyn 's permission , and most scholars were prevented from using them until Jocelyn offered access to the writer Carol Grant Gould for the purpose of writing Beebe 's biography .
= = Personality and cultural image = =
William Beebe was more famous in the United States than any other American naturalist prior to the days of television . As a scientific writer who participated in both the popular and academic worlds , he occupied a similar role to the role later occupied by Stephen Jay Gould . Beebe was a well @-@ known figure in the Roaring Twenties of New York City , and was friends with numerous other well @-@ known figures of the period , including Fannie Hurst and the cartoonist Rube Goldberg . Although he was not physically handsome in the traditional sense , he tended to dominate every social and professional situation due to his enthusiasm , intelligence and charisma . As a result of his much @-@ publicized divorce from Blair and his later marriage to Elswyth , he was also known for his stormy relationships with women .
Beebe described his religious beliefs as a combination of Presbyterianism and Buddhism . His religion was largely the result of seeking to combine his sense of awe and wonder at the natural world with a scientific understanding of its workings . He was highly critical of efforts to use science to justify political ideologies , such as socialism or the belief that women were inferior to men . Beebe also disapproved of the eugenic ideas advocated by many biologists in the early 20th century , including some of his contemporaries at the zoo , although this was largely out of fear that these ideas would alienate friends of the zoo and cause divisions among its staff .
Beebe was an avid player of tennis , and remained skilled enough to beat others at it even in his early seventies . Other pastimes enjoyed by him included parties , theater , dancing , and occasionally cinema .
Beebe had a troubled relationship with some of his superiors at the zoo , particularly Hornaday , who was resentful of Beebe 's constant demands for more funding and staff , as well as the fact that as Beebe 's career progressed he gradually devoted less and less time to caring for the zoo itself . One particular point of disagreement was Beebe 's forgetfulness about returning books which he had borrowed from the Zoological Society 's Library , which would occasionally go missing for years as a result . However , Hornaday never publicly expressed his disagreements with Beebe , and did not hesitate to defend Beebe 's work when others criticized it .
Beebe had high expectations of the people working under him on all of his expeditions , although he never revealed the exact characteristics that he looked for in potential employees . Henry Fairfield Osborn Jr. recounts one incident in which Beebe turned down a scientist who wished to work with him when the scientist described boredom with his current duties as one of his reasons for requesting this . In response to this request , Beebe retorted :
Beebe nonetheless exhibited a high degree of loyalty to those employees who were capable of meeting his standards . When he felt that pressure of working under him had become too great , he would announce that his birthday was approaching , and his staff would have several days free from work in order to celebrate it . On one such occasion , when a scientist working under Beebe whispered to him that he knew it was not in fact Beebe 's birthday , Beebe responded " A man should have a birthday when he needs one . "
= = Impact of work and legacy = =
William Beebe was a pioneer in the field now known as ecology . His theory that organisms must be understood in the context of the ecosystems they inhabit was completely new for its time , and has been highly influential . The method he invented of methodically analyzing all organisms within a small area of wilderness has become a standard method in this field . Beebe was also a pioneer in the field of oceanography , setting a precedent with his Bathysphere dives which many other researchers would follow .
E. O. Wilson , Sylvia Earle and Ernst Mayr have all described Beebe 's work as an influence on their own choice of careers . Among the most significant of Beebe 's influences on other researchers was Rachel Carson , who regarded Beebe as both a friend and an inspiration . Carson dedicated her 1951 book The Sea Around Us to Beebe , writing " My absorption in the mystery and meaning of the sea have been stimulated and the writing of this book aided by the friendship and encouragement of William Beebe . " Due to Beebe 's renewed emphasis on field research at a time when laboratory studies were becoming the dominant trend in biology , more recent field researchers such as Jane Goodall and George Schaller are also sometimes considered his intellectual descendants .
By writing for a scientific as well as popular audience , Beebe did much to make science accessible to the general public . This was particularly significant in the area of conservation , of which he was one of the most important early advocates . With his many writings about the dangers of environmental destruction , Beebe helped to raise public awareness about this topic . However , Beebe 's prolific writing for a popular audience had a downside , in that other scientists of his time were reluctant to hold him in high accord because they regarded him as a popularizer .
During the course of his career , Beebe authored over 800 articles and 21 books , including his four @-@ volume pheasant monograph . He had a total of 64 animals named after him , and himself described one new species of bird and 87 species of fish . While 83 of the fish that he described were done so in a conventional manner , the remaining four were done so based on visual observations .
A lingering controversy exists in ichthyology over the validity of the four species Beebe described on the basis of visual descriptions only , which he had observed during his Bathysphere dives . The naming of a new species ordinarily requires obtaining and analyzing a type specimen , something which was obviously impossible from inside the Bathysphere . Some of Beebe 's critics claimed that these fish were illusions resulting from condensation on the Bathysphere 's window , or even that Beebe willfully made them up , although the latter would have been strongly at odds with Beebe 's reputation as an honest and rigorous scientist . While many of Beebe 's observations from the Bathysphere have since been confirmed by advances in undersea photography , it is unclear whether others fit the description of any known sea animal . One possibility is that although these animals indeed exist , so much remains to be discovered about life in the deep ocean that these animals have yet to be seen by anyone other than him .
= = = Tetrapteryx = = =
Along with his analysis of pheasant phylogeny and his studies of life in the Galápagos islands , Beebe regarded one of his most important contributions to the field of evolutionary biology to be his hypothesis that the ancestors of birds passed through what he referred to as a “ Tetrapteryx stage ” , with wings on both their front and hind limbs . Beebe based this theory on his observation that the hatchlings and embryos of some modern birds possess long quill feathers on their legs , which he regarded as an atavism ; he also noticed vestiges of leg @-@ wings on one of the specimens of Archaeopteryx . Beebe described his idea in a 1915 paper published in Zoologica , titled " A Tetrapteryx Stage in the Ancestry of Birds " .
Gerhard Heilmann discussed Beebe 's Tetrapteryx hypothesis at considerable length in his 1926 book The Origin of Birds . Heilmann examined hatchlings of many other bird species , both closely related to those studied by Beebe and belonging to more primitive species , in hope of finding additional evidence for the leg @-@ wings which Beebe had documented . After failing to find such evidence , Heilmann ultimately rejected Beebe 's Tetrapteryx hypothesis , and this remained the consensus among ornithologists for the next several decades . Beebe , however , continued to advance his Tetrapteryx hypothesis as late as the 1940s .
In 2003 , Beebe 's Tetrapteryx hypothesis was supported by the discovery of Microraptor gui , a small feathered dinosaur which possessed asymmetrical flight feathers on both its front and hind limbs . Beebe 's Tetrapteryx hypothesis is now regarded as prescient for its prediction of both the anatomy and likely gliding posture of Microraptor gui , which Richard O. Prum has described as " [ looking ] as if it could have glided straight out of the pages of Beebe ’ s notebooks . " This animal 's discovery has had the effect of resurrecting Beebe 's theory that leg feathers played an important role in the origin of bird flight .
= = = William Beebe Tropical Research Station = = =
Following William Beebe 's death in 1962 , his research station at Simla remained in operation under Jocelyn Crane 's management , under the new name of the William Beebe Tropical Research Station . However , because Jocelyn 's research required her to travel north for extended periods , by 1965 she had little time to keep the station running . By 1971 , the station had fallen into disuse and was declared closed . Meanwhile , as Asa Wright 's health began to fail in her old age , her friends began to fear that after her death her neighboring estate of Spring Hill might be lost to developers , and established a trust to buy the estate and convert it into the Asa Wright nature center . In 1974 , Beebe 's property was donated to the newly established Asa Wright Nature Center .
Now under the management of the Asa Wright Nature Center , the William Beebe Tropical Research Station has gradually been renovated . It is now once again actively involved in research and an important gathering place for scientists . It is also a popular destination for birdwatchers , who can observe the same populations of hummingbirds , tanagers and oilbirds that William Beebe studied decades earlier .
= Chuck Baldwin presidential campaign , 2008 =
The Chuck Baldwin presidential campaign of 2008 began April 10 , 2008 as pastor and radio host Chuck Baldwin of Florida announced his candidacy for the Constitution Party presidential nomination . He previously served as the party 's vice @-@ presidential nominee in 2004 . Baldwin 's main opposition for the nomination was former ambassador Alan Keyes , who had just left the Republican Party . After a campaign touting his stands on civil liberties , foreign affairs , and religion , Baldwin won the nomination at the April 26 Constitution Party National Convention . Attorney Darrell Castle was selected as his running mate .
During the general election , Baldwin expressed paleo @-@ conservative positions on a number of issues including protectionism on trade , nonintervention in foreign affairs , religious practice in the public sphere , and nativism . He cast himself as a close ally of 2008 Republican presidential candidate , Representative Ron Paul , who ultimately endorsed Baldwin 's campaign .
With 199 @,@ 314 votes , about 0 @.@ 15 % of the total , Baldwin finished fifth in the race , ahead of Green Party nominee Cynthia McKinney , but behind both independent Ralph Nader and Libertarian Bob Barr , as well as Republican nominee John McCain and the eventual winner , Democratic nominee Barack Obama
= = Background = =
Chuck Baldwin was initially a Democrat , but changed his party affiliation to Republican in 1980 . In the 1970s , he founded Crossroad Baptist Church in Pensacola , Florida , which President Ronald Reagan recognized for its growth and influence . As a Republican , Baldwin headed the Florida branch of Moral Majority , which promoted social conservatism . He also hosted a radio show called Chuck Baldwin Live , which focused on conservative issues . It made its national radio debut on the Genesis Communications Network in 2001 .
Baldwin left the Republican Party in 2004 , believing it had become a " second big @-@ government , big @-@ spending party " that could be characterized as " more liberal than the Democratic Party ... in practice . " He joined the Constitution Party , but still considered himself a political independent . That year , Constitution Party presidential candidate Michael Peroutka asked Baldwin to be his running mate . The ticket won the nomination at the 2004 Constitution Party National Convention . In the general election , they received 143 @,@ 630 popular votes for 0 @.@ 12 % . Afterwards , Baldwin argued , " the American people haven 't rejected our message ; they haven 't heard our message . "
= = Early stages = =
While considering a run for president , during an October 2006 interview with The Conservative President 2008 website , Baldwin expressed his frustration with the Republican Party , which he believed was on a course of " self @-@ destruction " and that was only kept afloat by the " absurd liberalism of Democrats . " He praised Congressmen Tom Tancredo and Ron Paul as well as activists Pat Buchanan and Alan Keyes , but stated that the Republican Party had steered too far to the left for him to support any of their candidates for president . When asked if he would run for president in 2008 he stated that he had " no desire to run " but that he was " always open to God 's will . " Baldwin endorsed Ron Paul for the Republican presidential nomination in a message posted to YouTube on December 19 , 2007 .
During a March 25 , 2008 interview with Miller Politics , two weeks before Baldwin officially entered the race , he commended Alan Keyes as a possible Constitution Party candidate but stated that he " needs to clarify his foreign policy positions for the party . " He described Libertarian Party candidate Bob Barr as a " very attractive candidate " whom he " like [ s ] ... very much . " When asked about his own presidential aspirations , he responded by saying that " There are many great people in our party that , in my opinion , are much more qualified [ to be the presidential nominee ] than I am . I have always tried to be open to God 's will . At this time , however , I have no inclination that this is God 's will for me . "
= = 2008 Constitution Party National Convention = =
Baldwin announced on April 10 , 2008 that he would seek the Constitution Party presidential nomination at the party 's April 23 – 26 convention in Kansas City , Missouri . His run was believed to have arisen from draft efforts within the Constitution Party , who feared the party would nominate a pro @-@ Iraq War candidate like Alan Keyes . Until the convention , Baldwin did not campaign and in an April 17 interview with Miller Politics , he stated that he was " not running " but merely placing his name into consideration , " trusting that God will reveal His will accordingly . "
During the convention , the party 's founder Howard Phillips endorsed Baldwin and gave a passionate speech in which he referred to Keyes as " the Neocon candidate " who " lingered in the Republican Party until a week ago . " Afterwards , Baldwin defeated Keyes , 383 @.@ 8 to 125 @.@ 7 , winning approximately 74 % of the delegates . He won the majority of delegates from most states with the exceptions of Missouri , Maryland , and Oklahoma , where Keyes narrowly edged Baldwin . At Baldwin 's request , the delegates then chose attorney Darrell Castle of Tennessee as his running mate .
Following the nomination , Baldwin set up a campaign website and opened accounts on MySpace and Facebook . He announced that he would use the Internet in the same manner as Ron Paul " to circumvent the media , " holding the mainstream news media responsible for holding back third party candidates .
= = General election campaign = =
Though Baldwin was not included on many mainstream polls , a May 2008 Fox News opinion poll revealed favorable news for the campaign . It showed that 47 % of the public were open to voting for a third party presidential candidate such as Baldwin , compared to 39 % who were not . Moreover , a Zogby poll discovered that 42 % of conservatives ( whom the Baldwin campaign targeted ) said they would never vote for the presumptive Republican presidential nominee John McCain and found that 86 % of " very conservative " respondents were displeased .
Baldwin expressed his own discontent with the Republican Party in a May 22 interview with Montana News . He expressed frustration with evangelicals who " coalesc [ e ] around John McCain " despite his " twenty @-@ plus year track record of liberal policies . " Baldwin highlighted globalism as the main threat to the nation stating that " Immigration , the U.N .... , NATO , NAFTA , CAFTA , the North American Union , the Superhighway , the war in Iraq , China 's threat to our peace ... are connected " through globalism . Baldwin stated that Iran would only be a threat " by sneaking people into our country . And that would be far more difficult with a sealed border . " He stated that the border could be sealed by deploying troops to those areas .
At the end of May and the beginning of June , several controversial developments concerning the Baldwin campaign hit the press . Comments surfaced that were made by Baldwin , raising the possibility of a 9 / 11 conspiracy theory of a controlled demolition stating , " I don 't know whether there was any kind of an inside apparatus involved in this or not ... If there 's duplicity involved in some kind of conspiracy , then let 's find out who it is and prosecute whoever 's involved . "
= = = Growing media interest = = =
The campaign also increased a drive for ballot access , appealing to supporters for help to get on the presidential ballot in Pennsylvania , Massachusetts , Maryland , and West Virginia .
The campaign began August by announcing its plans to participate in a demonstration against illegal immigration in Denver during the Democratic National Convention . Baldwin was joined by Bob Barr , Alan Keyes and Tom Tancredo at the " Rally Against Illegal Immigration " during the first day of the convention . Later in August , Baldwin campaigned in Spartanburg , South Carolina where he criticized both party 's presidential nominee 's as " globalists . " He declared his opposition to the Federal Reserve , whom he stated has " subjugated " the nation to " foreign dependence . " He railed against the use of the National Guard in the Iraq War remarking that the forces should be used to " repel " the " invasion " of illegal aliens from the southern border , and described the United Nations as " a sinister organization run by Marxists , socialists and communists . " Baldwin criticized both major parties for not cutting spending stating that " the only difference between Democrats and Republicans is Democrats want to tax and spend and Republicans want to borrow and spend . " He promised that slashing spending would be a priority in his administration .
On September 10 , Baldwin appeared on the Lou Dobbs Tonight television program on CNN where he proclaimed that if elected president he would release U.S. Border agents Jose Compean and Ignacio Ramos . The agents were sentenced to 11 and 12 year terms in prison , respectively , after shooting a drug smuggler on the US @-@ Mexico border . Baldwin promised he would release the men during his first day on the job as President .
= = = Final stages = = =
On October 7 , Baldwin addressed the John Birch Society on the second day of its 50th anniversary . At the event he discussed the role of Christianity in the United States public life and delivered his stump speech . He attacked globalist entities such as NAFTA , the International Criminal Court , the Law of the Sea Treaty and the Security and Prosperity Partnership as well as calling for the withdrawal of the United States from the United Nations .
Later in October , Baldwin was interviewed by NPR where he discussed his opposition to the Federal Reserve , which he described as a " fraudulent system " and which he blamed for the 2008 economic crisis . He attacked Republicans for " reneg [ ing ] on their promises " in 1994 's Contract with America to " eliminate five federal departments , such as Department of Education , Energy , Commerce ... " and to " slash spending . " He also criticized Republicans ' failure to criminalize abortion during their years in government . As president Baldwin stated he would eliminate the IRS and cut government spending as well . He stated that the " responsibility of government [ is ] to protect life , even life in the womb . "
Baldwin participated in a third party debate with Independent candidate Ralph Nader on October 23 , broadcast on CSPAN @-@ 2 . During the debate , Baldwin often agreed with Nader on as wide ranging issues as corporations and the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan . He stood in solidarity with Nader in expressing the need to open the presidential debates to third party candidates . He emphasized his connections to Congressman Ron Paul throughout the debate , even suggesting that as president he would appoint " somebody like Ron Paul " as United States Secretary of Treasury . He articulated his opposition to the USA PATRIOT Act and questioned how an ideological conservative could support the legislation . But , he marked a disagreement with Nader on health care , criticizing government involvement in favor of free market solutions but with use of regulation to lower health care costs . Baldwin stated that if elected his first priority would be to secure the border . Throughout the debate Baldwin repeated his party 's pro @-@ life platform and support for the right to bear arms .
On election day , Baldwin was on ballot in 37 states . He was a write @-@ in candidate in eleven additional states including Montana where Ron Paul was listed as the party 's nominee . Baldwin was completely absent from ballots in Oklahoma , North Carolina and the District of Columbia .
= = = Results = = =
Baldwin 's campaign ended after receiving 199 @,@ 314 or 0 @.@ 15 % of the popular vote on Election Day . He finished in fifth place , but won the largest percentage of votes for his party since Howard Phillips in 1996 . 14 @,@ 865 of his votes were won in Michigan , but he won his largest percentage in Utah with 1 @.@ 26 % of the state 's votes .
= = Aftermath = =
Baldwin relocated to Montana in 2010 , and founded the Liberty Fellowship , believing the people of the state responded well to his constitutionalist message . In 2012 , he briefly ran for Lieutenant Governor of Montana as the running mate of Republican gubernatorial primary candidate Bob Fanning , but dropped out due to the lack of campaign funds .
= Kilham , Northumberland =
Kilham is a hamlet and civil parish in the English county of Northumberland , located 8 @.@ 0 miles ( 12 @.@ 9 km ) west of Wooler , 12 @.@ 0 miles ( 19 @.@ 3 km ) east of Kelso , 17 @.@ 0 miles ( 27 @.@ 4 km ) south west of Berwick upon Tweed and 38 @.@ 9 miles ( 62 @.@ 6 km ) north west of Morpeth . It lies on the northern edge of the Northumberland National Park in Glendale . The hamlet , which consists of a small group of agricultural dwellings , is overlooked by Kilham Hill and the northern limits of the Cheviot Hills . The parish had a population of 131 in 2001 , and includes the hamlets of Howtel and Pawston , along with the former upland township of Coldsmouth and Thompson 's Walls. falling to less than 100 at the 2011 Census . Details are now included in the parish of Branxton
Situated on the border with Scotland , Kilham had a turbulent history . It suffered from repeated Scottish incursions , and was often destroyed and laid waste . The situation was considered serious enough for a report to be made to the Privy Council of England , about a raid in 1597 which had resulted in the death of several villagers . In later , more peaceful times , the area developed into an agricultural backwater , which was gradually opened up by the construction of roads and railways .
= = Etymology = =
Kilham first appears in documents in 1177 as Killum , which is usually thought to derive from the Old English Cylnum , indicating the presence of kilns . The name was still spelt Killum as late as the 18th century .
= = History = =
Several well preserved Bronze Age settlements exist in the area around Kilham , and a cairn on Kilham Hill , excavated in 1905 , was found to conceal a cist containing burnt bones , thought to date from the period . A bronze rapier blade dating from 1500 – 1000 BC , found near the Bowmont Water in the 19th century , and now in the National Museum of Scotland in Edinburgh , provides further evidence of Bronze Age activity in the parish .
Iron Age hillforts are found throughout the Cheviot Hills , and the parish contains examples at Bowmont Hill , Kilham Hill , Pawston Camp , and Wester Hill . Such hillforts were not necessarily defensible , and the small interior area of most suggests they were not permanent settlements . Although some may have served as defended farmsteads , others are likely to have been animal enclosures , market places or places of worship . An enclosure at Barley Hill , in the north of the parish , is considered to have been a small farmstead , consisting of roundhouses and adjacent stockyards .
Towards the end of the first millennium BC , all of the remaining upland forest in the area had been cleared , and increasing numbers of settlements or homesteads were established on the high moorland . Some of these appear to have been built within the ramparts of earlier hillforts , which had been abandoned for some time . A well @-@ preserved settlement at Longknowe is thought to be Romano @-@ British , although this part of Northumberland lay beyond the Roman frontier for much of the period of occupation . Small enclosed homesteads such as this are likely to have continued in use for several centuries , and were probably only abandoned as the population moved to lower lying hamlets during the Early Medieval period .
In 651 King Oswine granted 12 named vills , or townships , including Shotton , and perhaps Thornington , along with a large tract of land beside the Bowmont Water , to Saint Cuthbert . The villagers would have been required to hand over the major proportion of any surplus produce and labour from these communities to the church .
By the 13th century , Kilham formed one of the constituent manors of the barony of Wark on Tweed . The barony had been established by King Henry I , and granted to Walter L 'espec , one of his principal agents of government in Northern England . The lord of the manor was Michael of Kilham , although he did not possess the whole township , part being held by Kirkham Priory in North Yorkshire , which had been founded by the barons of Wark . In 1269 it was recorded that the priory had 1 @,@ 000 sheep feeding on the " great moor " of Kilham . Land at Shotton and Coldsmouth was held by Kelso Abbey in the Scottish Borders . The manorial lordship passed through various hands to the Greys of Chillingham Castle , who eventually consolidated ownership of the whole township , in the 17th century acquiring the former Kirkham Priory holdings , which had earlier been sold by the crown after the dissolution of the Monasteries .
A bastle , or fortified farmhouse , was built at the north end of the village in the late 16th or early 17th centuries . Right up to the end of the 16th century , Kilham had suffered repeated Scottish incursions . Every valuation of the village 's lands in the 15th century revealed a state of waste and destruction . In 1541 the lack of any defensive structure was criticised by Sir Robert Bowes and Sir Ralph Ellerker , the Border Commissioners , who strongly urged that a tower be built in the village . They also reported on the tower at Howtel , which had been " rased and casten downe " during an invasion in 1497 . Howtel Tower is mentioned again by Sir Henry Hadston , who in 1584 reported to Queen Elizabeth I that it was one of a number of towers needing repair . Sir Robert Carey , Lord Warden of the Marches , in 1597 reported to the Privy Council of England :
On the 14th instant , at night , four Scotsmen broke up a poor man 's door at Kilham on this march , taking his cattle . The town followed , rescued the goods , sore hurt three of the Scots , and brought them back prisoners . The fourth Scot raised his country meanwhile , and at daybreak 40 horse and foot attacked Kilham , but being resisted by the town , who behaved themselves very honestly , they were driven off and two more were taken prisoners . Whereon the Scots raised Tyvidale ( Teviotdale ) , being near at hand , and to the number of 160 horse and foot came back by seven in the morning , and not only rescued all the prisoners but slew a man , left seven for dead and hurt very sore a great many others .
A map dated 1712 shows two rows of dwellings and toft enclosures in the village . A total of 19 buildings are shown , plus a watermill to the north beside the Bowmont Water , and three buildings to the south west at Longknowe . The village appears to extend slightly further along the lane to Longknowe than the current hamlet . Although not shown on the map , the ruins of an earlier chapel are believed to have existed in Chapel Field , on the hillside to the south east of the village .
By the latter part of the 19th century Kilham consisted of a large farm with farmhouse and two rows of cottages for the farm 's workforce . There was , in addition , a smithy and a post office . To the south , Thompson 's Walls was by 1800 an estate with a farm complex laid out around a square courtyard . Hemp and flax were grown , and a small mill is shown on maps from the 1860s onwards . The adoption of new agricultural techniques and improvements to the area 's transport infrastructure resulted in greater prosperity for Kilham 's farming community in the late 18th and 19th centuries . Enclosure of common land was intended to increase efficiency , bring more land under the plough , and reduce the high prices of agricultural production , and Howtel Common was enclosed in 1779 . Female bondagers , or outworkers , were employed to work in the fields up to the end of the 19th century . The system was recorded in the Scottish Borders as early as 1656 , and subsequently spread into Glendale . Agricultural labourers , known as hinds , were required to provide a female , often a relative or a girl living with the hind 's family , who would be on call as a day labourer whenever required . The bondager 's work was regarded as paying the rent of the hind 's cottage .
Thomas Henry Scott , a police constable from Pawston , was murdered in 1880 , while attempting to arrest two poachers at Hethpool . He had been blugeoned and beaten .
The Alnwick and Cornhill Railway , owned by the North Eastern Railway , opened in 1887 , providing a rail link to Wooler and Cornhill on Tweed . There was no station at Kilham , the nearest being at Mindrum and Kirknewton , but sidings were built to handle goods traffic . Passenger services were withdrawn in 1930 , with a goods and parcels service continuing until 1965 . Kilham sidings closed in 1953 .
Farming at Kilham during most of the 20th century concentrated on rearing pedigree Aberdeen Angus cattle . However , mechanisation and the decline in farming incomes resulted in the farm ceasing to function as an independent unit . In 1988 the Kilham estate was divided into three separate farms : Kilham , Longknowe and Thompson 's Walls . Longknowe Farm now specialises in breeding and rearing sheep and suckler cows , while Kilham Farm is leased to a neighbouring farmer at Thornington , and some of the buildings have been converted into workshops .
= = Geography = =
Kilham stands on the south bank of the Bowmont Water in Glendale , at the mouth of Kilham Burn . Settlement is limited to dispersed farmsteads and small hamlets , of which Kilham is the largest . Glendale has a clearly defined valley floor and pronounced raised terraces . The area is relatively well wooded , with both coniferous plantations and broadleaved woodland on the surrounding hills , and areas of alder woodland and pollarded willow along the valley floor . The river forms part of the River Tweed Site of Special Scientific Interest , designated in 2001 due to its biological interest , and the River Tweed Special Area of Conservation , designated under the European Habitats Directive for the biological interest within the river system .
To the south , the area is dominated by Kilham Hill , 1 @,@ 109 feet ( 338 m ) high , and above Longknowe , in the valley of Kilham Burn , is the former township of Coldsmouth and Thompson 's Walls , lying in the northern limits of the Cheviot Hills . The geology of the upland area is composed of Devonian igneous rocks , and the landscape is characterised by smooth rolling hills and extensive plateaux of semi @-@ natural acidic grass moor , known locally as white grass . There are areas of heather moorland and , in wetter parts , blanket bog dominated by dwarf shrubs , sedges , sphagnum moss and cotton grass . Coniferous woodland plantations are common on the upper valley slopes , with the remnants of broadleaved woodland , gorse scrub and meadow grassland in the steep sided valleys . The area reaches a height of 1 @,@ 358 feet ( 414 m ) at Coldsmouth Hill .
On the opposite side of the dale , to the north , are the hamlets of Howtel and Thornington . Much of this area consists of glacial gravel , and both sand and gravel were extracted at Thornington . Upstream on the Bowmont Water , the former township of Pawston lies to the south west .
Northumberland is the coldest county in England , with mean summer temperatures in the northern lowlands 0 @.@ 5 ° C below those found 60 miles ( 97 km ) to the south . Kilham is sheltered from the prevailing winds , which are from the south west , but there are cold winds from the east in winter . The growing season is between April and November . The low mean temperature and high rainfall result in water @-@ logging of fine textured soils , and leaching of nutrients from soils with a coarser texture . The nearest weather station for which comprehensive records are published is at Boulmer , located 29 @.@ 8 miles ( 48 @.@ 0 km ) south east of Kilham , on the North Sea coast .
= = Governance = =
Kilham , Coldsmouth and Thompson 's Walls , Howtel and Pawston were four of 15 townships in the ancient parish of Kirknewton , one of the largest parishes in England . Following the Poor Law Amendment Act 1834 , parishes were grouped into unions : Glendale Poor Law Union was created in 1837 . Under the Public Health Act 1848 the area of the poor law union became Glendale Rural Sanitary District , which from 1889 formed a second tier of local government under Northumberland County Council . The four townships became civil parishes in their own right , separate from Kirknewton but within the sanitary district , in 1866 , and under the Local Government Act 1894 became part of Glendale Rural District . Coldsmouth and Thompson 's Walls , Howtel and Pawston were amalgamated into Kilham in 1955 . Glendale Rural District was abolished in 1974 , and became part of the newly created Borough of Berwick upon Tweed , which was in turn abolished as a result of the Northumberland ( Structural Change ) Order 2008 , under which Northumberland became a unitary authority in 2009 .
Kilham now forms part of Wooler electoral division of Northumberland County Council , represented by Anthony Murray of the Conservative Party , who was elected to the new council on its creation in 2008 . The parish does not have a parish council .
Since 1885 , Kilham has been part of Berwick upon Tweed parliamentary constituency . It has been represented by Sir Alan Beith , the deputy leader of the Liberal Democrats , since he won a by @-@ election in 1973 .
= = = Public services = = =
Water and sanitation are provided by Northumbrian Water , owned since 2011 by Hong Kong based Cheung Kong Infrastructure Holdings . Water supplies come from an aquifer , and are abstracted by boreholes . The electricity distribution company serving Kilham is Northern Powergrid , formerly known as CE Electric , which is owned by Berkshire Hathaway , a multinational conglomerate based in Nebraska .
The North East Ambulance Service , formed in 2006 , provides ambulance and paramedic services , operating out of the ambulance station at Wooler . The general provision of health services is the responsibility of Northumbria Healthcare NHS Foundation Trust . The nearest hospital is Berwick Infirmary in Berwick upon Tweed , which has a 24 @-@ hour minor injuries service .
Law enforcement is the responsibility of Northumbria Police , the sixth largest police force in England and Wales , which was formed in 1974 by the merger of Northumberland Constabulary and part of Durham Constabulary . The local neighbourhood team is based at the police station in Berwick upon Tweed .
Northumberland Fire and Rescue Service , a division of Northumberland County Council , provides public protection services , operating out of the fire station at Wooler . A search and rescue service is provided by the Northumberland National Park Mountain Rescue Team and North of Tyne Search and Rescue Team .
= = Demography = =
Kilham had a population of 131 in 2001 , of which 13 @.@ 7 per cent were below the age of 16 , and 11 @.@ 5 per cent were over 64 years of age . Owner occupiers inhabited 13 @.@ 7 per cent of the dwellings , and 61 @.@ 6 per cent were rented . Holiday homes accounted for a further 12 @.@ 3 per cent of dwellings , and 12 @.@ 3 per cent were vacant . The proportion of households without use of a vehicle was 5 @.@ 2 per cent , but 34 @.@ 5 per cent had two or more . The population was predominantly white : 94 @.@ 8 per cent identified themselves as such .
= = Economy = =
Agriculture has been an important part of Kilham 's life for centuries . As early as the 13th century sheep farming had been developed on the moorland , and in 1269 it was recorded that Kirkham Priory had 1 @,@ 000 sheep on the " great moor " of Kilham . Shepherds often lived in shiellings , temporary summer settlements high in the hills . Hemp and flax were grown , and Aberdeen Angus cattle reared . The high hills and moors of Northumberland are ideal for grazing cattle and sheep , and some of England 's tastiest beef and lamb is produced .
In the 19th century , the upland areas were increasingly used for shooting wild gamebirds . The great landowners would hold large organised shooting parties for their friends , employing local farm workers as beaters . Gamekeepers were responsible for looking after the birds before they were shot , and for breeding pheasants in special shelters . Arable farming was more important in the north of the parish , and was aided by increased mechanisation and improved transport links . Andesite was quarried for use as a building material , and sand and gravel extracted .
At the 2001 census , 72 @.@ 0 per cent of Kilham 's population were in employment ; the unemployment rate was 5 @.@ 6 per cent . Of those employed , 54 @.@ 5 per cent worked in service industries , while 46 @.@ 8 per cent were in extractive and manufacturing industries . The average distance travelled to work was 14 @.@ 9 miles ( 24 @.@ 0 km ) .
= = Landmarks = =
= = = Coldsmouth and Thompson 's Walls = = =
Now almost unpopulated , Coldsmouth and Thompson 's Walls lies 1 @.@ 7 miles ( 2 @.@ 7 km ) south west of Kilham in the northern reaches of the Cheviot Hills . Coldsmouth Hill , 1 @,@ 358 feet ( 414 m ) high , is the highest point in the parish . Two Bronze Age burial cairns crown the summit . A flint knife , bronze dagger and cremated bone were discovered during excavations in 1929 . South of the hill St Cuthbert 's Way , a 62 miles ( 100 km ) long @-@ distance trail , passes on its route from Melrose to Holy Island . Remains of a Romano @-@ British village , on the north west slopes of the hill , include five enclosures containing the circular foundations of buildings . Nearby , Ring Chesters is an Iron Age hillfort . The enclosure contains the circular stone foundations of at least eight huts , two of which contain traces of what may be hearths . In the saddle between the two hills , the remains of the medieval settlement of Heddon , first recorded in 1296 , contain the sites of at least six longhouses , which are each divided into two rooms . The village overlies an earlier Romano @-@ British enclosed settlement .
Thompson 's Walls consists of two 19th @-@ century farm cottages and a group of farm buildings , notable for being built entirely of hard , igneous rock . Andesite was quarried , and was used in the construction of Yetholm church .
= = = Howtel = = =
Howtel is situated 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) north east of Kilham , to the north of the Bowmont Water . The name is thought to mean Low Ground with a Wood , and the area has a number of ancient camps and settlements shown on early Ordnance Survey maps . The remains of a peel tower , which was partly destroyed in 1496 , stand in the centre of the hamlet . The walls are over 6 @.@ 6 feet ( 2 @.@ 0 m ) thick .
Bowmont House , a former Scottish Presbyterian chapel and manse , is on the Kilham road , to the south of the hamlet . The building dates from 1850 , and is rendered , with ashlar dressings and a Welsh slate roof .
= = = Kilham = = =
Many of the buildings in Kilham date back to the 19th century , and the stone construction is typical of Northumbrian farms in the 1850s . Locally quarried dark igneous andesite and granite were mainly used , although sandstone was brought in from the east for higher status buildings . Kilham House was transformed from a traditional farmhouse into a small country house by a substantial extension built in 1926 . The appearance was enhanced by the use of identical 12 @-@ pane windows throughout .
The old mill pond above the hamlet has been restored by the Northumberland National Park Authority . Blackbirds , wrens and thrushes are often seen in the hedge banks along the lane to Longknowe , and the roadside verges contain a colourful variety of flowering plants , including dog roses , St John 's wort , stitchwort and bloody cranesbill . Nearby is a sheepwash , where Kilham 's shepherds increased the value of the fleeces by washing their sheep 's wool before it was clipped .
On the slopes of Kilham Hill are the remains of a shielling , which provided shelter for shepherds watching over the sheep as they grazed . In summer the hillside is a profusion of purple and blue as wild thyme , cross @-@ leaved heath and harebells come into bloom ; foxgloves have colonised the stony ground . A stone cairn crowns the summit , and was found to conceal a Bronze Age cist containing burnt bones . From the summit , there are views over the Milfield Plain , Glendale and the Till Valley , and to Eildon Hill , Yeavering Bell and the Cheviot Hills . Buzzards , kestrels , lapwings and curlews are common , while bilberry , tormentil and heath bedstraw carpet the soil .
North of the hamlet , the trackbed of the former Alston and Cornhill Railway forms part of a walk along the Bowmont Water , where kingfishers , grey herons , oystercatchers and mallards can be seen . Sedge warblers are regular visitors in summer , and short @-@ eared owls hunt in the nearby tree plantation . On the northern bank of the river , Reedsford Farm has a 17th @-@ century dovecote .
= = = Pawston = = =
Pawston lies 2 @.@ 3 miles ( 3 @.@ 7 km ) west of Kilham on the south bank of the Bowmont Water . It was the site of the deserted medieval village of Thornington , first recorded in 1296 . To the north east of Pawston House are single storey shelter sheds and a two @-@ storey granary , dating from the 18th century . An old beam forms a continuous bressumer over the door and two windows , and the building has a steeply pitched Scottish slate roof . South of the house is a 17th @-@ century sundial base decorated with foliage , grotesque heads and festoons . John Selby , a " gentleman dwelling at Pawston " , was killed in 1596 while defending his home against Scottish marauders . Pawston Hill has the remains of an Iron Age settlement . The locally rare wood carpet moth was found at Pawston Lake in 1929 , and a number of nationally or locally scarce plants are also present , including the autumnal water starwort , blunt leaved pondweed , gypsywort , maiden pink and shoreweed .
Shotton Farm , immediately north of the Scottish border , marks the site of large medieval hamlet , first recorded in 1296 . A document from 1541 records that it had been laying waste for more than 30 years . Shotton House was built in 1828 , and has an ashlar facade and Scottish slate roof . Above the panelled door is a Tuscan entablature showing the year of construction and the original owner 's name . The nearby gatepiers have Greek decoration , and were added in 1829 .
The Rising of the North in 1569 was an attempt to depose Queen Elizabeth I and replace her with Mary , Queen of Scots . Thomas Percy , the Earl of Northumberland , one of its leaders , was betrayed while seeking shelter at Harelaw . The current Harelaw House was built in 1593 . It stands below Hare Law , 912 feet ( 278 m ) high , on which are the remains of a hillfort .
= = Transport = =
Kilham lies on the B6351 road between Akeld and Mindrum . The B6352 runs north east through Howtel to Ford , where it connects with the A697 . A bus service is provided only on Wednesdays . Service 266 has two morning journeys operated by Glen Valley Tours , and runs a circular Wooler – Akeld – Kirknewton – Kilham – Flodden – Milfield – Akeld – Wooler route .
The road from Wooler through Kirknewton and Kilham to the Scottish border was converted into a turnpike by the early 19th century . In 1812 the Ford and Lowick Turnpike Trust took over responsibility for the road from Milfield through Flodden , Howtel , Kilham , Langham and Shotton to the border , and in 1834 the deviation through Thornington was included . With reduced income from tolls due to competition from the new railways , the turnpike trusts were gradually wound up in the late 19th century , and responsibility for highways taken over by Northumberland County Council after its creation in 1889 .
From the 1860s onwards , various schemes were promoted to build a railway line , either through Glendale or over the Milfield Plain . In 1881 the Central Northumberland Railway was proposed , linking Newcastle upon Tyne with Ponteland , Rothbury , Wooler and Kelso . The threat posed by the proposal spurred the North Eastern Railway to put forward a branch line of its own between Alnwick , Wooler and Cornhill on Tweed . The company was strongly supported by the tradespeople of Alnwick , who were concerned at the loss of business if the farmers of Glendale had a direct raillink to the rival market and shops in Rothbury . Both schemes were presented to Parliament in 1881 , and it was the North Eastern Railway 's route which gained approval , with the Alnwick and Cornhill Act passed in 1882 . The single @-@ track line opened on 5 September 1887 , having cost £ 272 @,@ 267 to build . From Wooler , it ran through Kirknewton and Kilham to Mindrum , before turning north to Cornhill on Tweed , where it joined the line from Tweedmouth to Kelso . There was no station at Kilham , but sidings were built to handle goods traffic .
The North Eastern Railway was amalgamated into the London and North Eastern Railway in 1923 and , just 43 years after the line opened , passenger trains were withdrawn in 1930 , the new owners claiming that passenger numbers had declined due to competition from buses . A goods and parcels service continued , but on 12 August 1948 torrential rain caused severe flooding , damaging the bridge over the Bowmont Water between Mindrum and Kilham . For a while the line operated as two separate lines with termini at Mindrum and Kirknewton , but further flooding in October 1949 destroyed the bridge at Ilderton . Rather than rebuild the bridge British Railways , which had taken over the line the previous year , repaired the bridge at Mindrum , restoring services from the north through to Wooler . Goods services were withdrawn from Kilham sidings in 1953 , and the remaining northern part of the line to Wooler finally closed on 29 March 1965 .
Apart from a short heritage line , the Heatherslaw Light Railway , operating between Heatherslaw and Etal , the nearest railway station is at Berwick upon Tweed , 17 @.@ 0 miles ( 27 @.@ 4 km ) to the north east on the East Coast Main Line between London and Edinburgh . Services are provided by the East Coast Main Line Company and Cross Country Trains . Chathill , 25 @.@ 2 miles ( 40 @.@ 6 km ) east of Kilham , has a limited commuter service to Newcastle upon Tyne , operated by Northern Rail .
= = Education = =
A national school for 60 children opened at Howtel in 1875 . Primary education to the age of nine is now provided by Wooler First School , which had 101 pupils in 2007 , and is located in Wooler , 8 @.@ 0 miles ( 12 @.@ 9 km ) to the east . It was last inspected by Ofsted in 2007 .
Children aged from nine to 13 attend Glendale Middle School , also located in Wooler , which had 150 pupils when it was last inspected in 2010 . The school has specialist status as a Technology College , holds the Sportsmark and Healthy Schools awards , and has a " partner school " in China .
At the age of 13 , pupils transfer to Berwick Academy , formerly Berwick Community High School , in Berwick upon Tweed , 17 miles ( 27 km ) north east of Kilham . As a high school , it was inspected in 2007 when it had 922 pupils , including 174 in the sixth form . The academy has specialist status as both a Business and Enterprise College and as an applied learning college . In 2009 it was awarded High Performing Specialist School status , and holds a Healthy Schools award .
= = Culture = =
Robert Story , known as " the Craven Poet " , was born at Wark on Tweed in 1795 . His father was an agricultural labourer , and the family moved frequently around the Northumberland villages . When just 10 years old , Story ran away to accompany a lame fiddler on an excursion through the Scottish Borders for a month , and about a year later the family moved to Howtel , where Story attended the local school . He later claimed that this was where " I learned nearly all that I ever learned from a Master — namely to read badly , to write worse , and to cipher a little farther , perhaps than to the Rule of Three . " There he was introduced to Divine Songs for Children , and discovered a love of poetry while reading on the hills , where he was employed as a shepherd . By 1820 he had moved to Gargrave in North Yorkshire where he opened a school , and in 1825 published a volume of poetry , Craven Blossoms . Algernon Percy , the Duke of Northumberland , became a patron in 1857 and financed an edition of his works . In 1859 Story was invited to Ayr for the centenary celebrations of Robert Burns , where he recited his poem on Burns . The Bradfordian considered that " he stands high among the minor poets of Great Britain , and many of his sweet lyrics will most assuredly descend to and be highly admired by posterity , and by none more than Yorkshiremen . "
A ten @-@ minute DVD postcard , The Cheviot Hills from Dawn till Dusk , shows the scene across five Cheviot valleys , including Kilham , set to the music On Cheviot Hills by Alistair Anderson . The film shows the changing moods as the day progresses , and was produced by Shadowcat Films , with support from the Northumberland National Park Authority .
Linda Scott @-@ Robinson is a painter living in Howtel . She paints local landscapes and states that her inspiration comes from the ever shifting light that constantly changes the surrounding landscape . She is a member of Network Artists , an independent association of professional artists living and working in Northumberland .
Inglenook Sidings is an award winning model railway train shunting puzzle created by Alan Wright for the Manchester Model Railway Society 's 1978 show , based on the former Kilham Sidings on the Alnwick and Cornhill Railway . The aim of the puzzle is to create a train consisting of five of the eight wagons sitting in the sidings , in the order in which the wagons are randomly selected .
A local saying in Northumberland was " to take Hector 's cloak " , meaning to deceive a friend who relies on your loyalty . The saying referred to the betrayal of Sir Thomas Percy , the Earl of Northumberland , by Hector Armstrong of Harelaw . The earl , a loyal Roman Catholic , had been one of the leaders of the Rising of the North in 1569 , an attempt to depose Queen Elizabeth I and replace her with Mary , Queen of Scots . The rebels captured Barnard Castle and advanced on York but , with little popular support and facing overwhelming government forces , fled north , towards Scotland . The earl sought shelter in Armstrong 's house at Harelaw , but was betrayed to James Douglas , the Earl of Morton , the regent of Scotland . The Scots subsequently sold him to the English government for £ 2 @,@ 000 , and he was beheaded at York , refusing an offer to save his life by renouncing Catholicism .
= = Religion = =
Although an early chapel is believed to have existed in Kilham , the local parish church , dedicated to Saint Gregory the Great , is at Kirknewton . The site has been used for Christian worship since the 11th century , and the present church dates from the 12th century . It was restored in 1860 . A Scottish Presbyterian chapel , with seating for 350 worshippers , was built at Howtel in 1850 , although this is no longer in use .
= = Sport = =
Fellwalking is a popular pastime in the Cheviot Hills , and Coldsmouth Hill is a favoured destination , with excellent views in all directions , and two large burial cairns on its summit . It is most easily climbed from Halterburn in Yetholm . St Cuthbert 's Way , a 62 miles ( 100 km ) long @-@ distance trail , passes to the south of the hill on its route from Melrose to Holy Island . Kilham Hill can be ascended from the Kilham Valley or the Kirknewton road east of Kilham .
The Northumbria Hang Gliding and Paragliding Club , based in Newcastle upon Tyne , organises both hang gliding and paragliding at Coldsmouth Hill , which works in an easterly or west north westerly wind , and Longknowe , which works best in a west north westerly wind .
= Xx ( album ) =
xx is the debut album by English indie pop band the xx . After they signed a contract with XL Recordings , the band recorded the album from December 2008 to February 2009 at the record label 's in @-@ house studio in London . Audio engineer Rodaidh McDonald worked with the xx during the recording sessions and strived to reproduce the intimate , unembellished quality of their demos . The band 's Jamie Smith produced xx on his laptop and created electronic beats for the songs , which he then mixed in a detailed process with McDonald .
Although the xx had been strongly influenced by R & B acts , the album drew comparisons from critics to alternative rock , electronica , and post @-@ punk sounds . The melancholic songs on xx featured minimalist arrangements and were built around Smith 's beats , Oliver Sim 's basslines , and sparse guitar figures played by Baria Qureshi and Romy Madley Croft , who employed reverb in her lead guitar parts . Most of them were sung as low @-@ key duets by Croft and Sim , both of whom wrote emotional lyrics about love , intimacy , loss , and desire .
xx was released in August 2009 by Young Turks , an imprint of XL , and received widespread acclaim from critics , many of whom named it one of the year 's best records . It sold consistently over its first few years of release , becoming a sleeper hit in the United Kingdom and the United States . Although none of its singles became hits , xx benefited commercially from the licensing of its songs to television programs and the band 's Mercury Prize win in 2010 . When Qureshi was dismissed from the group shortly after the album 's release , they continued to play as a trio on a protracted concert tour that helped increase their fanbase , reputation in the press , and confidence as performers .
= = Background = =
While students at South London 's Elliott School in 2005 , childhood friends Romy Madley Croft and Oliver Sim formed the xx with Jamie Smith and Baria Qureshi . Croft and Sim played guitar and bass , respectively , and dueted as the band 's vocalists , while Smith programmed electronic beats for their songs and Qureshi doubled as a keyboardist and additional guitarist . During late nights , Croft and Sim either shared lyrics with each other through instant messaging or rehearsed quietly with Smith and Qureshi in their bedrooms so they would not disturb the rest of the household . The xx were greatly influenced by American R & B producers such as The Neptunes and Timbaland , whose minimalist productions incorporated vocal harmonies , handclaps , unconventional samples , and pronounced beats . The band covered Aaliyah 's " Hot Like Fire " ( 1997 ) , Womack & Womack 's " Teardrops " ( 1988 ) , and other past R & B hits when they performed live and recorded their demos .
After posting the demos on their Myspace page , the xx drew the interest of Young Turks , an imprint label of XL Recordings . They submitted the demos to XL 's head office at Ladbroke Grove and were subsequently signed to a recording contract . The group worked with producers such as Diplo and Kwes , to no success before they were introduced to audio engineer Rodaidh McDonald by the xx 's manager Caius Pawson , who gave him three CDs of demos titled " Early Demos " , " Recorded in Rehearsal Space " , and " What Producers Did Wrong " . McDonald was impressed by the intimate quality and use of silence on the demos , which both he and the band felt may have challenged other producers who wanted to incorporate their individual tastes : " They 'd worked with about four other producers before then that had — and no discredit to them — I guess they 'd seen a lot of space to add a kind of stamp on . There was a lot of empty space in the xx 's music , even then , in the ' Early Demos ' . But we just found that the best stuff was the most sparse . "
= = Recording and production = =
At the behest of XL owner Richard Russell , the xx recorded their debut album at the label 's small , in @-@ house recording studio , making them the first act to record there . It was once the head office building 's rear garage before Russell transformed it at the beginning of 2008 into a makeshift writing , rehearsal , and demo space for XL 's artists . McDonald was assigned in September to manage and properly equip the room , which he liked because it was soundproof and " isolated from the rest of the office , so it wasn 't like you were working in the record company 's presence . " Croft , on the other hand , called it a " pretty confined space " the size of a bathroom . Over the next few months , McDonald and Pawson prepared a budget for the label to fund the studio 's preliminary setup , which would have recording equipment specifically suited for the xx , including a modestly sized soundboard ideal for recording a small group .
The xx started to record the album in December with McDonald , who engineered the sessions . They would usually record at night after XL 's staff had left , which Croft said made it feel " isolated and quite creepy " . To reproduce the sound he had heard on the band 's demos , McDonald had them write down their instruments ' settings and test different areas of the studio to determine where he should record each member . Sim , who played a Precision Bass manufactured in the 1970s , was often recorded in the hallway outside the studio with a Fender Bassman , one of several amplifiers McDonald experimented with for xx . Some of Qureshi and Croft 's guitars were also done in the hallway . Qureshi played a Gibson SG with a Fender Hot Rod Deluxe or Blues Deluxe amplifier , while Croft played an Epiphone Les Paul on most of the album and a Gibson ES @-@ 335 on a few songs . For her lead guitar parts , Croft used a delay pedal and a Roland Micro Cube amplifier with a reverb setting , which McDonald felt would best replicate her " icy " , echo @-@ filled sound on the demos .
After all the instrumental elements had been tracked , Croft and Sim recorded their vocals together , rarely singing backup to one another on any of the songs . McDonald believed it was important for the singers be " in sync " and share the same mental state or mood when performing full takes of songs , some of which he said benefited from when they were both " quite tired and emotional " . He had Croft and Sim sing into Neumann microphones on most of the songs in order to make their vocals sound as " intimate " and conversational as possible . The microphones were among the more expensive items he borrowed for the studio 's preliminary setup so XL would not be overwhelmed with a costly budget .
Despite McDonald 's close involvement , the xx had been encouraged to self @-@ produce their album by Russell ; he believed it would remain faithful to both the band 's distinctive live sound and the DIY ethic practiced at XL since its beginnings as a rave label . Smith was chosen by the rest of the group to produce xx . He used Logic 8 recording software on his Mac Pro and often worked late nights in a nearby conference room while they recorded in the studio with drafts of his beats . Smith produced rhythm tracks with an Akai MPC sampler , which he occasionally processed through a Roland RE @-@ 201 and other effects units . He also created click tracks for the rest of the band to keep timing when they recorded their individual parts . After those parts had been recorded , he refined and incorporated his beats into the songs for three to four weeks . Croft trusted that Smith , who did not want to conceal any imperfections by overproducing xx , would make it practical for them to perform live rather than layer the songs with several guitar or vocal elements .
Most of xx was recorded from late December to late January before McDonald and Smith began an exhaustive mixing process , which lasted two weeks . For each song , they mixed one or two tracks of each instrument and used Waves Audio components to equalize the recordings . Having enjoyed how the demos captured unintended background noises such as street sounds , McDonald deliberately left certain sounds that would have otherwise been unwanted in the final mix . " I wanted it to sound like people in a room , rather than this polished kind of perfect crystalline thing " , he explained . " It was all the small details that we really liked . " In February , the group wrote and recorded " Fantasy " , " Shelter " , and " Infinity " before finishing xx by month 's end . Sim sang his vocals for " Infinity " on the side of the studio opposite from Croft after his microphone had been unintentionally moved there , which resulted in a distant @-@ sounding vocal exchange on the song . While recording " Shelter " , a mechanical part from the guitar amplifier loosened and caused it to make a clattering sound , which McDonald and the xx chose to retain . " It was just like this missing piece of percussion that the track needed ! " , McDonald recalled .
= = Music and lyrics = =
The songs on xx were developed around a framework of basslines and beats , while incorporating simple guitar riffs for melody , rhythm , and texture ; their melodic notes were separated by rests . Croft said the band 's style of instrumentation had become defined by the limited equipment they originally used : " My guitar sound pretty much came from discovering there was reverb on my little practice amp and really loving the mood it created . " The loudest song , " Intro " , was a largely instrumental recording with double @-@ tracked beats , distorted keyboard , non @-@ lexical vocables , and a guitar riff . Songs such as " Crystalised " and " VCR " began with a melodic ostinato and some understated sounds , including a xylophone on the latter , before leading to quietly sung verses . Croft and Sim exchanged verses on " Crystalised " while backed by the sound of drum stick clicks and basslines before the beat was heard . On the austerely arranged " Night Time " , Croft sang its first two minutes over only guitar and bass before its beat developed . " Fantasy " was highlighted by a shoegazing guitar sound .
While McDonald observed a predominant R & B element , Russell felt the xx 's music evoked the early hip hop records he listened to when he was young , as they were often limited to vocals , samples , and beats . Music journalists , however , inferred from xx that their influences were alternative rock acts such as Portishead , Young Marble Giants , and Cocteau Twins , the last of which Croft said she had never heard before the album was released . The Scotsman described xx as a minimalist , melancholic indie pop record that draws on elements from electronica and R & B , as well as The Cure and other alternative groups . According to Sarah Boden of The Observer , the album 's unadorned , dream pop love songs are reminiscent of Cocteau Twins and Mazzy Star , because they feature low tempos , moody melodies , and rhythms influenced by R & B and dubstep . Their arrangements have what Neil McCormick called " a very British , industrial aspect " , somewhat similar to the dub @-@ inflected post @-@ punk sound of English producer Martin Hannett and his work with the band Joy Division . Both Croft and Sim said their combination of seemingly disparate influences could have been attributed to the variety in each band member 's music collection .
On xx , Croft and Sim touched on themes of love , desire , and loss in their songwriting , which Croft said has " always been based around emotions , right from the start . My favourite songs are usually quite sad and I think heartbreak is something that so many people can connect with . " Like Croft , Sim said he wrote much of his lyrics at night when his emotions ran " a bit higher " . Because of their reserved personalities , Robert Christgau believed they relied on a low @-@ key , vulnerable style and " traded ideas about intimacy as contemporaries , comrades , prospects , lovers , ex @-@ lovers , and friends " . According to NME magazine 's Emily Mackay , all of the songs dealt with the consuming emotions associated with first love , including the tacit intimacy on " VCR " , the yearning expressed on " Heart Skipped a Beat " , and the premature affection warned of on " Crystalised " . Petra Davis from The Quietus argued that the thematic crux of xx was in the succession of songs from " Islands " to " Shelter " , each of which saw " a radical shift in perspective on a similar — perhaps a single — love story . "
The album 's Roman numeral title referred to each of the band members having turned 20 years old by the time xx was released . Because of their age , many critics interpreted the songs as nocturnal depictions of adolescent lust . Philip Sherburne wrote in Spin that xx brimmed with a " young lust " often found in rock music , and recordings such as " Fantasy " and " Shelter " expressed a jaded yearning , particularly in a lyric from the latter song : " Can I make it better with the lights turned on " . Croft vehemently denied this : " We were writing these songs when we were 17 . I can honestly say I 've never thought this is about my sex life . " Croft and Sim , who were both gay , did not intend for the songs to be heard as romantic duets ; she said they were singing " past each other " rather than each other . Having combined their individually written lyrics , they could not definitely explain what their songs were about , although Croft said Sim 's lyrics resonated with her nonetheless and enjoyed the personal interpretation it offered . " You can put them into your own life " , she explained , " like , ' Oh , this is my song . ' " The romantic situations Sim wrote of had been inspired by other people . " I hadn 't really had any relationships to be working off , but I had a huge interest in life , and looking at other people 's relationships around me " , he said .
= = Promotion = =
" Crystalised " was released as the xx 's debut single on 27 April 2009 and helped build interest among listeners and journalists . It was part of a series of singles from xx , which included " Basic Space " on 3 August , " Islands " on 26 October , and " VCR " on 25 January 2010 . They did not receive significant airplay on BBC Radio 1 in the United Kingdom , and other media outlets believed the xx did not warrant strong attention ; one editor from NME said at the time that the band was not ideal for their magazine 's front cover . In the United States , the xx benefited from the word @-@ of @-@ mouth marketing of blogs , beginning when they performed six consecutive sold @-@ out shows at New York City clubs such as Pianos and the Mercury Lounge months prior to the album 's release .
Several of the songs from xx were licensed by XL to television programs in the UK and North America . " Intro " became widely used as theme music in television , including sports highlights , episodes of series such as Law & Order and Cold Case , an advertisement for AT & T , and BBC 's coverage of the 2010 British general election . Along with their placement in television , songs from the record were used by North American chain stores such as Starbucks and Urban Outfitters as background music at their locations . According to McCormick , these marketing strategies helped the xx develop enough media presence to garner " over half a million sales around the world without ever having anything as vulgar as a hit " . Kris Chen , XL 's A & R senior vice president , believed the exposure was desired and necessary for promoting an album that was not " driven by pop radio " . Although the band realised their music had to be marketed somehow , Croft expressed reservations about " putting our music on everything , just to put it to anything just for the sake of money " .
= = Release and reception = =
xx was released by Young Turks in August 2009 to widespread critical acclaim . According to Alexis Petridis , it was the most acclaimed album of the year , and at Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications , it received an average score of 87 , based on 25 reviews . Critics particularly praised the group 's sound on the album ; Simon Price wrote in The Independent that they were being universally lauded for their " atmospheric indie rock , and rightly so " . In a review for The New Yorker , Sasha Frere @-@ Jones remarked that xx rewarded repeated listens because of the band 's disciplined playing , while Mark Edwards of The Sunday Times said it succeeded with simple but " very near perfect " pop songs . AllMusic 's Heather Phares called the instrumentation impeccable and said she was impressed by how poised and refined such a young group sounded . Matthew Cole from Slant Magazine believed Croft and Sim 's rapport gave an emotional weight to the music , which he said sounded timeless and capable of appealing to both indie and popular tastes . Christgau , writing in MSN Music , was somewhat more impressed by the music than by the lyrics , although he said the underlying force behind Croft and Sim 's charmingly minimalist songs was a " spiritual dimension " offered by their ability to " shift roles without ever seeming hostile , cold or even unsupportive " . Daily Telegraph critic Jack Arnhold considered it " one of this year 's most beautiful and original debut albums " .
In a less enthusiastic review , Jon Caramanica of The New York Times felt the singers were too disengaged and reticent to reveal any genuine emotion . " Though they 're singing to each other , it rarely feels intimate " , he wrote , " more like two shy teenagers , eyes cast downward , awkwardly talking to the ground " . In the opinion of PopMatters critic Ben Schumer , the consistent structures and tempos of the songs made them sound somewhat monotonous on what was an otherwise affecting nocturnal mood piece . Conversely , Joshua Errett from Now found the music and singing mesmerizing but lamented the lyrics , which he deemed emotionally immature and " overwrought " .
By the end of 2009 , xx had appeared on several critics ' lists of the year 's best albums . It was ranked second by NME , sixth by Uncut , third by Pitchfork , ninth by Rolling Stone , and fourth by Chicago Tribune critic Greg Kot . The Guardian named it the year 's best record in their annual critics poll and Tim Jonze , the newspaper 's editor , hailed it as not only " the sound of 2009 , [ but also ] a distinctive musical statement of the like we may never get to hear again " . It also finished seventh in The Village Voice 's Pazz & Jop poll of American critics and third in HMV 's Poll of Polls , an annual list compiled by British music retailer HMV and collated from best @-@ album nominations made by journalists in the English and Irish music press . In decade @-@ end lists of the greatest records from the 2000s , The Times and its sister paper The Sunday Times ranked xx thirtieth and seventy @-@ seventh , respectively . In September 2010 , it won the Mercury Prize , an annual award given to the best album from the UK and Ireland . Before the nominations shortlist had been announced , bookmakers and critics considered the xx as favorites and predicted they would win over the more high @-@ profile artists Corinne Bailey Rae , Paul Weller , and Dizzee Rascal . McCormick , one of the critics who predicted its victory , explained that it " seemed the record that most represented Britain " with its charmingly intimate style and unique take on modern pop tastes .
xx was not an immediate chart success , but eventually became a sleeper hit . It debuted at number 36 on the UK 's Official Albums Chart and sold 4 @,@ 180 copies in the first week after it was released , while in the United States it did not chart higher than number 92 on the Billboard 200 . The album sold steadily for the next 44 weeks until July 2010 , when its announcement as a Mercury | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
of Greek Macedonia . On 29 May , Venizelos proposed to Sir Francis Elliot ( senior British diplomat in Athens ) and Jean Guillemin ( senior French diplomat in Athens ) that he and General Panagiotis Danglis should establish a provisional government in Thessaloniki to mobilize the Greek army to repel the Bulgarians . Venizelos pledged that the army would not move against the king and the royal family . According to Elliot 's report , Venizelos hoped that the " success of his action and pressure of the public opinion might at the last moment convert His Majesty " . The proposal had French support . However it met with strong opposition from Britain , forcing Venizelos to abandon the plan .
On 9 June the Allies held a conference in London to examine the reasons behind the quick surrender of Fort Rupel and favored a complete demobilization of the Greek army and navy . King Constantine anticipated the results of the conference and ordered a partial demobilization on 8 June . The tension between the royal government and the Allies continued since ' anti @-@ Allied activities ' in Athens were ignored by the Greek Government . On 12 – 13 June , a mob destroyed Venizelist newspapers : Nea Ellas , Patris , Ethnos , and Estia . The mob proceeded to the British Embassy as police idly stood by without interfering . This incident gave France the political ammunition to persuade Britain that more extreme measures were needed . On 17 June , the London conference decided " that it was absolutely necessary to do something to bring the king of Greece and his Government to their senses " .
= = = Military coup of Thessaloniki = = =
On 27 August 1916 , during a demonstration in Athens , Venizelos explained his disagreements with the king 's policies . Venizelos said that the king became a victim of his advisers , whose aims were to destroy the goals of the Goudi revolution . Additionally , Venizelos appealed to the king to pursue a policy of benevolence and true neutrality . Venizelos ended his speech by stating that " if this proposal does not lead to success then there are other means to protect the country from complete catastrophe " . The king refused to accept any compromise including meeting with a committee sent by Venizelos .
Two days later , army officers loyal to Venizelos organized a military coup in Thessaloniki and proclaimed the " Provisional Government of National Defence " . Despite the support of the army , the provisional government was not officially recognized by Venizelos nor the Allied powers . Venizelos criticized this course of action , noting that without the support of the Allied army , the movement would fail immediately . This further polarized the population between the royalists ( also known as anti @-@ Venizelists ) , and Venizelists . The newly founded separate " provisional state " included Northern Greece , Crete and the Aegean Islands . The " New Lands " , won during the Balkan Wars , broadly supported Venizelos , while the " Old Greece " was mostly pro @-@ royalist . Venizelos , Admiral Pavlos Kountouriotis and General Panagiotis Danglis formed a triumvirate provisional government and on 9 October moved to Thessaloniki to assume command of the National Defense . They directed Greek participation in the Allied war effort in direct conflict with the royal wishes in Athens . According to a British diplomat :
From the very beginnings , Venizelos continued his appeals to the king to join forces to jointly liberate Macedonia . Venizelos wrote :
Venizelos ' moderation did not convince many citizens , even among his own followers . It was only after the end of 1916 and the " Noemvriana " that he pushed for a radical solution to end the stalemate .
= = Constantine – Bénazet agreement = =
After the creation of the provisional government in Thessaloniki , negotiations between the Allies and king intensified . The Allies wanted further demobilization of the Greek army and the removal of military forces from Thessaly to insure the safety of their troops in Macedonia . The king wanted assurances that the Allies would not officially recognize or support Venizelos ' provisional government and guarantees that Greece 's integrity and neutrality would be respected . After several unproductive negotiations , on 23 October the king suddenly agreed to some of the demands required by the Allies including the removal of the Greek army from Thessaly . The king also volunteered war materiel and the Greek navy to assist them . In exchange , the king requested French Deputy Paul Bénazet to keep this agreement secret from the Central Powers .
On 3 November , Vice @-@ admiral du Fournet , commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the allied Mediterrean fleet , used the sinking of two Greek merchant ships by a German submarine , as well as the secret agreement , to demand the surrender of the docked Greek war ships and took command of the Salamis naval arsenal . The Greek government yielded , and on 7 November , the partial disarmament of Greek warships began . The Allies towed away 30 lighter craft . Three weeks later the French took over the Salamis naval base completely , and began using Greek ships operated by French crews .
The Constantine – Bénazet agreement was short @-@ lived due to Venizelos ' military plans as well as pressure exerted by the military in Athens , led by the king , regarding the forced Greek disarmament . Venizelos ' action at Katerini met with some disapproval among the Allied circles and among his own associates in Athens . Answering these criticisms Venizelos wrote to A. Diamandidis :
The Venizelist advance was not an attempt to undermine the king 's pact with Bénazet , since it had been planned long before that . The failure of the secret agreement was caused by subversive activities within segments of the royalist government in Athens to paralyze and disrupt the Thessaloniki provisional government .
= = Last diplomatic efforts before the events = =
The seizure of Greek ships by the Allies , the Katerini incident and the Franco @-@ British violations of Greece 's territorial integrity offended the national honor of a segment of " Old Greece " and increased the king 's popularity . The king refused to honor his secret agreement with Bénazet and soldiers who requested to fight against the Bulgarian occupation were charged with " desertion to the rebels " . A growing movement amongst the low rank officers within the army , led by Ioannis Metaxas and Sofoklis Dousmanis , were determined to oppose disarmament and any assistance to the Allies .
Diplomacy failed despite continuing pressure applied by the Allies against Athens . On 24 November , du Fournet presented a 7 @-@ day ultimatum demanding the immediate surrender of at least ten Greek mountain artillery batteries . Du Fournet was instructed not to use force to take possession of the batteries . The admiral made a last effort to persuade the king to accept France 's demands . He advised the king that he would land an Allied contingent , and occupy certain positions in Athens until all the demands were accepted by Greece . The king said that the citizens of Greece , as well as the army , were against disarmament , and only promised that the Greek forces would not attack the Allies .
Despite the gravity of the situation , both the royalist government and the Allies made no serious effort to reach a diplomatic solution . On 29 November , the royalist government rejected the proposal of the Allies and armed resistance was organized . By 30 November military units and royalist militia ( the epistratoi , " reservists " ) from surrounding areas had been recalled and gathered in and around Athens ( in total over 20 @,@ 000 men ) and occupied strategic positions , with orders not to fire unless fired upon . The Allied commanders failed in their assessment of the situation , disregarding Greek national pride and determination , causing them to conclude that the Greeks were bluffing . The Allies thought that in the face of a superior force , Greeks would " bring the cannons on a plater " ( surrender ) ; a viewpoint that Du Fournet also shared .
= = = The battle of Athens : 1916 = = =
On early morning of 1 December [ O.S. 18 November ] 1916 the Allies landed a 3 @,@ 000 @-@ strong marine force in Piraeus , and headed towards Athens . When the Allied troops reached their designated positions , they found them already occupied by Greek troops . For more than two hours both sides stood facing each other . Some time in the morning , an unknown origin rifle shot was fired and the battle of Athens began . Each side blamed the other for firing first . Once the battle spread throughout the city , the king requested a ceasefire proposing a solution and reach a compromise . Du Fournet , with a small contingent of troops was unprepared to encounter organized Greek resistance , and was already short of supplies , so readily accepted the king 's compromise . However , before an agreement was finalized , the battle resumed . The Greek battery from Arditos Hill fired a number of rounds at the entrance of Zappeion where the French admiral had established his headquarters . The Allied squadron from Phaliron responded by bombarding sections of the city , mostly around the Stadium and near the Palace . Discussions soon were resumed and a final compromise was reached . The king compromised to surrender just six artillery batteries camouflaged in the mountains instead of the ten that the Allied Admiral demanded . By late afternoon the battle was finished . The Allies had suffered 194 casualties , dead and wounded , and the Greeks lost 82 , not counting civilians . By early morning of 2 December , all Allied forces had been evacuated .
The role of the Venizelists during the battle has been intensely contested by witnesses and historians . Vice admiral Louis Dartige du Fournet wrote that Venizelists supported the Allies and attacked passing Greek royalist army units . Venizelists participation was allegedly so extensive , that lead Admiral du Fourne wrote in his report that he had been involved in a civil war . The Venizelists continued fighting after the evacuation of the Allied marines until the next day , when they capitulated . The royalists claimed that large caches of weapons and ammunition were found in their strongholds packed in French military containers . Venizelists were led to prison surrounded by a furious mob and supposedly only the royal army escorts saved them from being murdered by the angry citizens . Other historians deny that the Venizelists collaborated with the Allied forces : Pavlos Karolidis , a contemporary royalist historian , argues that no Venizelist attacked their fellow citizens and the only weapons found during the raids on prominent Venizelists ' houses were knives .
= = = The following days = = =
The authorities , with the pretext of the events , claimed that the Venelizelists had staged an insurrection with the support of Allied troops and proceeded with the help of the Reservists to extensive arrests and reprisals against the city 's Venizelists . The entire operation was led by two generals of the army ; troops of the military district of Athens took orders from General K. Kallaris and the soldiers of the active defense were commanded by General A. Papoulas ( later commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Asia Minor expedition ) . The terror and destruction that followed soon went out of hand , making even the respectable conservative newspaper Politiki Epitheorisis ( Greek : Πολιτική Επιθεώρηση , Political Review ) that at the beginning urged Greek " justice " to " smite mercifully the atrocious conspiracy " and to purge all followers of the " archconspirator of Salonika [ Venizelos ] " , in the end to urge " prudence " . During the following three days houses and shops of Venizelists were ransacked and 35 people were murdered . Chester says that most of those who were murdered were refugees from Asia Minor . Many hundreds were imprisoned and kept in solitary confinement . Karolidis characterizes the imprisonment of certain prominent Venizelists , such as Emmanuel Benakis ( mayor of Athens ) , as a disgrace . Some authors argue that Benakis was not only arrested and imprisoned but also disrespected and ill @-@ treated . Seligman describes that they were only released 45 days later after a strong demand contained within the Entente ultimatum , which was accepted on 16 January . Opposing reports also exist , e.g. Abbot asserts that during the evacuation of the Allied forces , many " criminals " and " collaborators " on the payrolls of different Allied spy agencies slipped out of Athens at night after allegedly " terrorizing the city for nearly a year " . Due to his failure Vice @-@ admiral Dartige du Fournet was relieved of his command .
= = Aftermath = =
In Greece , this incident became known as Noemvriana ( November events ) , using the Old Style calendar , and marked the culmination of the National Schism .
= = = Political situation in Greece and Europe = = =
On 2 December [ O.S. 19 November ] 1916 , Britain and France officially recognized Venizelos government as the only lawful government of Greece , effectively splitting the country . On 7 December [ O.S. 24 November ] 1916 , Venizelos ' government officially declared war on the Central Powers . A royal warrant for the arrest of Venizelos was immediately issued and the Archbishop of Athens , pressured by the royal house , anathematised the prime minister .
In France , the presidency of Aristide Briand , a leading proponent of engaging with Constantine to bring about a reconciliation of the two Greek administrations , was threatened by the events in Athens , leading to the reorganization of the French government . In Britain , Prime Minister H. H. Asquith and foreign minister Sir Edward Grey resigned and were replaced by Lloyd George and Arthur Balfour . The change in the British leadership proved to be particularly important for Greece , since Lloyd George was a known Hellenophile , an admirer of Venizelos and dedicated to resolving the Eastern Question .
The fall of the Romanovs in Russia ( who refused the French proposals for Constantine 's removal from the throne ) , caused France and Great Britain to take more drastic measures against King Constantine . In June they decided to invoke their obligation as " protecting powers " to guarantee a constitutional democracy in Greece and demanded the king 's resignation . Constantine accepted and on 15 June 1917 went into exile . His son Alexander , who was considered to have Allies sympathies , became the new King of Greece instead of Constantine 's elder son and crown prince , George . The king 's exile was followed by the deportation of many prominent royalists , especially army officers such as Ioannis Metaxas , to France and Italy .
The course of events paved the way for Venizelos to return to Athens on 29 May 1917 . Greece , now unified , officially joined the war on the side of the Allies . The entire Greek army was mobilized ( though tensions remained inside the army between supporters of the Constantine and supporters of Venizelos ) and began to participate in military operations against the Central Powers on the Macedonian front .
= = = The Macedonian front = = =
By the fall of 1918 , the Greeks , with over 300 @,@ 000 soldiers , were the single largest component of the Allied army on the Macedonian front . The Greek army gave the much needed advantage to the Allies that altered the balance between the two sides on the Macedonian front . On 14 September 1918 , under the command of French General Franchet d 'Esperey , a combined Greek , Serbian , French and British force launched a major offensive against the Bulgarian and German army . After the first serious battle ( see battle of Skra ) the Bulgarian army gave up their defensive positions and began retreating towards their country . On 29 September , the armistice with Bulgaria was signed by the Allied command . The Allied army pushed north and defeated the remaining German and Austrian forces . By October 1918 the Allied armies had recaptured all of Serbia and were preparing to invade Hungary . The offensive was halted because the Hungarian leadership offered to surrender in November 1918 , marking the dissolution of the Austro @-@ Hungarian empire . This ended the First World War since Germany lacked forces to stop the Allies from invading Germany from the south . The participation of the Greek army at the Macedonian front was one of the decisive event of the war , earning Greece a seat at the Paris Peace Conference under Venizelos .
= The Black Parade =
The Black Parade is the third studio album by American rock band My Chemical Romance . Released on October 23 , 2006 through Reprise Records , it was produced by Rob Cavallo , known for having produced multiple albums for Goo Goo Dolls and Green Day . It is a rock opera centering on a dying character with cancer known as " The Patient " . The album tells the story of his apparent death , experiences in the afterlife , and subsequent reflections on his life .
Four singles were released from the album : " Welcome to the Black Parade " , " Famous Last Words " , " I Don 't Love You " , and " Teenagers " . The Black Parade has received generally favorable reviews , and the band achieved its first Number 1 single in the UK with " Welcome to the Black Parade " . The album debuted at number two on both the Billboard 200 and the UK Albums Chart and is also certified as platinum by the RIAA , as well as a Platinum certification in the UK and a Gold certification in Argentina by the CAPIF and in Chile by the IFPI Chile . The Black Parade was given the Platinum Europe Award by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry for 1 million sales in Europe . The limited edition boxed set also earned My Chemical Romance a Grammy Award nomination . In the video game Guitar Hero II ( Xbox 360 version ) , the song " Dead ! " was added to the game 's track list prior to the earlier PS2 version , and the three songs " Teenagers , " " Famous Last Words " and " This Is How I Disappear " are available for download . The Black Parade has sold 1 @,@ 610 @,@ 000 copies in the US as of October 2010 , and has sold 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 copies worldwide .
= = Musical and lyrical themes = =
The Black Parade is a rock opera centering around the character of " The Patient " . It is about his passage out of life and the memories he has of his life . " The Patient " dies and death comes for him in the form of a parade . This is based upon Gerard Way 's notion of death appearing to a person in the form of their fondest memory , in this case seeing a parade as a child .
The album also saw the creation of the alter @-@ ego band , The Black Parade . My Chemical Romance would perform the album live in costume as the Black Parade up until October 7 , 2007 Mexico City performance . On stage , the band would don black marching uniforms similar to those worn by The Beatles for the album Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band ( 1967 ) . The live performance was theatrical , with Gerard Way assuming the character of a member of The Black Parade . Way 's mannerisms were compared to Bob Geldof in his performance of the lead character in the movie adaption of Pink Floyd 's The Wall ( 1979 ) . His performance was also compared to David Bowie 's performance of Ziggy Stardust and Freddie Mercury 's stage presence . There are also similarities to Alice Cooper in his " Welcome to My Nightmare " period . The video for " Welcome to the Black Parade " , directed by Sam Bayer , portrays the events of the entire story , starring all its characters , including Mother War , who is primarily involved in the song " Mama " . Gerard Way has described this video as " The definitive video for the record " and one that " summed up the album . "
The album also has strong influences from 1970s classic rock , glam rock , pop music , punk rock and gothic rock . The album 's style is considered pop punk , and alternative rock .
Lead singer Gerard Way has cited the bands Queen and Pink Floyd as major influences on the album . Similarities have been noted between the guitar orchestration in " Welcome to the Black Parade " , and the arrangements of Queen . Additionally , Pink Floyd 's The Wall and David Bowie 's The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars ( 1972 ) are noted as major influences for the album , which is especially evident when comparing the album 's opening track , " The End . " , to the first tracks on The Wall , " In the Flesh ? " , and on Ziggy Stardust , " Five Years " . Gerard Way has also stated that one of their biggest influences were The Smashing Pumpkins , often giving them credit for their thematic videos .
“ The intention was to make something that was classic , something timeless , ” explained guitarist Ray Toro . “ Something that 20 or 30 years from now , parents could play for their kids and say , “ This is what I was listening to when I was your age . Check it out , it ’ s still fucking cool . ’ We wanted to make a record you could pass down . There ’ s a lot of music out now that doesn ’ t feel like that . ”
Looking back at the creation of the album , guitarist Frank Iero was blasé about criticism the band received for this decidedly “ non @-@ scene ” record . " When we did Three Cheers For Sweet Revenge , we didn 't fit in , " he said . “ There was a little less screaming and a little more melody , but it was still us . Never was it a case of , ' Don 't put that melody there because Hardcore Chuck , who took me to my first show at Fairfield American Legion Hall , is really going to be bummed at me . ' I don ’ t give a shit : If I had to work at McDonald 's for the rest of my life to play shows and ride in a shitty van on tour ? I 've done it . I 'll do it again . "
= = Release = =
The Black Parade debuted at number two in the United States on the Billboard 200 behind Hannah Montana ( 2006 ) .It also debuted at number two on the UK Albums Chart , behind Robbie Williams ' Rudebox ( 2006 ) . In its first week , the album sold 240 @,@ 000 copies , far surpassing the 38 @,@ 000 best @-@ week sales of the band 's previous album , Three Cheers for Sweet Revenge ( 2004 ) . The album debuted at number three on the Australian ARIA Albums Chart and was certified platinum after shipping more than 70 @,@ 000 copies . It debuted atop the charts in New Zealand and was certified platinum there , with shipments of more than 15 @,@ 000 . In 2012 , The Black Parade was certified Platinum by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) for 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 sales in Europe . The Black Parade has also been certified platinum by the RIAA for selling over 1 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 copies . It has been certified 2x Platinum in the UK , and has sold just over 600 @,@ 000 units there to date . As of August 25 , 2007 , the album has sold 1 @,@ 169 @,@ 697 copies in the U.S. " Welcome to the Black Parade " , a single from " The Black Parade " became My Chemical Romance 's first and only top 10 single in the United States .
= = Reception = =
At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 79 , based on 24 professional critic reviews , which indicates " generally favorable reviews " . Dan Martin from NME compared the album to Green Day 's American Idiot , positing that " it 's a piece of work that will challenge every preconception you ever had about the people who made it . " Tim Karan of Alternative Press called The Black Parade " MCR 's whole raison d 'etre rolled up into one mega @-@ decibel calling card " . Ed Thompson of IGN stated , " The Black Parade is a rock and roll gem that celebrates everything that was over the top about the 1970s rock scene . " David Fricke of Rolling Stone praised the classic rock feel of the album . Rolling Stone went on to rank The Black Parade # 20 in its " Top 50 Albums of 2006 " feature . Spin magazine named it the 5th best album of 2006 . Entertainment Weekly stated that " On their third studio album , a musical H @-@ bomb of an effort , the Jersey quintet combine the rock @-@ opera pomp of Queen with the darker , dirtier tones of their screamo past : Call it a Bro @-@ hemian Rhapsody . Even without its broad concept — a dying cancer patient seeks revenge and redemption — Parade stands as one of the most cohesive , engaging rock records of 2006 . " The Black Parade was ranked the third best record of the year , being surpassed only by Gnarls Barkley and TV on the Radio . Wizard Magazine praised the album in their " Best of 2006 " issue , declaring it " an instant classic . " IGN named it one of the best rock albums of the last decade . Robert Christgau gave the album a two @-@ star honorable mention ( ) and said , " In prog , a good sense of humor means so much . "
The album was not without its share of criticism , and was panned by such publications as The Observer and Aversion . Stated Jamie Hodgson of The Observer , " ... it reeks of a band with ideas above its station . " Matt Schild of Aversion originally refused to review the album , simply writing the word " lame " in lieu of an actual review . Bowing to editorial pressure , he later posted a review listing specific aspects of the album before denouncing them as " lame " . Theon Weber of Stylus praised the album 's use of Queen influences , but went on to summarize the album as " ... a goofy record of bubblegum punk , with Queen lapping at its edges and enough good tracks to justify the smattering of empty screamfests . " The album was included in Rock Sound 's 101 Modern Classics list at number 9 .
= = Versions = =
Several special editions of The Black Parade were released . One bears white text on a black background , and the second has black text on a white background . A third version has the normal booklet reversed , showing the picture of the parade drawn and painted by comic artist James Jean . Inside the booklet there are also lyrics , a photo of the band , and characters from the album .
A limited edition of the album was released the same time as the original release . It contains the same track listing as the original release but it is sold in a box wrapped in black velveteen material . It also contains a 64 @-@ page book which includes concept art by Gerard Way and making of the album notes by the band .
The version of The Black Parade that was released in Japan contains different content than the other regular editions . It contains 14 tracks , but the 14th track is the song " Heaven Help Us " ( which was released with the single version of " Welcome to the Black Parade " ) , instead of the song " Blood " . The Japanese version is also an Enhanced CD and includes the music video of " Welcome to the Black Parade " .
On December 11 , 2007 , The Black Parade was released as a vinyl LP , a first for the band . Two versions were released , the regular edition and the special edition . Both editions contain two records . The first record of both editions has tracks one to four on the A @-@ side and five to seven the B @-@ side . The second record has tracks eight to ten on the A @-@ side and 11 to 13 on the B @-@ side . The special edition includes the hidden track , " Blood , " while the regular edition does not . The special edition comes in a slip @-@ case box with two 15 @-@ page books . 2 @,@ 500 copies were made of the special edition , while 3 @,@ 000 copies of the regular vinyl edition were made . On February 10 , 2015 , the album was repressed on vinyl as a 2 @-@ LP set . The D side of the album includes an engraved picture of the cover of artwork .
= = Tour = =
My Chemical Romance began The Black Parade World Tour on February 22 , 2007 in Manchester , New Hampshire 's Verizon Wireless Arena . The tour featured 138 performances worldwide , as well as several festival and condensed shows . The tour is the longest and most internationally comprehensive headlining tour that the band has played to date , featuring three legs in North America , two legs in Europe , and one in Asia , Australia , and Latin America . The shows at the Palacio de los Deportes in Mexico City , Mexico on October 7 , 2007 and Maxwell 's in Hoboken , New Jersey on October 24 , 2007 were filmed for the DVD , The Black Parade Is Dead ! , which was released on July 1 , 2008 .
During the tour there were several cancellations and some members left the tour for personal or medical reasons . On January 11 , 2007 Frank Iero left the tour because of an unspecified illness . He was replaced by Drive By guitarist Todd Price . Mikey Way took time off to get married and spend time with his new wife ( Alicia Simmons ) and was replaced by guitar tech , Matt Cortez , from April 18 , 2007 until October 4 , 2007 . Six shows were cancelled from April 29 , 2007 to May 4 , 2007 after the band and crew contracted food poisoning . Bob Bryar suffered injuries relating to his wrists during the tour which led to the cancellation of the show at the University of Maine on October 27 , 2007 . Bryar left the tour on November 9 , 2007 and was replaced by a friend of the band , Pete , who wished to remain anonymous . Following the November 11 , 2007 show in Newcastle , Frank Iero left the tour to return home after learning about a family member 's illness . He was replaced by Matt Cortez .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by My Chemical Romance .
" The End . " – 1 : 52
" Dead ! " – 3 : 15
" This Is How I Disappear " – 3 : 59
" The Sharpest Lives " – 3 : 20
" Welcome to the Black Parade " – 5 : 11
" I Don 't Love You " – 3 : 58
" House of Wolves " – 3 : 04
" Cancer " – 2 : 22
" Mama " – 4 : 39
" Sleep " – 4 : 43
" Teenagers " – 2 : 41
" Disenchanted " – 4 : 55
" Famous Last Words " – 4 : 59
Bonus tracks
B @-@ sides
= = Release history = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Charts = = =
= = = Certifications = = =
= = Personnel = =
= IPad ( 4th generation ) =
The fourth @-@ generation iPad ( marketed as iPad with Retina display , colloquially referred to as the iPad 4 ) is a tablet computer produced and marketed by Apple Inc . Compared to its predecessor , the fourth @-@ generation iPad maintained the Retina Display but featured new and upgraded components such as the Apple A6X chip , and the Lightning connector , which was introduced on September 12 , 2012 . It shipped with iOS 6 @.@ 0 , which provides a platform for audio @-@ visual media , including electronic books , periodicals , films , music , computer games , presentations and web content . It has supported 5 major iOS releases , they are iOS 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , and 10 . This being the third iPad to support 5 major iOS versions , after the iPad ( 3rd generation ) and the iPad 2 .
It was announced at a media conference on October 23 , 2012 as the fourth generation of the iPad line , succeeding the third @-@ generation iPad , and was first released on November 2 , 2012 in thirty @-@ five countries . The device was released throughout December in ten other countries including China , India and Brazil . The third generation was discontinued following the fourth 's announcement , after only seven months of general availability .
The device is available with either a black or white front glass panel and various connectivity and storage options . Storage size options include 16 GB , 32 GB , 64 GB , and 128 GB ; the available connectivity options are Wi @-@ Fi only and Wi @-@ Fi + Cellular with LTE capabilities .
The fourth @-@ generation iPad received primarily positive reviews and was praised for its hardware improvements as well as the Retina display , which was also featured in the device 's predecessor . Furthermore , benchmarks reveal that the fourth @-@ generation iPad is able to perform CPU @-@ reliant tasks twice as fast as its predecessor . During the first weekend of sales , an aggregated amount of three million fourth @-@ generation iPads and iPad Minis were sold .
= = History = =
Rumors regarding the next @-@ generation iPad emerged shortly after the release of the third @-@ generation iPad . At that point some speculated that the next iPad released would be of a smaller size . Further speculations emerged in July 2012 when DigiTimes , with the help of unspecified sources , claimed that Apple made small revisions to the then upcoming iPad and scheduled its release for late 2012 . On October 16 , 2012 , Apple announced a media event scheduled for October 23 at the California Theatre in San Jose , California . The company did not pre @-@ disclose the subject of the event , but it was widely expected to be regarding the iPad Mini . Photographic images of the device 's dock connector and front camera emerged shortly before the media event .
At the media event , Apple CEO Tim Cook introduced a new version of iBooks and new generations of the MacBook Pro , Mac Mini , and the iMac before unveiling the fourth @-@ generation iPad and the iPad Mini . During the unveiling , Apple stated that the fourth @-@ generation iPad would be available to pre @-@ order online in a selected number of countries starting October 26 . On November 2 , Apple released the Wi @-@ Fi model of device in thirty @-@ five countries across Europe , East Asia and North America . The cellular model was released in @-@ store a few weeks after the initial release of the device .
The release of the fourth @-@ generation iPad led to the discontinuation of its predecessor , which angered many third @-@ generation iPad users . In response , Apple extended its 14 @-@ day return policy to 30 days . ITProPortal noted that , since the price of both models is identical , consumers that purchased the third @-@ generation iPad within this time frame were effectively allowed to exchange their discontinued device for the fourth @-@ generation model .
On January 29 , 2013 , Apple announced and scheduled the launch of the 128 GB variant of 4th generation iPad . It was released on February 5 , 2013 .
Following the announcement of the iPad Air on October 22 , 2013 , sales of the fourth @-@ generation iPad was discontinued . The fourth @-@ generation iPad was reintroduced on March 18 , 2014 , following the discontinuation of the iPad 2 . In order to make its reintroduction a low @-@ end device to the iPad Air , its price was cut by 20 % over its original launch price . On October 16 , 2014 the fourth @-@ generation iPad was discontinued in favor of the iPad Air 2 and iPad Mini 3 . The iPad Air takes its place as the entry @-@ level iPad .
= = Features = =
= = = Software = = =
The fourth @-@ generation iPad is shipped with iOS 6 @.@ 0 . It can act as a hotspot with some carriers , sharing its Internet connection over Wi @-@ Fi , Bluetooth , or USB , and also access the Apple App Store , a digital application distribution platform for iOS . The service allows users to browse and download applications from the iTunes Store that were developed with Xcode and the iOS SDK and were published through Apple . From the App Store , GarageBand , iMovie , iPhoto , and the iWork apps ( Pages , Keynote , and Numbers ) are available .
The iPad comes with several pre @-@ installed applications , including Siri , Safari , Mail , Photos , Video , Music , iTunes , App Store , Maps , Notes , Calendar , Game Center , Photo Booth , and Contacts . Like all iOS devices , the iPad can sync content and other data with a Mac or PC using iTunes , although iOS 5 and later can be managed and backed up without a computer . Although the tablet is not designed to make phone calls over a cellular network , users can use a headset or the built @-@ in speaker and microphone to place phone calls over Wi @-@ Fi or cellular using a VoIP application , such as Skype . The device has a dictation application , using the same voice recognition technology as the iPhone 4S . The user speaks and the iPad types what they say on the screen , though the iPad must have an internet connection available ( via Wi @-@ Fi or cellular network ) due to the feature 's reliance on Apple servers to translate the speech .
The fourth @-@ generation iPad has an optional iBooks application , which displays books and other ePub @-@ format content downloaded from the iBookstore . Several major book publishers including Penguin Books , HarperCollins , Simon & Schuster , and Macmillan have committed to publishing books for the device . Despite being a direct competitor to both the Amazon Kindle and Barnes & Noble Nook , both Amazon.com and Barnes & Noble offer e @-@ reader apps for the iPad .
It was announced at the Apple WWDC 2015 that the 4th generation iPad ( along with various other iOS devices ) will support iOS 9 .
It was announced at the Apple WWDC 2016 that the 4th generation iPad ( along with various other iOS devices ) will support iOS 10 , which is the latest version of iOS , while dropping support to its immediate predecessor the 3rd generation iPad .
= = = Hardware = = =
The device has an Apple A6X SoC which comprises a 32 @-@ bit Apple Swift dual @-@ core CPU running at 1 @.@ 4 GHz and a quad @-@ core PowerVR SGX554MP4 GPU , 1 GB of RAM . It also features a 5 @-@ megapixel , rear @-@ facing camera capable of 1080p video recording ; and a 720p HD front @-@ facing videophone camera designed for FaceTime . The device features a 9 @.@ 7 " ( diagonal ) display with a resolution of 2 @,@ 048 by 1 @,@ 536 ( QXGA ) resulting in 3 @.@ 1 million pixels , this gives the display a pixel density of 264 ppi . The total number of pixels used in the display of the fourth @-@ generation iPad is four times that of the iPad 2 – providing even scaling from the prior model .
As with all previous generations of iPhone and iPad hardware , there are four buttons and one switch on the fourth @-@ generation iPad . With the device in its portrait orientation , these are : a " home " button on the face of the device under the display that returns the user to the home screen , a wake / sleep button on the top edge of the device , and two buttons on the upper right side of the device performing volume up / down functions , under which is a switch whose function varies according to device settings , generally functioning either to switch the device into or out of silent mode or to lock / unlock the orientation of the screen . Externally , the fourth @-@ generation iPad is identical to its predecessor apart from the differences between dock connectors used and change of manufacturers that produce the display . In addition , the Wi @-@ Fi only version weighs 652 grams while the cellular model weighs 662 grams – 2 grams heavier than their respective predecessors . The display responds to other sensors : an ambient light sensor to adjust screen brightness and a 3 @-@ axis accelerometer to sense orientation and switch between portrait and landscape modes . Unlike the iPhone and iPod Touch 's built @-@ in applications , which work in three orientations ( portrait , landscape @-@ left and landscape @-@ right ) , the iPad 's built @-@ in applications support screen rotation in all four orientations , including upside @-@ down . Consequently , the device has no intrinsic " native " orientation ; only the relative position of the home button changes .
The tablet is manufactured either with or without the capability to communicate over a cellular network . All models can connect to a wireless LAN via Wi @-@ Fi . The fourth @-@ generation iPad is available with 16 , 32 , 64 or 128 GB of internal flash memory , with no expansion option . Apple sells a " camera connection kit " with an SD card reader , but it can only be used to transfer photos and videos .
The audio playback of the fourth @-@ generation iPad has a frequency response of 20 Hz to 20 @,@ 000 Hz . Without third @-@ party software it can play the following audio formats : HE @-@ AAC , AAC , Protected AAC , MP3 , MP3 VBR , Audible formats ( 2 , 3 , 4 , AEA , AAX , and AAX + ) , ALAC , AIFF , and WAV .
This iPad uses an internal rechargeable lithium @-@ ion polymer ( LiPo ) battery that can hold a charge of 11 @,@ 560 mAh . The batteries are made in Taiwan by Simplo Technology ( 60 % ) and Dynapack International Technology ( 40 % ) . The iPad is designed to be charged with a relatively high current of 2 amps using the included 12 W USB power adapter and Lightning connector . While it can be charged by an older USB port from a computer , these are limited to 500 milliamps ( 0 @.@ 5 amps ) . As a result , if the iPad is in use while powered by a computer , it may charge very slowly , or not at all . High @-@ power USB ports found in newer computers and accessories provide full charging capabilities . Apple claims that the battery can provide up to 10 hours of video , audio playback , or web surfing on Wi @-@ Fi , 9 hours of web surfing over a cellular connection , or one month on standby . Like any rechargeable battery , the iPad 's battery loses capacity over time . However , the iPad 's battery is not user @-@ replaceable . In a program similar to iPod and iPhone battery @-@ replacement programs , Apple promised to replace an iPad that does not hold an electrical charge with a refurbished unit for a fee . During the battery replacement process , user data is not preserved / transferred , and repaired or refurbished units come with a new case . The warranty on the refurbished unit may vary between jurisdictions .
= = = Accessories = = =
The Smart Cover , introduced with the iPad 2 , is a screen protector that magnetically attaches to the face of the iPad . The cover has three folds which allow it to convert into a stand , which is also held together by magnets . The Smart Cover can also assume other positions by folding it . Smart Covers have a microfiber bottom that cleans the front of the iPad , and wakes up the unit when the cover is removed . It comes in five colors of both polyurethane and the more expensive leather .
Apple offers several other accessories , most of which are adapters for the proprietary Lightning connector , the only port besides the headphone jack . A dock holds the iPad at an angle , and has a dock connector and audio line @-@ out port . The iPad can use Bluetooth keyboards that also work with Macs and PCs . The iPad can be charged by a standalone power adapter ( " wall charger " ) compatible with iPods and iPhones , and a 12 watt charger is included .
= = Reception = =
The fourth @-@ generation iPad received primarily favorable reviews from critics and commentators . The review by Gareth Beavis of TechRadar praised the device for its high resolution Retina Display , which TechRadar wrote is " ... one of the most impressive we 've seen on a tablet to date . " However , the reviewer also wrote that the screen " lacks the ' punch ' seen in Super AMOLED screens seen on devices like the Samsung Galaxy Note 2 . " The review also praised the interface of the iPad for its simple design and easy to use layout . Additionally , other aspects , such as the design of the iPad and updated SoC were noted and praised in the review . Critically , Beavis noted that the iPad can still moderately heat up under medium usage , however not to the extent seen in the third @-@ generation iPad . Tim Stevens of Engadget praised the Retina Display and labelled it as the best screen available on tablets . Benchmarks and tests conducted by Engadget resulted in Stevens concluding that the fourth @-@ generation iPad is the fastest Apple mobile device available , surpassing a " record " that the iPhone 5 held for a brief period .
Benchmark tests conducted by SlashGear concluded that the SoC of the fourth @-@ generation iPad is able to perform CPU @-@ reliant tasks more than twice as fast as that of the third @-@ generation iPad . A series of benchmark tests conducted on the graphics performance of the fourth @-@ generation iPad by Anandtech resulted in the device achieving the highest score compared to other consumer mobile devices , including the Samsung Galaxy S III , Nexus 10 and third @-@ generation iPad . The performance increase of the fourth @-@ generation iPad varies between tests , however an increase is nonetheless evident . Furthermore , battery longevity tests conducted by the same organization suggests that the battery of the fourth @-@ generation iPad is able to last longer than its predecessor . However , the battery of the updated iPad 2 is able to outlast the fourth @-@ generation iPad .
= = = Commercial Reception = = =
In the first weekend of sales of the iPad Mini and fourth @-@ generation iPad , Apple reported that it sold an aggregated number of 3 million units . TechRadar noted that the first weekend sales figures for the fourth @-@ generation iPad are lower than corresponding figures for the third @-@ generation iPad , which sold 3 million units in its first weekend . Subsequent reports and analysis such as that from David Hsieh , a technology analyst , suggest that the iPad mini is selling better than the fourth @-@ generation iPad . Despite the noted slump in sales , Apple 's stock price , in direct response to the figures released , rose by 1 @.@ 4 % to $ 584 @.@ 62 on November 5 .
= = = Criticism = = =
In a repairability review conducted by iFixit , the fourth @-@ generation iPad scored 2 out of 10 ( 10 being the easiest to repair ) due to the use of adhesive to attach components . However , reviewers noted that several components such as the screen and battery could be removed easily for replacement .
= Music of Final Fantasy VI =
The music of the video game Final Fantasy VI was composed by regular series composer Nobuo Uematsu . The Final Fantasy VI Original Sound Version , a compilation of all the music in the game , was released in Japan by NTT Publishing in 1994 and re @-@ released by Square Enix in 2004 . The album was released by Square Co . / NTT Publishing in North America in 1994 under the name Kefka 's Domain . Selected tracks from the official soundtrack were later released as part of the Music From FFV and FFVI Video Games album that was included with the release of Final Fantasy Anthology , and two EPs were produced containing character theme tracks entitled Final Fantasy VI Stars Vol . 1 and Vol . 2 . A special orchestral arrangement of selected tracks from the game , arranged by Shiro Sagisu and Tsuneyoshi Saito , and performed by the Milan Symphony Orchestra , was released under the title Final Fantasy VI Grand Finale by NTT Publishing in 1994 and 2004 , and a collection of piano arrangements , arranged by Shirou Satou and performed by Reiko Nomura , was released under the title Piano Collections Final Fantasy VI by Square / NTT Publishing in 1994 and by NTT Publishing in 2001 . Additionally , a single containing unused and remixed tracks from the game was released as Final Fantasy VI Special Tracks by NTT Publishing in 1994 .
The music received very positive reviews , with reviewers finding it to be one of the best video game music soundtracks ever composed . Several pieces , particularly " Terra 's Theme " and " Aria di Mezzo Carattere " , remain popular today , and have been performed numerous times in orchestral concert series such as the Dear Friends : Music from Final Fantasy concert series , the Distant Worlds : Music from Final Fantasy series , and the Orchestral Game Concert series . Music from the soundtrack has also been published in arranged albums and compilations by Square Enix as well as outside groups .
= = Final Fantasy VI Original Sound Version = =
Final Fantasy VI Original Soundtrack is a soundtrack album containing musical tracks from the game , composed and produced by Nobuo Uematsu . The album was originally released through NTT Publishing on March 25 , 1994 under the name Final Fantasy VI Original Sound Version and the catalog numbers PSCN @-@ 5001 ~ 3 , and was later re @-@ released by Square Enix on October 1 , 2004 with the new name and catalog numbers NTCP @-@ 5001 ~ 3 . The soundtrack spans three discs and has a combined duration of 3 : 07 : 21 . The soundtrack was also officially released in the United States by Square / NTT Publishing under the name of Kefka 's Domain on July 1 , 1994 . This version of the album is the same as its Japanese counterpart , except for different packaging and small differences in the translation of some track names between the album and newer releases . The album has a catalog number of SQ108 .
Ten tracks from the soundtrack , comprising all of the character themes for the required characters of the game , were released in a pair of EPs entitled Final Fantasy VI Stars Vol . 1 and Vol . 2 . The CDs were released in 1994 by NTT Publishing with durations of 13 : 04 and 11 : 54 and catalog numbers of N09D @-@ 023 and NO9D @-@ 024 , respectively . Additionally , thirteen tracks from the soundtrack were included in a bonus CD titled Music From FFV and FFVI Video Games that shipped with Final Fantasy Anthology on October 5 , 1999 . The soundtrack was again released as part of the Final Fantasy Finest Box by Square Enix on March 28 , 2007 under the catalog numbers FFFB @-@ 0004 @-@ 6 along with the OSTs of Final Fantasy IV and Final Fantasy V after the game was ported to the Game Boy Advance .
Final Fantasy VI Original Sound Version sold 175 @,@ 000 copies as of January 2010 . The album was very well received by critics . Ben Schweitzer of RPGFan claimed that " almost every track here is truly a very good , or even a great composition . " Issac Engelhorn of Soundtrack Central agreed , claiming it to be the best video soundtrack ever , a sentiment Jon Turner and Nick Melton of Soundtrack Central agreed with . Patrick Gann of RPGFan claimed that the " Dancing Mad " track contained some of the " most astounding music ever created on a keyboard " and highly recommended the soundtrack .
A new edition of the soundtrack , Final Fantasy VI Original Soundtrack Remaster Version , was released by Square Enix on September 3 , 2013 . This version is similar in length to the original soundtrack release . Despite the name , the album features the original Super NES version of the music , rather than a more modern synthesizer sound . The album has the catalog number SQEX @-@ 10387 ~ 9 , and its 61 tracks have a duration of 3 : 07 : 47 . Andrew Barker of RPGFan stated that the differences between the original release and this version were " minor and barely noticeable " , but that all of the praises for the original music still held true .
Track listing
= = Final Fantasy VI Grand Finale = =
Final Fantasy VI Grand Finale is a collection of orchestral arrangements of Final Fantasy VI music composed by Nobuo Uematsu and arranged by Shiro Sagisu and Tsuneyoshi Saito . It was initially released through NTT Publishing on May 25 , 1994 under the catalog number PSCN @-@ 5004 and subsequently re @-@ released on October 1 , 2004 under the catalog number NTCP @-@ 5004 . The arrangements are performed by the Milan Symphony Orchestra , with vocal performances by Svetla Krasteva . The album spans 11 tracks and covers a duration of 54 : 33 .
Final Fantasy VI Grand Finale was well received by critics , though not as well as the other albums of music from the game . Daniel Space of RPGFan found that , while he was pleased with the album as a whole , there were issues with the track selections and arrangement quality that detracted from the album . Adam Corn of Soundtrack Central found that , while not without flaws , the album was " interesting and entertaining " . Patrick Gann concurred , saying that while there are a few minor arrangement issues , the overall quality of the album is great .
= = Piano Collections Final Fantasy VI = =
Piano Collections Final Fantasy VI is an album of music from Final Fantasy VI composed by Nobuo Uematsu , arranged on piano by Shirou Satou and performed by Reiko Nomura . It was first published by Square and NTT Publishing on June 25 , 1994 with the catalog number PSCN @-@ 5005 . It was subsequently republished by NTT Publishing on July 25 , 2001 under the catalog number NTCP @-@ 1003 . The album spans 13 tracks and covers a duration of 41 : 23 . The original release included a hard @-@ cover piano score with all pieces from the album .
The album was well received , with Daniel Space of RPGFan terming it an " amazing CD " . Sigmund Shen of Soundtrack Central concurred , calling it " an impressive CD " and " a must @-@ have " . Gary King of Soundtrack Central termed it " simply astonishing " and " a CD that really no collector should be without " .
= = Final Fantasy VI Special Tracks = =
Final Fantasy VI Special Tracks is an EP released on April 25 , 1994 , through NTT Publishing with the catalog number PSDN @-@ 6101 . It is composed primarily of unused or remixed tracks for Final Fantasy VI , including exclusive unused vocal track " Approaching Sentiment " , as well as a remixed version of the Final Fantasy IV track " Troian Beauty " . The CD spans six tracks and covers a duration of 20 : 46 .
Final Fantasy VI Special Tracks , while not as widely reviewed as the other Final Fantasy VI albums , was seen as " very neat " by Patrick Gann , who especially liked the " Techno de Chocobo " track .
= = Legacy = =
Uematsu was personally very pleased with the way that the soundtrack for Final Fantasy VI turned out , and has said in interviews that he felt that " with the satisfaction and excitement I felt after finishing that project , I thought I had reached my primary goal , and could quit doing game music with no regrets . " He stated in the liner notes for Piano Collections Final Fantasy VI that he intended the music to be emotionally moving , and entreated the listener not to think about the music , but to feel it . He also feels that the title track for Final Fantasy VI was the most challenging track he has ever made . As for Final Fantasy VI Grand Finale , on the other hand , Uematsu has said that he was " not satisfied with this album at all " , due to the deviation it took from his original visions for the music due to his lack of personal involvement in the arrangements . Although he did not feel that the album was a poor one , saying that if he said nothing no one would ever know of his dissatisfaction , he felt that it was not what he would have created if he had " defend [ ed ] the image of each piece " .
The Black Mages , a band led by Nobuo Uematsu that arranges music from Final Fantasy games into a rock music style , has arranged four pieces from Final Fantasy VI . These are " The Decisive Battle " , " Battle " , and " Dancing Mad " from The Black Mages , published in 2003 , and " Darkness and Starlight " , based on " Aria di Mezzo Carattere " , from The Black Mages III : Darkness and Starlight , published in 2008 . A lyrical version of " Kids Run Through the City " , sung by Risa Ohki , appears on Final Fantasy : Pray , a compilation album produced by Square . Additionally , a lyrical version of " Relm 's Theme " , sung by Risa Ohki and Ikuko Noguchi , appears on Final Fantasy : Love Will Grow .
Uematsu continues to perform certain pieces in his Dear Friends : Music from Final Fantasy concert series . The music of Final Fantasy VI has also appeared in various official concerts and live albums , such as 20020220 Music from Final Fantasy , a live recording of an orchestra performing music from the series including " Terra 's Theme " . In 1994 , " Aria di Mezzo Carattere " was played as " Love Oath , Maria and Draco " by the Tokyo Philharmonic Orchestra for the fourth entry in their Orchestral Game Music Concerts series . Additionally , the aria was also performed by the New Japan Philharmonic Orchestra in the Tour de Japon : Music from Final Fantasy concert series . Independent but officially licensed releases of Final Fantasy VI music have been composed by such groups as Project Majestic Mix , which focuses on arranging video game music . Selections also appear on Japanese remix albums , called dojin music , and on English remixing websites .
= The Smashing Pumpkins =
The Smashing Pumpkins ( or Smashing Pumpkins ) is an American alternative rock band from Chicago , Illinois , formed in 1988 . Formed by frontman Billy Corgan ( lead vocals , guitar ) and James Iha ( guitar ) , the band included D 'arcy Wretzky ( bass guitar ) and Jimmy Chamberlin ( drums ) in its original incarnation . It has undergone many line @-@ up changes over the course of its existence , with the current lineup including Corgan , rhythm guitarist Jeff Schroeder and Chamberlin .
Disavowing the punk rock roots of many of their alt @-@ rock contemporaries , the Pumpkins have a diverse , densely layered , and guitar @-@ heavy sound , containing elements of gothic rock , heavy metal , dream pop , psychedelic rock , progressive rock , shoegazing , and electronica in later recordings . Corgan is the group 's primary songwriter — his grand musical ambitions and cathartic lyrics have shaped the band 's albums and songs , which have been described as " anguished , bruised reports from Billy Corgan 's nightmare @-@ land " .
The Smashing Pumpkins broke into the musical mainstream with their second album , 1993 's Siamese Dream . The group built its audience with extensive touring and their 1995 follow @-@ up , the double album Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness , which debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 album chart . With 20 million albums sold in the United States alone , The Smashing Pumpkins were one of the most commercially successful and critically acclaimed bands of the 1990s . However , internal fighting , drug use , and diminishing record sales led to a 2000 break @-@ up .
In 2006 , Billy Corgan and Jimmy Chamberlin reconvened to record a new Smashing Pumpkins album , Zeitgeist . After touring throughout 2007 and 2008 with a lineup including new guitarist Jeff Schroeder , Chamberlin left the band in early 2009 . Later that year , Corgan began a new recording series entitled Teargarden by Kaleidyscope featuring a rotating lineup of musicians , that has resulted in the albums Oceania ( 2012 ) , Monuments to an Elegy ( 2014 ) , and a forthcoming album . Chamberlin rejoined , originally temporarily , in 2015 for The End Times Tour , but remained a member of the band afterwards . As of 2016 , Corgan , Chamberlin & Schroeder are the sole permanent band members .
= = History = =
= = = Early years : 1988 – 1991 = = =
After the breakup of his gothic rock band The Marked , singer and guitarist Billy Corgan left St. Petersburg , Florida , to return to his native city of Chicago , where he took a job in a record store and formed the idea of a new band to be called " The Smashing Pumpkins " . While working there , he met guitarist James Iha . Adorning themselves with paisley and other psychedelic trappings , the two began writing songs together ( with the aid of a drum machine ) that were heavily influenced by The Cure and New Order . The duo performed live for the first time on July 9 , 1988 at the Polish bar Chicago 21 . This performance included only Corgan on bass and Iha on guitar with a drum machine . Shortly thereafter , Corgan met D 'arcy Wretzky after a show by the Dan Reed Network where they argued the merits of the band . After finding out Wretzky played bass guitar , Corgan recruited her into the lineup and the now @-@ trio played a show at the Avalon Nightclub . After this show , Cabaret Metro owner Joe Shanahan agreed to book the band on the condition that they replace the drum machine with a live drummer .
Jazz drummer Jimmy Chamberlin was recommended by a friend of Corgan 's . Chamberlin knew little of alternative music and immediately changed the sound of the nascent band . As Corgan recalled of the period , " We were completely into the sad @-@ rock , Cure kind of thing . It took about two or three practices before I realized that the power in his playing was something that enabled us to rock harder than we could ever have imagined . " On October 5 , 1988 , the complete band took the stage for the first time at the Cabaret Metro .
In 1989 , The Smashing Pumpkins made their first appearance on record with the compilation album Light Into Dark , which featured several Chicago alternative bands . The group released its first single , " I Am One " , in 1990 on local Chicago label Limited Potential . The single sold out and they released a follow @-@ up , " Tristessa " , on Sub Pop , after which they signed to Caroline Records . The band recorded their 1991 debut studio album Gish with producer Butch Vig at his Smart Studios in Madison , Wisconsin for $ 20 @,@ 000 . In order to gain the consistency he desired , Corgan often played all instruments save drums , which created tension in the band . The music fused heavy metal guitars , psychedelia , and dream pop , garnering them comparisons to Jane 's Addiction . Gish became a minor success , with the single " Rhinoceros " receiving some airplay on modern rock radio . After releasing the Lull EP in October 1991 on Caroline Records , the band formally signed with Virgin Records , which was affiliated with Caroline . The band supported the album with a tour that included opening for bands such as the Red Hot Chili Peppers , Jane 's Addiction , and Guns N ' Roses . During the tour , Iha and Wretzky went through a messy breakup , Chamberlin became addicted to narcotics and alcohol , and Corgan entered a deep depression , writing some songs for the upcoming album in the parking garage where he lived at the time .
= = = Mainstream breakout : 1992 – 1994 = = =
With the breakthrough of alternative rock into the American mainstream due to the popularity of grunge bands such as Nirvana and Pearl Jam , The Smashing Pumpkins were poised for major commercial success . At this time , the Pumpkins were routinely lumped in with the grunge movement , with Corgan protesting , " We 've graduated now from ' the next Jane 's Addiction ' to ' the next Nirvana , ' now we 're ' the next Pearl Jam . ' "
Amid this environment of intense internal pressure for the band to break through to widespread popularity , the band relocated to Marietta , Georgia in late 1992 to begin work on their second album , with Butch Vig returning as producer . The decision to record so far away from their hometown was motivated partly by the band 's desire to avoid friends and distractions during the recording , but largely as a desperate attempt to cut Chamberlin off from his known drug connections . The recording environment for Siamese Dream was quickly marred by discord within the band . As was the case with Gish , Corgan and Vig decided that Corgan should play nearly all of the guitar and bass parts on the album , contributing to an air of resentment . The contemporary music press began to portray Corgan as a tyrant . Corgan 's depression , meanwhile , had deepened to the point where he contemplated suicide , and he compensated by practically living in the studio . Meanwhile , Chamberlin quickly managed to find new connections and was often absent without any contact for days at a time . In all , it took over four months to complete the record , with the budget exceeding $ 250 @,@ 000 .
Despite all the problems in its recording , Siamese Dream debuted at number ten on the Billboard 200 chart , and sold over four million copies in the U.S. alone . Alongside the band 's mounting mainstream recognition , the band 's reputation as careerists among their former peers in the independent music community was worsened . Indie rock band Pavement 's 1994 song " Range Life " directly mocks the band in its lyrics , although Stephen Malkmus , lead singer of Pavement , has stated , " I never dissed their music . I just dissed their status . " Former Hüsker Dü frontman Bob Mould called them " the grunge Monkees " , and fellow Chicago musician / producer Steve Albini wrote a scathing letter in response to an article praising the band , derisively comparing them to REO Speedwagon ( " by , of and for the mainstream " ) and concluding their ultimate insignificance . The opening track and lead single of Siamese Dream , " Cherub Rock " , directly addresses Corgan 's feud with the " indie @-@ world " .
In 1994 , Virgin released the B @-@ sides / rarities compilation Pisces Iscariot which charted higher than Siamese Dream by reaching number four on the Billboard 200 . Also released was a VHS cassette titled Vieuphoria featuring a mix of live performances and behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage . Following relentless touring to support the recordings , including headline slots on the 1994 Lollapalooza tour and at Reading Festival in 1995 , the band took time off to write the follow @-@ up album .
= = = Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness : 1995 – 1997 = = =
Corgan worked non @-@ stop over the next year and wrote about fifty @-@ six songs for the next album . Following this spell of concentrated creativity , the Pumpkins went back into the studio with producers Flood and Alan Moulder to work on what Corgan described as " The Wall for Generation X " , a comparison with the 1979 Pink Floyd two @-@ LP concept album .
The result was Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness , a double album featuring twenty @-@ eight songs and lasting over two hours ( the vinyl version of the album contained three records , two extra songs , and an alternate track listing ) . The songs were intended to hang together conceptually as a symbol of the cycle of life and death . Praised by Time as " the group 's most ambitious and accomplished work yet " , Mellon Collie debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 in October 1995 . Even more successful than Siamese Dream , it was certified ten times platinum in the United States and became the best @-@ selling double album of the decade to date . It also garnered seven 1997 Grammy Award nominations , including Album of the Year . The band won only the Best Hard Rock Performance award , for the album 's lead single " Bullet with Butterfly Wings " . The album spawned five singles — " Bullet with Butterfly Wings " , " 1979 " , " Zero " , " Tonight , Tonight " , and " Thirty @-@ Three " — of which the first three were certified gold and all but " Zero " entered the Top 40 . Many of the remaining songs that did not make it onto Mellon Collie were released as B @-@ sides to the singles , and were eventually compiled in The Aeroplane Flies High box set . As a testament to the band 's popularity , Virgin Records originally intended to limit the set to 200 @,@ 000 copies , but produced more after the original run sold out due to overwhelming demand .
In 1996 , the Pumpkins undertook an extended world tour in support of Mellon Collie . Corgan 's look during this period — a shaved head , a longsleeve black shirt with the word " Zero " printed on it , and silver pants — became iconic . That year , the band also made a guest appearance in an episode of The Simpsons , " Homerpalooza " . With considerable video rotation on MTV , major industry awards , and " Zero " shirts selling in many malls , the Pumpkins were considered one of the most popular bands of the time . But the year was far from entirely positive for the band . In May , the Smashing Pumpkins played a gig at The Point Theatre in Dublin , Ireland . Despite the band 's repeated requests for moshing to stop , a seventeen @-@ year @-@ old fan named Bernadette O 'Brien was crushed to death . The concert ended early and the following night 's performance in Belfast was cancelled out of respect for her . However , while Corgan maintained that moshing 's " time [ had ] come and gone " , the band would continue to request open @-@ floor concerts throughout the rest of the tour .
The band suffered a personal tragedy on the night of July 11 , 1996 , when touring keyboardist Jonathan Melvoin and Chamberlin overdosed on heroin in a hotel room in New York City . Melvoin died , and Chamberlin was arrested for drug possession . A few days later , the band announced that Chamberlin had been fired as a result of the incident . The Pumpkins chose to finish the tour , and hired drummer Matt Walker and keyboardist Dennis Flemion . Corgan later said the decision to continue touring was the worst decision the band had ever made , damaging both their music and their reputation . Chamberlin admitted in a 1994 Rolling Stone cover story that in the past he 'd " gotten high in every city in this country and probably half the cities in Europe . " But in recent years , he had reportedly been clean . On July 17 , the Pumpkins issued a statement in which they said , " For nine years we have battled with Jimmy 's struggles with the insidious disease of drug and alcohol addiction . It has nearly destroyed everything we are and stand for . … We wish [ him ] the best we have to offer , " Meanwhile , the band had given interviews since the release of Mellon Collie stating that it would be the last conventional Pumpkins record , and that rock was becoming stale . James Iha said at the end of 1996 , " The future is in electronic music . It really seems boring just to play rock music . "
= = = Adore , Machina , and breakup : 1998 – 2000 = = =
After the release of Mellon Collie , the Pumpkins contributed a number of songs to various compilations . Released in early 1997 , the song " Eye " , which appeared on the soundtrack to David Lynch 's Lost Highway , relied almost exclusively on electronic instruments and signaled a drastic shift from the Pumpkins ' previous musical styles . At the time , Corgan stated his " idea [ was ] to reconfigure the focus and get away from the classic guitars @-@ bass @-@ drum rock format . " Later that year , the group contributed " The End Is the Beginning Is the End " to the soundtrack for the film Batman & Robin . With Matt Walker on drums , the song featured a heavy sound similar to " Bullet With Butterfly Wings " while still having strong electronic influences . The song later won the 1998 Grammy for Best Hard Rock Performance . Though Corgan announced that the song represented the sound people could expect from the band in the future , the band 's next album would feature few guitar driven songs .
Recorded following the death of Corgan 's mother and his divorce , 1998 's Adore represented a significant change of style from the Pumpkins ' previous guitar @-@ based rock , veering into electronica . The record , cut with assistance from drum machines and studio drummers including Matt Walker , was infused with a darker aesthetic than much of the band 's earlier work . The group also modified its public image , shedding its alternative rock look for a more subdued appearance . Although Adore received favorable reviews and was nominated for Best Alternative Performance at the Grammy Awards , the album had only sold about 830 @,@ 000 copies in the United States by the end of the year , which led the music industry to consider it a failure . The album nonetheless sold three times as many copies overseas . The band began a seventeen @-@ date , fifteen @-@ city charity North American tour in support of Adore . At each stop on the tour , the band donated 100 percent of tickets sales to a local charity organization . The tour 's expenses were entirely funded out of the band 's own pockets . All told , the band donated over $ 2 @.@ 8 million to charity as a result of the tour .
In 1999 , the band surprised fans by reuniting with a rehabilitated Jimmy Chamberlin for a brief tour dubbed " The Arising " , which showcased both new and classic material . The lineup was short @-@ lived , however , as the band announced the departure of Wretzky in September during work on the album Machina / The Machines of God . Former Hole bassist Melissa Auf der Maur was recruited for the " Sacred and Profane " tour in support of the album and appeared in the videos accompanying its release . Released in 2000 , Machina was initially promoted as the Pumpkins ' return to a more traditional rock sound , after the more gothic , electronic @-@ sounding Adore . The album debuted at number three on the Billboard charts , but quickly disappeared and as of 2007 had only been certified gold . Music journalist Jim DeRogatis , who described the album as " one of the strongest of their career " , noted that the stalled sales for Machina in comparison to teen pop ascendant at the time " seems like concrete proof that a new wave of young pop fans has turned a deaf ear toward alternative rock . "
On May 23 , 2000 , in a live radio interview on KROQ @-@ FM ( Los Angeles ) , Billy Corgan announced the band 's decision to break up at the end of that year following additional touring and recording . The group 's final album before the break @-@ up , Machina II / The Friends & Enemies of Modern Music , was released in September 2000 in a limited pressing on vinyl with permission and instructions for free redistribution on the Internet by fans . Only twenty @-@ five copies were cut , each of which was hand numbered and given to friends of the band along with band members themselves . The album , released under the Constantinople Records label created by Corgan , consisted of one double LP and three ten @-@ inch EPs . Originally , the band asked Virgin to offer Machina II as a free download to anyone who bought Machina . When the record label declined , Corgan opted to release the material independently .
On December 2 , 2000 , Smashing Pumpkins played a farewell concert at The Metro , the same Chicago club where their career had effectively started twelve years earlier . The four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ hour @-@ long show featured 35 songs spanning the group 's career , and attendees were given a recording of the band 's first concert at The Metro , Live at Cabaret Metro 10 @-@ 5 @-@ 88 . The single " Untitled " was released commercially to coincide with the farewell show .
= = = Post @-@ breakup : 2001 – 2004 = = =
In 2001 , the compilation Rotten Apples was released . The double @-@ disc version of the album , released as a limited edition , included a collection of B @-@ sides and rarities called Judas O. The Greatest Hits Video Collection DVD was also released at the same time . This was a compilation of all of the Pumpkins promo videos from Gish to Machina along with unreleased material . Vieuphoria was released on DVD in 2002 , as was the soundtrack album Earphoria , previously released solely to radio stations in 1994 .
Billy Corgan and Jimmy Chamberlin reunited in 2001 as members of Corgan 's next project , the short @-@ lived supergroup Zwan . The group 's only album , Mary Star of the Sea , was released in 2003 . After cancelling a few festival appearances , Corgan announced the demise of the band in 2003 . During 2001 , Corgan also toured as part of New Order and provided vocals on their comeback album Get Ready . In October 2004 , Corgan released his first book , Blinking with Fists , a collection of poetry . In June 2005 , he released a solo album , TheFutureEmbrace , which he described as " ( picking ) up the thread of the as @-@ of @-@ yet @-@ unfinished work of the Smashing Pumpkins " . Despite this , it was greeted with generally mixed reviews and lackluster sales . Only one single , " Walking Shade " , was released in support of the album .
In addition to drumming with Zwan , Jimmy Chamberlin also formed an alternative rock / jazz fusion project band called The Jimmy Chamberlin Complex . The group released an album in 2005 titled Life Begins Again . Corgan provided guest vocals on the track " Lokicat " . James Iha served as a guitarist in A Perfect Circle , appearing on their Thirteenth Step club tour and 2004 album , eMOTIVe . He has also been involved with other acts such as Chino Moreno 's Team Sleep and Vanessa and the O 's . He continues to work with his own record label as well , Scratchie Records . D 'arcy Wretzky has , aside from one radio interview in 2009 , not made any public statements or appearances nor given any interviews since leaving the band in 1999 . On January 25 , 2000 , she was arrested after she allegedly purchased three bags of crack cocaine , but after successfully completing a court @-@ ordered drug education program , the charges were dropped .
Corgan insisted during this period that the band would not reform , although when Zwan broke up he announced , " I think my heart was in Smashing Pumpkins [ … ] I think it was naive of me to think that I could find something that would mean as much to me . " Corgan said in 2005 , " I never wanted to leave the Smashing Pumpkins . That was never the plan . " On February 17 , 2004 , Corgan posted a message on his personal blog calling Wretzky a " mean @-@ spirited drug addict " and blaming Iha for the breakup of The Smashing Pumpkins . On June 3 , 2004 , he added that " the depth of my hurt [ from Iha ] is only matched with the depth of my gratitude " . Iha responded to Corgan 's claims in 2005 , saying , " No , I didn 't break up the band . The only person who could have done that is Billy . "
= = = Reformation and Zeitgeist : 2005 – 2008 = = =
On June 21 , 2005 , the day of the release of his album TheFutureEmbrace , Corgan took out full @-@ page advertisements in the Chicago Tribune and Chicago Sun @-@ Times to announce that he planned to reunite the band . " For a year now " , Corgan wrote , " I have walked around with a secret , a secret I chose to keep . But now I want you to be among the first to know that I have made plans to renew and revive the Smashing Pumpkins . I want my band back , and my songs , and my dreams " . Corgan and Chamberlin were verified as participants in the reunion , but there was question as to whether other former members of the band would participate .
In April 2007 , Iha and Auf der Maur separately confirmed that they were not taking part in the reunion . Chamberlin would later state that Iha and Wretzky " didn 't want to be a part of " the reunion . The Smashing Pumpkins performed live for the first time since 2000 on May 22 , 2007 , in Paris , France . There , the band unveiled new touring members : guitarist Jeff Schroeder , bassist Ginger Reyes , and keyboardist Lisa Harriton . That same month , " Tarantula " was released as the first single from the band 's forthcoming album . On July 7 , the band performed at the Live Earth concert in New Jersey .
The band 's new album , Zeitgeist , was released that same month on Reprise Records , entering the Billboard charts at number two and selling 145 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . Zeitgeist received mixed reviews , with much of the criticism targeted at the absence of half of the original lineup . The album divided the Pumpkins ' fanbase . Corgan would later admit , " I know a lot of our fans are puzzled by Zeitgeist . I think they wanted this massive , grandiose work , but you don 't just roll out of bed after seven years without a functioning band and go back to doing that " .
Corgan and Chamberlin continued to record as a duo , releasing the four @-@ song EP American Gothic in January 2008 and the singles " Superchrist " and " G.L.O.W. " later that year . That November , the group released the DVD If All Goes Wrong , which chronicled the group 's 2007 concert residences in Asheville , North Carolina and San Francisco , California . In late 2008 , the band commenced on a controversy @-@ riddled 20th Anniversary Tour . Around this time , Corgan said the group will make no more full @-@ length records in order to focus exclusively on singles , explaining , " The listening patterns have changed , so why are we killing ourselves to do albums , to create balance , and do the arty track to set up the single ? It 's done . "
= = = Teargarden and Oceania : 2009 – 2013 = = =
In March 2009 , Corgan announced on the band 's website that Chamberlin had left the group and would be replaced . Chamberlin subsequently stated that his departure from the band is " a positive move forward for me . I can no longer commit all of my energy into something that I don 't fully possess . " Chamberlin stressed that the split was amicable , commenting , " I am glad [ Corgan ] has chosen to continue under the name . It is his right . " Chamberlin soon formed the band Skysaw , which has released an album and toured in support of Minus the Bear . In July 2009 , Billy Corgan formed a new group called Spirits in the Sky , initially as a tribute band to Sky Saxon of The Seeds , who had recently died . The following month Corgan confirmed on the band 's website that 19 @-@ year @-@ old Spirits in the Sky drummer Mike Byrne had replaced Chamberlin and that the pair was working on new Pumpkins recordings .
The group announced plans to release a 44 @-@ track concept album , Teargarden by Kaleidyscope , for free over the Internet one track at a time . The first track , " A Song for a Son " , was released in December 2009 to moderate press acclaim . In March 2010 , Ginger Reyes officially left the band , prompting an open call for auditions for a new bassist . In May , Nicole Fiorentino announced she had joined the band as bass player , and would be working on Teargarden by Kaleidyscope . The new lineup went on a world tour through to the end of 2010 . One of the first shows with the new lineup was a concert to benefit Matthew Leone , bassist for the rock band Madina Lake , at the Metro on July 27 , 2010 . In late 2010 , all four members contributed to the sessions for the third volume of Teargarden .
On April 26 , 2011 , Corgan announced that the Smashing Pumpkins would be releasing a new album titled Oceania , which he labeled as " an album within an album " in regards to the Teargarden by Kaleidyscope project , in the fall . As with the previous recording sessions , all four band members contributed to the project . Also , the entire album catalog was to be remastered and reissued with bonus tracks , starting with Gish and Siamese Dream in November 2011 . The pre @-@ Gish demos , Pisces Iscariot , and Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness were released in 2012 , with The Aeroplane Flies High released the following year . Adore was released in 2014 , and Machina / The Machines of God and the yet commercially unreleased Machina II / Friends and Enemies of Modern Music are expected to be combined , remixed , and released in the same year . The band did a thirteen @-@ city US tour in October 2011 followed by a European tour in November and December .
Oceania was released on June 19 , 2012 and received generally positive reviews . The album debuted at No. 4 on the Billboard 200 and at No. 1 on the Billboard Independent . The album spawned two singles , " The Celestials " and " Panopticon " . The band proceeded to tour in support of the album , including a US tour involving playing the album in its entirety . By September 2012 , Corgan stated that the band had already begun work on their next album . However , despite this , the band concentrated on touring , playing at Glastonbury Festival , Dour Festival and the Barclays Center , where they recorded Oceania : Live in NYC , which was released on September 24 , 2013 , without much comment on new material .
= = = Monuments to an Elegy : 2014 – present = = =
On March 25 , 2014 , Corgan announced he had signed a new record deal with BMG , for two new albums , titled Monuments to an Elegy and Day for Night , respectively . In June , it was revealed that Mike Byrne was no longer in the band , to be replaced by Tommy Lee of Mötley Crüe on the new album , and Fiorentino would not be recording on the album either . Monuments to an Elegy was released on December 5 , 2014 , to generally positive reviews . The band toured in support of the album starting on November 26 , with Rage Against the Machine 's Brad Wilk filling in on drums and The Killers ' Mark Stoermer filling in on bass . The follow @-@ up album , which will no longer be titled Day For Night , was pushed back to a late 2015 or early 2016 release as the band continued to tour .
Later in 2015 , Corgan announced that the band would undertake a co @-@ headlining tour of North America with Marilyn Manson . The End Times Tour was set to begin in Concord , California , at the Concord Pavilion on July 7 , and was scheduled to end with a concert in Cincinnati , Ohio , at the Riverbend Music Center on August 8 . Prior to the co @-@ headlining dates , the band performed a series of acoustic shows with drum machines and tapes for percussion . When the time came for the co @-@ headlining tour , plans for a drummer fell through and Corgan recruited Chamberlin to reunite for the shows . On February 1 , 2016 , it was announced that the band would continue their In Plainsong acoustic tour with Jimmy Chamberlin on drums and were planning to head " straight to the studio after the dates to record a brand new album inspired by the sounds explored in the new acoustic setting " . On February 25 , 2016 , Corgan posted a video from a Los Angeles studio on the band 's Facebook account , giving an update on the writing process for the new songs for the upcoming album to be released after the In Plainsong tour . The tour began in Portland , Oregon , on March 22 , 2016 .
On his birthday on March 26 , 2016 , original guitarist James Iha joined Billy Corgan , Jimmy Chamberlin , and Jeff Schroeder on stage unannounced at the Ace Hotel in downtown Los Angeles . He performed a few songs , including " Mayonaise " , " Soma " and " Whir " marking his first appearance with the Smashing Pumpkins in 16 years . Iha also played at the second of the two Smashing Pumpkins shows at the Ace Hotel the following day , which was Easter Sunday . Iha joined the Pumpkins for a third time at their April 14 concert at the Civic Opera House in Chicago .
= = Musical style , influences , and legacy = =
The direction of the band is dominated by chief guitarist , lead vocalist , and principal songwriter Billy Corgan . Journalist Greg Kot wrote , " The music [ of The Smashing Pumpkins ] would not be what it is without his ambition and vision , and his famously fractured relationships with his family , friends , and bandmembers . " Melissa Auf der Maur commented upon news of the group 's reunion , " Everyone knows Billy doesn 't need too many people to make a Pumpkins record , other than Jimmy [ Chamberlin ] — who he has on board . " In a 2015 interview Corgan himself referred to the current iteration of the band " as sort of an open source collective " noting that " It 's whoever feels right at the time . " . Many of Corgan 's lyrics for the Pumpkins are cathartic expressions of emotion , full of personal musings and strong indictments of himself and those close to him . Music critics were not often fans of Corgan 's angst @-@ filled lyrics . Jim DeRogatis wrote in a 1993 Chicago Sun @-@ Times article that Corgan 's lyrics " too often sound like sophomoric poetry , " although he viewed the lyrics of later albums Adore and Machina as an improvement . Corgan responded to DeRogatis ' words with " fuck the Sun @-@ Times " , at the band 's 1993 show at the Metro Chicago .
The Smashing Pumpkins ' distinctive sound up until Adore involved layering numerous guitar tracks onto a song during the recording process , a tactic that Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness coproducer Flood called the " Pumpkin guitar overdub army . " Although there were a lot of overdubbed parts on Gish , Corgan began to really explore the possibilities of overdubbing with Siamese Dream ; Corgan has stated that " Soma " alone contains up to 40 overdubbed guitar parts . While Corgan knew many of the songs would be difficult or impossible to replicate from their recorded versions in concert ( in fact , some songs were drastically altered for live performance ) , he has explained the use of overdubbing by posing the question " When you are faced with making a permanent recorded representation of a song , why not endow it with the grandest possible vision ? " This use of multilayered sounds was inspired by Corgan 's love of 1970s arena rock bands Queen , Boston , and the Electric Light Orchestra , as well as shoegaze , a British alternative rock style of the late 1980s and early 1990s that relied on swirling layers of guitar noise for effect . Mellon Collie coproducer Alan Moulder was originally hired to mix Siamese Dream because Corgan was a fan of his work producing shoegaze bands such as My Bloody Valentine , Ride , and Slowdive .
Like many contemporary alternative bands , The Smashing Pumpkins utilized shifts in song dynamics , going from quiet to loud and vice versa . Hüsker Dü 's seminal album Zen Arcade demonstrated to the band how they could place gentler material against more aggressive fare , and Corgan made such shifts in dynamics central to the pursuit of his grand musical ambitions . Corgan said he liked the idea of creating his own alternative universe through sound that essentially tells the listener , " Welcome to Pumpkin Land , this is what it sounds like on Planet Pumpkin . " This emphasis on atmosphere carried through to Ad | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
1992 Winter Olympics , however Harris only competed in the two @-@ man event , with his place in the four @-@ man team taken by newcomer Ricky McIntosh . Harris and the Stokes brothers would continue to compete at the Winter Games in the bobsleigh events until the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano .
= My Bloody Valentine ( band ) =
My Bloody Valentine are an Irish rock band formed in Dublin in 1983 . Since 1987 , the band 's lineup has consisted of founding members Kevin Shields ( vocals , guitar ) and Colm Ó Cíosóig ( drums ) , with Bilinda Butcher ( vocals , guitar ) and Debbie Googe ( bass ) . The group are known for their integration of noise , melody , and unorthodox guitar and production techniques . Their work in the late 1980s and early 1990s resulted in their pioneering a musical style known as shoegaze .
Following several membership changes and unsuccessful releases , My Bloody Valentine signed to Creation Records in 1988 . The band released a number of successful EPs , including You Made Me Realise ( 1988 ) , Glider ( 1990 ) and Tremolo ( 1991 ) , and two studio albums , Isn 't Anything ( 1988 ) and Loveless ( 1991 ) on the label . Loveless , which has been described as the band 's magnum opus and one of the best albums of the 1990s , was a major critical success . However , the band were dropped by Creation Records after its release due to the album 's extensive production costs . In 1992 , My Bloody Valentine signed to Island Records and recorded several albums worth of unreleased material , remaining largely inactive . Following the departure of Googe and Ó Cíosóig in 1995 , My Bloody Valentine later disbanded in 1997 .
In 2007 , Shields announced My Bloody Valentine had reformed and the band subsequently toured across Europe , Asia and North America . Following reissues of both Isn 't Anything and Loveless , and the release of the compilation album EP 's 1988 – 1991 ( 2012 ) , My Bloody Valentine 's long @-@ delayed third studio album , m b v , was released on 2 February 2013 , 22 years after the release of their last full @-@ length album .
= = History = =
= = = Formation : 1978 – 1985 = = =
In 1978 , Kevin Shields and Colm Ó Cíosóig were introduced to each other at a karate tournament in South Dublin . The duo became friends in what has been described as " an almost overnight friendship " and later formed The Complex , a punk rock band , with Liam Ó Maonlaí , Ó Cíosóig 's friend from Coláiste Eoin . The band , who performed " a handful of gigs " consisting of Sex Pistols and Ramones songs , disbanded when Ó Maonlaí left to form Hothouse Flowers . Shields and Ó Cíosóig later formed a Life in the Day , a post @-@ punk trio , but failed to secure performances with more than a hundred people present . Following A Life in the Day 's dissolution , Shields and Ó Cíosóig formed My Bloody Valentine in early 1983 with lead vocalist David Conway . Conway , who performed under the pseudonym Dave Stelfox , suggested a number of potential band names , including the Burning Peacocks , before the trio settled on My Bloody Valentine . Shields has since claimed he was unaware that My Bloody Valentine was the title of a 1981 Canadian slasher film when the name was suggested .
My Bloody Valentine experienced a number of line @-@ up changes during their initial months . Lead guitarist Stephen Ivers and bassist Mark Ross were recruited in April 1983 and the band would often rehearse near Smithfield and Temple Bar in rehearsal spaces owned by Aidan Walsh . Walsh , who booked some of the band 's early performances , said the rehearsals were " too noisy " and " crazy " that " next door were giving out hell " . Ross left the band in December 1983 and was replaced by Paul Murtagh , who left the band in early 1984 . In March 1984 , Shields , Ivers and Conway recorded the band 's first demo on a four @-@ track recorder in Shields ' parents ' home in Killiney . Shields and Ó Cíosóig overdubbed bass and drum tracks at Litton Lane Studios , and the tape was later used to secure a contract with Tycoon Records .
Soon after recording the demo , Ivers left My Bloody Valentine and Conway 's girlfriend , Tina Durkin , joined as a keyboard player . Around this time , Conway , on the suggestion of Shields , contacted Gavin Friday , the lead vocalist of the post @-@ punk band Virgin Prunes . According to Shields , Conway approached Friday in Finglas , asked him for advice and was told to " get out of Dublin . " Friday provided the band with contacts that secured them a show in Tilburg , Netherlands . The band relocated to the Netherlands after the show and lived there for a further nine months , opening for R.E.M. on one occasion on 8 April 1984 . Due to a lack of opportunities and a lack of correct documentation , the band relocated to West Berlin , Germany in late 1984 and recorded their debut mini album , This Is Your Bloody Valentine ( 1985 ) . The album failed to receive much attention and the band returned temporarily to the Netherlands , before settling in London , United Kingdom in the middle of 1985 .
= = = Independent releases : 1985 – 1986 = = =
Following their relocation to London in 1985 , members of My Bloody Valentine lost contact with each other while looking for accommodation and Tina Durkin , not confident in her abilities as a keyboard player , left the band . When the remaining four members regained contact with one another , the band decided to audition bassists , as they lacked a regular bassist since their formation . Shields acquired Debbie Googe 's telephone number from a contact in London , invited her to audition and subsequently recruited her as a bassist . Googe managed to attend rehearsals , which were centred around her day job . Rehearsal sessions were regularly held at Salem Studios , which was connected to the independent record label Fever Records . The label 's management were impressed with the band and agreed to release an extended play , provided the band would finance the recording sessions themselves . Released in December 1985 , Geek ! failed to reach the band 's expectations ; however , soon after its release , My Bloody Valentine were performing on the London gig circuit , alongside bands such as Eight Living Lags , Kill Ugly Pop and The Stingrays .
Due to the band 's slow progress , Shields contemplated relocating to New York , where members of his family were living at the time . However , Creation Records co @-@ founder Joe Foster had decided to establish his own record label , Kaleidoscope Sound and persuaded My Bloody Valentine to record and release an EP . The New Record by My Bloody Valentine , produced by Foster , was released in October 1986 and was a minor success , peaking at number 22 on the UK Indie Chart upon its release . On the strength of the release , the band began performing more frequent shows , later developing a small following and travelling outside London for live performances , supporting and opening for bands such as The Membranes .
= = = Lazy Records and Butcher 's recruitment : 1987 = = =
In early 1987 , My Bloody Valentine signed to Lazy Records , another independent record label , which was founded by the indie pop band The Primitives and their manager , Wayne Morris . My Bloody Valentine 's first release on the label was the single " Sunny Sundae Smile " , released in February 1987 . It peaked at number 6 on the UK Indie Singles Chart and the band toured following its release . After a number of performances throughout the United Kingdom , the band managed to secure a support slot with The Soup Dragons . In March 1987 , during the tour with The Soup Dragons , David Conway announced his decision to leave the band , due to a gastric illness , disillusionment with music and ambitions to become a writer .
Conway 's departure left My Bloody Valentine without a lead vocalist — a situation Shields , Ó Cíosóig and Googe decided to amend by placing advertisements in the local music press . The audition process , which Shields described as " disastrous and excruciating " , was unsuccessful due to Shields " mentioning The Smiths , because [ he ] liked their melodies " , which attracted a number of vocalists he referred to as " fruitballs " . Although considering forming another group , the band were recommended a number of vocalists from peers and experimented with two lead vocalists , Bilinda Butcher and Joe Byfield . Byfield was deemed unsuited as a vocalist and the band recruited Butcher . Butcher , whose prior musical experience was playing classical guitar as a child and singing and playing tambourine " with some girlfriends for fun " , had learned that My Bloody Valentine needed a backing vocalist from her partner , who had met Colm Ó Cíosóig on a ferry from the Netherlands . At her audition for the band , she sang " The Bargain Store " , a song from Dolly Parton 's 1975 album of the same name .
In light of Butcher 's recruitment , Shields became a co @-@ lead vocalist , splitting and often sharing duties alongside Butcher . Commenting on the transition , Shields noted that Butcher " sounded all right and she could sing one of our songs , we just had to show her how to play guitar . " Shields was initially reluctant to take on a vocal role within the band , but said that he had " always sung in the rehearsal room [ ... ] and made up the melodies . " With the new line up in place , the band intended to drop the My Bloody Valentine moniker , but according to Ó Cíosóig and Shields , the band was unable to decide on a name and kept the moniker " for better or for worse " .
Under pressure from Lazy Records to release a full @-@ length album , My Bloody Valentine compromised and agreed to release a single and subsequent mini album , citing the need for time to stabilize their new line @-@ up . " Strawberry Wine " , a three @-@ track single , was released in November 1987 and Ecstasy was released a month later . Both received moderate critical acclaim , and peaked at number 13 and 12 on the independent singles and albums chart , respectively . " Strawberry Wine " , however , was described as " certainly the better of the two releases " , as Ecstasy was plagued by production difficulties , including errors in the mastering process . Ecstasy was criticised as showing " a group who appeared to have run out of money halfway through recording " , which was later confirmed , as the band were funding the studio sessions themselves . My Bloody Valentine 's contract with Lazy stated that the label would handle promotion of releases , whereas the band would finance the recording sessions . Following their departure from Lazy , who later rereleased " Strawberry Wine " and Ecstasy on the compilation album Ecstasy and Wine ( 1989 ) without the band 's consent , Rough Trade Records offered a deal to finance the recording and release of a full @-@ length album , however , the band turned it down .
= = = Creation Records and Loveless : 1988 – 1991 = = =
In January 1988 , My Bloody Valentine performed in Canterbury , opening for Biff Bang Pow ! , a band that featured Creation Records founder Alan McGee . After " blowing [ Biff Bang Pow ! ] off the stage " , My Bloody Valentine were described as " the Irish equivalent to Hüsker Dü " by McGee , who approached the band after the show and offered them an opportunity to record and release a single on Creation . The band recorded five songs at a studio in Walthamstow , East London in less than a week and in August 1988 , released You Made Me Realise . The EP was well received by the independent music press and according to AllMusic 's Nitsuh Abebe , the release that " made critics stand up and take notice of the brilliant things My Bloody Valentine were up to " , adding " it developed some of the stunning guitar sounds that would become the band 's trademark " . It debuted at number 2 on the UK Indie Chart . Following the success of You Made Me Realise , My Bloody Valentine released their debut full @-@ length studio album , Isn 't Anything , in November 1988 . Recorded in rural Wales , the album was a major success , receiving widespread critical acclaim , peaking at number 1 on the UK Indie Chart and influencing a number of shoegazing bands , who " worked off the template My Bloody Valentine established with [ the album ] " .
In February 1989 , My Bloody Valentine began recording their second studio album at Blackwing Studios in Southwark , London . Creation Records believed that the album could be recorded " in five days " . However , it soon " became clear that wasn 't going to happen " . Following several unproductive months , during which Shields assumed main duties on the musical and technical aspects of the sessions , the band relocated to a total of nineteen other studios and hired a number of engineers , including Alan Moulder , Anjali Dutt and Guy Fixsen . Due to the extensive recording time , Shields and Alan McGee agreed to release another EP and subsequently the band released Glider in April 1990 . Containing the lead single " Soon " , which featured the first recorded use of Shields ' " glide guitar " technique , the EP peaked at number 2 on the UK Indie Chart and the band toured in summer 1990 to support its release . In February 1991 , while still recording their second album , My Bloody Valentine released Tremolo , which was another critical success and topped the UK Indie Chart .
Released in November 1991 , Loveless was rumoured to have cost over £ 250 @,@ 000 and bankrupt Creation Records , claims which Shields has denied . Critical reception to Loveless was almost unanimous with praise although the album was not a commercial success . It peaked at number 24 on the UK Albums Chart but failed to chart elsewhere internationally . McGee dropped My Bloody Valentine from Creation Records soon after the release of Loveless , due to the album 's extensive recording period and interpersonal problems with Shields .
= = = Island Records and breakup : 1992 – 1997 = = =
My Bloody Valentine signed with Island Records in October 1992 for a reported £ 250 @,@ 000 contract . The band 's advance went towards the construction of a home studio in Streatham , South London , which was completed in April 1993 . Several technical problems with the studio sent the band into " semi @-@ meltdown " , according to Shields , who was rumoured to have been suffering from writer 's block . The band remained largely inactive , however , they recorded and released two cover songs from 1993 to 1996 — a rendering of " We Have All the Time in the World " by Louis Armstrong for Peace Together and a cover of " Map Ref . 41 ° N 93 ° W " by Wire for the tribute album Whore : Tribute to Wire .
In 1995 , Debbie Googe and Colm Ó Cíosóig left My Bloody Valentine . Googe , who briefly worked as a taxi driver following her departure , formed the indie rock supergroup Snowpony with Katharine Gifford of Moonshake and Ó Cíosóig relocated to the United States , forming Hope Sandoval & the Warm Inventions with Hope Sandoval of Mazzy Star . Shields and Butcher attempted to record a third studio album , which Shields claimed would be released in 1998 , however Butcher departed the band in 1997 . Unable to finalise a third album , Shields isolated himself , and in his own words " went crazy " , drawing comparisons in the music press to the eccentric behavior of other musicians , including Brian Wilson of The Beach Boys and Syd Barrett of Pink Floyd . Shields later became a touring member of Primal Scream , collaborated with a number of artists including Yo La Tengo , Dinosaur Jr . , and Le Volume Courbe and recorded songs for the soundtrack to the 2003 film Lost in Translation .
Rumours had spread amongst fans that albums worth of material had been recorded and shelved prior to the band 's break up . In 1999 , it was reported that Shields had delivered 60 hours of material to Island Records , and Butcher confirmed that there existed " probably enough songs to fill two albums . " Shields later admitted that at least one full album of " half @-@ finished " material was abandoned , stating " it was dead . It hadn 't got that spirit , that life in it . "
= = = Reunion and m b v : 2007 – present = = =
In August 2007 , reports emerged suggesting My Bloody Valentine would reunite for the 2008 Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival in Indio , California , United States . Similar reports had circulated in 2003 , stating that Shields , Butcher and Ó Cíosóig were together in Berlin , Germany , re @-@ recording five songs recorded for Glider , which were due for release on an upcoming box set ; and in 2007 , reports suggested My Bloody Valentine were due to perform at a series of Pod @-@ organised concerts at the Irish Museum of Modern Art in Kilmainham , Dublin . Shields later confirmed the reunion and said that the band 's third studio album , which he had begun recording in 1996 , was near completion . Three live shows in the United Kingdom were announced in November 2007 and on 13 June 2008 , My Bloody Valentine performed in public for the first time in 16 years during two live rehearsals at the Institute of Contemporary Arts in London .
My Bloody Valentine began an extensive worldwide tour throughout summer and autumn 2008 . The band began performing at European music festivals , including the Roskilde Festival in Roskilde , Denmark , Øyafestivalen in Oslo , Norway , and Electric Picnic in Stradbally , Ireland , as well as the Fuji Rock Festival in Niigata , Japan . From 19 to 21 September , the band curated and performed at the 2008 All Tomorrow 's Parties festival in New York , United States and later performed throughout North America , including dates in Chicago , Toronto , Denver , San Francisco , Los Angeles and Austin . The band spent £ 200 @,@ 000 on equipment for their world tour , which was their first since 1992 in support of Loveless .
Following additional touring in 2009 , My Bloody Valentine dedicated their time to completing their third album . Rumours of a My Bloody Valentine box set , which had circulated amongst the public in April 2008 following a listing on HMV Japan 's web site , began recirculating . In March 2012 , after a number of reported delays , Sony Music Ireland announced the release of the compilation album EP 's 1988 – 1991 — a collection of the band 's Creation Records extended plays , singles and unreleased tracks . The compilation album was released on 4 May 2012 , alongside remastered versions of Isn 't Anything and Loveless .
In November 2012 , Kevin Shields announced plans to release My Bloody Valentine 's third album online before the end of the year . In December , the band announced on Facebook that the album was completed and mastered , and on 27 January 2013 , during a warm @-@ up show at Electric Brixton in London , Shields told the audience that the album " might be out in two or three days . " The album , titled m b v , was released through the band 's official website on 2 February 2013 , although the site crashed on its launch due to high traffic . Upon its release , m b v received " universal acclaim " , according to Metacritic , and the band began a worldwide tour . Shields has since announced intentions to release a My Bloody Valentine EP " of all @-@ new material " , which will be followed by a fourth studio album .
= = Style = =
My Bloody Valentine 's musical style progressed throughout their career . The band were originally influenced by post @-@ punk , in particular The Birthday Party , The Cramps and Joy Division , and as author Mike McGonial noted , " brought together the least interesting elements " of their influences . Their debut mini album , This is Your Bloody Valentine ( 1985 ) , incorporated a further gothic rock sound which AllMusic referred to as " unfocused and derivative " . However , when the band began experimenting with indie pop melodies on The New Record by My Bloody Valentine ( 1986 ) , it marked " a vital point in the development of their sound " , which was influenced primarily by The Jesus and Mary Chain . The band later took a " rarified , effete and poppy approach to Byrdsian rock " with their two successive releases , " Strawberry Wine " and Ecstasy ( 1987 ) . Isn 't Anything , and its preceding release You Made Me Realise ( 1988 ) , were influenced by American indie rock bands , most notably Dinosaur Jr. and Sonic Youth , as well as hip hop music . Loveless ( 1991 ) was influenced by a wide range of genres , including dream pop , noise rock and house music . In the mid @-@ 1990s , during the recording of m b v ( 2013 ) , Kevin Shields and Colm Ó Cíosóig began experimenting with drum and bass music , which was an underground trend in London at the time . Elements of jungle music were incorporated into m b v , particularly the final three tracks — " In Another Way " , " Nothing Is " and " Wonder 2 " — which marked a further shift in My Bloody Valentine 's sound that Pitchfork Media referred to as " so surprising and ultimately powerful . "
One of the most recognisable aspects of My Bloody Valentine 's music is Shields ' guitar sound , which " use [ s ] texture more than technique to create vivid soundscapes . " During the late 1980s , Shields began customising the tremolo systems for his Fender Jaguars and Jazzmasters ; extending the tremolo arm and loosening it considerably , to allow him to manipulate the arm while strumming chords , which resulted in excessive pitch bending . Shields used a number of alternate and open tunings that together with his tremolo manipulation achieved " a strange warping effect that makes the music wander in and out of focus " , according to Rolling Stone . Shields ' most notable effect is reverse digital reverb , sourced from a Yamaha SPX90 effects unit . Together with the tremolo manipulation and distortion , he created a technique known as " glide guitar " . Shields effects rig , which is composed largely of distortion , graphic equalizers and tone controls , consists of at least 30 effects pedals and is connected to a large amount of amplifiers , which are often set to maximum volume to increase sustain . During live performances , and in particular the closing song " You Made Me Realise " , My Bloody Valentine perform an interlude of noise and excessive feedback , known as " the holocaust " , which would last for half an hour and often reached 130db . Shields later remarked " it was so loud it was like sensory deprivation . We just liked the fact that we could see a change in the audience at a certain point . "
Bilinda Butcher 's vocals have been referred to as a trademark of My Bloody Valentine 's sound , alongside Shields ' guitar techniques . On a number of occasions during the recording of Isn 't Anything and Loveless , Butcher was awoken and recorded vocals , which she said " influenced [ her ] sound " by making them " more dreamy and sleepy " . The vocals in most My Bloody Valentine 's recordings are low in the mix as Shields intended for the vocals to be used as an instrument . Critics have often described an androgynous sound to the band 's vocals . My Bloody Valentine 's lyrics are mostly written by Shields . However , Butcher wrote a third of the lyrics on both Isn 't Anything and Loveless , but has referred to a lot of the lyrics as " plain nonsense . " According to Butcher , she " didn 't have a plan and never thought about lyrics until it was time to write them . I just used whatever was in my head for the moment . " Some of her lyrics were written as a result of attempting to interpret rough versions of songs Shields had recorded . Butcher has said : " He [ Shields ] never sang any words on the cassettes I got but I tried to make his sounds into words . " Butcher and Shields would often spend eight to ten hours a night writing lyrics , even though few changes actually resulted , as Shields believed " there 's nothing worse than bad lyrics . " Spin writer Simon Reynolds has noted that the band 's lyrics often contain sexual themes , which are " a paradoxical blend of force and tenderness " .
= = Legacy = =
My Bloody Valentine are regarded as the pioneers of the alternative rock subgenre known as shoegazing , a term coined by Sounds journalists in the late 1980s to describe certain bands " motionless performing style , where they stood on stage and stared at the floor " . The band 's releases on Creation Records influenced other shoegazing acts , including Slowdive , Ride and Lush , and are regarded as providing a platform to allow the bands to become recognised . Following the release of Loveless ( 1991 ) , My Bloody Valentine were " poised for a popular breakthrough " , although never achieved mainstream success . However , the band are noted to have been " profoundly influential in the direction of ' 90s alternative rock " , according to AllMusic .
Several mainstream rock bands have cited My Bloody Valentine as an influence . The Smashing Pumpkins frontman Billy Corgan was influenced by Isn 't Anything upon its release and attempted to recreate its sound on the band 's debut album Gish ( 1991 ) , particularly the closing track " Daydream " which Corgan described as " a complete rip @-@ off of the My Bloody Valentine sound . " The Smashing Pumpkins two successive studio albums , Siamese Dream ( 1993 ) and Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness ( 1995 ) , were also influenced by the band . Trent Reznor of Nine Inch Nails praised Loveless ' musical diversity and production , Courtney Love cited the band as an influence on Hole 's third album Celebrity Skin ( 1998 ) and the album has also been said to have made a considerable influence on Radiohead , particularly influencing the band 's textured guitar sound . The Edge , guitarist of U2 , cited Loveless as a major influence on the guitar sound on Achtung Baby ( 1991 ) and referred to My Bloody Valentine as " head and shoulders above a lot of what was going on at the time . "
Isn 't Anything and Loveless have been regarded as among the greatest albums of all time . Isn 't Anything was included in The Guardian 's list of " 1000 Albums to Hear Before You Die " and listed at number 22 on Pitchfork Media 's " Top 100 Albums of the 1980s . " Loveless was named the best album of the 1990s by Pitchfork Media in 1999 and in 2003 , the album was listed as number 219 on Rolling Stone 's list of " The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time . " In 2008 , both albums were featured on The Irish Times ' " Top 40 Irish Albums of All Time " list , where Isn 't Anything ranked at number 27 and Loveless at number 1 . In 2013 , Loveless placed third in the Irish Independent 's " Top 30 Irish Albums of All Time " list .
= = Members = =
= = = Timeline = = =
= = Discography = =
Isn 't Anything ( 1988 )
Loveless ( 1991 )
MBV ( 2013 )
= Dolphinarium =
A dolphinarium is an aquarium for dolphins . The dolphins are usually kept in a large pool , though occasionally they may be kept in pens in the open sea , either for research or for public performances . Some dolphinariums consist of one pool where dolphins perform for the public , others are part of larger parks , such as marine mammal parks , zoos or theme parks , with other animals and attractions as well .
While cetaceans have been held in captivity since the 1860s , the first commercial dolphinarium was opened only in 1938 . Their popularity increased rapidly until the 1960s . Since the 1970s , increasing concern for animal welfare led to stricter regulation , which in several countries ultimately resulted in the closure of some dolphinariums . Despite this trend , dolphinariums are still widespread in Europe , Japan and North America .
The most common species of dolphin kept in dolphinariums is the bottlenose dolphin , as it is relatively easy to train and has a long lifespan in captivity . While trade in dolphins is internationally regulated , other aspects of keeping dolphins in captivity , such as the minimum size and characteristics of pools , vary among countries . Though animal welfare is perceived to have improved significantly over the last few decades , many animal rights groups still consider keeping dolphins captive to be a form of animal abuse .
= = History = =
Though cetaceans have been held in captivity in both North America and Europe since the 1860s , the first being a pair of Beluga Whales in the New York museum , dolphins were first kept for paid entertainment in the Marine Studios dolphinarium founded in 1938 in St. Augustine , Florida . It was here that it was discovered that dolphins could be trained to perform tricks . Recognizing the success of Marine Studios , more dolphinariums began keeping dolphins for entertainment . In the 1960s , keeping dolphins in zoos and aquariums for entertainment purposes increased in popularity after the 1963 Flipper movie and subsequent Flipper television series . In 1966 , the first dolphin was exported to Europe . In these early days , dolphinariums could grow quickly due to a lack of legislation and lack of concern for animal welfare .
New legislation , most notably the 1972 Marine Mammal Protection Act in the United States , combined with a more critical view on animal welfare , forced many dolphinariums around the world to close . A prominent example is the United Kingdom ; in the early 1970s there were at least 36 dolphinariums and traveling dolphin shows , however , the last dolphinarium closed its doors in 1993 . The last dolphinarium in Hungary was closed in 1992 . In 2005 both Chile and Costa Rica prohibited keeping cetaceans captive . However , around 60 dolphinariums currently exist across Europe , of which 34 are within the EU . Japan , Mexico and the United States are also home to a relatively large number of dolphinariums .
= = Design = =
Many varied designs exist , but basic dolphinarium design for public performances often consists of stands for the public around a semi @-@ circular pool , sometimes with glass walls which allow underwater viewing , and a platform in the middle from which the trainers direct and present the show .
The water in the pools has to be constantly filtered to keep it clean for the dolphins and the spectators , and the temperature and composition of the water has to be controlled to match the conditions dolphins experience in the wild . In the absence of a common international regulation , guidelines regarding the minimum size of the pools vary between countries . To give an indication of pool sizes , the European Association for Aquatic Mammals recommends that a pool for five dolphins should have a surface area of 275 m2 ( 2 @,@ 960 sq ft ) plus an additional 75 m2 ( 810 sq ft ) for every additional animal , have a depth of 3 @.@ 5 m ( 11 ft ) and have a water volume of at least 1 @,@ 000 m3 ( 35 @,@ 000 cu ft ) with an additional 200 m3 ( 7 @,@ 100 cu ft ) for every additional animal . If two of these three conditions are met , and the third is not more than 10 % below standard , the EAAM considers the pool size to be acceptable .
= = Animals = =
= = = Species = = =
Various species of dolphins are kept in captivity as well as several other small whale species such as Harbour Porpoises , Finless Porpoises and Belugas , though in those cases the word dolphinarium may not be fitting as these are not true dolphins . Bottlenose Dolphins are the most common species of dolphin kept in dolphinariums as they are relatively easy to train , have a long lifespan in captivity and a friendly appearance . Hundreds if not thousands of Bottlenose Dolphins live in captivity across the world , though exact numbers are hard to determine . Orcas are well known for their performances in shows , but the number of Orcas kept in captivity is very small , especially when compared to the number of bottlenose dolphins , with only 44 captive orcas being held in aquaria as of 2012 . Of all Orcas kept in captivity , the majority are located in the various SeaWorld parks in the United States . Other species kept in captivity are Spotted Dolphins , False Killer Whales , Pilot Whales and Common Dolphins , Commerson 's Dolphins , as well as Rough @-@ toothed Dolphins , but all in much lower numbers than the Bottlenose Dolphin . There are also fewer than ten , Amazon River Dolphins , Risso 's Dolphins , Spinner Dolphins , or Tucuxi in captivity . Two unusual and very rare hybrid dolphins known as Wolphins are kept at the Sea Life Park in Hawaii , which are a cross between a Bottlenose Dolphin and a False Killer Whale . Also two Common / Bottlenose hybrids reside in captivity : one at Discovery Cove and the other SeaWorld San Diego .
= = = Trade and capture = = =
In the early days , many Bottlenose dolphins were wild @-@ caught off the coast of Florida . Though the Marine Mammal Protection Act , established in 1972 , allows an exception for the collection of dolphins for public display and research purposes when a permit is obtained , Bottlenose dolphins have not been captured in American waters since 1989 . In most Western countries , breeding programs have been set up to provide the dolphinariums with new animals . To achieve a sufficient birth rate and to prevent inbreeding , artificial insemination ( AI ) is occasionally used . The use of AI also allows dolphinariums to increase the genetic diversity of their population without having to bring in any dolphins from other facilities .
The trade of dolphins is regulated by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora ( also known as the Washington Convention or CITES ) . Endangered dolphin species are included in CITES ’ Appendix I , in which case trade is permitted only in exceptional circumstances . Species considered not to be threatened with extinction are included in Appendix II , in which case trade “ must be controlled in order to avoid utilization incompatible with their survival ” . Most cetacean species traded for display in captivity to the public or for use in swimming with dolphins and other interaction programs are listed on Appendix II .
However , live dolphins trade still continues . A live Bottlenose Dolphin is estimated to be worth between a few thousand to several tens of thousands of US dollars , depending on age , condition and prior training . Captures are reported to be on the rise in the South Pacific and the Caribbean , Cuba has also been an exporter of dolphins in recent years , this being organized by the Acuario Nacional de Cuba . In recent years , the Solomon Islands have also allowed the collection and export of dolphins for public display facilities . A 2005 law banned the export of dolphins , however , this ban was seemingly overturned in 2007 when some 28 dolphins were shipped to Dubai . Some , mainly Japanese , dolphinariums obtain their dolphins from local drive hunts , though several other countries in Asia also import dolphins from Japan . Several American dolphinariums had also done so . This practice was halted in 1993 , when the US National Marine Fisheries Service refused a permit for Marine World Africa USA to import four False Killer Whales caught in a Japanese drive hunt .
= = Criticism = =
= = = Animal welfare = = =
Many animal welfare groups such as the World Animal Protection consider keeping dolphins in captivity to be a form of animal abuse . The main arguments are that dolphins do not have enough freedom of movement in pools , regardless of pool size , ( in the wild , dolphins swim hundreds of miles every day ) and do not get enough stimulation . Dolphins often show repetitive behavior in captivity and sometimes become aggressive towards other animals or people . In some cases , the behavior of dolphins in captivity also results in their own death .
The lifespan of dolphins in captivity is another subject of debate . Research has shown that Orcas indeed have a much lower survival rate in captivity ; however , there is no significant difference between wild and captive survival rates for Bottlenose dolphins . This does not , however , reflect a global state of affairs : for example , Bottlenose dolphins in captive facilities in Jamaica suffer from extremely high mortality rates .
Some scientists suggest that the " unusually high " intelligence of dolphins means that they should be recognized as " non @-@ human persons " . In 2013 , the Indian Ministry of Environment and Forests prohibited the captivity of dolphins on these grounds , finding it " morally unacceptable to keep them captive for entertainment purpose " .
= Hadong Ambush =
The Hadong Ambush was an engagement between United States and North Korean forces , occurring on July 27 , 1950 , in the village of Hadong in southern South Korea , early in the Korean War . The fight ended in a North Korean victory following a successful ambush of US forces which resulted in heavy American casualties .
The US Army 's 3rd Battalion , 29th Infantry Regiment , a newly formed unit consisting mostly of inexperienced new arrivals , was ordered to move to the South Korean village of Hadong to hold the pass there from advancing forces of the North Korean People 's Army . Unprepared for combat , the American forces walked into an ambush in which most of the battalion 's command staff was killed in the pass , leaving lower @-@ ranking soldiers to mount a disorganized defence against North Korean troops occupying prepared positions on higher ground .
For three hours the battalion fought , pinned in a crossfire by North Korean soldiers on higher ground . North Korean forces were able to divide the American force and kill most of its commanders , further disorganizing the men . Following the failed operation , the wounded US commander ordered a withdrawal , which quickly became disorganized , resulting in hundreds of casualties . Destroyed after its first engagement , the 3rd Battalion , 29th Infantry Regiment was disbanded and merged with other units as the North Korean forces advanced through the pass and attacked US positions to the east .
= = Background = =
= = = Outbreak of war = = =
Following the invasion of the Republic of Korea ( South Korea ) by its northern neighbor , the Democratic People 's Republic of Korea ( North Korea ) , and the subsequent outbreak of the Korean War as a result , the United Nations decided to commit troops to the conflict on behalf of South Korea . The United States subsequently sent ground forces to the Korean peninsula with the goal of fighting back the North Korean invasion and to prevent South Korea from collapsing . However , US forces in the Far East had been steadily decreasing since the end of World War II in 1945 , and at the time the closest forces were the 24th Infantry Division of the Eighth United States Army , which was headquartered in Japan . The division was understrength , and most of its equipment was antiquated due to reductions in military spending . Regardless , the 24th Infantry Division was ordered into South Korea .
The 24th Infantry Division was the first US unit sent into Korea with the mission to take the initial " shock " of North Korean advances , delaying much larger North Korean units to buy time to allow follow @-@ on forces to arrive . The division was consequently outnumbered and outgunned for several weeks as it attempted to delay the North Koreans , making time for the 7th Infantry Division , 25th Infantry Division , 1st Cavalry Division , and other Eighth Army supporting units to move into position . South Korean forces in the meantime were systematically defeated and forced south along Korea 's east coast , with entire divisions being overrun by the North Koreans ' superior firepower and equipment . Advance elements of the 24th Infantry Division were badly defeated in the Battle of Osan on July 5 , during the first battle between American and North Korean forces . For the first month after the defeat of Task Force Smith , 24th Infantry Division soldiers were repeatedly defeated and forced south by the North Korean force 's superior numbers and equipment . The regiments of the 24th Infantry Division were systematically pushed south in battles around Chochiwon , Chonan , and Pyongtaek . The 24th Infantry Division made a final stand in the Battle of Taejon , being almost completely destroyed but delaying North Korean forces from advancing until July 20 . By that time , the Eighth Army 's force of combat troops were roughly equal to North Korean forces attacking the region at around 70 @,@ 000 for each side , with new UN units arriving every day .
= = = Replacements arrive = = =
On July 20 , 400 hastily assembled US Army recruits arrived in Okinawa aboard the USS Walker . The inexperienced soldiers were assigned to the 29th Infantry Regiment , 2nd Infantry Division , a command that was preparing other battalions to move into Korea and to relieve the other units of the 24th Infantry Division . The new formations , now consisting mostly of soldiers who had no combat experience and grouped into two battalions , were immediately sent into Pusan . The headquarters of the regiment remained behind to form a new regiment . This regiment would originally be in charge of the defense of Okinawa but would later be rushed into Korea . The two battalions landed in Pusan on July 21 and were assigned to the 19th Infantry Regiment , 24th Infantry Division , but they retained their designations as the 1st and 3rd Battalions of the 29th Infantry Regiment . Instead of being given time to train and prepare to enter the front lines , the battalions were immediately sent to the regiment 's sector at Chinju . By July 22 the units were on the front lines with new equipment . The equipment , fresh from production lines , was not prepared for combat , despite promises from several commanders that the unit would be given time to do so .
= = Battle = =
American planners believed that the Hadong area was under attack from elements of the North Korean 4th Infantry Division , having just received replacements following its victory at Taejon . However , the soldiers in the area were actually from the North Korean 6th Infantry Division under the command of General Pang Ho San . The two divisions were coordinating to envelop the UN 's left flank and were extremely spread out . Therefore , only groups of a few hundred were advancing through the region , some with small numbers of tanks .
= = = Arrival = = =
Immediately after arrival , the commanding officer of the 19th Infantry Regiment , Colonel Ned D. Moore , ordered the 3rd Battalion , 29th Infantry Regiment to move out and seize the Hadong pass , a road junction 35 miles ( 56 km ) southwest of Chinju , where about 500 North Korean soldiers were reported to be moving . Eighth Army had also received reports that the North Koreans had been fighting South Korean police who were resisting in the village of Hadong , one mile west of the pass . The battalion commander , Lieutenant Colonel Harold W. Mott , alerted his troops , and at 0030 on July 26 , the battalion departed alone on its mission . It had a strength of 925 men . The battalion was to hold the pass , a southern route into Pusan , from any advancing North Korean forces . Hadong was seen as a significant path into Chinju , despite its lack of defenses .
The North Koreans , in the meantime , advanced to Hadong and captured the village which was lightly defended by a group of South Korean police , as no military was available due to manpower shortages . The Koreans , members of the NK 6th Division , set up in roads east of the village and began sending probes and scout parties to the east . The move was part of a larger coordinated operation by the 6th Division to take Chinju , and then Masan , in hopes of flanking the UN lines at their vulnerable southern limit . Thinking the UN units were disorganized and suffering low morale , NK 6th Division commander General Pang Ho San ordered his forces to aggressively advance to Chinju as quickly as possible .
Accompanying the 3rd Battalion was South Korean Major General Chae Byong Duk , South Korea 's Army Chief of Staff who had been relieved after the fall of Seoul . Having fallen out of favor with the South Korean command , Chae was to be an interpreter and guide for 3rd Battalion on its mission . He accompanied the battalion with only a few of his aides . The battalion was forced to take several detours through Konyang because of impassable roads , and it was delayed in its arrival to Hadong . Shortly before dawn , the troops encountered a truck of 15 South Korean militia who claimed they were the remains of a 400 @-@ man unit that had been wiped out by North Korean forces in the area . Mott sent his executive officer back to the command post to ask Moore for further instructions , and Moore ordered them to proceed with the mission . Because the battalion had no radio equipment it was forced to send a runner to relay this information , and he returned by nightfall , forcing the battalion to encamp in the village of Hoengchon , 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) west of Hadong , for the night .
= = = Ambush = = =
At 0845 on July 27 the battalion moved out towards the Hadong pass , arriving within an hour . When it was within 1 @,@ 000 yards ( 910 m ) of the pass , L Company at the head of the formation spotted a North Korean patrol . The company 's heavy weapons were fired at the patrol , forcing it to withdraw but causing no casualties . L Company then rushed the pass and dug in at 0930 , waiting for a scheduled airstrike on the village of Hadong 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) to the west at 0945 . Behind L Company was the battalion command group , followed by K and M Companies , with I Company covering the rear . The battalion 's command group , including Mott , Chae and most of the senior officers , approached the pass as L Company took cover on the left side of the road . As they approached the pass , a company of North Korean soldiers was spotted up the road , part of a scouting party looking to probe further east . L Company was preparing to ambush the North Koreans when they got closer , but before this could happen , Chae called out to the Koreans demanding they identify themselves . The North Koreans immediately ducked for cover in the ditches on the side of the road , and L Company opened fire on them .
Immediately the American forces were hit with machine gun and mortar fire from the north ridge , where North Korean troops had been dug in . The first burst of machine gun fire killed Chae and wounded most of the other commanders , including Mott . Mott managed to make it to the ditch where American forces dug him a foxhole , but soon after all the Americans in his vicinity were killed or withdrew and he was left alone and unable to communicate with the rest of the battalion . North Korean forces had the US battalion in a crossfire on higher ground , both from the pass and from the ridge . Mortar fire knocked out many parked vehicles , including the radio jeep of a US Air Force tactical air @-@ control party which was to direct airstrikes . During the fight two flights of US aircraft flew over the area trying in vain to contact the party , and when unable to do so , left the area without making any strikes .
The 3rd Battalion had walked into a prepared North Korean ambush , suffering a bombardment of mortar and machine gun fire from prepared and hidden North Korean positions , and almost its entire command group was eliminated within a minute of the first shot being fired . L Company , at the pass , was heavily engaged with the North Korean forces higher on the hill . The company 's 1st Platoon sustained a direct assault on its foxholes , with two members of the company killed by bayonets . L Company was separated from the rest of the battalion by North Korean forces advancing on its position further up the ridge . K Company attempted to move up to relieve it but was unable to do so . However , the company held in place . Meanwhile , I Company began moving up the hill to provide support . North Korean forces were able to cut the battalion into disorganized groups , with L Company engaging forces in the pass and I Company under attack from forces on the north ridge behind them . By noon , the North Korean forces on the higher ground had enveloped the American forces .
= = = American withdrawal = = =
At 1200 , Mott was brought to the position of L Company commander Captain George F. Sharra . Mott ordered Sharra to take command and organize a retreat . Sharra ordered his three platoons to withdraw . A battalion of North Korean soldiers began moving down the pass towards the American positions . Men of I Company were forced to withdraw through rice paddies south of the pass , being strafed by mortar and machine gun fire in the process . They also had to cross a 20 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) -wide stream in the retreat , and some drowned in the process . Most of the Americans were forced to discard weapons , equipment and clothing in the retreat . Many of the men of L Company , as well as some of the wounded , were able to evacuate by truck .
Survivors from 3rd Battalion disengaged from the battle in groups . The largest group of 97 survivors moved 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) south to the small port of Noryangjin where a fishing vessel carried them out to a South Korean patrol boat . Other groups of soldiers escaped into the hills while some had to fight their way back to Chinju . Most of the battalion 's officers were casualties in the fight , and the scattered and disorganized retreat destroyed the battalion . Stragglers continued to wander into the 19th Infantry 's lines throughout the rest of the day .
= = Aftermath = =
More than half of the American battalion was lost during its first engagement . Only 354 members of the battalion , including some walking wounded , were able to report for duty the next day . A captured North Korean soldier reported that around 100 men had been captured at Hadong . A later search uncovered 313 American bodies , most along the river and in the rice paddies south of the pass . Official casualties for the Americans in the battle were 242 killed , 135 wounded , 51 captured , and 67 missing , for a total of 495 casualties . However , two of the prisoners died in captivity and all but four of the missing were found dead , leaving the total number killed during the battle at 307 . Over 30 vehicles and practically all of the soldiers ' weapons used by 3rd Battalion were lost . Casualties of North Korean forces could not be estimated by the American units .
The shattered 3rd Battalion traveled back to Chinju to join the 19th Infantry Regiment . There it was disbanded and its remaining men were assigned to the 19th Infantry Regiment , which itself had suffered heavy losses . Meanwhile , the 1st Battalion , 29th Infantry was sent to Anui to the north , where it was attacked and pushed back repeatedly by the North Korean 4th Infantry Division . On July 31 , the North Korean 6th Infantry Division struck Chinju , pushing back the 19th Infantry Regiment and the 3rd Battalion , 29th Infantry , forcing them to withdraw east . This left the southern entries to Pusan open , but the North Korean 6th Division was unable to exploit it due to its extended supply line . The 6th Division eventually advanced further east , attempting to capture the city of Masan , but newly reorganized troops of the US Army repulsed them and inflicted heavy casualties on them less than a week later during the Battle of the Notch .
= The Boat Race 1859 =
The 16th Boat Race took place on 15 April 1859 . Held annually , the event is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . In extremely rough conditions , and after Cambridge 's request for a postponement was rejected , Oxford won as Cambridge sank , the first time in the history of the event that one of the crews did not complete the course .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having defeated Oxford by seven @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths in the previous year 's race . They led overall with nine wins to Oxford 's six .
For the 1859 race , Oxford instigated a new method of crew selection : trial eights . Prior to this , the selection of crew was made on the recommendations of the College boat club captains . Oxford boat club president John Arkell remarked " it will not do to trust too much the jugdment ( sic ) of the College captains . " Following a race between the two trial eights , the final crew was selected eight weeks prior to the race . Cambridge would not introduce this selection method until the 1868 race . Oxford began training on 14 March with an outing almost every day between then and 13 April . Cambridge , on the other hand , arrived in London six days before the race and made just three outings on the Thames . The race was umpired by Joseph William Chitty who had rowed for Oxford twice in 1849 ( in the March and December races ) and the 1852 race .
= = Crews = =
Oxford saw the return of three former Blues in Lane , Risley and Arkell , all of whom rowed in the 1858 race . Cambridge welcomed back five former rowers , including Archibald Levin Smith who had rowed in both the 1857 and 1858 races . Oxford 's crew weighed an average of 11 st 8 @.@ 75 lb ( 73 @.@ 6 kg ) , approximately 3 @.@ 25 pounds ( 1 @.@ 47 kg ) per man more than their opponents .
= = Race = =
The weather was inclement , with the sky overcast by heavy clouds and gale @-@ force winds ; according to a report in The Times , " it would not have been easy to pitch on a more unfavourable day for an eight @-@ oared race " . Although Cambridge were pre @-@ race favourites , they requested a postponement because of the conditions . Oxford refused the request ; Cambridge lost the toss and were handed the Surrey station for the start . The Middlesex station provided Oxford considerable relief from the rough water and wind .
Oxford 's boat was heavily criticised : " it was everything but what was right " , but it became quickly apparent that the Cambridge boat was too light for the conditions , and began taking on water from the moment it left the shore . Oxford made a good start and after the first mile , were two @-@ to @-@ three lengths ahead of Cambridge . Conditions soon worsened : some of the steamboats in the flotilla following the crews looked " bound to capsize " . By Hammersmith Bridge the Cambridge boat was " ankle deep in water " and was sinking under the rough water . Oxford took the opportunity to extend their lead and pulled away from their opponents and the boats following . As Cambridge 's vessel sank opposite The White Hart pub at Mortlake , some crew were picked up by boats , others swam to the shore .
Oxford recorded a winning time of 24 minutes and 4 seconds and took the overall record to 9 – 7 in favour of Cambridge . It was the first time in the event 's history that a boat sank .
= Number 1 ( Goldfrapp song ) =
" Number 1 " is an electronic – dance song performed by British group Goldfrapp . The song was written and produced by Alison Goldfrapp and Will Gregory for the duo 's third album Supernature ( 2005 ) . The song features a synthesizer and bass arrangement and was written about the importance and meaningfulness that somebody shares with another , despite that it might not necessarily last .
The song was released as the album 's second single in October 2005 to positive reviews from music critics . It was a commercial success , reaching the top forty on the majority of the charts it entered , and topped the U.S. dance chart . The song has been remixed a number of times and was featured in advertising campaigns for the U.S. retail company Target .
= = Background and writing = =
" Number 1 " is a mid @-@ tempo electronic love song about the importance and meaningfulness that somebody shares with another , despite that it might not necessarily last . The song was composed as a collaborative effort between Alison Goldfrapp and Will Gregory in late 2004 in the countryside of Bath , England . The song was written and recorded while Goldfrapp and Gregory were jamming in the recording studio , bouncing song ideas off each other . According to Goldfrapp , the song 's lyrics are " a little bit more reflective and sensual " than those she had composed on Felt Mountain ( 2000 ) and Black Cherry ( 2003 ) .
" Number 1 " is written in the common verse @-@ chorus form and features instrumentation from synthesizers and a bass guitar . It contains a synth and bass arrangement that the duo would use frequently on the rest of Supernature . Most of the song was composed on an old Roland String synth keyboard because Goldfrapp enjoyed the sounds that it exudes .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Number 1 " was directed by Dawn Shadforth and filmed in London , England in 2005 . The video is set in a plastic surgery clinic where the staff and the patients , except Alison Goldfrapp , have a dog 's head and a human body . The video 's theme is a reference to the song 's lyrics in which Goldfrapp sings " I 'm like a dog to get you " . The video depicts the story of a white poodle who is being operated on by Great Dane and Yorkshire Terrier surgeons ( the receptionist and attendant nurses are saluki ) . Scenes of Alison Goldfrapp acting like a dog and dancing with the clinic 's staff are intercut throughout the video .
The video premiered in the UK in early October 2005 . The complete version of " Number 1 " featured in the music video has been released commercially through CD singles and digital downloads , and some include remixes by Alan Braxe and Fred Falke .
= = Marketing and release = =
In October 2005 , Goldfrapp performed " Number 1 " on British television shows and toured Europe , playing the single and other new songs . The duo performed only one concert in North America at the Nokia Theatre in New York City on 5 December 2005 . The U.S. concert sold out rapidly , which overwhelmed Goldfrapp who did not expect the large turnout . In late 2006 , " Number 1 " was featured in Christmas advertising campaigns for the U.S. retail company Target . The song , along with " Fly Me Away " , was featured in six winter @-@ themed television commercials .
" Number 1 " was released as a various formats throughout the world . While most territories received a CD single and digital download release , the single was released as a vinyl single in November 2005 in the UK . A DVD single was also issued and included the " Postcards from the Summer " music video and a special performance film for " Satin Chic " .
= = Critical reception = =
" Number 1 " received positive reviews from music critics . MusicOMH.com 's Michael Hubbard described it as a " warmer , calmer and cosier " song than previous single " Ooh La La " , and wrote that " it maintains those Numanoid synth riffs that Goldfrapp now do so well " . Allmusic gave the song a strong review , indicating it as a track pick from the album , commenting that " Number 1 " " nails the laid @-@ back sexiness that many of the other slower songs [ on Supernature ] attempt " . Stylus Magazine gave Supernature a C + rating but called the song " refreshing and effective " , while About.com wrote that the track was " a stunning profession of love served up over electronic burbles and bouncy bass . "
= = Chart performance = =
" Number 1 " entered the UK Singles Chart on 7 November 2005 at number nine , remaining on the chart for four weeks . Outside of the UK , the song was also successful . It reached number twenty @-@ nine in Ireland and became Goldfrapp 's second top fifty single on the singles chart . The song reached the top forty in Italy and the top one @-@ hundred in Germany .
In Canada , the song was released on 1 November 2005 , and debuted at number twelve on the singles chart before rising to number seven eighteen weeks later . Although the single sold considerably , " Number 1 " did not chart on the Canadian BDS Airplay chart , receiving most of its sales from its fans in the dance clubs . Due to favourable reception , " Number 1 " was released in the United States . Goldfrapp had previously found success in the dance clubs with " Strict Machine " ( 2003 ) , and " Number 1 " became their second consecutive release to reach the top of the Billboard Dance Chart . The song also reached number one on the Hot Dance Airplay and Hot Dance Singles Sales charts .
= = Alternate versions = =
Alan Braxe and Fred Falke made the most well @-@ known remix of the song , titled the " Alan Braxe and Fred Falke Main Mix " , which was included on the CD single . The track , over seven minutes long , uses Goldfrapp 's original vocals and features more prominent beats and synthesizers . The remix received mixed reviews from music critics . Stylus Magazine labeled it one of the " best club mixes " , while Pop Journalism Magazine called the remix " dismal " and a poor choice . Braxe and Falk also created two other remixes , " Alan Braxe and Fred Falke Club Remix " and " Alan Braxe and Fred Falke Instrumental Remix " , which appeared on the UK vinyl single . Icelandic electronic group Múm created the " Múm Remix " , which provided the song with a minimalist ambient sound . The remix was included on Goldfrapp 's remix album We Are Glitter in 2006 , and the home console version of the dancing video game Dance Dance Revolution SuperNOVA 2 in 2007 . A cover version by Jont appears on the 2007 compilation album , The Saturday Sessions : The Dermot O 'Leary Show .
= = Formats and track listings = =
These are the formats and track listings of major single releases of " Number 1 " .
= = Credits and personnel = =
The following people contributed to " Number 1 " :
Alison Goldfrapp – lead vocals , backing vocals , synthesizer
Will Gregory – synthesizer
Nick Batt – synthesizer , programming
Dave Bascombe - vocal arrangement
Mark " Spike " Stent – mixing
Ted Jensen – mastering
= = Charts = =
= Barryville – Shohola Bridge =
The Barryville – Shohola Bridge is the fifth generation of bridges constructed over the Delaware River at the communities of Shohola Township , Pennsylvania and Barryville , New York . The bridge serves both communities , with two major state legislative highways , Pennsylvania Traffic Route 434 and New York State Touring Route 55 ( along with the co @-@ designation of Sullivan County Route 11 ) . The bridge itself is 812 feet ( 247 m ) long and is 23 feet ( 7 @.@ 0 m ) wide , using four total spans across the river . It is maintained by the NY – PA Joint Interstate Bridge Commission , which is jointly owned by the states of New York and Pennsylvania .
The area of the bridge itself dates as a ford for Native Americans , mostly the Lenni Lenapi , traveling between from the Wyoming valley and Delaware Valley and present @-@ day Connecticut in the early 18th century ; archaeologists date human habitation and use of the area to 10 @,@ 900 BCE . The river at Shohola , which means " place of peace , " widens perceptibly above the falls , allowing for a natural , shallow crossing . By the early 19th century , a ferry facilitated crossing the river . Due to the construction of the nearby Delaware and Hudson Canal in 1827 , commerce and business boomed in the area . In 1856 , a bridge company , under the leadership of Chauncey Thomas , constructed a span between the two communities , but it was poorly designed and collapsed during a windstorm in 1859 . Thomas then constructed a suspension bridge , but its cables snapped in 1865 .
In 1866 , the bridge was reconstructed as a two @-@ lane , single span wooden suspension structure and remained in use for over seventy years . Ownership changed several times , eventually ending with the bridge in the control of the Joint Delaware River Bridge Commission . The bridge was replaced again in 1941 for $ 174 @,@ 300 ( 1941 USD ( $ 2 @,@ 804 @,@ 200 in 2016 ) ) , with a steel truss span . This structure lasted another sixty @-@ five years , finally deteriorating until the demolition of the structure in 2007 , upon completion of the new bridge .
= = Early history = =
Originally the site of a ford , the area was used by the Lenni Lenape and Delawares on their way to and from the shores of present @-@ day Long Island Sound . The original trail followed the Shohola Creek , where it enters the Delaware , to a location along the eastern bank of the river near Shohola . By the end of the 18th century , European settlers operated a ferry near the current span , crossing between Shohola to a settlement on the opposite bank , that later became Barryville . The 1827 construction of the Delaware and Hudson Canal and the subsequent construction of the Erie Railroad in 1849 ) accentuated the need for a bridge to accommodate the increase in population and business in the area .
= = First two spans ( 1856 – 1865 ) = =
As the need for a bridge from Shohola to Barryville grew , the Shohola and Barryville Bridge Company , formed in 1854 , planned the construction of the first bridge . The company 's president , Chauncey Thomas , attempted to hire John Augustus Robeling , a bridge expert , who was building a bridge in the Niagara region of New York and Canada ( which came to be known as the Niagara Falls Suspension Bridge ) , which was to be built as an 821 feet ( 250 m ) two @-@ deck span over the Niagara River , and who had completed successful spans over the rivers in Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania .
Roebling declined the offer but gave Thomas verbal and written instructions on its construction during a visit to the Niagara construction site . Thomas returned to Shohola and supervised the construction himself , using some inexperienced local men he hired . A respected historian , John Willard Johnston , who knew Chauncey Thomas personally , visited the bridge and told the owner at the time that Thomas was very inexperienced in bridge construction . The result of the construction was a 10 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) wide , double @-@ span bridge that was 495 feet ( 151 m ) long but which had no underlying span support . The bridge stood 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) above the waters of the Delaware to avoid flooding , and cost a total of $ 9 @,@ 000 ( 1856 USD ( $ 237 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) . The rapid growth of the area due to the construction of the Canal and the Erie Railroad meant the bridge was immediately in heavy use .
Thomas ' wire @-@ rope span bridge was damaged by a severe wind storm on July 2 , 1859 , exactly three years after it opened . The storm , which destroyed almost the entire bridge , was not a singular experience . Wind storms often build in the river valley , bring strong winds down the valley against weaker pressure systems to the south and east . A man and a woman who were crossing the bridge were injured when it collapsed . The local ferry , which had been out of commission for only three years , was still in good condition and re @-@ fitted for use in 1859 , to operate along the remaining abutments and piers that survived the storm .
The bridge was rebuilt quickly , again under the supervision of Thomas , who was still company president . Thomas was able to complete the bridge , and ended up raising a total cost for construction of $ 4 @,@ 000 ( 1859 USD ( $ 105 @,@ 300 in 2016 ) ) ) , an expedient necessitated by the lack of funds in the company treasury . Shortly after the new construction , Thomas was replaced by James E. Gardner as company president ; Gardner died soon after his election , and was succeeded by Napoleon B. Johnson . Johnson ran the bridge company well , and remained as president of the corporation for several years . However , on January 1 , 1865 , the cables snapped under the weight of mules and wagons , and the entire bridge fell into the river , injuring the wagoners , and drowning three of the mules . Once again , ferries filled the needs that were previously fulfilled by the suspension bridge .
= = Third span ( 1866 – 1939 ) = =
With the second span of the Barryville – Shohola Suspension Bridge having fallen into the Delaware River in 1865 , the bridge company that maintained the span fell into a financial depression . After the destruction of the second span , company president Johnson had borrowed money for the company itself that he was unable to pay back . In 1865 , company had no funds to repair the partially collapsed bridge , nor credit to borrow any . The former president Chauncey Thomas bought the bankrupt company in a sheriff 's sale for $ 1 @,@ 979 ( 1865 USD ( $ 30 @,@ 600 in 2016 ) ) . Thomas was now the sole owner of the wrecked bridge .
To repair the bridge , Thomas would need to receive and pay more money , and he did . Along with the complete repair in 1866 , another pier was added to increase the stability of the weak structure . The 1866 construction was considerably stronger , compared to the two previous spans , due to major renovations . The old cables that snapped had been replaced by newer , stronger ones . Thomas also gave the span a new deck floor , a bridge railing and new stringers . The bridge was much better cared for this time around , as it also survived a local flood in 1903 and an icestorm in the early months of spring 1904 .
Chauncey Thomas died at his home in Shohola on October 5 , 1882 , sixteen years after the new bridge was repaired . Since Thomas had never written a will , estate and property were divided between his children and his grandchildren . A friend to the Thomas family , Stephen St. John Gardiner , became the administrator of the estate . With the job , Gardiner was able to buy the bridge . He became controller and majority of the bridge 's stock .
By the start of the 20th century , regional economic conditions changed . The Delaware and Hudson Canal Company had closed , as had local logging and mining companies . Shohola and Barryville had become summer resorts and the now @-@ aging antique bridge had become a local picturesque attraction for out @-@ of @-@ town visitors . On June 26 , 1920 , the suspension bridge was bought by the Joint Bridge Commission of Pennsylvania and New York for $ 22 @,@ 600 @.@ 00 ( 1923 USD ( $ 267 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) ) . Half of the $ 22 @,@ 600 @.@ 00 was to be paid for by the state of New York , the other by Pennsylvania . The toll that was used on the span was removed . The single @-@ lane , aging structure , now owned by the commission , served the local residents well into the new century . However , the old age of the bridge showed on the bridge itself . In 1939 , the commission closed off the structurally deficient bridge to traffic , and began looking into ways to build a new bridge in the area . In 1940 , the bridge was reopened for light , local car traffic. but demolished in 1941 , when the fourth and then @-@ newest span of the bridge was opened .
= = Fourth span ( 1941 – 2007 ) = =
The Joint Bridge Commission of Pennsylvania and New York hired the Whittaker and Diehl Company in early of 1941 to construct a $ 174 @,@ 300 ( 1941 USD ( $ 2 @,@ 804 @,@ 200 in 2016 ) ) steel , two @-@ lane truss bridge to replace the aging structure .
With the construction , there was a tunnel built on the Pennsylvania side for the Erie Railroad line that went nearby . This helped end the constant traffic jams and accidents caused by the railroad crossing . This bridge was slightly downriver from the former spans . The bridge itself was 742 @.@ 12 feet ( 226 @.@ 20 m ) long , consisted of three spans , and was 22 feet ( 6 @.@ 7 m ) wide . It had an average daily traffic rate of 1 @,@ 635 people in 2004 . Replacing the fourth bridge , according to the United States Department of Transportation , would cost about $ 5 @,@ 628 @,@ 000 ( 2006 USD , $ 6 @,@ 183 @,@ 700 in 2016 ) ) .
The fourth span went into commission just days before Attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941 . After the United States entered World War II , construction and reconstruction in the area had ended , while the nation transformed into a war economy. and the residents had received their new bridge span just in time . The bridge structure lasted through World War II and several river floods . The bridge lasted for several decades , until the start of the 21st century , when plans were made to replace the deteriorating truss structure .
= = Fifth span ( 2007 – present ) = =
With the deterioration of the fourth span , the bridge commission and the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation started construction on a $ 9 @.@ 38 million ( 2007 USD ( $ 10 @,@ 704 @,@ 700 in 2016 ) ) concrete bridge with steel beams connecting Traffic Route 434 on the Pennsylvania side ( assigned in 1967 ) and Touring Route 55 / Sullivan County Route 11 ( assigned in 1930 ) . The construction began on February 2004 , and since there was no place to perform a groundbreaking ceremony , the construction company hired , Fahs Construction Group of Binghamton , New York performed a " bridge @-@ breaking " ceremony on March 25 , 2004 , taking sledgehammers to the bridge . The bridge was expected to have resemble the Roebling Aqueduct , which lay to the north in Minisink Ford , New York . The bridge was proposed to be 812 feet ( 247 m ) with twin 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) travel lanes and an 8 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) shoulder . It was to also have three balconies facing upstream of the Delaware River , to offer travelers scenic views .
A number of difficulties and unforeseen circumstances delayed construction . First , the Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission had been conducting archaeological digs in the area since 1996 , and had found a variety of artifacts dating from the Clovis period , with radio carbon age dating around 10 @,@ 900 BCE , making them one of the oldest sites in the eastern United States ; the sites also includes evidence of food , making it one of the rarer paleolithic finds . The next circumstance was that there was worry that the construction of the bridge might affect the river ecosystem , particularly some of the river water organisms . After some regulations were added and problems were sorted out , the construction continued . The third issue was that the bridge may run into problems with boaters , and therefore , the bridge was given the same regulations as bridges upstream . Finally , the Delaware 's low water level meant that barges could not be used in the construction . When Hurricane Ivan struck in 2004 , the water level rose , allowing for the use of the barges , but destroying several construction items used for the bridge in the process .
The bridge , which had an estimated completion in the autumn of 2006 according to the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation , was opened on @-@ time in October 26 , 2006 . This closed the old 1940 structure from use , coned off from Route 434 and Route 55 . Once abutment work was finished , the now Fahs @-@ Rolson Construction Company began demolishing the old structure . However , unfinished paving work was completed in October 2007 . The total cost for the replacement project came out in 2009 at $ 11 @.@ 62 million ( 2007 USD ( $ 12 @,@ 816 @,@ 800 in 2016 ) ) .
The bridge had temporary fencing and new walkways along a six @-@ lane span , with locals saying that the stone structure fitting into the looks of the scenic Delaware River Valley . The old bridge was demolished after construction completed .
= Ahmed Zayat =
Ahmed Zayat ( born August 31 , 1962 ) is an Egyptian American entrepreneur and owner of Thoroughbred race horses . He currently serves as the CEO of Zayat Stables , LLC , a Thoroughbred horse racing business which bred and owns the 2015 Triple Crown winner American Pharoah . Joe Drape of The New York Times described Zayat as " controversial " and " one of the most successful and flamboyant owners in thoroughbred racing . "
Zayat was born in Cairo , Egypt to a wealthy family , and grew up in an ethnically @-@ diverse neighborhood where he learned to ride horses . At age 18 , he moved to the United States where he attended college and ultimately obtained a master 's degree in business and public health from Boston University . After a brief career in commercial real estate in New York City , he returned to Egypt , and for about a decade ran the Al @-@ Ahram Beverages Company , which he owned as part of an investment group . After the company was purchased by Heineken in 2002 , Zayat stayed on a few more years but also began investing in racehorses and established Zayat Stables in 2005 . Upon returning to the United States for good in 2007 , he made his racing stables his full @-@ time occupation , working with his son , Justin , to build the business .
While generally successful with his race horses , his goal of winning the Kentucky Derby eluded him several times , including three second @-@ place finishes , until his win with American Pharoah . He also filed Chapter 11 bankruptcy proceedings in 2010 when a bank called a note due and tried to foreclose on his horses . Zayat Stables successfully completed its Chapter 11 reorganization , but Zayat was next plagued by legal issues related to his penchant for betting large sums of money on horse racing . Nonetheless , Zayat generated considerable positive publicity on social media for his efforts to save his racehorse Paynter from life @-@ threatening health problems , a successful struggle that earned the colt the 2012 NTRA Moment of the Year Award and Secretariat Vox Populi Award .
The Zayat family are Orthodox Jews . He currently lives in Teaneck , New Jersey with his wife , Joanne . They have four children : Ashley , Justin , Benjamin , and Emma . Their eldest son , Justin , helps run the Zayat Stables operation , and their youngest , Emma , inspired the name of Littleprincessemma , dam of American Pharoah .
= = Early career and personal life = =
Ahmed Zayat ( / zə 'jɑːt / ; Arabic : أحمد الزيات ) , also known as Ephraim David Zayat ( Hebrew : אפרים דוד זיאת ) , was born in Egypt in 1962 to an affluent Egyptian Jewish family and grew up an ethnically diverse neighborhood in the Cairo suburb of Maadi . His father , Alaa al @-@ Zayat , was a prominent doctor and professor of medicine , a personal physician to Anwar Sadat . His grandfather , Ahmed Hasan al @-@ Zayyat , was a leading intellectual who established the Egyptian literary magazine al @-@ Risala , described as " the most important intellectual weekly in 1930s Egypt and the Arab world . " Born into what was then a peasant family , the earlier al @-@ Zayyat studied at Al @-@ Azhar University before taking up legal studies in Cairo and Paris ; he taught Arabic literature at American University in Cairo , and for three years in Baghdad , before founding al @-@ Risala in 1933 .
As a young man , Ahmed Zayat learned to ride horses at the local country club . Zayat competed in show jumping during his early teens , winning national titles as a child in the under @-@ 12 and under @-@ 14 age divisions . He moved to the United States at the age of 18 , and earned an undergraduate degree from Yeshiva University . He obtained a master 's degree in public health administration from Boston University . Though the Zayat Stables , LLC website once stated that Zayat attended Harvard University , he did not . After graduation , he worked for Zev Wolfson , a New York City commercial real estate developer and investor . Zayat described Wolfson as " the toughest guy I ever worked for ... such a perfectionist . A great negotiator . "
Zayat returned to Egypt in 1995 and formed an investment group , which purchased the Al @-@ Ahram Beverages Company in 1997 , outbidding Anheuser @-@ Busch and Heineken International . Al @-@ Ahram had been owned by the Egyptian government and Zayat had helped find American investors to take over government @-@ owned businesses that had been nationalized by Gamal Abdel Nasser back in the 1950s . The original beer product was of poor quality , mocked as being able to " power heavy machinery if there was no diesel fuel available . " Under Zayat 's leadership , additional brands of beer were introduced , and he developed a non @-@ alcoholic beer , Fayrouz , designed specifically for the Muslim market . The company was modernized from a run @-@ down operation to a publicly traded business that sold in 2002 to Heineken International for $ 280 million , more than three times its pre @-@ acquisition valuation , in what was then the largest corporate buyout in Egyptian history .
Zayat continued to run Al @-@ Ahram until 2007 , but periodically returned to the United States , where he started buying racehorses and formed Zayat Stables in 2005 . His motivation to return to the US was , in part , to commute less and be more involved with his family and children . Upon leaving Al @-@ Ahram , he declared that he was " retiring " , but as his wife explained , " he can 't be retired for more than 15 seconds , " and he soon expanded his horse operation to include both breeding and racing stock . He still owns other business interests in Egypt , including being the majority shareholder of Misr Glass Manufacturing , which is Egypt 's largest maker of glass containers .
Zayat lives in Teaneck , New Jersey , with his wife , Joanne . The couple have four children : Ashley , Justin , Benjamin and Emma . Justin , a 2015 graduate of New York University , works closely with his father in the Zayat Stables business . While residing primarily in New Jersey , the Zayats also have residences in New York , Egypt and London . The family are Orthodox Jews ; Zayat 's Hebrew name is Ephraim ( אפרים ) , used by family and community . Zayat donates to Jewish schools and charities , including those that help special @-@ needs children . Although The New York Times has stated that Zayat has publicly identified as both Jewish and Muslim at times , his family attends Congregation Bnai Yeshurun in Teaneck , keeps the Jewish Sabbath , and observes kosher laws regarding food . When questioned about his religious affiliation , Zayat stated , " Why is it relevant , and why does it matter ? It 's personal . "
= = Zayat Stables = =
Zayat first began buying Thoroughbred race horses in 2005 . Zayat Stables owns approximately 200 horses at any one time . Zayat made a number of big @-@ ticket sales purchases early on including a horse he named Maimonides , purchased at Keeneland as a yearling in 2006 for $ 4 @.@ 6 million . In addition , Zayat paid $ 1 @.@ 6 million for the highest @-@ priced horse at the 2006 Fasig @-@ Tipton Saratoga select yearling sale , a filly by Empire Maker named Mushka , whom he resold in 2008 for $ 2 @.@ 4 million .
Maimonides was named in honor of the Jewish philosopher Maimonides , who is respected by both Jews and Muslims . At the time , Zayat explained , " If this horse was going to be a superstar , I wanted an appropriate name ... I wanted it to be pro @-@ peace , and about loving your neighbor . " Zayat also had difficulty obtaining the name from the Jockey Club , as it had been reserved by Earle I. Mack , who owned race horses and also happened to be the chairman of the board of Benjamin N. Cardozo School of Law , at Zayat 's alma mater , Yeshiva University . After Zayat donated $ 100 @,@ 000 to the school to " promote peace , " Mack released his reservation of the name . But , in the first of Zayat 's many racing disappointments , the colt 's promising racing career was cut short by injury after two races .
The horses of Zayat Stables began to earn race purses in 2006 . In 2008 , Zayat was North America 's leading owner by earnings . Zayat Stables ranked second in the nation for earnings in 2007 , third in 2009 , fourth in 2010 and fifth nationally in 2011 . Between 2006 and 2014 , Zayat Stables ranked in the top ten leading owners by purse money won in six of those years and always in the top 20 . Zayat has horses at all stages of the racing process , stallions , broodmares , young horses in training and active racing stock . His daughters were the inspiration for the names of two race horses , stakes @-@ winner Point Ashley , who in turn inspired daughter Ashley 's costume jewelry business name ; and Littleprincessemma , dam of American Pharoah . Race horse Justin Phillip was named for Justin .
The business base for the horse racing operation is Hackensack , New Jersey , but Zayat 's horses live in different locations across the US . His horse breeding stock live mostly in Kentucky , young horses are started in Florida . The racing stock have been in training with multiple trainers including Bob Baffert , Mark Casse , D. Wayne Lukas , Todd Pletcher , Dale Romans and others . Zayat Stables keeps about 30 broodmares and their foals in Kentucky along with roughly 20 yearlings . In 2015 the operation stood 13 breeding stallions at stud . Zayat typically retains a 25 % interest in the stallions he sends to stud , though in the case of Pioneerof the Nile , he kept a 75 % interest .
As of 2015 , Zayat 's horses include American Pharoah and 13 other Grade I winners . These include : 2013 Breeders ' Cup runner and 2012 Haskell Invitational winner Paynter ; 2013 Alfred G. Vanderbilt Handicap winner Justin Phillip ; 2012 Arkansas Derby winner Bodemeister ; Pioneerof the Nile who won the 2008 CashCall Futurity and 2009 Santa Anita Derby ; three @-@ time Grade I winner Zensational . He has entered horses in the Breeders ' Cup races 16 times , with his best result a fourth @-@ place finish in 2007 .
Zayat has experienced significant highs and lows in his quest for Triple Crown classic wins . Three times Zayat 's horses placed second in the Kentucky Derby . In 2009 , Zayat 's homebred Pioneerof the Nile started a streak of Zayat horses finishing second in the Kentucky Derby and other classic races when he was defeated by Mine That Bird . In 2010 , Zayat campaigned Eskendereya , winner of the Wood Memorial and considered the favorite for the Kentucky Derby . On the Sunday prior to the Derby , Eskendereya was withdrawn from the race and subsequently retired to stud due to a soft tissue injury that would have taken at least a year to heal . In 2011 , Zayat entered Nehro , who finished second to Animal Kingdom .
In 2012 , Zayat Stables ' horses Bodemeister and then Paynter ran second in each of the three legs of the Triple Crown . Bodemeister finished a narrow second place in both the Kentucky Derby and Preakness Stakes to I 'll Have Another . Switching horses in the 2012 Belmont Stakes , Zayat 's colt Paynter also finished second . Paynter went on to win the Grade I Haskell Invitational but shortly thereafter developed near @-@ fatal complications from colitis and laminitis . Zayat authorized the highest quality of care for the horse , and following abdominal surgery and several months of rehabilitation , Paynter successfully returned to racing in 2013 . After Zayat and his son Justin began making regular social media updates on Twitter with the hashtag # PowerUpPaynter , the horse developed a significant fan base , and received hundreds of get well cards , many from children . For his struggle to return to health , Paynter won NTRA Moment of the Year Award and Secretariat Vox Populi Award .
Zayat 's Triple Crown race losing @-@ streak was finally broken by American Pharoah , who won the 2015 Kentucky Derby , the 2015 Preakness Stakes , and the 2015 Belmont Stakes , becoming the first horse to win the Triple Crown since 1978 .
= = Litigation and related disputes = =
Zayat has been described as " controversial , " and " one of the most successful and flamboyant owners in thoroughbred racing " by Joe Drape of the New York Times ; his success accompanied by a number of legal controversies . His racing stable survived Chapter 11 bankruptcy proceedings , and he faced a number of legal issues associated with his penchant for betting large sums of money on horse racing .
= = = Bankruptcy = = =
In December 2009 , Zayat was sued by Fifth Third Bank for an alleged $ 34 million in unpaid loans . He had taken out multiple loans from the bank totaling over $ 38 million between 2007 and 2009 . Fifth Third alleged that Zayat was in default because he failed to make two payments in 2009 . As part of the loan package , the bank had a security interest in Zayat Stables ' horses , prize money , stallion shares and stallion income . Further , the bank added an amended provision to its later loans stating , " if Zayat Stables defaulted on any of the Notes , such default would be considered a default under all of the notes thereby entitling Fifth Third to accelerate the principal balance and all accrued interest due and owing under all of the Notes . " While Zayat paid off some of the money owed , the bank contended that he remained in default on one loan . The bank alleged that Zayat had lost $ 52 million between 2006 and 2008 , that he had not reported a previous Chapter 7 personal bankruptcy he had filed under the name Ephraim David Zayat , and the bank attempted to foreclose on his horses .
Zayat filed for Chapter 11 Bankruptcy protection in February 2010 . He stated that the problem was that the Lexington branch of the bank worked with the Thoroughbred industry and was willing to restructure his loans , while the bank 's corporate headquarters in Cincinnati wanted to get out of the equine lending business altogether . Stating that Fifth Third was " reneging on its promises , " Zayat filed a countersuit in April 2010 , alleging the bank engaged in deceptive and predatory lending practices . When he thought the bank was willing to restructure its loans , Zayat withdrew 67 horses he intended to sell at Keeneland 's 2009 September and November sales and instead purchased 24 more yearlings . He had also paid Fifth Third $ 4 @.@ 3 million from the proceeds of the sale of breeding rights to Zensational , all of which left him low on cash when the bank called in its loans . Zayat said the bank was using " scorched earth " tactics and accused it of trying to put him out of business , explaining that had he known the bank would not extend his loans , he would have sold enough horses to make his payments .
All cases were resolved with a settlement agreement in July 2010 , seven months after the initial suit was filed . Zayat agreed to pay off his unsecured creditors over two years , without interest , and pay off Fifth Third by 2014 . Zayat Stables ' creditors unanimously approved the repayment plan . Zayat owed about $ 2 @.@ 4 million to the Keeneland Association , and $ 1 @.@ 2 million to other creditors including clinics , horse transport companies , boarding farms , and trainers — among them Bob Baffert . He also owed several horse breeders for stud fees . To settle his debts with Fifth Third , he agreed to annual payments based on a percentage of horse sales and proceeds from claiming races . As part of his reorganization plan , he was to sell a number of horses , including 100 % of his Grade I @-@ winning horse Eskendereya . Ultimately , consistent with Zayat 's tendency to retain a financial interest in his stallions , he sold an undisclosed share in the stallion to Jess Jackson and retained some breeding rights . While the selling percentage and price were confidential , Zayat Stables ' reported income to the bankruptcy court for the month the deal closed was $ 7 @.@ 5 million . Zayat stated , " While Chapter 11 was a necessary step to take ... I look forward to carrying out our reorganization plan , and continuing to develop some of the best horses in the country . " Zayat Stables successfully completed the bankruptcy reorganization plan , in the process his stable went from a high of 285 horses to a census of 118 in 2012 .
= = = Gambling cases = = =
Zayat 's bankruptcy revealed other problems . His bankruptcy documents listed four loans he had made to members of the Jelinsky family . Two members of that family , Michael and Jeffrey Jelinsky , had pleaded guilty in 2009 to illegal bookmaking . As a result , the racing commissions in California and Kentucky opened investigations on Zayat ; racing licensees are not to associate with bookmakers or convicted felons . Zayat claimed that he had no knowledge of the Jelinskys ' illegal acts . He stated that he thought the brothers were professional gamblers and that they had financial need . Further , he said he loaned them money because he knew their father and that the money they owed him was unrelated to gambling ; he stated that some of the money he loaned was to assist one of the brothers with a divorce . He was cleared in both states . Although New York also stated that they were investigating , there were no news reports of any adverse action . Zayat stated that he had been visited by federal agents who played tapes where the Jelinsky brothers discussed how they had cheated Zayat out of money by giving him bad betting advice .
In an unrelated case , Zayat was mentioned in a 2013 lawsuit between Freehold Raceway and the New Jersey Sports and Exposition Authority . The plaintiffs alleged that Zayat was allowed to bet on credit , which was a violation of state law . Zayat had been betting $ 200 @,@ 000 a week through New Jersey 's online betting system , and the agency allowed him to " float " $ 286 @,@ 000 in credit , " as a courtesy . " Zayat was not a party to the lawsuit and he paid off all debts owed to the Sports Authority . The records containing Zayat 's name were later redacted , but an internal email indicated that Zayat had wagered a total of at least $ 8 @.@ 3 million .
On March 10 , 2014 , a lawsuit against Zayat was filed in the United States District Court for the District of New Jersey . The plaintiff , Howard Rubinsky , was an associate of the Jelinskys who had also pleaded guilty in the illegal betting operation . His suit alleged breach of contract , claiming that Zayat failed to pay off a $ 1 @.@ 65 million line of credit in 2004 . Rubinsky said he extended credit to Zayat with Tradewinds Sportsbook so Zayat could bet on horse races via a gambling website set up in Costa Rica . Zayat 's lawyer described the suit as " a meritless claim " , filed a motion to dismiss in 2015 alleging lack of evidence , and argued that the statute of limitations of six years had run . Zayat stated in court documents that he had met and loaned money to Rubinsky , but said , " I can say unequivocally that I did not give Mr. Rubinsky any money as payment on any debt ... I agreed to give him money because he told me he was ill and broke . " On June 4 , 2015 , a federal judge in Newark , New Jersey , dismissed Rubinsky 's lawsuit , citing both Rubinsky 's difficulty in proving his case and the expired statute of limitations . In a related matter , June 1 , 2015 , days before American Pharoah was to run in the 2015 Belmont Stakes , the New York Times reported that Rubinsky 's lawyer , Joseph Bainton , filed a $ 10 @-@ million libel suit against Zayat for comments to the press , including the characterization of Rubinsky 's other lawsuit as " extortion , a fraud and blackmail . " That suit was dismissed on August 5 , 2015 .
In a post @-@ race press conference after winning the 2015 Belmont Stakes , Zayat stated that he was so anxious about American Pharoah 's upcoming race that he neglected to bet on anything .
= Edward Puttick =
Lieutenant General Sir Edward Puttick KCB , DSO & Bar ( 26 June 1890 – 25 July 1976 ) was an officer who served with the New Zealand Military Forces during the First and Second World Wars . The first New Zealand @-@ born soldier to reach the rank of lieutenant general , he was Chief of the General Staff of the New Zealand Military Forces from 1941 to 1945 .
Born in 1890 in Timaru , Puttick served in the Territorial Force prior to the First World War . In August 1914 he was part of the Expeditionary Force that occupied German Samoa . He later served with the New Zealand Rifle Brigade during the Senussi Campaign and on the Western Front . He was commanding the 3rd Battalion of the brigade in March 1918 when he was wounded and later repatriated to New Zealand .
Puttick joined the New Zealand Staff Corps in 1919 and held a number of command and staff positions for the next 20 years . During the Second World War , he commanded the 4th Infantry Brigade in the Battle of Greece , for which he was awarded a bar to the Distinguished Service Order he had won in the previous war . Following the Allied evacuation from Greece he commanded the 2nd New Zealand Division during the subsequent Battle of Crete . In September he returned to New Zealand as Chief of General Staff , New Zealand Military Forces , and served in this capacity until late 1945 . He retired from the military the following year and died in 1976 .
= = Early life = =
The son of a railway worker from London , Edward Puttick was born in Timaru , in South Canterbury . He was educated at Waitaki Boys ' High School , after which he joined the Roads Department , as it was then known , as a draughtsman . He joined the newly formed Territorial Force in 1911 , serving as a second lieutenant in the 15th ( North Auckland ) Regiment . The following year he moved to Wellington and was transferred to the 5th ( Wellington ) Regiment .
= = First World War = =
Following the outbreak of the First World War , Puttick 's territorial regiment was designated part of the Samoa Expeditionary Force , which was raised for the Occupation of German Samoa in early August 1914 . Now with the rank of captain , he landed at Apia on 29 August . The occupation was achieved without loss of life and he spent the next several months on garrison duty before returning to New Zealand in April 1915 . On his return , he volunteered for the New Zealand Expeditionary Force ( NZEF ) which was then in the Middle East , preparing for the Gallipoli Campaign .
On arrival in Egypt , Puttick was posted to the 1st Battalion , New Zealand Rifle Brigade . He commanded ' B ' Company of the battalion during the Senussi Campaign from January to February 1916 , before being transferred to the 2nd Infantry Brigade of the newly formed New Zealand Division . He was promoted to major and appointed Staff Captain of the brigade , under the command of Brigadier General William Braithwaite . He went with the division to the Western Front in April and remained with the brigade during its settling in period in the Armentieres sector of the front . In July , prior to the start of the Somme Offensive , he was transferred back to the Rifle Brigade , and appointed second @-@ in @-@ command of its 4th Battalion .
Puttick fought in the Battle of Flers @-@ Courcelette in mid @-@ September 1916 and was mentioned in despatches for his leadership and support of his battalion commander , Colonel Charles Melvill , immediately following the battle . In December he temporarily commanded the 4th Battalion while Melvill was briefly commander of the 2nd Infantry Brigade . In June 1917 he had an extended period as temporary commander of the battalion when , during the Battle of Messines , Melvill was promoted to command of the 1st Infantry Brigade following the death of its previous commander , Brigadier General Charles Henry Brown . Puttick led the battalion through the Battle of Passchendaele until November 1917 at which time he was given command of the 3rd Battalion , New Zealand Rifle Brigade . Late in the year he was again mentioned in dispatches and on 1 January 1918 , in recognition of his service in the previous six months , he was awarded the Distinguished Service Order ( DSO ) .
On 21 March 1918 , the Germans began their Spring Offensive and the New Zealand Division was rushed to plug a gap in the front near Colincamps . On 27 March , Puttick was wounded in the chest while leading his battalion in an action designed to link up with an Australian brigade in the nearby village of Hébuterne . He was evacuated to England for treatment and after recuperating , commanded the New Zealand Rifle Brigade 's training camp in Brocton , Staffordshire . However , his wounds were such that he was eventually repatriated to New Zealand at the end of the war .
= = Interwar period = =
Shortly after Puttick 's return to New Zealand , he married Irene Lillian Dignan in Auckland . The couple would have three daughters . After being discharged from the NZEF in March 1919 , he rejoined the Roads Department . Later that year he applied to join New Zealand 's permanent military forces but was declined . He returned to the Roads Department but was seconded to the military in August 1919 . A few months later he received a commission in the New Zealand Staff Corps as a major .
In 1920 , Puttick was appointed commander of the Fiji Expeditionary Force , which had been raised following a request from the Fijian government for military forces to support local police dealing with striking labourers and farmers . The force , numbering about 55 men , was based in Fiji for two months before returning home . He then served in a number of staff positions . He was sent to England for attachment to the War Office and the same year attended the Imperial Defence College in 1937 , with the rank of colonel . He was also one of New Zealand 's representatives at the coronation of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth in Westminster Abbey . In 1938 he was appointed as Adjutant General of the New Zealand Military Forces as well as a second term as Quartermaster General , having previously served in this capacity from 1934 to 1936 .
= = Second World War = =
Puttick was commanding the Central Military District when the Second World War broke out and , as a skilled administrator , played a key role in the raising of the Second New Zealand Expeditionary Force ( 2NZEF ) for service overseas . The 4th Infantry Brigade with Puttick , promoted to temporary brigadier , as its commander was to be the first brigade of the newly formed 2nd New Zealand Division , under the overall command of Major General Bernard Freyberg . The brigade duly departed for the Middle East in January 1940 .
Puttick oversaw the training of the brigade once it settled in its base in Egypt . In June 1940 , Freyberg travelled to England to where the second infantry brigade of the division had been shipped . In his absence , Puttick was temporary commander of the New Zealand forces in Egypt . Anticipating a German invasion of Greece , the division was one of the Allied units transferred to that country . Arriving in April 1941 , he led the brigade competently during the Battle of Greece as it retreated from the Aliakmon Line in northern Greece to the Servia Pass and onto the beaches at Porto Rafti from where it was evacuated on 27 April to Crete . He was later awarded a Bar to his DSO for his " gallantry and devotion to duty " during this period .
On Crete , Puttick was promoted to temporary major general and , following Freyberg 's appointment as the commander of Creforce , took over responsibility for the 2nd New Zealand Division . During the Battle of Crete his failure to pressure James Hargest , one of his brigade commanders , to make a counterattack to support the defenders of Maleme airfield resulted in its eventual loss to the Germans . With reinforcements and supplies landed at the airfield the Germans were able to consolidate the tenuous gains made in the opening days of the invasion . Any meaningful chance of the Allies successfully preventing the capture of the island was lost and the survivors of Creforce were eventually evacuated to Egypt .
On his return to Egypt , Puttick was offered the opportunity to become Chief of the General Staff , effectively the commander of the New Zealand Military Forces , by the visiting New Zealand prime minister , Peter Fraser . He accepted the role and returned to New Zealand in September 1941 . Puttick 's focus was on ensuring the manpower of the 2NZEF in North Africa was adequately maintained by reinforcements . In the face of the increasing threat of the Japanese Empire in the Pacific , he also put considerable effort into improving New Zealand 's defences . After the Japanese entered the war , he considered the actual threat of invasion to be minimal but continued to encourage improvements in home defence as a means of boosting morale .
In April 1942 Puttick | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
his part , Iginla accepted responsibility for the failed season , and said he did not wish to leave Calgary , wanting instead to lead the Flames into a rebound season in 2010 – 11 . When pressed by the media , he stated he would be willing to waive his no movement clause if the team asked him to , though Flames management dismissed speculation that they would consider dealing the team 's captain .
With the Flames out of the playoffs , several players were invited to represent their national teams at the 2010 IIHF World Championship in Germany . Rene Bourque and Mark Giordano played for Team Canada , while Eric Nystrom and David Moss joined Team USA . Mikael Backlund joined the Swedish team after the Abbotsford Heat were eliminated from the American Hockey League playoffs and won a bronze medal .
= = Player statistics = =
= = = Skaters = = =
Note : GP
= Games played ; G =
Goals ; A
= Assists ; Pts =
Points ; + / −
= Plus / Minus ; PIM =
Penalty Minutes
= = = Goaltenders = = =
Note : GP
= Games Played ; TOI =
Time On Ice ( minutes ) ; W
= Wins ; L =
Losses ; OT
= Overtime Losses ; GA =
Goals Against ; GAA = Goals Against Average ; SA = Shots Against ; SV
= Saves ; Sv % =
Save Percentage ; SO = Shutouts
† Denotes player spent time with another team before joining Flames . Stats reflect time with the Flames only . ‡ Traded mid @-@ season
Bold / italics denotes franchise record
= = Awards and honours = =
Brett Hull , selected by the Flames 114th overall at the 1984 NHL Entry Draft , was elected to the Hockey Hall of Fame in 2009 . Hull Scored 741 goals during his 19 @-@ year career , the third highest total in NHL history . During the season , Iginla and Langkow reached significant career milestones on consecutive nights as they played their 1,000th career games in the NHL . Both players made their debut in the 1995 – 96 season and were both opponents during their Western Hockey League careers and teammates at the 1996 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships . The Flames presented the pair with silver sticks at a joint ceremony to honour them for their achievement .
= = = Awards = = =
= = = Milestones = = =
= = Transactions = =
The Flames completed several trades during the 2009 NHL Entry Draft . They first gained an additional third round selection from the New Jersey Devils for agreeing to swap first round picks . The Flames moved down to the 23rd overall pick and gave the Devils the 20th overall selection . Calgary followed that up by dealing a third round pick to the Florida Panthers , along with the negotiating rights of Free agent defenceman Jordan Leopold in exchange for the negotiating rights of defenceman Jay Bouwmeester . The move proved successful , as Bouwmeester agreed to a five @-@ year contract less than a day before he would have become an unrestricted free agent .
Having already signed Bouwmeester , the Flames were relatively quiet in the first days of the free agent signing period . The team signed a quartet of players in Fredrik Sjostrom , Garth Murray , Riley Armstrong and Staffan Kronwall . They lost team leading scorer Michael Cammalleri after he signed a five @-@ year , $ 30 million contract with the Montreal Canadiens . Adrian Aucoin also moved on , signing with the Phoenix Coyotes . The team was able to retain defenceman Adam Pardy , as he signed a two @-@ year deal to remain in Calgary .
Darryl Sutter engineered a seven player trade at the end of January that sent Dion Phaneuf and Fredrik Sjostrom to the Toronto Maple Leafs in exchange for four players led by Matt Stajan , Ian White and Niklas Hagman . The deal ended weeks of speculation about the Calgary defenceman 's future amid reports that Phaneuf had requested a trade – a claim he had denied . One day later , the Flames sent Olli Jokinen and Brandon Prust to the New York Rangers in exchange for Ales Kotalik and Christopher Higgins . The deals resulted in the change of over one third of the roster in the period of a day , moves that were seen as a sign of panic as the Flames hovered around the final playoff spot . While rumours circulated that Phaneuf was dealt because he was a divisive influence in the locker room , Jokinen later blamed the fans in Calgary for the defenceman 's departure . Jokinen admitted that he was traded because he failed to produce in Calgary , while in Kotalik , the Flames received a player who was having a similarly disappointing season in New York .
The Flames completed three trades at the March 3 deadline . They first sent backup goaltender Curtis McElhinney to the Anaheim Ducks in exchange for Vesa Toskala , who became Kiprusoff 's backup . They then sent forward Dustin Boyd to the Nashville Predators in exchange for a draft pick . Despite showing potential at times , the 23 @-@ year @-@ old Boyd had failed to live up to the expectations placed on him in Calgary . The day ended with a minor , but historic , trade that saw Aaron Johnson sent to the Edmonton Oilers along with a draft pick , for fellow defenceman Steve Staios . The deal marked the first time in the 30 @-@ year history of the Battle of Alberta that the two organizations completed a trade with each other .
= = = Trades = = =
= = = Additions and subtractions = = =
= = Draft picks = =
The Flames opened the 2009 NHL Entry Draft in Montreal with the 20th overall selection but moved down three spots following a trade with New Jersey . With the 23rd overall pick , Calgary drafted Tim Erixon , a defenceman from Sweden . Erixon , whose father Jan also played in the NHL , considers himself a two @-@ way defenceman , and hopes to contribute both offensively and defensively for the Flames .
Statistics are updated to the end of the 2014 – 15 NHL season . † denotes player was on an NHL roster in 2014 – 15 .
= = Farm teams = =
After two seasons in Illinois , the Flames ' relocated their American Hockey League franchise , the Quad City Flames to the Fraser Valley of British Columbia . Called as the Abbotsford Heat , the team named former Calgary head coach Jim Playfair their coach . After six seasons , the Flames and the Las Vegas Wranglers of the ECHL ended their affiliation agreement . Replacing the Wranglers , the Flames signed an agreement to place up to four players with the Utah Grizzlies .
Playfair gained notoriety late in the season after video of his wild tantrum against referee Jamie Koharski that involved the coach smashing two sticks went viral . Playfair was upset at what he felt was an excessive penalty given to one of his players , and came as the Heat were struggling to clinch a playoff spot . The Heat finished with a record of 39 – 29 – 5 – 7 , good enough for third place in the North Division , despite losing over 400 man @-@ games to injury . The Heat faced the Rochester Americans in the first round of the playoffs , and overcame a 3 – 1 series deficit to defeat the Americans in seven games . In doing so , they became the first team in AHL history to win games six and seven on the road to win a series . Abbotsford was defeated in six games by the Hamilton Bulldogs in the North Division final to end their season .
= 1997 Qayen earthquake =
The Qayen earthquake , also known as the Ardekul or Qaen earthquake , struck Northern Iran 's Khorasan Province on May 10 , 1997 at 07 : 57 UTC ( 12 : 57 local time ) . The largest in the area since 1990 , the earthquake measured 7 @.@ 3 on the moment magnitude scale and was centered approximately 270 kilometers ( 170 mi ) south of Mashhad on the village of Ardekul . The third earthquake that year to cause severe damage , it devastated the Birjand – Qayen region , killing 1 @,@ 567 and injuring more than 2 @,@ 300 . The earthquake — which left 50 @,@ 000 homeless and damaged or destroyed over 15 @,@ 000 homes — was described as the deadliest of 1997 by the United States Geological Survey . Some 155 aftershocks caused further destruction and drove away survivors . The earthquake was later discovered to have been caused by a rupture along a fault that runs underneath the Iran – Afghanistan border .
Damage was eventually estimated at $ 100 million , and many countries responded to the emergency with donations of blankets , tents , clothing , and food . Rescue teams were also dispatched to assist local volunteers in finding survivors trapped under the debris . The destruction around the earthquake 's epicenter was , in places , almost total ; this has been attributed to poor construction practices in rural areas , and imparted momentum to a growing movement for changes in building codes . With 1 in 3 @,@ 000 deaths in Iran attributable to earthquakes , a US geophysicist has suggested that a country @-@ wide rebuilding program would be needed to address the ongoing public safety concerns .
= = Background and geology = =
Iran experiences regular earthquakes , with 200 reported in 1996 alone . Like dozens that had preceded it , the 1997 Qayen event was of significant magnitude . It occurred on Saturday , May 10 , 1997 , at 12 : 57 IRST in the Sistan region , one of the most seismically active areas of the country . The first major earthquake in that region since 1979 , it registered 7 @.@ 3 on the moment magnitude scale ( Mw ) , 7 @.@ 2 on the surface wave magnitude scale ( Ms ) , 7 @.@ 7 on the energy magnitude scale ( Me ) , and had a maximum perceived intensity of X , or Extreme on the Mercalli intensity scale .
The earthquake was caused by a rupture along the Abiz Fault , part of the Sistan suture zone of eastern Iran . Located northeast of the main collision zone between the Arabian and Eurasian tectonic plates , the Sistan zone marks the eastern boundary of the Iranian microplate where it intersects with the Afghan crustal block . Most of Iran is contained on one microplate , causing seismic activity mainly along its borders . Both the 1968 Dasht @-@ e @-@ Bayez earthquake ( magnitude 7 @.@ 3 , resulting in 12 @,@ 000 – 20 @,@ 000 deaths ) and the Qayen earthquake were the results of strike @-@ slip faults , meaning that the crustal blocks on either side of the faults shifted against each other horizontally . The Qayen earthquake was caused by right lateral movement along the Abiz Fault . In addition to the dominant strike @-@ slip displacement , there was also local evidence of reverse faulting . The average displacement of about 2 m indicates a low static stress drop , more consistent with an interplate earthquake than an intraplate event . The maximum horizontal acceleration during the quake was approximately 6 @.@ 9 meters per second — nearly three @-@ quarters of the acceleration an object would have in free fall — and occurred near the earthquake 's epicenter . The crustal layer involved in the rupture was 20 – 25 kilometers ( 12 – 16 mi ) thick . The surface fault that caused the earthquake extended for 110 kilometers ( 68 mi ) , which was longer than would be expected given the earthquake 's magnitude . There were at least 155 aftershocks , reaching a magnitude of up to 5 @.@ 5 on the Richter magnitude scale . Many of the aftershocks occurred along the rupture up to 24 kilometers ( 15 mi ) below the surface .
The earthquake 's epicenter was within the village of Ardekul in South Khorasan Province , which borders Afghanistan . The village is isolated between mountains and hills . Although the Iranian government had distributed more than 800 seismographs throughout the country , few had been placed in the Qayen region due to its desert climate and the remoteness of the area .
As a result of the dry climate , timber — a main component in building earthquake @-@ resistant homes — is scarce in Qayen ; homes are instead constructed of adobe . The inhabitants of the poverty @-@ stricken region rely on subsistence farming , raising livestock and crops such as wheat and saffron . When the earthquake struck , much of the population was already working in the fields ; for the most part , these people survived . Many of those treated for injuries were found to be undernourished .
= = Damage and casualties = =
The earthquake was felt over an area of 500 @,@ 000 square kilometers ( 193 @,@ 051 sq mi ) , including in the cities of Mashhad , Kerman and Yazd . Destruction was most severe within a 100 @-@ kilometer ( 60 mi ) strip between the epicenter and Birjand . The tremors triggered landslides across the region and proved highly destructive to the region 's mud @-@ hut buildings . Entire streets were reduced to rubble , and in one village , 110 young girls were killed when their elementary school collapsed .
An initial report in The New York Times claimed that more than 2 @,@ 000 people had died in the worst @-@ affected area , with a further 394 in Birjand and two in the small town of Khavaf . The earthquake was also said to have caused five fatalities in Afghanistan . As rescue efforts proceeded these figures were revised ; the United States Geological Survey states that 1 @,@ 572 people were killed and as many as 2 @,@ 300 injured . As bodies were retrieved , they were buried in mass graves . Officials worried that a temperature fluctuation — from 5 to 29 ° C ( 41 to 84 ° F ) on the day of the earthquake — would cause the corpses to rot more quickly , spreading infection .
Many villages lost both power and water , leaving survivors unable to fend for themselves . The injured were often up to 140 kilometers ( 90 mi ) away from the nearest hospital . One doctor , highlighting the desperate need for physicians to treat the injured , said " I don 't know how many casts I have done today , but it seems like hundreds . " The extensive aftershocks prompted survivors to leave the vicinity of their homes and take to tents . Several days later , another earthquake of magnitude 4 @.@ 8 struck . In the wake of the earthquake and its aftershocks , every one of the 700 houses in the tiny village of Abiz , 90 kilometers ( 56 mi ) east of Qayen , was destroyed , and 400 of its 1200 residents killed .
According to an Iranian radio station report , 200 villages sustained severe damage or were totally destroyed . The United States Geological Survey estimated that 10 @,@ 533 houses were destroyed ; an additional 5 @,@ 474 homes sustained varying degrees of damage . Fifty thousand people were left homeless . Local officials initially estimated the cost of the damage at $ 67 million 1997 US $ ( roughly 89 @.@ 5 million 2008 USD ) . The estimate was later raised to 100 million 1997 USD ( roughly 133 @.@ 6 million 2008 USD ) . One hundred schools and many health centers in the stricken areas were discovered to be in need of repair work .
Many of the more seriously damaged homes were of simple construction , with walls made of mud , adobe , or brick packed 40 – 50 cm ( 16 – 20 in ) thick . These materials are generally more vulnerable to the force of the earthquake . However , some of the traditionally constructed homes sustained little or no damage . This was due to a range of factors , possibly including the height @-@ to @-@ width ratio , the lack of windows , and the quality of the materials used . In general , reinforced concrete @-@ framed homes , built after the 1979 earthquake , were better able to withstand the earthquake . Those near the epicenter still sustained severe damage due to the weight of the roofs and the weak joint connections between major structural elements of the buildings .
= = Relief efforts = =
Several thousand volunteers were brought in to join the search for survivors buried under mounds of brick and cement debris . Many volunteers worked with nothing but their hands . Local organizations , including the Iranian Red Crescent , sent 9 @,@ 000 tents , more than 18 @,@ 000 blankets , canned food , rice , and dates . An additional 80 tons of supplies were sent by the Iranian government to Mashhad , from where the relief efforts were being coordinated .
The United Nations Secretary General , Kofi Annan , pleaded that the international community " respond promptly and with generosity " . France dispatched a cargo plane filled with blankets , tents , clothing , and food , while Swiss authorities sent a rescue team with dogs trained in search @-@ and @-@ rescue . Several aircraft carrying tents , blankets , and kerosene stoves from European and Arab countries arrived in Mashad on May 14 . Representatives from the United States , calling the disaster a " humanitarian issue " , said that despite their strong differences with Iran they would donate supplies and other aid if requested . The Mennonite Central Committee , an American relief agency stationed in Akron , Pennsylvania , redirected to the relief effort 400 metric tons of lentils and cooking oils intended for immigrant refugees . A specialist British disaster rescue organisation , the International Rescue Corps , offered to send a team but were refused visas ( with the reasoning that " enough rescue crews had already arrived at the disaster site " ) and a Swiss offer of additional assistance was also turned down . Several countries within the Persian Gulf political region sent condolences to the families of victims and the government in the area .
Because the affected area is extremely remote , distributing the relief supplies was difficult . Reaching some villages would require a five @-@ hour drive over unpaved roads , some of which had collapsed or had been covered by landslides during the earthquake . Helicopters were used to provide supplies to some otherwise inaccessible areas .
Although aid operations continued for some time , the Iranian government ceased rescue work on May 14 . No more survivors were expected to be found in the rubble .
= = Future threats = =
Iran was listed as " the worst offender " in a 2004 report on countries with poor earthquake engineering . Professor Roger Bilham of the University of Colorado at Boulder , a geophysicist who specializes in earthquake @-@ related deformation and hazards , blames construction practices for the fact that since the start of the 20th century , 1 in 3 @,@ 000 Iranians has died in an earthquake @-@ related incident . Bilham argues that " Most of Iran needs rebuilding . " The United Nations have prepared a Common Country Assessment for Iran , which likewise states that , " While adequate building regulations exist for large cities , it is generally believed that they are not rigorously adhered to ... most of those who have suffered in recent major earthquakes have lived in small towns and villages . Earthquake @-@ proof construction is very rare in those areas and adequate building regulations are not yet in place " . An analysis of the performance of traditional buildings during the earthquake concluded that several factors , including high construction costs , poor materials , a shortage of skills in rural areas , and a lack of building regulations governing traditional construction techniques , have led to a deterioration in the quality of such buildings . The study recommended regulations to govern the construction of traditional arches and domes .
The earthquakes of Iran are a large concern to the populace and are an impediment to economic development . Twelve earthquakes with a Richter magnitude of over seven have occurred within the last century . Three @-@ quarters of the major cities of Iran are in areas prone to major earthquakes . The 1990 Manjil – Rudbar earthquake , with at least 42 @,@ 000 fatalities , cost Iran roughly 7 @.@ 2 percent of its Gross National Product ( GNP ) for that year and wiped out two years of economic growth .
In 2007 , the Asian Centre on Seismic Risk Reduction was formed in response to the regular earthquakes experienced by the southern , southwestern , and central Asian areas . This organization exists to " encourage regional and inter @-@ regional networking and partnerships to reduce seismic damage " . Earthquakes account for 73 percent of natural disaster deaths in the area .
= Ontario Highway 402 =
King 's Highway 402 , commonly referred to as Highway 402 and historically as the Blue Water Bridge Approach , is a 400 @-@ series highway in the Canadian province of Ontario that connects the Blue Water Bridge international crossing near Sarnia to Highway 401 in London . It is one of two vital trade links between Ontario and the Midwestern United States . The controlled access freeway is four @-@ laned for nearly its entire length , except on the approach to the Blue Water Bridge , where it widens .
Although Highway 402 was one of the original 400 @-@ series highways when it was designated in 1953 , it was not completed until 1982 , when the final link between Highway 81 and Highway 2 opened to traffic . The freeway originally did not exit the Sarnia city limits , and merged into Highway 7 near the present Highway 40 interchange . In 1972 , construction began to extend Highway 402 between Sarnia and London ; this work was carried out over a decade . The removal of an intersection at Front Street in Sarnia made the entire route a controlled @-@ access highway .
Motorists crossing into Michigan at the western end have direct access to Interstate 69 ( I @-@ 69 ) and Interstate 94 ( I @-@ 94 ) into Port Huron ; motorists crossing onto the Canadian side from the east end of I @-@ 69 and I @-@ 94 have access to Toronto via Highway 401 , and onwards to Montreal via A @-@ 20 in Quebec . The only town along Highway 402 between Sarnia and London is Strathroy .
= = Route description = =
The Blue Water Bridge crossing has six lanes of bridge traffic and non @-@ stop freeway access , therefore providing a quicker route than the busier Ambassador Bridge crossing in Windsor , which features over ten traffic lights leading to the bridge , although that situation will be rectified after the planned Gordie Howe International Bridge is constructed . Across the Blue Water Bridge , Highway 402 continues in Michigan as I @-@ 69 and I @-@ 94 . With the exception of the Front Street interchange in Sarnia , which is a hybrid of a diamond and Parclo B @-@ 2 interchange , the freeway uses the Parclo A @-@ 4 design throughout its length . Although the freeway passes through Sarnia , it is not intended to operate as a commuter highway .
The freeway begins on the Canadian side of the Blue Water Bridge , descending over the village of Point Edward . After passing through a customs plaza , it enters Sarnia and travels parallel to and north of Exmouth Street through the city . Near the eastern limits , the freeway curves to the northeast to bypass its original alignment . It crosses the Howard Watson Nature Trail , a mixed @-@ use recreational trail that was converted from a Canadian National Railway ( CNR ) line in 1988 . The highway curves back to its east – west orientation at an interchange with Highway 40 . It exits the city as it passes south of Sarnia Chris Hadfield Airport .
Now parallel and north of London Line , the former route of Highway 7 ( the predecessor route between Sarnia and London ) , the freeway jogs north to travel along the back lot line of farmland fronting London Line and the concession road north of Highway 402 . In this manner , the freeway did not divide any farms when it was constructed , instead running between them . It meets Lambton County Road 21 ( Oil Heritage Road ) , the northern terminus of the Oil Heritage Route , north of the town of Wyoming . The county road is also a former southern extension of Highway 21 , which itself begins as Forest Line 9 @.@ 3 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 8 mi ) to the east . Highway 21 is also known as the Bluewater Route , as most of its length is parallel to the shore of Lake Huron .
After passing an interchange with Forest Line , the freeway is crossed by London Line and momentarily diverges from its straight alignment to dip south of Warwick . It continues 25 kilometres ( 16 mi ) east through large patches of farmland , then meets with Middlesex County Road 81 ( Victoria Street ) at an interchange as it passes north of Strathroy . Shortly thereafter it curves to the southeast and zig @-@ zags towards London , bisecting farms and dividing woodlands . The freeway passes to the west of the town of Delaware and curves east . It enters London and meets interchanges with Highway 4 south of Lambeth , as well as with Wonderland Road before merging into Highway 401 . Access to westbound and from eastbound Highway 401 is provided via Highway 4 .
= = History = =
Planning for the route that would become Highway 402 began following the completion of the Blue Water Bridge in 1938 . A divided highway was constructed through Sarnia following World War II ; it was completed and designated in 1953 . The Department of Highways announced its intent to extend the route to Highway 401 in 1957 . However , while some preliminary work began in the early 1960s , it would take until 1968 for a preferred route to be announced , and until 1972 for construction to begin . Work was carried out through the remainder of the 1970s , and the freeway was completed and ceremonially opened in late 1982 . Since completion as a four @-@ lane route , expansion work has been concentrated on the portion of the freeway in Sarnia approaching the border crossing .
= = = Construction = = =
Highway 402 is one of the original 400 @-@ series highways . It was numbered in 1953 , a year after Highway 400 and Highway 401 . The short 6 @.@ 1 @-@ kilometre ( 3 @.@ 8 mi ) dual highway was built as an approach to the Blue Water Bridge , which itself opened to traffic October 10 , 1938 . As such , the highway was named the Blue Water Bridge Approach . Construction began in 1939 . However , like many other road projects , World War II halted construction . In 1947 , a new survey was undertaken ; construction resumed by 1952 . The approach road was opened in 1953 , at which point the route was designated Highway 402 . It featured an interchange with Christina Street and at @-@ grade intersections with Front Street , Indian Road and Modeland Road ( the Highway 40 Sarnia bypass ) .
Ultimately , Highway 402 was designated with the intent of extending it to Highway 401 . This was formally announced by the Department of Highways in late 1957 . Construction on a new grade @-@ separated intersection with Modeland Road began in 1963 . On February 28 , 1968 , a 98 @-@ kilometre ( 61 mi ) extension towards London was officially announced by Minister of Highways George Gomme . It was decided to construct the extension on a new right @-@ of @-@ way , as had been done with most freeways constructed after Highway 400 . East of the Murphy Road overpass , Highway 402 was re @-@ aligned to bypass the interchange with Highway 40 constructed in 1964 ; Exmouth Street was redirected to connect with Highway 7 ( London Line ) at that junction , and Quinn Street now follows the former route of the highway . For the new Highway 402 , an overpass crossing was required with the then @-@ CNR line ( now the Howard Watson Nature Trail ) and an interchange with the newly twinned Highway 40 just north of the 1964 interchange . Construction east of Highway 40 began in 1972 .
Under two construction contracts , construction of 23 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 14 @.@ 4 mi ) of Highway 402 began near Highway 7 in 1974 . A third contract to bridge the gap between that project and Sarnia was awarded in 1975 . On October 13 , 1978 , Highway 402 was opened to traffic between Highway 40 and Highway 21 . By the end of that year , construction was progressing on the section between Highway 21 and Highway 81 near Strathroy , as well as on the section connecting Highway 2 with Highway 401 . The section between Highway 21 and Highway 81 north of Strathroy was the next to be completed ; it was opened to traffic on November 26 , 1979 . On November 17 , 1981 , the section between London and Delaware was completed , including the interchange at Highway 401 . It forced eastbound drivers to exit at Longwoods Road ( Highway 2 ) . Construction was already underway on the final section between Strathroy and Delaware at this point .
The opening of the section between Highways 2 and 81 completed Highway 402 from London to the Blue Water Bridge . In addition , the removal of the Front Street intersection in Sarnia made the entire route a controlled @-@ access highway . Both were completed in time for the official opening in Sarnia on November 10 , 1982 .
= = = Since completion = = =
On Monday , December 13 , 2010 , a whiteout caused by lake @-@ effect snow squalls left an 80 @-@ kilometre ( 50 mi ) stretch of Highway 402 closed for several days . Lambton County officials declared a state of emergency . Although the entire distance between Sarnia and London is subject to occasional snow squalls and whiteout conditions , they usually dissipate or move in less than a day . The exceptional conditions at that time were caused by a snow squall which remained stationary over several days , dropping up to two metres ( 6 ft ) of snow in some parts of the area . Defence Minister Peter MacKay sent two Canadian Forces Griffon helicopters and a C @-@ 130 Hercules to Sarnia to aid in the search @-@ and @-@ rescue efforts . The hospitality of locals in providing shelter for stranded motorists was the primary focus of local media coverage . The highway was reopened to traffic on the morning of December 16 . A single death was reported ; a man succumbed to hypothermia on a nearby county road .
Highway 402 was widened in the Sarnia area from four to six lanes due to extensive traffic backups from the bridge crossing towards the USA ; the westbound lanes were widened by two lanes , while eastbound capacity remains unchanged . The new four @-@ lane roadway is divided into specific lanes for cars , trucks , local traffic , and NEXUS card holders . The new lanes begin just before the Murphy Road overpass with a local lane breaking away for interchange access ; all travelers wishing to exit the highway from this point must be travelling in this lane . Construction began August 4 , 2009 , between the Blue Water Bridge and Lambton County Road 26 ( Mandaumin Road ) and included the reconstruction of several bridges , as well as completely rebuilding the Christina Street exit to accommodate southbound access . Work was completed by the end of 2012 . Between 2004 and 2013 , the speed limit along the westbound lanes from Airport Road westward were reduced from the standard 100 kilometres per hour ( 60 mph ) . However , following the reconstruction , the speed limit was raised between Indian Road and Airport Road on June 20 , 2013 .
On January 5 , 2013 , a temporary vehicular blockade was created at the Blue Water Bridge as part of the " Idle No More " protests by First Nations groups . The blockade was known in advance and was planned to occur during the noon hour . Lambton OPP monitored the protest by walking alongside the protestors . Traffic resumed flowing normally by 1 : 30 p.m. While Highway 402 itself was not closed , the protest did back up traffic onto the highway causing congestion in the areas of Front Street and Christina Street . Later that year , another protest was held west of Strathroy on October 19 , advocating against wind turbine construction due to the health effects experienced by those living near them . The rolling protest of about 150 vehicles , including farm equipment , was monitored by the OPP and required intermittent ramp closures to the westbound lanes .
= = Exit list = =
The following table lists the major junctions along Highway 402 , as noted by the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario .
= Charlie Murder =
Charlie Murder is an action role @-@ playing beat ' em up video game developed by Ska Studios and published by Microsoft Game Studios . First revealed in January 2010 as an Xbox Live Indie Games title , the studio announced in May 2010 that the game would undergo a " complete overhaul " and be published in 2012 through Xbox Live Arcade for the Xbox 360 . Charlie Murder was eventually released on 14 August 2013 to positive reviews , with critics praising the game 's soundtrack and hand @-@ illustrated visuals .
The game features five playable characters — all members of the garage punk band Charlie Murder — who fight a demonic army raised by a former band member in attempt to save the world from the apocalypse . Charlie Murder has both single @-@ player and four @-@ player online and offline cooperative gameplay modes . The game was created using Microsoft 's XNA tools .
= = Gameplay = =
Charlie Murder is a side @-@ scrolling beat ' em up game with role @-@ playing game elements . Players select one of five band members to play as ; the lead vocalist and band namesake Charlie Murder , guitarist Lester Deth , bassist Tommy Homicide , backup vocalist Kelly " Skelekitten " Skitten , or drummer The Rexecutioner . Players can complete the game alone , or can team together with up to three other people , through either offline ( with all of the players using the same Xbox 360 ) or online cooperative gameplay ( co @-@ op ) . With each additional player , the number of enemies that appear on screen at once increases . Players can also fight each other in special areas of the game . The game takes place across several different areas , including a construction site , a graveyard , a pirate ship , and a mall . Players are pitted against a large variety of enemies , including zombies , witches , ninjas , giant rats , yetis , and sharks with dynamite strapped to their heads . Interspersed between the normal combat levels are a number of minigames and special levels , including driving and flying levels .
Players fight using two buttons to string together combinations of light and heavy melee attacks . Players can also use grabs , launch enemies into the air , use character @-@ specific special attacks , and pick up and use weapons . In co @-@ op mode , players can also team up to execute highly damaging group attacks . Scattered throughout the game are bosses , unique and challenging enemies that have more health and are more difficult to fight than normal enemies . There are also " minibosses " , enemies that are less challenging than bosses but more challenging than regular enemies . Minibosses have the ability to block and counter players ' attacks , which few other enemies in the game do .
Each of the five band members has a unique character class , which vary from one another mainly by the special magical attacks , called Anar @-@ chi , that they can use . Anar @-@ chi attacks include Tommy Homicide 's ability to summon acid @-@ coated buzzsaws and The Rexecutioner 's ability to summon and use a debris @-@ spitting drum kit . Players are able to use new abilities by visiting an in @-@ game tattoo parlor . Tattoos , and the special abilities that they unlock , are character @-@ specific . Players can also unlock new abilities , including additional combination attacks , group attacks , and the ability to use two weapons at once , by leveling up .
Players use an in @-@ game Windows 8 phone to manage their inventory , level up , read emails that explain game mechanics , and scan QR codes that unlock items and give the character money or followers ( the game 's experience point equivalent ) . Players earn money by defeating enemies , and outside of combat , they can purchase weapons and armor ( all of which is visible on the character ) , stat @-@ boosting food and alcohol , and the aforementioned tattoos from shops .
= = = Plot = = =
The game 's protagonist , Charlie Murder , is a member of a garage punk band of the same name . Charlie kicks one of the founding members , Paul , out of the band , and begins to experience chart @-@ topping success creating music in a new genre with new bandmates . Under the name Lord Mortimer , Paul forms his own band , Gore Quaffer , and makes a pact with a demon , raising an army of demons and undead in order to destroy Charlie Murder . Charlie and his band are killed at the beginning of the game , fight out of hell , and are reborn on Earth amidst an apocalypse caused by Lord Mortimer and his army . In order to stop the apocalypse , Charlie Murder must defeat Gore Quaffer in a Battle of the Bands .
During the game , a series of flashbacks detail the game 's backstory . As Charlie and his new band mates experience success without Paul , the latter becomes increasingly upset , eventually vowing revenge . The flashbacks neither paint Charlie Murder in a wholly positive light , nor Paul in a wholly negative light . Charlie Murder has an in @-@ game talk radio station , which plays in enemy @-@ free areas . Additional information about the band and about the game 's world is presented in the form of people calling into the radio program .
= = Development = =
Charlie Murder was first announced in January 2010 in a Ska Studios blog post as an Xbox Live Indie Games title set for release in March 2010 . The game 's plot was a four @-@ member band 's journey to save Skelekitten ( Murder 's girlfriend ) from a rival metal band . A demo of the game was showcased at PAX East 2010 . In April , Ska Studios founder James Silva announced that the game was in development for an unidentified platform and would no longer be released through Xbox Live Indie Games . Joystiq noted that the demo ran on Microsoft XNA Game Studio 4 @.@ 0 , which is designed for the Xbox 360 , Microsoft Windows computers , and Windows Phone 7 . Ska Studios announced in May that the game was to undergo a " complete overhaul " , and would be released through Xbox Live Arcade in 2012 . The game was eventually released in August 2013 as part of Summer of Arcade , an annual Xbox Live Arcade promotion known for releasing several of the platform 's most acclaimed games .
Ska Studios ' first games , including the Xbox Live Arcade game The Dishwasher : Dead Samurai ( April 2009 ) , were developed entirely by James Silva . Michelle Juett was a tester for The Dishwasher : Dead Samurai , and the two met in person for the first time at the September 2009 Penny Arcade Expo . They began to date a year later , and Juett eventually left ArenaNet to join Ska Studios , becoming its second employee . Charlie Murder was one of the first games that the two worked on together . Silva did all of the game 's programming work , while Juett handled its marketing . Silva and Juett worked together to design the art and compose the soundtrack . Charlie Murder 's music was produced by Silva and sung by the pair . In an interview with Joystiq , James Silva explained that he used major game conferences , such as PAX East , as public betas . The conferences allowed Silva to expose a large number of people to the game , providing him with the opportunity to solicit feedback and discover issues . The couple also invited friends over for parties in order to test the game while it was in development . Silva proposed to Juett at the Charlie Murder booth at PAX 2011 , using an in @-@ game cutscene built in secret for the occasion .
Charlie Murder was the third Ska Studios game published by Microsoft Studios . During development , Microsoft Studios provided Ska Studios with usability testing and play testing feedback , handled localization , and found and suggested bug fixes . Microsoft required Ska Studios to create picture packs ( Xbox Live account customizations ) , but was not responsible for the Windows Phone 8 game mechanic . Ska Studios had complete creative control over the game itself . Charlie Murder was promoted as a free Xbox download with Microsoft 's Games with Gold program during the month of June 2014 .
= = Reception = =
Charlie Murder received " generally favorable " reviews , according to video game review aggregator Metacritic . The game 's music was highly praised . The game 's hand @-@ illustrated visuals were also praised by reviewers . Critics felt that the music and visual style complemented the game 's punk rock theme , and Official Xbox Magazine 's Cameron Lewis praised the game for being rich in personality and detail without being over @-@ polished .
Reviewers were less enthused about the game 's user interface , and found that many gameplay details went unexplained . IGN 's Jose Otero found the inventory management system , which lacks an easy way to sort items , to be problematic . Chris Carter from Destructoid noted that the game 's intricacies are described in messages on the in @-@ game phone , which he considered difficult to navigate and read , and that the messages were often insufficiently clear and detailed .
Critics compared the game to Ska Studios ' previous side @-@ scrolling beat ' em up games , The Dishwasher : Dead Samurai and The Dishwasher : Vampire Smile . Game Informer noted Charlie Murder 's similarity to the Dishwasher series , and Destructoid 's Chris Carter believed that Charlie Murder was an improvement over the previous games , in both presentation and in the amount of personality that the characters had . There was a consensus among reviewers that the game was more enjoyable in multiplayer , with Hardcore Gamer saying that the game felt designed for cooperative play .
= Storm Coaster =
Storm Coaster is a Water Coaster located at the Sea World theme park on the Gold Coast , Australia . The ride is designed by German firm Mack Rides and combines the flume and splashdown elements of a log flume , with the chain lift hill and drops of a steel roller coaster .
Original plans for a Water Coaster at Sea World were released by the local council in 2008 ; however , they were put on hold . In 2010 , the Bermuda Triangle ride closed , sitting dormant until mid @-@ 2012 when construction for the Storm Coaster began . After demolition works were completed , track for the Storm Coaster arrived at Sea World , taking five months to erect . Storm Coaster officially opened to the public on 6 December 2013 .
Storm Coaster is themed to the effects of a Category 5 Tropical Cyclone at a coastal shipping port . The 470 @-@ metre @-@ long ( 1 @,@ 540 ft ) ride stands 28 metres ( 92 ft ) tall and features a top speed of 70 kilometres per hour ( 43 mph ) . The ride has been well received , with praise for it being both fun and thrilling .
= = History = =
In January 2008 , the Gold Coast City Council released plans for a Mack Rides Water Coaster at Sea World . The ride would have been located at the front of the park , with the ride 's station situated where the Penguin Encounter exhibit exists and the main track extending out and over the car park . These plans were shelved . In December 2008 , Sea World opened Jet Rescue , an Intamin JetSki Coaster .
In June 2012 , Sea World applied for a permit to demolish the Bermuda Triangle water ride system and the interior of its show building . The Bermuda Triangle had been sitting dormant since its closure in October 2010 and had been earmarked by the park as a site for a future attraction . On 12 July 2012 , Christian von Elverfeldt from Mack Rides revealed Australia would be receiving a water roller coaster in 2013 ; leading to speculation that Sea World might have revived its plans . Further development application filings , and reports by the Roller Coaster DataBase and the Gold Coast Bulletin , confirmed this speculation . In September 2012 , Sea World asked Austrian firm Dynamic Motion Rides ( DyMoRides ) to develop a theming and show design concept for the yet @-@ to @-@ be @-@ announced Storm Coaster . DyMoRides was ultimately contracted for the full turnkey project in April 2013 . DyMoRides subsequently contracted PEL Creative for creative direction , Full @-@ On Lighting for lighting design , Volume One for audio and visual effects , and Sculpt Studios for theming design .
Prior to the commencement of construction , Sea World announced a new attraction for 2013 and released a promotional image on their Facebook page which read " The storm is building . It 's gonna be a big one . " . Demolition works began in August 2012 . Due to this construction , nearby attractions , including Viking 's Revenge Flume Ride , Jet Rescue and the Skyway , were intermittently closed throughout the latter part of 2012 and into 2013 . The first pieces of ride track arrived on site in April 2013 , with vertical construction commencing in the following month . An official announcement for Storm Coaster made by Sea World in May 2013 detailed the ride would feature 470 metres ( 1 @,@ 540 ft ) of track and a series of water and fire effects . Although an opening date of September 2013 was initially set , Sea World later revised this to be Summer 2013 . By September 2013 , the ride 's track was complete , with focus moving towards theming and testing the ride . On 2 December 2013 , Storm Coaster soft opened to the public , with an official opening held four days later .
= = Characteristics = =
Storm Coaster is a Water Coaster designed by Mack Rides . The 470 @-@ metre @-@ long ( 1 @,@ 540 ft ) track layout is identical to Skatteøen at Djurs Sommerland in Denmark . The ride stands 28 metres ( 92 ft ) tall and features a top speed of 70 kilometres per hour ( 43 mph ) . Unlike most roller coasters which have two rails and a wheel assembly to wrap around the track , Storm Coaster features six rails where the wheels run within the track . The ride features six Coast Guard @-@ themed vehicles that each seat eight riders in four rows of two . Riders are restrained through the use of both lap bars and seat belts . Storm Coaster is reported to have cost $ 20 million , making it the single biggest investment in an Australian theme park attraction .
= = Experience = =
Storm Coaster is themed around the effects of a Category 5 Tropical Cyclone at a coastal shipping port . Theming surrounding the ride depicts a path of destruction from the storm , with boats , cars , shipping containers and other debris strewn throughout . However , the port is in the eye of the storm and everyone must evacuate via Coast Guard rescue boats .
Riders enter the queue area by passing through a shipping container with a rusty Storm Coaster sign on it . A short outdoor path leads riders towards a stack of containers . Riders enter the containers through a series of black rubber flaps , before emerging into a warehouse . Once at the station riders board one of the Coast Guard boats .
After departing the station , the boats travel through a short flume section before emerging from the building and ascending a 28 @-@ metre @-@ tall ( 92 ft ) chain lift hill . Once at the top of the hill , the track dips and turns 180 degrees to the right , entering a mid @-@ course brake run . A sweeping 180 degree downward turn to the right is followed by an upward turn into another brake run . The ride then drops below ground , passing under the queue path before emerging over an air @-@ time hill , where riders experience a feeling of weightlessness . This hill drops into the hull of an upturned boat and is followed by the ride 's splashdown . On the boat 's return path to the station it passes a variety of lighting , fire , and water effects . Riders exiting Storm Coaster pass alongside the ride 's finale , with the chance to get soaked by other boats in the splashdown area .
= = Reception = =
The reception of Storm Coaster has been positive . Shaya Laughlin of the Gold Coast Bulletin described the air @-@ time hill and indoor splashdown as more thrilling than the rest of the ride . Laughlin concluded that the " Storm Coaster was definitely worth every cent Sea World spent " . Michelle Tapper of Seven News stated the ride was " really fun , but not as scary as [ she ] thought it would be " . Tapper suggested riders might want a spare change of clothes due to the extent of the final splashdown .
= Western Ganga dynasty =
Western Ganga was an important ruling dynasty of ancient Karnataka in India which lasted from about 350 to 1000 AD . They are known as ' Western Gangas ' to distinguish them from the Eastern Gangas who in later centuries ruled over Kalinga ( modern Odisha ) . The general belief is that the Western Gangas began their rule during a time when multiple native clans asserted their freedom due to the weakening of the Pallava empire in South India , a geo @-@ political event sometimes attributed to the southern conquests of Samudra Gupta . The Western Ganga sovereignty lasted from about 350 to 550 AD , initially ruling from Kolar and later , moving their capital to Talakadu on the banks of the Kaveri River in modern Mysore district .
After the rise of the imperial Chalukyas of Badami , the Gangas accepted Chalukya overlordship and fought for the cause of their overlords against the Pallavas of Kanchi . The Chalukyas were replaced by the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta in 753 AD as the dominant power in the Deccan . After a century of struggle for autonomy , the Western Gangas finally accepted Rashtrakuta overlordship and successfully fought alongside them against their foes , the Chola Dynasty of Tanjavur . In the late 10th century , north of Tungabhadra river , the Rashtrakutas were replaced by the emerging Western Chalukya Empire and the Chola Dynasty saw renewed power south of the Kaveri river . The defeat of the Western Gangas by Cholas around 1000 resulted in the end of the Ganga influence over the region .
Though territorially a small kingdom , the Western Ganga contribution to polity , culture and literature of the modern south Karnataka region is considered important . The Western Ganga kings showed benevolent tolerance to all faiths but are most famous for their patronage toward Jainism resulting in the construction of monuments in places such as Shravanabelagola and Kambadahalli . The kings of this dynasty encouraged the fine arts due to which literature in Kannada and Sanskrit flourished . Chavundaraya 's writing , Chavundaraya Purana of 978 AD , is an important work in Kannada prose . Many classics were written on various subjects ranging from religion to elephant management .
= = History = =
Multiple theories have been proposed regarding the ancestry of the founders of the Western Ganga dynasty ( prior to the 4th century ) . Some mythical accounts point to a northern origin , while theories based on epigraphy suggest a southern origin . Historians who propose the southern origin have further debated whether the early petty chieftains of the clan ( prior to their rise to power ) were natives of the southern districts of modern Karnataka , the Kongu region in modern Tamil Nadu or of the southern districts of modern Andhra Pradesh . These regions encompass an area of the southern Deccan where the three modern states merge geographically . It is theorised that the Gangas may have taken advantage of the confusion caused by the invasion of southern India by the northern king Samudra Gupta prior to 350 , and carved out a kingdom for themselves . The area they controlled was called Gangavadi and included regions of the modern districts of Mysore , Hassan Chamarajanagar , Tumkur , Kolar , Mandya and Bangalore in Karnataka state . At times , they also controlled some areas in modern Tamil Nadu ( Kongu region starting from the 6th century rule of King Avinita ) and Andhra Pradesh ( Ananthpur region starting from the middle of the 5th century ) . The founding king of the dynasty was Konganivarma Madhava who made Kolar his capital around 350 and ruled for about twenty years .
By the time of Harivarma in 390 , the Gangas had consolidated their kingdom with Talakad as their capital . Their move from the early capital Kolar may have been a strategic one with the intention of containing the growing Kadamba power . By 430 they had consolidated their eastern territories comprising modern Bangalore , Kolar and Tumkur districts and by 470 they had gained control over Kongu region in modern Tamil Nadu , Sendraka ( modern Chikkamagaluru and Belur ) , Punnata and Pannada regions ( comprising modern Heggadadevanakote and Nanjangud ) in modern Karnataka . In 529 , King Durvinita ascended the throne after waging a war with his younger brother who was favoured by his father , King Avinita . Some accounts suggest that in this power struggle , the Pallavas of Kanchi supported Avinita 's choice of heir and the Badami Chalukya King Vijayaditya supported his father @-@ in @-@ law , Durvinita . From the inscriptions it is known that these battles were fought in Tondaimandalam and Kongu regions ( northern Tamil Nadu ) prompting historians to suggest that Durvinita fought the Pallavas successfully . Considered the most successful of the Ganga kings , Durvinita was well versed in arts such as music , dance , ayurveda and taming wild elephants . Some inscriptions sing paeans to him by comparing him to Yudhishthira and Manu – figures from Hindu mythology known for their wisdom and fairness .
Politically , the Gangas were feudatories and close allies who also shared matrimonial relations with the Chalukyas . This is attested by inscriptions which describe their joint campaigns against their arch enemy , the Pallavas of Kanchi . From the year 725 onwards , the Gangavadi territories came to be called as the " Gangavadi @-@ 96000 " ( Shannavati Sahasra Vishaya ) comprising the eastern and western provinces of modern south Karnataka . King Sripurusha fought the Pallava King Nandivarman Pallavamalla successfully , bringing Penkulikottai in north Arcot under his control temporarily for which he earned the title Permanadi . A contest with the Pandyas of Madurai over control of Kongu region ended in a Ganga defeat , but a matrimony between a Ganga princess and Rajasimha Pandya 's son brought peace helping the Gangas retain control over the contested region .
In 753 , when the Rashtrakutas replaced the Badami Chalukyas as the dominant force in the Deccan , the Gangas offered stiff resistance for about a century . King Shivamara II is mostly known for his wars with the Rashtrakuta Dhruva Dharavarsha , his subsequent defeat and imprisonment , his release from prison and eventually his death on the battle field . The Ganga resistance continued through the reign of Rashtrakuta Govinda III and by 819 , a Ganga resurgence gained them partial control over Gangavadi under King Rachamalla . Seeing the futility of waging war with the Western Ganga , Rashtrakuta Amoghavarsha I gave his daughter Chandrabbalabbe in marriage to Ganga prince Butuga I , son of King Ereganga Neetimarga . The Gangas thereafter became staunch allies of the Rashtrakutas , a position they maintained till the end of the Rashtrakuta dynasty of Manyakheta .
After an uneventful period , Butuga II ascended the throne in 938 with the help of Rashtrakuta Amoghavarsha III ( whose daughter he married ) . He helped the Rashtrakutas win decisive victories in Tamilakam in the battle of Takkolam against the Chola Dynasty . With this victory , the Rashtrakutas took control of modern northern Tamil Nadu . In return for their valour , the Gangas were awarded extensive territories in the Tungabhadra river valley . King Marasimha II who came to power in 963 aided the Rashtrakutas in victories against the Gurjara Pratihara King Lalla and the Paramara kings of Malwa in Central India . Chavundaraya , a minister in the Western Ganga court was a valiant commander , able administrator and an accomplished poet in Kannada and Sanskrit . He served King Marasimha II and his successors ably and helped King Rachamalla IV suppress a civil war in 975 . Towards the end of the 10th century , the Rashtrakutas had been supplanted by the Western Chalukya Empire in Manyakheta . In the south , the Chola Dynasty who were seeing a resurgence of power under Rajaraja Chola I conquered Gangavadi around the year 1000 , bringing the Western Ganga dynasty to an end . Thereafter , large areas of south Karnataka region came under Chola control for about a century .
= = Administration = =
The Western Ganga administration was influenced by principles stated in the ancient text arthashastra . The praje gavundas mentioned in the Ganga records held responsibilities similar to those of the village elders ( gramavriddhas ) mentioned by Kautilya . Succession to the throne was hereditary but there were instances when this was overlooked . The kingdom was divided into Rashtra ( district ) and further into Visaya ( consisting of possibly 1000 villages ) and Desa . From the 8th century , the Sanskrit term Visaya was replaced by the Kannada term Nadu . Examples of this change are Sindanadu @-@ 8000 and Punnadu @-@ 6000 , with scholars differing about the significance of the numerical suffix . They opine that it was either the revenue yield of the division computed in cash terms or the number of fighting men in that division or the number of revenue paying hamlets in that division or the number of villages included in that territory .
Inscriptions have revealed several important administrative designations such as prime minister ( sarvadhikari ) , treasurer ( shribhandari ) , foreign minister ( sandhivirgrahi ) and chief minister ( mahapradhana ) . All of these positions came with an additional title of commander ( dandanayaka ) . Other designations were royal steward ( manevergade ) , master of robes ( mahapasayita ) , commander of elephant corps ( gajasahani ) , commander of cavalry ( thuragasahani ) etc . In the royal house , Niyogis oversaw palace administration , royal clothing and jewellery etc. and the Padiyara were responsible for court ceremonies including door keeping and protocol .
Officials at the local level were the pergade , nadabova , nalagamiga , prabhu and gavunda . The pergades were superintendents from all social classes such as artisans , gold smiths , black smiths etc . The pergades dealing with the royal household were called manepergade ( house superintendent ) and those who collected tolls were called Sunka vergades . The nadabovas were accountants and tax collectors at the Nadu level and sometimes functioned as scribes . The nalagamigas were officers who organized and maintained defence at the Nadu level . The prabhu constituted a group of elite people drawn together to witness land grants and demarcation of land boundaries . The gavundas who appear most often in inscriptions were the backbone of medieval polity of the southern Karnataka region . They were landlords and local elite whom the state utilized their services to collect taxes , maintain records of landownership , bear witness to grants and transactions and even raise militia when required .
Inscriptions that specify land grants , rights and ownership were descriptive of the boundaries of demarcation using natural features such as rivers , streams , water channels , hillocks , large boulders , layout of the village , location of forts ( kote ) if any in the proximity , irrigation canals , temples , tanks and even shrubs and large trees . Also included was the type of soil , the crops meant to be grown and tanks or wells to be excavated for irrigation . Inscriptions mention wet land , cultivable land , forest and waste land . There are numerous references to hamlets ( palli ) belonging to the hunter communities who resided in them ( bedapalli ) . From the 6th century onwards , the inscriptions refer to feudal lords by the title arasa . The arasas were either brahmins or from tribal background who controlled hereditary territories paying periodic tribute to the king . The velavali who were loyal bodyguards of the royalty were fierce warriors under oath ( vele ) . They moved with the royal family and were expected to fight for the master and be willing to lay down their lives in the process . If the king died , the velavali were required to self immolate on the funeral pyre of the master .
= = Economy = =
The Gangavadi region consisted of the malnad region , the plains ( Bayaluseemae ) and the semi @-@ malnad with lower elevation and rolling hills . The main crops of the malnad region were paddy , betel leaves , cardamom and pepper and the semi @-@ malnad region with its lower altitude produced rice , millets such as ragi and corn , pulses , oilseeds and it was also the base for cattle farming . The plains to the east were the flat lands fed by Kaveri , Tungabhadra and Vedavati rivers where cultivations of sugarcane , paddy , coconut , areca nut ( adeka totta ) , betel leaves , plantain and flowers ( vara vana ) were common . Sources of irrigation were excavated tanks , wells , natural ponds and water bodies in the catchment area of dams ( Katta ) . Inscriptions attesting to irrigation of previously uncultivated lands seem to indicate an expanding agrarian community .
Soil types mentioned in records are black soil ( Karimaniya ) in the Sinda @-@ 8000 territory and to red soil ( Kebbayya mannu ) Cultivated land was of three types ; wet land , dry land and to a lesser extent garden land with paddy being the dominant crop of the region . Wet lands were called kalani , galde , nir mannu or nir panya and was specifically used to denote paddy land requiring standing water . The fact that pastoral economies were spread throughout Gangavadi region comes from references to cowherds in many inscriptions . The terms gosahasra ( a thousand cows ) , gasara ( owner of cows ) , gosasi ( donor of cows ) , goyiti ( cowherdess ) , gosasa ( protector of cows ) attest to this . Inscriptions indicate ownership of cows may have been as important as cultivable land and that there may have existed a social hierarchy based on this . Inscriptions mention cattle raids attesting to the importance of the pastoral economy , destructive raids , assaults on women ( pendir @-@ udeyulcal ) , abduction of women by bedas ( hunter tribes ) ; all of which indicate the existing militarism of the age .
Lands that were exempt from taxes were called manya and sometimes consisted of several villages . They were granted by local chieftains without any reference to the overlord , indicating a de @-@ centralised economy . These lands , often given to heroes who perished in the line of duty were called bilavritti or kalnad . When such a grant was made for the maintenance of temples at the time of consecration , it was called Talavritti . Some types of taxes on income were kara or anthakara ( internal taxes ) , utkota ( gifts due to the king ) , hiranya ( cash payments ) and sulika ( tolls and duties on imported items ) . Taxes were collected from those who held the right to cultivate land ; even if the land was not actually cultivated .
Siddhaya was a local tax levied on agriculture and pottondi was a tax levied on merchandise by the local feudal ruler . Based on context , pottondi also meant 1 / 10 , aydalavi meant 1 / 5 and elalavi meant 1 / 7 . Mannadare literally meant land tax and was levied together with shepherds tax ( Kurimbadere ) payable to the chief of shepherds . Bhaga meant a portion or share of the produce from land or the land area itself . Minor taxes such as Kirudere ( due to the landlords ) and samathadere ( raised by the army officers or samantha ) are mentioned . In addition to taxes for maintenance of the local officer 's retinue , villages were obligated to feed armies on the march to and from battles . Bittuvatta or niravari taxes comprised usually of a percentage of the produce and was collected for constructing irrigation tanks .
= = Culture = =
= = = Religion = = =
The Western Gangas gave patronage to all the major religions of the time ; Jainism and the Hindu sects of Shaivism , Vedic Brahminism and Vaishnavism . However scholars have argued that not all Gangas kings may have given equal priority to all the faiths . Some historians believe that the Gangas were ardent Jains . However , inscriptions contradict this by providing references to kalamukhas ( staunch Shaiva ascetics ) , pasupatas and lokayatas ( followers of Pasupatha doctrine ) who flourished in Gangavadi , indicating that Shaivism was also popular . King Madhava and Harivarma were devoted to cows and brahmins , King Vishnugopa was a devout Vaishnava , Madhava III 's and Avinita 's inscriptions describe lavish endowments to Jain orders and temples and King Durvinita performed Vedic sacrifices prompting historians to claim he was a Hindu .
Jainism became popular in the dynasty in the 8th century when the ruler King Shivamara I constructed numerous Jain basadis . King Butuga II and minister Chavundaraya were staunch Jains which is evident from the construction of the Gommateshwara monolith . Jains worshipped the twenty four tirthankars ( Jinas ) whose images were consecrated in their temples . The worship of the footprint of spiritual leaders such as those of Bhadrabahu in Shravanabelagola from the 10th century is considered a parallel to Buddhism . Some brahminical influences are seen in the consecration of the Gomateshwara monolith which is the statue of Bahubali , the son of Tirthankar Adinatha ( just as Hindus worshipped the sons of Shiva ) . The worship of subordinate deities such as yaksa and yaksi , earlier considered as mere attendants of the tirthankars was seen from the 7th century to the 12th century .
Vedic Brahminism was popular in the 6th and 7th centuries when inscriptions refer to grants made to Srotriya Brahmins . These inscriptions also describe the gotra ( lineage ) affiliation to royal families and their adherence of such Vedic rituals as asvamedha ( horse sacrifice ) and hiranyagarbha . Brahmins and kings enjoyed a mutually beneficial relationship ; rituals performed by the brahmins gave legitimacy to kings and the land grants made by kings to brahmins elevated them in society to the level of wealthy landowners . Vaishnavism however maintained a low profile and not many inscriptions describe grants towards its cause . Some Vaishnava temples were built by the Gangas such as the Narayanaswami temples at Nanjangud , Sattur and Hangala in modern Mysore district . The deity Vishnu was depicted with four arms holding a conch ( sanka ) , discus ( cakra ) , mace ( gada ) and lotus ( padma ) .
From the beginning of the 8th century , patronage to Shaivism increased in every section of the society ; the landed elite , landlords , assemblies ( samaya ) , schools of learning ( aghraharas ) and minor ruling families such as the Bana , Nolamba and Chalukya clans . The Shaiva temples contained a Shiva linga ( phallus ) in the sanctum sanctorum along with images of the mother goddess , Surya ( Sun god ) and Nandi ( a bull and attendant of Shiva ) which was normally enshrined in a separate pavilion facing the sanctum . The linga was man made and in some cases had etchings of Ganapati ( son of Shiva ) and Parvati ( consort and wife of Shiva ) on it . Due to the vigorous efforts of priests and ascetics , Shaiva monastic orders flourished in many places such as Nandi Hills , Avani and Hebbata in modern Kolar district .
= = = Society = = =
The Western Ganga society in many ways reflected the emerging religious , political and cultural developments of those times . Women became active in local administration because Ganga kings distributed territorial responsibility to their queens such as the feudal queen Parabbaya @-@ arasi of Kundattur and the queens of King Sripurusha , Butuga II and feudal king Permadi . Inheritance of fiscal and administrative responsibility by the son @-@ in @-@ law , the wife or by the daughter is evident . The position of prime minister of King Ereganga II and position of nalgavunda ( local landlord ) bestowed upon Jakkiabbe , the wife of a fallen hero are examples . When Jakkiabbe took to asceticism , her daughter inherited the position .
The devadasi system ( sule or courtesan ) in temples was prevalent and was modelled after the structures in the royal palace . Contemporaneous literature such a Vaddaradhane makes a mention of the chief queen ( Dharani Mahadevi ) accompanied by lower ranking queens ( arasiyargal ) and courtesans of the women 's royal quarter ( pendarasada suleyargal ) . Some of the courtesans and concubines employed in the harem of the kings and chieftains were well respected , examples being Nandavva at whose instance a local chief made land grant to a Jain temple . Education in the royal family was closely supervised and included such subjects as political science , elephant and horse riding , archery , medicine , poetry , grammar , drama , literature , dance , singing and use of musical instruments . Brahmins enjoyed an influential position in society and were exempt from certain taxes and customs due on land . In turn they managed public affairs such as teaching , local judiciary , functioned as trustees and bankers , managed schools , temples , irrigation tanks , rest houses , collected taxes due from villages and raised money from public subscriptions .
By virtue of a Hindu belief that killing of a brahmin ( Bramhatya ) was a sin , capital punishment was not applicable to them . Upper caste kshatriyas ( satkshatriya ) were also exempt from capital punishment due to their higher position in the caste system . Severe crimes committed were punishable by the severing of a foot or hand . Contemporary literary sources reveal up to ten castes in the Hindu caste system ; three among kshatriya , three among brahmin , two among vaishya and two among shudras . Family laws permitted a wife or daughter or surviving relatives of a deceased person to claim properties such as his home , land , grain , money etc. if there were no male heirs . If no claimants to the property existed , the state took possession of these properties as Dharmadeya ( charitable asset ) . Intercaste marriage , child marriage , marriage of a boy to maternal uncles daughter , Svayamvara marriage ( where the bride garlands her choice of a groom from among many aspirants ) were all in vogue . Memorials containing hero stones ( virkal ) were erected for fallen heroes and the concerned family received monetary aid for maintenance of the memorial .
The presence of numerous Mahasatikals ( or Mastikal – hero stones for a woman who accepted ritual death upon the demise of her husband ) indicates the popularity of Sati among royalty . Ritual death by sallekhana and by jalasamadhi ( drowning in water ) were also practiced . Popular clothing among men was the use of two unrestricted garments , a Dhoti as a lower garment and a plain cloth as upper garment while women wore Saris with stitched petticoats . Turbans were popular with men of higher standing and people used umbrellas made with bamboo or reeds . Ornaments were popular among men and women and even elephants and horses were decorated . Men wore finger rings , necklaces ( honnasara and honnagala sara ) , bracelets ( Kaduga ) and wristlets ( Kaftkina ) . Women wore a nose jewel ( bottu ) , nose ring ( mugutti ) , bangles ( bale or kankana ) and various types of necklaces ( honna gante sara and kati sutra ) . During leisure , men amused themselves with horse riding , watching wrestling bouts , cock fights and ram fights . There existed a large and well organised network of schools for imparting higher education and these schools were known by various names such as agraharas , ghatikas , brahmapura or matha . Inscriptions mention schools of higher education at Salotgi , Balligavi , Talagunda , Aihole , Arasikere and other places .
= = = Literature = = =
The Western Ganga rule was a period of brisk literary activity in Sanskrit and Kannada , though many of the writings are now considered extinct and are known only from references made to them . Chavundaraya 's writing , Chavundaraya Purana ( or Trishashtilakshana mahapurana ) of 978 CE , is an early existing work in prose style in Kannada and contains a summary of the Sanskrit writings , Adipurana and Uttarapurana which were written a century earlier by Jinasena and Gunabhadra during the rule of Rashtrakuta Amoghavarsha I. The prose , composed in lucid Kannada , was mainly meant for the common man and avoided any reference to complicated elements of Jain doctrines and philosophy . His writings seem to be influenced by the writings of his predecessor Adikavi Pampa and contemporary Ranna . The work narrates the legends of a total of 63 Jain proponents including twenty @-@ four Jain Tirthankar , twelve Chakravartis , nine Balabhadras , nine Narayanas and nine Pratinarayanas .
The earliest postulated Kannada writer from this dynasty is King Durvinita of the 6th century . Kavirajamarga of 850 CE , refers to a Durvinita as an early writer of Kannada prose . Around 900 CE , Gunavarma I authored the Kannada works , Sudraka and Harivamsa . His writings are considered extinct but references to these writings are found in later years . He is known to have been patronised by King Ereganga Neetimarga II . In Sudraka , he has favourably compared his patron to King Sudraka of ancient times . The great Kannada poet Ranna was patronised by Chavundaraya in his early literary days . Ranna 's classic Parashurama charite is considered a eulogy of his patron who held such titles as Samara Parashurama .
Nagavarma I , a brahmin scholar who came from Vengi in modern Andhra Pradesh ( late 10th century ) was also patronised by Chavundaraya . He wrote Chandombudhi ( ocean of prosody ) addressed to his wife . This is considered the earliest available Kannada writing in prosody . He also wrote one of the earliest available romance classics in Kannada called Karnataka Kadambari in sweet and flowing champu ( mixed verse and prose ) style . It is based on an earlier romantic work in Sanskrit by poet Bana and is popular among critics . Gajashtaka ( hundred verses on elephants ) , a rare Kannada work on elephant management was written by King Shivamara II around 800 CE but this work is now considered extinct . Other writers such as Manasiga and Chandrabhatta were known to be popular in the 10th century .
In an age of classical Sanskrit literature , Madhava II ( brother of King Vishnugopa ) wrote a treatise Dattaka Sutravritti which was based on an earlier work on erotics by a writer called Dattaka . A Sanskrit version of Vaddakatha , a commentary on Pāṇini 's grammar called Sabdavathara and a commentary on the 15th chapter of a Sanskrit work called Kiratarjunneya by poet Bharavi ( who was in Durvinita 's court ) are ascribed to Durvinita . King Shivamara II is known to have written Gajamata Kalpana . Hemasena , also known as Vidya Dhananjaya authored Raghavapandaviya , a narration of the stories of Rama and the Pandavas simultaneously through puns . Gayachintamani and Kshatrachudamini which were based on poet Bana 's work Kadambari were written by Hemasena 's pupil Vadeebhasimha in prose style. and Chavundaraya wrote Charitarasara .
= = = Architecture = = =
The Western Ganga style of architecture was influenced by the Pallava and Badami Chalukya architectural features , in addition to indigenous Jain features . The Ganga pillars with a conventional lion at the base and a circular shaft of the pillar on its head , the stepped Vimana of the shrine with horizontal mouldings and square pillars were features inherited from the Pallavas . These features are also found in structures built by their subordinates , the Banas and Nolambas .
The monolith of Gomateshwara commissioned by Chavundaraya is considered the high point of the Ganga sculptural contribution in ancient Karnataka . Carved from fine @-@ grained white granite , the image stands on a lotus . It has no support up to the thighs and is 60 feet ( 18 m ) tall with the face measuring 6 @.@ 5 feet ( 2 @.@ 0 m ) . With the serene expression on the face of the image , its curled hair with graceful locks , its proportional anatomy , the monolith size , and the combination of its artistry and craftsmanship have led it to be called the mightiest achievement in sculptural art in medieval Karnataka . It is the largest monolithic statue in the world . Their free standing pillars called Mahasthambha or Bhrahmasthambha are also considered unique , examples of which are the Brahmadeva pillar and Tyagada Brahmadeva Pillar . At the top of the pillar whose shaft ( cylindrical or octagonal ) is decorated with creepers and other floral motifs is the seated Brahma and the base of the pillar normally has engravings of important Jain personalities and inscriptions .
Other important contributions are the Jain basadis ' whose towers have gradually receding stories ( talas ) ornamented with small models of temples . These tiny shrines have in them engravings of tirthankars ( Jain saints ) . Semicircular windows connect the shrines and decorative Kirtimukha ( demon faces ) are used at the top . The Chavundaraya basadi built in the 10th or 11th century , Chandragupta basadi built in the 6th century and the monolithic of Gomateshwara of 982 are the most important monuments at Shravanabelagola . Some features were added to the Chandragupta basadi by famous Hoysala sculptor Dasoja in the 12th century . The decorative doorjambs and perforated screen windows which depict scenes from the life of King Chandragupta Maurya are known to be his creation . The Panchakuta Basadi at Kambadahalli ( five towered Jan temple ) of about 900 with a Brahmadeva pillar is an excellent example of Dravidian art . The wall niches here are surmounted by torana ( lintel ) with carvings of floral motifs , flying divine creatures ( gandharva ) and imaginary monsters ( makara ) ridden by Yaksas ( attendants of saints ) while the niches are occupied by images of tirthankars themselves .
The Gangas built many Hindu temples with impressive Dravidian gopuras containing stucco figures from the Hindu pantheon , decorated pierced screen windows which are featured in the mantapa ( hall ) along with saptamatrika carvings ( seven heavenly mothers ) . Some well known examples are the Arakeshvara Temple at Hole Alur , Kapileswara temple at Manne , Kolaramma temple at Kolar , Rameshvara temple at Narasamangala , Nagareshvara temple at Begur and the Kallesvara temple at Aralaguppe . At Talakad they built the Maralesvara temple , the Arakesvara temple and the Patalesvara temple . Unlike the Jain temples where floral frieze decoration is common , Hindu temples were distinguished by friezes ( slab of stone with decorative sculptures ) illustrating episodes from the epics and puranas . Another unique legacy of the Gangas are the number of virgal ( hero stones ) they have left behind ; memorials containing sculptural details in relief of war scenes , Hindu deities , saptamatrikas , Jain tirthankars and ritual death ( such as the Doddahundi hero stone ) .
= = = Language = = =
The Western Gangas used Kannada and Sanskrit extensively as their language of administration . Some of their inscriptions are also bilingual in these languages . In bilingual inscriptions the formulaic passages stating origin myths , genealogies , titles of Kings and benedictions tended to be in Sanskrit , while the actual terms of the grant such as information on the land or village granted , its boundaries , participation of local authorities , rights and obligations of the grantee , taxes and dues and other local concerns were in the local language . The usage of these two languages showed important changes over the centuries . During the first phase ( 350 – 725 ) , Sanskrit copper plates dominated , indicating the initial ascendancy of the local language as a language of administration and the fact that majority of the records from this phase were brahmadeya grants ( grants to Brahmin temples ) . In the second phase ( 725 – 1000 ) , lithic inscriptions in Kannada outnumbered Sanskrit copper plates , consistent with the patronage Kannada received from rich and literate Jains who used Kannada as their medium to spread the Jain faith . Recent excavations at Tumbula near Mysore have revealed a set of early copper plate bilingual inscriptions dated 444 . The genealogy of the kings of the dynasty is described in Sanskrit while Kannada was used to describe the boundary of the village . An interesting inscription discovered at Beguru near modern Bangalore that deserves mention is the epigraph dated 890 that refers to a Bengaluru war . This is in Hale Kannada ( old Kannada ) language and is the earliest mention of the name of Bangalore city . The Western Gangas minted coins with Kannada and Nagari legends , the most common feature on their coins was the image of an elephant on the obverse and floral petal symbols on the reverse . The Kannada legend Bhadr , a royal umbrella or a conch shell appeared on top of the elephant image . The denominations are the pagoda ( weighing 52 grains ) , the fanam weighting one tenth or one half of the pagoda and the quarter fanams .
= = Timeline = =
The template below shows the Timeline of Karnataka . Note the extent of time ( around 700 years ) the Ganga kingdom flourished .
= Avery – MacLeod – McCarty experiment =
The Avery – MacLeod – McCarty experiment was an experimental demonstration , reported in 1944 by Oswald Avery , Colin MacLeod , and Maclyn McCarty , that DNA is the substance that causes bacterial transformation , in an era when it had been widely believed that it was proteins that served the function of carrying genetic information ( with the very word protein itself coined to indicate a belief that its function was primary ) . It was the culmination of research in the 1930s and early 1940s at the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research to purify and characterize the " transforming principle " responsible for the transformation phenomenon first described in Griffith 's experiment of 1928 : killed Streptococcus pneumoniae of the virulent strain type III @-@ S , when injected along with living but non @-@ virulent type II @-@ R pneumococci , resulted in a deadly infection of type III @-@ S pneumococci . In their paper " Studies on the Chemical Nature of the Substance Inducing Transformation of Pneumococcal Types : Induction of Transformation by a Desoxyribonucleic Acid Fraction Isolated from Pneumococcus Type III " , published in the February 1944 issue of the Journal of Experimental Medicine , Avery and his colleagues suggest that DNA , rather than protein as widely believed at the time , may be the hereditary material of bacteria , and could be analogous to genes and / or viruses in higher organisms .
= = Background = =
With the development of serological typing , medical researchers were able to sort bacteria into different strains , or types . When a person or test animal ( e.g. , a mouse ) is inoculated with a particular type , an immune response ensues , generating antibodies that react specifically with antigens on the bacteria . Blood serum containing the antibodies can then be extracted and applied to cultured bacteria . The antibodies will react with other bacteria of the same type as the original inoculation . Fred Neufeld , a German bacteriologist , had discovered the pneumococcal types and serological typing ; until Frederick Griffith 's studies bacteriologists believed that the types were fixed and unchangeable from one generation to the next .
Griffith 's experiment , reported in 1928 , identified that some " transforming principle " in pneumococcal bacteria could transform them from one type to another . Griffith , a British medical officer , had spent years applying serological typing to cases of pneumonia , a frequently fatal disease in the early 20th century . He found that multiple types — some virulent and some non @-@ virulent — were often present over the course of a clinical case of pneumonia , and thought that one type might change into another ( rather than simply multiple types being present all along ) . In testing that possibility , he found that transformation could occur when dead bacteria of a virulent type and live bacteria of a non @-@ virulent type were both injected in mice : the mice would develop a fatal infection ( normally only caused by live bacteria of the virulent type ) and die , and virulent bacteria could be isolated from such infected mice .
The findings of Griffith 's experiment were soon confirmed , first by Fred Neufeld at the Koch Institute and by Martin Henry Dawson at the Rockefeller Institute . A series of Rockefeller Institute researchers continued to study transformation in the years that followed . With Richard H.P. Sia , Dawson developed a method of transforming bacteria in vitro ( rather than in vivo as Griffith had done ) . After Dawson 's departure in 1930 , James Alloway took up the attempt to extend Griffith 's findings , resulting in the extraction of aqueous solutions of the transforming principle by 1933 . Colin MacLeod worked to purify such solutions from 1934 to 1937 , and the work was continued in 1940 and completed by Maclyn McCarty .
= = Experimental work = =
Pneumococcus is characterized by smooth colonies and has a polysaccharide capsule that induces antibody formation ; the different types are classified according to their immunological specificity .
The purification procedure Avery undertook consisted of first killing the bacteria with heat and extracting the saline @-@ soluble components . Next , the protein was precipitated out using chloroform and the polysaccharide capsules were hydrolyzed with an enzyme . An immunological precipitation caused by type @-@ specific antibodies was used to verify the complete destruction of the capsules . Then , the active portion was precipitated out by alcohol fractionation , resulting in fibrous strands that could be removed with a stirring rod .
Chemical analysis showed that the proportions of carbon , hydrogen , nitrogen , and phosphorus in this active portion were consistent with the chemical composition of DNA . To show that it was DNA rather than some small amount of RNA , protein , or some other cell component that was responsible for transformation , Avery and his colleagues used a number of biochemical tests . They found that trypsin , chymotrypsin and ribonuclease ( enzymes that break apart proteins or RNA ) did not affect it , but an enzyme preparation of " deoxyribonucleodepolymerase " ( a crude preparation , obtainable from a number of animal sources , that could break down DNA ) destroyed the extract 's transforming power .
Follow @-@ up work in response to criticism and challenges included the purification and crystallization , by Moses Kunitz in 1948 , of a DNA depolymerase ( deoxyribonuclease I ) , and precise work by Rollin Hotchkiss showing that virtually all the detected nitrogen in the purified DNA came from glycine , a breakdown product of the nucleotide base adenine , and that undetected protein contamination was at most 0 @.@ 02 % by Hotchkiss 's estimation .
= = Reception and legacy = =
The experimental findings of the Avery – MacLeod – McCarty experiment were quickly confirmed , and extended to other hereditary characteristics besides polysaccharide capsules . However , there was considerable reluctance to accept the conclusion that DNA was the genetic material . According to Phoebus Levene 's influential " tetranucleotide hypothesis " , DNA consisted of repeating units of the four nucleotide bases and had little biological specificity . DNA was therefore thought to be the structural component of chromosomes , whereas the genes were thought likely to be made of the protein component of chromosomes . This line of thinking was reinforced by the 1935 crystallization of tobacco mosaic virus by Wendell Stanley , and the parallels among viruses , genes , and enzymes ; many biologists thought genes might be a sort of " super @-@ enzyme " , and viruses were shown according to Stanley to be proteins and to share the property of autocatalysis with many enzymes . Furthermore , few biologists thought that genetics could be applied to bacteria , since they lacked chromosomes and sexual reproduction . In particular , many of the geneticists known informally as the phage group , which would become influential in the new discipline of molecular biology in the 1950s , were dismissive of DNA as the genetic material ( and were inclined to avoid the " messy " biochemical approaches of Avery and his colleagues ) . Some biologists , including fellow Rockefeller Institute Fellow Alfred Mirsky , challenged Avery 's finding that the transforming principle was pure DNA , suggesting that protein contaminants were instead responsible . Although transformation occurred in some kinds of bacteria , it could not be replicated in other bacteria ( nor in any higher organisms ) , and its significance seemed limited primarily to medicine .
Scientists looking back on the Avery – MacLeod – McCarty experiment have disagreed about just how influential it was in the 1940s and early 1950s . Gunther Stent suggested that it was largely ignored , and only celebrated afterwards — similarly to Gregor Mendel 's work decades before the rise of genetics . Others , such as Joshua Lederberg and Leslie C. Dunn , attest to its early significance and cite the experiment as the beginning of molecular genetics .
A few microbiologists and geneticists had taken an interest in the physical and chemical nature of genes before 1944 , but the Avery – MacLeod – McCarty experiment brought renewed and wider interest in the subject . While the original publication did not mention genetics specifically , Avery as well as many of the geneticists who read the paper were aware of the genetic implications — that Avery may have isolated the gene itself as pure DNA . Biochemist Erwin Chargaff , geneticist H. J. Muller and others praised the result as establishing the biological specificity of DNA and as having important implications for genetics if DNA played a similar role in higher organisms . In 1945 , the Royal Society awarded Avery the Copley Medal , in part for his work on bacterial transformation .
Between 1944 and 1954 , the paper was cited at least 239 times ( with citations spread evenly through those years ) , mostly in papers on microbiology , immunochemistry , and biochemistry . In addition to the follow @-@ up work by McCarty and others at the Rockefeller Institute in response to Mirsky 's criticisms , the experiment spurred considerable work in microbiology , where it shed new light on the analogies between bacterial heredity and the genetics of sexually @-@ reproducing organisms . French microbiologist André Boivin claimed to extend Avery 's bacterial transformation findings to Escherichia coli , although this could not be confirmed by other researchers . In 1946 , however , Joshua Lederberg and Edward Tatum demonstrated bacterial conjugation in E. coli and showed that genetics could apply to bacteria , even if Avery 's specific method of transformation was not general . Avery 's work also may have played a role in the continuation of X @-@ ray crystallography studies of DNA by Maurice Wilkins , who faced pressure from his funders to make whole cells , rather than biological molecules , the subject of his research .
Despite the significant number of citations to the paper and positive responses it received in the years following publication , Avery 's work was largely neglected by much of the scientific community . Although received positively by many scientists , the experiment did not seriously affect mainstream genetics research , in part because it made little difference for classical genetics experiments in which genes were defined by their behavior in breeding experiments rather than their chemical makeup . H. J. Muller , while interested , was focused more on physical rather than chemical studies of the gene , as were most of the members of the phage group . Avery 's work was also neglected by the Nobel Foundation , which later expressed public regret for failing to award Avery a Nobel Prize .
By the time of the 1952 Hershey – Chase experiment , geneticists were more inclined to consider DNA as the genetic material , and Alfred Hershey was an influential member of the phage group . Erwin Chargaff had shown that the base composition of DNA varies by species ( contrary to the tetranucleotide hypothesis ) , and in 1952 Rollin Hotchkiss published his experimental evidence both confirming Chargaff 's work and demonstrating the absence of protein in Avery 's transforming principle . Furthermore , the field of bacterial genetics was quickly becoming established , and biologists were more inclined to think of heredity in the same terms for bacteria and higher organisms . After Hershey and Chase used radioactive isotopes to show that it was primarily DNA , rather than protein , that entered bacteria upon infection with bacteriophage , it was soon widely accepted that DNA was the material . Despite the much less precise experimental results ( they found a not @-@ insignificant amount of protein entering the cells as well as DNA ) , the Hershey – Chase experiment was not subject to the same degree of challenge . Its influence was boosted by the growing network of the phage group and , the following year , by the publicity surrounding the DNA structure proposed by Watson and Crick ( Watson was also a member of the phage group ) . Only in retrospect , however , did either experiment definitively prove that DNA is the genetic material .
= Gomphus clavatus =
Gomphus clavatus , commonly known pig 's ears or violet chanterelle , as is an edible species of fungus in the genus Gomphus , family Gomphaceae native to Eurasia and North America . The fruit body is vase- or fan @-@ shaped with wavy edges to its rim , and grows up to 15 cm ( 6 in ) wide and 17 cm ( 6 3 ⁄ 4 in ) tall . The upper surface or cap is orangish @-@ brown to lilac , while its lower spore @-@ bearing surface , the hymenium , is covered in wrinkles and ridges rather than gills or pores , and is a distinctive purple color . Described by Jacob Christian Schäffer in 1774 , G. clavatus has had several name changes and many alternate scientific names , having been classified as a chanterelle by several authorities , though it is not closely related to them .
Typically found in coniferous forests , G. clavatus is mycorrhizal , and is associated with tree species in a variety of coniferous genera , particularly spruces and firs . It is more common at elevations of greater than 2 @,@ 000 ft ( 600 m ) , in moist , shady areas with plenty of leaf litter . Although widespread , G. clavatus has become rare in many parts of Europe and extinct in Great Britain . It has been placed on the national Red Lists of threatened fungi in 17 European countries and is one of 33 species proposed for international conservation under the Bern Convention .
= = Taxonomy = =
German naturalist Jacob Christian Schäffer described Elvela ( subsequently Helvella ) purpurascens in 1774 . Austrian naturalist Franz Xaver von Wulfen gave it the name Clavaria elveloides in 1781 , reporting that it appeared in the fir tree forests around Klagenfurt in August and was common around Hüttenberg . He recorded that poor people ate it , giving it the local name hare 's ear . In 1796 , mycologist Christian Hendrik Persoon described G. clavatus as Merulius clavatus , noting that it grew in grassy locations in woods . He noted it was the same species that Schäffer had described . The specific epithet — derived from the Latin word clava ( club ) and meaning " club @-@ shaped " — refers to the shape of young fruit bodies . In his 1801 Synopsis methodica fungorum , Persoon placed Merulius clavatus ( recognising two varieties — violaceus and spadiceus ) in a section Gomphus within Merulius .
British botanist Samuel Frederick Gray used Persoon 's name , transferring the violet chanterelle to the genus Gomphus in 1821 . As it is the first named member of the genus it became the type species . The starting date of fungal taxonomy had been set as January 1 , 1821 , to coincide with the date of the works of the ' father of mycology ' , Swedish naturalist Elias Magnus Fries , which meant the name required sanction by Fries ( indicated in the name by a colon ) to be considered valid . Thus the species was written as Gomphus clavatus ( Pers . : Fr . ) Gray . A 1987 revision of the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature set the starting date at May 1 , 1753 , the date of publication of Linnaeus ' work , the Species Plantarum . Hence , the name no longer requires the ratification of Fries ' authority . Persoon followed suit in treating Gomphus as a separate genus in his 1825 work Mycologia Europaea . Here he recognized M. clavatus as the same species as Clavaria truncata described by Casimir Christoph Schmidel in 1796 , calling the taxon Gomphus truncatus .
Fries himself declined to keep the genus separate , instead classifying Gomphus as a tribe within the genus Cantharellus in his 1821 work Systema Mycologicum , the species becoming Cantharellus clavatus . He recognized four varieties : violaceo @-@ spadiceus , carneus , purpurascens and umbrinus . Swiss mycologist Louis Secretan described three taxa — Merulius clavatus carneus , M. clavatus violaceus and M. clavatus purpurascens — in his 1833 work Mycographie Suisse . Many of his names have been rejected for nomenclatural purposes because Secretan had a narrow species concept , dividing many taxa into multiple species that were not supported by other authorities , and his works did not use binomial nomenclature consistently . Fries revised his classification in his 1838 book Epicrisis Systematis Mycologici seu Synopsis Hymenomycetum , placing it in a series — Deformes — in the genus Craterellus .
Paul Kummer raised many of Fries ' tribi ( subgenera ) to genus rank in his 1871 work Der Führer in die Pilzkunde , classifying the violet chanterelle in the genus Thelephora . Jacques Emile Doassans and Narcisse Théophile Patouillard placed it in the genus Neurophyllum ( also spelt Nevrophyllum ) in 1886 , removing it from Cantharellus on account of its orange spores . However , Charles Horton Peck discarded the name in 1887 and returned G. clavatus to Cantharellus . In 1891 , German botanist Otto Kuntze published Revisio generum plantarum , his response to what he perceived as poor method in existing nomenclatural practice . He coined the genus Trombetta to incorporate the violet chanterelle , hence giving it the name Trombetta clavata . However , Kuntze 's revisionary program was not accepted by the majority of botanists .
Alexander H. Smith treated Gomphus as a section within Cantharellus in his 1947 review of chanterelles in western North America , as he felt there were no consistent characteristics that distinguished the two genera . In 1966 E.J.H. Corner described a small @-@ spored variety , G. clavatus var. parvispora , from specimens collected in Uganda ; it is not considered to have independent taxonomic significance .
Research combining the use of phylogenetic analyses of DNA sequences and more traditional morphology @-@ based characters has resulted in a reshuffling of the species concept in Gomphus ; as a result , G. clavatus is considered the only Gomphus species in North America . Comparison of the DNA sequences of species Gomphus brevipes and Gomphus truncatus has shown them to be genetically identical to G. clavatus , and they may be treated as synonyms .
Gomphus clavatus is commonly known as pig 's ears , alluding to the violet underside and yellowish cap of the fruit bodies , although this vernacular name is also used for Discina perlata . Other English common names for this species include clustered chanterelle and violet chanterelle . Gray coined the name clubbed gomphe . In the Sherpa language of Nepal the fungus is known as Eeshyamo ( " mother @-@ in @-@ law " ) , as its imposing fruit body is reminiscent of a mother @-@ in @-@ law , who has a dominant role in the Sherpa family .
= = Description = =
The basidiocarps , or fruit bodies , of immature Gomphus clavatus are club @-@ shaped and have one cap or pileus , but later spread out and have a so @-@ called merismatoid appearance — several vase @-@ shaped caps rising from a common stem . The fruit body is up to 15 cm ( 6 in ) wide and 17 cm ( 6 3 ⁄ 4 in ) tall , fan @-@ shaped with wavy edges . The upper surfaces of the fruit bodies are covered with brown hyphae that form small , distinct patches towards the margin , but combine to form a continuous felt @-@ like tomentum over the center of the cap . The color of the upper cap surface is orange @-@ brown to violet , but later in age fades to a lighter brown . The cap margins of older mushrooms can be quite ragged . The lower spore @-@ bearing surface — the hymenium — is wrinkled , often with folds and pits , and violet to brown in color . The solid stem , which is continuous with the cap , is 0 @.@ 8 – 3 cm ( 3 ⁄ 8 – 1 1 ⁄ 8 in ) wide , 4 – 10 cm ( 1 5 ⁄ 8 – 3 7 ⁄ 8 in ) tall , and covered with fine hairs ( tomentum ) that become more coarse ( hispid ) towards the base . It is often compound , with several fruit bodies arising from the basal portion . Fruit bodies may bruise reddish @-@ brown where handled . The flesh can be whitish @-@ pink to lilac or cinnamon @-@ buff . Thick under the center of the cap , it thins out towards the margins . It can be crunchy , though it is softer than that of the chanterelle . The taste and odor are mild . The spore print is yellow to orange @-@ yellow .
Basidiospores are elliptical , wrinkled or slightly warted , and 10 – 14 by 5 – 7 @.@ 5 μm . The spores are nonamyloid , meaning they have a negative color reaction with the iodine in Melzer 's reagent . The spore @-@ bearing structures , the basidia , are elongated or club @-@ shaped , hyaline ( glassy or translucent ) , and four @-@ spored , with dimensions of 60 – 90 by 8 @.@ 5 – 11 @.@ 5 μm . G. clavatus does not contain cystidia , the sterile cells associated with basidia in many species . Clamp connections are present .
= = = Similar species = = =
Gomphus crassipes , found in Spain and North America , can only be reliably distinguished from G. clavatus with the use of a microscope . Its basidiospores are generally longer ( 11 – 17 by 5 @.@ 5 – 7 μm ) and have a more finely wrinkled surface . The North American species G. bonarii features a dull orange cap with erect scales , and a stalk with decurrent folds . It associates with conifers . Pseudocraterellus pseudoclavatus ( formerly classified in Gomphus ) is a lookalike species that grow under conifers in the central United States and westward , also differing on microscopic characters and reaction to potassium hydroxide . Turbinellus floccosus and T. kauffmanii are of similar shape but their caps are covered in scales . The edible blue chanterelle ( Polyozellus multiplex ) could be confused with G. clavatus , but has distinctive spores .
= = Habitat , distribution , and conservation = =
Gomphus clavatus grows singly , in clusters or clumps , or even occasionally fairy rings , on the ground , typically in coniferous forests , and with a preference for moist , shady areas with deep leaf litter , or rotten wood debris on the ground . The species is equally common in older or younger stands of trees . Fruit bodies are easily missed because their colors blend with those of the forest floor . It is more common at elevations of greater than 2 @,@ 000 ft ( 600 m ) . Gomphus clavatus has been reported as forming symbiotic ( mycorrhizal ) associations with a variety of trees : Abies alba , Abies cephalonica , Abies firma , Abies nephrolepis , Abies religiosa , Picea species , Pinus densiflora , Pseudotsuga menziesii , and Tsuga heterophylla . It is also reported with beech ( Fagus sylvatica ) in Europe .
In Asia , Gomphus clavatus has been reported from China , Japan , Korea , Malaysia , Nepal , and Pakistan . European countries that have reported the fungus include Austria , the Czech Republic , France , Germany , Greece , Italy , Lithuania , Poland , Romania , Russia , Sweden , Switzerland , and Turkey . In North America , the fungus has been found across Canada , Mexico , and the United States , where it is abundant in the Pacific Northwest .
In Europe , Gomphus clavatus appears on the national Red Lists of threatened fungi in 17 countries and is one of 33 species proposed for international conservation under the Bern Convention . Due to a substantial decline in sightings , Gomphus clavatus became a legally protected species in Hungary on September 1 , 2005 . It also has legal protection in Slovakia and Slovenia . The species formerly occurred in England , but has not been seen since 1927 and is now regarded as extinct . The fungus faces loss and degradation of its habitat ; eutrophication is another potential threat . Gomphus clavatus was selected as the 1998 Pilz des Jahres ( " Mushroom of the Year " ) by the German Mycological Society , partly to highlight its vulnerable status .
= = Edibility = =
Gomphus clavatus is edible ( and rated as choice by some ) , while others find it tasteless . It has an earthy flavor and meaty texture that complements red meat dishes . Like many edible fungi , consumption may cause gastrointestinal distress in susceptible individuals . The flesh becomes bitter with age , and older specimens may be infested with insects . Insect infestation is unlikely if the weather is cool . G. clavatus has been used for cooking for some time — Fries included it in his 1867 book Sveriges ätliga och giftiga svampar ( Edible and Poisonous Mushrooms in Sweden ) . It is highly regarded by the Zapotec people of Ixtlán de Juárez in Oaxaca , and the Sherpa people in the vicinity of Sagarmatha National Park in Nepal .
Extracts prepared from G. clavatus fruit bodies have a high antioxidant activity , and a high concentration of phenolic and flavonoid compounds . Phenolic compounds identified from the fungus include protocatechuic acid , gallic acid , gentisic acid , vanillic acid , syringic acid , cinnamic acid , caffeic acid , ferulic acid , and tannic acid . In a chemical analysis of collections from the South Aegean Region of Turkey , the fungus was shown to have bioaccumulated the toxic metal cadmium to levels exceeding the maximum intake recommended by the European Union Scientific Committee on Food .
= M @-@ 34 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 34 is an east – west state trunkline highway in the southeastern region of the US state of Michigan . It has a western terminus near Osseo on M @-@ 99 and runs through forest and farm lands to its eastern terminus at Business US Highway 223 ( BUS US 223 ) and M @-@ 52 in Adrian . The highway serves a number of smaller communities in the area and intersects two US Highways while carrying between 4 @,@ 200 and 11 @,@ 300 vehicles on a daily basis .
M @-@ 34 was designated and signed with the beginning of the state highway system around July 1 , 1919 , along a route that extended to either end of its current routing . These western and eastern extensions were added to other highways during the 1920s , shortening M @-@ 34 to roughly its current length . A few more changes were made in the mid @-@ 1950s and 1960s resulting in the modern routing . M @-@ 34 has a short , unsigned sibling , Connector 34 , which is better known as Industrial Drive in the Adrian area .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 34 begins at an intersection with M @-@ 99 just west of Osseo . M @-@ 99 approaches Osseo from the west along Hudson Road and where M @-@ 99 turns south along Pioneer Road , M @-@ 34 continues east along Hudson Road . The highway turns to the southeast to the south of Osseo near Deer Lake and continues towards Pittsford . Hudson Road runs through a mix of forests and local farms . The trunkline passes to the south of the main business district in Pittsford . East of town , the highway turns east and intersects US Highway 127 ( US 127 ) at the Hillsdale – Lenawee county line in Hudson . The trunkline continues eastward through the city of Hudson as Main Street . On the eastern edge of town , it becomes Carleton Road and passes through more farmland . Just south of Clayton , M @-@ 34 has a junction with the northern terminus of M @-@ 156 , a connector highway that runs south into Ohio and US 20 .
Approximately four miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) east of that junction , M @-@ 34 turns north for about two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) along Benner Highway and passes through the community of Cadmus . At the end of its course along Benner Highway , M @-@ 34 turns east towards Adrian on Beecher Road . There are some residential subdivisions along the road on the southwest side of Adrian . M @-@ 34 intersects Industrial Drive and crosses US 223 and Beecher Road becomes Beecher Street in town . The trunkline continues east and terminates at the intersection of Beecher and Main streets where it meets BUS US 223 / M @-@ 52 .
M @-@ 34 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) like other state highways in Michigan . As a part of these maintenance responsibilities , the department tracks the volume of traffic that uses the roadways under its jurisdiction . These volumes are expressed using a metric called annual average daily traffic , which is a statistical calculation of the average daily number of vehicles on a segment of roadway . MDOT 's surveys in 2010 showed that the highest traffic levels along M @-@ 34 were the 11 @,@ 302 vehicles daily immediately east of the BUS US 223 / M @-@ 52 junction in Adrian ; the lowest counts were the 4 @,@ 166 vehicles per day between Hudson and the M @-@ 156 junction . No section of M @-@ 34 has been listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
When the state highway system was signed around July 1 , 1919 , M @-@ 34 started in Jonesville at an intersection with M @-@ 23 along the present @-@ day alignment of M @-@ 99 . The highway ran to Adrian along its present route and continued southeasterly along present @-@ day US 223 through Blissfield , where it terminated at the Ohio state line near Sylvania , Ohio . In 1924 , the western terminus of the highway was extended to Homer where it terminated at M @-@ 60 . Just a few years later , in 1926 , the western terminus was truncated , to end at Hillsdale , with the remainder to Jonesville becoming an extension of the M @-@ 64 of the day . At the same time , the eastern segment of M @-@ 34 from Adrian to the border was assumed into the US 127 corridor , therefore , scaling the terminus back to US 127 ( now US 223 ) .
In 1954 , a new US 223 bypass was built around Adrian , resulting in the relocation of M @-@ 34 to end at BUS US 223 / M @-@ 52 . Finally , in 1966 , when a new alignment of M @-@ 99 highway was opened , the western terminus of M @-@ 34 was scaled back to end at the new highway near Osseo . In 2003 , the short connector between M @-@ 34 and US 223 was abandoned and obliterated . Industrial Drive , which is known internally at MDOT as Connector 34 , is a new connector between the two highways that was assumed into the state trunkline system at the same time .
= = Major intersections = =
= Schizogeny =
" Schizogeny " is the ninth episode of the fifth season of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on January 11 , 1998 . It was written by Jessica Scott and Mike Wollaeger , directed by Ralph Hemecker , and featured guest appearances by Bob Dawson , Myles Ferguson , Katharine Isabelle , Chad Lindberg , and Sarah @-@ Jane Redmond . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " Schizogeny " earned a Nielsen household rating of 12 @.@ 9 , being watched by 21 @.@ 37 million people in its initial broadcast . The episode received mixed to negative reviews , with several critics calling it the worst episode of The X @-@ Files .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . In this episode , Mulder and Scully become convinced that a greater evil may be lurking in the community when a teenager is suspected of murdering his father .
" Schizogeny " , written by first @-@ year staff writers Scott and Wollaeger , became humorously known as " The Killer Tree Episode " amongst the cast and crew . Many of the scenes shot for " Schizogeny " were filmed on a real orchard named Hazelgrove Farms near the small town of Fort Langley , British Columbia . The episode utilized various post @-@ production techniques , in order to clear up vocal issues and to censor one line , which Fox 's standards and practices department had issues with .
= = Plot = =
In Coats Grove , Michigan , teenager Bobby Rich is berated by his stepfather Phil for not finishing his lawn work outside the house . Bobby runs into a nearby orchard and Phil gives chase . When Bobby 's mother , Patti , follows them into the orchard , she discovers Phil 's body partially buried , seemingly drowned in mud . Kneeling beside Phil is Bobby , his eyes wide with terror .
Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) are assigned to the case . At the scene , Scully hypothesizes that Bobby dug the pit that trapped his stepfather , and speculates that he had an accomplice . Patti tells Scully that , from her point of view , it appeared as if Bobby was attempting to help Phil out of the orchard pit when he died . She also reveals that her son has anger management issues and has been undergoing therapy for several years . When Mulder and Scully meet with Bobby 's therapist , Karin Matthews , she describes Bobby as the victim of physical abuse . Mulder expresses his belief that Bobby is not to blame for Phil 's death .
Bobby tells a fellow student , Lisa Baiocchi , that she must stand up to her overbearing father just as he had done with Phil . When Lisa returns home , a window explodes and a shadowy , arm @-@ like appendage grabs her father by the throat after he demands she stop seeing Bobby . His lifeless body is discovered lying on the ground outside the house . Though Scully concludes that Mr. Baiocchi died as the result of being pushed out the window , Mulder discovers evidence suggesting he was pulled out by an outside force . Later , the agents learn that Lisa is another one of Karin Matthews ' patients .
Mulder finds a small splinter of fresh wood embedded in Mr. Baiocchi 's neck , and matches the fragment to a tree outside the Baiocchi home . A short time later , the agents are approached by a man named Ramirez , who claims that the trees are all dying because of a " very bad man . " Meanwhile , Karin invites Lisa to stay at her home until her aunt can pick her up the following day . As Lisa listens from her bedroom , she overhears an argument between Karin and a male voice . When she descends into Karin 's root cellar , she discovers the skeletal body of a man . Terrified , Lisa turns towards the door , only to have the door close and lock .
Mulder discovers that Karin 's father was pulled from the mud of an orchard twenty years earlier . Ramirez tells him that the death brought about an end of a blight affecting the trees . Later , Mulder digs up Mr. Matthews ' casket and finds it filled with roots , his body missing . When Lisa 's aunt , Linda , arrives at Karin 's house to retrieve her niece , she is attacked and killed by an unseen force as tree branches sway in the wind above her . Karin enters the root cellar , and is revealed to be the source of the male voice Lisa heard earlier , due to her having Dissociative personality disorder brought on by abuse from her own father .
When Mulder and Scully search Karin 's house , they come upon the corpse — belonging to Karin 's father — in the root cellar . They then find Lisa , frightened but unharmed , in the kitchen . Karin drives to Bobby 's house and chases him into the orchard . Suddenly , Bobby is dragged downward into the mud . While attempting to rescue the teenager , Mulder simultaneously encourages Karin to break the cycle and to fight the voice inside her head . A tendon @-@ like root snakes out of the mud and begins to drag Mulder downward . Ramirez appears , his axe in hand , and decapitates Karin , killing her . Mulder and Bobby are released by the unseen force .
= = Production = =
= = = Conception and writing = = =
" Schizogeny " was written by first @-@ year staff writers Jessica Scott and Mike Wollaeger , who had previously worked on The X @-@ Files in non @-@ writing jobs . Due to the episode 's tree @-@ based conceit , it eventually became known as " The Killer Tree Episode " amongst the cast and crew . Executive producer Frank Spotnitz noted that " Schizogeny " underwent an abnormally lengthy writing process and was edited several times . He later said that the episode " went through many , many incarnations and versions . " The title is a reference to the scientific term for asexual reproduction .
= = = Casting = = =
When it came time to cast the character of Bobby Rich , Chad Lindberg , who played a cystic fibrosis sufferer on the medical drama ER , was chosen . Katharine Isabelle , who portrayed Lisa Baiocchi , was the daughter of Graeme Murray , the production designer for The X @-@ Files . Kate Robbins , who portrayed Lisa 's aunt Linda , had previously appeared in the third season episode " D.P.O. "
Several lines in the episode were re @-@ recorded . During post @-@ production , editors feared that Rich 's mumbly voice would make it hard for viewers to understand what he was saying , so he was brought back in to re @-@ record his dialogue , which was then dubbed over the footage . In addition , during the scene wherein Mulder tells Scully that Bobby 's nickname at school , the original version featured Mulder audibly saying " Dickweed . " Fox 's standards and practices department made the show change the name to " Dorkweed , " which required David Duchovny to re @-@ dub his line .
= = = Set and score = = =
Many of the scenes shot for " Schizogeny " were filmed on a real orchard named Hazelgrove Farms near the small town of Fort Langley , British Columbia . Other shots , mostly involving the sinking mud scenes , were shot on a soundstage at Lion 's Gate Studios that was fitted with over 200 hazelnut trees . The mud pit was made out of a large tank filled with peat moss , mud , and water . The mixture was heated so that the actors would not be uncomfortable during the sinking scenes . The shot that called for Karin Matthews ' lifeless body to sink into the mud required a stunt woman to be slowly lowered into the pit . The crew found it necessary to supply her oxygen during the shot because of the depth of the pit . Toby Lindala and her art department created all of the props used in the episode , including the moving tree roots and the skeletal remains of Karin Matthews ' father .
Several of the sets were chosen because of their proximity to large trees . Lisa 's house , for instance , was built next to a large willow . An additional tree limb that was more than twenty feet long was attached to the real tree to give it a more menacing feel . The tree limb that attacked Mulder 's car was a branch of a massive tree that had fallen on a nearby plot of public land . The producers secured permission from the Canadian government and hoisted the tree with a crane and then dropped it onto a former police cruiser . Nigel Habgood , the series car coordinator , was able to refurbish the cruiser and it was later used in the episode " Kill Switch . " Mark Snow , composer for the series , was particularly proud of the music he wrote for the episode , noting that the story was a " dark tale with a wonderful aura about it . " He credits this ominous feel to woodwind instruments .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Schizogeny " premiered on the Fox network on January 11 , 1998 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 12 @.@ 9 , with a 19 share , meaning that roughly 12 @.@ 9 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 19 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 21 @.@ 37 million viewers .
The episode received mixed to negative reviews from critics , with several reviewers dubbing it one of the worst episodes of the series . Francis Dass of the New Straits Times Press referred to it as " one of the weaker episodes " of the fifth season . The A.V. Club reviewer Todd VanDerWerff gave " Schizogeny " a D – , and wrote that " ' Schizogeny ' just might be the very worst episode of The X @-@ Files " , noting that " the tone [ of the episode ] is off . " Furthermore , VanDerWerff felt that " the more Scott and Wollaeger try to continue explaining this and tie it into the idea of child abuse , the less it attains any of the power or tragedy they want it to have . " Starpulse , in a run @-@ down of the best and worst episodes and villains of the series , named the killer trees the worst monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week and wrote , " [ Schizogeny ] proved that even the X @-@ Files ' writers can come up completely dry on their scary creeps sometimes . " Critical Myth 's John Keegan gave the episode 4 / 10 , and , while praising the " interesting concept " of the episode , concluded that it was filled with " odd inconsistencies , [ and ] is definitely not one of the better episodes of the season . " Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five . The two wrote positively of the first part of the episode noting that " director Ralph Hemecker [ brings ] the eeriness to the fore , and [ makes ] this a more honest @-@ to @-@ truth scary slice of X @-@ File than has been offered in ages . " Shearman and Pearson , however , argued that the episode 's references to Psycho and its " lack of explanation " result in the episode approaching " nonsense . " Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a mixed review and awarded it two stars out of four . She wrote that , " the plot of ' Schizogeny ' is more tangled than the episode 's paranormal root system , but underneath lies some powerful themes . "
= Defective Premises Act 1972 =
The Defective Premises Act 1972 ( c . 35 | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
instead . Although Lambert intended to subsequently attack the French alone , Pym forbade him and sent a direct order for Lambert to move out of range of the enemy . At 10 : 00 , Iphigenia reached Sirius and together the ships began firing at French troops ashore , who were endeavouring to raise a gun battery within range of the frigates . Magicienne , irretrievably stuck on the reef , rapidly flooding and with her capstan smashed by French shot , now bore the brunt of long @-@ range French fire from both Bellone and the shore until Pym ordered Curtis to abandon his ship , transferring his men aboard Iphigenia . At 19 : 30 Magicienne was set on fire , her magazines exploding at 23 : 00 . On the shoreline , Duperré had been unable to spare any men to take possession of Nereide until 15 : 00 . A party under Lieutenant Roussin , second in command on Victor and temporarily in command of Minerve , was sent but had orders to return once the ship had been disarmed : freeing the remaining French prisoners , Roussin spiked the guns to prevent their further use , administered basic medical care and returned to shore , recounting that over 100 men lay dead or dying aboard the British frigate .
At 04 : 00 on 25 August , the newly erected French gun battery opened fire on Sirius and Iphigenia , which returned fire as best they could . Accepting that Sirius was beyond repair , Pym removed all her personnel and military supplies , setting fire to the frigate at 09 : 00 , shortly after Iphigenia had pulled beyond the range of the battery , using a cannon as an anchor after losing hers the previous day . French boats attempted to reach Sirius and capture her before she exploded , although they turned back when Pym launched his own boats to contest possession of the wreck . The frigate 's remaining munitions exploded at 11 : 00 . During the morning , Duperré sent an official boarding party aboard Nereide , who wet the decks to prevent any risk of fire from the ships burning in the harbour and removed 75 corpses from the frigate .
= = French response = =
When news of the arrival of Duperré 's squadron reached Decaen at Port Napoleon , he immediately despatched fast couriers to Grand Port and ordered Hamelin 's squadron , consisting of the frigates Vénus , Manche , Astrée and the brig Entreprenant , to make ready to sail in support of Duperré . Hamelin departed Port Napoleon at midnight on 21 August , intending to sail northeast and then south , down the island 's eastern shore . On 23 August , Hamelin 's squadron spotted and captured a British transport ship named Ranger , sent 24 days earlier from the Cape of Good Hope with 300 tons of food supplies and extensive naval stores for Rowley on Île Bourbon . On rounding the northern headlands of Isle de France , however , Hamelin found he could make no progress against the headwinds and reversed direction , passing the western shore of the island and arriving off Grand Port at 13 : 00 on 27 August .
The two extra days Hamelin had spent rounding Isle de France saw activity from the British forces remaining at Grand Port . There had been no strong winds in the bay and Iphigenia was forced to resort to slowly warping towards the mouth of the channel in the hope of escaping the approaching French reinforcements . Boats had removed the crews of Sirius and Magicienne to Île de la Passe , where the fortifications had been strengthened , but supplies were running low and Magicienne 's launch was sent to Île Bourbon to request urgent reinforcement and resupply from Rowley 's remaining squadron . On the morning of 27 August , Lambert discovered the brig Entreprenant off the harbour mouth and three French sail approaching in the distance . Iphigenia was still 1 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 3 ⁄ 4 mi ) from Île de Passe at the edge of the lagoon and was low on shot and unable to manoeuvre in the calm weather without anchors . Recognising that resistance under such conditions against an overwhelming force was futile , Lambert negotiated with Hamelin , offering to surrender Île de la Passe if Iphigenia and the men on the island were given permission to sail to Île Bourbon unmolested .
= = British surrender = =
On the morning of 28 August , Lambert received a message from Hamelin , promising to release all the prisoners under conditions of parole within one month if Île de la Passe and Iphigenia were both surrendered without resistance . The message also threatened that if Lambert refused , the French would attack and overwhelm the badly outnumbered British force . Recognising that food supplies were low , reinforcements had not arrived and that his ammunition stores were almost empty , Lambert agreed to the terms . Lambert later received a message from Decaen proposing similar terms and notified the French governor that he had surrendered to Hamelin . Decaen was furious that Hamelin had agreed terms without consulting him , but eventually agreed to accept the terms of the surrender as well . The wounded were treated by French doctors at Grand Port and later repatriated , although the remainder of the prisoners were placed in a cramped and unpleasant prison at Port Napoleon from which , despite the terms of the surrender , they were not released until British forces captured the island in December .
Rowley first learned of the operations off Grand Port on 22 August , when Windham arrived off Saint Paul . Eager to support Pym 's attack , Rowley immediately set sail in his frigate HMS Boadicea , with the transport Bombay following with two companies of the 86th Regiment of Foot to provide a garrison on any territory seized in the operation . The headwinds were strong and it was not until 29 August that Rowley arrived off Grand Port , having been notified of the situation there by Magicienne 's launch the previous day . Sighting a cluster of frigates around Île de la Passe , Rowley closed with the island before turning sharply when Vénus and Manche raised their colours and gave chase . Rowley repeatedly feinted towards the French ships and then pulled away , hoping to draw them away from Grand Port in the hope that Bombay might board the now unprotected Iphigenia and capture her . Bombay was thwarted by the reappearance of Astrée and Entreprenant and Rowley was chased by Vénus and Manche back to Saint Denis , anchoring there on 30 August . Rowley attempted a second time to rescue Iphigenia from Grand Port the following week , but by the time he returned Bellone and Minerve had been refloated and the French force was far too strong for Rowley 's flagship to attack alone .
= = Aftermath = =
The battle is noted as the most significant defeat for the Royal Navy during the Napoleonic Wars . Not only had four frigates been lost with their entire crews , but 105 experienced sailors had been killed and 168 wounded in one of the bloodiest frigate encounters of the war . French losses were also heavy , with Duperré reporting 36 killed and 112 wounded on his squadron and among the soldiers firing from the shore .
The loss of such a large proportion of his force placed Rowley at a significant disadvantage in September 1810 , as Hamelin 's squadron , bolstered by the newly commissioned Iphigénie , now substantially outnumbered his own ( the ruined Néréide was also attached to the French squadron , but the damage suffered was so severe that the ship never sailed again ) . Withdrawing to Isle de France , Rowley requested that reinforcements be diverted from other duties in the region to replace his lost ships and to break the French blockade of Île Bourbon , led by Bouvet . These newly arrived British frigates , cruising alone in unfamiliar waters , became targets for Hamelin , who twice forced the surrender of single frigates , only for Rowley to beat his ships away from their prize each time . On the second occasion , Rowley was able to chase and capture Hamelin and his flagship Vénus , bringing an end to his raiding career and to the activities of his squadron , who remained on Isle de France until they were all captured at the fall of the island in December 1810 by an invasion fleet under Vice @-@ Admiral Albemarle Bertie .
In France the action was greeted with celebration , and it became the only naval battle commemorated on the Arc de Triomphe . The British response was despondent , although all four captains were subsequently cleared and praised at their courts @-@ martial inquiring into the loss of their ships . The only criticism was of Willoughby , who was accused of giving a misleading signal in indicating that the French were of inferior force on 22 August . Contemporary historian William James described British reaction to the battle as " that the noble behaviour of her officers and crew threw such a halo of glory around the defeat at Grand Port , that , in public opinion at least , the loss of four frigates was scarcely considered a misfortune . " However , he also notes that " No case of which we are aware more deeply affects the character of the Royal Navy than the defeat it sustained at Grand Port . " On 30 December 1899 , a monument was erected at the harbour of Grand Port in the memory of the British and French sailors who were killed in the engagement .
= = In literature = =
The battle attracted the attention of authors from both Britain and France , featuring in the 1843 novel Georges by Alexandre Dumas , and the 1977 novel The Mauritius Command by Patrick O 'Brian .
= = Order of battle = =
= Karl Aloys zu Fürstenberg =
Karl Aloys zu Fürstenberg ( 26 June 1760 – 25 March 1799 ) was an Austrian military commander . He achieved the rank of Field Marshal and died at the Battle of Stockach .
The third son of a cadet branch of the House of Fürstenberg , at his birth his chances of inheriting the family title of Fürst zu Fürstenberg were slight ; he was prepared instead for a military career , and a tutor was hired to teach him the military sciences . He entered the Habsburg military in 1777 , at the age of seventeen years , and was a member of the field army in the short War of the Bavarian Succession ( 1778 – 79 ) . His career progressed steadily during the Habsburg War with the Ottoman Empire . In particular he distinguished himself at Šabac in 1790 , when he led his troops in storming the fortress on the Sava River .
During the French Revolutionary Wars , he fought with distinction again for the First Coalition , particularly at Ketsch and Frœschwiller , and in 1796 at Emmendingen , Schliengen and Kehl . He was stationed at key points to protect the movements of the Austrian army . With a force of 10 @,@ 000 , he defended the German Rhineland at Kehl , and reversed a bayonet assault by French troops at Bellheim ; his troops also overran Speyer without any losses . By the end of the War of the First Coalition , at the age of 35 , he had achieved the rank of Field Marshal . During the War of the Second Coalition , he fought in the first two battles of the German campaign , at Ostrach on 21 March 1799 , and at Stockach on 25 March 1799 . At the latter action while leading a regiment of grenadiers , he was hit by French case shot and knocked off his horse . He died shortly afterward .
= = Childhood and early military training = =
As the third son of a cadet ( junior ) branch of the Fürstenberg princely family , Karl Aloys was prepared for a military career . His tutor , Lieutenant Ernst , was in active service in the Habsburg military , and took six @-@ year @-@ old Karl Aloys on maneuvers with him . In this way , he learned as a child the Habsburg military manual , and came into contact with important military men who later furthered his education and career ; he also acquired an honorary rank as Kreis @-@ Obristen , or Colonel of the Imperial Circle , by the time he was ten years old . As a youth , in 1776 , he met the Habsburg war minister Count Franz Moritz von Lacy and Baron Ernst Gideon von Laudon ; he was also invited to dine with Emperor Joseph II . He started his service in 1777 as a Fähnrich ( ensign ) in the Habsburg military organization . He saw his first field service during the War of the Bavarian Succession ( 1777 – 78 ) , although he was not involved in any battles .
In 1780 , at the age of twenty years , he was promoted to captain , and assigned to the 34th Infantry Regiment , also known as the Anton Esterházy , named for Paul II Anton Esterházy , the general of cavalry , field marshal of the Seven Years ' War , and ambassador to Britain . While he was assigned to this unit , he participated in the border conflicts between the Ottoman Empire and the Habsburgs , 1787 – 92 , and stormed the fortress at Šabac ( German : Schabatz ) on the Sava River in Serbia on 27 April 1788 . For his action at Šabac , he was personally commended by the Emperor ; on the following day , he was promoted to major and given command of a grenadier battalion .
On 1 January 1790 , at Laudon 's explicit request , Karl Aloys zu Fürstenberg was promoted to major general ; at the end of June of that year , he received the coveted position of second colonel of the 34th Infantry Regiment Anton Esterhazy , where he served as the executive officer for Antal , Prince Esterházy de Galántha , the 34th Hungarian Regiment 's Colonel and Proprietor . This was a customary appointment in which a less prominent officer completed the day @-@ to @-@ day administrative duties of the Colonel and Proprietor , who was usually a noble and was often posted in a different assignment , sometimes a different staff location . Karl Aloys zu Fürstenberg also received the confraternal Order of Saint Hubert from the Duke of Bavaria and married the " elegant " Princess Elisabeth of Thurn und Taxis ( 1767 – 1822 ) , that year .
= = Fight against Revolutionary France = =
While Karl Aloys zu Fürstenberg fought for the Habsburg cause in Serbia , in France , a coalition of the clergy and the professional and bourgeois class — the First and Third estates — led a call for reform of the French government and the creation of a written constitution . Initially , the rulers of Europe viewed the French Revolution as an event between the French king and his subjects , and not something in which they should interfere . In 1790 , Leopold succeeded his brother Joseph as emperor and by 1791 , he considered the situation surrounding his sister , Marie Antoinette , and her children , with greater alarm . In August 1791 , in consultation with French émigré nobles and Frederick William II of Prussia , he issued the Declaration of Pilnitz , in which they declared the interest of the monarchs of Europe as one with the interests of Louis XVI and his family . They threatened ambiguous , but quite serious , consequences if anything should happen to the royal family . The French émigrés continued to agitate for support of a counter @-@ revolution . On 20 April 1792 , the French National Convention declared war on Austria . In the War of the First Coalition ( 1792 – 1797 ) , France opposed most of the European states sharing land or water borders with her , plus Portugal and the Ottoman Empire .
= = = War of the First Coalition = = =
In the early days of the French Revolutionary Wars , Karl Aloys zu Fürstenberg remained as brigade commander of a small Austrian corps , approximately 10 @,@ 000 men , under the overall command of Anton , Prince Esterházy . He was stationed in the Breisgau , a Habsburg territory between the Black Forest and the Rhine River . This location between the forested mountains and the river included two important bridgeheads across the river which offered access to southwestern Germany , the Swiss Cantons , or north @-@ central Germany . His brigade defended Kehl , a small village immediately across the Rhine from Strassbourg , but most of the action in 1792 occurred further north , in present @-@ day Belgium , near the cities of Speyer and Trier , and at Frankfurt on the Main River .
In the second year of the war , Fürstenberg was transferred to the cavalry of Dagobert Sigmund von Wurmser , in the Army of the Upper Rhine , and placed in charge of the advance guard near Speyer , which was still held by the French . On 30 March , he crossed the Rhine by Ketsch at the head of the advance guard , which included 9 @,@ 000 men . He took the city of Speyer on 1 April , in the absence of the commander of the city , Adam @-@ Philippe de Custine , who was away with most of his troops ; those that remained behind simply abandoned the city . On the following day , Fürstenberg occupied the town of Germersheim . His first combat action of the war occurred on 3 April , when Custine 's infantry attacked him in a bayonet charge near the villages of Bellheim , Hördt and Leimersheim , and afterward at Landau and Lauterburg . During these attacks , he lost all the ground he had gained in the days before . After these events , he was again transferred , this time to the command of the Regiment Count von Kavanagh , where he continued to distinguish himself during the French counter @-@ offensive of October – November 1793 . In the action around Geidertheim , on the Zorn River , he assisted Lieutenant Field Marshal Gabriel Anton , Baron Splény de Miháldy , in repelling a French counter @-@ attack . Shortly afterward , he became very ill and , in December 1793 , was sent to the Hagenau to recover . On 22 December , he rejoined Wurmser 's Corps for the Battle of Froeschwiller against Lazare Hoche and Charles Pichegru . After the French retreated over the Rhine at Hüningen , near Basel , he directed the construction of its new fortifications .
In June 1796 , Fürstenberg commanded a division of four infantry battalions , 13 artillery pieces , and the Freikorps ( Volunteers ) Gyulay and secured the Rhine corridor between Kehl and Rastatt . On 26 June 1796 , the French troops of the Army of the Rhine @-@ and @-@ Moselle crossed the Rhine and chased the Swabian Circle 's military contingent out of Kehl . In June 1796 , Archduke Charles added the contingent to Fürstenberg 's command , making him the Swabian 's Feldzeugmeister , or General of Infantry . Fürstenberg 's troops defended the imperial line at the town of Rastatt until support troops arrived , and they could make an orderly withdrawal into the Upper Danube Valley . The Swabian contingent was demobilized in July , and Fürstenberg returned to the command of Austrian regulars during the Austrian counter @-@ offensive . At the Battle of Emmendingen on 19 October 1796 , his leadership was again instrumental in an Austrian victory . General Jean Victor Marie Moreau 's Army of the Rhine @-@ and @-@ Moselle sought to retain a foothold on the eastern side of the Rhine , following his retreat from southwestern Germany west of the Black Forest . Fürstenberg held Kenzingen , 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 km ) north of Riegel on the Elz River . Karl Aloys zu Fürstenberg was ordered to feint against Riegel , to protect the primary Austrian positions at Rust and Kappel .
In the Battle of Schliengen ( 24 October 1796 ) , Fürstenberg commanded the second column of the Austrian force , which included nine battalions of infantry and 30 squadrons of cavalry ; with these , he overwhelmed the force of General of Division Gouvion Saint @-@ Cyr , holding his position to prevent the French force from retreating north on the Rhine . While Maximilian Anton Karl , Count Baillet de Latour , engaged the main Austrian force at Kehl , Archduke Charles entrusted to Lieutenant Field Marshal Fürstenberg the command of the forces besieging Hüningen , which included two divisions with 20 battalions of infantry and 40 squadrons of cavalry . Charles ' confidence in his young field marshal was well @-@ placed . On 27 November , Fürstenberg 's chief engineer opened and drained the water @-@ filled moat protecting the French fortifications . Fürstenberg offered the commander of the bridgehead , General of Brigade Jean Charles Abbatucci , the opportunity to surrender , which he declined . In the night of 30 November to 1 December , Fürstenberg 's force stormed the bridgehead twice , but was twice repulsed . In one of these attacks , the French commander was mortally wounded and died on 3 December . Fürstenberg maintained the Siege of Kehl while Archduke Charles engaged the stronger French force to the north of Kehl .
After the French capitulation at Kehl ( 10 January 1797 ) , Fürstenberg received additional forces with which he could end the siege at Hüningen . He ordered the reinforcement of the ring of soldiers surrounding Hüningen and , on 2 February 1797 , the Austrians prepared to storm the bridgehead . General of Division Georges Joseph Dufour , the new French commander , pre @-@ empted what would have been a costly attack , by offering to surrender the bridge . On 5 February , Fürstenberg finally took possession of the bridgehead . Francis II , the Holy Roman Emperor , appointed him as Colonel and Proprietor of the 36th Infantry Regiment , which bore his name until his death in battle in 1799 .
= = = Peace = = =
The Coalition forces — Austria , Russia , Prussia , Great Britain , Sardinia , among others — achieved several victories at Verdun , Kaiserslautern , Neerwinden , Mainz , Amberg and Würzburg , but in northern Italy , they could neither lift nor escape the siege at Mantua . The efforts of Napoleon Bonaparte in northern Italy pushed Austrian forces to the border of Habsburg lands . Napoleon dictated a cease @-@ fire at Leoben on 17 April 1797 , leading to the formal Treaty of Campo Formio , which went into effect on 17 October 1797 . Austria withdrew from the territories the army had fought so hard to acquire , including the strategic river crossings at Hüningen and Kehl , as well as key cities further north .
When the war ended , Fürstenberg stayed at the Donaueschingen estate of his cousin , Karl Joachim Aloys , who had recently inherited the family title as Fürst zu Fürstenberg . Later in 1797 , he traveled to Prague and remained with his family until May 1798 , when he received a posting to a new division in Linz . His daughter , Maria Anna , was born after he left , on 17 September 1798 .
= = Activities in the Second Coalition = =
Despite the longed @-@ for peace , tensions grew between France and most of the First Coalition allies , either separately or jointly . Ferdinand IV of Naples refused to pay agreed @-@ upon tribute to France , and his subjects followed this refusal with a rebellion . The French invaded Naples and established the Parthenopaean Republic . A republican uprising in the Swiss cantons , encouraged by the French Republic which offered military support , led to the overthrow of the Swiss Confederation and the establishment of the Helvetic Republic . On his way to Egypt in Spring 1798 , Napoleon had stopped on the Island of Malta and removed the Hospitallers from their possessions . This angered Paul , Tsar of Russia , who was the honorary head of the Order . The ongoing French occupation of Malta angered the British , who dedicated themselves to ejecting the French garrison at Valletta . The French Directory was convinced that the Austrians were conniving to start another war . Indeed , the weaker the French Republic seemed , the more seriously the Austrians , the Neapolitans , the Russians , and the British actually discussed this possibility .
As winter broke on 1 March 1799 , General Jean Baptiste Jourdan and his 25 @,@ 000 @-@ man Army of the Danube crossed the Rhine at Kehl . The Army of the Danube met little resistance as it advanced through the Black Forest and eventually took a flanking position on the north shore of Lake Constance . Instructed to block the Austrians from access to the Swiss alpine passes , Jourdan planned to isolate the armies of the Coalition in Germany from allies in northern Italy , and prevent them from assisting one another . His was a preemptive strike . By crossing the Rhine in early March , Jourdan acted before Archduke Charles ' army could be reinforced by Austria 's Russian allies , who had agreed to send 60 @,@ 000 seasoned soldiers and their more @-@ seasoned commander , Generalissimo Alexander Suvorov . Furthermore , if the French held the interior passes in Switzerland , they could not only prevent the Austrians from transferring troops between northern Italy and southwestern Germany , but could use the routes to move their own forces between the two theaters .
= = = Battle of Ostrach = = =
At the outbreak of hostilities in March 1799 , Karl Aloys zu Fürstenberg was with his troops in Bavarian territory , just north of the free and Imperial city of Augsburg . When news reached the Austrian camp that the French had crossed the Rhine , Charles ordered the imperial army to advance west . Fürstenberg moved his troops toward Augsburg , crossing the Lech River .
The French advanced guard arrived in Ostrach on 8 – 9 March , and over the next week skirmished with the Austrian forward posts , while the rest of the French army arrived . Jourdan disposed his 25 @,@ 000 troops along a line from Salem Abbey and Lake Constance to the Danube river , centered in Ostrach . He established his command headquarters at the imperial city of Pfullendorf , overlooking the entire Ostrach valley . Jourdan was expecting Dominique Vandamme 's troops to arrive in time to support his far north flank near the river , but Vandamme had gone to Stuttgart to investigate a rumored presence of Austrian troops there and had not rejoined the main army . Consequently , the French left flank , under command of Gouvion Saint @-@ Cyr , was thinly manned . Jourdan thought he had more time , expecting Charles would need still three or four days to move his troops across the Lech , and march to Ostrach , but by the middle of Holy Week in 1799 , more than a third of Charles ' army , 48 @,@ 000 mixed troops , was positioned in a formation parallel to Jourdan 's , and his 72 @,@ 000 remaining troops were arrayed with the left wing at Kempten , the center near Memmingen , and the right flank extended to Ulm .
By 21 March , the French and Austrian outposts overlapped , and skirmishing intensified . Charles had divided his force into four columns . Fürstenberg covered the northern flank of the Archduke 's main force . Fürstenberg 's force pushed the French out of Davidsweiler , and then advanced on Ruppersweiler and Einhard , 5 kilometers ( 3 mi ) to the northwest of Ostrach . Saint @-@ Cyr did not have the manpower to defend the position , and the entire line fell back to Ostrach , with Fürstenberg 's troops pressuring their withdrawal . Fürstenberg 's persistent pressure on the French left flank was instrumental in the collapse of the northern part of the French line . After their success in driving the French back from Ostrach , and then from the heights of Pfullendorf , the Austrian forces continued to press the French back to Stockach , and then another five miles or so to Engen .
= = = Death at the Battle of Stockach ( 1799 ) = = =
On the morning of what they suspected would be the general engagement , Karl Aloys zu Fürstenberg sought out the field chaplain , and requested the sacraments because , as he told his aide , anything can happen during a battle . Although Ostrach had been a hard @-@ fought battle , at Engen and Stockach , the Austrian and French forces were far more concentrated — more men in a smaller space — than they had been at Ostrach , where the French forces in particular had been stretched thinly on a long line from Lake Constance to north of the Danube . At Stockach , furthermore , Jourdan had all his troops under his direct control , with the possible exception of Dominique Vandamme , who was maneuvering his small force of cavalry and light infantry into position to attempt a flanking action on the far right Austrian flank .
In the course of the battle , Jourdan 's forces were supposed to engage in simultaneous attacks on the left , center and right of the Austrian line . On the French right , Soulham 's and Ferino 's Corps met with strong resistance and were stopped ; on the French left , Lefebvre 's troops charged with such force that the Austrians were pushed back . Having stopped Soulham 's and Ferino 's assault , Charles had troops available to counter Lefebvre 's force . At that point , Vandamme 's men moved into action . Because Soulham 's assault at the center had been stalled , Charles still had enough men to turn part of his force to fight this new threat , but the Austrians were hard pressed and the action furious . At one point , Charles attempted to lead his eight battalions of Hungarian grenadiers into action , to the dismay of the old soldiers . Fürstenberg reportedly said that while he lived , he would not leave this post ( at the head of the grenadiers ) and the Archduke should not dismount and fight . As Fürstenberg led the Hungarian grenadiers into the battle , he was cut down by a canister and case shot employed by the French . Although he was carried alive off the field , he died almost immediately . Charles ultimately did lead his grenadiers into battle , and reportedly his personal bravery rallied his troops to push back the French . After the battle , someone removed Fürstenberg 's wedding ring and returned it to his wife in Prague , with news of his death ; Fürstenberg was buried at the battlefield cemetery in Stockach , and his cousin erected a small monument there , but in 1857 , his body was moved to the family cemetery , Maria Hof at Neudingen , near Donaueschingen .
= = Family = =
Upon the death of Prosper Ferdinand , Count Fürstenberg , in the War of the Spanish Succession , in 1704 the Fürstenberg inheritance was divided between the count 's two youngest sons , Joseph Wilhelm Ernst and Wilhelm Egon ; the eldest son was an ecclesiastic . The family of Fürstenberg was raised to princely status 2 February 1716 , with the elevation of Joseph Wilhelm Ernst , as the first Prince ( Fürst ) of Fürstenberg ( German : Fürst zu Fürstenberg ) . The first prince had three sons , Joseph Wenzel Johann Nepomuk ( 1728 – 1783 ) , Karl Borromäus Egon ( 1729 – 1787 ) , and Prosper Maria , who died in infancy . The title passed through the line of the first son , Joseph Wenzel Johann Nepomuk ( as second prince ) , to his son Joseph Maria Benedikt Karl ( third prince , who died in 1796 ) and then to another son of the second prince , Karl Joachim Aloys ( fourth prince ) . The last son of Joseph Wilhelm Ernst died in 1803 without male issue . Consequently , the title passed to the male line of first prince 's second son . This son , Karl Borromäus Egon , had died in 1787 .
Karl Borromäus Egon 's oldest son , Joseph Maria Wenzel ( 16 August 1754 – 14 July 1759 ) , died as a small child . The second son , Philipp Nerius Maria ( Prague , 21 October 1755 – 5 June 1790 ) , married in 1779 to his first cousin , Josepha Johanna Benedikta von Fürstenberg ( sister of the third and fourth princes ) , at Donaueschingen . Only one of their sons survived childhood , but died at the age of 15 years . The other children of this second son were all daughters , and thus not eligible to inherit the title Prince of Fürstenberg . Consequently , the title devolved to the agnatic male descendants of Karl Aloys zu Fürstenberg .
In 1803 , two of Karl Aloys zu Fürstenberg 's children were still living . Karl Egon , as the surviving son , inherited the title Prince of Fürstenberg ; he and his eldest sister lived into adulthood and produced families .
Children of Karl Aloys zu Fürstenberg and Elizabeth , Princess of Thurn und Taxis , were :
Marie Leopoldine ( Prague , 4 September 1791 – Kupferzell , 10 January 1844 ) ; married at Heiligenberg , 20 May 1813 to Charles Albert III , Prince of Hohenlohe @-@ Waldenburg @-@ Schillingsfürst ( Vienna , 29 February 1776 – Bad Mergentheim , 15 June 1843 )
Maria Josepha ( 9 September 1792 )
Antonie ( 28 October 1794 – 1 October 1799 )
Karl Egon II ( Prague , 28 October 1796 – Bad Ischl 22 October 1854 ) , succeeded his cousin , Joachim , as the fifth Fürst zu Fürstenberg on 17 May 1804 . He married on 19 April 1818 , to Amalie Christine Karoline , of Baden ( Karlsruhe , 26 January 1795 – Karlsruhe , 14 September 1869 ) .
Maria Anna , 17 September 1798 – 18 July 1799
= Gliese 876 c =
Gliese 876 c is an exoplanet orbiting the red dwarf Gliese 876 , taking about 30 days to complete an orbit . The planet was discovered in April 2001 and is the third planet in order of increasing distance from its star .
= = Discovery = =
At the time of discovery , Gliese 876 was already known to host an extrasolar planet designated Gliese 876 b . In 2001 , further analysis of the star 's radial velocity revealed the existence of a second planet in the system , which was designated Gliese 876 c . The orbital period of Gliese 876 c was found to be exactly half that of the outer planet , which meant that the radial velocity signature of the second planet was initially interpreted as a higher eccentricity of the orbit of Gliese 876 b .
= = Orbit and mass = =
Gliese 876 c is in a 1 : 2 : 4 Laplace resonance with the outer planets Gliese 876 b and Gliese 876 e : for every orbit of planet e , planet b completes two orbits and planet c completes four . This leads to strong gravitational interactions between the planets , causing the orbital elements to change rapidly as the orbits precess . This is the second known example of a Laplace resonance , the first being Jupiter 's moons Io , Europa and Ganymede .
The orbital semimajor axis is only 0 @.@ 13 AU , around a third of the average distance between Mercury and the Sun , and is more eccentric than the orbit of any of the major planets of our solar system . Despite this , it is located in the inner regions of the system 's habitable zone , since Gliese 876 is such an intrinsically faint star .
A limitation of the radial velocity method used to detect Gliese 876 c is that only a lower limit on the planet 's mass can be obtained . This is because the measured mass value depends on the inclination of the orbit , which is not determined by the radial velocity measurements . However , in a resonant system such as Gliese 876 , gravitational interactions between the planets can be used to determine the true masses . Using this method , the inclination of the orbit can be determined , revealing the planet 's true mass to be 0 @.@ 72 times that of Jupiter .
= = Characteristics = =
Based on its high mass , Gliese 876 c is likely to be a gas giant with no solid surface . Since it was detected indirectly through its gravitational effects on the star , properties such as its radius , composition , and temperature are unknown . Assuming a composition similar to Jupiter and an environment close to chemical equilibrium , the planet is predicted to have a cloudless upper atmosphere .
Gliese 876 c lies at the inner edge of the system 's habitable zone . While the prospects for life on gas giants are unknown , it might be possible for a large moon of the planet to provide a habitable environment . Unfortunately tidal interactions between a hypothetical moon , the planet , and the star could destroy moons massive enough to be habitable over the lifetime of the system . In addition it is unclear whether such moons could form in the first place .
This planet , like b and e , has likely migrated inward .
= Lamu Fort =
Lamu Fort is a fortress in the town of Lamu in northeastern Kenya . Originally situated on the waterfront , the fort today it is located in a central position in the town , about 70 metres ( 230 ft ) from the main jetty on the shore . The powerfully built two @-@ story stone building contrasts with the Swahili architecture of the other buildings in the town .
Lamu Fort was built between 1813 and 1821 with Omani assistance . Initially it provided a base from which the Omanis consolidated their control of the East African coast but the town later lost its economic importance . During the British colonial period , and after the independence of Kenya , the fort was used as a prison . Today it houses an environmental museum and library , and is often used for community events .
= = Building = =
Lamu Fort is a defensive structure that was erected at the southeast corner of the old stone town of Lamu . The fort was built beside the Pwani Mosque , the oldest known mosque in Lamu , with origins in the 14th century . The fort originally lay on the waterfront , which then ran along the main street of the town but has since retreated .
Thomas Boteler , who visited Lamu in 1823 , described the fort as " a large square building , with a tower at each corner , but constructed so slightly that in all probability the discharge of its honeycombed ordnance would soon bring the whole fabric to the ground . " It had a " large vaulted entrance ... [ and ] consisted of three stories of balconies , supported inside by arches . Captain W. F. W. Owen , who visited at the same time , noted that the fort was " one hundred yards square , and surrounded by walls from forty to fifty feet high . "
Today the fort is in a central position in the town . It is situated about 70 metres ( 230 ft ) from the main jetty on the shore . The fort today is a massive two @-@ story stone building . The squat and powerful structure contrasts with the elegant Swahili architecture of the other buildings in the town .
= = History = =
Construction of the fort appears to have been started by Fumomadi , Sultan of Pate . The Mazrui leader Abdalla bin Hemed , in an uneasy alliance with Pate , was also involved in the construction . One story was built , but with the death of Funomadi in 1809 construction halted . In 1812 Lamu gained an unexpected victory at the Battle of Shela over the forces of Pate and Mombasa . The continued threat prompted them to call for help from Oman . Said bin Sultan , Sultan of Muscat and Oman ( r . 1804 – 1856 ) , was said to have assisted in the renewed construction , which began in 1813 and was completed around 1821 .
Sultan Sayyid Said bin Sultan sent a governor to Lamu around 1814 . He provided a protective garrison of Baluchi soldiers . According to Boteler , the main guard consisted of " about twenty Muscat soldiers , lounging on the stone benches on either side , with eye intent on vacancy , and armed with their shields , swords and pikes . A large assortment of matchlocks , suspended from the walls above them , resembled those used by the primitive small @-@ arm men in England . " However , the security offered by the fort encouraged construction around it during the 19th century , including a shopfront .
The importance of Lamu in the Lamu Archipelago grew at the expense of Pate in the years that followed the fort 's construction . The Sultan used Lamu Fort as a base for defeating the Mazrui rebels in Mombasa , and for establishing control over the East African coast . He moved the capital of his sultanate to Zanzibar . With its strategic importance lost , Lamu soon declined in economic importance in comparison to Mombasa and Zanzibar .
Lamu Fort was turned into a prison in 1910 by the British colonial administration . In the 1950s Mau Mau detainees were held in the fort . The fort continued to be used as a prison after the independence of Kenya until 1984 . It was then given to the National Museums of Kenya , who converted the fort into a museum with help from the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency . The Lamu Fort was declared a scheduled monument on 15 May 1984 . Restoration was undertaken carefully . A temporary exhibition was opened in 1993 .
The fort today includes a museum with an exhibition on the ground floor mainly concerned with environmental conservation . The courtyard is used by the local community for meetings , weddings and public performances . There are offices , laboratories and a workshop on the second floor , and a conference facility that is available for rent . The fort houses a library with an excellent collection of Swahili poetry and reference material on Lamu . The ramparts of the fort give panoramic views of the town .
= Emin Xhinovci =
Emin Xhinovci ( also spelled Gjinovci , Djinovci and Džinovci ; born c . 1959 ) is a retired Kosovo Liberation Army ( KLA ) insurgent and restaurant owner from Mitrovica known for his striking resemblance to Nazi leader Adolf Hitler .
He immigrated to Germany in 1993 and settled in Düsseldorf , where he started an import @-@ export business . In 1997 , he returned to Kosovo and later joined the KLA with the intention of helping separate the region from Yugoslavia . During his time as a guerrilla , he came to be known by the nickname " Hitler " because of his likeness to the Nazi leader . Following the Kosovo War , he settled in Mitrovica and opened a string of Nazi @-@ themed restaurants that angered some NATO peacekeepers and were quickly closed . Xhinovci firmly believes that he is Hitler reincarnated and resorted to portraying the Nazi leader full @-@ time in his public life , posing for pictures with locals , peacekeepers and tourists and charging between 20 and 80 euros per photograph . He is well known throughout Mitrovica , and his five daughters are referred to by locals as " Hitler 's children " . Xhinovci always carries a copy of Hitler 's autobiographical manifesto Mein Kampf with him and is frequently paid to attend events such as weddings and funerals . He is the subject of a short documentary film directed by independent filmmaker Alban Muja , titled Germans Are a Bit Scared of Me .
= = Early life , emigration and guerrilla activity = =
A Kosovo Albanian , Emin Xhinovci was born in Kosovska Mitrovica in 1959 , in what was then Yugoslavia . In 1993 , he moved to the German city of Düsseldorf , where he started an import @-@ export business . He left Germany in 1997 and returned to Kosovo to " fight for the motherland " as tensions between Albanians and Serbs increased .
Xhinovci joined the Kosovo Liberation Army ( Albanian : Ushtria Çlirimtare e Kosovës ; or KLA ) in 1998 , and fought against the Serb @-@ dominated Yugoslav Army ( Serbian : Vojska Jugoslavije ) with the goal of separating Kosovo from Yugoslavia . Xhinovci earned the reputation of a " fierce fighter " and commanded the respect of local Albanians . His comrades gave him the nickname " Hitler " due to his uncanny resemblance to Nazi leader Adolf Hitler . Xhinovci told journalist Una Hajdari : " People have called me Hitler since my army days . They say I look a lot like him — unlike the English guy who plays him in that movie , " apparently a reference to Charlie Chaplin 's role in The Great Dictator .
Serbian police documents from 1998 indicate that he was suspected of participating in the kidnapping and execution of nine Serb mineworkers at the Belaćevac coal mine , near Obilić . In 1999 , Xhinovci was wounded in battle and airlifted to Germany for treatment . While in hospital , he grew a toothbrush moustache which attracted the attention of hospital staff .
= = Controversy = =
= = = Nazi @-@ themed restaurants and bars = = =
Following his experience with the German hospital staff , Xhinovci realized that he could capitalize on his resemblance to Hitler . He went to great lengths to enhance his physical likeness to the Nazi leader — regularly clipping his moustache , dying his hair jet black and imitating Hitler 's signature hairstyle . When the war in Kosovo ended , Xhinovci returned to Mitrovica and opened a bar called Bar Hit and Jet , known affectionately among Kosovo Albanians as Pizzeria Hitleri ( " Hitler 's Pizzeria " ) . The establishment proved controversial among western peacekeepers who had occupied Kosovo following the withdrawal of Yugoslav security forces in June 1999 . In one instance , French NATO troops took down a sign carrying a swastika from the entrance to Xhinovci 's bar , much to his displeasure . One French commander told reporters that he was disgusted with Xhinovci 's actions and said that his troops were forbidden from entering the bar , which juxtaposed Nazi imagery with portraits of Xhinovci in KLA uniform . Asked why he enjoyed dressing up as Hitler , Xhinovci responded : " Everyone who is against the people who carried out bloodshed against [ Albanians ] is a friend of mine " , apparently referring to the German @-@ led Axis occupation of Yugoslavia , when German forces turned a blind eye to Albanian raids on Serb @-@ populated areas of Kosovo . He conceded that Hitler had gone " too far " by killing women and children , but said that it would be " a good idea to eliminate all those who thirst for our blood " .
Within several years , Xhinovci was forced to close Pizzeria Hitleri because local KLA commanders felt that it would tarnish the organization 's image . Like many in post @-@ war Kosovo , he encountered great financial difficulties and relied on his KLA service pension and financial assistance from relatives in Western Europe . Once his financial situation stabilized , Xhinovci opened a restaurant and named it Jehona after his oldest daughter . All of the restaurant 's receipts were stamped with a black swastika in the upper left corner . The restaurant closed a few years after its opening for reasons unknown .
= = = Hitler impersonator = = =
Following the closure of Pizzeria Hitleri and Jehona , Xhinovci has resorted to walking around Mitrovica dressed as Hitler and posing for pictures with locals , tourists and NATO peacekeepers , charging between 20 and 80 euros per photograph . Some days , he earns as many as 200 euros posing as Hitler . Besides posing for photographs , Xhinovci attends various events , including weddings and funerals , and greets attendees with a Nazi salute . " [ This ] sometimes has an undesirable effect because people who 've come to pay their respects to the deceased often wish to speak with me and take pictures , " Xhinovci explains .
Xhinovci has come to believe that he is Hitler reincarnated since he began dressing as the Nazi leader . He carries numerous pieces of Nazi paraphernalia around with him , including Nazi @-@ era Reichsmarks , swastika @-@ emblazoned buttons , scarves embroidered with swastikas and other Nazi imagery , as well as a copy of Mein Kampf . He has business cards featuring a swastika and the word " Hitler " printed in bold . Locals and peacekeepers alike do not seem to mind Xhinovci 's Hitler impersonations , especially as many Kosovars are too preoccupied with the country 's crippling poverty and rampant corruption to give his actions much thought . On the contrary , many passersby — including some NATO peacekeepers — stop and greet him with the Nazi salute . One local told Vice News : " I have a lot of other things to worry about in my life . I might look at him if he walks by , but that 's it . " Locals apparently believe that his way of earning a living " shows great enterprise " . " People respect me , " Xhinovci explains . " The young and old [ ... ] men , women and children . Everyone greets me with " Heil Hitler " . Xhinovci 's five daughters , referred to locally as " Hitler 's children " , are not bothered by their father 's Hitler impersonations . Xhinovci reportedly attends parent @-@ teacher conferences dressed as Hitler and says that teachers and other parents do not mind his appearance . He says that every time he goes to pick his daughters up from school he is surrounded by children who want to talk with him and take pictures . " Girls like to touch my face . They think it 's a mask . They pull my hair and ask if they can kiss me on the face . When I 'm out of the house with my family , people stop to talk to me . But my wife is not a jealous person — she doesn 't mind . "
Xhinovci is unable to return to Germany because of his appearance , as the country has a series of laws which prohibit Nazi symbols , uniforms , slogans and forms of greeting . He has expressed a great dislike of Serbs , and says that he would have to carry a concealed handgun every time he wished to visit the Serb @-@ held section of Mitrovica . Xhinovci says that he is greatly disappointed with post @-@ war Kosovo , as he believed that reconciliation between Albanians and Serbs would have occurred after the conflict . When asked if it was difficult to portray Hitler , Xhinovci responded : " It is easy . I find myself in Hitler 's character because he fought against my enemy . The enemy of my enemy is my friend . Yes , Serbs are my enemies . " About his physical similarity to Hitler , he says : " I am not a dictator like him , but it is of great financial benefit that I resemble him . "
Xhinovci is a controversial figure in some Kosovar circles . Kosova Aktuell , a Pristina @-@ based German @-@ language newspaper , called his actions " scandalous and unacceptable " .
= = In popular culture = =
In 2013 , Kosovar filmmaker Alban Muja created a short documentary film about Xhinovci titled Germans Are a Bit Scared of Me , which chronicles Xhinovci 's everyday activities and follows him around Mitrovica as he interacts with locals .
= George VI =
George VI ( Albert Frederick Arthur George ; 14 December 1895 – 6 February 1952 ) was King of the United Kingdom and the Dominions of the British Commonwealth from 11 December 1936 until his death . He was the last Emperor of India and the first Head of the Commonwealth .
Known as Albert until his accession , George VI was born in the reign of his great @-@ grandmother Queen Victoria , and was named after his great @-@ grandfather Albert , Prince Consort . As the second son of King George V , he was not expected to inherit the throne and spent his early life in the shadow of his elder brother , Edward . He attended naval college as a teenager , and served in the Royal Navy and Royal Air Force during the First World War . In 1920 , he was made Duke of York . He married Lady Elizabeth Bowes @-@ Lyon in 1923 and they had two daughters , Elizabeth and Margaret . In the mid @-@ 1920s , he had speech therapy for a stammer , which he never fully overcame .
George 's elder brother ascended the throne as Edward VIII upon the death of their father in 1936 . However , later that year Edward revealed his desire to marry the divorced American socialite Wallis Simpson . British Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin advised Edward that for political and religious reasons he could not marry a divorced woman and remain king . Edward abdicated in order to marry , and George ascended the throne as the third monarch of the House of Windsor .
During George 's reign the break @-@ up of the British Empire and its transition into the Commonwealth of Nations accelerated . The parliament of the Irish Free State removed direct mention of the monarch from the country 's constitution on the day of his accession . The following year , a new Irish constitution changed the name of the state to Ireland and established the office of President . From 1939 , the Empire and Commonwealth – except Ireland – was at war with Nazi Germany . War with Italy and Japan followed in 1940 and 1941 , respectively . Though Britain and its allies were ultimately victorious in 1945 , the United States and the Soviet Union rose as pre @-@ eminent world powers and the British Empire declined . After the independence of India and Pakistan in 1947 , George remained king of both countries , but the title Emperor of India was abandoned in June 1948 . Ireland formally declared itself a republic and left the Commonwealth in 1949 , and India became a republic within the Commonwealth the following year . George adopted the new title of Head of the Commonwealth . He was beset by health problems in the later years of his reign . He was succeeded by his elder daughter , Elizabeth .
= = Early life = =
George VI was born at York Cottage , on the Sandringham Estate in Norfolk , during the reign of his great @-@ grandmother Queen Victoria . His father was Prince George , Duke of York ( later King George V ) , the second and eldest @-@ surviving son of the Prince and Princess of Wales ( later King Edward VII and Queen Alexandra ) . His mother was the Duchess of York ( later Queen Mary ) , the eldest child and only daughter of the Duke and Duchess of Teck .
His birthday ( 14 December 1895 ) was the 34th anniversary of the death of his great @-@ grandfather , Prince Albert , the Prince Consort . Uncertain of how the Prince Consort 's widow , Queen Victoria , would take the news of the birth , the Prince of Wales wrote to the Duke of York that the Queen had been " rather distressed " . Two days later , he wrote again : " I really think it would gratify her if you yourself proposed the name Albert to her " . Queen Victoria was mollified by the proposal to name the new baby Albert , and wrote to the Duchess of York : " I am all impatience to see the new one , born on such a sad day but rather more dear to me , especially as he will be called by that dear name which is a byword for all that is great and good " . Consequently , he was baptised " Albert Frederick Arthur George " at St. Mary Magdalene 's Church near Sandringham three months later . As a great @-@ grandson of Queen Victoria , he was known formally as His Highness Prince Albert of York from birth . Within the family , he was known informally as " Bertie " . His maternal grandmother , the Duchess of Teck , did not like the first name the baby had been given , and she wrote prophetically that she hoped the last name " may supplant the less favoured one " .
Albert was fourth in line to the throne at birth , after his grandfather , father and elder brother , Edward . In 1898 , Queen Victoria issued Letters Patent that granted the children of the eldest son of the Prince of Wales the style Royal Highness , and at the age of two , Albert became His Royal Highness Prince Albert of York .
He often suffered from ill health and was described as " easily frightened and somewhat prone to tears " . His parents were generally removed from their children 's day @-@ to @-@ day upbringing , as was the norm in aristocratic families of that era . He had a stammer that lasted for many years , and was forced to write with his right hand although he was naturally left @-@ handed . He suffered from chronic stomach problems as well as knock knees , for which he was forced to wear painful corrective splints .
Queen Victoria died on 22 January 1901 , and the Prince of Wales succeeded her as King Edward VII . Prince Albert moved up to third in line to the throne , after his father and elder brother .
= = Military career and education = =
From 1909 , Albert attended the Royal Naval College , Osborne , as a naval cadet . In 1911 , he came bottom of the class in the final examination , but despite this he progressed to the Royal Naval College , Dartmouth . When his grandfather , Edward VII , died in 1910 , Albert 's father became King George V. Prince Edward was created Prince of Wales , and Albert was second in line to the throne .
Albert spent the first six months of 1913 on the training ship HMS Cumberland in the West Indies and on the east coast of Canada . He was rated as a midshipman aboard HMS Collingwood on 15 September 1913 , and spent three months in the Mediterranean . His fellow officers gave him the nickname " Mr. Johnson " . One year after his commission , he began service in the First World War . He was mentioned in despatches for his action as a turret officer aboard Collingwood in the Battle of Jutland ( 31 May – 1 June 1916 ) , an indecisive engagement with the German navy that was the largest naval action of the war . He did not see further combat , largely because of ill health caused by a duodenal ulcer , for which he had an operation in November 1917 .
In February 1918 , he was appointed Officer in Charge of Boys at the Royal Naval Air Service 's training establishment at Cranwell . With the establishment of the Royal Air Force two months later and the reassignment of Cranwell from Admiralty to Air Ministry responsibility , Albert transferred from the Royal Navy to the Royal Air Force . He was appointed Officer Commanding Number 4 Squadron of the Boys ' Wing at Cranwell until August 1918 , before reporting to the RAF 's Cadet School at St Leonards @-@ on @-@ Sea where he completed a fortnight 's training and took command of a squadron on the Cadet Wing . He was the first member of the royal family to be certified as a fully qualified pilot .
Albert was greatly desirous of serving on the Continent while the war was still in progress and was very pleased to be posted to General Trenchard 's staff . On 23 October he flew across the Channel to Autigny . For the closing weeks of the war , he served on the staff of the RAF 's Independent Air Force at its headquarters in Nancy , France . Following the disbanding of the Independent Air Force in November 1918 , he remained on the Continent for two months as a staff officer with the Royal Air Force until posted back to Britain . He accompanied the Belgian monarch King Albert on his triumphal reentry into Brussels on 22 November . Prince Albert qualified as an RAF pilot on 31 July 1919 and gained a promotion to squadron leader on the following day .
In October 1919 , Albert went up to Trinity College , Cambridge , where he studied history , economics and civics for a year , with the historian R. V. Laurence as his " official mentor " . On 4 June 1920 , he was created Duke of York , Earl of Inverness and Baron Killarney . He began to take on more royal duties . He represented his father , and toured coal mines , factories , and railyards . Through such visits he acquired the nickname of the " Industrial Prince " . His stammer , and his embarrassment over it , together with his tendency to shyness , caused him to appear much less impressive than his older brother , Edward . However , he was physically active and enjoyed playing tennis . He played at Wimbledon in the Men 's Doubles with Louis Greig in 1926 , losing in the first round . He developed an interest in working conditions , and was President of the Industrial Welfare Society . His series of annual summer camps for boys between 1921 and 1939 brought together boys from different social backgrounds .
= = Marriage = =
In a time when royals were expected to marry fellow royals , it was unusual that Albert had a great deal of freedom in choosing a prospective wife . An infatuation with the already @-@ married Australian socialite Sheila , Lady Loughborough , came to an end in April 1920 when the King , with the promise of the dukedom of York , persuaded Albert to stop seeing her . That year , he met for the first time since childhood Lady Elizabeth Bowes @-@ Lyon , the youngest daughter of the Earl and Countess of Strathmore and Kinghorne . He became determined to marry her . She rejected his proposal twice , in 1921 and 1922 , reportedly because she was reluctant to make the sacrifices necessary to become a member of the royal family . In the words of Lady Elizabeth 's mother , Albert would be " made or marred " by his choice of wife . After a protracted courtship , Elizabeth agreed to marry him .
They were married on 26 April 1923 in Westminster Abbey . Albert 's marriage to someone not of royal birth was considered a modernising gesture . The newly formed British Broadcasting Company wished to record and broadcast the event on radio , but the Abbey Chapter vetoed the idea ( although the Dean , Herbert Edward Ryle , was in favour ) . Lady Elizabeth was styled " Her Royal Highness The Duchess of York " after their marriage .
From December 1924 to April 1925 , the Duke and Duchess toured Kenya , Uganda , and the Sudan , travelling via the Suez Canal and Aden . During the trip , they both went big game hunting .
Because of his stammer , Albert dreaded public speaking . After his closing speech at the British Empire Exhibition at Wembley on 31 October 1925 , one which was an ordeal for both him and his listeners , he began to see Lionel Logue , an Australian @-@ born speech therapist . The Duke and Logue practised breathing exercises , and the Duchess rehearsed with him patiently . Subsequently , he was able to speak with less hesitation . With his delivery improved , the Duke opened the new Parliament House in Canberra , Australia , during a tour of the empire in 1927 . His journey by sea to Australia , New Zealand and Fiji took him via Jamaica , where Albert played doubles tennis partnered with a black man , which was unusual at the time and taken locally as a display of equality between races .
The Duke and Duchess of York had two children : Elizabeth ( called " Lilibet " by the family ) , and Margaret . The Duke and Duchess and their two daughters lived a relatively sheltered life at their London residence , 145 Piccadilly . They were a close and loving family . One of the few stirs arose when the Canadian Prime Minister , R. B. Bennett , considered the Duke for Governor General of Canada in 1931 — a proposal that King George V rejected on the advice of the Secretary of State for Dominion Affairs , J. H. Thomas .
= = Reluctant king = =
King George V had severe reservations about Prince Edward , saying , " I pray God that my eldest son will never marry and that nothing will come between Bertie and Lilibet and the throne . " On 20 January 1936 , George V died and Edward ascended the throne as King Edward VIII . In the Vigil of the Princes , Prince Albert and his three brothers took a shift standing guard over their father 's body as it lay in state , in a closed casket , in Westminster Hall .
As Edward was unmarried and had no children , Albert was the heir presumptive to the throne . Less than a year later , on 11 December 1936 , Edward abdicated in order to marry his mistress , Wallis Simpson , who was divorced from her first husband and divorcing her second . Edward had been advised by British Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin that he could not remain king and marry a divorced woman with two living ex @-@ husbands . Edward chose abdication in preference to abandoning his marriage plans . Thus Albert became king , a position he was reluctant to accept . The day before the abdication , he went to London to see his mother , Queen Mary . He wrote in his diary , " When I told her what had happened , I broke down and sobbed like a child . "
On the day of the abdication , the Oireachtas , the parliament of the Irish Free State , removed all direct mention of the monarch from the Irish constitution . The next day , it passed the External Relations Act , which gave the monarch limited authority ( strictly on the advice of the government ) to appoint diplomatic representatives for Ireland and to be involved in the making of foreign treaties . The two acts made the Irish Free State a republic in essence without removing its links to the Commonwealth .
Courtier and journalist Dermot Morrah alleged that there was brief speculation as to the desirability of bypassing Albert ( and his children ) and his brother , Prince Henry , Duke of Gloucester , in favour of their younger brother Prince George , Duke of Kent . This seems to have been suggested on the grounds that Prince George was at that time the only brother with a son .
= = Early reign = =
Albert assumed the regnal name " George VI " to emphasise continuity with his father and restore confidence in the monarchy . The beginning of George VI 's reign was taken up by questions surrounding his predecessor and brother , whose titles , style and position were uncertain . He had been introduced as " His Royal Highness Prince Edward " for the abdication broadcast , but George VI felt that by abdicating and renouncing the succession Edward had lost the right to bear royal titles , including " Royal Highness " . In settling the issue , George 's first act as king was to confer upon his brother the title and style " His Royal Highness The Duke of Windsor " , but the Letters Patent creating the dukedom prevented any wife or children from bearing royal styles . George VI was also forced to buy from Edward the royal residences of Balmoral Castle and Sandringham House , as these were private properties and did not pass to George VI automatically . Three days after his accession , on his 41st birthday , he invested his wife , the new queen consort , with the Order of the Garter .
George VI 's coronation took place on 12 May 1937 , the date previously intended for Edward 's coronation . In a break with tradition , Queen Mary attended the ceremony in a show of support for her son . There was no Durbar held in Delhi for George VI , as had occurred for his father , as the cost would have been a burden to the government of India . Rising Indian nationalism made the welcome that the royal couple would have received likely to be muted at best , and a prolonged absence from Britain would have been undesirable in the tense period before the Second World War . Two overseas tours were undertaken , to France and to North America , both of which promised greater strategic advantages in the event of war .
The growing likelihood of war in Europe dominated the early reign of George VI . The King was constitutionally bound to support Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain 's appeasement of Hitler . However , when the King and Queen greeted Chamberlain on his return from negotiating the Munich Agreement in 1938 , they invited him to appear on the balcony of Buckingham Palace with them . This public association of the monarchy with a politician was exceptional , as balcony appearances were traditionally restricted to the royal family . While broadly popular among the general public , Chamberlain 's policy towards Hitler was the subject of some opposition in the House of Commons , which led historian John Grigg to describe the King 's behaviour in associating himself so prominently with a politician as " the most unconstitutional act by a British sovereign in the present century " .
In May and June 1939 , the King and Queen toured Canada and the United States . From Ottawa , the royal couple were accompanied throughout by Canadian Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King , to present themselves in North America as King and Queen of Canada . George was the first reigning monarch of Canada to visit North America , although he had been to Canada previously as Prince Albert and as Duke of York . Both Governor General of Canada Lord Tweedsmuir and Mackenzie King hoped that the King 's presence in Canada would demonstrate the principles of the Statute of Westminster 1931 , which gave full sovereignty to the British Dominions . On 19 May , George VI personally accepted and approved the Letter of Credence of the new U.S. Ambassador to Canada , Daniel Calhoun Roper ; gave Royal Assent to nine parliamentary bills ; and ratified two international treaties with the Great Seal of Canada . The official royal tour historian , Gustave Lanctot , wrote " the Statute of Westminster had assumed full reality " and George gave a speech emphasising " the free and equal association of the nations of the Commonwealth " .
The trip was intended to soften the strong isolationist tendencies among the North American public with regard to the developing tensions in Europe . Although the aim of the tour was mainly political , to shore up Atlantic support for the United Kingdom in any future war , the King and Queen were enthusiastically received by the public . The fear that George would be compared unfavourably to his predecessor , Edward VIII , was dispelled . They visited the 1939 New York World 's Fair and stayed with President Franklin D. Roosevelt at the White House and at his private estate at Hyde Park , New York . A strong bond of friendship was forged between the King and Queen and the President during the tour , which had major significance in the relations between the United States and the United Kingdom through the ensuing war years .
= = Second World War = =
In September 1939 , Britain and the self @-@ governing Dominions , but not Ireland , declared war on Nazi Germany . George VI and his wife resolved to stay in London , despite German bombing raids . They officially stayed in Buckingham Palace throughout the war , although they usually spent nights at Windsor Castle . The first German raid on London , on 7 September 1940 , killed about one thousand civilians , mostly in the East End . On 13 September , the King and Queen narrowly avoided death when two German bombs exploded in a courtyard at Buckingham Palace while they were there . In defiance , the Queen famously declared : " I am glad we have been bombed . It makes me feel we can look the East End in the face " . The royal family were portrayed as sharing the same dangers and deprivations as the rest of the country . They were subject to rationing restrictions , and U.S. First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt remarked on the rationed food served and the limited bathwater that was permitted during a stay at the unheated and boarded @-@ up Palace . In August 1942 , the King 's brother , Prince George , Duke of Kent , was killed on active service .
In 1940 , Winston Churchill replaced Neville Chamberlain as Prime Minister , though personally George would have preferred to appoint Lord Halifax . After the King 's initial dismay over Churchill 's appointment of Lord Beaverbrook to the Cabinet , he and Churchill developed " the closest personal relationship in modern British history between a monarch and a Prime Minister " . Every Tuesday for four and a half years from September 1940 , the two men met privately for lunch to discuss the war in secret and with frankness .
Throughout the war , the King and Queen provided morale @-@ boosting visits throughout the United Kingdom , visiting bomb sites , munitions factories , and troops . The King visited military forces abroad in France in December 1939 , North Africa and Malta in June 1943 , Normandy in June 1944 , southern Italy in July 1944 , and the Low Countries in October 1944 . Their high public profile and apparently indefatigable determination secured their place as symbols of national resistance . At a social function in 1944 , Chief of the Imperial General Staff Sir Alan Brooke , revealed that every time he met Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery he thought he was after his job . The King replied : " You should worry , when I meet him , I always think he 's after mine ! "
In 1945 , crowds shouted " We want the King ! " in front of Buckingham Palace during the Victory in Europe Day celebrations . In an echo of Chamberlain 's appearance , the King invited Churchill to appear with the royal family on the balcony to public acclaim .
In January 1946 , George addressed the United Nations at their first assembly , which was held in London , and reaffirmed " our faith in the equal rights of men and women and of nations great and small " .
= = Empire to Commonwealth = =
George VI 's reign saw the acceleration of the dissolution of the British Empire . The Statute of Westminster 1931 had already acknowledged the evolution of the Dominions into separate sovereign states . The process of transformation from an empire to a voluntary association of independent states , known as the Commonwealth , gathered pace after the Second World War . During the ministry of Clement Attlee , British India became the two independent dominions of India and Pakistan in 1947 . George relinquished the title of Emperor of India , and became King of India and King of Pakistan instead . In 1950 he ceased to be King of India when it became a republic within the Commonwealth of Nations , but he remained King of Pakistan until his death and India recognised his new title of Head of the Commonwealth . Other countries left the Commonwealth , such as Burma in January 1948 , Palestine ( divided between Israel and the Arab states ) in May 1948 and the Republic of Ireland in 1949 .
In 1947 , the King and his family toured Southern Africa . The Prime Minister of the Union of South Africa , Jan Smuts , was facing an election and hoped to make political capital out of the visit . George was appalled , however , when instructed by the South African government to shake hands only with whites , and referred to his South African bodyguards as " the Gestapo " . Despite the tour , Smuts lost the election the following year , and the new government instituted a strict policy of racial segregation .
= = Illness and death = =
The stress of the war had taken its toll on the King 's health , exacerbated by his heavy smoking and subsequent development of lung cancer among other ailments , including arteriosclerosis and thromboangiitis obliterans . A planned tour of Australia and New Zealand was postponed after the King suffered an arterial blockage in his right leg , which threatened the loss of the leg and was treated with a right lumbar sympathectomy in March 1949 . His elder daughter Elizabeth , the heir presumptive , took on more royal duties as her father 's health deteriorated . The delayed tour was re @-@ organised , with Elizabeth and her husband , the Duke of Edinburgh , taking the place of the King and Queen . The King was well enough to open the Festival of Britain in May 1951 , but on 23 September 1951 , his left lung was removed by Clement Price Thomas after a malignant tumour was found . In October 1951 , Princess Elizabeth and the Duke of Edinburgh went on a month @-@ long tour of Canada ; the trip had been delayed for a week due to the King 's illness . At the State Opening of Parliament in November , the King 's speech from the throne was read for him by the Lord Chancellor , Lord Simonds . His Christmas broadcast of 1951 was recorded in sections , and then edited together .
On 31 January 1952 , despite advice from those close to him , the King went to London Airport to see off Princess Elizabeth , who was going on her tour of Australia via Kenya . On the morning of 6 February , George VI was found dead in bed at Sandringham House in Norfolk . He had died from a coronary thrombosis in his sleep at the age of 56 . His daughter Elizabeth flew back to Britain from Kenya as Queen Elizabeth II .
From 9 February for two days his coffin rested in St. Mary Magdalene Church , Sandringham , before lying in state at Westminster Hall from 11 February . His funeral took place at St. George 's Chapel , Windsor Castle , on the 15th . He was interred initially in the Royal Vault until he was transferred to the King George VI Memorial Chapel inside St. George 's on 26 March 1969 . In 2002 , fifty years after his death , the remains of his widow , Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother , and the ashes of his younger daughter Princess Margaret , who both died that year , were interred in the chapel alongside him .
= = Legacy = =
In the words of Labour Member of Parliament George Hardie , the abdication crisis of 1936 did " more for republicanism than fifty years of propaganda " . George VI wrote to his brother Edward that in the aftermath of the abdication he had reluctantly assumed " a rocking throne " , and tried " to make it steady again " . He became king at a point when public faith in the monarchy was at a low ebb . During his reign his people endured the hardships of war , and imperial power was eroded . However , as a dutiful family man and by showing personal courage , he succeeded in restoring the popularity of the monarchy .
The George Cross and the George Medal were founded at the King 's suggestion during the Second World War to recognise acts of exceptional civilian bravery . He bestowed the George Cross on the entire " island fortress of Malta " in 1943 . He was posthumously awarded the Ordre de la Libération by the French government in 1960 , one of only two people ( the other being Churchill ) to be awarded the medal after 1946 .
There are a number of geographical features , roads , and institutions named after George VI . These include King George Hospital in London ; King George VI Reservoir in Surrey , United Kingdom ; King George VI Highway and King George Boulevard in Surrey , British Columbia ; Kingsway in Edmonton ; George VI Sound in Antarctica ; and the King George VI Chase , a horse race in the United Kingdom .
Colin Firth won an Academy Award for Best Actor for his performance as George VI in The King 's Speech , a 2010 film that won the Academy Award for Best Picture .
= = Titles , styles , honours and arms = =
= = = Titles and styles = = =
14 December 1895 – 28 May 1898 : His Highness Prince Albert of York
28 May 1898 – 22 January 1901 : His Royal Highness Prince Albert of York
22 January 1901 – 9 November 1901 : His Royal Highness Prince Albert of Cornwall and York
9 November 1901 – 6 May 1910 : His Royal Highness Prince Albert of Wales
6 May 1910 – 4 June 1920 : His Royal Highness The Prince Albert
4 June 1920 – 11 December 1936 : His Royal Highness The Duke of York
11 December 1936 – 6 February 1952 : His Majesty The King
George held a number of titles throughout his life , as successively great @-@ grandson , grandson and son of the monarch . As sovereign , he was referred to most often as simply The King or His Majesty . In his position as sovereign , George automatically held the position of Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief .
= = = Arms = = =
As Duke of York , George bore the royal arms of the United Kingdom differenced with a label of three points argent , the centre point bearing an anchor azure — a difference earlier awarded to his father George V when he was Duke of York , and then later awarded to his grandson , Prince Andrew , Duke of York . As king , he bore the royal arms undifferenced .
= = Issue = =
= = Ancestry = =
= Wesley Clark =
Wesley Kanne Clark , Sr. ( born December 23 , 1944 ) is a retired General of the United States Army . He graduated as valedictorian of the class of 1966 at West Point and was awarded a Rhodes Scholarship to the University of Oxford , where he obtained a degree in Philosophy , Politics and Economics . He later graduated from the Command and General Staff College with a master 's degree in military science . He spent 34 years in the Army , receiving many military decorations , several honorary knighthoods , and the Presidential Medal of Freedom .
Clark commanded Operation Allied Force in the Kosovo War during his term as the Supreme Allied Commander Europe of NATO from 1997 to 2000 .
Clark joined the 2004 race for the Democratic Party presidential nomination as a candidate in 2003 , but withdrew from the primary race in 2004 , after winning the Oklahoma state primary , endorsing and campaigning for the eventual Democratic nominee , John Kerry . Clark leads a political action committee , " WesPAC " , which he formed after the 2004 primaries and used to support Democratic Party candidates in the 2006 midterm elections . Clark was considered a potential candidate for the Democratic nomination in 2008 , but , on September 15 , 2007 , endorsed Senator Hillary Clinton . After Clinton dropped out of the presidential race , Clark endorsed the then @-@ presumptive Democratic nominee , Barack Obama . Clark serves as the co @-@ chairman of Growth Energy , an ethanol lobbying group , and is on the board of directors of BNK Petroleum . Since July 2012 , he also acts as an honorary special advisor to Romanian prime minister Victor Ponta on economic and security matters .
= = Early life and education = =
Clark 's father 's family was Jewish ; his paternal great @-@ grandfather immigrated to the United States from Belarus in response to the Pale of Settlement and anti @-@ Semitic violence from Russian pogroms . Clark 's grandfather , Jacob Kanne , graduated from the Chicago @-@ Kent College of Law and served in the U.S. Naval Reserve as an ensign during World War I , although he was never assigned to a combat mission . Kanne , living in Chicago , became involved with ward politics in the 1920s as a prosecutor and served in local offices . He served as a delegate to the 1932 Democratic National Convention that nominated Franklin D. Roosevelt as the party ' | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
He spent his summer at the United States Army Airborne School at Fort Benning , Georgia . He worked in the Philosophy , Politics , and Economics ( PPE ) program during his Rhodes Scholarship , completing his degree at Magdalen College at the University of Oxford in August 1968 . While he was at Oxford , a Jewish cousin of Clark 's who lived in England telephoned him and informed him of his Jewish heritage , having received permission from Veneta Clark . Clark spent three months after graduation at Fort Knox , Kentucky , going through Armor Officer Basic Course , then went on to Ranger School at Fort Benning . He was promoted to captain and was assigned as commander of the A Company of the 4th Battalion , 68th Armor , 82nd Airborne Division at Fort Bragg , North Carolina .
= = = Vietnam = = =
Clark was assigned a position in the 1st Infantry Division and flew to Vietnam on May 21 , 1969 , during the U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War . He worked as a staff officer , collecting data and helping in operations planning , and was awarded the Bronze Star for his work with the staff . Clark was then given command of A Company , 1st Battalion , 16th Infantry of the 1st Infantry Division in January 1970 . In February , only one month into his command , he was shot four times by a Viet Cong soldier with an AK @-@ 47 . The wounded Clark shouted orders to his men , who counterattacked and defeated the Viet Cong force . Clark had injuries to his right shoulder , right hand , right hip , and right leg , and was sent to Valley Forge Army Hospital in Phoenixville , Pennsylvania , to recuperate . He was awarded the Silver Star and the Combat Infantryman Badge for his actions during the encounter .
Clark had converted to Catholicism , his wife Gertrude 's religion , while in Vietnam . He saw his son , Wesley Clark , Jr . , for the first time while at the Valley Forge Hospital . Clark commanded C Company , 6th Battalion , 32nd Armor , 194th Armored Brigade , a company composed of wounded soldiers , at Fort Knox . Clark has said this command is what made him decide to continue his military career past the five @-@ year commitment required by West Point , which would have concluded in 1971 . Clark completed his Armor Officer Advanced Course while at Fort Knox , taking additional elective courses and writing an article that won the Armor Association Writing Award . His next posting was to the office of the Army Chief of Staff in Washington , D.C. , where he worked in the " Modern Volunteer Army " program from May to July 1971 . He then served as an instructor in the Department of Social Sciences at West Point for three years from July 1971 to 1974 .
Clark graduated from the Command and General Staff College ( CGSC ) , earning his military Master of Arts degree in military science from the CGSC with a thesis on American policies of gradualism in the Vietnam War . Clark 's theory was one of applying force swiftly , which was being advocated by many soldiers at the time , a concept that would eventually become established as U.S. national security policy in the form of the Weinberger Doctrine and its successor , the Powell Doctrine . Clark was promoted to major upon his graduation from the CGSC .
= = = Post @-@ Vietnam = = =
In 1975 , Clark was appointed a White House Fellow in the Office of Management and Budget ( OMB ) as a special assistant to its director , James Thomas Lynn . He was one of 14 appointed out of 2 @,@ 307 applicants . Lynn also gave Clark a six @-@ week assignment to assist John Marsh , then a counselor to the President . Clark was approached during his fellowship to help push for a memorial to Vietnam veterans . He worked with the movement that helped lead to the creation of the Vietnam Veterans Memorial in Washington , D.C. Clark served in two commands with the 1st Armored Division based in Germany from August 1976 to February 1978 , first as S @-@ 3 of the 3rd Battalion 35th Armor and then as S @-@ 3 of the entire 3rd Brigade . Clark 's brigade commander while in the former position said Clark was " singularly outstanding , notably superb . " Regarding his term as brigade commander , one of his battalion commanders called Clark the " most brilliant and gifted officer [ he 'd ] ever known . " He was awarded the Meritorious Service Medal for his work with the division .
The brigade commander had also said that " word of Major Clark 's exceptional talent spread " , and in one case reached the desk of then Supreme Allied Commander Alexander Haig . Haig personally selected Clark to serve as a special assistant on his staff , a post he held from February 1978 to June 1979 . While on staff at Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe ( SHAPE ) , Clark wrote policy reports and coordinated two multinational military exercises . As a result of his work on Haig 's staff , Clark was promoted to lieutenant colonel and was awarded the Legion of Merit . After his European post , he moved on to Fort Carson , Colorado , where he served first as the executive officer of the 1st Brigade , 4th Infantry Division from August 1979 to February 1980 , then as the commander of the 1st Battalion , 77th Armor , 4th Infantry Division from February 1980 to July 1982 . According to the American journalist David Halberstam , the commander at Fort Carson , then Major General John Hudacheck , had a reputation of disliking West Point graduates and fast @-@ rising officers such as Clark . After two years of not making the list to rise from battalion commander to brigade commander , Clark attended the National War College . After studying there from June 1982 to 1983 , Clark graduated and was promoted to full colonel in October 1983 .
Following his graduation , Clark worked in Washington , D.C. , from July 1983 to 1984 in the offices of the Chief and Deputy Chiefs of Staff of the United States Army , earning a second Legion of Merit for his work . He then served as the Operations Group commander at the Fort Irwin Military Reservation from August 1984 to June 1986 . He was awarded another Legion of Merit and a Meritorious Service Medal for his work at Fort Irwin and was given a brigade command at Fort Carson in 1986 . He commanded the 3rd Brigade , 4th Infantry Division there from April 1986 to March 1988 . Veneta Clark , Wesley 's mother , fell ill as he began this command and died on Mother 's Day in 1986 . After Fort Carson , Clark returned to the Command and General Staff College to direct and further develop the Battle Command Training Program ( BCTP ) there until October 1989 . The BCTP was created to teach senior officers war @-@ fighting skills , according to the commanding general at the time . On November 1 , 1989 , Clark was promoted to brigadier general .
Clark returned to Fort Irwin and commanded the National Training Center ( NTC ) from October 1989 to 1991 . The Gulf War occurred during Clark 's command , and many National Guard divisional round @-@ out brigades trained under his command . Multiple generals commanding American forces in Iraq and Kuwait said Clark 's training helped bring about results in the field and that he had successfully begun training a new generation of the military that had moved past Vietnam @-@ era strategy . He was awarded another Legion of Merit for his " personal efforts " that were " instrumental in maintaining " the NTC , according to the citation . He served in a planning post after this , as the Deputy Chief of Staff for Concepts , Doctrine , and Developments at Training and Doctrine Command ( TRADOC ) at Fort Monroe , Virginia . While there , he helped the commanding general of TRADOC prepare the army for war and develop new post @-@ Cold War strategies . Clark pushed for technological advancement in the army to establish a digital network for military command , which he called the " digitization of the battlefield . " He was promoted to Major General in October 1992 at the end of this command .
= = = = Fort Hood and the Waco Siege = = = =
Clark 's divisional command came with the 1st Cavalry Division at Fort Hood , Texas . Clark was in command during three separate deployments of forces from Fort Hood for peacekeeping in Kuwait .
Some critics , such as left @-@ wing CounterPunch and right @-@ wing FrontPageMag.com , have made allegations that Clark was , to some degree , involved in the Waco siege , where David Koresh and 74 Branch Davidian followers were killed during the FBI 's final raid on the group 's compound . Some also suggest that , given the sensitive nature of the materials lent for the operation , Clark had some knowledge of and perhaps a hand in planning the Waco siege . Others , such as James Ridgeway , dismiss the allegations as having " little evidence to substantiate them . "
His Officer Evaluation Report ( OER ) for his command at Fort Hood called him " one of the Army 's best and brightest " . Clark was awarded the Distinguished Service Medal for his work at Fort Hood and was promoted to lieutenant general at the end of his command in 1994 . Clark 's next assignment was an appointment as the Director , Strategic Plans and Policy ( J5 ) , on the staff of the Joint Chiefs of Staff ( JCS ) , from April 1994 to June 1996 .
= = = = United States Southern Command = = = =
Army regulations set a so @-@ called " ticking clock " upon the promotion to a three @-@ star general , essentially requiring that Clark be promoted to another post within 2 years from his initial promotion or retire . This deadline ended in 1996 and Clark said he was not optimistic about receiving such a promotion because rumors at the time suggested General Dennis Reimer did not want to recommend him for promotion although " no specific reason was given " . According to Clark 's book , General Robert Scales said that it was likely Clark 's reputation of intelligence within the military was responsible for feelings of resentment against him from other generals . Clark was named to the United States Southern Command ( USSOUTHCOM ) post despite these rumors . Congress approved his promotion to full general in June 1996 , and General John M. Shalikashvili signed the order . Clark said he was not the original nominee , but the first officer chosen " hadn 't been accepted for some reason . "
= = = The Balkans = = =
= = = = Bosnia and Herzegovina = = = =
Clark began planning work for responses to the war in Bosnia and Herzegovina upon his appointment in 1994 as the Director , Strategic Plans and Policy ( J5 ) on the JCS staff . While collecting information to outline military options for resolving the conflict , Clark met with Bosnian Serb military leaders including Ratko Mladić , who was later accused of war crimes and genocide . Clark was photographed exchanging hats with Mladić , and the photo drew controversy in the United States . A Washington Post story was published claiming Clark had made the visit despite a warning from the U.S. ambassador . Some Clinton administration members privately said the incident was " like cavorting with Hermann Göring . " Clark listed the visit in the itinerary he submitted to the ambassador , but he learned only afterwards that it was not approved . He said there had been no warning and no one had told him to cancel the visit , although two Congressmen called for his dismissal regardless . Clark later said he regretted the exchange , and the issue was ultimately resolved as President Clinton sent a letter defending Clark to the Congress and the controversy subsided . Clark said it was his " first experience in the rough and tumble of high visibility ... and a painful few days . " Conservative pundit Robert Novak later referred to the hat exchange in a column during Clark 's 2004 presidential campaign , citing it as a " problem " with Clark as a candidate .
Clark was sent to Bosnia by Secretary of Defense William Perry to serve as the military advisor to a diplomatic negotiating team headed by assistant Secretary of State Richard Holbrooke . Holbrooke later described Clark 's position as " complicated " because it presented him with future possibilities but " might put him into career @-@ endangering conflicts with more senior officers . " While the team was driving along a mountain road during the first week , the road gave way , and one of the vehicles fell over a cliff carrying passengers including Holbrooke 's deputy , Robert Frasure , a deputy assistant Secretary of Defense , Joseph Kruzel , and Air Force Colonel Nelson Drew . Clark and Holbrooke attempted to crawl down the mountain , but were driven back by sniper fire . Once the fire ceased , Clark rappelled down the mountain to collect the bodies of two dead Americans left by Bosnian forces that had taken the remaining wounded to a nearby hospital . Following funeral services in Washington , D.C. , the negotiations continued and the team eventually reached the Dayton Agreement at the Wright @-@ Patterson Air Force Base in Dayton , Ohio , and later signed it in Paris on December 14 , 1995 .
Clark returned to the European theater and the Balkans following his USSOUTHCOM position when he was appointed to U.S. European Command in the summer of 1997 by President Clinton . He was , as with SOUTHCOM , not the original nominee for the position . The Army had already selected another general for the post . Because President Clinton and General Shalikashvili believed Clark was the best man for the post , he eventually received the nomination . Shalikashvili noted he " had a very strong role in [ Clark 's ] last two jobs . " Clark noted during his confirmation hearing before the Senate Armed Services committee of the 105th Congress that he believed NATO had shifted since the end of the Cold War from protecting Europe from the Soviet Union to working towards more general stability in the region . Clark also addressed issues related to his then @-@ current command of USSOUTHCOM , such as support for the School of the Americas and his belief that the United States must continue aid to some South American nations to effectively fight the War on Drugs . Clark was quickly confirmed by a voice vote the same day as his confirmation hearing , giving him the command of 109 @,@ 000 American troops , their 150 @,@ 000 family members , 50 @,@ 000 civilians aiding the military , and all American military activities in 89 countries and territories of Europe , Africa , and the Middle East . The position made Clark the Supreme Allied Commander Europe ( SACEUR ) , which granted him overall command of NATO military forces in Europe .
= = = = Kosovo War = = = =
The largest event of Clark 's tenure as SACEUR was NATO 's confrontation with the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in the Kosovo War . On September 22 , 1998 , the United Nations Security Council introduced Resolution 1199 calling for an end to hostilities in Kosovo , and Richard Holbrooke again tried to negotiate a peace . This process came to an unsuccessful end , however , following the Račak massacre . Then U.S. Secretary of State Madeleine Albright tried to force Yugoslavia into allowing separation of Kosovo with the Rambouillet Agreement , which Yugoslavia refused . Clark was at the Rambouillet talks and tried to convince Yugoslavian president Slobodan Milošević by telling him " there 's an activation order . And if they tell me to bomb you , I 'm going to bomb you good . " Clark later said Milošević launched into an emotional tirade against Albanians and said that they 'd been " handled " in the 1940s by ethnic cleansing .
Clark started the bombings codenamed Operation Allied Force on March 24 , 1999 , on orders to try to enforce U.N. Resolution 1199 following Yugoslavia 's refusal of the Rambouillet Agreement . However , critics note that Resolution 1199 was a call for cessation of hostilities and does not authorize any organization to take military action . Secretary of Defense William Cohen felt that Clark had powerful allies at the White House , such as President Clinton and Secretary of State Madeleine Albright , who allowed him to circumvent The Pentagon in promoting his strategic ideas . Clark felt , however , that he was not being included enough in discussions with the National Command Authority , leading him to describe himself as " just a NATO officer who also reported to the United States " . This command conflict came to a ceremonial head when Clark was not initially invited to a summit in Washington , D.C. , to commemorate NATO 's 50th anniversary , despite being its supreme military commander . Clark eventually secured an invitation to the summit , but was told by Cohen to say nothing about ground troops , and Clark agreed .
Clark returned to SHAPE following the summit and briefed the press on the continued bombing operations . A reporter from the Los Angeles Times asked a question about the effect of bombings on Serbian forces , and Clark noted that merely counting the number of opposing troops did not show Milošević 's true losses because he was bringing in reinforcements . Many American news organizations capitalized on the remark in a way Clark said " distorted the comment " with headlines such as " NATO Chief Admits Bombs Fail to Stem Serb Operations " in The New York Times . Clark later defended his remarks , saying this was a " complete misunderstanding of my statement and of the facts , " and President Clinton agreed that Clark 's remarks were misconstrued . Regardless , Clark received a call the following evening from Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff General Hugh Shelton , who said he had been told by Secretary Cohen to deliver a piece of guidance verbatim : " Get your fucking face off the TV . No more briefings , period . That 's it . "
Operation Allied Force experienced another problem when NATO bombed the Chinese embassy in Belgrade on May 7 , 1999 . The operation had been organized against numerous Serbian targets , including " Target 493 , the Federal Procurement and Supply Directorate Headquarters " , although the intended target building was actually 300 meters away from the targeted area . The embassy was located at this mistaken target , and three Chinese journalists were killed . Clark 's intelligence officer called Clark taking full responsibility and offering to resign , but Clark declined , saying it was not the officer 's fault . Secretary Cohen and CIA Director George Tenet took responsibility the next day . Tenet would later explain in testimony before the United States House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence on July 22 , 1999 , that the targeting system used street addresses , which gave inaccurate positions for air bombings . He also said that the various databases of off @-@ limit targets did not have the up @-@ to @-@ date address for the relatively new embassy location .
The bombing campaign was ended on June 10 , 1999 , on the order of Secretary General of NATO Javier Solana after Milošević complied with conditions the international community had set and Yugoslav forces began to withdraw from Kosovo . United Nations Security Council Resolution 1244 was adopted that same day , placing Kosovo under United Nations administration and authorizing a Kosovo peacekeeping force . NATO suffered no combat deaths , although two crew members died in an Apache helicopter crash . A F @-@ 117A was downed near the village of Budjanovici . The bombing resulted in an estimated 495 civilian deaths and 820 wounded , as reported to the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia . Yugoslavia estimated that the number of civilians killed is higher than 2 @,@ 000 and that more than 5 @,@ 000 have been wounded . Human Rights Watch estimates the number of civilian deaths due to NATO bombings as somewhere between 488 and 527 .
Milošević 's term in office in Yugoslavia was coming to an end , and the elections that came on September 24 , 2000 , were protested due to allegations of fraud and rigged elections . This all came to a head on October 5 in the so @-@ called Bulldozer Revolution . Milošević resigned on October 7 . The Democratic Opposition of Serbia won a majority in parliamentary elections that December . Milošević was taken into custody on April 1 , 2001 , and transferred to the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia on June 28 to face charges of war crimes and genocide . Clark was called to testify in a closed session of Milošević 's trial in December 2003 . He testified on issues ranging from the Srebrenica massacre to conversations Clark had had with Milošević during his career . Some anti @-@ war activist groups also label Clark and Bill Clinton ( along with several others ) as war criminals for NATO 's entire bombing campaign , saying the entire operation was in violation of the NATO charter .
= = = = = Pristina International Airport incident = = = = =
One of Clark 's most debated decisions during his SACEUR command was his attempted operation to attack Russian troops at Pristina International Airport , immediately after the end of the Kosovo War in June 1999 . A joint NATO – Russia peacekeeping operation was supposed to police Kosovo . Russia wanted their peacekeeping force to operate independently of NATO , but NATO refused . British forces were supposed to occupy Pristina International Airport , but a contingent of Russian troops arrived before they did and took control of the airport . Clark called then @-@ Secretary General of NATO Javier Solana , who told him " you have transfer of authority " in the area . General Clark then issued an order for the NATO troops to attack and " overpower " the armed Russian troops .
In response , Captain James Blount ( later a singer known by the stage name James Blunt ) , leading the British troops , refused to obey the order . Blount was supported in that decision by General Mike Jackson , the British commander of the Kosovo Force . Jackson refused to support the attack , reportedly saying " I 'm not going to start the Third World War for you " . Jackson has said he refused to take action because he did not believe it was worth the risk of a military confrontation with the Russians , instead insisting that troops encircle the airfield . After two days of stand @-@ off and negotiations , NATO agreed to an independent Russian peacekeeping force , and Russia relinquished control of the airport .
The refusal was criticized by some senior U.S. military personnel , with General Hugh Shelton calling Jackson 's refusal " troubling " . During hearings in the United States Senate , Senator John Warner suggested that the refusal might have been illegal , and that if it was legal , rules potentially should be changed . British Chief of the Defence Staff Charles Guthrie agreed with Jackson .
= = = Retirement = = =
Clark received another call from General Shelton in July 1999 in which he was told that Secretary Cohen wanted Clark to leave his command in April 2000 , less than three years after he assumed the post . Clark was surprised by this , because he believed SACEURs were expected to serve at least three years . Clark was told that this was necessary because General Joseph Ralston was leaving his post as the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff and would need another 4 @-@ star command within 60 days or he would be forced to retire . Ralston was not going to be appointed Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff due to an extramarital affair in his past , and the SACEUR position was said to be the last potential post for him . Clark said this explanation " didn 't wash " ; he believed the legal issues did not necessarily bar him from a full term . Clinton signed on to Ralston 's reassignment , although David Halberstam wrote that the president and Madeleine Albright were angered at Clark 's treatment . Clark spent the remainder of his time as SACEUR overseeing peacekeeper forces and , without a new command to take , was forced into retirement from the military on May 2 , 2000 .
Rumors persisted that Clark was forced out due to his contentious relationship with some in Washington , D.C. ; however , he has dismissed such rumors , calling it a " routine personnel action " . The Department of Defense said it was merely a " general rotation of American senior ranks " . However , a NATO ambassador told the International Herald Tribune that Clark 's dismissal seemed to be a " political thing from the United States " . General Hugh Shelton would say of Clark during his 2004 campaign that " the reason he came out of Europe early had to do with integrity and character issues , things that are very near and dear to my heart . I 'm not going to say whether I 'm a Republican or a Democrat . I 'll just say Wes won 't get my vote . " Shelton never elaborated further on what these issues were .
= = Civilian career = =
Clark set himself three initial goals in civilian life — to earn $ 40 million in the business world and practice philanthropy , to become an adjunct professor , and to become a professional golfer . Clark began a public speaking tour in the summer of 2000 and approached several former government officials for advice on work after life in government , including House Speaker Newt Gingrich , White House Chief of Staff Mack McLarty , and Richard Holbrooke . Clark took McLarty 's advice to move back to Little Rock , Arkansas , and took a position with the Stephens Group , an investment firm headquartered there . He took several other board positions at defense @-@ related firms , and in March 2003 he amicably left the Stephens Group to found Wesley K. Clark & Associates . Clark wrote two books , Waging Modern War and Winning Modern Wars . He also authored forewords for a series of military biographies and a series of editorials . He had amassed only about $ 3 @.@ 1 million towards his $ 40 million goal by 2003 , and he began considering running for public office instead of pursuing his business career .
= = = 2004 presidential campaign = = =
Clark has said that he began to truly define his politics only after his military retirement and the 2000 presidential election , won by George W. Bush . Clark had a conversation with Condoleezza Rice in which she told him that the war in Kosovo would not have occurred under Bush . Clark found such an admission unsettling , as he had been selected for the SACEUR position because he believed more in the interventionist policies of the Clinton administration . He said he would see it as a sign that things were " starting to go wrong " with American foreign policy under Bush . Clark supported the administration 's War in Afghanistan in response to the September 11 , 2001 , attacks but did not support the Iraq War . Clark continued to warn people as a commentator on CNN that he believed the United States was undermanned in Iraq . He said the war was " never [ about ] ... WMD or regime change " and believes " the connection to the War on Terrorism was not shown . "
Clark met with a group of wealthy New York Democrats including Alan Patricof to tell them he was considering running for the presidency in the 2004 election . Patricof , a supporter of Al Gore in 2000 , met with all the Democratic candidates but supported Clark in 2004 . Clark said that he voted for Al Gore and Ronald Reagan , held equal esteem for Dwight D. Eisenhower and Harry S. Truman , and was a registered independent voter throughout his military career . Clark stated that he decided he was a Democrat because " I was pro @-@ affirmative action , I was pro @-@ choice , I was pro @-@ education ... I 'm pro @-@ health care ... I realized I was either going to be the loneliest Republican in America or I was going to be a happy Democrat . " Clark said he liked the Democratic party , which he saw as standing for " internationalism " , " ordinary men and women " , and " fair play . "
A " Draft Clark " campaign began to grow with the launch of DraftWesleyClark.com on April 10 , 2003 . The organization signed up tens of thousands of volunteers , made 150 media appearances discussing Clark , and raised $ 1 @.@ 5 million in pledges for his campaign . A different website , DraftClark2004.com , was the first organization to register as a political action committee in June 2003 to persuade Clark to run . They had presented him with 1000 emails in May 2003 from throughout the country asking him to run . One of DraftClark2004 's founders , Brent Blackaby , said of the draft effort : " Just fifty @-@ two years ago citizens from all over the country were successful in their efforts to draft General Eisenhower . We intend to do the same in 2004 by drafting General Clark . If he runs , he wins . "
In June 2003 , Clark said that he was " seriously consider [ ing ] " running for president in an appearance on Meet the Press . Clark announced his candidacy for the Democratic presidential primary elections from Little Rock on September 17 , 2003 , months after the other candidates . He acknowledged the influence of the Draft Clark movement , saying they " took an inconceivable idea and made it conceivable " . The campaign raised $ 3 @.@ 5 million in the first two weeks . The internet campaign would also establish the Clark Community Network of blogs , which remains in use and made heavy use of Meetup.com , where DraftWesleyClark.com had established the second @-@ largest community of Meetups at the time .
Clark 's loyalty to the Democratic Party was questioned by some as soon as he entered the race . Senator Joe Lieberman called Clark 's party choice a matter of " political convenience , not conviction . " Republican Governor Bill Owens of Colorado and University of Denver president Marc Holtzman have claimed Clark once said " I would have been a Republican if Karl Rove had returned my phone calls . " Clark later claimed he was simply joking , but both Owens and Holtzman said the remark was delivered " very directly " and " wasn 't a joke . " Katharine Q. Seelye wrote that many believed Clark had chosen to be a Democrat in 2004 only because it was " the only party that did not have a nominee . " On May 11 , 2001 , Clark also delivered a speech to the Pulaski County Republican Party in Arkansas saying he was " very glad we 've got the great team in office , men like Colin Powell , Don Rumsfeld , Dick Cheney , Condoleezza Rice , Paul O 'Neill — people I know very well — our president George W. Bush . " U.S. News & World Report ran a story two weeks later claiming Clark had considered a political run as a Republican .
Clark , coming from a non @-@ political background , had no position papers to define his agenda for the public . Once in the campaign , however , several volunteers established a network of connections with the media , and Clark began to explain his stances on a variety of issues . He was , as he had told The Washington Post in October , pro @-@ choice and pro @-@ affirmative action . He called for a repeal of recent Bush tax cuts for people earning more than $ 200 @,@ 000 and suggested providing healthcare for the uninsured by altering the current system rather than transferring to a completely new universal health care system . He backed environmental causes such as promising to reverse " scaled down rules " the Bush administration had applied to the Clean Air and Clean Water Acts and dealing with the potential effects of global warming by reducing greenhouse gas emissions from vehicles , livestock flatulence and other sources . Clark also proposed a global effort to strengthen American relations with other nations , reviewing the PATRIOT Act , and investing $ 100 billion in homeland security . Finally , he released a budget plan that claimed to save $ 2 @.@ 35 trillion over ten years through a repeal of the Bush tax cuts , sharing the cost of the Iraq War with other nations , and cutting government waste .
Some , such as Clark biographer Antonia Felix , have speculated that Clark 's inexperience at giving " soundbite " answers hurt him in the media during his primary campaign . The day after he launched his campaign , for example , he was asked if he would have voted for the Iraq War Resolution , which granted President Bush the power to wage the Iraq War , a large issue in the 2004 campaign . Clark said , " At the time , I probably would have voted for it , but I think that 's too simple a question , " then " I don 't know if I would have or not . I 've said it both ways because when you get into this , what happens is you have to put yourself in a position — on balance , I probably would have voted for it . " Finally , Clark 's press secretary clarified his position as " you said you would have voted for the resolution as leverage for a UN @-@ based solution . " After this series of responses , although Clark opposed the war , The New York Times ran a story with the headline " Clark Says He Would Have Voted for War " . Clark was repeatedly portrayed as unsure on this critical issue by his opponents throughout the primary season . He was forced to continue to clarify his position and at the second primary debate he said , " I think it 's really embarrassing that a group of candidates up here are working on changing the leadership in this country and can 't get their own story straight ... I would have never voted for war . The war was an unnecessary war , it was an elective war , and it 's been a huge strategic mistake for this country . "
Another media incident started during the New Hampshire primary September 27 , 2003 , when Clark was asked by space shuttle astronaut Jay C. Buckey what his vision for the space program was after the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster . Clark responded he was a great believer in the exploration of space but wanted a vision well beyond that of a new shuttle or space plane . " I would like to see mankind get off this planet . I 'd like to know what 's out there beyond the solar system . " Clark thought such a vision could probably require a lifetime of research and development in various fields of science and technology . Then at the end of his remarks , Clark dropped a bombshell when he said " I still believe in E = mc ² . But I can 't believe that in all of human history we 'll never ever be able to go beyond the speed of light to reach where we want to go . I happen to believe that mankind can do it . I 've argued with physicists about it . I 've argued with best friends about it . I just have to believe it . It 's my only faith @-@ based initiative . " These comments prompted a series of derisive headlines , such as " Beam Us Up , General Clark " in The New York Times , " Clark is Light @-@ Years Ahead of the Competition " in The Washington Post , " General Relativity ( Retired ) " on the U.S. News & World Report website , and " Clark Campaigns at Light Speed " in Wired magazine .
Several polls from September to November 2003 showed Clark leading the Democratic field of candidates or as a close second to Howard Dean with the Gallup poll having him in first place in the presidential race at 20 % as late as October 2003 . The John Edwards campaign brought on Hugh Shelton — the general who had said Clark was made to leave the SACEUR post early due to " integrity and character issues " — as an advisor , a move that drew criticism from the Clark campaign . Since Dean consistently polled in the lead in the Iowa caucuses , Clark opted out of participating in the caucuses entirely to focus on later primaries instead . The 2004 Iowa caucuses marked a turning point in the campaign for the Democratic nomination , however , as front @-@ runners Dean and Dick Gephardt garnered results far lower than expected , and John Kerry and John Edwards ' campaigns benefited in Clark 's absence . Clark performed reasonably well in later primaries , including a tie for third place with Edwards in the New Hampshire primary and a narrow victory in the Oklahoma primary over Edwards . However , he saw his third @-@ place finishes in Tennessee and Virginia as signs that he had lost the South , a focus of his campaign . He withdrew from the race on February 11 , 2004 , and announced his endorsement of John Kerry at a rally in Madison , Wisconsin , on February 13 . Clark believed his opting out of the Iowa caucus was one of his campaign 's biggest mistakes , saying to one supporter the day before he withdrew from the race that " everything would have been different if we had [ been in Iowa ] . "
= = = Post @-@ 2004 campaign = = =
Clark continued to speak in support of Kerry ( and the eventual Kerry / Edwards ticket ) throughout the remainder of the 2004 presidential campaign , including speaking at the 2004 Democratic National Convention on the final evening . He founded his current political action committee , WesPAC , in April 2004 . Fox News Channel announced in June 2005 that they had signed General Clark as a military and foreign affairs analyst . He joined the Burkle Center for International Relations at UCLA as a senior fellow . A managing partner of the companies that support the Center , Ronald Burkle , described Clark 's position as " illuminat [ ing ] the center 's research " and " teaching [ the ] contemporary role of the United States in the international community . "
Clark campaigned heavily throughout the 2006 midterm election campaign , supporting numerous Democrats in a variety of federal , statewide , and state legislature campaigns . Ultimately his PAC aided 42 Democratic candidates who won their elections , including 25 who won seats formerly held by Republicans and 6 newly elected veteran members of the House and Senate . Clark was the most @-@ requested surrogate of the Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee throughout the 2006 campaign , and sometimes appeared with the leadership of the Democratic Party when they commented on security issues .
Clark has opposed taking military action against Iran and in January 2007 he criticized what he called " New York money people " pushing for a war . This led to accusations of antisemitism .
Clark serves on the Advisory Boards of the Global Panel Foundation and the National Security Network . He also chairman of Rodman & Renshaw , a New York investment bank , and Growth Energy .
= = = Speculation of 2008 presidential campaign = = =
Clark was mentioned as a potential 2008 presidential candidate on the Democratic ticket before endorsing Hillary Clinton for President . Before that time , he was ranked within the top Democratic candidates according to some Internet polls . After endorsing Hillary Clinton , Clark campaigned for her in Iowa , New Hampshire , Nevada , and Ohio and in campaign commercials . After Barack Obama secured the Democratic nomination , Clark voiced his support for Obama . Clark was considered to be one of Obama 's possible vice @-@ presidential running mates . Clark , however , publicly endorsed Kansas governor Kathleen Sebelius for the position , introducing her as " the next Vice President of the United States " at a June 2008 fundraiser in Texas . Obama eventually chose Joe Biden as his running mate .
= = = McCain military service controversy = = =
On June 29 , 2008 , Clark made comments on Face the Nation that were critical of Republican John McCain , calling into question the notion that McCain 's military service alone had given him experience relevant to being president . " I certainly honor [ McCain 's ] service as a prisoner of war " , Clark said , " but he hasn 't held executive responsibility . That large squadron in the navy that he commanded — it wasn 't a wartime squadron . He hasn 't been in there and ordered the bombs to fall . " When moderator Bob Schieffer noted that Obama had no military experience to prepare him for the presidency nor had he " ridden in a fighter plane and gotten shot down " , Clark responded that , ultimately , Obama had not based his presidential bid on his military experience , as McCain has done throughout his campaign . Clark 's retort , however , is what drew rebuke . In referring to McCain 's military experience , he stated : " Well , I don 't think riding in a fighter plane and getting shot down is a qualification to be president . " Both the McCain and Obama campaigns subsequently released statements rejecting Clark 's comment . However , Clark has received the backing of several prominent liberal groups such as MoveOn.org and military veteran groups such as VoteVets.org ; Obama ultimately stated that Clark 's comments were " inartful " and were not intended to attack McCain 's military service . In the days following the controversial interview , Clark went on several news programs to reiterate his true admiration and heartfelt support for McCain 's military service as a fellow veteran who had been wounded in combat . In each program , Clark reminded the commentator and the viewing public that while he honors McCain 's service , he has serious concerns about McCain 's judgment in matters of national security policy , calling McCain " untested and untried " .
= = = Book on modern wars = = =
In Clark 's book , Winning Modern Wars , published in 2003 , he describes his conversation with a military officer in the Pentagon shortly after 9 / 11 regarding a plan to attack seven Middle Eastern countries in five years : " As I went back through the Pentagon in November 2001 , one of the senior military staff officers had time for a chat . Yes , we were still on track for going against Iraq , he said . But there was more . This was being discussed as part of a five @-@ year campaign plan , he said , and there were a total of seven countries , beginning with Iraq , then Syria , Lebanon , Libya , Somalia , Sudan and finishing off Iran . "
= = Personal life = =
General Clark currently resides in Little Rock , Arkansas . He and his wife , Gertrude ( née Kingston ) have been married since June 1967 . They have one son and two grandchildren , who live in California .
= = Awards and honors = =
Wesley Clark has been awarded numerous honors , awards , and knighthoods over the course of his military and civilian career . Notable military awards include the Defense Distinguished Service Medal with four oak leaf clusters , the Legion of Merit with three oak leaf clusters , the Silver Star , and the Bronze Star with an oak leaf cluster . Internationally Clark has received numerous civilian honors such as the Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany and military honors such as the Grand Cross of the Medal of Military Merit from Portugal and knighthoods . Clark has been awarded some honors as a civilian , such as the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2000 . The people of Gjakova , Kosovo , named a street after him for his role in helping their city and country . The city of Madison in Alabama has also named a boulevard after Clark . Municipal approval has been granted for the construction of a new street to be named " General Clark Court " in Virginia Beach , Virginia . He has also been appointed a Fellow at the Burkle Center for International Relations at UCLA . He is a member of the guiding coalition of the Project on National Security Reform . In 2013 , General Clark was awarded the Hanno R. Ellenbogen Citizenship Award by the Prague Society for International Cooperation .
= Jacksonville ( Fringe ) =
" Jacksonville " is the 15th episode of the second season of the American science fiction drama television series Fringe , and the 35th episode overall . In the episode , Olivia is forced to recount her time spent as a child in tests conducted by Walter to regain the ability to see objects that have been influenced by the parallel universe and prevent the deaths of innocents . Though successful , Olivia comes to learn the truth about Peter , that he is from the parallel universe .
The episode was a mid @-@ season finale . It was written by Ashley Edward Miller and Zack Stentz , and directed by filmmaker Charles Beeson . It premiered to mostly positive reviews on February 4 , 2010 in the United States , earning an estimated 7 @.@ 76 million viewers .
= = Plot = =
A localized earthquake in New York City damages only one building , killing nearly all inside . The Fringe team discovers that a second building appeared at the same location as the first , fusing the structure and people inside together . Walter ( John Noble ) realizes that the second building has been pulled from the parallel universe by Thomas Jerome Newton , using the technology that Walter and William Bell had discovered years ago . Walter warns that because of conservation of mass , a building of similar mass will be taken from the prime universe to the parallel one sometime in the next few days .
While Massive Dynamic offers its computing resources to identify possible buildings of similar mass , Walter implores Olivia ( Anna Torv ) to recall her childhood Cortexiphan @-@ induced ability to see objects from the alternate universe , believing she will be able to foresee which building will be affected and warn everyone in time . He takes her to the disused child @-@ care facility in Jacksonville , Florida , where the Cortexiphan trials were performed . Walter first puts Olivia under heavy sedation , and she experiences meeting her younger , frightened self , but is still unable to trigger her ability . Olivia begins to remember the gruesome trials she experienced , including footage from one test where she exhibited pyrokinesis . As Walter 's deadline nears , he realizes that Olivia is no longer frightened and thus she cannot engage her abilities , which were triggered by fear .
They return to New York City as small micro @-@ quakes occur , indicating the onset of the event . Though a few buildings have been identified as possible targets , there are far too many to evacuate without starting a mass panic . Olivia , unable to help , goes off privately , but Peter ( Joshua Jackson ) follows and comforts her . Olivia soon recognizes she is frightened again , and races to a rooftop , seeing a building " shimmer " in the distance . The building , a hotel , is quickly identified from the list of candidates , and it is evacuated in time , moments before it is pulled into the parallel universe .
Agent Broyles ( Lance Reddick ) provides a cover story of an unexpected controlled demolition to explain the disappearance of the hotel . Olivia later meets Peter at his house prior to them going out on a date , but when she arrives , she sees the same shimmer on Peter . Walter quietly asks Olivia not to tell Peter that he is from the other universe .
= = Production = =
Producers Ashley Edward Miller and Zack Stentz co @-@ wrote " Jacksonville " , one of their frequent collaborations . Filmmaker Charles Beeson served as the episode 's director . Prior to the initial broadcast of " Jacksonville " , co @-@ creator J.J. Abrams and showrunners / executive producers Jeff Pinkner and J.H. Wyman released a joint statement about its plot , " Along with the usual mystery , suspense , science and general wackiness , the episode contains one big answer , the consequences of which will affect our team for the remainder of the season and beyond . " Stentz later explained in the DVD audio commentary that in " Jacksonville by and large , the fringe event is Olivia . Olivia realizing that even in chasing all of these fringe events , she is the biggest fringe event of them all . " Also in the commentary , Pinkner added that for the episode 's final scene , " We knew it would be in the back third of the season that we would really acknowledge for Olivia that Peter came from the Other Side . The worst circumstance that could happen in is at a moment when they are getting as close together as possible " .
Commenting on Peter 's secret origins affecting their relationship , actress Anna Torv stated in an interview with Digital Spy that " Jacksonville " is " the episode that pushes us forward with a huge amount of momentum towards the end of the season . It all gets mixed up and then you find out what the drive is behind all of this . It 's the big spanner in the works ! The secret definitely has a huge impact on the lives of everyone involved . "
" Jacksonville " was the first episode of Fox 's initiative with Science Olympiad to release lesson plans for grade school students . Each lesson would relate to the week 's particular science ; in " Jacksonville " ' s case , the intention was for " Students [ to ] learn about earthquakes of different magnitudes , as well as their impact on buildings and how it can be mitigated . " Jeff Pinkner commented , " Everything we do is grounded in some version of authentic fringe science and what scientists believe is possible , " and was pleased to be a part of " anything that can help invest kids in learning . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
On its initial American broadcast on February 4 , 2010 , " Jacksonville " was watched by an estimated 7 @.@ 76 million viewers , gaining a 2 @.@ 8 ratings share for those aged 18 – 49 . " Jacksonville " was the winter finale for the series , as the next episode did not air until April 1 .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Jacksonville " premiered to generally positive reviews . James Poniewozik of Time Magazine called it " fine " and " well @-@ acted " , especially liking John Noble 's performance . Noel Murray of The A.V. Club graded the episode an A- , explaining " I liked ' Jacksonville ' for the way it plunged directly into the heart of the show 's mythology for the first time in a while , and even if it didn 't tell us much we didn 't already know , having the story become more personal for our heroes served to create that unsettled feeling at which Fringe excels " . Ken Tucker from Entertainment Weekly loved " Jacksonville " , believing it to be a " tremendously moving , startling episode " and " one of [ Fringe 's ] finest hours " . AOL TV writer Jane Boursaw particularly praised the scene of Olivia trying to comfort her younger self , and then confronting Walter over it . She also felt Olivia 's loss of memory to be " interesting , " and became " practically gleeful " at her and Peter 's near kiss .
Giving the episode an 8 @.@ 0 / 10 rating , IGN 's Ramsey Isler thought the episode wasn 't " as hard @-@ hitting as most of the previous ' mythology ' episodes , but it still leaves a good impression " . Isler enjoyed the " tense and intriguing " opening and ending of the episode , but kept waiting for more to happen in the middle . SFScope contributor Sarah Stegall called the opening " one of the best in the entire series " and " certainly the best television I 've seen this year . " In addition , Stegall praised Olivia 's dream sequence and subsequent accusation of Walter , the inclusion of Massive Dynamic as allies , Broyles ' role as " support " rather than " the usual role of Plot Obstacle , " and the science behind the episode ( " The very fact that we can have two different yet legitimate quantum physics explanations on a television drama is , in itself , cause for applause . " ) . She concluded her review by noting Anna Torv has made " the most progress " in her performance , evolving from " downright wooden in the first year " to " carrying the role with grace and strength . " Website blogger io9 listed " Jacksonville " as one of the " crucial " episodes new viewers must watch to get into the show .
= TouchTone =
TouchTone is a 2015 puzzle video game for iOS devices by Mikengreg , a two @-@ person indie game development team made up of Mike Boxleiter and Greg Wohlwend . The player monitors phone calls as part of a government surveillance program to find public threats . The player unlocks chains of emails by completing a series of puzzles wherein a beam is reflected around a room to a set destination . TouchTone 's core concept grew from a two @-@ day game jam immediately following their 2012 release of Gasketball , but only found its hacker theme following the mid @-@ 2013 Edward Snowden global surveillance disclosures . The tone of TouchTone 's story grew from satirical to serious over the course of the game 's development .
The game was released on March 19 , 2015 . Review aggregator Metacritic characterized TouchTone 's reviews as generally favorable . Critics praised the game 's visual style and story , but criticized the way the game did not allow players to skip puzzles . Reviewers found the light @-@ bending puzzle premise unoriginal , but appreciated its thematic connection .
= = Gameplay = =
As part of a government surveillance program , the player monitors phone calls to find public threats . Apart from infrequent interaction with their handler , the player is left to solve puzzles in pursuit of one such lead . The puzzles are based on the " reflection puzzle " popularized by role @-@ playing video games wherein the player moves mirrors to reflect a beam of light about a room . In TouchTone , the player swipes the screen to move pieces that redirect incoming beams , symbolic of phone signals , into specific locations . The waveform beams are displayed in different solid colors and must be matched with the destination " node " of the same color by passing through moveable pieces that reflect and split the beam . The pieces do not move individually but as rows and columns in cardinal directions .
The levels are displayed in an overworld with a branching , tree structure . The player must pursue multiple branches to further the story . Optional , side @-@ story branches do not advance the main plot but have the hardest puzzles . The story is told through chains of emails , which are unlocked by completing puzzles . The player assumes the role of an American Muslim National Security Agency agent who determines whether the hacked emails are pertinent to national security . The ethics of government surveillance are a core theme of the game .
= = Development = =
Mikengreg , an indie game developer duo of Mike Boxleiter and Greg Wohlwend , released the 2010 Solipskier and 2012 Gasketball together before TouchTone in 2015 . After Gasketball 's release , Boxleiter and Wohlwend planned a celebratory road trip to a game jam in Victoria , British Columbia . Gasketball turned out to be a " financial flop " , and so Boxleiter wanted to use the jam to create " something new , ... something really small and perfect " . By the end of the two @-@ day jam , the core mirror reflection mechanics of TouchTone were in place , though it would take two years of sporadic work to finalize the remainder of the game . During this time , the two also worked separately , and Wohlwend released the well @-@ received Threes with Asher Vollmer in 2014 . Wohlwend tried to fit audio signal elements into TouchTone 's nascent theme of light , lasers , and prisms . They felt this direction was unsuccessful , like a " boring Flash game " , and that the game too closely mimicked " a hacking minigame from a bigger AAA game like BioShock or System Shock " .
TouchTone found its theme following the Edward Snowden global surveillance disclosures in mid 2013 , as Mikengreg felt they could provide satirical commentary through the " hacking " element of the game . The story shed its jocular tone as it and its political content grew deeper and more serious . Boxleiter wrote most of the script , which totaled over 20 @,@ 000 words in length . It was his first effort at professional writing , and it took him five months . He and Wohlwend would conference after each chapter for coherency . Boxleiter wanted the story to explore the " questions ... floating around the national consciousness " rather than be " heavy @-@ handed " and prescriptive . Despite this work , Boxleiter felt that the story and the gameplay " don 't necessarily interact with each other " , with the story serving to drive those less interested in puzzles through the rest of the game . They playtested the game in public at the theater in Logan Square , Chicago , though they acknowledged difficulty in playtesting the story 's private experience . Mikengreg decided against including an option to skip puzzles , which they felt would spoil the game and the player 's capacity to adapt to increasing difficulty . They attribute this game design philosophy to Derek Yu of Spelunky .
TouchTone was released as an iOS universal app for both iPhone and iPad on March 19 , 2015 . It received a front page feature on the iOS App Store upon its release .
= = Reception = =
TouchTone received " generally favorable " reviews , according to video game review score aggregator Metacritic . It received Pocket Gamer 's silver award .
Reviewers praised the game 's aesthetics and criticized its unoriginal puzzle concept . TouchArcade 's Shaun Musgrave wrote that the game 's " striking " visuals and " politically charged " message were not completely reconciled but were " individually strong " . He described its art style as similar to Wohlwend 's previous work and its political statement as indicative of Mikengreg 's strong opinions . Musgrave praised the game 's writing but thought the actual puzzles were weaker . 148Apps 's Jordan Minor found the " clinical , minimally @-@ colored cyberspace " and 1970s thriller film aesthetic " chillingly appropriate " for the theme 's tension . He also chided the puzzles for not being " a reward unto themselves " and the gameplay 's " monotony " for being similar to that of Papers , Please without serving the same dehumanizing point . Minor called TouchTone " essentially a series of the hacking minigames ... [ from ] BioShock , Deus Ex , or Watch Dogs . " Pocket Gamer 's Craig Grannell appreciate how the game " often forces a kind of upside @-@ down thinking " and compared its message to that of Blackbar . Gamezebo 's Jim Squires said that TouchTone is " perfectly designed for a certain set of mobile gamers " and compared its gameplay to the 1987 Deflektor . Despite the game 's similarity to " countless light @-@ bending puzzle games " , he found Mikengreg 's implementation " fiendishly clever " in the way the player moves rows of tiles rather than one at a time .
Reviewers did not like the inability to skip puzzles . Musgrave wrote that moments of being " stuck on a mandatory stage " detracted from the player 's investment and sense of immersion in the story . Grannell of Pocket Gamer wrote that TouchTone 's linearity was its " only downside " , though he also wished for options to " undo " mid @-@ game choices and to save puzzle progress upon leaving the game . Multiple reviewers appreciated the game 's story . Wired 's Kyle Vanhemert felt that the act of determining whether messages were pertinent to national security was a " powerful experience " . Squires of Gamezebo considered the story one of the game 's strong points , and unusually so for a puzzle game . He wrote that there was sufficient " intrigue " to want to finish the story , and that the reward of more story encouraged him to get through the harder puzzles .
= Ravenloft ( module ) =
Ravenloft is an adventure module for the Dungeons & Dragons ( D & D ) fantasy role @-@ playing game . The American game publishing company TSR , Inc. released it as a standalone adventure booklet in 1983 for use with the first edition Advanced Dungeons & Dragons game . It was written by Tracy and Laura Hickman , and includes art by Clyde Caldwell with maps by David Sutherland III . The plot of Ravenloft focuses on the villain Strahd von Zarovich , a vampire who pines for his lost love . Various story elements , including Strahd 's motivation and the locations of magical weapons , are randomly determined by drawing cards . The player characters attempt to defeat Strahd and , if successful , the adventure ends .
The Hickmans began work on Ravenloft in the late 1970s , intent on creating a frightening portrait of a vampire in a setting that combined Gothic horror with the D & D game system . They play @-@ tested the adventure with a group of players each Halloween for five years before it was published . Strahd has since appeared in a number of D & D accessories and novels . The module has inspired numerous revisions and adaptations , including a campaign setting of the same name and a sequel . In 1999 , on the 25th anniversary of Dungeons & Dragons , two commemorative versions of Ravenloft were released .
Ravenloft has won one award , been included on two " best of " lists , and was generally well received by critics of its era . In 1984 , it won the Strategists ' Club Award for Outstanding Play Aid , and it appeared second in Dungeon magazine 's list of the top 30 D & D adventures . Several reviewers liked the included maps , and White Dwarf magazine gave it 8 out of 10 overall . A Dragon magazine review praised the module , but felt that the D & D elements detracted from the Gothic horror atmosphere .
= = Plot = =
The story involves a party of player characters ( PCs ) who travel to the land of Barovia , a small nation surrounded by a deadly magical fog . The master of nearby Castle Ravenloft , Count Strahd von Zarovich , tyrannically rules the country , and a prologue explains that the residents must barricade their doors each night to avoid attacks by Strahd and his minions . The Burgomaster 's mansion is the focus of these attacks , and , for reasons that are not initially explained , Strahd is after the Burgomaster 's adopted daughter , Ireena Kolyana .
Before play begins , the Dungeon Master ( or DM , the player who organizes and directs the game play ) randomly draws five cards from a deck of six . Two of these cards determine the locations of two magical weapons useful in defeating Strahd : the Holy Symbol and the Sunsword . The next two cards determine the locations of Strahd and the Tome of Strahd , a book that details Strahd 's long @-@ ago unrequited love . In this work , it is revealed that Strahd had fallen in love with a young girl , who in turn loved his younger brother . Strahd blamed his age for the rejection , and made a pact with evil powers to live forever . He then slew his brother , but the young girl killed herself in response , and Strahd found that he had become a vampire . All six possible locations are inside Castle Ravenloft .
The fifth and final card selected determines Strahd 's motivation . There are four possible motivations for Strahd . He may want to replace one of the PCs and attempt to turn the character into a vampire and take on that character 's form . He may desire the love of Ireena , whose appearance matches that of his lost love , Tatyana . Using mind control , Strahd will try to force a PC to attack Ireena and gain her love by " saving " her from the situation he created . Strahd may also want to create an evil magic item , or destroy the Sunsword . If , during play , the party 's fortune is told at the gypsy camp in Barovia , the random elements are altered to match the cards drawn by the gypsy .
As the party journeys through Barovia and the castle , the game play is guided using 12 maps with corresponding sections in the book 's body guide . Example maps and sections include the Lands of Barovia , the Court of the Count , five entries for each level of the Spires of Ravenloft , and the Dungeons and Catacombs . Each location contains treasure and adversaries , including zombies , wolves , ghouls , ghosts , and other creatures . The main objective of the game is to destroy Count Strahd . The DM is instructed to play the vampire intelligently , and to keep him alive as long as possible , making him flee when necessary . In an optional epilogue , Ireena is reunited with her lover . They leave the " mortal world " as Ireena says , " Through these many centuries we have played out the tragedy of our lives . "
= = Publication background = =
Tracy Hickman and Laura Curtis married in 1977 . Soon after , while living in Provo , Utah , they wrote the adventures Pharaoh and Ravenloft . When they began work on Ravenloft , they felt the vampire archetype had become overused , trite , and mundane , and decided to create a frightening version of the creature for the module . They play @-@ tested it with a group of players every Halloween for five years before it was published in 1983 by TSR . The plot combined elements of the horror genre with Dungeons & Dragons conventions for the first time . At the time of Ravenloft 's release , each Dungeons & Dragons module was marked with an alphanumeric code indicating the series to which it belonged . Ravenloft was labeled I6 : the sixth in a series of intermediate @-@ level modules for the first edition of Advanced Dungeons & Dragons ( AD & D ) . It consisted of a 32 @-@ page book , with separate maps that detailed locations in the adventure scenario .
Tracy Hickman once ran the adventure as a Dungeon Master . According to him , the experience was like an old scary movie , with " the obligatory castle high on the craggy cliff with the wolves howling in the woods . Sure enough , the vampire was up there in the castle . To most of the players it seemed like a straight forward task : find the vampire and kill him . " One player discovered Strahd 's backstory and was so affected by it that when it came time to kill the vampire at the end of the adventure , despite having a sword capable of dispatching Strahd , he refused , and his companions were forced to complete the task . Afterwards , Hickman asked him why . " He deserved to die better than that , " his friend said , to which Hickman replied " Yes [ ... ] But that is how it is with people who fall from greatness . He chose his end when he first chose to kill his brother . How could it be any different ? "
According to a Wizards of the Coast article , Strahd has become one of the most infamous and well @-@ known villains in the Dungeons & Dragons game , and he has appeared in a number of novels and rulebooks since his debut in Ravenloft . In an introduction to an online edition of Ravenloft II , author John D. Rateliff described Strahd as a then @-@ unusual fusion of a monster with the abilities of a player character class ; that is , a vampire magic @-@ user . This design enables him to combine his own powers with the surrounding environment , making him a difficult opponent to defeat .
To celebrate the 25th anniversary of the Dungeons & Dragons game in 1999 , two additional versions of the Ravenloft module were released . The first was a reprinting of the original adventure made available in the Dungeons & Dragons Silver Anniversary Collector 's Edition boxed set , with slight modifications to make it distinguishable from the original ( for collecting purposes ) . The second was the silver anniversary edition of Ravenloft that was adapted for use with the second edition Advanced Dungeons & Dragons ( Wizards of the Coast periodically alters the rules of Dungeons & Dragons and releases a new version ) .
= = = Ravenloft II : The House on Gryphon Hill = = =
Ravenloft 's success led to a sequel in 1986 titled Ravenloft II : The House on Gryphon Hill . Although Tracy Hickman was credited in Ravenloft II , he had left TSR before the module was completed . The writing was done by David " Zeb " Cook , Jeff Grubb , Harold Johnson , and Douglas Niles , following the Hickmans ' outline . Each writer pursued a different section of the module in order to meet the deadline . Clyde Caldwell , who had done all of the art for the original Ravenloft module , provided the cover , but interior art was done by Jeff Easley . The adventure is designed for first edition Advanced Dungeons & Dragons characters of levels 8 – 10 . The adventure was 48 pages , and included a large color map and an outer folder . It shared structural elements with the original , including variable NPC goals and variable locations for key objects , so that Gryphon Hill plays differently each time . The module 's plot features an artifact known as The Apparatus that switches a monster 's personality with that of an ordinary townsperson ; player characters , therefore , are uncertain about the true identity of the people they meet . The module also introduces Azalin the lich , who later became a major character in the Ravenloft campaign setting . This module is playable alone , or as a sequel to the original Ravenloft . It includes descriptions of the town of Mordentshire , as well as some haunted moors , and a manor house , all mapped in perspective like the original module .
= = = Adaptations = = =
In 1986 , Ravenloft was adapted into the gamebook Master of Ravenloft , # 6 in the Advanced Dungeons & Dragons Adventure Gamebooks series . In the book , the reader plays the role of Jeren Sureblade , a paladin , who must defeat Count Strahd von Zarovich to save a young girl from becoming one of the undead . The gamebook was written by Jean Blashfield , with cover art by Clyde Caldwell and interior art by Gary Williams .
Ravenloft inspired a campaign setting of the same name , published in 1990 . According to Andria Hayday , the boxed set 's developer , " TSR 's classic AD & D adventure , I6 Ravenloft , inspired this world 's creation . " The Ravenloft : Realm of Terror boxed set was published as part of the second edition of Advanced Dungeons & Dragons and , according to its back cover , it is " rooted in the Gothic tradition " and contains " tips for adding fear to your games " . The setting of the module was expanded ; Ravenloft is now a demiplane ( an alternate dimension ) . The boxed set 's version of Strahd is similar to character in the original adventure , but his abilities were increased and his background explained in more detail . The campaign setting has produced a number of spin @-@ offs , and this new version of Strahd was used as a major character in a number of novels .
The original Ravenloft module has been revised and expanded twice . In 1993 , TSR published House of Strahd ( module code RM4 ) . It was updated to include rules from the second edition of Advanced Dungeons & Dragons . The module credits the original work by the Hickmans , but was revised by Bruce Nesmith , who along with Andria Hayday created the Ravenloft campaign setting . Nesmith introduced some new creatures , developed Strahd 's tactics further , and added a Time @-@ Track Table so that the referee can anticipate the sunset . In October 2006 , Wizards of the Coast released an updated and expanded version of the original module for Dungeons & Dragons version 3 @.@ 5 as a 226 @-@ page hardcover book entitled Expedition to Castle Ravenloft . It was based on the original module , and not the Ravenloft material made in the intervening years . Expedition to Castle Ravenloft is designed to be played as a mini @-@ campaign lasting about 20 game sessions , much longer than the original module , although it contains options for running long 8 @-@ session or short 4 @-@ session adventures . The book also includes suggestions for incorporating the adventure into an existing generic setting , Forgotten Realms , Eberron or d20 Modern campaign . The original module was adapted to the HackMaster game system as Robinloft in 2002 , and its sequel as Robinloft 2 : Tahd 's Legacy in 2004 . Wizards of the Coast released the board game Castle Ravenloft in 2010 .
= = Reception = =
Ravenloft won one award , and was included on two " best of " lists . In 1984 , it won the Strategists ' Club Award for Outstanding Play Aid . The book Dungeon Master For Dummies chose the module as one of the ten best classic adventures , saying it is " perhaps our favorite D & D adventure of all time " , Ravenloft " takes the Dracula legend and gives it a D & D spin " , and praised the detailed yet concise plot and isometric maps . The book also claims that Ravenloft " inspired game designers and Dungeon Masters to take the art of adventure to the next level . "
In 2004 , on the 30th anniversary of the Dungeons & Dragons game , Dungeon magazine ranked the module as the second greatest Dungeons & Dragons adventure of all time — behind Queen of the Spiders . The editor of Dungeon praised the placement of treasure , and Strahd 's motivation was described as " a brilliant way to let fate drive the plot and evoke the mystery and mystique of Barovia " . Bill Slavicsek , director of Wizards of the Coast 's RPGs and Miniatures department , noted that it was the first adventure to " mix tone , story , and dungeon crawl " in a module , and game designer Andy Collins agreed . Clark Peterson , president of Necromancer Games , singled out the maps and Strahd for praise , saying the vampire is " perhaps one of the best villains of all time " . Author John Rateliff also applauded the maps and the randomization , as well as Strahd 's duality as a vampire / magic @-@ user . The catacombs , where player characters were teleported away and replaced with undead wights , was singled out at as the adventure 's " defining moment " by the magazine 's editors .
Reviews for Ravenloft were generally positive . In the July 1984 issue of White Dwarf magazine , the module was given 8 out of 10 overall , with the reviewer mentioning its presentation as a positive , and its complexity as a negative . It was likened to a Hammer horror production and praised as enjoyable , although the reviewer said the game 's puns were tedious and detracted from the spooky atmosphere . Reviewer Dave Morris said it " should be a lot of fun – ' light , relief ' of a nerve @-@ wracking and deadly sort . " Morris concluded that Ravenloft is " full of clever touches " , and " features some first @-@ class illustration and graphics " . In a review for the January 1984 issue of Dragon magazine ( published by a subsidiary of TSR ) , game designer Ken Rolston argued that , despite its design innovations , Ravenloft was still in essence a dungeon @-@ style adventure . Rolston praised the randomization , the maps , and the player text ( which is read aloud to the players by the DM ) . He said the player text " consistently develops an atmosphere of darkness and decay . " Despite this , Rolston felt that the adventure has trouble in developing a frightening tone . He singles out its use of common monsters in D & D , an abundance of traps , and frequent combat interludes as elements that detract from the adventure 's spookiness by interrupting the module 's flow . Ultimately , he felt that in " AD & D terms it is a masterpiece " , but not a work of " Gothic horror " . Tracy Hickman stated in 1998 , " I still believe the original Ravenloft modules were perhaps the best that ever had my name on them . "
= George Cressey =
George Babcock Cressey ( December 15 , 1896 - October 21 , 1963 ) was an American geographer , author , and academic . Born in Tiffin , Ohio , he attended Denison University and then the University of Chicago , where he received a PhD in geology . After receiving his degree , he taught at Shanghai college and traveled widely in China . Upon his return to the United States in 1929 , he completed a pioneering book on the country , China 's Geographic Foundations .
In 1931 , Cressey received a second PhD from Clark University in geography . He then joined the faculty of Syracuse University , where he remained for the rest of his professional career . At Syracuse , Cressey wrote on a variety of subjects , but focused on " population problems as related to the worldwide distribution of land and arable resources , " and primarily studied Asia , though he traveled to 75 countries on six continents ( all but Australia ) , over the course of his career . Cressey also served as chair of the department and helped to develop the geography graduate program at Syracuse into one of the best in the country .
In addition to his academic work , Cressey consulted for the US Department of State , the Board of Economic Warfare , and the Military Intelligence Corps during World War II . After the war , he was also an outspoken advocate of better relations with Communist China and traveled widely in East Asia and the Middle East with a variety of fellowships . Cressey was also highly involved in a number of professional organizations , serving as President of the International Geographical Union , the Association for Asian Studies , and the Association of American Geographers .
= = Early life = =
Cressey was born in Tiffin , Ohio , on December 15 , 1896 . His father , Frank G. Cressey , was a Baptist minister and his mother , Frances Babcock , the first woman to graduate from the University of Chicago , taught Latin at Denison University . After high school , Cressey attended Denison University , graduating in 1919 with a B.S. He then entered the University of Chicago , where he studied under the noted geologist Rollin D. Salisbury , receiving a Master 's degree in 1921 and a PhD in 1923 , both in geology . His dissertation was entitled " A Study of Indiana Sand Dunes . "
After receiving his degree , Cressey went to China with the American Baptist Missionary Union and took a position at Shanghai College in Shanghai , China , teaching both geology and geography . While in China , he met Marion Chatfield , an American missionary , whom he married in 1925 . The two went on to have one son and three daughters . Cressey also used his time in China to travel in East Asia , visiting Mongolia and the Ordos Desert with particular frequency . His trips were often dangerous and took him far from other Westerners ; during one of his trips , in Hebei , he was beaten and robbed by a group of bandits . His travels in China covered more than 30 @,@ 000 miles , and formed the basis of a book he began writing , China 's Geographic Foundations : A Survey of the Land and its Peoples . Cressey finished the book shortly before leaving China and gave the manuscript to the Commercial Press in Shanghai to prepare for publication . In 1932 , however , the press was bombed by the Japanese and the manuscript was lost in the ensuing fire .
= = Second PhD and academic career = =
In 1929 , Cressey left China , returning to the United States for a year of study at Harvard University . In 1931 , he earned a second PhD , in geography , from Clark University , writing his dissertation on the Ordos Desert . The same year , Cressey joined the faculty of Syracuse University as a professor of geography and geology , and soon became chairman of the department . After the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in September 1931 , Cressey 's travels in Asia made him a sought @-@ after expert and lecturer on China , and he traveled frequently , giving lectures to academic audiences and the general public . Cressey also began to reconstruct his book , China 's Geographic Foundations , from his original notes , finishing it in 1934 .
In China 's Geographic Foundations , Cressey focused on describing the 15 geographic regions of China , but he also devoted chapters to " history , topography , climate , agriculture , and foreign trade . " Writing in Political Science Quarterly , Grover Clark called the book " a clear , comprehensive and yet comprehensible description of the land and the people 's relation to it . " The book went on to become " the standard work in its field . " Although welcomed by the Kuomintang , the book was " strongly criticized " by the Communist Party of China because of Cressey 's judgment that China lacked the resources to quickly become a great industrial power .
While teaching at Syracuse , Cressey continued his travels , and in 1937 , he visited Moscow , where he was invited to consult on the production of the Great Soviet World Atlas . After his trip to Moscow , Cressey traveled widely in the Soviet Union , and after returning to the United States he spoke of the great economic potential of the country , despite anti @-@ Soviet sentiment . As a result , he earned " the trust and gratitude of his Soviet colleagues , " allowing him access to their knowledge and resources . Cressey also spent the 1930s developing the academic offerings at Syracuse , building " one of the best Master of Arts programs in geography available in the United States . "
= = World War II = =
After the US entry into World War II , Cressey became a consultant to several government bodies , including the US Department of State , the Board of Economic Warfare , and the Military Intelligence Corps . Cressey also taught and lectured on Asia , for the Army 's training program at Syracuse University , and lectured publicly on East Asia throughout the country . In 1943 and 1944 , he served as a special representative in China through the State Department 's cultural exchange program . In that capacity , Cressey worked with the National Academy of Sciences to help establish Chinese universities , and promote better relations with China .
During the war , Cressey also wrote his second book : Asia 's Lands and Peoples : A Geography of One @-@ Third the Earth and Two @-@ Thirds its People , published in 1944 . The book was aimed at the ordinary American as a general overview of Asia in light of rising American interest in the region due to the war . In the book , Cressey also entered into the debate on how to divide Asia from Europe by arguing that Europe was really only one of the six regions of Eurasia , the other five being the Soviet Union , East Asia , Southeast Asia , India , and Southwest Asia . Cressey also made the controversial argument in the book that " the key to enduring peace in eastern Asia is a strong China . " The book was well received , and Dudley Stamp wrote that it had " the sure touch of the man who has been to see for himself . "
= = Post @-@ war career = =
After the war , Cressey became chair of the newly independent Department of Geography at Syracuse , and worked to make Syracuse a top institution for the study of Asia . He brought Asian scholars and graduate students to Syracuse , and used his department 's funds to send maps and books to the geography departments within Asian universities . During the years following the war , he was also active within the Association of American Geographers , International Geographical Union and the Association for Asian Studies .
During the 1950s period of McCarthyism , Cressey 's interest in China and his " outspoken comments on the shortcomings of American foreign policy " led to his inclusion on various " lists of scholars suspected of sympathy with the Communists , " but the accusations were baseless and Syracuse University continued to fully support him . Ironically , at the same time that Cressey was accused of communist sympathies , the Chinese government included him on its list of its capitalist enemies .
In 1951 , Cressey retired as chairman of the geography department at Syracuse and became Maxwell Distinguished Professor of Geography , a newly created position . Over the next ten years , he traveled frequently and published prolifically . He also received several honors . From 1949 to 1952 , he served as President of the International Geographical Union and in 1952 he was elected as a Vice President , a position he held until 1956 . That same year , he received the George Davidson Medal of the American Geographical Society and in 1958 he received a distinguished service award from the National Council for Geographic Education . In 1961 @-@ 1962 , he was a Phi Beta Kappa National Visiting Scholar and in 1962 @-@ 1963 he was served as a Department of State Visiting Professor in Asia . Cressey also served as Honorary President of the Association of American Geographers in 1957 and President of the Association for Asian Studies in 1959 and 1960 .
In 1955 and 1956 , Cressey held a Fulbright Fellowship in Iraq and in 1957 and 1958 he served as a Smith @-@ Mundt Professor in Lebanon . From his research and travel during these fellowships , Cressey wrote the book Crossroads : Land and Life in Southwest Asia , which was published in 1960 . In the first section of the book , Cressey dealt with the general geographical features of the Middle East . The next eight chapters dealt with the specific countries of the region from Egypt to Afghanistan , creating a picture of the whole region . Cressey focused in detail on the role of natural resources for the countries of the region , concentrating particular attention on the role of water and water shortages . W.B. Fisher , writing in Geographical Review , called the book " an authoritative and compelling study , " and Leonard Kasdan wrote in the American Anthropologist that the book was the " most useful single compendium of the aspects covered that exists in the literature to date . "
Although he broadened his regional interests in the 1950s , Cressey remained interested in China and his " enduring concern was to restore contact between China and the United States , " after the break in their relations following the Communist victory . He also promoted the study of China , hoping to educate a new generation of geographers with knowledge of China and East Asia .
Cressey died of cancer on October 21 , 1963 at his home in Syracuse , New York .
= Parsley Peel =
Robert Peel ( 1723 – 12 September 1795 ) , commonly known as Parsley Peel , was an influential cotton mill owner and grandfather to Sir Robert Peel , 2nd Baronet , future prime minister of Great Britain . Peel started life as a yeoman farmer but experimented with calico printing , eventually creating a parsley leaf pattern which would become his trademark . Despite losing a number of machines during riots , Peel 's company became the largest in the textile sector by the time of his death , with 23 factories .
= = Early life = =
Robert Peele was born in 1723 at Peele Fold in Oswaldtwistle to William Peele and Jane Anne Peele . His family were traditionally yeoman farmers , until his grandfather Robert Peele abandoned the trade in favour of making woollen cloth . Parsley 's father , William , attempted to return the family to farming and after his education at Blackburn Grammar School , he initially joined his father in this pursuit . He inherited the woodblocks his grandfather used for printing on wool and started experimenting with them . When his wife 's brother , William Haworth , returned from an apprenticeship to a calico @-@ printer in London , the pair attempted to set up a business in calico printing . They received financial backing from William Yates , the landlord of the local public house and formed Haworth , Peel and Yates in 1750 , consisting of a factory in Blackburn and a warehouse in Manchester . By this point , Peel had dropped the final ' e ' from his surname , his reason being that " it was of no use , as it did not add to the sound " .
= = Calico printing = =
Peel had gained a reputation for trying new methods within the industry , being one of the first textile manufacturers to use carding cylinders . He began experimenting at his home with different forms of printing until , according to family tradition , his young daughter Anne brought him a sprig of parsley and begged him to use it as a pattern . He etched this design onto a pewter plate to allow the printing , which was then finished with an iron by one of the women of the household . There are other versions of the tale , which dispute whether the experiments happened at the farm at Peel Fold or his house in Fish Lane and suggest a poor neighbour , Mrs. Milton , calendered the cloth to finish it .
The exact nature of the discovery made by Peel is unclear . It is likely that it was a new method for using the acetate of lead as a dye @-@ fixer ( mordant ) . Another possibility is the use of metal engraving rather than wooden blocks to create the pattern . However it came to be , the pattern was named " Nancy 's pattern " after Peel 's daughter and was very popular – leading to Robert Peel 's nickname of " Parsley Peel " . The company went on to be one of the first calico printers in Lancashire .
= = Cotton manufacture = =
Peel worked with one of his weavers , James Hargreaves , to investigate new technologies . In 1762 , Peel and Hargreaves set up a carding machine , but decided against using it . When Hargreaves went on to invent the spinning jenny in 1764 , Peel was keen to use the technology . He set them up in his factory at Stanhill where Hargreaves worked . In the spring of 1768 , the spinning jennies at Peel 's factory were blamed for job losses . The factories and Hargreaves ' nearby house were the targets of a riot , destroying the spinning jennies within – along with some of Peel 's own inventions . In reaction , Peel moved his manufacturing away from Lancashire . He decided on Burton @-@ upon @-@ Trent where he built three mills , including cutting a canal for one .
In 1779 , Peel 's mill in Altham was caught in series of riots against machinery , specifically the carding machines and spinning jenny . Peel came to see the destruction as fortuitous , as he then turned to Richard Arkwright 's carding " engine " . By 1795 , Peel 's family run company , Peel & Co . , was the largest in the cotton industry with twenty @-@ three mills around the north west of England , fourteen more than their closest competitor .
= = Personal life = =
Peel was described as " a tall robust man " with reddish hair , cautious but shrewd , who led the family to fortune through perseverance and resolve . He married Elizabeth Haworth on 28 August 1744 and they had eight children , including Sir Robert Peel , 1st Baronet . Sir Robert Peel went on to father Sir Robert Peel , 2nd Baronet , the future Prime Minister of the United Kingdom , who helped to create the modern concept of a police force . Young Robert would visit Parsley Peel and his wife at their home in Ardwick . Douglas Hurd noted that Parsley Peel was satisfied with his lot and did not expect to rise up the social ladder personally , though he hoped his children would .
John Wesley said of him , " I was invited to breakfast at Bury by Mr Peel , a calico printer who a few years ago began with £ 500 and is now supposed to have gained £ 20 @,@ 000 . Oh , what a miracle if he lose not his own soul . " In 1794 , Parsley Peel obtained the grant of a coat of arms , including a shuttle held by a lion , a bee signifying business and a new family motto Industria .
Towards the end of his life , Peel started to lean heavily on a cane with a golden head . He lived out his final days in Ardwick Green , near his daughter . Peel died on 12 September 1795 , and was buried in St John 's Church , Manchester . His wife survived him by six months ; one of her final wishes was to outlive her husband . He left his estate split equally between his eight children , valued at £ 13 @,@ 000 each ( worth about £ 1 @.@ 1 million in 2013 ) .
= Svalbard =
Svalbard ( Norwegian pronunciation : [ ˈsʋɑ ( ː ) lbɑːɾ ] ; formerly known by its Dutch name Spitsbergen ) is a Norwegian archipelago in the Arctic Ocean . Situated north of mainland Europe , it is about midway between continental Norway and the North Pole . The islands of the group range from 74 ° to 81 ° north latitude , and from 10 ° to 35 ° east longitude . The largest island is Spitsbergen , followed by Nordaustlandet and Edgeøya .
Administratively , the archipelago is not part of any Norwegian county , but forms an unincorporated area administered by a governor appointed by the Norwegian government . Since 2002 , Svalbard 's main settlement , Longyearbyen , has had an elected local government , somewhat similar to mainland municipalities . Other settlements include the Russian mining community of Barentsburg , the research station of Ny @-@ Ålesund , and the mining outpost of Sveagruva . Svalbard is the northernmost settlement in the world with a permanent civilian population . Other settlements are farther north , but are populated only by rotating groups of researchers ; e.g. Alert , Nunavut — the northernmost year @-@ round community .
The islands were first taken into use as a whaling base in the 17th and 18th centuries , after which they were abandoned . Coal mining started at the beginning of the 20th century , and several permanent communities were established . The Svalbard Treaty of 1920 recognizes Norwegian sovereignty , and the 1925 Svalbard Act made Svalbard a full part of the Kingdom of Norway . They also established Svalbard as a free economic zone and a demilitarized zone . The Norwegian Store Norske and the Russian Arktikugol remain the only mining companies in place . Research and tourism have become important supplementary industries , with the University Centre in Svalbard ( UNIS ) and the Svalbard Global Seed Vault playing critical roles . No roads connect the settlements ; instead snowmobiles , aircraft and boats serve inter @-@ community transport . Svalbard Airport , Longyear serves as the main gateway .
The archipelago features an Arctic climate , although with significantly higher temperatures than other areas at the same latitude . The flora take advantage of the long period of midnight sun to compensate for the polar night . Svalbard is a breeding ground for many seabirds , and also features polar bears , reindeer , the Arctic fox , and certain marine mammals . Seven national parks and twenty @-@ three nature reserves cover two @-@ thirds of the archipelago , protecting the largely untouched , yet fragile , natural environment . Approximately 60 % of the archipelago is covered with glaciers , and the islands feature many mountains and fjords .
Svalbard and Jan Mayen are collectively assigned the ISO 3166 @-@ 1 alpha @-@ 2 country code " SJ " . Both areas are administered by Norway , though they are separated by a distance of over 500 nautical miles ( approximately 600 miles or 950 kilometres ) and have very different administrative structures .
= = Geography = =
The Svalbard Treaty of 1920 defines Svalbard as all islands , islets and skerries from 74 ° to 81 ° north latitude , and from 10 ° to 35 ° east longitude . The land area is 61 @,@ 022 km2 ( 23 @,@ 561 sq mi ) , and dominated by the island of Spitsbergen , which constitutes more than half the archipelago , followed by Nordaustlandet and Edgeøya . All settlements are located on Spitsbergen , except the meteorological outposts on Bjørnøya and Hopen . The Norwegian state took possession of all unclaimed land , or 95 @.@ 2 % of the archipelago , at the time the Svalbard Treaty entered into force ; Store Norske owns 4 % , Arktikugol owns 0 @.@ 4 % , while other private owners hold 0 @.@ 4 % .
Since Svalbard is located north of the Arctic Circle it experiences midnight sun in summer and polar night in winter . At 74 ° north , the midnight sun lasts 99 days and polar night 84 days , while the respective figures at 81 ° are 141 and 128 days . In Longyearbyen , midnight sun lasts from 20 April until 23 August , and polar night lasts from 26 October to 15 February . In winter , the combination of full moon and reflective snow can give additional light .
Glacial ice covers 36 @,@ 502 km2 ( 14 @,@ 094 sq mi ) or 60 % of Svalbard ; 30 % is barren rock while 10 % is vegetated . The largest glacier is Austfonna ( 8 @,@ 412 km2 or 3 @,@ 248 sq mi ) on Nordaustlandet , followed by Olav V Land and Vestfonna . During summer , it is possible to ski from Sørkapp in the south to the north of Spitsbergen , with only a short distance not being covered by snow or glacier . Kvitøya is 99 @.@ 3 % covered by glacier .
The landforms of Svalbard were created through repeated ice ages , when glaciers cut the former plateau into fjords , valleys and mountains . The tallest peak is Newtontoppen ( 1 @,@ 717 m or 5 @,@ 633 ft ) , followed by Perriertoppen ( 1 @,@ 712 m or 5 @,@ 617 ft ) , Ceresfjellet ( 1 @,@ 675 m or 5 @,@ 495 ft ) , Chadwickryggen ( 1 @,@ 640 m or 5 @,@ 380 ft ) and Galileotoppen ( 1 @,@ 637 m or 5 @,@ 371 ft ) . The longest fjord is Wijdefjorden ( 108 km or 67 mi ) , followed by Isfjorden ( 107 km or 66 mi ) , Van Mijenfjorden ( 83 km or 52 mi ) , Woodfjorden ( 64 km or 40 mi ) and Wahlenbergfjorden ( 46 km or 29 mi ) . Svalbard is part of the High Arctic Large Igneous Province , and experienced Norway 's strongest earthquake on 6 March 2009 , which hit 6 @.@ 5 on the Richter scale .
= = History = =
Scandinavians may have discovered Svalbard as early as the 12th century . There are traditional Norse accounts of a land known as Svalbarð — literally " cold shores " — although this may have referred to Jan Mayen , or a part of eastern Greenland . It was then thought both Svalbard and Greenland were connected to Continental Europe . The archipelago may in that period have been used for fishing and hunting . The Dutchman Willem Barentsz made the first indisputable discovery of the archipelago in 1596 , when he sighted its coast while searching for the Northern Sea Route .
The name Spitsbergen originated with Barentsz , who described the " pointed mountains " he saw on the west coast of the main island , although his 1599 map of the Arctic labels the island as Het Niewe Land ( " The New Land " ) . Barentsz did not recognize that he had discovered an archipelago , and consequently the name Spitsbergen long remained in use both for the main island and for the archipelago as a whole .
The first known landing on the island dates to 1604 , when an English ship landed at Bjørnøya and started hunting walrus ; annual expeditions soon followed , and Spitsbergen became a base for hunting the bowhead whale from 1611 . Because of the lawless nature of the area , English , Danish , Dutch , and French companies and authorities tried to use force to keep out other countries ' fleets .
Smeerenburg was one of the first settlements , established by the Dutch in 1619 . Smaller bases were also built by the English , Danish and French . At first the outposts were merely summer camps , but from the early 1630s , a few individuals started to overwinter . Whaling at Spitsbergen lasted until the 1820s , when the Dutch , British and Danish whalers moved elsewhere in the Arctic . By the late 17th century , Russian hunters arrived ; they overwintered to a greater extent and hunted land mammals such as the polar bear and fox . After British raids into the Barents Sea in 1809 , Russian activity on Svalbard diminished , and ceased by the 1820s . Norwegian hunting — mostly for walrus — started in the 1790s . The first Norwegian citizens to reach Spitsbergen proper were a number of Coast Sámi people from the Hammerfest region , who were hired as part of a Russian crew for an expedition in 1795 . Norwegian whaling was abandoned about the same time as the Russians left , but whaling continued around Spitsbergen until the 1830s , and around Bjørnøya until the 1860s .
= = = 20th century = = =
By the 1890s , Svalbard had become a destination for Arctic tourism , coal deposits had been found and the islands were being used as a base for Arctic exploration . The first mining was along Isfjorden by Norwegians in 1899 ; by 1904 , British interests had established themselves in Adventfjorden and started the first all @-@ year operations . Production in Longyearbyen , by American interests , started in 1908 ; and Store Norske established itself in 1916 , as did other Norwegian interests during the war , in part by buying American interests .
Discussions to establish the sovereignty of the archipelago commenced in the 1910s , but were interrupted by World War I. On 9 February 1920 , following the Paris Peace Conference , the Svalbard Treaty was signed , granting full sovereignty to Norway . However , all signatory countries were granted non @-@ discriminatory rights to fishing , hunting and mineral resources . The treaty took effect on 14 August 1925 , at the same time as the Svalbard Act regulated the archipelago and the first governor , Johannes Gerckens Bassøe , took office . The archipelago has traditionally been known as Spitsbergen , and the main island as West Spitsbergen . From the 1920s , Norway renamed the archipelago Svalbard , and the main island became Spitsbergen . Kvitøya , Kong Karls Land , Hopen and Bjørnøya were not regarded as part of the Spitsbergen archipelago . Russians have traditionally called the archipelago Grumant ( Грумант ) . The Soviet Union retained the name Spitsbergen ( Шпицберген ) to support undocumented claims that Russians were the first to discover the island . In 1928 , Italian explorer Umberto Nobile and the crew of the airship Italia crashed on the icepack off the coast of Foyn Island . The subsequent rescue attempts were covered extensively in the press and Svalbard received short @-@ lived fame as a result .
= = = Second World War = = =
In 1941 , Operation Gauntlet , all Norwegian and Soviet settlements on Svalbard were evacuated , and a German presence was established with a meteorological outpost , although a small Norwegian garrison was kept on Spitsbergen . The German Operation Zitronella took this garrison by force in 1943 , and at the same time destroying the settlements at Longyearbyen and Barentsburg . In September 1944 , together with the supply ship Carl J. Busch , the submarine U @-@ 307 transported the men of Operation Haudegen to Svalbard . Operation Haudegen ( i.e. , swashbuckler ) was the name of a German operation during the Second World War to establish meteorological stations on Svalbard . The station was active from 9 September 1944 to 4 September 1945 . It lost radio contact in May 1945 , and the soldiers were capable of asking for support only in August 1945 . On 4 September 1945 , the soldiers were picked up by a Norwegian seal hunting vessel and surrendered to its captain . This group of men were the last German troops to surrender after the Second World War . After the war , the Soviet Union proposed common Norwegian and Soviet administration and military defence of Svalbard . This was rejected in 1947 by Norway , which two years later joined NATO . The Soviet Union retained high civilian activity on Svalbard , in part to ensure that the archipelago was not used by NATO .
= = = Post @-@ war = = =
After the war , Norway re @-@ established operations at Longyearbyen and Ny @-@ Ålesund , while the Soviet Union established mining in Barentsburg , Pyramiden and Grumant . The mine at Ny @-@ Ålesund had several fatal accidents , killing 71 people while it was in operation from 1945 to 1954 and from 1960 to 1963 . The Kings Bay Affair , caused by the 1962 accident killing 21 workers , forced Gerhardsen 's Third Cabinet to resign . From 1964 , Ny @-@ Ålesund became a research outpost , and a facility for the European Space Research Organisation . Petroleum test drilling was started in 1963 and continued until 1984 , but no commercially viable fields were found . From 1960 , regular charter flights were made from the mainland to a field at Hotellneset ; in 1975 , Svalbard Airport , Longyear opened , allowing year @-@ round services .
During the Cold War , the Soviet Union retained about two @-@ thirds of the population on the islands ( with a third being Norwegians ) with the archipelago 's population slightly under 4 @,@ 000 . Russian activity has diminished considerably since then , falling from 2 @,@ 500 to 450 people from 1990 to 2010 . Grumant was closed after it was depleted in 1962 . Pyramiden was closed in 1998 . Coal exports from Barentsburg ceased in 2006 because of a fire , but resumed in 2010 . The Russian community has also experienced two air accidents , Vnukovo Airlines Flight 2801 , which killed 141 people , and the Heerodden helicopter accident .
Longyearbyen remained purely a company town until 1989 when utilities , culture and education was separated into Svalbard Samfunnsdrift . In 1993 it was sold to the national government and the University Centre was established . Through the 1990s , tourism increased and the town developed an economy independent of Store Norske and the mining . Longyearbyen was incorporated on 1 January 2002 , receiving a community council .
= = Population = =
= = = Demographics = = =
In 2012 , Svalbard had an estimated population of 2 @,@ 642 , of whom 439 were Russians and Ukrainian , 10 were Polish and 322 were other non @-@ Norwegians living in Norwegian settlements . The largest non @-@ Norwegian groups in Longyearbyen in 2005 were from Thailand , Sweden , Denmark , Russia , Iran and Germany .
= = = Settlements = = =
Longyearbyen is the largest settlement on the archipelago , the seat of the governor and the only town to be incorporated . The town features a hospital , primary and secondary school , university , sports center with a swimming pool , library , culture center , cinema , bus transport , hotels , a bank , and several museums . The newspaper Svalbardposten is published weekly . Only a small fraction of the mining activity remains at Longyearbyen ; instead , workers commute to Sveagruva ( or Svea ) where Store Norske operates a mine . Sveagruva is a dormitory town , with workers commuting from Longyearbyen weekly .
Ny @-@ Ålesund is a permanent settlement based entirely around research . Formerly a mining town , it is still a company town operated by the Norwegian state @-@ owned Kings Bay . While there is some tourism there , Norwegian authorities limit access to the outpost to minimize impact on the scientific work . Ny @-@ Ålesund has a winter population of 35 and a summer population of 180 . The Norwegian Meteorological Institute has outposts at Bjørnøya and Hopen , with respectively ten and four people stationed . Both outposts can also house temporary research staff . Poland operates the Polish Polar Station at Hornsund , with ten permanent residents .
Barentsburg is the only permanently inhabited Russian settlement after Pyramiden was abandoned in 1998 . It is a company town : all facilities are owned by Arktikugol , which operates a coal mine . In addition to the mining facilities , Arktikugol has opened a hotel and souvenir shop , catering for tourists taking day trips or hikes from Longyearbyen . The village features facilities such as a school , library , sports center , community center , swimming pool , farm and greenhouse . Pyramiden features similar facilities ; both are built in typical post @-@ World War II Soviet architectural and planning style and contain the world 's two most northerly Lenin statues and other socialist realism artwork . As of 2013 , a handful of workers are stationed in the largely abandoned Pyramiden to maintain the infrastructure and run the hotel , which has been re @-@ opened for tourists .
= = = Religion = = =
Most of the population is affiliated with the Church of Norway . Catholics on the archipelago are pastorally served by the Roman Catholic Diocese of Oslo .
= = Politics = =
The Svalbard Treaty of 1920 established full Norwegian sovereignty over the archipelago . The islands are , unlike the Norwegian Antarctic Territory , a part of the Kingdom of Norway and not a dependency . The treaty came into effect in 1925 , following the Svalbard Act . All forty signatory countries of the treaty have the right to conduct commercial activities on the archipelago without discrimination , although all activity is subject to Norwegian legislation . The treaty limits Norway 's right to collect taxes to that of financing services on Svalbard . Therefore , Svalbard has a lower income tax than mainland Norway , and there is no value added tax . There is a separate budget for Svalbard to ensure compliance . Svalbard is a demilitarized zone , as the treaty prohibits the establishment of military installations . Norwegian military activity is limited to fishery surveillance by the Norwegian Coast Guard as the treaty requires Norway to protect the natural environment .
The Svalbard Act established the institution of the Governor of Svalbard ( Norwegian : Sysselmannen ) , who holds the responsibility as both county governor and chief of police , as well as holding other authority granted from the executive branch . Duties include environmental policy , family law , law enforcement , search and rescue , tourism management , information services , contact with foreign settlements , and judge in some areas of maritime inquiries and judicial examinations — albeit never in the same cases as acting as police . Since 2015 , Kjerstin Askholt has been governor ; she is assisted by a staff of 26 professionals . The institution is subordinate to the Ministry of Justice and the Police , but reports to other ministries in matters within their portfolio .
Since 2002 , Longyearbyen Community Council has had many of the same responsibilities of a municipality , including utilities , education , cultural facilities , fire department , roads and ports . No care or nursing services are available , nor is welfare payment available . Norwegian residents retain pension and medical rights through their mainland municipalities . The hospital is part of University Hospital of North Norway , while the airport is operated by state @-@ owned Avinor . Ny @-@ Ålesund and Barentsburg remain company towns with all infrastructure owned by Kings Bay and Arktikugol , respectively . Other public offices with presence on Svalbard are the Norwegian Directorate of Mining , the Norwegian Polar Institute , the Norwegian Tax Administration and the Church of Norway . Svalbard is subordinate to Nord @-@ Troms District Court and Hålogaland Court of Appeal , both located in Tromsø .
Although Norway is part of the European Economic Area ( EEA ) and the Schengen Agreement , Svalbard is not part of the Schengen Area or the EEA . Non @-@ Norwegian Svalbard residents do not need Schengen visas , but are prohibited from reaching Svalbard from mainland Norway without such . In theory it would be possible to do a visa @-@ free airport transit at Oslo Airport , but this is not allowed by Norway . People without a source of income can be rejected by the governor . No person is required visa or residence permit for Svalbard . Everybody can live and work in Svalbard indefinitely regardless of citizenship . Svalbard Treaty grants treaty nationals equal right of abode as Norwegian nationals . So far , non @-@ treaty nationals were admitted visa @-@ free as well . " Regulations concerning rejection and expulsion from Svalbard " in force . Russia retains a consulate in Barentsburg .
In September 2010 a treaty was made between Russia and Norway fixing the boundary between the Svalbard archipelago and the Novaya Zemlya archipelago . Increased interest in petroleum exploration in the Arctic raised interest in a resolution of the dispute . The agreement takes into account the relative positions of the archipelagos , rather than being based simply on northward extension of the continental border of Norway and Russia .
= = Economy = =
The three main industries on Svalbard are coal mining , tourism , and research . In 2007 , there were 484 people working in the mining sector , 211 people working in the tourism sector and 111 people working in the education sector . The same year , the mining gave a revenue of NOK 2 @.@ 008 billion ( 227 @,@ 791 @,@ 078 USD ) , tourism NOK 317 million ( 35 @,@ 967 @,@ 202 USD ) and research NOK 142 million ( 16 @,@ 098 @,@ 404 USD ) In 2006 , the average income for economically active people was NOK 494 @,@ 700 — 23 % higher than on the mainland . Almost all housing is owned by the various employers and institutions and rented to their employees ; there are only a few privately owned houses , most of which are recreational cabins . Because of this , it is nearly impossible to live on Svalbard without working for an established institution .
Since the resettlement of Svalbard in the early 20th century , coal mining has been the dominant commercial activity . Store Norske Spitsbergen Kulkompani , a subsidiary of the Norwegian Ministry of Trade and Industry , operates Svea Nord in Sveagruva and Mine 7 in Longyearbyen . The former produced 3 @.@ 4 million tonnes in 2008 , while the latter uses 35 % of its output to Longyearbyen Power Station . Since 2007 , there has not been any significant mining by the Russian state @-@ owned Arktikugol in Barentsburg . There have previously been performed test drilling for petroleum on land , but these did not give satisfactory results for permanent operation . The Norwegian authorities do not allow offshore petroleum activities for environmental reasons , and the land formerly test @-@ drilled on has been protected as natural reserves or national parks . In 2011 , a 20 @-@ year plan to develop offshore oil and gas resources around Svalbard was announced .
Svalbard has historically been a base for both whaling and fishing . Norway claimed a 200 @-@ nautical @-@ mile ( 370 km ; 230 mi ) exclusive economic zone ( EEZ ) around Svalbard in 1977 , with 31 @,@ 688 square kilometres ( 12 @,@ 235 sq mi ) of internal waters and 770 @,@ 565 square kilometres ( 297 @,@ 517 sq mi ) of EEZ . Norway retains a restrictive fisheries policy in the zone , and the claims are disputed by Russia . Tourism is focused on the environment and is centered on Longyearbyen . Activities include hiking , kayaking , walks through glacier caves and snowmobile and dog @-@ sled safari . Cruise ships generate a significant portion of the traffic , including both stops by offshore vessels and expeditionary cruises starting and ending in Svalbard . Traffic is strongly concentrated between March and August ; overnights have quintupled from 1991 to 2008 , when there were 93 @,@ 000 guest @-@ nights .
Research on Svalbard centers on Longyearbyen and Ny @-@ Ålesund , the most accessible areas in the high Arctic . The treaty grants permission for any nation to conduct research on Svalbard , resulting in the Polish Polar Station and the Chinese Arctic Yellow River Station , plus Russian facilities in Barentsburg . The University Centre in Svalbard in Longyearbyen offers undergraduate , graduate and postgraduate courses to 350 students in various arctic sciences , particularly biology , geology and geophysics . Courses are provided to supplement studies at the mainland universities ; there are no tuition fees and courses are held in English , with Norwegian and international students equally represented .
The Svalbard Global Seed Vault is a seedbank to store seeds from as many of the world 's crop varieties and their botanical wild relatives as possible . A cooperation between the government of Norway and the Global Crop Diversity Trust , the vault is cut into rock near Longyearbyen , keeping it at a natural − 6 ° C ( 21 ° F ) and refrigerating the seeds to − 18 ° C ( 0 ° F ) .
The Svalbard Undersea Cable System is a 1 @,@ 440 km ( 890 mi ) fibre optic line from Svalbard to Harstad , needed for communicating with polar orbiting satellites through Svalbard Satellite Station and installations in Ny @-@ Ålesund .
One source of income for the area is visiting cruise ships . The Norwegian government has become concerned in recent years about large numbers of cruise ship passengers suddenly landing at small settlements such as Ny @-@ Ålesund , which is conveniently close to the barren @-@ yet @-@ picturesque Magdalena Fjord . With the increasing size of the larger ships , up to 2000 people can potentially appear in a community that normally numbers less than 40 . The government has recently passed legislation , effective from January 2014 , severely restricting the size of cruise ships that may visit .
= = Transport = =
Within Longyearbyen , Barentsburg , and Ny @-@ Ålesund , there are road systems , but they do not connect with each other . Off @-@ road motorized transport is prohibited on bare ground , but snowmobiles are used extensively during winter — both for commercial and recreational activities . Transport from Longyearbyen to Barentsburg ( 45 km or 28 mi ) and Pyramiden ( 100 km or 62 mi ) is possible by snowmobile by winter , or by ship all year round . All settlements have ports and Longyearbyen has a bus system .
Svalbard Airport , Longyear , located 3 kilometres ( 2 mi ) from Longyearbyen , is the only airport offering air transport off the archipelago . Scandinavian Airlines has daily scheduled services to Tromsø and Oslo . Low @-@ cost carrier Norwegian Air Shuttle also has a service between Oslo and Svalbard , operating three or four times a week ; there are also irregular charter services to Russia . Finnair has announced to commence service to Helsinki , operating three times a week starting June 1 , 2016 and lasting until 27 August 2016 , but Norwegian authorities did not allow this route as it was not in bilateral agreement on air traffic between Finland and Norway . Lufttransport provides regular corporate charter services from Longyearbyen to Ny @-@ Ålesund Airport and Svea Airport for Kings Bay and Store Norske ; these flights are in general not available to the public . There are heliports in Barentsburg and Pyramiden , and helicopters are frequently used by the governor and to a lesser extent the mining company Arktikugol .
= = Climate = =
The climate of Svalbard is dominated by its high latitude , with the average summer temperature at 4 to 6 ° C ( 39 to 43 ° F ) and January averages at − 16 to − 12 ° C ( 3 to 10 ° F ) . The West Spitsbergen Current , the northernmost branch of the North Atlantic Current system , moderates Svalbard 's temperatures , particularly during winter . Winter temperatures in Svalbard are up to − 20 ° C ( − 36 ° F ) higher than similar latitudes in Russia and Canada . The warm Atlantic water keeps the surrounding waters open and navigable most of the year . The interior fjord areas and valleys , sheltered by the mountains , have larger temperature differences than the coast , giving about 2 ° C ( 4 ° F ) warmer summer temperatures and 3 ° C ( 5 ° F ) colder winter temperatures . On the south of Spitsbergen , the temperature is slightly higher than further north and west . During winter , the temperature difference between south and north is typically 5 ° C ( 9 ° F ) , and about 3 ° C ( 5 ° F ) in summer . Bear Island has average temperatures even higher than the rest of the archipelago .
Svalbard is where cold polar air from the north and mild , wet sea air from the south meet , creating low pressure , changeable weather and strong winds , particularly in winter ; in January , a strong breeze is registered 17 % of the time at Isfjord Radio , but only 1 % of the time in July . In summer , particularly away from land , fog is common , with visibility under 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 6 mi ) registered 20 % of the time in July and 1 % of the time in January , at Hopen and Bjørnøya . Precipitation is frequent , but falls in small quantities , typically less than 400 millimetres ( 16 in ) per year in western Spitsbergen . More rain falls on the uninhabited east side , where there can be more than 1 @,@ 000 millimetres ( 39 in ) .
= = Nature = =
In addition to humans , three primarily terrestrial mammalian species inhabit the archipelago : the Arctic fox , the Svalbard reindeer , and accidentally introduced southern voles , which are found only in Grumant . Attempts to introduce the Arctic hare and the muskox have both failed . There are fifteen to twenty types of marine mammals , including whales , dolphins , seals , walruses , and polar bears .
Polar bears are the iconic symbol of Svalbard , and one of the main tourist attractions . While protected , anyone outside of settlements is recommended to carry a firearm to kill polar bears in self @-@ defence , as a last resort , should they attack , and is required to have appropriate means of frightening and chasing off polar bears ; a British schoolboy was killed by a polar bear in 2011 . Svalbard and Franz Joseph Land share a common population of 3 @,@ 000 polar bears , with Kong Karls Land being the most important breeding ground .
The Svalbard reindeer ( R. tarandus platyrhynchus ) is a distinct sub @-@ species ; although it was previously almost extinct , it can be legally hunted ( as can Arctic fox ) . There are limited numbers of domesticated animals in the Russian settlements .
About thirty species of bird are found on Svalbard , most of which are migratory . The Barents Sea is among the areas in the world with most seabirds , with about 20 million individuals during late summer . The most common are little auk , northern fulmar , thick @-@ billed murre and black @-@ legged kittiwake . Sixteen species are on the IUCN Red List . Particularly Bjørnøya , Storfjorden , Nordvest @-@ Spitsbergen and Hopen are important breeding ground for seabirds . The Arctic tern has the furthest migration , all the way to Antarctica . Only two songbirds migrate to Svalbard to breed : the snow bunting and the wheatear . Rock ptarmigan is the only bird to overwinter . Remains of Predator X from the Jurassic period have been found ; it is the largest dinosaur @-@ era marine reptile ever found — a pliosaur estimated to have been almost 15 m ( 49 ft ) long .
Svalbard has permafrost and tundra , with both low , middle and high Arctic vegetation . 165 species of plants have been found on the archipelago . Only those areas which defrost in the summer have vegetations , which accounts for about 10 % of the archipelago . Vegetation is most abundant in Nordenskiöld Land , around Isfjorden and where affected by guano . While there is little precipitation , giving the archipelago a steppe climate , plants still have good access to water because the cold climate reduces evaporation . The growing season is very short , and may last only a few weeks .
There are seven national parks in Svalbard : Forlandet , Indre Wijdefjorden , Nordenskiöld Land , Nordre Isfjorden Land , Nordvest @-@ Spitsbergen , Sassen @-@ Bünsow Land and Sør @-@ Spitsbergen . The archipelago has fifteen bird sanctuaries , one geotopic protected area and six nature reserves — with Nordaust @-@ Svalbard and Søraust @-@ Svalbard both being larger than any of the national parks . Most of the nature reserves and three of the national parks were protected in 1973 , with nearly all the remaining protected occurring in the 2000s . All human traces dating from before 1946 are automatically protected . The protected areas make up 65 % of the archipelago . Svalbard is on Norway 's tentative list for nomination as a UNESCO World Heritage Site .
The total Solar eclipse of March 20 , 2015 included only Svalbard and the Faroe Islands in the band of totality . Many scientists and tourists attended .
= = Media = =
News about Svalbard in English and Norwegian is published weekly at svalbardposten.no , while " alternative " news in English is at icepeople.net.
Svalbard makes a prominent appearance in Northern Lights by Philip Pullman and the corresponding movie . In the novel it is used as a prison for important and powerful people . It is inhabited by Panserbjørne , mighty polar bears that wear armor forged from Sky @-@ Iron . One of the primary characters , Lord Asriel , was imprisoned and manages to flee from Svalbard during the novel .
The fictional town of Fortitude , as portrayed in the 2015 TV series Fortitude ( from UK 's Sky Atlantic ) , is situated in Svalbard .
In 2014 the Swedish singer Tove Styrke filmed a music video in Pyramiden for her single Borderline .
= Meitnerium =
Meitnerium is a chemical element with symbol Mt and atomic number 109 . It is an extremely radioactive synthetic element ( an element not found in nature that can be created in a laboratory ) . The most stable known isotope , meitnerium @-@ 278 , has a half @-@ life of 7 @.@ 6 seconds . The GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research near Darmstadt , Germany , first created this element in 1982 . It is named for Lise Meitner .
In the periodic table , meitnerium is a d @-@ block transactinide element . It is a member of the 7th period and is placed in the group 9 elements , although no chemical experiments have been carried out to confirm that it behaves as the heavier homologue to iridium in group 9 . Meitnerium is calculated to have similar properties to its lighter homologues , cobalt , rhodium , and iridium .
= = History = =
= = = Discovery = = =
Meitnerium was first synthesized on August 29 , 1982 by a German research team led by Peter Armbruster and Gottfried Münzenberg at the Institute for Heavy Ion Research ( Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung ) in Darmstadt . The team bombarded a target of bismuth @-@ 209 with accelerated nuclei of iron @-@ 58 and detected a single atom of the isotope meitnerium @-@ 266 :
209
83Bi + 58
26Fe → 266
109Mt + n
This work was confirmed three years later at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research at Dubna ( then in the Soviet Union ) .
= = = Naming = = =
Using Mendeleev 's nomenclature for unnamed and undiscovered elements , meitnerium should be known as eka @-@ iridium . In 1979 , during the Transfermium Wars ( but before the synthesis of meitnerium ) , IUPAC published recommendations according to which the element was to be called unnilennium ( with the corresponding symbol of Une ) , a systematic element name as a placeholder , until the element was discovered ( and the discovery then confirmed ) and a permanent name was decided on . Although widely used in the chemical community on all levels , from chemistry classrooms to advanced textbooks , the recommendations were mostly ignored among scientists in the field , who either called | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
it " element 109 " , with the symbol of ( 109 ) or even simply 109 , or used the proposed name " meitnerium " .
The naming of meitnerium was discussed in the element naming controversy regarding the names of elements 104 to 109 , but meitnerium was the only proposal and thus was never disputed . The name meitnerium ( Mt ) was suggested in honor of the Austrian physicist Lise Meitner , a co @-@ discoverer of protactinium ( with Otto Hahn ) , and one of the discoverers of nuclear fission . In 1994 the name was recommended by IUPAC , and was officially adopted in 1997 . It is thus the only element named specifically after a non @-@ mythological woman ( curium being named for both Pierre and Marie Curie ) .
= = Isotopes = =
Meitnerium has no stable or naturally @-@ occurring isotopes . Several radioactive isotopes have been synthesized in the laboratory , either by fusing two atoms or by observing the decay of heavier elements . Eight different isotopes of meitnerium have been reported with atomic masses 266 , 268 , 270 , and 274 – 278 , two of which , meitnerium @-@ 268 and meitnerium @-@ 270 , have known but unconfirmed metastable states . Most of these decay predominantly through alpha decay , although some undergo spontaneous fission .
= = = Stability and half @-@ lives = = =
All meitnerium isotopes are extremely unstable and radioactive ; in general , heavier isotopes are more stable than the lighter . The most stable known meitnerium isotope , 278Mt , is also the heaviest known ; it has a half @-@ life of 7 @.@ 6 seconds . A metastable nuclear isomer , 270mMt , has been reported to also have a half @-@ life of over a second . The isotopes 276Mt and 274Mt have half @-@ lives of 0 @.@ 72 and 0 @.@ 44 seconds respectively . The remaining four isotopes have half @-@ lives between 1 and 20 milliseconds . The undiscovered isotope 281Mt has been predicted to be the most stable towards beta decay ; no known meitnerium isotope has been observed to undergo beta decay . Some unknown isotopes , such as 265Mt , 272Mt , 273Mt , and 279Mt , are predicted to have half @-@ lives longer than the known isotopes . Before its discovery , 274Mt and 277Mt were predicted to have half @-@ lives of 20 seconds and 1 minute respectively , but they were later found to have half @-@ lives of only 0 @.@ 44 seconds and 5 milliseconds respectively .
= = Predicted properties = =
= = = Chemical = = =
Meitnerium is the seventh member of the 6d series of transition metals . Since element 112 ( copernicium ) has been shown to be a transition metal , it is expected that all the elements from 104 to 112 would form a fourth transition metal series , with meitnerium as part of the platinum group metals . Calculations on its ionization potentials and atomic and ionic radii are similar to that of its lighter homologue iridium , thus implying that meitnerium 's basic properties will resemble those of the other group 9 elements , cobalt , rhodium , and iridium .
Prediction of the probable chemical properties of meitnerium has not received much attention recently . Meitnerium is expected to be a noble metal . Based on the most stable oxidation states of the lighter group 9 elements , the most stable oxidation states of meitnerium are predicted to be the + 6 , + 3 , and + 1 states , with the + 3 state being the most stable in aqueous solutions . In comparison , rhodium and iridium show a maximum oxidation state of + 6 , while the most stable states are + 4 and + 3 for iridium and + 3 for rhodium . The oxidation state + 9 , represented only by iridium in [ IrO4 ] + , might be possible for its congener meitnerium in the nonafluoride ( MtF9 ) and the [ MtO4 ] + cation , although [ IrO4 ] + is expected to be more stable . The tetrahalides of meitnerium have also been predicted to have similar stabilities to those of iridium , thus also allowing a stable + 4 state . It is further expected that the maximum oxidation states of elements from bohrium ( element 107 ) to darmstadtium ( element 110 ) may be stable in the gas phase but not in aqueous solution .
= = = Physical and atomic = = =
Meitnerium is expected to be a solid under normal conditions and assume a face @-@ centered cubic crystal structure , similarly to its lighter congener iridium . It should be a very heavy metal with a density of around 37 @.@ 4 g / cm3 , which would be the second @-@ highest of any of the 118 known elements , second only to that predicted for its neighbor hassium ( 41 g / cm3 ) . In comparison , the densest known element that has had its density measured , osmium , has a density of only 22 @.@ 61 g / cm3 . This results from meitnerium 's high atomic weight , the lanthanide and actinide contractions , and relativistic effects , although production of enough meitnerium to measure this quantity would be impractical , and the sample would quickly decay . Meitnerium is also predicted to be paramagnetic .
Theoreticians have predicted the covalent radius of meitnerium to be 6 to 10 pm larger than that of iridium . For example , the Mt – O bond distance is expected to be around 1 @.@ 9 Å . The atomic radius of meitnerium is expected to be around 128 pm .
= = Experimental chemistry = =
Unambiguous determination of the chemical characteristics of meitnerium has yet to have been established due to the short half @-@ lives of meitnerium isotopes and a limited number of likely volatile compounds that could be studied on a very small scale . One of the few meitnerium compounds that are likely to be sufficiently volatile is meitnerium hexafluoride ( MtF
6 ) , as its lighter homologue iridium hexafluoride ( IrF
6 ) is volatile above 60 ° C and therefore the analogous compound of meitnerium might also be sufficiently volatile ; a volatile octafluoride ( MtF
8 ) might also be possible . For chemical studies to be carried out on a transactinide , at least four atoms must be produced , the half @-@ life of the isotope used must be at least 1 second , and the rate of production must be at least one atom per week . Even though the half @-@ life of 278Mt , the most stable known meitnerium isotope , is 7 @.@ 6 seconds , long enough to perform chemical studies , another obstacle is the need to increase the rate of production of meitnerium isotopes and allow experiments to carry on for weeks or months so that statistically significant results can be obtained . Separation and detection must be carried out continuously to separate out the meitnerium isotopes and automated systems can then experiment on the gas @-@ phase and solution chemistry of meitnerium as the yields for heavier elements are predicted to be smaller than those for lighter elements ; some of the separation techniques used for bohrium and hassium could be reused . However , the experimental chemistry of meitnerium has not received as much attention as that of the heavier elements from copernicium to livermorium .
The Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory attempted to synthesize the isotope 271Mt in 2002 – 2003 for a possible chemical investigation of meitnerium because it was expected that it might be more stable than the isotopes around it as it has 162 neutrons , a magic number for deformed nuclei ; its half @-@ life was predicted to be a few seconds , long enough for a chemical investigation . However , no atoms of 271Mt were detected , and this isotope of meitnerium is currently unknown .
An experiment determining the chemical properties of a transactinide would need to compare a compound of that transactinide with analogous compounds of some of its lighter homologues : for example , in the chemical characterization of hassium , hassium tetroxide ( HsO4 ) was compared with the analogous osmium compound , osmium tetroxide ( OsO4 ) . In a preliminary step towards determining the chemical properties of meitnerium , the GSI attempted sublimation of the rhodium compounds rhodium ( III ) oxide ( Rh2O3 ) and rhodium ( III ) chloride ( RhCl3 ) . However , macroscopic amounts of the oxide would not sublimate until 1000 ° C and the chloride would not until 780 ° C , and then only in the presence of carbon aerosol particles : these temperatures are far too high for such procedures to be used on meitnerium , as most of the current methods used for the investigation of the chemistry of superheavy elements do not work above 500 ° C.
= Pat Seerey =
James Patrick Seerey ( March 17 , 1923 – April 28 , 1986 ) was an American professional baseball player . An outfielder , Seerey played in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) for seven seasons in the American League with the Cleveland Indians and Chicago White Sox . In 561 career games , Seerey recorded a batting average of .224 and accumulated 86 home runs and 261 runs batted in ( RBI ) .
Born in Oklahoma and raised in Arkansas , Seerey played football and baseball in high school . After graduating , he joined the Cleveland Indians ' farm system in 1941 , and made his major league debut two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years later . He was primary a starting outfielder the next five seasons for the Indians , but led the league in strikeouts four times . He was traded partway through the 1948 season to the Chicago White Sox , and a month after being traded became one of 16 MLB players to hit four home runs in one game . The following season , he was sent to the minor leagues , and played a few seasons in the farm system for the White Sox before retiring .
= = Early life and minor leagues = =
Pat Seerey was born in Wilburton , Oklahoma in 1923 to James and Marie Seerey . His family moved to Little Rock , Arkansas when he was a child , and he played baseball for the Little Rock Boys ' Club at Lamar Porter Field . He attended Little Rock Catholic High School , where he played baseball and American football , serving as the team 's starting fullback . After graduating from high school in 1941 , he was signed by the Cleveland Indians . Shortly afterwards , he was classified as 4 @-@ F , meaning he would not be lost to the military during World War II .
Seerey started his minor league baseball career in 1941 with the Appleton Papermakers of the Wisconsin State League . In one of his first appearances for the team , he hit for the cycle in a 15 – 4 victory against the Fond du Lac Panthers . In 104 games for Appleton that year , Seerey had a .330 batting average with 31 home runs and 117 runs batted in ; the 31 home runs were a record for the Wisconsin State League at the time . The following season , Seerey played for the Cedar Rapids Raiders of the Three @-@ I League . In 117 games for the Raiders , he had a .303 batting average and 33 home runs . In 1943 , Seerey was promoted to the Wilkes @-@ Barre Barons of the Eastern League , and played in 31 games over the first two months of the season . In early June , outfielder Hank Edwards broke his collarbone , and the Indians needed an extra outfielder on the roster ; Seerey was promoted as a result .
= = Cleveland Indians = =
Seerey made his debut with the Indians on June 9 , 1943 . Almost immediately after his debut , he earned the nickname of " people 's choice " in media due to both his hitting ability and his " willingness to challenge the brick walls of the stadium " . He played in 26 games for the Indians on the season , and hit .222 in 72 at @-@ bats . Entering the 1944 Cleveland Indians season , manager Lou Boudreau planned to use Seerey as the starting center fielder , as he had reported to spring training 25 pounds lighter and Boudreau felt that Seerey could improve on a weak area on the team 's roster . Seerey moved back to left field to begin the season ; in his first game there on the year , he hit a three @-@ run home run to give the Indians a 7 – 4 victory over the Detroit Tigers . A month into the season , Seerey was among the league leaders in runs batted in , which was attributed to better plate discipline , though his fielding in the outfield was still considered a liability . Partway through the season , Seerey 's playing time diminished , yet he remained the team leader in home runs for most of the season despite limited at @-@ bats . He finished the season with 15 home runs , 39 runs batted in , and a league @-@ leading 99 strikeouts in 101 games .
Entering the 1945 Cleveland Indians season , Seerey was re @-@ classified as 1 @-@ A , and took a military examination during the offseason . He was not slated to join the military after the exam , and the season started with him on the roster as one of the team 's starting three outfielders , thanks in part to getting in shape after a strict diet during the offseason . He started off with hits in the first seven games of the season . A month into the season , Seerey hit his first two home runs of the season in a 7 – 3 loss to the New York Yankees . He followed that up in a mid @-@ July game against the Yankees with three home runs and eight runs batted in , becoming the fourth Indians player to hit three home runs in a game in a 16 – 4 Indians win . He spent the second half of the season in and out of the starting lineup due to his inconsistent hitting ; manager Boudreau felt that occasional rest days would increase his consistency . In a career @-@ high 126 games , Seerey hit .236 with 14 home runs and 97 strikeouts , which again led the league .
After getting married in early 1946 to Jeanne Dillinger , Seerey started the 1946 Cleveland Indians season working with Boudreau to fix his hitting , as his lunge when he swung the bat was causing him to strike out too often and not hit enough home runs . The change worked , as by the start of July Seerey had a team @-@ leading 11 home runs . His second half performance included a doubleheader against the Chicago White Sox where he hit a home run in each game ; the second home run landed in the upper deck of Cleveland Municipal Stadium , a feat that at the time had only been matched by fellow Indians outfielder Jeff Heath . He finished the season with a .225 batting average , 26 home runs , 62 RBIs , and 101 strikeouts . The 26 home runs were fourth in the league , and for the third straight year Seerey led the league in strikeouts .
Indians catcher Jim Hegan and Seerey spent the offseason improving their hitting , attending batting school led by Hall of Famer Rogers Hornsby ; Hornsby concentrated primarily on improving Seerey 's timing to help him to hit the ball more frequently . In spring training games , Seerey had nine home runs , and expectations were high for him ; Boudreau gave him the starting job in left field for the opener against the White Sox . Through the first month of the season , Seerey had six home runs , but his performance worsened as the season went on . At the end of June , Seerey was removed from the starting lineup and replaced by both Dale Mitchell and Hank Edwards ; he spent the rest of the season playing part @-@ time . He finished the season with a .171 batting average and 11 home runs in 82 games .
After the 1947 season ended , Indians owner Bill Veeck put Seerey on a strict diet and exercise regimen for the offseason , stating that he had to lose 35 pounds if he wanted to remain on the team . By the start of spring training , he had reached his goal of 195 pounds , and felt like he had an easier time swinging the baseball bat as a result . After a good month of spring training , Boudreau named him the starter in right field for the 1948 season , saying that " he 'll be in there until he stops hitting . " Shortly afterwards , Seerey was removed from the starting lineup , and he ended up playing 10 games for the Indians before being traded . On June 2 , Seerey was traded with Al Gettel to the White Sox for Bob Kennedy due to his inconsistency as well as an overstocked group of outfielders on the roster .
= = Chicago White Sox and later life = =
Seerey was named the starting left fielder upon joining the White Sox , a position he held the rest of the season . Through his first 12 games , Seerey had 16 RBIs . On July 18 , Seerey made history , becoming the fifth player to hit four home runs in one game , doing so in an 11 @-@ inning , 12 – 11 win over the Philadelphia Athletics . Seerey homered in three successive innings ( fourth through sixth ) , hitting his first two off starting pitcher Carl Scheib and the third off reliever Bob Savage . His fourth home run , in the 11th off Lou Brissie , gave the White Sox the win . On that day , Seerey went 4 @-@ for @-@ 6 with seven runs batted in . In 105 games , 95 with the White Sox , Seerey had a .231 batting average , 19 home runs , 70 RBIs , and 102 strikeouts ; he led the league in strikeouts for the fourth time .
The White Sox brought on new manager Jack Onslow to begin the 1949 Chicago White Sox season . He had a problem with Seerey , who arrived overweight to spring training , and did not consider him worthy of practicing with the other players until he got the weight back down . After playing in four games for the Sox , his last coming on May 7 , Seerey was sent to the Los Angeles Angels of the Pacific Coast League , ending his major league career . He played for four minor league teams in 1949 : Los Angeles , the Newark Bears , the Kansas City Blues , and the San Antonio Missions .
Seerey spent 1950 with the Colorado Springs Sky Sox of the Western League . Partway through the season , he broke the league 's home run record of 30 , and went on to hit 44 for the Sky Sox over the course of the season . He then finished the season with the Memphis Chickasaws , playing 136 total games with both teams . Seerey split most of the 1951 season between Memphis and Colorado Springs . In one game with the Sky Sox in June , Seerey had two grand slams and nine RBIs in a game , both league records at the time . He ended the season with the Tampa Smokers , and had 28 home runs in 113 between the three teams .
In 1952 , Seerey joined a semi @-@ professional baseball team in Guelph , Ontario . With them , he had 11 home runs and a .253 batting average , and retired at season 's end . The 11 home runs were the highest in the league that season . After retiring , Seerey became a janitor in the St. Louis public school system . He died in Jennings , Missouri on April 28 , 1986 at the age of 63 .
= Free Collars Kingdom =
Free Collars Kingdom ( フリーカラーズキングダム , Furī Karāzu Kingudamu ) is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Fujima Takuya . The individual chapters were serialized in Magazine Z , and compiled into three tankōbon volumes released by Kodansha from February 2003 to March 2004 . Set in Ikebukuro , Japan , the series revolves around the struggle of two stray cat groups . Cyan , a young newly abandoned cat , joins one of them , the Free Collars . Each cat has two appearances ; to humans , they appear as normal cats , but to other cats , they appear as catboys and catgirls . Each cat has their own attack , and some carry weapons .
While drawing the series , Fujima changed his art style from one used previously , though he was asked to use his original styling . He also noted that the series was different from his other works , and was unsure of how the audience would respond to it . Free Collars Kingdom is licensed for English language release in the United States by Del Rey , which released the series in 2007 , and in the United Kingdom by Tanoshimi , which released it in 2008 . It was licensed for regional release by Tong Li Publishing in Taiwan , Jonesky in Hong Kong , and Star Comics in Italy . Free Collars Kingdom garnered mixed reviews from critics . The series was praised for its artwork and humor , but criticized for its plot and characters .
= = Plot = =
Cyan is a young Abyssinian cat who lives with a boy named Kokoro and his parents in Ikebukuro . When Kokoro becomes sick , his parents abandon Cyan , leaving him in the basement of their apartment complex . Soon he discovers a group of stray cats called the " Free Collars " , who control East Ikebukuro and believe that collars hold down cats ' " Wild Spirit " . Cyan is given the opportunity to join , provided that he removes his collar , the symbol that he is still Kokoro 's pet . Cyan declines , opting to remain in the basement and await Kokoro 's return . However , Cyan comes to realize that he must join the Free Collars if he hopes to survive and reunite with Kokoro . He removes his collar and joins them in their fight against Siam , a rival gang leader who wants control of East Ikebukuro and plans to rule the world and enslave humans .
In his ensuing adventures , Cyan grows close to the Free Collars , yet still longs for Kokoro . He becomes frustrated by Siam 's continued advances on East Ikebukuro and his teammates ' unwillingness to mount an offensive attack . Convinced that Siam must be destroyed , Cyan confronts her and learns she was once a Free Collar until her brother , Puriam , was chased onto a road by humans and killed by a bus . Cyan is able to defeat her , and , reminded of Puriam , Siam silently wishes him farewell . Soon after , Cyan learns that Kokoro had recovered but is moving away . Saddened by the thought of leaving the Free Collars , he meets Kokoro at the train station and gives him his torn collar as a memento . Kokoro promises to visit Cyan , and Cyan returns to his new friends .
= = = Characters = = =
The Free Collars are a group a stray cats who have removed their collars and refuse to have any relationship with humans . Cyan is a young Abyssinian who joins the Free Collars after being abandoned . He tends to be childlike , which sometimes irritates other members of the group . Scottie is a Scottish Fold who spends much of her time with the Free Collars but is not a member . She was discovered by Amesho , an old American Shorthair and leader of the Free Collars , in a bookstore . Char is a Chartreux and was once part of the " Cat House Kingdom " , a household of high @-@ class cats , but left , feeling she was being used by humans . Rat is a Korat and the most talented with gadgets and technology within the group . Coon is an easily angered Maine Coon who specializes in swimming . Minky is a Tonkinese who befriends Cyan and Scottie and is named after her mink @-@ like fur .
On the opposing side is Siam , a Siamese cat who controls all of West Ikebukuro and is the leader of the Siam Army . Siam 's principal henchman and general of the Siam Army is Kline , who has a distinct hatred for humans and sees them only as her potential slaves . Acting as Siam 's bodyguards are A @-@ Ko and I @-@ Ko , two Manx cats . Having been previously discriminated against for their lack of tails , A @-@ Ko and I @-@ Ko pretended to have tails , fearing rejection from Siam .
= = Production = =
Fujima had originally been asked to draw Free Collars Kingdom in a style he had used previously on other works . However , his drawing style evolved during the development of Free Collars Kingdom .
In the first volume of Free Collars Kingdom , Fujima expressed his feelings on the series ' release , while also stating that " it went to the press before I knew it " . Fujima noted that the series was " quite a bit different " compared to previous series he had worked on , and that he " had no idea how " the audience would respond to it . He explained that " if you have fun reading it , then I 'll be happy " . In volume two , due to having left @-@ over " open pages " , Fujima used the extra pages to " describe characters " and " have fun " .
= = Media = =
Written and illustrated by Fujima Takuya , the individual chapters of Free Collars Kingdom were first serialized in Japan in Magazine Z from 2002 to 2004 . Those chapters were collected and published in three tankōbon volumes by Kodansha , with the first released on February 21 , 2003 and the last on March 23 , 2004 . On July 27 , 2010 , the company Ichijinsha released a reprint of the series in two collected volumes .
The series is licensed for English language release in North America by Del Rey , which published the series from January 30 , 2007 to July 31 , 2007 . In the United Kingdom , it was published by Tanoshimi from February 1 , 2007 to August 2 , 2008 . It is also licensed for regional language releases in Taiwan by Tong Li Publishing , in Italy by Star Comics , and Hong Kong by Jonesky .
= = = Volume list = = =
= = Reception = =
Free Collars Kingdom received mixed reviews from English @-@ speaking audiences . Matthew Alexander of Mania praised the artwork , noting that characters were " cute and sexy with a wide variety of clothing that does a good job expressing the character 's personality " and that , overall , the artwork was " very clean with attractive characters and well @-@ detailed backgrounds " . In his review of the second volume , Alexander wrote that " so far , the story continues to be a fun examination of what life might be like from the cat 's point of view , but I don 't know how the whole Wild Cat storyline is going to be wrapped up in only one more volume " . In his review of the third volume , Alexander felt that " the story probably received an early ending " , but concluded that " despite the series only being three volumes , it really is a worthy read and quite funny if you 've ever owned a cat " .
In reviewing the second volume , Manga Life 's Dan Polley felt " Fujima [ did ] a very good job of laying down the framework and executing a plot for fun and carefree adventures . " In his review of the third volume , Polley wrote that " the art is enjoyable , but can sometimes be overloaded " and that " often there are sequences in which there is too much going on and it is hard to decipher exactly what the eyes are seeing . " However , he noted that " fans of the series will continue to enjoy the animalistic cheekiness . "
Writing for School Library Journal , Benjamin Russell criticized the series for being " slow and formulaic " with " similarly formulaic " character designs that made " it seem staid " . He also stated that the " animal world " portrayed could be fun and that it was " interesting to see humanoid characters so tiny next to artifacts of human culture " , but it failed to hold the reader 's interest . Casey Brienza of Anime News Network heavily criticized the story , grading it as an " F " and calling it " a pastiche of a large number of manga and anime clichés , not because it seems like it was intended to be a pastiche , but because the manga artist [ Fujima ] flatly is unable to sustain a coherent , unified storyline that is his own , original creation . " However , Brienza did praise the artwork , grading it as an " A " and calling it rich and " beautifully drawn " . In Manga : The Complete Guide , Jason Thompson notes that the series ' " hook " is that characters are all " drawn as hot anthropomorphic cat @-@ girls and cat @-@ boys " and praises it for having a " unique twist " .
= Tim McGraw ( song ) =
" Tim McGraw " is the debut single and first published song recorded by American singer @-@ songwriter Taylor Swift . The song was written by Swift and Liz Rose , and produced by Nathan Chapman . It was released on June 19 , 2006 by Big Machine Records as Swift 's debut single and the lead single from Swift 's eponymous debut album . Swift wrote " Tim McGraw " during her freshman year of high school , knowing that she and her senior boyfriend would break up at the end of the year when he left for college . The song was written about all the different things that would remind the subject of Swift and their time spent together , once he departed . " Tim McGraw " is musical interconnection of traditional and modern country music . Lyrically , the track lists items in order to associate a past relationship , one of them being country artist Tim McGraw 's music .
The song was received with critical praise from music critics who complimented Swift 's vocal delivery . Some critics described it as tender , while others admired its professionalism . " Tim McGraw " performed well commercially . The track spent numbers of weeks upon both the Billboard Hot 100 and Hot Country Songs in the United States . It peaked at number 40 on the former and number six on the latter . The single was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) and has sold more than one million copies since its release . The accompanying music video for " Tim McGraw " , directed by Trey Fanjoy , comprises flashbacks by Swift 's love interest , among cut scenes that feature Swift lying on a lake bed . " Tim McGraw " was promoted by Swift on a radio tour and performances in numerous venues . Swift performed it while serving as opening act for various country artists ' concert tours . She also performed it as part of her first headlining concert tour , the Fearless Tour ( 2009 – 10 ) .
= = Background = =
Swift and Liz Rose wrote " Tim McGraw " during Swift 's freshman year at Hendersonville High School . She conceived the idea in the midst of her mathematics class : " I was just sitting there , and I started humming this melody . " She then related the melody to a predicament she was encountering at the moment . Swift knew that she and her senior boyfriend would break up at the end of the year when he left for college . In order to cope with the complicated emotions she was experiencing , Swift wrote the song . Rose said Swift showed up at her after school job , writing songs for Sony / ATV Music , " with the idea and the melody , knowing exactly what she wanted . " She desired for the song to capture the sweetness and sadness of loving and losing someone . It was written about all the different things that would remind the subject of Swift and their time spent together , once he departed . " To her surprise , the first thing that came to mind was [ her ] love of Tim McGraw 's music . " Several personal details were listed for the song . McGraw 's mentioning was a reference to Swift 's favorite song , " Can 't Tell Me Nothin " from his 2004 album Live Like You Were Dying , rather than McGraw as a person . The writing process , as with " Our Song " , took place in approximately twenty minutes , and was executed with the use of a piano .
Soon after , Scott Borchetta , CEO of Big Machine Records , signed Swift to his newly formed label . Early into the album production , in a meeting where Borchetta and Swift discussed potential songs for Swift 's debut album , she performed " Tim McGraw " for Borchetta on fluke ukulele . According to Swift , as soon as Borchetta finished listening to the song , he faced Swift and said , " That 's your first single . " She responded , " Well . That 's how that works then . " Prior to that event , Swift did not believe that the song was single material . However , she followed what label executives told her and accepted that they were correct . Swift placed " Tim McGraw " as the first track on Taylor Swift because of its importance to her . The song was eventually released as a CD single on June 19 , 2006 . In retrospect , Swift has said that the song " is reminiscent , and it is thinking about a relationship you had and then lost . I think one of the most powerful human emotions is what should have been and wasn 't ... That was a really good song to start out on , because a lot of people can relate to wanting something you can 't have . " When the song 's subject discovered it , he thought it was " cool " and kept friendship with Swift despite their breakup .
= = Composition = =
" Tim McGraw " is a country song with a length of three minutes and 52 seconds . The song mingles traditional and modern country music features , primarily through its usage of a twelve @-@ string guitar . It is set in common time and has a moderate tempo of 72 beats per minute . Thus , it is categorized as a ballad with a mid @-@ paced nature . It is written in the key of C major and Swift 's vocals span one octave , from F3 to G4 . Swift 's vocals are prominent in twang . " Tim McGraw " follows the chord progression C5 – Am – F – Gsus – G.
The lyrics of " Tim McGraw " regard a summer romance that came to a sudden halt . The song fondly reminisces an ex @-@ boyfriend , and directs the lyrics towards him , rather than country singer Tim McGraw himself . It uses McGraw 's music as a marker in their relationship timeline : " When you think Tim McGraw / I hope you think my favorite song . " Sean Dooley of About.com stated , " Music has the power to evoke memories , and it 's an old Tim McGraw song that triggers her happy memories . " McGraw 's reference is one of the several items used for association of the failed relationship , along with other items and places , such as a little black dress .
= = Critical reception = =
The song was well received by critics . Rob Sheffield of Blender magazine described the track as gem that hit hard . Sean Dooley of About.com complimented Swift 's vocal delivery , describing it as " tender and emotive . " Jonathan Keefe of Slant Magazine believe " Tim McGraw " followed " time @-@ tested narrative conventions and [ ... ] massive pop hooks . " Jeff Tamarkin of Allmusic said that the song demonstrated Swift was " a talent to be reckoned with " , because of her vocal delivery that , according to him , equated that of a seasoned professional . He selected " Tim McGraw " as Taylor Swift 's main highlight for its homage to Tim McGraw , commenting , " It 's a device that 's been used countless times in as many ways [ ... ] , yet it works as a hook here and manages to come off as an original idea . " Rick Bell of Country Standard Time stated , " It 's an impressive debut that , while she pines about lost love and Tim McGraw , will likely have others singing the praises of Taylor Swift . " Roger Holland of PopMatters praised the song , commenting it was " good enough to recall some of the best country singles of recent years " , such as Rachel Proctor 's " Me and Emily " and Julie Roberts 's " Break Down Here . " He complimented Swift 's vocal abilities on the song , saying it was executed " quite perfectly " , something she was unable to carry throughout the album Taylor Swift . However , Holland was repugnant of the song 's title . In 2007 , " Tim McGraw " was listed as a " Winning Song " by Broadcast Music Incorporated ( BMI ) .
= = Chart performance = =
On the week ending September 23 , 2006 , " Tim McGraw " debuted at number eighty @-@ six on the Billboard Hot 100 . After seventeen weeks of ascending and descending the chart , on the week ending January 13 , 2007 , the song reached its peak at number forty on the Billboard Hot 100 , where it maintained for two consecutive weeks . On the week ending February 3 , 2007 , the song spent its last week on the Billboard Hot 100 at number forty @-@ three , after a total of twenty weeks on the chart . The single was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America for the shipment of over 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 copies . As of November 2014 , " Tim McGraw " has sold 1 @.@ 5 million copies in the United States .
Prior to charting on the United States ' main chart , " Tim McGraw " charted on Billboard Hot Country Songs . On the week ending July 1 , 2006 , " Tim McGraw " debuted at number sixty on the Billboard Hot Country Songs . After spending twenty @-@ five weeks upon Billboard Hot Country Songs , the song reached the top ten with its new peak of number ten on the week ending December 16 , 2006 . In the proceeding six weeks , the song managed remained on the top ten until finding its peak at number six on the week ending January 27 , 2007 . " Tim McGraw " spent a total of thirty @-@ five weeks upon the Billboard Hot Country Songs chart .
= = Music video = =
The accompanying music video for " Tim McGraw " was directed by Trey Fanjoy . In regards to the video 's concept , Swift stated , " It deals with the haunting power of music and how hearing a song years after it was first popular can have such an emotional appeal . " Clayton Collins portrayed Swift 's love interest in the music video . He was cast because of his physical resemblance to the real subject of the song , in that they were both tall with dark hair . The video begins with Swift , dressed by a white sundress , as she lies on the grass of a lake @-@ bed and holds a transistor radio . Suddenly , the setting is switched to Collins as he drives a white and orange 1970 Chevrolet CST @-@ 10 . He then turns his radio on and ceases driving , coming to a complete stop on a road . As Collins facial expressions become more serious , he flashbacks to memories with Swift . Swift and Collins are seen frolicking in a field , lying beside another on the back of Collins ' CST @-@ 10 , staring at the stars together , holding hands as they walk , and slow dancing . When the song is in its final chorus , Collins arrives at a wooden cabin in his pick @-@ up truck . He runs up the staircase to discover an enveloped letter next to the door . He then sits on the staircase , opens the envelope , and reads the letter . The video transcends towards Swift playing an acoustic guitar as she leans against the wooden cabin . Cut @-@ scenes feature Swift lying on the lake @-@ bed and performing with a guitar next to the wooden cabin . The video concludes with Swift , once again , lying on the initial setting .
The video premiered on July 22 , 2006 on Great American Country . The video received a nomination for " Number One Streamed Video From a New Artist ( Rookie of the Year Award ) " at the web @-@ hosted 2006 CMT Online Awards , but lost to Lindsey Haun 's video for " Broken " . At the 2007 CMT Music Awards , the video won the CMT Music Award for " Breakthrough Video of the Year " . To date , the video has over 32 million views on YouTube .
= = Live performances = =
Swift spent six months of 2006 promoting " Tim McGraw " and Taylor Swift on a radio tour . She performed the song as she opened for Rascal Flatts on several dates , from October 19 to November 3 , 2006 , included on the Me and My Gang Tour ( 2006 – 07 ) . Swift performed " Tim McGraw " as the concert 's penultimate performance . She dressed in a black , knee @-@ length dress and red cowboy boots with a design of a skull and cross bones across it , playing an acoustic guitar . Swift requested for the audience to raise their cell phones in order to simulate a sky filled with stars , when the song reached the lyrics " He said the way my blue eyes shined / Put those Georgia stars to shame that night / I said that 's a lie . " She also performed the song when she served as opening act on twenty dates for George Strait 's 2007 United States tour , and selected dates for Brad Paisley 's Bonfires & Amplifiers Tour in 2007 . During mid @-@ 2007 , Swift engaged as the opening act on several dates for Tim McGraw 's and Faith Hill 's joint tour , Soul2Soul II Tour ( 2006 – 07 ) , where she again performed " Tim McGraw " . Swift performed the song while she was again opening for Rascal Flatts for their Still Feels Good Tour in 2008 .
Swift 's first broadcast performance of " Tim McGraw " was on October 24 , 2006 , on Good Morning America . She continued promotion for the track at Billboard headquarters , the 2007 Academy of Country Music Awards , The Engine Room , and a concert at the Apple Store in SoHo , New York , which was recorded and released as a live extended play ( EP ) , iTunes Live from SoHo , exclusively sold through the iTunes Store . Since completing promotion for Taylor Swift and its corresponding singles , Swift has performed " Tim McGraw " at the 2009 CMA Music Festival , the 2009 V Festival , and the Australian charity concert Sydney Sound Relief .
Swift performed " Tim McGraw " on all venues of her first headlining concert tour , the Fearless Tour , which extended from April 2009 to June 2010 . The performances of " Tim McGraw " set on a small platform located at the opposite end , parallel to the stage in the arena . Swift , dressed in a pastel sundress , sat on a wooden stool while performing with wooden acoustic guitar strapped to her shoulder . Swift then completed the performance standing and walking back to the main stage . As she worked her way back to the stage , she again hugged fans , squeezed their outstretched hands and scrawled quick autographs . Nicole Frehsee of Rolling Stone favored Swift 's performance of " Tim McGraw " at the August 27 , 2009 , concert at Madison Square Garden in New York City . Frehsee described the entire concert as an " elaborate spectacle that doesn 't slow down , even when the singer hauls her acoustic guitar into the audience to play a sweet , stripped down set of tunes including [ .. ] ' Tim McGraw ' . " Brandy McDonnel of The Oklahoman reported a massive sing @-@ along by the audience at the March 31 , 2010 , concert at the Ford Center in Oklahoma City . Molly Trust of Billboard attended the performance at the tour 's final concert on June 5 , 2010 , at Gillette Stadium in Foxborough , Massachusetts and conjectured that the performance 's setting was formed in order to " afford a better view to fans farther back . "
= = Track listings = =
US Maxi @-@ CD Single
" Tim McGraw " – 3 : 54
" Tim McGraw " ( radio edit ) – 3 : 41
" Tim McGraw " ( instrumental ) – 3 : 54
" Tim McGraw " ( enhanced video ) – 4 : 02
= = Charts = =
= = = Year @-@ end charts = = =
= Tuber oregonense =
Tuber oregonense , commonly known as the Oregon white truffle , is a species of edible truffle in the genus Tuber . Described as new to science in 2010 , the North American species is found on the western coast of the United States , from northern California to southern British Columbia west of the Cascade Range . A mycorrhizal fungus , it grows in a symbiotic association with Douglas fir . It overlaps in distribution with the closely related T. gibbosum , but they have different growing seasons : T. oregonense typically appears from October through March , while T. gibbosum grows from January to June . The fruit bodies of the fungus are roughly spherical to irregular in shape , and resemble small potatoes up to 5 cm ( 2 in ) in diameter . Inside the truffle is the gleba , which is initially white before it becomes a marbled tan color . The large , often thick @-@ walled , and strongly ornamented spores are produced in large spherical asci . The truffle is highly prized for its taste and aroma . Some individuals have claimed success in cultivating the truffles in Christmas tree farms .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
The species was first officially described and named in a 2010 Mycologia article , although Tuber oregonense had been previously used provisionally ( as Tuber oregonense Trappe & Bonito ) in American field guides and other popular publications for several years . The type specimen was collected from Benton County , Oregon on 3 February , 2007 along U.S. Route 20 in Oregon .
The specific epithet oregonense derives from the name Oregon and the Latin suffix -ense ( relating to ) , in reference to western Oregon being its central region of abundance . The fungus is commonly known as the Oregon white truffle . Truffle authority James Trappe initially intended to name the species as a variety of Tuber gibbosum ( i.e. , as Tuber gibbosum var. oregonense ) before molecular analysis revealed that genetic differences warranted distinction at the species level .
Tuber oregonense is part of the Gibbosum clade of the genus Tuber , which contains species that have " peculiar wall thickenings on hyphal tips emerging from the peridial surface at maturity . "
= = Description = =
The fruit bodies of T. oregonense are hypogeous ( growing in the ground ) , typically 0 @.@ 5 – 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 – 2 in ) broad , although specimens up to 7 @.@ 5 cm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) have been recorded . Smaller specimens are spherical or nearly so , and have random furrows ; larger specimens are more irregular in shape , lobed and deeply furrowed . Young fruit bodies have a white peridium , as the truffle matures it develops red to reddish @-@ brown or orangish @-@ brown patches ; with age it becomes orange @-@ brown to reddish @-@ brown overall and often develops cracks on the surface . The peridium is 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 4 mm thick , and the surface texture ranges from relatively smooth to covered with tiny " hairs " that are more dense in the furrows , and more scattered on the exposed lobes . The gleba is solid , in youth the fertile tissue is whitish and marbled with mostly narrow , white , hypha @-@ stuffed veins that emerge throughout the peridium to its surface . In maturity , the fertile tissue is light brown to brown from the color of the spores , but the marbling veins remain white . The odor and flavor of the flesh are mild in youth , but soon become strong , pungent and complex , or " truffly " .
The spores are ellipsoid to somewhat spindle @-@ shaped with narrowed ends , and light brownish in color . The size of the spores varies depending upon the type of asci in which they develop : in one @-@ spored asci they measure 42 @.@ 5 – 62 @.@ 5 by 17 @.@ 5 – 30 µm ; in two @-@ spored asci they are 32 @.@ 5 – 50 by 15 – 25 µm ; in three @-@ spored asci they are 27 @.@ 5 – 45 by 15 – 25 µm ; in four @-@ spored asci they are 25 – 38 @.@ 5 by 13 – 28 µm ; in five @-@ spored asci 28 – 34 by 22 – 25 µm ( all sizes excluding surface ornamentation ) . The spore walls are 2 – 3 µm thick and are covered with a honeycomb @-@ like ( alveolate ) network . The cavities of the honeycomb typically have five or six sides , and the corners form spines that are 5 – 7 µm tall by 0 @.@ 5 µm thick . A " microreticulum " appears in some spores when the light microscope objective is focused on the optical cross section but not on the spore wall surface , or on scanning electron microscopy micrographs of the surface . Young asci range in shape from spherical to broadly ellipsoid to ovoid ( egg @-@ shaped ) or pyriform ( pear @-@ shaped ) ; sometimes the base of the ascus is narrowed like a stipe , and measures up to 15 by 7 µm . Mature asci are spherical to broadly ellipsoid or misshapen from the pressure of crowded spores within . They are hyaline ( translucent ) , thin @-@ walled , 60 – 85 by 65 – 75 µm , 1 – 4- ( occasionally 5 ) -spored , and astipitate ( without a stipe ) at maturity .
The peridiopellis ( the cuticle of the peridium ) is 200 – 300 µm thick plus or minus 80 µm of tightly interwoven hyphae that are 3 – 5 ( sometimes up to 10 ) µm broad . The cells are short and have nearly hyaline walls that measure 0 @.@ 5 – 1 µm thick ; the interior veins emerge through the peridium the cells and often form a localized tissue of rounded cells up to 12 µm broad . The degree to which the surface is covered with fine " hairs " is variable ; these hairs are made of tangled hyphae and emergent thin @-@ walled hyphal tips 2 – 5 µm in diameter , some even and smooth , some with granulated surfaces and some with moniliform walls ( resembling a string of beads ) that are irregularly thickened by hyaline bands that are 0 @.@ 5 – 2 µm wide . The subpellis ( the tissue layer immediately under the pellis ) is abruptly differentiated from the pellis , 150 – 220 µm thick , and comprises interwoven , nearly hyaline , thin @-@ walled hyphae 2 – 10 µm wide with scattered cells up to 15 µm wide . The gleba is made of hyaline , thin @-@ walled , interwoven hyphae that are 2 – 7 µm broad with scattered cells that are inflated up to 15 µm .
= = = Similar species = = =
Tuber oregonense closely resembles Tuber gibbosum , which grows in the same habitats , but may be distinguished by the structure of its peridium , and differences in spores size and shape . Further , Tuber gibbosum grows from January to June .
= = = Edibility = = =
Tuber oregonense is a choice edible species . Its odor has been described as " " truffly " , a complex of garlic , spices , cheese , and " indefinable other essences " ; the fungus is prized after by commercial truffle harvesters and consumers for its intense fragrance . Because they grow in the topsoil and needles , they are considered to have a more " floral " and " herbal " flavor profile than related European truffles . Some individuals have claimed to have had success in growing the truffles in Christmas tree farms in Oregon . Techniques reportedly involve inoculating the ground under young Douglas fir trees with a slurry comprising ground @-@ up truffles mixed in water , or the feces of animals fed truffles . There is , however , no concrete evidence that these methods can be used to establish new truffle patches or to improve the productivity of existing patches .
= = Ecology , habitat and distribution = =
Like all Tuber species , T. oregonense is mycorrhizal . The fungus grows west of the Cascade Mountains from the southern Puget Sound region of Washington , south to southwestern Oregon at elevations from near sea level up to 425 m ( 1 @,@ 390 ft ) in pure stands of Pseudotsuga menziesii forests up to 100 years old , or Pseudotsuga mixed with Tsuga heterophylla , Picea sitchensis or Alnus species . The species has been commercially harvested in the Pacific Northwest since the 1980s. and is often found in Christmas tree plantations as young as five years . The Oregon Truffle Festival , held in Eugene yearly since 2006 to coincide with the maturing of the truffle in late January , features activities such as cultivation seminars and truffle hunting excursions . Fruit bodies are produced from September through the middle of March . The fungus is an important component of the diet of Northern flying squirrels , and comprises the majority of their diet at certain times of the year .
= Barnard 's Star =
Barnard 's Star / ˈbɑːrnərd / is a very @-@ low @-@ mass red dwarf about six light @-@ years away from Earth in the constellation of Ophiuchus . It is the fourth @-@ closest known individual star to the Sun ( after the three components of the Alpha Centauri system ) and the closest star in the Northern Hemisphere . Despite its proximity , at a dim apparent magnitude of about nine , it is not visible with the unaided eye ; however , it is much brighter in the infrared than it is in visible light .
The star is named after the American astronomer E. E. Barnard . He was not the first to observe the star ( it appeared on Harvard University plates in 1888 and 1890 ) , but in 1916 he measured its proper motion as 10 @.@ 3 arcseconds per year , which remains the largest proper motion of any star relative to the Solar System .
Barnard 's Star is among the most studied red dwarfs because of its proximity and favorable location for observation near the celestial equator . Historically , research on Barnard 's Star has focused on measuring its stellar characteristics , its astrometry , and also refining the limits of possible extrasolar planets . Although Barnard 's Star is an ancient star , it still experiences star flare events , one being observed in 1998 .
The star has also been the subject of some controversy . For a decade , from the early 1960s to the early 1970s , Peter van de Kamp claimed that there were one or more gas giants in orbit around it . Although the presence of small terrestrial planets around Barnard 's Star remains a possibility , Van de Kamp 's specific claims of large gas giants were refuted in the mid @-@ 1970s .
= = Overview = =
Barnard 's Star is a red dwarf of the dim spectral type M4 , and it is too faint to see without a telescope . Its apparent magnitude is 9 @.@ 5 . This compares with a magnitude of − 1 @.@ 5 for Sirius – the brightest star in the night sky – and about 6 @.@ 0 for the faintest objects visible with the naked eye ( this magnitude scale is logarithmic , so the magnitude of 9 @.@ 54 is only about 1 / 27 of the brightness of the faintest star that can be seen with the naked eye ( under good viewing conditions ) .
At 7 – 12 billion years of age , Barnard 's Star is considerably older than the Sun , which is 4 @.@ 5 billion years old , and it might be among the oldest stars in the Milky Way galaxy . Barnard 's Star has lost a great deal of rotational energy , and the periodic slight changes in its brightness indicate that it rotates once in 130 days ( the Sun rotates in 25 ) . Given its age , Barnard 's Star was long assumed to be quiescent in terms of stellar activity . However , in 1998 , astronomers observed an intense stellar flare , surprisingly showing that Barnard 's Star is a flare star . Barnard 's Star has the variable star designation V2500 Ophiuchi . In 2003 , Barnard 's Star presented the first detectable change in the radial velocity of a star caused by its motion . Further variability in the radial velocity of Barnard 's Star was attributed to its stellar activity .
The proper motion of Barnard 's Star corresponds to a relative lateral speed of 90 km / s . The 10 @.@ 3 seconds of arc it travels annually amount to a quarter of a degree in a human lifetime , roughly half the angular diameter of the full Moon .
The radial velocity of Barnard 's Star towards the Sun is measured from its blue shift to be 110 km / s . Combined with its proper motion , this gives a true velocity relative to the Sun of 143 km / s . Barnard 's Star will make its closest approach to the Sun around AD 11 @,@ 800 , when it approaches to within about 3 @.@ 75 light @-@ years . However , at that time , Barnard 's Star will not be the nearest star , since Proxima Centauri will have moved even closer to the Sun . Barnard 's Star will still be too dim to be seen with the naked eye at the time of its closest approach , since its apparent magnitude will be about 8 @.@ 5 then . After that it will gradually recede from the Sun .
Barnard 's Star has a mass of about 0 @.@ 14 solar masses ( M ☉ ) , and a radius 15 % to 20 % of that of the Sun . Thus , although Barnard 's Star has roughly 150 times the mass of Jupiter ( MJ ) , its radius is only 1 @.@ 5 to 2 @.@ 0 times larger , due to its much higher density . Its effective temperature is 3 @,@ 100 kelvins , and it has a visual luminosity of 0 @.@ 0004 solar luminosities . Barnard 's Star is so faint that if it were at the same distance from Earth as the Sun is , it would appear only 100 times brighter than a full moon , comparable to the brightness of the Sun at 80 astronomical units .
Barnard 's Star 's has 10 – 32 % of the solar metallicity . Metallicity is the proportion of stellar mass made up of elements heavier than helium and helps classify stars relative to the galactic population . Barnard 's Star seems to be typical of the old , red dwarf population II stars , yet these are also generally metal @-@ poor halo stars . While sub @-@ solar , Barnard 's Star 's metallicity is higher than that of a halo star and is in keeping with the low end of the metal @-@ rich disk star range ; this , plus its high space motion , have led to the designation " intermediate population II star " , between a halo and disk star .
= = Claims of a planetary system = =
For a decade from 1963 to about 1973 , a substantial number of astronomers accepted a claim by Peter van de Kamp that he had detected , by using astrometry , a perturbation in the proper motion of Barnard 's Star consistent with its having one or more planets comparable in mass with Jupiter . Van de Kamp had been observing the star from 1938 , attempting , with colleagues at the Swarthmore College observatory , to find minuscule variations of one micrometre in its position on photographic plates consistent with orbital perturbations that would indicate a planetary companion ; this involved as many as ten people averaging their results in looking at plates , to avoid systemic individual errors . Van de Kamp 's initial suggestion was a planet having about 1 @.@ 6 MJ at a distance of 4 @.@ 4 AU in a slightly eccentric orbit , and these measurements were apparently refined in a 1969 paper . Later that year , Van de Kamp suggested that there were two planets of 1 @.@ 1 and 0 @.@ 8 MJ .
Other astronomers subsequently repeated Van de Kamp 's measurements , and two papers in 1973 undermined the claim of a planet or planets . George Gatewood and Heinrich Eichhorn , at a different observatory and using newer plate measuring techniques , failed to verify the planetary companion . Another paper published by John L. Hershey four months earlier , also using the Swarthmore observatory , found that changes in the astrometric field of various stars correlated to the timing of adjustments and modifications that had been carried out on the refractor telescope 's objective lens ; the claimed planet was attributed to an artifact of maintenance and upgrade work . The affair has been discussed as part of a broader scientific review .
Van de Kamp never acknowledged any error and published a further claim of two planets ' existence as late as 1982 ; he died in 1995 . Wulff Heintz , Van de Kamp 's successor at Swarthmore and an expert on double stars , questioned his findings and began publishing criticisms from 1976 onwards . The two men were reported to have become estranged from each other because of this .
= = = Refining planetary boundaries = = =
While not completely ruling out the possibility of planets , null results for planetary companions continued throughout the 1980s and 1990s , the latest based on interferometric work with the Hubble Space Telescope in 1999 . By refining the values of a star 's motion , the mass and orbital boundaries for possible planets are tightened : in this way astronomers are often able to describe what types of planets cannot orbit a given star .
M dwarfs such as Barnard 's Star are more easily studied than larger stars in this regard because their lower masses render perturbations more obvious . Gatewood was thus able to show in 1995 that planets with 10 MJ ( the lower limit for brown dwarfs ) were impossible around Barnard 's Star , in a paper which helped refine the negative certainty regarding planetary objects in general . In 1999 , work with the Hubble Space Telescope further excluded planetary companions of 0 @.@ 8 MJ with an orbital period of less than 1 @,@ 000 days ( Jupiter 's orbital period is 4 @,@ 332 days ) , while Kuerster determined in 2003 that within the habitable zone around Barnard 's Star , planets are not possible with an " M sin i " value greater than 7 @.@ 5 times the mass of the Earth ( M ⊕ ) , or with a mass greater than 3 @.@ 1 times the mass of Neptune ( much lower than van de Kamp 's smallest suggested value ) .
Even though this research has greatly restricted the possible properties of planets around Barnard 's Star , it has not ruled them out completely ; terrestrial planets would be difficult to detect . NASA 's Space Interferometry Mission , which was to begin searching for extrasolar Earth @-@ like planets , was reported to have chosen Barnard 's Star as an early search target . However , this mission was shut down in 2010 . ESA 's similar Darwin interferometry mission had the same goal , but was stripped of funding in 2007 .
= = Exploration = =
= = = Project Daedalus = = =
Barnard 's Star was studied as part of Project Daedalus . Undertaken between 1973 and 1978 , the study suggested that rapid , unmanned travel to another star system was possible with existing or near @-@ future technology . Barnard 's Star was chosen as a target partly because it was believed to have planets .
The theoretical model suggested that a nuclear pulse rocket employing nuclear fusion ( specifically , electron bombardment of deuterium and helium @-@ 3 ) and accelerating for four years could achieve a velocity of 12 % of the speed of light . The star could then be reached in 50 years , within a human lifetime . Along with detailed investigation of the star and any companions , the interstellar medium would be examined and baseline astrometric readings performed .
The initial Project Daedalus model sparked further theoretical research . In 1980 , Robert Freitas suggested a more ambitious plan : a self @-@ replicating spacecraft intended to search for and make contact with extraterrestrial life . Built and launched in Jovian ( Jupiter 's ) orbit , it would reach Barnard 's Star in 47 years under parameters similar to those of the original Project Daedalus . Once at the star , it would begin automated self @-@ replication , constructing a factory , initially to manufacture exploratory probes and eventually to create a copy of the original spacecraft after 1 @,@ 000 years .
= = 1998 flare = =
In 1998 a stellar flare on Barnard 's Star was detected based on changes in the spectral emissions on July 17 , 1998 , during an unrelated search for variations in the proper motion . Four years passed before the flare was fully analyzed , at which point it was suggested that the flare 's temperature was 8000 K , more than twice the normal temperature of the star . Given the essentially random nature of flares , Diane Paulson , one of the authors of that study , noted that " the star would be fantastic for amateurs to observe " .
The flare was surprising because intense stellar activity is not expected in stars of such age . Flares are not completely understood , but are believed to be caused by strong magnetic fields , which suppress plasma convection and lead to sudden outbursts : strong magnetic fields occur in rapidly rotating stars , while old stars tend to rotate slowly . For Barnard 's Star to undergo an event of such magnitude is thus presumed to be a rarity . Research on the star 's periodicity , or changes in stellar activity over a given timescale , also suggest it ought to be quiescent ; 1998 research showed weak evidence for periodic variation in the star 's brightness , noting only one possible starspot over 130 days .
Stellar activity of this sort has created interest in using Barnard 's Star as a proxy to understand similar stars . It is hoped that photometric studies of its X @-@ ray and UV emissions will shed light on the large population of old M dwarfs in the galaxy . Such research has astrobiological implications : given that the habitable zones of M dwarfs are close to the star , any planets would be strongly influenced by solar flares , winds , and plasma ejection events .
= = Environment = =
Barnard 's Star shares much the same neighborhood as the Sun . The neighbors of Barnard 's Star are generally of red dwarf size , the smallest and most common star type . Its closest neighbor is currently the red dwarf Ross 154 , at 1 @.@ 66 parsecs ( 5 @.@ 41 light years ) distance . The Sun and Alpha Centauri are , respectively , the next closest systems . From Barnard 's Star , the Sun would appear on the diametrically opposite side of the sky at coordinates RA = 5h 57m 48.5s , Dec = − 04 ° 41 ′ 36 ″ , in the eastern part of the constellation Monoceros . The absolute magnitude of the Sun is 4 @.@ 83 , and at a distance of 1 @.@ 834 parsecs , it would be a first @-@ magnitude star , as Pollux is from the Earth .
= Battle of Dyrrhachium ( 1081 ) =
The Battle of Dyrrhachium ( near present @-@ day Durrës in Albania ) took place on October 18 , 1081 between the Byzantine Empire , led by the Emperor Alexios I Komnenos ( r . 1081 – 1118 ) , and the Normans of southern Italy under Robert Guiscard , Duke of Apulia and Calabria . The battle was fought outside the city of Dyrrhachium ( also known as Durazzo ) , the Byzantine capital of Illyria , and ended in a Norman victory .
Following the Norman conquest of Byzantine Italy and Saracen Sicily , the Byzantine emperor , Michael VII Doukas ( r . 1071 – 1078 ) , betrothed his son to Robert Guiscard 's daughter . When Michael was deposed , Robert took this as an excuse to invade the Byzantine Empire in 1081 . His army laid siege to Dyrrhachium , but his fleet was defeated by the Venetians . On October 18 , the Normans engaged a Byzantine army under Alexios I Komnenos outside Dyrrhachium . The battle began with the Byzantine right wing routing the Norman left wing , which broke and fled . Varangian mercenaries joined in the pursuit of the fleeing Normans , but became separated from the main force and were massacred . Norman knights in the centre attacked the Byzantine centre and routed it , causing the bulk of the Byzantine army to rout .
After this victory , the Normans took Dyrrhachium in February 1082 and advanced inland , capturing most of Macedonia and Thessaly . Robert was then forced to leave Greece to deal with an attack on his ally , the Pope , by the Holy Roman Emperor , Henry IV ( r . 1084 – 1105 ) . Robert left his son Bohemond in charge of the army in Greece . Bohemond was initially successful , defeating Alexios in several battles , but was defeated by Alexios outside Larissa . Forced to retreat to Italy , Bohemond lost all the territory gained by the Normans in the campaign . The Byzantine recovery began the Komnenian restoration .
= = Background = =
The Normans first arrived in Southern Italy in 1015 from northern France and served local Lombard lords as mercenaries against the Byzantine Empire . As they were paid with lands , soon they were powerful enough to challenge Papal authority ; in 1054 , they defeated the Pope at the Battle of Civitate , forcing him to acknowledge their authority . In 1059 , the Pope made Robert Guiscard , of the Hauteville family , Duke of Apulia , Calabria , and Sicily . However , most of Apulia and Calabria were in Byzantine hands , and Sicily was in Saracen hands .
By 1071 , Robert , together with his brother Roger , had taken over the last Byzantine stronghold in Italy , Bari . By the next year , they conquered all of Sicily , ending the Islamic Emirate of Sicily . In 1073 , the Byzantine Emperor Michael VII sent an envoy to Robert offering the hand of his son Constantine to Robert 's daughter Helena . Guiscard accepted the offer and sent his daughter to Constantinople . However , in 1078 , Michael was overthrown by Nicephorus Botaneiates , an event that destroyed any chances Helena had for the throne . This gave Robert a motive to invade the empire claiming his daughter had been mistreated ; however , his intervention was delayed by a revolt in Italy .
Robert conscripted all men of a fighting age into the army , which he refitted . Meanwhile , he sent an ambassador to the Byzantine court with orders to demand proper treatment for Helena and to win over the Domestic of the Schools , Alexios . The results of these attempts remain unknown , but the ambassador fell under Alexios 's charm and as he was returning to Italy , he heard of Alexios 's successful coup against Botaneiates , by which he became Alexios I Komnenos .
When the ambassador returned , he urged Robert to make peace , claiming that Alexios wanted nothing but friendship with the Normans . Robert had no intention of peace ; he sent his son Bohemond with an advance force towards Greece and Bohemond landed at Aulon , with Robert following shortly after .
= = Prelude = =
The Norman fleet of 150 ships including 60 horse transports set off towards the Byzantine Empire at the end of May 1081 . The army numbered 30 @,@ 000 men , backed up by 1 @,@ 300 Norman knights . The fleet sailed to Avalona in Byzantine territory ; they were joined by several ships from Ragusa , a republic in the Balkans who were enemies of the Byzantines .
Robert soon left Avalona and sailed to the island of Corfu , which surrendered because of a small garrison . Having won a bridgehead and a clear path for reinforcements from Italy , he advanced on the city of Dyrrhachium , the capital and chief port of Illyria . The city was well defended on a long , narrow peninsula running parallel to the coast , but separated by marshlands . Guiscard brought his army onto the peninsula and pitched camp outside the city walls . However , as Robert 's fleet sailed to Dyrrhachium , it was hit by a storm and lost several ships .
Meanwhile , when Alexios heard that the Normans were preparing to invade Byzantine territory , he sent an ambassador to the Doge of Venice , Domenico Selvo , requesting aid and offering trading rights in return . The Doge , alarmed by Norman control of the Strait of Otranto , took command of the Venetian fleet and sailed at once , surprising the Norman fleet under the command of Bohemond as night was falling . The Normans counter @-@ attacked tenaciously , but their inexperience in naval combat betrayed them . The experienced Venetian navy attacked in a close formation known as " sea harbour " and together with their use of Greek fire " bombs " , the Norman line scattered , and the Venetian fleet sailed into Dyrrhachium 's harbour .
= = Siege of Dyrrhachium = =
Robert was not discouraged by this naval defeat , and began his siege of Dyrrhachium . In command of the garrison at Dyrrhachium was the experienced general George Palaeologus , sent by Alexios with orders to hold out at all costs while Alexios himself mustered an army to relieve the city .
Meanwhile , a Byzantine fleet arrived and – after joining with the Venetian fleet – attacked the Norman fleet , which was again routed . The garrison at Dyrrhachium managed to hold out all summer , despite Robert 's catapults , ballistae and siege tower . The garrison made continuous sallies from the city ; on one occasion , Palaeologus fought all day with an arrowhead in his skull . Another sally succeeded in destroying Robert 's siege tower .
Robert 's camp was struck by disease ; according to contemporary historian Anna Comnena up to 10 @,@ 000 men died , including 500 knights . Even so , the situation of the Dyrrhachium garrison grew desperate because of the effects of Norman siege weapons . Alexios learned of this while he was in Salonica with his army so he advanced in full force against the Normans . According to Comnena , Alexios had about 20 @,@ 000 men ; historian John Haldon puts the army 's size between 18 @,@ 000 and 20 @,@ 000 men , while John Birkenmeier estimates it between 20 @,@ 000 – 25 @,@ 000 men . It consisted of Thracian and Macedonian tagmata , which numbered about 5 @,@ 000 men ; the elite excubitors and vestiaritai units , which numbered around 1 @,@ 000 men ; a force of Manichaeans which comprised 2 @,@ 800 men , Thessalian cavalry , Balkan conscripts , Armenian infantry and other light troops . As well as the native troops , the Byzantines were joined by 2 @,@ 000 Turkish and 1 @,@ 000 Frankish mercenaries , about 1 @,@ 000 Varangians and 7 @,@ 000 Turkish auxiliaries sent by the Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm . Alexios also withdrew the tagmas from Heraclea Pontica and the remaining Byzantine holdings in Asia Minor and by doing so , he effectively left them to be overrun by the Turks .
= = Battle = =
= = = Initial moves = = =
Alexios advanced from Salonica and pitched camp on the river Charzanes near Dyrrhachium on October 15 . He held a war council there and sought advice from his senior officers ; among them was George Palaiologos , who had managed to sneak out of the city . A majority of the senior officers , including Palaiologos , urged caution , noting that time was with the Emperor . Alexios , however , favoured an immediate assault , hoping to catch Guiscard 's army from the rear , while they were still besieging the city . Alexios moved his army to the hills opposite the city , planning to attack the Normans the next day .
Guiscard , however , had been informed of Alexios ' arrival by his scouts and on the night of October 17 , he moved his army from the peninsula to the mainland . Upon learning of Guiscard 's move , Alexios revised his battle plan . He split his army into three divisions , with the left wing under the command of Gregory Pakourianos , the right wing under the command of Nikephoros Melissenos , and himself in command of the centre . Guiscard formed his battle line opposite Alexios 's , with the right wing under the command of the Count of Giovinazzo , the left under Bohemond and Guiscard facing Alexios in the centre .
The Varangians had been ordered to march just in front of the main line with a strong division of archers a little behind them . The archers had been commanded to move in front of the Varangians and fire a volley before retreating behind them . The archers continued this tactic until the army neared contact .
As the opposing armies closed in , Guiscard sent a detachment of cavalry positioned in the centre to feint an attack on the Byzantine positions . Guiscard hoped the feint would draw up the Varangians ; however , this plan failed when the cavalry was forced back by the archers . The Norman right wing suddenly charged forward to the point where the Byzantine left and centre met , directing its attack against the Varangian left flank . The Varangians stood their ground while the Byzantine left , including some of Alexios ' elite troops , attacked the Normans . The Norman formation disintegrated and the routed Normans fled towards the beach . There , according to Comnena , they were rallied by Guiscard 's wife , Sikelgaita , described as " like another Pallas , if not a second Athena " .
= = = Byzantine collapse = = =
In the meantime , the Byzantine right and centre had been engaging in skirmishes with the Normans opposite them . However , with the collapse of the Norman right , the knights were in danger of being outflanked . At this point , the Varangians ( mainly Anglo @-@ Saxons who had left England after the Norman Conquest ) joined in the pursuit of the Norman right . With their massive battle axes , the Varangians attacked the Norman knights , who were driven away after their horses panicked . The Varangians soon became separated from the main force and exhausted so they were in no position to resist an assault . Guiscard sent a strong force of spearmen and crossbowmen against the Varangian flank and inflicted heavy casualties on them . The few remaining Varangians fled into the church of the Archangel Michael . The Normans immediately set the church on fire , and all Varangians perished in the blaze .
Meanwhile , George Palaiologos sortied out of Dyrrhachium , but failed to save the situation . Alexios 's ally , Serbian King Constantine Bodin stayed aside with his army , intending to await the outcome of the battle . When the Byzantines were defeated and started to flee , Bodin retreated with his army . The Turks who had been lent to him by the Seljuk Sultan Suleyman I followed Constantine 's example .
Deprived of his left wing ( still in pursuit of the Norman right ) , Alexios was exposed in the centre . Guiscard sent his heavy cavalry against the Byzantine centre . They first routed the Byzantine skirmishers before breaking into small detachments and smashing into various points of the Byzantine line . This charge broke the Byzantine lines and caused them to rout . The imperial camp , which had been left unguarded , fell to the Normans .
Alexios and his guards resisted as long as they could before retreating . As they retreated , Alexios was separated from his guard and was attacked by Norman soldiers . While escaping , he was wounded in his forehead and lost a lot of blood , but eventually made it back to Ohrid , where he regrouped his army .
= = Aftermath = =
The battle was a heavy defeat for Alexios . Historian Jonathan Harris states that the defeat was " every bit as severe as that at Manzikert . " He lost about 5 @,@ 000 of his men , including most of the Varangians . Norman losses are unknown , but John Haldon claims they are substantial as both wings broke and fled . Historian Robert Holmes states : " The new knightly tactic of charging with the lance couched – tucked firmly under the arm to unite the impact of man and horse – proved a battle @-@ winner . "
George Palaiologos had not been able to re @-@ enter the city after the battle and left with the main force . The defense of the citadel was left to the Venetians , while the city itself was left to the Count of the Tent ( or Byzantine provincial administrators ) mobilizing from Arbanon ( i.e. , ἐξ Ἀρβάνων ὁρμωμένω Κομισκόρτη ; the term Κομισκόρτη is short for κόμης της κόρτης meaning " Count of the Tent " ) .
In February 1082 , Dyrrhachium fell after a Venetian or Amalfian citizen opened the gates to the Normans . The Norman army proceeded to take most of northern Greece without facing much resistance . While Guiscard was in Kastoria , messengers arrived from Italy , bearing news that Apulia , Calabria , and Campania were in revolt . He also learned that the Holy Roman Emperor , Henry IV , was at the gates of Rome and besieging Pope Gregory VII , a Norman ally . Alexios had negotiated with Henry and given him 360 @,@ 000 gold pieces in return for an alliance . Henry responded by invading Italy and attacking the Pope . Guiscard rushed to Italy , leaving Bohemond in command of the army in Greece .
Alexios , desperate for money , ordered the confiscation of all the church 's treasure . With this money , Alexios mustered an army near Thessalonica and went to fight Bohemond . However , Bohemond defeated Alexios in two battles : one near Arta and the other near Ioannina . This left Bohemond in control of Macedonia and nearly all of Thessaly . Bohemond advanced with his army against the city of Larissa . Meanwhile , Alexios had mustered a new army and with 7 @,@ 000 Seljuk Turks sent by the Sultan , he advanced on the Normans at Larissa and defeated them . The demoralised and unpaid Norman army returned to the coast and sailed back to Italy . Meanwhile , Alexios granted the Venetians a commercial colony in Constantinople , as well as exemption from trading duties in return for their renewed aid . They responded by recapturing Dyrrhachium and Corfu and returning them to the Byzantine Empire . These victories returned the Empire to its previous status quo and marked the beginning of the Komnenian restoration .
= = = Primary = = =
Anna Comnena ( translated by E. R. A. Sewter ) . The Alexiad . London : Penguin Books , 1996 , ISBN 0 @-@ 14 @-@ 044215 @-@ 4 .
= = = Secondary = = =
= Zyklon B =
Zyklon B ( German pronunciation : [ tsykloːn ˈbeː ] ; anglicized / ˈzaɪklɒn ˈbiː / or translated Cyclone B ) was the trade name of a cyanide @-@ based pesticide invented in Germany in the early 1920s . It consisted of hydrogen cyanide ( prussic acid ) , a cautionary eye irritant , and one of several adsorbents such as diatomaceous earth . The product is infamous for its use by Nazi Germany during the Holocaust to murder a million people in gas chambers installed at Auschwitz @-@ Birkenau , Majdanek , and other extermination camps .
Hydrogen cyanide , a poisonous gas that interferes with cellular respiration , was first used as a pesticide in California in the 1880s . Research at Degesch of Germany led to the development of Zyklon ( later known as Zyklon A ) , a pesticide which released hydrogen cyanide upon exposure to water and heat . It was banned after a similar product was used by Germany as a chemical weapon in World War I. In 19 | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
Summer Long by Brian Aldiss . The film was produced by Kathleen Kennedy , Spielberg and Bonnie Curtis . It stars Haley Joel Osment , Jude Law , Frances O 'Connor , Brendan Gleeson and William Hurt . Set in a futuristic post @-@ climate change society , A.I. tells the story of David ( Osment ) , a childlike android uniquely programmed with the ability to love .
Development of A.I. originally began with producer @-@ director Stanley Kubrick in the early 1970s . Kubrick hired a series of writers until the mid @-@ 1990s , including Brian Aldiss , Bob Shaw , Ian Watson , and Sara Maitland . The film languished in protracted development for years , partly because Kubrick felt computer @-@ generated imagery was not advanced enough to create the David character , whom he believed no child actor would convincingly portray . In 1995 , Kubrick handed A.I. to Spielberg , but the film did not gain momentum until Kubrick 's death in 1999 . Spielberg remained close to Watson 's film treatment for the screenplay . The film was greeted with generally positive reviews from critics , grossed approximately $ 235 million , and was nominated for two Academy Awards at the 74th Academy Awards for Best Visual Effects and Best Original Score ( by John Williams ) . The film is dedicated to Stanley Kubrick .
= = Plot = =
In the late 21st century , global warming has flooded the coastlines , wiping out coastal cities ( such as Amsterdam , Venice , and New York City ) and drastically reducing the human population . There is a new class of robots called Mecha , advanced humanoids capable of emulating thoughts and emotions .
David ( Haley Joel Osment ) , a prototype model created by Cybertronics of New Jersey , is designed to resemble a human child and to display love for its human owners . They test their creation with one of their employees , Henry Swinton ( Sam Robards ) , and his wife Monica ( Frances O 'Connor ) . The Swintons ' son , Martin ( Jake Thomas ) , had been placed in suspended animation until a cure could be found for his rare disease . Initially frightened of David , Monica eventually warms up enough to him to activate his imprinting protocol , which irreversibly causes David to have an enduring childlike love for her . He is also befriended by Teddy ( Jack Angel ) , a robotic teddy bear , who takes it upon himself to care for David 's well @-@ being .
A cure is found for Martin and he is brought home ; as he recovers , it becomes clear he does not want a sibling and soon makes moves to cause issues for David . First , he attempts to make Teddy choose whom he likes more . He then makes David promise to do something and in return Martin will tell Monica that he loves his new " brother " , making her love him more . The promise David makes is to go to Monica in the middle of the night and cut off a lock of her hair . This upsets the parents , particularly Henry , who fears that the scissors are a weapon , and warns Monica that a robot programmed to love may also be able to hate .
At a pool party , one of Martin 's friends unintentionally activates David 's self @-@ protection programming by poking him with a knife . David grabs Martin , apparently for protection , but they both fall into the pool . David sinks to the bottom while still clinging to Martin . Martin is saved from drowning , but Henry mistakes David 's fear during the pool incident as hate for Martin .
Henry persuades Monica to return David to Cybertronics , where he will be destroyed . However , Monica cannot bring herself to do this and , instead , tearfully abandons David in the forest ( with Teddy ) to hide as an unregistered Mecha .
David is captured for an anti @-@ Mecha " Flesh Fair " , an event where obsolete and unlicensed Mecha are destroyed in front of cheering crowds . David is nearly killed , but the crowd is swayed by his fear ( since Mecha do not plea for their lives ) into believing he is human and he escapes with Gigolo Joe ( Jude Law ) , a male prostitute Mecha on the run after being framed for the murder of a client by the client 's husband .
The two set out to find the Blue Fairy , who David remembers from the story The Adventures of Pinocchio . He is convinced that the Blue Fairy will transform him into a human boy , allowing Monica to love him and take him home .
Joe and David make their way to Rouge City , a Las Vegas @-@ esque resort . Information from a holographic answer engine called " Dr. Know " ( Robin Williams ) eventually leads them to the top of Rockefeller Center in the flooded ruins of Manhattan . There , David meets an identical copy of himself and , believing he is not special , becomes filled with anger and destroys the copy Mecha . David then meets his human creator , Professor Allen Hobby ( William Hurt ) , who excitedly tells David that finding him was a test , which has demonstrated the reality of his love and desire . However , David learns that he is the namesake and image of Professor Hobby 's deceased son and that many copies of David , along with female versions called Arlene , are already being manufactured .
Sadly realizing that he is not unique , a disheartened David attempts to commit suicide by falling from a ledge into the ocean , but Joe rescues him with their stolen amphibicopter . David tells Joe he saw the Blue Fairy underwater and wants to go down to her . At that moment , Joe is captured by the authorities with the use of an electromagnet , but he sets the amphibicopter on submerge . David and Teddy take it to the fairy , which turns out to be a statue from a submerged attraction at Coney Island . Teddy and David become trapped when the Wonder Wheel falls on their vehicle . Believing the Blue Fairy to be real , David asks to be turned into a real boy , repeating his wish without an end , until the ocean freezes in another ice age and his internal power source drains away .
Two thousand years later , humans are extinct and Manhattan is buried under several hundred feet of glacial ice . The now highly advanced Mecha have evolved into an intelligent , silicon @-@ based form . On their project to study humans — believing it was the key to understanding the meaning of existence — they find David and Teddy and discover they are original Mecha who knew living humans , making the pair very special and unique .
David is revived and walks to the frozen Blue Fairy statue , which cracks and collapses as he touches it . Having downloaded and comprehended his memories , the advanced Mecha use these to reconstruct the Swinton home and explain to David via an interactive image of the Blue Fairy ( Meryl Streep ) that it is impossible to make him human . However , at David 's insistence , they recreate Monica from DNA in the lock of her hair , which Teddy had saved . One of the Mecha warns David that the clone can live for only a single day and that the process cannot be repeated . The next morning , David is reunited with Monica and spends the happiest day of his life with her and Teddy . Monica tells David that she loves him and has always loved him as she drifts to sleep for the last time . David lies down next to her , closes his eyes and goes " to that place where dreams are born " . Teddy climbs onto the bed and watches as David and Monica lie peacefully together .
= = Cast = =
Haley Joel Osment as David , an innovative Mecha created by Cybertronics and programmed with the ability to love . He is adopted by Henry and Monica Swinton , but a sibling rivalry ensues once their son Martin comes out of suspended animation . Osment was Spielberg 's first and only choice for the role . Osment avoided blinking his eyes to perfectly portray the character , and " programmed " himself with good posture for realism .
Jude Law as Gigolo Joe , a male prostitute Mecha programmed with the ability to mimic love , like David , but in a different sense . To prepare for the role , Law studied the acting of Fred Astaire and Gene Kelly .
Frances O 'Connor as Monica Swinton , David 's adopted mother who reads him The Adventures of Pinocchio . She is first displeased to have David in her home but soon starts loving him .
Sam Robards as Henry Swinton , an employee at Cybertronics , husband of Monica and David 's adopted father . Henry eventually sees David as dangerous to his family .
Jake Thomas as Martin Swinton , Henry and Monica 's first son , who was placed in suspended animation and David 's adopted brother . When Martin comes back , he convinces David to cut off a lock of Monica 's hair .
William Hurt as Professor Allen Hobby , responsible for shepherding the creation of David . He resides in New York City , which is crippled by the effects of global warming but still functioning as Cybertronics ' headquarters . David is modeled after Hobby 's own son , also named David , who died at a young age .
Brendan Gleeson as Lord Johnson @-@ Johnson , the owner and master of ceremonies of the Flesh Fair .
Ashley Scott as Gigolo Jane
Voices
Jack Angel as Teddy , David 's android teddy bear .
Ben Kingsley as a Mecha specialist . He is also uncredited as the narrator .
Robin Williams as Dr. Know , a holographic answer engine . ( Cameo )
Meryl Streep as The Blue Fairy . ( Cameo )
Chris Rock as a Mecha comedian destroyed at the Flesh Fair . ( Cameo )
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Kubrick began development on an adaptation of Super @-@ Toys Last All Summer Long in the early 1970s , hiring the short story 's author , Brian Aldiss , to write a film treatment . In 1985 , Kubrick brought longtime friend Steven Spielberg on board to produce the film , along with Jan Harlan . Warner Bros. agreed to co @-@ finance A.I. and cover distribution duties . The film labored in development hell , and Aldiss was fired by Kubrick over creative differences in 1989 . Bob Shaw served as writer very briefly , leaving after six weeks because of Kubrick 's demanding work schedule , and Ian Watson was hired as the new writer in March 1990 . Aldiss later remarked , " Not only did the bastard fire me , he hired my enemy [ Watson ] instead . " Kubrick handed Watson The Adventures of Pinocchio for inspiration , calling A.I. " a picaresque robot version of Pinocchio " .
Three weeks later Watson gave Kubrick his first story treatment , and concluded his work on A.I. in May 1991 with another treatment , at 90 pages . Gigolo Joe was originally conceived as a GI Mecha , but Watson suggested changing him to a male prostitute . Kubrick joked , " I guess we lost the kiddie market . " In the meantime , Kubrick dropped A.I. to work on a film adaptation of Wartime Lies , feeling computer animation was not advanced enough to create the David character . However , after the release of Spielberg 's Jurassic Park ( with its innovative use of computer @-@ generated imagery ) , it was announced in November 1993 that production would begin in 1994 . Dennis Muren and Ned Gorman , who worked on Jurassic Park , became visual effects supervisors , but Kubrick was displeased with their previsualization , and with the expense of hiring Industrial Light & Magic .
= = = Pre @-@ production = = =
In early 1994 , the film was in pre @-@ production with Christopher " Fangorn " Baker as concept artist , and Sara Maitland assisting on the story , which gave it " a feminist fairy @-@ tale focus " . Maitland said that Kubrick never referred to the film as A.I. , but as Pinocchio . Chris Cunningham became the new visual effects supervisor . Some of his unproduced work for A.I. can be seen on the DVD , The Work of Director Chris Cunningham . Aside from considering computer animation , Kubrick also had Joseph Mazzello do a screen test for the lead role . Cunningham helped assemble a series of " little robot @-@ type humans " for the David character . " We tried to construct a little boy with a movable rubber face to see whether we could make it look appealing , " producer Jan Harlan reflected . " But it was a total failure , it looked awful . " Hans Moravec was brought in as a technical consultant . Meanwhile , Kubrick and Harlan thought A.I. would be closer to Steven Spielberg 's sensibilities as director . Kubrick handed the position to Spielberg in 1995 , but Spielberg chose to direct other projects , and convinced Kubrick to remain as director . The film was put on hold due to Kubrick 's commitment to Eyes Wide Shut ( 1999 ) . After the filmmaker 's death in March 1999 , Harlan and Christiane Kubrick approached Spielberg to take over the director 's position . By November 1999 , Spielberg was writing the screenplay based on Watson 's 90 @-@ page story treatment . It was his first solo screenplay credit since Close Encounters of the Third Kind ( 1977 ) . Spielberg remained close to Watson 's treatment , but removed various sex scenes with Gigolo Joe . Pre @-@ production was briefly halted during February 2000 , because Spielberg pondered directing other projects , which were Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone , Minority Report and Memoirs of a Geisha . The following month Spielberg announced that A.I. would be his next project , with Minority Report as a follow @-@ up . When he decided to fast track A.I. , Spielberg brought Chris Baker back as concept artist .
= = = Filming = = =
The original start date was July 10 , 2000 , but filming was delayed until August . Aside from a couple of weeks shooting on location in Oxbow Regional Park in Oregon , A.I. was shot entirely using sound stages at Warner Bros. Studios and the Spruce Goose Dome in Long Beach , south LA . The Swinton house was constructed on Stage 16 , while Stage 20 was used for Rouge City and other sets . Spielberg copied Kubrick 's obsessively secretive approach to filmmaking by refusing to give the complete script to cast and crew , banning press from the set , and making actors sign confidentiality agreements . Social robotics expert Cynthia Breazeal served as technical consultant during production . Haley Joel Osment and Jude Law applied prosthetic makeup daily in an attempt to look shinier and robotic . Costume designer Bob Ringwood ( Batman , Troy ) studied pedestrians on the Las Vegas Strip for his influence on the Rouge City extras . Spielberg found post @-@ production on A.I. difficult because he was simultaneously preparing to shoot Minority Report .
= = Soundtrack = =
The film 's soundtrack was released by Warner Sunset Records in 2001 . The original score was composed by John Williams and featured singers Lara Fabian on two songs and Josh Groban on one . The film 's score also had a limited release as an official " For your consideration Academy Promo " , as well as a complete score issue by La @-@ La Land Records in 2015 . The band Ministry appears in the film playing the song " What About Us ? " ( but the song does not appear on the official soundtrack album ) .
= = Release = =
= = = Marketing = = =
Warner Bros. used an alternate reality game titled The Beast to promote the film . Over forty websites were created by Atomic Pictures in New York City ( kept online at Cloudmakers.org ) including the website for Cybertronics Corp. There were to be a series of video games for the Xbox video game console that followed the storyline of The Beast , but they went undeveloped . To avoid audiences mistaking A.I. for a family film , no action figures were created , although Hasbro released a talking Teddy following the film 's release in June 2001 .
In November 2000 , during production , a video @-@ only webcam ( dubbed the " Bagel Cam " ) was placed in the craft services truck on the film 's set at the Queen Mary Dome in Long Beach , California . Steven Spielberg , producer Kathleen Kennedy and various other production personnel visited the camera and interacted with fans over the course of three days .
A.I. had its premiere at the Venice Film Festival in 2001 .
= = = Box office = = =
The film opened in 3 @,@ 242 theaters in the United States on June 29 , 2001 , earning $ 29 @,@ 352 @,@ 630 during its opening weekend . A.I went on to gross $ 78 @.@ 62 million in US totals as well as $ 157 @.@ 31 million in foreign countries , coming to a worldwide total of $ 235 @.@ 93 million .
= = = Critical response = = =
The film received generally positive reviews . Based on 190 reviews collected by Rotten Tomatoes , 73 % of the critics gave the film positive notices with a score of 6 @.@ 6 out of 10 . The website described the critical consensus perceiving the film as " a curious , not always seamless , amalgamation of Kubrick 's chilly bleakness and Spielberg 's warm @-@ hearted optimism . [ The film ] is , in a word , fascinating . " By comparison , Metacritic collected an average score of 65 , based on 32 reviews , which is considered favorable .
Producer Jan Harlan stated that Kubrick " would have applauded " the final film , while Kubrick 's widow Christiane also enjoyed A.I. Brian Aldiss admired the film as well : " I thought what an inventive , intriguing , ingenious , involving film this was . There are flaws in it and I suppose I might have a personal quibble but it 's so long since I wrote it . " Of the film 's ending , he wondered how it might have been had Kubrick directed the film : " That is one of the ' ifs ' of film history - at least the ending indicates Spielberg adding some sugar to Kubrick 's wine . The actual ending is overly sympathetic and moreover rather overtly engineered by a plot device that does not really bear credence . But it 's a brilliant piece of film and of course it 's a phenomenon because it contains the energies and talents of two brilliant filmmakers . " Richard Corliss heavily praised Spielberg 's direction , as well as the cast and visual effects . Roger Ebert awarded the film 4 out of 4 stars , saying that it was " Audacious , technically masterful , challenging , sometimes moving [ and ] ceaselessly watchable.Leonard Maltin gives the film a not @-@ so @-@ positive review in his Movie Guide , giving it two stars out of four , writing : " [ The ] intriguing story draws us in , thanks in part to Osment 's exceptional performance , but takes several wrong turns ; ultimately , it just doesn 't work . Spielberg rewrote the adaptation Stanley Kubrick commissioned of the Brian Aldiss short story ' Super Toys Last All Summer Long ' ; [ the ] result is a curious and uncomfortable hybrid of Kubrick and Spielberg sensibilities . " However , he calls John Williams ' music score " striking " . Jonathan Rosenbaum compared A.I. to Solaris ( 1972 ) , and praised both " Kubrick for proposing that Spielberg direct the project and Spielberg for doing his utmost to respect Kubrick 's intentions while making it a profoundly personal work . " Film critic Armond White , of the New York Press , praised the film noting that " each part of David ’ s journey through carnal and sexual universes into the final eschatological devastation becomes as profoundly philosophical and contemplative as anything by cinema ’ s most thoughtful , speculative artists – Borzage , Ozu , Demy , Tarkovsky . " Filmmaker Billy Wilder hailed A.I. as " the most underrated film of the past few years . " When British filmmaker Ken Russell saw the film , he wept during the ending .
Mick LaSalle gave a largely negative review . " A.I. exhibits all its creators ' bad traits and none of the good . So we end up with the structureless , meandering , slow @-@ motion endlessness of Kubrick combined with the fuzzy , cuddly mindlessness of Spielberg . " Dubbing it Spielberg 's " first boring movie " , LaSalle also believed the robots at the end of the film were aliens , and compared Gigolo Joe to the " useless " Jar Jar Binks , yet praised Robin Williams for his portrayal of a futuristic Albert Einstein . Peter Travers gave a mixed review , concluding " Spielberg cannot live up to Kubrick 's darker side of the future . " But he still put the film on his top ten list that year for best movies . David Denby in The New Yorker criticized A.I. for not adhering closely to his concept of the Pinocchio character . Spielberg responded to some of the criticisms of the film , stating that many of the " so called sentimental " elements of A.I. , including the ending , were in fact Kubrick 's and the darker elements were his own . However , Sara Maitland , who worked on the project with Kubrick in the 1990s , claimed that one of the reasons Kubrick never started production on A.I. was because he had a hard time making the ending work . James Berardinelli found the film " consistently involving , with moments of near @-@ brilliance , but far from a masterpiece . In fact , as the long @-@ awaited ' collaboration ' of Kubrick and Spielberg , it ranks as something of a disappointment . " Of the film 's highly debated finale , he claimed , " There is no doubt that the concluding 30 minutes are all Spielberg ; the outstanding question is where Kubrick 's vision left off and Spielberg 's began . "
Screenwriter Ian Watson has speculated , " Worldwide , A.I. was very successful ( and the 4th highest earner of the year ) but it didn 't do quite so well in America , because the film , so I 'm told , was too poetical and intellectual in general for American tastes . Plus , quite a few critics in America misunderstood the film , thinking for instance that the Giacometti @-@ style beings in the final 20 minutes were aliens ( whereas they were robots of the future who had evolved themselves from the robots in the earlier part of the film ) and also thinking that the final 20 minutes were a sentimental addition by Spielberg , whereas those scenes were exactly what I wrote for Stanley and exactly what he wanted , filmed faithfully by Spielberg . "
In 2002 , Spielberg told film critic Joe Leydon that " People pretend to think they know Stanley Kubrick , and think they know me , when most of them don 't know either of us " . " And what 's really funny about that is , all the parts of A.I. that people assume were Stanley 's were mine . And all the parts of A.I. that people accuse me of sweetening and softening and sentimentalizing were all Stanley 's . The teddy bear was Stanley 's . The whole last 20 minutes of the movie was completely Stanley 's . The whole first 35 , 40 minutes of the film – all the stuff in the house – was word for word , from Stanley 's screenplay . This was Stanley 's vision . " " Eighty percent of the critics got it all mixed up . But I could see why . Because , obviously , I 've done a lot of movies where people have cried and have been sentimental . And I 've been accused of sentimentalizing hard @-@ core material . But in fact it was Stanley who did the sweetest parts of A.I. , not me . I 'm the guy who did the dark center of the movie , with the Flesh Fair and everything else . That 's why he wanted me to make the movie in the first place . He said , ' This is much closer to your sensibilities than my own . ' "
Upon rewatching the film many years after its release , BBC film critic Mark Kermode apologized to Spielberg in an interview in January 2013 for " getting it wrong " on the film when he first viewed it in 2001 . He now believes the film to be Spielberg 's " enduring masterpiece " .
= = = Accolades = = =
Visual effects supervisors Dennis Muren , Stan Winston , Michael Lantieri and Scott Farrar were nominated for the Academy Award for Best Visual Effects , while John Williams was nominated for Best Original Music Score . Steven Spielberg , Jude Law and Williams received nominations at the 59th Golden Globe Awards . The visual effects department was once again nominated at the 55th British Academy Film Awards . A.I. was successful at the Saturn Awards . Spielberg ( for his screenplay ) , the visual effects department , Williams and Haley Joel Osment ( Performance by a Younger Actor ) won in their respective categories . The film also won Best Science Fiction Film and for its DVD release . Frances O 'Connor and Spielberg ( as director ) were also nominated .
American Film Institute lists
AFI 's 100 Years of Film Scores – Nominated
AFI 's 10 Top 10 – Nominated Science Fiction Film
= A Night to Remember ( book ) =
A Night to Remember is a 1955 non @-@ fiction book by Walter Lord about the sinking of the RMS Titanic on 15 April 1912 . The book was hugely successful , and is still considered a definitive resource about the Titanic . Lord interviewed many survivors of the disaster as well as drawing on books , memoirs and articles that they had written . He authored a follow @-@ up book , The Night Lives On , in 1986 following renewed interest in the story after the wreck of Titanic was found .
The film A Night to Remember , based on the book and with advice from Lord , was released in 1958 .
= = Publication history = =
Lord traveled on the RMS Olympic , Titanic 's sister ship , when he was a boy and the experience gave him a lifelong fascination with the lost liner . As he later put it , he spent his time on the Olympic " prowling around " and trying to imagine " such a huge thing " sinking . He started reading about and drawing Titanic at the age of ten and spent many years collecting Titanic memorabilia , causing people to " take note of this oddity . " He majored in history at Princeton University and graduated from Yale Law School before joining the New York @-@ based advertising agency J. Walter Thompson . Writing in his spare time , he interviewed 63 survivors of the disaster .
A Night to Remember was only Lord 's second book but was a huge success , thanks in no small part to the aggressive advertising campaign carried out by R & W Holt following its launch in November 1955 . The book also undoubtedly benefited from the popularity of the 1953 film Titanic and other coverage of the disaster that was published around the same time . Within two months of its publication , the book had sold 60 @,@ 000 copies and remained listed as a best @-@ seller for six months . The Ladies ' Home Journal and Reader 's Digest both published condensed versions and it was selected in June 1956 by the Book of the Month Club . The first paperback edition was published by Bantam Books in October 1956 .
Since then the book has never been out of print and has been translated into over a dozen languages . Its success enabled Lord to leave the world of advertising and become a full @-@ time writer . After the discovery of the wreck of the Titanic in 1985 sparked a new wave of public interest in the disaster he wrote a follow @-@ up book , The Night Lives On ( 1986 ) . Daniel Allen Butler comments that " although it was of immense interest to Titanic buffs the world over , it lacked the spark of the original , " which by 1998 had reached its fiftieth printing .
= = Critical commentaries = =
The book received widespread praise from contemporary critics . The New York Times called it " stunning ... one of the most exciting books of this or any other year " . The Atlantic Monthly praised the book for doing " a magnificent job of re @-@ creative chronicling , enthralling from the first word to the last . " Entertainment Weekly said that it was " seamless and skillful ... it 's clear why this is many a researcher 's Titanic bible " , while USA Today described it as " the most riveting narrative of the disaster . "
The secret to Lord 's success , according to the New York Herald Tribune 's critic Stanley Walker , was that he used " a kind of literary pointillism , the arrangement of contrasting bits of fact and emotion in such a fashion that a vividly real impression of an event is conveyed to the reader . " Walker highlighted the way that Lord had avoided telling the story through the prism of social class , which had been the usual style of previous narratives , and instead successfully depicted the human element of the story by showing how those aboard reacted to the disaster whatever their class .
Steven Biel , an American cultural historian , notes the novelistic way in which Lord tells the story . The book depicts events through the eyes of multiple individuals , violating simple chronology to present an overlapping series of narratives . Nathaniel Philbrick , writing in the introduction to the fiftieth anniversary edition of A Night to Remember , notes that at the time of publication it was the first significant book about Titanic for nearly forty years . He argues that the book 's hallmarks are its restraint , brevity and readability , which downplays the extravagant and mythical aspects of the disaster and instead puts in the foreground the stories of the people on the ship . The narrative builds suspense , making the reader care about the characters and revisit the disaster from their perspective . It tells the story in a highly visual and aural way , describing the sights and sounds of the night of the disaster " with the immediacy of a live broadcast or a television documentary " , as Biel puts it .
A key to Lord 's method is his technique of adopting an unconventional approach to the chronology of the event , " [ taking ] an imaginative approach to time and space in which hours and minutes prove extremely malleable , the ship itself seems almost infinitely complex , and the disaster assumes order and unity from far away . " In short it is " a modernist narrative [ constructed ] around a modernist event . " Reviewers highlighted the way in which Lord depicted the human side of the Titanic story , which The New York Times called " the core of Mr. Lord 's account , and explains its fascination , a pull as powerful in its way as the last downward plunge of the ship itself . " While the " legendary acts of gallantry " stood out , the book invites readers to put themselves in the place of those aboard and implicitly asks how they would react in the same situation . As Newsweek put it , " What would it be like to be aboard a sinking ocean liner ? "
The significance of Lord 's book , according to Biel , is that it " gave the disaster its fullest retelling since 1912 and made it speak to a modern mass audience and a new set of postwar concerns . In the creation of the Titanic myth there were two defining moments : 1912 , of course , and 1955 . " Lord updates the popular interpretation of the Titanic disaster by portraying it in world @-@ historical terms as the symbolic and actual end of an era , and as an event which " marked the end of a general feeling of confidence . " Uncertainty replaced orderliness , and the ship 's sinking marked the beginning of the twentieth century 's " unending sequence of disillusionment . Before the Titanic , all was quiet . Afterward , all was tumult . " Biel notes that Lord 's underlying theme is a rather nostalgic reflection of the " nobler instincts " exhibited in the disaster and their subsequent eclipse . Such ideals were attractive for a post @-@ war society that celebrated the role of the nuclear family and the traditional roles of the male breadwinner and female homemaker .
Lord 's invocation of an era of confidence and certainty was also a relevant theme at the height of the Cold War . The University of California sociologist Fred Davis comments that nostalgia " thrives ... on the rude transitions wrought by such phenomena as war , depression , civil disturbance , and cataclysmic natural disasters – in short , those events that cause masses of people to feel uneasy and to wonder whether the world and their being are quite what they always took them to be . " The turmoil and uncertainty of the early Atomic Age and the onset of profound social changes made the old concepts of the nuclear family and traditional gender roles , reflected in the behaviour of Titanic 's passengers , resonate with a mid @-@ 1950s audience .
The gradual nature of the disaster was also more comforting , in some respects , compared with the nature of modern technological failures such as air crashes . Time 's reviewer made this point explicitly : " This air age , when death comes too swiftly for heroism or with no survivors to record it , can still turn with wonder to an age before yesterday when a thousand deaths at sea seemed the very worst the world must suffer . " It was , as Steven Biel comments , " a quainter kind of disaster " in which the victims had time to prepare and chose how to die .
= = Screen adaptations = =
The book has been adapted twice for the screen . The first production was staged as a live adaptation screened on 28 March 1956 by NBC TV and sponsored by Kraft Foods as part of the Kraft Television Theatre strand . It has been described as " the biggest , most lavish , most expensive thing of its kind " attempted up to that point , with 31 sets , 107 actors , 72 speaking parts , 3 @,@ 000 gallons of water and costing $ 95 @,@ 000 ( $ 826 @,@ 860 @.@ 5 at present @-@ day prices ) . George Roy Hill directed and Claude Rains provided a narration – a practice borrowed from radio dramas which provided a template for many television dramas of the time . It took a similar approach to the book , lacking dominant characters and switching between a multiplicity of scenes . Rains ' narration was used " to bridge the almost limitless number of sequences of life aboard the doomed liner " , as a reviewer put it , and closed with his declaration that " never again has Man been so confident . An age had come to an end . " The production was a major hit , attracting 28 million viewers , and greatly boosted the book 's sales . It was rerun on kinescope on 2 May 1956 , five weeks after its first broadcast .
The second adaptation was the classic 1958 British drama film A Night to Remember starring Kenneth More , which is still widely regarded as " the definitive cinematic telling of the story . " The film came about after its eventual director , Roy Ward Baker , and its producer , Belfast @-@ born William MacQuitty both acquired copies of the book – Baker from his favorite bookshop and MacQuitty from his wife – and decided to obtain the film rights . MacQuitty had actually seen Titanic being launched on 31 May 1911 and still remembered the occasion vividly . He met Lord and brought him on board the production as a consultant . The film diverges from both the book and the NBC TV adaptation in focusing on a central character , Second Officer Charles Lightoller , played by More . Its conclusion reflects Lord 's world @-@ historical theme of a " world changed for ever " with a fictional conversation between two survivors , Lightoller and Colonel Archibald Gracie , sitting on an overturned lifeboat . Lightoller declares that the disaster is " different ... Because we were so sure . Because even though it 's happened , it 's still unbelievable . I don 't think I 'll ever feel sure again . About anything . "
= = Collection = =
After Lord died in 2002 , he bequeathed to the National Maritime Museum in Greenwich , England his huge collection of manuscripts , original letters and Titanic memorabilia , which he had gathered during his life and used to write A Night to Remember . MacQuitty also donated items from his own collection of material related to the film . Items from the collection are on display at the museum and can be accessed by researchers .
= LeGarrette Blount =
LeGarrette Montez Blount ( born December 5 , 1986 ) is an American football running back for the New England Patriots of the National Football League ( NFL ) . He won Super Bowl XLIX with the Patriots over the reigning champion Seattle Seahawks . He was signed by the Tennessee Titans of the National Football League ( NFL ) as an undrafted free agent in 2010 . He has also been a member of the Tampa Bay Buccaneers and Pittsburgh Steelers .
Blount rushed for over 1 @,@ 000 yards in each of his two seasons in junior college . He then committed to the Oregon Ducks football program as a junior , for the 2008 season . That year he ran for over 1 @,@ 000 yards and scored a school record 17 touchdowns .
After the opening game of the 2009 season , Blount was suspended for punching a Boise State University opponent and angrily confronting fans after the nationally televised season @-@ opening loss . Though the suspension was announced to be for the remainder of the season , due to his meeting of specific criteria set by the football staff , he was eventually reinstated after missing eight games .
= = Early life and high school career = =
Blount was born December 5 , 1986 , in Madison , Florida , to Gary and Barbara Blount . He has one brother and one sister . Blount is the great @-@ nephew of avant @-@ garde jazz musician Sun Ra ( born Herman Blount ) . He attended Taylor County High School in the small town of Perry , Florida , where he was a two @-@ sport star in both football and track . In high school football , he was a four @-@ year starter and three @-@ time 1 @,@ 000 @-@ yard rusher . He first reached the milestone as a sophomore and equaled the feat the following season despite playing with a thigh bruise for most of the year . He accorded second @-@ team All @-@ state player honors as a prep senior . In track & field , Blount competed in events such as the 100 @-@ meter dash ( 11 @.@ 34 s ) , the long jump ( 22 @-@ 1 or 6.75m ) and the shot put ( 53 @-@ 2 or 16.22m ) . He was also a member of the 4 × 100 m squad .
= = = Recruiting = = =
Considered only a two @-@ star recruit by both Rivals.com and Scout.com , Blount was not ranked among the best running back prospects in the nation in 2005 . Barely recruited out of high school , he attended camp at Auburn University but was not offered an athletic scholarship . He nonetheless intended to go to Auburn but did not qualify academically , so he headed for junior college .
= = College career = =
= = = East Mississippi Community College = = =
While at East Mississippi Community College in Scooba , Mississippi , Blount rushed for more than 1 @,@ 000 yards in each of his two seasons , accumulating 367 carries for 2 @,@ 292 yards and 18 rushing touchdowns . Among his career highlights was a 273 @-@ yard performance with three scores in a win over Northeast Mississippi Community College during his freshman year ; he led the state of Mississippi in rushing yards with 1 @,@ 106 as early as October 2006 . Blount was rated as the No. 1 junior college prospect by The Clarion @-@ Ledger and received Junior College All @-@ American honors .
By the end of his sophomore year , Blount had become one of the highest ranked junior college prospects . He was named the nation ’ s top junior college running back and the No. 12 overall prospect in the Rivals.com Junior College Top 100 . Blount was heavily recruited by several high @-@ major schools , including Florida State , Ole Miss , and West Virginia . He committed to Oregon in December 2007 . Oregon coaches said Blount reminded them of Reuben Droughns .
= = = Oregon Ducks = = =
Blount entered his junior year at Oregon sharing the running back role with senior Jeremiah Johnson . The two backs lived together , and the talkative Johnson advised Blount in his first Pac @-@ 10 season . For Blount , it was the first season in which he split time with another running back , and his reaction was mixed . The two backs each contributed nearly 100 yards and three touchdowns in an early 63 – 14 win over the Washington State Cougars , and both again performed well in a late season victory over the Oregon State Beavers . But Blount brought lackluster performances to games against USC and Cal . Overall , Blount rushed for 17 touchdowns , setting a single @-@ season school record , and 1 @,@ 002 yards . Blount and Johnson became only the second duo in team history to both clear 1 @,@ 000 rushing yards in the same season ; Johnson led the team with 1 @,@ 201 yards .
He clashed several times during the season with veteran head coach Mike Bellotti , earning a suspension for the first quarter of a November loss to the Cal Golden Bears for " not following team rules . "
After the end of the season , he missed a number of workouts . Bellotti suspended him indefinitely on February 10 for " failure to fulfill team obligations . "
Blount responded fairly well to the suspension , improving his attendance in both academic and athletic pursuits . He was reinstated by newly appointed head coach Chip Kelly in March . He attended some , but not all , voluntary workouts during the off @-@ season , but was praised for an improved attitude by fellow members of the football program . He arrived at training camp in better physical shape than in 2008 . At 243 pounds ( 110 kg ) , he was somewhat above his optimal weight , but was slimming down , and aiming for a 2 @,@ 000 yard season . Blount was named to the watch lists for the Walter Camp Award and the Doak Walker Award for the 2009 season .
= = = = Boise State incident = = = =
The Ducks opened their 2009 season with a 19 – 8 loss to the Boise State Broncos . Blount ended the game with negative yardage ( − 8 ) . Blount had been interviewed by a Sports Illustrated reporter earlier in the summer and was asked about the excessive late hits in the 2008 game in Eugene between Oregon and Boise State . He had been quoted that because of the way Boise State beat Oregon in Eugene they " owed them an ass @-@ whoopin ' . " In the 2008 game , Oregon quarterback Jeremiah Masoli was forced to leave the game after taking a helmet to the chin on a late hit by a Boise State defender . Oregon lost that game but the late hits were a topic of discussion as the teams prepared for the season opener against each other . Shortly after the game 's end , Boise State defensive player Byron Hout came up to Blount during the team 's handshakes and said , " How 's that for an ass @-@ whoopin ' ? " Blount punched Hout , knocking him to the ground . Blount then hit teammate Garrett Embry , who was attempting to restrain him , in the helmet .
As he was escorted to the locker room , Blount confronted Boise State fans who were jeering at him after seeing the video replay . Blount says that one Boise State fan brandished a chair at him and another punched him . Two police officers and Oregon assistant coach Scott Frost restrained Blount and escorted him into the locker room . Video of the incident spread rapidly on the Internet .
Blount apologized after the incident saying , " I just apologize to everybody that was watching this — ESPN , national TV — I just apologize to all of our fans , all the Boise fans . It was just something that I shouldn 't have done . I lost my head , and I shouldn 't have taken it that far . "
Suspension
Oregon coach Chip Kelly suspended Blount for the rest of the 2009 season . According to the Associated Press , " On Friday [ Kelly ] told a sobbing Blount of his decision : That punch would cost Blount the season , and ultimately his career with the Ducks . ' He understands that his actions are unacceptable . We will not put up with that . ' Kelly said . " Blount was not dismissed from the team , however , and would be permitted to attend practice and retain his scholarship .
Chip Kelly consulted with Oregon officials in advance of Blount 's suspension . Afterward , the Pac @-@ 10 expressed support for the suspension . Kelly stated that he made his judgment based on the entire event and had not theorized how it would have changed had only certain parts of the incident occurred .
Following the announcement of Blount 's punishment , a number of sports writers and analysts questioned whether or not suspension for the entire season was excessive . Wrote analyst Tom Dienhart : " But did Blount 's punishment ( banned from games the rest of the season ) fit the crime ? Blount should have been benched for three to five games , giving him a break for being in an emotional spot after being provoked by Hout . "
Blount called Hout and Petersen to apologize on September 5 . Kelly participated in the calls . Hout was not suspended for his taunting , though Petersen stated that he did receive disciplinary action . Petersen accepted the apology as sincere , and expressed the wish that Blount would be able to go on playing football , and that many parties would learn from the experience .
Blount was given the opportunity to continue practicing with the team but was not at the first practice due to unspecified obligations . However , Blount was on the sidelines at practice the following day and began practice with the scout team a week later .
Reinstatement
On October 1 , an apology letter from Blount was published in the Oregon school newspaper the Oregon Daily Emerald . Later that day , the Oregon Athletic Department released a statement indicating that a plan that could reinstate Blount to the team was under consideration . The next day , head coach Chip Kelly announced that if Blount meets certain guidelines , he could return for the November 7 game against the Stanford Cardinal . Pac @-@ 10 commissioner Larry Scott responded that the conference alone had the power to reinstate Blount and would take Oregon 's appeal under consideration if it occurred .
Blount was not reinstated in time for the Stanford game , but two days after the Ducks ' loss to Stanford , the Ducks requested , and the Pac @-@ 10 approved , Blount 's reinstatement for the Ducks ' November 14 game against Arizona State . Blount released a statement thanking head coach Kelly for showing that he " cares enough to offer me this second chance " and that it was up to Blount to " prove to people that their lasting impressions of me are not what they saw in Boise . " Blount suited up for the Arizona State and Arizona games , but since his replacement , LaMichael James , was playing so well , Blount did not see any playing time in those games .
In their final game of the season , the Civil War against rival Oregon State , the Ducks trailed by 9 points in the third quarter . Blount came into the game for James and several plays later , scored on a 12 @-@ yard run to bring the Ducks within 2 points . Blount ended up rushing for 51 yards in the game and the Ducks would go on to win the game 37 – 33 and earn a berth in the 2010 Rose Bowl against Ohio State .
= = = College statistics = = =
= = Professional career = =
= = = 2010 NFL Draft = = =
= = = Tennessee Titans = = =
Blount was not drafted in the 2010 NFL Draft but agreed in principle to a free agent contract with the San Francisco 49ers following the draft . However , after a meeting with Tennessee Titans head coach Jeff Fisher , Blount decided to sign as an undrafted free agent with the Titans instead . In August 2010 , Blount was involved in another incident in which he threw a punch , this time with a Tennessee Titans teammate , defensive end Eric Bakhtiari , a few moments after having his own helmet ripped off in practice . The play ended with some pushing and shoving , Blount threw a right fist , contacting Bakhtiari 's facemask . Blount quickly talked to Titans Head Coach Jeff Fisher before leaving the field . " He apologized , and I said he didn 't have to apologize , " Fisher said . " It 's football . It 's training camp . " " His past is his past . Is that the first punch you 've seen in camp this year ? No . I 'm not disappointed whatsoever . I have great confidence in the young man that he learned from his mistake , and he 's very competitive . That 's why we brought him in here is to watch him run the football like that , " Fisher said . Blount survived the final roster cut and was placed on the Titans ' 53 man roster . Blount was then waived to make room for veteran linebackers Tim Shaw ( Chicago Bears ) and Patrick Bailey ( Pittsburgh Steelers ) . Titans sources indicated that Blount would be signed to the rookie practice squad , if Blount cleared waivers . Blount was waived on September 5 , 2010 .
= = = Tampa Bay Buccaneers = = =
On September 6 , 2010 , Blount was claimed off of waivers by the Tampa Bay Buccaneers . He played in his first regular @-@ season NFL game in a week three 38 – 13 home loss to the Pittsburgh Steelers , gaining 27 yards on six rushes and scoring one touchdown . This is around the same time that Blount was pulled over for smoking cannabis in the suburbs of Pittsburgh , just seven miles north of the city On October 31 , 2010 , Blount recorded his breakout game as a Tampa Bay Buccaneer . He accumulated 120 rushing yards and 2 touchdowns on 22 carries , and 9 receiving yards in the Buccaneers ' 38 – 35 victory at the Arizona Cardinals . Highlighting the performance was a late game 43 @-@ yard run in which Blount hurdled approaching player Kerry Rhodes . At the end of his rookie season , Blount had played in 13 games and accumulated 1 @,@ 007 rushing yards , which was the most by a rookie in the 2010 NFL season . Blount became the second undrafted running back in NFL history to accumulate 1000 yards in his rookie year ( Dominic Rhodes was the first ) .
Blount started off the 2011 season with only 5 carries for 15 yards against the Detroit Lions . The next week Blount reestablished his strong running ability with 13 carries for 71 yards and two touchdowns against the Minnesota Vikings . This includes the game @-@ winning touchdown with 30 seconds left to play . In week 5 in a game with the 49ers , Blount injured his knee after accumulating only 15 yards rushing and was forced to miss weeks 6 and 7 . Blount would ultimately return for the matchup with the New Orleans Saints . On November 20 , 2011 , Blount broke free from eight Green Bay Packers tacklers and scored on a 54 @-@ yard touchdown run .
= = = New England Patriots = = =
On April 27 , 2013 , Blount was traded to the New England Patriots for Jeff Demps and a 7th round selection ( 229th overall ) in the 2013 NFL Draft .
On December 29 , 2013 , Blount led the Patriots to a playoff bye with a win over the Buffalo Bills by rushing for 189 yards on 24 carries scoring 2 TDs and returning 2 kickoffs for 145 yards with a long of 83 yards . Blount set a franchise record for all @-@ purpose yards with 334 yards . His performance earned him NFL Ground Player of the Week honors . Blount finished the season with 772 rushing yards and a career @-@ high 7 touchdowns .
= = = Pittsburgh Steelers = = =
On March 28 , 2014 , Blount signed a two @-@ year contract with the Pittsburgh Steelers . On August 20 , 2014 , Blount and fellow Steeler running back Le 'Veon Bell were arrested for marijuana possession . On November 17 , 2014 , Blount left the game against the Titans early . Blount was subsequently released by the Steelers as a result of his actions . Blount finished his short @-@ term Steelers tenure with 266 yards and 2 touchdowns .
= = = Second stint with Patriots = = =
On November 20 , 2014 , after clearing waivers , Blount signed a 2 @-@ year deal with the Patriots .
Blount 's first game back with New England concluded in 78 yards on 12 carries and 2 touchdowns in a 34 @-@ 9 victory over the Detroit Lions . In his second season with Patriots , Blount rushed 60 times for 281 yards and 3 touchdowns .
Although he had a relatively quiet game in the divisional round of the playoffs against the staunch Baltimore Ravens rushing defense in 2014 , Blount rebounded against the Indianapolis Colts in the AFC Championship Game with 30 carries for 148 rushing yards and 3 touchdowns , as New England routed the Colts 45 @-@ 7 . In doing so , he became the New England Patriots franchise leader in postseason rushing touchdowns with 7 . At Super Bowl XLIX , Blount rushed 14 times for 40 yards as the Patriots defeated the Seattle Seahawks 28 @-@ 24 .
On April 7 , 2015 , it was announced that Blount had been suspended for the first game of the 2015 season due to violation of the league 's substance abuse policy during his stint with the Steelers . After sitting out the first game and recording only 2 carries for 3 yards in the second , Blount scored a career high 3 rushing touchdowns on 18 carries for 78 yards against the Jaguars in week 3 .
On December 15 , 2015 , it was reported that Blount was added to the Patriots ' injured / reserved list for the remainder of the season after suffering a left hip injury during the previous game against the Houston Texans . He ended the season having racked up 165 carries , 703 rushing yards , and 6 rushing touchdowns in 12 games .
Blount re @-@ signed with the Patriots on a one @-@ year deal on April 12 , 2016 .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Rushing = = =
= = = Receiving = = =
= Pong =
Pong is one of the earliest arcade video games and the very first sports arcade video game . It is a table tennis sports game featuring simple two @-@ dimensional graphics . While other arcade video games such as Computer Space came before it , Pong was one of the first video games to reach mainstream popularity . The aim is to defeat an opponent in a simulated table @-@ tennis game by earning a higher score . The game was originally manufactured by Atari , which released it in 1972 . Allan Alcorn created Pong as a training exercise assigned to him by Atari co @-@ founder Nolan Bushnell . Bushnell based the idea on an electronic ping @-@ pong game included in the Magnavox Odyssey , which later resulted in a lawsuit against Atari . Surprised by the quality of Alcorn 's work , Bushnell and Atari co @-@ founder Ted Dabney decided to manufacture the game .
Pong quickly became a success and is the first commercially successful arcade video game machine , which helped to establish the video game industry along with the first home console , the Magnavox Odyssey . Soon after its release , several companies began producing games that copied Pong 's gameplay , and eventually released new types of games . As a result , Atari encouraged its staff to produce more innovative games . The company released several sequels that built upon the original 's gameplay by adding new features . During the 1975 Christmas season , Atari released a home version of Pong exclusively through Sears retail stores . It was also a commercial success and led to numerous copies . The game has been remade on numerous home and portable platforms following its release . Pong has been referenced and parodied in multiple television shows and video games , and has been a part of several video game and cultural exhibitions .
= = Gameplay = =
Pong is a two @-@ dimensional sports game that simulates table tennis . The player controls an in @-@ game paddle by moving it vertically across the left side of the screen , and can compete against either a computer @-@ controlled opponent or another player controlling a second paddle on the opposing side . Players use the paddles to hit a ball back and forth . The aim is for each player to reach eleven points before the opponent ; points are earned when one fails to return the ball to the other .
= = Development and history = =
Pong was the first game developed by Atari . After producing Computer Space , Bushnell decided to form a company to produce more games by licensing ideas to other companies . The first contract was with Bally Manufacturing Corporation for a driving game . Soon after the founding , Bushnell hired Allan Alcorn because of his experience with electrical engineering and computer science ; Bushnell and Dabney also had previously worked with him at Ampex . Prior to working at Atari , Alcorn had no experience with video games . To acclimate Alcorn to creating games , Bushnell gave him a project secretly meant to be a warm @-@ up exercise . Bushnell told Alcorn that he had a contract with General Electric for a product , and asked Alcorn to create a simple game with one moving spot , two paddles , and digits for score keeping . In 2011 , Bushnell stated that the game was inspired by previous versions of electronic tennis he had played before ; Bushnell played a version on a PDP @-@ 1 computer in 1964 while attending college . However , Alcorn has claimed it was in direct response to Bushnell 's viewing of the Magnavox Odyssey 's Tennis game . In May 1972 , Bushnell had visited the Magnavox Profit Caravan in Burlingame , California where he played the Magnavox Odyssey demonstration , specifically the table tennis game . Though he thought the game lacked quality , seeing it prompted Bushnell to assign the project to Alcorn .
Alcorn first examined Bushnell 's schematics for Computer Space , but found them to be illegible . He went on to create his own designs based on his knowledge of transistor – transistor logic and Bushnell 's game . Feeling the basic game was too boring , Alcorn added features to give the game more appeal . He divided the paddle into eight segments to change the ball 's angle of return . For example , the center segments return the ball a 90 ° angle in relation to the paddle , while the outer segments return the ball at smaller angles . He also made the ball accelerate the longer it remained in play ; missing the ball reset the speed . Another feature was that the in @-@ game paddles were unable to reach the top of screen . This was caused by a simple circuit that had an inherent defect . Instead of dedicating time to fixing the defect , Alcorn decided it gave the game more difficulty and helped limit the time the game could be played ; he imagined two skilled players being able to play forever otherwise .
Three months into development , Bushnell told Alcorn he wanted the game to feature realistic sound effects and a roaring crowd . Dabney wanted the game to " boo " and " hiss " when a player lost a round . Alcorn had limited space available for the necessary electronics and was unaware of how to create such sounds with digital circuits . After inspecting the sync generator , he discovered that it could generate different tones and used those for the game 's sound effects . To construct the prototype , Alcorn purchased a $ 75 Hitachi black @-@ and @-@ white television set from a local store , placed it into a 4 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) wooden cabinet , and soldered the wires into boards to create the necessary circuitry . The prototype impressed Bushnell and Dabney so much that they felt it could be a profitable product and decided to test its marketability .
In August 1972 , Bushnell and Alcorn installed the Pong prototype at a local bar , Andy Capp 's Tavern . They selected the bar because of their good working relation with the bar 's manager , Bill Gattis ; Atari supplied pinball machines to Gattis . Bushnell and Alcorn placed the prototype on one of the tables near the other entertainment machines : a jukebox , pinball machines , and Computer Space . The game was well received the first night and its popularity continued to grow over the next one and a half weeks . Bushnell then went on a business trip to Chicago to demonstrate Pong to executives at Bally and Midway Manufacturing ; he intended to use Pong to fulfill his contract with Bally , rather than the driving game . A few days later , the prototype began exhibiting technical issues and Gattis contacted Alcorn to fix it . Upon inspecting the machine , Alcorn discovered that the problem was the coin mechanism was overflowing with quarters .
After hearing about the game 's success , Bushnell decided there would be more profit for Atari to manufacture the game rather than license it , but the interest of Bally and Midway had already been piqued . Bushnell decided to inform each of the two groups that the other was uninterested — Bushnell told the Bally executives that the Midway executives did not want it and vice versa — to preserve the relationships for future dealings . Upon hearing Bushnell 's comment , the two groups declined his offer . Bushnell had difficulty finding financial backing for Pong ; banks viewed it as a variant of pinball , which at the time the general public associated with the Mafia . Atari eventually obtained a line of credit from Wells Fargo that it used to expand its facilities to house an assembly line . The company announced Pong on 29 November 1972 . Management sought assembly workers at the local unemployment office , but was unable to keep up with demand . The first arcade cabinets produced were assembled very slowly , about ten machines a day , many of which failed quality testing . Atari eventually streamlined the process and began producing the game in greater quantities . By 1973 , they began shipping Pong to other countries with the aid of foreign partners .
= = = Home version = = =
After the success of Pong , Bushnell pushed his employees to create new products . In 1974 , Atari engineer Harold Lee proposed a home version of Pong that would connect to a television : Home Pong . The system began development under the codename Darlene , named after an attractive female employee at Atari . Alcorn worked with Lee to develop the designs and prototype , and based them on the same digital technology used in their arcade games . The two worked in shifts to save time and money ; Lee worked on the design 's logic during the day , while Alcorn debugged the designs in the evenings . After the designs were approved , fellow Atari engineer Bob Brown assisted Alcorn and Lee in building a prototype . The prototype consisted of a device attached to a wooden pedestal containing over a hundred wires , which would eventually be replaced with a single chip designed by Alcorn and Lee ; the chip had yet to be tested and built before the prototype was constructed . The chip was finished in the latter half of 1974 , and was , at the time , the highest @-@ performing chip used in a consumer product .
Bushnell and Gene Lipkin , Atari 's vice @-@ president of sales , approached toy and electronic retailers to sell Home Pong , but were rejected . Retailers felt the product was too expensive and would not interest consumers . Atari contacted the Sears Sporting Goods department after noticing a Magnavox Odyssey advertisement in the sporting goods section of its catalog . Atari staff discussed the game with a representative , Tom Quinn , who expressed enthusiasm and offered the company an exclusive deal . Believing they could find more favorable terms elsewhere , Atari 's executives declined and continued to pursue toy retailers . In January 1975 , Atari staff set up a Home Pong booth at a toy trade fair in New York City , but was unsuccessful in soliciting orders due to the fact that they did not know that they needed a private showing .
While at the show , they met Quinn again , and , a few days later , set up a meeting with him to obtain a sales order . In order to gain approval from the Sporting Goods department , Quinn suggested Atari demonstrate the game to executives in Chicago . Alcorn and Lipkin traveled to the Sears Tower and , despite a technical complication in connection with an antenna on top of the building which broadcast on the same channel as the game , obtained approval . Bushnell told Quinn he could produce 75 @,@ 000 units in time for the Christmas season ; however , Quinn requested double the amount . Though Bushnell knew Atari lacked the capacity to manufacture 150 @,@ 000 units , he agreed . Atari acquired a new factory through funding obtained by venture capitalist Don Valentine . Supervised by Jimm Tubb , the factory fulfilled the Sears order . The first units manufactured were branded with Sears ' " Tele @-@ Games " name . Atari later released a version under its own brand in 1976 .
= = = Lawsuit from Magnavox = = =
The success of Pong attracted the attention of Ralph Baer , the inventor of the Magnavox Odyssey , and his employer , Sanders Associates . Sanders had an agreement with Magnavox to handle the Odyssey 's sublicensing , which included dealing with infringement on its exclusive rights . However , Magnavox had not pursued legal action against Atari and numerous other companies that released Pong clones . Sanders continued to apply pressure , and in April 1974 Magnavox filed suit against Atari , Bally Midway , Allied Leisure and Chicago Dynamics . Magnavox argued that Atari had infringed on Baer 's patents and his concept of electronic ping @-@ pong based on detailed records Sanders kept of the Odyssey 's design process dating back to 1966 . Other documents included depositions from witnesses and a signed guest book that demonstrated Bushnell had played the Odyssey 's table tennis game prior to releasing Pong . In response to claims that he saw the Odyssey , Bushnell later stated that , " The fact is that I absolutely did see the Odyssey game and I didn 't think it was very clever . "
After considering his options , Bushnell decided to settle with Magnavox out of court . Bushnell 's lawyer felt they could win ; however , he estimated legal costs of US $ 1 @.@ 5 million , which would have exceeded Atari 's funds . Magnavox offered Atari an agreement to become a licensee for US $ 700 @,@ 000 . Other companies producing " Pong clones " — Atari 's competitors — would have to pay royalties . In addition , Magnavox would obtain the rights to Atari products developed over the next year . Magnavox continued to pursue legal action against the other companies , and proceedings began shortly after Atari 's settlement in June 1976 . The first case took place at the district court in Chicago , with Judge John Grady presiding . To avoid Magnavox obtaining rights to its products , Atari decided to delay the release of its products for a year , and withheld information from Magnavox 's attorneys during visits to Atari facilities .
= = Impact and legacy = =
The Pong arcade games manufactured by Atari were a great success . The prototype was well received by Andy Capp 's Tavern patrons ; people came to the bar solely to play the game . Following its release , Pong consistently earned four times more revenue than other coin @-@ operated machines . Bushnell estimated that the game earned US $ 35 – 40 per day , which he described as nothing he 'd ever seen before in the coin @-@ operated entertainment industry at the time . The game 's earning power resulted in an increase in the number of orders Atari received . This provided Atari with a steady source of income ; the company sold the machines at three times the cost of production . By 1973 , the company had filled 2 @,@ 500 orders , and , at the end of 1974 , sold more than 8 @,@ 000 units . The arcade cabinets have since become collector 's items with the cocktail @-@ table version being the rarest . Soon after the game 's successful testing at Andy Capp 's Tavern , other companies began visiting the bar to inspect it . Similar games appeared on the market three months later , produced by companies like Ramtek and Nutting Associates . Atari could do little against the competitors as they had not initially filed for patents on the solid state technology used in the game . When the company did file for patents , complications delayed the process . As a result , the market consisted primarily of " Pong clones " ; author Steven Kent estimated that Atari had produced less than a third of the machines . Bushnell referred to the competitors as " Jackals " because he felt they had an unfair advantage . His solution to competing against them was to produce more innovative games and concepts .
Home Pong was an instant success following its limited 1975 release through Sears ; around 150 @,@ 000 units were sold that holiday season . The game became Sears ' most successful product at the time , which earned Atari a Sears Quality Excellence Award . Similar to the arcade version , several companies released clones to capitalize on the home console 's success , many of which continued to produce new consoles and video games . Magnavox re @-@ released their Odyssey system with simplified hardware and new features , and would later release updated versions . Coleco entered the video game market with their Telstar console ; it features three Pong variants and was also succeeded by newer models . Nintendo released the Color TV Game 6 in 1977 , which plays six variations of electronic tennis . The next year , it was followed by an updated version , the Color TV Game 15 , which features fifteen variations . The systems were Nintendo 's entry into the home video game market and the first to produce themselves — they had previously licensed the Magnavox Odyssey . The dedicated Pong consoles and the numerous clones have since become varying levels of rare ; Atari 's Pong consoles are common , while APF Electronics ' TV Fun consoles are moderately rare . Prices among collectors , however , vary with rarity ; the Sears Tele @-@ Games versions are often cheaper than those with the Atari brand .
Several publications consider Pong the game that launched the video game industry as a lucrative enterprise . Video game author David Ellis sees the game as the cornerstone of the video game industry 's success , and called the arcade game " one of the most historically significant " titles . Kent attributes the " arcade phenomenon " to Pong and Atari 's games that followed it , and considers the release of the home version the successful beginning of home video game consoles . Bill Loguidice and Matt Barton of Gamasutra referred to the game 's release as the start of a new entertainment medium , and commented that its simple , intuitive gameplay made it a success . Entertainment Weekly named Pong one of the top ten games for the Atari 2600 in 2013 . Many of the companies that produced their own versions of Pong eventually became well @-@ known within the industry . Nintendo entered the video game market with clones of Home Pong . The revenue generated from them — each system sold over a million units — helped the company survive a difficult financial time , and spurred them to pursue video games further . After seeing the success of Pong , Konami decided to break into the arcade game market and released its first title , Maze . Its moderate success drove the company to develop more titles . Pong has also been used in programming classrooms to teach the fundamentals of languages such as Java and C + + .
Bushnell felt that Pong was especially significant in its role as a social lubricant , since it was multiplayer @-@ only and did not require each player to use more than one hand : " It was very common to have a girl with a quarter in hand pull a guy off a bar stool and say , ' I 'd like to play Pong and there 's nobody to play . ' It was a way you could play games , you were sitting shoulder to shoulder , you could talk , you could laugh , you could challenge each other ... As you became better friends , you could put down your beer and hug . You could put your arm around the person . You could play left @-@ handed if you so desired . In fact , there are a lot of people who have come up to me over the years and said , ' I met my wife playing Pong , ' and that 's kind of a nice thing to have achieved . "
= = = Sequels and remakes = = =
Bushnell felt the best way to compete against imitators was to create better products , leading Atari to produce sequels in the years followings the original 's release : Pong Doubles , Super Pong , Ultra Pong , Quadrapong , and Pin @-@ Pong . The sequels feature similar graphics , but include new gameplay elements ; for example , Pong Doubles allows four players to compete in pairs , while Quadrapong has them compete against each other in a four way field . Bushnell also conceptualized a free @-@ to @-@ play version of Pong to entertain children in a Doctor 's office . He initially titled it Snoopy Pong and fashioned the cabinet after Snoopy 's doghouse with the character on top , but retitled it to Puppy Pong and altered Snoopy to a generic dog to avoid legal action . Bushnell later used the game in his chain of Chuck E. Cheese 's restaurants . In 1976 , Atari released Breakout , a single @-@ player variation of Pong where the object of the game is to remove bricks from a wall by hitting them with a ball . Like Pong , Breakout was followed by numerous clones that copied the gameplay : Arkanoid , Alleyway , Break ' Em All .
Atari remade the game on numerous platforms . In 1977 , Pong and several variants of the game were featured in Video Olympics , one of the original release titles for the Atari 2600 . Pong has also been included in several Atari compilations on platforms including the Sega Mega Drive , PlayStation Portable , Nintendo DS , and personal computer . Through an agreement with Atari , Bally Gaming and Systems developed a slot machine version of the game . The Atari developed TD Overdrive includes Pong as an extra game to be played during the loading screen . In 1999 , the game was remade for home computers and the PlayStation with 3D graphics and power @-@ ups . In 2012 , Atari celebrated the 40th anniversary of Pong by releasing Pong World .
= = = In fantasy = = =
Pong has appeared in several facets of popular culture . The game is prominently featured in episodes of television series : That ' 70s Show , King of the Hill , and Saturday Night Live . In 2006 , an American Express commercial featured Andy Roddick in a tennis match against the white , in @-@ game paddle . Other video games have also referenced and parodied Pong ; for example Neuromancer for the Commodore 64 and Banjo @-@ Kazooie : Nuts and Bolts for the Xbox 360 . The concert event Video Games Live has performed audio from Pong as part of a special retro " Classic Arcade Medley " . Frank Black 's song " Whatever Happened to Pong ? " on the album Teenager of the Year heavily references the game 's elements .
Dutch design studio Buro Vormkrijgers created a Pong @-@ themed clock as a fun project within their offices . After the studio decided to manufacture it for retail , Atari took legal action in February 2006 . The two companies eventually reached an agreement in which Buro Vormkrijgers could produce a limited number under license . In 1999 , French artist Pierre Huyghe created an installation entitled " Atari Light " , in which two people use handheld gaming devices to play Pong on an illuminated ceiling . The work was shown at the Venice Biennale in 2001 , and the Museo de Arte Contemporáneo de Castilla y León in 2007 . The game was included in the London Barbican Art Gallery 's 2002 Game On exhibition meant to showcase the various aspects of video game history , development , and culture .
= Trijata =
In the Hindu epic Ramayana , Trijata ( Sanskrit : त ् रिजटा , Trijaṭā ) is a rakshasi ( demoness ) who is assigned the duty of guarding the kidnapped princess and goddess Sita , the heroine of the epic . Sita , the consort of Rama ( the prince of Ayodhya and an avatar of the god Vishnu ) , has been abducted by Ravana of Lanka , a demon king whom | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
be branded as a premium map .
Wings of Liberty features approximately the same number of units as the original StarCraft . Some units from the original game have returned , some featuring new upgrades and abilities . For example , the Protoss Zealot , a melee unit from the original game , now has the researchable ability to dash forward and quickly reach nearby enemies as a refinement of its speed upgrade from the original . Other units have been replaced or removed entirely : for example , the Scout , a Protoss fighter craft present in the original , has been replaced by the Phoenix . Other changes to unit design have been inspired by story events in StarCraft and its expansion , StarCraft : Brood War , replacing old units with new or renamed versions which sport different attributes and abilities . Units in StarCraft II have new abilities , compared to the original , that encourage more complex interaction with the game environment . Among these are the inclusion of units that can traverse varying levels of terrain , or have the ability to teleport short distances . Some Protoss units can be warped into pylon @-@ powered areas using the Warp Gate , a slight modification of an existing building called the Gateway . StarCraft II 's campaign also has exclusive units that are only playable in the campaign and not in the regular multiplayer mode , though they are available for custom maps . These mostly consist of units that have been scrapped from development such as the Terran Diamondback as well as various returning units from the original StarCraft such as the Terran Wraith and Goliath . The campaign also features hirable mercenaries , modified versions of certain units with enhanced attributes such as health or damage that become available for hire once the standard unit is unlocked .
= = = Editor = = =
The StarCraft II Editor is a campaign , map , and mod editor . It is far more sophisticated than StarCraft 's StarEdit and Warcraft III 's World Editor for creating custom maps and campaigns , and it is the first editor by Blizzard to feature built @-@ in mod creation and usage support . Updated art and data from the original StarCraft that were not used , along with models and data that were scrapped during the development process ( including those made as April Fools jokes ) will be available in the editor . Unlike previous editors made by Blizzard , it is the first to have Internet connectivity features such as map publishing , retrieval , and online activation of the editor client . Lead Producer Chris Sigaty has stated that the editor gives players the ability to create RPG , Hero @-@ type units and structures resembling those from WarCraft III . At BlizzCon 2009 , Blizzard demonstrated a build of the StarCraft II Editor showcasing its capabilities , such as the ability to customize the user interface to include features such as the Item system from Warcraft III . The final build includes a third @-@ person style perspective for missions .
The editor was available for the first time during the phase 1 beta testing of StarCraft II , when it came with a patch . With the start of phase 2 , the editor was updated . At present , there is a large map @-@ making community using the editor , creating first @-@ person shooter games , RPGs , tower defense , and AoS @-@ type games . The map database is constantly being updated as more map makers create mods for the community . The new editor also changes the way maps are distributed : rather than hosting games using local map files , users now create and join games using maps that have been published to Battle.net. map or mod uploads are limited to a total of 50 MB of storage , divided between ten files at most , with no file being larger than 10 MB . Although the StarCraft II Editor offers more features than the original StarCraft Editor in terms of game customization , there are concerns that the publishing limitations of Battle.net will not allow for large @-@ scale custom maps or extensive map availability unless there is an external map publishing tool .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Background = = =
The campaign storyline of StarCraft II takes place four years after StarCraft : Brood War , and features the return of Zeratul , Arcturus Mengsk , Artanis , Sarah Kerrigan , and Jim Raynor . It also features new characters such as Rory Swann and Tychus Findlay . In StarCraft II , players revisit familiar worlds , like Char , Mar Sara , and Tarsonis , as well as new locations , such as the jungle planet Bel 'Shir and New Folsom . The Xel 'Naga , an ancient space @-@ faring race responsible for creating the Protoss and the Zerg , also play a major role in the story .
At the conclusion of Brood War , Kerrigan and her Zerg forces became the dominant faction in the Koprulu Sector , having annihilated the United Earth Directorate 's Expeditionary Force , defeated the Terran Dominion , and invaded the Protoss homeworld of Aiur . However , after the conclusion of Brood War , Kerrigan retreats to Char , despite having more than enough power to crush all remaining resistance in the Koprulu Sector . In the four years leading up to the events of StarCraft II , she has not been seen or heard from by any of the other characters .
Arcturus Mengsk has been left to rebuild the Dominion , and is consolidating his power while fending off harassment from rival Terran groups . Mengsk has become power @-@ hungry , declaring Jim Raynor an outlaw and showing little desire to protect or aid the colonies under his jurisdiction . Valerian Mengsk , a character introduced in the novel Firstborn , will play an important role in Dominion politics , due to his position as heir apparent to the throne . Meanwhile , Jim Raynor , whose role in the events of StarCraft and Brood War has been marginalized by the media under the Dominion 's control , has become a mercenary who spends his free time drinking in Joeyray 's Bar . Chris Metzen , Vice President of Creative Development at Blizzard , has emphasized that by the events of StarCraft II , Raynor has become jaded and embittered by the way he was used and betrayed by Arcturus Mengsk . Other new characters to the series include Tychus Findlay , an ex @-@ convict and marine who becomes a member of Raynor 's crew , and Matt Horner , Raynor 's second in command , a character originally featured in the novel Queen of Blades .
Following the fall of Aiur and the death of the Dark Templar matriarch Raszagal , the Protoss have retreated to the Dark Templar homeworld of Shakuras . There , Artanis , a former student of Tassadar , is trying to unify the Khalai Protoss and the Dark Templar , who have nearly separated into warring tribes as a result of centuries of distrust . Zeratul , tormented over the murder of his matriarch , has disappeared to search for clues to the meaning of Samir Duran 's cryptic statements regarding the Protoss / Zerg hybrids in Brood War 's secret mission " Dark Origin " .
= = = Plot = = =
Four years after the Brood War , the Dominion is once again the dominant Terran power in the Koprulu sector . News reports reveal that in the four years since the end of the Brood Wars , the standing Dominion military forces have been reduced and defense budget has instead been diverted to hunting down rebel forces that operate against the Dominion . For reasons unknown , Kerrigan gathered the swarm at Char and then vanished from sight . With the Zerg gone , the Protoss have once again taken a passive role in the galaxy . Jim Raynor has formed a revolutionary group named Raynor 's Raiders in order to overthrow Dominion Emperor Arcturus Mengsk . On Mar Sara , Raynor meets with an old comrade , Tychus Findlay . Together , they liberate the local population from Dominion control and also discover a component of a mysterious Xel 'Naga artifact . As the Zerg begin to overrun Mar Sara , Raynor arranges an evacuation to his battlecruiser , the Hyperion , captained by Matt Horner , Raynor 's second @-@ in @-@ command .
With Tychus acting as the middleman , the Raiders embark on a series of missions to find the remaining pieces of the Xel 'Naga artifact , which they sell to the enigmatic Moebius Foundation in order to fund their revolution . Along the way , they meet with Gabriel Tosh , a rogue Dominion psychic assassin known as a Spectre , and Ariel Hanson , a researcher on the Zerg and leader of a small farming colony . The Raiders perform missions to help Tosh procure the raw materials to train new Spectres as well as to aid Hanson as she attempts to secure her colonists who are caught between the Zerg infesting their planets and the Protoss attempting to eradicate the infestation . Horner also arranges a series of missions to undermine Mengsk , recovering intelligence information about his war crimes and broadcasting them across the Dominion . Finally , Zeratul sneaks aboard the Hyperion to deliver a psychic crystal that allows Raynor to share visions involving an ominous prophecy where Zerg @-@ Protoss hybrids and an enslaved Zerg swarm wipe out Humanity and the Protoss . The vision reveals that only Kerrigan has the power to prevent the eradication of all life in the sector and beyond .
After collecting more artifact pieces , Raynor 's forces encounter Dominion battleships at the pre @-@ agreed Moebius Foundation rendezvous point . The Moebius Foundation is revealed to be under the control of Valerian Mengsk , Arcturus ' son . Valerian , intending to show himself as a worthy successor to his father , asks Raynor to help him invade Char and use the artifact to restore Kerrigan 's humanity , thus weakening the Zerg . To the initial dismay of the crew , Raynor agrees . With Valerian 's aid , Raynor recovers the final artifact piece , and the Raiders and Dominion invade Char . The Dominion fleet is devastated by the heavy Zerg defenses , but Raynor secures a foothold on Char and rendezvouses with Dominion forces led by Horace Warfield , a decorated Dominion general . Warfield is later injured and appoints Raynor commander of surviving Dominion forces as well . The combined forces of the Raiders and Dominion military push towards the main Hive Cluster of the planet , protecting the artifact as it charges to full power , and the artifact eventually destroys all Zerg within its blast radius . Raynor 's team finds Kerrigan restored to human form ; however , Tychus reveals that he made a deal with Arcturus Mengsk , trading Kerrigan 's life for his own freedom . Raynor defends Kerrigan from Tychus ' attempt to kill her , fatally shooting Tychus in the process . The closing scene shows Raynor carrying Sarah Kerrigan out of the main hive in his arms .
= = = Cast = = =
The English language version of StarCraft II has Robert Clotworthy and James Harper reprising their roles from StarCraft as the voices of Jim Raynor and Arcturus Mengsk . Notable absences included Tricia Helfer replacing Glynnis Talken as Kerrigan , Michael Dorn replacing Michael Gough as Tassadar , and Fred Tatasciore filling in for the late Jack Ritschel as Zeratul . The voice director for the game was Andrea Romano . Over 58 voice actors were hired for the game , some of whom voiced multiple characters .
= = Development = =
The development of StarCraft II was announced on May 19 , 2007 , at the Blizzard Worldwide Invitational in Seoul , South Korea . According to Rob Pardo and Chris Sigaty , development on the game , though initially delayed for a year by the temporary reassignment of Blizzard 's resources to World of Warcraft , began in 2003 , shortly after Warcraft III : The Frozen Throne was released . StarCraft II supports the DirectX 9 ( Pixel shader 2 @.@ 0 ) software , and it is also fully compatible with DirectX 10 as well . The development team had decided not to add exclusive DirectX 10 graphic effects . The Mac version uses OpenGL . The game previously featured the Havok physics engine , which allowed for more realistic environmental elements such as " debris rolling down a ramp " which has since been replaced for a custom physics engine . Additionally , there are plans to implement VoIP into the game .
At the June 2008 Blizzard Worldwide Invitational , Blizzard Executive Vice President Rob Pardo announced that development of the single @-@ player campaign was approximately one @-@ third complete , as well as that Wings of Liberty would be followed up by two expansion packs – StarCraft II : Heart of the Swarm , which would focus around the Zerg and StarCraft II : Legacy of the Void , which would focus around the Protoss . On February 25 , 2009 , Blizzard announced the Blizzard Theme Park Contest , where prizes would include two beta keys for StarCraft II . The updated news and updates page of Battle.net for Warcraft III : The Frozen Throne stated that the top 20 players from each realm was to be given a StarCraft II beta key .
Blizzard posted a release date for the game 's first beta of Summer 2009 , but failed to release a beta during that time . Since May 6 , 2009 , it was possible to sign up for the beta phase of the game . In November 2009 , the game 's producer Chris Sigaty confirmed there would be no public beta for the game taking place in 2009 but assured fans that it would happen next year . In February 2010 , Blizzard CEO Mike Morhaime announced that a closed beta would open later that month . On February 17 , 2010 , StarCraft II began closed beta testing , as promised . The beta was expected to last for 3 – 5 months . Beta keys for the initial release were sold on eBay for prices as high as $ 400 . Blizzard also released a map editor for the beta as part of Patch 9 . According to the company , they had planned to release a major content patch towards the end of beta testing . As of July 23 , 2010 , eighteen patches had been released for the beta ( only seventeen on European servers ) , including a patch which provided access to the Galaxy map editor . On May 12 , 2010 Blizzard released the beta client for computers running Mac OS X , for the users who had signed up . On May 17 , 2010 , Blizzard announced that the first phase of the beta test would be coming to an end in all regions on May 31 , but it was later extended to June 7 . The second phase began on July 7 , 2010 , and ended on July 19 , 2010 .
In an interview held in June 2009 , Rob Pardo indicated that LAN support would not be included in StarCraft II . Removing LAN requires players to connect through Blizzard 's servers before being able to play multiplayer games , causing gamers to voice their dissatisfaction online . Further controversy was sparked when Blizzard confirmed that the game would not support cross @-@ server play out of the box , restricting gamers to only play against local opponents — for instance , US gamers against those in the US and Europeans against Europeans . The company originally explained that Australia and New Zealand servers would be located in Southeast Asia , pitting them against combatants from Indonesia , the Philippines , Malaysia , Singapore , and Thailand . However , starting from patch 1 @.@ 1 @.@ 0 , it was announced that the Southeast Asia / Australia / New Zealand version of the game would not be strictly region @-@ locked , with gamers able to play on both the SEA / ANZ servers and the North American ones .
Mike Morhaime , president of Blizzard , announced during the opening ceremony of Blizzcon 2009 that StarCraft II and the new Battle.net platform would both be released in 2010 , with an approximately one @-@ month gap between releases . As of March 2010 , Blizzard had stated that the new platform was being tested outside the beta and was planned for release in early July 2010 , for both StarCraft II and World of Warcraft : Cataclysm , with a later upgrade for Diablo III . On May 5 , 2010 , it was revealed that StarCraft II and Battle.net 2 @.@ 0 would be integrated with social networking site Facebook , " linking the world 's premier online gaming platform with the world 's most popular social platform " — a move that allowed gamers to search among their Facebook friends for StarCraft II opponents . Wired magazine , in its annual Vaporware Award , ranked StarCraft II first among the delayed technology products of 2009 . StarCraft II was finally released on July 27 , 2010 , with launch parties in selected cities of countries around the world . Customers and reviewers who received the installation DVD before the July 27 release were greeted with an error screen , telling them to wait until the release date . There was no known workaround and some reviewers had praised the action for limiting journalists to playing and reviewing the game with actual players .
Compared to the original StarCraft , StarCraft II was designed to focus more heavily on the multiplayer aspect , with changes that include major improvements to Battle.net , a new competitive " ladder " system for ranked games , and new matchmaking mechanics that are designed to " match @-@ up " players of equal skill level . In addition , the replay function , which allows players to record and review past games , was improved . Blizzard also stated that they incorporated changes to the game that were suggested by fans . StarCraft II continues its predecessor 's use of pre @-@ rendered cinematic cut scenes to advance the plot while also improving the quality of in @-@ game cut scenes within the levels themselves , which are rendered on @-@ the @-@ fly using the same game engine as the graphics in the game proper . Blizzard stated that , with the new graphics engine that StarCraft II uses to render the gameplay , they " can actually create in @-@ game cut @-@ scenes of near @-@ cinematic quality " . Improvements include advanced scenery allocation and more detailed space terrain , such as floating space platforms with planets and asteroids in the background . Small cliffs , extensions , and even advertising signs were also shown to have been improved and refined .
= = = Expansions = = =
During the development of StarCraft II , it was also announced that the game and its expansions would form a trilogy , with each chapter to center on one of the three playable races . The first expansion – Heart of the Swarm , which focuses on the Zerg race – was released on March 12 , 2013 . The second expansion Legacy of the Void , which centers on the Protoss race , was released on November 10 , 2015 .
= = Release = =
= = = Versions = = =
On April 8 , 2010 , Blizzard officially announced that the game would be available in a standard and collector 's edition . The game was also made available for digital download from Blizzard on the release date ; pre @-@ loading began on July 15 . The collector 's edition comes with an artbook , 2 GB flash drive modeled after Jim Raynor 's dog tag with the original StarCraft and Brood War expansion preloaded , behind @-@ the @-@ scenes DVD , soundtrack , comic book , unique avatar portraits , a unique model for the in @-@ game Thor unit in multiplayer , and a World of Warcraft pet .
On June 24 , 2010 , at a press @-@ only Korean event , Blizzard announced that Korean players would be able to play StarCraft II for free with an active World of Warcraft subscription . In PC bangs , or other cybercafés , players can play the game by paying 500 to 1500 South Korean won ( approx . $ .50 to $ 1 @.@ 50 ) per hour . Other options include a 30 @-@ day subscription for ₩ 9900 ( approx . $ 8 ) , a 24 hours play @-@ time ticket for ₩ 2000 ( approx . $ 1 @.@ 50 ) , and unlimited access for ₩ 69 @,@ 000 ( approx . $ 56 ) . The end @-@ user license agreement ( EULA ) for StarCraft II differs significantly from those of Blizzard 's earlier titles in that buying the game only grants the buyer a license to play , while the game itself remains the property of Blizzard . Any breach of the EULA amounts not only to breach of contract but copyright infringement as well , giving Blizzard greater control over how the game is used . Concerns have been raised by Public Knowledge over how the altered EULA may affect multiplayer tournaments not endorsed by Blizzard .
On August 3 , 2011 , Blizzard replaced the previously available StarCraft II demo with the new StarCraft II : Starter Edition . It allows anyone to play part of the game for free and it comes as a 7 GB package downloaded using the Blizzard Downloader client . The Starter Edition is available for Mac and Windows , and requires a Battle.net account and an Internet connection to play .
= = = Sales = = =
Blizzard entered into a co @-@ marketing agreement with Korean Air that lasted for six months , in which two of the airline 's airplanes on both domestic and international routes prominently displayed StarCraft II advertising featuring Jim Raynor on the fuselage . On August 3 , 2010 , Blizzard announced that StarCraft II sold more than one million units worldwide within one day of its release . After two days , when Blizzard began selling the game as a digital download on its website , approximately 500 @,@ 000 additional units of the game were sold , bringing the total up to 1 @.@ 5 million worldwide and making it the fastest @-@ selling strategy game of all time . In its first month on sale , StarCraft II sold a total of three million copies worldwide . As of December 2010 , the game has sold nearly 4 @.@ 5 million units . The game was also heavily pirated , reportedly being downloaded over 2 @.@ 3 million times , and setting a record for most data transferred by a single torrent in only three months .
= = = Technical difficulties = = =
Several gaming and technology sites reported an " overheating bug " with StarCraft II that in some cases resulted in permanent damage to video cards . The source of the problem is the fact that the frame rate is not locked on menu screens . This causes the graphics card to continuously render the image , resulting in excessive heat . Blizzard has acknowledged the problem , and posted a temporary workaround . They also recommended ensuring computer systems are well ventilated and contacting the videocard manufacturer for hardware @-@ related issues . In response to the reports , Blizzard 's Public Relations Manager , Bob Colayco said : " There is no code in our software that will cause video cards to overheat . When we saw this issue first reported , we conducted thorough additional testing and determined that for those players experiencing this problem , the cause is most likely hardware @-@ related . " CrunchGear has also suggested that the problem is not with StarCraft II , but rather due to poorly maintained hardware and inadequate cooling . They do however agree that the overheating only occurs on non @-@ framerate locked screens and provide the fix that Blizzard has offered to users . Other articles recommend that users regularly clean the dust out of their computer to improve the cooling efficiency of their systems . Blizzard posted a message on their official forums regarding the issue that has since been removed . The original message was : " Screens that are light on detail may make your system overheat if cooling is overall insufficient . This is because the game has nothing to do so it is primarily just working on drawing the screen very quickly . "
= = Reception = =
StarCraft II : Wings of Liberty has been met with critical acclaim since its release . It received an aggregated score of 92 @.@ 39 % at GameRankings and 93 / 100 at Metacritic . The game was particularly praised for retaining the popular RTS gameplay from StarCraft , while introducing new features and improved storytelling . GamesRadar felt that " in many ways , StarCraft II : Wings of Liberty feels like StarCraft 2 @.@ 0 – and that ’ s a good thing " , stating that it " delivers on all fronts " . NZGamer.com said the game was " the best RTS game released in years and one of the best games on PC " . In relation to its story , GameTrailers stated , " If there 's anything immediately apparent from Wings of Liberty 's story , it 's that the series ' narrative structure has evolved well beyond the original 's sparse between @-@ sortie intermissions , " calling it " an epic and entertainingly told yarn " , while Eurogamer criticized the dialogue as being " flat " and the characters as being " either clichéd , banal or both " . Giant Bomb echoed this view while also noting the Hyperion portion between missions , finding it to have " more depth of character , more believable pathos , more surprise twists — than I honestly expected out of the story " . IGN however noted that " no doubt franchise fans will eat it up , but newcomers may be wondering what all the fuss is about while going through the early missions that lack the kind of urgency you would hope when the fate of civilization is in peril . "
Joystiq was very positive towards the improved multiplayer matchmaking service , calling it " similar to Xbox Live and PlayStation Network , which is a welcome change from the archaic matchmaking of Battle.net in previous Blizzard games " , while GameSpot called the amount of online content " remarkable " , noting the variety of maps and up to 12 player online support . When comparing the single and multiplayer modes , GameSpy felt that the single @-@ player portion was " less inspiring , mostly because of the extremely shallow learning curve " , with the online multiplayer being " so smooth , so challenging , and so much plain @-@ old @-@ fun " . John Meyer of Wired praised the improved graphics engine , saying that it " shows decades of polish " and a " slick new presentation " . Matt Peckham of PC World also noted that some buyers expressed dissatisfaction with the absence of LAN @-@ based multiplayer gameplay , the lack of cross @-@ realm play and the campaign being limited to the Terran race . Game Revolution , in relation to only being able to play the Terran campaign , however , pointed out that " Wings of Liberty has 29 missions ; the original StarCraft had just over 30 . Fair odds say the next one will have roughly the same amount ; Broodwar brought about 30 too . We already got the full game for $ 50 , and we ’ re getting offered two expansions . If you want to feel outraged about something , pick something else . "
Ars Technica gave the overall game a verdict of " buy " and especially praised the single @-@ player campaign as " fun as hell " . They were also very impressed with the game modding tools that allow users to create their own content and distribute it to other fans . The two " ugly " issues they identified with the game were lack of LAN play and the decision to split up the regions . They suggested that these decisions were influenced by Activision rather than by the game designers at Blizzard , and felt that this would turn many people off of the game and make things difficult for people who have international friends . In a separate article , Ars Technica vigorously supported StarCraft II against a series of 1 @-@ star ratings given to the game on Amazon.com in protest against the lack of LAN play . They argued in Blizzard 's defense against complaints that it was not a full game because only the Terran campaign was released , but did suggest that the customers ' complaints about the lack of LAN and cross @-@ region play were legitimate .
= = Soundtracks = =
Two official soundtracks were released for StarCraft II : Wings of Liberty . The original score , composed by Derek Duke , Glenn Stafford , Neal Acree , Russell Brower , Sascha Dikiciyan and Cris Velasco was released on CD as well as on the iTunes Store . Both versions contain 14 tracks and the iTunes version contains additional digital extras .
A second soundtrack , Revolution Overdrive : Songs of Liberty , was released on CD , vinyl and iTunes . This soundtrack features the original and cover songs heard in JoeyRay 's bar during the video game .
= = Professional competition = =
StarCraft : Brood War has been called the most successful e @-@ sport in the world that includes its own ranking system , and it has been referred to as the national pastime in South Korea , where there are two television channels dedicated to broadcasting professional StarCraft matches . Since its launch , StarCraft II has become a successful e @-@ Sport with many leagues of ongoing tournaments with prize @-@ pools up to US $ 170 @,@ 000 . There have been many tournaments with players from around the world ; GomTV SC2 Global League , TeamLiquid StarCraft League , Major League Gaming , ESL and the North American Star League . StarCraft II has also become the main title in major LANs throughout the world like Assembly and Dreamhack .
The first large StarCraft II tournaments occurred during the beta testing phase , the most notable being the HDH Invitational and Day [ 9 ] ' s King of the Beta . Currently the largest professional tournament is the GSL ( GomTV Star League ) which is a monthly tournament held in South Korea . The tournament enjoys major corporate sponsorships and prize pools of over $ 100 @,@ 000 . A new North American StarCraft League was announced on February 21 , 2011 and is scheduled for an initial run of three seasons offering $ 400 @,@ 000 in prize money . The first season of the North American Star League started on April 12 , 2011 , with 50 players divided into 5 divisions . It ended on July 10 , 2011 , and the total prize pool was US $ 100 @,@ 000 . The North American Star League has since run for an additional season , with a fifth starting in early 2013 . On May 2 , 2012 , Ongamenet and KeSPA announced a formal switch in StarCraft competition from Brood War to StarCraft II : Wings of Liberty . Starleague will transition over to StarCraft II by late 2012 .
After three years of negotiations , Blizzard decided that the Korean e @-@ Sports Players Association ( KeSPA ) was unwilling to cooperate with them in regards to the sharing of profits from competitive StarCraft multiplayer games . This breakdown led to an uncertain future of KeSPA 's legal ability to broadcast Blizzard 's intellectual property of both StarCraft and StarCraft II without paying royalties . MBC Television agreed to Blizzard 's new terms in June 2010 ; KeSPA received a license from Blizzard and Ongamenet will host StarCraft II competitions starting in the summer of 2012 .
Blizzard and GomTV signed an agreement on May 26 , 2010 , allowing the latter to create and broadcast the GomTV SC2 Global League , a series of tournaments , each with a US $ 170 @,@ 000 prize pool , in South Korea . This agreement followed the decision from Blizzard to cease the negotiation with KeSPA , and it confirmed that Blizzard had decided to take another route to promote StarCraft II as an e @-@ Sport in South Korea . The non @-@ profit public interest group Public Knowledge made the following statement regarding the issue : " The Battle.net Terms of Use state that it is a violation of the agreement — and an infringement of Blizzard 's copyright in the underlying game — to " use the Service for any ' e @-@ sports ' or group competition sponsored , promoted or facilitated by any commercial or non @-@ profit entity without Blizzard 's prior written consent . "
= = = Battle.net World Championship Series = = =
In early 2012 Blizzard Entertainment announced the 2012 StarCraft II World Championship Series ( WCS ) , featuring over 30 offline events . The WCS featured thousands of dollars in prize pools and a system starting from National Qualifiers , National Finals , Continental Finals , and culminating in the World Championship Finals in Shanghai , China . The Battle.net World Championship ( also known as the WCS Global Finals ) winner was professional South Korean player Lee @-@ Sak " PartinG " Won from team StarTale , winning both the trophy and US $ 100 @,@ 000 .
There are other StarCraft 2 tournaments that may not bear the WCS name , but allow players to earn WCS points . A few such tournaments include some of the aforementioned tournaments such as Intel Extreme Masters ( IEM ) and DreamHack Open , but also ASUS ROG , Red Bull Battlegrounds , and Homestory Cup . A full list of tournaments can be found on the StarCraft 2 Liquidpedia .
Professional StarCraft II began to decline in popularity by 2012 , in part because of competition from games like League of Legends .
= = LAN play = =
StarCraft II does not offer the ability to play directly over a local area network ( LAN ) , as is possible with StarCraft ; all network games are routed through the Internet via Blizzard 's gaming servers . The latency delay between commands issued and game response when played online is greatly reduced when playing over a LAN and this allows for much finer control over in @-@ game units ; there were concerns that a professional scene would not develop as a result . Over 250 @,@ 000 fans signed a petition asking Blizzard to add LAN play to StarCraft II , before the game 's release . Currently , Blizzard has no plans to support LAN play . Although it does not change the routing of the game through Blizzard 's servers , a Players Near You feature was added in StarCraft II patch 2 @.@ 0 @.@ 4 , to help with organizing games with other players on the same local network .
Lack of LAN play caused problems in 2010 Major League Gaming tournament in Dallas , Texas , which experienced severe delays and problems with Battle.net 2 @.@ 0 .
= Point Loma , San Diego =
Point Loma is a seaside community within the city of San Diego , California . Geographically it is a hilly peninsula that is bordered on the west and south by the Pacific Ocean , the east by the San Diego Bay and Old Town , and the north by the San Diego River . Together with the Silver Strand / Coronado peninsula , the Point Loma peninsula defines San Diego Bay and separates it from the Pacific Ocean . The term " Point Loma " is used to describe both the neighborhood and the peninsula .
Point Loma has an estimated population of 47 @,@ 981 ( including Ocean Beach ) , according to the 2010 Census . The Peninsula Planning Area , which includes most of Point Loma , comprises approximately 4 @,@ 400 acres ( 1 @,@ 800 ha ) .
Point Loma is historically important as the landing place of the first European expedition to come ashore in present @-@ day California . The peninsula has been described as " where California began " . Today , Point Loma houses two major military bases , a national cemetery , a national monument , and a university , in addition to residential and commercial areas .
= = History = =
Loma is the Spanish word for hill . The original name of the peninsula was La Punta de la Loma de San Diego , translated as Hill Point of San Diego . This was later anglicized to Point Loma .
There were no permanent indigenous settlements on Point Loma because of a lack of fresh water . Kumeyaay people did visit Ocean Beach periodically to harvest mussels , clams , abalone and lobsters .
Point Loma was discovered by Europeans on September 28 , 1542 when Portuguese navigator Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo ( João Rodrigues Cabrilho in Portuguese ) departed from Mexico and led an expedition for the Spanish crown to explore the west coast of what is now the United States . Cabrillo described San Diego Bay as " a very good enclosed port " . Historians believe he docked his flagship on Point Loma 's east shore , probably at Ballast Point . This was the first landing by a European in present @-@ day California , so that Point Loma has been described as " where California began " .
More than 200 years were to pass before a permanent European settlement was established in San Diego in 1769 . Mission San Diego itself was in the San Diego River valley , but its port was a bayside beach in Point Loma called La Playa ( Spanish for beach ) . The historic La Playa Trail , the oldest European trail on the West Coast , led from the Mission and Presidio to La Playa , where ships anchored and unloaded their cargoes via small boats . Part of the route became present @-@ day Rosecrans Street . In his book Two Years Before the Mast , Richard Henry Dana , Jr. describes how sailors in the 1830s camped on the beach at La Playa , accumulated cattle hides for export , and hunted for wood and jackrabbits in the hills of Point Loma . The beach at La Playa continued to serve as San Diego 's " port " until the establishment of New Town ( current downtown ) in the 1870s .
Ballast Point got its name from the practice of ships discarding their ballast there on arriving in San Diego Bay and taking on ballast as they left for the open ocean . Fort Guijarros was constructed at Ballast Point in 1797 . Ballast Point and La Playa are now on the grounds of Naval Base Point Loma .
The longtime association of San Diego with the U.S. military began in Point Loma . The southern portion of the Point Loma peninsula was set aside for military purposes as early as 1852 . Over the next several decades the Army set up a series of coastal artillery batteries and named the area Fort Rosecrans . Significant U.S. Navy presence in San Diego began in 1901 with the establishment of the Navy Coaling Station in Point Loma . The Marine Corps Recruit Depot San Diego was commissioned in 1921 and the San Diego Naval Training Center in 1923 , both in Point Loma ; the Naval Training Center was closed in 1997 . During World War II the entire southern portion of the peninsula was closed to civilians and used for military purposes , including a battery of coast artillery . Following the war the area retained multiple Navy commands , including a submarine base and a Naval Electronics Laboratory ; they were eventually consolidated into Naval Base Point Loma . Other portions of Fort Rosecrans became Fort Rosecrans National Cemetery and Cabrillo National Monument .
Following the death in 1891 of Helena Blavatsky its founder , Katherine Tingley moved the headquarters of the Theosophical Society to " Lomaland " , a hilltop campus in Point Loma overlooking the ocean . The facility with its unusual architecture and even more unusual lifestyles became an important source of music and culture for residents of San Diego between 1900 and 1920 . Producing most of its own food , the Society also experimented widely with planting trees and crops such as eucalyptus and avocado , giving that formerly barren part of Point Loma its current heavily wooded character . The Lomaland site is now the campus of Point Loma Nazarene University .
During the 1920s there was a dirt airstrip known as Dutch Flats in what is now the Midway neighborhood of Point Loma . That is where Charles Lindbergh first tested and flew his airplane , The Spirit of St. Louis , which had been built in San Diego by the Ryan Aeronautical Company . A U.S. Post Office now located on the site contains several historic plaques commemorating Dutch Flats and Lindbergh .
Due to the prevailing sea @-@ breezes and long north @-@ south ridge , Point Loma was a well @-@ known gliding site during 1929 @-@ 1935 . William Hawley Bowlus the Superintendent of Construction on the Spirit of St. Louis and resident of Point Loma built the first American sailplane the Bowlus SP @-@ 1 and flew that aircraft along the west side of Point Loma to establish new American endurance records . Bowlus later used other refined designs to soar for over 9 hours near the Cabrillo National Monument , and one of Bowlus ' students Jack C. Barstow soared over Point Loma for over 15 hours in 1930 to establish an unofficial world record for soaring endurance .
= = = Landmarks = = =
The best known landmark in Point Loma is the Old Point Loma lighthouse , an icon occasionally used to represent the entire city of San Diego . ( It is sometimes incorrectly referred to as the " Old Spanish Lighthouse " ; in fact it was built after California was admitted to the United States . ) Perched atop the southern point that creates the entrance of the bay with Coronado , the small , two story lighthouse was completed in 1854 and first lit on November 15 , 1855 . At 422 feet ( 129 m ) above sea level at the entrance of the bay , the seemingly good location for a lighthouse soon proved to be a poor choice , as fog and cloud within the marine layer often obscured the beam for ocean @-@ going vessels . On March 23 , 1891 , the lighthouse ceased to be used for its original purpose , as a new lighthouse was built nearer sea level on the same southern point . The Old Point Loma Lighthouse is now partially open to the public and has been refurbished to its historic 1880s interior . It is located within the Cabrillo National Monument , named after Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo , the first European explorer to see San Diego Bay . The lighthouse is listed on the National Register of Historic Places .
In addition to the lighthouse , there are four other sites in Point Loma listed on the National Register of Historic Places : Cabrillo National Monument , the Marine Corps Recruit Depot Historic District , Naval Training Center San Diego , and Rosecroft .
Point Loma is recognized as a National Landmark of Soaring of the National Soaring Museum because of the many record flights that took place along the promontory . Two plaques honoring these accomplishments are near the entrance to the Cabrillo National Monument .
= = Geography = =
= = = Geology = = =
On the west side of the peninsula there are sandstone cliffs along the ocean , called the Sunset Cliffs . Geologically these cliffs are known as the Point Loma Formation . They contain fossils , including dinosaur fossils , from the Late Cretaceous period , about 75 million years ago . The formation represents one of the few sites containing dinosaur fossils in the state of California . Overlying the Point Loma Formation is another Late Cretaceous deposit called the Cabrillo Formation , which crops out in various areas of Point Loma .
The top of the peninsula is fairly flat , reaches an elevation of 422 ft ( 129 m ) , and is capped by much younger sandstone and conglomerate deposits from the Pleistocene era , 1 million years or less in age . These flat @-@ lying beds lie directly on top of the gently dipping Point Loma and Cabrillo formations . The gap in the sedimentary record , called an Angular unconformity , represents about 70 million years of non @-@ deposition and / or erosion .
The cliffs on the ocean side of the peninsula are sheer and are undergoing constant erosion due to wave action . On the east side the land slopes into San Diego Bay more gradually , so that homes and developments go right to the water 's edge . At the northern end of the peninsula the cliffs and hills become lower , disappearing entirely in Ocean Beach and the Midway area , where the San Diego River flows .
Much of the Midway area is former marshland which has been filled in for development . In fact , the San Diego River used to flow through the Midway area into San Diego Bay , isolating Point Loma from San Diego . Because of fears that San Diego Bay might silt up , the river was diverted to its present course north of Point Loma by a levee built in 1877 . Parts of Liberty Station and Point Loma Village are also fill land , reclaimed from sand spits and wetlands surrounding the Bay . The only remnant of the formerly extensive wetlands in Point Loma , aside from the riverbed itself , is a city @-@ owned nature preserve called Famosa Slough , which branches off from the river near its mouth .
= = = Neighborhoods = = =
There are several distinct neighborhoods in the Point Loma peninsula . Most neighborhoods in Point Loma consist primarily of single family homes . The commercial and retail heart of the peninsula is called Point Loma Village . Its retail establishments serve local residents as well as yachting and sport fishing interests . The streets in Point Loma Village are lined with hundreds of jacaranda trees as a result of community beautification efforts . The newest commercial and retail area is found at Liberty Station , site of the former Naval Training Center San Diego , which also has residential and educational sections . The Midway district at the northern end of the peninsula , adjacent to the San Diego River and the I @-@ 5 and I @-@ 8 freeways , is primarily commercial and industrial with a few small residential developments .
Connected to Point Loma Village by a causeway is Shelter Island , which is actually not an island but a former sandbank in San Diego Bay . Shelter Island was developed in the 1950s after it was built up into dry land using material dredged from the bay . It is under the control of the Port of San Diego and contains hotels , restaurants , marinas , and public parkland .
The bayside residential area called La Playa lies somewhat north of the original La Playa , the beach where commercial and military ships anchored during the early days of the city . La Playa includes some of the most expensive homes in San Diego . Some bayfront homes have private piers for small boats . The hills above La Playa are known as the Wooded Area on the bay side of Catalina Boulevard ( so called because of the many mature trees in the area ) , and the College Area on the ocean side ( because of the proximity of Point Loma Nazarene College ) . The Sunset Cliffs neighborhood is on the west side , above ocean bluffs , and is known for its views of the Pacific Ocean .
Roseville , named for San Diego pioneer Louis Rose , encompasses the oldest settled part of the peninsula . Roseville was originally a separate town but later was absorbed into San Diego . Many Portuguese fishermen and fishing boat owners settled there more than 100 years ago . Some people refer to the area as " Tunaville " because of its association with the tuna @-@ fishing fleet . The hilly area above Roseville is known as Fleetridge , named for its developer David Fleet , a son of Reuben H. Fleet .
The bayside hills between Rosecrans Street and Chatsworth Boulevard north of Nimitz Boulevard are known as Loma Portal . A distinctive feature of this neighborhood is the location of street lights in the middle of several street intersections instead of on the sidewalk . Loma Portal lies directly in the takeoff pattern for planes from Lindbergh Field , making it the home of the " Point Loma Pause " where all conversation ceases temporarily due to airplane noise . The east @-@ west streets in Roseville and Loma Portal are known as the " alphabetical author streets " . The streets are named for authors in alphabetical order from Addison to Zola , with a second partial cycle from Alcott to Lytton .
The northwest corner of the peninsula , where the San Diego River flows into the ocean , is a separate community known as Ocean Beach . The southern one @-@ third of the Point Loma Peninsula is entirely federal land , including Naval Base Point Loma , Fort Rosecrans National Cemetery , and Cabrillo National Monument .
= = = Fauna = = =
The area contains multiple species of wildlife , both in the federal lands at the southern end of the peninsula ( managed in part as an ecological reserve ) and in the developed suburban areas . Mammals include raccoons , skunks , possums , bats , rabbits , California ground squirrels , gray foxes , and occasional coyotes . More than 300 species of birds have been observed in Point Loma , which lies on the Pacific Flyway migration route .
= = Economy = =
The main economic engines of Point Loma are military facilities , neighborhood @-@ serving retail , and marine recreation , particularly yachting and deep @-@ sea fishing .
= = = Tourism = = =
Marine activities are mostly located on the Bay ( eastern ) side of the peninsula , where there are three yacht clubs , including the San Diego Yacht Club , which was home to the America 's Cup from 1988 to 1995 . There are half a dozen small @-@ boat marinas on the Bay side of Point Loma . There is also a commercial dock which services sport fishing cruises as well as seasonal whale watching expeditions . Point Loma hosts the biggest sport fishing fleet in Southern California . The Bay side hosts numerous other businesses related to yachting and fishing , such as marine supply stores , yacht brokerages , boat repair yards , and hotels and motels catering to fishing enthusiasts . Some restaurants and hotels have docks for customers who arrive by boat .
Tourists and locals visit the cliffs on the western side of the peninsula for views of the ocean and the sunset - hence the name , Sunset Cliffs . There are surfing spots below the cliffs , such as Luscomb 's , Garbage Beach , and New Break . The cliffs are unstable and can be dangerous ; a woman died in a fall from the cliffs in December 2008 , and other falls have resulted in injuries .
The Point Loma area has a number of hotels , restaurants , and local businesses . Located in the Voltaire business district , near Ocean Beach , is the Point Loma Youth Hostel , frequented by travelers from around the world . The San Diego Sports Arena and the SOMA concert venue are located in the Midway neighborhood of Point Loma .
= = = Military = = =
Point Loma is home to several major military installations including the US Navy 's SPAWAR program , the US Marine Corps ' Recruit Training Depot ( MCRD San Diego ) and Naval Base Point Loma . The Navy controls approximately 1 @,@ 800 acres ( 730 ha ) of Point Loma and provides employment to about 48 @,@ 000 military personnel and civilians .
Naval Base Point Loma , at the southern end of Rosecrans Street in the La Playa area , is the home of Submarine Squadron 11 , with several nuclear fast @-@ attack submarines , and the Naval Mine and Anti @-@ Submarine Warfare Command , including eight Avenger class mine countermeasures ships . The naval base also houses extensive electronic and communications operations ( including the former Naval Electronics Laboratory ) serving the Pacific Fleet . At the southern end of the peninsula is historic Fort Rosecrans , site of the U.S. Army 's Coast Artillery Corps during World War I and World War II . Fort Rosecrans also includes the Fort Rosecrans National Cemetery and the USS Bennington Monument .
The Naval Training Center San Diego served as a basic training facility for new Navy recruits for more than 70 years , as well as hosting many specialty schools providing advanced career training for sailors . In April 1997 the base was closed and these schools were moved to Recruit Training Command , Great Lakes , Illinois . The former site of the base is now Liberty Station , a 361 @-@ acre ( 1 @.@ 46 km2 ) mixed @-@ use redevelopment project that includes residential , office , retail , educational , and civic , arts and cultural districts . Liberty Station was developed by the City of San Diego and The Corky McMillin companies . It also includes a 9 @-@ hole golf course , a 46 @-@ acre ( 190 @,@ 000 m2 ) waterfront park and a 100 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 40 km2 ) historic district listed with the National Register of Historic Places .
= = Culture = =
= = = Annual events = = =
The Day at the Docks festival each April highlights Point Loma 's sport fishing industry .
The Festa do Espirito Santo , or Feast of the Holy Spirit , is a religious festival put on by Point Loma 's large Portuguese community . It has been staged annually since 1910 and is San Diego 's oldest ethnic tradition .
The Cabrillo Festival each October is a weekend @-@ long commemoration of the landing of Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo in Point Loma in 1542 .
From June through September , nationally known musicians and comedians perform at an outdoor concert venue on Shelter Island .
A free outdoor concert series features local musicians on five Friday evenings in a local park each summer .
Every year since 1952 , the St. Nicholas Home Tour has been held on the first Saturday in December . The tour typically includes 4 - 6 significant homes decorated for the holidays , and is accompanied by tea , cookies , and caroling . All but one of the tours has been hosted by All Souls ' Episcopal Church . This is said to be the oldest home tour west of the Mississippi River .
Point Loma is noted for neighborhood Christmas decorations . Several blocks of Garrison Street near Chatsworth are particularly well known for elaborate decorations . There is also a neighborhood @-@ wide lighting of luminarias on Christmas Eve in the Plumosa Park area . On two Sundays in December there is a Parade of Lights , with brightly decorated boats sailing on the Bay to be viewed from the shoreline .
= = = Civic organizations = = =
Civic organizations include the Point Loma Association , a nonprofit group dedicated to beautification and civic improvement , and the Peninsula Chamber of Commerce . Service clubs include Rotary , Kiwanis , Optimists , Lions , the Point Loma Assembly , and the Thursday Club .
= = = Parks and libraries = = =
Point Loma contains a few small neighborhood parks and the Cabrillo Recreation Center . There is large waterfront park at Liberty Station , which also contains a nine @-@ hole golf course . Most of the ocean frontage of the peninsula is a public shoreline park called Sunset Cliffs Natural Park . The Point Loma Native Plant Garden features plants and flowers native to the San Diego area . Cabrillo National Monument is a federal historic park at the southern end of the peninsula .
The James Edgar and Jean Jessop Hervey Public Library opened in 2003 , replacing a much smaller public library . The new library , built by Conwell Shonkwiler & Associates , was partly funded by a donation via the San Diego Foundation from the Hervey family , who had close ties to the area . Jean Jessop Hervey in particular used to visit the old Point Loma Library every Tuesday to read with her children . The library , located at 3701 Voltaire Street , is over 25 @,@ 000 square feet and holds over 80 @,@ 000 books . It includes a kitchen area , a community meeting room , and outdoor sitting patios . The lower floor is the largest children 's library in the City of San Diego , featuring a simulated ship , reading desks shaped like surfboards , an art space and a Story Time Zone . In connecting to the place of Point Loma , the library 's architectural style features a nautical theme . There is even an operating periscope , salvaged from a U.S. Navy submarine , through which visitors can see the surrounding neighborhood . The floor in the entry lobby features a terrazzo map of the Point Loma Peninsula . The library holds scheduled events such as story time for children , Thursday after school movies , and arts and crafts demonstrations .
= = Government = =
The Point Loma community is part of the city of San Diego . On the San Diego City Council it is part of District 2 , currently represented by Lorie Zapf . In the Government of San Diego County , Point Loma is divided between District 1 and District 4 . In the California state legislature it is part of Assembly District 78 , currently represented by Assemblymember Toni Atkins , and Senate District 39 , represented by Senator Marty Block . At the federal level it is part of the 52nd Congressional District and is represented by Congressman Scott Peters .
Some portions of the Point Loma peninsula are not under the jurisdiction of the city , including the federal and military lands as well as the bayside tidelands governed by the Port of San Diego . Approximately 60 % of the Point Loma community is included in the Coastal Zone and is subject to regulation by the California Coastal Commission .
The Peninsula Community Planning Board is an advisory board which makes recommendations to the city on planning , land use , and similar matters for the Point Loma area . There are separate planning boards for Ocean Beach and the Midway area .
= = Education = =
Point Loma has several public , charter , and private schools at the elementary , middle , and high school levels , as well as multiple private preschools , an adult school and a university . Point Loma 's public schools are part of the San Diego Unified School District . Neighborhood public schools include Point Loma High School , two middle schools , and seven elementary schools . There is also a public charter school campus in the Liberty Station area which encompasses three high schools , two middle schools , and one elementary school , collectively known as High Tech High . Point Loma educational facilities also include a K @-@ 12 religious school , a religious elementary / middle school , and a private elementary / middle school .
Post @-@ secondary education is offered at Point Loma Nazarene University , a Christian liberal arts college whose ocean @-@ view campus was once the home of the Theosophical Society . The Peninsula also has a branch campus of the San Diego Community College District .
= = Infrastructure = =
Interstate 8 freeway follows the northern edge of the Point Loma peninsula , paralleling the San Diego River , and terminates a few blocks from the Pacific Ocean . Rosecrans Street is the north / south avenue that serves the bay side of Point Loma , while Sunset Cliffs Boulevard is the north / south avenue on the ocean side ; the two streets run parallel to each other and to Catalina Boulevard on the crest of the hill . The former California State Route 209 followed Rosecrans and Catalina to the southern end of the Point . Sports Arena Boulevard , West Point Loma Boulevard , Harbor Drive and Nimitz Boulevard are other major traffic pipelines in Point Loma .
Most streets in the coastal sections , both bay and ocean , are laid out in a rough grid pattern , with the oceanside blocks larger than the bayside . The grid breaks down in the hilly center , particularly west of Chatsworth Boulevard and east of Catalina and Nimitz Boulevard , where streets have more terrain @-@ following , curvy patterns . Some streets are broken into multiple disconnected sections by intervening canyons or hills . The presence of hills and canyons , together with the restraints imposed by a long narrow peninsula , result in " circuitous routing of traffic and a great deal of out @-@ of @-@ direction travel . "
= = Notable people = =
Charlotte Johnson Baker , 1855 @-@ 1937 , first woman physician in San Diego , first female president of the San Diego County Medical Society
Fred Baker ( physician ) , physician , civic activist , member and president of the City Council , founder of Scripps Institution of Oceanography
Belle Benchley , 1882 – 1973 , director of the San Diego Zoo for 25 years ; for most of that time she was the only female zoo director in the world
Dennis Conner , 1942- , yacht racer
Richard Henry Dana , Jr . , 1815 – 1882 , author who wrote about early 19th century San Diego
Jim Evans , 1945 - , internationally @-@ recognized fitness consultant ; U.S. Natural ( Drug @-@ Free ) Bodybuilding Hall of Fame inductee .
Kevin Faulconer , 1967- , Mayor of San Diego
Reuben H. Fleet , 1887 – 1975 , founder of Convair
Frankie Laine , 1913 – 2007 , singer
Daniël de Lange , 1841 @-@ 1918 ) , Dutch composer ad Theosophist
Justin Halpern , 1980- , author of the best selling book Sh * t My Dad Says
Ed Harris , 1946- , member of the San Diego City Council
Maureen O 'Connor , 1946- , first female Mayor of San Diego
Robert O. Peterson , 1916 – 1994 , founder of Jack in the Box fast food chain
Alfred D. Robinson , 1866 @-@ 1942 and Marion James Robinson , 1873 @-@ 1919 , builders of Rosecroft
Louis Rose , 1807 – 1888 , early developer , founder of Roseville
T. Claude Ryan , 1898 – 1982 , aviation pioneer , founder of Ryan Aeronautical
Albert Spalding , 1850 – 1915 , founder of the A. G. Spalding sports equipment company
Katherine Tingley , 1847 – 1929 , Theosophist , founder of Lomaland
Joseph Wambaugh , 1937- , author
= Hurricane Anita =
Hurricane Anita was a powerful Atlantic hurricane during an otherwise quiet 1977 Atlantic hurricane season . The first tropical cyclone of the season , Anita developed from a tropical wave on August 29 in the north @-@ central Gulf of Mexico . It tracked westward into an area with conditions favorable for further development , and quickly intensified into a hurricane by late on August 30 . Initially , Anita was forecast to strike Texas , though a building ridge turned it to the west @-@ southwest . The hurricane rapidly strengthened to attain peak winds of 175 mph ( 280 km / h ) , and on September 2 Anita made landfall in eastern Tamaulipas as a Category 5 hurricane . It quickly weakened as it crossed Mexico , and after briefly redeveloping into a tropical depression in the eastern Pacific Ocean , Anita dissipated on September 4 to the south of the Baja California Peninsula .
The hurricane produced light rainfall and high tides along the Gulf Coast of the United States . Some low @-@ level flooding was reported , but damage was slight . In Mexico , the hurricane caused strong winds and moderate rainfall . The winds caused extensive damage to villages in northeastern Mexico , with about 25 @,@ 000 people left homeless . The rainfall , reaching over 17 @.@ 52 inches ( 445 mm ) , caused flooding and mudslides which killed eleven people in Tamaulipas . Overall damage is unknown .
= = Storm history = =
A tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa on August 16 . The wave axis tracked steadily westward , and on August 23 convection increased after the wave passed beneath a cold @-@ core upper @-@ level low . By August 27 , the wave axis was located over Cuba , with the area of convection located between Florida and the Bahamas after tracking northwestward . The disturbance crossed southern Florida , and after entering the Gulf of Mexico an anticyclone provided favorable conditions for further development . It tracked slowly westward at 5 mph ( 7 km / h ) , and after developing a surface circulation the system developed into a tropical depression on August 29 while located about 230 miles ( 370 km ) south @-@ southwest of New Orleans , Louisiana .
With a ridge of high pressure to its north , the depression tracked westward . Favorable conditions persisted for several days prior to the arrival of the depression , and as such the depression quickly intensified into Tropical Storm Anita . The storm tracked slowly over warm water temperatures , and throughout its duration it was embedded within warm , moist tropical air ; Anita rapidly organized and attained hurricane status late on August 30 ; this is the latest date for the first hurricane since 1967 . Initially it threatened to strike Texas , though building high pressures to the north of the hurricane turned Anita to the west @-@ southwest . The hurricane developed a well @-@ defined eye , and Hurricane Anita began to rapidly intensify late on September 1 after attaining major hurricane status . During a two @-@ day period up to its peak intensity , Anita deepened at a rate of 2 mbar per hour , and on September 2 the hurricane reached peak winds of 175 mph ( 280 km / h ) while located just offshore northeastern Mexico , making Anita a Category 5 on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale .
Hurricane Anita maintained its strength as it approached land , and at 1100 UTC on September 2 it made landfall on Soto la Marina , Tamaulipas , about 145 miles ( 235 km ) south of Brownsville , Texas or 80 miles ( 130 km ) north of Tampico , Mexico . Moving ashore with a pressure of 926 mbar , Anita was the third most intense tropical cyclone to strike the nation , and was the most intense hurricane to hit from the Gulf of Mexico . It rapidly weakened over the mountainous terrain of Mexico , and on September 3 , about 25 hours after moving ashore , Anita emerged into the eastern Pacific Ocean as a tropical depression . Reclassified as Tropical Depression Eleven , the system continued to the west , and weakened further after encountering cooler water temperatures . The depression gradually lost its deep convection , and on September 4 it dissipated off of the southern tip of the Baja California Peninsula .
= = Preparations = =
Shortly after first developing , one oil company evacuated its oil rigs off of Texas and Louisiana by helicopter , with several other companies beginning to evacuate unneeded workers . Ultimately , 7 @,@ 000 oil workers were removed from offshore oil platforms . The threat of the developing disturbance prompted officials to close a state park in southern Louisiana . The National Hurricane Center advised small craft along the northern Gulf Coast to remain at port . Initially , Anita was predicted to continue tracking west @-@ northwestward and make landfall near the Texas / Louisiana border . As a result , schools in Cameron Parish , Louisiana were closed , and on August 30 a hurricane watch was issued for the southwestern Louisiana and northeastern Texas coastlines . After the track shifted further to the south , the watch was replaced with a hurricane warning between Brownsville and just south of Corpus Christi , Texas . An emergency shelter was opened in Brownwood , Texas , and Army trucks were prepared to assist in evacuations . An official from the National Weather Service recommended evacuation for all residents east of Galveston , Texas living in an area below 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) above sea level ; about 20 @,@ 000 left Cameron , Louisiana . In all , about 58 @,@ 000 people evacuated coastal locations in Louisiana and Texas .
Though the National Hurricane Center did not issue hurricane warnings for Mexico , officials warned the Mexican government of the potential danger of the hurricane . Across the northeastern coastline of the country , 35 @,@ 000 people evacuated prior to the arrival of the hurricane , including all of the residents in the village where the hurricane struck . The Mexican army assisted in evacuations and preparing emergency shelters .
= = Impact = =
= = = United States = = =
As the precursor tropical disturbance crossed southern Florida , it dropped light rainfall of over 1 inch ( 25 mm ) in the Miami area . Later , as a developing tropical depression , the system produced gusty winds and heavy rainfall in southern Louisiana ; one station near Galliano reported over 3 inches ( 76 mm ) of precipitation . Hurricane Anita produced a storm tide of 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 6 m ) above normal in Grand Isle , which resulted in hundreds of families being asked to leave their homes .
The hurricane produced above @-@ normal tides along the Texas coastline , which closed several highways including Texas State Highway 87 . The northern periphery of Hurricane Anita produced light to moderate rainfall across the southern portion of the state , which peaked at 4 @.@ 97 inches ( 126 mm ) at Rio Grande City . Damage in the state was minor ; on South Padre Island damage was limited to a few broken windows .
= = = Mexico = = =
Hurricane Anita made landfall in a sparsely populated portion of Mexico ; as a result , few meteorological statistics exist . A station near where the hurricane moved ashore recorded 17 @.@ 52 inches ( 445 mm ) of precipitation in six hours , which resulted in severe flooding and mudslides . Winds along the eastern Mexico coastline were estimated at over 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) .
The hurricane caused extensive damage to fishing and farming communities in northeastern Mexico . Strong winds destroyed thousands of homes and left about 25 @,@ 000 people homeless , according to newspaper reports from Mexico City . The winds destroyed the roofs of most buildings near where the hurricane moved ashore , and also caused widespread power outages which disrupted communications . Heavy rainfall destroyed or obstructed roadways across the region , with some flooded avenues in Tampico and reports of flooded highways near Ciudad Victoria . Eleven people were killed in floods and mudslides across Tamaulipas . In all , at least 50 @,@ 000 people were affected by the hurricane in Mexico .
= = Aftermath = =
The name Anita was retired following this storm , and will never be used for an Atlantic hurricane again . Shortly after the hurricane made landfall , the government of Mexico sent two trucks of food to the areas of greatest impact . Additionally , officials permitted full use of the Mexican railway system to facilitate the distribution of aid . Three municipalities were also declared disaster areas following the storm . In Texas , the combination of moderate rainfall and high tides into low @-@ lying marshland led to a mosquito outbreak near Galveston following the storm .
= Banksia acanthopoda =
Banksia acanthopoda is a species of shrub in the Proteaceae family . It grows as a small spreading shrub to 2 m ( 6 1 ⁄ 2 ft ) high and has prickly leaves and yellow composite flower heads , called inflorescences , composed of 50 to 60 individual yellow flowers . Endemic to Western Australia , it occurs only in a few populations in the vicinities of Woodanilling , Katanning and Darkan . Because of its rarity , it is classed as " Priority Two " conservation flora by Western Australia 's Department of Environment and Conservation .
The botanist Alex George first described this species in 1996 , naming it Dryandra acanthopoda . It was renamed to its current name in 2007 , when all Dryandra species were transferred to the genus Banksia . It is little known in cultivation and its sensitivity to dieback is unclear ( although highly likely ) .
= = Description = =
Banksia acanthopoda grows as a spreading shrub up to 2 m ( 6 1 ⁄ 2 ft ) high . Its stems are matted with short soft hairs when young , but these are soon lost . Leaves are long , thin and curved , with five to ten spines on the petiole , sharply serrated leaf margins , and an acute leaf tip . The leaf blade , or lamina , is dark @-@ green above , but white and hairy beneath . Leaves range from 5 to 13 cm ( 2 to 5 1 ⁄ 8 in ) in length , and 1 to 1 @.@ 5 cm ( 3 ⁄ 8 to 5 ⁄ 8 in ) in width , on a petiole up to 1 @.@ 5 cm ( 5 ⁄ 8 in ) long .
Inflorescences occur on short lateral branches , and consist of 50 to 60 yellow flowers packed densely together into a dome @-@ shaped head up to 4 cm ( 1 1 ⁄ 2 in ) in diameter , surrounded by short involucral bracts . As with other Banksia species , each flower comprises a perianth of four united tepals , with a single anther on a short filament attached near the tip ; and a single pistil . In B. acanthopoda both perianth and pistil are yellow in colour ; the perianth is from 2 @.@ 6 to 3 cm ( 1 to 1 1 ⁄ 8 in ) long , and the pistil a few millimetres longer . The fruiting structure is a woody dome firmly embedded with up to six light brown follicles , each containing one or two seeds .
Banksia acanthopoda resembles B. hewardiana but has smaller leaves that are sticky when young . Its flower heads are similar to that of B. squarrosa , but its perianths and pistils are straight rather than curved , and longer .
= = Taxonomy = =
Early collections of B. acanthopoda include a specimen collected by F. W. Humphreys between Katanning and Kwobrup on 21 December 1964 , a specimen collected by Alex George west of Woodanilling on 26 July 1986 , a specimen collected by Ray Garstone north of Woodanilling on 7 October 1986 , and a specimen collected by Ken Newbey east of Katanning . George 's specimen was recognised as belonging to an undescribed species , and this species was referred to by the phrase name " Dryandra sp . 1 ( A.S. George 16647 ) " , until 1996 , when George formally published it as Dryandra acanthopoda . The specific name comes from the Ancient Greek acantha ( " thorn " or " prickle " ) and podos ( " foot " ) , in reference to the spines on the petiole .
George placed B. acanthopoda in genus Dryandra , subgenus Dryandra , series Armatae , remarking that its closest relative is Dryandra polycephala ( now Banksia polycephala ) . Its placement within George 's taxonomic arrangement of Dryandra , with 1999 and 2005 amendments , is as follows :
Dryandra ( now Banksia ser . Dryandra )
D. subg . Dryandra
D. ser . Floribundae ( 1 species , 4 varieties )
D. ser . Armatae
D. cuneata ( now B. obovata )
D. fuscobractea ( now B. fuscobractea )
D. armata ( now B. armata ) ( 2 varieties )
D. prionotes ( now B. prionophylla
D. arborea ( now B. arborea )
D. hirsuta ( now B. hirta )
D. pallida ( now B. pallida )
D. purdieana ( now B. purdieana )
D. xylothemelia ( now B. xylothemelia )
D. cirsioides ( now B. cirsioides )
D. acanthopoda ( now B. acanthopoda )
D. squarrosa ( now B. squarrosa ) ( 2 subspecies )
D. hewardiana ( now B. hewardiana )
D. wonganensis ( now B. wonganensis )
D. trifontinalis ( now B. trifontinalis )
D. stricta ( now B. strictifolia )
D. echinata ( now B. echinata )
D. polycephala ( now B. polycephala )
D. subpinnatifida ( now B. subpinnatifida ) ( 2 varieties )
D. longifolia ( now B. prolata ) ( 3 subspecies )
D. borealis ( now B. borealis ) ( 2 subspecies )
This arrangement remained current until 2007 , when botanists Austin Mast and Kevin Thiele transferred Dryandra into Banksia . They also published B. subgenus Spathulatae for the Banksia taxa having spoon @-@ shaped cotyledons , thus redefining the subgenus Banksia as comprising those that do not . They were not ready , however , to tender an infrageneric arrangement encompassing Dryandra , so as an interim measure they transferred Dryandra into Banksia at series rank . This minimised the nomenclatural disruption of the transfer , but also caused George 's rich infrageneric arrangement to be set aside . Thus under the interim arrangements implemented by Mast and Thiele , B. acanthopoda is placed in B. subg . Banksia , ser . Dryandra .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Only a few small populations of B. acanthopoda exist . Until 1999 , it was thought to occur only in the Avon Wheatbelt biogeographic region , in the vicinity of Woodanilling and Katanning ; since then , a population has been found in the Jarrah Forest region , south of Darkan .
Banksia acanthopoda grows in tall closed kwongan heath in lateritic soils , sometimes with a sparse overstorey of wandoo ( Eucalyptus wandoo ) or Drummond 's gum ( E. drummondii ) . Other B. ser . Dryandra species that co @-@ occur with it include B. stuposa , B. armata var. ignicida and B. nobilis . The area has a mean temperature range of 9 to 22 ° C ( 48 to 72 ° F ) , with up to 40 days above 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) , and a mean annual rainfall of 400 to 500 mm ( 16 to 20 in ) .
= = Ecology = =
Little has been reported of its ecology . The flowering season is from May to July , and the seed is shed annually . When first published , Banksia acanthopoda was listed as " Priority Three – Poorly Known Taxa " on the Department of Environment and Conservation 's Declared Rare and Priority Flora List . It has since been upgraded to " Priority Two – Poorly Known Taxa " . Threats to the species vary according to the location . In the Avon Wheatbelt , where the land is heavily degraded due to extensive clearing for agriculture , a number of threatening processes have been identified : loss of habitat due to land clearing and the encroachment of salinity results in both direct plant loss and population fragmentation ; fragmentation in turn affects genetic diversity ; grazing pressure affects plant health , as does competition from exotic weeds ; and changes to the fire regime have the potential to eliminate entire generations . Further west , in the Jarrah Forest region , pathogens constitute the only identified threat to the species .
Information on the species ' susceptibility to dieback is lacking : the only information available is from the 2006 report Management of Phytophthora cinnamomi for Biodiversity Conservation in Australia , which states that D. acanthopoda is " highly susceptible " ; but this claim is sourced to a 1994 paper that asserts it not for B. acanthopoda but for the species then known as " Dryandra sp . Kamballup ( M. Pieroni 20 @.@ 9 @.@ 88 ) " , now B. ionthocarpa .
Investigations into long @-@ term seed storage have shown B. acanthopoda to store well under standard genebank storage conditions . After six years of storage in these conditions , 90 % of seeds were successfully germinated , a rate similar to that of fresh seed .
= = Cultivation = =
Banksia acanthopoda is little known in cultivation , although it has been successfully grown and propagated at The Banksia Farm in Mount Barker , Western Australia , and at the Royal Botanic Gardens in Cranbourne , Melbourne . It is a sprawling and untidy shrub , but its habit can be improved by pruning . Its prominent yellow flower heads appear from July to October in cultivation , and have potential for use in the cut flower industry . It prefers a well @-@ drained soil in full sun or light shade , and will tolerate dry conditions once established . Propagation is by seed ; seeds take three to five weeks to germinate , and have a germination rate of 80 to 90 percent .
= Lemmons =
Lemmons , also known as Gladsmuir and Gladsmuir House , was the home of novelists Kingsley Amis ( 1922 – 1995 ) and Elizabeth Jane Howard ( 1923 – 2014 ) on Hadley Common , on the border of north London and Hertfordshire .
The couple bought the Georgian house and its eight acres of land at auction for £ 48 @,@ 000 in 1968 , and lived there until 1976 . The house had been registered as a Grade II listed building in 1949 under the name Gladsmuir , previously known as Gladsmuir House . Jane Howard restored its previous name , Lemmons ; the next owners changed it back to Gladsmuir .
Jane and Kingsley lived at Lemmons with Jane 's mother and brother , two artist friends , and Kingsley 's three children , Philip , Martin and Sally . Several of the family 's novels were written at Lemmons , including Kingsley 's The Green Man ( 1969 ) and The Alteration ( 1976 ) , Jane 's Odd Girl Out ( 1972 ) and Mr. Wrong ( 1975 ) , and Martin 's The Rachel Papers ( 1973 ) and Dead Babies ( 1975 ) .
Cecil Day @-@ Lewis , the poet laureate , his wife , Jill Balcon , and their children , Daniel Day @-@ Lewis and Tamasin Day @-@ Lewis , stayed at Lemmons in the spring of 1972 , when Cecil was dying of cancer . He wrote his last poem in the house , " At Lemmons , " and died there shortly afterwards . Ian Sansom writes that , for the brief period that the Amises , Howards , Day @-@ Lewises and others were in residence , Lemmons became " the most brilliantly creative household in Britain . "
= = History of the house = =
= = = 16th – 19th century = = =
The land and an earlier house were owned by Henry Bellamy in 1584 . The Quilter family owned the land from 1736 to 1909 ( it was an estate of 23 acres in 1778 ) . A Major Hemery appears to have lived in the house in or around 1881 . Captain Thomas Hall Rokeby Plumer , the 2nd Viscount Plumer , lived there in the 1920s .
The writer Frances Trollope , mother of novelist Anthony Trollope , rented a house on Hadley Common from January 1836 until the early summer of 1838 , possibly Gladsmuir , shortly after the death of her husband and one of her sons . According to Robert Bradford 's biography of Martin Amis , Jane Howard discovered the Trollope connection from the house 's papers and maintained that Frances Trollope had purchased it , although a purchase seems unlikely given the Trollope family 's finances .
Frances Trollope , her daughters , Emily and Cecilia , and two of her sons , Anthony and Tom , moved to Hadley Common from Bruges , Belgium , where they had fled to escape debtors ' prison in England . When Trollope 's husband ( the debtor ) died , the threat of prison receded . Emily had tuberculosis and her doctor advised that winter in England would benefit her .
Trollope described the property as a " pleasant house with a good garden on the common at Hadley , near Barnet , " and her " pretty cottage . " R. H. Super writes that she invited eight guests to stay with her one Christmas , in addition to her family , so referring to it as a cottage was somewhat misleading . The move did not , in the end , help Emily , who died in February 1836 . She was buried in the nearby churchyard at the Church of St Mary the Virgin . Anthony Trollope later placed one of his characters in The Bertrams ( 1859 ) in a dull country house in Hadley .
= = = 20th century = = =
Jane Howard found that the house had previously been called Lemmons , and decided to restore that name . It was known as Gladsmuir when they bought it – from Gladsmuir Heath , the former name of Hadley Common , site of the Battle of Barnet in 1471 during the Wars of the Roses . The house had been registered under that name as a Grade II listed building in 1949 , previously known as Gladsmuir House , with an address in Hadley Wood Road . As of 2014 the address was listed as Hadley Common .
Made of red brick with a stucco trim , the house has five @-@ bays , two @-@ storeys , sash windows , and a central Doric porch with fluted columns and entablature with triglyphs . There is a later extension and a detached housekeeper 's cottage , Gladsmuir Cottage . The panelled double doors lead to two internal staircases and over 20 rooms , including eight bedrooms , three reception rooms and a large kitchen ; one room contains late @-@ 18th @-@ century medallions .
In the three @-@ acre garden , when Jane and Kingsley lived there , there was an old barn that was itself a listed building , a conservatory and a gravel drive , three descending lawns , a rose garden , cedar trees , a mulberry tree ( where Lucy Snowe , their cat , was buried ) , and a weathervane dating to 1775 . At the end of the garden , through a five @-@ bar gate , there lay a five @-@ acre meadow that also belonged to the property and had been let out to two local women for their horses .
= = Lemmons household = =
= = = Residents = = =
Kingsley and Jane married in 1965 after meeting two years earlier at the Cheltenham Literary Festival , which she had helped to organize . In 1947 she had left her first husband , Peter Scott , with whom she had a daughter , and in 1963 divorced her second , Jim Douglas @-@ Henry . Kingsley was still married to his first wife , Hilly Bardwell , when he and Jane began an affair .
The couple first lived together in an Edwardian house at 108 Maida Vale , London , W2 . They bought Lemmons at auction for £ 48 @,@ 000 in 1968 , and lived there from 28 November that year . Kingsley wrote to the poet Philip Larkin in April 1969 :
This is a bloody great mansion , in the depths of the country though only 15 miles from the centre , and with lots of room for you to come and spend the night . "
The core household consisted of Jane and Kingsley ; Jane 's mother , Katherine ( " Kit " ) , a former ballerina , who died in the house in 1972 ; one of Jane 's brothers , Colin ( " Monkey " ) ; and artists Sargy Mann and Terry Raybauld . The housekeeper , Lily Uniacke , lived in Gladsmuir Cottage . Kingsley 's children , Philip , Martin and Sally lived in the house from time to time , mostly outside term time , or at weekends in the case of Philip and Martin ; the children were 17 , 16 and 12 when Kingsley and Jane married . Sally moved into Lemmons in 1970 when Martin was in his second year at Oxford .
It was Jane who encouraged Martin to start reading . When she and Kingsley married , Martin was reading comics and Harold Robbins ; she recommended Jane Austen , Charles Dickens , Scott Fitzgerald , Evelyn Waugh , Graham Greene and William Golding . She also advised him to try for a place at Oxford , for which he said he owed her an " unknowable debt . " After 12 months at Sussex Tutors ( a crammer in Brighton ) in 1967 – 1968 , he passed six O @-@ levels and 3 A @-@ levels , and won an exhibition to Exeter College , Oxford . He graduated in 1971 with a congratulatory first in English .
Martin lived at Lemmons until Christmas that year , after which he started work at The Times Literary Supplement and moved to central London , visiting his father and Jane at weekends . He shared a maisonette in or near Pont Street , SW1 , with a friend , Rob Henderson – Henderson was Charles Highway in The Rachel Papers , Gregory Riding in Success ( 1978 ) , and Kenrik in The Pregnant Widow ( 2011 ) . When they ran out of money , Martin found himself a " dust @-@ furred bed @-@ sit in Earls Court . " He described Lemmons in Experience ( 2000 ) :
The house on Hadley Common was a citadel of riotous insolvency – not just at Christmas but every weekend . There was a great sense of in @-@ depth back @-@ up , a cellar , a barrel of malt whisky , a walk @-@ in larder : proof against snowstorm or shutdown . I think it was that Christmas morning [ 1977 ] , that all four Amises , with breakfast trays on their laps , watched Journey to the Centre of the Earth – then the visit to the pub , then the day @-@ long , the week @-@ long lunch . And with Kingsley the hub of all humour and high spirits , like an engine of comedy ... I felt so secure in that house – and , clearly , so insecure elsewhere – that I always experienced a caress of apprehension as I climbed into the car on Sunday night , any Sunday night , and headed back to the motorway and Monday , to the flat or the flatlet , the street , the job , the tramp dread , the outside world .
= = = Novels = = =
Kingsley wrote ten books at Lemmons , in his wood @-@ panelled study on the ground floor , including The Green Man ( 1969 ) , What Became of Jane Austin ? And Other Questions ( 1970 ) , Girl , 20 ( 1971 ) , The Riverside Villas Murder ( 1973 ) , Ending Up ( 1974 ) , The Alteration ( 1976 ) , and part of Harold 's Years ( 1977 ) . Jane finished Something in Disguise ( 1969 ) , Odd Girl Out ( 1972 ) and Mr. Wrong ( 1975 ) , though she spent most of her time looking after the house .
Martin wrote his first two novels , The Rachel Papers ( 1973 ) and Dead Babies ( 1975 ) , in his bedroom above Kingsley 's study . The first draft of The Rachel Papers was started in July 1970 and completed in September 1972 ; it won the Somerset Maugham Award in 1974 , which Kingsley had won in 1955 for Lucky Jim ( 1954 ) . When he heard the prize had gone to Martin , Kingsley said words to the effect that , " Good that it 's back in the family . It should keep the old prig turning in his grave , " a reference to Maugham 's view that Lucky Jim 's characters were illustrative of the country 's moral decline .
= = = Guests = = =
Tamasin Day @-@ Lewis wrote that Lemmons was always full of " impossibly glamorous older people and a core commune of writers , painters and inventors ; even the dogs and cats shared a communal basket , and there were always stray writers and publishers whose marriages were unravelling . " Gully Wells , Martin 's girlfriend and step @-@ daughter of the philosopher A. J. Ayer , said that " a more hospitable household would be impossible to imagine . "
House guests included Martin 's close friends Christopher Hitchens , James Fenton , Clive James and Julian Barnes , and his and Kingsley 's literary agents Tom Maschler and Pat Kavanagh ; Pat 's sister , Julie ( Martin 's girlfriend ) ; the Australian psychiatrist James Durham , Pat 's partner at the time . Pat Kavanagh and Julian Barnes married in September 1979 .
The Lemmons visitors ' book also listed John Betjeman and Philip Larkin ; writers Tina Brown and Paul Johnson , and Johnson 's wife , Marigold ; Iris Murdoch and her husband , John Bayley ; journalist Bernard Levin and John Gross , editor of the Times Literary Supplement ; the broadcaster Huw Wheldon and his wife , novelist Jacqueline Wheldon ; historians Robert Conquest and Paul Fussell ; and , for one visit , novelist Elizabeth Bowen .
The Day @-@ Lewises moved into Lemmons in the spring of 1972 when Tamasin 's father , the poet laureate Cecil Day @-@ Lewis , was dying of cancer . The families were close . Cecil and Jane had been lovers after her first divorce and Jane was Tamasin 's godmother . Tamasin and Martin had also started dating .
Tamasin and her brother , Daniel , and their mother , Jill Balcon , stayed at the house for five weeks , until Cecil died on 22 May . Jane wrote : " Nobody was better at getting the utmost pleasure from the simplest things as Cecil : a bunch of flowers , a toasted bun , a gramophone record ... a piece of cherry cake , a new thriller ... " He dedicated his final poem , " At Lemmons , " to " Jane , Kingsley , Colin , Sargy " : " I accept my weakness with my friends ' / Good natures sweetening each day my sick room . "
= = Move to Hampstead = =
Lemmons was featured in Woman 's Journal in June 1976 in an advertisement for wallpaper by Arthur Sanderson & Sons . The company decorated a room and took a photograph of Kingsley and Jane sitting in it , published under the headline " Very Sanderson , Very Amis . "
The couple sold Lemmons shortly after this , for £ 105 @,@ 000 . They moved to a smaller house , Gardnor House , in Flask Walk , Hampstead , London NW3 . Kingsley was apparently tired of living so far from central London . Jane loved Lemmons , but was exhausted from the effort of running it . Kingsley expected her to do most of the cooking and domestic work , for the family plus assorted guests , as well as drive him around and do the finances and much of the gardening . Women for Kingsley were " for bed and board , " as Jane put it . She ended up on Tryptizol and Valium . Sargy Mann said that Lemmons was " wonderful for everyone but Jane . "
Jane left the marriage in 1980 because she realized that Kingsley did not like her ; her lawyer gave him a letter the day she was expected back from a health farm . Neither of them remarried , and they never spoke to each other again . " [ T ] he big house disappeared , " Martin wrote , " and so did love . "
= Blitz @-@ class aviso =
The Blitz class was a pair of avisos built by the Imperial German Navy ( Kaiserliche Marine ) in the 1880s . The ships , Blitz and Pfeil , were the first steel @-@ hulled ships of any kind built by the German Navy , and the progenitors of the later light cruisers of the Gazelle type . They were armed with a 12 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 9 in ) gun and one 35 cm ( 14 in ) torpedo tube as their principal armament , and were capable of a top speed in excess of 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) .
Blitz and Pfeil served extensively in various roles , including as flotilla leaders for torpedo boats . Pfeil was deployed to German East Africa in 1889 to suppress an anti @-@ colonial revolt , and after 1899 , was used for fishery protection . They were both reduced to tenders by 1912 . Blitz was briefly used as a coastal patrol vessel early in World War I before returning to tender duties by 1915 . Both ships survived the war , and were sold for scrap in the early 1920s .
= = Design = =
The Blitz class avisos were the first step toward creating the modern , steel @-@ hulled light cruiser , which would ultimately come to fruition in the Gazelle class , built a decade later . The Blitz @-@ class ships were also the first steel @-@ hulled ships of any type built by the German Navy . At the time of their completion , they were among the earliest torpedo cruisers in the world .
= = = General characteristics = = =
The Blitz @-@ class ships were 75 @.@ 30 meters ( 247 ft 1 in ) long at the waterline and 78 @.@ 43 m ( 257 ft 4 in ) long overall . They had a beam of 9 @.@ 90 m ( 32 ft 6 in ) and a maximum draft of 4 @.@ 07 m ( 13 @.@ 4 ft ) forward . The ships displaced 1 @,@ 381 metric tons ( 1 @,@ 359 long tons ) as designed and up to 1 @,@ 486 t ( 1 @,@ 463 long tons ) at full combat load . The ships ' hulls were constructed with transverse and longitudinal steel frames , and contained eleven watertight compartments . A double bottom was located beneath the ships ' engine rooms .
Blitz and Pfeil had a crew of 7 officers and 127 enlisted men , though this number was later revised to 6 officers and 135 sailors . When serving as torpedo boat flotilla leaders , the ships had an additional 3 officers and 16 enlisted men . The ships carried several smaller boats , including one picket boat , one yawl , and one dinghy . Later in their careers , a cutter , another yawl , and another dinghy were added .
= = = Machinery = = =
The ships ' propulsion system consisted of two horizontal 2 @-@ cylinder double expansion engines in a single engine room . The engines drove a pair of 3 @-@ bladed screws . Steam for the engines was provided by eight coal @-@ fired locomotive boilers . After refits in the early 1890s , the ships ' boilers were replaced with newer , more efficient models ; Blitz received eight transverse cylindrical boilers , while Pfeil had eight cylindrical boilers installed . The ships were supplied with electrical power with a single 10 @-@ kilowatt ( 13 hp ) generator that operated at 67 volts . As built , the ships were fitted with a schooner rig with a sail area of 591 square meters ( 6 @,@ 360 sq ft ) to supplement her steam engines , but this was later reduced to a rig of auxiliary sails with an area of 282 m2 ( 3 @,@ 040 sq ft ) , and the sails were removed entirely by 1900 .
The propulsion system was rated at 2 @,@ 700 indicated horsepower ( 2 @,@ 000 kW ) , for a top speed of 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) . Neither ship reached this speed on trials ; Blitz managed 15 @.@ 7 knots ( 29 @.@ 1 km / h ; 18 @.@ 1 mph ) , and Pfeil made 15 @.@ 6 knots ( 28 @.@ 9 km / h ; 18 @.@ 0 mph ) . The ships carried up to 220 t ( 220 long tons ; 240 short tons ) of coal , which allowed them to steam for approximately 2 @,@ 440 nautical miles ( 4 @,@ 520 km ; 2 @,@ 810 mi ) at a cruising speed of 9 knots ( 17 km / h ; 10 mph ) . Steering was controlled with one rudder .
= = = Armament = = =
As built , the Blitz @-@ class avisos were armed with one 12 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 9 in ) K L / 23 gun placed in a pivot mount . The gun was supplied with 100 rounds of ammunition . The ships were also equipped with four 8 @.@ 7 cm K L / 23 guns in single mounts and one 35 cm ( 14 in ) torpedo tube mounted in the bow . In 1891 and 1892 , the ships were rearmed with six 8 @.@ 8 cm SK L / 30 guns in single mounts and three 35 cm torpedo tubes , one in the bow and one on each broadside , all submerged in the hull . The ships did not carry any armor protection .
= = Service history = =
Blitz was laid down at the Norddeutscher Schiffbau in Kiel in 1881 . She was launched on 26 August 1882 and commissioned into the German fleet on 28 March 1883 . Pfeil was built by the Kaiserliche Werft shipyard in Wilhelmshaven . Her keel was laid down in 1881 , she was launched on 16 September 1882 , and commissioned into the German fleet on 25 November 1884 . Both ships served in the fleet following their commissioning . Blitz was assigned as the flagship of the I Torpedo @-@ boat Flotilla , while Pfeil initially served as a tender for the fleet .
Blitz participated in extensive training and experimentation in the Torpedo School , under the command of Alfred von Tirpitz , the future architect of the High Seas Fleet . In 1889 , Pfeil was sent to German East Africa to participate in the suppression of a local revolt against German colonial rule . By 1899 , both ships were withdrawn from front line service ; Pfeil was used for fishery protection , and Blitz became a fleet tender . In 1912 , both Blitz and Pfeil were serving as tenders to the I Battle Squadron and the II Battle Squadron , respectively . At the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , Blitz was mobilized as a coastal patrol ship , while Pfeil remained a tender . Blitz returned to her tender duties in 1915 . Both ships were sold for scrapping in the early 1920s .
= American Pharoah =
American Pharoah ( foaled February 2 , 2012 ) is an American Thoroughbred racehorse who won the American Triple Crown and the Breeders ' Cup Classic in 2015 . In winning all four races , he became the first horse to win the " Grand Slam " of American horse racing . He won the 2015 Eclipse Award for Horse of the Year and 2015 Champion three @-@ year @-@ old . He was bred and owned throughout his racing career by Ahmed Zayat of Zayat Stables , trained by Bob Baffert , and ridden in most of his races by Victor Espinoza . He now stands at stud at Ashford Stud in Kentucky .
After finishing fifth in his track debut as a two @-@ year @-@ old , American Pharoah won his next races , the Grade I Del Mar Futurity and FrontRunner Stakes , each by several lengths . An injury kept him out of the Breeders ' Cup Juvenile , but the strength of his two wins nonetheless resulted in his being voted American Champion Two @-@ Year @-@ Old Male Horse at the 2014 Eclipse Awards . Before the 2015 season began , Zayat had sold breeding rights to the colt to the Ashford Stud , a division of Ireland 's Coolmore Stud . He retained control over the colt and his racing career , as well as an undisclosed dividend on stud fees .
American Pharoah began his 2015 campaign with wins in the Rebel Stakes and Arkansas Derby and went on to win the 2015 Kentucky Derby and 2015 Preakness Stakes . He won the Triple Crown in a wire @-@ to @-@ wire victory at the 2015 Belmont Stakes , becoming the first American Triple Crown winner since Affirmed in 1978 and the 12th in history . His winning time was the second @-@ fastest for a Triple Crown winner , and his closing quarter @-@ mile time of 24 @.@ 32 was faster than Secretariat 's . He next shipped to Monmouth Park and easily won the Haskell Invitational on August 2 , prompting Baffert to say , " He just keeps bringing it ; he 's a great horse . " Three weeks later , he finished a close second in a hard @-@ fought Travers Stakes at Saratoga Race Course on August 29 , 2015 , snapping a winning streak of eight races . After a layoff of two months , he shipped to Keeneland for the 2015 Breeders ' Cup and ran in the Breeders ' Cup Classic , where he challenged older horses for the first time and won by 6 1 ⁄ 2 lengths , breaking the track record . Pursuant to the agreement between Zayat and Ashford , American Pharoah was retired to stud at the conclusion of his 2015 racing year .
= = Background = =
American Pharoah is a bay colt with a faint star on his forehead and no other white markings . He is from the second crop of foals sired by Pioneerof the Nile , who finished second in the 2009 Kentucky Derby . The stallion 's first crop included Holy Bull Stakes winner Cairo Prince , and Social Inclusion , who finished third in the 2014 Preakness Stakes . American Pharoah 's dam , Littleprincessemma , was purchased by Zayat in 2007 for $ 250 @,@ 000 . She raced but did not win either of her two starts in 2008 . American Pharoah was her second foal , following allowance race winner Xixixi . Since his birth , she had produced two more full siblings to American Pharoah : a filly born in 2014 , and a colt , foaled in 2015 after she sold — in foal to Pioneerof the Nile — in November 2014 for $ 2 @.@ 1 million .
American Pharoah was bred in Kentucky by his owner , Ahmed Zayat , CEO of Zayat Stables , LLC , and was born at 11 p.m. on Groundhog Day , February 2 , 2012 , at Tom VanMeter 's Stockplace Farm in Lexington , Kentucky . When he was a few days old , he and Littleprincessemma went to nearby Pretty Run Farm , also owned by VanMeter , where they remained for a few months . Later , the mare and foal were moved to Vinery , another Lexington farm where Pioneerof the Nile was stabled . There , American Pharoah was weaned at five months of age , and stood out from the other weanlings due to his conformation and good temperament .
In January 2013 as a yearling , he went to Taylor Made Farm near Nicholasville , Kentucky , and began to be prepared for possible sale . In August 2013 , American Pharoah was consigned by the Taylor Made Sales Agency to the Fasig @-@ Tipton Saratoga Yearling sale . A few weeks before the auction , American Pharoah bumped his leg and had a small lump that was visible to potential buyers at the sale , which may have discouraged bidders . He was officially purchased for the posted minimum of $ 300 @,@ 000 by Ingordo Bloodstock , acting as an agent for Zayat , who in effect bought back his own horse . Zayat had pledged that he would not sell the promising but untested colt for less than $ 1 million . Zayat similarly bought back Pioneerof the Nile , American Pharoah 's sire , for $ 290 @,@ 000 in a 2007 yearling auction .
" We felt that he had brilliance in him , " said Zayat of American Pharoah , " his demeanor , his aura , his conformation , the way he moved . " Following the auction , the horse first went to Florida and was started under saddle at the McKathan Brothers Training Center near Citra , where trainer J.B. McKathan said , " He just did everything right . " Once he was ready to begin race conditioning , he went into training with Hall of Fame inductee Bob Baffert in the spring of 2014 .
He was described in 2014 as a ridgling , rather than a colt , meaning that he had an undescended testicle . The 2013 catalogue for his yearling Fasig @-@ Tipton sale listed him as a " colt " , and he was described that way again in 2015 . Zayat maintained the " ridgling " designation was an error : " he was always a colt . "
The horse is set apart from other race horses by his smooth and distinctively long stride . Baffert has stated , " I 've never had a horse that moves or travels over the ground like he does . " The most unusual characteristic of American Pharoah during his two- and three @-@ year @-@ old seasons is his short tail — it was apparently chewed off by another horse . It is theorized that Mr. Z , a fellow competitor and Zayat @-@ bred colt , may have been the culprit ; the pair were kept together in Florida as younger horses . Trainer Baffert had a more colorful theory : " I think he was in the pasture one day and there was a mountain lion chasing him — that was the closest he could get ... "
American Pharoah 's gentle demeanor is also distinctive , in that he is fond of people and , particularly for a young racehorse , surprisingly calm around them . As Baffert explained , " Horses of his caliber are not that nice and sweet . They 're just sort of tough . If I brought Bayern out here , you can 't get near him , he 's too aggressive . [ American Pharoah ] ' s just so different than any horse I 've ever had . " He was not always so calm , described initially as " a little bit of a headcase , " but Baffert explained that after his anxiety @-@ ridden first race , people worked with him , schooling him in the track paddock for about two weeks , when " all the sudden he got really sweet and really mellow . "
= = = Name = = =
American Pharoah 's name is inspired by that of his sire , Pioneerof the Nile , and his dam 's sire , Yankee Gentleman . The horse 's name also acknowledges Zayat 's own Egyptian @-@ American background . The misspelling of " Pharaoh " is permanent , but inadvertent . Zayat originally claimed that the spelling was the result of an error by The Jockey Club , but the organization 's president stated , " The name request for the 2012 colt American Pharoah was submitted electronically on January 25 , 2014 , through The Jockey Club 's interactive registration site . Since the name met all of the criteria for naming and was available , it was granted exactly as it was spelled on the digital name application . " Zayat later retracted his statement .
Zayat 's wife , Joanne , offered another explanation for the name 's origins to a local news reporter just before the Preakness . Zayat 's son , Justin , ran a contest on social media in which fans could submit names for the horse . The winning entry had " Pharaoh " misspelled , she said . " Justin cut and pasted the name from [ the winner 's ] email , and sent it to the Jockey Club . " Marsha Baumgartner of Barnett , Missouri , who submitted the winning entry , told The New York Times , " I don 't want to assign blame , " but " I looked up the spelling before I entered . " Nonetheless , Baumgartner minimized the controversy , stating , " Horses can 't spell , anyway . " Ultimately , Justin Zayat accepted responsibility for the error , stating , " I didn 't happen to realize at the time that it was misspelled wrong ... Most English teachers in the world now are unhappy with me , but I 'll live with that . "
Due to the winning record of American Pharoah , The Jockey Club has now reserved both spellings so another horse cannot be similarly named . The Triple Crown blanket awarded to American Pharoah after his Belmont win inadvertently used the correct spelling of " pharaoh " , and hence misspelled his name .
= = Racing career = =
= = = 2014 : two @-@ year @-@ old season = = =
American Pharoah made his track debut in a maiden race over six and a half furlongs on the Polytrack surface at Del Mar Racetrack on August 9 . Ridden by Martin Garcia , he started as the 7 – 5 favorite against eight opponents . He became unsettled before the race and , after running in second place until the stretch , faded to finish fifth behind Om , Iron Fist , One Lucky Dane , and Calculator , more than nine lengths behind the winner . He ran in a blinker hood , which appeared to unnerve him , as did the commotion in the saddling paddock . Baffert addressed his anxiety issues by removing the hood and stuffing cotton in the horse 's ears for subsequent races .
Despite his defeat , American Pharoah was moved up to Grade I class for the Del Mar Futurity over seven furlongs on September 3 . He was ridden by Victor Espinoza for the first time and started as the 3 @.@ 2 – 1 second favorite behind Best Pal Stakes winner Skyway , with Calculator and Iron Fist also in the field . American Pharoah took the lead from the start and went clear in the straight to win by four and three quarter lengths from Calculator , with a gap of more than eight lengths back to Iron Fist in third . Commenting on the colt 's improvement , Baffert said , " We took the blinkers off , put cotton in his ears and schooled him a lot . He trained well , we decided he was ready and we put him in there . Today , he behaved himself and showed what he could do . He did what we thought he 'd do the first time . "
On September 27 , American Pharoah was made the 1 – 2 favorite for the Grade I FrontRunner Stakes over eight and a half furlongs at Santa Anita Park . As in his previous race , he was immediately sent to the front by Espinoza and stayed there , pulling away from his rivals in the straight to win by three and a quarter lengths over Calculator , with Texas Red a length and a half away in third . After the race , Espinoza explained how the colt moved : " All the way he was on a high cruising speed . He has such a long stride . He moves really nice and is light on his feet . " Baffert said , " I can 't believe his demeanor , how he has changed since his first out . He 's so professional . He 's really mentally there . "
American Pharoah was scheduled to run in the Breeders ' Cup Juvenile at Santa Anita on November 1 but was scratched from the race after sustaining a " deep bruise " to his left front foot in a workout on October 27 . After this injury , he was fitted with a special horseshoe . His farrier , Wes Champagne , placed a thin sheet of aluminum alloy over a regular racing horseshoe and cut it to match the dimensions of the shoe , leaving the front two @-@ thirds of the hoof sole exposed , but creating a solid plate across the back that covered part of American Pharoah 's heels and part of his frog . Champagne varied the design slightly depending on the tracks and races American Pharoah would run , but used the same basic concept throughout the Triple Crown series .
Even though he did not run in the Breeders ' Cup , for the 2014 Eclipse Awards , American Pharoah was voted American Champion Two @-@ Year @-@ Old Male Horse , beating Breeders ' Cup Juvenile winner Texas Red by 126 votes to 111 .
= = = 2015 : three @-@ year @-@ old season = = =
Five and a half months after his last start , American Pharoah began his second season in the Grade II Rebel Stakes on a sloppy track at Oaklawn Park on March 14 . He carried top weight of 119 pounds and started as the 2 – 5 favorite against six opponents , headed by the Todd Pletcher @-@ trained Madefromlucky . The colt led from the start and drew away in the closing stages to win by six and a quarter lengths . Espinoza called the winner " an amazing horse " , while Baffert was satisfied with the run , especially as the colt returned with a twisted shoe which would have hampered his progress . Four weeks later at the same track , American Pharoah started as the odds @-@ on favorite against seven opponents in the Grade I Arkansas Derby . After racing in second place behind outsider Bridget 's Big Luvy , he took the lead a quarter of a mile from the finish and steadily increased his advantage to win by eight lengths from Southwest Stakes winner Far Right . Baffert noted , " He 's matured substantially . He 's a good horse and he keeps moving forward . I don 't want to get ahead of myself , but Dortmund is another one who we don 't yet know how good he is . We 've got a one @-@ two punch and that 's a good position to be in . " After the race , Ron Moquett , the trainer of runner @-@ up Far Right , described American Pharoah as " a superhorse " .
= = = = 2015 Kentucky Derby = = = =
On May 2 , American Pharoah started as the 2 @.@ 9 – 1 favorite in an eighteen @-@ runner field for the 141st running of the Kentucky Derby at Churchill Downs . His opponents included Dortmund , winner of the Santa Anita Derby ; Carpe Diem , who won the Breeders ' Futurity Stakes and Blue Grass Stakes ; Firing Line , winner of the Sunland Derby ; Wood Memorial winner Frosted ; Florida Derby winner Materiality ; international entry Mubtaahij , who earned his way to Kentucky with a win in the UAE Derby ; and Upstart , winner of the Holy Bull Stakes . The crowd surrounding the horse during the walk @-@ over from the barns to the paddock upset American Pharoah , and several grooms were required to keep him under control . He continued to misbehave until he was loaded into the starting gate ; his connections and supporters worried that he was using up energy he needed for the race .
Espinoza positioned the colt in third place early in the race as Dortmund took the lead , followed closely by Firing Line . The three remained ahead of the pack throughout the race , and broke clear of their rivals entering the straightaway with American Pharoah making a forward move on the outside . The favorite took the lead entering the final furlong and won by a length from Firing Line and | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
life as a contract killer . He falls in love with a woman named Misako , who recruits him for a seemingly impossible mission . When the mission fails , he becomes hunted by the phantom Number One Killer , whose methods threaten his sanity as much as his life .
The studio was unhappy with the original script and called in Suzuki to rewrite and direct it at the last minute . Suzuki came up with many of his ideas the night before or on the set while filming , and welcomed ideas from his collaborators . He gave the film a satirical , anarchic and visually eclectic bent which the studio had previously warned him away from . It was a commercial and critical disappointment and Suzuki was ostensibly fired for making " movies that make no sense and no money " . Suzuki successfully sued Nikkatsu with support from student groups , like @-@ minded filmmakers and the general public and caused a major controversy through the Japanese film industry . Suzuki was blacklisted and did not make another feature film for 10 years but became a counterculture hero .
The film grew a strong following , which expanded overseas in the 1980s , and has established itself as a cult classic . Film critics and enthusiasts now regard it as an absurdist masterpiece . It has been cited as an influence by filmmakers such as Jim Jarmusch , John Woo , Chan @-@ wook Park and Quentin Tarantino , and composer John Zorn . Thirty @-@ four years after Branded to Kill , Suzuki filmed Pistol Opera ( 2001 ) with Nikkatsu , a loose sequel to the former . The company has also hosted two major retrospectives spotlighting his career .
= = Plot = =
Goro Hanada , the Japanese underworld 's third @-@ ranked hitman , and his wife , Mami , fly into Tokyo and are met by Kasuga , a formerly ranked hitman turned taxi driver . Kasuga petitions Hanada to assist him in breaking back into the profession . Hanada agrees and the three go to a club owned by the yakuza boss Michihiko Yabuhara . The two men are hired to escort a client from Sagami Beach to Nagano . After the meeting , Yabuhara covertly seduces Hanada 's wife . Hanada and Kasuga pick up a car designated for the job which unexpectedly has a corpse in the back seat . They dispose of the body , then meet the client and proceed towards their destination . En route Hanada spots an ambush . He dispatches a number of gunmen while Kasuga panics and flails about in hysterics . Foaming at the mouth , Kasuga charges an ambusher , Koh , the fourth @-@ ranked hitman , and they kill each other . Hanada leaves the client to secure Koh 's car but hears three gunshots and rushes back to find the client is safe and three additional ambushers have been shot cleanly through the forehead . At a second ambush , Hanada kills more gunmen and sets Sakura , the second @-@ ranked hitman , on fire . Sakura madly rushes towards the client but is shot dead by him . On his way home Hanada 's car breaks down . Misako , a mysterious woman with a deathwish , stops and gives him a ride . At home , he has rough sex with his wife , fueled by his obsession with sniffing boiling rice .
Yabuhara hires Hanada to kill four men , the first three being a customs officer , an ocularist and a jewellery dealer . Hanada snipes the first from behind a billboard 's animatronic cigarette lighter , shoots the second from a basement up through a pipe drain when the latter leans over the sink and , ordered to finish quickly , blasts his way into the third 's office and escapes on an advertising balloon . Misako then appears at his door and offers him a nearly impossible contract to kill a foreigner , which he cannot refuse having just been told the plan . During the job a butterfly lands on the barrel of his rifle causing him to miss his target and kill an innocent bystander . Misako tells him that he will now lose his rank and be killed . Hanada makes plans to leave the country but is shot by his wife who then sets fire to their apartment and flees . His belt buckle , however , stopped the bullet and he escapes the building . He finds Misako and they go to her apartment . After alternating failed attempts by him to seduce her and them to kill each other she succumbs to his advances when he promises to kill her . Afterwards , he finds he cannot as he has fallen in love with her . In a state of confusion he wanders the streets and passes out on the side of the road . The next day he finds his wife at Yabuhara 's club . She tries to seduce him , then fakes hysteria and tells him Yabuhara paid her to kill him and that the three men he had killed had stolen from Yabuhara 's diamond smuggling operation and the foreigner was an investigator sent by the supplier . Unmoved , Hanada kills her , gets drunk and waits for Yabuhara to return . Yabuhara arrives already dead with a bullet hole through the centre of his forehead .
Hanada returns to Misako 's apartment where a film projector has been set up . It depicts Misako bound and tortured and directs him to a breakwater , where the following day he is to be killed . Hanada submits to the demand but kills the killers instead . The former client arrives and announces himself as the legendary Number One Killer . He says he will kill Hanada but , in thanks for the work he has done , is only giving a warning at present . Hanada holes up in Misako 's apartment and Number One begins an extended siege , taunting Hanada with threatening phone calls and forbidding him to leave the apartment . Eventually , Number One moves in with the now exhausted and inebriated Hanada under the pretext that he is deciding how to kill him . They agree to a temporary truce and set times to eat , sleep and , later , to link arms everywhere they go . Number One suggests they eat out one day and then disappears during the meal . At the apartment , Hanada finds a note and another film from Number One stating he will be waiting at a gymnasium with Misako . Hanada waits at the gymnasium but Number One does not show . As a bedraggled Hanada rises to leave , a tape recorder switches on explaining , " This is the way Number One works " , he exhausts you and then kills you . Hanada puts a headband across his forehead and climbs into a boxing ring . Number One appears and shoots him . The headband stops the bullet and Hanada returns fire . Number One slumps to the ground but manages to shoot him a few times before dying . Hanada leaps and staggers around the ring declaring himself the new Number One . Misako enters the arena and , crazed , he instinctively shoots her dead , then falls from the ring .
= = Cast = =
Joe Shishido as Goro Hanada , the Number Three Killer : a hitman with a fetish for the smell of boiling rice . He is gainfully employed by the yakuza until a butterfly lands on the barrel of his rifle during a " Devil 's job " . He misses his target and is marked for death — then descends into a world of alcohol and paranoia . Shishido has been called the face of Suzuki 's films , owing in part to their frequent collaborations , this being among the most prominent . After middling success in Nikkatsu melodramas he underwent plastic surgery , enlarging his cheeks several sizes . He returned to tremendous success as a heavy and , soon thereafter , a star .
Koji Nanbara as the Number One Killer : the legendary hitman whose existence remains a subject of debate . Incognito , he employs the yakuza to provide bodyguards . Later , he reappears with the intention of killing Hanada , first trapping him in an apartment , then moving in with him , before their final showdown in a public gymnasium .
Isao Tamagawa as Michihiko Yabuhara : the yakuza boss that hires Hanada and seduces his wife . Upon the discovery that his diamond smuggling operation has been burgled , he employs Hanada to execute the guilty parties then adds him to the list when he flubs the job . His final appearance is with a bullet hole in his head .
Annu Mari as Misako Nakajo : the femme fatale with a penchant for dead butterflies and birds . She picks Hanada up in her open top convertible when his car breaks down in the rain . Under Yabuhara 's direction she enlists him to kill a foreigner . She attempts to kill Hanada but falls in love with him , which instigates her capture and use as bait by Number One . Mari has said she was experiencing suicidal urges at the time she first read the script and the character captivated her . " I loved her name , but it was her first line ' My dream is to die ' that had a profound impact on me . It was like lightning . "
Mariko Ogawa as Mami Hanada : Hanada 's wife who has a predilection towards walking around the house nude . Shortly after meeting Yabuhara she enters an affair with him . When her husband 's career sours she attempts mariticide and flees — to be confronted later at Yabuhara 's club . This was Mariko Ogawa 's only film appearance .
Hiroshi Minami as Gihei Kasuga : formerly a ranked hitman who lost his nerve and took to drinking . After introducing Hanada to Yabuhara he joins the former in a dangerous chauffeur mission . His nerves get the better of him and he experiences a short @-@ lived mental breakdown .
= = Production = =
The Nikkatsu Company conceived Branded to Kill as a low @-@ budget hitman film , a subgenre of the studio 's yakuza @-@ oriented movies . Their standard B movie shooting schedule was applied , one week for pre @-@ production , 25 days to shoot and three days for post @-@ production . The budget was set at approximately 20 million yen . Shortly before filming began , with the release date already set , the script was deemed " inappropriate " by the head office and contract director Seijun Suzuki was brought in to do a rewrite . Studio head Kyūsaku Hori told Suzuki he had had to read it twice before he understood it . Suzuki suggested they drop the script but was ordered to proceed . The rewrite was done with his frequent collaborator Takeo Kimura and six assistant directors , including Atsushi Yamatoya ( who also played Killer Number Four ) . The eight men had worked under the joint pen name Hachiro Guryu ( " Group of Eight " ) since the mid @-@ 1960s . Nikkatsu was building leading man Joe Shishido into a star and assigned him to the film . They specified that the script was to be written with this aim . The film also marks Shishido 's first nude scene . Suzuki originally wanted Kiwako Taichi , a new talent from the famous theatre troupe Bungakuza , for the female lead but she took a part in another film . Instead , Suzuki selected Annu Mari , another new actress who had been working in Nikkatsu 's music halls . In casting the role of Hanada 's wife , Suzuki selected Mariko Ogawa from outside of the studio as none of the contract actresses would do nude scenes .
Suzuki did not use storyboards and disliked pre @-@ planning . He preferred to come up with ideas either the night before or on the set as he felt that the only person who should know what is going to happen is the director . He also felt that it was sudden inspiration that made the picture . An example is the addition of the Number Three Killer 's rice @-@ sniffing habit . Suzuki explained that he wanted to present a quintessentially " Japanese " killer , " If he were Italian , he 'd get turned on by macaroni , right ? " Suzuki has commended Shishido on his similar drive to make the action scenes as physical and interesting as possible . In directing his actors , Suzuki let them play their roles as they saw fit and only intervened when they went " off track " . For nude scenes the actors wore maebari , or adhesive strips , over their genitals in accordance with censorship practices . The film was edited in one day , a task made easy by Suzuki 's method of shooting only the necessary footage . He had picked up the habit during his years working as an assistant director for Shochiku when film stock remained sparse after the war . Post @-@ production was completed on June 14 , 1967 , the day before the film was released .
= = Style = =
Like many of its yakuza film contemporaries , Branded to Kill shows the influence of the James Bond films and film noir , though the film 's conventional genre basis was combined with satire , kabuki stylistics and a pop art aesthetic . It was further set apart from its peers , and Seijun Suzuki 's previous films , through its gothic sensibilities , unusual atonal score and what artist and academic Philip Brophy called a " heightened otherness " . The result has been alternately ascribed as a work of surrealism , absurdism , the avant garde and included in the Japanese New Wave movement , though not through any stated intention of its director . Suzuki employed a wide variety of techniques and claimed his singular focus was to make the film as entertaining as possible .
Genre conventions are satirized and mocked throughout the film . In American noirs , heroes , or anti @-@ heroes , typically strive to be the best in their field . Here the process was formalized into a rankings system obsessed over by its players . The femme fatale — a noir staple — Misako , does not simply entice the protagonist and bring the threat of death but obsesses him and is obsessed with all things death herself . She tries to kill him , wants to kill herself and surrounds herself with dead things . Hanada 's libido is as present as that of the protagonists of similar films of the period , such as James Bond , though perversely exaggerated . Reviewer Rumsey Taylor likened Hanada 's boiled rice sniffing fetish to Bond 's " shaken , not stirred " martini order . The film also deviates from the opening killer @-@ for @-@ hire scenario to touch on such varied subgenres as psychosexual romance , American Gothic thriller and Odd Couple slapstick .
The film industry is a subject of satire as well . For example , Japanese censorship often involved masking prohibited sections of the screen . Here Suzuki preemptively masked his own compositions but animated them and incorporated them into the film 's design . In the story , after Hanada finds he is unable to kill Misako he wanders the streets in a state of confusion . The screen is obscured by animated images with accompanying sounds associated to her . The effects contributed to the eclectic visual and sound design while signifying his obsessive love . Author Stephen Teo proposed that the antagonistic relationship between Hanada and Number One may have been analogous of Suzuki 's relationship with studio president Kyūsaku Hori . He compared Hanada 's antagonizers to those who had been pressuring Suzuki to rein in his style over the previous two years . Teo cited Number One 's sleeping with his eyes open and urinating where he sits , which the character explains as techniques one must master to become a " top professional . "
The film was shot in black and white Nikkatsuscope ( synonymous with CinemaScope at a 2 @.@ 35 : 1 aspect ratio ) . Due to the wide frame , moving a character forward did not produce the dynamic effect Suzuki desired . Instead , he relied on spotlighting and chiaroscuro imagery to create excitement and suspense . Conventional framing and film grammar were disregarded in favour of spontaneous inspiration . In editing , Suzuki frequently abandoned continuity , favouring abstract jumps in time and space as he found it made the film more interesting . Critic David Chute suggested that Suzuki 's stylistics had intensified — in seeming congruence with the studio 's demands that he conform :
You can see the director reusing specific effects and pointedly cranking them up a notch . In Our Blood Will Not Allow It , the two battling brothers had a heart @-@ to @-@ heart in a car that was enveloped , just for the hell of it , in gorgeous blue moiré patterns of drenching rain . This ' lost at sea ' effect is revived in Branded to Kill but there 's no sound at all in this version of the scene , except for the gangsters ' hushed voices , echoless , plotting some fresh betrayal in a movie @-@ movie isolation chamber .
= = Reception = =
Branded to Kill was released to Japanese theatres on June 15 , 1967 , in a double bill with Nishimura Shōgorō 's Burning Nature . The films were financially unsuccessful and the former fared likewise among critics . Kinema Junpo magazine reported that the films " resulted in less than 2 @,@ 000 viewers at Asakusa and Shinjuku and about 500 at Yurakucho on the second day . " Both Joe Shishido and Yamatoya Atsushi later recounted having seen Branded to Kill in practically empty theatres , the latter on its opening night . Iijima Kōichi , a critic for the film journal Eiga Geijutsu , wrote that " the woman buys a mink coat and thinks only about having sex . The man wants to kill and feels nostalgic about the smell of boiling rice . We cannot help being confused . We do not go to theaters to be puzzled . " Nikkatsu Studios had been criticized for catering to rebellious youth audiences , a specialty of contract director Seijun Suzuki , whose films had grown increasingly anarchic through the 1960s . This had earned him a large following but it had also drawn the ire of studio head Kyūsaku Hori . On April 25 , 1968 , Suzuki received a telephone call from a company secretary informing him that he would not be receiving his salary that month . Two of Suzuki 's friends met with Hori the next day and were told , " Suzuki 's films were incomprehensible , that they did not make any money and that Suzuki might as well give up his career as a director as he would not be making films for any other companies . "
A student film society run by Kazuko Kawakita , the Cineclub Study Group , was planning to include Branded to Kill in a retrospective honouring Suzuki 's works but Hori refused them and withdrew all of his films from circulation . With support from the Cineclub , similar student groups , fellow filmmakers and the general public — which included the picketing of the company 's Hibiya offices and the formation of the Seijun Suzuki Joint Struggle Committee — Suzuki sued Nikkatsu for wrongful dismissal . During the three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half year trial the circumstances under which the film was made and Suzuki was fired came to light . He had been made into a scapegoat for the company 's dire financial straits and was meant to serve as an example on the outset of an attempted company @-@ wide restructuring . A settlement was reached on December 24 , 1971 , in the amount of one million yen , a fraction of his original claim , as well as a public apology from Hori . In a separate agreement Branded to Kill and his previous film , Fighting Elegy , were donated to the Tokyo National Museum of Modern Art 's Film Centre . The events turned Suzuki into a legend and shook the film world . Branded to Kill , along with other of his films , played to " packed audiences who wildly applauded " at all @-@ night revivals in and around Tokyo . However , Suzuki was blacklisted by the major studios and did not make another feature film until A Tale of Sorrow and Sadness ( 1977 ) ten years after Branded to Kill . In the meantime , he subsisted on commercial and television work and writing books of essays .
Branded to Kill first reached international audiences in the 1980s , featuring in various film festivals and retrospectives dedicated wholly or partially to Suzuki , which was followed by home video releases in the late 1990s . It garnered a reputation as one of his most unconventional , revered Nikkatsu films and an international cult classic . It has been declared a masterpiece by the likes of film critic Chuck Stephens , writer and musician Chris D. , and composer John Zorn and inspired film director Quentin Tarantino . Writer and critic Tony Rayns noted , " Suzuki mocks everything from the clichés of yakuza fiction to the conventions of Japanese censorship in this extraordinary thriller , which rivals Orson Welles ' Lady from Shanghai in its harsh eroticism , not to mention its visual fireworks . " Modified comparisons to the films of a " gonzo Sam Fuller " , or Jean @-@ Luc Godard , assuming one " factor [ s ] out Godard 's politics and self @-@ consciousness " , are not uncommon . In a 1992 Rolling Stone magazine article , film director Jim Jarmusch affectionately recommended it as , " Probably the strangest and most perverse ' hit man ' story in cinema . " Jasper Sharp of the Midnight Eye wrote , " [ It ] is a bloody marvellous looking film and arguably the pinnacle of the director 's strikingly eclectic style . "
However , the workings of the plot remain elusive to most . Sharp digressed , " [ T ] o be honest it isn 't the most accessible of films and for those unfamiliar with Suzuki 's unorthodox and seemingly disjointed style it will probably take a couple of viewings before the bare bones of the plot begin to emerge . " As Zorn has put it , " plot and narrative devices take a back seat to mood , music , and the sensuality of visual images . " Japanese film historian Donald Richie thus encapsulated the film , " An inventive and ultimately anarchic take on gangster thrillers . [ The ] script flounders midway and Suzuki tries on the bizarre for its own sake . " David Chute conceded that in labeling the film incomprehensible , " [ i ] f you consider the movie soberly , it 's hard to deny the bosses had a point " . On a conciliatory note , Rayns commented , " Maybe the break with Nikkatsu was inevitable ; it 's hard to see how Suzuki could have gone further in the genre than this . "
After another unrelated 10 @-@ year hiatus , Suzuki and Nikkatsu reunited for the Style to Kill retrospective , held in April , 2001 , at Theatre Shinjuku in Tokyo . It featured 28 films by Suzuki , including Branded to Kill . Suzuki appeared at the gala opening with star Annu Mari . Joe Shishido appeared for a talk session at an all @-@ night , four @-@ film screening . An accompanying Branded to Kill visual directory was published . The following year , the Tanomi Company produced a limited edition 1 / 6 scale " Joe the Ace " action figure based on Shishido 's character in the film , complete with a miniature rice cooker . In 2006 , Nikkatsu celebrated the 50th anniversary of Suzuki 's directorial debut by hosting the Seijun Suzuki 48 Film Challenge retrospective at the 19th Tokyo International Film Festival . It showcased all of his films . He and Mari were again in attendance .
= = Legacy = =
As one of Seijun Suzuki 's most influential films , Branded to Kill has been acknowledged as a source of inspiration by such internationally renowned directors as Hong Kong 's John Woo , South Korea 's Chan @-@ wook Park and America 's Jim Jarmusch and Quentin Tarantino . Jarmusch listed it as his favourite hitman film , alongside Le Samouraï ( also 1967 ) , and thanked Suzuki in the screen credits of his own hitman film Ghost Dog : The Way of the Samurai ( 1999 ) . Most notably , Jarmusch mirrored a scene in which the protagonist kills a target by shooting up from a basement through a sink drain . He went so far as to screen the film for Suzuki when the two met in Tokyo . Critics have noted Branded to Kill 's influence on the films of Wong Kar @-@ wai , such as his hitman film Fallen Angels ( 1995 ) , as well as Johnnie To 's Fulltime Killer ( 2001 ) . However , Branded to Kill was most influential in its native Japan . The film 's premise , in which hitmen try to kill each other in competition for the Number One rank , is spoofed in films such as Takeshi Kitano 's Getting Any ? ( 1995 ) and Sabu 's Postman Blues ( 1997 ) , which features a character named Hitman Joe . Branded to Kill played a role in the development of the long @-@ running Lupin III franchise . It also had a profound impact , through Suzuki 's firing and the resulting student uprising , in the beginnings of the movement film , usually underground or anti @-@ establishment films which focused on issues of import to audiences , as opposed to production line genre pictures .
Thirty @-@ four years after Branded to Kill , Suzuki directed Pistol Opera ( 2001 ) , a loose sequel co @-@ produced by Shochiku and filmed at Nikkatsu . The character Goro Hanada returns as a mentor figure to the new Number Three , played by Makiko Esumi . However , Joe Shishido was replaced by Mikijiro Hira in the role of Hanada . Suzuki has said that the original intention was for Shishido to play the character again but that the film 's producer , Satoru Ogura , wanted Hira for the role . Reviews were of a favourable nature on par with its predecessor . Jonathan Rosenbaum supposed , " Can I call a film a masterpiece without being sure that I understand it ? I think so ... " Although some , such as Elvis Mitchell for The Village Voice , felt its zeal fell slightly short of the original .
= = Home video = =
Branded to Kill was initially made available in Japan by Nikkatsu in VHS format , first on February 10 , 1987 , then a second version on June 10 , 1994 . Both versions were censored for nudity with a black bar obscuring half of the frame during the relevant scenes . The first uncensored release since the film 's theatrical debut was an October 26 , 2001 , DVD from Nikkatsu . It included an interview with Seijun Suzuki , two with Joe Shishido , an Annu Mari photo gallery and the original film trailers for it and several other Suzuki films . The release was one of three linked to the Style to Kill theatrical retrospective . In conjunction with the 50th anniversary of Suzuki 's directorial debut , the film was included in the first of two six @-@ film DVD box sets which was released October 1 , 2006 . All six titles included audio commentary tracks featuring Suzuki with various collaborators , those being Annu Mari and assistant director Masami Kuzū for Branded to Kill .
The first North American copy surfaced in the early 1990s at Kim 's Video in New York in a video series titled Dark of the Sun devoted to obscure Asian cinema , assembled by John Zorn , albeit without English subtitles . The Criterion Collection released the film in the United States and Canada on laserdisc in 1998 , followed by a DVD on February 23 , 1999 , both containing a 15 @-@ minute interview with Suzuki , poster gallery of Shishido films and liner notes by Zorn . Home Vision Cinema release a VHS version on June 16 , 2000 . Both companies conjunctively released Tokyo Drifter in all three formats in addition to a VHS collection packaging the two films together . In the United Kingdom , Second Sight Films released a DVD on February 25 , 2002 , and a VHS on March 11 , 2002 . Yume Pictures released a new DVD on February 26 , 2007 , as a part of their Suzuki collection , featuring a 36 @-@ minute interview with the director , trailers and liner notes by Tony Rayns . Madman Entertainment 's Eastern Eye label released the film on DVD in Australia and New Zealand on May 2 , 2007 . It also contained the original trailer , a photo gallery and liner notes . Criterion released Branded to Kill on Blu @-@ ray on December 13 , 2011 .
= = Soundtrack = =
Forty years after the film 's original release , on February 23 , 2007 , the Japanese record label Think issued the soundtrack on Compact Disc through its Cine Jazz series , which focused on 1960s Nikkatsu action films . The music was culled from Naozumi Yamamoto 's score . Atsushi Yamatoya wrote the lyrics for the " Killing Blues " themes . Listings 27 through 29 are bonus karaoke tracks .
= = = Track listing = = =
= M @-@ 89 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 89 is an east – west state trunkline highway in the US state of Michigan that runs from near Ganges to Battle Creek . M @-@ 89 starts at an interchange with Interstate 196 / US Highway 31 ( I @-@ 196 / US 31 ) and passes through Allegan , Kalamazoo County , Michigan , and Calhoun counties . The highway also briefly crosses the southwest corner of Barry County before it terminates an at intersection with Business Loop I @-@ 94 ( BL I @-@ 94 ) on the northwestern side of downtown Battle Creek . In between the trunkline runs parallel to the Kalamazoo River through rural southwestern Michigan farmlands while also running through the middle of several smaller towns in the area .
Dating back to 1919 , M @-@ 89 was originally just a segment of the current highway between the Ganges area and Martin . Changes through the 1920s and 1930s moved the eastern end to Calhoun County . The last section was paved in the 1950s before the highway was rerouted in the Allegan , Michigan area . The last extensions into Battle Creek came in the 1960s and 1998 .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 89 begins at an interchange with I @-@ 196 / US 31 near Ganges , just a half mile ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) from Lake Michigan . The highway travels east on 124th Street from there through farmlands and small communities like Fennville . The trunkline passes wetlands just north of Swan Creek Marsh and crosses the Kalamazoo River about two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) west of an intersection with M @-@ 40 . M @-@ 89 and M @-@ 40 run concurrently to the southeast for 6 @.@ 5 miles ( 10 @.@ 5 km ) through more farms and across Lake Allegan on the Kalamazoo River on the way into Allegan . Just two blocks before M @-@ 89 splits from M @-@ 40 , the concurrent highways have a junction with M @-@ 222 . After M @-@ 89 splits from M @-@ 40 , it continues out of Allegan to the southeast , again crossing over the Kalamazoo River .
After leaving Allegan , M @-@ 89 runs roughly parallel with the Kalamazoo River for approximately 12 miles ( 19 km ) , passing through mostly rural areas with residences and agricultural fields . The highway curves to the east and crosses the Kalamazoo River again just west of the city of Otsego . The trunkline curves to the south in the city then again runs east to junction with US 131 at exit 49 on the west side of Plainwell . East of US 131 , the highway passes through the city of Plainwell and crosses the Kalamazoo River again before continuing into rural areas again . The route heads the southeast on towards the village of Richland .
Just north of Richland , M @-@ 89 meets up with M @-@ 43 , and the two share a brief routing together for a mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) as M @-@ 43 heads southwest out of Richland while M @-@ 89 heads east , passing to the south of Gull Lake . After passing the lake , the highway turns southeast towards Battle Creek . As M @-@ 89 begins to enter the outskirts of Battle Creek it follows Michigan Avenue . It passes through the neighborhoods of Level Park @-@ Oak Park and Urbandale , the first residential areas of the city . As the highway continues towards Battle Creek it has a junction with M @-@ 37 . M @-@ 89 continues on Michigan Avenue until an intersection with Washington Avenue where the route turns to the southwest where it crosses the Kalamazoo River one last time . The trunkline terminates a few blocks later at Dickman Road , otherwise known as the Business Loop I @-@ 94 ( BL I @-@ 94 ) .
M @-@ 89 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) like other state highways in Michigan . As a part of these maintenance responsibilities , the department tracks the volume of traffic that uses the roadways under its jurisdiction . These volumes are expressed using a metric called annual average daily traffic , which is a statistical calculation of the average daily number of vehicles on a segment of roadway . MDOT 's surveys in 2010 showed that the highest traffic levels along M @-@ 89 were the 26 @.@ 470 vehicles daily between Otsego and Plainwell ; the lowest counts were the 2 @,@ 879 vehicles per day between Fennville and the I @-@ 196 / US 31 interchange . No section of M @-@ 89 has been listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
The July 1 , 1919 , incarnation of M @-@ 89 was much shorter relative to today 's road . Its western terminus was at a junction with M @-@ 11 ( later US 31 , now A @-@ 2 ) near Ganges . It traveled east to Fennville then turned south to Pearl before turning back to the east towards Allegan on an alignment that is a few miles south of the present day configuration . The highway then left Allegan on present day M @-@ 222 and terminated at M @-@ 13 , which is now A @-@ 45 east of the US 131 freeway .
In 1926 , when M @-@ 40 was extended , M @-@ 89 was rerouted out of Allegan to the southeast along its present day alignment to terminate at US 131 in Plainwell . Just a few years later , the road was extended further to the southeast to Richland then east along its present day routing to end at M @-@ 96 in Augusta . In 1931 , the route was realigned to run east , rather than south into Augusta , where it then met up with M @-@ 96 just inside the Calhoun County line . The road remained in this fashion for the next 20 years .
In late 1951 or early 1952 , the last section of M @-@ 89 was paved , a segment south and east of Fennville in Allegan County . Just months later , the highways was realigned to run east from Fennville , rather than south to Pearl , to intersect M @-@ 40 . From there it was rerouted to run concurrently into Allegan .
In 1963 , when the I @-@ 196 / US 131 freeway opened , the western terminus of M @-@ 89 was extended to meet the new freeway . A few years later , when M @-@ 96 was realigned onto a route that took it into Battle Creek , M @-@ 89 was extended southeasterly along Michigan Avenue ( the old M @-@ 96 ) and terminated at M @-@ 37 . The highway was extended further southeasterly into Battle Creek to replace the old routing of M @-@ 37 along Michigan Avenue ; it then turned south on Washington to the BL I @-@ 94 where it terminated , thus bringing the route to its current alignment .
= = Major intersections = =
= John Bauer ( illustrator ) =
John Albert Bauer ( 4 June 1882 – 20 November 1918 ) was a Swedish painter and illustrator . His work is concerned with landscape and mythology , but he also composed portraits . He is best known for his illustrations of early editions of Bland tomtar och troll ( Among Gnomes and Trolls ) , an anthology of Swedish folklore and fairy tales .
Bauer was born and raised in Jönköping . At 16 he moved to Stockholm to study at the Royal Swedish Academy of Arts . While there he received his first commissions to illustrate stories in books and magazines , and met the artist Ester Ellqvist , whom he married in 1906 . He traveled throughout Lappland , Germany and Italy early in his career , and these cultures deeply informed his work . He painted and illustrated in a romantic nationalistic style , in part influenced by the Italian Renaissance and Sami cultures . Most of his works are watercolors or prints in monochrome or muted colours ; he also produced oil paintings and frescos . His illustrations and paintings broadened the understanding and appreciation of Swedish folklore , fairy tales and landscape .
When Bauer was 36 , he , Ester and their son , Bengt , drowned in a shipwreck on Lake Vättern .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life and education = = =
John Bauer was born and raised in Jönköping , the son of Josef Bauer , a man of Bavarian origin , and Emma Charlotta Wadell , from a farming family from the town Rogberga just outside Jönköping . Josef Bauer came to Sweden in 1863 , penniless . He founded a successful charcuterie business at the Östra Torget in Jönköping . The family lived in the apartment above the shop until 1881 when the construction of their house in Sjövik was completed . John , born in 1882 , lived at the Villa Sjövik by the shore of Lake Rocksjön with his parents and two brothers , one older and one younger ; his only sister died at a young age . The family home would remain central to him long after he lived on his own . His initial schooling was at the Jönköpings Högre Allmäna Läroverk ( The Jönköping Public School of Higher Education ) , followed by the Jönköpings Tekniska Skola ( The Jönköping Technical School ) from 1892 to 1898 . He spent most of his time drawing caricatures of his teachers and daydreaming , something not appreciated by his teachers .
He was given to sketching and drawing from an early age , without encouragement from his family . However , when he turned sixteen and wanted to go to Stockholm to study art , they were enthusiastic for him and backed him financially . In 1898 , he was one of the 40 applicants to study at the Royal Swedish Academy of Arts , and although he was deemed well qualified for a place at the academy , he was too young to be accepted . He spent the next two years at the Kaleb Ahltins school for painters . During this time he was , like most teenagers , torn between hope and despair , something that is reflected in his artwork .
By 1900 , he was old enough to attend the Academy of Arts , and was one of the three students admitted that year ; the two other successful applicants were his friends Ivar Kamke and Pontus Lanner . He studied traditional illustrations and made drawings of plants , medieval costumes and croquis ; all of which served him in his later work . One of his teachers , professor and noted historic painter , Gustaf Cederström praised Bauer :
His art is what I would call great art , in his almost miniaturized works he gives an impression of something much more powerful than many monumental artists can accomplice on acres of canvas . It is not size that matters but content .
While at the academy , he received his first commissions to illustrate magazines ( including the Söndags @-@ Nisse and Snöflingan ) and books ( e.g. De gyllene böckerna , Ljungars saga and Länge , länge sedan ) . In 1904 he traveled to Lappland to create paintings for a book on the culture of the county and its " exotic wilderness " . At the end of 1905 , he left the academy and put " Artist " on his business card .
= = = Journey to Lappland = = =
Following the discovery of iron ore deposits in the north of Sweden , Lappland became a frontier for industrial development , instead of an exotic wilderness of the Sami culture and midnight sun . Opportunistically , Carl Adam Victor Lundholm published a his Lappland , det stora svenska framtidslandet ( Lappland , the great Swedish land of the future ) . He engaged noted Swedish artists — such as Karl Tirén , Alfred Thörne , Per Daniel Holm and Hjalmar Lindberg — to create the illustrations . Since Bauer was an inexperienced illustrator by comparison , Lundholm tested his abilities by sending him to create some drawings of Sami people at Skansen .
Although reluctant to audition for the commission , on 15 July 1904 Bauer left for Lappland and stayed there for a month . Coming from the dense , dark forests of Småland he was overwhelmed by the open vistas and colorful landscapes . His encounters with the Sami people and their culture became important for his later works . He took many photos , sketched and made notes of the tools , costumes and objects he saw , but he had difficulty becoming close to the Sami , due to their shyness . He recorded his experiences in his diary and in letters to his family and friends . After a visit to a Sami goahti he noted : " All light from above . If the head is tilted forward it is dark . The lit parts of the figure always lighter than the tent canvas . Sharp shadows run like spokes from the middle of the goathi . "
The book on Lappland was published in 1908 , with eleven watercolors by Bauer . They were painted Stockholm , almost 18 months after his visit , using the photos and sketches he had collected during his journey . Many of the photos resulted in other drawings and paintings . Most of these were romanticized versions of the photos , but he succeeded in capturing the nuances and ambiance of the goahtis , and the richness of the Sami garments and crafts . Details from the Sami culture , such as the bent knives , shoes , spears , pots and belts , became important elements in the clothes and ornamentations of Bauer 's trolls . Bauer 's eye for detail and his numerous notes also made the material an ethnographic documentation of the era .
= = = Courtship and marriage = = =
Bauer met fellow student Ester Ellqvist at the Royal Swedish Academy of Arts . Ellqvist studied at the separate department for women , since women were not allowed to attend the same classes as the men and their education was conducted in a different manner . So , while Ellqvist was talented and ambitious , she did not have an equal opportunity as her male colleagues to develop her artistry .
Bauer started courting her in 1903 , but since they were apart most of the time , this was done by mail . Their relationship developed as they shared their dreams , aspirations , doubts and insecurities in their correspondence . For Bauer , Ellqvist became his inspiration , muse , and " fairy princess " ; it was as such he painted her for the first time in Sagoprinsessan ( The Fairy Princess ) . He made sketches for the painting in 1904 , and finalized them in an oil painting in 1905 . Ellqvist is portrayed as a strong , enlightened and unobtainable Valkyrie . The painting was shown at Bauer 's first exhibition at the Valand Academy in Gothenburg in 1905 ( where he was one of eleven debutants ) and in Norrköping in 1906 , where it was sold to a private collector . It is now in the Jönköpings läns museum . Bauer tried to mold Ellqvist into his vision of a creature of the woods and as the perfect artist 's wife ; he wanted her to make a home for them in a romantic cottage in the woods , while he wandered about the forest seeking inspiration .
Ellqvist , on the other hand , had been raised in Stockholm and was a lively person who enjoyed the social life that could only be found in towns or cities . She wanted to settle down in a comfortable place with a husband and have children . Bauer was not sufficiently established an artist to provide for a family ; throughout his entire lifetime he relied on his parents for financial support . When he proposed to Ellqvist , Bauer did so without the approval of his parents , who thought that he should be more established in a career and self @-@ supporting before marriage .
On 18 December 1906 , Bauer and Ellqvist were married . Little is known of their first years together since they now lived in the same house , making letters unnecessary . Bauer had jobs illustrating covers for magazines , like Hvar 8 Dag , and began work on Bland tomtar och troll ( Among Gnomes and Trolls ) . In 1908 , John and Ester traveled to Italy together ; on their return they found a house , the " Villa Björkudden " , situated on the shores of Lake Bunn just outside Gränna . They bought the house in 1914 , and the following year their son Bengt ( called " Putte " ) was born . The birth of Putte marked a harmonious and joyful time for the couple . Bauer made his final illustrations for Among Gnomes and Trolls , his grand farewell to the series , which freed him to explore playwriting and make frescos . He showed his paintings at exhibitions and experimented with modernism , but all this came at a cost . Bauer was often away , leaving Ellqvist alone at home , and he no longer had the steady income that the illustrations had provided . By 1917 , their marriage was in trouble , and in 1918 , Bauer put his thoughts about a divorce in a letter to his wife .
Over time , Bauer used Ellqvist as a model less frequently . With the birth of their son , Bauer started to paint pictures with children as part of the composition . The painting Rottrollen ( The Root Trolls ) , completed in 1917 , is of Putte sleeping among troll @-@ shaped roots in a forest .
= = = Journey to Italy = = =
Bauer and his wife could to make the long journey at Josef 's expense in 1909 . They choose to travel through Germany and on to Italy based on his readings of medieval towns during a 1902 visit to Germany with his father . The couple visited Verona , Florence , Siena and spent two months in Volterra . They continued through Naples and Capri , spending the winter in Rome .
Throughout their travels they studied art and visited churches and museums , which appealed to Bauer 's eclectic mind . In the evenings they went to small tavernas to enjoy the ambiance ; all of which is recorded in the letters they sent home to Bauer 's family . Bauer 's sketchbooks are full of studies of antique objects and Renaissance art , some of which he used for his illustrations . A portrait of Ghirlandaio by Sandro Botticelli is said to be the basis for Svanhamnen ( The Swan maiden ) , and Piero della Francesca 's work was the inspiration for Den helige Martin ( Saint Martin , the Holy ) . He also became intrigued by frescoes . He was exuberant in the study of art , but he also became homesick for the quiet serenity of the Swedish forest which resulted in some of his best winter pictures with white snow , dark woods and the sky glittering with tiny stars .
Their journey was abandoned after a murder in their building in Rome . Bauer was interrogated by Italian police due to a misunderstanding . He was never a suspect but the situation became public , leaving a bitter memory of their visit to Rome .
= = = Death on Lake Vättern = = =
Bauer , Ester and their two @-@ year @-@ old son , Bengt , were on their way to their new home in Stockholm , where Bauer hoped for spiritual renewal and a new life for himself and his family . A recent , well @-@ publicized train accident at Getå caused Bauer to book their return to Stockholm by boat , the Per Brahe steamer .
On the night of 19 November 1918 , when the steamer left Gränna it was loaded with iron stoves , plowshares , sewing machines and barrels of produce . All the cargo did not fit into the hold and a significant portion was stored unsecured on deck , making the ship top @-@ heavy . The weather was bad and by the time the steamer was at sea a full storm was raging ; the wind caused the cargo on deck to shift , some of it falling overboard , further destabilizing the ship . The ship capsized and went down , stern first , just 500 metres ( 1 @,@ 600 feet ) from the next port , Hästholmen , killing all 24 people on board , including the Bauers . Most of the passengers had been trapped in their cabins .
The wreckage was found on 22 November 1918 at a depth of 32 metres ( 105 feet ) , salvaged on 12 August 1922 . Investigations indicated that just one third of the cargo had been stowed in the hold , the rest unsecured on deck . The salvage operation turned into a bizarre public attraction ; for example , a sewing machine from the steamer was smashed into pieces and sold for one crown each . It is estimated that about 20 @,@ 000 people came to watch the raising of the ship , requiring the addition of trains from Norrköping . Newsreels featuring the raising of the ship were shown in cinemas all over Sweden . In order to finance the salvage operation , the Per Brahe was sent on a macabre tour throughout Sweden . The newspapers fed people 's superstitions that the mythical creatures of the forests had claimed Bauer by sinking the ship . The most common theme was connected to the tale Agneta och sjökungen ( Agneta and the Sea King ) from 1910 in which the Sea King lures a maiden into the depths . On 18 August 1922 , the Bauers were buried at the Östra cemetery in Jönköping ( in quarter 04 plot number 06 ) .
= = = Bauer , the person = = =
Bauer consistently and privately doubted himself . He considered the praise he received for his pictures of trolls and princesses to be " a nice pat on the head for making funny pictures for children " . He wanted to paint in oil and make what he called " real art " , but he needed the money he received for his illustrations . His self @-@ doubts were contrary to his public persona and how he presented himself in self @-@ portraits : strong minded but self @-@ deprecating .
= = Career = =
= = = Subjects = = =
Bauer 's favorite subject was Swedish nature , the dense forests where the light trickled down through the tree canopies . Ever since he was little he had wandered in the dark woods of Småland imagining all the creatures living there . His paintings frequently included detailed depictions of plants , mosses , lichens and mushrooms found in the Swedish woods . He is best known for his illustrations of Among Gnomes and Trolls .
In a 1953 article in Allers Familje @-@ journal ( Allers Family Journal ) , his friend Ove Eklund stated that " although [ Bauer ] only mumbled about and never said clearly " , he believed that all the creatures he drew actually existed . Eklund had on several occasions accompanied Bauer on his walks through the forests by Lake Vättern , and Bauer 's description of all the things he thought existed made Eklund feel he could see them as well .
Ove Eklund on Bauer :
Yes , there he was , John Bauer , with his brown , eternal pipe glued to the corner of his mouth . Now and then he blew a small cloud of brown troll smoke straight up into the turquoise @-@ bleu , sun @-@ sparkling space . And muttered something far behind his tight , narrow lips — not always so easy to decipher . But I , having had the key for many years , understood most of it .
= = = Inspiration = = =
Bauer and his friends were part of a generation of Swedish painters who started their careers just before the Modernism movement began to flourish , but at the same time were considerably younger than those dominating the Swedish art scene : artists such as Carl Larsson , Anders Zorn and Bruno Liljefors . Bauer was inspired by these artists , but from his heritage came in contact with Fritz Erler , Max Klinger and other German illustrators . He lived in an era when the Old Norse were romanticized throughout Scandinavia , and borrowed ideas and motifs from artists like Theodor Kittelsen and Erik Werenskiöld , yet his finished works were in his own style . After his journey to Italy his works clearly showed elements from the 14th century Renaissance . The pictures of princes and princesses had elements from Flandic tapestries , and even the trolls garments were pleated , much like the draped clothing seen in antique Roman sculptures .
= = = Style = = =
Bauer had a time consuming technique when painting : he would start with a small sketch , no bigger than a stamp , with just the basic shapes . Then he would make another , slightly bigger , sketch with more details . The sketches grew progressively in size and detail until the work reached its final size . Most of the originals for About Gnomes and Trolls are square pictures about 20 to 25 centimetres ( 7 @.@ 9 to 9 @.@ 8 inches ) . He doodled on anything at hand , from used stationary to the back of an envelope . Many of his sketches resemble cartoon strips where the pictures get bigger and more detailed . He would also do several versions of the same finished picture , such as one where the motif is depicted in a summer and winter scene . He did not observe the traditional hierarchy in the mediums or techniques at that time . He could make a complete work in pencil or charcoal just as well as a sketch in oil .
From an early age Bauer had to adapt his illustrations to contemporary printing technique . Full @-@ color was expensive , so the illustrations were made in one color plus black . As the process developed and his works became in greater demand , his pictures were eventually printed in full color .
= = = Watercolor = = =
The most noted of Bauer 's pictures are his watercolors , the technique he used when illustrating for books and magazines ; he alternated between aquarelle and gouache . When he created illustrations the two mediums were sometimes mixed , since he needed both the speed of the aquarelle and the contrast and impasto that the gouache provided . These water @-@ soluble , and fast drying , media allowed Bauer to work on his pictures until the last minute before deadline , something he was prone to do .
= = = Among Gnomes and Trolls = = =
In 1907 , Bauer was asked by the Åhlén & Åkerlund publishing house ( now Bonnier Group ) to illustrate their new series of books , Among Gnomes and Trolls . The books would be published annually , and contain stories by prominent Swedish authors . The majority of Bauer 's pictures for the book were full @-@ page watercolor illustrations in a muted color scheme ; he also contributed with covers , vignettes and other smaller illustrations . Bauer 's most significant creatures , the trolls , were rendered in shades of gray , green , and brown , the colors of the forests , as if these beings had grown from the landscape itself . Due to the limitiations of the technology available to his printers , the 1907 – 10 editions were produced in just two colors : black and yellow . Some of Bauer 's original paintings for these prints were in full color .
In 1911 , when Bauer again was asked to illustrate the book , he made it clear to the publisher that he wanted to retain his pictures along with the copyrights after publication . The publishing house had kept the original illustrations for the previous editions and considered them their property . Bauer was backed up in his request by other artists facing the same problem . The publishers did not budge from their position and without Bauer 's illustrations , book sales dropped .
The publisher yielded to Bauer for the 1912 edition ; he was again illustrating his own book . Printing techniques had also been updated and the pictures could be printed in three colors : black , yellow and blue . With this technical improvement , the prints almost resembled Bauer 's original paintings .
Bauer illustrated the 1913 – 15 editions , printed in the same three colors as previously . 1913 marked the peak of his performance in these books , and Bauer 's illustrations from that edition are among the most reproduced of his works . In 1914 , his illustrations started to be influenced by the Italian Renaissance . At that time Bauer wanted to stop illustrating the series , but was contractually obligated to illustrate one more edition . 1915 was the last year he worked with trolls and gnomes ; he said he " was done with them and wanted to move on " . The war in Europe had altered Bauer 's vision of the world and he stated that he could no longer imagine it as a fairy tale .
= = = Tuvstarr = = =
Ännu sitter Tuvstarr kvar och ser ner i vattnet ( Still , Tuvstarr sits and gazes down into the water ) , painted in 1913 , is one of Bauer 's most noted works .
Until the 1980s , the most reproduced and publicized of Bauer 's works were two paintings depicting the princess and the moose from Sagan om älgtjuren Skutt och lilla prinsessan Tuvstarr ( The Tale of the Moose Hop and the Little Princess Cotton Grass ) , published in 1913 . The first picture is of the princess riding on the moose and the second is of the moose standing guard over the sleeping princess . They were mainly used as pictures on the wall in nurseries . The same tale also contains the picture of Tuvstarr gazing down into the tarn looking for her lost heart , an allegory of innocence lost . Bauer made several studies of this motif . During the 1980s the painting of Tuvstarr and the tarn was used in advertising for a shampoo . This started a debate in Sweden about how works of art , considered part of the national heritage , should be used . In 1999 , the picture again appeared in advertising , this time in a manipulated version in which all the trees had been cut down and Tuvstarr seemed to be lamenting them . The award @-@ winning advertising campaign was made by the Swedish Society for Nature Conservation and helped further the newly awakened environmental movement in Sweden . In his biography on Bauer , Gunnar Lindqvist argues that the picture has become too commercialized .
= = = Oil painting = = =
Bauer created most of his major works in oil at the beginning of his career , since this was the traditional technique taught at the Royal Swedish Academy of Arts . The trip to northern Sweden resulted in many sketches and watercolors for the Lappland book , but also in an oil on canvas entitled , Kåsovagge ( 1904 ) . From 1903 to 1905 , he made several portraits and landscapes influenced by Expressionism . He also made his first oil of Ester , The Fairy Princess , a painting with elements from the Pre @-@ Raphaelites . This work indicates what kind of paintings Bauer wanted to do , but his commissions from illustrating " Among gomes and trolls " got in the way . He wrote that he " felt like a Jack @-@ of @-@ all @-@ trades " , and made regular outbursts in letters to editors and publishers asking for his help , saying that he " had to work , he wanted a future painting in oil and the rest be damned " . By the time he ceased painting his trolls and gnomes , he was tired and worn out and turned to other venues such as scenography , writing a compendium on drawing to be used in schools , and starting with frescos . He never got to revisit oil painting fully before he drowned .
= = = Large works = = =
As in his earlier works at the academy , Bauer showed an interest in large frescos and , after his visit to Italy , this interest grew . His first chance to create a major work using this technique was in 1912 , when he completed a 1 @.@ 5 @-@ by @-@ 1 @.@ 5 @-@ metre ( 4 ft 11 in by 4 ft 11 in ) fresco @-@ secco mural , Vill @-@ Vallareman , at the home of publisher Erik Åkerlund . In 1913 , he was asked to do a fresco for the Odd Fellows lodge in Nyköping , Den helige Martin ( Saint Martin , the Holy ) . At the same time , the new Stockholm Court House was under construction . Contests regarding decorations for the building were held , and most of the noted Swedish artists at that time presented entries and suggestions . Bauer made a number of sketches for these competitions , but his confidence failed and he did not submit any of his drafts .
Bauer 's last large work was an oil painting for the auditorium at the Karlskrona flickläroverk ( The Karlskrona School for Girls ) in 1917 . It depicts Freja , the old Norse goddess of fertility . Ester posed nude for the painting ; Bauer shows her as strong , sensual and forceful . Their friends teasingly called it the " breast picture of Mrs. Bauer " .
= = Exhibitions = =
Some of the exhibitions of his work during his lifetime were :
1905 Gothenburg
1906 Norrkoping
1911 Rome
1913 Munich
1913 Dresden
1913 Brighton
1913 Stockholm
1914 Malmö
1915 San Francisco – Bauer was awarded the medal of honor .
Post @-@ humus exhibitions include :
1934 – 45 Traveling exhibition
1968 Jönköpings läns museum , Jönköping
1973 Thielska galleriet , Stockholm
1981 – 82 Nationalmuseum , Stockholm
1993 Milesgården , Stockholm
1994 Göteborgs konstmuseum , Gothenburg
= = Collections = =
The Jönköpings läns museum owns over 1 @,@ 000 paintings , drawings and sketches by Bauer , which is the world 's largest collection of his artwork . He is also represented at the Nationalmuseum in Stockholm , the Gothenburg Museum of Art and the Malmö konstmuseum . The John Bauer Museum in Ebenhausen , Germany is a museum dedicated to the life and works of Bauer .
= = Works = =
For illustrations from the famous children 's anthology , see Among Gnomes and Trolls
Other works
Written work
Bauer , John ( 1928 ) . Cyrus Granér ; Karl Steenberg ; Gottfrid Kallstenius , eds . Ritkurs för Sveriges barndomsskolor [ Drawing class for Sweden 's schools for young children ] ( in Swedish ) ( 1 – 12 ed . ) . Stockholm : Skolboks a.-b. De förenade .
= = Legacy = =
Bauer 's pictures continue to be popular at art auctions . At a sale in 2014 , one of Bauer 's gouaches , Humpe I trollskogen ( Humpe in the Troll Forest ) , sold for 563 @,@ 500 kronor ( about US $ 87 @,@ 000 ) , and a watercolor , En riddare red fram ( A Knight Rode Forth ) , made 551 @,@ 250 kronor ( c . US $ 85 @,@ 100 ) .
His illustrations have been reprinted many times , and are considered among the classics in fairy tales . As of 2014 , books with Bauer 's pictures have been published in ten languages . Bauer 's works have influenced Sulamith Wülfing , Kay Nielsen , Brian Froud , Rebecca Guay , and other illustrators . In his biography on Bauer , Gunnar Lindqvist states that : " Although Bauer 's work is sometimes credited to have influenced that of Arthur Rackham , and vice versa , these artists did not come in contact with each other 's works until the 1910s when they had already established their own style . Any similarities must therefore be credited to their common inspirations by the romantic Munich art of the late 1800s and the art of Albrecht Dürer . "
In Jönköping , a memorial in honour of Bauer stands in the Town park , which was created in 1931 by Swedish sculptor Carl Hultström . Hultström also made a bust in bronze of Bauer , which sits in the National Portrait Gallery at Gripsholm Castle .
Celebrating John Bauer 's centennial birthday in 1982 , the Swedish postal service issued three stamps with motifs from Among Gnomes and Trolls . Four more were issued in 1997 . A park and an adjacent street at the place where Villa Sjövik , Bauer 's family home , once stood were named after him . The area is now part of the municipality of Jönköping . In Mullsjö a street was named after Bauer , and in Nyköping a square was named after him .
= = Popular culture = =
In 1986 , Sveriges Television produced and broadcast the movie Ester — om John Bauers wife ( Ester — About John Bauers Wife ) . Ester was played by Lena T. Hansson , while John was portrayed by Per Mattsson .
A short film for children about Bauer and storytelling , John Bauer , fantasin och sagorna ( John Bauer , Fantasy and Tales ) was made in 2013 ; created by Ulf Hansson , Kunskapsmedia AB , in co @-@ operation with the Jönköpings läns museum and John Bauer Art HB .
The Sveriges Television series Konstverk berättar ( A Work of Art Tells a Story ) featured the picture At dusk she often snuck out just to get a whiff of the good smell in the episode " The childhood picture " , by Bengt Lagerkvist on 24 January 1977 . The episode is available in Sweden through the Swedish Television Open Archive .
A film project about John and Ester Bauer was started in 2012 , by Börje Peratt . Called John Bauer — Bergakungen ( John Bauer — The Mountain King ) , the movie focuses on the fairy tale artist and his love for Ester . Gustaf Skarsgård is slated for the role of Bauer .
Swedish photographer Mats Andersson published a book where he revisited the forests of Bauer , using a camera instead of drawing . The pictures were also exhibited at the Abecita art museum in Borås in November 2013 .
A Scandinavian franchise of private schools ( now defunct ) derived its name and some themes from Bauer , such as naming the classes after his characters .
Bauer is mentioned in Neil Gaiman 's comic book series The Sandman .
The visual look of the motion picture The Dark Crystal , directed by Jim Henson and Frank Oz , was developed by primary concept artist and chief creature designer , Brian Froud , who was inspired by Bauer 's art .
Italian musician Gianluca Plomitallo , a.k.a. " The Huge " , made an album called John Bauer – Riddaren Rider , in which all the songs are named after pictures by Bauer .
Norwegian Artist Mortiis uses the art of Bauer on his ambient albums .
Swedish poet Roger L. Svensson recalls the Bauer Memorial and Bauer 's creations in his poems .
= Dunster =
Dunster is a village , civil parish and former manor within the English county of Somerset , today just within the north @-@ eastern boundary of the Exmoor National Park . It lies on the Bristol Channel coast 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 km ) south @-@ southeast of Minehead and 20 miles ( 32 km ) northwest of Taunton . The United Kingdom Census of 2011 recorded a parish population of 817 .
Iron Age hillforts testify to occupation of the area for thousands of years . The village grew up around Dunster Castle which was built on the Tor by the Norman warrior William I de Moyon ( d. post 1090 ) shortly after the Norman Conquest of 1066 . The Castle is mentioned in the Domesday Book of 1086 . From that time it was the caput of the Feudal barony of Dunster . The Castle was remodelled on several occasions by the Luttrell family who were lords of the manor from the 14th to 20th centuries . The benedictine Dunster Priory was established in about 1100 . The Priory Church of St George , dovecote and tithe barn are all relics from the Priory .
The village became a centre for wool and cloth production and trade , of which the Yarn Market , built by George Luttrell ( d.1629 ) , is a relic . There existed formerly a harbour , known as Dunster Haven , at the mouth of the River Avill , yet today the coast having receded is now about 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) from the village and no sign of the harbour can be seen on the low lying marshes between the village and the coast . Dunster has a range of heritage sites and cultural attractions which combine with the castle to make it a popular tourist destination with many visitors arriving on the West Somerset Railway , a heritage railway running from Minehad to Bishops Lydeard .
The village lies on the route of the Macmillan Way West , Somerset Way and Celtic Way Exmoor Option .
= = Name = =
The name Dunster derives from an earlier name Torre ( " tor , rocky hill " ) , recorded in the Domesday Book written twenty years after the Norman conquest . The origin of the prefix is uncertain , although it may well refer to Dunn , a Saxon noble who held land in nearby Elworthy and Willett before the conquest , giving Dunestore meaning Dunn 's craggy hill .
The historian David Nash Ford proposed Dunster as a possible location of the Cair Draitou listed by the History of the Britons as one of the 28 cities of Britain .
= = History = =
Within 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) of the village itself are several Iron Age hillforts showing evidence of early human occupation . These include Bat 's Castle and Black Ball Camp on Gallox Hill , Long Wood Enclosure and a similar earthwork on Grabbist Hill .
Dunster is mentioned as a manor and Dunster Castle as belonging to William I de Moyon ( alias de Moion , also de Mohun ) in the 1086 Domesday Book . After the Norman conquest of England in the 11th century , he constructed a timber castle on the site as part of the pacification of Somerset . A stone shell keep was built on the motte by the start of the 12th century , and the castle survived a siege during the early years of the Anarchy . At the end of the 14th century the de Mohuns sold the castle to the Luttrell family , who continued to occupy the property until the late 20th century . During the English Civil War , Dunster was initially held as a garrison for the Royalists . It fell to the Parliamentarians in 1645 and orders were sent out for the castle to be demolished . However , these were not carried out , and the castle remained the garrison for Parliamentarian troops until 1650 . Dunster is regularly home to Taunton Garrison who re @-@ enact plays , battles , and life in the civil war . Major alterations to the castle were undertaken by Henry Fownes Luttrell who had acquired it through marriage to Margaret Fownes @-@ Luttrell in 1747 . Following the death of Alexander Luttrell in 1944 , the family was unable to afford the death duties on his estate . The castle and surrounding lands were sold off to a property firm , the family continuing to live in the castle as tenants . The Luttrells bought back the castle in 1954 , but in 1976 Colonel Walter Luttrell gave Dunster Castle and most of its contents to the National Trust , which operates it as a tourist attraction . It is a Grade I listed building and scheduled monument .
Dunster Priory was established as a Benedictine monastery around 1100 . The first church in Dunster was built by William de Mohun who gave the church and the tithes of several manors and two fisheries , to the Benedictine Abbey at Bath . The priory , which was situated just north of the church , became a cell of the abbey . The church was shared for worship by the monks and the parishioners , however this led to several conflicts between them . One outcome was the carved rood screen which divided the church in two with the parish using the west chancel and the monks the east . The priory church is now in parochial use as the Priory Church of St George which still contains 12th and 13th century work , although most of the current building is from the 15th century . It has been designated as a Grade I listed building . In 1332 it became more separated from the Abbey at Bath and became a priory in its own right . In the " Valor Ecclesiasticus " of 1535 the net annual income of the Dunster Tithe Barn is recorded as being £ 37.4.8d ( £ 37 23p ) , with £ 6.13s7d ( £ 6.68p ) being passed on to the priory in Bath . In 1346 Cleeve Abbey built a nunnery in Dunster , but it was never inhabited by nuns and was used as a guest house . The priory was dissolved as part of the dissolution of the monasteries in 1539 . Dunster was part of the hundred of Carhampton , but St George 's was the seat of the local deanery , overseeing the area 's parish churches .
Dunster had become a centre for woollen and clothing production by the 13th century , with the market dating back to at least 1222 , and a particular kind of kersey or broadcloth became known as ' Dunsters ' . The prosperity of Dunster was based on the wool trade , with profits helping to pay for the construction of the tower of the Priory Church of St George and provide other amenities . The 15th century Gallox Bridge was one of the main routes over the River Avill on the southern outskirts . The market was held in " The Shambles " however these shops were demolished in 1825 and now only the Yarn Market remains .
Dunster Beach , which includes the mouth of the River Avill , is located half a mile from the village , and used to have a significant harbour , known as Dunster Haven , which was used for the export of wool from Saxon times ; however , it was last used in the 17th century and has now disappeared , as new land was laid down among the dykes , meadows and marshes near the shore . During the Second World War , considerable defences were built along the coast as a part of British anti @-@ invasion preparations , though the north coast of Somerset was an unlikely invasion site . Some of the structures remain to this day . Most notable are the pillboxes on the foreshore of Dunster Beach . These are strong buildings made from pebbles taken from the beach and bonded together with concrete . From these , soldiers could have held their ground if the Germans had ever invaded . The beach site has a number of privately owned beach huts ( or chalets as some owners call them ) along with a small shop , a tennis court and a putting green . The chalets , measuring 18 by 14 feet ( 5 @.@ 5 by 4 @.@ 3 m ) , can be let out for holidays ; some owners live in them all the year round .
= = Governance = =
The parish council has responsibility for local issues , including setting an annual precept to cover the council ’ s operating costs and producing annual accounts for public scrutiny . The parish council evaluates local planning applications and works with the local police , district council officers , and neighbourhood watch groups on matters of crime , security , and traffic . The parish council 's role also includes initiating projects for the maintenance and repair of parish facilities , as well as consulting with the district council on the maintenance , repair , and improvement of highways , drainage , footpaths , public transport , and street cleaning . Conservation matters ( including trees and listed buildings ) and environmental issues are also the responsibility of the council .
The village falls within the Non @-@ metropolitan district of West Somerset , which was formed on 1 April 1974 under the Local Government Act 1972 ; previously it was part of Williton Rural District . The district council is responsible for local planning and building control , local roads , council housing , environmental health , markets and fairs , refuse collection and recycling , cemeteries and crematoria , leisure services , parks , and tourism . The larger and most expensive local services such as education , social services , libraries , main roads , public transport , policing and fire services , trading standards , waste disposal and strategic planning are the responsibility of Somerset County Council .
As Dunster falls within the Exmoor National Park , some functions normally administered by district or county councils have , since 1997 , fallen under the Exmoor National Park Authority , which is known as a ' single @-@ purpose ' authority , whose purpose is to " conserve and enhance the natural beauty , wildlife and cultural heritage of the National Parks " and " promote opportunities for the understanding and enjoyment of the special qualities of the Parks by the public " , including responsibility for the conservation of the historic environment .
Dunster is the most populous area of the electoral ward named ' Dunster and Timbercombe ' . The ward extends North East to the Bristol Channel and South West to Timberscombe . The total population at the 2011 Census was 1 @,@ 219 .
It is also part of the Bridgwater and West Somerset county constituency represented in the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom . It elects one Member of parliament ( MP ) by the first past the post system of election , and is part of the South West England constituency of the European Parliament ; the constituency elects seven MEPs using the d 'Hondt method of party @-@ list proportional representation .
= = Geography = =
Dunster Castle was positioned on a steep , 200 @-@ foot ( 61 m ) high hill . Geologically , the hill is an outcrop of Hangman Grits , a type of red sandstone . During the early medieval period the sea reached the base of the hill , close to the mouth of the River Avill , offering a natural defence and making the village an inland port .
Nearby is the Dunster Park and Heathlands Site of Special Scientific Interest noted for nationally important lowland dry heath , dry lowland acid grassland , wood @-@ pasture with veteran trees and ancient semi @-@ natural oak woodland habitats . The fauna of the lowland heath includes the Heath fritillary ( Mellicta athalia ) , a nationally rare butterfly . The assemblage of beetles associated with the veteran trees is of national significance because of the variety and abundance of species .
Along with the rest of South West England , Dunster has a temperate climate which is generally wetter and milder than the rest of England . The mean annual temperature in the area is 8 @.@ 3 ° C ( 46 @.@ 9 ° F ) with a seasonal and diurnal variation , but due to the modifying effect of the sea the range is less than in most other parts of the UK . January is the coldest month , with mean minimum temperatures between 1 and 2 ° C ( 34 and 36 ° F ) . July and August are the warmest months in the region , with mean daily maxima around 21 ° C ( 70 ° F ) . In general , December is the month with the least sunshine and June the month with the most sun . The south west of England has a favoured location with regard to the Azores High when it extends its influence north @-@ eastwards towards the UK , particularly in summer . Cloud often forms inland , especially near hills , and reduce the amount of sunshine that reaches the park . The average annual sunshine is about 1 @,@ 600 hours . Rainfall tends to be associated with Atlantic depressions or with convection . In summer , convection , caused by the sun heating the land surface more than the sea , sometimes forms rain clouds and at that time of year a large proportion of the rainfall comes from showers and thunderstorms . Annual precipitation is around 800 mm ( 31 in ) . Local weather data is collected at Nettlecombe .
= = Economy and demographics = =
The village provides a variety of shops and amenities for both local residents and visitors . These are largely situated in West Street and the high street . The village has numerous restaurants and three pubs with considerable trade being brought by tourists visiting the heritage sites and particularly the castle which attracted approximately 150 @,@ 000 visitors in 2014 . Although there is still some agriculture , the previous reliance on the wool trade has been replaced by service industries catering to the visitors . Both day @-@ trippers and those staying for longer periods are catered for with shops , pubs , cafes and hotels . 52 @.@ 6 % of people within the parish are employed which is slightly lower than the 61 @.@ 9 % in England and Wales and the 65 @.@ 2 % in Somerset .
At the time of the 2011 census there were 817 people living in the parish . 13 @.@ 2 % were children up the age of 15 years . 52 @.@ 3 % were between 16 and 64 with 34 @.@ 5 being 65 and older . This is an older population than in the rest of Somerset and England and Wales in general . In line with the rest of Somerset the majority of the population ( 95 % ) describes themselves as White British . 69 @.@ 7 % of the population live in property which they own , with 14 @.@ 3 % living in social rented accommodation and 12 @.@ 9 % privately rented . There is a higher proportion of people living alone than in other areas . The housing is fairly evenly divided between detached , semi @-@ detached and terraced house , with 5 @.@ 7 % living in flats .
= = Culture = =
Dunster was the birthplace of the song " All Things Bright and Beautiful " when Cecil Alexander was staying with Mary Martin , the daughter of one of the owners of Martins Bank . The nearby hill , Grabbist , was originally heather @-@ covered before its reforestation and was described as the " Purple @-@ headed mountain " .
On the evening of 1 May each year the Minehead Hobby Horse visits Dunster and is received at the Castle . A local newspaper printed in May 1863 says " The origin professes to be in commemoration of the wreck of a vessel at Minehead in remote times , or the advent of a sort of phantom ship which entered the harbour without Captain or crew . Once the custom was encouraged , but now is much neglected , and perhaps soon will fall into desuetude . " Another conjecture about its origin is that the hobby horse was the ancient King of the May . The Hobby Horse tradition begins with the waking of the inhabitants of Minehead by the beating of a loud drum . The hobby horse dances its way about the town and on to Dunster Castle .
Annually on the third Friday in August the village hosts the well known Dunster Show where local businesses and producers come together to showcase the very best that Exmoor and West Somerset has to offer . A major part of the show is the showing of livestock especially horses , cattle and sheep.The 2015 show was the 169th show .
A more recent tradition ( started in 1987 ) is Dunster by Candlelight which takes place every year on the first Friday and Saturday in December when this remarkably preserved medieval village turns its back on the present and lights its streets with candles . To mark the beginning of the festival on Friday at 5 pm , there is the Lantern Lighting Procession that starts on the Steep and continues through the village until all the lanterns in the streets have been lit . The procession of children and their families is accompanied by colourful stilt walkers in costumes who put up the lanterns .
The old English Christmas tradition of burning the Ashen faggot takes place at the Luttrell Arms hotel every Christmas Eve . The pub was formerly a guest house for the Abbots of Cleeve ; its oldest section dates from 1443 .
The Priory Church of St George is predominantly 15th century with evidence of 12th- and 13th century work . It has been designated as a Grade I listed building . The church was started by William de Moyon during the 11th century . The tower was built by Jon Marys of Stogursey who received a contract from the parish in 1442 . He was paid 13s 4d ( approx . 67p ) for each foot in height and £ 1 for the pinnacles . The work was completed in three years . Aisles were added in 1504 .
The church was shared for worship between the monks of Dunster Priory and the parishioners , however this led to several conflicts between them . One outcome was the carved rood screen which divided the church in two with the parish using the west chancel and the monks the east . It was restored in 1875 – 77 by George Edmund Street . The church has a cruciform plan with a central four @-@ stage tower , built in 1443 with diagonal buttresses , a stair turret and single bell @-@ chamber windows .
= = Landmarks = =
Dunster , in Exmoor National Park , has many listed buildings including 200 Grade II , two Grade I and two Grade II * .
The 17th century Yarn Market is a market cross which was probably built in 1609 by the Luttrell family who were the local lords of the manor to maintain the importance of the village as a market , particularly for wool and cloth . The Yarn Market is an octagonal building constructed around a central pier . The tiled roof provides shelter from the rain . The building contains a hole in one of the roof beams , a result of cannon fire in the Civil War . A bell at the top was rung to indicate the start of trading .
Nearby was an older cross known as the Butter Cross which was constructed in the late 14th or early 15th century and once stood in the High Street , possibly at the southern end of the high street , and was moved to its current location on the edge of the village possibly in 1825 , however a drawing by J. M. W. Turner made in 1811 suggests it was in its present position by then . The site where the cross now stands was leveled in 1776 by workman , paid by Henry Fownes Luttrell , and it may have been on this occasion that the cross was moved . The cross has an octagonal base and polygonal shaft , however the head of the cross has been lost . It stands on a small area of raised ground on a plinth . The socket stone is 0 @.@ 85 metres ( 2 ft 9 in ) wide and 0 @.@ 5 metres ( 1 ft 8 in ) high . The surviving shaft is 1 @.@ 1 metres ( 3 ft 7 in ) high and changes from square to octagonal as it rises . There is an inscription on the northern face which says " WC , 1871 , WS " recording a restoration . It is in the care of English Heritage for the state and managed by the National Trust .
Other notable buildings include the Nunnery , Dunster Watermill , Dovecote and the Priory barn , which belonged to Dunster Priory . Dunster Working Watermill ( also known as Castle Mill ) is a restored 18th century watermill , situated on the River Avill , close to Gallox Bridge , in the grounds of Dunster Castle . It is a Grade II * listed building . The mill stands on a site where a mill was first recorded in the Domesday Book , but the present building was constructed around 1780 . It closed in 1962 but was restored in 1979 and is still used to grind flour . The equipment is powered by two overshot wheels . It is owned by the National Trust but operated as a tourist attraction by a private company .
The Dovecote was probably built in the late 16th century . It has been designated as a Grade II * listed building and Scheduled Ancient Monument . It is approximately 19 feet ( 5 @.@ 8 m ) high and 19 feet ( 5 @.@ 8 m ) in diameter , with walls around 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) thick . In the 18th century the floor level and door were raised among several major alterations . The lower tiers of nest holes were blocked to protect against brown rats which had arrived in the Britain in 1720 and reached Somerset by 1760 . A revolving ladder , known as a " potence " , was installed to allow the pigeon keeper to search the nest holes more easily . In the 19th century two feeding platforms were added to the axis of the revolving ladder . When the ladder was installed in the 16th century the base rests on a pin driven into a beam on the floor . The head of the pin sits in a metal cup in the base of the wooden pillar , which means the mechanism has never had to be oiled . When the Dunster Castle estate was sold the dovecote was bought by the Parochial church council and opened to the public . Extensive repairs were undertaken in 1989 .
The Tithe Barn was originally part of a Benedictine Dunster Priory , has been much altered since the 14th century and only a limited amount of the original features survive . In the " Valor Ecclesiasticus " of 1535 the net annual income of the Dunster Tithe Barn is recorded as being £ 37.4s.8d ( £ 37.23p ) , with £ 6.13s.7d ( £ 6.68p ) being passed on to the priory in Bath . The Somerset Buildings Preservation Trust ( SBPT ) has co @-@ ordinated a £ 550 @,@ 000 renovation project on behalf of the Dunster Tithe Barn Community Hall Trust ( DTBCHT ) , into a multi @-@ purpose community hall under a 99 @-@ year lease at a pepper @-@ corn rent , by the Crown Estate Commissioners who own the building . Funding has been obtained from the Heritage Lottery Fund and others to support the work .
Conygar Tower is a folly used as a landmark for shipping . It is at the top of Conygar Hill and overlooks the village . It is a circular , 3 storey tower built of red sandstone , situated on a hill overlooking the village . It was commissioned by Henry Luttrell and designed by Richard Phelps and stands about 18 metres ( 59 ft ) high so that it can be seen from Dunster Castle on the opposite hillside . There is no evidence that it ever had floors or a roof . It has no strategic or military significance . The name Conygar comes from two medieval words Coney meaning rabbit and Garth meaning garden , indicating that it was once a warren where rabbits were bred for food . In 1997 a survey carried out by The Crown Estate identified cracks in the walls which were repaired in 2000 .
Dunster Doll Museum houses a collection of more than 800 dolls from around the world , based on the collection of the late Mollie Hardwick , who died in 1970 and donated her collection to the village memorial hall committee . Established in 1971 , the collection includes a display of British and foreign dolls in various costumes . Thirty @-@ two of the dolls were stolen during a burglary in 1992 and have never been recovered .
= = Transport = =
Dunster railway station is on the West Somerset Heritage Railway , though the station is over a mile from the village . The station was opened on 16 July 1874 by the Minehead Railway . The line was operated by the Bristol and Exeter Railway which was amalgamated into the Great Western Railway ( GWR ) in 1876 . The Minehead Railway was itself absorbed into the GWR in 1897 . A small signal box stood at the Watchet end of the platform , but was demolished in 1926 when this was extended . In 1934 a new signal box at the opposite end of the station , brought second @-@ hand from Maerdy , was put into use when the line from Dunster to Minehead was doubled in 1934 . The GWR was nationalised into British Railways in 1948 and from 1964 , when goods traffic was withdrawn on 6 July , the line was run down until it was eventually closed on 4 January 1971 . The line was reopened as a heritage railway operated by the West Somerset Railway on 28 March 1976 . The signal box was moved to Minehead in 1977 but the goods yard is now home to the railway ’ s civil engineering team . It is a Grade II listed building .
Road access is via the A39 and A369 . The nearest international airports would be those at Exeter or Bristol .
= = Education = =
Dunster First School provides primary education for children from 4 to 9 years . The school is attended by 143 pupils . The Grade II listed building was originally constructed in the 1870s . It but has since been modified and expanded since then including the construction of a heated outdoor swimming pool . Middle and Secondary education in the area is provided by West Somerset Community College in Minehead .
= LoveGame =
" LoveGame " is a song by American singer Lady Gaga from her debut album , The Fame ( 2008 ) . Produced by RedOne , the track was released as the album 's third single in North America and Europe and the fourth single in Australia , New Zealand , and Sweden after " Eh , Eh ( Nothing Else I Can Say ) " . " LoveGame " was also released as the fourth single in the United Kingdom , after " Paparazzi " .
Critics appreciated the song 's rhythm and the " I wanna take a ride on your disco stick " hook . Gaga had explained that the term " disco stick " is a euphemism for a penis and was inspired by her sexual attraction to a stranger at a night club . Musically carrying the vibe of underground New York discos , " LoveGame " talks about love , fame , and sexuality which was the central theme of the album . The song received a number of remixes , one of them featuring rocker Marilyn Manson . " LoveGame " was a commercial success , charting within the top ten in the United States , Australia , New Zealand , Canada , France , Germany , and other European countries . It became Gaga 's third consecutive number @-@ one song on the Billboard Pop Songs chart and achieved double platinum certification from the Recording Industry Association of America .
The New York underground inspired music video for the song was directed by Joseph Kahn , and portrayed Gaga dancing at an underground subway station and in a parking lot . The music video was a tribute from the singer to the New York lifestyle including its glamour , fans and fashion . It was influenced by the music video for Michael Jackson 's " Bad " , which also took place in a subway station . The music video was banned from broadcast at the PG rated time slots in Australian television channels because of its sexual content . " LoveGame " has been performed live a number of times by Gaga , including The Fame Ball and The Monster Ball tours , where she performed it while holding her characteristic disco stick in one hand .
= = Background and release = =
Towards the end of 2007 , Lady Gaga 's management company introduced her to songwriter and producer RedOne , whom they also managed . By 2008 , Gaga relocated to Los Angeles in order to work extensively with her record label to complete her debut album , The Fame , and set up her own creative team called the Haus of Gaga . " LoveGame " was one of the songs written by Gaga and RedOne who also produced the track . With Rolling Stone , Gaga explained that she was at a nightclub and had a " sexual crush " on somebody . She went up to the person and uttered the line , " I wanna ride on your disco stick " . Thinking it to be a thoughtful metaphor for penis , Gaga went to the recording studio the next day and wrote the song in roughly four minutes . Gaga also had ideas for the live performance of the song where she used " an actual stick — it looks like a giant rock @-@ candy pleasuring tool — that lights up " .
While commenting in regards to the lyrical content of the song on Australian talk show , Rove , Gaga said that she was unrepentant about her " disco stick " metaphor , though it led to a banning of the music video on Network Ten in Australia . She added that the metaphor was not meant to be subtle and was clear what the lyrics constituted off . " If anything , I happen to think people are frivolously hard on me " , Gaga generalized . She went on to relegate " lot of youth @-@ oriented pop music " as much racier than hers with their sexually provocative lyrics , but Gaga felt that the whole context of her visuals alongside the music was what made people react . " It 's the music in relation to the visual , in relation to the way I move and the way I articulate the lyrics . But if I wanted to make music to make people sing ' la di da ' that would be very boring , " she concluded .
" LoveGame " was released as the album 's third single in North America and Europe and the fourth single in Australia , New Zealand , and Sweden after " Eh , Eh ( Nothing Else I Can Say ) " . In the US it was sent to Contemporary hit radio ( CHR ) formats for airplay from May 12 , 2009 . The track initially had been planned as the third single release in the United Kingdom , but deeming its lyrics and music video potentially controversial , it was decided that " Paparazzi " would be released instead . " LoveGame " has received a number of remix treatments , one of which featured rocker Marilyn Manson in the vocals . Rolling Stone reported that the remix was conceived during Gaga 's photoshoot with the magazine in May 2009 , when Manson arrived at the set . The rocker was impressed by the shoot and wanted to collaborate with Gaga , saying that " she 's a great musician , she 's a great singer , and she 's laughing when she 's doing it , the same way that I am " . In return , Gaga also lent vocals for a remix of a song from Manson 's seventh studio album , The High End of Low .
= = Recording and composition = =
" LoveGame " was recorded at Record Plant Studios , Hollywood and Chalice Recording Studios , Los Angeles , California . Along with the production work of the track , RedOne also contributed to its background vocals , instrumentation , programming , audio engineering and recording . Other personnel involved in creating the final version of the song included Robert Orton who did the audio mixing , and Gene Grimaldi who mastered the song at Oasis Mastering , Burbank , California .
Musically , " LoveGame " is an uptempo electro and R & B song . According to Kerri Mason of Billboard , the composition has a vibe of the New York downtown musical scene , but has a more mainstream appeal to it , making it perfect for radio , " without losing its smut and sass " . The song does not have a massive sound like previous single " Poker Face " , nor has a big melody like subsequent single , " Paparazzi " . Instead the composition of the song is electro @-@ R & B , consisting of big beats and a number of hooks , with Gaga repeating the word " huh ! " from time to time .
Gaga explained that the lyrics of " LoveGame " were clear about what the song is all about . She thought that the lyrics portrayed a powerful message about love , fame , and sexuality which was the central theme of The Fame . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Sony / ATV Music Publishing , " LoveGame " is set in the time signature of common time and is composed in the key of B minor with a moderate tempo of 104 beats per minute . Gaga 's vocal range spans from B3 to G5 . It follows in the chord progression of Am – Dm – C – Am – Dm – C in the first two verse and chorus while progressing as Am – Dm – Am – Dm in the intermediate verse before the final chorus .
= = Critical reception = =
The song received mostly positive reviews from critics . The Phoenix music editor Daniel Brockman said that " Gaga ups the ante in terms of catchy song writing and sheer high @-@ in @-@ the @-@ club @-@ banging @-@ to @-@ the @-@ beat abandon . " He also commented on the lyrics saying that " ' Let 's have some fun , this beat is sick / I wanna take a ride on your disco stick ' might be the trashiest @-@ yet @-@ awesomest refrain I 've heard on a major @-@ label record this year . " Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine criticized the song for " cheap " lyrics and " painfully enunciat [ ing ] without any resemblance of actual sex appeal " . While reviewing The Fame , BBC said that the song sounded robotic in the line " I wanna take a ride on your disco stick " , though deemed it a brilliant track which " leaves us awarding Gaga the yearbook title of ' pop star most likely to kill ' . "
Nick Levine from Digital Spy believed that lines like " I wanna take a ride on your disco stick " was a direct reason of Gaga 's commercial success . Although he felt that the song was " attention @-@ seeking " , he knew that it would provoke reaction from the masses , be it good or bad . Genevieve Koski from The A.V. Club called the song as a " propulsive club anthem " and complimented its synths and drum programming . She described it aurally as " a dizzying sonic trip that approximates the high point of a chemically enhanced night of club @-@ hopping . " Evan Sawdey from PopMatters complimented RedOne 's production of the song , listing it as one of the best tracks on The Fame .
Ben Hogwood from musicOMH declared the song as " top notch , diamond @-@ encrusted pop " along with other tracks like " Starstruck " and " Paparazzi " . He found the lyrics to be sometimes odd , especially the statement , " I 'm on a mission , and it involves some heavy touchin ' . " Sarah Rodman of The Boston Globe said that the song " has a gutter level quippage with sinuous moves " . Priya Elan from The Times was not impressed with the song and called it calculated . Billboard music editor Chris Williams gave the song a positive review , commenting that " It has all the winning ingredients of its predecessors : a radio @-@ friendly , club / electropop feel ; a provocative , yet silly enough catchphrase and hook ; and a dash of ' 80s synth magic , so the adults can play along . On ' LoveGame ' Gaga is in it to win it . "
While reviewing The Fame on its fifth year anniversary , Bradley Stern from Idolator noted that " LoveGame " could " easily be erased from Gaga 's back catalog with little consequence " since he felt it to be nothing more than an " electro @-@ dance " track . But Stern believed that " LoveGame " was an important component of Gaga 's career trajectory , since it was the last testament of her image as " that of the disco @-@ stick wielding pop star from out of space " — the image was later deconstructed as the doomed starlet in the music video of " Paparazzi " . He concluded by saying that the song " is a wonderful moment of pop frivolity which served to keep the upstart Lady Gaga machine chugging along at the beginning of her career . "
= = Chart performance = =
Following its release , " LoveGame " debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number 9 | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
which they hailed as a " slinky club banger " . The Washington Post writer Chris Richards described " Blow " as a " strutting , moaning disco vamp " . Sal Cinquemani , writing for Slant Magazine described it as a " post @-@ disco slink " . The Quietus writer Mof Gimmers wrote , " The cocaine soul bears down again , with the excellent ' Blow ' which grooves along like Kelis on a Friday night , before gnashing its teeth into the gonzo pop of Cameo or Parliament . " The Guardian 's Michael Cragg described it as a " delicious throwback funk " song . Mikael Wood of Los Angeles Times felt that the " sumptuous " song allowed Beyoncé " to flex her impressive stylistic chops " . Spin 's Anupa Mistry praised the collaboration of Timbaland and Pharrell on the " nimble and funky " track " Blow " as " mighty " and " genius " . Similarly , Claire Lobenfeld from Complex who felt that Justin Timberlake and Timbaland " lost their ability to make their distinctive , infectious love @-@ pop " on Timberlake 's album The 20 / 20 Experience , noted that " Blow " proved the opposite : " The two have reinvigorated the overused private @-@ parts @-@ as @-@ candy trope by writing one of Bey 's friskiest songs ever . Add some Pharrell production ... and you have one of the smoothest pieces of filth of the year . " Ryan Dennehy from AbsolutePunk found " trademark " Timbaland production in " Blow " and opined , " Bey [ oncé ] wisely co @-@ opts Timbaland himself to deliver a steamy hook that interlocks with her own vocals . " Cosmopolitan writer Alex Rees deemed " Blow " an " awesome disco moment " .
Carrie Battan of the website Pitchfork Media described the song 's innuendo as " bawdy and overblown " but praised the singer for being sincere . She concluded , " Monogamy has never sounded more seductive or less retrograde as when dictated on Beyoncé 's terms . " Janice Llamoca of the website HipHopDX found " straight @-@ to @-@ the @-@ point raunchiness " in the song . Philip Matusavage from the website musicOMH noted that the lyrics of the song sounded " more saucy than salacious " . Ryan B. Patrick of Exclaim ! felt that the text of the song " lays the sex kitten shtick a bit thick " . He further described it as a " weird ' 80s Prince / Vanity 6 roller @-@ skating throwback " . Una Mullally from The Irish Times gave a mixed review for " Blow " , saying that the album " falls off a little " with the song . Similarly , Stereogum 's Tom Breihan criticized Timbaland 's vocals featured in the song . In the annual Pazz and Jop mass critics poll of the year 's best in music in 2013 , " Blow " was ranked at number 228 .
= = Commercial performance = =
Despite no single release , " Blow " debuted at number 48 on Billboard 's US Hot Dance Club Songs chart in the US for the week ending February 8 , 2014 . After seven weeks of ascending the chart , the track went on to top the Hot Dance Club Songs chart for the week ending March 22 , 2014 after its position at number two the previous week . Promotional remixes by Dirty Pop , CJay Swayne and Romeo Blanco helped the song top the chart . This gave Beyoncé her 19th number @-@ one single on the chart and tied her with Janet Jackson for third on the all @-@ time list . At the end of 2014 , it was placed at number 23 on the Billboard year @-@ end chart . " Blow " also debuted at 118 on South Korea 's international South Korea 's international Gaon Music Chart , for the week ending December 22 , 2013 ; that position also became its peak .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background and synopsis = = =
The music video for " Blow " was directed by Hype Williams and produced by Tony McGarry . It was filmed in September 2013 at the roller skating rink Fun Plex in Houston , Texas which the singer frequently visited during her childhood . Beyoncé described the filming of the video as beautiful due to the location and added , " I was really happy to work with him [ Williams ] again because , growing up , he created the music video for hip @-@ hop artists and R & B artists . " Todrick Hall served as the choreographer for the video alongside Beyoncé 's long @-@ time collaborator Frank Gatson Jr. and Chris Grant . During an interview with MTV News , Hall acknowledged the singer 's involvement in the filming of the video saying that she would watch the playback of the filmed scenes several times . The clip was released on December 13 , 2013 to iTunes Store in addition to a clip for every other track on the parent album . On November 24 , 2014 it was uploaded to the singer 's Vevo account .
The video features appearances by Beyoncé 's sister Solange Knowles , her background dancers , including French dancing duo Les Twins , and her all @-@ female band . Houston @-@ located rapper Nosaprise also makes a cameo appearance . The video opens with Beyoncé and her sister riding lowrider bicycles , getting to a roller rink where several people are already gathered . Shots of people roler @-@ skating inside the rink with disco balls hanging from the ceiling follow . The singer is then seen performing a dance with several background dancers as they hold rollers in their hands and enter a place called " Roller City USA " . Beyoncé starts skating and performing dance moves in slow @-@ motion with several of her dancers dressed in shorts and T @-@ shirts . Several scenes which are shot in bright black light follow as Beyoncé performs another dance sequence along with her dancers on their rollers . The second , more uptempo part of the song starts and the singer is seen arriving with a vehicle in front of a place called " Cherry " . She dances atop the car and dances with her background band as they play the song on their keytars . As the song progresses , smoke starts appearing out of the car and on the scene where she is with her band . During the end of the video , Beyoncé and her sister are seen going away on the same path by which they came . Close @-@ up shots of Beyoncé lip @-@ syncing the song are intertwined in the video with her lips covered with a shiny lipstick .
= = = Reception = = =
Mike Wass of the website Idolator called the clip for " Blow " the best music video of 2013 . Brent DiCrescenzo of the magazine Time Out listed the video as the album 's second best further describing it as a " candied and cool disco cut stuffed with ' 80s cheese " . James Montgomery of MTV News chose the video for the song as one of the best on the album . Jocelyn Vena of the same publication wrote that the " colorful " video which was " all about fun " and included " sexy moves " , paid homage to the disco @-@ era of the 1970s and the 1980s dance show Solid Gold . Writing for Spin magazine , Anupa Mistry found references of Hype Williams ' previous collaborations with Faith Evans on " Love Like This " ( 1998 ) which was also filmed at a roller rink and Belly 's blacklighting that he worked on . Lindsey Weber , writing for Vulture felt that with the video for " Blow " , the singer paid homage to " Cherry Pie " ( 1990 ) , a song by the band Warrant . Erin Donnelly of the website Refinery29 described the video as tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek and compared the singer 's look with Mariah Carey during the 1990s . He described her outfits as " [ t ] rash @-@ glam " and found " gratuitous booty wiggles " . Jody Rosen of Vulture simply described the video and its atmosphere as " fun " .
Joe Lynch of Fuse felt that the music video channeled the retro R & B vibe of the song and praised Beyoncé for " looking like a gorgeous ' 70s disco diva " . Phaneuf of the website HitFix reviewed the music video for the song positively by writing , " ' Blow ' takes Beyonce back to the 80s heyday of big hair , booty shorts and roller discos . It 's kitschy eye @-@ candy , perfectly stylized " . Bronwyn Barnes of Entertainment Weekly commented that Beyoncé was " the center of attention in the video " partly due to a neon tiger @-@ print mink coat from Versace that she wore . Melissa Locker of Time magazine wrote that the singer managed to channel her inner rollergirl . Vanity Fair 's Michelle Collins compared the video with the film Boogie Nights ( 1997 ) and went on to describe the scene where the singer dances on a car as a " Cinemax After Dark " . In 2014 , Michael Cragg writing for The Guardian ranked the video in the ten best of Beyoncé 's career . He deemed it a " 70s @-@ referencing visual feast that looks like its [ sic ] been shot through a filter called Strawberry Hubba Bubba " . He also praised the singer 's " kitsch " dance moves and concluded , the clip was " [ p ] retty standard " .
= = Live performances = =
In 2014 , " Blow " was added to the set list of the last , European leg of The Mrs. Carter Show World Tour . The song was merged with " Naughty Girl " ( 2003 ) with a burlesque and disco @-@ era theme . During the end of the performance a projection of Pac @-@ Man , the character of the game with the same name , eating cherries was projected on an LED screen on the stage . Kitty Empire of The Observer who hailed the song as one of the most explicit on the album described the projection as " funny rather than risible " . Digital Spy 's Robert Copsey similarly wrote that he enjoyed the projection , writing that it managed to turn " a family friendly computer game into something very different " . While reviewing a tour concert , Graeme Virtue of The Guardian felt that the song along with " Partition " and " Naughty Girl " , " make [ s ] a persuasive case for Mrs Carter , the unstoppable sex machine " . Similarly BBC News ' Mark Savage described the middle of the show which included the most explicit songs , including " Blow " , as a " raunchy sequence " . Writing for MTV News , Sidney Madden praised the dance performed by the singer along with her background dancers . Describing the singer as a " model of power " , David Pollock from The Independent praised Beyoncé 's " grinding through the disco @-@ soaked majesty " of the song . In June 2014 , a live recording of the song aired on Beyonce : X10 , an HBO series documenting performances of the song during The Mrs. Carter Show World Tour ; it was also included on platinum edition of Beyoncé ( 2014 ) . In 2016 , the song was performed during the set list of The Formation World Tour .
At the 2014 MTV Video Music Awards on August 25 , Beyoncé performed " Blow " as part of a medley consisting of songs from her fifth studio album . For the performance of the song , she wore a bejeweled bodysuit and was accompanied by her background dancers performing a cabaret @-@ styled choreography . Throughout the performance , the word " cherry " was lit up on the screen behind her in neon letters . In a review of the performance , Nadeska Alexis of MTV News felt that " things started to heat up " with the rendition of the song . She further praised the fact that the lights illuminated her bodysuit being " nothing short of mesmerizing " . Caitlin White of the same publication found " rainbow neon sexiness " in the song 's performance . Mike Wayers writing for The Wall Street Journal noted that " [ t ] hings started to heat up beat @-@ wise " during " Blow " .
= = Remixes and other versions = =
On April 8 , 2014 , remix versions of " Blow " and " XO " by French musician Monsieur Adi premiered on Out 's official website along Beyoncé 's appearance on the cover of the magazine . The remix for " Blow " was influenced by electro house music and was described as " infectious " by the editors of the magazine . Complex magazine writer Lauren Nostro described the version as " fantastic " . A remix with previously unreleased lyrics done by Country Club Martini Crew was released on January 1 , 2015 .
An official remix of " Blow " featuring Pharrell Williams was included on Beyoncé : Platinum Edition ( 2014 ) . Mike Wass from Idolator noted how the song was " borderline unlistenable " and the newly @-@ added line , " I 'm a milkman at your door " a contender for " worst lyric / euphemism of 2014 " . Allan Raible , an ABC News writer , deemed it redundant due to the minimal new addition to the original version . Lindsay Zoladz from the Vulture , panned the " inexplicable " remix as " a poorly assembled cut @-@ and @-@ paste job " , further criticizing Williams 's vocals as " awkward , labored , and even a little off @-@ key " . Critic Robert Christgau , writing for Cuepoint , was more positive towards the remix , deeming it " cuter " .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits are adapted from liner notes of Beyoncé .
Song credits
Video credits
= = Charts = =
= The Wire =
The Wire is an American crime drama television series set and produced in and around Baltimore , Maryland . Created and primarily written by author and former police reporter David Simon , the series was broadcast by the cable network HBO in the United States . The Wire premiered on June 2 , 2002 , and ended on March 9 , 2008 , comprising 60 episodes over five seasons .
Each season of The Wire introduces a different institution in the city of Baltimore and its relationship to law enforcement , while retaining characters and advancing storylines from previous seasons . In chronological order these institutions are : the illegal drug trade , the seaport system , the city government and bureaucracy , the school system , and the print news media . The large cast consists mainly of actors who are little known for their other roles , as well as numerous real @-@ life Baltimore and Maryland figures in guest and recurring roles . Simon has said that despite its framing as a crime drama , the show is " really about the American city , and about how we live together . It 's about how institutions have an effect on individuals . Whether one is a cop , a longshoreman , a drug dealer , a politician , a judge or a lawyer , all are ultimately compromised and must contend with whatever institution to which they are committed . "
The Wire is lauded for its literary thematics ; its uncommonly acute exploration of social and political themes ; and its realistic portrayal of urban life . Although the show received average ratings throughout its run , and never won any major television awards , it has since come to be regarded by many critics as one of the greatest television dramas of all time .
= = Production = =
= = = Conception = = =
Simon has stated that he originally set out to create a police drama loosely based on the experiences of his writing partner Ed Burns , a former homicide detective . Burns , when working on protracted investigations of violent drug dealers using surveillance technology , had often been frustrated by the bureaucracy of the Baltimore police department ; Simon saw similarities with his own ordeals as a police reporter for The Baltimore Sun .
Simon chose to set the show in Baltimore because of his familiarity with the city . During his time as a writer and producer for the NBC program Homicide : Life on the Street , based on his book Homicide : A Year on the Killing Streets ( 1991 ) , also set in Baltimore , Simon had come into conflict with NBC network executives who were displeased by the show 's pessimism . Simon wanted to avoid a repeat of these conflicts and chose to take The Wire to HBO , because of their working relationship from the miniseries The Corner ( 2000 ) . HBO was initially doubtful about including a police drama in its lineup but eventually agreed to produce the pilot episode . Simon approached the mayor of Baltimore , telling him that he wanted to give a bleak portrayal of certain aspects of the city ; Simon was welcomed to work there again . He hoped the show would change the opinions of some viewers but said that it was unlikely to affect the issues it portrays .
= = = Casting = = =
The casting of the show has been praised for avoiding big @-@ name stars and using character actors who appear natural in their roles . The looks of the cast as a whole have been described as defying TV expectations by presenting a true range of humanity on screen . Most of the cast is African @-@ American , consistent with the demographics of Baltimore .
The initial cast was assembled through a process of auditions and readings . Lance Reddick received the role of Cedric Daniels after auditioning for several other parts . Michael K. Williams got the part of Omar Little after only a single audition .
Several prominent real @-@ life Baltimore figures , including former Maryland Governor Robert L. Ehrlich Jr . ; Rev. Frank M. Reid III ; former police chief , convicted felon , and radio personality Ed Norris ; Virginia Delegate Rob Bell ; Baltimore Sun reporter and editor David Ettlin ; Howard County Executive Ken Ulman ; and former mayor Kurt Schmoke have appeared in minor roles despite not being professional actors . " Little Melvin " Williams , a Baltimore drug lord arrested in the 1980s by an investigation that Ed Burns had been part of , had a recurring role as a deacon beginning in the third season . Jay Landsman , a longtime police officer who inspired the character of the same name , played Lieutenant Dennis Mello . Baltimore police commander Gary D 'Addario served as the series technical advisor for the first two seasons and has a recurring role as prosecutor Gary DiPasquale . Simon shadowed D 'Addario 's shift when researching his book Homicide : A Year on the Killing Streets and both D 'Addario and Landsman are subjects of the book .
More than a dozen cast members previously appeared on HBO 's first hour @-@ long drama Oz . J. D. Williams , Seth Gilliam , Lance Reddick , and Reg E. Cathey were featured in very prominent roles in Oz , while a number of other notable stars of The Wire , including Wood Harris , Frankie Faison , John Doman , Clarke Peters , Domenick Lombardozzi , Michael Hyatt , Michael Potts , and Method Man appeared in at least one episode of Oz . Cast members Erik Dellums , Peter Gerety , Clark Johnson , Clayton LeBouef , Toni Lewis and Callie Thorne also appeared on Homicide : Life on the Street , the earlier and award @-@ winning network television series also based on Simon 's book ; Lewis appeared on Oz as well . A number of cast members , as well as crew members , also appeared in the preceding HBO miniseries The Corner including Clarke Peters , Reg E. Cathey , Lance Reddick , Corey Parker Robinson , Robert F. Chew , Delaney Williams and Benay Berger .
= = = Crew = = =
Alongside Simon , the show 's creator , head writer , showrunner and executive producer , much of the creative team behind The Wire were alumni of Homicide and Emmy @-@ winning miniseries The Corner . The Corner veteran , Robert F. Colesberry , was executive producer for the first two seasons and directed the season 2 finale before dying from complications from heart surgery in 2004 . He is credited by the rest of the creative team as having a large creative role for a producer , and Simon credits him for achieving the show 's realistic visual feel . He also had a small recurring role as Detective Ray Cole . Colesberry 's wife Karen L. Thorson joined him on the production staff . A third producer on The Corner , Nina Kostroff Noble also stayed with the production staff for The Wire rounding out the initial four @-@ person team . Following Colesberry 's death , she became the show 's second executive producer alongside Simon .
Stories for the show were often co @-@ written by Ed Burns , a former Baltimore homicide detective and public school teacher who had worked with Simon on other projects including The Corner . Burns also became a producer on The Wire in the show 's fourth season . Other writers for The Wire include three acclaimed crime fiction writers from outside of Baltimore : George Pelecanos from Washington , Richard Price from the Bronx and Dennis Lehane from Boston . Reviewers drew comparisons between Price 's works ( particularly Clockers ) and The Wire even before he joined . In addition to writing , Pelecanos served as a producer for the third season . Pelecanos has commented that he was attracted to the project because of the opportunity to work with Simon . Staff writer Rafael Alvarez penned several episodes ' scripts , as well as the series guidebook The Wire : Truth Be Told . Alvarez is a colleague of Simon 's from The Sun and a Baltimore native with working experience in the port area . Another city native and independent filmmaker , Joy Lusco , also wrote for the show in each of its first three seasons . Baltimore Sun writer and political journalist William F. Zorzi joined the writing staff in the third season and brought a wealth of experience to the show 's examination of Baltimore politics .
Playwright and television writer / producer Eric Overmyer joined the crew of The Wire in the show 's fourth season as a consulting producer and writer . He had also previously worked on Homicide . Overmyer was brought into the full @-@ time production staff to replace Pelecanos who scaled back his involvement to concentrate on his next book and worked on the fourth season solely as a writer . Emmy @-@ award winner , Homicide and The Corner writer and college friend of Simon David Mills also joined the writing staff in the fourth season .
Directors include Homicide alumnus Clark Johnson , who directed several acclaimed episodes of The Shield , and Tim Van Patten , an Emmy winner who has worked on every season of The Sopranos . The directing has been praised for its uncomplicated and subtle style . Following the death of Colesberry , director Joe Chappelle joined the production staff as a co @-@ executive producer and continued to regularly direct episodes .
= = = Episode structure = = =
When broadcast on HBO and on some international networks , the episodes are preceded by a recap of events that have a bearing upon the upcoming narrative , using clips from previous episodes . Each episode begins with a cold open that seldom contains a dramatic juncture . The screen then fades or cuts to black while the intro music fades in . The show 's opening title sequence then plays ; a series of shots , mainly close @-@ ups , concerning the show 's subject matter that changes from season to season , separated by fast cutting ( a technique rarely used in the show itself ) . The opening credits are superimposed on the sequence , and consist only of actors ' names without identifying which actors play which roles . In addition , actors ' faces are rarely seen in the title sequence . At the end of the sequence , a quotation is shown on @-@ screen that is spoken by a character during the episode . The three exceptions were the first season finale which uses the phrase " All in the game " , attributed to " Traditional West Baltimore " , a phrase used frequently throughout all five seasons including that episode ; the fourth season finale which uses words written on boarded up vacant homes attributed to " Baltimore , traditional " and the series finale , which started with a quote from H. L. Mencken that is shown on a wall at The Baltimore Sun in one scene , neither quote being spoken by a character . Progressive story arcs often unfold in different locations at the same time . Episodes rarely end with a cliffhanger , and close with a fade or cut to black with the closing music fading in .
= = = Music = = =
Rather than overlaying songs on the soundtrack , or employing a score , The Wire primarily uses pieces of music that emanate from a source within the scene , such as a jukebox or car radio . This kind of music is known as diegetic or source cue . This practice is rarely breached , notably for the end @-@ of @-@ season montages and occasionally with a brief overlap of the closing theme and the final shot .
The opening theme is " Way Down in the Hole , " a gospel @-@ and @-@ blues @-@ inspired song , written by Tom Waits for his 1987 album Franks Wild Years . Each season uses a different recording and a different opening sequence , with the theme being performed by The Blind Boys of Alabama , Waits , The Neville Brothers , DoMaJe and Steve Earle . The season four version of " Way Down in the Hole " was arranged and recorded for the show and is performed by five Baltimore teenagers : Ivan Ashford , Markel Steele , Cameron Brown , Tariq Al @-@ Sabir and Avery Bargasse . Earle , who performed the fifth season version , is also a member of the cast , playing the recovering drug addict Walon . The closing theme is " The Fall , " composed by Blake Leyh , who is also the music supervisor of the show .
During season finales , a song is played before the closing scene in a montage showing the lives of the protagonists in the aftermath of the narrative . The first season montage is played over " Step by Step " by Jesse Winchester , the second " I Feel Alright " by Steve Earle , the third " Fast Train " written by Van Morrison and performed by Solomon Burke , the fourth " I Walk on Gilded Splinters " written by Dr. John and performed by Paul Weller and the fifth uses an extended version of " Way Down In The Hole " by the Blind Boys of Alabama , the same version of the song used as the opening theme for the first season . While the songs reflect the mood of the sequence , their lyrics are usually only loosely tied to the visual shots . In the commentary track to episode 37 , " Mission Accomplished " , executive producer David Simon said : " I hate it when somebody purposely tries to have the lyrics match the visual . It brutalizes the visual in a way to have the lyrics dead on point . ... Yet at the same time it can 't be totally off point . It has to glance at what you 're trying to say . "
Music by the Celtic punk band The Pogues is used throughout the series . The band 's song " The Body of an American , " which is always played at detectives ' wakes at Kavanaugh 's Bar , occurs in three episodes . In the episode " Dead Soldiers , " the song " Sally MacLennane " can be heard when Bunk and McNulty are drinking on the street outside Kavanaugh 's Bar . The song " Transmetropolitan " is heard in the opening sequence of the episode " Duck and Cover " during season two , where McNulty crashes his car while drunk .
Two soundtrack albums , called The Wire : And All the Pieces Matter — Five Years of Music from The Wire and Beyond Hamsterdam , were released on January 8 , 2008 on Nonesuch Records . The former features music from all five seasons of the series and the latter includes local Baltimore artists exclusively .
= = Style = =
= = = Realism = = =
The writers strove to create a realistic vision of an American city based on their own experiences . Simon , originally a journalist for the Baltimore Sun , spent a year researching a homicide police department for his book , Homicide : A Year on the Killing Streets , where he met Burns . Burns served in the Baltimore Police Department for 20 years , and later became a teacher in an inner @-@ city school . The two of them spent a year researching the drug culture and poverty in Baltimore for their book , The Corner : A Year in the Life of an Inner @-@ City Neighborhood . Their combined experiences were used in many of the storylines of The Wire .
Central to the show 's aim for realism was the creation of truthful characters . Simon has stated that most of them are composites of real @-@ life Baltimore figures . For instance , Donnie Andrews served as the main inspiration of Omar Little . Martin O 'Malley served as " one of the inspirations " for Tommy Carcetti . The show often cast non @-@ professional actors in minor roles , distinguishing itself from other television series by showing the " faces and voices of the real city " it depicts . The writing also uses contemporary slang to enhance the immersive viewing experience .
In distinguishing the police characters from other television detectives , Simon makes the point that even the best police of The Wire are motivated not by a desire to protect and serve , but by the intellectual vanity of believing they are smarter than the criminals they are chasing . However , while many of the police do exhibit altruistic qualities , many officers portrayed on the show are incompetent , brutal , self @-@ aggrandizing , or hamstrung by bureaucracy and politics . The criminals are not always motivated by profit or a desire to harm others ; many are trapped in their existence and all have human qualities . Even so , The Wire does not minimize or gloss over the horrific effects of their actions .
The show is realistic in depicting the processes of both police work and criminal activity . There have even been reports of real @-@ life criminals watching the show to learn how to counter police investigation techniques . The fifth season portrayed a working newsroom at the Baltimore Sun and has been hailed as the most realistic portrayal of the media in film and television .
In December 2006 , The Washington Post carried an article in which local African @-@ American students stated that the show had " hit a nerve " with the black community , and that they themselves knew real @-@ life counterparts of many of the characters . The article expressed great sadness at the toll drugs and violence are taking on the black community .
= = = Visual novel = = =
Many important events occur off @-@ camera and there is no artificial exposition in the form of voice @-@ over or flashbacks , with the exceptions of two flashbacks – one at the end of the pilot episode that replays a moment from earlier in the same episode and one at the end of the fourth season finale that shows a short clip of a character tutoring his younger brother earlier in the season . Thus , the viewer needs to follow every conversation closely to understand the ongoing story arc and the relevance of each character to it . Salon.com has described the show as novelistic in structure , with a greater depth of writing and plotting than other crime shows . Each season of The Wire consists of 10 – 13 full @-@ hour episodes , which form several multi @-@ layered narratives . Simon chose this structure with an eye towards long story arcs that draw a viewer in , which then results in a more satisfying payoff . He uses the metaphor of a visual novel in several interviews , describing each episode as a chapter , and has also commented that this allows a fuller exploration of the show 's themes in time not spent on plot development .
= = = Social commentary = = =
Simon described the second season as " a meditation on the death of work and the betrayal of the American working class ... it is a deliberate argument that unencumbered capitalism is not a substitute for social policy ; that on its own , without a social compact , raw capitalism is destined to serve the few at the expense of the many . " He added that season 3 " reflects on the nature of reform and reformers , and whether there is any possibility that political processes , long calcified , can mitigate against the forces currently arrayed against individuals . " The third season is also an allegory that draws explicit parallels between the Iraq War and drug prohibition , which in Simon 's view has failed in its aims and has become a war against America 's underclass . This is portrayed by Major Colvin , imparting to Carver his view that policing has been allowed to become a war and thus will never succeed in its aims .
Writer Ed Burns , who worked as a public school teacher after retiring from the Baltimore police force shortly before going to work with Simon , has called education the theme of the fourth season . Rather than focusing solely on the school system , the fourth season looks at schools as a porous part of the community that are affected by problems outside of their boundaries . Burns states that education comes from many sources other than schools and that children can be educated by other means , including contact with the drug dealers they work for . Burns and Simon see the theme as an opportunity to explore how individuals end up like the show 's criminal characters , and to dramatize the notion that hard work is not always justly rewarded .
= = Themes = =
= = = Institutional dysfunction = = =
Simon has identified the organizations featured in the show — the Baltimore Police Department , City Hall , the Baltimore public school system , the Barksdale drug trafficking operation , The Baltimore Sun , and the stevedores ' union — as comparable institutions . All are dysfunctional in some way , and the characters are typically betrayed by the institutions that they accept in their lives . There is also a sentiment echoed by a detective in Narcotics — " Shit rolls downhill " — which describes how superiors , especially in the higher tiers of the police department in the series , will attempt to use subordinates as scapegoats for any major scandals . Simon described the show as " cynical about institutions " while taking a humanistic approach toward its characters . A central theme developed throughout the show is the struggle between individual desires and subordination to the group 's goals . Whether it is Officer Jimmy McNulty using all his cards to pursue a high @-@ profile case despite resistance from his own department , or gang member D 'Angelo Barksdale accepting a 20 @-@ year prison sentence contrary to his strong desire to turn in his uncle Avon and walk , this type of conflict is pervasive in all aspects of the show .
= = = Surveillance = = =
Central to the structure and plot of the show is the use of electronic surveillance and wiretap technologies by the police — hence the title The Wire . Salon.com described the title as a metaphor for the viewer 's experience : the wiretaps provide the police with access to a secret world , just as the show does for the viewer . Simon has discussed the use of camera shots of surveillance equipment , or shots that appear to be taken from the equipment itself , to emphasize the volume of surveillance in modern life and the characters ' need to sift through this information .
= = Cast and characters = =
The Wire employs a broad ensemble cast , supplemented by many recurring guest stars who populate the institutions featured in the show . The majority of the cast is black , which accurately reflects the demographics of Baltimore .
The show 's creators are also willing to kill off major characters , so that viewers cannot assume that a given character will survive simply because of a starring role or popularity among fans . In response to a question on why a certain character had to die , David Simon said ,
We are not selling hope , or audience gratification , or cheap victories with this show . The Wire is making an argument about what institutions — bureaucracies , criminal enterprises , the cultures of addiction , raw capitalism even — do to individuals . It is not designed purely as an entertainment . It is , I 'm afraid , a somewhat angry show .
= = = Main cast = = =
The major characters of the first season were divided between those on the side of the law and those involved in drug @-@ related crime . The investigating detail was launched by the actions of Detective Jimmy McNulty ( Dominic West ) , whose insubordinate tendencies and personal problems played counterpoint to his ability as a criminal investigator . The detail was led by Lieutenant Cedric Daniels ( Lance Reddick ) who faced challenges balancing his career aspirations with his desire to produce a good case . Kima Greggs ( Sonja Sohn ) was a capable lead detective who faced jealousy from colleagues and worry about the dangers of her job from her domestic partner . Her investigative work was greatly helped by her confidential informant , a drug addict known as Bubbles ( Andre Royo ) . Like Greggs , partners Thomas " Herc " Hauk ( Domenick Lombardozzi ) and Ellis Carver ( Seth Gilliam ) were reassigned to the detail from the narcotics unit . The duo 's initially violent nature was eventually subdued as they proved useful in grunt work , and sometimes served as comic relief for the audience . Rounding out the temporary unit were detectives Lester Freamon ( Clarke Peters ) and Roland " Prez " Pryzbylewski ( Jim True @-@ Frost ) . Though not initially important players in the operation , Freamon proved a quietly capable and methodical investigator with a knack for noticing tiny but important details , and Prez turned out to be a natural at following paper trails and his persistence when dealing with seemingly unbreakable codes paid off eventually .
These investigators were overseen by two commanding officers more concerned with politics and their own careers than the case , Deputy Commissioner Ervin Burrell ( Frankie Faison ) and Major William Rawls ( John Doman ) . Assistant state 's attorney Rhonda Pearlman ( Deirdre Lovejoy ) acted as the legal liaison between the detail and the courthouse and also had a sexual relationship with McNulty . In the homicide division , Bunk Moreland ( Wendell Pierce ) was a gifted , dry @-@ witted , hard @-@ drinking detective partnered with McNulty under Sergeant Jay Landsman ( Delaney Williams ) , the sarcastic , sharp @-@ tongued squad supervisor . Peter Gerety had a recurring role as Judge Phelan , the official who started the case moving .
On the other side of the investigation was Avon Barksdale 's drug empire . The driven , ruthless Barksdale ( Wood Harris ) was aided by business @-@ minded Stringer Bell ( Idris Elba ) . Avon 's nephew D 'Angelo Barksdale ( Larry Gilliard , Jr . ) ran some of his uncle 's territory , but also possessed a guilty conscience , while loyal Wee @-@ Bey Brice ( Hassan Johnson ) was responsible for multiple homicides carried out on Avon 's orders . Working under D 'Angelo were Poot ( Tray Chaney ) , Bodie ( J.D. Williams ) , and Wallace ( Michael B. Jordan ) , all street @-@ level drug dealers . Wallace was an intelligent but naive youth trapped in the drug trade , and Poot a randy young man happy to follow rather than lead . Omar Little ( Michael K. Williams ) , a renowned Baltimore stick @-@ up man robbing drug dealers for a living , was a frequent thorn in the side of the Barksdale clan .
The second season introduced a new group of characters working in the Baltimore port area , including Spiros " Vondas " Vondopoulos ( Paul Ben @-@ Victor ) , Beadie Russell ( Amy Ryan ) , and Frank Sobotka ( Chris Bauer ) . Vondas was the underboss of a global smuggling operation , Russell an inexperienced port authority officer and single mother thrown in at the deep end of a multiple homicide investigation , and Frank Sobotka a union leader who turned to crime to raise funds to save his union . Also joining the show in season 2 were Nick Sobotka ( Pablo Schreiber ) , Frank 's nephew ; Ziggy Sobotka ( James Ransone ) , Frank 's troubled son ; and " The Greek " ( Bill Raymond ) , Vondas 's mysterious boss . As the second season ended , the focus shifted away from the ports , leaving the new characters behind .
The third season saw several previously recurring characters assuming larger starring roles , including Detective Leander Sydnor ( Corey Parker Robinson ) , Bodie ( J.D. Williams ) , Omar ( Michael K. Williams ) , Proposition Joe ( Robert F. Chew ) , and Major Howard " Bunny " Colvin ( Robert Wisdom ) . Colvin commanded the Western district where the Barksdale organization operated , and nearing retirement , he came up with a radical new method of dealing with the drug problem . Proposition Joe , the East Side 's cautious drug kingpin , became more cooperative with the Barksdale Organization . Sydnor , a rising young star in the police department in season 1 , returned to the cast as part of the major crimes unit . Bodie had been seen gradually rising in the Barksdale organization since the first episode ; he was born to their trade and showed a fierce aptitude for it . Omar had a vendetta against the Barksdale organization and gave them all of his lethal attention .
New additions in the third season included Tommy Carcetti ( Aidan Gillen ) , an ambitious city councilman ; Mayor Clarence Royce ( Glynn Turman ) , the incumbent whom Carcetti planned to unseat ; Marlo Stanfield ( Jamie Hector ) , leader of an upstart gang seeking to challenge Avon 's dominance ; and Dennis " Cutty " Wise ( Chad Coleman ) , a newly released convict uncertain of his future .
In the fourth season , four young actors joined the cast : Jermaine Crawford as Duquan " Dukie " Weems ; Maestro Harrell as Randy Wagstaff ; Julito McCullum as Namond Brice ; and Tristan Wilds as Michael Lee . The characters are friends from a West Baltimore middle school . Another newcomer was Norman Wilson ( Reg E. Cathey ) , Carcetti 's deputy campaign manager .
The fifth season saw several actors join the starring cast . Gbenga Akinnagbe returns as the previously recurring Chris Partlow , chief enforcer of the now dominant Stanfield Organization . Neal Huff reprises his role as Mayoral chief of staff Michael Steintorf having previously appeared as a guest star at the end of the fourth season . Two other actors also join the starring cast having previously portrayed their corrupt characters as guest stars — Michael Kostroff as defense attorney Maurice Levy and Isiah Whitlock , Jr. as senator Clay Davis . Crew member Clark Johnson appeared in front of the camera for the first time in the series to play Augustus Haynes , the principled editor of the city desk of The Baltimore Sun . He is joined in the newsroom by two other new stars ; Michelle Paress and Tom McCarthy play young reporters Alma Gutierrez and Scott Templeton .
= = Plot = =
= = = Season 1 = = =
The first season introduces two major groups of characters : the Baltimore police department and a drug dealing organization run by the Barksdale family . The season follows the police investigation of the latter over its 13 episodes .
The investigation is triggered when detective Jimmy McNulty meets privately with judge Daniel Phelan following the acquittal of D 'Angelo Barksdale for murder after a key witness changes her story . McNulty tells Phelan that the witness has probably been intimidated by members of a drug trafficking empire run by D 'Angelo 's uncle , Avon Barksdale , having recognized several faces at the trial , most notably Avon 's second @-@ in @-@ command , Stringer Bell . He also tells Phelan that no one is investigating Barksdale 's criminal activity , which includes a significant portion of the city 's drug trade and several unsolved homicides .
Phelan takes issue with McNulty 's report and complains to senior Police Department figures , embarrassing them into creating a detail dedicated to investigating Barksdale . However , owing to the department 's dysfunction , the investigation is intended as a façade to appease the judge . An intradepartmental struggle between the more motivated officers on the detail and their superiors spans the whole season , with interference by the higher @-@ ups often threatening to ruin the investigation . The detail 's commander , Cedric Daniels , acts as mediator between the two opposing groups of police .
Meanwhile , the organized and cautious Barksdale gang is explored through characters at various levels within it . The organization is continually antagonized by a stick @-@ up crew led by Omar Little , and the feud leads to several deaths . Throughout , D 'Angelo struggles with his conscience over his life of crime and the people it affects .
The police have little success with street @-@ level arrests or with securing informants beyond Bubbles , a well known West Side drug addict . Eventually the investigation takes the direction of electronic surveillance , with wiretaps and pager clones to infiltrate the security measures taken by the Barksdale organization . This leads the investigation to areas the commanding officers had hoped to avoid , including political contributions . When an associate of Avon Barksdale is arrested by State Police and offers to cooperate , the commanding officers order the detail to undertake a sting operation to wrap up the case . Detective Kima Greggs is seriously hurt in the operation , triggering an overzealous response from the rest of the department . This causes the detail 's targets to suspect that they are under investigation .
Wallace is murdered by his childhood friends Bodie and Poot , on orders from Stringer Bell , after leaving his " secure " placement with relatives and returning to Baltimore . D 'Angelo Barksdale is eventually arrested transporting a kilo of uncut heroin , and learning of Wallace 's murder , is ready to turn in his uncle and Stringer . However , D 'Angelo 's mother convinces him to rescind the deal and take the charges for his family . The detail manages to arrest Avon on a minor charge and gets one of his soldiers , Wee @-@ Bey , to confess to most of the murders , some of which he did not commit . Stringer escapes prosecution and is left running the Barksdale empire . For the officers , the consequences of antagonizing their superiors are severe , with Daniels passed over for promotion and McNulty assigned out of homicide and into the marine unit .
= = = Season 2 = = =
The second season , along with its ongoing examination of the drug problem and its effect on the urban poor , examines the plight of the blue @-@ collar urban working class as exemplified by stevedores in the city port , as some of them get caught up in smuggling drugs and other contraband inside the shipping containers that pass through their port . In a season @-@ long subplot , the Barksdale organization continues its drug trafficking despite Avon 's imprisonment , with Stringer Bell assuming greater power .
McNulty harbors a grudge against his former commanders for reassigning him to the marine unit . When thirteen unidentified young women are found dead in a container at the docks , McNulty successfully makes a spiteful effort to place the murders within the jurisdiction of his former commander . Meanwhile , police Major Stan Valchek gets into a feud with Polish @-@ American Frank Sobotka , a leader of the International Brotherhood of Stevedores , a fictional dockers ' union , over competing donations to their old neighborhood church . Valchek demands a detail to investigate Sobotka . Cedric Daniels is interviewed , having been praised by Prez , Major Valchek 's son @-@ in @-@ law , and also because of his work on the Barksdale case . He is eventually selected to lead the detail assigned just to investigate Sobotka ; when the investigation is concluded Daniels is assured he will move up to head a special case unit with personnel of his choosing .
Life for the blue @-@ collar men of the port is increasingly hard and work is scarce . As union leader , Sobotka has taken it on himself to reinvigorate the port by lobbying politicians to support much @-@ needed infrastructure improvement initiatives . Lacking the funds needed for this kind of influence , Sobotka has become involved with a smuggling ring . Around him , his son and nephew also turn to crime , as they have few other opportunities to earn money . It becomes clear to the Sobotka detail that the dead girls are related to their investigation , as they were in a container that was supposed to be smuggled through the port . They again use wiretaps to infiltrate the crime ring and slowly work their way up the chain towards The Greek , the mysterious man in charge . But Valchek , upset that their focus has moved beyond Sobotka , gets the FBI involved . The Greek has a mole inside the FBI and starts severing his ties to Baltimore when he learns about the investigation .
After a dispute over stolen goods turns violent , Sobotka 's son Ziggy is charged with the murder of one of the Greek 's underlings . Sobotka himself is arrested for smuggling ; he agrees to work with the detail to help his son , finally seeing his actions as a mistake . However , the Greek learns about this through his mole inside the FBI and has Sobotka killed . The investigation ends with the fourteen homicides solved but the perpetrator already dead . Several drug dealers and mid @-@ level smuggling figures tied to the Greek are arrested , but he and his second @-@ in @-@ command escape uncharged and unidentified . The Major is pleased that Sobotka was arrested ; the case is seen as a success by the commanding officers , but is viewed as a failure by the detail .
Across town , the Barksdale organization continues its business under Stringer while Avon and D 'Angelo Barksdale serve prison time . D 'Angelo decides to cut ties to his family after his uncle organizes the deaths of several inmates and blames it on a corrupt guard to shave time from his sentence . Eventually Stringer covertly orders D 'Angelo killed , with the murder staged to look like a suicide . Avon is unaware of Stringer 's duplicity and mourns the loss of his nephew .
Stringer also struggles , having been cut off by Avon 's drug suppliers and left with increasingly poor @-@ quality product . He again goes behind Avon 's back , giving up half of Avon 's most prized territory to a rival named Proposition Joe in exchange for a share of his supply . Avon , unaware of the arrangement , assumes that Joe and other dealers are moving into his territory simply because the Barksdale organization has too few enforcers . He contracts a feared assassin named Brother Mouzone . Stringer deals with this by tricking his old adversary Omar into believing that Mouzone was responsible for the vicious killing of his partner in their feud in season one . Seeking revenge , Omar shoots Mouzone but , realizing Stringer has lied to him , calls 9 @-@ 1 @-@ 1 . Mouzone recovers and leaves Baltimore , and Stringer ( now with Avon 's consent ) is able to continue his arrangement with Proposition Joe .
= = = Season 3 = = =
In the third season , the focus returns to the street and the Barksdale organization . The scope , however , is expanded to include the city 's political scene . A new subplot is introduced to explore the potential positive effects of de facto " legalizing " the illegal drug trade , and incidentally prostitution , within the limited boundaries of a few uninhabited city blocks — referred to as Hamsterdam . The posited benefits , as in Amsterdam and other European cities , are reduced street crime city @-@ wide and increased outreach of health and social services to at @-@ risk populations . These are continuations of storylines hinted at earlier .
The demolition of the residential towers that had served as the Barksdale organization 's prime territory pushes their dealers back out onto the streets of Baltimore . Stringer Bell continues his reform of the organization by cooperating with other drug lords , sharing with one another territory , product , and profits . Stringer 's proposal is met with a curt refusal from Marlo Stanfield , leader of a new , growing crew . Against Stringer 's advice , Avon decides to take Marlo 's territory by force , and the two gangs become embroiled in a bitter turf war with multiple deaths . Omar Little continues to rob the Barksdale organization wherever possible . Working with his new boyfriend , Dante , and two women , he is once more a serious problem . The violence related to the drug trade makes it an obvious choice of investigation for Cedric Daniels ' now @-@ permanent Major Crimes Unit .
Councilman Tommy Carcetti begins to prepare himself for a mayoral race . He manipulates a colleague into running against the mayor to split the black vote , secures a capable campaign manager and starts making headlines for himself .
As he approaches the end of his career , Major Howard " Bunny " Colvin of Baltimore 's Western District wants to effect some real change in the troubled neighborhoods for which he has long been responsible . Without the knowledge of central command , Colvin sets up areas where police would monitor , but not punish , the drug trade . The police crack down severely on violence in these areas , and also on drug trafficking elsewhere in the city . For many weeks , Colvin 's experiment works , and crime is reduced in his district . However , Colvin ' superiors , the media , and city politicians eventually find out about the arrangement , and the " Hamsterdam " experiment ends . With top brass outraged , Colvin is forced to cease his actions , accept a demotion , and retire from the police department on a lower @-@ grade pension . Tommy Carcetti uses the scandal to make a grandstanding speech at a weekly Baltimore city council meeting .
Dennis " Cutty " Wise , once a drug dealer 's enforcer , is released from prison alongside Avon . His struggles to adapt to life as a free man show an attempt at personal reform . Cutty tries to work as a manual laborer and then flirts with his former life , going to work for Avon . Finding he no longer has the heart for murder , he eventually uses funding from Avon to purchase new equipment for his nascent boxing gym .
The Major Crimes Unit learns that Stringer has been buying real estate and developing it to fulfill his dream of being a successful legitimate businessman . Believing that the bloody turf war with Marlo is poised to destroy everything the Barksdale crew had worked for , Stringer gives Major Colvin information on Avon 's weapons stash . But Stringer is himself being betrayed by Avon : Brother Mouzone had returned to Baltimore and tracked down Omar to join forces . Mouzone tells Avon that his shooting must be avenged . Avon , remembering how Stringer disregarded his order which resulted in Stringer attempting to have Brother Mouzone killed , possibly still furious over D 'Angelo 's murder ( Stringer having finally confessed the truth ) , and fearing Mouzone 's ability to harm his reputation outside of Baltimore , informs Mouzone of Stringer 's upcoming visit to his construction site . There , Mouzone and Omar corner him and shoot him to death .
Colvin tells McNulty about Avon 's hideout , and armed with the information gleaned from selling the Barksdale crew pre @-@ wiretapped disposable cell phones , the detail stages a raid , arresting Avon and most of his underlings . Barksdale 's criminal empire lies in ruins , and Marlo 's young crew simply moves into their territory . The drug trade in West Baltimore continues with little change .
= = = Season 4 = = =
The fourth season expanded its scope again to include an examination of the school system . Other major plots include the mayoral race that continues the political storyline begun in season three , and a closer look at Marlo Stanfield 's drug gang , which has grown to control most of western Baltimore 's trafficking .
The show introduces Dukie , Randy , Michael , and Namond , four boys from West Baltimore , as they enter the eighth grade . At the same school , Prez has begun a new career as a math teacher . Despite mentorship from the more seasoned faculty , Namond , and later Michael , work as drug runners for Bodie , who has had middling success selling Proposition Joe 's product independently .
The cold @-@ blooded Marlo has come to dominate the streets of the west side , using murder and intimidation to make up for his weak @-@ quality drugs and lack of business acumen . His enforcers Chris Partlow and Snoop conceal their numerous victims in abandoned and boarded @-@ up row houses where the bodies will not be readily discovered . The disappearances of so many known criminals come to mystify both the major crimes unit investigating Marlo and the homicide unit assigned to solve the presumed murders . Marlo coerces Bodie into working under him .
McNulty has found peace working as a patrolman and living with Beadie Russell , and refuses promotions from Daniels , now a major commanding the Western District . Detectives Kima Greggs and Lester Freamon , as part of the major crimes unit , investigate Avon Barksdale 's political donations and serve several key figures with subpoenas . Their work is shut down by Commissioner Ervin Burrell at Mayor Clarence Royce 's request , and after being placed under stricter supervision within their unit , both Greggs and Freamon request and receive transfer to the homicide division .
Meanwhile , the city 's mayoral primary race enters its closing weeks . Royce initially has a seemingly insurmountable lead over challengers Tommy Carcetti and Tony Gray , with a big war chest and major endorsements . Royce 's lead begins to fray , however , as his own political machinations turn against him and Carcetti starts to highlight the city 's crime problem . Carcetti is propelled to victory in the primary election .
Howard " Bunny " Colvin joins a research group attempting to study potential future criminals in the middle school population . Dennis " Cutty " Wise continues to work with boys in his boxing gym , and accepts a job at the school rounding up truants . Bubbles takes a homeless teenager named Sherrod under his wing . He encourages the boy to attend class , which he fails to do .
Prez has a few successes with his students , but some of them start to slip away . Disruptive Namond is removed from class and placed in the research group , where he gradually develops affection and respect for Colvin . Randy , in a moment of desperation , reveals knowledge of a murder to the assistant principal , leading to his being interrogated by police .
Proposition Joe engineers a conflict between Omar Little and Marlo to convince Marlo to join the New Day Co @-@ Op. After Omar robs Marlo , Marlo frames Omar for a murder and attempts to have him murdered in jail , but Omar manages to beat the charge with the help of Bunk . Omar learns Marlo set him up , and gets revenge on him and Proposition Joe by robbing the entire shipment of the Co @-@ Op. Meanwhile , the co @-@ op members , including Marlo , are furious at Joe for allowing the shipment to be stolen . Marlo demands satisfaction , and as a result , Joe sets up a meeting between him and Spiros Vondas , who assuages Marlo 's concerns . Having gotten a lead on Joe 's connection to the Greeks , Marlo begins investigating them to learn more about their role in bringing narcotics into Baltimore .
Freamon discovers the bodies Chris and Snoop had hidden . Bodie offers McNulty testimony against Marlo and his crew , but is shot dead on his corner by O @-@ Dog , a member of Marlo 's crew . Sherrod dies after snorting a poisoned vial of heroin that , unbeknownst to him , Bubbles had prepared for their tormentor . Bubbles turns himself in to the police and tries to hang himself , but he survives and is taken to a detox facility . Michael has now joined the ranks of Marlo 's killers and runs one of his corners , with Dukie leaving high school to work there . Randy 's house is firebombed by school bullies for his cooperation with the police , leaving his caring foster mother hospitalized and sending him back to a group home . Namond is taken in by Colvin , who recognized the good in him . The major crimes unit from earlier seasons is largely reunited , and they resume their investigation of Marlo Stanfield .
= = = Season 5 = = =
The fifth season focuses on the media and media consumption . The show features a fictional depiction of the newspaper The Baltimore Sun , and in fact elements of the plot are ripped @-@ from @-@ the @-@ headlines events ( such as the Jayson Blair New York Times scandal ) and people at the Sun . The season , according to David Simon , deals with " what stories get told and what don 't and why it is that things stay the same . " Issues such as the quest for profit , the decrease in the number of reporters , and the end of aspiration for news quality would all be addressed , alongside the theme of homelessness . John Carroll of The Baltimore Sun was the model for the " craven , prize hungry " editor of the fictional newspaper .
Fifteen months after the fourth season concludes , Mayor Carcetti 's cuts in the police budget to redress the education deficit force the Marlo Stanfield investigation to shut down . Cedric Daniels secures a detail to focus on the prosecution of Senator Davis for corruption . Detective McNulty returns to the Homicide unit and decides to divert resources back to the police department by faking evidence to make it appear that a serial killer is murdering homeless men .
The Baltimore Sun also faces budget cuts and the newsroom struggles to adequately cover the city , omitting many important stories . Commissioner Burrell continues to falsify crime statistics and is fired by Carcetti , who positions Daniels to replace him .
Marlo Stanfield lures his enemy Omar Little out of retirement by having Omar 's mentor Butchie murdered . Proposition Joe teaches Stanfield how to launder money and evade investigation . Once Joe is no longer useful to him , Stanfield has Joe killed with the help of Joe 's nephew Cheese Wagstaff and usurps his position with the Greeks and the New Day Co @-@ Op. Michael Lee continues working as a Stanfield enforcer , providing a home for his friend Dukie and younger brother Bug .
Omar returns to Baltimore seeking revenge , targeting Stanfield 's organization , stealing and destroying money and drugs and killing Stanfield enforcers in an attempt to force Stanfield into the open . However , he is eventually shot and killed by Kenard , a young Stanfield dealer .
Baltimore Sun reporter Scott Templeton claims to have been contacted by McNulty 's fake serial killer . City Editor Gus Haynes becomes suspicious , but his superiors are enamored of Templeton . The story gains momentum and Carcetti spins the resulting attention on homelessness into a key issue in his imminent campaign for Governor and restores funding to the police department .
Bubbles is recovering from his drug addiction while living in his sister 's basement . He is befriended by Sun reporter Mike Fletcher , who eventually writes a profile of Bubbles .
Bunk is disgusted with McNulty 's serial killer scheme and tries to have Lester Freamon reason with McNulty . Instead , Freamon helps McNulty perpetuate the lie and uses resources earmarked for the case to fund an illegal wiretap on Stanfield . Bunk resumes working the vacant house murders , leading to a murder warrant against Partlow for killing Michael 's stepfather .
Freamon and Leander Sydnor gather enough evidence to arrest Stanfield and most of his top lieutenants , seizing a large quantity of drugs . Stanfield suspects that Michael is an informant , and orders him killed . Michael realizes he is being set up and kills Snoop instead . A wanted man , he leaves Bug with an aunt and begins a career as a stick @-@ up man . With his support system gone , Dukie lives with drug addicts .
McNulty tells Kima Greggs about his fabrications to prevent her wasting time on the case . Greggs tells Daniels , who , along with Rhonda Pearlman , takes this news to Carcetti , who orders a cover @-@ up because of the issue 's importance to his campaign .
Davis is acquitted , but Freamon uses the threat of federal prosecution to blackmail him for information . Davis reveals Maurice Levy has a mole in the courthouse from whom he illegally purchases copies of sealed indictments . Herc tells Levy that the Stanfield case was probably based on an illegal wiretap , something which would jeopardize the entire case . After Levy reveals this to Pearlman , she uses Levy 's espionage to blackmail him into agreeing to a plea bargain for his defendants . Levy ensures Stanfield 's release on the condition that he permanently retires , while his subordinates will have to accept long sentences . Stanfield sells the connection to The Greeks back to the Co @-@ Op and plans to become a businessman , although he appears unable or unwilling to stay off the corner .
As the cover @-@ up begins , a copy @-@ cat killing occurs , but McNulty quickly identifies and arrests the culprit . Pearlman tells McNulty and Freamon that they can no longer be allowed to do investigative work and warns of criminal charges if the scandal becomes public . They opt to retire . Haynes attempts to expose Templeton but the managing editors ignore the fabrications and demote anyone critical of their star reporter . Carcetti pressures Daniels to falsify crime statistics to aid his campaign . Daniels refuses and then quietly resigns rather than have his FBI file leaked .
In a final montage , McNulty gazes over the city ; Freamon enjoys retirement ; Templeton wins a Pulitzer ; Carcetti becomes Governor ; Haynes is sidelined to the copy desk and replaced by Fletcher ; Campbell appoints Valchek as commissioner ; Carcetti appoints Rawls as Superintendent of the Maryland State Police ; Dukie continues to use heroin ; Michael becomes a stickup boy ; Pearlman becomes a judge and Daniels a defense attorney ; Bubbles is allowed upstairs where he enjoys a family dinner ; Chris serves his life sentence alongside Wee @-@ Bey ; the drug trade continues ; and the people of Baltimore go on with their lives .
= = = Prequel shorts = = =
During the fifth season , HBO produced three short prequels depicting moments in the history of characters in The Wire . The three prequels depict the first meeting between McNulty and Bunk ; Proposition Joe as a slick business kid ; and young Omar . The shorts are available on the complete series DVD set .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
All seasons of The Wire have received positive reviews from many major television critics , several naming it the best contemporary show and one of the best drama series of all time . The first season received mainly positive reviews from critics , some even calling it superior to HBO 's better @-@ known " flagship " drama series such as The Sopranos and Six Feet Under . On the review aggregation website Metacritic , the first season scored 78 out of 100 based on 22 reviews . One reviewer pointed to the retread of some themes from HBO and David Simon 's earlier works , but still found it valuable viewing and particularly resonant because it parallels the war on terror through the chronicling of the war on drugs . Another review postulated that the series might suffer because of its reliance on profanity and slowly drawn @-@ out plot , but was largely positive about the show 's characters and intrigue .
Despite the critical acclaim , The Wire received poor Nielsen ratings , which Simon attributed to the complexity of the plot ; a poor time slot ; heavy use of esoteric slang , particularly among the gangster characters ; and a predominantly black cast . Critics felt the show was testing the attention span of its audience and that it was mistimed in the wake of the launch of the successful crime drama The Shield on FX . However , anticipation for a release of the first season on DVD was high at Entertainment Weekly .
After the first two shows of season two , Jim Shelley ( a British TV critic writing for The Guardian ) called The Wire the best show on TV , praising the second season for its ability to detach from its former foundations in the first season . Jon Garelick with the Boston Phoenix was of the opinion that the subculture of the docks ( second season ) was not as absorbing as that of the housing projects ( first season ) , but he went on to praise the writers for creating a realistic world and populating it with an array of interesting characters .
The critical response to the third season remained positive . Entertainment Weekly named The Wire the best show of 2004 , describing it as " the smartest , deepest and most resonant drama on TV . " They credited the complexity of the show for its poor ratings . The Baltimore City Paper was so concerned that the show might be cancelled that it published a list of ten reasons to keep it on the air , including strong characterization , Omar Little , and an unabashedly honest representation of real world problems . It also worried that the loss of the show would have a negative impact on Baltimore 's economy .
At the close of the third season , The Wire was still struggling to maintain its ratings and the show faced possible cancellation . Creator David Simon blamed the show 's low ratings in part on its competition against Desperate Housewives and worried that expectations for HBO dramas had changed following the success of The Sopranos .
As the fourth season was about to begin , almost two years after the previous season 's end , Tim Goodman of the San Francisco Chronicle wrote that The Wire " has tackled the drug war in this country as it simultaneously explores race , poverty and ' the death of the American working class , ' the failure of political systems to help the people they serve , and the tyranny of lost hope . Few series in the history of television have explored the plight of inner @-@ city African Americans and none — not one — has done it as well . " Brian Lowry of Variety wrote at the time , " When television history is written , little else will rival ' The Wire . ' " The New York Times called the fourth season of The Wire " its best season yet . " Doug Elfman of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times was more reserved in his praise , calling it the " most ambitious " show on television , but faulting it for its complexity and the slow development of the plotline . The Los Angeles Times took the rare step of devoting an editorial to the show , stating that " even in what is generally acknowledged to be something of a golden era for thoughtful and entertaining dramas — both on cable channels and on network TV — The Wire stands out . " TIME magazine especially praised the fourth season , stating that " no other TV show has ever loved a city so well , damned it so passionately , or sung it so searingly . " The website Metacritic , which gathers reviews from news sources and translates them into a percentage score , assigned The Wire 's fourth season a weighted average score of 98 % , the second highest score for any television season in Metacritic history ( with the fifth season of Breaking Bad being the first ) .
Several reviewers have called it the best show on television , including TIME , Entertainment Weekly , the Chicago Tribune , Slate , the San Francisco Chronicle , the Philadelphia Daily News and the British newspaper The Guardian , which ran a week @-@ by @-@ week blog following every episode , also collected in a book , The Wire Re @-@ up . Charlie Brooker , a columnist for The Guardian , has been particularly enthusiastic in his praise of the show , both in his " Screen Burn " column and in his BBC Four television series Screenwipe , calling it possibly the greatest show of the last 20 years . In 2007 , TIME listed it among the one hundred best television series of all @-@ time . In 2013 , the Writers Guild of America ranked The Wire as the ninth best written TV series . In 2013 , TV Guide ranked The Wire as the sixth greatest show of all time . In 2013 , Entertainment Weekly listed the show at # 6 in their list of the " 26 Best Cult TV Shows Ever , " describing it as " one of the most highly praised series in HBO history " and praising Michael K. Williams 's acting as Omar Little . Entertainment Weekly also named it the number one TV show of all @-@ time in a special issue in 2013 .
Critics have often described the show in literary terms : the New York Times calls it " literary television ; " TV Guide calls it " TV as great modern literature ; " the San Francisco Chronicle says the series " must be considered alongside the best literature and filmmaking in the modern era ; " and the Chicago Tribune says the show delivers " rewards not unlike those won by readers who conquer Joyce , Faulkner or Henry James . " ' The Wire Files ' , an online collection of articles published in darkmatter Journal , critically analyzes The Wire 's racialized politics and aesthetics of representation . Entertainment Weekly put it on its end @-@ of @-@ the @-@ decade , " best @-@ of " list , saying , " The deft writing — which used the cop @-@ genre format to give shape to creator David Simon 's scathing social critiques — was matched by one of the deepest benches of acting talent in TV history . "
President of the United States Barack Obama has said that The Wire is his favorite television series . The 2010 Nobel Prize in Literature Laureate , Mario Vargas Llosa , wrote a very positive critical review of the series in the Spanish journal El País . The comedian turned mayor of Reykjavík , Iceland , Jón Gnarr , has gone so far as to say that he would not enter a coalition government with anyone who has not watched the series .
Robert Kirkman , creator of The Walking Dead , is a strong follower of The Wire ; he has tried to cast as many actors from it into the television series of the same name as possible , so far having cast Chad Coleman , Lawrence Gilliard , Jr . , and Seth Gilliam .
= = = Awards = = =
The Wire was nominated for , and won a wide variety of awards , including nominations for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Writing in a Drama Series for " Middle Ground " and " – 30 – " , nominations for the NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Drama Series in each of its five seasons ; and nominations for the Television Critics Association Awards ( TCA ) , and Writers Guild of America Awards ( WGA ) .
Most of the awards the series won were in seasons 4 and 5 . These included TCA 's Heritage Award for season 5 and WGA 's Award for Best Dramatic Series for season 4 , plus Crime Thriller , Eddie , Edgar , Directors Guild of America , and Irish Film and Television awards . The series also won ASCAP , Peabody and Artios awards for season 2 .
The series won the Broadcasting & Cable critics poll for Best Drama ( season 4 ) and won Time 's critics choice for top television show for seasons 1 and 3 .
Despite the above mentioned awards and unanimous critical approval , The Wire never won a Primetime Emmy Award nor received any major nominations . Several critics recognized its lack of recognition by the Emmys . According to a report by Variety , anonymous Emmy voters cited reasons such as the series ' dense and multilayered plot , the grim subject matter , and the series ' lack of connection with California , as it is set and filmed in Baltimore .
= = = Academia = = =
In the years following the end of the series ' run , several colleges and universities such as Johns Hopkins , Brown University , and Harvard College have offered classes on The Wire in disciplines ranging from law to sociology to film studies . Phillips Academy , a boarding high school in Massachusetts , offers a similar course as well . University of Texas at San Antonio offers a course where the series is taught as a work of literary fiction . In an article published in The Washington Post , Anmol Chaddha and William Julius Wilson explain why Harvard chose The Wire as curriculum material for their course on urban inequality : " Though scholars know that deindustrialization , crime and prison , and the education system are deeply intertwined , they must often give focused attention to just one subject in relative isolation , at the expense of others . With the freedom of artistic expression , The Wire can be more creative . It can weave together the range of forces that shape the lives of the urban poor . " University of York 's Head of Sociology , Roger Burrows , said in The Independent that the show " makes a fantastic contribution to their understanding of contemporary urbanism " , and is " a contrast to dry , dull , hugely expensive studies that people carry out on the same issues " . The series is also studied as part of a Master seminar series at the Paris West University Nanterre La Défense . In February 2012 , Slovenian philosopher Slavoj Žižek gave a lecture at Birkbeck , University of London titled The Wire or the clash of civilisations in one country . In April 2012 , Norwegian academic Erlend Lavik posted online a 36 @-@ minute video essay called " Style in The Wire " which analyzes the various visual techniques used by the show 's directors over the course of its five seasons .
The Wire has also been the subject of growing numbers of academic articles by , amongst others , Fredric Jameson ( who praised the series ' ability to weave utopian thinking into its realist representation of society ) ; and Leigh Claire La Berge , who argues that although the less realistic character of season five was received negatively by critics , it gives the series a platform not only for representing reality , but for representing how realism is itself a construct of social forces like the media ; both commentators see in The Wire an impulse for progressive political change rare in mass media productions . While most academics have used " The Wire " as a cultural object or case study , Benjamin Leclair @-@ Paquet has instead argued that the " creative methods behind HBO 's The Wire evoke original ways to experiment with speculative work that reveal the merit of the imaginary as a pragmatic research device . " This author posits that the methods behind The Wire is particularly relevant for contentious urban and architectural projects .
= = Broadcasters = =
HBO aired the five seasons of the show in 2002 , 2003 , 2004 , 2006 , and 2008 , respectively . New episodes were shown once a week , occasionally skipping one or two weeks in favor of other programming . Starting with the fourth season , subscribers to the HBO On Demand service were able to see each episode of the season six days earlier . American basic cable network BET also aired the show . BET adds commercial breaks , blurs some nudity , and mutes some profanity . Much of the waterfront storyline from the second season is edited out from the BET broadcasts .
The series was remastered in 16 : 9 HD in late 2014 , and the HD remasters debuted on HBO Signature , airing the entire series consecutively , and on HBO GO on December 26 , 2014 . The HD versions became available for purchase on various digital platforms on January 5 , 2015 , and was released on Blu @-@ ray on June 2 , 2015 .
In the United Kingdom , the show has been broadcast on FX , and aired on terrestrial television on BBC Two . Although controversially it was broadcast at 11 : 20 pm and had no BBC iPlayer catchup available . In a world first , British newspaper The Guardian made the first episode of the first season available to stream on its website for a brief period . In Ireland , all episodes were aired on public service channel TG4 approximately 6 months after the original air dates on HBO . The series became available in Canada in a remastered 16 : 9 HD format on streaming service CraveTV in late 2014 .
= = Home media releases = =
The DVD sets have been favorably received , though some critics have faulted them for a lack of special features .
The series was remastered in 16 : 9 HD in late 2014 , became available on iTunes , and was released as a complete series Blu @-@ ray box set on June 2 , 2015 .
= Ivan Alexander of Bulgaria =
Ivan Alexander ( Bulgarian : Иван Александър , transliterated Ivan Aleksandǎr ; pronounced [ iˈvan alɛkˈsandər ] ; original spelling : ІѠАНЪ АЛЄѮАНдРЪ ) , also sometimes Anglicized as John Alexander , ruled as Emperor ( Tsar ) of Bulgaria from 1331 to 1371 , during the Second Bulgarian Empire . The date of his birth is unknown . He died on 17 February 1371 . The long reign of Ivan Alexander is considered a transitional period in Bulgarian medieval history . Ivan Alexander began his rule by dealing with internal problems and external threats from Bulgaria 's neighbours , the Byzantine Empire and Serbia , as well as leading his empire into a period of economic recovery and cultural and religious renaissance .
However , the emperor was later unable to cope with the mounting incursions of Ottoman forces , Hungarian invasions from the northwest and the Black Death . In an ill @-@ fated attempt to combat these problems , he divided the country between his two sons , thus forcing it to face the imminent Ottoman conquest weakened and divided .
= = Early rule = =
Ivan Alexander was the son of the despotēs Sracimir of Kran by Petrica , a sister of Michael Asen III of Bulgaria . Therefore , Ivan Alexander was a nephew of Michael Asen III . Paternally , Ivan Alexander descended from the Asen dynasty . By 1330 Ivan Alexander was himself a despotēs and governed the city of Lovech . Together with his father and his father @-@ in @-@ law Basarab of Wallachia , Ivan Alexander fought in the Battle of Velbazhd against the Serbs at modern @-@ day Kyustendil in 1330 , in which Bulgaria suffered defeat . The defeat , combined with the worsening relations with the Byzantine Empire , precipitated an internal crisis , which was exacerbated by an invasion of the Byzantines . A coup d 'état drove Ivan Stefan out of the capital Tarnovo in 1331 , and the conspirators placed Ivan Alexander on the throne .
The new ruler set about consolidating his position by regaining territories recently lost to the Byzantine Empire . In 1331 Ivan Alexander campaigned around Adrianople and reconquered northeastern Thrace . Meanwhile , Stefan Uroš IV Dušan deposed his father Stefan Uroš III Dečanski and became Serbian king in 1331 . This helped normalize the previously tense relations between the two countries . Ivan Alexander and Stefan Uroš IV Dušan concluded an alliance , which was cemented by the marriage of the Serbian king to Helena of Bulgaria , a sister of Ivan Alexander , on Easter 1332 .
At about the same time , Belaur , a brother of Michael Asen III , rebelled in Vidin , probably in support of his deposed nephew Ivan Stefan 's claim to the throne . The advance of the Byzantine Emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos against Bulgaria in the summer of 1332 protracted military operations against the rebels . The Byzantines overran Bulgarian @-@ controlled northeastern Thrace , but Ivan Alexander rushed southward with a small army and swiftly caught up with Andronikos III at Rusokastro .
After giving the impression that he wished to negotiate , Ivan Alexander , reinforced by Mongol cavalry , overwhelmed the smaller but better organized Byzantine army in the Battle of Rusokastro . The contested cities surrendered to Ivan Alexander , while Andronikos III sought refuge within the walls of Rusokastro . The war ended with Ivan Alexander meeting Andronikos and agreeing a peace based on the status quo . To seal the alliance , he betrothed his eldest son , Michael Asen IV , to Andronikos 's daughter Maria ( Eirene ) , the marriage eventually taking place in 1339 . The Bulgarian emperor was now free to turn his attentions to Belaur , but it was not until 1336 or 1337 that the rebellion in the northwest was put down .
In about 1332 Ivan Alexander had crowned his eldest son Michael Asen IV co @-@ emperor , perhaps to safeguard possession of the throne by his own family . He followed up this traditional association with the coronation of his younger sons Ivan Sracimir and Ivan Asen IV in 1337 . Ivan Alexander may have intended the creation of two younger co @-@ emperors to establish immediate control over important cities and regions , as Ivan Sracimir was eventually based in Vidin , and Ivan Asen IV perhaps in Preslav . Nevertheless , this was a marked departure from Byzantine practice , in which younger sons of the sovereign were made despotēs , whether they were charged with a territorial administration or not .
= = Relations with the Byzantine Empire = =
In the early 1340s relations with the Byzantine Empire temporarily deteriorated . Ivan Alexander demanded the extradition of his cousin Šišman , one of the sons of Michael Asen III , threatening the Byzantine government with war . Ivan Alexander 's show of force backfired , as the Byzantines managed to see through his intentions and sent against him the fleet of their ally , the Turkish emir of Smyrna Umur Beg . Landing in the Danube Delta , they pillaged the countryside and attacked nearby Bulgarian cities . Forced to restrain his demands , Ivan Alexander invaded the Byzantine Empire again at the end of 1341 , claiming that he was summoned by the people of Adrianople . However , Ivan Alexander 's troops were defeated twice by Turkish allies of the Byzantines near the city .
In 1341 – 1347 the Byzantine Empire was plunged into a protracted civil war between the regency for Emperor John V Palaiologos under Anna of Savoy and his intended guardian John VI Kantakouzenos . The neighbours of the Byzantines took advantage of the civil war , and while Stefan Uroš IV Dušan of Serbia sided with John VI Kantakouzenos , Ivan Alexander backed John V Palaiologos and his regency . Although the two Balkan rulers picked opposite sides in the Byzantine civil war , they maintained their alliance with each other . As the price for Ivan Alexander 's support , the regency for John V Palaiologos ceded him the city of Philippopolis ( Plovdiv ) and nine important fortresses in the Rhodope Mountains in 1344 . This peaceful turnover constituted the last major success of Ivan Alexander 's foreign policy .
= = Rise of Serbia and the Ottoman threat = =
During the same period , the Serbian king took advantage of the Byzantine civil war to take possession of what is now Macedonia , and of most of Albania and northern Greece . In 1345 he began to call himself " Emperor of Serbs and Greeks " , and in 1346 he was crowned as such by the newly created Serbian Patriarch . These actions , which the Byzantines received with indignation , appear to have been supported by Bulgaria , as the Patriarch of Bulgaria Simeon had participated in both the creation of a Serbian Patriarchate and the imperial coronation of Stefan Uroš IV Dušan .
By the second half of the 1340s , little remained of Ivan Alexander 's initial successes . John VI Kantakouzenos ' Turkish allies pillaged parts of Bulgarian Thrace in 1346 , 1347 , 1349 , 1352 and 1354 , to which were added the ravages of the Black Death . The Bulgarians ' attempts to repel the invaders met with repeated failure , and Ivan Alexander 's third son and co @-@ emperor , Ivan Asen IV , was killed in battle against the Turks in 1349 , as was his older brother Michael Asen IV in 1355 or a little earlier .
By 1351 the Byzantine civil war was over , and John VI Kantakouzenos had realized the threat posed by the Ottomans to the Balkan Peninsula . He appealed to the rulers of Serbia and Bulgaria for a united effort against the Turks and asked Ivan Alexander for money to construct warships , but his appeals fell on deaf ears as his neighbours distrusted his intentions . A new attempt for cooperation between Bulgaria and the Byzantine Empire followed in 1355 , after John VI Kantakouzenos had been forced to abdicate and John V Palaiologos had been established as supreme emperor . To cement the treaty , Ivan Alexander 's daughter Keraca Marija was married off to the future Byzantine Emperor Andronikos IV Palaiologos , but the alliance failed to produce concrete results .
= = Further stability problems and external conflicts = =
At home Ivan Alexander compromised the internal stability of his realm by divorcing his first wife Theodora of Wallachia ( in about 1349 ) and marrying a converted Jew , also named Theodora . The new marriage produced new sons , whom Ivan Alexander proceeded to crown co @-@ emperors , Ivan Šišman in about 1356 and Ivan Asen V by 1359 . Ivan Alexander 's last surviving son from his first marriage , the co @-@ emperor Ivan Sracimir , became effectively independent around 1356 ; and Ivan Alexander 's control over other powerful vassals , such as the rulers of Wallachia and Dobruja , who pursued their own foreign policies , was hardly stronger .
From the middle of the 14th century , Bulgaria fell prey to the aspirations of the Angevin king Louis I of Hungary , who annexed Moldavia in 1352 and established a vassal principality there , before conquering Vidin in 1365 , and taking Ivan Sratsimir and his family into captivity .
In the meantime Bulgarians and Byzantines had clashed again in 1364 . In 1366 , when Emperor John V Palaiologos was returning from his trip to the west , the Bulgarians refused to let him pass through Bulgaria . This stance backfired , as another Byzantine ally , Count Amadeus VI of Savoy , leading the Savoyard crusade , captured several Bulgarian maritime cities in retaliation , including Ankhialos ( Pomorie ) and Mesembria ( Nesebǎr ) , though he failed to take Varna . Outmanoeuvred , Ivan Alexander was forced to make peace .
The captured cities were turned over to the Byzantine Empire , while Emperor John V Palaiologos paid the sum of 180 @,@ 000 florins to Ivan Alexander . The Bulgarian emperor used this sum and territorial concessions to induce his at least de jure vassals Dobrotica of Dobruja and Vladislav I of Wallachia to reconquer Vidin from the Hungarians . The war was successful , and Ivan Sracimir was reinstalled in Vidin in 1369 , although the Hungarian king forced him to acknowledge his overlordship .
The relatively successful resolution of the crisis in the northwest did nothing to help recover the losses in the southeast . To make matters worse , in 1369 ( the date is disputed ) , the Ottoman Turks under Murad I conquered Adrianople ( in 1363 ) and made it the effective capital of their expanding state . At the same time , they also captured the Bulgarian cities of Philippopolis and Boruj ( Stara Zagora ) . As Bulgaria and the Serbian princes in Macedonia prepared for united action against the Turks , Ivan Alexander died on February 17 , 1371 . He was succeeded by his sons Ivan Sracimir in Vidin and Ivan Šišman in Tǎrnovo , while the rulers of Dobruja and Wallachia achieved further independence .
= = Culture and religion = =
During Ivan Alexander 's rule , the Second Bulgarian Empire entered a period of cultural renaissance , which is sometimes referred to as the " Second Golden Age of Bulgarian culture " , the original one being the rule of Simeon the Great . A large number of Bulgarian monasteries and churches were constructed or renovated on the order of Ivan Alexander . Mural portraits of him as a donor can be seen in the Bachkovo Monastery 's ossuary and in the Rock @-@ hewn Churches of Ivanovo . Donor 's deeds of Ivan Alexander prove that the monasteries of the Holy Mother of God Eleoussa and St Nicholas in Nesebǎr were reconstructed during that period , as was the St Nicholas monastery near Pernik , according to a Hilandar monastery deed . In addition , the tsar also initiated the construction of the Dragalevci and Kilifarevo monasteries .
Literary activity also flourished during the reign of Ivan Alexander . Several important literary works were created in the period , such as the Middle Bulgarian translation of the Manasses Chronicle ( 1344 – 1345 ) , currently preserved in the Vatican Secret Archives in Rome , the richly illustrated Tetraevangelia of Ivan Alexander ( 1355 – 1356 ) , now exhibited in the British Library , the Tomić Psalter ( 1360 ) , today in Moscow , and the Sofia Psalter ( 1337 ) .
Ivan Alexander 's rule was also marked by efforts to strengthen the position of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church by pursuing heretics and Jews . He organized two anti @-@ heretical church councils , in 1350 and 1359 – 1360 , that condemned various sects such as the Bogomils , the Adamites and the Judaizers .
The spiritual practice of hesychasm , a form of incantatory prayer , deeply influenced certain areas of the Eastern Orthodox world of the 14th century . A notable Bulgarian representative of the movement during Ivan Alexander 's reign was Theodosius of Tǎrnovo .
During this time , the Bulgarian Empire had trade relations with the Mediterranean maritime powers Venice , Genoa and Ragusa . In 1353 , Ivan Alexander issued a charter allowing Venetian merchants to buy and sell goods throughout Bulgaria after Doge Andrea Dandolo assured him they would observe the prior treaties between the two countries .
In modern times , the rule of Ivan Alexander inspired Bulgarian national writer Ivan Vazov to write the novelette Ivan @-@ Aleksandǎr and the drama Kǎm propast ( Towards an Abyss ) , in both of which the tsar is the main character .
A piece of a garment signed by Ivan Alexander and interwoven with gold was discovered in a noble 's grave near Pirot in the 1970s ; today it is preserved in the National Museum of Serbia in Belgrade . It is the first find of its kind , demonstrating a medieval tradition attested in writing according to which Orthodox rulers would present their most eminent dignitaries with a piece of a garment they had worn .
Ivan Alexander Point on Nelson Island in the South Shetland Islands , Antarctica is named after Ivan Alexander of Bulgaria .
= = Family = =
By his first wife Theodora of Wallachia ( nun Teofana ) , a daughter of Basarab of Wallachia , Ivan Alexander had several children , including Ivan Sracimir , who ruled as emperor of Bulgaria in Vidin 1356 – 1397 , associated emperors Michael Asen IV ( co @-@ ruled c . 1332 – 1354 / 5 ) and Ivan Asen IV ( co @-@ ruled 1337 – 1349 ) .
By his second wife Sarah @-@ Theodora , Ivan Alexander had several other children , which included Keraca Marija , who married the Byzantine Emperor Andronikos IV Palaiologos , Ivan Šišman , who succeeded as emperor of Bulgaria in Tǎrnovo 1371 – 1396 , Ivan Asen V , associated as emperor of Bulgaria by 1359 – 1388 ? , a daughter called Thamar ( Kera Tamara ) , who was married first to the despotēs Constantine ( Konstantin ) , and then to Sultan Murad I of the Ottoman Empire , as well as two daughters named Desislava and Vasilisa .
= = Timeline = =
= Marojejy National Park =
Marojejy National Park is a national park in the Sava Region of northeastern Madagascar . It covers 55 @,@ 500 ha ( 214 sq mi ) and is centered on the Marojejy Massif , a mountain chain that rises to an elevation of 2 @,@ 132 m ( 6 @,@ 995 ft ) . Access to the area around the massif was restricted to research scientists when the site was set aside as a strict nature reserve in 1952 . In 1998 , it was opened to the public when it was converted into a national park . It became part of the World Heritage Site known as the Rainforests of the Atsinanana in 2007 . Despite its rugged terrain , poaching and selective logging are still persistent problems , particularly since the start of the 2009 political crisis in Madagascar . Mining , slash @-@ and @-@ burn agriculture , and wood collection also pose threats to the park and its wildlife .
The wide range of elevations and rugged topography of the massif create diverse habitats that transition quickly with changes in altitude . Warm , dense rainforest can be found at lower elevations , followed by shorter forests at higher elevations , followed still by cloud forest , and topped near the peaks with the only remaining undisturbed mountain scrub in Madagascar . Better growing conditions for plants can be found on the eastern side of the mountains , which receives more rain than the western side . This habitat diversity lends itself to high levels of biodiversity . At least 118 species of bird , 148 species of reptile and amphibian , and 11 species of lemur are known to occur within Marojejy National Park . One of the lemurs , the silky sifaka ( Propithecus candidus ) is listed among " The World 's 25 Most Endangered Primates " . The helmet vanga ( Euryceros prevostii ) is considered the iconic bird species of the park .
One path leads from the entrance of the park to the summit . There are three camps along the route : Camp Mantella at 450 m ( 1 @,@ 480 ft ) in elevation in lowland rainforest , Camp Marojejia at 775 m ( 2 @,@ 543 ft ) at the transition between lowland and montane rain forest , and Camp Simpona at 1 @,@ 250 m ( 4 @,@ 100 ft ) in the middle of the montane rainforest . Camp Simpona acts as a base camp for the trek to the summit , a route that stretches 2 km ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) and can take up to four or five hours to traverse .
= = History = =
Marojejy National Park is located in the northeast of Madagascar between the towns of Andapa and Sambava and extends approximately 32 km ( 20 mi ) from east to west and 22 km ( 14 mi ) from north to south . It is centered on the chain of mountains known as Marojejy Massif . Despite a scientific survey of some of the other mountains in the region by the 1929 Mission Zoologique Franco @-@ Anglo @-@ Américaine , Marojejy was not surveyed until 1937 when L.-J. Arragon of the Service Géographique de Madagascar ascended Marojejy Est . Arragon did not conduct any field research during his visit . The massif was not geologically described until after the French botanist Henri Jean Humbert from the National Museum of Natural History in Paris explored the mountains in 1948 . Humbert had previously explored numerous mountain ranges in continental Africa before going to Marojejy . Between November 1948 and November 1950 , he spent five months collecting 4 @,@ 039 dried plant ( herbarium ) specimens for study . After several expeditions , he published the book " A Marvel of Nature " in 1955 , in which he claimed the massif was the most impressive range in all of Madagascar because of its size , floral diversity , and pristine natural state .
Marojejy was set aside as one of Madagascar 's strict nature reserves in 1952 largely due to Humbert 's enthusiasm and support . Under this protection , only research scientists were permitted to visit the site . In 1998 , Marojejy was converted into a national park and thus became open to visitors .
Originally seen as a transitional zone between the eastern rainforests and the central highlands , Marojejy is now recognized as having its own unique features , with some of the richest biodiversity on the island . Several studies from the early 1970s through the 1990s surveyed the mountain ecosystems and inventoried the flora and fauna . In 2007 , Marojejy was listed as a World Heritage Site as part of the Rainforests of the Atsinanana . Due to illegal logging and trafficking of valuable hardwoods , and especially after the 2009 political crisis in Madagascar , the Rainforests of the Atsinanana was added to the list of World Heritage in Danger in 2010 .
= = = Park boundaries and size = = =
The boundaries of Marojejy National Park were originally established by approximation when the park was established in 1952 . With a second decree ( no . 66 @-@ 242 ) from the government of Madagascar in 1 | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
and Eternity is an attempt to set out the fundamental nature of religion , and to deal with the conflict between religion and naturalism . He explains that the basic idea set out in the book is that all religious thought is symbolic , and that his influences include Rudolf Otto , especially his Mysticism East and West , and Immanuel Kant . He says he was motivated to write the book in an attempt to add to the " other half of the truth which I now think naturalism [ as espoused in his 1947 essay Man Against Darkness ] misses " .
The book begins by looking at religion , specifically God as non @-@ being and as being , put by Stace as the negative and positive divine . Stace then defines two orders of being - time and eternity , which he says intersect in the moment of mystic illumination . He goes on to say that the nature of God or eternity is such that all religious language is symbolic and that it is necessarily subject to contradictions .
= = Synopsis = =
The first chapter asks what religion is , stating that religious thought is contradictory , is rooted in intuition , and that God is fundamentally a mystery . The second and third chapters look at the negative divine - the characterisation of God as void , silence or non @-@ being - which Stace maintains is an idea found in all religions . He maintains that mystical experience is shared by all mankind , it is only the theories about it that differ . On this point he says he is in agreement with Otto . In this experience the distinction between subject and object is overcome , indeed there is no difference between the experiencer and the experience .
Stace then goes on to explain that all religions say that religious revelation is ineffable , because no words or concepts can be applied to God who is without qualities or predicates . Thus , God cannot be comprehended by the intellect , but is apprehended by intuition . " ... it is of the very nature of intellect to involve the subject @-@ object opposition . But in the mystic experience this opposition is transcended . Therefore the intellect is incapable of understanding it . Therefore it is incomprehensible , ineffable . "
Stace then looks at the positive divine ; he asks how concepts can be applied to that which is above all concepts and finds that all propositions about God are symbolical . He defines religious and non @-@ religious symbolism as differing in two respects . Firstly , religious symbols cannot be translated into logical propositions because they refer to an ( ineffable ) experience rather than a proposition . Secondly , the relationship between the religious symbol and what is symbolised is one of evocation rather than " meaning " , as meaning refers to a concept , which is absent in the mystical experience . " Yet in some way this symbolic language evokes in us some glimpse , some hint , seen dimly through the mists and fogs which envelop us , of that being who stands above all human thought and conception . " He goes on to write that some of these symbols feel more appropriate than others ( e.g. God is love not hate ) .
Next Stace explains that there are two orders of being : time ( or the world ) and eternity ( or God ) , and these intersect in the moment of mystic illumination . He maintains these orders are distinct , so one order cannot dictate to the other . Here he says that he agrees with Kant , who made a distinction between the world of phenomena and the noumenon , although he is critical of Kant ’ s disregard for mystical experience .
Looking at symbolism in religion , Stace states that there are two types of predicates applied to God : first , the ethically @-@ neutral sort , such as God being mind , power or personhood . Secondly , the ethical kind , where he is love , mercy , or righteousness . He explains that the former qualities are justified by an appeal to a hierarchy of being , and the latter to a hierarchy of value . In both cases the more adequate symbol are those that are higher in each hierarchy . In rooting symbolism in hierarchies , Stace explicitly states he is in opposition to Otto who thought religious symbolism was based on analogy between the numen and qualities found in the natural world .
Stace next looks at religion ’ s claims to truth . He draws an analogy between mystical illumination and aesthetic truth , as the truths of both rest on revelation rather than reason . " Either you directly perceive beauty , or you do not . And either you directly perceive God in intuition , or you do not . " Further , he maintains the arguments of both mystics and naturalists in denying each other ’ s positions are invalid , as they concern different realities .
These separate spheres lead Stace to reflect on both proofs for God and acosmism . He writes that proofs and disproofs for God are equally false , as God is only accessible by intuition and not logic . " … the production by philosophers of proofs of the unreality of space , time , and the temporal world generally , is a direct result of their mistaking of their mystical propositions for factual propositions . " Further , proofs of God actually harm religion as they make him a part of the natural order - a point on which he says that he agrees with Kant . Conversely acosmism ( the denial of the reality of the world ) has its root in the mystical moment , within which there is no other truth , God is the supreme reality and there is no naturalistic world . However this is a symbolic truth , rather than a statement of fact . Its counterpart in naturalism is atheism , which denies the reality of God .
In the final chapter Stace looks at mysticism and logic . He returns to the idea that theology and mystical philosophies ( he gives the examples of Vedanta , Spinoza , Hegel , and Bradley ) will always contain contradictions . Known as the doctrine of the Mystery of God , he maintains this is because the intellect is inherently incapable of understanding the Ultimate . All attempts to state the nature of the ultimate necessarily produce contradictions .
= = Critical response = =
Virgil C Aldrich reviewed the book alongside Religion and the Modern Mind and The Gate of Silence , also by Stace and published in 1952 . He points out that all three books mark a new direction for Stace who was previously best known as an empiricist and naturalist . For Aldrich this new intellectual interest results in a sharp dualism in both Stace ’ s personality and his thought . However , he writes that fortunately Stace ’ s philosophical background prevents him from supposing that scientific empiricism can confirm religious experience , indeed his religious philosophy is the sort “ that a Hume or a Kant can consort with . ” Aldrich argues that Stace ’ s intellectual sophistication is most evident in his ideas about the negative divine , but his thought is liable to all the standard objections where he proposes notions of the positive divine and religious intuition . Specifically , the notion that religious language is evocative of the mystical experience is problematic , because it is difficult to determine what language is adequate without resorting to literal or abstract ideas . Rudolf Otto ’ s notion of analogy , rejected by Stace , is more robust . Aldrich points out a contradiction in Stace ’ s reliance on hierarchies of being and values to more adequately refer to God , as this implies continuity between the world and eternity , which Stace denies .
Julius Seelye Bixler reviewed the book twice , in 1952 and 1953 . In his first review he wrote that he believed Stace was trying to have his cake and eat it with regards to the truth of both naturalism and mysticism . Bixler also wonders whether the revelation of God can really be free of concepts and thus whether time and eternity are utterly unrelated as Stace maintains . He identifies points in Stace ’ s thought where there is continuity between these two states and mystical language does appear to refer to concepts . Finally he rejects the book ’ s analogy of mystical experience to the evocative power of art , maintaining that art must be somewhat related to logic . Nonetheless , Bixler does concur that the book is a fascinating confessio fidei and personal statement . A year later , he reviewed Time and Eternity alongside Religion and the Modern Mind . As well as reiterating the points he had made earlier , Bixler judges the second book more favourably and recommends reading the two together to better understand the problems they address .
Stace was praised for his clarity and ambitious aims in Time and Eternity by Abraham Kaplan who believed the book was one of the best on the subject for many many years . He pointed out that the book ’ s distinction between the orders of time and eternity owed much to Kant ( which Stace himself acknowledged ) . Kaplan reflected that it was the book ’ s emphasis placed on mysticism and a universal religious intuition that would be of particular interest to students of “ Oriental and comparative philosophy ” . The central idea upon which Stace ’ s thought stands or falls , for Kaplan , is that religious language is evocative rather than descriptive . In this both religionists and naturalists will find problems . For the former , Stace can only account for the appropriateness of religious language by relying on ‘ nearness ’ to the divine rather than on resemblance , and this relies on ‘ a vague panpsychism ’ and levels of being in the manner of Samuel Alexander . While for the naturalist , Stace ’ s system of religious symbolism is doomed to remain mysterious , because it does not allow religious metaphors to be translated literally and neither can it be said how they evoke the experience to which they refer .
Also noting the unachievable ambition of solving the conflict between naturalism and religion , Martin A Greenman , remarks that one must come to the book “ with a certain mood ” . Too critical a mood would blind the reader to its religious insights , while the sensitivity and depth of its philosophic insights would be lost if one were to approach it in a too enthusiastically religious mood . Greenman finishes by justifying Stace ’ s philosophy to logical positivists by quoting from Wittgenstein 's Tractatus : “ My propositions are elucidatory in this way : he who understands me finally recognizes them as senseless , when he has climbed out through them , on them , over them … .He must surmount these propositions : then he sees the world rightly ” ( 6 . 54 . ) Dorothy M Emmet found issue with the notion that the mystical experience is the point of intersection between the temporal and eternal orders . She writes that there are difficulties in Stace defining these orders as two distinct “ orders of being ” , rather than just as a way of speaking , because this then means some statements about the temporal order are relevant to what is said about the eternal order and vice versa . Indeed , the interrelation between these two orders is difficult to maintain . She also questioned Stace ’ s characterisation of mystical consciousness as being the same everywhere .
More recently , Maurice Friedman writes about the book in the context of the various attempts to find a universal essence - or perennial philosophy - within religion . He finds that Time and Eternity is a more systematic attempt at this than those proposed by Aldous Huxley or Ananda Coomaraswamy , but no more successful . For Friedman , the philosophy that Stace lays out in the book is derived from metaphysical speculation ( that , like the ideas of Huxley and Coomaraswamy , is influenced by Vedanta ) , rather than mystical experience . Central to Friedman ’ s critique is the notion that there is a vast gulf between the mystical experience which Stace defines as beyond thought , and his philosophical system built on this . He also mentions that mystics do not always agree on what experiences , symbols and philosophies are the closest to the divine .
The book has received more positive support however . Robert C Neville called Time and Eternity “ the most sophisticated treatment of eternity and time in our century so far ” . In his Thought : A Very Short Introduction , Tim Bayne says the book contains a “ classic ” discussion of ineffability . American writer Arthur Goldwag has said that the phrase " that than which there is no other " that he encountered in Time and Eternity was one of a number of factors that contributed to him giving up praying .
= Rick Volk =
Richard Robert Volk ( born March 15 , 1945 ) is a former American football player who played for the Baltimore Colts , New York Giants , and Miami Dolphins . He retired with 38 career interceptions and 13 fumble recoveries , and totaled 574 yards on interception returns and 548 yards on punt returns .
Volk played college football for the University of Michigan from 1964 to 1966 and was a member of the 1964 team that won the Big Ten Conference championship and defeated Oregon State in the 1965 Rose Bowl . He played as a defensive back for Michigan 's defensive unit and as a halfback and quarterback for the offensive unit . Volk was also selected by the Sporting News as a first @-@ team All @-@ American in 1967 . In 1989 , he was inducted into the University of Michigan Athletic Hall of Honor ; Volk and Ron Johnson were the first two football players from the 1960s to be so honored .
Volk went on to a successful 12 @-@ year career as a safety in the National Football League . He played nine years with the Baltimore Colts from 1967 to 1975 . He was a member of the Colts ' teams that lost Super Bowl III to the New York Jets and won Super Bowl V against the Dallas Cowboys . Volk was selected as an NFL All @-@ Pro four times ( 1968 – 1971 ) and played in three Pro Bowls ( 1967 , 1969 , 1971 ) . After being released by the Colts in April 1976 , Volk concluded his playing career with the New York Giants in 1976 and the Miami Dolphins from 1977 to 1978 . In 1977 , Volk was selected by Baltimore fans as a starter for the Colts ' 25th anniversary team .
= = Early years = =
Volk was born in Toledo , Ohio , in 1945 . He attended Wauseon High School in Wauseon , Ohio , where he was a three @-@ sports star . He was an all @-@ league basketball and baseball player and also played quarterback on the football team .
= = University of Michigan = =
Volk enrolled at the University of Michigan in 1963 . His decision to attend Michigan rather than Ohio State was influenced by family ties , including Bob Chappuis , who was Volk 's uncle and finished second in the Heisman Trophy voting while playing for the undefeated 1947 Wolverines . Volk noted :
" I had all these stories growing up . He [ Bob Chappuis ] was my hero , so I always wanted to go to Michigan . ... And I didn 't like Woody [ Hayes ] anyway . It was just my Grandpa telling me because he didn 't like Woody , and he hoped Woody would choke on his Thanksgiving turkey . ... Because of Uncle Bob going to Michigan , that 's where I wanted to go . You know , I loved the helmets , loved the uniforms . I said ' Hey , if I could just sit on the bench , that 's all I care about . ' "
At Michigan , Volk was a three @-@ year starter from 1964 to 1966 . Prior to the start of the 1964 season , he was given jersey no . 49 , the same number worn by his uncle when he played for Michigan . During the 1964 season , Volk played at the halfback position on both offense and defense and also served as a backup at quarterback to Bob Timberlake . In his first game for the Wolverines , he intercepted a pass in the end zone against Air Force . In his second game , he helped the Michigan defense hold scoreless a high @-@ scoring Navy team led by Hall of Fame quarterback Roger Staubach . He also threw a 33 @-@ yard touchdown pass against Northwestern in October 1964 . In a close victory over Minnesota , after the Golden Gophers had cut Michigan 's lead to five points and advanced the ball to Michigan 's 7 @-@ yard line , Volk " smashed through to down the Gopher ball carrier , and save the game on fourth down . " Volk was described by sports writer Joe Hendrickson as " instinctive — usually in the right place to mess things up for the opposition . " Volk helped the 1964 Michigan team win the Big Ten Conference championship and defeat Oregon State in the 1965 Rose Bowl by a score of 34 – 7 .
As a junior in 1965 , Volk started all 10 games for Michigan at cornerback and also started four games on offense as the left halfback . He was selected by both the Associated Press and the United Press International as a first @-@ team All @-@ Big Ten defensive back at the end of the 1965 season .
As a senior in 1966 , Volk started all 10 games at safety and also started 2 games at fullback , and even started one game as quarterback . At the conclusion of the 1966 season , he was selected as a first @-@ team All @-@ American by the Sporting News . At the conclusion of his college football career at Michigan , the Newspaper Editors Association distributed a feature story on Volk , describing him as follows :
" Rick Volk is a safety man who conjures up an image of homemade apple pie and pancakes smothered in maple syrup , Saturday night movies and picnics in a wooded grove . He is clear @-@ eyed and smooth @-@ cheeked , with a short tilted nose and a smile that shows white . He couldn 't be more pure mid @-@ Americana if he were framed by a billboard . "
Volk was invited to play on the College All @-@ Star team following his senior year . At the camp for the All @-@ Star team , he was rated by the scouts as " the best all @-@ around athlete among the high @-@ priced talent preparing for pro debuts . "
In 1989 , Volk was inducted into the University of Michigan Athletic Hall of Honor . He joined his uncle , Bob Chappuis , who was inducted into the Hall of Honor five years earlier in 1984 . Volk and Ron Johnson , both inducted in 1989 , were the first two football players from the 1960s to be inducted into the Hall of Honor .
= = Professional football = =
= = = Baltimore Colts = = =
Volk played as a free safety for twelve seasons in the NFL . He was selected four times as an NFL All @-@ Pro ( 1968 @-@ 1971 ) and played three times in the Pro Bowl ( 1967 , 1969 , 1971 ) . Volk also played in the Super Bowl twice for the Baltimore Colts as a member of the Super Bowl III team and the Super Bowl V winning team .
He made a name for himself as a rookie in 1967 by recovering an onside kick to help the Colts defeat the Packers . He also set a Colts team record for the longest interception runback with a 94 @-@ yard touchdown return against Chicago in November 1967 . Volk 's interception of the pass intended for Brian Piccolo was his third interception in four games . For his performance against the Bears , he was named the NFL 's Defensive Player of the Week . At the end of his rookie season , Volk was chosen to play in his first Pro Bowl game .
In his second season with the team , Volk intercepted 6 passes and totaled 154 yards on interception returns . He also returned 25 punts for 198 yards ( 6th best in the NFL ) in 1968 . He was selected as a first @-@ team NFL All @-@ Pro player at the end of the 1968 NFL season by the Pro Football Writers , the Newspaper Ent . Association , and the United Press International . The Colts won the NFL championship in 1968 and played Joe Namath 's AFL champion New York Jets in Super Bowl III . Volk was knocked unconscious during Super Bowl III when he collided helmet @-@ to @-@ helmet with Jets fullback Matt Snell . Volk was rushed to the hospital after he went into convulsions . He was put in the intensive care ward for two days and moved to a regular room on the Tuesday after the game .
In 1970 , Volk helped lead the Colts to another Super Bowl appearance , but were now representing the AFC following the merger of the two leagues ( NFL and AFL ) that year . This time , the Colts defeated the Dallas Cowboys in Super Bowl V. Volk was responsible for covering Pro Football Hall of Famers Bob Hayes and Mike Ditka in the Super Bowl , and he played a key role in the Colts ' victory . In the fourth quarter , the Colts trailed the Cowboys 13 – 6 . Volk intercepted a pass by Cowboys quarterback Craig Morton at the Dallas 33 @-@ yard line and returned it 30 yards to the 3 @-@ yard line to set up the tying touchdown . Baltimore quarterback Earl Morrall later referred to Volk 's interception as the play of the game . Interviewed in 2009 , Volk cited Super Bowl V as his fondest memory of playing in Baltimore . He recalled team owner Carroll Rosenbloom flying the whole team , families included , to the Bahamas the day after the game : " The next day we all got on the plane and flew over to the Bahamas . He took the whole family – my wife and one kid , at the time . I remember we were on the beach , Tom Mitchell and I , and we got the paper to make sure it was really true - that we did win . Because this was like a dream come true on the sand beaches in the Bahamas . "
Volk had his best season in 1971 when he was picked as a first @-@ team NFL All @-@ Pro by the Associated Press , Pro Football Writers , and the Newspaper Ent . Association . He remained with Colts for nine years and was one of the last players from the Super Bowl V champions to remain with the team . In 1974 , one Maryland sports writer noted that Volk remained a solid performer : " Although the Colts suffered through an overall dismal campaign in 1973 , Volk remained one of the few solid performers in an otherwise lackluster season . " In June 1975 , Volk prepared for his ninth season with the Colts as one columnist wrote :
" Rick Volk has seen both ends of the rainbow in his tenure with the Baltimore Colts . The personable veteran defensive back has known the sweet taste of success , attested by the Super Bowl ring he often wears , and also has survived the agony of defeat — especially after people like Don Shula , John Unitas , Bubba Smith and Tom Matte were no longer wanted or appreciated in the Monumental City . "
Volk was placed on waivers by the Colts in April of 1976 ; he was picked up by the Denver Broncos one week later . With Volk 's departure , punter David Lee was the sole remaining player on the Baltimore roster from the 1970 Super Bowl team .
In October 1977 , Volk was selected as a starter on the Colts ' 25th anniversary team . The team was selected by the fans in Baltimore , and the only players at any position to receive more votes than Volk were David Lee , Johnny Unitas , Raymond Berry , Alan Ameche , Gino Marchetti , John Mackey , Mike Curtis , Art Donovan , Alex Sandusky , Jim Parker and Bobby Boyd .
= = = New York Giants = = =
Volk was cut by the Broncos in August 1976 and signed by the Miami Dolphins two weeks later . He did not play for the Dolphins in 1976 and was signed mid @-@ season by the New York Giants . Volk played in 8 games for the Giants in 1976 and tallied 2 interceptions and a fumble recovery . Volk was cut by the Giants in early September 1977 , shortly before the start of the regular season . Volk recalled the disappointment at being cut by the Giants at age 32 : " I felt I should have been in New York , but they went with younger people . I was very disappointed , especially to get cut at the end of training camp . I 'd done all the hard training and was ready for the season – the fun time . " He returned to his home in Baltimore and worked during the fall as a manufacturer 's representative .
= = = Miami Dolphins = = =
Volk signed with the Miami Dolphins for the final month of the 1977 NFL season . He played in three games for the 1977 Miami Dolphins and had one interception ( off Buffalo Bills quarterback Joe Ferguson ) . Miami head coach Don Shula , who had worked with Volk in Baltimore , said , " We got him in the last four games , and he showed us some great hitting . He also didn 't seem to have lost any speed . "
During the 1978 NFL season , Volk appeared in all 16 games for the Dolphins , 13 of them as a starter . Volk started the season strong , intercepting a pass in the season opener against the New York Jets . In the second game of the season , the Dolphins played the Colts in Baltimore . Volk intercepted two passes against Baltimore quarterback Bill Troup and helped the Dolphins to a 42 – 0 win . After the game , Volk told reporters , " I wanted to have a good game in Baltimore , and I couldn 't have asked for anything better than the way it turned out . " While Volk began the 1978 season as a starter , he was replaced by Charlie Babb for the final four games . After the Dolphins lost the AFC wildcard game to the Oilers , Volk announced his retirement . Volk told reporters he had wanted to end his career with a championship team and added , " When the game 's over , you can 't worry about it . For most of the guys , there 'll be another season . For me , this is it . "
= = Later years = =
Volk began working as a manufacturer 's representative while still playing football , and continued in that business after retiring from the game . Interviewed in 2009 , Volk was selling industrial equipment to steel mills .
= Ring Off ( song ) =
" Ring Off " is a song by American singer Beyoncé , taken from the reissue of her fifth studio album Beyoncé ( 2013 ) , subtitled More Only ( 2014 ) . The song was released on November 28 , 2014 to contemporary hit radio in Italy and urban adult contemporary in the United States as the second single from the reissue . A midtempo reggae @-@ tinged ballad which is built around a slight dancehall rhythm and dubstep @-@ influenced beats , " Ring Off " addresses the end of a marriage between Beyoncé 's parents . It was written in a form of open letter of encouragement for her mother Tina Knowles .
Upon the release of the Platinum Edition , " Ring Off " received mostly favorable reviews from music critics , who deemed it as one of the most personal songs ever released by Beyoncé . Commercially , the single appeared on a few record charts , including the US Bubbling Under Hot 100 , where it peaked at number 5 . It also charted in several European countries including France , the Netherlands and the United Kingdom .
= = Background = =
On November 4 , 2014 it was announced through a press release by Parkwood Entertainment that Beyoncé would release a platinum edition of her self @-@ titled fifth studio album on November 24 , 2014 , containing a disc on the album titled Beyoncé : More Only which would include two new songs titled " 7 / 11 " and " Ring Off " . On November 19 , 2014 , 30 @-@ second snippets of the two songs appeared online along with reports that " 7 / 11 " would impact radio stations on November 25 . The following day , the full versions of both songs surfaced on the Internet . " Ring Off " was released on November 28 , 2014 to Italian contemporary hit radio , alongside " 7 / 11 " . " Ring Off " also impacted urban adult contemporary radio in the United States .
= = Composition = =
" Ring Off " was written by Beyoncé , Mike Caren , William Lobban @-@ Bean , Geoff Early , Charles Hinshaw , Adam Amezaga , Dixie , Stephen Bishop , Chauncey Hollis , Mike Dean , and Sidney Swift . It is a midtempo ballad which runs at a duration of three minutes . It was described as a reggae @-@ tinged track by Gerrick Kennedy from the Los Angeles Times . Meanwhile , the New York Post 's Hardeep Phull opined that the song was built around a slight dancehall rhythm . Additionally , Allan Raible writing for ABC News noted the slightly dubstep @-@ influenced beats on " Ring Off " .
Lyrically , the song addresses the end of a marriage between Beyoncé 's parents Tina Knowles and Mathew Knowles . The lyrics are written in a form of an " open letter " in which the singer praises her mother 's courage for ending a dysfunctional marriage . At the beginning of the song , Beyoncé sings , " Mama , I understand your many sleepless nights / When you think about father / and how you tried to be the perfect wife ... I wish you didn ’ t hurt at all . " Alex Frank of Vogue noted how the song was thematically " an enlightened follow @-@ up " to " Single Ladies " , discussing a similar private subject matter for the singer . He further opined that the lyrics apply to other women who are part of toxic relationships .
The last part of " Ring Off " contains lyrics in which Beyoncé declares to her mother that " it 's your time to put your love on top " , encouraging her " to put herself and her own happiness first " ; these lyrics were noted to be a " witty " rework of the singer 's own song " Love on Top " ( 2011 ) . The song ends with portions of a speech delivered by Tina Knowles from the 2014 Texas Women 's Empowerment Foundation Leadership Luncheon .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Jim Farber from New York Daily News wrote that " Ring Off " is " very much worth downloading . " Robert Christgau named the track a " sisterly , daughterly " song . ABC News ' Allan Raible wrote that " Ring Off " was " the counterpoint " to Beyoncé 's previous song " Single Ladies ( Put a Ring on It ) " ( 2008 ) : " While that song is about settling down , this is an ode to ' starting over again . ' " On behalf of USA Today , Patrick Ryan labelled the track as a hybrid of " anthemic " sound of " XO " and " Caribbean vibes " of " Standing on the Sun " and " Grown Woman " . Lindsay Zoladz , a reviewer from Vulture , said that " Ring Off " " isn ’ t anything special " musically and likened the song 's style to that of Beyoncé 's previous songs " Schoolin ' Life " ( 2011 ) and " XO " ( 2013 ) . However , Zoladz complimented on the song 's lyrics , calling it " one of the most candidly personal songs Beyoncé ’ s ever released . " Vogue editor Alex Frank praised " Ring Off " for being an " epically good track , but more importantly , one of the most personal , profound songs she has ever released " . Daniel D 'Addario from Time magazine praised " Ring Off " as a " big step forward " in the singer 's music career , noting that it amplified the album 's theme with " an examination of the circumstances under which it ’ s better to be alone " . In 2014 , the song was placed at number 537 on the annual Pazz & Jop poll complied by The Village Voice .
= = = Chart performance = = =
" Ring Off " appeared on the French SNEP Singles Chart at number 110 on December 6 , 2014 , and remained for one week . In the Netherlands , the single debuted at number 84 on the Single Top 100 chart on December 6 , 2014 . The following week , it dropped to number 93 . The song also peaked at number 5 on the US Bubbling Under Hot 100 chart , a chart which acts as a 25 @-@ song extension to the Billboard Hot 100 . It had a better performance on the US Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart where it peaked at number 31 . In the United Kingdom , " Ring Off " debuted at number 81 on the UK Singles Chart in the chart issue dated December 6 , 2014 ; this placement also became its peak position in that country .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the singer 's official website and the album 's liner notes .
Song credits
Writing — Beyoncé Knowles , Mike Caren , William Lobban @-@ Bean , Geoff Early , Charles Hinshaw , Adam Amezaga , Dixie , Stephen Bishop , Chauncey Hollis , Mike Dean , Sidney Swift
Production — Caren , Knowles
Additional production — Hit @-@ Boy , Hazebanga , Preach Bal4 , Mike Dean
Vocals production — Knowles
Recording — Caren ; Mike 's House and Cook Classics at the Caryle , Los Angeles
Second engineering — Ramon Rivas , John Schacter
Audio mixing — Tony Maserati , Stuart White , Mirrorbal Studios , North Hollywood and Le Royal Monceau , Paris
Mix engineering — James Krause , Justin Hergett
Mix consulting — Derek Dixie
Mastering — Dave Kutch , The Mastering Palace , New York City
= = Weekly charts = =
= The Nightmare Before Christmas =
The Nightmare Before Christmas , often promoted as Tim Burton 's The Nightmare Before Christmas , is a 1993 American stop motion dark fantasy musical film directed by Henry Selick , and produced and conceived by Tim Burton . It tells the story of Jack Skellington , a character from " Halloween Town " who stumbles through a portal to " Christmas Town " and decides to celebrate the holiday , with some dastardly and comical consequences . Danny Elfman wrote the film score and voiced the singing role of Jack . The principal voice cast also includes Chris Sarandon , Catherine O 'Hara , William Hickey , Ken Page , Paul Reubens and Glenn Shadix .
The Nightmare Before Christmas originated in a poem written by Tim Burton in 1982 , while he was working as an animator at Walt Disney Feature Animation . With the success of Vincent in the same year , Walt Disney Studios began to consider developing The Nightmare Before Christmas as either a short film or 30 @-@ minute television special . Over the years , Burton 's thoughts regularly returned to the project , and in 1990 , he made a development deal with Disney . Production started in July 1991 in San Francisco . Disney released the film through the Touchstone Pictures banner because the studio believed the film would be " too dark , and scary for kids . "
The Nightmare Before Christmas was met with both critical and financial success . The film has since been reissued by Walt Disney Pictures and re @-@ released annually in the Disney Digital 3 @-@ D format from 2006 until 2009 , making it the first stop @-@ motion animated feature to be entirely converted to 3D .
= = Plot = =
The story starts in a forest called Holiday Woods with seven trees containing doors leading to towns representing various holidays : Valentine 's Day , St. Patrick 's Day , Easter , Thanksgiving , Christmas , Halloween and Independence Day . Halloween Town is a fantasy world filled with citizens such as deformed monsters , ghosts , ghouls , goblins , vampires , werewolves and witches . Jack Skellington , a skeleton known as The Pumpkin King , leads them in organizing the annual Halloween holiday ( " This is Halloween " ) . However , in a monologue , Jack reveals he has grown weary of the same routine year after year , and wants something more ( " Jack 's Lament " ) . Wandering dejectedly in the woods , he stumbles across the seven holiday doors and accidentally opens a portal to Christmas Town , whose residents are charged with organizing the annual Christmas holiday ( " What 's This ? " ) . Impressed by the bright and cheery feeling and style of Christmas , Jack presents his findings and his understanding of Christmas , to the Halloween Town residents . However , they fail to grasp his meaning and compare everything to their ideas of Halloween , although there is one Christmas character they can relate to : the fearsome lobster @-@ like king of Christmas Town who flies at night , named " Sandy Claws " ( " Town Meeting Song " ) . Jack is dismayed that no one understands the feeling of Christmas , obsessively tries to study the holiday but fails to grasp any further explanation of it . He ultimately decides that it 's unfair for Christmas Town alone to enjoy the feeling and there 's no reason why he shouldn 't be able to , and announces that the citizens of Halloween Town will take over Christmas this year ( " Jack 's Obsession " ) .
Jack 's obsession with Christmas leads him to usurp the role of Santa . Every resident is assigned a task , while Sally , a beautiful rag doll woman created by the town 's mad scientist , starts falling in love with Jack ( " Making Christmas " ) . However , after a vision of a burning Christmas tree , she alone realizes that his plans to run Christmas will become disastrous , but has no luck convincing him . Jack assigns Lock , Shock and Barrel , a trio of mischievous children , to abduct Santa and bring him back to Halloween Town ( " Kidnap The Sandy Claws " ) . Against Jack 's wishes and largely for their amusement , the trio deliver Santa to Oogie Boogie , a gambling @-@ addict bogeyman who plots to play a game with Santa 's life at stake ( " Oogie Boogie 's Song " ) .
Christmas Eve arrives and Sally attempts to stop Jack with fog , but fails to do so thanks to Jack 's ghost dog Zero and his glowing nose allowing Jack to embark into the sky on a coffin @-@ like sleigh pulled by skeletal reindeer , guided by Zero . Down on the ground , Sally prays that her premonition does not come true ( " Sally 's Song " ) . Jack begins to deliver presents to children around the world , but the gifts ( shrunken heads , Christmas tree @-@ eating snakes , pumpkin jack @-@ in @-@ the @-@ boxes , vampire teddy bears , toy ducks with sharp teeth , man @-@ eating wreaths , bats , etc . ) only terrify the recipients . The children alert their parents , who call the police , who call the military . The air raid siren is activated , and Jack is spotted with search lights , after which he is then shot at by air raid artillery cannons . Initially mistaking the firing for a celebration , he simply flies higher . However , after a reindeer is hit , and his sleigh is grazed , he realizes that he is being targeted , but the next cannon destroys the sleigh , and Jack falls from the sky to Earth , devastating Halloween Town 's citizens . Thought to have been dead by the attack , Jack crash @-@ lands in a cemetery unharmed . Although he is depressed by the failure of his plan , he quickly regains his old spirit , having come up with new ideas for next Halloween . He then rushes back home to rescue Santa and put things right ( " Poor Jack " ) .
Meanwhile , Sally attempts to free Santa , but is captured by Oogie . Jack slips into the lair and frees them , then angrily confronts Oogie . Almost immediately , Oogie springs several traps on Jack , who manages to dodge them , and Oogie attempts to flee . However , Jack pulls one of Oogie 's loose threads , revealing him to be nothing more than a collection of snakes and insects , which are all incinerated , save for the last one , which Santa squashes with his boot . Jack apologizes to Santa for his actions , and Santa , while still annoyed with Jack for attempting to take over his job , assures him that he can fix things , and leaves to get rid of the evil toys and deliver the right presents to the world 's children .
After Jack returns to Halloween Town , the townspeople celebrate that he 's alive , and Santa , after fixing Christmas , returns and makes snow fall over Halloween Town in reconciliation between himself and Jack . The townspeople are confused by the snow at first , but soon begin to play happily in it , finally realizing what Christmas is about . Jack spies Sally heading to the graveyard , and follows her . Atop the graveyard 's big hill , Jack admits that he reciprocates Sally 's romantic feelings for him , and they declare their new found love , and kiss on the hill ( " Finale / Reprise " ) .
= = Cast and characters = =
Chris Sarandon ( speaking voice ) and Danny Elfman ( singing voice ) as Jack Skellington : A skeleton known as the " Pumpkin King " of Halloween Town . He owns a ghost dog named Zero , who has a small , glowing jack @-@ o ' -lantern nose . Danny Elfman also voices Barrell , one of the trick @-@ or @-@ treaters working for Oogie Boogie .
Catherine O 'Hara as Sally : A rag doll @-@ like creation of Finklestein , and the growing love interest of Jack . She is an amateur toxicologist that uses various types of poison to liberate herself from the captivity of Finklestein . O 'Hara also voices Shock , one of the trick @-@ or @-@ treaters working for Oogie Boogie . She had previously co @-@ starred in Burton 's Beetlejuice ( 1988 ) .
William Hickey as Doctor Finklestein : A mad scientist , and the " father " of Sally .
Glenn Shadix as Mayor of Halloween Town : An enthusiastic leader who conducts town meetings . His wild mood swings from happy to distraught cause his head to spin between a " happy " and " sad " face ; where some career politicians are figuratively two @-@ faced , the Mayor is literally so . Burton and Shadix previously worked on Beetlejuice .
Ken Page as Oogie Boogie : A villainous bogeyman in Halloween Town , who has a passion for gambling .
Ed Ivory as Santa Claus : The leader of Christmas Town . Santa Claus is responsible for the annual celebration of Christmas , at which time he delivers presents to children around the world . Ivory also does the brief narration at the start of the film .
Paul Reubens as Lock . Reubens and Burton previously worked on Pee @-@ wee 's Big Adventure ( 1985 ) and Batman Returns ( 1992 ) .
Danny Elfman as Barrel . Elfman also does the singing voice of Jack Skellington .
The cast also features Kerry Katz , Carmen Twillie , Randy Crenshaw , Debi Durst , Glenn Walters , Sherwood Ball , and Greg Proops voicing various characters . Patrick Stewart recorded narration for a prologue and epilogue . While not used in the final film , the narration is included on the soundtrack album .
= = Production = =
As writer Tim Burton 's upbringing in Burbank , California was associated with the feeling of solitude , the filmmaker was largely fascinated by holidays during his childhood . " Anytime there was Christmas or Halloween , [ ... ] it was great . It gave you some sort of texture all of a sudden that wasn 't there before " , Burton would later recall . After completing his short film Vincent in 1982 , then @-@ Disney animator Burton wrote a three @-@ page poem titled The Nightmare Before Christmas , drawing inspiration from television specials of Rudolph the Red @-@ Nosed Reindeer , How the Grinch Stole Christmas ! and the poem A Visit from St. Nicholas . Burton intended to adapt the poem into a television special with the narration spoken by his favorite actor , Vincent Price , but also considered other options such as a children 's book . He created concept art and storyboards for the project in collaboration with Rick Heinrichs , who also sculpted character models ; Burton later showed his and Heinrichs ' works @-@ in @-@ progress to Henry Selick , also a Disney animator at the time . After the success of Vincent in 1982 , Disney started to consider developing The Nightmare Before Christmas as either a short film or 30 @-@ minute holiday television special . However , the project 's development eventually stalled , as its tone seemed " too weird " to the company . As Disney was unable to " offer his nocturnal loners enough scope " , Burton was fired from the studio in 1984 , and went on to direct the commercially successful films Beetlejuice and Batman .
Over the years , Burton regularly thought about the project . In 1990 , Burton found out that Disney still owned the film rights . He and Selick committed to produce a full @-@ length film with the latter as director . Disney was looking forward to Nightmare " to show capabilities of technical and storytelling achievements that were present in Who Framed Roger Rabbit . " Nightmare marked Burton 's third film in a row to have a Christmas setting . Burton could not direct because of his commitment to Batman Returns and he did not want to be involved with " the painstakingly slow process of stop motion " . To adapt his poem into a screenplay , Burton approached Michael McDowell , his collaborator on Beetlejuice . McDowell and Burton experienced creative differences , which convinced Burton to make the film as a musical with lyrics and compositions by frequent collaborator Danny Elfman . Elfman and Burton created a rough storyline and two @-@ thirds of the film 's songs , while Selick and his team of animators began production in July 1991 in San Francisco , California with a crew of over 120 workers , utilizing 20 sound stages for filming . Joe Ranft was hired from Disney as a storyboard supervisor , while Eric Leighton was hired to supervise animation . At the peak of production , 20 individual stages were simultaneously being used for filming . In total , there were 109 @,@ 440 frames taken for the movie .
Elfman found writing Nightmare 's 11 songs as " one of the easiest jobs I 've ever had . I had a lot in common with Jack Skellington . " Caroline Thompson still had yet to be hired to write the screenplay . With Thompson 's screenplay , Selick stated , " there are very few lines of dialogue that are Caroline 's . She became busy on other films and we were constantly rewriting , reconfiguring and developing the film visually . " The work of Ray Harryhausen , Ladislas Starevich , Edward Gorey , Charles Addams , Jan Lenica , Francis Bacon and Wassily Kandinsky influenced the filmmakers . Selick described the production design as akin to a pop @-@ up book . In addition , Selick stated , " When we reach Halloween Town , it 's entirely German Expressionism . When Jack enters Christmas Town , it 's an outrageous Dr. Seuss @-@ esque setpiece . Finally , when Jack is delivering presents in the ' Real World ' , everything is plain , simple and perfectly aligned . "
On the direction of the film , Selick reflected , " It 's as though he [ Burton ] laid the egg , and I sat on it and hatched it . He wasn 't involved in a hands @-@ on way , but his hand is in it . It was my job to make it look like ' a Tim Burton film ' , which is not so different from my own films . " When asked on Burton 's involvement , Selick claimed , " I don 't want to take away from Tim , but he was not in San Francisco when we made it . He came up five times over two years , and spent no more than eight or ten days in total . " Walt Disney Feature Animation contributed with some use of second @-@ layering traditional animation . Burton found production somewhat difficult because he was directing Batman Returns and in pre @-@ production of Ed Wood .
= = = Character design = = =
The filmmakers constructed 227 puppets to represent the characters in the movie , with Jack Skellington having " around four hundred heads " , allowing the expression of every possible emotion . Sally 's mouth movements " were animated through the replacement method . During the animation process , [ ... ] only Sally 's face ' mask ' was removed in order to preserve the order of her long , red hair . Sally had ten types of faces , each made with a series of eleven expressions ( e.g. eyes open and closed , and various facial poses ) and synchronised mouth movements . "
The stop motion figurine of Jack Skellington was reused in James and the Giant Peach ( also directed by Selick ) as Captain Jack .
= = = Marketing = = =
The owners of the franchise have undertaken an extensive marketing campaign of these characters across many media . In addition to the Haunted Mansion Holiday at Disneyland featuring the film 's characters , Jack Skellington , Sally , Pajama Jack , and the Mayor have been made into Bendies figures , while Jack and Sally even appear in fine art . Moreover , Sally has been made into an action figure and a Halloween costume . A Jack Skellington figurine is available for the Disney Infinity video game , allowing the character to be playable in the game 's " Toy Box Mode " . Jack is also the titular character in the short story " Tim Burton 's The Nightmare Before Christmas : Jack 's Story " .
Jim Edwards contends that " Tim Burton 's animated movie The Nightmare Before Christmas is really a movie about the marketing business . The movie 's lead character , Jack Skellington , the chief marketing officer ( CMO ) for a successful company , decides that his success is boring and he wants the company to have a different business plan . "
= = Soundtracks = =
The film 's soundtrack album was released in 1993 on Walt Disney Records . For the film 's 2006 re @-@ release in Disney Digital 3 @-@ D , a special edition of the soundtrack was released , featuring a bonus disc which contained covers of five of the film 's songs by Fall Out Boy , Panic ! at the Disco , Marilyn Manson , Fiona Apple , and She Wants Revenge . Four original demo tracks by Elfman were also included . On September 30 , 2008 , Disney released the cover album Nightmare Revisited , featuring artists such as Amy Lee , Flyleaf , Korn , Rise Against , Plain White T 's , The All @-@ American Rejects , and many more .
American gothic rock band London After Midnight featured a cover of " Sally 's Song " on their 1998 album Oddities .
LiLi Roquelin did a French cover of " Sally 's Song " which was released on her album Will you hate the rest of the world or will you renew your life ? in 2010 .
Another soundtrack released in 2003 was the Disneyland Haunted Mansion Holiday CD . Although most were not original songs from the movie , one song provided on the CD is a medley of " Making Christmas " , " What 's This ? " , and " Kidnap the Santy Claws " . Other songs included are original holiday songs changed to incorporate the theme of the movie . The last song on the list , however , is the soundtrack for the Disneyland Haunted Mansion Holiday ride .
The film was also one of the inspiration for Blink @-@ 182 's " I Miss You " , with its grim mood and lyrical references like " have Hallowe 'en on Christmas " and " Jack and Sally " .
= = Release = =
Disney decided to release the film under their Touchstone Pictures banner because they thought the film would be " too dark and scary for kids " , Selick remembered . " Their biggest fear , and why it was kind of a stepchild project , [ was ] they were afraid of their core audience hating the film and not coming . " To help market the film , " It was released as Tim Burton 's The Nightmare Before Christmas , " Burton explained . " But it turned more into more of a brand @-@ name thing , it turned into something else , which I 'm not quite sure about . " The film premiered at the New York Film Festival on October 9 .
= = = Home media = = =
With successful home video sales , Nightmare achieved the ranks of a cult film . Touchstone Home Video first released the film on VHS on September 30 , 1994 , and on DVD on December 2 , 1997 . The DVD release contained no special features . Nightmare was released a second time on October 3 , 2000 as a special edition . The release included an audio commentary by Selick and cinematographer Pete Kozachik , a 28 @-@ minute making @-@ of documentary , a gallery of concept art , storyboards , test footage and deleted scenes . Burton 's Vincent and Frankenweenie were also included . Both DVDs were non @-@ anamorphic widescreen releases .
Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment released the film on DVD again ( this time with an anamorphic transfer ) and on Blu @-@ ray Disc ( for the first time ) in August 2008 as a two @-@ disc digitally remastered " collector 's edition " , but still containing the same special features .
Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment released The Nightmare Before Christmas on Blu @-@ ray 3D on August 30 , 2011 . The release is a 3 @-@ disc combo pack including a Blu @-@ ray 3D disc , Blu @-@ ray Disc and a DVD that includes both a DVD and digital copy of the film .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
The film initially received positive reviews from critics ; it has since gone on to receive widespread critical acclaim . On Rotten Tomatoes , the film holds a rating of 94 % , based on 88 reviews , with an average rating of 8 @.@ 2 / 10 . The site 's consensus reads , " The Nightmare Before Christmas is a stunningly original and visually delightful work of stop @-@ motion animation . " On Metacritic the film has a score of 77 out of 100 , based on 16 critics , indicating " generally favorable reviews " .
Roger Ebert gave a highly positive review for Nightmare . Ebert believed the film 's visual effects were as revolutionary as Star Wars , taking into account that Nightmare was " filled with imagination that carries us into a new world " .
Peter Travers of Rolling Stone called it a restoration of " originality and daring to the Halloween genre . This dazzling mix of fun and fright also explodes the notion that animation is kid stuff . ... It 's 74 minutes of timeless movie magic . " James Berardinelli stated " The Nightmare Before Christmas has something to offer just about everyone . For the kids , it 's a fantasy celebrating two holidays . For the adults , it 's an opportunity to experience some light entertainment while marveling at how adept Hollywood has become at these techniques . There are songs , laughs , and a little romance . In short , The Nightmare Before Christmas does what it intends to : entertain . " Desson Thomson of The Washington Post enjoyed stylistic features in common with Oscar Wilde , German Expressionism , the Brothers Grimm and The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari .
Michael A. Morrison discusses the influence of Dr. Seuss ' How the Grinch Stole Christmas ! on the film , writing that Jack parallels the Grinch and Zero parallels Max , the Grinch 's dog . Philip Nel writes that the film " challenges the wisdom of adults through its trickster characters " , contrasting Jack as a " good trickster " with Oogie Boogie , whom he also compares with Dr. Seuss ' Dr. Terwilliker as a bad trickster . Entertainment Weekly reports that fan reception of these characters borders on obsession , profiling Laurie and Myk Rudnick , a couple whose " degree of obsession with [ the ] film is so great that ... they named their son after the real @-@ life person that a character in the film is based on . " This enthusiasm for the characters has also been profiled as having spread beyond North America to Japan .
Yvonne Tasker notes " the complex characterization seen in The Nightmare Before Christmas " . Most recently , the film ranked # 1 on Rotten Tomatoes ' " Top 25 Best Christmas Movies " list .
Danny Elfman was worried the characterization of Oogie Boogie would be considered racist by the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People ( NAACP ) . Elfman 's predictions came true ; however , director Henry Selick stated the character was inspired by the Betty Boop cartoon The Old Man of the Mountain . " Cab Calloway would dance his inimitable jazz dance and sing ' Minnie the Moocher ' or ' Old Man of the Mountain ' , and they would rotoscope him , trace him , turn him into a cartoon character , often transforming him into an animal , like a walrus , " Selick continued . " I think those are some of the most inventive moments in cartoon history , in no way racist , even though he was sometimes a villain . We went with Ken Page , who is a black singer , and he had no problem with it " .
Nightmare has inspired video game spin @-@ offs , including Oogie 's Revenge and The Pumpkin King , and is among the many Disney @-@ owned franchises that contribute to the mythology of the Kingdom Hearts series . A trading card game is also available . Since 2001 , Disneyland has held a Nightmare Before Christmas theme for its Haunted Mansion Holiday attraction .
= = = Box office = = =
Around the release of the film , Disney executive David Hoberman was quoted , " I hope Nightmare goes out and makes a fortune . If it does , great . If it doesn 't , that doesn 't negate the validity of the process . The budget was less than any Disney blockbuster so it doesn 't have to earn Aladdin @-@ sized grosses to satisfy us . " Tim Burton 's The Nightmare Before Christmas was given a limited release on October 15 , 1993 , before being wide released on October 29 . The film earned $ 50 million in the United States on its first theatrical run .
On October 20 , 2006 , Walt Disney Pictures reissued Nightmare ( no longer under Touchstone ) with conversion to Disney Digital 3 @-@ D. Industrial Light & Magic assisted in the process . It made a further $ 8 @.@ 7 million in box office gross . Subsequently , the 3 @-@ D version of Nightmare has been re @-@ released annually in October . The 2007 and 2008 reissues earned $ 14 @.@ 5 million and $ 1 @.@ 1 million , respectively , increasing the film 's total box office gross to $ 75 million . The El Capitan Theatre in Hollywood , California has been showing the film in 4 @-@ D screenings annually in October , ending on Halloween , since 2010 . The reissues have led to a reemergence of 3 @-@ D films and advances in RealD Cinema .
= = = Accolades = = =
The film was nominated for both the Academy Award for Best Visual Effects and the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation . Nightmare won the Saturn Award for Best Fantasy Film , while Elfman won Best Music . Selick and the animators were also nominated for their work . Elfman was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Score .
The American Film Institute nominated The Nightmare Before Christmas for its Top 10 Animated Films list .
= = Possible sequel = =
In 2001 , Walt Disney Pictures began to consider producing a sequel , but rather than using stop motion , Disney wanted to use computer animation . Burton convinced Disney to drop the idea . " I was always very protective of Nightmare not to do sequels or things of that kind , " Burton explained . " You know , ' Jack visits Thanksgiving world ' or other kinds of things just because I felt the movie had a purity to it and the people that like it ... Because it 's a mass @-@ market kind of thing , it was important to kind of keep that purity of it . " The 2005 video game The Nightmare Before Christmas : Oogie 's Revenge did continue the story of the film , with Capcom 's crew of developers going after Tim Burton for advice , and having the collaboration of the film 's art director , Deane Taylor . In 2009 , Selick said he would do a film sequel if he and Burton could create a good story for it .
Characters from The Nightmare Before Christmas have also had cameos in Disney and Square Enix 's role @-@ playing game series , Kingdom Hearts . In the majority of these games , Jack acts as a partner to the main character . In the first game , Jack attempts to liven up Halloween by giving a heart created by Dr. Finklestein to a Heartless , but the experiment goes wrong and the heart soon is taken by Oogie Boogie . In Kingdom Hearts : Chain of Memories , he tries to help the protagonist , Sora , regain his memories . In Kingdom Hearts II , Halloween Town and its inhabitants are seen , while Jack rekindles his notion of taking over Santa 's job . In the prequel game Kingdom Hearts 358 / 2 Days , Jack seeks inspiration for livening up his Halloween by paying attention to the actions of the protagonist , Roxas .
In September 2001 , Disneyland 's Haunted Mansion attraction was redesigned with characters , decorations and music from the movie . This attraction is called the Haunted Mansion Holiday , and remains in operation through the Christmas season . It takes ride goers on a what @-@ if adventure of if Jack , as " Sandy Claws , " had visited the Haunted Mansion on Christmas Eve , leaving holiday chaos in his wake .
= = Related media = =
A video game developed by Capcom , The Nightmare Before Christmas : Oogie 's Revenge , was released for PlayStation 2 and Xbox on October 21 , 2004 in Japan , September 30 , 2005 in Europe and October 10 , 2005 in North America . Set after the events of the film , the player controls Jack as he fights against Oogie Boogie , who is revived and takes over Halloween Town and plots to take over all of the Holiday Worlds . Another game ( a prequel this time ) , The Nightmare Before Christmas : The Pumpkin King , was developed by Tose Co . , Ltd. and was released for the Game Boy Advance in 2005 . A Jack Skellington figure was released for Disney Infinity in October 2013 .
A collectible card game based on the film called The Nightmare Before Christmas TCG was released in 2005 by NECA . The game was designed by Quixotic Games founder Andrew Parks and Kez Shlasnger . It consists of a Premiere set and 4 Starter Decks based on four characters , Jack Skellington , the Mayor , Oogie Boogie , and Doctor Finklestein . Each Starter Deck contains a rule book , a Pumpkin King card , a Pumpkin Points card , and a 48 @-@ card deck . The game has four card types : Characters , Locales , Creations , and Surprises . The Cards ' rarities are separated into four categories : Common , Uncommon , Rare , Ultra Rare .
Quixotic Games also developed The Nightmare Before Christmas Party Game that was released in 2007 by NECA .
A collector 's edition The Nightmare Before Christmas @-@ themed Jenga game was issued with orange , purple and black blocks with Jack Skellington heads on them . The set comes in a coffin @-@ shaped box instead of the normal rectangular box .
A 168 @-@ card Munchkin Tim Burton 's The Nightmare Before Christmas @-@ themed Munchkin was developed by USAopoly featuring the citizens of Halloween Town such as Jack Skellington , Oogie Boogie , Doctor Finklestein and Lock , Shock and Barrel . The game comes with a custom die similar to the ones used by Oogie Boogie in the film .
= The Show Where Sam Shows Up =
" The Show Where Sam Shows Up " is the 16th episode of the second season of the American sitcom Frasier . This episode originally aired on Tuesday , February 21 , 1995 , on NBC , intended as part of a February ratings sweep by the network . It features a central guest appearance of Ted Danson as Sam Malone , a recovering sex addict , bartender and ex @-@ baseball player . In this episode Sam arrives to Seattle to see his old friend Frasier , and then is introduced to Frasier 's family at a dinner in Frasier 's home . During the visit , it 's discovered that Sam was to get married to a woman named Sheila , who previously had a one @-@ night stand with Frasier . Then Sam finds out about Sheila 's dalliance with other men rather than with Frasier , much to Frasier 's relief , which ends Sam 's relationship with her . Danson 's appearance in this episode has received mixed reviews , and the positive highlight about it is his interaction with the cast of Frasier .
= = Plot = =
= = = Act One = = =
Bartender and ex @-@ baseball player Sam Malone ( Ted Danson ) from Cheers arrives in Seattle to see his psychiatrist friend Frasier Crane at the KACL @-@ FM radio station , and then Frasier becomes very happy and overjoyed by his arrival . According to Sam , after the 1993 Cheers finale , " One for the Road " , lives have changed since Frasier left Boston . Former bar manager of Cheers , Rebecca Howe , was dumped by her plumber husband Don Santry , who became rich after a successful plumbing invention , and then she settled her life back into the bar without intent to work there again . Bartender Woody Boyd and his wife , Kelly Gaines @-@ Boyd , have a son , who is smarter than his parents . A bar regular patron and postman Cliff Clavin still lives with his mother , stops attending the bar , and has not left home after he read information about a flesh @-@ eating bacteria .
= = = " Martin Rises from the Dead " = = =
Then Frasier brings Sam home for dinner and introduces him to his family : his father Martin ( John Mahoney ) who is an ex @-@ cop and a baseball fan of Sam Malone , his brother Niles ( David Hyde Pierce ) who is also a psychiatrist , and his housekeeper Daphne Moon ( Jane Leeves ) . During the family introduction , Sam explains that , as mentioned in Cheers , Frasier 's father was supposed to be a dead scientist and that Frasier is supposed to be the only child , much to dismay of Frasier 's family . Frasier explains the inconsistency , indicating that he had an argument with Martin , which motivated him into making up the " dead scientist father " story .
Then Daphne becomes charmed by Sam 's flirts on her , as well , which enrages Niles , who has a secret crush on Daphne . Frasier tells Niles that Sam has a sexual addiction and assures Niles that Sam still attends group meetings of sexual addicts , recommended by Frasier in the Cheers episode " The Guy Can 't Help It " ( 1993 ) . Meanwhile , Sam and Martin enjoy their conversation together , and Frasier learns that Sam was supposed to marry a woman named Sheila " yesterday " .
After joyous family gathering , with Frasier and Sam alone in the living room , Sam confesses to Frasier that he has a relationship with Sheila for six months and that Sam left her at the wedding altar . Frasier assures Sam that Sam has wedding jitters and that Sam is ready to leave his old empty sex life behind in favor of a committed relationship . Frasier advises him to continue this relationship and to be always honest to her , especially about leaving her at the altar .
= = = " A Dirty Little Secret " = = =
At the café , Sam introduces his fiancée Sheila ( Téa Leoni ) to Frasier . After short conversation , Frasier realizes that Sheila is the woman with whom he slept three months ago . Then Frasier goes to the hotel room , at where she and Sam are staying . Sheila explains that she is also a sex addict , like Sam , and that Sam and she met for the first time at one of group meetings of sexual addicts . Frasier begs her not to tell Sam about their short @-@ time affair . Suddenly , Sam arrives into the room and then , in order to be honest to her , confesses to Sheila that , at the day of their engagement , Sam slept with another woman twice . Then Sheila confesses that she slept with other two regular patrons : Paul ( " short , bald , fat " ) and then Cliff Clavin . Though he forgives her dalliance with Paul , Sam is disgusted to learn about Cliff and breaks off his relationship with Sheila . ( When she turns to Frasier for help , he is equally disgusted about Cliff . )
At Frasier 's car , Sam , at Frasier 's relief and hesistance to confess , still does not find out about his fling with Sheila , yet Sam is bothered that Cliff and she made a fling together , and is relieved to go back to Boston . Frasier assures Sam that Sam has proven himself to be competent for a " meaningful " committed relationship , even if Sheila is " not the one " . However , Frasier begins to frown by Sam 's plans to pursue a cocktail waitress at an airport bar .
= = Reception = =
This episode originally aired on NBC on Tuesday , February 21 , 1995 , at 9 : 00 pm ( Eastern ) / 8 : 00 pm ( Central ) as part of the February ratings sweep , rivaling against ABC 's Home Improvement , CBS 's television movie Falling for You , and Fox 's broadcast of the 1992 film Housesitter , and landed on No. 6 with an 18 @.@ 8 rating and a 27 share .
Mike Drew from Milwaukee Journal Sentinel rated this episode three and a half stars out of four and praised Cheers character Sam Malone 's guest appearance in this episode , even if he disdained Sam 's sexual escapades . John Martin , a syndicate writer from The New York Times , found Sam 's interaction with characters of Frasier brilliant , especially Daphne Moon . Ginny Holbert from Chicago Sun @-@ Times rated this episode , three and a half stars out of four , as well , and called it a must for Cheers fans and trivia buffs who wanted inconsistencies of Frasier 's family background " [ cleared ] up " . Dusty Saunders from Rocky Mountain News was marveled by the comparison between " the macho Sam and the unathletic Niles " and presented blend of " the macho , rakish spirit of Cheers and the neurotic , off @-@ the @-@ wall style of Frasier . " Rick Kushman from The Sacramento Bee praised a reunion between two friends , Sam Malone and Frasier Crane , even when they are different from each other .
On the other hand , Donna Callea from The Daytona Beach News @-@ Journal found this episode disappointing , called Ted Danson 's guest reprisal as Sam Malone a ratings ploy , considered Danson 's performance apathetic and uncomforting , and saw a reunion between Sam and Frasier Crane not well @-@ executed . Frazier Moore from The Associated Press called Sam 's appearance a ratings ploy , as well , but a must @-@ see for a Cheers fan and any other viewer who lacks interest on the show Frasier . Elaine Liner from Corpus Christi Caller @-@ Times found Sam Malone " sheepish " in this episode . Scott D. Pierce from Deseret News found this episode not as good as previous Frasier episodes that featured Frasier 's ex @-@ wife , Lilith Sternin ( Bebe Neuwirth ) , Sam " old and [ tiring ] " in Frasier , and Danson 's performance " lethargic " , but Sam D. Pierce found some of its moments funny , especially from " fresh " Niles . Reviews from Frasier Online , a fan dedication website for the show Frasier , were mixed . Some liked Sam 's interaction with Frasier 's family but found a romantic story and its scenes between Ted Danson and Téa Leoni poorly executed . One found Cheers references not suitable for viewers not familiar with the show 's predecessor Cheers , especially ones used for humor .
= L.A. Takedown =
L.A. Takedown , also called L.A. Crimewave and Made in L.A. , is a 1989 crime thriller . Originally filmed as an unsuccessful pilot for an NBC television series , it was reworked and aired as a stand @-@ alone TV film . The film was later released on VHS and , in Region 2 , on DVD . L.A. Takedown was written and directed by Michael Mann and its ensemble cast includes Scott Plank , Alex McArthur , Michael Rooker , Daniel Baldwin , and Xander Berkeley . Scott Plank starred as Vincent Hanna , a detective on the hunt for professional criminal Patrick McLaren , played by McArthur ; the story was based on the real @-@ life investigation of Chicago criminal Neil McCauley . The film is best known as the basis for the 1995 film Heat . The film was moderately well received in retrospective reviews , but remains overshadowed by its remake .
= = Synopsis = =
Los Angeles robbery @-@ homicide sergeant Vincent Hanna ( Plank ) is on the trail of a gang of ruthless professional criminals , led by the methodical Patrick McLaren ( McArthur ) , whose only mistake in the last heist was the killing of armored car guards by the new recruit , Waingro ( Berkeley ) , who is a loose cannon . But Hanna is soon surprised when he discovers that he and McLaren have quite a lot in common . While McLaren and his gang plan another heist , Hanna and his colleagues keep surveillance . Hanna is facing a personal problem , as the police work is straining his relationship with his wife , Lillian ( Pouget ) . Moreover , McLaren is also facing a similar problem when he finds himself falling in love with Eady ( Harrington ) , which he personally condemns due to the commitment required to his profession .
Things then take a turn for the very worst , as McLaren unsuccessfully attempts to kill Waingro , who in turn betrays the team to the police . When Hanna arrives on the scene unexpectedly with the police , McLaren and his crew engage them in a mid @-@ street shootout , in which most of McLaren 's crew are killed . After making an unlikely escape , McLaren is presented with an opportunity to leave Los Angeles for a new life with Eady , but he decides to first take revenge for Waingro 's betrayal . However , after McLaren tracks down Waingro in a hotel room , he is ambushed by Hanna and his team . Waingro takes advantage of the confusion to shoot McLaren through a closed door . In retaliation for McLaren 's murder , Hanna kills Waingro . In the final sequences of the film , Hanna is reunited with his wife .
= = Cast = =
Scott Plank as Vincent Hanna , sergeant of detectives working for the Los Angeles Police Department Robbery @-@ Homicide division .
Alex McArthur as Patrick McLaren , professional robber , head of his own gang of criminals .
Michael Rooker as Detective Bosko , Hanna 's second @-@ in @-@ command .
Ely Pouget as Lillian Hanna , Vincent Hanna 's estranged wife .
Vincent Guastaferro as Michael Cerrito .
Victor Rivers as Detective Arriaga .
Richard Chaves as Detective Lou Casals .
Laura Harrington as Eady , McLaren 's love interest .
Peter Dobson as Chris Sheherlis .
Xander Berkeley as Waingro , a new recruit to McLaren 's gang .
Daniel Baldwin as Detective Bobby Schwartz .
R. D. Call as Harry Dieter .
Juan Fernández as Harvey Torena .
Clarence Gilyard , Jr. as Mustafa Jackson .
Cary @-@ Hiroyuki Tagawa as Hugh Benny .
The majority of the main cast appeared as guest stars in episodes of one or both of Michael Mann 's two shows produced in the 1980s , Miami Vice and Crime Story .
= = Background and production = =
The origins of L.A. Takedown lay in real life . Michael Mann , the film 's producer and screenwriter , cited producer , screenwriter and Chicago ex @-@ police officer Chuck Adamson as an inspiration for the character of Vincent Hanna . Mann , who collaborated with Adamson on Miami Vice and Crime Story and several minor projects , was told of an investigation Adamson partook in . In 1963 , he was investigating Neil McCauley , a professional robber . According to Mann , " one day they simply bumped into one another . [ Adamson ] didn 't know what to do : arrest him , shoot him or have a cup of coffee . " Adamson later killed McCauley in a stand @-@ off after a failed robbery .
In 1979 , Mann wrote an early 180 @-@ page draft for the screenplay . After making his first feature film , Thief , he re @-@ wrote the draft . In a 1983 interview , he mentioned he was planning to make a film based on the draft , and was looking for someone to direct it . He later offered the director position to Walter Hill , but Hill refused . In the late 1980s , NBC commissioned Mann to produce a new television series . Mann felt the draft would make a good pilot episode , but decided to set the story in Los Angeles , deeming the L. A. Robbery – Homicide Division a better basis for a TV show . He took the 180 @-@ page screenplay and edited out roughly 110 pages to make room for a 90 @-@ minute pilot . However , the new series was not picked up by the network . Instead , it was released as a television film entitled L.A. Takedown .
The pilot was shot in nineteen days , with ten days of pre @-@ production , which was noted atypically fast for Mann . The film score was written by Tim Truman , and cinematography done by Ron Garcia . The soundtrack also featured the song " L.A. Woman " performed by Billy Idol .
= = Release and reception = =
Mann had cast Scott Plank in the role of Hanna , which was not well received by NBC . They expressed interest in buying the series on the condition of finding a new lead actor , but Mann refused , leading to NBC 's rejecting the show . The unsuccessful pilot was , however , aired as a television film on NBC on August 27 , 1989 at 9 : 00 pm . In 1990 , it was released on VHS in Finland , with several other European countries following in the early 1990s . On March 19 , 2008 , a DVD of the movie was released in Germany , featuring several scene selections as bonus content .
L.A. Takedown received mixed @-@ to @-@ positive reviews from film critics , with its acting being the most poorly received . On its first airing , The Globe and Mail gave the film a two star rating . Hal Erickson of AllRovi compared the film to Mann 's cult TV series Miami Vice , but felt it emphasized style over substance . Dragan Antulov for Movie Reviews in Croatian ( Croatian : Filmske recenzije na hrvatskom ) , in comparing the film with its remake , Heat , praised Mann 's choice to hire unknown actors for L.A. Takedown , which contrasted with big stars in Heat . Although he derided Berkeley 's performance as Waingro , he concluded that it was " a fine companion piece to Heat . " A reviewer from Lexikon des Internationalen Films of Germany was less enthusiastic , citing routine action sequences and a confusing plot due to the overly large cast . Lol Frost of Empire gave L.A. Takedown two out of five stars , acknowledging the worthiness of the plot , but citing lack of Mann 's typical filming style . Frost concluded that the film was " a bit of a dud , but a noble effort . "
= = Remake = =
After directing The Last of the Mohicans , Mann decided to remake L.A. Takedown into a wide release cinema feature . He viewed the film as a dry run for the original story , which was a complex , multi @-@ layered crime drama axed for the television film . He consulted a longer 1986 draft to work on the remake . Having made L.A. Takedown , Mann felt he had a much better idea of how he wanted to structure the remake , saying : " I charted the film out like a 2 hr 45 min piece of music , so I 'd know where to be smooth , where not to be smooth , where to be staccato , where to use a pulse like a heartbeat . "
On April 5 , 1994 , Mann was reported to have abandoned an earlier plan to produce a James Dean biographical film in favor of the L.A. Takedown remake , entitled Heat . Heat was made on a US $ 60 million budget with an all @-@ star cast , and released in 1995 . It featured Al Pacino as Vincent Hanna , Robert De Niro in the role of Patrick McLaren , now renamed Neil McCauley , Val Kilmer as Chris Shiherlis , Mykelti Williamson as Arriaga , now renamed Drucker , Diane Venora in the role of Lillian , now renamed Justine , and Ted Levine as Schwartz , now renamed Bosko . The film was met with critical acclaim and grossed US $ 187 million , becoming a financial success .
Not only featuring a bigger budget and well @-@ known actors , Heat also had significant storyline differences compared to L.A. Takedown . Among other things , the remake included Chris Shiherlis ' gambling addiction , the subplot concerning Roger Van Zant and his attempt to double @-@ cross the crew ( in this film Waingro plots against the crew by himself ) , and Hanna 's troubled stepdaughter — plot elements not present in the original film . Because of this , Heat runs nearly twice the length of L.A. Takedown . Nowadays , L.A. Takedown is best known for being the basis of Heat , and is often compared to it in an unfavorable light .
= German destroyer Z7 Hermann Schoemann =
Z7 Hermann Schoemann was a Type 1934A @-@ class destroyer built for Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine in the mid @-@ 1930s . The ship was plagued by machinery problems for most of her life and was under repair when World War 2 began in September 1939 . She covered her sister ships over the next few months as they laid offensive minefields in English waters in late 1939 – early 1940 . Hermann Schoemann played a minor role in the Norwegian Campaign as engine problems limited her availability throughout 1940 and for most of 1941 .
She was transferred to France in early 1942 to escort two battleships and a heavy cruiser home to Germany through the English Channel in the Channel Dash . The ship was then transferred to Norway where she participated in Operation Sportpalast ( Sports Palace ) , an unsuccessful attempt to intercept Convoy QP 8 returning from Russia . Another unsuccessful intercept was made in early April before the Germans were successful with Convoy QP 11 at the end of the month . The convoy 's escorts conducted a skillful defense and prevented Hermann Schoemann and the other two destroyers from sinking more than a single Soviet freighter . The German commander broke off the action in the hopes of locating the crippled light cruiser HMS Edinburgh . They found the cruiser and her escorting destroyers on 2 May ; Edinburgh disabled Hermann Schoemann before she could fire any torpedoes and her captain was forced to scuttle her shortly afterwards . The destroyer had 8 men killed and 45 wounded in the engagement .
= = Design and description = =
Hermann Schoemann had an overall length of 119 meters ( 390 ft 5 in ) and was 114 meters ( 374 ft 0 in ) long at the waterline . The ship had a beam of 11 @.@ 30 meters ( 37 ft 1 in ) , and a maximum draft of 4 @.@ 23 meters ( 13 ft 11 in ) . She displaced 2 @,@ 171 long tons ( 2 @,@ 206 t ) at standard load and 3 @,@ 110 long tons ( 3 @,@ 160 t ) at deep load . The two Wagner geared steam turbine sets , each driving one propeller shaft , were designed to produce 70 @,@ 000 PS ( 51 @,@ 000 kW ; 69 @,@ 000 shp ) using steam provided by six high @-@ pressure Wagner boilers . The ship had a designed speed of 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) and she reached a maximum speed of 36 @.@ 8 knots from 66 @,@ 000 shp ( 49 @,@ 000 kW ) while testing various propellers . Hermann Schoemann carried a maximum of 752 metric tons ( 740 long tons ) of fuel oil which was intended to give a range of 4 @,@ 400 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 100 km ; 5 @,@ 100 mi ) at a speed of 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) , but the ship proved top @-@ heavy in service and 30 % of the fuel had to be retained as ballast low in the ship . The effective range proved to be only 1 @,@ 530 nmi ( 2 @,@ 830 km ; 1 @,@ 760 mi ) at 19 knots . The crew numbered 10 officers and 315 enlisted men , plus an additional four officers and 19 enlisted men if serving as a flotilla flagship .
The ship carried five 12 @.@ 7 @-@ centimeter ( 5 in ) SK C / 34 guns in single mounts with gun shields , two each superimposed , fore and aft . The fifth gun was carried on top of the aft superstructure . Her anti @-@ aircraft armament consisted of four 3 @.@ 7 @-@ centimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) SK C / 30 guns in two twin mounts abreast the rear funnel and six 2 @-@ centimeter ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) C / 30 guns in single mounts . Hermann Schoemann carried eight above @-@ water 53 @.@ 3 @-@ centimeter ( 21 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes in two power @-@ operated mounts . A pair of reload torpedoes were provided for each mount . Four depth charge throwers were mounted on the sides of the rear deckhouse and they were supplemented by six racks for individual depth charges on the sides of the stern . Enough depth charges were carried for either two or four patterns of 16 charges each . Mine rails could be fitted on the rear deck that had a maximum capacity of 60 mines . A system of passive hydrophones designated as ' GHG ' ( Gruppenhorchgerät ) was fitted to detect submarines and the S @-@ Gerät active sonar system was scheduled to be installed during March 1940 .
= = Construction and career = =
Z7 Hermann Schoemann , named after Lieutenant ( Kapitänleutnant ) Hermann Schoemann , was ordered on 9 January 1935 and laid down at DeSchiMAG , Bremen on 7 September 1935 as yard number W901 . She was launched on 16 July 1936 and completed on 9 September 1937 under the command of Lieutenant Commander ( Korvettenkapitän ) Erich Schulte Mönting . The ship participated in the late 1937 naval maneuvers as part of the 2nd Destroyer Division ( 2 . Zerstörer @-@ Division ) . Hermann Schoemann hosted Adolf Hitler and his retinue for a short cruise from Kiel to Eckernförde in July 1938 and participated in the August Fleet Review and the following fleet exercise . Korvettenkapitän Theodor Detmers relieved Schulte @-@ Mönting in October . The division accompanied the heavy cruiser Admiral Graf Spee on her voyage to the Mediterranean in October where they visited Vigo , Tangiers , and Ceuta before returning home . The destroyer had a lengthy refit at Wilhelmshaven from February 1939 to October .
Hermann Schoemann patrolled the Skagerrak to inspect neutral shipping for contraband goods in October . The ship attempted to lay a minefield off the British coast on the night of 12 / 13 November , with two of her sisters , but had to turn back after she and Z6 Theodor Riedel suffered machinery breakdowns . She made another attempt on the night of 18 December to mine the Humber estuary , together with two other destroyers , but the German ships had to abandon the sortie when they could not pinpoint their location with the required degree of precision . While patrolling in the Jade estuary on 23 December , she collided with her sister Z15 Erich Steinbrinck in a heavy fog . Hermann Schoemann covered minelaying sorties in January and February 1940 , but spent most of March under repair for machinery problems .
The ship was allocated to Group 2 for the Norwegian portion of Operation Weserübung . The group 's task was to transport the 138th Mountain Infantry Regiment ( 138 . Gebirgsjäger Regiment ) of the 3rd Mountain Division to seize Trondheim together with Admiral Hipper , but her machinery broke down again before the troops were loaded and she was replaced by Friedrich Eckoldt . As part of the post @-@ Narvik reorganization of the Kriegsmarine 's destroyer forces , Hermann Schoemann was assigned to the 6th Destroyer Flotilla ( 6 . Zerstörer Flotille ) . In June the flotilla was tasked to escort the battleships Scharnhorst and Gneisenau , as well as the heavy cruiser Admiral Hipper in Operation Juno , a planned attack on Harstad , Norway , to relieve pressure on the German garrison at Narvik . The ships sortied on 8 June and sank the troop transport Orama , the oil tanker Oil Pioneer and the minesweeping trawler Juniper en route . The German commander , Admiral Wilhelm Marschall , then ordered the Admiral Hipper and all four destroyers to Trondheim because of the heavy weather , where they arrived in the morning of 9 June . The two battleships continued the sortie and sank the aircraft carrier Glorious and her two escorting destroyers , although Scharnhorst was badly damaged by a torpedo from the destroyer Acasta in the engagement . The battleship was escorted home by the destroyers Steinbrinck , Z10 Hans Lody and Hermann Schoemann for repairs . On 25 June , Hermann Schoemann began a lengthy refit that lasted until 15 February 1941 , although her machinery continued to be problematic .
= = = 1942 = = =
She was declared operational in June and transferred to Kirkenes , Norway , the following month . However , continued machinery problems forced her return to Germany in August and repairs that lasted until January 1942 . Now assigned to the 5 . Zerstörer Flotille , Hermann Schoemann sailed from Kiel on 24 January for France as part of the preparations for the Channel Dash . On the evening of 25 January , Z8 Bruno Heinemann struck two mines laid by HMS Plover off the Belgian coast and sank . The survivors were put ashore at Le Havre before the flotilla reached Brest on the 26th . The German ships departed on the evening of 11 February and the nighttime and morning portion of the transit through the English Channel was uneventful . In the afternoon , however , Hermann Schoemann twice drove off British Motor Torpedo Boats , together with her sister Z14 Friedrich Ihn . British aircraft began to make their presence know with repeated attacks on the German ships . Hermann Schoemann was undamaged by British aircraft , but was repeatedly struck in the stern by 20 mm cannon shells from the defending German fighters . Later that afternoon , Vice Admiral ( Vizeadmiral ) Otto Ciliax , commander of the battleship flotilla , was transferred to the ship after his temporary flagship , the destroyer Z29 , was disabled by a premature detonation in one of her guns that sent shrapnel into the machinery spaces .
Shortly afterwards , Hermann Schoemann joined four other destroyers in escorting the heavy cruisers Prinz Eugen and Admiral Scheer to Trondheim . Heavy weather forced three of the destroyers to return to port before reaching Trondheim and Prinz Eugen was torpedoed and badly damaged by the submarine HMS Trident on 23 February after their separation . On 6 March , the battleship Tirpitz , escorted by Hermann Schoemann and three other destroyers , sortied from Trondheim to attack the returning convoy QP 8 and the Russia @-@ bound PQ 12 as part of Operation Sportpalast . The following morning , Ciliax ordered the destroyers to search independently for Allied ships and they stumbled across the 2 @,@ 815 @-@ gross register ton ( GRT ) Soviet freighter Ijora , a straggler from QP 8 , later that afternoon and sank her . Tirpitz rejoined them shortly afterwards and they continued to fruitlessly search for Allied shipping until they sailed for the Vestfjorden on the 9th .
On 9 April , the ship was transferred to the 8 . Zerstorer Flotille in Kirkenes . Together with the destroyers Z24 and Z25 , Hermann Schoemann sortied to intercept Convoy QP 14 two days later , but failed to locate any Allied ships in heavy snow and low visibility . The trio sortied again on 30 April to intercept the westbound Convoy QP 11 and the crippled light cruiser HMS Edinburgh , torpedoed earlier by the German submarine U @-@ 456 . They found the convoy the next day , but they only managed to sink a Soviet 2 @,@ 847 @-@ GRT freighter as the convoy 's four escorting destroyers repeatedly rebuffed attempts to reach the convoy 's ships . Despite a significant firepower advantage , the Germans only moderately damaged HMS Amazon in the day 's engagements . Captain ( Kapitän zur See ) Alfred Schulze @-@ Hinrichs , commander of the flotilla , broke off the battle in the late afternoon and decided to search for the cruiser , his original objective . They found Edinburgh and her escorts on the morning of 2 May and closed to attack with torpedoes . The cruiser opened fire first and disabled Hermann Schoemann with her second salvo with hits in both engine rooms . The destroyer turned away and dropped smoke floats to create a smoke screen behind which she could hide . The damage was too severe to return to base and , as the crew prepared to abandon ship , Hermann Schoemann was attacked by the British destroyers who hit her at least three more times . Z24 and Z25 took off about 223 survivors before the ship was scuttled by her crew at coordinates 72 ° 20 ′ N 35 ° 05 ′ E. Another 56 men were rescued by U @-@ 88 after the German destroyers broke off the engagement . During the battle 8 men were killed and another 45 wounded .
= Percy Shaw Jeffrey =
Percy Shaw Jeffrey , FRGS ( 14 March 1862 Cheltenham , England – 22 February 1952 ) was a respected English schoolmaster and author of several books on a range of topics , including significant contributions towards the teaching of phonetics in schools . Jeffrey taught at a variety of schools before spending sixteen years as headmaster at Colchester Royal Grammar School . With his wife , Alice , he retired first to South Africa , then to the town of Whitby , North Yorkshire , in 1916 , where he spent his time between numerous trips to countries around the world .
= = Early life = =
Percy Shaw Jeffrey grew up with his parents , Thomas Ashby Jeffrey , a chemist , and Mary Helen Jeffrey ( née Sparrow ) , in Cheltenham , Gloucestershire , and with his younger siblings Ada Constance , Russell Henry , Ethel Maude and Amy Louise . For three years from 1875 , he attended Trent College , Long Eaton , where he rose to become " Head of the School , proxime accessit [ runner up ] for the Duke of Devonshire 's Gold Medal , with first @-@ class honours in the Cambridge Local , third in the list in Latin and distinguished in French " .
= = Early teaching career = =
Whilst reading for a maths scholarship at the University of Marburg , he was offered the chance to work at Trent College , unofficially , as first the headmaster 's private secretary , and then as a teacher . Unfortunately , he was unable to win the Marburg scholarship in 1881 , and , left unemployed after the death of the Headmaster the year after , he took up a post as a junior master at Emanuel School , Wandsworth , soon after its move to new premises . On 30 January 1884 , he matriculated into the University of Oxford as a member of The Queen 's College , where he completed a Bachelor of Arts in 1887 and was granted his MA in 1890 . He was disappointed to receive a degree with only third @-@ class honours , however , and was advised to put any ambition of teaching on hold — advice which he did not follow .
After a brief spell teaching at Christ 's College , Finchley , for six months during 1887 , Jeffrey became an assistant mathematics and science master at The Skinners ' School , Royal Tunbridge Wells , whilst simultaneously studying for an Inter Bachelor of Science , with first class honours . Whilst at Skinners ' he published words he had written for the school song , set to music by Cuthbert H. Cronk , which persist to the present day . Although it was not his initial intention , in 1893 he took up a post as private tutor to a student he had been coaching at The Skinners ' School and travelled to Florida with him .
Upon his return and owing to a shortage of officers , a short diversion from his teaching duties during 1893 saw Shaw Jeffrey join the Volunteer battalion of the Royal West Kent Regiment . Unable to afford a new uniform ( then costing £ 80 ) , after a change in regiment apparel to a much more popular red @-@ with @-@ light @-@ blue colour scheme , he was forced to resign his commission later that year .
In 1894 he took up another post , this time to become a holiday modern @-@ languages tutor ( a well paid position ) to the son of Sir Thomas and Lady Glen @-@ Coats , Thomas Glen @-@ Coats , later to compete at the 1908 Olympics . Putting his schoolmaster plans aside , he travelled with them to France , and the next year to Germany , where both enrolled at the University of Marburg . Once Glen @-@ Coats was " safely ... installed at Merton College , Oxford , " Shaw Jeffrey returned to the university to study for a Phil.Doc. , but , shortly before completing the degree in 1897 , he was persuaded by the Dean of Queen 's College to take up a position at Clifton College , Bristol .
= = Headmaster at Colchester Royal Grammar School = =
Having been an assistant master at the Clifton College for three years , he was offered a position as headmaster at a new school which was to be founded in Argentina by the educationalist Michael Ernest Sadler , but could not get the funding to travel there , instead he assumed the role of headmaster at Colchester Royal Grammar School ( known locally as CRGS ) . It is unclear exactly what date he can be said to have joined the school , because although agreement between the school and the governing legislature was reached in May 1899 , the process of finding a new headmaster went on under the guidance of an interim one . Certainly , his official term as headmaster started on 1 September 1900 and by the end of 1900 he had already made his mark on the school — achievements included the introduction of a new school song , " Carmen Colcestriense " , which used the same tune as , and a variation of the lyrics for , the school song of The Skinners ' School . He retired his post as headmaster in 1916 , but kept a lasting interest in the school .
During his 16 @-@ year stay at CRGS , student numbers increased from 29 to 180 boys under his guidance , particularly through the introduction of day pupils . Shaw Jeffrey is also credited with the introduction of many changes at the school , including the introduction of purple blazers , the setting up of the Old Colcestrian Society for former boys ( and quite often honoured former masters ) , a preparatory school , a cadet corps , an orchestra , a bugle band and a series of school entertainments and theatrical performances , and the acquisition of several buildings on behalf of the school . He was a national pioneer of the teaching of modern European languages through phonetics , employed language teachers from Germany and France , and set up arrangements for foreign study during holidays .
Whilst at CRGS he founded the school magazine , The Colcestrian , designed to relay information about the school to students , ex @-@ students and parents on a regular basis . This ran for over sixty consecutive years , and has recently been restarted in a similar style . Even after he left the school , he wrote into the magazine , adding his own memories , thoughts and opinions on articles of news published . He often signed himself off as " J " , " an abbreviation that was and is commonly used in reference to him " throughout his time at CRGS and as synonymous with the man himself that it could be used for an article about his death in the local newspaper .
In recognition of his achievements at the school , a school house was named after him in 1950 . The change from School House to Shaw Jeffrey 's House completed a quartet that had featured three other notable headmasters of the school since Shaw Jeffrey himself introduced the four @-@ house system in 1908 . The house is still informally known by students as " J 's " . Another tribute , a painting of him by Frank Daniell , a Colchester artist , was presented to him on his retirement by the governors of CRGS and members of the Old Colcestrian Society and a replica was initially to be hung in the school hall ; . it was , however , the replica that was taken by Shaw Jeffrey and the original hung in the school , where it remains .
= = Visits to Borley Rectory = =
Jeffrey was the first known witness of what was later deemed to be paranormal activity at Borley Rectory . In 1885 he spent time at the rectory with his friend Henry " Harry " Bull with whom he was studying at Oxford , during which he experienced " lots of small adventures at the Rectory . Stones falling about , my boots found on top of the wardrobe , etc . " He also stated that he had seen the nun who was reputed to haunt the rectory several times and had often heard the ghostly coach during the night . In his view , however , the most striking of the phenomena , which he later recounted to the researcher and author on the subject Harry Price , was the loss of a French dictionary which was later thrown on the floor of his bedroom in the night .
Price regarded Jeffrey 's testimonies as an " important contribution to the evidence for the early haunting of Borley Rectory " , and used them in many of the studies which made the rectory famous in 1937 . However , due to the time difference been events and their reporting over 50 years later , they have been challenged as unreliable .
= = Publications = =
Jeffrey was particularly at home with modern languages , having become fluent in both French and German in the 1890s , and lectured on the topic and how it should be taught – phonetically , in his opinion . Later on , he authored more works relating to education , including the Work and Progress Record Book ( Arnold ) and The Schools of England ( Ed . J. Burrow ) . He was also a contributor to the Argosy and other London periodicals , including the English Illustrated Magazine , Longmans and the Boy 's Own Paper .
His first book , however , came with Useful Facts in Physiology ( Educational Supply Association ) in 1889 . Later , having settled down at CRGS , he used his spare time to publish Elementary German Words and Phrases for Red Cross Workers and Elementary French Words and Phrases for Red Cross Workers ( both Hachette ) in 1914 . They were endorsed by Queen Alexandra and spawned over 50 @,@ 000 copies . Over the course of his life he adapted and authored several foreign @-@ language works for English audiences , namely :
The Study of Colloquial and Literary French , With notes on the present state of modern language teaching , etc . A joint work with his professor at the University of Marburg , Eduard Koschwitz ;
Ausgewaelte Marchen ( Published 1902 , by Whittaker ) , an adaptation of a story from Ludwig Bechstein 's Deutsches Märchenbuch , with added introduction and notes .
Au Pôle en ballon from the French original by Victor Patrice ;
Poucinet . ( Conte finlandais ) from the French original by Édouard René and Lefebvre Laboulaye .
Short passages for translation into French and German ( Oxford University Press )
In 1923 he published another non @-@ fiction book , Whitby Lore and Legend , having retired to Whitby via South Africa . A Schoolmaster 's Apologia : Memories of Eighty Years was his collection of memoirs , published by Abbey Press , Whitby , in 1948 . His time at CRGS is documented in his 1948 collaboration , Some Chapters in the History of the Royal Grammar School Colchester , with the one time Mayor of Colchester , Sir William Gurney Benham , who was a personal friend of Jeffrey and first president of the Old Colcestrian Society .
After retirement , Jeffrey could also give time to his love of travelling , and authored a number of related titles . Round the World with an Empress and Round the world with the ' Empress of Britain ' ( both Ed . J. Burrow ) were accounts of the trips he made while lecturing on board the liners of Canadian Pacific Railway during the British winter ; a series dubbed The Little Travel Books ( Horne ) documented others of his travels , and grew out of articles he wrote for the Whitby Gazette . They included :
Black and White in South Africa
Sunshine on the Waters ( Australia and New Zealand )
Eastward to the Cape .
Sidelights @-@ South African Roundabout .
Third Time Lucky ( South Africa ) .
Columbus Calling ( West Indies ) .
A selection of these books he later sent to Princess Elizabeth and Princess Margaret , who were said to have enjoyed them .
= = Later life and death = =
On 13 August 1901 , only shortly after becoming headmaster at CRGS , Jeffrey married his wife Alice , whom he had met on a Mediterranean cruise , and who stayed at the school throughout his time there . On his retirement , they moved to South Africa , where he did " valuable works on the Press for the Allied cause " . From 1914 onwards they also had possession of Whitby 's Bagdale Old Hall , built in 1530 , as a residence , and eventually took residence there on his return from South Africa , though they were often away travelling .
Despite retirement from any sort of career , Shaw Jeffrey maintained that he " had no intention of leading an idle life " and was variously an inspector and examiner for both the University of Cambridge and the University of London and an assessor for all of Cambridge 's French papers for five years after the introduction of the higher certificate . He was also an occasional inspector in modern languages for the Board of Education and deputised as professor of French at the University of Durham while the professor himself was incapacitated due to illness . He was an assessor of all modern language papers set at Durham for five years . He continued to fill in positions inspecting in Spanish and Italian , despite only having learned the languages during his travels .
Although he spent barely 10 or 12 weeks in any one year in Whitby , he was still attached to it . Shortly before his death he published A Haunt of Ancient Peace , a history of Bagdale Old Hall ( with Sir D 'Arcy Power , KBE ) , and also made several large donations : £ 3000 to Whitby Parish Church , £ 2000 to the museum and £ 500 to the Whitby Literary and Philosophy Society .
Jeffrey died on 22 February 1952 , leaving Alice as a widow . The couple had just celebrated their golden wedding anniversary , a fact reported in the Essex County Standard , along with a short obituary , and an overview of the latest Old Colcestrian annual meeting ( held only a day after his death ) , at which a variety of tributes had been paid . The article describes him as " one of Colchester 's most famous headmasters " and one with " tons of personality " . His death was particularly poignant for members of CRGS , for it came two days before a World War Two war memorial , for which he and his wife had contributed the majority of the money , was to be unveiled and dedicated . On her death , his wife left their house in Whitby to the Whitby Literary and Philosophy Society , though efforts to turn it into a museum were ultimately unsuccessful .
= Paranoid ( Ty Dolla Sign song ) =
" Paranoid " is a song by American rapper Ty Dolla $ ign , released on September 10 , 2013 , as the first single from his debut EP , Beach House EP ( 2014 ) . The song , produced by DJ Mustard , features a guest appearance from B.o.B. The song was written by Tyrone Griffin , Bobby Simmons and Dijon McFarlane . " Paranoid " is a hip hop song that lyrically describes being in fear of getting caught cheating .
" Paranoid " received overall favorable reviews from music critics . The song peaked at number 29 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart and reached number nine on the US Billboard Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . An accompanying music video premiered through Revolt and YouTube on October 22 , 2013 that features both Ty and B.o.B being tortured by their girlfriends .
= = Development and release = =
" Paranoid " is a hip hop song backed by a synthesizer @-@ driven production created by DJ Mustard . The song was originally recorded by Ty Dolla Sign and his frequent collaborator Joe Moses , and it was included on DJ Mustard 's Ketchup mixtape . It was then released again on Ty 's July 2013 mixtape , Beach House 2 . Then , when the song was officially released and pushed as a single later in the year , Moses ' verse had been replaced by Ty 's Atlantic Records label @-@ mate B.o.B .. It was rumored that Moses had been replaced by B.o.B due to Moses ' comments in his verse about T.I. ' s wife Tameka Cottle , however Ty denied the rumor and deemed it " hilarious . "
On the song , Ty croons about him juggling a relationship between two different women , and being worried about one of them finding out about the other . Overall , the two artists detail multiple girls attempting to catch them in the act cheating , causing them to be on edge . The song premiered on Rap Radar on August 28 , 2013 , where it was announced that it would be released as a single on September 10 , 2013 . As promised , on September 10 , 2013 , the song was released for digital download as the first single from Ty 's debut EP Beach House EP on Amazon.com.
On December 15 , 2013 , Ty performed the song during Power 106 's Cali Christmas and was backed by DJ Mustard on the turntables as he performed . On December 17 , 2013 , Ty performed the song for the first time on national television on DJ Skee 's Skee Live via AXS TV . He was accompanied by Joe Moses who performed his verse on the studio version of the song . On January 27 , 2014 , Ty performed " Paranoid " along with DJ Mustard on The Arsenio Hall Show . Then on March 15 , 2014 , Ty performed the song during Taylor Gang 's set at SXSW . On March 21 , 2014 , Ty performed " Paranoid " accompanied by The Roots on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon .
The song 's official remix was also featured on the Beach House EP . It featured new guest appearances by Trey Songz , French Montana and DJ Mustard . On January 13 , 2014 , the remix premiered via SoundCloud and on the following day , it was released to iTunes . The remix was serviced to mainstream urban radio in the United States on February 12 , 2014 .
= = Reception = =
" Paranoid " was met with generally positive reviews from music critics . Vibe referred to the song as Ty 's introduction to the masses and said he " has a hit on his hands . " Christopher Weingarten of Rolling Stone said , it features " frank lines delivered with Casanova charm and a thin layer of computer love . " Matt Aceto of HotNewHipHop called it one of the better songs on the tape , giving credit to the chorus and Joe Moses ' verse . Chris Jenkins of Pitchfork Media praised Joe Moses ' verse on the original song , but he called B.o.B 's a " tryhard verse . " Overall , he said the song 's economy is its greatest strength . Grant Jones of RapReviews credited Trey Songz for upstaging Ty and called French Montana 's verse on the remix " entertaining " but found Ty 's performance on the song to be " an age @-@ old example of limited ability . " In February 2014 , Complex named it the fourth best song that DJ Mustard had produced .
" Paranoid " debuted at number 97 on US Billboard Hot 100 for the week of January 4 , 2014 . Ten weeks later , it peaked at number 29 and spent a total of twenty weeks on the chart . It peaked at number nine on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . On November 19 , 2015 , " Paranoid " was certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , denoting sales of over 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 units in the country .
= = Music video = =
On October 22 , 2013 , the Ethan Lader @-@ directed music video premiered via rap mogul Diddy 's television network Revolt . The video shows an overly intoxicated Ty Dolla Sign and B.o.B drugged with paranoia about their various women . Ty is hunted down by his two female lovers when they discover that he has been cheating on them . They team up to get revenge , chasing him through the streets and attacking him at home . By the end of the night , Ty finds himself bleeding out on the middle of his kitchen floor , from a stab wound courtesy of his two lovers . Meanwhile , B.o.B suffers a similar fate via a drugged drink given to him by a seductive , promiscuous woman . Ty 's body is then taken away in the trunk of a car .
= = Chart performance = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= The Documentary =
The Documentary is the debut studio album by American rapper The Game . It was released on January 18 , 2005 , by Aftermath Entertainment , G @-@ Unit Records and Interscope Records . It serves as his major @-@ label debut , preceded by the release of his independently @-@ released debut , Untold Story ( 2004 ) . In 2001 , after The Game recovered from a shooting , he began to embark his rap career . He was then discovered by Dr. Dre ( who signed him to his Aftermath Entertainment label ) . The album includes the production from high @-@ profile producers such as Dr. Dre , Kanye West , Scott Storch and Timbaland , among others . The album features guest appearances from 50 Cent , Eminem , Nate Dogg and Faith Evans , among others . This would be The Game 's only album on Aftermath and G @-@ Unit Records , as he left the label after a feud began to occurred between him and fellow G @-@ Unit label @-@ mate 50 Cent .
The Documentary debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200 , selling 586 @,@ 000 units in the first week . In March 2005 , the Recording Industry Association of America certified the album two times platinum and it sold over five million copies worldwide . Upon its release , The Documentary received generally positive reviews , with critics praising the album 's production . Since the album 's release , The Game has been credited as a driving force in reviving the West Coast hip hop scene , which had been overshadowed by artists from the East , Midwest and South . It remains as The Game 's best @-@ selling album to date . On June 16 , 2014 , the sequel to the album was announced , called The Documentary 2 , and it was released on October 9 , 2015 and followed up shorty after by The Documentary 2 @.@ 5 .
= = Recording = =
After The Game signed with the G @-@ Unit . He completed the recording of his nine songs with a fellow American rapper 50 Cent in his home studio in Farmington , Connecticut . He then went back to Los Angeles , California to finish it up the album with Dr. Dre . While continuing the recording sessions for the album , he began working with a fellow rapper and record producer Kanye West on a song , where Kanye did the chorus . However , the song have been left on the cutting room floor . The Game also have been working on the album with his inspiration goals on reviving on what it would be like to be involved in this hip hop scene for the West Coast , which it has been overshadowed over the past few years by these artists between for the east coast to the south coast . In 2005 , in the interview with Vibe magazine , 50 Cent stated that he was brought in by the Interscope Records to work on the album , which he claimed that was on the verge of being shelved and The Game was being dropped from the label . However , in an interview with Funkmaster Flex , The Game said that his status was never uncertain nor he was close to being dropped . 50 Cent also claimed that he wrote six of The Documentary 's eighteen tracks — " Hate It or Love It " , " How We Do " , " Church for Thugs " , " Special " , " Higher " , and " Westside Story " — and was not receiving proper credit for his work . The Game denied those claims , saying that 50 Cent only helped him write two songs .
= = Music = =
= = = Lyrics = = =
The Game recorded tracks based on his life experiences from his childhood to his success as a rapper . When asked about the album , he stated :
I grew up in a boys home and I was taken away from my parents when I was like 8 years old ... Here I am , 24 . When my album drops I will be 25 so that 's 17 years I have been going through my struggle by myself . There are 17 tracks on my album and every track sheds light on a different situation I went through the last 17 years .
The rapper commented on the album 's perception before its release , saying , " I know everybody was expecting gang @-@ bang , 40 @-@ ounce , low @-@ rider music , but that 's not what I gave them ... I 'm telling a real story , and maybe there are people out there who can relate to my experiences . " Rolling Stone observed that " every song has a well @-@ massaged hook and some immediate appeal , and verses that don 't waste a lot of time getting to the point . "
= = = Production = = =
The Documentary 's big budget production from high profile hip hop producers was well received from critics . The first half of the album contains " upbeat , gangsta boogie " tracks with the other half relegating " smoothed out R & B maneuvers " . At seven tracks , Dr. Dre co @-@ executive produced the album with his " stripped @-@ down cinematic " approach . " Westside Story " contains an " evil sounding piano plink " , " Dreams " has a " simultaneously smooth and eerie " beat , and " Hate It or Love It " unveils a " smoothed out R & B funk vibe " . " Higher " revolves around a pounding synth blast and " How We Do " contains syncopated hand claps with a beat described as " a hypnotic blast of sinister seduction powered by a deliciously primitive 808 pattern and a slinky synth . " " Don 't Need Your Love " samples Mary J. Blige 's " Not Gon Cry " and is one the album 's more soulful songs . " Church for Thugs " delivers a " sing @-@ song stylee over an accentuated sonic bed " and " Put You on the Game " is a club track containing " dark dirge [ s ] of synth " .
Although " Start from Scratch " features R & B singer Marsha Ambrosius , the beat " eschews the traditional R & B vibes " for more " aural intimidation " . IGN called it " the most haunting inclusion on the album . " " The Documentary " features a " busy backing track " of " crashing symphonics and tinny flares of synth " , which one critic believed overshadowed the lyrics . " Runnin ' " is a " dark , Stygian tune augmented by tinges of R & B mellowness . " " No More Fun and Games " has a fast @-@ paced beat that takes inspiration from early 1990s production . " We Ain 't " , which samples Dr. Dre 's " The Watcher " , takes Eminem 's " chug laden synth gurgle " and is described as " one of the most menacingly catchy numbers on the entire album . " Nate Dogg features on two " smoothed out " tracks ; " Special " and the g @-@ funk @-@ inspired " Where I 'm From " . " Don 't Worry " is an R & B flavored track and despite its " minimal production " , one reviewer wrote the song " still hits hard . " The final track , " Like Father , Like Son " , is driven by a " melodramatic , string @-@ laden " beat . Originally , Brandy Norwood was supposed to be on " Don 't Worry " , but Jimmy Iovine did not want a gangsta rapper like The Game on a song with Brandy .
= = = Title = = =
The album 's title was initially called " Nigga Witta Attitude Vol . 1 " ( a reference to N.W.A ) , but was changed to " The Documentary " due to legal issues with an injunction filed at the request of Eazy @-@ E 's widow Tomica Woods @-@ Wright prevented him from using N.W.A 's name in the album title .
= = Release and promotion = =
The album was initially set for a late 2004 release , however , since the other high profile albums — including Eminem 's Encore — were to be released around the same time , it was pushed back to January 18 , 2005 . On September 28 , 2004 The Game released a promotional album entitled Westside Story through Aftermath Entertainment and G @-@ Unit Records . The album was used to promote his major @-@ label debut album , The Documentary . In October 2004 , The Game released his first independent album , titled Untold Story , through Get Low Recordz ( owned by JT the Bigga Figga ) . The album sold over 82 @,@ 000 copies within its first three months . The album featured artists such as Sean T , Young Noble ( of the Outlawz ) and JT the Bigga Figga . The Game also appeared on various mixtapes , which has been hosted by DJ 's such as DJ Kayslay , DJ Whoo Kid and DJ Clue ? . The Game also released a second mixtape You Know What It Is Vol . 2 through his own record label and appeared on the video game NBA Live 2004 on a song produced by Fredwreck called " Can 't Stop Me " . On November 15 , 2004 , The Game released a promotional mixtape , titled Charge It to the Game : The Mixtape , through Westside Records . The tape was also used to promote The Documentary .
= = Singles = =
" Westside Story " was the first official single to be released from The Documentary . The song features guest vocals from a fellow American rapper 50 Cent , with the production that was handled by Dr. Dre and Scott Storch . The single entered on the US Billboard Hot 100 at number 93 , charted at number 55 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs , and at number 29 on the Rhythmic Top 40 charts . Rolling Stone described it as " a kind of L.A. version of " In Da Club " with " a simple keyboard part , a spare 808 beat and strings that manage to sound both stressed @-@ out and catchy . " The Game has stated that this song is a tribute to Tupac Shakur , with a direct reference to him , saying " I got California love fuckin bitches to that Pac shit . " The Game also makes references to Tupac 's songs , California Love and Against All Odds . Other references includes , Nate Dogg , Tha Dogg Pound ( D.P.G. ) and their song New York , Westside Connection , Michael Jackson and his album Thriller , DJ Pooh , Kool G Rap . There is a remix featuring Snoop Dogg singing the hook and a version with both Snoop Dogg and 50 Cent on it .
" How We Do " was the second official single to be released from The Documentary . The song features guest vocals from a fellow American rapper 50 Cent , with the production that was handled by Dr. Dre and Mike Elizondo . The single entered on the US Billboard Hot 100 at number 4 , and stayed for over four weeks . The single also charted at number 2 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs , at number 2 on the Hot Rap Tracks , at number one on the Rhythmic Top 40 , at number 3 on the Hot Digital Songs , at number 38 on the Latin Tropical Airplay , at number 11 on the Pop 100 , at number 14 on the Pop 100 Airplay , at number 14 on the Top 40 Mainstream , and at number 16 on the Top 40 Tracks charts . The single attained respectable international charting . In the United Kingdom the single entered on the UK Singles Chart at number 5 , in Germany the single entered on the German Singles Chart at number 9 , in the Republic of Ireland the single entered on the Irish Singles Chart at number 8 , and in Australia the single entered on the Australian Singles Chart at number 18 . The single was an instant hit with major air play . It was also moderately successful worldwide , reaching the top twenty in most countries . The music video was directed by Hype Williams " . The Recording Industry Association of America certified the single gold .
" Hate It or Love It " was the third official single to be released from The Documentary . The song features guest vocals from a fellow American rapper 50 Cent , with the production that was handled by Cool & Dre . The single was the most popular single from the album . The single entered on the US Billboard Hot 100 at number 2 , charted at number one on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs , at number one on the Hot Rap Tracks , at number 6 on the Hot Digital Songs , at number 39 on the Latin Tropical Airplay , at number 9 on the Pop 100 , at number 13 on the Pop 100 Airplay , at number one on the Rhythmic Top 40 , and at number 16 on the Top 40 Mainstream charts . The single attained respectable international charting . In the United Kingdom the single entered on the UK Singles Chart at number 4 , in Germany the single entered on the German Singles Chart at number 14 , in the Republic of Ireland the single entered on the Irish Singles Chart at number 5 , in Australia the single entered on the Australian Singles Chart at number 23 , and in Denmark the single entered the Danish Singles Chart at number 17 . The track uses a sample from the song " Rubber Band " performed by The Trammps on their album The Legendary Zing Album . At the 2006 Grammy Awards , it was nominated for Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group and Best Rap Song . The music video , which was directed by the Saline Project , was nominated at the 2005 MTV Video Music Awards for Best Rap Video , but lost to Ludacris ' " Number One Spot " . The Recording Industry Association of America certified the single gold .
" Dreams " was the fourth official single to be released from The Documentary . The single entered on the US Billboard Hot 100 at number 32 , charted at number 12 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs , at number 5 on the Hot Rap Tracks , at number 74 on the Hot Digital Songs , at number 62 on the Pop 100 , and at number 13 on the Rhythmic Top 40 . The single attained international charting . In the United Kingdom the single entered on the UK Singles Chart at number 8 , in Germany the single entered on the German Singles Chart at number 71 , in the Republic of Ireland the single entered on the Irish Singles Chart at number 11 , and in Australia the single entered on the Australian Singles Chart at number 42 . The song was produced by Kanye West . The track features a sample of " No Money Down " performed by Jerry Butler . Co @-@ Written by Jimmy " Henchmen " Rosemonds ' artist , " Beloved " . The song was dedicated to Yetunde Price who was shot dead in 2003 . One critic wrote The Game " sews together a soulful Martin Luther King Jr. type speech with the acerbic wit and hustler charm of Malcolm X. " Phillip Atwell directed the music video . The song is also known for having an incorrect lyric in ' I woke up from that coma 2001 , about the same time Dre dropped 2001 ' . This references the Dr. Dre album 2001 , actually released in 1999 . The song was placed 16th on about.com 's Best Hip @-@ Hop Songs of 2005 . And had singer Mýa Harrison in the music video .
" Put You on the Game " was the fifth and final official single from The Documentary . The single was the lowest charting single from the album , reaching only at 96 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles & Tracks . The single attained respectable international charting . In the United Kingdom the single entered on the UK Singles Chart at number 46 , and in the Republic of Ireland the single entered on the Irish Singles Chart at number 22 . The single was produced by Timbaland and co @-@ produced by Danja . This was the first single released by The Game after his truce with 50 Cent fell apart and after The Game released You Know What It Is Vol . 3 . It was recently that a lawsuit has been filed from a Major India Record Company Saregama India , Timbaland , co @-@ producer Nate " Danja " Hills , The Game , Interscope Records , along with a few other Production companies are being sued for using an uncleared sample from artist . The music video features The Game with many appearances by his current and former Black Wall Street affiliates . The video shows various places in Los Angeles County ; including downtown to a Los Angeles , California and Compton , California . The music video showed these landmarks down at the Los Angeles such as Staples Center , The Watts Towers , and LAX . The Game refers to a number of artists , songs and albums in " Put You on The Game " ; including The Chronic , N.W.A , Makaveli , The Notorious B.I.G. , Public Enemy , Flavor Flav , G @-@ Unit , 50 Cent , Dr. Dre and his song " Let Me Ride " , Eve , and Snoop Dogg . During the DVD Stop Snitchin , Stop Lyin The Game watches the video for this song pausing at specific spots in the video which shows a dead man at on the ground blocked off by police tape . The Game then repeatedly states that he is wearing G @-@ Unit sneakers , a diss at 50 Cent saying his career is dead . Damon Johnson directed the music video . Entertainment Weekly called it a " club track so crunkalicious , it 's almost shocking that a California newbie — not a Ludacris — was the recipient of its deep @-@ fried Southern charms . " The song was placed 44th on about.com 's Best Hip @-@ Hop Songs of 2005 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Commercial performance = = =
The Game is often credited as a driving force in bringing the West Coast hip hop scene back to recognition . Before its release , he expressed his desire to have high opening week sales , saying , " I want to sell a million albums in my first week . And if I only sell one album the following week , I 'm good . " He also admitted feeling nervous about not being able to live up to the industry expectations , saying , " Yeah , I 've got some butterflies . I 'm worried about my first @-@ week numbers , and I 'm worried about living up to the hype . " The album debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200 chart , selling 586 @,@ 000 copies in the first week . The Recording Industry Association of America certified the album two times platinum on March 23 , 2005 , and it was the tenth best @-@ selling record of the year . The album has since sold over 2 @.@ 5 million units in the United States .
The Documentary peaked at the top fifteen in most European charts it entered . It peaked at number seven on the UK Albums Chart and remained on the chart for thirty @-@ three weeks . It reached the top ten in the Netherlands , France , Ireland , Switzerland , and the top twenty in Belgium , Germany , and Norway . The album topped the Canadian Albums Chart for three weeks and on March 8 , 2005 , it was certified platinum with 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 units shipped . It has since sold over five million copies worldwide .
= = = Critical response = = =
Upon its release , The Documentary received generally positive reviews . On Metacritic , The Documentary received an aggregate score of 72 out of 100 based on 19 reviews . Pitchfork Media called it " the best West Coast street @-@ rap album since DJ Quik 's 2002 LP Under tha Influence " and described the production as " a rich , triumphant sonic tapestry " . Allmusic wrote the album was an " excellent debut " that " hints at a lot of potential " and observed the " most remarkable aspect of the Game is how he can be such a blatant product of gangsta rap ... and leave a mark so fast . " Rolling Stone noted The Game was " going for emotional impact rather than dazzling wordplay or laughs " and PopMatters described him as " a self @-@ conscious , malicious , nihilistic gangsta rapper with a heart and lyrical content " . On the other hand , Robert Christgau believed the album was " dull even when he isn 't describing his medical problems , this no @-@ talent is masscult rock at its most brazen " . The A.V. Club praised the production for being " a sonic classic of slow @-@ rolling G @-@ funk and glossy hyper @-@ soul " , but panned The Game for his name dropping , suggesting if he " cut all the references to rappers and albums ... it 'd be a good 15 to 20 minutes shorter — and probably a lot more compelling . " Billboard declared it " one of the best rap albums of the year " and Entertainment Weekly suggested " with the brightest hip @-@ hop stars aligning for him , the Game may have willed himself a popular masterpiece . "
IGN criticized the large number of guest appearances , stating " the propensity of guest artists makes it hard to actually get a grasp on the rising star 's own voice . " MusicOMH observed " like many rap albums The Documentary is too long , but it maintains a high level of interest " and overall , it was " an impressive effort " that " introduces a strong presence to the West Coast " . Stylus Magazine wrote " no one disappoints " and despite the record being " so obviously and deeply grounded in marketing , it ’ s still an outstandingly solid and enjoyable " debut . The New York Times noted The Game 's " tough but straightforward rhyme style is appealing but not , usually , enthralling ... This is a rapper who almost never forgets himself , who almost never loses himself in syllables just for the fun of it . " The Village Voice criticized the rapper 's lyrical skills , saying , " the Game 's rhymes are about six degrees from totally artless " . Yahoo ! Music also panned the lyrics for " almost totally lacking in shock value , humour or insight " , but praised the production , writing that " musically , this is probably the greatest major label hip @-@ hop album of recent years – a near faultless succession of hi @-@ tech beats and ominously catchy hooks " .
= = = Accolades = = =
The album appeared on numerous music critics ' and publications ' end @-@ of @-@ year albums lists . Pitchfork Media placed the album at number 35 on their list of Top 50 Albums of 2005 . At the 48th Annual Grammy Awards , The Game was nominated with a total of two nominations , including Grammy Award for Best Rap Song and Grammy Award for Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group for the smash single " Hate It or Love It " . In 2012 Complex named the album one of the classic albums of the last decade .
= = Track listing = =
Sample credits
Information taken from The Documentary 's liner notes .
" Intro " contains a sample of " Down into the Magic " performed by Donald Kerr .
" Dreams " contains a sample of " No Money Down " performed by Jerry Butler .
" Hate It or Love It " contains a sample of " Rubberband " performed by The Trammps .
" Don 't Need Your Love " contains a sample of " Not Gon Cry " performed by Mary J. Blige .
" The Documentary " contains an audio excerpt from the 2003 's film Livin ' tha Life .
" No More Fun and Games " contains a sample of " Gangsta , Gangsta " performed by N.W.A.
" We Ain 't " contains a sample of " The Watcher " performed by Dr. Dre featuring Eminem , " One Day at a Time " performed by Tupac Shakur featuring Eminem and The Outlawz , and " Patiently Waiting " performed by 50 Cent featuring Eminem .
" Where I 'm From " contains a sample of " Amanda " performed by Dionne Warwick .
" Special " contains a sample of " Catherine Howard " performed by Rick Wakeman .
" Like Father , Like Son " contains a sample of " Mariya " performed by The Family Circle .
= = Personnel = =
Credits for The Documentary adapted from Allmusic .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Chart procession | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
an inconclusive encounter between a powerful squadron of French and Spanish warships and a British Royal Navy escort squadron in the Wanshan Archipelago ( or Ladrones Archipelago ) off Macau on 27 January 1799 . The incident took place in the context of the East Indies campaign of the French Revolutionary Wars , the allied squadron attempting to disrupt a valuable British merchant convoy due to sail from Qing Dynasty China . This was the second such attempt in three years ; at the Bali Strait Incident of 1797 a French frigate squadron had been driven off during an attack on that year 's China convoy . By early 1799 the French squadron had dispersed , with two remaining ships deployed to the Spanish Philippines . There the frigates had united with the Spanish Manila squadron and sailed to attack the British China convoy gathering at Macau .
The British commander in the East Indies , Rear @-@ Admiral Peter Rainier was concerned about the vulnerability of the China convoy and sent reinforcements to support the lone Royal Navy escort , the ship of the line HMS Intrepid under Captain William Hargood . These reinforcements arrived on 21 January , only six days before the allied squadron arrived off Macau . Hargood sailed to meet the French and Spanish ships , and a chase ensued through the Wanshan Archipelago before contact was lost . Both sides subsequently claimed that the other had refused battle , although it was the allied squadron which withdrew , Hargood later successfully escorting the China convoy safely westwards .
= = Background = =
The East Indian trade was an essential component of the economy of Great Britain in the eighteenth century . Administered by the East India Company from British India , exotic trade goods were carried on large well @-@ armed merchant ships known as East Indiamen , which weighed between 500 and 1 @,@ 200 long tons ( 510 and 1 @,@ 220 t ) . Among the most valuable parts of the East India trade was an annual convoy from Macau , a Portuguese port in Qing Dynasty China . Early each year , a large convoy of East Indiamen would assemble at Macau in preparation for their six @-@ month journey across the Indian Ocean and through the Atlantic to Britain . The value of the trade carried in this convoy , nicknamed the " China Fleet " , was enormous : one convoy in 1804 was reported to be carrying goods worth over £ 8 million in contemporary values ( the equivalent of £ 600 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) .
British interests in the East Indies were protected by a large but scattered Royal Navy squadron under the overall command of Rear @-@ Admiral Peter Rainier . By 1799 , Rainier 's command covered many thousands of square miles of ocean , including the strategically important ports of British India , Bombay , Madras and Calcutta and the coast of British Ceylon , as well as bases in the Red Sea , at Penang and in the Dutch East Indies . He also had to maintain a watch on hostile warships , particularly a French force at the remote island base of Île de France ( now Mauritius ) , the Dutch at Batavia ( now Djakarta ) and the Spanish at Manila . The French had been the greatest threat , with a powerful squadron assembled in 1796 under Contre @-@ amiral Pierre César Charles de Sercey menacing British shipping in the East Indies in 1796 and 1797 . On 28 January 1797 , Sercey 's force intercepted that year 's unescorted China Fleet in the Bali Strait , and in the ensuing Bali Strait Incident only quick thinking by the commodore , imitating Royal Navy warships in poor visibility , dissuaded Sercey from pressing his attack .
Sercey 's force had subsequently broken up as it proved too expensive to maintain as a cohesive force . By late 1798 , Sercey was at anchor in Batavia with only two vessels , the 20 @-@ gun corvette Brûle @-@ Gueule and the 40 @-@ gun frigate Preneuse , which had arrived in Batavia from a diplomatic mission to the Kingdom of Mysore in a state of near @-@ mutiny ; Captain Jean @-@ Matthieu @-@ Adrien Lhermitte had been forced to execute five men for disobedience en route . Sercey also learned that two additional frigates , Forte and Prudente would not be joining him : his orders had been countermanded by Governor Malartic on Île de France and these frigates were now cruising independently against British trade in the Indian Ocean . Sercey decided to augment his forces by uniting them with the allied Spanish squadron at Manila in the Spanish Philippines , his frigates arriving on 16 October 1798 , although the admiral remained at Surabaya . The Spanish squadron had been severely damaged in a typhoon of April 1797 and repairs had taken nearly two years : when British frigates raided Manila in January 1798 not one Spanish ship was in a condition to oppose them .
= = Incident at Macau = =
News of the junction of the French and Spanish squadrons reached Rainier soon afterwards . With the assembling merchant ships at Macau were the frigates HMS Fox and HMS Carysfort and the 64 @-@ gun ship of the line HMS Intrepid , the escort commanded by Captain William Hargood . However Fox and Carysfort were detached with a local convoy in November 1798 , and Rainier , whose forces were largely committed to the Red Sea following the recent French invasion of Egypt , gave urgent orders for the frigates to be replaced by the 38 @-@ gun HMS Virginie and 74 @-@ gun HMS Arrogant . The reinforcements sailed through the Straits of Malacca and the South China Sea , arriving at Macau on 21 January 1799 .
The Franco @-@ Spanish squadron , comprising the 74 @-@ gun ships of the line Europa and Montañés , and the frigates Maria de la Cabeya and Luisa , accompanied by Preneuse and Brûle @-@ Gueule , sailed from Manila on 6 January 1799 , under the command of Rear @-@ Admiral Ignacio Maria de Álava . Alava 's squadron crossed the South China Sea in three weeks , arriving in the Wanshan Archipelago near Macau on 27 January 1799 with the intention of attacking shipping at Macau and in the mouth of the Pearl River . Alava had been informed of the presence of Intrepid by Danish merchants but was unaware of the arrival of Rainier 's reinforcements .
Hargood immediately sailed to confront Alava , both squadrons initially forming lines of battle and steering towards one another , Virginie at the head of the British line . What followed has been the subject of dispute . Hargood reported that the Franco @-@ Spanish squadron then turned and fled into the Wanshan Archipelago , where they anchored as darkness fell before withdrawing before dawn . He ascribes this to " their dread of a conflict that would in all probability have terminated in their disgrace " . Alava however reported in the Manila Gazette that it was Hargood who had retreated into the Wanshan Archipelago , pursued closely by Europa . Alava claimed that he would have pressed the attack but for damage to the rigging on Montañés that allowed Hargood to escape . He does not explain why his squadron then subsequently withdrew without attacking the apparently unprotected assembled China Fleet anchored in Macau .
= = Aftermath = =
In historian C. Northcote Parkinson 's assessment " It is perhaps fair to conclude that neither squadron was spoiling for a fight " , although he describes Lhermitte 's subsequent reaction as " disgust " and Sercey 's as " fury " . Richard Woodman considered that by this action the French threw " away at a stroke the chance not only of seizing a valuable convoy , but of establishing Franco @-@ Spanish dominance in Indo @-@ Chinese waters " . Alava retired to Manila , the French ships departing for Batavia and subsequently returning to Île de France . There Preneuse was intercepted at the Action of 11 December 1799 by a blockade squadron made up of HMS Tremendous and HMS Adamant , driven on shore and destroyed . Sercey subsequently returned to France , retired from the French Navy and became a planter on Île de France .
Hargood sailed from Macau with the China Fleet on 7 February , passing unimpeded into the Indian Ocean . Alava did belatedly send Europa and frigate Fama back to Macau in May , but this achieved nothing . Rainier ensured that the 1800 China Fleet was well defended , but no further attacks were made on British shipping from China before the Peace of Amiens in 1802 . Early in the Napoleonic Wars , in 1804 , a powerful French squadron attacked the China Fleet at the Battle of Pulo Aura , but the East Indiamen succeeded in bluffing the French into withdrawing after a brief exchange of fire .
= Southern Area Command ( RAAF ) =
Southern Area Command was one of several geographically based commands raised by the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) during World War II . It was formed in March 1940 , and initially controlled units based in Victoria , Tasmania , South Australia and southern New South Wales . Headquartered at Melbourne , Southern Area Command was primarily responsible for air defence , aerial reconnaissance and protection of the sea lanes within its boundaries . From 1942 its operational responsibilities excluded New South Wales . The area continued to operate following the end of the war , before being re @-@ formed in October 1953 as Training Command under the RAAF 's new functional command @-@ and @-@ control system .
= = History = =
= = = World War II = = =
Prior to World War II , the Royal Australian Air Force was small enough for all its elements to be directly controlled by RAAF Headquarters in Melbourne . After war broke out in September 1939 , the RAAF began to decentralise its command structure , commensurate with expected increases in manpower and units . Its initial move in this direction was to create Nos. 1 and 2 Groups to control units in Victoria and New South Wales , respectively . Then , between March 1940 and May 1941 , the RAAF divided Australia and New Guinea into four geographically based command @-@ and @-@ control zones : Central Area , Southern Area , Western Area , and Northern Area . The roles of these area commands were air defence , protection of adjacent sea lanes , and aerial reconnaissance . Each was led by an Air Officer Commanding ( AOC ) responsible for the administration and operations of all air bases and units within his boundary .
No. 1 Group , which had been established on 20 November 1939 , was re @-@ formed as one of the first two area commands , Southern Area , on 7 March 1940 . Headquartered in Melbourne , Southern Area Command was given control of all Air Force units in Victoria , Tasmania , South Australia and the southern Riverina district of New South Wales . Its inaugural AOC was Air Commodore Henry Wrigley , who had also led No. 1 Group . His senior administrative staff officer was Group Captain Joe Hewitt . Wrigley handed over command to Air Commodore Adrian " King " Cole , formerly AOC Central Area , in November 1940 .
By August 1941 , the RAAF 's expanding instructional program necessitated the establishment of overarching training organisations on a semi @-@ functional , semi @-@ geographical basis . Accordingly , on 2 August 1941 , No. 1 ( Training ) Group was formed in Melbourne to assume responsibility for training units within Southern Area 's boundaries , while No. 2 ( Training ) Group was formed in Sydney to take over training units then under Central Area , which was disbanded ; control of other Central Area units was " divided as convenient " between Southern and Northern Area Commands . Air Commodore Frank Bladin held command of Southern Area from September to December 1941 .
As of 20 April 1942 , operational authority over all RAAF combat infrastructure , including area commands , was invested in the newly established Allied Air Forces ( AAF ) Headquarters under South West Pacific Area Command ( SWPA ) . On 15 May , Southern Area , which by then was considered too large , yielded responsibility for operational and maintenance units within New South Wales to a new area command , Eastern Area . Control of maintenance units under Southern Area was transferred to the newly established No. 4 ( Maintenance ) Group in Melbourne on 14 September . September also saw the formation of RAAF Command , led by Air Vice Marshal Bill Bostock , to oversee the majority of Australian flying units in the SWPA . Bostock exercised control of air operations through the area commands , although RAAF Headquarters continued to hold overarching administrative authority over Australian units .
By April 1943 , Southern Area was operating two combat units : No. 67 Squadron , flying maritime reconnaissance and anti @-@ submarine missions with Avro Ansons out of RAAF Station Laverton , Victoria ; and No. 86 Squadron , flying P @-@ 40 Kittyhawk fighters from Gawler , South Australia . Group Captain Ian McLachlan commanded the area from March 1944 until January 1945 , when he handed over to Group Captain Charles Eaton . The German submarine U @-@ 862 operated off southern Australia during the first months of 1945 , and the few combat units in Southern Area were heavily engaged in anti @-@ submarine patrols , attempting unsuccessfully to locate this and any other U @-@ boats in the vicinity . Eaton led the command through to the surrender of Japan in September , and into December 1945 .
= = = Post @-@ war reorganisation = = =
Following the end of the Pacific War in August 1945 , SWPA was dissolved and RAAF Headquarters again assumed full control of all its operational formations , including the area commands . In September 1946 , the Chief of the Air Staff , Air Vice Marshal George Jones , proposed reducing the five extant mainland area commands ( North @-@ Western , North @-@ Eastern , Eastern , Southern , and Western Areas ) to three : Northern Area , covering Queensland and the Northern Territory ; Eastern Area , covering New South Wales ; and Southern Area , covering Western Australia , South Australia , Victoria and Tasmania . The proposal was part of a much larger plan to restructure the post @-@ war RAAF ; the Federal government rejected the plan and the wartime area command boundaries essentially remained in place . RAAF College ( which became RAAF Academy in 1961 ) was established at RAAF Station Point Cook , Victoria , under Southern Area Command in August 1947 . The area 's later AOCs included Air Commodores Allan Walters , during 1948 – 50 , and Alan Charlesworth , the last officer to command the area , during 1951 – 53 .
The Federal government retired Jones in 1952 and replaced him with Air Marshal Donald Hardman , RAF , who proceeded to re @-@ organise the RAAF command @-@ and @-@ control system along functional lines , establishing Home ( operational ) , Training , and Maintenance Commands . The first was re @-@ formed from the existing Eastern Area Command , which was considered a de facto operational organisation owing to the preponderance of combat forces within its sphere . The second was re @-@ formed from Southern Area Command , as it was already the hub of training services , controlling those in New South Wales and Queensland as well as Victoria and South Australia . The third and final functional command was formed from the extant Maintenance Group headquarters in Melbourne . The transition to a functional system was completed in February 1954 , when the three new commands assumed control of all operations , training and maintenance from Western , North @-@ Western , and North @-@ Eastern Area Commands .
= = Aftermath = =
The functional commands established in 1953 – 54 were revised in 1959 . Home Command was renamed Operational Command , and Training and Maintenance Commands merged to become Support Command . Operational Command was renamed Air Command in 1987 , and three years later Support Command split into Logistics Command and Training Command . Training Command was re @-@ formed as Air Force Training Group , a force element group under Air Command , in 2006 .
= = Order of battle = =
As at 30 April 1942 , Southern Area 's order of battle comprised :
= Raëlian beliefs and practices =
Raëlian beliefs and practices are the concepts and principles of the religion founded by Claud Vorilhon , a former French auto racing journalist who changed his name to Raël . Followers of Raëlism are believers in an advanced race of extraterrestrials called Elohim who created life on earth . Raëlians are individualists who believe in sexual self @-@ determination . As advocates of the universal ethic and world peace , they believe the world would be better if geniuses had an exclusive right to govern in what Rael terms Geniocracy . As believers of life in outer space , they hope that human scientists will follow the path of the Elohim by achieving space travel through the cosmos and creating life on other planets . As believers in the resurrection of Jesus Christ through a scientific cloning process ( which includes memory transfer ) by the Elohim , they encourage scientific research to extend life through cloning , however critics outside are doubtful of its possibility .
Active followers of Raëlianism have exhibited their sex @-@ positive feminism and anti @-@ war views through outdoor contacts such as parades . The major initiation rite in the Raëlian Church is the baptism or Transmission of the Cellular Plan and is enacted by upper @-@ level members in the Raëlian clergy known as guides .
= = Beliefs = =
= = = Structure of the Universe = = =
Raël says that , " Everything is in everything . " Inside the atoms of living things , he says , are living things made of atoms which themselves have living things made of atoms , and so on , to the infinitely small . The universe itself is contained in an atom inside of another universe , and so on , to the infinitely large . Because of the difference of mass , the activity of life inside a living thing 's atoms would undergo many millennia before enough time passes for that living thing to take a single step . Raëlians believe the universe is infinite and thus lacks a center . Because of this , one could not imagine where an ethereal soul would go , due the universe 's infinite nature . They believe that infinity exists in time as well as in space , for all levels of life .
Raëlians believe that humanity would be able to create life on other planets only if humanity is peaceful enough to stop war . In that case , humanity could travel the distances between stars and create life on another planet . Progress in terraforming , molecular biology , and cloning would enable these teams to create continents and life from scratch . Progress in social engineering would ensure that this creation would have a better chance of both surviving and having the potential to understand its creators . Research on how civilization would occur on another planet would allow scientists to decide what traces of their origin should be left behind so that their role in life creation would someday be revealed . The progress achieved by the science teams would ultimately sustain a perpetual chain of life .
Raëlians do not believe in reincarnation as dictated by mystical writings because they do not believe that an ethereal soul exists free of physical confinement . Instead the Raëlians think that advanced supercomputers of the Elohim are right now recording the memories and DNA of human beings . When Elohim release this information for the coming resurrection , people would be brought back from the dead and the judgments upon them would be realized based on actions in their past life . People excluded from physical recreation would include those who achieved nothing positive but were not evil . Claude Vorilhon expressed an interest in cloning Hitler for war trials and retroactive punishment . Raël also mentioned cloning as the solution to terrorism by suicide attacks , as the perpetrators would not be able to escape punishment by killing themselves if the Elohim recreated them after their attacks .
= = = Intelligent Design = = =
= = = = Creation of life on Earth by extraterrestrials = = = =
In his book The Message Given to me by Extraterrestrials ( now republished as Intelligent Design : Message from the Designers 2006 ISBN 2 @-@ 940252 @-@ 20 @-@ 3 ) , Vorilhon claims that on 13 December 1973 , he found a spacecraft shaped like a flattened bell that landed inside Puy de Lassolas , a volcano near the capital city of Auvergne . A 25 @,@ 000 @-@ year @-@ old human @-@ like extraterrestrial inside the spacecraft named Yahweh said that Elohim was the name that primitive people of Earth called members of his extraterrestrial race — who were seen as " those who came from the sky " . Yahweh explained that Earth was originally void of life , with thick clouds and shallow seas , but the Elohim came , broke apart the clouds , exposed the seas to sunlight , built a continent , and synthesized a global ecosystem . Solar astronomy , terraformation , nanotechnology , and genetic engineering allowed Elohim to adapt life to Earth 's thermal and chemical makeup .
Yahweh gave materialistic explanations of the Garden of Eden , a large laboratory that was based on an artificially constructed continent ; Noah 's Ark , a spaceship that preserved DNA that was used to resurrect animals through cloning ; the Tower of Babel , a rocket that was supposed to reach the creators ' planet ; and the Great Flood , the byproduct of a nuclear missile explosion that the Elohim sent . After tidal wave floods following the explosions receded , Elohim scattered the Israelites and had them speak the language of other tribes .
According to Vorilhon , Elohim contacted about forty people to act as their prophets on Earth , including Moses , Elijah , Ezekiel , Buddha , John the Baptist , Jesus , Muhammad , and Joseph Smith . The religions thought to be from Elohimic origins include Judaism , Buddhism , Christianity , Islam , and Mormonism .
From the Raëlian point of view , religious texts indicate that the Elohim would return at the age of Apocalypse or Revelation ( unveiling of the truth ) . Humans from another world would appear to drop down from the sky and meet in the embassy they have asked Raël to build for them and share their advanced scientific knowledge with humanity . Thus , one of their stated main goals of the Raëlian movement is to inform as many people as possible about this extraterrestrial race .
The controversy surrounding the origins of Raelian beliefs centers on the writings of several authors in the late 1960s . Jean Sendy , a French writer , translator , and author of books on the esoteric and UFOs wrote several novels detailing the creation of Earth by extraterrestrials . One of the best known researchers in this field is Erich van Däniken , the ' father ' of the Ancient Astronauts theory , which postulates that Earth might have been visited by extraterrestrials in the remote past .
With the publication of Chariots of the Gods ? in 1968 , Erich von Däniken introduced the intervention theory to the general public . Von Däniken wrote that the technologies and religions of ancient civilizations were granted by extraterrestrials worshiped as gods . Von Däniken argued that only extraterrestrial intervention can explain the higher technological knowledge presumed to be essential for the production of ancient artifacts such as the Egyptian pyramids , Stonehenge and the Moai of Easter Island . Humans in ancient times considered this extraterrestrial high @-@ tech to be supernatural and the aliens themselves to be ' gods ' . One can find direct parallels to the messages that Vorilhon claimed to have received and written about in his books . Marie @-@ Hélène Parent , ex @-@ guide Raëlian priest , describes Sendy and Vorilhon meeting several times for drinks and conversation throughout the years of 1973 and 1974 , prior to Vorilhon 's claimed extraterrestrial encounter .
= = = = Humanity 's chance of creating life on other planets = = = =
Raëlians believe that humanity would be able to create life on other planets only if it is peaceful enough to stop war . If done , humanity could travel the distances between stars and create life on another planet . Progress in terraformation , molecular biology , and cloning would enable these teams to create continents and life from scratch . Progress in social engineering would ensure that this creation would have a better chance of both surviving as well as having the potential to understand its creators . Research on how globalization would occur on another planet would allow scientists to decide what traces of their origin should be left behind so that their role in life creation would someday be revealed . The progress achieved by the science teams would ultimately sustain a perpetual chain of life .
= = = A coming judgement = = =
Raëlians do not believe in reincarnation as dictated by mystical writings because they do not believe that an ethereal soul exists free of physical confinement . Instead the Raëlians think that advanced supercomputers of the Elohim are right now recording the memories and DNA of human beings . When Elohim release this information for the coming resurrection , people would be brought back from the dead and the judgments upon them would be realized based on actions in their past life . People excluded from physical recreation would include those who achieved nothing positive but were not evil . Vorilhon expressed an interest in cloning Hitler for war trials and retroactive punishment . Raël also mentioned cloning as the solution to terrorism by suicide attacks , as the perpetrators would not be able to escape punishment by killing themselves if the Elohim recreated them after their attacks .
= = Practices = =
= = = Initiation of new members = = =
The major initiation rite in the Raëlian Church is the " baptism " or " transmission of the cellular plan " and is enacted by upper @-@ level members in the Raëlian clergy known as guides . Canadian sociologist Susan J. Palmer says that in 1979 , Raël introduced the " Act of Apostasy " as an obligation for those preparing for their Raëlian baptism . CTV Television Network states that apostasy from other religions is required for new Raëlian members . Joining the Raëlian Church through transmission of the cellular plan happens only in certain days of the year . There are four such days — marking anniversaries in the Raëlian calendar .
The Raëlian baptism is known as transmission of the cellular plan where " cellular " refers to the organic cells of the body and the " plan " refers to the genetic makeup of the individual . This Raëlian baptism involves a guide member laying water onto the forehead of the new member . The practice began on " the first Sunday in April " of 1976 when Raël baptised 40 Raëlians . Raëlians believe that their genetic information is recorded by a remote computer and would become recognized during their final hour when they will be judged by the extraterrestrial Elohim .
There is continuing debate on whether Raëlians can be identified as a cult . The government of France classifies the Raelian Movement as a " secte " ( French word for cult ) . However , according to Glenn McGee , the associate director of the Center for Bioethics at the University of Virginia , part of the sect is a cult while the other part is a commercial website that collects large sums of money from those interested in human cloning . The Bureau of Democracy , Human Rights , and Labor of the United States Department of State and sociologist Susan J. Palmer have classified the International Raëlian Movement as a religion .
= = = Activism = = =
Raëlians routinely advocate sex @-@ positive feminism and genetically modified food and actively protest against wars in addition to the Catholic Church . For example , a photographer of the Associated Press snapped a picture of half @-@ naked Raëlian women wearing pasties as part of an anti @-@ war demonstration in Seoul , Korea . A snapshot by Agence France @-@ Presse revealed Raëlians in white alien costumes with signs bearing the message " NO WAR ... ET wants Peace , too ! " . On 6 August 2003 , the first day of Raëlian year 58 AH , a tech article on the USA Today newspaper mentions an " unlikely ally " of the Monsanto Company , the Raëlian Movement of Brazil . The movement gave vocal support in response to the company 's support for genetically modified organisms particularly in their country . Brazilian farmers have been using Monsanto 's genetically engineered soy plant as well as the glyphosate herbicide to which it was artificially adapted . The Raëlians spoke against the Brazilian government 's ban on GMOs .
= = = = Topless Rights of Women = = = =
Several Raëlian groups in the United States have organized annual protests , claiming that women should have the same legal right to go topless in public , that men enjoy without fear of arrest for indecent exposure . Some have called this a publicity stunt designed to recruit members . Go Topless Day is their annual event , with women protesting topless except for nipple pasties to avoid arrest . It is held near 26 August , the anniversary of the day women were given the USA right to vote .
In July 2001 , Raëlians on the streets attracted Italians and Swiss people as they gave leaflets in protest to over a hundred child molesters in existence among Roman Catholic clergy in France . They recommended that parents should not send their children to Catholic confession . The Episcopal vicar of Geneva sued the Raëlian Church for libel but did not win . The judge did not accept the charges for the reason that the Raëlians were not attacking the whole of the Catholic Church .
In October 2002 , Raëlians in a Canadian anti @-@ clerical parade held handed out Christian crosses to high school students . They were invited to burn the crosses in a park not far from Montreal 's Mount Royal and to sign letters of apostasy from the Roman Catholic Church . The Quebec Association of Bishops called this " incitement to hatred " , and several school boards attempted to prevent their students from meeting Raëlians .
= = Advocacy = =
= = = Embassy for Extraterrestrials = = =
Raëlians believe that life on earth — as well as many religions of the world — was the work of extraterrestrial influence . They believe these were scientists and that ancient people saw them as " gods " and gave the name " Elohim " . Raëlians believe that the Embassy for Extraterrestrials or " Third Temple " is to support an official contact with Extraterrestrial Elohim and their messengers of the main religions at the " New Jerusalem " . Writers who have influenced Raëlian beliefs include Zechariah Sitchin and Erich von Däniken .
The International Raëlian Movement envisions having an entrance with an aseptic chamber leading to a conference room for twenty @-@ one people as well as a dining room of the same capacity . In the plan are seven rooms for the purpose of receiving human guests into the embassy . The embassy building , along with the swimming pool , would be in the center of a large park and protected from trespassing by a wall − a maximum of two stories @-@ to surround the entire complex 's circumference . Trees and bushes are to be planted in the outskirts of the wall 's area . The walls are to have a northern and southern entrance . The landing pad for the embassy should be able fit a spaceship of twelve meters of diameter or 39 ' 4 " on its terrace . The terrace is to be above the rooms in the torus , which are for extraterrestrials only . The seven rooms directly underneath the landing pad would be protected from occupants of other rooms with a thick metal door . Finally , the International Raëlian Movement wants to avoid military and radar surveillance of the airspace above the embassy . Buildings for administration , food and water provisions , and state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art sanitation and communication systems are part of this vision . A nearby replica of the Raëlian Embassy for Extraterrestrials open to the public is expected to show visitors what it is like inside the real one .
In February 1991 , the Raëlian Church modified their symbol to remove the swastika to help in negotiations with building the " Third Temple of Israel " . The official reason given was a telepathic request from extraterrestrials called Elohim to change the symbol in order to help in negotiations with Israel for the building of a Raëlian " embassy " or " third temple of Israel " to greet the anticipated coming of extraterrestrials and founders of past religions , although the country still denies their request .
On 13 December 1997 , the leader of the International Raëlian Movement had decided to extend the possibility of building the embassy outside of Jerusalem and also allow that a significant portion of the embassy property be covered with water . The area of the proposed embassy property is still envisioned at a minimum of 3 @.@ 47 square kilometers , with a radius of at least 1 @.@ 05 kilometers .
In 2005 , the Israeli Raëlian Guide Kobi Drori stated that the Lebanese government was discussing proposals by the Raëlian movement to build their " interplanetary embassy " in Lebanon . However , one condition was that the Raëlians did not display their logo on top of the building because it mixes a swastika and a Star of David . According to Drori , the Raëlians involved declined this offer , as they wished to keep the symbol as is .
= = = Ideas how government and the economy should run = = =
According to the book Geniocracy , creating a peaceful worldwide political union requires a form of government that favors intelligence over mediocrity . While having a democratic electoral apparatus , it differs from traditional liberal democracy by requiring members of the electorate to meet a minimum standard of intelligence . The thresholds proposed by the Raëlians are 50 % above average for a candidate and 10 % above average for a voter . Raëlians believe that a world government is only possible through establishing a global currency , a common language , and a transformation of militaries of the world into civil police .
In Raël 's book , Extraterrestrials took me to their Planet , Raël claims that an extraterrestrial gave him the idea of Economic Humanitarianism . Under the establishment of Economic Humanitarianism , people would not have ownership of businesses or exploitable goods created by others . Instead , people would rent each of them for a period of 49 years . The founders would be able to receive the rents for up to 49 years or when they die , whichever is later . Any rents not inherited by relatives after 49 years would go to the State . By balancing inheritances , children would be born with enough financial means to forsake menial tasks for endeavors that may benefit the whole of humanity . Family houses could be inherited from generation to generation , free of rent .
In his much later book , Maitreya , Raël says the road to a world without money is capitalism and globalisation , as opposed to communism . Capitalism would allow those who contribute much to society to also contribute to its scientific and technological development . Under capitalism , society would produce as much money as it can . The money would become important in the short run as nanotechnology quickly lowers the cost of goods while putting many people out of work .
An anti @-@ cult organization called Info @-@ Cult argued that Geniocracy was a fascist ideology . However , Geniocracy is not a political party because it allows for differing political viewpoints .
= = = Liberal sensuality = = =
According to Vorilhon 's book Sensual Meditation , one should develop the ability to break free of habitual thoughts that prevent one from appreciating everyday phenomena . The book describes in detail six different meditations involving making full use of the lungs ' capacity to expand and contract , oxygenating the blood and the cells within , imagining heat travelling upwards from toe to the head , allowing the skin to feel under itself , and experiencing touch with another person 's body and examining their figure .
According to the book Maitreya by Vorilhon , love involves experiencing different varieties and possibilities that allow one to break habits in order to make life more pleasant and interesting and that it is the only thing that can stop war and injustice that persists in today 's world . Raëlians believe in the right to form new religions or new political parties as long as they do not promote violence . As individualists , Raëlians believe that the one who gives the order to harm others is less at fault than the one who executes it .
Raëlians say they encourage adult homosexual , bisexual , and heterosexual relationships and that society should recognize them legally . However , government authorities such as those in Switzerland fear that Raëlians are a threat to public morals for supporting liberalized sex education for children . The authorities believe that such liberalized sex education teaches youth how to obtain sexual gratification which would encourage sexual abuse of underage children . The Raëlians disagree with those fears and stated that sex education done properly would involve educating parents as well as children .
Susan J. Palmer writes that in 1991 , a French journalist went to a Raëlian Seminar and taped couples having sexual intercourse in tents . These tapes gained widespread publicity — with news stories describing these practices as perverted and a form of brainwashing .
Since 1991 , Raël 's teachings on sexual intercourse have caused controversy among other religious groups . The next year , Catholic schools in Montreal , Canada objected to a proposed condom vending machine as contrary to their mission . In response , Raëlian guides gave the Catholic students ten thousand condoms . The Commissioner of Catholic schools for Montreal said they could do nothing to stop them . Around this time , Raëlians dubbed the event " Operation Condom " .
= = = Cloning of humans = = =
In the scientific community , reproductive cloning refers only to the creation of a genetically identical living thing . " Genetically identical " does not mean altogether identical ; this kind of cloning does not reproduce a living thing 's memories or experiences , for example . However , in discussions of Raëlianism , cloning sometimes seems to refer not only to reproductive cloning , but also reproductive human cloning plus mind and / or brain transfer , or to a process of making adult clones . Raëlians take this even further and say that humanity can attain eternal life through the science of cloning .
According to the book Yes to Human Cloning , the first stage of this extended cloning process is creating a human embryo through human cloning . Raëlian bishop and Clonaid CEO Brigitte Boisselier claimed that an American woman underwent a cloning procedure of this type that led to the birth of a girl named Eve on 26 December 2002 . Vorilhon told lawmakers that banning the development of human cloning was comparable to outlawing medical advances such as " antibiotics , blood transfusions , and vaccines . "
The second stage of cloning , according to Raëlians , is causing the clone to mature faster than normal . Raël says that in the future , scientists will discover an " accelerated @-@ growth process " in which a process like guided self @-@ assembly of rapidly expanded cells or even nanotechnological assembly of a whole human body can form in a very short time .
The third stage is the transfer of memory and personality from the original person to the mature clone . For the process to maintain one branch for personality and memory , as opposed to two , a recording of the individual 's mind would be required before the time of death , and would be transferred to an adult clone body after the original has died .
In the final stages of development , hitherto unknown information contained within undamaged DNA would be enough to bring others back from the dead including their memories and personality . This would be done by taking a small sample from someone 's body and preserving it at the time when the level of the brain 's efficiency and knowledge is highest . On the day of death , a cell would be taken from the sample for the cloning to take place , and the memories and personality would be restored to their peak level .
The Raëlian Church has close links with the controversial company Clonaid . Brigitte Boisselier , a Raëlian and chief executive of Clonaid , made a controversial and unverified claim that a human baby was conceived through cloning technology . Around this time , Clonaid 's subsidiary BioFusion Tech claimed to have in possession a cell fusion device that assisted the cloning of human embryos . The Vatican , however , says that experimenters expressed " brutal mentality " for attempting to clone human beings . Pope John Paul II criticized the experiment which he believed threatened the dignity of human life . In response , the leader of the Raëlian Church dismissed the Pope 's ethical concerns , calling them an " accumulation of religious prejudices . "
= Capture of Savannah =
The Capture of Savannah , or sometimes the First Battle of Savannah ( because of a siege in 1779 ) , was an American Revolutionary War battle fought on December 29 , 1778 between local American Patriot militia and Continental Army units holding the city and a British invasion force under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Archibald Campbell . The British seizure of the city led to an extended occupation and was the opening move in the British southern strategy to regain control of the rebellious Southern provinces by appealing to the strong Loyalist sentiment believed to be there .
General Sir Henry Clinton , the commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the British forces based in New York City , dispatched Campbell and a 3 @,@ 100 man force from New York to capture Savannah , and begin the process of returning Georgia to British control . He was to be assisted by troops under the command of Brigadier General Augustine Prevost that were marching up from Saint Augustine in East Florida . After landing near Savannah on December 23 , Campbell assessed the American defenses , which were comparatively weak , and decided to attack without waiting for Prevost . Taking advantage of local assistance he successfully flanked the American position outside the town , captured a large portion of Major General Robert Howe 's army , and drove the remnants to retreat into South Carolina .
Campbell and Prevost followed up the victory with the capture of Sunbury and an expedition to Augusta . The latter was only occupied by Campbell for a few weeks before he retreated back to Savannah , citing insufficient Loyalist and Indian support and the threat of Patriot forces across the Savannah River in South Carolina . The British held off a Franco @-@ American siege in 1779 , and held the city until late in the war .
= = Background = =
In March 1778 , following the defeat of a British army at Saratoga and the consequent entry of France into the American Revolutionary War as an American ally , Lord George Germain , the British secretary responsible for the war , wrote to Lieutenant General Sir Henry Clinton that capturing the southern colonies was " considered by the King as an object of great importance in the scale of the war " . Germain 's instructions to Clinton , framed as recommendations , were that he should abandon Philadelphia and then embark on operations to recover Georgia and the Carolinas , while making diversionary attacks against Virginia and Maryland .
= = = British preparations = = =
In June and July 1778 Clinton successfully removed his troops from Philadelphia back to New York . In November , after dealing with the threat of a French fleet off New York and Newport , Rhode Island , Clinton turned his attention to the south . He organized a force of about 3 @,@ 000 men in New York and sent orders to Saint Augustine , the capital of East Florida , where Brigadier General Augustine Prevost was to organize all available men and Indian agent John Stuart was to rally the local Creek and Cherokee warriors to assist in operations against Georgia . Clinton 's basic plan , first proposed by Thomas Brown in 1776 , began with the capture of the capital of Georgia , Savannah .
Clinton gave command of the detachment from New York to Lieutenant Colonel Archibald Campbell . The force consisted of two battalions ( the 1st and 2nd ) of the 71st Regiment of Foot , the Hessian regiments von Wöllwarth and von Wissenbach , and four Loyalist provincial units : one battalion from the New York Volunteers , two from DeLancey 's Brigade , and one from Skinner 's Brigade . Campbell sailed from New York on November 26 and arrived off Tybee Island , near the mouth of the Savannah River , on December 23 .
= = = American defenses = = =
The state of Georgia was defended by two separate forces . Units of the Continental Army were under the command of General Robert Howe , who was responsible for the defense of the entire South , while the state 's militia companies were under the overall command of Georgia Governor John Houstoun . Howe and Georgia authorities had previously squabbled over control of military expeditions against Prevost in East Florida , and those expeditions had failed . These failures led the Continental Congress to decide in September 1778 to replace Howe with Major General Benjamin Lincoln , who had successfully negotiated militia participation in events surrounding the British defeat at Saratoga . Lincoln had not yet arrived when word reached Howe that Clinton was sending troops to Georgia .
During November 1778 British raids into Georgia became more and more threatening to the state 's population centers . Despite the urgency of the situation , Governor Houstoun refused to allow Howe to direct the movements of the Georgia militia . On November 18 , Howe began marching south from Charleston , South Carolina with 550 Continental Army troops , arriving in Savannah late that month . He learned that Campbell had sailed from New York on December 6 . On December 23 sails were spotted off Tybee Island . The next day , Governor Houstoun assigned 100 Georgia militia to Howe .
A war council decided to attempt a vigorous defense of Savannah , in spite of the fact that they were likely to be significantly outnumbered , hoping to last until Lincoln 's troops arrived . Due the large number of potential landing points , Howe was forced to hold most of his army in reserve until the British had actually landed .
= = Battle = =
The place Campbell selected for landing was Girardeau 's Plantation , located about 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) below the city . When word reached Howe that the landing had started on December 29 , he sent a company of Continentals to occupy the bluffs above the landing site . Campbell realized that the bluffs would need to be controlled before the majority of his forces could land , and dispatched two companies of the 71st Regiment to take control of them . The Continentals opened fire at about 100 yards ( 91 m ) ; the British , rather than returning fire , advanced rapidly with bayonets fixed , denying the Continentals a second shot . The Continentals retreated , having killed four and wounded five at no cost to themselves . By noon , Campbell had landed his army and began to proceed cautiously toward the city .
Howe held a council that morning , and ground was chosen at which to make a stand . About one @-@ half mile ( 0 @.@ 7 km ) south of the city he established a line of defense in the shape of an open V , with the ends anchored by swampy woods . On the left Howe placed Georgia Continentals and militia under Samuel Elbert , while on the right he put South Carolina Continentals and militia under Isaac Huger and William Thomson . The line was supported by four pieces of field artillery , and light infantry companies guarded the flanks . Most of Howe 's troops , including the Continentals , had seen little or no action in the war .
When Campbell 's advance companies spotted Howe 's line around 2 : 00 pm , the main body stopped short of the field and Campbell went to see what he was up against . He viewed Howe 's defenses as essentially sound , but a local slave told him that there was a path through the swamp on Howe 's right . Campbell ordered Sir James Baird to take 350 light infantry and 250 New York Loyalists and follow the slave through the swamp , while he arrayed his troops just out of view in a way that would give the impression he would attempt a flanking maneuver on Howe 's left . One of his officers climbed a tree to observe Baird 's progress . True to the slave 's word , the trail came out near the Continental barracks , which had been left unguarded ; the Continentals were unaware they had been flanked . When they reached position , the man in the tree signaled by waving his hat , and Campbell ordered the regulars to charge .
The first sounds of battle Howe heard were musket fire from the barracks , but these were rapidly followed by cannon fire and the appearance of charging British and German troops on his front . He ordered an immediate retreat , but it rapidly turned into a rout . His untried troops hardly bothered to return fire , some throwing down their weapons before attempting to run away through the swampy terrain . Campbell reported that " It was scarcely possible to come up with them , their retreat was rapid beyond Conception . " The light infantry in the Continental rear cut off the road to Augusta , the only significant escape route , forcing a mad scramble of retreating troops into the city itself . The Georgia soldiers on the right attempted to find a safe crossing of Musgrove Creek , but one did not exist , and many of the troops were taken prisoner . Soldiers who did not immediately surrender were sometimes bayoneted . Colonel Huger managed to form a rear @-@ guard to cover the escape of a number of the Continentals . Some of Howe 's men managed to escape to the north before the British closed off the city , but others were forced to attempt swimming across Yamacraw Creek ; an unknown number drowned in the attempt .
= = Aftermath = =
Campbell gained control of the city at the cost to his forces of seven killed and seventeen wounded , not including the four men killed and five wounded during preliminary skirmishing . Campbell took 453 prisoners , and there were at least 83 dead and 11 wounded from Howe 's forces . When Howe 's retreat ended at Purrysburg , South Carolina he had 342 men left , less than half his original army . Howe would receive much of the blame for the disaster , with William Moultrie arguing that he should have either disputed the landing site in force or retreated without battle to keep his army intact . He was exonerated in a court martial that inquired into the event , although the tribunal pointed out that Howe should have made a stand at the bluffs or more directly opposed the landing .
General Prevost arrived from East Florida in mid @-@ January , and shortly after sent Campbell with 1 @,@ 000 men to take Augusta . Campbell occupied the frontier town against minimal opposition , but by then General Lincoln had begun to rally support in South Carolina to oppose the British . Campbell abandoned Augusta on February 14 , the same day a Loyalist force en route to meet him was defeated in the Battle of Kettle Creek . Although Patriot forces following the British were ambushed in the March 3 Battle of Brier Creek , the Georgia backcountry remained in Patriot hands .
Campbell wrote that he would be " the first British officer to [ rend ] a star and stripe from the flag of Congress " . The British held Savannah until July 11 , 1782 , when its troops were withdrawn . Savannah was used as a base to conduct coastal raids which targeted areas from Charleston , South Carolina to the Florida coast . In the fall of 1779 , a combined French and American siege to recapture Savannah failed with significant casualties . Control of Georgia was formally returned to its royal governor , James Wright , in July 1779 , but the backcountry would not come under British control until after the 1780 Siege of Charleston . Patriot forces recovered Augusta by siege in 1781 , but Savannah remained in British hands until 1782 .
= Eaton Hall , Cheshire =
Eaton Hall is the country house of the Duke of Westminster . It is set within a large estate 1 mile ( 2 km ) south of the village of Eccleston , in Cheshire , England . The house is surrounded by formal gardens , parkland , farmland and woodland . The estate covers an area of about 10 @,@ 872 acres ( 4 @,@ 400 ha ) .
The first substantial house was built in the 17th century . In the early 19th century it was replaced by a much larger house designed by William Porden . This in turn was replaced by an even larger house , with outbuildings and a chapel , designed by Alfred Waterhouse . Building started in 1870 and concluded about 12 years later . By 1960 the fabric of the house had deteriorated and , like many other mansions during this period , it was demolished , although the chapel and many of the outbuildings were retained . A new house was built but its design was not considered to be sympathetic to the local landscape , and in the late 1980s it was re @-@ cased and given the appearance of a French château .
The house has been surrounded by formal gardens since the 17th century , the design of which has changed over the centuries in accordance with current ideas and fashions , as has the surrounding parkland . A variety of buildings are included in the estate , some decorative , others built for the business of the estate ; many of these are listed buildings . The house and estate are not normally open to the public , but the gardens are open on three days a year to raise money for charity , and some of the estate 's buildings can be hired for charitable purposes .
= = Halls = =
Eaton Hall has been the country house of the Grosvenor family since the 15th century . There is evidence of a two @-@ storey house on a moated site in the estate in a 17th @-@ century estate map and an 18th @-@ century engraving . A survey undertaken in 1798 showed that the building was still present .
= = = Samwell Hall = = =
The first substantial house was built for Sir Thomas Grosvenor , 3rd Baronet . He inherited the estate at the age of 19 when he succeeded his grandfather , Sir Richard Grosvenor , 2nd Baronet , who died in 1664 . The new owner commissioned the architect William Samwell to design the house . Building started in 1675 ; much of the stone used was brought from the ruined Holt Castle in north Wales . By 1683 the cost of building the house had risen to over £ 1 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to £ 530 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) . An engraving of the time shows it to have been a substantial square house with three storeys and dormers . The entrance front had nine bays and a portico . The engraving also shows the earlier moated house to the south of the new house .
= = = Porden Hall = = =
By the time that Robert Grosvenor , then the 2nd Earl Grosvenor , and later the 1st Marquess of Westminster , inherited the estate in 1802 , the Samwell Hall had become old @-@ fashioned and in need of renovation . Grosvenor appointed William Porden to plan the improvements . Building started in 1803 and Porden estimated it would take three years to build at a cost of £ 10 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to £ 530 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) . In the event it took just under 10 years and cost over £ 100 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to £ 530 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) . The previous house was encased and surrounded by " every possible permutation of the gothic style " ; including turrets , pinnacles , arched windows , octagonal towers , and buttresses ( both regular and flying ) . Two new wings were added in the first stage , and in the 1820s more wings were added , by this time under the direction of Benjamin Gummow . The interior of the house was as lavish as the exterior , with more Gothic detailing . The hangings for the state bed included 97 yards ( 89 m ) of purple damask and 103 yards ( 94 m ) of sarsenet ( fine silk ) trimmed with gold lace . When the future Queen Victoria visited in 1832 at the age of 13 , she wrote in her journal : " The house is magnificent " . Others described it as being " as extravagant and opulent as the very latest upholsterer @-@ decorators could make it " . A critic found it " the most gaudy concern I ever saw " and " a vast pile of mongrel gothic which ... is a monument of wealth , ignorance and bad taste " . Richard Grosvenor , 2nd Marquess of Westminster , succeeded his father in 1845 and commissioned the Scottish architect William Burn to make alterations to the house . Burn raised the centre of the south front to make it look like a tower , and changed some of the external Gothic features . The architectural historian Nikolaus Pevsner described this house as a " spectacular Gothic mansion " .
= = = Waterhouse Hall = = =
The 2nd Marquess died in 1869 and was succeeded by his son Hugh Lupus Grosvenor , initially the 3rd Marquess and from 1874 the 1st Duke of Westminster . He appointed Alfred Waterhouse to design another new hall . Again the core of the previous hall was retained ; parts were refaced and re @-@ modelled , other parts were completely rebuilt . A private wing was built for the use of the family , and this was joined to the main part of the hall by a corridor . Waterhouse also designed the chapel and a clock @-@ house , and rebuilt most of the stabling . The work began in 1870 , took 12 years to complete , and cost £ 803 @,@ 000 ( £ NaN in 2016 ) . The library was 90 feet ( 27 m ) long , the dining room with its ante room was 105 feet ( 32 m ) long , and the octagonal great hall contained an organ . For the interior , Henry Stacy Marks painted a frieze of the Canterbury Pilgrims for the morning room , Gertrude Jekyll painted panels for the drawing room , and in other rooms were paintings by Gainsborough , Stubbs and Reynolds . Pevsner wrote that it " was an outstanding expression of High Victorian originality " , and added " this Wagnerian palace was the most ambitious instance of Gothic Revival domestic architecture anywhere in the country " . The Daily Telegraph described it as " one of the most princely and beautiful mansions that these islands contain " .
During both World Wars , parts of the hall were used as a hospital . In 1943 , the Britannia Royal Naval College moved to the hall from Dartmouth when the college there was bombed . They moved back to Dartmouth in 1946 , after which the hall was used as an officer cadet training school until the end of National Service in 1958 .
= = = Dennys Hall and the present hall = = =
By 1960 the hall needed repair and decoration , and dry rot was found in the roof . Robert Grosvenor , 5th Duke of Westminster , decided to demolish the main part of the Waterhouse building and the private wing , retaining the chapel , clock tower and stables ; this took place in 1963 . A new building was commissioned by the Duke who appointed John Dennys , his wife 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , as architect . Dennys had earlier worked on Saighton Grange on the Eaton estate . The intention was to build a modern , manageable home . The result was a rectangular , flat @-@ roofed building , faced with white Travertine , its " whiteness [ being ] a stark contrast to the softness of the Cheshire landscape " . Its construction began in 1971 , it took less than 2 1 ⁄ 2 years to build , and cost £ 459 @,@ 000 ( £ NaN in 2016 ) . The exterior had a central porte @-@ cochère on the entrance front . The house followed an asymmetrical plan , with two storeys plus a basement containing a swimming pool . A central two @-@ storey hall gave access to the principal rooms , with the main reception rooms being on the first floor . The decor included wall coverings in silk and woodblock floors .
As the hall was considered to be unsympathetic in appearance to the local countryside , it was decided to change its exterior . This was designed by the Percy Thomas Partnership . Work on recasing the Dennys Hall to make it look more like a French château began in 1989 and was completed in 1991 .
= = = Associated structures = = =
Adjacent to the hall are the remaining structures designed by Waterhouse . To the north is Eaton Chapel ; this , with its clock tower , is a Grade I listed building . The decorative scheme of the interior of the chapel is based on the ' Te Deum ' ; it involves stained glass and stone mosaic , and was developed by Frederic Shields . Immediately to the north of the chapel is the Stable Court ; this is listed at Grade II * . The buildings in the Stable Court are in brick , red stone , and half @-@ timbering , with red tile roofs . The west range has a half @-@ timbered upper storey with two gables , and a central gatehouse with turrets which are polygonal at the base and circular higher up and have conical roofs . On each side of the gatehouse are two @-@ storey arcades with gables above . In the courtyard is a statue of a horse by Joseph Boehm , which is listed at Grade II . At the southeast corner of the stable yard is a postillion 's house , dated 1873 and listed at Grade II * . In a lobby between the stable yard and the chapel is an artificial grotto , listed at Grade II . In the area around the Stable Court are further structures listed at Grade II . To the north is the Coachhouse Court , which consists of a coach @-@ house , a covered court and a riding school . These were designed in the 1870s for the 1st Duke . To the north of this are Eaton Hall Cottages , four attached cottages , which were designed about the same time . In the forecourt between the Coachhouse Court and the cottages is a lodge , with gates , piers and screens . Near to the cottages is the former engine shed of the Eaton Hall Railway . To the east of the stable yard is a chapel @-@ like sandstone game pantry dating from the 1870s .
From 1896 until 1947 , the estate was served by the 15 in ( 381 mm ) gauge Eaton Hall Railway . The line ran from the hall to a depot at Balderton on the Chester @-@ Wrexham line , and a spur went to Cuckoo 's Nest , where there was a repair yard . Part of the old railway route was re @-@ opened in 1996 .
= = Grounds = =
The estate covers an area of about 10 @,@ 872 acres ( 4 @,@ 400 ha ) , within which about 1 @,@ 235 acres ( 500 ha ) of parkland and about 50 acres ( 20 ha ) of formal gardens . These are listed at Grade II * on the National Register of Historic Parks and Gardens . The boundaries of the estate generally follow field boundaries but on the east side they follow the line of the River Dee .
= = = History = = =
In the 17th century , formal gardens were created around the Samwell Hall ; these included such features as parterres and canals . However they were costly to maintain , and in the later part of the 18th century fashions changed to favour a more informal type of garden layout . Credit for designing the informal gardens at Eaton Hall has been given to Lancelot " Capability " Brown . Although one of Brown 's documents dated 1764 shows that payment was made to him by the estate , it also notes that a plan for the garden had been drawn up by William Emes . From this , Marion Mako concludes that , as Brown was an engineer as well as a landscape gardener , the payment was for an engineering project rather than for landscaping . Emes had been influenced by Brown , although he had not been his pupil . With his clerk of works , Thomas Leggett , Emes worked in the estate for the next 10 years . When Robert Grosvenor ( later the 1st Marquess ) inherited the estate at the beginning of the 19th century , it had become run @-@ down . The marquess appointed John Webb , a pupil of Emes , to improve the garden and the landscaping . Among Webb 's innovations were new terrace walls behind the house , the levelling of Belgrave Avenue and the planting of 130 @,@ 000 trees along it , and a serpentine lake to the east of the house alongside the River Dee . He also arranged for the construction of greenhouses and a kitchen garden .
Fashions changed again , and in the 1820s William Andrews Nesfield was employed to design new parterres . He also built more terracing and a balustraded wall . Statues , stone urns and vases on pedestals were added to the garden . In 1852 the Camellia House was built ; this was extended in 1870 to its final size of 385 feet ( 117 m ) long , 10 feet ( 3 m ) wide , and 18 feet ( 5 m ) high . The present kitchen garden was created the same year ; this provided the food not only for the hall , but also for Grosvenor House in London . More greenhouses were built and , by about 1880 , 56 gardeners were employed . There were other building works in the grounds . Waterhouse created a grotto between the chapel and the stable yard , and designed the Parrot House and a loggia ( now known as the Temple ) . The Chester architect John Douglas designed the Dutch Tea House in the Tea Garden , and a number of service buildings in the estate . In 1897 – 98 Edwin Lutyens started to improve what had been known as the Italian Garden ( and is now the Dragon Garden ) .
Work continued in the gardens and grounds during the 20th century . The 2nd Duke commissioned Detmar Blow , a pupil of Lutyens , to re @-@ design parts of the gardens . With Fernand Billerey , he removed the parterres , built a canal leading away from the house , added hedged compartments to the terraces , and a pond at the base of the terraces ( now the Lioness and Kudu Pond ) . During the Second World War , part of the parkland was requisitioned as an airfield , and in 1940 some of the garden buildings were damaged by a cluster of incendiary devices . After the war , improvement of the gardens did not resume until the 1960s , when the wives of the 4th and 5th Dukes worked with the designer James Russell . Since the early 1990s , the gardens have been further developed under the 6th Duke and his wife , Natalia , working with the garden designers Arabella Lennox @-@ Boyd and Vernon Russell Smith .
= = = Formal gardens = = =
To the east of the house a series of terraces leads down to the Fish Pond . The retaining walls at the southern end of the upper terrace are listed at Grade II , as are the retaining walls at the end of the upper terrace and the steps leading down to the middle terrace . Stretching along the middle terrace is a long rectangular pool containing a three fountains . The retaining walls of this pool are listed at Grade II , as are the railings on the north and the south side of the terrace . On each side of the pool are two compartments framed by yew hedges . Between these compartments , on each side , is a statue by Raymond Smith . Both of these were made in 1852 for the 2nd Marquess and are listed at Grade II . The one to the north depicts a stag at bay , and that to the south a hunter on a rearing horse .
From the end of the pool , steps lead down to a smaller rectangular pool at right @-@ angles to the first . The steps and the retaining wall at the end of the terrace are listed at Grade II . The retaining walls of the pool are also listed at Grade II . This area contains two statues by Jonathan Kenworthy . From this pool a path , known as the Broad Walk , stretches to the north and the south . At each end of the Broad Walk is a building designed by Waterhouse for the 3rd Marquess . At the north end is the Parrot House , dating from 1881 – 83 , which is built in yellow terracotta . It is the form of a round colonnaded Ionic temple with a shallow domed roof . Above the colonnade and the inner drum are concentric balustrades . A flight of eleven steps leads up to the south entrance . The Parrot House is listed at Grade II . At the south end of the Broad Walk is a loggia , dating from about 1880 . This is built in buff and red sandstone . At its front are three arches between Ionic columns . The loggia was built to enclose a Roman altar which was found in 1821 at a spring near Boughton and brought to Eaton in 1822 . The loggia is listed at Grade II . To the east and west of the loggia are reconstructed Roman columns , each of which is listed at Grade II .
South of the loggia is the Dutch Tea Garden , which was laid out by C. E. Mallows in about 1905 . The garden contains the Tea House which was designed by John Douglas . This has a cruciform plan and is a half @-@ timbered building on a sandstone plinth . The roof is of red tiles , and sweeps upwards to a small spire surmounted by a weathercock . It is listed at Grade II . In the centre of the garden is a statue of Mercury and in front of the Tea House are two stone Talbots . To the north of the Tea House , on the path leading to the Broad Walk , is a pair of wrought iron gates made in 1913 for the 2nd Duke . The gates and their overthrow are listed at Grade II .
To the south of the hall is a formal garden known as the Italian Garden . This contains a pool at the centre of which is the Dragon Fountain . The fountain is listed at Grade II . In the Italian Garden are two statues , also listed at Grade II , which were taken from the old hall when it was demolished ; these are a statue of Joan of Eaton , and of the Norman Bishop Odo .
Leading from the north of the house is the Spring Walk , leading to the Kitchen Garden , in which food is grown for the family . To the east of the Kitchen Garden is the Camellia Walk , a long greenhouse filled with camellias . This is 388 feet ( 118 m ) long and is believed to be the longest glass corridor in the world . It is listed at Grade II . Some of the gates in this garden are believed to have been designed by Lutyens , and are listed at Grade II . Other walls and gates around the garden were designed by Waterhouse in about 1870 , and are listed at Grade II * .
To the east of the house is the forecourt , which has as its centrepiece a pool containing an equestrian statue of the 1st Duke . This depicts the Duke on horseback holding aloft a falcon . It is in bronze and was made between 1870 and 1879 for the Duke by G. F. Watts . It is listed at Grade II * . The retaining walls of the pond are listed at Grade II . To the west of the forecourt are the Golden Gates which , together with their screens and lodges , are listed at Grade I. The other listed building in the gardens is a large stone urn on the east side of the Fish Pool dating from about 1880 . This is richly carved , is 10 feet ( 3 m ) high , and stands on a circular pedestal which forms the final feature of the eastern view from the hall . It is listed at Grade II .
= = = Other features = = =
The grounds can be entered by a number of approaches , each of which contain structures of architectural importance . Belgrave Avenue , some 1 @.@ 75 miles ( 3 km ) long , is a straight drive which leads from the Wrexham Road ( B5445 ) to the Golden Gates and the forecourt on the east of the hall . Belgrave Lodge , on the south side of the avenue was built in 1899 to a design by John Douglas for the 1st Duke . It is built in red bricks with yellow stone plinths , bands and other dressings and is listed at Grade II . The associated lodge gates , piers and wing walls were designed at the same time by Douglas and are also listed at Grade II . Part way along the avenue , on its north side , is Upper Belgrave Lodge . This was also designed by Douglas for the 1st Duke , it is dated 1877 , and is Grade II listed . Further along the avenue is a Grade II listed obelisk in red sandstone with a copper cap , dated 1890 , designed by Douglas and Fordham .
The Aldford Approach leads from the village of Aldford and crosses the River Dee by the Grade I listed Aldford Iron Bridge , which was built in 1824 by William Hazledine for the 1st Marquis . Iron Bridge Lodge , adjacent to this bridge , was designed by Douglas and Fordham in 1894 and is listed at Grade II . Also on this approach is Coachmore Hill Lodge which was designed in the 1880s by Douglas ; it is listed at Grade II . On the approach , near the Dutch Tea Garden are gates with an overthrow , and piers dating from about 1870 in Classic Revival style , listed at Grade II .
From the north of the hall are two further approaches . The Eccleston Approach goes to the village of Eccleston , and slightly to the west , the Chester Approach bypasses the village , going through Eccleston Hill . Associated with these approaches are further listed buildings . Of these , the major structure is Eccleston Hill Lodge which was designed in 1881 – 82 by Douglas for the 1st Duke and is listed at Grade II * . This is a three @-@ storey gatehouse tower with multiple attached smaller towers and a steeply hipped roof . The other structures are listed at Grade II and comprise Eccleston Lodge which was designed by Douglas and Fordham in 1894 , its associated gates , piers and wing railings , a sandstone balustered causeway south of the lodge carrying the drive , a house called Eaton Boat , designed by Douglas about 1880 , Garden Lodge designed by Waterhouse in 1881 – 83 , a pair of gates , railings and screen walls adjoining the lodge dating from 1881 – 83 by Waterhouse , Stud Lodge storehouse and domestic offices , designed in 1883 by Douglas , the Stud Riding School , the Stud Stables , the house east of Stud , Eaton Estate Office , designed by Waterhouse in 1880 , the North Lodge of 1881 by Waterhouse , the North Lodge gate and post from about 1881 also by Waterhouse , the Garden House of 1893 by Douglas and Minshull , and gates and gate piers to the south of Garden House .
= = Present day = =
Eaton Hall is a private residence and is not open to the public , but the gardens are open on three days each year to raise money for charity . In the area of the Stable Court are a number of rooms which are used for exhibitions . The Carriage Museum holds the Westminster Collection of Carriages . The Exhibition Room houses a collection of items relating to the Grosvenor family , and the History Room contains items about the history of the family and illustrations of the hall at various stages in the past . The Stables include items relating to the family 's horses . In the garden , the Parrot House contains an exhibition of paintings by the Victorian artist Henry Stacy Marks .
Some of the areas in the stable court are available for hire for charitable fund raising . The Long Room , which was refurbished in 1992 and now has the character of a large country house drawing room , can hold 150 people . The former saddle room is now a dining room . The carriage room and adjoining buildings have been converted into the Wolf Room , which has a movable stage and audio @-@ visual facilities . It can seat 200 people and contains eight black @-@ chalk pictures of birds by Joseph Wolf . The chapel is usually reserved for the family but in December each year it is used for carol concerts to raise money for charity .
= Poh Ern Shih Temple =
Poh Ern Shih ( Chinese : 报恩寺 ; pinyin : bào 'ēnsì ; literally : " Temple of Thanksgiving " ) is located on a small hilltop at Chwee Chian Road , off Pasir Panjang Road , on Singapore 's southern coast . The Buddhist temple was built as a memorial to those who lost their lives during the Battle of Pasir Panjang in 1942 , villagers as well as Allied and Japanese soldiers . The temple 's first abbot , Sumangalo , an American Theravadin monk , was the first Westerner to be appointed abbot of a Buddhist temple in Singapore .
Following a major development project which began in 2003 , Poh Ern Shih became the first religious building in the country to incorporate both eco @-@ friendly and elderly @-@ friendly features . Together with its partner , the Buddhist Fellowship , the temple conducts programmes such as Dharma talks , Sutta discussions and meditation courses in Chinese and English for the Buddhist community .
= = History = =
Poh Ern Shih is located on the top of Chwee Chian Hill , off Pasir Panjang Road , on Singapore 's southern coast . Facing the hilltop is Bukit Chandu ( ' Opium Hill ' in Malay ) , where the British East India Company had an opium factory to process raw opium from the Golden Triangle for sale to China and South East Asia in the 19th century . To protect its military facilities in the vicinity , the British colonial government placed heavy artillery guns on Chwee Chian Hill before the onset of the Second World War , in anticipation of seaborne attacks by the Japanese off the coast of Pasir Panjang .
During the Battle of Pasir Panjang , Bukit Chandu was the last bastion of the 1st and 2nd Battalion Malay Regiment who , together with the 2nd Loyals Regiment , defended the western and southern parts of Singapore from 8 – 14 February 1942 . Despite running low on ammunition and food , the Malay Regiments put up strong resistance , inflicting a heavy toll on the Japanese invaders . Outnumbered , the defenders were finally overrun and massacred by reinforced Japanese forces . A Malay officer , Second Lieutenant Adnan Bin Saidi , was captured alive and tortured by the Japanese , before being executed . The story of his heroism became well known throughout Singapore .
= = = Founder Lee Choon Seng = = =
Based on the concept of liberating the spirits of the soldiers and civilians who were sacrificed during the Japanese invasion in World War II , the temple of Poh Ern Shih was constructed on the site of the bloodshed on Chwee Chian Hill . It was established in 1954 as a modest single storey temple by philanthropist Lee Choon Seng ( 1888 — 1966 ) , as one of the few Chinese Mahayana temples in Singapore dedicated to the Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva .
Lee was born in Yong Choon county , Fujian province , in China . He joined his father in Negri Sembilan in his youth , before moving to Singapore to set up his own property business . He was very successful , and achieved positions of leadership in the local Chinese community . He was widely known as one of the co @-@ founders of the Oversea @-@ Chinese Banking Corporation ( OCBC ) , and was its acting chairman during the Japanese Occupation . As one of the early Buddhist pioneers , Lee was also involved in the foundation of the Buddhist Publications Circulation Centre in 1933 , and the Singapore Buddhist Lodge ( 新加坡佛教居士林 ) in 1934 .
= = = First Western abbot = = =
Venerable Sumangalo ( 1903 — 1963 ) was born as Robert Stuart Clifton in Birmingham , Alabama in the United States in 1903 . After receiving his Doctorate in Literature , he lectured on Buddhism in the United States before moving to Asia to further his study of Buddhism . In 1957 , he joined the Theravada Order in Laos and received the monastic name Sumangalo , meaning " very auspicious " . He then left for Malaya and later visited Singapore on a Dharma tour in late 1959 with another American Buddhist monk , Venerable Susiddhi . Through his efforts , a number of Youth Circles and Sunday schools were set up locally .
In January 1959 he was offered the honorary abbotship of Poh Ern Shih , thus becoming the first Westerner to be the abbot of a Buddhist temple in Singapore . While in Singapore , he assisted Pitt Chin Hui in her translation of the Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva Sutra from Chinese to English . He returned to Malaya and spent his later years at Penang Buddhist Association , where most of his Dharma lectures were held . His lectures were later compiled in English and Chinese and are still freely distributed . Venerable Sumangalo died on 6 February 1963 and was cremated in Penang .
= = = Female Buddhist pioneer = = =
Pitt Chin Hui ( 1906 — 1981 ) was born to a wealthy family in Guangzhou , China . She was the youngest child of the family , and was taken by her mother to Penang to receive her early education . In 1924 , she sat for the Senior Cambridge Examination , and while waiting for the examination results she became an English teacher at the Fujian Girls ' School . In 1927 , she left for further studies at the Zhongshan University in Guangzhou . However , she terminated her tertiary studies and returned to Penang when her mother became seriously ill . While in Penang , she attended Dharma lectures by Venerable Taixu and his disciple , Venerable Cihang , at the Kek Lok Si Temple . Pitt subsequently became one of Cihang 's disciples , and studied under him . She was responsible for setting up the Maha Bodhi School in Penang and Singapore ( 1946 ) , to promote Buddhist education to the young . Along with her school duties , Pitt was also an active voluntary worker in the Buddhist community .
In December 1959 , Pitt embarked on the task of translating the Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva Sutra from Chinese to English at Poh Ern Shih , so that it would be accessible to the English @-@ educated . Venerable Sumangalo assisted Pitt in her translation tasks , as well as offering suggestions for improving the English version . In 1964 , Pitt was awarded the Public Service Star — BBM ( Bintang Bakti Masharakat ) — by Encik Yusof bin Ishak , the First President of the Republic of Singapore . In 1973 , she was appointed as Justice of the Peace by the Second President Dr. Benjamin Henry Sheares . Pitt Chin Hui was also a Vice @-@ President of the World Fellowship of Buddhists . She died in 1981 while on a trip in India .
= = Building design = =
To allow for expansion , the old premises were demolished . Reconstruction began in 2003 , and the office wing was completed in April 2007 , in phase 1 of the project . The new six @-@ storey building was designed by Lee Coo , who is also the architect behind the Venerable Hong Choon Memorial Hall of the Kong Meng San Phor Kark See Temple . Occupying a 46 @,@ 938 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 4 @,@ 360 @.@ 7 m2 ) freehold site , the new Poh Ern Shih is an architectural synthesis of classical features combined with modern eco @-@ friendly technology .
= = = Civic consciousness = = =
Conscious that a large percentage of its devotees were in their 60s , the Honorary President / Director of Poh Ern Shih , Lee Boon Siong , a retired lawyer , grandson of the temple 's founder , and its chief architect , strove to ensure that the temple was accessible to the elderly and those who use wheelchairs . A gentle driveway stretches from the gates to the upper levels of the temple , and every storey of the building has level flooring . The lavatory cubicles are fitted with easily reached " call @-@ for @-@ help " buttons , and the doors are designed so that they can be unlocked from the outside in the case of emergency .
= = = Eco @-@ friendly features = = =
The temple takes advantage of Singapore 's abundant sunlight by having three different kinds of solar energy cells on its rooftop . They are the poly @-@ crystalline silicon solar array , mono @-@ crystalline silicon solar array and amorphous silicon solar array . Poh Ern Shih 's water is heated by its solar panels , and its night lighting is powered by electricity converted from solar energy , With its breezy location , wind generators have also been erected to convert wind activity into electricity .
The rainwater which falls on Poh Ern Shih is collected from surface run @-@ offs and rain gutters and used to irrigate the temple grounds , as well as to generate electricity used for charging the batteries of in @-@ house motorised wheelchairs . The electricity is produced by water from the highest floor of the temple passing through hydroelectric @-@ generators . A purification system is also being installed , so that the collected rainwater can be filtered and made potable .
In line with the aim to make use of renewable resources , the furniture in Poh Ern Shih for its resident monastics is made from bamboo . Bamboo is considered to one of the most ecologically friendly materials for use in home furnishing and flooring , because it can be harvested without felling the entire tree . There is therefore no need for replanting , and the bamboo is allowed to regain its full height again over about five years , ready to be harvested again .
The second phase of the temple was completed in late 2008 , featuring a new Main Ksitigarbha Prayer Hall as well as a Guanyin Meditation Hall with lapis lazuli statues and a 7 @-@ storey stupa .
= = The temple today = =
To reinvigorate itself and attract younger blood , Poh Ern Shih entered into a partnership with the Buddhist Fellowship , a non @-@ sectarian Buddhist organisation known locally for its revolutionary projects and activities intended to ensure that the Dharma is propagated in contemporary language and form . The Fellowship — whose more than 2 @,@ 000 members are mainly English @-@ speaking professionals , mostly under 45 years of age — initially rented space at Eton House in Paya Lebar . Lee Boon Siong contacted the Fellowship 's President , Angie Monksfield , a Chinese Singaporean married to an English Catholic , offering use of the temple premises . In early 2007 , Angie took up the offer after the rent for Eton House was raised by 57 per cent — a sum which was difficult for the fellowship to afford . The rent charged by the temple is the same as that which the Fellowship was paying before the increase demanded by its previous landlord .
The Fellowship moved into its 4 @,@ 000 square feet ( 370 m2 ) of space in Poh Ern Shih on 29 May 2007 . The event was marked by an opening ceremony attended by Khaw Boon Wan , Minister for Health , and the Fellowship 's two spiritual patrons , Ajahn Brahm and Venerable Kwang Sheng , Abbot of Kong Meng San Phor Kark See Temple . The group conducts programmes such as Dharma talks , Sutta discussions and meditation courses led by visiting Sangha and notable lay Buddhist teachers such as Piya Tan , Dr. Ang Beng Choo and Prof. Tan Hun Tong and many more . The temple is open to the public daily , and admission is free .
= Zuo zhuan =
The Zuo zhuan ( pronounced [ tsu ̯ ò ʈʂu ̯ ân ] ; Chinese : 左傳 ; Wade – Giles : Tso chuan ) , generally translated as Zuo Tradition or Commentary of Zuo , is an ancient Chinese narrative history that is traditionally regarded as a commentary on the ancient Chinese chronicle Spring and Autumn Annals ( Chunqiu 春秋 ) . It comprises thirty chapters covering a period from 722 to 468 BC , and focuses mainly on political , diplomatic , and military affairs from that era . The Zuo zhuan is famous for its " relentlessly realistic " style , and recounts many tense and dramatic episodes , such as battles and fights , royal assassinations and murder of concubines , deception and intrigue , excesses , citizens ' oppression and insurgences , and appearances of ghosts and cosmic portents .
The Zuo zhuan was , for many centuries , the primary text through which the Chinese gained an understanding of their ancient history . Unlike the other two surviving Annals commentaries — the Gongyang and Guliang commentaries — the Zuo zhuan does not simply explain the wording of the Annals , but greatly expounds upon its historical background , and contains a large number of rich and lively accounts of Spring and Autumn period history and culture . The Zuo zhuan is the source of more Chinese sayings and idioms than any other classical work , and its concise , flowing style came to be held as a paragon of elegant Classical Chinese . Its tendency toward third @-@ person narration and portraying characters through direct speech and action became hallmarks of Chinese narrative in general , and its style was imitated by historians , storytellers , and ancient style prose masters for over 2000 years of subsequent Chinese history .
Although the Zuo zhuan has long been regarded as " a masterpiece of grand historical narrative " , its early textual history is largely unknown , and the nature of its original composition and authorship have been widely debated . The " Zuo " of the title was traditionally believed to refer to one " Zuo Qiuming " — an obscure figure of the 5th century BC described as a blind disciple of Confucius — but there is little actual evidence to support this . Modern scholars now generally believe that the Zuo zhuan was originally an independent work composed during the latter half of the 4th century BC that was later rearranged as a commentary to the Annals .
= = History = =
Tracing the early history of the Zuo zhuan is complicated by the fact that there were originally two versions of it : one , known as the " modern script " ( jinwen 今文 ) version , which circulated during the early Han dynasty ( 206 BC – AD 220 ) ; and another , known as the " ancient script " ( guwen 古文 ) version , which was discovered in the Han imperial archives by scholar Liu Xin during the reign of Emperor Ai of Han ( r . 7 – 1 BC ) . The earliest known mention of the Zuo zhuan appears in Sima Qian 's Records of the Grand Historian ( Shiji 史記 ) , the first of China 's twenty @-@ four dynastic histories , which was completed about 94 BC .
Like the other two surviving commentaries on the Spring and Autumn Annals ( Chunqiu 春秋 ) — the Gongyang and Guliang traditions — the Zuo zhuan originally existed in an independent format , with no direct references to the Annals . In the 3rd century AD , scholar Du Yu intercalated it with the Annals so that each Annals entry was followed by the corresponding narrative from the Zuo zhuan , which became the received format of the Zuo zhuan that exists today . Modern scholars now generally believe that the Zuo zhuan was originally an independent work composed during the latter half of the 4th century BC — though probably incorporating some even older material — that was later rearranged as a commentary to the Annals .
= = = Authorship = = =
The Records of the Grand Historian refers to the Zuo zhuan as " Master Zuo 's Spring and Autumn Annals " ( Zuoshi Chunqiu 左氏春秋 ) and attributes it to a man named " Zuo Qiuming " ( or possibly " Zuoqiu Ming " ) , traditionally assumed to be the Zuo Qiuming who briefly appears in the Analects of Confucius ( Lunyu 論語 ) when Confucius praises him for his moral judgment . Other than his brief mention in the Analects , nothing is concretely known of Zuo Qiuming 's life or identity , nor of what connection he might have with the Zuo zhuan . This traditional assumption that the title 's " Master Zuo " refers to the Zuo Qiuming of the Analects is not based on any specific evidence , and was challenged by scholars as early as the 8th century during the Tang dynasty . Even if he is the " Zuo " referenced in the Zuo zhuan 's title , this attribution is questionable because the Zuo zhuan describes events from the late Spring and Autumn period that the Zuo Qiuming of the Analects could not have known . Alternatively , some scholars have suggested that the Zuo zhuan was actually the product of one Wu Qi ( 吳起 ; d . 381 or 378 BC ) , a military leader who served in the State of Wei and who , according to the Han Feizi , was from a place called " Zuoshi " .
= = = Commentary status = = =
In the early 19th century , the Chinese scholar Liu Fenglu ( 1776 – 1829 ) initiated a long , drawn @-@ out controversy when he proposed , by emphasizing certain discrepancies between it and the Annals , that the Zuo zhuan was not originally a commentary on the Annals . Liu 's theory was taken much further by the noted scholar and reformer Kang Youwei , who argued that Liu Xin did not really find the " ancient script " version of the Zuo zhuan in the imperial archives , as historical records describe , but actually forged it as a commentary on the Annals . Kang 's theory was that Liu Xin — who with his father Liu Xiang , the imperial librarian , was one of the first to have access to the rare documents in the Han dynasty 's imperial archives — took the Discourses of the States ( Guoyu 國語 ) and forged it into a chronicle @-@ like work to fit the format of the Annals in an attempt to lend credibility to the policies of his master , the usurper Wang Mang .
Kang 's theory was supported by several subsequent Chinese scholars in the late 19th century , but was contradicted by a large number of 20th @-@ century studies that examined it from many different perspectives . In the early 1930s , French sinologist Henri Maspero performed a detailed textual study of the issue , concluding the Han dynasty forgery theory to be untenable . The Swedish sinologist Bernhard Karlgren , based on a series of linguistic and philological analyses he carried out in the 1920s , concluded that the Zuo zhuan is a genuine ancient text " probably to be dated between 468 and 300 BC . " While Liu 's hypothesis that the Zuo zhuan was not originally an Annals commentary has been generally accepted , Kang 's theory of Liu Xin forging the Zuo zhuan is now considered discredited .
= = = Manuscripts = = =
The oldest surviving Zuo zhuan manuscripts are six fragments that were discovered among the Dunhuang manuscripts in the early 20th century by the French sinologist Paul Pelliot and are now held at the Bibliothèque Nationale de France . Four of the fragments date to the Six Dynasties period ( 3rd to 6th centuries ) , while the other two date to the early Tang dynasty ( 7th century ) . The oldest known complete Zuo zhuan manuscript is the " ancient manuscript scroll " preserved at the Kanazawa Bunko Museum in Yokohama , Japan .
= = Content = =
The Zuo zhuan recounts the major political , military , and social events of the Spring and Autumn period , and is famous " for its dramatic power and realistic details " . It contains a variety of tense and dramatic episodes : battles and fights , royal assassinations and murder of concubines , deception and intrigue , excesses , citizens ' oppression and insurgences , and appearances of ghosts and cosmic portents .
Each Zuo zhuan chapter begins with the Spring and Autumn Annals ( Chunqiu ) entry for the year , which is usually terse and brief , followed by the Zuo zhuan content for that year , which often contains long and detailed narratives . The Zuo zhuan originally contained only its core content , without any content from or references to the Spring and Autumn Annals . In the 3rd century AD , the Chinese scholar Du Yu intercalated the Annals into the Zuo zhuan , producing the received format that exists today .
= = Themes = =
Though the Zuo zhuan was probably not originally a commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals ( Chunqiu 春秋 ) — a work which was traditionally viewed as a direct creation of Confucius — its basic philosophical outlook is also strongly Confucian in nature . Its overarching theme is that haughty , evil , and stupid individuals generally bring disaster upon themselves , while those who are good , wise , and humble are usually justly rewarded . The Confucian principle of " ritual propriety " or " ceremony " ( lǐ 禮 ) is seen as governing all actions , including war , and to bring bad consequences if transgressed . However , the observance of li is never shown as guaranteeing victory , and the Zuo zhuan includes many examples of the good and innocent suffering senseless violence . Much of the Zuo zhuan 's status as a literary masterpiece stems from its " relentlessly realistic portrayal of a turbulent era marked by violence , political strife , intrigues , and moral laxity " .
The narratives of the Zuo zhuan are highly didactic in nature , and are presented in such a way that they teach and illustrate moral principles . The German Sinologist Martin Kern has stated : " Instead of offering authorial judgments or catechistic hermeneutics , the Zuo zhuan lets its moral lessons unfold within the narrative itself , teaching at once history and historical judgment . " Unlike the Histories of Herodotus or the History of the Peloponnesian War of Thucydides — with which it is roughly contemporary — the Zuo zhuan 's narration always remains in the third person perspective , and presents as a dispassionate recorder of facts .
= = = Battles = = =
Several of the Zuo zhuan 's most famous sections are those dealing with critical historical battles , such as the Battle of Chengpu and the Battle of Bi .
The Battle of Chengpu , the first of the Zuo zhuan 's great battles , took place in the summer of 632 BC at Chengpu ( modern Juancheng County , Shandong Province ) in the State of Wey . On one side were the troops of the powerful State of Chu , from what was then far southern China , led by the Chu prime minister Cheng Dechen . They were opposed by the armies of the State of Jin , led by Chong 'er , Duke of Jin , one of the most prominent and well known figures in the Zuo zhuan . Chu suffered a disastrous defeat in the battle itself , and it resulted in Chong 'er being named Hegemon ( bà 霸 ) of the various states .
The narrative of the Battle of Chengpu is typical of Zuo zhuan battle narratives in that the description of the battle itself is relatively brief , with most of the narrative being focused on battle preparations , omens and prognostications regarding its outcome , the division of the spoils , and the shifts and defections of the various allied states involved in the conflict . This " official [ and ] restrained " style , which became typical of Chinese historical writing , is largely due to the ancient Chinese belief that ritual propriety and strategic preparation were more important than individual valor or bravery in determining the outcome of battles .
= = = Succession crises = = =
Several of the most notable passages in the Zuo zhuan describe succession crises , which seem to have been fairly common in China during the Spring and Autumn period . These crises often involved the " tangled affections " of the various rulers , and are described in a dramatic and vivid manner that gives insight into the life of the aristocratic elite in the China of the mid @-@ 1st millennium BC . The best known of these stories is that of Duke Zhuang of Zheng , who ruled the State of Zheng from 743 to 701 BC . Duke Zhuang was born " in a manner that startled " his mother ( probably breech birth ) , which caused her to later seek to persuade her husband to name Duke Zhuang 's younger brother as the heir apparent instead of him . The story ends with eventual reconciliation between mother and son — exemplifying the traditional Chinese virtues of both " ritual propriety " ( lǐ ) and " filial piety " ( xiào 孝 ) — which has made it consistently popular with readers over the centuries .
= = = Moral verdicts = = =
A number of Zuo zhuan anecdotes end with brief moral comments or verdicts that are attributed to either Confucius or an unnamed junzi ( 君子 ; " gentleman " , " lordling " , or " superior man " ) .
These " moral of the story " postfaces , which were added later by Confucian scholars , are directed toward those currently in power , reminding them of " the historical precedents and inevitable consequences of their own actions . " They speak with the voices of previous ministers , advisers , " old men " , and other anonymous figures to remind rulers of historical and moral lessons , and suggest that ruler who heed their advice will succeed , while those who do not will fail .
= = = Fate = = =
Several sections of the Zuo zhuan demonstrate the traditional Chinese concept of " fate " or " destiny " ( mìng 命 ) , referring either to an individual 's mission in life or their allotted life span , and illustrates how benevolent rulers ought to accept " fate " selflessly , as in the story of Duke Wen moving the capital of the state of Zhu in 614 BC .
= = Influence = =
The Zuo zhuan has been recognized as a masterpiece of early Chinese prose and " grand historical narrative " for many centuries , and has had an " immense influence " on Chinese literature and historiography for nearly 2000 years . It was the primary text by which historical Chinese readers gained an understanding of China 's ancient history . It enjoyed high status and esteem throughout the centuries of Chinese history because of its great literary quality , and was often read and memorized because of its role as the preeminent expansion and commentary on the Annals ( Chunqiu ) , which almost all educated Chinese readers traditionally ascribed to Confucius . The Zuo zhuan 's influence on the Chinese language , particularly on Classical Chinese , can be judged from the fact that the Zuo zhuan is the source of more Chinese literary idioms ( chengyu 成語 ) than any other work , including the Analects of Confucius .
The 400 @-@ year period the Zuo zhuan covers is now known as the Spring and Autumn period , after the Spring and Autumn Annals , but the Zuo zhuan is the most important source for the period . This period was a highly significant period in Chinese history , and saw a number of developments in governmental complexity and specialization that preceded China 's imperial unification in 221 BC by the First Emperor of Qin . The latter years of this period also saw the appearance of Confucius , who later became the preeminent figure in Chinese cultural history . The Zuo zhuan is one of the only surviving written sources for the history of the Spring and Autumn period , and is extremely valuable as a rich source of information on the society that Confucius and his disciples lived in and from which the Confucian school of thought developed . It was canonized as one of the Chinese classics in the 1st century AD , and until modern times was one of the cornerstones of traditional education for men in China and the other lands of the Sinosphere such as Japan and Korea .
= = Translations = =
Legge , James ( 1872 ) . The Ch 'un Ts 'ew , with the Tso Chuen . The Chinese Classics V. London : Trübner . Part 1 ( books 1 – 8 ) , Part 2 ( books 9 – 12 ) . Revised edition ( 1893 ) , London : Oxford University Press .
( French ) Couvreur , Séraphin ( 1914 ) , Tch 'ouen Ts 'iou et Tso Tchouan , La Chronique de la Principauté de Lou [ Chunqiu and Zuo zhuan , Chronicle of the State of Lu ] , Ho Kien Fou : Mission Catholique .
( Japanese ) Takeuchi , Teruo 竹内照夫 ( 1974 – 75 ) . Shunjū Sashiden 春秋左氏伝 [ Chunqiu Zuoshi zhuan ] . Zenshaku kanbun taikei 全釈漢文体系 [ Fully Interpreted Chinese Literature Series ] 4 – 6 . Tokyo : Shūeisha .
Watson , Burton ( 1989 ) . The Tso chuan : Selections from China 's Oldest Narrative History . New York : Columbia University Press . Reprinted ( 1992 ) .
Hu , Zhihui 胡志挥 ; Chen , Kejiong 陈克炯 ( 1996 ) . Zuo zhuan 左传 . Changsha : Hunan renmin chubanshe . ( Contains both English and Mandarin translations )
Durrant , Stephen ; Li , Wai @-@ yee ; Schaberg , David , trans . ( 2016 ) , Zuo Tradition ( Zuozhuan ) , Seattle : University of Washington Press .
= Sacred Cod =
The Sacred Cod is a four @-@ foot , eleven @-@ inch carved @-@ wood effigy of an Atlantic codfish , " painted to the life " , hanging in the House of Represen ta tives chamber of Boston 's Massachu setts State House — " a memorial of the importance of the Cod @-@ Fishery to the welfare of this Commonwealth " ( i.e. Massachu setts , of which cod is officially the " historic and contin u ing symbol " ) . The Sacred Cod has gone through as many as three incarnations over three centuries : the first ( if it really existed — the authoritative source calling it a " prehistoric creature of tradition " ) was lost in a 1747 fire , the second disappeared during the American Revolution , and the third is the one seen in the House today .
Sacred Cod is not a formal name but a nickname which appeared in 1895 , soon after the carving was termed " the sacred emblem " by a House committee appointed " to investigate the significance of the emblem [ which ] has kept its place under all administrations , and has looked upon outgoing and incoming legislative assemblies , for more than one hundred years . " Soon sacred cod was being used in reference to actual codfish as well , in recognition of the creature 's role in building Massachu setts ' prosperity and influence since early colonial times .
In 1933 the Sacred Cod was briefly " Cod @-@ napped " by editors of the Harvard Lampoon , prompting police to drag the Charles River and search an airplane landing in New Jersey . In 1968 it was taken briefly again , this time by students at the University of Massachu setts Boston .
A fish figure is displayed in the State House Senate chamber as well — a brass casting ( sometimes called the Holy Mackerel ) above its central chandelier .
= = Significance = =
Codfishing was the first industry practiced by Europeans in Massachu setts , and it is said that the colony 's first export was a cargo of fish . : 23 Thus the codfish has been an important New England symbol for centuries , its image appearing on many early coins , stamps , corporate and government seals , and insignia such as the early crest of the Salem Gazette . In 1743 a prominent Salem businessman built a mansion in which " the end of every stair in his spacious hall [ displayed ] a carved and gilded codfish . " : 34 @-@ 36
In the late 1920s an " amusing " codfish emblem appeared briefly , " totem @-@ like " , on Massachu setts license plates .
= = History = =
What is now called the Sacred Cod has hung for three centuries — though with inter rupt ions , and in at least two ( and possibly three ) successive incarnations — in the chamber of the Massachu setts House of Represen ta tives ( or its prede ces sor , the House of Assembly of the Province of Massachu setts Bay ) .
= = = First Cod = = =
Of the Cod 's first incarnation , the Committee on History of the Emblem of the Codfish ( appointed by the House in 1895 ) wrote :
There is a dim tradition that in the primitive House of Assembly of the Province there hung a codfish which was the gift of Judge Samuel Sewall [ a judge at the Salem witch trials who ] died in 1729 . [ But his ] published remains make no mention of this tradi tional fish , and it is difficult to imagine that a man of his loquacious verbosity would have omitted to chronicle his munificence . : 17
Assuming it existed and whatever its origin , when the State House burned in 1747 " this prehis toric creature of tradi tion ... doubtless went up in a whirl of smoke which still clouds its history to the peering vision of the antiquarian . " : 17
= = = Second Cod = = =
A second Cod appeared sometime between 1748 ( when the State House was rebuilt ) and 1773 ( when Thomas Crafts , Jr. billed the Province of Massachu setts Bay , " To painting Codfish , 15 shillings " ) . But within a few years , the Committee wrote , the second Cod
disap peared from the State House and was doubtless destroyed , for the closest histor i cal research fails to shed any light upon the time , manner or cause of its disap pear ance , or to disclose any refer ence to it whatever . Mayhap some burly British trooper , quart ered in the improvised barracks of the old State House [ during the Siege of Boston ] , took umbrage at the spick and span elegance of the newly painted emblem of colonial inde pend ence and thrift . Such a one may have torn down the cherished symbol from the wall whence it had offered aid and comfort to the rebel patriots , with its assur ance of the material wealth accessible to the embry onic State , and , in spirit of vandalism so preva lent at that age , used it to replenish his evening camp fire . : 17 @-@ 18
The Committee found " good reason to believe that this missing fish ... was carved by one John Welch , a Boston patriot " .
= = = Third Cod = = =
The third Cod was installed in 1784 , after Represen ta tive John Rowe — namesake of Rowes Wharf , and " a leading spirit in the stirring scenes that led up to the famous ' Boston Tea Party ' " : 16 — asked leave " to hang up the represen ta tion of a Cod Fish in the room where the House sit , as a memorial of the import ance of the Cod @-@ Fishery to the welfare of this Common wealth , as had been usual form erly ... And so the emblem was suspended " in the old State House once again , and this Cod ( which Rowe may have under writ ten person ally ) is the one extant today . : 20
In 1798 it was moved to the Representatives chamber in the new State House , : 12 @-@ 13 where it originally hung over the Speaker 's desk . In the 1850s it was moved to the rear of the chamber .
= = = Committee on History of the Emblem of the Codfish = = =
On January 2 , 1895 — the House 's last day of business before relocating to a new chamber in the same building —
[ t ] he question of taking with it the " represen ta tion of a codfish , " which for more than a hundred years had never missed a " roll call , " was brought up for consideration . It was , however , deemed wise to investigate the significance of the emblem before its removal ...
Accordingly , after " nearly two months of painstaking research and investigation " the three @-@ member Committee on History of the Emblem of the Codfish submitted its report , and after debating " at length " the House ordered " immediate removal of the ancient ' represen ta tion of a codfish ' from its present position in the chamber recently vacated by the House , and to cause it to be sus pended ... in this cham ber ... " : 4
The Sacred Cod was wrapped in an American flag , placed on a bier , and — escorted by the Sergeant @-@ at @-@ Arms — borne by House messen gers to the new House chamber , where the assembled Represen ta tives rose in applause . : 7 After repainting by Walter M. Brackett , it was hung where it remains today : " between the two sets of central columns , and under the names ' Motley , ' and ' Parkman ' , " : 20 facing left as viewed from the floor of the chamber . ( It is some times said that the Cod is turned to face the political party currently in power , but no such tradi tion was mentioned by the Committee . )
= = " Sacred Cod " nickname = =
The Committee 's report refers at one point to " the sacred emblem " , and while it was working an item appeared in the Boston Globe referring to the carving as " the Sacred Cod " . Within a few years authors , journalists , and advertisers — even those far from New England — were using the term routinely . The phrase quickly came to refer not only to the wooden Cod in the State House but to flesh @-@ and @-@ blood cod from the sea as well , especially as an item of commerce . At the 1908 convention of the Retail Grocers of the United States , held in Boston , one delegate recalled
the first organized effort ... for the bettering of conditions in the grocery business . I refer to the Boston tea party . How could we get along without the Boston baked beans or the almost sacred cod ?
Two years later the New Hampshire Board of Agriculture , bemoaning the counterfeiting of foodstuffs " famous for their distinctive properties or superior quality " , warned that " haddock , hake , pollock , cusk , etc . , are substituted indiscriminantly in place of the sacred cod . " In 1912 President William Howard Taft , in Boston , addressed a journalists ' banquet in New York City " by long distance tele phone from the home of the sacred cod " . And in 1922 historian Samuel Eliot Morison , emphasizing fishing 's vital role in the colonial economy , wrote that " Puritan Massachu setts derived her ideals from a sacred book ; her wealth and power from the sacred cod . "
The famous doggerel poking fun at Boston 's Brahmins —
— paraphrases an earlier poem now little remembered :
= = " Cod @-@ napping " and other incidents = =
= = = Harvard Lampoon = = =
In an incident now referred to as " The Cod @-@ napping " by State House officials , on April 26 , 1933 members of the Harvard Lampoon ( the Harvard College humor magazine ) entered the House of Represen ta tives gallery , cut down the Cod , and carried it away in an unusually large florist 's box equipped with protruding decoy lilies .
According to The New York Times — which reckoned the Cod 's value to be " something less than nothing . As an object of art it is worthless " — Massachu setts officials were " shocked into a condition bordering on speech less ness " by the theft , " some legisla tors holding that it would be sacrilege to transact business without the emblem of the Commonwealth looking down upon them . " ( Nonetheless , at the appointed time " [ House ] Speaker Saltonstall looked mournfully at the vacant place and then banged the gavel . The first act of the House fitted the occasion . It passed to be engrossed a bill allowing the cold storage of swordfish . " )
Meanwhile , Boston mayor James Michael Curley received a tele phone message : " Tell the Mayor that when the Sacred Cod is returned it will be wrapped in the municipal flag , now flying in front of City Hall . Try and catch us when we cop the flag . Lafayette Mulligan , we are here . " " Indignant " police went so far as to drag the Charles River and , learning that a Lampoon editor had flown to New Jersey , had the plane searched on landing .
Eventually a mysterious telephone call sent Harvard official Charles R. Apted to West Roxbury where two men , with collars up and hatbrims down , emerged from a car to hand over the Cod ( not wrapped in any flag ) before speeding away . In the early hours of April 29 , after repairs to three damaged fins , the Sacred Cod was re @-@ hung in the House chamber , " six inches [ 15 cm ] higher [ than ] the reach of any individ ual . A stepladder will be needed to remove it in the future . "
= = = University of Massachusetts = = =
Using a stepladder , on November 14 , 1968 students at the new Boston campus of the University of Massachu setts took the Sacred Cod in protest of perceived legislative indifference to their school . ( " Sacred Cod gone from House perch " , the Boston Globe reported . ) It was found days later in a little @-@ used State House hallway .
= = = Greyhound replacement proposal = = =
In 1937 Representative John B. Wenzler offered a facetious proposal " that the sacred cod be immediately removed [ from the House chamber ] , and a greyhound substituted in its place , as the 1937 Legislature has shown itself to be completely under the power of the dog track operators . " Apted ( whom the Boston Globe called " the superintendent of caretakers at Harvard and Harvard Cop No. 1 " ) wrote to Wenzler : " As one who is , and was , very much interested in preserving [ the Cod 's ] dignity , and furthermore having held it in my arms ... I most respectfully ask a favor , that is : If the greyhound be substituted , that I be presented with the cod in order that it may be preserved for the future of young Americans . "
= = = World War II = = =
After the House of Representatives ' move to its new chamber in 1895 the Massachu setts Senate , which took over the old House chamber , incorporated a fish figure ( often dubbed the Holy Mackerel ) into the chandelier there , as a reminder of the Sacred Cod the Representatives had taken with them . When officials of the World War II aluminum @-@ for @-@ defense drive — misinformed that the Sacred Cod was aluminum — asked that it be donated to the war effort , House Speaker Christian Herter explained that the Cod had been created decades before aluminum 's discovery , and suggested that the Holy Mackerel be considered for sacrifice instead .
= Legal history of cannabis in the United States =
The legal history of cannabis in the United States relates to the regulation of cannabis ( legal term marijuana ) use for medical , recreational or industrial purposes in the United States . Increased restrictions and labeling of cannabis as a poison began in many states from 1906 onward , and outright prohibitions began in the 1920s . By the mid @-@ 1930s marijuana was regulated as a drug in every state , including 35 states that adopted the Uniform State Narcotic Drug Act . The first national regulation was the Marihuana Tax Act of 1937 .
Multiple efforts to reschedule cannabis under the Act have failed , and the United States Supreme Court has ruled in United States v. Oakland Cannabis Buyers ' Cooperative and Gonzales v. Raich that the federal government has a right to regulate and criminalize cannabis , even for medical purposes .
= = Early history ( pre @-@ 1850s ) = =
The Virgnia Company , by decree of King James I in 1619 , ordered every colonist to grow 100 plants specifically for export for fiber . Thus , England 's only colony in America began to grow hemp in order to meet this obligation and , soon , to serve a growing demand in other colonies . George Washington grew hemp at Mount Vernon as one of his three primary crops . The use of hemp for rope and fabric was ubiquitous throughout the 18th and 19th centuries in the United States . Medicinal preparations of cannabis became available in American pharmacies in the 1850s following an introduction to its use in Western medicine by William O 'Shaughnessy a decade earlier in 1839 .
Around the same time , efforts to regulate the sale of pharmaceuticals began , and laws were introduced on a state @-@ to @-@ state basis that created penalties for mislabeling drugs , adulterating them with undisclosed narcotics , and improper sale of those considered " poisons " . Poison laws generally either required labels on the packaging indicating the harmful effects of the drugs or prohibited sale outside of licensed pharmacies and without a doctor 's prescription . Those that required labeling often required the word " poison " if the drug was not issued by a pharmacy . Other regulations were prohibitions on the sale to minors , as well as restrictions on refills . Some pharmaceutical laws specifically enumerated the drugs that came under the effect of the regulations , while others didn 't — leaving the matter to medical experts . Those that did generally included references to cannabis , either under the category of " cannabis and its preparations " or " hemp and its preparations . "
A 1905 Bulletin from the US Department of Agriculture lists twenty @-@ nine states with laws mentioning cannabis . Eight are listed with " sale of poisons " laws that specifically mention cannabis : North Carolina , Ohio , Wisconsin , Louisiana , Vermont , Maine , Montana , and the District of Columbia . Among those that required a prescription for sale were Wisconsin and Louisiana . Several " sale of poison " laws did not specify restricted drugs , including in Indiana , Rhode Island , Hawaii , Nebraska , Kentucky , Mississippi , and New York . Many states did not consider cannabis a " poison " but required it be labeled .
In New York , the original law did enumerate cannabis , and was passed in 1860 following a string of suicides allegedly involving the substances later categorized as poisons . The first draft of the bill ' An act to regulate the sale of poisons ' prohibited the sale of cannabis — as with the other substances — without the written order of a physician . The final bill as passed allowed the sale without a prescription so long as the purpose to which it was issued and name and address of the buyer was recorded , and in addition , all packaging of such substances — whether sold with a prescription or not — had to have the label " poison " on them in uppercase red letters . In 1862 , the section which enumerated the substances was repealed with an amendatory act , though cannabis was still required to be labeled .
In some states where poison laws excluded cannabis , there were nonetheless attempts to include it . A bill introduced in 1880 in the California state legislature was titled ' An act to regulate the sale of opium and other narcotic poisons ' and would have prohibited anyone to keep , sell , furnish , or give away any " preparations or mixtures made or prepared from opium , hemp , or other narcotic drugs " without a doctor 's prescription at a licensed store . That bill was withdrawn in favor of one specifically aimed at opium , though further bills including hemp @-@ based drugs were introduced in 1885 and in 1889 .
= = = Background to later restrictions = = =
As early as 1853 , recreational cannabis was listed as a " fashionable narcotic " . By the 1880s , oriental @-@ style hashish parlors were flourishing alongside opium dens , to the point that one could be found in every major city on the east coast . It was estimated there were around 500 such establishments in New York City alone . An article in Harper ’ s Magazine ( 1883 ) , attributed to Harry Hubbell Kane , describes a hashish @-@ house in New York frequented by a large clientele , including males and females of " the better classes , " and further talks about parlors in Boston , Philadelphia and Chicago . Hemp cigarettes were reported to be used by Mexican soldiers early as 1874 .
= = Criminalization ( 1900s ) = =
= = = Strengthening of poison laws ( 1906 – 1938 ) = = =
The Pure Food and Drug Act was then passed by the United States Congress in 1906 and required that certain special drugs , including cannabis , be accurately labeled with contents . Previously , many drugs had been sold as patent medicines with secret ingredients or misleading labels . Even after the passage of regulations , there continued to be criticisms about the availability of narcotics and around 1910 there was a wave of legislation aimed to strengthen requirements for their sale and remove what were commonly referred to as " loopholes " in poison laws . The new revisions aimed to restrict all narcotics , including cannabis , as poisons , limit their sale to pharmacies , and require doctor 's prescriptions . The first instance was in the District of Columbia in 1906 , under ' An act to regulate the practice of pharmacy and the sale of poisons in the District of Columbia , and for other purposes ' . This act was updated in 1938 to the Federal Pure Food , Drug , and Cosmetics Act of 1938 which remains in effect even today , creating a legal paradox for federal sentencing . Under this act , the framework for prescription and non @-@ prescription drugs and foods are set , along with standards as well as the enforcing agency , the FDA . " Goods found in violation of the law were subject to seizure and destruction at the expense of the manufacturer . That , combined with a legal requirement that all convictions be published ( Notices of Judgment ) , proved to be important tools in the enforcement of the statute and had a deterrent effect upon would @-@ be violators . " Marijuana remains under this law defined as a " dangerous drug " .
Further regulation of cannabis followed in Massachusetts ( 1911 ) , New York ( 1914 ) , and Maine ( 1914 ) . In New York , reform legislation began under the Towns @-@ Boylan Act , which targeted all " habit @-@ forming drugs " , restricted their sale , prohibited refills in order to prevent habituation , prohibited sale to people with a habit , and prohibited doctors who were themselves habituated from selling them . Shortly after , several amendments were passed by the New York Board of Health , including adding cannabis to the list of habit @-@ forming drugs .
A New York Times article noted on the cannabis amendment :
The inclusion of Cannabis indica among the drugs to be sold only on prescription is common sense . Devotees of hashish are now hardly numerous here enough to count , but they are likely to increase as other narcotics become harder to obtain .
In the West , the first state to include cannabis as a poison was California . The Poison Act was passed in 1907 and amended in 1909 and 1911 , and in 1913 an amendatory act ( Stats . 1913 , Ch . 342 , p . 697 ) was made to make possession of " extracts , tinctures , or other narcotic preparations of hemp , or loco @-@ weed , their preparations and compounds " a misdemeanor . There 's no evidence that the law was ever used or intended to restrict pharmaceutical cannabis ; instead it was a legislative mistake , and in 1915 another revision placed cannabis under the same restriction as other poisons .
Other states followed with marijuana laws including : Wyoming ( 1915 ) ; Texas ( 1919 ) ; Iowa ( 1923 ) ; Nevada ( 1923 ) ; Oregon ( 1923 ) ; Washington ( 1923 ) ; Arkansas ( 1923 ) ; Nebraska ( 1927 ) ; Louisiana ( 1927 ) ; and Colorado ( 1929 ) .
One source of tensions in the western and southwestern states was the influx of Mexicans to the US following the 1910 Mexican Revolution . Many Mexicans also smoked marijuana to relax after working in the fields . It was also seen as a cheaper alternative to alcohol , due to Prohibition ( which went into effect nationally in 1920 ) . Later in the 1920s , negative tensions grew between the small farms and the large farms that used cheaper Mexican labor . Shortly afterwards , the Great Depression came which increased tensions as jobs and resources became more scarce . Because of that , the passage of the initial laws is often described as a product of racism , yet use of hashish by near eastern immigrants were also cited , as well as the misuse of pharmaceutical hemp , and the laws conformed with other legislation that was being passed around the country . Mexico itself had passed prohibition in 1925 , following the International Opium Convention ( see below ) .
= = = International Opium Convention ( 1925 ) = = =
In 1925 the United States supported regulation of Indian hemp , also known as hashish , in the International Opium Convention . The convention banned exportation of " Indian hemp " , and the preparations derived therefrom , to countries that had prohibited its use and required importing countries to issue certificates approving the importation and stating that the shipment was required " exclusively for medical or scientific purposes " . The convention did not ban trade in fibers and other similar products from European hemp , and traditionally grown in the United States , According to the 1912 edition of a Swedish encyclopedia the European hemp grown for its fibers lacks the THC content that characterizes Indian hemp .
= = = Uniform State Narcotic Act ( 1925 – 1932 ) = = =
The Uniform State Narcotic Act , first tentative draft in 1925 and fifth final version in 1932 , was a result of work by the National Conference of Commissioners on Uniform State Laws . It was argued that the traffic in narcotic drugs should have the same safeguards and the same regulation in all of the states . The committee took into consideration the fact that the federal government had already passed The Harrison Act in 1914 and The Federal Import and Export Act in 1922 . Many people assumed that the Harrison Act was all that was necessary . The Harrison Act , however , was a revenue @-@ producing act and , while it provided penalties for violation , it did not give the states themselves authority to exercise police power in regard to seizure of drugs used in illicit trade , or in regard to punishment of those responsible . The act was recommended to the states for that purpose . As a result of the Uniform State Narcotic Act , the Federal Bureau of Narcotics encouraged state governments to adopt the act . By the middle of the 1930s all member states had some regulation of cannabis .
= = = Federal Bureau of Narcotics ( 1930 ) = = =
The use of cannabis and other drugs came under increasing scrutiny after the formation of the Federal Bureau of Narcotics ( FBN ) in 1930 , headed by Harry J. Anslinger as part of the government 's broader push to outlaw all recreational drugs .
" When the present administration took office ten countries had ratified the Geneva Narcotic Limitation Convention . The United States was one of these ten .... It was my privilege , as President , to proclaim , on that day , that this treaty had become effective throughout the jurisdiction of the United States .... On Jan. 1 , 1933 , only nine nations had registered their ratification of the limitation treaty . On Jan. 1 , 1935 , only nine States had adopted the uniform State statute . As 1933 witnessed ratification of the treaty by thirty @-@ one additional nations , so may 1935 witness the adoption of the uniform drug act by at least thirty @-@ one more states , thereby placing interstate accord abreast of international accord , to the honor of the legislative bodies of our States and for the promotion of the welfare of our people and the peoples of other lands . "
Anslinger claimed cannabis caused people to commit violent crimes and act irrationally and overly sexual . The FBN produced propaganda films promoting Anslinger 's views and Anslinger often commented to the press regarding his views on marijuana .
= = = The 1936 Geneva Trafficking Conventions = = =
In 1936 the Convention for the Suppression of the Illicit Traffic in Dangerous Drugs ( 1936 Trafficking Convention ) was concluded in Geneva . The US , led by Anslinger , had attempted to include the criminalization of all activities in the treaty – cultivation , production , manufacture and distribution – related to the use of opium , coca ( and its derivatives ) and cannabis for non @-@ medical and non @-@ scientific purposes . Many countries opposed this and the focus remained on illicit trafficking . Article 2 of the Convention called upon signatory countries to use their national criminal law systems to " severely " punish , " particularly by imprisonment or other penalties of deprivation of liberty " acts directly related to drug trafficking . The US refused to sign the final version because it considered the convention too weak , especially in relation to extradition , extraterritoriality and the confiscation of trafficking profits .
= = = Marihuana Tax Act ( 1937 ) = = =
The American Medical Association ( AMA ) opposed the act because the tax was imposed on physicians prescribing cannabis , retail pharmacists selling cannabis , and medical cannabis cultivation and manufacturing ; instead of enacting the Marihuana Tax Act the AMA proposed cannabis be added to the Harrison Narcotics Tax Act . This approach was unappealing to some legislators who feared that adding a new substance to the Harrison Act would subject that act to new legal scrutiny . Since the federal government had no authority under the 10th Amendment to regulate medicines , that power being reserved by individual states in 1937 , a tax was the only viable way to legislate marijuana .
After the Philippines fell to Japanese forces in 1942 , the Department of Agriculture and the U.S. Army urged farmers to grow hemp fiber and tax stamps for cultivation were issued to farmers . Without any change in the Marihuana Tax Act , over 400 @,@ 000 acres of hemp were cultivated between 1942 and 1945 . The last commercial hemp fields were planted in Wisconsin in 1957 . New York Mayor Fiorello LaGuardia , who was a strong opponent of the 1937 Marihuana Tax Act , started the LaGuardia Commission that in 1944 contradicted the earlier reports of addiction , madness , and overt sexuality .
The decision of the United States Congress to pass the Marihuana Tax Act of 1937 was based on poorly attended hearings and reports based on questionable studies . In 1936 the Federal Bureau of Narcotics ( FBN ) noticed an increase of reports of people smoking marijuana , which further increased in 1937 . The Bureau drafted a legislative plan for Congress seeking a new law , and the head of the FBN , Harry J. Anslinger , ran a campaign against marijuana . Newspaper mogul William Randolph Hearst 's empire of newspapers used the " yellow journalism " pioneered by Hearst to demonize the cannabis plant and spread a public perception that there were connections between cannabis and violent crime . Several scholars argue that the goal was to destroy the hemp industry , largely as an effort of Hearst , Andrew Mellon and the Du Pont family . They argue that with the invention of the decorticator hemp became a very cheap substitute for the wood pulp that was used in the newspaper industry . However , Hearst newspapers owed large debts to Canadian suppliers of paper , who used wood as raw material . If an alternative raw material for paper had emerged , it would have lowered the price of the paper needed to print Hearst 's many newspapers — a positive thing for Hearst .
Mellon was Secretary of the Treasury , as well as the wealthiest man in America , and had invested heavily in nylon , DuPont 's new synthetic fiber . He considered nylon 's success to depend on it replacing the traditional resource , hemp .
The company DuPont and many industrial historians dispute a link between nylon and hemp . They argue that the reason for developing nylon was to produce a fiber that could compete with silk and rayon in , for example , thin stockings for women . Silk was much more expensive than hemp and imported largely from Japan . There was more money in a substitute for silk . DuPont focused early on thin stockings for women . As a commercial product , nylon was a revolution in textiles . Strong , water @-@ resistant , it was possible to make very thin fibers from cheap raw materials . The first sales in 1938 in New York of nylon stockings created a line with 4000 middle class women . For years to come , nylon demand was greater than DuPont could produce . And the DuPont Group was very big ; it could move on if nylon had not become a success .
In 1916 United States Department of Agriculture ( USDA ) chief scientists Jason L. Merrill and Lyster H. Dewey created a paper , USDA Bulletin No. 404 " Hemp Hurds as Paper @-@ Making Material " , in which they stated that paper from the woody inner portion of the hemp stem broken into pieces , so called hemp hurds , was " favorable in comparison with those used with pulp wood " . Merrill and Dewey 's findings were not repeated in a later book by Dewey and have not been confirmed by paper production experts . The consistency of long fibers is too low in hemp hurds for commercial papermaking . Numerous machines had been devised for breaking and scutching hemp fibers , but none had been found to be fully satisfactory in actual commercial work To produce fiber from hemp was a labor @-@ intensive process if you include harvest , transport and processing . Technological developments decreased the labor but not sufficient to eliminate this disadvantage .
There was also a misconception about the intoxicating effects of hemp because it has the same active substance , THC , which is in all cannabis strains . Hemp normally has a minimal amount of THC when compared to recreational cannabis strains but , in the 1930s , THC was not yet fully identified . The methods FBN used for predicting the psychoactive effect of different samples of cannabis and hemp therefore gave confusing results .
= = = Mandatory sentencing ( 1952 , 1956 ) = = =
Mandatory sentencing and increased punishment were enacted when the United States Congress passed the Boggs Act of 1952 and the Narcotics Control Act of 1956 . The acts made a first @-@ time cannabis possession offense a minimum of two to ten years with a fine up to $ 20 @,@ 000 ; however in 1970 the United States Congress repealed mandatory penalties for cannabis offenses .
= = = The Controlled Substances Act ( 1970 ) = = =
In its 1969 Leary v. United States decision the Supreme Court held the Marijuana Tax Act to be unconstitutional , since it violated the Fifth Amendment privilege against self @-@ incrimination . In response , Congress passed the Controlled Substances Act as Title II of the Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of 1970 , which repealed the Marijuana Tax Act .
= = = Reorganization ( 1968 , 1973 ) = = =
In 1968 the United States Department of the Treasury subsidiary the Bureau of Narcotics and the United States Department of Health , Education , and Welfare subsidiary the Bureau of Drug Abuse Control merged to create the Bureau of Narcotics and Dangerous Drugs as a United States Department of Justice subsidiary .
In 1973 President Richard Nixon 's " Reorganization Plan Number Two " proposed the creation of a single federal agency to enforce federal drug laws and Congress accepted the proposal , as there was concern regarding the growing availability of drugs . As a result , on July 1 , 1973 , the Bureau of Narcotics and Dangerous Drugs ( BNDD ) and the Office of Drug Abuse Law Enforcement ( ODALE ) merged to create the Drug Enforcement Administration ( DEA ) . On December 1 , 1975 , the Supreme Court ruled that it was " not cruel or unusual for Ohio to sentence someone to 20 years for having or selling cannabis . "
= = = State Office of Narcotics and Drug Abuse ( 1977 ) = = =
In January 1976 , California 's study of the economic impact of its law repealing prohibitions of use went into effect . The law reduced the penalty for personal possession of an ounce or less of marijuana from a felony to a citable misdemeanor with a maximum fine of $ 100 . Possession of more than an ounce was made a misdemeanor , making the maximum fine $ 500 and / or six months in jail . After the law went into effect , the state 's annual spending towards marijuana laws went down 74 % . Prior to the law , the state had been spending from $ 35 million to $ 100 million .
= = = Mandatory sentencing and three @-@ strikes ( 1984 , 1986 ) = = =
During the Reagan Administration the Sentencing Reform Act provisions of the Comprehensive Crime Control Act of 1984 created the Sentencing Commission , which established mandatory sentencing guidelines . The Anti @-@ Drug Abuse Act of 1986 reinstated mandatory prison sentences , including large scale cannabis distribution . Later an amendment created a three @-@ strikes law , which created mandatory 25 @-@ years imprisonment for repeated serious crimes – including certain drug offenses- and allowed the death penalty to be used against " drug kingpins . "
= = = United States v. | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
Oakland Cannabis Buyers ' Cooperative ( 2001 ) = = =
In 1996 California voters passed Proposition 215 , which legalized medical cannabis . The Oakland Cannabis Buyers ' Cooperative was created to " provide seriously ill patients with a safe and reliable source of medical cannabis , information and patient support " in accordance with Proposition 215 .
In January 1998 the U.S. Government sued Oakland Cannabis Buyers ' Cooperative for violating federal laws created as a result of Controlled Substances Act of 1970 . On May 14 , 2001 , the United States Supreme Court ruled in United States v. Oakland Cannabis Buyers ' Coop that federal anti @-@ drug laws do not permit an exception for medical cannabis and rejected the common @-@ law medical necessity defense to crimes enacted under the Controlled Substances Act because Congress concluded cannabis has " no currently accepted medical use " when the act was passed in 1970 .
= = = Gonzales v. Raich ( 2005 ) = = =
Gonzales v. Raich 545 U.S. 1 ( 2005 ) was a decision in which the U.S. Supreme Court ruled ( 6 – 3 ) that even where individuals or businesses in accordance with state @-@ approved medical cannabis programs are lawfully cultivating , possessing , or distributing medical cannabis , such persons or businesses are violating federal marijuana laws . Therefore , under federal law violators are prosecuted because the Commerce Clause of the United States Constitution grants the federal government jurisdiction to prosecute marijuana offenses , here defendants violation of the U.S. Controlled Substances Act .
In Gonzales the respondents ( criminal defendants ) argued because the cannabis in question had been grown , transported , and consumed entirely within the state of California , in compliance with California medical cannabis laws , the defendants ' activity did not implicate interstate commerce . Therefore , the defendants argued , their activity could not be regulated , and eventually prosecuted , by the federal government through the Commerce Clause .
The U.S. Supreme Court disagreed , finding that cannabis grown within California for medical purposes is indistinguishable from illicit marijuana . Moreover , because the intrastate medical cannabis market contributes to the interstate illicit marijuana market , the Commerce Clause applies . Even where California citizens are using medical cannabis in compliance with state law , those individuals and businesses can still be prosecuted by federal authorities for violating federal law .
To combat state @-@ approved medical cannabis legislation , the Drug Enforcement Administration ( DEA ) routinely targets and arrests medical cannabis patients as well as seizing medical cannabis and the business assets of growers and medical dispensaries . However , the Obama administration has indicated that this practice may potentially be curtailed .
= = Efforts to decriminalize ( 1970s – ) = =
= = = Medical use = = =
In 1978 Robert Randall sued the federal government for arresting him for using cannabis to treat his glaucoma . The judge ruled Randall needed cannabis for medical purposes and required the Food and Drug Administration set up a program to grow cannabis on a farm at the University of Mississippi and to distribute 300 cannabis cigarettes a month to Randall . In 1992 George H. W. Bush discontinued the program after Randall tried to make HIV / AIDS patients eligible for the program . Thirteen people were already enrolled and were allowed to continue receiving cannabis cigarettes ; today the government still ships cannabis cigarettes to four people . Irvin Rosenfeld , who became eligible to receive cannabis from the program in 1982 to treat rare bone tumors , urged the George W. Bush administration to reopen the program ; however , he was unsuccessful .
Alaska , Colorado , Washington , Oregon , and the District of Columbia are the only states where possession of up to one ounce is legal . " Citing the dangers of marijuana and the lack of clinical research supporting its medicinal value " the American Society of Addiction Medicine in March 2011 issued a white paper recommending a halt to using marijuana as a medicine in US states where it has been declared legal .
= = = Advocacy = = =
Several U.S.-based advocate groups seek to modify the drug policy of the United States to decriminalize cannabis . These groups include Law Enforcement Against Prohibition , Students for Sensible Drug Policy , The Drug Policy Alliance , the Marijuana Policy Project , NORML , Coalition for Rescheduling Cannabis , and Americans for Safe Access . In June 2005 , libertarian economist Jeffrey Alan Miron and over 530 other economists , including Nobel Prize winner Milton Friedman , called for the legalization of cannabis in an open letter to President George W. Bush , the United States Congress , Governors of the United States , and State Legislatures of the United States . The open letter contained Miron 's " Budgetary Implications of Marijuana Prohibition in the United States " report ( view report ) .
In 1997 , the Connecticut Law Revision Commission recommended that Connecticut reduce cannabis possession of one ounce or less for adults aged 21 years and over to a civil fine although driving privileges maybe suspended for up to 60 days . In 2001 , the New Mexico state @-@ commissioned Drug Policy Advisory Group stated that decriminalizing cannabis " will result in greater availability of resources to respond to more serious crimes without any increased risks to public safety . " On November 3 , 2004 , Oakland , California passed Proposition Z , which makes " adult recreational marijuana use , cultivation and sales the lowest [ city ] law enforcement priority . "
Ron Paul , a Texas Congressman and 2008 and 2012 Presidential Candidate , stated at a rally in response to a question by a medical cannabis patient that he would " never use the federal government to force the law against anybody using marijuana . " Based on the collective perspective of its Editorial Board , The New York Times commenced a series examining the legalization of cannabis in July 2014 titled " High Time : An Editorial Series on Marijuana Legalization " . The introductory article concludes with the statement : " We recognize that this Congress is as unlikely to take action on marijuana as it has been on other big issues . But it is long past time to repeal this version of Prohibition . "
= = = Non @-@ medical use = = =
In 1970 the United States Congress repealed mandatory penalties for cannabis offenses and The Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act separated cannabis from other illicit narcotics and removed mandatory sentences for possession of small amounts of cannabis . In 1972 President Richard Nixon commissioned a comprehensive study from the National Commission on Marijuana and Drug Abuse . The Commission found that the constitutionality of cannabis prohibition was suspect and that the executive and legislative branches had a responsibility to obey the Constitution , even in the absence of a court ruling to do so . The Richard Nixon administration did not implement the study 's recommendations .
In 1973 Oregon decriminalized cannabis . Laws changed again in 1995 that reduced penalties . Possession of one ounce or less became legally defined as a " violation " ( a crime that is considered a lesser offence than a misdemeanor ) and now is punishable by a $ 500 to $ 1 @,@ 000 fine and up to 6 months of jail time , in some jurisdictions , paid off by means of community service . Possession of multiple containers of any weight , or possession of more than one ounce can sometimes add the additional crime " Intent to Sell " . In some cases people who have no marijuana , but are caught at the scene of a drug bust , are charged with " Frequenting " . Stricter punishments exist for sale , cultivation , and proximity to schools .
Colorado , Alaska , Ohio , and California followed suit in 1975 . By 1978 Mississippi , North Carolina , New York , and Nebraska had some form of cannabis decriminalization . In 2001 Nevada reduced cannabis possession from a felony offense to a misdemeanor , but only for adults age 21 and older , with other restrictions . Starting in the 1970s multiple states , counties , and cities decriminalized cannabis for non @-@ medical purposes . While many states , counties , and cities have partially decriminalized cannabis , on November 3 , 2004 , Oakland passed Proposition Z , and became the first place to fully decriminalize cannabis to allow the licensing , taxing , and regulation of cannabis sales if California law is amended to allow so . In 2008 Massachusetts passed a voter initiative that decriminalized simple possession of up to one ounce of marijuana , instead making it a civil infraction punishable by a $ 100 fine . Criminal penalties for cultivation and distribution remain in place . In June 2011 , Connecticut decriminalized possession of small amounts of marijuana .
On November 6 , 2012 , Colorado Amendment 64 ( 2012 ) was passed by initiative , thereby legalizing the recreational use of cannabis . Colorado Governor John Hickenlooper signed two bills on May 28 , 2013 that made Colorado the world 's first fully regulated recreational cannabis market for adults . Hickenlooper explained to the media : " Certainly , this industry will create jobs . Whether it ’ s good for the brand of our state is still up in the air . But the voters passed Amendment 64 by a clear majority . That ’ s why we ’ re going to implement it as effectively as we possibly can . " In its independent analysis , the Colorado Center on Law & Policy found that the state could expect a to see " $ 60 million in total combined savings and additional revenue for Colorado ’ s budget with a potential for this number to double after 2017 . " On September 9 , 2013 , the Colorado Department of Revenue adopted final regulations for recreational marijuana establishments , implementing the Colorado Retail Marijuana Code ( HB 13 @-@ 1317 ) . On September 16 , 2013 , the Denver City Council adopted an ordinance for retail marijuana establishments . The first stores officially opened on January 1 , 2014 . The state prepared for an influx of tourists with extra police officers posted in Denver . Safety fears led to officials seeking to limit use of the drug in popular ski resorts .
= = = State @-@ level legalization = = =
Ravin v. State was a 1975 decision by the Alaska Supreme Court that held the Alaska Constitution 's right to privacy protects an adult 's ability to use and possess a small amount of marijuana in the home for personal use . The Alaska Supreme Court thereby became the first — and only — state or federal court to announce a constitutional privacy right that protects some level of marijuana use and possession .
Various efforts to legalize recreational marijuana have been attempted by ballot measure , including California Proposition 19 ( 2010 ) and Oregon Measure 80 ( 2012 ) .
On November 6 , 2012 , Colorado and Washington became the first states to legalize the sale and possession of cannabis for recreational use since the Marijuana Tax Act of 1937 when they passed Colorado Amendment 64 and Washington Initiative 502 . Each regulated marijuana in a way similar to alcohol , allowing possession of up to an ounce for adults ages 21 and older , with " DUID " provisions similar to those against drunk driving . Unlike Initiative 502 , Amendment 64 allows personal cultivation ( of up to 6 plants ) . Both provide for commercial cultivation and sales , subject to regulation and taxes . It remains to be seen how the conflicts of these laws with federal law will be resolved .
The city of Portland , Maine legalized the possession of up to 2 @.@ 5 ounces of marijuana on November 5 , 2013 , making it the first city on the east coast to do so . The citizens voted in the law with 67 % in favor of legalization . The law does not allow the sale of marijuana ; and city police still intend to enforce state law , under which possession is a civil offense , and only medical marijuana is legal . Supporters of marijuana legalization believe , " this is just the next domino , " said Marijuana Policy Project Maine Political Director , David Boyer , " I think there 's national implications , keeping the momentum that Washington and Colorado started last November in ending marijuana prohibition . " There are hopes that the vote will be a push to legalize it statewide within the next few years .
The same day , voters in the cities of Ferndale , Jackson and Lansing , Michigan also voted on and approved similar measures to legalize possession and transfer of less than one ounce of marijuana . The votes were 69 % , 61 % and 63 % in favor respectively . Similar to Portland , state law ( where only medical marijuana is legal ) will likely be enforced , as indicated by the Governor 's statement that " no city charter provision ' shall conflict with or contravene the provisions of any general law of the state . ' "
On November 4 , 2014 , the states of Alaska and Oregon along with Washington D.C. ( Initiative 71 ) legalized the recreational usage of marijuana , with laws similar to those of Colorado and Washington . However , by a rider of the 2014 " Cromnibus " bill ( Consolidated Appropriations Act , 2014 ) , Washington DC was prevented from making additional changes to its marijuana laws for the fiscal year , allowing home use and cultivation , but not commercial sales .
As of November 2014 , 28 states have enacted medical marijuana laws , removed jail time for possession of small amounts of marijuana , and / or have legalized the possession , distribution , and sale of marijuana outright . The factors which have led to this change are many , but some of them could include increased support from the medical community for legalization , viable regulatory systems modeled off of alcohol regulation , and the potential for state financial gains from decreased criminal justice costs and increased tax revenues . Although outright legalization for nonmedical use of marijuana has only occurred in four states in the Union , in view of the movements in many states , it is possible that those states will not be alone for long .
= = = Territorial @-@ level legalization = = =
In November 2014 , Guam became the first US territory to legalize cannabis for medical use . In December 2014 , the US Virgin Islands passed a bill that decriminalized possession of cannabis up to an ounce . In Puerto Rico , medical cannabis was legalized on May 3 , 2015 , by an executive order from its governor .
= = = Indian Reservation @-@ level legalization = = =
In December 2014 , the US Justice Department allowed recognized Indian Reservations to regulate cannabis laws within their reservation . The laws in the reservations are allowed to be different from state and federal laws . As with State and Territories , the Federal government will not intervene as long as the reservations regulate strict control over marijuana . Some domestic nations such as the Yakama Nation and the Oglala Sioux Tribal Council rejected the approval to allow marijuana on their reservation .
In 2015 , the Flandreau Santee Sioux Tribe ( South Dakota ) voted to legalize recreational cannabis on its territory .
= = Federal reform efforts ( 2013 – ) = =
= = = Ending Federal Marijuana Prohibition Act = = =
On February 5 , 2013 , Colorado representative Jared Polis introduced Ending Federal Marijuana Prohibition Act of 2013 ( H.R. 499 ; 113th Congress ) , a bill that would decriminalize marijuana on the federal level , instead treating it as a substance to be regulated in a similar manner to alcohol . The act has not been approved by Congress .
= = = Respect State Marijuana Laws Act = = =
On April 12 , 2013 Rep. Dana Rohrabacher [ R @-@ CA48 ] introduced H.R.1523 " Respect State Marijuana Laws . " Eleven cosponsors , representing both major political parties , have joined Rohrbacher in a federalist approach to drug policy reformation . It passed the House of Representatives on May 30 , 2014 , and still awaits approval from the Senate .
= = = No Welfare for Weed Act of 2014 = = =
The bill would prevent the use of welfare credit cards to purchase marijuana in states where it has been legalized . The bill was approved by the House in September 2014 .
= = = Regulate Marijuana Like Alcohol Act and Marijuana Tax Revenue Act of 2015 = = =
In February 2015 , two national @-@ level legalization acts were proposed in Congress , the Regulate Marijuana Like Alcohol Act by Jared Polis ( D @-@ Colorado ) and the Marijuana Tax Revenue Act by Earl Blumenauer ( D @-@ Oregon ) .
= = = The Compassionate Access , Research Expansion and Respect States ( CARERS ) Act of 2015 = = =
On March 10 , 2015 , Senators Rand Paul ( R @-@ KY ) , Cory Booker ( D @-@ NJ ) , and Kirsten Gillibrand ( D @-@ NY ) proposed a new bipartisan medical marijuana bill for patients and veterans to access medical marijuana .
The act :
Would reschedule marijuana from a Schedule I to Schedule II drug to recognize it has accepted medical use , and would amend federal law to allow states to set their own medical marijuana policies . The bill would also permit VA doctors to prescribe veterans medical marijuana to treat serious injuries and chronic conditions . The legislation would not legalize medical marijuana in all 50 states , rather it would respect the states that set their own medical marijuana programs and prevents federal law enforcement from prosecuting patients , doctors and caregivers in those states .
= = = Ending Federal Marijuana Prohibition Act of 2015 = = =
November 4 , 2015 -Senator Bernie Sanders introduced the bill into Senate . It was read twice and referred to the Committee on the Judiciary . The intentions of the bill are to limit the application of Federal laws to the distribution and consumption of marijuana , and for other purposes .
= = Drug courts = =
Drug courts first started in 1989 and have spread since . 2140 drug courts were in operation May 2008 , with another 284 being planned or developed . They offer offenders charged with less @-@ serious crimes of being under the influence , possession of a controlled substance , or even drug @-@ using offenders charged with a non @-@ drug @-@ related crime the option of entering the drug court system instead of a conventional criminal court with the possibility of serving a jail sentence . To take advantage of this program , offenders have to plead guilty to the charge , agree to take part in treatment , regular drug screenings , and regular reporting to the drug court judge for a minimum of one year , as well as pay heavy fines and monthly drug court fees . Drug court systems in some areas utilize a color code system , whereas each offender is assigned a designated color , one of which is selected daily by the drug court for drug screening . Offenders must call the " color code " office each morning to see if their color has been selected for screening . Should the offender fail to comply with one or more of the requirements they may be removed from the drug court and incarcerated at the judge 's discretion . If they complete the drug court program the charges brought against them are dropped or reduced .
= Edward VI of England =
Edward VI ( 12 October 1537 – 6 July 1553 ) was King of England and Ireland from 28 January 1547 until his death . He was crowned on 20 February at the age of nine . The son of Henry VIII and Jane Seymour , Edward was the third monarch of the Tudor dynasty and England 's first monarch raised as a Protestant . During Edward 's reign , the realm was governed by a Regency Council because he never reached his majority . The Council was first led by his uncle Edward Seymour , 1st Duke of Somerset ( 1547 – 1549 ) , and then by John Dudley , 1st Earl of Warwick , from 1551 Duke of Northumberland .
Edward 's reign was marked by economic problems and social unrest that , in 1549 , erupted into riot and rebellion . An expensive war with Scotland , at first successful , ended with military withdrawal from Scotland as well as Boulogne @-@ sur @-@ Mer in exchange for peace . The transformation of the Church into a recognisably Protestant body also occurred under Edward , who took great interest in religious matters . Although his father , Henry VIII , had severed the link between the Church of England and Rome , Henry VIII had never permitted the renunciation of Catholic doctrine or ceremony . It was during Edward 's reign that Protestantism was established for the first time in England with reforms that included the abolition of clerical celibacy and the Mass and the imposition of compulsory services in English . The architect of these reforms was Thomas Cranmer , Archbishop of Canterbury , whose Book of Common Prayer is still used .
In February 1553 , at age 15 , Edward fell ill . When his sickness was discovered to be terminal , he and his Council drew up a " Devise for the Succession " , attempting to prevent the country 's return to Catholicism . Edward named his first cousin once removed , Lady Jane Grey , as his heir and excluded his half @-@ sisters , Mary and Elizabeth . However , this decision was disputed following Edward 's death , and Jane was deposed by Mary within 13 days . As queen , Mary reversed Edward 's Protestant reforms , which nonetheless became the basis of the Elizabethan Religious Settlement of 1559 .
= = Early life = =
= = = Birth = = =
Edward was born on 12 October 1537 in his mother 's room inside Hampton Court Palace , in Middlesex . He was the son of King Henry VIII by his third wife , Jane Seymour . Throughout the realm , the people greeted the birth of a male heir , " whom we hungered for so long " , with joy and relief . Te Deums were sung in churches , bonfires lit , and " their was shott at the Tower that night above two thousand gonnes " . Queen Jane , appearing to recover quickly from the birth , sent out personally signed letters announcing the birth of " a Prince , conceived in most lawful matrimony between my Lord the King 's Majesty and us " . Edward was christened on 15 October , with his half @-@ sisters , the 21 @-@ year @-@ old Lady Mary as godmother and the 4 @-@ year @-@ old Lady Elizabeth carrying the chrisom ; and the Garter King of Arms proclaimed him as Duke of Cornwall and Earl of Chester . The Queen , however , fell ill on 23 October from presumed postnatal complications , and died the following night . Henry VIII wrote to Francis I of France that " Divine Providence ... hath mingled my joy with bitterness of the death of her who brought me this happiness " .
= = = Upbringing and education = = =
Edward was a healthy baby who suckled strongly from the outset . His father was delighted with him ; in May 1538 , Henry was observed " dallying with him in his arms ... and so holding him in a window to the sight and great comfort of the people " . That September , the Lord Chancellor , Thomas , Lord Audley , reported Edward 's rapid growth and vigour ; and other accounts describe him as a tall and merry child . The tradition that Edward VI was a sickly boy has been challenged by more recent historians . At the age of four , he fell ill with a life @-@ threatening " quartan fever " , but , despite occasional illnesses and poor eyesight , he enjoyed generally good health until the last six months of his life .
Edward was initially placed in the care of Margaret Bryan , " lady mistress " of the prince 's household . She was succeeded by Blanche Herbert , Lady Troy . Until the age of six , Edward was brought up , as he put it later in his Chronicle , " among the women " . The formal royal household established around Edward was , at first , under Sir William Sidney , and later Sir Richard Page , stepfather of Edward Seymour 's wife , Anne Stanhope . Henry demanded exacting standards of security and cleanliness in his son 's household , stressing that Edward was " this whole realm 's most precious jewel " . Visitors described the prince , who was lavishly provided with toys and comforts , including his own troupe of minstrels , as a contented child .
From the age of six , Edward began his formal education under Richard Cox and John Cheke , concentrating , as he recalled himself , on " learning of tongues , of the scripture , of philosophy , and all liberal sciences " ; He received tuition from Elizabeth 's tutor , Roger Ascham , and Jean Belmain , learning French , Spanish and Italian . In addition , he is known to have studied geometry and learned to play musical instruments , including the lute and the virginals . He collected globes and maps and , according to coinage historian C. E. Challis , developed a grasp of monetary affairs that indicated a high intelligence . Edward 's religious education is assumed to have favoured the reforming agenda . His religious establishment was probably chosen by Archbishop Thomas Cranmer , a leading reformer . Both Cox and Cheke were " reformed " Catholics or Erasmians and later became Marian exiles . By 1549 , Edward had written a treatise on the pope as Antichrist and was making informed notes on theological controversies . Many aspects of Edward 's religion were essentially Catholic in his early years , including celebration of the mass and reverence for images and relics of the saints .
Both Edward 's sisters were attentive to their brother and often visited him – on one occasion , Elizabeth gave him a shirt " of her own working " . Edward " took special content " in Mary 's company , though he disapproved of her taste for foreign dances ; " I love you most " , he wrote to her in 1546 . In 1543 , Henry invited his children to spend Christmas with him , signalling his reconciliation with his daughters , whom he had previously illegitimised and disinherited . The following spring , he restored them to their place in the succession with a Third Succession Act , which also provided for a regency council during Edward 's minority . This unaccustomed family harmony may have owed much to the influence of Henry 's new wife Catherine Parr , of whom Edward soon became fond . He called her his " most dear mother " and in September 1546 , wrote to her : " I received so many benefits from you that my mind can hardly grasp them . "
Other children were brought to play with Edward , including the granddaughter of Edward 's chamberlain , Sir William Sidney , who in adulthood recalled the prince as " a marvellous sweet child , of very mild and generous condition " . Edward was educated with sons of nobles , " appointed to attend upon him " in what was a form of miniature court . Among these , Barnaby Fitzpatrick , son of an Irish peer , became a close and lasting friend . Edward was more devoted to his schoolwork than his classmates and seems to have outshone them , motivated to do his " duty " and compete with his sister Elizabeth 's academic prowess . Edward 's surroundings and possessions were regally splendid : his rooms were hung with costly Flemish tapestries , and his clothes , books , and cutlery were encrusted with precious jewels and gold . Like his father , Edward was fascinated by military arts , and many of his portraits show him wearing a gold dagger with a jewelled hilt , in imitation of Henry . Edward 's Chronicle enthusiastically details English military campaigns against Scotland and France , and adventures such as John Dudley 's near capture at Musselburgh in 1547 .
= = = " The Rough Wooing " = = =
On 1 July 1543 , Henry VIII signed the Treaty of Greenwich with the Scots , sealing the peace with Edward 's betrothal to the seven @-@ month @-@ old Mary , Queen of Scots . The Scots were in a weak bargaining position after their defeat at Solway Moss the previous November , and Henry , seeking to unite the two realms , stipulated that Mary be handed over to him to be brought up in England . When the Scots repudiated the treaty in December 1543 and renewed their alliance with France , Henry was enraged . In April 1544 , he ordered Edward 's uncle , Edward Seymour , Earl of Hertford , to invade Scotland and " put all to fire and sword , burn Edinburgh town , so razed and defaced when you have sacked and gotten what ye can of it , as there may remain forever a perpetual memory of the vengeance of God lightened upon [ them ] for their falsehood and disloyalty " . Seymour responded with the most savage campaign ever launched by the English against the Scots . The war , which continued into Edward 's reign , has become known as " The Rough Wooing " .
= = Accession = =
The nine @-@ year @-@ old Edward wrote to his father and stepmother on 10 January 1547 from Hertford thanking them for his new year 's gift of their portraits from life . By 28 January 1547 , Henry VIII was dead . Those close to the throne , led by Edward Seymour and William Paget , agreed to delay the announcement of the king 's death until arrangements had been made for a smooth succession . Seymour and Sir Anthony Browne , the Master of the Horse , rode to collect Edward from Hertford and brought him to Enfield , where Lady Elizabeth was living . He and Elizabeth were then told of the death of their father and heard a reading of the will . The Lord Chancellor , Thomas Wriothesley , announced Henry 's death to parliament on 31 January , and general proclamations of Edward 's succession were ordered . The new king was taken to the Tower of London , where he was welcomed with " great shot of ordnance in all places there about , as well out of the Tower as out of the ships " . The following day , the nobles of the realm made their obeisance to Edward at the Tower , and Seymour was announced as Protector . Henry VIII was buried at Windsor on 16 February , in the same tomb as Jane Seymour , as he had wished .
Edward VI was crowned at Westminster Abbey four days later on Sunday 20 February . The ceremonies were shortened , because of the " tedious length of the same which should weary and be hurtsome peradventure to the King 's majesty , being yet of tender age " , and also because the Reformation had rendered some of them inappropriate . On the eve of the coronation , Edward progressed on horseback from the Tower to the Palace of Westminster through thronging crowds and pageants , many based on the pageants for a previous boy king , Henry VI . He laughed at a Spanish tightrope walker who " tumbled and played many pretty toys " outside St Paul 's Cathedral . At the coronation service , Cranmer affirmed the royal supremacy and called Edward a second Josiah , urging him to continue the reformation of the Church of England , " the tyranny of the Bishops of Rome banished from your subjects , and images removed " . After the service , Edward presided at a banquet in Westminster Hall , where , he recalled in his Chronicle , he dined with his crown on his head .
= = Somerset 's Protectorate = =
= = = Council of Regency = = =
Henry VIII 's will named sixteen executors , who were to act as Edward 's Council until he reached the age of 18 . These executors were supplemented by twelve men " of counsail " who would assist the executors when called on . The final state of Henry VIII 's will has been the subject of controversy . Some historians suggest that those close to the king manipulated either him or the will itself to ensure a shareout of power to their benefit , both material and religious . In this reading , the composition of the Privy Chamber shifted towards the end of 1546 in favour of the reforming faction . In addition , two leading conservative Privy Councillors were removed from the centre of power . Stephen Gardiner was refused access to Henry during his last months . Thomas Howard , 3rd Duke of Norfolk , found himself accused of treason ; the day before the king 's death his vast estates were seized , making them available for redistribution , and he spent the whole of Edward 's reign in the Tower of London . Other historians have argued that Gardiner 's exclusion was based on non @-@ religious matters , that Norfolk was not noticeably conservative in religion , that conservatives remained on the Council , and that the radicalism of men such as Sir Anthony Denny , who controlled the dry stamp that replicated the king 's signature , is debatable . Whatever the case , Henry 's death was followed by a lavish hand @-@ out of lands and honours to the new power group . The will contained an " unfulfilled gifts " clause , added at the last minute , which allowed Henry 's executors to freely distribute lands and honours to themselves and the court , particularly to Edward Seymour , 1st Earl of Hertford , the new king 's uncle who became Lord Protector of the Realm , Governor of the King 's Person , and Duke of Somerset .
In fact , Henry VIII 's will did not provide for the appointment of a Protector . It entrusted the government of the realm during his son 's minority to a Regency Council that would rule collectively , by majority decision , with " like and equal charge " . Nevertheless , a few days after Henry 's death , on 4 February , the executors chose to invest almost regal power in Edward Seymour , now Duke of Somerset . Thirteen out of the sixteen ( the others being absent ) agreed to his appointment as Protector , which they justified as their joint decision " by virtue of the authority " of Henry 's will . Somerset may have done a deal with some of the executors , who almost all received hand @-@ outs . He is known to have done so with William Paget , private secretary to Henry VIII , and to have secured the support of Sir Anthony Browne of the Privy Chamber .
Somerset 's appointment was in keeping with historical precedent , and his eligibility for the role was reinforced by his military successes in Scotland and France . In March 1547 , he secured letters patent from King Edward granting him the almost monarchical right to appoint members to the Privy Council himself and to consult them only when he wished . In the words of historian G. R. Elton , " from that moment his autocratic system was complete " . He proceeded to rule largely by proclamation , calling on the Privy Council to do little more than rubber @-@ stamp his decisions .
Somerset 's takeover of power was smooth and efficient . The imperial ambassador , Van der Delft , reported that he " governs everything absolutely " , with Paget operating as his secretary , though he predicted trouble from John Dudley , Viscount Lisle , who had recently been raised to Earl of Warwick in the share @-@ out of honours . In fact , in the early weeks of his Protectorate , Somerset was challenged only by the Chancellor , Thomas Wriothesley , whom the Earldom of Southampton had evidently failed to buy off , and by his own brother . Wriothesley , a religious conservative , objected to Somerset 's assumption of monarchical power over the Council . He then found himself abruptly dismissed from the chancellorship on charges of selling off some of his offices to delegates .
= = = Thomas Seymour = = =
Somerset faced less manageable opposition from his younger brother Thomas Seymour , who has been described as a " worm in the bud " . As King Edward 's uncle , Thomas Seymour demanded the governorship of the king 's person and a greater share of power . Somerset tried to buy his brother off with a barony , an appointment to the Lord Admiralship , and a seat on the Privy Council — but Thomas was bent on scheming for power . He began smuggling pocket money to King Edward , telling him that Somerset held the purse strings too tight , making him a " beggarly king " . He also urged him to throw off the Protector within two years and " bear rule as other kings do " ; but Edward , schooled to defer to the Council , failed to co @-@ operate . In the Spring of 1547 , using Edward 's support to circumvent Somerset 's opposition , Thomas Seymour secretly married Henry VIII 's widow Catherine Parr , whose Protestant household included the 11 @-@ year @-@ old Lady Jane Grey and the 13 @-@ year @-@ old Lady Elizabeth .
In summer 1548 , a pregnant Catherine Parr discovered Thomas Seymour embracing Lady Elizabeth . As a result , Elizabeth was removed from Catherine Parr 's household and transferred to Sir Anthony Denny 's . That September , Catherine Parr died in childbirth , and Thomas Seymour promptly resumed his attentions to Elizabeth by letter , planning to marry her . Elizabeth was receptive , but , like Edward , unready to agree to anything unless permitted by the Council . In January 1549 , the Council had Thomas Seymour arrested on various charges , including embezzlement at the Bristol mint . King Edward , whom Seymour was accused of planning to marry to Lady Jane Grey , himself testified about the pocket money . Lack of clear evidence for treason ruled out a trial , so Seymour was condemned instead by an Act of Attainder and beheaded on 20 March 1549 .
= = = War = = =
Somerset 's only undoubted skill was as a soldier , which he had proven on expeditions to Scotland and in the defence of Boulogne @-@ sur @-@ Mer in 1546 . From the first , his main interest as Protector was the war against Scotland . After a crushing victory at the Battle of Pinkie Cleugh in September 1547 , he set up a network of garrisons in Scotland , stretching as far north as Dundee . His initial successes , however , were followed by a loss of direction , as his aim of uniting the realms through conquest became increasingly unrealistic . The Scots allied with France , who sent reinforcements for the defence of Edinburgh in 1548 , while Mary , Queen of Scots , was removed to France , where she was betrothed to the dauphin . The cost of maintaining the Protector 's massive armies and his permanent garrisons in Scotland also placed an unsustainable burden on the royal finances . A French attack on Boulogne in August 1549 at last forced Somerset to begin a withdrawal from Scotland .
= = = Rebellion = = =
During 1548 , England was subject to social unrest . After April 1549 , a series of armed revolts broke out , fuelled by various religious and agrarian grievances . The two most serious rebellions , which required major military intervention to put down , were in Devon and Cornwall and in Norfolk . The first , sometimes called the Prayer Book Rebellion , arose mainly from the imposition of church services in English , and the second , led by a tradesman called Robert Kett , mainly from the encroachment of landlords on common grazing ground . A complex aspect of the social unrest was that the protesters believed they were acting legitimately against enclosing landlords with the Protector 's support , convinced that the landlords were the lawbreakers .
The same justification for outbreaks of unrest was voiced throughout the country , not only in Norfolk and the west . The origin of the popular view of Somerset as sympathetic to the rebel cause lies partly in his series of sometimes liberal , often contradictory , proclamations , and partly in the uncoordinated activities of the commissions he sent out in 1548 and 1549 to investigate grievances about loss of tillage , encroachment of large sheep flocks on common land , and similar issues . Somerset 's commissions were led by an evangelical M.P. called John Hales , whose socially liberal rhetoric linked the issue of enclosure with Reformation theology and the notion of a godly commonwealth . Local groups often assumed that the findings of these commissions entitled them to act against offending landlords themselves . King Edward wrote in his Chronicle that the 1549 risings began " because certain commissions were sent down to pluck down enclosures " .
Whatever the popular view of Somerset , the disastrous events of 1549 were taken as evidence of a colossal failure of government , and the Council laid the responsibility at the Protector 's door . In July 1549 , Paget wrote to Somerset : " Every man of the council have misliked your proceedings ... would to God , that , at the first stir you had followed the matter hotly , and caused justice to be ministered in solemn fashion to the terror of others ... " .
= = = Fall of Somerset = = =
The sequence of events that led to Somerset 's removal from power has often been called a coup d 'état . By 1 October 1549 , Somerset had been alerted that his rule faced a serious threat . He issued a proclamation calling for assistance , took possession of the king 's person , and withdrew for safety to the fortified Windsor Castle , where Edward wrote , " Me thinks I am in prison " . Meanwhile , a united Council published details of Somerset 's government mismanagement . They made clear that the Protector 's power came from them , not from Henry VIII 's will . On 11 October , the Council had Somerset arrested and brought the king to Richmond . Edward summarised the charges against Somerset in his Chronicle : " ambition , vainglory , entering into rash wars in mine youth , negligent looking on Newhaven , enriching himself of my treasure , following his own opinion , and doing all by his own authority , etc . " In February 1550 , John Dudley , Earl of Warwick , emerged as the leader of the Council and , in effect , as Somerset 's successor . Although Somerset was released from the Tower and restored to the Council , he was executed for felony in January 1552 after scheming to overthrow Dudley 's regime . Edward noted his uncle 's death in his Chronicle : " the duke of Somerset had his head cut off upon Tower Hill between eight and nine o 'clock in the morning " .
Historians contrast the efficiency of Somerset 's takeover of power , in which they detect the organising skills of allies such as Paget , the " master of practices " , with the subsequent ineptitude of his rule . By autumn 1549 , his costly wars had lost momentum , the crown faced financial ruin , and riots and rebellions had broken out around the country . Until recent decades , Somerset 's reputation with historians was high , in view of his many proclamations that appeared to back the common people against a rapacious landowning class . More recently , however , he has often been portrayed as an arrogant and aloof ruler , lacking in political and administrative skills .
= = Northumberland 's regime = =
In contrast , Somerset 's successor John Dudley , Earl of Warwick , made Duke of Northumberland in 1551 , was once regarded by historians merely as a grasping schemer who cynically elevated and enriched himself at the expense of the crown . Since the 1970s , the administrative and economic achievements of his regime have been recognised , and he has been credited with restoring the authority of the royal Council and returning the government to an even keel after the disasters of Somerset 's protectorate .
The Earl of Warwick 's rival for leadership of the new regime was Thomas Wriothesley , 1st Earl of Southampton , whose conservative supporters had allied with Dudley 's followers to create a unanimous Council , which they , and observers such as the Holy Roman Emperor , Charles V 's ambassador , expected to reverse Somerset 's policy of religious reform . Warwick , on the other hand , pinned his hopes on the king 's strong Protestantism and , claiming that Edward was old enough to rule in person , moved himself and his people closer to the king , taking control of the Privy Chamber . Paget , accepting a barony , joined Warwick when he realised that a conservative policy would not bring the emperor onto the English side over Boulogne . Southampton prepared a case for executing Somerset , aiming to discredit Warwick through Somerset 's statements that he had done all with Warwick 's co @-@ operation . As a counter @-@ move , Warwick convinced parliament to free Somerset , which it did on 14 January 1550 . Warwick then had Southampton and his followers purged from the Council after winning the support of Council members in return for titles , and was made Lord President of the Council and great master of the king 's household . Although not called a Protector , he was now clearly the head of the government .
As Edward was growing up , he was able to understand more and more government business . However , his actual involvement in decisions has long been a matter of debate , and during the 20th century , historians have presented the whole gamut of possibilities , " balanc [ ing ] an articulate puppet against a mature , precocious , and essentially adult king " , in the words of Stephen Alford . A special " Counsel for the Estate " was created when Edward was fourteen . Edward chose the members himself . In the weekly meetings with this Council , Edward was " to hear the debating of things of most importance " . A major point of contact with the king was the Privy Chamber , and there Edward worked closely with William Cecil and William Petre , the Principal Secretaries . The king 's greatest influence was in matters of religion , where the Council followed the strongly Protestant policy that Edward favoured .
The Duke of Northumberland 's mode of operation was very different from Somerset 's . Careful to make sure he always commanded a majority of councillors , he encouraged a working council and used it to legitimatise his authority . Lacking Somerset 's blood @-@ relationship with the king , he added members to the Council from his own faction in order to control it . He also added members of his family to the royal household . He saw that to achieve personal dominance , he needed total procedural control of the Council . In the words of historian John Guy , " Like Somerset , he became quasi @-@ king ; the difference was that he managed the bureaucracy on the pretence that Edward had assumed full sovereignty , whereas Somerset had asserted the right to near @-@ sovereignty as Protector " .
Warwick 's war policies were more pragmatic than Somerset 's , and they have earned him criticism for weakness . In 1550 , he signed a peace treaty with France that agreed to withdrawal from Boulogne and recalled all English garrisons from Scotland . In 1551 , Edward was betrothed to Elisabeth of Valois , King Henry II 's daughter . In practice , he realised that England could no longer support the cost of wars . At home , he took measures to police local unrest . To forestall future rebellions , he kept permanent representatives of the crown in the localities , including lords lieutenant , who commanded military forces and reported back to central government .
Working with William Paulet and Walter Mildmay , Warwick tackled the disastrous state of the kingdom 's finances . However , his regime first succumbed to the temptations of a quick profit by further debasing the coinage . The economic disaster that resulted caused Warwick to hand the initiative to the expert Thomas Gresham . By 1552 , confidence in the coinage was restored , prices fell , and trade at last improved . Though a full economic recovery was not achieved until Elizabeth 's reign , its origins lay in the Duke of Northumberland 's policies . The regime also cracked down on widespread embezzlement of government finances , and carried out a thorough review of revenue collection practices , which has been called " one of the more remarkable achievements of Tudor administration " .
= = Reformation = =
In the matter of religion , the regime of Northumberland followed the same policy as that of Somerset , supporting an increasingly vigorous programme of reform . Although Edward VI 's practical influence on government was limited , his intense Protestantism made a reforming administration obligatory ; his succession was managed by the reforming faction , who continued in power throughout his reign . The man Edward trusted most , Thomas Cranmer , Archbishop of Canterbury , introduced a series of religious reforms that revolutionised the English church from one that — while rejecting papal supremacy — remained essentially Catholic , to one that was institutionally Protestant . The confiscation of church property that had begun under Henry VIII resumed under Edward — notably with the dissolution of the chantries — to the great monetary advantage of the crown and the new owners of the seized property . Church reform was therefore as much a political as a religious policy under Edward VI . By the end of his reign , the church had been financially ruined , with much of the property of the bishops transferred into lay hands .
The religious convictions of both Somerset and Northumberland have proved elusive for historians , who are divided on the sincerity of their Protestantism . There is less doubt , however , about the religious fervour of King Edward , who was said to have read twelve chapters of scripture daily and enjoyed sermons , and was commemorated by John Foxe as a " godly imp " . Edward was depicted during his life and afterwards as a new Josiah , the biblical king who destroyed the idols of Baal . He could be priggish in his anti @-@ Catholicism and once asked Catherine Parr to persuade Lady Mary " to attend no longer to foreign dances and merriments which do not become a most Christian princess " . Edward 's biographer Jennifer Loach cautions , however , against accepting too readily the pious image of Edward handed down by the reformers , as in John Foxe 's influential Acts and Monuments , where a woodcut depicts the young king listening to a sermon by Hugh Latimer . In the early part of his life , Edward conformed to the prevailing Catholic practices , including attendance at mass : but he became convinced , under the influence of Cranmer and the reformers among his tutors and courtiers , that " true " religion should be imposed in England .
The English Reformation advanced under pressure from two directions : from the traditionalists on the one hand and the zealots on the other , who led incidents of iconoclasm ( image @-@ smashing ) and complained that reform did not go far enough . Reformed doctrines were made official , such as justification by faith alone and communion for laity as well as clergy in both kinds , of bread and wine . The Ordinal of 1550 replaced the divine ordination of priests with a government @-@ run appointment system , authorising ministers to preach the gospel and administer the sacraments rather than , as before , " to offer sacrifice and celebrate mass both for the living and the dead " . Cranmer set himself the task of writing a uniform liturgy in English , detailing all weekly and daily services and religious festivals , to be made compulsory in the first Act of Uniformity of 1549 . The Book of Common Prayer of 1549 , intended as a compromise , was attacked by traditionalists for dispensing with many cherished rituals of the liturgy , such as the elevation of the bread and wine , while some reformers complained about the retention of too many " popish " elements , including vestiges of sacrificial rites at communion . The prayer book was also opposed by many senior Catholic clerics , including Stephen Gardiner , Bishop of Winchester , and Edmund Bonner , Bishop of London , who were both imprisoned in the Tower and , along with others , deprived of their sees .
After 1551 , the Reformation advanced further , with the approval and encouragement of Edward , who began to exert more personal influence in his role as Supreme Head of the church . The new changes were also a response to criticism from such reformers as John Hooper , Bishop of Gloucester , and the Scot John Knox , who was employed as a minister in Newcastle under the Duke of Northumberland and whose preaching at court prompted the king to oppose kneeling at communion . Cranmer was also influenced by the views of the continental reformer Martin Bucer , who died in England in 1551 , by Peter Martyr , who was teaching at Oxford , and by other foreign theologians . The progress of the Reformation was further speeded by the consecration of more reformers as bishops . In the winter of 1551 – 52 , Cranmer rewrote the Book of Common Prayer in less ambiguous reformist terms , revised canon law , and prepared a doctrinal statement , the Forty @-@ two Articles , to clarify the practice of the reformed religion , particularly in the divisive matter of the communion service . Cranmer 's formulation of the reformed religion , finally divesting the communion service of any notion of the real presence of God in the bread and the wine , effectively abolished the mass . According to Elton , the publication of Cranmer 's revised prayer book in 1552 , supported by a second Act of Uniformity , " marked the arrival of the English Church at protestantism " . The prayer book of 1552 remains the foundation of the Church of England 's services . However , Cranmer was unable to implement all these reforms once it became clear in spring 1553 that King Edward , upon whom the whole Reformation in England depended , was dying .
= = Succession crisis = =
= = = Devise for the succession = = =
In February 1553 , Edward VI became ill , and by June , after several improvements and relapses , he was in a hopeless condition . The king 's death and the succession of his Catholic half @-@ sister Mary would jeopardise the English Reformation , and Edward 's Council and officers had many reasons to fear it . Edward himself opposed Mary 's succession , not only on religious grounds but also on those of legitimacy and male inheritance , which also applied to Elizabeth . He composed a draft document , headed " My devise for the succession " , in which he undertook to change the succession , most probably inspired by his father Henry VIII 's precedent . He passed over the claims of his half @-@ sisters and , at last , settled the Crown on his first cousin once removed , the 16 @-@ year @-@ old Lady Jane Grey , who on 25 May 1553 had married Lord Guilford Dudley , a younger son of the Duke of Northumberland .
In his document Edward provided , in case of " lack of issue of my body " , for the succession of male heirs only , that is , Jane Grey 's mother 's male heirs , Jane 's or her sisters ' . As his death approached and possibly persuaded by Northumberland , he altered the wording so that Jane and her sisters themselves should be able to succeed . Yet Edward conceded Jane 's right only as an exception to male rule , demanded by reality , an example not to be followed if Jane or her sisters had only daughters . In the final document both Mary and Elizabeth were excluded because of bastardy ; since both had been declared bastards under Henry VIII and never made legitimate again , this reason could be advanced for both sisters . The provisions to alter the succession directly contravened Henry VIII 's Third Succession Act of 1543 and have been described as bizarre and illogical .
In early June , Edward personally supervised the drafting of a clean version of his devise by lawyers , to which he lent his signature " in six several places . " Then , on 15 June he summoned high ranking judges to his sickbed , commanding them on their allegiance " with sharp words and angry countenance " to prepare his devise as letters patent and announced that he would have these passed in parliament . His next measure was to have leading councillors and lawyers sign a bond in his presence , in which they agreed faithfully to perform Edward 's will after his death . A few months later , Chief Justice Edward Montagu recalled that when he and his colleagues had raised legal objections to the devise , Northumberland had threatened them " trembling for anger , and ... further said that he would fight in his shirt with any man in that quarrel " . Montagu also overheard a group of lords standing behind him conclude " if they refused to do that , they were traitors " . At last , on 21 June , the devise was signed by over a hundred notables , including councillors , peers , archbishops , bishops , and sheriffs ; many of them later claimed that they had been bullied into doing so by Northumberland , although in the words of Edward 's biographer Jennifer Loach , " few of them gave any clear indication of reluctance at the time " .
It was now common knowledge that Edward was dying , and foreign diplomats suspected that some scheme to debar Mary was under way . France found the prospect of the emperor 's cousin on the English throne disagreeable and engaged in secret talks with Northumberland , indicating support . The diplomats were certain that the overwhelming majority of the English people backed Mary , but nevertheless believed that Queen Jane would be successfully established .
For centuries , the attempt to alter the succession was mostly seen as a one @-@ man @-@ plot by the Duke of Northumberland . Since the 1970s , however , many historians have attributed the inception of the " devise " and the insistence on its implementation to the king 's initiative . Diarmaid MacCulloch has made out Edward 's " teenage dreams of founding an evangelical realm of Christ " , while David Starkey has stated that " Edward had a couple of co @-@ operators , but the driving will was his " . Among other members of the Privy Chamber , Northumberland 's intimate Sir John Gates has been suspected of suggesting to Edward to change his devise so that Lady Jane Grey herself — not just any sons of hers — could inherit the Crown . Whatever the degree of his contribution , Edward was convinced that his word was law and fully endorsed disinheriting his half @-@ sisters : " barring Mary from the succession was a cause in which the young King believed . "
= = = Illness and death = = =
Edward became ill during January 1553 with a fever and cough that gradually worsened . The imperial ambassador , Scheyfve , reported that " he suffers a good deal when the fever is upon him , especially from a difficulty in drawing his breath , which is due to the compression of the organs on the right side " . Edward felt well enough in early April to take the air in the park at Westminster and to move to Greenwich , but by the end of the month he had weakened again . By 7 May he was " much amended , " and the royal doctors had no doubt of his recovery . A few days later the king was watching the ships on the Thames , sitting at his window . However , he relapsed , and on 11 June Scheyfve , who had an informant in the king 's household , reported that " the matter he ejects from his mouth is sometimes coloured a greenish yellow and black , sometimes pink , like the colour of blood " . Now his doctors believed he was suffering from " a suppurating tumour " of the lung and admitted that Edward 's life was beyond recovery . Soon , his legs became so swollen that he had to lie on his back , and he lost the strength to resist the disease . To his tutor John Cheke he whispered , " I am glad to die " .
Edward made his final appearance in public on 1 July , when he showed himself at his window in Greenwich Palace , horrifying those who saw him by his " thin and wasted " condition . During the next two days , large crowds arrived hoping to see the king again , but on the 3rd , they were told that the weather was too chilly for him to appear . Edward died at the age of 15 at Greenwich Palace at 8pm on 6 July 1553 . According to John Foxe 's legendary account of his death , his last words were : " I am faint ; Lord have mercy upon me , and take my spirit " . He was buried in the Henry VII Lady Chapel at Westminster Abbey on 8 August 1553 , with reformed rites performed by Thomas Cranmer . The procession was led by " a grett company of chylderyn in ther surples " and watched by Londoners " wepyng and lamenting " ; the funeral chariot , draped in cloth of gold , was topped by an effigy of Edward , with crown , sceptre , and garter . Edward 's burial place was unmarked until as late as 1966 , when an inscribed stone was laid in the chapel floor by Christ 's Hospital school to commemorate their founder . The inscription reads as follows : " In Memory Of King Edward VI Buried In This Chapel This Stone Was Placed Here By Christ 's Hospital In Thanksgiving For Their Founder 7 October 1966 " .
The cause of Edward VI 's death is not certain . As with many royal deaths in the 16th century , rumours of poisoning abounded , but no evidence has been found to support these . The Duke of Northumberland , whose unpopularity was underlined by the events that followed Edward 's death , was widely believed to have ordered the imagined poisoning . Another theory held that Edward had been poisoned by Catholics seeking to bring Mary to the throne . The surgeon who opened Edward 's chest after his death found that " the disease whereof his majesty died was the disease of the lungs " . The Venetian ambassador reported that Edward had died of consumption — in other words , tuberculosis — a diagnosis accepted by many historians . Skidmore believes that Edward contracted the tuberculosis after a bout of measles and smallpox in 1552 that suppressed his natural immunity to the disease . Loach suggests instead that his symptoms were typical of acute bronchopneumonia , leading to a " suppurating pulmonary infection " or lung abscess , septicaemia , and kidney failure .
= = = Queen Jane and Queen Mary = = =
Lady Mary was last seen by Edward in February , and was kept informed about the state of her brother 's health by Northumberland and through her contacts with the imperial ambassadors . Aware of Edward 's imminent death , she left Hunsdon House , near London , and sped to her estates around Kenninghall in Norfolk , where she could count on the support of her tenants . Northumberland sent ships to the Norfolk coast to prevent her escape or the arrival of reinforcements from the continent . He delayed the announcement of the king 's death while he gathered his forces , and Jane Grey was taken to the Tower on 10 July . On the same day , she was proclaimed queen in the streets of London , to murmurings of discontent . The Privy Council received a message from Mary asserting her " right and title " to the throne and commanding that the Council proclaim her queen , as she had already proclaimed herself . The Council replied that Jane was queen by Edward 's authority and that Mary , by contrast , was illegitimate and supported only by " a few lewd , base people " .
Northumberland soon realised that he had miscalculated drastically , not least in failing to secure Mary 's person before Edward 's death . Although many of those who rallied to Mary were conservatives hoping for the defeat of Protestantism , her supporters also included many for whom her lawful claim to the throne overrode religious considerations . Northumberland was obliged to relinquish control of a nervous Council in London and launch an unplanned pursuit of Mary into East Anglia , from where news was arriving of her growing support , which included a number of nobles and gentlemen and " innumerable companies of the common people " . On 14 July Northumberland marched out of London with three thousand men , reaching Cambridge the next day ; meanwhile , Mary rallied her forces at Framlingham Castle in Suffolk , gathering an army of nearly twenty thousand by 19 July .
It now dawned on the Privy Council that it had made a terrible mistake . Led by the Earl of Arundel and the Earl of Pembroke , on 19 July the Council publicly proclaimed Mary as queen ; Jane 's nine @-@ day reign came to an end . The proclamation triggered wild rejoicing throughout London . Stranded in Cambridge , Northumberland proclaimed Mary himself — as he had been commanded to do by a letter from the Council . William Paget and the Earl of Arundel rode to Framlingham to beg Mary 's pardon , and Arundel arrested Northumberland on 24 July . Northumberland was beheaded on 22 August , shortly after renouncing Protestantism . His recantation dismayed his daughter @-@ in @-@ law , Jane , who followed him to the scaffold on 12 February 1554 , after her father 's involvement in Wyatt 's rebellion .
= = Protestant legacy = =
Although Edward reigned for only six years and died at the age of 15 , his reign made a lasting contribution to the English Reformation and the structure of the Church of England . The last decade of Henry VIII 's reign had seen a partial stalling of the Reformation , a drifting back to more conservative values . By contrast , Edward 's reign saw radical progress in the Reformation . In those six years , the Church transferred from an essentially Roman Catholic liturgy and structure to one that is usually identified as Protestant . In particular , the introduction of the Book of Common Prayer , the Ordinal of 1550 , and Cranmer 's Forty @-@ two Articles formed the basis for English Church practices that continue to this day . Edward himself fully approved these changes , and though they were the work of reformers such as Thomas Cranmer , Hugh Latimer , and Nicholas Ridley , backed by Edward 's determinedly evangelical Council , the fact of the king 's religion was a catalyst in the acceleration of the Reformation during his reign .
Queen Mary 's attempts to undo the reforming work of her brother 's reign faced major obstacles . Despite her belief in the papal supremacy , she ruled constitutionally as the Supreme Head of the English Church , a contradiction under which she bridled . She found herself entirely unable to restore the vast number of ecclesiastical properties handed over or sold to private landowners . Although she burned a number of leading Protestant churchmen , many reformers either went into exile or remained subversively active in England during her reign , producing a torrent of reforming propaganda that she was unable to stem . Nevertheless , Protestantism was not yet " printed in the stomachs " of the English people , and had Mary lived longer , her Catholic reconstruction might have succeeded , leaving Edward 's reign , rather than hers , as a historical aberration .
On Mary 's death in 1558 , the English Reformation resumed its course , and most of the reforms instituted during Edward 's reign were reinstated in the Elizabethan Religious Settlement . Queen Elizabeth replaced Mary 's councillors and bishops with ex @-@ Edwardians , such as William Cecil , Northumberland 's former secretary , and Richard Cox , Edward 's old tutor , who preached an anti @-@ Catholic sermon at the opening of parliament in 1559 . Parliament passed an Act of Uniformity the following spring that restored , with modifications , Cranmer 's prayer book of 1552 ; and the Thirty @-@ nine Articles of 1563 were largely based on Cranmer 's Forty @-@ two Articles . The theological developments of Edward 's reign provided a vital source of reference for Elizabeth 's religious policies , though the internationalism of the Edwardian Reformation was never revived .
= = Ancestry = =
= = = Family tree = = =
= = = Ahnentafel = = =
= Fuji @-@ class battleship =
The Fuji class ( 富士型戦艦 , Fuji @-@ gata senkan ) was a two @-@ ship class of pre @-@ dreadnought battleships built for the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) in the mid @-@ 1890s . They were the first battleships in the IJN , and were constructed in the UK as Japan lacked the industrial facilities needed to build them . Their design was based on the battleships being built for the Royal Navy at that time .
The ships participated in the Russo @-@ Japanese War of 1904 – 1905 , including the Battle of Port Arthur in February 1904 and two bombardments of Port Arthur during the following month . Yashima struck a mine off Port Arthur in May and capsized while under tow several hours later . Fuji fought in the Battles of the Yellow Sea and Tsushima and was lightly damaged in the latter action . She was reclassified as a coast defence ship in 1910 and served as a training ship for the rest of her active career . The ship was hulked in 1922 and converted into a barracks ship fitted with classrooms . Fuji was finally broken up for scrap in 1948 .
= = Background = =
In the late 19th century , the strategy of the Imperial Japanese Navy was based on the radical Jeune Ecole naval philosophy , as promoted by French military advisor and naval architect Emile Bertin . This emphasised cheap torpedo boats and commerce raiding to offset expensive , heavily armoured ships . The acquisition of two German @-@ built Dingyuan @-@ class ironclads by the Imperial Chinese Beiyang Fleet in 1885 threatened Japan 's interests in Korea . A visit by the Chinese warships to Japan in early 1891 forced the Japanese government to acknowledge that the IJN required similarly armed and armoured ships of its own to counter the ironclads ; the three lightly armoured Matsushima @-@ class cruisers ordered from France would not suffice , despite their powerful guns . The IJN decided to order a pair of the latest battleships from the United Kingdom as Japan lacked the technology and capability to construct its own battleships .
Obtaining funding for the battleships was a struggle for the Japanese government . The initial request was submitted in the budget of Prime Minister Matsukata Masayoshi in 1891 , but was deleted by the Diet of Japan due to political infighting . Matsukata submitted the request again and , when again denied , was forced to dissolve his cabinet . His successor , Prime Minister Itō Hirobumi , attempted to pass the funding measure in 1892 , but he also failed . This led to an extraordinary personal intervention by Emperor Meiji in a statement dated 10 February 1893 , wherein the emperor offered to fund the construction of the two battleships himself , through an annual reduction in the expenses of the Imperial Household , and asked that all government officials likewise agree to a reduction in their salaries by ten percent . The funding measure for the Fuji @-@ class battleships was passed by the Japanese Diet soon after . Completion of the ships was originally scheduled for 1899 , but the start of the First Sino @-@ Japanese War shortly before they were laid down in 1894 caused the government to accelerate the schedule by two years .
= = Design and description = =
The design of the Fuji class was derived from that of the British Royal Sovereign @-@ class battleships , albeit about 2 @,@ 000 long tons ( 2 @,@ 000 t ) smaller . The Fuji @-@ class ships improved on the Royal Sovereigns in several ways ; they were about 1 knot ( 1 @.@ 9 km / h ; 1 @.@ 2 mph ) faster , they incorporated superior Harvey armour , and their guns , although smaller and lighter , were the same as those of the later Majestic @-@ class and were protected by armoured hoods ( gun turrets ) . The two ships of the class were almost identical even though they were designed by two different naval architects , Yashima by Philip Watts and Fuji by George C. Mackrow . The primary difference was that Yashima had her deadwood cut away aft and was fitted with a balanced rudder . This made her almost a knot faster than her sister and gave her a smaller turning circle at the cost of a weaker stern that required careful attention when drydocked lest it sag .
The Fuji @-@ class ships had an overall length of 412 feet ( 125 @.@ 6 m ) , a beam of 73 @.@ 25 – 73 @.@ 75 feet ( 22 @.@ 3 – 22 @.@ 5 m ) , and a normal draught of 26 @.@ 25 – 26 @.@ 5 feet ( 8 @.@ 0 – 8 @.@ 1 m ) . They displaced 12 @,@ 230 – 12 @,@ 533 long tons ( 12 @,@ 426 – 12 @,@ 734 t ) at normal load . The ships had double bottoms and were subdivided into a total of 181 watertight compartments . The crew numbered about 650 officers and enlisted men . Yashima was fitted as a flagship with accommodation for an admiral and his staff .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The Fuji @-@ class ships were powered by two Humphrys Tennant 3 @-@ cylinder vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving one 17 @-@ foot ( 5 @.@ 18 m ) propeller , using steam generated by ten cylindrical boilers with a working pressure of 10 @.@ 898 kg / cm2 ( 1 @,@ 069 kPa ; 155 psi ) . The engines were rated at 13 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 10 @,@ 100 kW ) , using forced draught , and designed to reach a top speed of 18 @.@ 25 knots ( 33 @.@ 80 km / h ; 21 @.@ 00 mph ) although the ships proved to be faster during their sea trials , reaching top speeds of 18 @.@ 66 to 19 @.@ 46 knots ( 34 @.@ 56 to 36 @.@ 04 km / h ; 21 @.@ 47 to 22 @.@ 39 mph ) . A watertight centreline bulkhead separated the two engine rooms as well as the four boiler rooms . The boiler rooms were further separated by a transverse bulkhead . Unlike both the Royal Sovereigns and Majestics , the Fuji class had their funnels on the centreline .
The ships carried a maximum of 1 @,@ 620 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 590 long tons ) of coal which allowed them to steam for 4 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 7 @,@ 400 km ; 4 @,@ 600 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . They were fitted with three electric dynamos , each rated at 32 kilowatts ( 43 hp ) .
= = = Armament = = =
The main battery of the Fuji class consisted of four hydraulically operated Elswick Ordnance Company 40 @-@ calibre Type 41 twelve @-@ inch guns mounted in pear @-@ shaped twin @-@ gun barbettes fore and aft of the superstructure . The barbettes had a firing arc of 240 ° and the guns had a maximum elevation of + 15 ° and could depress to − 5 ° . These barbettes had armoured hoods , or turrets , to protect the guns . The mountings were virtually identical to those used in the first Majestic @-@ class battleships , which could only hoist ammunition from the below @-@ decks magazines in one position . However , 18 shells were stowed in each turret that allowed a limited amount of firing at any angle before their ammunition supply needed to be replenished . The guns were loaded at a fixed angle of 1 ° and fired 850 @-@ pound ( 386 kg ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 400 ft / s ( 730 m / s ) . This gave them an approximate range of 16 @,@ 000 yards ( 15 @,@ 000 m ) .
Secondary armament of the Fuji class consisted of ten 40 @-@ calibre Type 41 six @-@ inch quick @-@ firing guns , four on the main deck in casemates and six guns on the upper deck protected by gun shields . They fired 100 @-@ pound ( 45 kg ) shells at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 300 ft / s ( 700 m / s ) . Protection from torpedo boat attacks was provided by fourteen 47 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) three @-@ pounder Hotchkiss guns and ten 47 @-@ millimetre 2 @.@ 5 @-@ pounder Hotchkiss guns . The three @-@ pounder gun fired 3 @.@ 2 @-@ pound ( 1 @.@ 5 kg ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 927 ft / s ( 587 m / s ) while the 2 @.@ 5 @-@ pounder fired 2 @.@ 5 @-@ pound ( 1 @.@ 1 kg ) shells at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 420 ft / s ( 430 m / s ) . The ships were also equipped with five 18 @-@ inch torpedo tubes , one in the bow above water and four submerged tubes , two on each broadside .
In 1901 , both ships exchanged 16 of their 47 mm guns for an equal number of QF 12 @-@ pounder 12 cwt guns . They fired 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) , 12 @.@ 5 @-@ pound ( 5 @.@ 7 kg ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 359 ft / s ( 719 m / s ) . This raised the number of crewmen to 652 and later to 741 .
= = = Armour = = =
The armour scheme of the Fuji @-@ class ships was similar to that used by the Royal Sovereigns except that the Japanese ships used superior Harvey armour of the same thickness instead of compound armour . The waterline main belt was 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) high , 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 9 m ) of which was above the waterline at normal load , and had a maximum thickness of 18 inches ( 457 mm ) . It reduced to 16 inches ( 406 mm ) then 14 inches ( 356 mm ) at the ends past the two barbettes ; above it was a 4 @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) strake of armour that ran between the barbettes . They were 14 inches thick outside the upper armour belt and reduced to 9 inches ( 229 mm ) behind the upper belt . Diagonal bulkheads connected the barbettes to the side armour ; the forward bulkhead was 14 inches thick while the rear bulkhead was 12 inches ( 305 mm ) thick . The armour of the casemates and the barbette hoods had a maximum thickness of 6 inches while the conning tower was protected by 14 inches of armour . The deck armour was 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 64 mm ) thick and met the sides of the ship at the top of the main armour belt .
= = Ships = =
= = Service = =
Both ships had reached Japan by February 1898 . At the start of the Russo @-@ Japanese War in 1904 , Fuji and Yashima were assigned to the 1st Division of the 1st Fleet . They participated in the Battle of Port Arthur on 9 February , when Admiral Tōgō Heihachirō led the 1st Fleet in an attack on the Russian ships of the Pacific Squadron anchored just outside Port Arthur . Tōgō chose to attack the Russian coastal defences with his main armament and engage the Russian ships with his secondary guns . Splitting his fire proved to be a poor decision as his eight @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) and six @-@ inch guns inflicted very little damage on the Russian vessels , which concentrated all their fire on the Japanese ships . Yashima was not struck during the battle , but Fuji was hit twice , two men being killed and 10 wounded .
On 10 March , the two ships blindly bombarded the harbour of Port Arthur from Pigeon Bay , on the southwest side of the Liaodong Peninsula , at a range of 9 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 9 mi ) , but did little damage . When they tried again on 22 March , they were attacked by Russian coastal defence guns that had been transferred there , and also from several Russian ships in Port Arthur using observers overlooking Pigeon Bay . The Japanese ships disengaged after Fuji was hit by a 12 @-@ inch shell .
Fuji and Yashima participated in the action of 13 April when Tōgō successfully lured out two battleships of the Pacific Squadron . When the Russians spotted the five battleships of the 1st Division , they turned back for Port Arthur and the battleship Petropavlovsk struck a minefield laid by the Japanese the previous night . The ship sank in less than two minutes after one of her magazines exploded . Emboldened by his success , Tōgō resumed long @-@ range bombardment missions , which prompted the Russians to lay more minefields .
On 14 May 1904 , the battleships Hatsuse , Shikishima , and Yashima , the protected cruiser Kasagi , and the dispatch boat Tatsuta put to sea to relieve the Japanese blockading force off Port Arthur . The following morning , the squadron encountered a Russian minefield . Hatsuse struck one mine that disabled her steering and Yashima struck two others when moving to assist Hatsuse . Yashima was towed away from the minefield , but she was still taking on water at an uncontrollable rate and the crew abandoned ship some five hours later . Kasagi took Yashima in tow , but the battleship 's list continued to increase and she capsized about three hours later .
During the Battle of the Yellow Sea in August 1904 , Fuji was not damaged because the Russian ships concentrated their fire on Tōgō 's flagship , the battleship Mikasa , which was leading the column . In May the following year , during the Battle of Tsushima , Fuji was hit a dozen times , the most serious of which penetrated the hood of the rear barbette , ignited some exposed propellant charges , killed eight men and wounded nine . After the ammunition fire was put out , the left gun in the barbette resumed firing and apparently delivered the coup de grâce that sank the battleship Borodino .
On 23 October 1908 , Fuji hosted a dinner for the American Ambassador , Thomas J. O 'Brien , and the senior officers of the Great White Fleet during its circumnavigation of the world . In 1910 , her cylindrical boilers were replaced by Miyabara water @-@ tube boilers and her main armament was replaced by Japanese @-@ built guns . Fuji was reclassified as a first @-@ class coast defence ship the same year , and undertook training duties in various capacities until disarmed in 1922 . Her hulk continued to be used as a floating barracks and training centre at Yokosuka until 1945 . Fuji was damaged by American carrier aircraft during their 18 July 1945 attack on Yokosuka and capsized after the end of the war . The ship was scrapped in 1948 .
= Manny Get Your Gun =
" Manny Get Your Gun " is the eighth episode of the second season of the sitcom , Modern Family and the 32nd overall . It originally aired November 17 , 2010 on the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) . The episode was written by Danny Zuker , from a story by Modern Family co @-@ creator , Christopher Lloyd and was directed by Michael Spiller .
In the episode , everyone gathers at a restaurant for Manny 's birthday when Manny has a mini @-@ life crisis of getting older ; Phil and Claire have a race to see who can get there faster ; and Mitchell and Cam get stuck at the mall looking for a gift .
" Manny Get Your Gun " received overwhelmingly positive reviews from critics with Joel Keller of TV Squad naming it " one of the better ones of the season . According to the Nielsen Media Research , the episode received the same ratings as the previous episode , " Chirp " and became the second highest rated scripted series of the original week it aired .
= = Plot = =
The episode begins with Manny ( Rico Rodriguez ) starting his birthday speech to a table filled with angry family members .
The episode then goes 30 minutes earlier showing Claire ( Julie Bowen ) hurrying everyone to get to the party on time . This prompts a contest between Claire and Phil ( Ty Burrell ) to see whose route is quicker . Phil rides with Alex ( Ariel Winter ) and Haley ( Sarah Hyland ) , and Luke ( Nolan Gould ) with Claire .
In Claire 's car , Luke asks Claire why she is separating from Phil misunderstanding Claire 's earlier statement of the two parents were " separating " . Claire reassures Luke that they are fine and just going separate routes . Claire then starts asking Luke why he wanted to go with Phil instead of her . She stops the car to have a talk with Luke which makes her sadder , but Luke makes her happy by telling her that she is fun too but he wanted to be with Phil because he thought Phil needed him more than Claire does and that her route is faster than Phil 's .
In Phil 's car , while he tries convincing the girls the race is not a waste of time , the car 's wheels go out . After fixing it , Haley and Alex tell him that they do not want to go to family camp . This causes Phil to cry which in turn causes Haley and Alex to cry . This saps Phil 's motivation to beat Claire , but Haley and Alex eventually restore his motivation to win .
Meanwhile , Mitchell ( Jesse Tyler Ferguson ) and Cameron ( Eric Stonestreet ) are walking through the mall looking for a present for Manny . While there , Cameron stops to help an elderly man named Donald ( Norman Lloyd ) to convince an old lady to take him back , despite Mitchell 's protests that they are running out of time . Cameron is initially delighted to help before realizing Donald is an adulterer . Cameron and Mitchell soon continue their fight about Mitchell not being spontaneous but in the middle of the discussion , Mitchell takes part in a flash mob with a bunch of people to " Free Your Mind " . Mitchell initially thinks Cameron will be happy , but Cameron becomes angry that Mitchell kept it a secret from him . They soon have another fight in their car .
In the Pritchett house , Gloria ( Sofía Vergara ) and Jay ( Ed O 'Neill ) have a fight over Gloria 's habit of losing everything and currently losing her keys . Jay initially believes he is right before finding the keys in his pockets , but instead of apologizing to Gloria he secretes the keys in her purse .
In the meantime , Manny becomes depressed after Jay informs him he never truly acted like a kid . He tries to live his life as a kid before the party with bad prank calls and mixing sodas . He then opens his old Christmas present ( a flotation device ) and putting it in a pool . A furious Gloria angry at Manny not wanting to go his own party shoots the flotation device with a BB gun Jay gave him . In the car , Jay finally tells Gloria the truth making her furious .
After all the family members see that they are about to arrive late , they race to the restaurant , coming close to crashing into each other . The scene then goes to Manny finishing his speech saying that he has enough time to act like a kid , as his older family members still do .
= = Production = =
" Manny Get Your Gun " was written by Danny Zuker , but was based on a story by Modern Family 's co @-@ creator , Christopher Lloyd . The episode marked Zucker 's fifth writing credit for the series and Lloyd 's first story credit . The episode was directed by Michael Spiller , his eighth directors episode . " Manny Get Your Gun " originally aired on November 17 , 2010 . The episode was filmed on October 20 , October 21 , and October 27 , 2010 .
The episode was originally titled " Dash , Flash , Crash " in the original press release , the episode 's title was later formally changed to " Manny Get Your Gun " . Part of the episode 's plot is based on a personal experience of Steven Levitan . He stated in an interview " My wife and I have a constant argument about when we 're in a restaurant , which way to take home - which is the faster way home . "
On October 15 , 2010 , William Keck of TV Guide reported that Norman Lloyd of St. Elsewhere was to guest star as a senior citizen who Cameron befriends . He filmed his appearance on October 21 , 2010 .
The episode was later put in for Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy Series along with " Caught in the Act " , " The Musical Man " and " Mother 's Day " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original American broadcast , " Manny Get Your Gun " was viewed by an estimated 12 @.@ 092 million households and received a 7 @.@ 1 rating / 11 % share Nielsen rating meaning that the episode was watched by an average of 7 @.@ 1 % of households and 11 % of all televisions were tuned to the episode when it was broadcast . The episode received a 4 @.@ 8 rating / 13 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 , tying with the ratings from the previous episode , " Chirp " . The episode became the second highest rated scripted series of the week it aired after Glee .
= = = Reviews = = =
The episode received positive reviews from critics .
Joel Keller of AOL 's TV Squad called the episode " one of the better ones of the season " . Despite this , he felt that the Mitch and Cam storyline while " funny " it was " not as funny as they usually are " . He also commented that " It 's just that sometimes Cam is too much Cam for his , or the audience 's , own good . "
Donna Bowman of The A.V. Club gave the episode an A- rating . She felt " this episode is a bit less than the sum of its parts ; or maybe the jigsaw pieces have been forced into place a little too emphatically . "
Rachel Maddux of New York gave the episode a positive review . She felt that the episode brought the series " out of [ its ] slump " and also commented " This kind of episode is pretty much why we started loving this show in the first place " .
Kara Klenk of TV Guide called it " another great episode . "
Matt Roush called the episode " comic gold " and felt the episode was " firing on all cylinders " .
James Poniewozik of Time gave the episode a positive review . He felt that " This episode may not quite have reached the level of " Fizbo " , but by the time it built to its near @-@ four @-@ car @-@ pileup , it had strung together quite a run of funny and sweet moments . "
HitFix writer Alan Sepinwall , who is often critical of the series 's second season praised the episode commenting that " nearly everything was clicking " . He also positively compared it to a season one episode of the series when " where everything came together at the end in the style of the strongest season one episodes " .
= Kirsten Gillibrand =
Kirsten Elizabeth Rutnik Gillibrand ( / ˈkɪərstən ˈdʒɪlᵻbrænd / KEER @-@ stən JIL @-@ ə @-@ brand ; born December 9 , 1966 ) is an American politician and the junior United States Senator from New York , in office since 2009 . Previously , she served in the United States House of Representatives , representing New York 's 20th congressional district ( 2007 – 09 ) . She is a member of the Democratic Party .
In December 2008 , President @-@ elect Barack Obama nominated Hillary Clinton as Secretary of State , leaving an empty seat in the New York senate delegation . After two months and many potential names considered , Governor David Paterson appointed Gillibrand to fill the seat . Gillibrand was required to run in a special election in 2010 , which she won with 63 % of the vote . She was re @-@ elected to a full six @-@ year term in 2012 with 72 % of the vote , the highest margin for any statewide candidate in New York .
A member of the Democratic Party 's relatively conservative Blue Dog faction while in the House , Gillibrand has been seen as a progressive since her appointment to the Senate . In both cases , her views were significantly defined by the respective constituency she served at the time — a conservative congressional district versus the generally liberal state of New York . For example , while quiet on the U.S. military 's " Don 't Ask , Don 't Tell " policy when she was in the House , during her first 18 months in the Senate , Gillibrand was an important part of the successful campaign to repeal it .
= = Early life and education = =
Kirsten Gillibrand was born in Albany , New York , on December 9 , 1966 , the daughter of Polly Edwina ( née Noonan ) and Douglas Paul Rutnik . Both parents are attorneys , and her father has worked as a lobbyist . The couple divorced in the late 1980s . Gillibrand has an older brother , Douglas Rutnik , and a younger sister , Erin Rutnik Tschantret . Her maternal grandmother is Dorothea " Polly " Noonan , founder of the Albany Democratic Women 's Club , as well as a leader in Albany Mayor Erastus Corning 's powerful political machine , which lasted for more than 40 years . She has English , Austrian , Scottish , German , and Irish ancestry .
During her childhood and college years , Gillibrand used the nickname " Tina . " She began to use her birth name of Kirsten a few years after law school . In 1984 she graduated from Emma Willard School , an all @-@ women 's high school in Troy , New York , and then enrolled at Dartmouth College . Gillibrand majored in Asian Studies , studying in both Beijing and Taiwan . While in Beijing , she studied and lived with Connie Britton . Gillibrand graduated magna cum laude in 1988 . While at Dartmouth , she was a member of the Kappa Kappa Gamma sorority . During college , Gillibrand interned at Republican U.S. Senator Alfonse D 'Amato 's Albany office . Gillibrand went on to receive her J.D. from UCLA School of Law and pass the bar exam in 1991 .
= = Law career = =
In 1991 , Gillibrand joined the Manhattan @-@ based law firm of Davis Polk & Wardwell as an associate . In 1992 , she took a leave from Davis Polk to serve as a law clerk to Judge Roger Miner on the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit in Albany .
Gillibrand 's tenure at Davis Polk is best known for her work as a defense attorney for Tobacco company Philip Morris during major litigation , including both civil lawsuits and U.S. Justice Department criminal and civil racketeering probes . She became a senior associate while working on Philip Morris litigation . While this time in her career has proven controversial , Gillibrand indicates her work for Philip Morris allowed her to take on multiple pro bono cases defending abused women and their children , as well as other cases defending tenants seeking safe housing after lead paint and unsafe conditions were found in their homes .
While working at Davis Polk , Gillibrand became involved in — and later the leader of — the Women 's Leadership Forum , a program of the Democratic National Committee . Gillibrand states that a speech to the group by then @-@ First Lady Hillary Clinton inspired her : " [ Clinton ] was trying to encourage us to become more active in politics and she said , ' If you leave all the decision @-@ making to others , you might not like what they do , and you will have no one but yourself to blame . ' It was such a challenge to the women in the room . And it really hit me : She 's talking to me . "
Following her time at Davis Polk , Gillibrand served as Special Counsel to Secretary of Housing and Urban Development ( HUD ) Andrew Cuomo during the last year of the Clinton administration . Gillibrand worked on HUD 's Labor Initiative and its New Markets Initiative , as well as on TAP 's Young Leaders of the American Democracy , and strengthening Davis – Bacon Act enforcement .
In 1999 , Gillibrand began working on Hillary Clinton 's 2000 U.S. Senate campaign , focusing on campaigning to young women and encouraging them to join the effort . Many of those women later worked on Gillibrand 's campaigns . Gillibrand and Clinton became close during the election , with Clinton becoming something of a mentor to the young attorney . Gillibrand donated more than $ 12 @,@ 000 to Clinton 's senate campaigns .
In 2001 , Gillibrand became a partner in the Manhattan office of Boies , Schiller & Flexner , where a client was the Philip Morris parent company Altria Group . In 2002 she informed Boies of interest in running for office and was allowed to transfer to the firm 's Albany office . She left Boies in 2005 to begin her 2006 campaign for Congress .
= = U.S. House of Representatives = =
= = = Elections = = =
= = = = 2006 = = = =
Gillibrand first ran for office in 2006 , in New York 's 20th congressional district against four @-@ term Republican incumbent John E. Sweeney . She considered running in 2004 , but Hillary Clinton believed circumstances would be more favorable in 2006 and advised her to wait until then . Traditionally conservative , the district and its electoral offices had been in Republican hands for all but four years since 1913 , and as of November 2006 , 197 @,@ 473 voters in the district were registered Republicans while 82 @,@ 737 were registered Democrats . Congressman Sweeney at the time said that no Republican could ever lose [ the district ] . Engaging New York 's electoral fusion election laws , Gillibrand ran on both the Democratic and Working Families lines ; in addition to having the Republican nomination , Sweeney was endorsed by the Conservative and Independence parties .
During the campaign , Gillibrand was popular with Democratic Party politicians . Mike McNulty , Democratic Congressman from the neighboring 21st congressional district , campaigned for her , as did both Hillary and Bill Clinton ; the former president appeared twice at campaign events . Both parties poured millions of dollars into the respective campaigns .
Many saw Gillibrand as moderate or conservative . The American Conservative stated after her eventual victory , " Gillibrand won her upstate New York district by running to the right : she campaigned against amnesty for illegal immigrants , promised to restore fiscal responsibility to Washington , and pledged to protect gun rights . "
Gillibrand 's legal representation of Philip Morris was an issue during the campaign . Her campaign finance records showed that she received $ 23 @,@ 200 in contributions from the company 's employees during her 2006 campaign for Congress .
The probable turning point in the election was the November 1 release of a December 2005 police report detailing a 9 @-@ 1 @-@ 1 call by Sweeney 's wife , in which she claimed Sweeney was " knocking her around the house . " The Sweeney campaign claimed the police report was false and promised to have the official report released by State Police , but did not do so . The Sweeney campaign released an ad in which Sweeney 's wife described Gillibrand 's campaign as " a disgrace . "
By November 5 , a Siena College Research Poll showed Gillibrand ahead of Sweeney 46 % to 43 % , and she ended up winning with 53 % of the vote .
= = = = 2008 = = = =
Following Gillibrand 's win , Republicans quickly began speculating about possible 2008 candidates . Len Cutler , director of the Center for the Study of Government and Politics at Siena College , said that the seat would be difficult for Gillibrand to hold in 2008 , noting Republicans substantially outnumbered Democrats in the district .
Gillibrand won her bid for re @-@ election in 2008 over former New York Secretary of State Sandy Treadwell , by a 62 % to 38 % margin . Treadwell lost by that margin despite significantly outspending Gillibrand and promising never to vote to raise taxes , not to accept a federal salary , and to limit himself to three terms in office . Campaign expenditures were the second highest in the nation for a House race . Democrats generally saw major successes during the 2008 congressional election , credited in part to a coattail effect from Barack Obama 's presidential campaign .
Gillibrand 's legal representation of Philip Morris was again an issue . Her campaign finance records showed that she received $ 18 @,@ 200 from Philip Morris employees for her 2008 campaign , putting her among the top dozen Democrats in such contributions . Questioned during the campaign about her work on behalf of Philip Morris , Gillibrand stated that she had voted in favor of all three anti @-@ tobacco bills in that session of Congress . She said that she never hid her work for Philip Morris , and she added that as an associate at her law firm , she had had no control over which clients she worked for . The New York Times reporting on this issue said that officially , Davis Polk associates are allowed to withdraw from representing clients with whom they have moral qualms .
= = = House tenure = = =
Upon taking office , Gillibrand joined the Blue Dog Coalition , a group of moderate to conservative Democrats . She was noted for voting against the Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008 , citing concerns about insufficient oversight and excessive earmarks . Gillibrand opposed New York plans to issue driver 's licenses to illegal immigrants , and voted in favor of legislation withholding federal funds from immigrant sanctuary cities .
After taking office , Gillibrand became the first member of Congress to publish her official schedule , listing everyone she met with on a given day . She also published earmark requests she received and her personal financial statement . This " Sunlight Report " , as her office termed it , was praised by a New York Times editorial in December 2006 as being a " quiet touch of revolution " in a non @-@ transparent system . Regarding the earmarking process , Gillibrand stated she wanted what was best for her district and would require every project to pass a " greatest @-@ need , greatest @-@ good " test .
= = = Committee assignments = = =
While in the House of Representatives , Gillibrand served on the following committees :
Committee on Agriculture
Subcommittee on Conservation , Credit , Energy , and Research
Subcommittee on Horticulture and Organic Agriculture
Subcommittee on Livestock , Dairy , and Poultry ( Chair )
Committee on Armed Services
Subcommittee on Seapower and Expeditionary Forces
Subcommittee on Terrorism and Unconventional Threats
= = U.S. Senate = =
On December 1 , 2008 , President @-@ elect Barack Obama announced his choice of Hillary Clinton , the junior U.S. Senator from New York , as Secretary of State . This began a two @-@ month search process to fill her vacant Senate seat . Upon a Senate vacancy , under New York law , the Governor appoints a replacement . A special election was held in 2010 , for the remainder of the full term , ending in January 2013 .
Governor Paterson 's selection process began with a number of prominent names and high @-@ ranking New York Democrats , including Andrew Cuomo and Caroline Kennedy , vying for the spot . Gillibrand quietly campaigned to Paterson for the position , meeting secretly with him on at least one occasion ; she says she made an effort to underscore her successful House elections in a largely conservative district , adding that she could be a good complement to Chuck Schumer . Gillibrand was presumed a likely choice in the days before the official announcement ; Paterson held a press conference at noon on January 23 announcing Gillibrand as his choice .
The response within New York to the appointment was mixed . The upstate media was generally optimistic about appointment of an upstate Senator , as one had not been elected after Charles Goodell left office in 1971 . Many downstaters were disappointed with the selection , with some media outlets stating that Paterson had ignored the electoral influence of New York City and downstate on state politics ( due to the area 's population ) . One questioned whether Paterson 's administration was aware of " [ where ] statewide elections are won and lost " . Gillibrand was relatively unknown statewide , with many voters finding the choice surprising . One source stated , " With every Democrat in New York ... angling for the appointment , there was a sense of bafflement , belittlement , and bruised egos when Paterson tapped the junior legislator unknown outside of Albany . "
Gillibrand was sworn in on January 26 , 2009 ; at 42 , she entered the chamber as the youngest senator in the 111th Congress .
= = = Elections = = =
= = = = 2010 = = = =
Gillibrand had numerous potential challengers in the September 14 , 2010 Democratic primary election . Some were obvious at the time of her appointment . Most notably , Long Island Congresswoman Carolyn McCarthy was unhappy with Gillibrand 's stance on gun control , but McCarthy ultimately decided not to run . By March 2009 , Harold Ford , Jr . , former Congressman from Tennessee , considered a run but ultimately decided against it . Congressman Steve Israel was also a contender but was talked out of it by President Obama .
Concerned about a possible schism in the party that could lead to a heated primary , split electorate , and weakened stance , high @-@ ranking members of the party backed Gillibrand and requested major opponents not to run . In the end , Gillibrand faced Gail Goode , a lawyer from New York City , and won the primary with 76 % of the vote .
In what was initially expected to be a heated race , Gillibrand easily prevailed against former Republican congressman Joseph DioGuardi . This was Gillibrand 's first statewide election . By the end of October , a Quinnipiac University Polling Institute poll placed Gillibrand over DioGuardi 57 @-@ 34 % . Gillibrand won the November election 63 – 35 % , carrying 54 of New York 's 62 counties . The counties that supported DioGuardi did so by a margin no greater than 10 % .
= = = = 2012 = = = =
Gillibrand 's special election victory gave her the right to serve the rest of Clinton 's second term , which ended in January 2013 . Gillibrand ran for a full six @-@ year term in November 2012 . In the general election , Gillibrand faced challenger Wendy E. Long , an attorney running on both the Republican Party and Conservative Party lines . Gillibrand was endorsed by The New York Times and the Democrat and Chronicle . She won the seat with 72 @.@ 2 % of the vote , the largest victory margin for a statewide candidate in New York history , and ahead of Schumer 's 71 @.@ 2 % victory in 2004 . She carried all but two mostly rural counties in western New York .
= = = Senate tenure = = =
On April 9 , 2009 , a combined Schumer – Gillibrand press release stated strong support of a Latino being nominated to the Supreme Court at the time of the next vacancy . Their first choice was Sonia Sotomayor . The two introduced her at Sotomayor 's Senate confirmation hearing in July .
During the lame duck session of the 111th Congress , Gillibrand scored two substantial legislative victories : the repeal of Don 't Ask , Don 't Tell and the passage of the James Zadroga 9 / 11 Health and Compensation Act . Both were issues she had advocated for during that session . In the aftermath of these victories , many commentators opined that these victories marked her emergence on the national stage .
In March 2011 , Gillibrand co @-@ sponsored the PROTECT IP Act , which would restrict access to web sites judged to be infringing copyrights , but ultimately announced she would not support the bill as @-@ is due to wide critical public response .
In 2012 , Gillibrand authored a portion of the STOCK Act , which extended limitations on insider trading by members of Congress . A version of the bill , merged by Senator Joe Lieberman with content from another bill authored by Senator Scott Brown , was passed by Congress and signed into law by President Obama in April .
In 2013 , Gillibrand proposed legislation that would remove sexual assault cases from the military chain of command ; the bill was cosponsored by Republican senators Rand Paul and Ted Cruz . Gillibrand 's bill failed to gain enough votes to break a filibuster in March 2014 , however her efforts likely improved her standing as a lawmaker in the Senate .
In 2014 , Gillibrand was included in the annual Time 100 , Time magazine 's list of the 100 most influential people .
In 2015 , Gillibrand invited campus activist Emma Sulkowicz to attend the State of the Union Address . Her invitation was intended to promote the Campus Accountability and Safety Act , a bill Gillibrand co @-@ sponsored . However , Families Advocating for Campus Equality and others have criticized this decision , and Gillibrand 's public description of Sulkowicz 's accused assailant as " her rapist , " pointing out that both a university hearing and a police investigation had cleared the man of the allegations ; critics of Gillibrand 's decision have accused her of disregarding due process and maligning a man 's reputation in order to gain support for a political objective .
Gillibrand has been less deferential to Senate seniority protocols and more uncompromising in her positions – such as repeal of " don 't ask , don 't tell " and combating sexual assault in the military – than most freshman senators , traits which have sometimes caused friction with her Democratic colleagues . Republican Charles Grassley of Iowa has contrasted her approach with other New Yorkers of both parties , saying she is distinguished by " her determination and knowledge and willingness to sit down one on one with senators and explain what she is up to " . Her fund @-@ raising ability – almost $ 30 million from 2009 through 2013 – has helped her become a mentor for female candidates nationwide .
= = = Committee assignments = = =
While in the Senate , Gillibrand served on the following committees :
Committee on Agriculture , Nutrition and Forestry
Subcommittee on Domestic and Foreign Marketing , Inspection , and Plant and Animal Health ( Ranking Member )
Subcommittee on Energy , Science and Technology
Subcommittee on Hunger , Nutrition and Family Farms
Committee on Armed Services
Subcommittee on Airland
Subcommittee on Emerging Threats and Capabilities
Subcommittee on Strategic Forces
Committee on Environment and Public Works
Subcommittee on Green Jobs and the New Economy
Subcommittee on Oversight
Subcommittee on Superfund , Toxics and Environmental Health
Special Committee on Aging
= = = Caucus memberships = = =
Healthy Kids Caucus
International Conservation Caucus
Senate Women 's Caucus
Sportsmen 's Caucus
= = Political positions = =
Gillibrand 's views on many issues can be defined as an evolution based on constituent needs ; some have characterized this progression as flip @-@ flopping . In the House , she was known as a conservative liberal or centrist , serving at the will of a highly conservative electorate . She was a member of the Blue Dog Coalition , a caucus of fiscally conservative Democrats . In the Senate , she is known more as a populist @-@ leaning liberal , as she represents a heavily Democratic state . At the time of her appointment to the Senate , a Salon.com editorial said that Gillibrand 's reputation in the House characterized her as " a hybrid politician who has remained conservative enough to keep her seat while appearing progressive enough to raise money downstate . "
On social issues , Gillibrand is generally liberal , supporting an abortion rights agenda , legalization of same @-@ sex marriage , and health care reform with a public option . She is a strong advocate for government transparency , being one of a few members of Congress that releases much personal and scheduling information . She is also a strong supporter of female equality and involvement , having begun the website offthesidelines.org in 2011 . Although a supporter of gun rights while in the House , Gillibrand has since moved in the direction of gun control . On economic issues , Gillibrand has been more fiscally conservative .
Gillibrand has received an 8 % rating from the American Conservative Union , 70 % from Americans for Democratic Action , and 90 % from the American Civil Liberties Union . OnTheIssues.org rates Gillibrand as a " hard @-@ core liberal . "
= = Personal life = =
Gillibrand lives in the town of Brunswick with her husband Jonathan and their two sons . She met Jonathan , a venture capitalist and British national , on a blind date . Jonathan planned to be in the United States for only a year while studying for his Master of Business Administration at Columbia University , but he stayed in the country because of his relationship with her . The two were married in a Catholic church in Manhattan in 2001 . Because of the requirements of Kirsten Gillibrand 's office , the family spends most of its time in Washington . In 2011 , the Gillibrands sold their house in Hudson and purchased a home in Brunswick to be closer to Kirsten 's family in Albany .
The Gillibrands had their first child , Theodore , in 2003 , and their second son , Henry , in 2008 . She continued to work until the day of Henry 's delivery , for which she received a standing ovation from her colleagues in the House the next day .
= = Published works = =
In 2014 , Gillibrand published her first book , Off the Sidelines : Raise Your Voice , Change the World . The candid memoir was notable in the media upon release due to whisperings of a future presidential run as well as revealing a culture of sexism in the Senate , including specific comments made to her by other members of Congress about her weight and appearance . Off the Sidelines debuted at number 8 on the New York Times Best Seller list for hardcover nonfiction .
= = Electoral history = =
* Gillibrand was also nominated on the Working Families line and Sweeney was also nominated on the Independence and Conservative lines .
* Gillibrand was also nominated on the Working Families line and Treadwell was also nominated on the Independence and Conservative lines .
* Gillibrand was also nominated on the Working Families and Independence lines and DioGuardi was also nominated on the Conservative line .
* Gillibrand was also nominated on the Working Families and Independence lines and Long was also nominated on the Conservative line .
= Henry Inman ( Royal Navy officer ) =
Captain Henry Inman ( 1762 – 15 July 1809 ) was a British Royal Navy officer during the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries , serving in the American Revolutionary War , the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars . Inman 's service in the American war was punctuated by three shipwrecks : the burning of HMS Lark off Rhode Island in the face of a superior French squadron , the grounding of HMS Santa Monica on Tortola and the foundering of Hector following an engagement with two French ships in the Mid @-@ Atlantic . After the war he was placed in reserve until the Spanish Armament of 1790 , when he was given command of the 14 @-@ gun cutter HMS Pygmy stationed off the Isle of Man .
Inman 's subsequent service career was principally in frigates : he was engaged at the Siege of Toulon in HMS Aurore , in a raid at Dunkirk in HMS Andromeda and participated in the Battle of Copenhagen as captain of HMS Désirée . He later served on the ship of the line HMS Triumph at the Battle of Cape Finisterre and was subsequently called to give evidence at the court martial of Sir Robert Calder . After the battle off Finisterre , Inman suffered from ill @-@ health and remained on shore duty until 1809 when he was appointed as Admiralty commissioner for Madras . The lengthy sea journey to India exacerbated his existing health problems and he died just ten days after his arrival .
= = Early life = =
Henry Inman was born in 1762 , the son of the vicar of the Somerset village of Burrington , Reverend George Inman . Educated by his father until the age of 14 , Inman was sent to join the Royal Navy in 1776 , posted aboard the 90 @-@ gun second rate HMS Barfleur . Barfleur 's captain was Sir Samuel Hood , later to become Viscount Hood , who formed a close personal and professional attachment to his subordinate that continued throughout Inman 's military service . After two years on Barfleur , Inman was transferred to the frigate HMS Lark in 1778 for service off New England . The American Revolutionary War had broken out three years earlier , but Barfleur had been based in Britain and so there had been no opportunity for action aboard Hood 's ship . His career in Lark was cut short on 5 August 1778 , when Captain John Brisbane , the senior officer off Rhode Island , ordered the frigate beached and burnt with four other ships when a French fleet under Vice @-@ Admiral Comte d 'Estaing appeared off the harbour . Inman and the rest of the crew were transferred to shore duties and over the following week engaged D 'Estaing 's ships from fixed gun batteries as they bombarded the British positions .
Inman had lost all his personal possessions in the destruction of Lark and was forced to replace his uniform from his own wages when the Navy refused to provide compensation . Returning to Britain in the frigate HMS Pearl , Inman was promoted to lieutenant in 1780 and returned to the Americas in HMS Camel , transferred soon afterwards into HMS Santa Monica in the West Indies . Shortly after his arrival however , Inman was once again shipwrecked when Santa Monica grounded off Tortola . Although the crew reached the shore in small boats , the ship broke up rapidly and once again Inman lost all of his possessions . Remaining on shore service in the West Indies for the next two years , Inman was again employed in the aftermath of the Battle of the Saintes , appointed to the prize crew of the captured French vessel Hector for the journey to Britain . Hector 's masts and hull had been seriously damaged in the battle , requiring lighter spars to be fitted and 22 of her 74 guns removed to make her more seaworthy . As the fleet could not spare men to man her , the 223 @-@ strong prize crew was made up of men pressed in the Caribbean , principally invalids unfit for frontline service .
On 14 August 1782 , Hector separated from the rest of the prize ships in heavy weather and on 22 August encountered two large French frigates , Aigle of 40 guns and Gloire of 32 guns . Together these vessels significantly outclassed the leaky ship of the line in weight of shot , but Captain John Bourchier determined to resist the French attack , preparing Hector as the French approached . The French ships surrounded Hector at 02 : 00 and the engagement was furiously contested , with Bourchier wounded early on and many of his officers following him below with serious injuries . Within a short period , Inman was the only officer remaining on deck , but he was able to successfully drive the French away following a failed attempt to board , although Hector was left in a severely damaged state with 75 men killed or wounded . A hurricane that followed the battle inflicted further damage and the ship was badly flooded , seawater ruining the food supplies and threatening to sink the ship completely . Some of the crew were so ill and exhausted that they collapsed and died while manning the pumps . Inman only managed to prevent the remaining sailors from fleeing below decks by carrying loaded pistols and threatening men who refused his orders . Once the storm had abated it was clear that Hector was foundering ; her rudder and masts had been torn away and the pumps were unable to keep pace with the water leaking through the battered hull . For two weeks Inman made desperate efforts to keep the ship afloat , as food and water supplies ran low and the hull began to collapse in on itself . Fortunately for the men aboard Hector , the tiny snow Hawke appeared and approached the ship of the line to render assistance . Throwing his cargo overboard , Captain John Hill worked with Inman to supervise the transfer of all of Hector 's remaining men , many of whom were wounded or sick , into Hawke as Hector rapidly sank . No men were lost in the operation and Inman was the last to leave , Hector disappearing ten minutes after the boat carrying him reached Hawke . The snow set sail for St John 's in Newfoundland , its crew and passengers subsisting on short rations ; they arrived off the port on the same day they consumed the last water supplies .
= = French Revolutionary Wars = =
With the Peace of Versailles in 1783 , the war ended and Inman was placed on half @-@ pay in reserve , suffering from poor health caused by his ordeal on Hector . Retiring to his father 's house in Somerset , Inman was not employed again until 1790 , when the Spanish Armament provoked a rapid expansion of the Navy . He was initially commissioned into the frigate HMS Latona under Captain Albemarle Bertie , but in the aftermath of the emergency Inman was given command of the 14 @-@ gun cutter HMS Pigmy , stationed on the Isle of Man . He also married the daughter of Commander Thomas Dalby in 1791 ; the couple would have a son and a daughter . With the outbreak of the French Revolutionary Wars in 1793 , Inman was transferred to Lord Hood 's flagship HMS Victory in the Mediterranean , receiving a promotion to commander on 11 September . Serving during the Siege of Toulon , Inman assisted in the removal of captured French ships from Toulon harbour and as a reward was promoted to post captain on 9 October and given command of the newly captured HMS Espion . While she was stationed off Hyères , Aurore engaged French Republican gun batteries , expending 20 @,@ 000 cannonballs in November and December .
When Toulon fell to the Republicans on 18 December 1793 , Inman was initially sent to Corsica and then tasked with carrying a large number of Republican prisoners of war to Malta . With an understrength crew , Inman had difficulty in controlling the prisoners , who deliberately holed the bottom of the ship during the voyage . On arriving at Malta , Inman anchored his leaking ship in deep water under the guns of the port 's defensive batteries and then removed his entire crew , leaving instructions with the prisoners that they could either pump out the water and repair the damage or drown when the ship sank . The prisoners repaired the ship and were taken into captivity on Malta . Transferred from Aurore , Inman spent a brief period on the frigate HMS San Fiorenzo before returning to Britain in command of the fourth rate HMS Romney .
Romney was paid off on arrival in Britain and Inman returned to the reserve until 1796 , when he was made temporary captain of Lion and then took command of the frigate HMS Espion . Ordered to sail for the River Clyde , Inman set sail with his family on board but Espion , an old ship in a poor state of repair , was struck by a gale in the English Channel and was almost destroyed . Eventually reaching safety in Spithead , Espion was reduced to the reserve until extensive repairs could be made and Inman was again placed on half @-@ pay . He was reinstated in 1797 as temporary commander of the ship of the line HMS Belliqueux in the immediate aftermath of the Nore Mutiny . Belliqueux had been heavily involved in the uprising : three members of the crew were under sentence of death and six others facing severe punishment for their part in the revolt . Inman was consequently afraid for his life and for the next six months slept with three loaded pistols beside him . Belliqueux was assigned to the blockade of the French Atlantic seaport of Brest and Inman continued to perform this service after he was moved to HMS Ramillies during 1798 , in which he participated in the chase that eventually led to the capture of Hercule . He was subsequently posted to the frigate HMS Andromeda in early 1799 .
= = = Désirée and Copenhagen = = =
On 2 August 1799 , Inman seized the neutral merchant ship Vrienden carrying a cargo of hemp . Although the vessel 's legal state was uncertain , no merchant claimed its cargo and in 1802 she was condemned and sold for over 247 l . In November 1799 , Andromeda was attached to the force that evacuated the Duke of York 's army following the failure of the Expedition to Holland and he remained in the region , observing movements off the Elbe . Andromeda also participated in the Raid on Dunkirk on 7 July 1800 , when four French frigates were attacked by a squadron of British ships in Dunkirk harbour . Although an assault with fireships failed , HMS Dart captured the French frigate Désirée , with Inman following in the cutter Vigilant , crewed by thirty volunteers from Andromeda . Under fire from all sides , Inman successfully boarded the French ship following her surrender and brought her out of the harbour , sending the crew ashore on parole to avoid having to assign men to guard them . Désirée was brought back to Britain and commissioned into the Royal Navy , Inman taking command of the new frigate .
In 1801 , Désirée was attached to the fleet gathering at Yarmouth under Sir Hyde Parker and Lord Nelson for service in the Baltic Sea against the League of Armed Neutrality . Sailing for Denmark in March , the fleet anchored off Copenhagen and on 1 April a squadron under Nelson closed with the Danish fleet , which was anchored in a line of battle protecting the harbour . Désirée was ordered to operate at the Southern end of the Danish line , engaging shore batteries and nearby ships while their attention was focused on the main British battle @-@ line . When the battle began at 10 : 00 on 2 April , Inman engaged the Provesteen , which was firing on the 50 @-@ gun HMS Isis . Désirée succeeded in inflicting considerable damage on the Danish ship and drew some fire away from the battered Isis . Once Provesteen had been abandoned by her Danish crew Désirée was engaged with a number of Danish shore batteries , but due to poor aim of the Danish gunners , who fired over the frigate throughout the engagement , she was not badly damaged and suffered only four men wounded in the battle . At 14 : 00 Danish fire slackened and shortly afterwards Nelson began to withdraw his ships out of range of the Danes . A number of his ships of the line grounded on the complicated shoals in the region and when Désirée came to the assistance of HMS Bellona ] she too became stuck . Bellona was hauled off by Isis shortly afterwards , but Désirée was forced to remain on the sandbank for two days until boats from the squadron could be spared to drag her free .
= = Napoleonic Wars = =
At the Peace of Amiens , Désirée remained in service with orders to sail for the West Indies . Inman , whose health was beginning to suffer , resigned command and returned to his family on half @-@ pay until the outbreak of the Napoleonic Wars in 1803 , when he was given the 64 @-@ gun ship of the line HMS Utrecht . In 1804 he moved from Utrecht to the 74 @-@ gun HMS Triumph and in February 1805 was attached to the fleet under Sir Robert Calder stationed off Cape Finisterre during the Trafalgar campaign . At 11 : 00 on 22 July , Calder sighted the French and Spanish fleet under Vice @-@ Admiral Pierre @-@ Charles Villeneuve emerging from the fog off Ferrol and attacked , Triumph third in line behind HMS Hero and HMS Ajax . The battle lines tacked and closed with one another , beginning a general action at 18 : 00 , eventually separating at 21 : 30 . Triumph was heavily engaged in the melee , in which two Spanish ships were captured , and suffered severe damage although light casualties of five killed and six wounded . On 26 July , Inman was briefly detached from the fleet to chase away the French frigate Didon before returning to her station in the battle line , but the action was not resumed , Calder ordering the fleet to return to Britain . In the aftermath of the battle , Calder faced a court martial for his failure to resume the engagement and Inman was called to give evidence : when questioned as to why he had not informed Calder about the damage to his ship , Inman replied " I did not think that a proper time to trouble the admiral with my complaints " .
Inman 's health had suffered during his long career at sea , and although he returned to sea in December 1805 aboard Triumph during the Atlantic campaign of 1806 as part of the squadron under Rear @-@ Admiral Sir Richard Strachan , his ill @-@ health forced his replacement by Sir Thomas Hardy in May . Returning to his family ashore , Inman was initially given command of the sea fencibles at King 's Lynn before he was made Admiralty commissioner at Madras by Lord Mulgrave in 1809 . The journey to India broke his health completely and he died on 15 July 1809 , just ten days after arriving in Madras .
= Rancho San Francisco =
Rancho San Francisco was a land grant in present @-@ day northwestern Los Angeles County and eastern Ventura County , California . It was a grant of 48 @,@ 612 acres ( 19 @,@ 673 ha ) by Governor Juan B. Alvarado to Antonio del Valle , a Mexican army officer , in recognition for his service to the state of Alta California . It is not related to the city of San Francisco .
The rancho was the location of the first popularly known finding of gold in the Southern California area in 1842 , in Placerita Canyon . Much of the present day city of Santa Clarita lies within the boundary of what was Rancho San Francisco . The adobe headquarters of the rancho , and the site of the gold find ( known today as the " Oak of the Golden Dream " ) , are designated California Historical Landmarks . The rancho included portions of the San Gabriel , Santa Susana , Topatopa , and Sierra Pelona Mountain ranges .
= = Early history = =
After Mission San Fernando Rey de España was established in 1797 , the administrators there realized they would need more land for agriculture and livestock , and they looked north to the Santa Clarita Valley to establish their estancia , or mission rancho . Subsequently , the Tataviam who had been living there were relocated to the Mission , where they were baptized and put to work . The Estancia de San Francisco Xavier was built in 1804 at the confluence of Castaic Creek and the Santa Clara River .
Following the Mexican War of Independence , the missions were secularized and the land taken by the Mexican government . In 1834 , Lieutenant Antonio del Valle was assigned to inventory the property of Mission San Fernando . The rancho was supposed to be returned to the Tataviam , but Governor Alvarado deeded it to his friend Del Valle instead on January 22 , 1839 . The Del Valle family moved into the former estancia buildings ( near what is now Castaic ) .
Del Valle died in 1841 . On his deathbed , he attempted to reconcile with his estranged son Ygnacio by writing him a letter and offering the entire rancho to him as his inheritance . Del Valle died before his son received the letter . Ygnacio took possession of the land .
= = Los Angeles area gold find = =
On March 9 , 1842 , Francisco Lopez , the uncle of Antonio 's second wife , Jacoba Feliz , took a rest under an oak tree in Placerita Canyon and had a dream that he was floating on a pool of gold . When he awoke , he pulled a few wild onions from the ground finding flakes of gold in the roots . Contrary to some portraits of him as a farmer who stumbled upon his discovery by dumb luck , Lopez had studied mineralogy at the University of Mexico and had been actively searching for gold . Evidence suggests that gold had previously been found in the area about thirty years prior , but the Lopez gold find was the first popularly documented incident in the area . This sparked a gold rush on a much smaller scale than the 1849 California Gold Rush . About 2 @,@ 000 people , mostly from the Mexican state of Sonora , came to Rancho San Francisco to mine the gold .
Knowledge of the gold find seems to have remained largely within Mexican territory . John Sutter , who sided with Gov. Manuel Micheltorena during the governor 's power struggle with former Gov. Alvarado , was imprisoned after the californio insurrectionists won the Battle of Providencia in 1845 . After his release , he headed north through Placerita Canyon , saw the mining operation , and was determined to search for gold near where he later established Sutter 's Fort ; the latter in Mexican territory .
During the Mexican – American War , Del Valle destroyed the mine to prevent the United States from gaining its control . The tree where Lopez took his nap is now known as the " Oak of the Golden Dream " and is registered as California Historic Landmark # 168 .
= = Later history = =
The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo endorsed legitimate land titles held by the ceded land 's owners . Jacoba Feliz sued for control of Rancho San Francisco . She prevailed and a judgment was issued in her favor in 1857 . Ygnacio Del Valle received the westernmost portion of 13 @,@ 599 acres ( 5 @,@ 503 ha ) , Feliz ( now Salazár ) took 21 @,@ 307 acres ( 8 @,@ 623 ha ) , and her six children received 4 @,@ 684 acres ( 1 @,@ 896 ha ) each .
Unfortunately , at this time Southern California experienced a great deal of flooding , and ranchers were forced to mortgage their properties in order to sustain their needs during the interruption in producing their food and needs and other damages to the land and buildings . Feliz mortgaged her portion of the land to William Wolfskill , who returned a portion of it back to Del Valle in exchange for him settling her debts . Floods were followed by droughts , | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
February 2011 , the 2nd District Court of Appeal upheld the Superior Court 's ruling , allowing No Doubt 's case to proceed against Activision . In May 2012 , the Superior Court denied Activision 's motion for summary judgment , though it also denied a preliminary injunction sought by the band . In October 2012 , on the eve of trial , the case was settled for undisclosed terms .
= 2003 Pacific hurricane season =
The 2003 Pacific hurricane season was a season to feature no major hurricanes Category 3 or higher since 1977 . It Produced an unusually large number of tropical cyclones which affected Mexico . The most notable cyclones during the year were Hurricanes Ignacio and Marty , which killed 2 and 12 people in Mexico , respectively , and were collectively responsible for about US $ 1 billion ( 2003 USD ) in damage . Three other Pacific storms , two of which were hurricanes , and three Atlantic storms also had a direct impact on Mexico . The only other significant storm of the season was Hurricane Jimena , which passed just to the south of Hawaii , the first storm to directly threaten Hawaii for several years .
The season officially started on May 15 , 2003 , in the eastern Pacific Ocean , and on June 1 , 2003 , in the central Pacific , and lasted until November 30 , 2003 . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the northeastern Pacific Ocean . The season saw 16 tropical storms form , of which 7 became hurricanes , which is about average . However , this season was the first Pacific hurricane season since 1977 to have no systems become major hurricanes by reaching Category 3 or higher on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane scale .
= = Season summary = =
= = = Preseason forecasts = = =
On June 12 , 2003 , NOAA published a forecast for the East Pacific hurricane season , the first time it had done so . The scientists predicted a 50 % chance of below normal activity this season , due to the expectation that La Niña conditions would develop . La Niña conditions generally restrict tropical cyclone development in the northeast Pacific , which is the opposite of its effect in the Atlantic .
On May 19 , 2003 , NOAA published its forecast for the Central Pacific hurricane season . The forecast called for a slightly below @-@ average level of activity in 2003 , due to the same forecast of the onset of La Niña which would later prompt the low forecast for the Eastern Pacific .
= = = Seasonal activity = = =
There were 16 named storms and 7 hurricanes during the 2003 Pacific hurricane season , which is comparable with the long @-@ term averages . However , there were no major hurricanes ( Category 3 or higher on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane scale ) ; this was the first time this had happened in the eastern Pacific since 1977 , and is well below the long @-@ term average of four . The first hurricane , Ignacio , formed on August 24 . This is the latest formation of the first hurricane of a season recorded in the east Pacific since reliable satellite observation began in 1966 .
Whilst the total activity was below average , there was an unusually high number of landfalls in Mexico . A total of eight Pacific and North Atlantic tropical cyclones had a direct impact in Mexico in 2003 , second only to 1971 , when 9 did so . This is well above the long @-@ term average of 4 @.@ 2 Atlantic and east Pacific storms affecting Mexico . Five Pacific storms impacted Mexico , of which Hurricanes Ignacio and Marty both hit the state of Baja California Sur as hurricanes . The combined damage from the two hurricanes totaled about US $ 1 billion ( 2003 USD ) . Two other storms hit mainland Mexico as tropical storms and a third as a tropical depression . Three storms hit Mexico within a very short space of time , the Pacific hurricanes Nora and Olaf , and the Atlantic Tropical Storm Larry . As a result of the flooding caused by these storms , disaster areas were declared in 14 states .
Activity in the Central Pacific was below average , with only one tropical depression forming in the basin and one hurricane entering the basin from the east Pacific . In addition , a third system , Tropical Storm Guillermo , weakened to a remnant low just to the east of the Central Pacific Hurricane Center 's area of responsibility . Although activity was generally low , Hurricane Jimena was the first direct threat to the Hawaiian Islands for several years and a hurricane watch was issued for the island of Hawaii . Jimena passed to the south , but still brought tropical @-@ storm @-@ force gusts and heavy rain to the island .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Storm Andres = = =
A tropical wave developed into a tropical depression on May 19 well to the south of Mexico as it moved west . A good outflow developed and it became a tropical storm the next day , before reaching its peak strength with winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . Increasing shear prevented any further development as the storm moved quickly west @-@ northwest . On May 25 , the shear and a reduction in water temperatures weakened Andres to a tropical depression , and it dissipated soon after . The storm did not approach land .
= = = Tropical Storm Blanca = = =
Tropical Depression Two @-@ E formed when an organized tropical wave interacted with another disturbance near the southwestern Mexican coast early on June 17 . The storm strengthened and became Tropical Storm Blanca 12 hours later . The storm moved slowly to the west and reached its peak on June 18 with 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) winds . Although Blanca never developed a true eye , at its peak there was a ring of convection resembling one . Under the influence of strong shear from the southeast , Blanca began to weaken and move erratically . The storm degenerated to a remnant low on June 22 and lasted a further two days . There were no effects from Blanca on land .
= = = Tropical Storm Carlos = = =
Tropical Storm Carlos formed on June 26 from a tropical wave to the south of Mexico . It quickly strengthened as it approached the coast , and early on June 27 Carlos moved ashore in Oaxaca with winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) . The storm rapidly deteriorated to a remnant low , which persisted until dissipating on June 29 . Carlos brought heavy rainfall to portions of southern Mexico , peaking at 337 mm ( 13 @.@ 3 in ) in two locations in Guerrero . Throughout its path , the storm damaged about 30 @,@ 000 houses , with a monetary damage total of $ 86 @.@ 7 million pesos ( 2003 MXN , US $ 8 million 2003 USD ) . At least nine people were killed throughout the country , seven due to mudslides and two from river flooding ; there was also a report of two missing fishermen .
= = = Tropical Storm Dolores = = =
Convection developed within an area of low pressure embedded in a tropical wave as it moved west . The disturbance organized into Tropical Depression Four @-@ E on July 6 well to the south @-@ southwest of the tip of the Baja California Peninsula . It soon strengthened further into Tropical Storm Dolores as it moved to the northwest and reached its peak as a minimal tropical storm with winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) . However , wind shear had an adverse effect on Dolores , and it weakened back into a depression 12 hours after becoming a tropical storm . The northwest motion brought it over colder water and it dissipated on July 9 .
= = = Tropical Storm Enrique = = =
On July 10 , a tropical wave formed into Tropical Depression Five @-@ E. The storm became more organized and was named Tropical Storm Enrique the next day at an unusually high latitude . The storm continued to strengthen and at one point was forecast to briefly become a hurricane . This did not occur as the storm reached its peak strength with 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) winds . It maintained this strength before moving over significantly cooler water late on July 12 . Due to the cold water temperatures Enrique rapidly weakened , despite favorable atmospheric conditions . The storm degenerated into a remnant low late on July 13 and continued to move west before dissipating after a further 3 days . Enrique had no effects on land , but there were two ship reports of tropical storm force winds .
= = = Tropical Storm Felicia = = =
A tropical wave passed over Central America on July 12 and started to become more organized two days later . It formed into a tropical depression on July 17 as it continued to move to the west . The depression became Tropical Storm Felicia the next day and as there was low shear over the system , the NHC predicted that it would become a minimal hurricane . However , the storm remained disorganized and peaked with 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) winds late on July 18 . The storm gradually weakened under increasing shear as it headed west , weakening back to a tropical depression on July 20 . The remnant low entered the central Pacific before dissipating on July 24 well to the east of Hawaii . Felicia had no effect on land .
= = = Tropical Storm Guillermo = = =
A weak surface low developed within a tropical wave on August 6 and the convection associated with it became isolated from that of the wave . The circulation of the system became better defined and a Tropical Depression , Seven @-@ E , formed early the next day . Although the depression was initially forecast to dissipate quickly , it became more organized as it moved to the west . On August 8 it became Tropical Storm Guillermo and it reached its peak strength with 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) winds that day . It maintained this strength for a full day , until outflow from the developing Tropical Storm Hilda to its east disrupted its convection . The remnant low entered the central Pacific shortly before dissipating on August 13 .
= = = Tropical Storm Hilda = = =
A tropical wave developed persistent thunderstorm activity on August 5 , which soon became more organized , forming into Tropical Depression Eight @-@ E to the south of Cabo San Lucas . An impressive outflow pattern caused the NHC to predict an intensification to hurricane strength , but strong easterly shear affected the system . The depression became Tropical Storm Hilda on August 10 but did not get any stronger than a minimal tropical storm with winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) . Hilda moved west @-@ northwest before it moved over colder waters , which caused it to weaken . Low @-@ level flow forced the weakening cyclone westwards and it dissipated on August 13 , having never approached land .
= = = Tropical Depression One @-@ C = = =
The only tropical cyclone to form in the central Pacific in 2003 developed on August 15 , and resulted from an interaction between remnants of Tropical Storm Guillermo and a non @-@ tropical low . Unfavorable wind shear prevented the development of the depression and weakened as it drifted to the west . It weakened to a remnant low on August 17 and never regained depression strength . The remnant passed just south of Johnston Atoll before it crossed the International Date Line on August 20 . The storm had a minimal effect on the weather of the Hawaiian Islands .
= = = Hurricane Ignacio = = =
A tropical wave organized into a distinct area of disturbed weather just south of the Mexican port of Manzanillo , Colima , on August 22 and gradually moved to the northwest . It became Tropical Depression Nine @-@ E off Cabo Corrientes in the state of Jalisco two days later and under the influence of favorable atmospheric conditions rapidly strengthened . It was named Tropical Storm Ignacio on August 25 before it peaked as a 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) hurricane on August 26 , the first of the season . Ignacio entered the southern Gulf of California before it made landfall just to the east of La Paz , Baja California Sur . Ignacio weakened overland and dissipated early on August 28 over central Baja California .
Due to the storm 's slow movement , rainfall was high and the resulting flooding was severe , and Ignacio was responsible for approximately US $ 21 million of damage . Two rescue workers drowned in the flood waters brought by the storm and some 10 @,@ 000 people were evacuated to shelters .
= = = Hurricane Jimena = = =
On August 28 , an area of disturbed weather within the Intertropical Convergence Zone developed into Tropical Depression Ten @-@ E , some 1725 miles ( 2775 km ) east of the Hawaiian Islands . The storm rapidly developed over warm ocean waters , gaining an eye shortly before it became Hurricane Jimena on August 29 . The storm moved to the west , entering the central Pacific as it continued to strengthen . After reaching its peak strength with 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) winds 800 miles ( 1300 km ) to the east of Hawaii it began to weaken as a result of increased shear . The storm passed about 120 miles ( 195 km ) to the south of the southern tip of Hawaii on September 1 , just after losing hurricane strength . The storm then moved west , south of the archipelago , becoming a tropical depression on September 3 . The weakening Jimena crossed the International Date Line before dissipating on September 5 .
The storm brought 6 to 10 inches ( 150 to 250 mm ) of rain and 11 foot ( 3 @.@ 3 m ) surf to the island of Hawaii . There were also tropical storm force winds recorded on several of the Hawaiian Islands , but there was no significant damage .
= = = Tropical Storm Kevin = = =
A large low pressure area developed within a tropical wave and organized slowly into Tropical Depression Eleven @-@ E on September 3 south @-@ southwest of the tip of Baja California . The broad wind field prevented rapid intensification and the system reached tropical storm strength on September 4 . Although wind shear was light , Kevin weakened into a depression after just six hours , as it moved over colder waters . On September 6 the system degenerated to a non @-@ convective low pressure area , which managed to survive for four days before finally dissipating . Tropical Storm Kevin had no effects on land .
= = = Hurricane Linda = = =
Convection began to increase in a tropical wave on September 9 and a few days later a surface low developed . On September 12 it organized into Tropical Depression Twelve @-@ E to the southwest of the Mexican port of Manzanillo , Colima . The cyclone moved to the northwest , becoming a tropical storm on September 14 before reaching its peak strength as a Category 1 hurricane with 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) winds . The National Hurricane Center predicted further strengthening , but this did not occur and Linda weakened back to a tropical storm after just 12 hours as a hurricane . As the storm continued to weaken it turned to the west and then to the southwest , becoming a tropical depression on September 17 . The remnant drifted to the southwest and finally dissipated on September 26 . There were no reports of any effects from this storm .
= = = Hurricane Marty = = =
A tropical wave moved into the Pacific Ocean on September 10 and the convection associated with it gradually increased . By September 16 , while the system was south @-@ southeast of Cabo San Lucas , it organized into Tropical Depression Thirteen @-@ E. The depression strengthened as it headed towards the Baja California Peninsula , becoming a tropical storm on September 19 and a hurricane two days later . Hurricane Marty reached its peak strength on September 22 , just before it made landfall at Cabo San Lucas , when it was packing winds of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) . After moving over the southern tip of the peninsula Marty moved up the western coast of the Gulf of California , gradually weakening as it did so . The storm weakened to a tropical depression on September 23 and dissipated two days later after meandering over the northern Gulf .
Hurricane Marty was the deadliest storm of the 2003 Pacific hurricane season and was responsible for 12 deaths and either damaged or destroyed over 4 @,@ 000 homes . It brought heavy rainfall to the entire region and some rain affected the Southwest United States . A 5 foot ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) storm surge flooded parts of La Paz , Baja California Sur , and sank 35 yachts moored in various ports . Marty was also the costliest east Pacific storm of the year and was responsible for US $ 50 million of damage in western Mexico .
= = = Hurricane Nora = = =
A tropical wave moved over Central America on September 25 and moved parallel to the south Mexican coast . It became more organized on October 1 and developed into Tropical Depression Fourteen @-@ E to the south of the Baja California Peninsula . It continued to strengthen as it moved northwest in favorable conditions , becoming a tropical storm the next day . On October 4 it became a hurricane and reached its peak that day with 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) winds . Nora made a sharp turn to the east and began to weaken , as the result of the influence of a mid @-@ level trough and the outflow from Hurricane Olaf to the southeast . The cyclone rapidly weakened before it made landfall just north of Mazatlán , Sinaloa , on October 9 . Nora dissipated over land soon after landfall . Hurricane Nora was the strongest storm of the season and brought heavy rain to the state of Sinaloa , but there was no significant damage or casualties .
= = = Hurricane Olaf = = =
A tropical wave became increasingly organized on October 2 to the south @-@ southeast of Acapulco and developed into Tropical Depression Fifteen @-@ E the next day . The depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Olaf six hours after forming as it moved to the northwest in a low shear environment . Olaf reached its peak strength as a minimal hurricane with 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) winds on October 5 and developed a partial eyewall . The storm soon became disorganized and was only a hurricane for a few hours , before turning towards the Mexican coast . Olaf made landfall near Manzanillo , Colima , on October 7 and soon dissipated overland .
The storm caused severe flooding in the states of Jalisco and Guanajuato which damaged crops , roads and over 12 @,@ 000 houses . However , there were no deaths as a result of Hurricane Olaf .
= = = Hurricane Patricia = = =
On October 20 the convection associated with a tropical wave became more organized , and Tropical Depression Sixteen @-@ E formed to the south of Acapulco . It soon became Tropical Storm Patricia and reached hurricane strength on October 21 , as it moved further west . 12 hours later , its winds had increased to 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) and the NHC forecast further strengthening . However , on October 22 , increasing westerly shear caused Patricia to weaken to below hurricane strength . The storm weakened further to a depression on October 25 , and it dissipated the next day , ending the season . Hurricane Patricia had no effects on land .
= = Storm names = =
The following list of names was used to name storms that formed in the northeast Pacific in 2003 . Names that were not assigned are marked in gray . No names were retired by the World Meteorological Organization , therefore this list was used again in the 2009 season . This is the same list which was used for the 1997 season except for Patricia , which replaced Pauline . The name Patricia was previously used in 1970 and 1974 .
For storms that form in the Central Pacific Hurricane Center 's area of responsibility , encompassing the area between 140 degrees west and the International Date Line , all names are used in a series of four rotating lists . The next four names that were slated for use in 2003 are shown below ; however , none of them were used .
= Ayers Rock ( band ) =
Ayers Rock were an Australian jazz fusion , progressive rock band which formed in August 1973 . Ray Burton ( guitar and vocals ) , Mark Kennedy ( drums ) , and Duncan McGuire ( bass ) , members of Leo de Castro and Friends , left to form the eponymous trio of Burton , McGuire & Kennedy . They added a guitarist , Jimmy Doyle , changed their name to Ayers Rock and invited Col Loughnan ( saxophones and flutes ) to join . The group signed with independent label Mushroom Records in December 1973 . Burton left the following March , and was replaced by Chris Brown ( guitar , vocals ) . With live appearances , coverage in print media and word of mouth the group had a high national profile despite little radio airplay , and journalists praised their musicianship , music , and live energy .
The band 's first album , Big Red Rock ( November 1974 ) , received positive reviews and peaked at number 32 on the Australian Kent Music Report album chart . It featured mainstream rock and three longer , instrumental tracks which introduced progressive styles , including jazz fusion . Label owner Michael Gudinski promoted Ayers Rock in Los Angeles and they signed with A & M Records , the first Mushroom Records artists to sign with an international label . The United States release of Big Red Rock in February 1975 was followed by a tour there , later that year . The band played to large crowds , supporting major international artists ( including Bachman – Turner Overdrive ) before 35 @,@ 000 people – the first Australian band to perform in large US stadiums . Ayers Rock were named 1975 Musicians of the Year on RAM 's " New Year 's Honors List " . Kennedy left before their second album , Beyond ( April 1976 , recorded at the Record Plant in Los Angeles ) , was released . The album blended a number of music genres and had a positive critical reception , charting at number 50 . The band toured the US again ; Loughnan remained there , and Ayers Rock temporarily broke up in August 1976 .
A year later Doyle and Brown recruited members for a new lineup , including Andy Cowan ( keyboards and vocals ) and Hamish Stuart ( drums ) . In 1980 they released their third album , Hotspell , on their own Red Rock Records label . This album had a soft @-@ rock style , with sophisticated arrangements and featured keyboards . It failed to chart , and the group permanently disbanded in 1981 . Although Ayers Rock 's first two albums were successful in Australia , none of their six singles charted . During their early years ( from 1973 to 1976 ) , the group were praised by local media for their music , stylistic diversity , use of technology , and the energy of their live performances . Ayers Rock received positive reviews in Billboard and Cashbox . Late @-@ 1990s music historians recognised the band 's talent but considered their music over @-@ indulgent at times , failing to bridge the gap between artistic and commercial success . Duncan Kimball of Milesago.com wrote " that they never really got the chance to reach their full potential . "
= = Australian music scene = =
Ayers Rock were formed in the Australian pop @-@ music scene of the early 1970s , which included artists in a number of genres : mainstream pop ( Zoot and Liv Maessen ) , blues rock ( Chain ) , heavy rock ( Billy Thorpe & the Aztecs ) , and boogie ( Carson ) . Bands such as Blackfeather and Madder Lake combined mainstream and progressive rock . Most pop and rock listeners had never heard jazz fusion ; when Ayers Rock incorporated the music into their sets , it was rarely performed by fellow Australian artists .
At that time , the Australian music media expressed frustration that few local musicians were successful overseas . Many artists ( such as The Twilights , The Masters Apprentices , The Groop and Axiom ) had gone to the United Kingdom with little commercial success , and music papers such as Go @-@ Set regularly addressed the situation . The " third wave " of Australian rock , from 1970 to 1975 , saw an increase in pub rock venues in the southern and eastern states .
= = History = =
= = = 1973 : Formation = = =
Ayers Rock formed in Melbourne in August 1973 . Ray Burton , Mark Kennedy , and Duncan McGuire , members of Leo de Castro and Friends , left in June to form the eponymous trio of Burton McGuire & Kennedy . Burton had played guitar with the Dave Bridge Quartet , the Delltones and the Executives , and co @-@ wrote " I Am Woman " ( May 1972 ) in the United States with Australian singer Helen Reddy . McGuire , on bass , was a recording engineer , producer , and a member of Australian groups since the late 1950s ( including the Phantoms , the Epics , the Questions – which later became Doug Parkinson in Focus ; see Doug Parkinson – and King Harvest ) . Kennedy , on drums , had played in Spectrum , Doug Parkinson in Focus , King Harvest , and Leo de Castro and Friends .
Burton McGuire & Kennedy were joined in August 1973 by Jimmy Doyle on guitar . Doyle had worked for the Delltones and Dig Richards , was musical director for pianist Winifred Atwell on her Australian tours , and was a session player in Sydney on Neil Sedaka 's 1969 album Workin ' on a Groovy Thing . In September 1973 Burton McGuire & Kennedy changed their name to Ayers Rock , using the European name for the sandstone rock formation sacred to local indigenous Australians . The group were nicknamed " the Rock " by the Australian press . Since 1993 the sandstone monolith has been called by its Pitjantjatjaran name , Uluru .
Doyle had worked sporadically for several years with multi @-@ instrumentalist and arranger Col Loughnan , who joined London @-@ based blues @-@ pop group Kala in late 1972 . Doyle invited his former bandmate to join in October 1973 . With Ayers Rock , Loughnan played saxophones , flute , and electric piano . He had begun his career as lead vocalist for the Crescents in 1958 , joining the Delltones in 1962 . Loughnan diversified into arranging and playing jazz tenor saxophone with the Daly @-@ Wilson Big Band . By December 1973 Ayers Rock had signed with Mushroom Records , which released their first single – " Rock ' n Roll Fight ( Going On ) " , one of the label 's early records . Mushroom Records co @-@ owner Michael Gudinski became their manager .
In January 1974 Ayers Rock performed at the Sunbury Pop Festival and " Morning Magic " ( written by Burton ) appeared on the live album , Highlights of Sunbury ' 74 Part 2 , released by Mushroom Records later that year . In March Burton returned to the US and was replaced on guitar and lead vocals by Chris Brown , formerly of Python Lee Jackson . Loughnan and Brown had played together in London as members of Kala . The band traced their origins to rock or pop bands from Sydney , except for Kennedy ( who was from Melbourne ) .
= = = 1974 – 75 : Big Red Rock = = =
In 1974 Ayers Rock began recording their debut album , Big Red Rock , at Festival Records ' 24 @-@ track studio in Sydney . They were dissatisfied with the sound , which failed to capture their music 's " live " essence , and recorded it live @-@ in @-@ the @-@ studio at Armstrong 's in Melbourne that September . Kennedy told Margaret MacIntyre of Rolling Stone Australia , " Doing the album live was an experiment really and it seemed to work . " Big Red Rock , released in November , peaked at number 32 on the Kent Music Report album chart . The album had " a more jazz @-@ rock edge " and its single , " Lady Montego " ( written by McGuire ) , was a new version of a song originally performed by Leo de Castro and Friends . According to Juke Magazine , " the single lifted to push the album , ' Lady Montego ' ... received three weeks airplay and was then dumped . " " Lady Montego " was Ayers Rock 's most @-@ aired single in Australia , and Kennedy said : " Without AM radio support you can 't sell too well in this country . " Juke called their songs " lyrically banal " but said the group compensated with " sheer talent " , instrumentally and electronically .
A song from Ayers Rock 's live set was a cover of " Boogie Woogie Waltz " , written by Joe Zawinul of Weather Report for the US group 's album Sweetnighter ( April 1973 ) . In November 1974 Loughnan temporarily stopped performing live due to back pain , and the band continued with four members . He returned after surgery , and contemporary photos and video show him playing sitting down during his convalescence .
Manager and label owner Gudinski visited the US in December 1974 to promote his recording artists , including Skyhooks , Daddy Cool , and Madder Lake , to major labels there . At that time only Ayers Rock were successful , with Gudinski signing them to A & M Records within days . He told Tony Wilson of The Sun , " Jerry Moss , the president of A & M Records USA , flipped when he heard it , so A & M will release it ( Big Red Rock ) world @-@ wide . " This was a surprise to the Australian media , since many other artists were more commercially successful locally than Ayers Rock . Skyhooks were Australia 's most popular band ; their first album ( Living in the 70 's , released in October 1974 ) sold 226 @,@ 000 units , the best @-@ selling album by a local artist in Australia to date . However , Living in the 70 's was rejected by A & M and not released outside Australia . Ayers Rock were the first Mushroom Records artists to sign a recording contract with an international label . From the mid @-@ 1970s , and into the 1990s , Mushroom were successful with many other artists including Split Enz , Kylie Minogue , and Yothu Yindi , turning the label into Australia 's largest independent record company .
In January 1975 the group performed at the fourth Sunbury Pop Festival , and Big Red Rock and " Lady Montego " were released in the US on 28 February . On 20 April , they performed at a benefit concert for Bangladesh at the Sidney Myer Music Bowl with the La De Das , Jim Keays , AC / DC , Phil Manning , Daddy Cool , Toulouse & Too Tight , the Dingoes , and the Moir Sisters .
From July to September , they promoted Big Red Rock in the US and Vancouver . The band played to an audience of 35 @,@ 000 at a stadium concert in Seattle , supporting Bachman – Turner Overdrive , on 27 July and opened for Status Quo , the J. Geils Band , Lynyrd Skynyrd , and Nils Lofgren . According to Australian rock music historian Ian McFarlane , " Ayers Rock was the first Australian band to play to massive crowds on the USA touring circuit " , years before fellow Australians the Little River Band , AC / DC , and Air Supply made their first US tours .
= = = 1975 – 76 : Beyond = = =
At the end of their US tour in September 1975 Ayers Rock recorded their second album , Beyond , at the Record Plant in Los Angeles . The album , produced by the group and John Stronach , received a $ 60 @,@ 000 advance from A & M Records .
On 18 October , The Sun reported that McGuire had left the band . At a reception when Ayers Rock returned to Australia , he said : " The pressure of the tour was just too much . We were on the road all the time and I guess I wasn 't as strong as the rest of the band . When we got into the studio I had the shakes . I mean I was playing the right notes , but not in the right places . " To finish the album McGuire 's friend Les Young played some of the bass guitar parts , and American Jeff Castleman played bass on " Catchanemu " . Young also briefly played live with Ayers Rock in Australia , including an October 1975 show at the State Theatre in Sydney . McGuire returned to the group at the Dallas Brooks Hall on 21 October 1975 , to warm applause .
In late November Ayers Rock appeared at the final Reefer Cabaret event , at Ormond Hall in Prahran . The performance was recorded for a double album , A @-@ Reefer @-@ Derci ( 1976 ) . In January 1976 , Rock Australia Magazine named Ayers Rock Musicians of the Year for 1975 in their " New Year 's Honors List " . Kennedy left to join Marcia Hines ' backing band in February 1976 , and they reportedly married late in the decade . In Ayers Rock , Kennedy was temporarily replaced by Doug Gallacher . In April 1976 Beyond was released in Australia and the US , making the Kent Music Report top 50 . Two singles from the album were released : " Little Kings " ( October 1975 ) and " Song for Darwin " ( May 1976 ) , but neither charted .
The US cover for Beyond features a rock in the distance , which becomes the face of an Aboriginal man with eyes closed when the cover is rotated 90 ° to the right . Artist and Mushroom Records art director Ian McCausland also designed The Rolling Stones ' 1973 Australian tour poster . The album cover illustrates a central principle of Aboriginal spirituality : the deep connection between the land and the Aboriginal peoples . In an Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission publication , " Our Land Our Life " , S. Knight described the Aboriginal position : " We don 't own the land , the land owns us . The land is my mother , my mother is the land . Land is the starting point to where it all began . " According to the Australian government webpage , The Dreaming : " Once the ancestor spirits had created the world , they changed into trees , the stars , rocks , watering holes or other objects . These are sacred places of Aboriginal culture . "
In May 1976 Gallacher was replaced by Russell Dunlop , formerly of Aesop 's Fables , Levi Smith 's Clefs , SCRA , Mother Earth , and the Johnny Rocco Band . In an interview with Greg Kelton of The Advertiser , Loughnan outlined the band 's future : " If Beyond doesn 't make it for us in the States we might as well forget all about Ayers Rock . " From May to July they toured the US again , " only achiev [ ing ] limited success overseas . " After the tour Dunlop and Loughnan left , and on 25 August Mushroom Records announced that Ayers Rock had broken up after Loughnan decided to remain in the US to study . Brown , Doyle , and McGuire indicated that they would revive the group with new members .
= = = 1977 – 81 : Hotspell = = =
In 1977 Brown and Doyle re @-@ formed Ayers Rock with Bermuda @-@ born Keith Caisey on percussion , Joe Tattersall ( formerly of Healing Force and the Barry Leef Band ) on drums , and John Young ( formerly of Leo de Castro 's eponymous group ) on bass guitar . By 1978 Brown , Caisey and Doyle were joined by Andy Cowan ( formerly of Madder Lake ) on keyboards and vocals , Steve Hogg ( formerly of Bakery ) on bass guitar , and Hamish Stuart on drums . In March 1980 the band released another single , " On the Avenue " , followed in May by their third LP – Hotspell – on their own Red Rock Records ( distributed by RCA Records ) . Recorded at the Music Farm in Byron Bay , it was engineered by former member Duncan McGuire .
In The Canberra Times , Luis Feliu noted the " new @-@ sounding " Ayers Rock and their " laid @-@ back " style . There had been a major change in songwriting , with Brown contributing less ; Cowan was the most active ( writing five tracks ) , and Stuart and Doyle co @-@ wrote two . Doyle , with no writing credits on previous albums , wrote " On the Road " ( which was included in the band 's live sets from 1978 ) . Jillian Burt of Juke Magazine described it as " reminiscent of the cool , calm , collectedness that typifies Steely Dan " . Hotspell featured soft @-@ rock songs with sophisticated , keyboard @-@ centred arrangements .
According to Feliu 's review of the album and a July 1980 performance in Sydney , Ayers Rock were " once Australia 's hottest progressive rock " group . Feliu wrote that most of the audience seemed to appreciate the band 's new direction : " the capacity audience showed hearty approval ... probably old allegiance , and only a few comments of dissatisfaction , like ' boring ' , were heard , then that was at the bar up the back " . Hotspell did not reach the Kent Music Report album top 100 , and has not been released on CD . In July 1981 the group released a final single , " Lies " , before disbanding later that year .
= = Other projects = =
In late 1974 Ayers Rock members Brown , McGuire , Kennedy and Loughnan played on several tracks of Jim Keays ' debut solo album , The Boy from the Stars . At the January 1975 Sunbury Pop Festival Keays performed most of the album live , with three Ayers Rock members ( Brown , McGuire and Kennedy ) joining the ensemble to record " Nothing Much Left " and " Urantia " . Returning to the US , Burton was a session player for Billy Joel and Jimmy Webb and wrote " Best Friend " for the film Airport 1975 ( 1974 ) . In 1976 , he formed the Ray Burton Band with Rex Bullen , Terry Gascoine , Steve Hogg and Tim Piper . From 1977 to 1980 , McGuire was bass guitarist for the Southern Star Band with Doug Parkinson on vocals , Tommy Emmanuel on guitar and Kennedy on drums . In 1978 Burton released a solo album , Dreamers and Nightflyers , which spawned the singles " Too Hard to Handle " and " Paddington Green " . After touring with Crossfire in 1979 , he returned to the US as a songwriter .
Cowan was later a member of Kevin Borich Express , Ian Moss Band and Renée Geyer Band before pursuing a solo music career . Georgie Fame 's album No Worries ( 1988 ) included Ayers Rock alumni Loughnan , Doyle , and Dunlop . McGuire died in July 1989 of a brain tumour . During the late 1980s , Hogg formed The Rhythm Snakes with Clayton Black on drums , Howie Smallman on harmonica , and Bob Thorne on guitar . In 1989 , Hogg assembled a studio band to record a solo album with Thorne , Mark Alderman on harmonica , Ian Ironside on drums , Bob Patient on piano , and Bernie Payne on saxophone . Steve Hogg died on 20 July 1990 and his album , Various Fools & Vices , was released in 1992 .
In 1993 , Kennedy drummed for The Blazing Salads with Brian Cadd , Glenn Shorrock , Rex Goh , and Kirk Lorange . Hamish Stuart played drums on Chris Abrahams and Melanie Oxley 's 1998 album , Jerusalem Bay . Doyle died on 5 May 2006 , and on 28 May the Jim Doyle Tribute Concert was played at the Basement in Sydney . Musicians included Renée Geyer , Billy Field , bandmate Loughnan , and Barry Leef , with proceeds benefiting Doyle 's family . Dunlop died on 16 May 2009 ; he had collapsed after drumming at his son 's wedding in Sydney . As of 2015 , Loughnan is a lecturer in jazz saxophone at the University of Sydney 's Conservatorium of Music and has been a member of its Jazz Faculty since 1978 . In 2007 he released a solo album , Ellen St.
= = Musicianship = =
= = = Genres = = =
Although Ayers Rock 's music is described as jazz @-@ rock , this is a simplification . In the 2011 radio documentary " Rare Collections " , presented by David and Jordie Kilby on Jazz @-@ Rock in Australia for 666 ABC Canberra , Loughnan described other Mushroom Records artists as playing pop rock styles and Ayers Rock playing some jazz : " We were a bit of both " . Critics called Big Red Rock 's side one its " song " side and side two its " jazz " side . " Lady Montego " , " Talkin ' ' Bout You " , " Goin ' Home " and " Nostalgic Blues " are rock songs ; the first three were written by McGuire , and the fourth by Brown .
Loughnan 's " Crazy Boys " highlighted the band 's larrikin side , with working @-@ class men talking at a hamburger shop ; each used local slang or spoke in a stereotypical ethnic accent , poking fun at Australians from a variety of backgrounds . At one point " Hey , listen mate , give me one ' Gudinskiburger ' , please , hold the bacon , please " is heard ; Michael Gudinski , whose parents are Jewish immigrants , does not eat pork and went along with the joke . Another voice mentions " Dr. Hopontopovus , the Greek gynaecologist " . More slang is heard later in the track , including " Who yer sayin ’ that to , yer drongo ? "
Although " Crazy Boys " has two lines of lyrics , most of the track is instrumental . Described by a Juke Magazine reviewer as " free form jazz " , it features solos by Brown , Doyle , and Loughnan and heavily @-@ processed guitars , electric saxophone , and vocals . Asked about the group 's use of electronics by Eloe Fanouche of RAM , Loughnan answered : " You 've got to be able to use them well in order to sound good . We use them to colour the sounds as much as possible . "
The title track , Loughnan 's " Big Red Rock " , is an eight @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half minute instrumental described by Juke Magazine as " expertly capturing the stark loneliness and cosmic tranquility one gets standing before their namesake rock " . According to Loughnan , the atmosphere they wanted to create was " that spacey sort of feeling — like desert [ ... ] and we wanted to get the sound of the didgeridoo — which we did electronically " . Doyle imitated a didgeridoo by playing guitar with a wah @-@ wah pedal . Tony Catterall of The Canberra Times praised " Big Red Rock " , saying that it " suggests the huge expanse of the outback , then takes you [ ... ] to the Aboriginal secrets [ ... ] [ and evokes ] the power surrounding the area [ of Uluru ] in a burst of truly inspired musicianship " .
Gil Wahlquist of The Sydney Morning Herald called the album " heavily accented towards jazz . " It has changing moods , with quiet moments which are " eerie , euphonic , and evocative . " Aboriginal clapsticks and the imitation didgeridoo allude to the indigenous character of Uluru and the surrounding area . Another section is double @-@ tempo jazz fusion with guitar and saxophone solos , complemented by a rhythm section driving to a crescendo . The section concludes with a rapid rallentando ( slowing of tempo ) to another gentle phase . Changes in tempo and volume are heard throughout the title track , in contrast to disco ( featuring one tempo and volume , which was becoming more popular ) .
Like Big Red Rock , the vastness of rural and outback landscapes were reflected in the artwork and music of Beyond . According to a review by Forester in The Age , the band and album have " titles to suggest space , time and distance " and some tracks had an " indigenous appeal " . The lead track 's title , " Moondah " , translates into English as " beyond " . In April 1976 Loughnan , who wrote the song , said in a TV Times interview : " The aborigines have had a raw deal in the past . The song expresses the hope that they get better treatment in the future " . " Moondah ( beyond ) " begins with clapsticks , log drum , imitation didgeridoo , and sounds evocative of indigenous singing .
This combination creates sounds similar to indigenous Australian music , which later segues into a European style before returning to its original theme . The overall effect is a fusion of indigenous Australian music , rock , and improvisational jazz by European Australians , before indigenous rock artists Yothu Yindi and No Fixed Address created their own fusions of indigenous and rock music .
Beyond featured a 23 @-@ piece string section , arranged and conducted by Loughnan , on " Place to Go " , " Song for Darwin " and " Angel in Disguise " . Loughnan had originally written " Angel in Disguise " years before for his wife , expanding it into an instrumental . According to Derek Johnson 's RAM review , " The violin tones and guitar sounds are particularly well produced , dissolving into each other one moment , separating and circling around each other the next . "
= = = Airplay = = =
Ayers Rock 's treatment by Australian radio stations during the 1970s was related to the popularity of AM . Unlike the US , which had a vibrant FM radio scene , in 1976 Australia only had ABC FM and a few community FM stations which primarily played classical music . Commercial AM stations , playing pop and rock music , dominated the local airwaves . The group established their reputation with live performances , exposure in print media , and word of mouth , with minimal Australian radio promotion .
Kennedy told a Juke interviewer , " Radio airplay has never happened for us here — except 2JJ and the occasional Album Shows " . Australian Broadcasting Corporation ( ABC ) youth @-@ oriented AM radio station 2JJ was limited to Sydney during the 1970s , with poor reception in some areas . The US attitude toward the band 's music was different ; according to Greg Kelton of The Advertiser , Beyond had " been played by about 50 radio stations in the ( U.S. ) . ' It is being played on two [ stations ] in Australia ' , said Jimmy Doyle . "
= = = Live performance = = =
Ayers Rock began incorporating rock @-@ jazz fusion into their sets , increasing the jazz aspect of their music . In his review of a concert on 19 October 1975 , Paul Gardiner wrote for Rolling Stone : " Big Red Rock was still tied quite closely to existing American styles . " According to Gardiner , at the State Theatre " evidence " of jazz @-@ rock " came through loud and clear " . This was their first major Australian concert after their first US tour and recording sessions .
The group were fundamentally a high @-@ volume rock band . In the smoke @-@ filled bar of Martinis in Carlton , Juke Magazine collected a vox populi of the " packed to the rafters " audience . One person said , " I don 't mind a bit of volume with my improvisation but this is so goddamn heavy . " Gardiner 's review described the group 's live show :
The band ... have cut their teeth on pure rock and roll and have , [ as of ] Ayers Rock , moved on to what amounts to a rock @-@ jazz fusion . The inversion of the term is becoming important ; unlike the bands to which they are compared in America , which have all lived and breathed jazz in its purer , more traditional forms , ... [ the ] Rock is made up of rock musicians .
In a Rolling Stone interview by Margaret MacIntyre , Kennedy explained : " Ayers Rock was getting a live response that , to speak for myself , I hadn 't seen happen with a crowd ... for a long time " . In the same interview , Doyle described the key to their success : " This band is going somewhere ... it 's not the same thing every night , unlike many bands , the arrangements change . " Reviewers were enthusiastic about the band 's performances ; according to Gardiner , " The impression they now generate on stage is one of total energy ... energy which sets them apart . " Juke Magazine called them " a band that could reward its audiences with ( the ) sheer exhilaration of seeing real master musicians ... taking their audiences to virgin territory that other explorers had only dreamed about . "
Eloe Fanouche of RAM focussed on another aspect :
Unlike many groups they were able to capture the ethereal quality of their recorded sound on stage ... On being asked how live gigs compared to studio work , they all declared that the straight atmosphere of the studio was too clinical .
= = Critical reception = =
= = = Contemporary ( 1973 to 1981 ) = = =
Big Red Rock received positive reviews in Australia and the US . The Canberra Times quoted a Cashbox review praising their music which ended : " It was something different and something beautiful . " Billboard magazine gave the album a good review , saying that it featured " excellent sax work throughout and top @-@ notch lead guitar and drum work " . Australian reviewers called the album " an extremely good record , well worth owning " , " a classic record in Australian rock " and " an inspiring success " .
Critical response to their second album , Beyond , was generally positive . Sean Hanrahan wrote for the Melbourne Sunday Press : " Beyond to me stands as something of a crowning achievement for a band that has already been described as the high @-@ water mark in Australian rock . " According to Pat Bowring of the Melbourne Sun , " it is one of the best records from an Australian band " and " better than ... Big Red Rock . " The band emphasised that their music was " essentially Australian " , despite being recorded in Los Angeles , and critics noted their music 's Australian character . Tony Catterall of The Canberra Times wrote that the group " has absorbed its influences so well that they 're almost unrecognisable in the final product . And into this synthesis the band has infused some things peculiarly Australian . "
= = = Later ( 1999 to present ) = = =
In February 1998 Billboard 's Christie Eliezer interviewed Gudinski , he recalled that signing Ayers Rock had " allowed the band to tour the US and record their second album there . " He explained that they " were a fantastic jazz @-@ fusion band , a real muso 's band , but ultimately they didn 't have that something unique to cross over . " In his 1999 encyclopaedia Dreams , Fantasies , and Nightmares From Far Away Lands , American author Vernon Joynson called Big Red Rock " an excellent example of jazz rock fusion Australian style . The musicianship is of high quality although it tends to become a little over @-@ indulgent in places " . According to Joynson the album had " radio friendly " material and three tracks " filled with fine virtuoso guitar and saxophone " , but despite being " quite a popular live act , [ Ayers Rock 's ] recordings were hampered by a dilemma over whether to opt for a more serious pursuit of expanding the horizons or for a commercial sound " .
On MilesAgo.com in 2006 , Duncan Kimball wrote : " The group 's relatively short lifespan and small catalogue meant that they never really got the chance to reach their full potential . " According to Ian McFarlane in his 1999 Encyclopedia of Australian Rock and Pop , the members of Ayers Rock " were seen as ' musician 's musicians ' . The band issued a series of technically proficient recordings , but in the long run any quest for commercial acceptance was marred by the seriousness of the music " . In December 2011 , Jordie Kilby called Big Red Rock " a great record ; quite an influential ( album ) ... now one that 's held in quite high regard . "
= = Members = =
Ray Burton – guitar , vocals ( 1973 – 74 )
Mark Kennedy – drums ( 1973 – 76 )
Duncan McGuire – bass guitar ( 1973 – 76 ; died 1989 )
Jimmy Doyle – guitar , vocals ( 1973 – 81 ; died 2006 )
Col Loughnan – saxophones , flute , piano , percussion , vocals ( 1973 – 76 )
Phil Stone – guitar ( 1974 )
Chris Brown – guitar , vocals ( 1974 – 81 )
Les Young – bass guitar ( 1975 )
Doug Gallacher – drums ( 1976 )
Russell Dunlop – drums ( 1976 ; died 2009 )
Joe Tattersall – drums ( 1977 )
Keith Caisey – percussion ( 1977 – 81 )
John Young – bass guitar ( 1977 – 78 )
Andy Cowan – keyboards ( 1978 – 81 )
Steve Hogg – bass guitar ( 1978 – 81 ; died 1990 )
Hamish Stuart – drums ( 1978 – 81 )
= = Discography = =
= = = Albums = = =
Big Red Rock ( Mushroom Records ( L 35354 , MUSH32017.2 ) , November 1974 ) AUS No. 32
Beyond ( Mushroom Records ( D 19762 ) , February 1975 ) AUS No. 50
Hotspell ( Red Rock / RCA Records ( RRM 6321 ) , May 1980 )
= = = Singles = = =
" Rock ' n Roll Fight " ( December 1973 )
" Lady Montego " ( November 1974 )
" Little Kings " ( October 1975 )
" Song for Darwin " ( May 1976 )
" On the Avenue " ( 1979 )
" Lies " ( July 1981 )
= = = Other appearances = = =
" Morning Magic " ( live ) , on Highlights of Sunbury ' 74 Part 2 ( Mushroom Records ( L 25123 ) , 1974 )
" Gimme Shelter " ( live ) , " Boogie Woogie Waltz " ( live ) on A @-@ Reefer @-@ Derci ( Mushroom Records ( L 45657 / 8 ) , 1976 )
= Cleveland Railway ( England ) =
The Cleveland Railway was a railway line in north @-@ east England running from Normanby Jetty on the River Tees , near Middlesbrough , via Normanby and then via Guisborough through the Eston Hills , to Loftus in East Cleveland . It carried minerals from numerous iron ore mines along its route to the River Tees for shipment to Tyneside and elsewhere . The line was jointly proposed by the West Hartlepool Harbour and Railway ( WHH & R ) , who provided half its capital , together with various landowners . The WHH & R lay on the north bank of the Tees , to which it had a cross @-@ river connection via a jetty at Normanby .
The Cleveland Railway was built as a freight railway and provided no passenger services during its brief existence as an independently owned railway . It was built in a number of stages , bypassing the centre of Guisborough , and opened in November 1861 . Its construction was repeatedly held up by disputes with its main rival , the Stockton and Darlington Railway , which attempted unsuccessfully to use all means at its disposal to maintain its rail monopoly south of the Tees . However , the Cleveland Railway remained independent only until 1865 , when the company and its rivals were bought out by the North Eastern Railway ( NER ) . The new management linked the line with an existing coastal railway via Saltburn , running north of the Eston Hills , and closed the line west of Guisborough in 1873 after only twelve years of service , though part of the line continued in service until 1966 as a freight route for a brickworks and carried passengers to Eston between 1902 and 1929 . The NER constructed four passenger stations at the eastern end of the line in the 1870s . These were closed between 1958 – 1964 along with the section of the line from Guisborough to Brotton , but the easternmost part of the line is still in use today as a mineral railway .
= = History = =
= = = Origins of the line = = =
The construction of the line was prompted by the need of mine owners around Guisborough and East Cleveland to transport their iron ore to the River Tees . Guisborough was already served by the Middlesbrough and Guisborough Railway ( M & GR ) , a subsidiary of the Stockton and Darlington ( S & D ) , which had built a line ( opened in 1854 ) running along the south of the valley in which Guisborough sits . However , the line was an inconveniently long distance from the lucrative iron ore mines in the north of the valley , along the south flank of the Eston Hills , and provided no connection at all for mines east of Guisborough . The M & GR had been built by a group of industrialists based in Stockton and Darlington who used it to service their own mines , deliberately avoiding the estates of their rivals . It only provided a minimal passenger service to Middlesbrough – one train a day each way – and the line had originally not even been planned to have a passenger station in Guisborough .
The M & GR was unpopular with local people and mine owners who saw it as a would @-@ be monopolist that served narrow commercial interests rather than the wider public good . During Parliamentary discussions into the Cleveland Railway 's proposed route , a Select Committee of the House of Commons was told that the M & GR was " unwilling to give facility for people carrying traffic not connected with the furnaces with which they are connected . " The M & GR 's attitude aroused strong local resentment . When one of those testifying to the Select Committee was asked what the local landowners would think of a new railway independent of the S & D , he replied that " they would all jump at having such a proposal made to them . "
The West Hartlepool Harbour and Railway ( WHH & R ) and a number of landowners struck an agreement to construct a line from the Tees at Cargo Fleet via Normanby , Upsall and Guisborough to Skinningrove , with connecting links and branches to Staithes and Skelton @-@ in @-@ Cleveland . The line would connect to the WHH & R 's own route north of the river via a crossing of the Tees . Several local landowners through which the proposed line ran were key to the scheme – Captain Thomas Chaloner of Guisborough , J.T. Wharton of Skelton Castle , Anthony Lax Maynard of Skinningrove and Ralph Ward Jackson of Greatham Hall , Normanby . Ward Jackson , who was the chairman of the WHH & R , was the driving force behind the project and envisaged making West Hartlepool into the industrial heart of Teesside .
The construction of the line was strongly opposed by the S & D , which put forward a rival proposal that led to a Parliamentary enquiry . The two companies each had part of their schemes accepted and part rejected . The Ward Jackson group was allowed to build a railway east from Guisborough to Skinningrove with a branch at Slapewath to reach the mine at Skelton . They were not permitted to build their own separate line to Middlesbrough and had to rely instead on the M & GR for their connection to the Tees . The S & D was allowed to build an extension from Redcar to Saltburn but was not allowed to build a new bridge across the Tees . An Act permitting the construction of the railway was passed in July 1858 . The company was capitalised with £ 120 @,@ 000 , half of which came from the WHH & R , with Ward Jackson as its first chairman .
= = = Extension of the line to Normanby = = =
Ward Jackson continued to seek independence from the M & GR and put forward a fresh proposal in 1859 to extend the line from Guisborough to the Tees at Cargo Fleet , so that the increasing demand for iron ore shipments to Tyneside could more easily be met . The S & D again opposed it . Although the House of Commons unanimously approved the Cleveland Extension Bill , it was rejected by the House of Lords . However , this left the door open for a private railway on the lands owned by Ward Jackson and his supporters . They began to construct it in 1860 under the auspices of the " Upsall , Normanby and Ormesby Railway " . Once again , the S & D opposed it , this time on the grounds that the new line had to cross the S & D 's Redcar branch line , but it eventually gave permission for the construction of a bridge to cross its line .
A more serious problem was raised by the need to construct a new river crossing at the end of the line in Normanby . The WHH & R had sought to build a bridge across the Tees at that point but had been blocked by the Tees Conservancy Commission , at the prompting of the S & D. The WHH & R instead resolved to build a jetty that would enable loaded iron ore wagons to be transported across the river on barges . The S & D used its influence with the Commissioners to stop the jetty as well . They undertook legal action in the Court of Chancery to stop it but construction proceeded regardless . The dispute led to violent clashes between the two sides on 10 September 1860 in an event dubbed the " Battle of the Tees " , when Tees Conservancy barges sent to blockade the jetty were forcibly removed by West Hartlepool steam tugs . The police had to intervene to restore order . The WHH & R was the clear winner of the confrontation and was able to complete its jetty .
The line was substantially completed by the spring of 1861 . It consisted of two linked private railways running through the estates of Ward Jackson and Captain Chaloner of Guisborough . A bridge was constructed in March 1861 to carry Chaloner 's section of the line over the M & GR just outside Guisborough station , bypassing the town to connect with the Cleveland Railway 's existing eastbound line to Skinningrove . A fresh Act of Parliament , the Cleveland Railway Act , was passed in July 1861 to authorise the Cleveland Railway Company to operate the new line . Although the S & D was still vehemently opposed , Parliament had by now tired of the disputes between the companies and passed the Act over the objections of the S & D.
The line was opened on 23 November 1861 , with a total length of 13 miles ( 21 km ) running from Skelton Mine to Normanby Jetty . Crossing the gorge at Slapewath on the eight @-@ arched Waterfall Viaduct , which still stands today , it skirted the south @-@ west of Guisborough and crossed Chapel Beck on wooden viaducts . From there it ran on a nearly straight embankment across the fields west of Guisborough before curving northwards to Normanby through a gap in the Eston Hills . Branch lines and tramways connected the line to a number of mines along its route . It had no passenger stations and did not offer any passenger services , despite the poor connections from Guisborough that had caused so much discontent with the M & GR .
= = = Mergers , onward connections and closures = = =
Financial irregularities at the WHH & R led in 1862 to the company suffering severe financial difficulties , resulting in the resignation of Ward Jackson from the boards of the WHH & R and the Cleveland Railway . Parliament refused to authorise further contributions from the WHH & R to the Cleveland Railway . Nonetheless , funds were raised to construct new extensions via Boosbeck and Loftus .
The Cleveland Railway , the M & GR and the S & D were all taken over in 1865 by the North Eastern Railway ( NER ) . The new management authorised the construction of a link from Saltburn ( which the S & D had reached in 1861 ) via Skelton to the Cleveland Railway 's route at Brotton , forking south to reach Guisborough . This connection , completed in 1872 , provided a new connection between Teesside and the East Cleveland mines , running north of the Eston Hills . Further capacity was provided by doubling the tracks on the line running east of Guisborough . This made the former Cleveland Railway 's line west of Guisborough redundant and it was closed in 1873 after only twelve years of service , though the parallel MG & R line to Middlesbrough remained open for a further 90 years .
Although the old Cleveland Railway had not provided any passenger services , during the 1870s the NER built a number of stations at the eastern end of the line . Passenger services began from Brotton , Skinningrove and Loftus in 1875 , plus Boosbeck in 1878 . The tortuous history of the Cleveland Railway had a lasting effect on the provision of rail services to Guisborough . It did not at any time offer a passenger service to the town , leaving that instead to the M & GR , which provided only a single @-@ platform station at the end of its line into the town . This line was bypassed by the Cleveland Railway en route to Skinningrove . After the westbound Cleveland Railway was closed , the eastbound line was joined with the M & GR line , leaving Guisborough railway station at the end of a spur . Trains thus had to reverse out of the station before continuing along the line to Loftus . It remained this way until the line was closed in 1964 .
= = Cleveland Railway today = =
The east end of the Cleveland Railway , from Loftus to Brotton plus the connection to the Tees Valley Line west of Saltburn , is still in use as a mineral railway serving Boulby Mine . There are no passenger services . The short connection from the Tees Valley Line to Normanby Jetty survived until 1966 as the Normanby Branch of the Tees Valley Line , serving the Normanby brickworks and Eston railway station . It is now a public footpath , the South Bank Walkway , which links Flatts Lane Country Park to South Bank . The middle section of the line from Normanby to Guisborough is in private ownership or has been built on , though the former railway 's embankment can still be clearly seen running alongside the A171 Middlesbrough Road . The section from Guisborough to Slapewath has been converted into a public footpath , the Guisborough Branch Walkway .
= = Gallery = =
= Astrology and science =
Astrology consists of a number of belief systems that hold that there is a relationship between astronomical phenomena and events or descriptions of personality in the human world . Astrology has been rejected by the scientific community as having no explanatory power for describing the universe . Scientific testing of astrology has been conducted , and no evidence has been found to support the premises or purported effects outlined in astrological traditions .
Where astrology has made falsifiable predictions , it has been falsified . The most famous test was headed by Shawn Carlson and included a committee of scientists and a committee of astrologers . It led to the conclusion that natal astrology performed no better than chance . Astrologer and psychologist Michel Gauquelin claimed to have found statistical support for " the Mars effect " in the birth dates of athletes , but it could not be replicated in further studies . The organisers of later studies claimed that Gauquelin had tried to influence their inclusion criteria for the study by suggesting specific individuals be removed . It has also been suggested , by Geoffrey Dean , that the reporting of birth times by parents ( before the 1950s ) may have caused the apparent effect .
Astrology has not demonstrated its effectiveness in controlled studies and has no scientific validity , and as such , is regarded as pseudoscience . There is no proposed mechanism of action by which the positions and motions of stars and planets could affect people and events on Earth that does not contradict well @-@ understood , basic aspects of biology and physics .
= = Introduction = =
The majority of professional astrologers rely on performing astrology @-@ based personality tests and making relevant predictions about the remunerator 's future . Those who continue to have faith in astrology have been characterised as doing so " in spite of the fact that there is no verified scientific basis for their beliefs , and indeed that there is strong evidence to the contrary " . Astrophysicist Neil deGrasse Tyson commented on astrological belief , saying that " part of knowing how to think is knowing how the laws of nature shape the world around us . Without that knowledge , without that capacity to think , you can easily become a victim of people who seek to take advantage of you " .
The continued belief in astrology despite its lack of credibility is seen as one demonstration of low scientific literacy .
= = Historical relationship with astronomy = =
The foundations of the theoretical structure used in astrology originate with the Babylonians , although widespread usage did not occur till the start of the Hellenistic period after Alexander the great swept through Greece . It was not known to the Babylonians that the constellations are not on a celestial sphere and are very far apart . The appearance of them being close is illusory . The exact demarcation of what a constellation is , is cultural , and varied between civilisations . Ptolemy 's work on astronomy was driven to some extent by the desire , like all astrologers of the time , to easily calculate the planetary movements . Early western astrology operated under the ancient Greek concepts of the Macrocosm and microcosm ; and thus medical astrology related what happened to the planets and other objects in the sky to medical operations . This provided a further motivator for the study of astronomy . While still defending the practice of astrology , Ptolemy acknowledged that the predictive power of astronomy for the motion of the planets and other celestial bodies ranked above astrological predictions .
During the Islamic Golden Age , astronomy was funded so that the astronomical parameters , such as the eccentricity of the sun 's orbit , required for the Ptolemaic model could be calculated to a sufficient accuracy and precision . Those in positions of power , like the Fatimid Caliphate vizier in 1120 , funded the construction of observatories so that astrological predictions , fuelled by precise planetary information , could be made . Since the observatories were built to help in making astrological predictions , few of these observatories lasted long due to the prohibition against astrology within Islam , and most were torn down during or just after construction .
The clear rejection of astrology in works of astronomy started in 1679 , with the yearly publication La Connoissance des temps . Unlike the west , in Iran , the rejection of heliocentrism continued up towards the start of the 20th century , in part motivated by a fear that this would undermine the widespread belief in astrology and Islamic cosmology in Iran . The first work , Falak al @-@ sa 'ada by Ictizad al @-@ Saltana , aimed at undermining this belief in astrology and " old astronomy " in Iran was published in 1861 . On astrology , it cited the inability of different astrologers to make the same prediction about what occurs following a conjunction , and described the attributes astrologers gave to the planets as implausible .
= = Philosophy of science = =
Astrology provides the quintessential example of a pseudoscience since it has been tested repeatedly and failed all the tests .
= = = Falsifiability = = =
Science and non @-@ science are often distinguished by the criterion of falsifiability . The criterion was first proposed by philosopher of science Karl Popper . To Popper , science does not rely on induction , instead scientific investigations are inherently attempts to falsify existing theories through novel tests . If a single test fails , then the theory is falsified .
Therefore , any test of a scientific theory must prohibit certain results that falsify the theory , and expect other specific results consistent with the theory . Using this criterion of falsifiability , astrology is a pseudoscience .
Astrology was Popper 's most frequent example of pseudoscience . Popper regarded astrology as " pseudo @-@ empirical " in that " it appeals to observation and experiment " , but " nevertheless does not come up to scientific standards " .
In contrast to scientific disciplines , astrology does not respond to falsification through experiment . According to Professor of neurology Terence Hines , this is a hallmark of pseudoscience .
= = = " No puzzles to solve " = = =
In contrast to Popper , the philosopher Thomas Kuhn argued that it was not lack of falsifiability that makes astrology unscientific , but rather that the process and concepts of astrology are non @-@ empirical . To Kuhn , although astrologers had , historically , made predictions that " categorically failed , " this in itself does not make it unscientific , nor do the attempts by astrologers to explain away the failure by claiming it was due to the creation of a horoscope being very difficult ( through subsuming , after the fact , a more general horoscope that leads to a different prediction ) .
Rather , in Kuhn 's eyes , astrology is not science because it was always more akin to medieval medicine ; they followed a sequence of rules and guidelines for a seemingly necessary field with known shortcomings , but they did no research because the fields are not amenable to research , and so , " They had no puzzles to solve and therefore no science to practise . "
While an astronomer could correct for failure , an astrologer could not . An astrologer could only explain away failure but could not revise the astrological hypothesis in a meaningful way . As such , to Kuhn , even if the stars could influence the path of humans through life astrology is not scientific .
= = = Progress , practice and consistency = = =
Philosopher Paul Thagard believed that astrology can not be regarded as falsified in this sense until it has been replaced with a successor . In the case of predicting behaviour , psychology is the alternative . To Thagard a further criterion of demarcation of science from pseudoscience was that the state of the art must progress and that the community of researchers should be attempting to compare the current theory to alternatives , and not be " selective in considering confirmations and disconfirmations " .
Progress is defined here as explaining new phenomena and solving existing problems , yet astrology has failed to progress having only changed little in nearly 2000 years . To Thagard , astrologers are acting as though engaged in normal science believing that the foundations of astrology were well established despite the " many unsolved problems " , and in the face of better alternative theories ( Psychology ) . For these reasons Thagard viewed astrology as pseudoscience .
To Thagard , astrology should not be regarded as a pseudoscience on the failure of Gauquelin 's to find any correlation between the various astrological signs and someone 's career , twins not showing the expected correlations from having the same signs in twin studies , lack of agreement on the significance of the planets discovered since Ptolemy 's time and large scale disasters wiping out individuals with vastly different signs at the same time . Rather , his demarcation of science requires three distinct foci ; " theory , community [ and ] historical context " .
While verification and falsifiability focused on the theory , Kuhn 's work focused on the historical context , but the astrological community should also be considered . Whether or not they :
are focused on comparing their approach to others .
have a consistent approach .
try to falsify their theory through experiment .
In this approach , true falsification rather than modifying a theory to avoid the falsification only really occurs when an alternative theory is proposed .
= = = Irrationality = = =
For the philosopher Edward W. James , astrology is irrational not because of the numerous problems with mechanisms and falsification due to experiments , but because an analysis of the astrological literature shows that it is infused with fallacious logic and poor reasoning .
What if throughout astrological writings we meet little appreciation of coherence , blatant insensitivity to evidence , no sense of a hierarchy of reasons , slight command over the contextual force of critieria , stubborn unwillingness to pursue an argument where it leads , stark naivete concerning the efficacy of explanation and so on ? In that case , I think , we are perfectly justified in rejecting astrology as irrational . ... Astrology simply fails to meet the multifarious demands of legitimate reasoning . "
This poor reasoning includes appeals to ancient astrologers such as Kepler despite any relevance of topic or specific reasoning , and vague claims . The claim that evidence for astrology is that people born at roughly " the same place have a life pattern that is very similar " is vague , but also ignores that time is reference frame dependent and gives no definition of " same place " despite the planet moving in the reference frame of the solar system . Other comments by astrologers are based on severely erroneus interpretations of basic physics , such as a claim by one astrologer that the solar system looks like an atom . Further , James noted that response to criticism also relies on faulty logic , an example of which was a response to twin studies with the statement that coincidences in twins are due to astrology , but any differences are due to " heredity and environment " , while for other astrologers the issues are too difficult and they just want to get back to their astrology . Further , to astrologers , if something appears in their favour , they latch upon it as proof , while making no attempt to explore its implications , preferring to refer to the item in favour as definitive ; possibilities that do not make astrology look favourable are ignored .
= = = Quinean dichotomy = = =
From the Quinean web of knowledge , there is a dichotomy where one must either reject astrology or accept astrology but reject all established scientific disciplines that are incompatible with astrology .
= = Tests of astrology = =
Astrologers often avoid making verifiable predictions , and instead rely on vague statements that let them try to avoid falsification . Across several centuries of testing , the predictions of astrology have never been more accurate than that expected by chance alone . One approach used in testing astrology quantitatively is through blind experiment . When specific predictions from astrologers were tested in rigorous experimental procedures in the Carlson test , the predictions were falsified . All controlled experiments have failed to show any effect .
= = = Carlson 's experiment = = =
The Shawn Carlson 's double @-@ blind chart matching tests , in which 28 astrologers agreed to match over 100 natal charts to psychological profiles generated by the California Psychological Inventory ( CPI ) test , is one of the most renowned tests of astrology , and was published in a highly prestigious journal , Nature . Double blinding helps to practically eliminate all bias from a study , including from participants as well as the person performing the study . The experimental protocol used in Carlson 's study was agreed to by a group of physicists and astrologers prior to the experiment . Astrologers , nominated by the National Council for Geocosmic Research , acted as the astrological advisors , and helped to ensure , and agreed , that the test was fair . They also chose 26 of the 28 astrologers for the tests , the other 2 being interested astrologers who volunteered afterwards . The astrologers came from Europe and the United States . The astrologers helped to draw up the central proposition of natal astrology to be tested . Published in Nature in 1985 , the study found that predictions based on natal astrology were no better than chance , and that the testing " clearly refutes the astrological hypothesis " .
= = = Dean and Kelly = = =
Scientist and former astrologer Geoffrey Dean and psychologist Ivan Kelly conducted a large @-@ scale scientific test , involving more than one hundred cognitive , behavioural , physical and other variables , but found no support for astrology . A further test involved 45 confident astrologers , with an average of 10 years experience and 160 test subjects ( out of an original sample size of 1198 test subjects ) who strongly favoured certain characteristics in the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire to extremes . The astrologers performed much worse than merely basing decisions off the individuals ' ages , and much worse than 45 control subjects who did not use birth charts at all .
= = = Other tests = = =
A meta @-@ analysis was conducted , pooling 40 studies consisting of 700 astrologers and over 1 @,@ 000 birth charts . Ten of the tests , which had a total of 300 participating , involved the astrologers picking the correct chart interpretation out of a number of others that were not the astrologically correct chart interpretation ( usually three to five others ) . When the date and other obvious clues were removed , no significant results were found to suggest there was any preferred chart .
In 10 studies , participants picked horoscopes that they felt were accurate descriptions , with one being the " correct " answer . Again the results were no better than chance .
In a study of 2011 sets of people born within 5 minutes of each other ( " time twins " ) to see if there was any discernible effect , no effect was seen .
Quantitative sociologist David Voas examined the census data for more than 20 million individuals in England and Wales to see if star signs corresponded to marriage arrangements . No effect was seen .
= = = Mars effect = = =
In 1955 , astrologer and psychologist Michel Gauquelin stated that although he had failed to find evidence to support such indicators as the zodiacal signs and planetary aspects in astrology , he had found positive correlations between the diurnal positions of some of the planets and success in professions ( such as doctors , scientists , athletes , actors , writers , painters , etc . ) , which astrology traditionally associates with those planets . The best @-@ known of Gauquelin 's findings is based on the positions of Mars in the natal charts of successful athletes and became known as the " Mars effect " . A study conducted by seven French scientists attempted to replicate the claim , but found no statistical evidence . They attributed the effect to selective bias on Gauquelin 's part , accusing him of attempting to persuade them to add or delete names from their study .
Geoffrey Dean has suggested that the effect may be caused by self @-@ reporting of birth dates by parents rather than any issue with the study by Gauquelin . The suggestion is that a small subset of the parents may have had changed birth times to be consistent with better astrological charts for a related profession . The sample group was taken from a time where belief in astrology was more common . Gauquelin had failed to find the Mars effect in more recent populations , where a nurse or doctor recorded the birth information . The number of births under astrologically undesirable conditions was also lower , indicating more evidence that parents choose dates and times to suit their beliefs .
= = Theoretic obstacles = =
Beyond the scientific tests astrology has failed , proposals for astrology face a number of other obstacles due to the many theoretical flaws in astrology including lack of consistency , lack of ability to predict missing planets , lack of any connection of the zodiac to the constellations , and lack of any plausible mechanism . The underpinnings of astrology tend to disagree with numerous basic facts from scientific disciplines .
= = = Lack of consistency = = =
Testing the validity of astrology can be difficult because there is no consensus amongst astrologers as to what astrology is or what it can predict . Dean and Kelly documented 25 studies , which had found that the degree of agreement amongst astrologers was measured as a low 0 @.@ 1 . Most professional astrologers are paid to predict the future or describe a person 's personality and life , but most horoscopes only make vague untestable statements that can apply to almost anyone .
Georges Charpak and Henri Broch dealt with claims from western astrology in the book Debunked ! ESP , Telekinesis , and other Pseudoscience . They pointed out that astrologers have only a small knowledge of astronomy and that they often do not take into account basic features such as the precession of the equinoxes , which would change the position of the sun with time . They commented on the example of Elizabeth Teissier who claimed that " the sun ends up in the same place in the sky on the same date each year " as the basis for claims that two people with the same birthday but a number of years apart should be under the same planetary influence . Charpak and Broch noted that " there is a difference of about twenty @-@ two thousand miles between Earth 's location on any specific date in two successive years " and that thus they should not be under the same influence according to astrology . Over a 40 years period there would be a difference greater than 780 @,@ 000 miles .
= = = Lack of physical basis = = =
Edward W. James , commented that attaching significance to the constellation on the celestial sphere the sun is in at sunset was done on the basis of human factors — namely , that astrologers didn 't want to wake up early , and the exact time of noon was hard to know . Further , the creation of the zodiac and the disconnect from the constellations was because the sun is not in each constellation for the same amount of time . This disconnection from the constellations led to the problem with precession separating the zodiac symbols from the constellations that they once were related to . Philosopher of science , Massimo Pigliucci commenting on the movement , opined " Well then , which sign should I look up when I open my Sunday paper , I wonder ? "
The tropical zodiac has no connection to the stars , and as long as no claims are made that the constellations themselves are in the associated sign , astrologers avoid the concept that precession seemingly moves the constellations because they don 't reference them . Charpak and Broch , noting this , referred to astrology based on the tropical zodiac as being " ... empty boxes that have nothing to do with anything and are devoid of any consistency or correspondence with the stars . " Sole use of the tropical zodiac is inconsistent with references made , by the same astrologers , to the Age of Aquarius , which depends on when the vernal point enters the constellation of Aquarius .
= = = Lack of predictive power = = =
Some astrologers make claims that the position of all the planets must be taken into account , but astrologers were unable to predict the existence of Neptune based on mistakes in horoscopes . Instead Neptune was predicted using Newton 's law of universal gravitation . The grafting on of Uranus , Neptune and Pluto into the astrology discourse was done on an ad hoc basis .
On the demotion of Pluto to the status of dwarf planet , Philip Zarka of the Paris Observatory in Meudon , France wondered how astrologers should respond :
Should astrologers remove it from the list of luminars [ Sun , Moon and the 8 planets other than earth ] and confess that it did not actually bring any improvement ? If they decide to keep it , what about the growing list of other recently discovered similar bodies ( Sedna , Quaoar. etc ) , some of which even have satellites ( Xena , 2003EL61 ) ?
= = = Lack of mechanism = = =
Astrology has been criticised for failing to provide a physical mechanism that links the movements of celestial bodies to their purported effects on human behaviour . In a lecture in 2001 , Stephen Hawking stated " The reason most scientists don 't believe in astrology is because it is not consistent with our theories that have been tested by experiment . " In 1975 , amid increasing popular interest in astrology , The Humanist magazine presented a rebuttal of astrology in a statement put together by Bart J. Bok , Lawrence E. Jerome , and Paul Kurtz . The statement , entitled ' Objections to Astrology ' , was signed by 186 astronomers , physicists and leading scientists of the day . They said that there is no scientific foundation for the tenets of astrology and warned the public against accepting astrological advice without question . Their criticism focused on the fact that there was no mechanism whereby astrological effects might occur :
We can see how infinitesimally small are the gravitational and other effects produced by the distant planets and the far more distant stars . It is simply a mistake to imagine that the forces exerted by stars and planets at the moment of birth can in any way shape our futures .
Astronomer Carl Sagan declined to sign the statement . Sagan said he took this stance not because he thought astrology had any validity , but because he thought that the tone of the statement was authoritarian , and that dismissing astrology because there was no mechanism ( while " certainly a relevant point " ) was not in itself convincing . In a letter published in a follow @-@ up edition of The Humanist , Sagan confirmed that he would have been willing to sign such a statement had it described and refuted the principal tenets of astrological belief . This , he argued , would have been more persuasive and would have produced less controversy .
The use of poetic imagery based on the concepts of the macrocosm and microcosm , " as above so below " to decide meaning such as Edward W. James ' example of " Mars above is red , so Mars below means blood and war " , is a false cause fallacy .
Many astrologers claim that astrology is scientific . If one were to attempt to try to explain it scientifically , there are only four fundamental forces ( conventionally ) , limiting the choice of possible natural mechanisms . Some astrologers have proposed conventional causal agents such as electromagnetism and gravity . The strength of these forces drops off with distance . Scientists reject these proposed mechanisms as implausible since , for example , the magnetic field , when measured from earth , of a large but distant planet such as Jupiter is far smaller than that produced by ordinary household appliances . Astronomer Phil Plait noted that in terms of magnitude , the sun is the only object with an electromagnetic field of note , but astrology isn 't based just off the sun alone . While astrologers could try to suggest a fifth force , this is inconsistent with the trends in physics with the unification of Electromagnetism and the weak force into the electroweak force . If the astrologer insisted on being inconsistent with the current understanding and evidential basis of physics , that would be an extraordinary claim . It would also be inconsistent with the other forces which drop off with distance . If distance is irrelevant , then , logically , all objects in space should be taken into account .
Carl Jung sought to invoke synchronicity , the claim that two events have some sort of acausal connection , to explain the lack of statistically significant results on astrology from a single study he conducted . However , synchronicity itself is considered neither testable nor falsifiable . The study was subsequently heavily criticised for its non @-@ random sample and its use of statistics and also its lack of consistency with astrology .
= = Psychology = =
It has also been shown that confirmation bias is a psychological factor that contributes to belief in astrology . Confirmation bias is a form of cognitive bias .
From the literature , astrology believers often tend to selectively remember those predictions that turned out to be true , and do not remember those that turned out false . Another , separate , form of confirmation bias also plays a role , where believers often fail to distinguish between messages that demonstrate special ability and those that do not .
Thus there are two distinct forms of confirmation bias that are under study with respect to astrological belief .
The Barnum effect is the tendency for an individual to give a high accuracy rating to a description of their personality that supposedly is tailored specifically for them , but is in fact vague and general enough to apply to a wide range of people . If more information is requested for a prediction , the more accepting people are of the results .
In 1949 Bertram Forer conducted a personality test on students in his classroom . Each student was given a supposedly individual assessment but actually all students received the same assessment . The personality descriptions were taken from a book on astrology . When the students were asked to comment on the accuracy of the test , more than 40 % gave it the top mark of 5 out of 5 , and the average rating was 4 @.@ 2 . The results of this study have been replicated in numerous other studies .
The study of the Barnum / Forer effect has been focused mostly on the level of acceptance of fake horoscopes and fake astrological personality profiles . Recipients of these personality assessments consistently fail to distinguish common and uncommon personality descriptors . In a study by Paul Rogers and Janice Soule ( 2009 ) , which was consistent with previous research on the issue , it was found that those who believed in astrology are generally more susceptible to giving more credence to the Barnum profile than skeptics .
By a process known as self @-@ attribution , it has been shown in numerous studies that individuals with knowledge of astrology tend to describe their personalities in terms of traits compatible with their astrological signs . The effect is heightened when the individuals were aware that the personality description was being used to discuss astrology . Individuals who were not familiar with astrology had no such tendency .
= = Sociology = =
In 1953 , sociologist Theodor W. Adorno conducted a study of the astrology column of a Los Angeles newspaper as part of a project that examined mass culture in capitalist society . Adorno believed that popular astrology , as a device , invariably led to statements that encouraged conformity — and that astrologers who went against conformity with statements that discouraged performance at work etc. risked losing their jobs . Adorno concluded that astrology was a large @-@ scale manifestation of systematic irrationalism , where flattery and vague generalisations subtly led individuals to believe the author of the column addressed them directly . Adorno drew a parallel with the phrase opium of the people , by Karl Marx , by commenting , " Occultism is the metaphysic of the dopes . "
False balance is where a false , unaccepted or spurious viewpoint is included alongside a well reasoned one in media reports and TV appearances and as a result the false balance implies " there were two equal sides to a story when clearly there were not " . During Wonders of the Solar System , a TV programme by the BBC , the physicist Brian Cox said " Despite the fact that astrology is a load of rubbish , Jupiter can in fact have a profound influence on our planet . And it ’ s through a force . . . gravity . " This upset believers in astrology who complained that there was no astrologer to provide an alternative viewpoint . Following the complaints of astrology believers , Cox gave the following statement to the BBC : " I apologise to the astrology community for not making myself clear . I should have said that this new age drivel is undermining the very fabric of our civilisation . " In the programme Stargazing Live , Cox further commented by saying : " in the interests of balance on the BBC , yes astrology is nonsense . " In an editorial in the medical journal BMJ , editor Trevor Jackson cited this incident showing where false balance could occur .
Studies and polling has shown that the belief in astrology is higher in western countries than might otherwise be expected . In 2012 , in polls 42 % of Americans said they thought astrology was at least partially scientific . This belief decreased with education and education is highly correlated with levels of scientific knowledge .
Some of the reported belief levels are due to a confusion of astrology with astronomy ( the scientific study of celestial objects ) . The closeness of the two words varies depending on the language . A plain description of astrology as an " occult influence of stars , planets etc. on human affairs " had no impact on the general public 's assessment of whether astrology is scientific or not in a 1992 eurobarometer poll . This may partially be due to the implicit association amongst the general public , of any wording ending in " ology " with a legitimate field of knowledge . In Eurobarometers 224 and 225 performed in 2004 , a split poll was used to isolate confusion over wording . In half of the polls , the word " astrology " was used , while in the other the word " horoscope " was used . Belief that astrology was at least partially scientific was 76 % , but belief that horoscopes were at least partially scientific was 43 % . In particular , belief that astrology was very scientific was 26 % while that of horoscopes was 7 % . This appeared to indicate that the high level of apparent polling support for astrology in the EU was indeed due to confusion over terminology .
= Escape from Woomera =
Escape from Woomera is an unfinished point @-@ and @-@ click adventure video game , intended to criticise the treatment of mandatorily detained asylum seekers in Australia as well as the Australian government 's attempt to impose a media blackout on the detention centres . In the game , the player assumes the role of Mustafa , an Iranian asylum seeker being held at Woomera Immigration Reception and Processing Centre . Mustafa 's request for asylum has been denied , and , fearing that he will be killed by the Iranian government upon his repatriation to Iran , he decides to attempt to escape Woomera . Mustafa must explore Woomera and speak with other individuals at the centre to devise and execute an escape plan .
The game was developed in 2003 and 2004 by a team of Australian video game industry professionals and an investigative journalist , using Half @-@ Life 's GoldSrc engine . The developers received an AU $ 25 @,@ 000 grant from the Australia Council to make the game , propelling the project to national attention , where the idea received a predominantly negative reception . The Australia Council 's decision to fund the game drew condemnation from both Minister for Immigration Philip Ruddock and Australian Human Rights Commission leader Dr. Sev Ozdowski . Unable to secure further funding , a full game was never developed , and the playable prototype was made available free of charge online .
= = Plot = =
Escape from Woomera opens with three screens of text that explain the game 's background . Players assume the role of Mustafa , who paid smugglers to bring him to Australia after his parents were killed by the Iranian secret police . After the boat transporting him crashed in the Ashmore Reef , Mustafa was brought to the Woomera Immigration Reception and Processing Centre , where he was given the identification number " RAR @-@ 124 " . After three months , Mustafa was informed that his request for asylum was denied , and that he would be repatriated to Iran . Believing that he would be tortured and killed upon his return , Mustafa decided to escape Woomera .
Because the game was never completed , only a small portion of the intended gameplay exists . During the playable segment , Mustafa , through conversations with other detainees , discovers that another detainee is planning an escape but needs a pair of pliers to make the attempt . Mustafa must join a work detail to gain access to the pliers , hide the pliers in a garbage can to prevent them from being found during a search , recover them at night ( which requires Mustafa to find a way to pry open the area that the garbage cans are stored in ) , and deliver them to the other detainee . The playable section ends when Mustafa delivers the pliers . Other interactions during the playable section include speaking with a detainee who , after complaining that a guard threw her copy of the Quran to the ground , mentions the existence of a partially built tunnel from a previous escape attempt .
= = Gameplay = =
Escape from Woomera is a point @-@ and @-@ click adventure game . The player , controlling Mustafa , explores the Woomera centre , which is populated with non @-@ player characters — computer @-@ controlled individuals that move about the facility on their own . Some of these characters can speak with Mustafa , giving him information about the facility , sharing their backgrounds or experiences at Woomera , or directing him to find and retrieve objects scattered throughout the facility . Speaking with characters and completing their tasks allows Mustafa to progress towards his goal of escaping the facility .
The game has a meter that tracks Mustafa 's hope . As he completes tasks that take him towards the goal of escaping , the meter increases . Listening to the experiences of fellow detainees , which in some cases is required to gain access to other information or tasks , drains Mustafa 's hope . If he is caught breaking rules by the guards , Mustafa is placed in solitary confinement , which also drains hope . Should the hope meter run out , Mustafa loses the ability to continue to attempt an escape , and is deported .
= = Development = =
The idea for a video game centred on asylum seekers in Australia came to Katharine Neil , then an developer at Atari 's Melbourne studio , in the aftermath of the 2001 Tampa affair . Neil spent a year and a half assembling a team to work on the game and securing initial funding for the project . Fourteen people contributed to the game , with a core development team of four . Many of the Australian members of the development team , including Neil , contributed to the project anonymously to protect their jobs .
Neil stated that her motivation for the project was a desire to create a video game in which the asylum seekers were the heroes . The purpose of the game , according to Neil , was twofold . The team wanted to criticise the treatment of detained asylum seekers in Australia , and they also wanted to prove that video games were capable of the task . At the time , the idea that video games could convey political topics in a serious manner , and that they were a form of culture worth being taken seriously , had not caught on strongly . The game also was a statement against the Australian government 's attempts to suppress media access to , and coverage of , the detention facilities .
The original plan for Escape from Woomera involved several choices in playable detainees , each with a different story about how they came to seek asylum in Australia . The game would have players " battle the bureaucracy and try and survive day to day " while working towards any of several escape strategies . As originally envisioned , players could attempt to escape through the legal channels , using lawyers and activists , or could attempt to flee by scaling fences or digging tunnels . The development team worked to create the most realistic depiction of the Woomera centre possible , despite the media not being allowed in the facility . The team utilised interviews with former detainees and activists , existing press reports , and a copy of the facility 's floor plan obtained from a member of the Department of Immigration . Kate Wild , an investigative journalist hired by the development team to conduct research , was able to visit Baxter Immigration Reception and Processing Centre . She witnessed guards using spotlights and helicopters to keep detainees awake throughout the night , and police on horseback trampling over tents . Aside from Woomera and Baxter , Port Hedland Immigration Reception and Processing Centre and Villawood Immigration Detention Centre were also used as influences . Details from the daily lives of detainees , such as their being referred to by number and communicating with the outside world through payphones , were incorporated into the game . Tasks that players had to complete , as well as the escape strategies themselves , were also based on the experiences of real detainees .
Initial funding for the development of Escape from Woomera came from the Australian government 's arts funding organisation , the Australia Council for the Arts . The Australia Council gave the developers AUD $ 25 @,@ 000 , intended to get the game developed to the point that it could secure funding from other sources . While a playable section of the game was developed , the developers never received additional funding . The playable demo , which was built as a modification of the video game Half @-@ Life , was made available for download on the game 's website .
= = Reception = =
The Australia Council 's decision to fund Escape from Woomera was poorly received . The game received heavy criticism before development even began . Australia 's Minister for Immigration , Philip Ruddock , released a statement saying that the " decision reflects poorly upon the Australia Council and its judgement , that the organisation should lend its name to the promotion of unlawful behaviour " . Kate Wild , in a 2013 interview , recalled that she was surprised at how strongly Ruddock attacked the game , a reaction she attributed to the government being sensitive over the issue of detainee treatment . The leader of the Australian Human Rights Commission , Dr. Sev Ozdowski , released a strongly worded statement accusing the game of misconstruing asylum seekers as criminals , and saying that " The idea of using issues in detention for entertainment is simply sick . " Chairman Michael Snelling of the New Media Arts Board , the branch of the Australia Council that granted the development money , defended the decision to fund Escape from Woomera , stating that the game 's purpose was not to promote crime . He characterised the team 's application for funding as both strong and closely aligned with the New Media Arts Board 's goal of promoting cross @-@ disciplinary media .
In the 2010s , the retrospective view of Escape from Woomera is significantly more positive . In 2013 , the Australian Broadcasting Corporation called it " one of the first — and still one of the most important — politically @-@ focused videogames " . The textbook The Alternative Media Handbook used the game as a case study in culture jamming , and categorised it as an early example of video games carrying a political message .
= The Constant =
" The Constant " is the fifth episode of the fourth season of the American Broadcasting Company 's ( ABC ) serial drama television series Lost , and the 77th episode overall . It was broadcast on February 28 , 2008 , on ABC in the United States and on CTV in Canada . It was written by executive producer Carlton Cuse and co @-@ creator / executive producer Damon Lindelof and directed by executive producer Jack Bender . " The Constant " was watched by 15 million American viewers and is widely regarded as one of Lost 's best episodes . It was nominated for three Primetime Emmy Awards , a Directors Guild of America Award , and a Hugo Award .
In the episode , Desmond Hume ( played by Henry Ian Cusick ) and Sayid Jarrah ( Naveen Andrews ) are being flown by Frank Lapidus ( Jeff Fahey ) to the freighter where Lapidus ' mission is set . After going through turbulence , Desmond 's consciousness unexpectedly travels through time between 1996 and 2004 . The helicopter reaches the freighter and Sayid and Desmond are introduced to communications officer George Minkowski ( Fisher Stevens ) , who is " unstuck in time " like Desmond . The writers took twice the time expected to develop the episode 's script ; the biggest concern was the avoidance of a temporal paradox when dealing with time travel .
= = Plot = =
Desmond , Sayid and Lapidus experience turbulence while flying the 130 kilometers ( about 80 miles ) distance from the island where they were stranded to Lapidus ' team 's freighter , the Kahana . Desmond 's consciousness travels back eight years to 1996 , when he is serving with the British Army 's Royal Scots Regiment . Moments later , when his consciousness returns to the present day , he neither knows where he is nor recognizes his companions , and has no memory of his life since 1996 . After the helicopter lands , Desmond continues to jump between 1996 and 2004 . He is taken to the sick bay , where a man named Minkowski is strapped to a bed because he is experiencing similar problems . Minkowski explains that someone sabotaged the radio room two days earlier and that Desmond 's ex @-@ girlfriend Penny Widmore ( Sonya Walger ) has been trying to contact the freighter . Sayid uses the satellite phone to contact Jack Shephard ( Matthew Fox ) on the island and explains that Desmond appears to have amnesia . Daniel Faraday ( Jeremy Davies ) , a physicist from the freighter , asks Jack whether Desmond has recently been exposed to a high level of radiation or electromagnetism . Jack is unsure , and so Daniel speaks to Desmond and asks him about his situation . Desmond responds that he believes that he is in 1996 and is serving with the Royal Scots . Faraday understands and tells Desmond that when he returns to 1996 , he needs to go to the physics department of The Queen 's College , Oxford University in England to meet with Daniel 's past self , and gives Desmond some mechanical settings to relay , along with an extra phrase that Daniel assures him will convince Daniel 's past self that the story is legitimate .
Desmond 's flashbacks become more frequent and longer . In 1996 , Desmond tracks down a younger Faraday at Oxford , who takes Desmond into his laboratory where he is experimenting with a time machine . Setting his electromagnetic device with the settings that Desmond has given him , Daniel places his laboratory rat , Eloise , in a maze and exposes her to electromagnetic energy . The rat appears to become comatose , then awakens and runs the maze . Daniel becomes excited because he had just built the maze and had not yet taught Eloise how to run it . Desmond realizes that , like the rat , he is caught in a time warp that is moving his consciousness between two different bodies at two different points in time and space . Eloise dies of a suspected brain aneurysm brought on by the exposure to the time lapse . Desmond becomes worried that he will die like Eloise , and Daniel instructs him to find something or someone — a constant — who is present in both times and can serve as an anchor for Desmond 's mental stability . Desmond decides that Penny can be the constant ; however , he must make contact with her in 2004 . To find out where she lives , Desmond gets her address from her father Charles ( Alan Dale ) , who is at an auction buying a journal owned by Tovard Hanso written by a crew member of the 19th century ship called the Black Rock .
In 1996 , Desmond finds Penny , who is still distraught over their break @-@ up and is not willing to see him . However , he gets her telephone number and tells her not to change it because he will call her on Christmas Eve 2004 . In 2004 , Sayid , Desmond , and Minkowski escape the sick bay and begin to repair the broken communications equipment . Meanwhile , Minkowski enters into another flashback , and dies . Showing signs of suffering the same fate as Minkowski , Desmond telephones Penny , who tells Desmond that she has been searching for him for the past three years and they reconcile before the power is cut off . Having made contact with his " constant " , Desmond stops alternating between 1996 and 2004 . Back on the island , Daniel flips through his journal and discovers a note that he had written , " If anything goes wrong , Desmond Hume will be my constant . "
= = Production = =
" The Constant " is the second Lost episode to deal directly with the concept of time travel after " Flashes Before Your Eyes " from the third season . While promoting that episode , Lindelof said that it uses the flashback device " in a way we never have before and never will again " and while promoting " The Constant " , he said that it " upholds that pledge , unpledges it , then repledges it . " Lost 's writer @-@ producers enjoy science fiction themes such as time travel ; however , they were careful not to create a paradox . The rules for time @-@ travel in the series are outlined in " Flashes Before Your Eyes " — although , Lindelof has said that " The Constant " is a more important episode in terms of explaining time travel on the show — by Ms. Hawking ( Fionnula Flanagan ) , who explains that certain events are inevitable and the universe will eventually correct any errors . Had these rules not been established , the writers feared that viewers would lose interest because the stakes of the characters would be lessened . The writers hoped that " The Constant " would further establish that there are no parallel universes or alternate realities . Lindelof reminisced that " just breaking that episode was such a massive headache " and Cuse added that " it was definitely like doing the hardest New York Times crossword puzzle for the week " .
Cuse and Lindelof admitted they took some inspiration from the final episode of Star Trek : The Next Generation , " All Good Things ... " , where Captain Picard jumps between three time frames . The Lost writers compared Minkowski 's role to Q , as " someone who is undergoing and understands the same events as our protagonist " . Faraday , on the other hand , was the expert that always appears in time travel fiction — as Lindelof put it , " He 's our Doc Brown here , who basically is gonna tell the protagonist to go and find him in the past " . Whereas the average Lost episode took two weeks to plan and write , " The Constant " took five because the writers experienced difficulty when determining its effect on future stories . Popular Mechanics analyzed the possibility of time travel using Lost 's rules . Michio Kaku claimed that " the show 's producers did their homework " . According to Kaku , " there 's no law of physics preventing this kind of time travel — just a lack of know @-@ how … [ but ] it would take a very advanced civilization to really do this " . Cuse stated that " we [ the writers ] try to use enough science to give a sense of credibility " . " The Constant " was the first episode set on the Kahana , but the writers decided to avoid using the new setting just to give new information — Lindelof has declared that " you would have mindless exposition unless the characters were in a constant state of crisis " . According to Lindelof , Desmond 's confusion prevents the characters who arrived from the island from asking questions to the freighter 's crew .
Shooting occurred in the second half of October 2007 . The scenes on the freighter in this and later episodes were filmed for several days on a freighter ten to fifteen minutes off the west coast of Oahu , Hawaii , where Lost is filmed . Instead of docking the ship and returning to the ocean each day , the actors and crew slept on the freighter in areas that were not being used for filming . The Oxford scenes were shot at St. Andrew 's Cathedral in Honolulu . In 1996 , Desmond has short hair and no facial hair and in 2004 , Desmond sports long and untamed hair with a full beard . Cusick did not cut his hair ; it was hidden underneath a short @-@ haired wig by " really talented hair and makeup folks " , according to Carlton Cuse . All freighter scenes were shot before Cusick shaved most of his beard for the 1996 scenes . A fake beard was glued onto Cusick for the episodes " Ji Yeon " and " Meet Kevin Johnson " while his beard grew back . The equations on Faraday 's chalkboard were written by a physicist who was hired as a consultant by the producers . The way the transitions between the 1996 and 2004 scenes would take place was frequently discussed during production . The producers took the advice of editor Mark Goldman , who suggested sudden cuts with " no fancy effect , and in some cases , no sound cut " , similar to the way " All Good Things ... " was edited . The original ending would set up the following episode by having Charlotte ( Rebecca Mader ) drop a bag containing a gas mask at Faraday 's feet . But the producers thought it did not work after the emotional scenes between Desmond and Penny , and decided to finish with Faraday reading his diary .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original American broadcast , " The Constant " was watched by 12 @.@ 893 million viewers , ranking Lost eighth in weekly ratings . The episode was watched by a total of 14 @.@ 998 million viewers , including those who watched within seven days of broadcast , making it the most recorded show of the week ; this number went toward the year @-@ end season average . It received 5 @.@ 4 / 13 in the key adults 18 – 49 demographic . The Canadian broadcast was watched by 1 @.@ 529 million people , making it the sixth most watched show of the week . In the United Kingdom , " The Constant " was watched by 911 @,@ 000 viewers . 770 @,@ 000 Australians tuned into Lost , placing it seventy @-@ fifth in the weekly ratings chart .
= = = Critical reaction = = =
The Constant received universal acclaim from both critics and fans and is often cited as the best episode of the entire series . Time named " The Constant " the best television episode of 2008 , and according to Oscar Dahl of BuddyTV , " lots of people " referred to it as " the best Lost episode ever " . It was listed as the best episode of Lost by IGN , Los Angeles Times , and ABC2 , and was also featured in similar lists by TV Guide , and National Post .
In Entertainment Weekly , Alejandro Garay wrote , " One of my favorite episodes of 2008 was Lost ’ s ' The Constant . ' It was a beautiful episode that made us fans fall in love with the show even more . The creators managed to build momentum with smart narrative , by using the romance card to develop such a complicated topic as time traveling . It was exquisite , mind @-@ blowing , impeccably done , and unforgettable . " Bill Keveney of USA Today wrote that it is " arguably the most highly praised episode of [ the ] well @-@ received fourth season " , while his colleague Robert Bianco deemed Henry Ian Cusick worthy of an Emmy Award nomination . Patrick Day of the Los Angeles Times called the episode a " mind @-@ blowing tour de force " . Maureen Ryan of The Chicago Tribune called it a " for @-@ the @-@ ages episode " with " a classic Lost moment " in Desmond and Penny 's phone call and " an especially spine @-@ tingling performance " by Cusick . Verne Gay of Newsday wrote , " last night 's forty @-@ four minutes of Lost were among the most satisfying forty @-@ four minutes in front of the tube in my life . " He added that " it wasn 't merely a brilliant episode , which pushed the mythology forward more rapidly and richly than any episode in my memory , but it was an emotional release … I actually cried when Penny and Desmond finally … connected " and " there wasn 't one , single , solitary false note " . Alan Sepinwall of The Star @-@ Ledger said that " it was brilliantly executed , as both a brain @-@ twister and as a love story " with an " outstanding " performance by Jeremy Davies . Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly described the episode as " the best single outing since season 1 's ' Walkabout ' " and named the phone call between Desmond and Penny the best moment of the season excluding any moments from the then yet @-@ to @-@ air season finale . Nikki Stafford of Wizard described " The Constant " as " mindblowing " and cited it as " the reason the hardcore fans love Lost . " Matt Roush of TV Guide said that " the time @-@ tripping went into overdrive with this week 's brilliant episode … [ which ] worked beautifully as a showcase for Henry Ian Cusick as the tormented Desmond . It was almost a stand @-@ alone episode , a Twilight Zone / X @-@ Files @-@ style adventure with a start , middle and killer finish . "
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mainly German and British , to witness the blast .
After the attack , authorities started to look for other possible bombs in the area , with the Civil Guard giving the order to search in all barracks on the island . Soon after , a detection dog found a bomb attached to another Civil Guard Nissan Patrol parked in front of a barracks located 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) from where the first bomb had exploded . The area was cordoned off and people evacuated from nearby houses and hotels . At 6 : 30 pm , Civil Guard bomb disposal officers TEDAX carried out a controlled explosion . The bomb had been placed in a broken down vehicle and was therefore not in use .
= = = Victims = = =
Diego Salvá Lezaun ( Pamplona , 1981 ) lived in Majorca and became a Givil Guard on August 25 , 2008 . He started working as an intern on January 31 , 2009 . A few months later , he suffered a motorbike accident which left him several weeks in coma . Once he recovered , he was assigned to the Palma Nova barracks , just four days before the attack took place . He was buried in Palma .
Carlos Sáenz de Tejada García ( Burgos , 1980 ) tried to join the National Police Corps after finishing his high school studies . He failed to do so and became a member of the Spanish Army , being stationed in an army barracks in Castrillo del Val . He joined the Civil Guard on February 18 , 2008 , and was sent to Majorca on July 19 . He had some relatives affected by the July 29 bombing in Burgos , where he was buried .
= = Aftermath = =
On July 31 , a funeral was held at the Cathedral of Santa Maria in Palma . The service was attended by Primer Minister José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero and Prince and Princess of Asturias , Felipe and Letizia . Other people attending the mass were leader of the opposition Mariano Rajoy , Minister of the Interior Alfredo Pérez Rubalcaba and Patxi López , among others . At least 2 @,@ 000 gathered outside of the cathedral and a minute of silence was held across Spain in memory of the dead .
= = = Operation Cage = = =
Right after the attack , and suspecting that the bombers were still on the island , the Civil Guard and the National Police Corps launched a lockdown , an operation named Operation Cage ( Spanish : Operación Jaula ) , the biggest manhunt in the history of the island . Similar operations had been done around Spain in other attacks , such as in the 2004 Madrid train bombings . Checkpoints were set up across the island , while the Palma de Mallorca Airport and all ports were temporarily closed . The airport was closed at 4 : 00 pm and was re @-@ opened at 5 : 55 pm , with several flights being delayed . During the rest of the afternoon , the ports were re @-@ opened as well .
The day after the attack , Spanish police released the picture of six members of ETA who could have possibly taken part in the bombing . Police named the suspects as Itziar Martínez Moreno , Iratxe Yáñez Ortiz de Barrón , Alberto Beraza Machain , Oroitz Gurruchaga Gogorza , Joanes Larretxea Mendiola and Iván Sáez de Jáuregui Ortigosa , although no direct evidence linked them to the attack . Meanwhile , at least 1600 police officers were deployed to keep checking around the island , including on fisherman . The intense search was still active in mid August .
= = = Reactions = = =
During a press conference at the Moncloa Palace , Rodríguez Zapatero blamed both bombings " on the terrorist group ETA " and vowed to bring all of its members to justice : " They have no chance to hide , they can 't flee , they can 't escape justice , they will be arrested , they will be sentenced , they will spend their lives in jail " . When arriving on Majorca on August 1 for his yearly summer holidays King Juan Carlos I condemned the attack and vowed to " go on and on hitting them in the head and we must fight to stop them " . Condemnation also came from governments worldwide following the bombing :
The European Commission condemned the bombing and gave its " total solidarity to the Spanish people and institutions " .
German Chancellor Angela Merkel condemned the attack , and gave Rodriguez Zapatero her support in " the fight against terrorism " .
The Mexican Secretariat of Foreign Affairs condemned the killing .
Then Foreign Minister of Argentina Jorge Taiana condemned the Majorca and Burgos attacks .
= = August bombings = =
On August 9 , the same day ETA claimed responsibility for the July 30 attack , four bombs exploded in three restaurants and one shopping centre around Palma . The bombs , which contained small amounts of explosives and caused little damage and no injuries , went off after three warning calls from ETA . At 11 : 16 am local time , a man speaking on behalf of ETA called the firefighters of Calvià , warning that three bombs would go off in Palma . Half an hour later , another person also speaking on behalf of ETA called a taxi company in Gipuzkoa , giving details of the location and time the bombs would explode . Finally , another warning call was mistakenly made to the personal mobile phone of an inhabitant of Córdoba . Authorities reported that the bombers had given contradicting details in each call , leading to confusion on the location of the bombs .
The first bomb exploded at 12 : 00 pm in the bar " Nica " , located in the avenue Comte de Sallent . The explosion was at first not reported , with authorities believing it was a gas explosion . The second bomb exploded at around 2 : 25 pm in the " La Rigoletta " restaurant , in front of one of Palma 's main beaches . The third bomb went off at around 4 : 00 pm in another restaurant , named " Enco " . The fourth device exploded around 6 : 00 pm in a shopping mall located next to the main square of Palma . As a result of the few details given by the warning calls , police failed to evacuate the attacked restaurants . Nonetheless , no one was injured .
= = Investigation = =
Authorities rapidly ruled out the possibility that ETA had a cell in the island , with police believing the attack had been carried out by a unit that had travelled to the island specifically to carry it out . Initial reports stated that the bombers had set the bomb off with a remote control . Once the second bomb was spotted , police announced that it had a timer device , which could have allowed the members of ETA to plant the bomb several days before the attack and leave the island . Earlier , Government delegate for Majorca , Ramon Socías , had said that security forces believed that the bombers had not left Majorca , and were hiding on the island , waiting for the situation to cool down before attempting to leave .
Regarding the August 8 bombings , Alfredo Pérez Rubalcaba did not rule out any possibility , although he confirmed that the hypothesis of the bombers leaving the island before the attack was " reasonable " , due to the timer devices . All of the bombs had been planted in women 's toilets , which led authorities to believe that they had been set by one of the two female suspects , Itziar Martínez Moreno and Iratxe Yáñez Ortiz .
= = = Arrests = = =
On August 19 , Alberto Matxain Beraza was arrested in the French town of Le Corbier in Savoy , next to the French Alps . He was held along with fellow ETA members Aitzol Etxaburu and Andoni Sarasola . They were responsible for ETA ’ s logistics operation , and had the job of supplying weapons and explosives to the ETA cells operating in Spanish soil . The arrest led to the discovery of almost a tone of explosives , hidden by ETA in 12 small caches around France . On October 11 , Joanes Larretxea was arrested in Rivières , Gard along with top ETA member Iurgi Mendinueta Mintegi .
Iratxe Yañez Ortiz was arrested on January 10 , 2010 in Portugal after she was stopped in a routine traffic check @-@ point in the Spanish town of Bermillo de Sayago , next to Spain @-@ Portugal border . Yañez Ortiz was arrested along another member of ETA , Garikoitz García Arrieta , who was driving a van containing 10 kilograms ( 22 lb ) of explosives , two pistols , a rifle and bomb @-@ making material . She was extradited to Spain on October 28 , 2010 .
= William Hillcourt =
William Hillcourt ( August 6 , 1900 – November 9 , 1992 ) , known within the Scouting movement as " Green Bar Bill " , was an influential leader in the Boy Scouts of America ( BSA ) organization from 1927 to 1992 . Hillcourt was a prolific writer and teacher in the areas of woodcraft , troop and patrol structure , and training ; his written works include three editions of the BSA 's official Boy Scout Handbook , with over 12 @.@ 6 million copies printed , other Scouting @-@ related books and numerous magazine articles . Hillcourt developed and promoted the American adaptation of the Wood Badge adult Scout leader training program .
Hillcourt was Danish , but moved to the United States as a young adult . From his start in Danish Scouting in 1910 until his death in 1992 , he was continuously active in Scouting . He traveled all over the world teaching and training both Scouts and Scouters , earning many of Scouting 's highest honors . His legacy and influence can still be seen today in the BSA program and in Scouting training manuals and methods for both youth and adults .
= = Personal life = =
Hillcourt was born in 1900 in Aarhus , Denmark and was the youngest of three sons of a building contractor . He was given the name Vilhelm Hans Bjerregaard Jensen . Around 1930 , he changed his name by anglicizing " Vilhelm " , translating " Bjerregaard " into " Hill @-@ court " and dropping " Jensen " . His first published work was a poem about trolls and elves , printed by an Aarhus newspaper when he was nine years old . For Christmas 1910 , Hillcourt 's brother gave him a Danish translation of Scouting for Boys by Baden @-@ Powell , the founder of the Scout movement . He went on to earn the highest award in Danish Scouting , Knight @-@ Scout in 1918 , at age 17 . He was selected to represent his troop at the 1st World Scout Jamboree in Olympia in 1920 where he first met Baden @-@ Powell , with whom he was later to work .
While Hillcourt studied pharmacy in Copenhagen , he became more involved in Scouting . As a Scout leader , he became a Scoutmaster , national instructor , writer and then the editor for the Danish Scouting journal . He wrote his first book , The Island , recounting his early Scouting experiences .
After deciding to experience Scouting around the world and to return home with the best ideas , Hillcourt worked his way through Europe and England and then arrived in the United States in February 1926 . He was soon hired by the BSA 's national office and worked for the BSA until he retired as a professional Scouter in 1965 . In 1933 Hillcourt married Grace Brown , the personal secretary of Chief Scout Executive James E. West .
= = Scouting career = =
Hillcourt worked at a BSA camp at Bear Mountain in Harriman State Park , New York , in 1926 where he became an instructor in American Indian dance . He then worked for the BSA Supply Division where he broke his leg when a crate fell on him . He met James West while working at the national office . West solicited Hillcourt 's thoughts on Scouting in the U.S. Hillcourt later sent West an 18 @-@ page memo detailing issues with the lack of patrol structure and leadership . He recommended that the BSA write a handbook for patrol leaders , and that it needed to be written by someone who had been both a patrol leader and a Scoutmaster . West hired Hillcourt as a writer and editor and was later persuaded to commission Hillcourt to write the first Handbook for Patrol Leaders which was published in 1929 .
From 1932 until his retirement in 1965 , Hillcourt was a major contributor to Boys ' Life , the magazine for Scouting youth . Each monthly issue included a page on advancement and Scoutcraft , outdoor Scouting skills , and included his signature superimposed over the two green bars that are the emblem of the patrol leader , which led to his moniker " Green Bar Bill " and its adoption as the logo of his regular Boys ' Life column .
Hillcourt was tasked to write a new manual for Scoutmasters in 1934 and worked with his good friend and colleague E. Urner Goodman , the national program director of the BSA . He and his wife moved to a house in Mendham Borough , New Jersey , to be near Schiff Scout Reservation , the BSA 's national training center , so he could be in place to put this theories to a practical test . In order to do so , he founded Troop 1 of Mendham in 1935 as a unit directly chartered to the National Council of the BSA . As the Scoutmaster , he used Troop 1 to test and validate his work for 16 years .
The Baden @-@ Powells visited Schiff in 1935 and began a steadfast friendship with the Hillcourts . Baden @-@ Powell died in 1941 . After World War II , Baden @-@ Powell 's widow , Olave Baden @-@ Powell , allowed Hillcourt to edit Aids to Scoutmastership into the World Brotherhood Editions to help the Scouting movement recover from the war . She then allowed Hillcourt access to Baden @-@ Powell 's letters , diaries and sketchbooks when she and Hillcourt co @-@ authored the narrative biography of Baden @-@ Powell , Baden @-@ Powell : The Two Lives of a Hero .
The BSA national office moved from New York City to North Brunswick , New Jersey , in 1954 , and the Hillcourts moved with it . He completed the sixth edition of the Boy Scout Handbook in time for the BSA 's 50th anniversary in 1960 .
= = = Wood Badge = = =
To encourage the creation of Rovering in the U.S. , J. S. Wilson travelled from the UK to oversee a Wood Badge course in May 1936 at Schiff . Hillcourt was a participant in that first course and four days later , he was the senior patrol leader for the second course . He received his Wood Badge beads in 1939 and was appointed as the deputy camp director for Wood Badge . After World War II , Wood Badge was revived and Hillcourt was the Scoutmaster for a test course begun on July 31 , 1948 , at Schiff and the first standard course at Philmont Scout Ranch . As the national director of training , Hillcourt wore five Wood Badge beads , a tradition that has been discontinued in the U.K. Scout Association , however other countries still continue the use of the five Wood Badge Beads and are still worn by the National Volunteer Leader of Wood Badge Training of each country as well as by special decree of Gilwell Park today .
In the year before his retirement on August 1 , 1965 , the national council began a program to update the Wood Badge program and shift its emphasis from teaching Scoutcraft to leadership skills . After he was officially retired , his opinion was still sought after and respected . Dr. John W. Larson , Director of Boy Scout Leader Training for the National Council , was working with Béla H. Bánáthy and Bob Perin , Assistant National Director , Volunteer Training Service , to adapt the leadership competencies of the White Stag Leadership Development Program into a new Wood Badge syllabus .
Hillcourt was among the few on the National Staff who strongly resisted the change to the Wood Badge program . He attended the presentation that Larson made to the national Scout committee on the new Wood Badge curriculum . Larson later reported , " He fought us all the way ... He had a vested interest in what had been and resisted every change . I just told him to settle down , everything was going to be all right . " Hillcourt presented an alternative to Larson 's plan to incorporate leadership into Wood Badge . Chief Scout Executive Joseph Brunton asked Larson to look at Hillcourt 's plan , and Larson reported back that it was the same stuff , just reordered and rewritten . Larson 's plan for Wood Badge was approved and he moved ahead to begin implementing the proposed changes .
= = Later life = =
Hillcourt retired from the BSA on August 1 , 1965 . In 1971 , he and Grace finally completed the world tour he had started in 1926 ; along the way they attended the 13th World Scout Jamboree in Fujinomiya , Japan . Grace Hillcourt died in 1973 . Rather than live alone , Bill moved into the home of his good friends Carson and Martha Buck .
The BSA had introduced the " Improved Scouting Program " in 1972 , along with a new edition of the Boy Scout Handbook . Many of the changes were intended to expand Scouting to a broader base of youth and to make Scouting more " in tune with the times " . Many Scouters , including Hillcourt , were critical of the new program changes , exclaiming that the de @-@ emphasis on traditional outdoor skills had taken the " outing out of Scouting " . This change proved to be unsuccessful , deterring existing adherents and attracting relatively few new enrolments . To remedy this situation , Hillcourt convinced Chief Scout Executive Harvey L. Price that a new handbook was needed . Hillcourt then came out of retirement and spent a year writing and editing the 1979 edition of The Official Boy Scout Handbook , returning to the focus of Scoutcraft . In addition , he helped to develop the All Out for Scouting program that launched the return to the old standards . Hillcourt was regarded as a prominent figure and guide in BSA 's recovery from its experiment earlier in that decade .
Hillcourt was recognized for his service to youth by the BSA with the Distinguished Eagle Scout Award on May 19 , 1978 . In 1980 , the BSA presented Hillcourt with their highest national honor , the Silver Buffalo Award and was cited as " The Voice of Scouting " . The World Scout Committee of the World Organization of the Scout Movement recognized him for exceptional services to world Scouting in 1985 with the Bronze Wolf Award . In the same year , an article in the Scouting magazine proclaimed Hillcourt as " the foremost influence on development of the Boy Scouting program . " In 1990 he also became a member of Firecrafter , an American Scouting service organization . Travel and appearances at Scouting events both local and worldwide were part of his routine until he died , for which he was referred to as Scoutmaster to the World .
Hillcourt died at the age of 92 , in Stockholm , Sweden , while traveling on a Scouting tour with Carson Buck in 1992 . He is buried with his wife Grace in St. Joseph 's Cemetery in Mendham , New Jersey , at Row 8 , Block I , near Mortimer L. Schiff Scout Reservation , where he had lived for so many years . His legacy in Scouting and his influence continue in the programs and training of Scouting . Consequently , his writings are still used within the Scouting movement and his material continues to be reprinted in Scouting magazine . The Longhouse Council operates the William Hillcourt Scout Museum and Carson Buck Memorial Library at Camp Woodland in New York to " keep the traditions of Scouting alive " through the preservation of the history that is a foundation for today 's Scouting movement .
= = Works = =
Hillcourt was one of the BSA 's most prolific writers . He wrote numerous articles for Boys ' Life and Scouting magazines , including a column aimed at patrol leaders under the by @-@ line of " Patrol Leader Green Bar Bill " . At least 12 @,@ 610 @,@ 000 copies of his three editions of the Boy Scout Handbook were printed .
( 1925 ) The Island
( 1929 ) Handbook for Patrol Leaders
( 1933 ) The 1933 Scout Jamboree Book with James E. West
( 1936 ) Handbook for Scoutmasters , Third edition in two volumes
( 1946 ) Aids to Scoutmastership , World Brotherhood Edition , by Baden @-@ Powell , revised by Hillcourt
( 1946 ) Scouting for Boys , World Brotherhood Edition , by Baden @-@ Powell , revised by Hillcourt
( 1948 ) Scout Fieldbook , First edition , with West
( 1950 ) Handbook for Patrol Leaders ; World Brotherhood Edition
( 1959 ) Boy Scout Handbook , Sixth edition
( 1961 ) Field Book of Nature Activities and Conservation : An Indispensable Guide for Nature Lovers
( 1964 ) Baden @-@ Powell : The Two Lives of a Hero ; biography of Baden @-@ Powell
( 1965 ) Boy Scout Handbook , Seventh edition
( 1967 ) Handbook for Patrol Leaders , Second edition ( heavily edited revision )
( 1967 ) Physical Fitness for Boys
( 1967 ) Physical Fitness for Girls
( 1968 ) Your Guide to Fitness
( 1970 ) New Field Book of Nature Activities & Hobbies
( 1970 ) Fun With Nature Hobbies
( 1971 ) The Golden Book of Camping
( 1975 ) Outdoor Things To Do : Year @-@ round Nature Fun for Girls and Boys
( 1977 ) Norman Rockwell 's World of Scouting ; biography of iconic illustrator Norman Rockwell
( 1979 ) The Official Boy Scout Handbook , Ninth edition
( 1980 ) The Official Patrol Leader Handbook , Third edition
= Black American Sign Language =
Black American Sign Language ( BASL ) or Black Sign Variation ( BSV ) is a dialect of American Sign Language ( ASL ) spoken most commonly by deaf African Americans in the United States . The divergence from ASL was influenced largely by the segregation of schools in the American South . Like other schools at the time , schools for the deaf were segregated based upon race , creating two language communities among deaf signers : White deaf signers at White schools and Black deaf signers at Black schools . Today , BASL is still used by signers in the South despite schools having been legally desegregated since 1954 .
Linguistically , BASL differs from other varieties of ASL in its phonology , syntax , and lexicon . BASL tends to have a larger signing space meaning that some signs are produced further away from the body than in other dialects . Signers of BASL also tend to prefer two @-@ handed variants of signs while signers of ASL tend to prefer one @-@ handed variants . Some signs are different in BASL as well , with some borrowings from African American English .
= = History = =
Like many educational institutions for hearing children during the 1800s and early 1900s , schools for deaf children were segregated based on race . The first school for the deaf in the United States , The American School for the Deaf ( ASD ) , was founded in 1817 but did not admit any Black students until 1952 . Of the schools for the deaf that began to be created , few admitted students of color . Seeing a lack of educational opportunities for the Black deaf , Platt Skinner founded the Skinner School for the Colored Deaf , Dumb , and Blind in 1856 in Niagara Falls , New York . Skinner described his school as " the first effort of its kind in the country ... We receive and instruct those and only those who are refused admission to all other institutions and are despised on account of their color . " The school moved to Trenton , New Jersey in 1860 . After its closure in 1866 , no Northern state created an institution for the Black deaf . Even after these states outlawed segregation by 1900 , integration was sparse as some institutions allowed Black students and others did not .
After the foundation and success of the American School for the Deaf , many other institutions for the deaf were founded throughout the country . Since schools , particularly in the South , were segregated , many Southern states created separate schools or departments for the Black deaf . The first school established for the Black deaf below the Mason – Dixon line opened in the District of Columbia in 1857 and remained segregated until 1958 . The last Southern state to create an institution for the Black deaf was Louisiana in 1938 . Black Deaf children thus became a language community isolated from the White Deaf with different means of language socialization , allowing for different dialects to develop . Because the education of White children was privileged over that of Black children , Oralism — the prominent pedagogical method of the time — was not as strictly applied to the Black deaf students . Oralist methods often forbade the use of sign language , so Black deaf students had more opportunities to use ASL than their White peers . Despite the decision in Brown v. Board of Education in 1954 which declared racial segregation in schools unconstitutional , integration was slow to come , and schools for the deaf were no exception : the last desegregated in 1978 , 24 years after the decision .
As schools began to integrate , students and teachers noticed differences in the way Black students and White students signed . Carolyn McCaskill , professor of ASL and Deaf Studies at Gallaudet University , recalls the challenge of understanding the dialect of ASL spoken by her White principal and teachers after her segregated school integrated : " When I began attending the school , I did not understand the teacher and she did not understand me because we used different signs . " Carl Croneberg was the first to discuss differences between BASL and White ASL in his appendices of the 1965 version of the Dictionary of American Sign Language , and work has continued on BASL since then .
As deaf education and sign language research continued to evolve , so did the perception of ASL . With the publication of the Dictionary of American Sign Language , ASL began to be recognized as a legitimate language . The greater acceptance of ASL as a language led to standardization and the development of a prestige dialect which was based upon the signs used at Gallaudet University . Despite this standardization , there are still regional accents of ASL similar to spoken languages . Dialects that are different from the standard one , and especially those spoken by marginalized groups , are often stigmatized . As a non @-@ standard dialect , BASL is stigmatized by signers and seen as inferior to prestige dialects of ASL . This difference in prestige has led BASL speakers to code switch to a prestige dialect when speaking with different groups of people , despite BASL being mutually intelligible with other dialects of ASL .
= = Phonology = =
When asked , many signers in the South gave anecdotal accounts of differences between the signing of Black and White signers . These differences turned out to be aspects of the differing phonology of BASL . Among these accounts were claims that Black signers had a larger signing space and used more two @-@ handed signs . Investigation into these anecdotes has found correlations .
When compared , Black signers were more likely to produce signs outside of the typical signing space and to use two @-@ handed signs than were White signers . Adverbs are most likely to utilize a larger signing space . Less marked forms such as pronouns , determiners , plain verbs , and nouns tend to be less likely to be produced outside the typical signing space . The selection of two @-@ handed signs over one @-@ handed signs was found to have systematic constraints on their production . When the sign could be produced with one or two hands , Black signers often produced the variant that matched the handedness of the following sign ; if the following sign was two @-@ handed , they were more likely to produce a two @-@ handed variant , while if the following sign was one @-@ handed , they were more likely to produce the one @-@ handed variant . The use of innovative one @-@ handed forms though , even in environments which favored them , did not exceed 50 percent .
BASL signers further tend to favor lowered variants of side @-@ of @-@ forehead signs resulting in contact at the cheek . The sign KNOW is usually produced by placing the fingers of a flat hand on the temple , but when lowered the fingers make contact at the cheek . Early research showed that BASL signers used these lowered forms at a rate of 53 percent with grammatical category being the strongest constraint . Other conditioning environments for lowered signs depend on preceding location ; for instance , signs produced in front of the body lead to lowered sign variants while signs produced at the head cause signers to favor non @-@ lowered forms .
= = Syntax = =
Unlike ASL , BASL allows for the frequent use of syntactic repetition . In a study conducted by McCaskill , of 26 signers ( 13 Black and 13 White ) , there were 57 instances of repetition from Black signers compared to 19 from White signers , and of those 19 instances , 18 came from a single signer . The use of repetition by BASL signers is considered to be pragmatic rather than as a way to clarify meaning .
A study in 2004 by Melanie Metzger and Susan Mather found that Black male signers used constructed action , with or without constructed dialogue , more often than White signers , but never used constructed dialogue by itself . These results were not reproduced in a later study into constructed action and constructed dialogue by McCaskill , which found that Black signers not only used constructed dialogue , but did so more frequently than white signers .
= = Lexical variation = =
Lexical variation between BASL and other dialects of ASL was first noted in the Dictionary of American Sign Language . In a later study of 34 lexical signs , Black signers had 28 signs that White signers did not know . Older signers are more likely to use variant signs than younger signers , and most , having been developed in segregated schools for the Black Deaf , refer to everyday life . Younger signers of BASL are less likely to use these variants , but when asked about them are aware that older signers have and use these innovative signs .
= = = Borrowing from African American English = = =
A body of work has arisen looking at the similarities between Black American Sign Language and African American English ( AAE ) since both are language varieties marked by their use in African American communities . In 1998 John Lewis investigated the incorporation of aspects of AAE into BASL . He reported that , during narrative storytelling by a Black signer , there were " Ebonic shifts " marked by shifts in posture and rhythmicity and by incorporating side @-@ to @-@ side head movement . He concluded that this " ' songified ' quality was related to the style of AAE . This finding was not reproduced by McCaskill , which she attributes to the nature of the speech acts : Lewis analyzed a narrative event while McCaskill utilized natural or elicited data . Lexical borrowing has been seen in BASL signers under age 35 which is likely due to the advances in mass media — younger signers would have more contact with AAE through movies , television , and the Internet .
When asked about distinctive features of their signing , Black Deaf signers tended to identify a number of idioms borrowed from AAE . Some were literal translations like I FEEL YOU or GIRL PLEASE which are signed the standard way but have meanings different from their literal interpretation . Other loan words modified existing signs like STOP TRIPPING which took the bent @-@ v handshape of TRIP and moved it up to the head to indicate a new meaning of " stop imagining things . "
= Mina ( singer ) =
Anna Maria Quaini or Mina Mazzini OMRI ( born 25 March 1940 ) , known as Mina , is one of the most successful Italian singers of all time . She was a staple of Italian television variety shows and a dominant figure in Italian pop music from the mid @-@ 1960s to mid @-@ 1970s , known for her three @-@ octave vocal range , the agility of her soprano voice , and her image as an emancipated woman .
In performance , Mina combined several modern styles with traditional Italian melodies and swing music , which made her the most versatile pop singer in Italian music . Mina dominated the Italian charts for fifteen years and reached an unsurpassed level of popularity . She has scored 79 albums and 71 singles on the Italian charts .
Mina 's TV appearances in 1959 were the first for a female rock and roll singer in Italy . Her loud syncopated singing earned her the nickname Queen of Screamers . The public also labeled her the Tiger of Cremona for her wild gestures and body shakes . When she turned to light pop tunes , Mina 's chart @-@ toppers in West Germany in 1962 and Japan in 1964 earned her the title of the best international artist in these countries . Mina 's more refined sensual manner was introduced in 1960 with Gino Paoli 's ballad " This World We Love In " , which charted on the Billboard Hot 100 in 1961 .
Mina was banned from Italian TV and radio in 1963 because her pregnancy and relationship with a married actor did not accord with the dominant Catholic and bourgeois morals . After the ban , the Italian broadcasting service RAI tried to continue to prohibit her songs , which were forthright in dealing with subjects such as religion , smoking and sex . Mina 's cool act combined sex appeal with public smoking , dyed blonde hair , and shaved eyebrows to create a " bad girl " image .
Mina 's voice has distinctive timbre and great power . Her main themes are anguished love stories performed in high dramatic tones . The singer combined classic Italian pop with elements of blues , R & B and soul music during the late 1960s , especially when she worked in collaboration with the singer @-@ songwriter Lucio Battisti . Top Italian songwriters created material with large vocal ranges and unusual chord progressions to showcase her singing skills , particularly " Brava " by Bruno Canfora ( 1965 ) and the pseudo @-@ serial " Se telefonando " by Ennio Morricone ( 1966 ) . The latter song was covered by several performers abroad . Shirley Bassey carried Mina 's ballad " Grande grande grande " to charts in the U.S. , U.K. , and other English @-@ speaking countries in 1973 . Mina 's easy listening duet " Parole parole " was turned into a worldwide hit by Dalida and Alain Delon in 1974 . Mina gave up public appearances in 1978 but has continued to release popular albums on a yearly basis to the present day .
= = Early life = =
Anna Maria Mazzini was born into a working @-@ class family in Busto Arsizio , Lombardy . The family moved to work in Cremona in her childhood . She listened to American rock and roll and jazz records and was a frequent visitor at the Santa Tecla and the Taverna Messicana clubs of Milan , both known for promoting rock and roll . After finishing high school in 1958 , she attended college where she majored in accounting .
= = Career = =
= = = Queen of Screamers ( 1958 – 1961 ) = = =
While on summer holiday in Versilia on 8 August 1958 , Mazzini gave an improvised performance of the song " Un 'anima tra le mani " to amuse her family after a concert at the La Bussola night club . During the following nights , Sergio Bernardini , the owner of the club , held her back in her attempts to get back on stage .
In September , she started her solo career with the backing of the band Happy Boys . Her concert in September 1958 , before an audience of 2 @,@ 500 people at the Theatre of Rivarolo del Re , won enthusiastic approval from local critics . She soon signed with Davide Matalon , owner of the small record company Italdisc . Her first single , " Non partir " / " Malatia " , was produced under the stage name Mina for the Italian audience . Simultaneously , " Be Bop A Lula " / " When " was issued under the name Baby Gate for the international audience . Baby was chosen as a contrast to her 178 cm height ( 5 ft 10 in ) — exceptionally tall for an Italian woman — and Gate as a tribute to The Golden Gate Quartet . In December , her performance at the Sei giorni della canzone festival of Milan was described by the La Notte newspaper as the " birth of a star " . It was Mina 's last performance with the Happy Boys , as her family refused to let her skip college for a scheduled tour of Turkey .
Less than a month after the breakup with her previous band , Mina co @-@ founded a new group called Solitari , which consisted of a singer , a saxophonist , a pianist , a contrabassist , and a guitarist . Her first hit with the band featured Mina performed an extra @-@ loud , syncopated version of the popular song " Nessuno " ( " Nobody " ) , which she performed at the first rock festival in the Milan Ice Palace in February 1959 . Performances of the song on the TV game shows Lascia o raddoppia ? and Il musichiere on 1 March and 4 April were hailed by Italian critics . The starlet signed with Elio Gigante , an experienced artist manager . In the following years , he organized her performances in the grand ballrooms of Italy . Her first Italian # 1 hit was the up @-@ tempo " Tintarella di luna " ( " Moon Tan " ) in September 1959 , which was performed in her first musicarello ( musical comedy film ) , Juke box - Urli d 'amore . In late 1959 , Matalon had her drop the name Baby Gate in favour of Mina .
= = = Growing up ( 1960 – 1965 ) = = =
In 1960 , Mina made her Festival della canzone italiana in Sanremo debut with two songs . She turned to slow emotional love songs for the first time . The song " È vero " ( " It 's True " ) reached # 8 on the Italian charts . Gino Paoli 's song " Il cielo in una stanza " ( " The Sky in a Room " ) marked the beginning of the young singer 's transformation from a rock and roll shrieker to a feminine inspiration for cantautori . The idea for the song " Love can grow at any moment at any place " had come to Paoli while lying on a bed and looking at the purple ceiling . The single topped the list of annual sales in Italy and reached the Billboard Hot 100 as " This World We Love In " . Video performances of the song were included in the musicarellos Io bacio ... tu baci and Appuntamento a Ischia , and in 1990 , in the soundtrack of the film Goodfellas .
At the 1961 Sanremo song festival , Mina performed two songs . " Io amo , tu ami " ( " I Love , You Love " ) finished fourth and " Le mille bolle blu " ( " A Thousand Blue Bubbles " ) placed fifth . Disappointed with these results , Mina declared her intention of never performing at the Sanremo song festival again .
As her songs and movies were already popular abroad , Mina started to tour Spain and Japan , and performed on Venezuelan TV in 1961 . Mina performed on Spanish TV and at the Paris Olympia hall at the beginning of 1962 . The presentation of her German single " Heißer Sand " on 12 March 1962 on Peter Kraus 's TV show caused a boom of 40 @,@ 000 record sales in ten days in Germany . The record went to # 1 and spent over half the year on the German charts in 1962 . Mina had six more singles on the German chart in the next two years . In a listeners ' poll conducted in July 1962 in Germany , Austria , and the German @-@ speaking portion of Switzerland , Mina was voted the most popular singer in the world . In May 1962 , she performed in Buenos Aires . Meanwhile , her version of the mambo rhythm " Moliendo Cafe " and the surf pop " Renato " peaked at # 1 and # 4 respectively on the Italian charts . " L 'eclisse twist " appeared on the flipside of " Renato " , and was used on the soundtrack of Michelangelo Antonioni 's feature film Eclipse .
In 1963 Mina 's TV and radio career was interrupted by RAI , the Italian public broadcasting service , as she refused to cover up her relationship ( and resulting pregnancy ) with the married actor Corrado Pani . Mina 's record sales were unaffected and due to public demand , RAI ended the ban . On 10 January 1964 she returned to the TV screen on the program La fiera dei sogni , and performed the song " Città vuota " , a cover of Gene McDaniels ' " It 's a Lonely Town ( Lonely Without You ) " , which was her first release on the RiFi label . Her next single , " È l 'uomo per me " , a cover of Jody Miller 's " He Walks Like a Man " , became the biggest selling record of the year in Italy . Her new melodic manner was demonstrated again on 11 December 1964 TV program Il macchiettario , where she performed " Io sono quel che sono " ( " I Am What I Am " ) . A reminder of her previous adolescent image , her single " Suna ni kieta namida " ( " Tears Disappear in the Sand " ) , sung in Japanese , peaked at # 1 on the Japanese singles chart and earned Mina the title of Best International Artist in Japan .
The first episode of the Studio Uno live Saturday night series showcased Mina 's new blond look with shaved eyebrows . The shows included the brooding songs " Un bacio è troppo poco " ( " One Kiss is Not Enough " ) and " Un anno d 'amore " ( " A Year of Love " ) , a cover of Nino Ferrer 's " C 'est irreparable " . In the same series she performed " Brava " ( " Good " ) , a rhythmic jazz number specially written by Bruno Canfora to demonstrate the Mina 's vocal range and performing skills . Her Studio Uno album topped the Italian chart that year . Her recordings of 1965 included the scatting performance of " Spirale Waltz " , the theme song for the film The 10th Victim .
= = = Independence ( 1966 – 1968 ) = = =
Maurizio Costanzo and Ghigo De Chiara wrote the lyrics of " Se telefonando " ( " If Over the Phone " ) as the theme for the TV program Aria condizionata in spring 1966 . The lyrics were composed in a dark , Hal David mode . The serialist composer Ennio Morricone was asked to compose the music . Mina and the three songwriters met in a RAI rehearsal room at Via Teulada , Rome . Morricone started to repeat a short musical theme of just three notes ( by his term a micro @-@ cell ) on an upright piano . He had copied the snippet of melody from the siren of a police car in Marseilles . After a few bars Mina grabbed the lyrics sheet and started to sing as if she had known the tune before . Composed in this way , " Se telefonando " is a pop song with eight transitions of tonality that builds tension throughout the chorus . Morricone 's arrangement featured a sophisticated combination of melodic trumpet lines , Hal Blaine @-@ style drumming , a string set , a 1960s Europop female choir , and intense subsonic @-@ sounding trombones .
" Se telefonando " was presented in May 1966 in a Studio Uno episode and in August the same year at Aria condizionata . The single peaked at # 7 on the Italian chart and was 53rd in the annual list of sales . The album Studio Uno 66 featured the song as one of the standout tracks along with " Ta @-@ ra @-@ ta @-@ ta " and " Una casa in cima al mondo " . It was the fifth biggest selling album of the year in Italy .
In 1966 , Mina started working with the Swiss Broadcasting Service and the Orchestra Radiosa in Lugano . She founded the independent record label PDU in collaboration with her father . The first record issued under the label was Dedicato a mio padre ( Dedicated to My Father ) . Mina 's growing interest in Brazilian music resulted in " La banda " ( " The Band " ) , a Chico Buarque song , which reached # 3 in Italy . Mina continued to perform on Italian TV , and presented " Zum zum zum " on the spring 1967 variety series Sabato sera , accompanied by the NATO naval band . The series also included " La coppia più bella del mondo " ( " The Most Beautiful Couple in the World " ) , a duet with Adriano Celentano . The title of the song " Sono , come tu mi vuoi " ( " I Am , as You Want Me to Be " ) was taken from Luigi Pirandello 's play Come tu mi vuoi . The lyrics talk about the manic attention of the press on an artist 's private life . Another hit from Sabato sera was " L 'immensità " ( " Immensity " ) , which was re @-@ scored by Augusto Martelli and released as " La inmensidad " in Spain and Latin American countries .
RAI broadcast the third episode of Senza rete ( " Unplugged " ) live on 18 July 1968 from the Auditorio A of the corporation 's regional headquarters in Naples . The program presented Mina 's homage to Luigi Tenco , who had recently died . She turned his song " Se stasera sono qui " ( " If I Stay Here Tonight " ) into a rigorous piece of soul music in the score of Pino Calvi . She celebrated the 10th anniversary of her career with a concert at La Bussola , backed by the Orchestra Augusto Martelli . The concert was recorded and issued as Mina alla Bussola dal vivo .
Canzonissima 1968 was a Saturday night prime time variety show that aired on Rai Uno from September 1968 to January 1969 . It was hosted by Mina , Walter Chiari and Paolo Panelli . The orchestrations were scored by the conductors Bruno Canfora and Augusto Martelli . " Sacumdì Sacumdà " , Mina 's talking and laughing version of Carlos Imperial 's bossa nova " Nem Vem Que Não Tem " , narrowly escaped a ban by RAI because of its irreverent lyrics . The song was performed as part of a musical fantasy , back to back with " Quelli che hanno un cuore " , her intense version of " Anyone Who Had a Heart " . Another interpretation of a Dionne Warwick song was " La voce del silenzio " ( " Silent Voices " ) by Paolo Limiti and Elio Isola , presented in a live session during the show . " Niente di niente " ( " Nothing at All " ) was her version of the Delfonics ' " Break Your Promise " . The series also included the songs " Fantasia " , " La musica è finita " ( " The Music is Over " ) and the elegant " Un colpo al cuore " ( " Heart Attack " ) . " Un colpo al cuore " ended up as # 68 on the best @-@ selling singles chart for that year in Italy . Each show was closed by Mina singing " Vorrei che fosse amore " ( " Wish It Was Love " ) , a piece of atmospheric music by Bruno Canfora that was # 50 on the best @-@ selling singles chart for 1968 in Italy . A selection of songs from the series were issued as the album Canzonissima ' 68 .
= = = Mogol @-@ Battisti ( 1969 – 1973 ) = = =
After a break of three months , Mina returned and recorded the song " Non credere " ( " Disbelieve " ) , composed by Luigi Clausetti and Pietro Soffici , with lyrics by Mogol , in April . The single became the third biggest @-@ selling record of the year in Italy . Mogol and his fellow composer Lucio Battisti , along with the Premiata Forneria Marconi on back @-@ up instrumentals , worked with Mina on several songs as a result of the success of " Non credere " . The team produced a set of songs including " Io e te da soli " ( " You and Me Alone " ) , " Insieme " ( " Together " ) , " Amor mio " ( " Love of Mine " ) , " Io vivrò senza te " ( " I 'll Live without You " ) , " E penso a te " ( " And I Think of You " ) . One of the first introductions of the new repertoire was the Senza rete live televised concert from the Auditorio A in Naples on 20 January 1970 . The material provided by Mogol @-@ Battisti was the core for five albums . Among them , ... bugiardo più che mai ... più incosciente che mai ... was Mina 's first independent album to reach # 1 of the weekly Italian charts and was the biggest selling album of 1969 in Italy . ... quando tu mi spiavi in cima a un batticuore ... was seventh on the annual record chart of 1970 . Del mio meglio ... ( My Best ... ) was second in 1971 . Mina was the biggest seller of 1972 . The latter two albums were recorded during a break from live performances to give birth to her daughter Benedetta .
Mina 's comeback took place at RAI 's variety series Teatro 10 in spring 1972 . One of the highlights of the series was a selection of Battisti 's songs performed in duet with the composer . The shows also included " Balada para mi muerte " ( " Ode to My Death " ) , a nuevo tango duet with Ástor Piazzolla at the bandoneón , backed by the Argentinian group Conjunto 9 . " Grande grande grande " , arranged by Pino Presti , was the second biggest @-@ selling single of the year in Italy . The successes encouraged Enrico Riccardi to copy Battisti 's style in Riccardi 's composition " Fiume azzurro " , which earned another place in the top 100 of annual record sales in Italy .
The final number of the eight Teatro 10 episodes was " Parole parole " ( " Words Words " ) , a duet with Alberto Lupo . The song is an easy listening dialogue between Mina 's singing and Lupo 's declamation . The lyrics ' theme are hollow words . These intertwine the lady 's lamentation of the end of love and the lies she has to hear with the male protagonist 's recitation . In the dialog she scoffs at the compliments he gives her , calling them parole – just words . The single was released in April 1972 and topped the Italian charts . It was covered by numerous Italian and French duets .
Mina said she would be retiring from public appearances after an exclusive concert at the La Bussola Club on 16 September . Thousands of people turned up at the nightclub 's doorstep . Gianni Ferrio 's Orchestra featured Gianni Basso on tenor saxophone and Oscar Valdambrini on trumpet .
Mina lost her husband Virgilio Crocco in a car accident in 1973 . She continued her career with the top Italian chart hits " E poi ... " ( " And Then ... " ) and " L 'importante è finire " ( " It 's Important to Finish " ) . She recorded the theme song " Fa presto , fa piano " ( " Works Quickly , Works Quietly " ) for the film La sculacciata , issued in 1974 .
= = = Since 1974 = = =
Mina 's last live TV appearance was the final episode of the Milleluci series on 16 March 1974 . Mina was the hostess of the series alongside Raffaella Carrà . During the series , she explored different musical styles in the songs " I Don 't Know How to Love Him " , " Mack the Knife " , " Night and Day " , and " Someday ( You 'll Want Me to Want You ) " . After " Non gioco più " ( " The Game Is Over " ) , a blues duet with the harmonica player Toots Thielemans , Mina announced her withdrawal from public performances . Her last appearance on TV was her performance of " Ancora ancora ancora " . The video was the final number of the " Mille e una luce " show on 1 July 1978 . Her last concert appearances , a series of thirteen fully booked concerts at La Bussola in 1978 , were cut short due to her illness . Mina gave her last public performance on 23 August 1978 at the Bussoladomani theatre . It was recorded and issued as Mina Live ' 78 .
Mina continued to release albums on a yearly basis with her son Massimiliano Pani as the producer . Between 1972 and 1995 , she published a double album each year . From 1973 , her LPs and CDs have been characterized by artistic motifs of the designers Luciano Tallarini , Gianni Ronco and the photographer Mauro Balletti . From the mid @-@ 1980s , the design of the album covers was trusted to Balletti alone . All of Mina 's records under the PDU label have reached the Italian Top 100 . A large part of her work has consisted of covering well @-@ known songs ; she has dedicated tribute albums to The Beatles , Frank Sinatra , Renato Zero , Domenico Modugno , the Neapolitan song , and religious music . After leaving the stage , her greatest chart successes have been duets . In 1985 , " Questione di feeling " , a duet with Riccardo Cocciante , was the 13th biggest @-@ selling single of the year in Italy and became an evergreen ( as a hit song is called in Europe ) . The duet album Mina Celentano , recorded with Adriano Celentano , was the biggest @-@ selling album of 1998 in Italy . Starting in 1989 , all of her records included the jazzy piano playing of Danilo Rea .
The break in Mina 's TV appearances lasted until 2001 , when she released footage of her recording sessions . The videos were broadcast over the Wind internet site on 30 March . This resulted in millions of visits to the site on that night , and additional millions on following days . The footage was released as the DVD Mina in Studio . After the event , Mina 's singles started to chart in Italy again . The track " Succhiando l 'uva " ( 2002 ) , written for her by Zucchero , peaked at # 3 on the chart . Mina 's cover of " Don 't call me baby ( Can 't take my eyes off you ) " ( 2003 ) reached # 4 in Italy . The single " Alibi " ( 2007 ) reached # 6 in Italy . The triple CD The Platinum Collection reached # 1 on the Italian charts . So did Olio ( 1999 ) , Veleno ( 2002 ) , Bula Bula ( 2005 ) and Todavía . Mina 's later releases have included duets with Mick Hucknall , Fabrizio De André , Piero Pelù , Adriano Celentano , Lucio Dalla , Joan Manuel Serrat , Chico Buarque , Tiziano Ferro , Giorgia and Seal . In recent years , Mina has been writing a weekly column on the front page of La Stampa and a page in the Italian edition of the magazine Vanity Fair , where she answers fan letters .
= = Musical style and public image = =
= = = Voice = = =
Mina is a soprano with great agility and a range of three octaves . Swingy and anti @-@ melodic in her early years ( " Tintarella di luna " , 1959 ) , her singing later acquired high dramatic tones . Louis Armstrong famously declared her to be “ the greatest white singer in the world . ”
= = = Queen of Screamers = = =
Caught up in the wave of rock and roll sweeping across Italy in 1958 , Mina listened to American records and was a frequent visitor at the Derby Club , the Santa Tecla , and the Taverna Messicana clubs of Milan , which promoted rock and roll music . Mina 's repertoire at the beginning of her career included clumsy imitations of British and American rock and jazz songs , while her extra @-@ loud and syncopated version of the song " Nessuno " showcased her excellent sense of rhythm . Earlier in 1958 , Domenico Modugno had caused astonishment by raising his hands in the air during his performance of Nel blu dipinto di blu ( " Volare " ) . In Mina 's first TV appearances she further broke with tradition by shaking her head , hands , and hips to the rhythm . The writer Edoardo Sanguineti recalled the Italian public 's first encounter with the enthusiastic singer as :
TV host Mario Riva named her one of the urlatori ( screamers ) , for her distinctive timbre and power . Later , the public called Mina the Queen of the Screamers . Her extravagant gestures earned her another nickname – Tiger of Cremona .
= = = Grown up = = =
Mina introduced her new sensual manner in her presentation of the ballad " Il cielo in una stanza " in 1960 . Three years later , her love affair with Corrado Pani challenged the moral foundations of Italy , a country where divorce was illegal and single motherhood was considered shameful . Thus , her non @-@ conformist choices represented the emancipation of women in Italy , which did not accord with the dominant Catholic and bourgeois virtues prevalent at the time . The subsequent ban from performing on Italian TV and radio channels further developed Mina 's image as an independent " bad girl " , which she emphasized with her choice of song themes . An example was her performance of " Sacumdì Sacumdà " on air after RAI had expressed their displeasure with the song 's lyrics about a girl 's encounter with the Devil . Other songs that RAI initially banned as immoral were " Ta @-@ ra @-@ ta @-@ ta " ( dealing forthrightly with smoking ) , " La canzone di Marinella " , and " L 'importante è finire " ( alluding to sex without love ) . Mina 's cool act featured sex appeal , public smoking , dyed blonde hair , shaved eyebrows , and heavy use of eye make @-@ up .
The main themes of Mina 's songs were distressing love stories . Her style was to interpret them in a highly dramatic way by using gestures and body language to bring the story alive . Mina 's performance was typically characterised by expressive intensity , subtle variations , and original phrasing . The music critic Gherardo Gentili has noted her interpretive skills as :
To demonstrate Mina 's vocal range , the composer Bruno Canfora penned the song " Brava " , and Ennio Morricone wrote " Se telefonando " with numerous transitions of tonality . More songs were composed exclusively for Mina and arranged for RAI 's all @-@ star orchestras for performance on the TV variety series Studio uno , Sabato sera , Canzonissima and Teatro 10 . Mina ( alongside Carmen Villani ) pioneered by combining classic Italian pop and swing music with features of blues , R & B and soul music , particularly in the songs " Se stasera sono qui " and " Deborah " . She helped to incorporate new styles into Italian pop music , including nuevo tango , as seen in her duet " Balada para mi muerte " with Ástor Piazzolla .
= = = Mogol @-@ Battisti = = =
When she altered her musical style in 1969 , Mina changed her hairdo from short and straight to long blonde curls , and started to wear a black minidress . Mogol 's and Lucio Battisti 's first songs , particularly " Insieme " and " Io e te da soli " , showcased Mina 's blues and soul skills . Around the time of their collaboration , Mina turned towards middle @-@ of @-@ the @-@ road pop . Battisti 's melodies were sophisticated and had a complex chord sequence . The songs were characterized by frequent changes of rhythm , pauses , and dialogues between the voice and the orchestra . Another characterizing feature was an instrumental introduction without a rhythmic base .
= = = Mina Latina = = =
A fan of bossa nova , Mina recorded in Spanish and Portuguese from the start of her career and currently enjoys a fan base in Spain and Latin America . The Spanish director Pedro Almodóvar has used Mina 's songs in his movie soundtracks . In 2001 , Mina published the compilation album Colección Latina . It includes standards in Spanish , as well as Spanish covers of her originals . In 2003 , the musical Mina ... che cosa sei ? based on Mina 's songs was staged in Argentina , starring Elena Roger . It was nominated for four Premios ACE in 2003 and 2004 , among them Best Musical , and won the Premio Clarín for Best Musical . In 2007 , Mina published Todavía , an album in Spanish and Portuguese , which reached # 36 on the Spanish charts and # 1 on the Italian charts . It included duets with Joan Manuel Serrat , Miguel Bosé , Diego Torres , Chico Buarque , and Diego El Cigala .
= = Collaborations = =
= = = Collaborations with arrangers = = =
Tony De Vita ( " Tintarella di luna " , " Piano " , " Il cielo in una stanza " )
Ennio Morricone ( " Se telefonando " )
Bruno Canfora ( " Vorrei che fosse amore " , " Brava " , " Sono come tu mi vuoi " )
Augusto Martelli ( " E se domani " , " Un anno d 'amore " , " Non credere " )
Detto Mariano ( " Insieme " )
Gianpiero Reverberi ( " Amor mio " , " Io e te da soli " )
Gianni Ferrio ( " Parole parole " , " Non gioco più " )
Pino Presti ( " Grande grande grande " , " E poi " , " L 'importante è finire " , " Fiume azzurro " , " E penso a te " )
Alberto Nicorelli ( " Ancora ancora ancora " )
Paul Buckmaster ( " Questione di feeling " )
Massimiliano Pani ( " Sensazioni " , " Acqua e sale " , " Brivido Felino " )
= = = Collaborations with other performers = = =
With Adriano Celentano : Acqua e sale - Brivido felino - Che t 'aggia di ' - Dolce fuoco dell 'amore - Io non volevo - Messaggio d 'amore - Sempre sempre sempre - Specchi riflessi
With Alberto Lupo : Parole parole
With Alberto Sordi : Fumo di Londra
With Andrea Mingardi : Datemi della musica - Mogol Battisti
With Angel " Pato " Garcia : Contigo en la distancia
With Ástor Piazzolla : Balada para mi muerte
With the Audio 2 : Dentro ad ogni cosa - Rotola la vita
With Benedetta Mazzini : More Than Words
With Beppe Grillo : Dottore
With Enzo Jannacci : E l 'era tardi
With Fabrizio De André : La canzone di Marinella
With Fausto Leali : Via di qua
With Fred Bongusto : Medley Non ci lasceremo mai - Frida - Sei proprio tu - Doce doce - A Detroit
With Gianni Morandi : Reggio Emilia - Meglio sarebbe - L 'uva fogarina ( Teresina imbriaguna ) - Come porti i capelli bella bionda
With Giorgio Gaber : Medley Porta romana - La ballata del Cerutti - Trani a gogò - Barbera e champagne - Il Riccardo
With Johnny Dorelli and Renato Carosone : Medley Scapricciatiello - Pigliate ' na pasticca - Pasqualino Marajà - ' Na voce e ' na chitarra
With Lelio Luttazzi : Chi mai sei tu
With Lucio Battisti : Medley Insieme - Mi ritorni in mente - Il tempo di morire - E penso a te - Io e te da soli - Eppur mi son scordato di te - Emozioni
With Lucio Dalla : Amore disperato
With Massimiliano Pani : Come stai - If I Fell
With Massimo Lopez : Noi
With Mick Hucknall : Someday in My Life
With Miguel Bosé : Agua y sal
With Milva : Motherless Child - Non arrenderti uomo
With Mónica Naranjo : Él se encuentra entre tú y yo
With Piero Pelù : Stay with me
With Renato Zero : Neri - Tutti gli zeri del mondo
With Riccardo Cocciante : Amore - Bella senz 'anima - Questione di feeling
With Seal : You Get Me
With Toots Thielemans : Non gioco più
With the Voci Atroci : Suona ancora
= = Legacy = =
Mina has scored 77 albums and 71 singles on the Italian charts . She is the only artist to land an album at the top of the Italian charts in each of the five decades from the start of record keeping in 1965 . She released an album every year during 1958 – 2003 . President Carlo Azeglio Ciampi presented her with the Second Class of the Italian Order of Merit on 1 June 2001 .
British singer Dusty Springfield referenced Mina in performance . A number of Mina 's songs were turned into hits by singers in other languages . The first of these was " Piano " , scored by Matt Monro as " Softly , as I Leave You " , which reached # 10 in the UK Top 40 . In 1964 , the song reached # 27 of the Billboard Hot 100 in the version by Frank Sinatra . " Se telefonando " was covered by several performers in Italy and abroad , most notably by Françoise Hardy and Iva Zanicchi ( 1966 ) , Delta V ( 2005 ) , Vanessa and the O 's ( 2007 ) , and Neil Hannon ( 2008 ) . " Grande grande grande " , recorded by Shirley Bassey as " Never Never Never " in 1973 , reached the Billboard Hot 100 , UK Top 10 , # 1 of the Australian charts , # 2 in South Africa and # 3 in Singapore . A year later , Dalida and Alain Delon recorded the French version of " Parole parole " and made it an international hit . Mexican icon José José recorded the Spanish version of the hit " Sono , come tu mi vuoi " , entitled " Soy como quieras tú " . English musician Elvis Costello used a sample from Mina 's " Un bacio è troppo poco " on his album When I Was Cruel . Tanita Tikaram covered Mina 's " And I Think of You - E penso a te " in English as a track on the album The Best of Tanita Tikaram . It should be noted that Turkish singer Ajda Pekkan , nicknamed superstar , covered more than a dozen of Mina songs . Some of these songs are " Parole parole " as " Palavra " , " Senza fiato " as Son Yolcu , " Il cigno dell 'amore " as " Düşünme Hiç " , Giorni as " Ya Sonra " , " Mi mandi rose " as " Kim Olsa Anlatır " and " Ancora , ancora , ancora " as " Aldatma " . In 2010 , Chicago band La Scala released a rock cover of her hit " Tu Farai " with Gretta Rochelle on vocals .
Spanish artist Mónica Naranjo recorded the album Minage with Mina 's covers in Spanish , published on 20 March 1999 . The tracks included " Ancora , ancora , ancora " , " Io é te da soli " , " Fiume azzurro " ( as " Sobreviviré " ) and " L 'immensità " . Mina collaborated with the album recording the duet " Él se encuentra entre tú y yo " ( " He is between you and me " ) .
To celebrate Mina 's 70th anniversary , the la Repubblica newspaper held a reader 's poll to pick Mina 's best song of all time . In a vote of 30 @,@ 000 participants , " Se telefonando " emerged at the top of the list .
= = Awards , nominations , honours and records = =
1958
Nomination and performance at Sei giorni della canzone with " Proteggimi "
Second place
1959
Nomination and performance at Canzonissima with " Nessuno " and " Tua "
Juke Box d 'oro Award
Microfono d 'oro Award
1960
Nomination and performance at the Sanremo Music Festival with " Non sei felice " and " E ' vero "
Seventh place
Nomination and performance at Canzonissima with " Tintarella di luna " , " Il cielo in una stanza " , " Folle banderuola " , " E ' vero " , " Na sera ' e maggio " , " O Sarracino " , " Ma l 'amore no " , " Violino tzigan " e " Due note "
Finalist with " Tintarella di luna "
Finalist with " Na sera ' e maggio "
1961
Nomination and performance at the Sanremo Music Festival with :
" Io amo tu ami " ( Fourth place )
" Le mille bolle blu " ( Fifth place )
1963
Nomination and performance at Canzonissima with " Il cielo in una stanza " and " Stringimi forte i polsi "
Finalist with " Il cielo in una stanza "
1964
Best international artist Award , in Japan
Best Album of the Year Critics Award for the album " Mina "
Oscar del disco ' 64 Critics Award for the album " Mina "
1965
Nomination and performance at the Mostra Internazionale di Musica Leggera with " L 'ultima occasione "
1966
Nomination and performance at the Mostra Internazionale di Musica Leggera with " Ta @-@ ra @-@ ta @-@ ta "
Gondola d 'oro Award at the Mostra Internazionale di Musica Leggera
1968
Nomination and performance at the Mostra Internazionale di Musica Leggera with " Ta @-@ ra @-@ ta @-@ ta "
1987
Targa Tenco in the category Performer of the Year with the album " Rane supreme "
2001
– Grand Officer Order of Merit of the Italian Republic : Awarded the second highest civil honour in Italy , by President Carlo Azeglio Ciampi on 1 June 2001 .
2010
Career Award at Ti lascio una canzone
= = = Records = = =
Best selling Italian singer with Adriano Celentano , and best selling Italian female artist with over 150 million records sold .
The web event , live on the portal Wind , which portrays some video clips of the artist in the recording studio , has recorded over 20 million hits , and was one of the most followed of all times in Italy .
She is the most charted artist in the Italian charts , and between albums and singles , she has scored 24 number one , 61 top @-@ three , 86 top @-@ five , 114 top @-@ ten and 130 top @-@ twenty , for a total of 79 albums and 71 singles in the chart .
= = = = Albums : records in Italy = = = =
= = = = Singles : records in Italy = = = =
= = Personal life = =
In her early teens , Mina was a competitive swimmer for the Canottieri Baldesio sports club in Cremona , attended by the elite of the Cremonese bourgeoisie at the time . She met her first boyfriend , a fullback for the U.S. Cremonese football club , at the swimming pool at her age of 16 .
Mina fell in love with actor Corrado Pani in 1962 . Their relationship shocked Italian audiences as he was already married although separated from his wife . Their son , Massimiliano Pani , was born on 18 April 1963 . Due to Mina 's refusal to hide the relationship , the singer was banned from performing on public Italian television or radio channels . As her record sales were unaffected and audiences demanded to see Mina on the air , RAI was forced to end the ban and let Mina return to television on 10 January 1964 . Within a year , her affair with Corrado ended .
Mina 's brother Alfredo Mazzini died in a car accident in 1965 . A year later she and her father moved to Lugano , Switzerland . Mina 's intimate relationships , however , remained in Italy , as she had a brief affair with the actor Walter Chiari . A later relationship with actor Gian Maria Volontè ended after she found out about Volontè 's affair with an actress . Mina 's great love of the late 1960s , with whom she had a relationship that lasted three years and almost led to marriage , was the composer Augusto Martelli . Her second spouse was Virgilio Crocco , a journalist for Il Messaggero , in 1970 . As a result of their marriage , her legal name was changed to Anna Maria Mazzini Crocco . Their daughter Benedetta Mazzini was born on 11 November 1971 . Crocco died in a car accident in 1973 .
Mina became engaged to her current husband , cardiologist Eugenio Quaini , in 1981 . They were married on 10 January 2006 in Lugano . She obtained Swiss citizenship in 1989 . As required in that country , she took on her husband 's last name and her legal name became Anna Maria Quaini . To her public , however , she still addresses herself as Mina Mazzini , also seen in her website 's domain name .
= = Discography = =
= = Filmography = =
Juke box - Urli d 'amore ( 1959 )
Teddy Boys della canzone ( 1960 )
Urlatori alla sbarra ( 1960 )
Madri pericolose ( 1960 )
Io bacio ... tu baci ( 1961 )
Mina ... fuori la guardia ( 1961 )
Das haben die Mädchen gern ( 1962 )
Appuntamento in Riviera ( 1962 )
Silvester Show ( 1964 )
Per amore ... per magia ... ( 1967 )
= = = DVD = = =
Mina signed a contract with the Barilla food label in 1965 and starred in ten pasta commercials by 1971 , directed by Piero Gherardi and Valerio Zurlini among others . In 2005 , Mina 's performances in ads for Barilla were published on VHS and DVD as Nei caroselli Barilla .
The exclusive concert at the La Bussola Club on 16 September 1972 was released by the PDU record company in 2003 as Mina alla Bussola Live ' 72 . Recorded by Polivideo TV company , the event was aired on Sky Italia as a series from 1 to 21 January 1973 .
Footage of Mina 's recording session was released as the Mina in studio DVD in 2001 .
= Bill Quackenbush =
Hubert George " Bill " Quackenbush ( March 2 , 1922 – September 12 , 1999 ) was a Canadian professional ice hockey defenceman who played for the Boston Bruins and Detroit Red Wings in the National Hockey League . During his 14 @-@ year career , he was the first defenceman to win the Lady Byng Memorial Trophy . He won the award after playing the entire 1948 – 49 season without recording a penalty . The penalty @-@ less season was part of a total of 131 consecutive games he played without being assessed a penalty . Quackenbush , considered to be an elite offensive defenceman during his career , was named to the NHL All @-@ Star Team five times , played in eight NHL All @-@ Star games and was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1976 .
Following his retirement from professional ice hockey , he spent 18 years as head coach of various teams at Princeton University . Quackenbush coached men 's golf , and both the men 's and women 's ice hockey teams , at various times . He won eight Ivy League Championships with the men 's golf team and three with the women 's ice hockey team .
= = Early life = =
Quackenbush was born on March 2 , 1922 , in Toronto , Ontario . He was born Hubert George Quackenbush but was given the nickname Bill by his aunt who disliked his given name . He played hockey on outdoor rinks around Toronto during the Great Depression as a youth , and was one of the top high school athletes in Canada as a teenager . In addition to hockey , he was a renowned football and soccer player . During the War Years , he played for the famous Canadian soccer club Toronto Scottish . Quackenbush had an opportunity to play football professionally , but he decided to pursue a career in hockey .
Quackenbush began his junior career playing for the Toronto Native Sons of the Ontario Hockey Association . He scored 13 points in 13 games during the 1940 – 41 season . The following season , he played for the Brantford Lions , scoring 34 points in 23 games , and caught the attention of the Detroit Red Wings of the National Hockey League .
= = Professional career = =
Quackenbush signed as a free @-@ agent with the Red Wings on October 19 , 1942 , and played 10 games during the 1942 – 43 season before breaking his wrist . After recovering from the injury , Detroit assigned him to the American Hockey League where he joined the Indianapolis Capitals . He earned a regular position with the Red Wings during the 1943 – 44 season , scoring 4 goals and 18 points . In the next two seasons he averaged 21 points while only being assessed an average of 8 penalty minutes and scored a career high 11 goals in 1945 – 46 . The following season he earned his first post @-@ season honour , when he was named a Second Team NHL All @-@ Star . He was also named the Red Wings team MVP . He registered a career high 17 penalty minutes in 1947 – 48 and was named a First Team All @-@ Star . The season also saw the start of a streak of 131 consecutive games where Quackenbush was not assessed a penalty . It began with the final 5 regular season and 10 playoff games that year , continued through the entire 60 regular season and 11 playoff games during the 1948 – 49 season , and ended after 45 games of the 1949 – 50 season . At the conclusion of the 1948 – 49 season , he was awarded the Lady Byng Trophy , the NHL 's annual award for sportsmanship and gentlemanly conduct . He was the first defenceman to win the award , and remains one of only three in NHL history to capture the trophy . Detroit General Manager Jack Adams detested the award and felt that any player who won it did not belong on his team , so he promptly traded Quackenbush . He was sent to the Boston Bruins with Pete Horeck for Pete Babando , Lloyd Durham , Clare Martin and Jimmy Peters , Sr.
Quackenbush became a fan favorite upon his arrival in Boston , where his offensive style of play was compared to former Bruin ( and fellow Hall of Famer ) Eddie Shore . In his first season in Boston , Quackenbush scored 8 goals and 25 points . He continued to stay out of the penalty box , registering only 4 penalty minutes . However , it marked the first time in three seasons that he was not named to the NHL All @-@ Star Team . The Bruins defence core was depleted by injury in 1950 – 51 , forcing the team to use several first year players . While this resulted in Quackenbush having to play more minutes , including a game where he played 55 minutes , it also gave him the opportunity to play with his brother Max . It was the only time the two played professionally together . He also set a career high in points with 29 and was again named a First Team NHL All @-@ Star . Over the next five seasons Quackenbush hovered around the 20 point mark and was never assessed more than 8 penalty minutes in a year .
Quackenbush retired following the 1955 – 56 season , having accumulated only 95 penalty minutes over 774 games . This averaged out to seven seconds a game , one of the lowest in NHL history for a player at any position . He was elected to the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1976 .
= = Personal = =
Following his NHL career , Quackenbush worked as a manufacturer 's agent while attending night school at Northeastern University in Boston , Massachusetts . At Northeastern , he earned an Associate 's degree in engineering . Quackenbush also became an assistant coach at Northeastern .
In 1967 , he became the head coach for Princeton University 's men 's ice hockey team , a position he would hold for six seasons . His best season was his first in 1967 – 68 , when the Tigers posted a 13 – 10 – 0 record . It was the highest win total for Princeton since 1935 – 36 . However , his success with the men 's ice hockey team would not last ; Princeton won no more than five games for their next five seasons . His worst campaign was in 1970 – 71 , when Princeton had two 11 game losing streaks and a 1 – 22 – 0 overall record . Because of this , Quackenbush stepped down as the head coach in 1973 . In 1969 he began coaching the Princeton men 's golf team . He enjoyed much greater success with the golf team , leading them to eight Ivy League championships . In 1978 Princeton started a women 's ice hockey team , and Quackenbush was asked to coach them . He was still coaching the golf team but decided to accept the additional position and led them to three consecutive Ivy League championships between 1982 and 1984 . Quackenbush retired from coaching in 1985 , after which he moved to Orlando , Florida , where he lived for several years before moving to New Jersey in 1997 .
He married Joan Kalloch and the couple had three sons , Bruce , Scott and Todd . At the time of his death , Quackenbush also had seven grandchildren . He died of pneumonia and complications from Alzheimer 's disease on September 12 , 1999 , at Chandler Hall Hospice in Newtown , Pennsylvania , at the age of 77 .
= = Playing style = =
Quackenbush was an offensive defenceman who carried the puck up the ice , making use of his stick handling , passing skills and ability to read the play . Over the course of his career , he was considered one of the elite rushing defenceman in the NHL . He was a solid checker , but relied more on positioning and discipline than physical play . This is evident by his low yearly average of penalty minutes and the fact that he was assessed only one major penalty throughout his NHL career .
Defensively he made use of poke checks to take the puck from his opponents and excelled at getting to loose pucks and clearing them out of the defensive zone . He was adept at keeping opposing forwards from creating offense from behind the net .
= = Awards and honours = =
Lady Byng Trophy ( 1949 )
Three time NHL First Team All @-@ Star ( 1948 , 1949 , 1951 )
Two time NHL Second Team All @-@ Star ( 1947 , 1953 )
Eight time NHL All @-@ Star Game participant ( 1947 , 1948 , 1949 , 1950 , 1951 , 1952 , 1953 , 1954 )
Honored Member of the Hockey Hall of Fame ( 1976 )
= = Career statistics = =
All statistics taken from NHL.com
= Joint custody ( United States ) =
Joint custody is a court order whereby custody of a child is awarded to both parties . In joint custody both parents are custodial parents and neither parent is a non @-@ custodial parent , or , in other words , the child has two custodial parents . In the United States , many states recognize two forms of joint custody , which include joint physical custody ( called also " shared custody " or " shared placement " ) and joint legal custody . In joint physical custody , the actual lodging and care of the child is shared according to a court @-@ ordered custody schedule . In joint legal custody , both parents share the ability to have access to their children 's records , such as educational records , health records , and other records .
= = History of joint custody = =
In England , prior to the nineteenth century , common law considered children to be the property of their father . However , the economic and social changes that occurred during the nineteenth century lead to a shift in ideas about the dynamics of the family . Industrialization separated the home and the workplace , keeping fathers away from their children in order to earn wages and provide for their family . Conversely , mothers were expected to stay in the home and care for the household and the children . Important social changes such as women 's suffrage and child development theories allowed for ideas surrounding the importance of maternal care .
There has been a major shift which is favoring joint custody in the United States court system , which began in the mid @-@ 1980s . This change has shifted the emphasis from having the need for the child to have an attachment to one " psychological " parent to the need to have an ongoing relationship between both parents .
Originally , joint legal custody meant joint custody . In this joint legal custody arrangement , the child 's parents shared responsibility over discussing issues related to the child @-@ rearing . In these arrangements with joint legal custody , one of the parents was awarded physical custody , which designated them as the primary parent , or one of the parents was allowed to determine the primary residence of the children . Though this implied that both parents had a " significant period " of time with the children , it did nothing to ensure this factor , which meant that the parent without primary custody of the child could end up having little opportunity to see his or her children .
Increasingly , however , joint physical custody , in many U.S. states , is used with the presumption of equal shared parenting , however , in most states , it is still viewed as creating a necessity to provide each of the parents with " significant periods " of physical custody to ensure the children " frequent and continuing contact " with both parents .
= = Concept of joint custody = =
Many U.S. states recognize two forms of joint custody , which include joint physical custody , and joint legal custody . Joint custody , as a theory , has many different meanings across the United States , which involves different presumptions . One possibility of this meaning is that there is sole legal custody of the children with one of the parents , but there is a division of time in which the child spends time with both parents with a shared residence situation for the children . Alternatively , the children could primarily reside with only one of the parents , but have the authority over decision making be shared between the parents , which allows the parent who does not have the child residing with him or her to have authority over the children , but little chance for a strong relationship .
Joint physical custody and joint legal custody are different aspects of the joint custody arrangement , and determination is often made separately in many U.S. states ' divorce courts . Therefore , it is possible for one parent to have physical custody while sharing legal custody , or inversely , it is possible for one parent to have legal custody while sharing physical custody . In some states this is referred to as custodial parent and noncustodial parent .
Also , where there is joint physical custody , terms of art such as " primary custodial parent " and " primary residence " have no legal meaning other than for determining tax status , and both parents are still custodial parents .
= = = Joint legal custody = = =
Upon getting a divorce , a judge will decide the next few steps for any children involved when dealing with joint legal custody . It ’ s typical , with two parents , for one parent to have physical custody and the other parent to have some sort of visitation rights . Joint legal custody can be awarded to either both of the parents or just one of the parents , depending on the situation and the judgments . Joint legal custody involves having the parents make difficult decisions for their children . The parents decide how to raise their children in matters of schooling , spirituality , social events , sports religion , medical concerns , and other commonplace decisions . In joint legal custody , both parents share the ability to have access to their children 's records , such as educational records , health records , and other records . Both parents have equal decision @-@ making status where the welfare and safety of the children is concerned . This generally entails that both parents must be involved for major legal matters concerning the children , but the " day @-@ to @-@ day " matters and issues are left to the parent who has physical custody of the children .
= = = = Benefits and criticisms of joint legal custody = = = =
There are some inherent benefits to this form of custody arrangement . One main benefit of having joint legal custody is that the parents are legal equals , which means that both parents influence important decisions in the child 's upbringing , which leads to less animosity and negativity between the parents , along with encouraging both parents to be proactive in the child 's upbringing . A second benefit of having joint legal custody is that the parents exhibit a feeling of well being knowing they are working together in making decisions based on what their child 's / children 's needs are . This form of joint custody enables parents to focus solely on the children , with the emphasis on the health and well @-@ being of the child / children . By doing so , this has the potential to reverse some of the emotional effects on the children in the long @-@ run . Another benefit of joint legal custody is that it fosters an environment in which the parents of the child have some form of a means of communication in which open dialogue can lead to ensuring a safe , nurturing environment for the child .
When parents divorce and the children are in the picture , many problems will arise during the difficult process of determining custody . For instance , if there is an argument regarding joint legal custody , the process to earn legal custody will take longer than anticipated and will ultimately impact the relationship of the parents and the children . It may also encourage poor decisions and will damage bonds , which , in turn frequently escalates into a conflict over sole legal custody . Another criticism of having a joint legal custody arrangement is that it is a frequent occurrence for one parent to attempt to control the majority of decisions in the child 's life ( regardless of what the decree of joint legal custody states ) , which generally leads to conflict . Additionally , in a joint legal custody arrangement , if the parents of the children do not get along , this situation has the potential to cause parents to become combative and argue on every decision that needs to be made about their children , which can be extremely stressful for not only the children involved , but also for the parents .
= = = Joint physical custody = = =
In joint physical custody , which is also known as joint physical care , actual lodging and care of the child is shared according to a court @-@ ordered custody schedule ( also known as a " parenting plan " or " parenting schedule " ) . In many cases , the term visitation is no longer used in these circumstances , but rather is reserved to sole custody orders . In some states joint physical custody creates a presumption of equal shared parenting , however in most states , joint physical custody creates an obligation to provide each of the parents with " significant periods " of physical custody so as to assure the child of " frequent and continuing contact " with both parents . For example , states such as Alabama , California , and Texas do not necessarily require joint custody orders to result in substantially equal parenting time , whereas states such as Arizona , Georgia , and Louisiana do require joint custody orders to result in substantially equal parenting time where feasible . Courts generally have not clearly defined what " significant periods " and " frequent and continuous contact " mean , which requires parents to litigate to find out . In some states , however , courts have provided a clear definition , for instance , in Nevada , the Supreme Court has defined joint physical custody as an arrangement where each parent has at least 40 % of the custodial time on a yearly basis .
= = = = Benefits and criticisms of joint physical custody = = = =
According to Gayle Smith , a family lawyer , there are some inherent benefits to a joint physical custody arrangement . One benefit of joint physical custody is that the burden of sole custody is not placed on the parent as the time involved in raising the children is divided among the two parties involved , allowing each of the parties more time to spend on their careers , for instance . A second benefit of joint physical custody is that the children will still have a " significant period " of time with each of the parents , which closely resembles the relationship before the marriage . A third benefit of joint physical custody is that it helps ensure that the children will grow up with both a male and a female role model , which may not be ensured through sole physical custody , for instance .
There are some inherent criticisms to joint physical custody . A criticism of the joint physical custody arrangement is that due to the nature of the arrangement , the parents are in frequent contact with each other than in other situations , leading to conflict which has the potential to negatively impact all parties involved , including the children . Research does not support this concern . Numerous studies found that parents with joint physical custody had lower levels of conflict . There are numerous opinions that the constant moving back and forth between two homes will have a negative impact on children emotionally . The feeling that there is " Mom 's House " and " Dad 's House " doesn 't leave anywhere for the children to feel is " my home " .
= = = = Three main statutes relating to joint custody = = = =
States tend to have one of three main statutes in relation to joint physical custody . One of the statutes states that joint physical custody is chosen over other arrangements unless it is not in the best interest for the children , or in other words it is the preferred arrangement . A second statute states that it is simply an option in which parents may request it or the judge can order it , but it is not necessarily the preferred arrangement . The last statute states that it may be ordered by a judge even against the wishes of the parents .
= = = Frequent joint custody arrangements = = =
Some more frequent parenting schedules include :
Alternating weeks between the parents ' houses / apartments .
Splitting longer periods of time between the parents ' houses / apartments , such as months , several months , or even up to a year .
Spending weekends / holidays with one parent , but subsequently spending most weekdays with the other parent .
Shared 50 / 50 custody has some unique configurations to ensure equitable time sharing , for example the 2 @-@ 2 @-@ 5 @-@ 5 arrangement shown below .
Other shared custody arrangements include 3 @-@ 4 @-@ 4 @-@ 3 , 2 @-@ 2 @-@ 3 , and alternating every 2 days .
= = Bird 's nest custody = =
Bird 's nest custody is a specific form of joint custody . Birds ' nest custody arrangements are arrangements in which , rather than having the children go from one parent 's house to the other parent 's house , the parents move in and out of the house that the children constantly reside in . The general reason for using this arrangement rather than a more commonly used arrangement is so that the burden of upheaval and moving is placed on the parents rather than the child / children .
= = Impact on families = =
Divorce is difficult on all parties involved in the process , including the children . Due to the stressful nature of divorce , along with inherent issues on the amount of time the children can spend with each parent , the process can have a long and lasting impact on the children . Unless the children 's parents are often involved in intense conflict , or one of the parents is abusive and / or mentally ill , the children tend to fare better if the custody arrangement is a joint custody arrangement . Numerous studies have found that in joint custody arrangements , the children tend to exhibit better relationships with their families , better performance in their schools , higher levels of self @-@ esteem , and fewer conduct and emotional issues . Further , it has been found that children that have a sole custody arrangement tend to have poorer outcomes when compared to average children ( or rather children who do not have divorced parents ) , where children that have a joint custody arrangement tend to fare as well as average children . However , joint physical custody with an even division of time is not always necessary . These effects are generally seen simply when the children spend a substantial amount of time with both parents . According to Robert Emery , a divorce mediation expert , " In many ways , joint physical custody is the ideal arrangement for children because they still have two parents very much involved in their lives . " This statement has been supported by psychological data , however this effect is not seen in situations involving high @-@ conflict parental relationships .
The most important factor influencing a child 's well @-@ being and adjustment after divorce is exposure to positive parenting and relationships , followed closely by family economic stability . Children that come from families with low or contained parental conflict , effective and cooperative parenting , positive relationships , and economic stability are more likely to benefit psychologically following divorce , when compared to average children . A study that specifically supports this theory has found that adolescents assigned to a joint custody arrangement scored higher in behavioral , emotional , and academic functioning when compared to children who have been placed in sole custody arrangements . Furthermore , children in joint custody report higher self @-@ esteem and lower levels of behavioral issues and greater overall post @-@ divorce adjustment as opposed to children in sole custody arrangements . However , a child 's temperament and age have also been shown to have a strong impact on the child 's development . Children that have easygoing , adaptable temperaments are much more likely to benefit from the transitions that they will inevitably experience from a joint custody arrangement . Furthermore , some commentators believe that infants and preschoolers are not likely to benefit from joint custody arrangements due to the importance of a consistent routine and the security of a primary attachment figure at that age . This belief is not the accepted and settled view of mainstream scholars according to the Warshak consensus report published in an American Psychological Association journal with the endorsement of 110 researchers and practitioners , many of whom are prominent international authorities on attachment , early child development , and divorce .
The benefits for children to maintain relationships with both parents have been repeatedly shown in research . Children in joint custody arrangements often report greater levels of satisfaction with the division of time between their parents and children are also are less likely to feel torn between their parents when compared with children who are in sole custody arrangements . In addition , children in joint custody arrangements report feeling closer to both parents than children in sole custody arrangements . Joint custody arrangements also appear to benefit the parents . Not only do parents in joint custody arrangements report lower levels of conflict with one another , when compared to those in sole custody arrangements , but joint custody is frequently related to more positive relationships , effective parenting , and lower inter @-@ parental conflict ; key factors that ensure a child ’ s well @-@ being following divorce . However , it is important to point out that children are far less likely to do well with joint custody and sole custody arrangements when their parents used them as pawns or when they consistently witness their parents ' frequent , intense , and ongoing conflict .
No matter which side of the debate the experts are on , they all agree on one thing : All forms of custody work best with good communication and a willingness for the parents to work and to shield children from being involved in their parents ' disputes .
= = Other forms of custody = =
Alternating custody is an arrangement whereby the children live for an extended period of time with one parent , and then for a similar amount of time with the other parent . While the children are with the parent , that parent retains sole authority over the children .
Sole custody is an arrangement whereby only one parent has physical and legal custody of a child .
Split custody is an arrangement whereby one parent has full @-@ time custody over some children , and the other parent has full custody over the other children .
Third @-@ party custody is an arrangement in whereby the children do not remain with either biological parent , and are placed under the custody of a third person .
= Brazilian monitor Santa Catharina =
The Brazilian monitor Santa Catharina ( in modern spelling , Santa Catarina ) was the sixth , and last , ship of the Pará @-@ class river monitors built for the Brazilian Navy during the Paraguayan War in the late 1860s . By the time she was completed the war was winding down and she only had one significant engagement against Paraguayan forces in 1869 . The ship was assigned to the Mato Grosso Flotilla after the war . Santa Catharina sank at her moorings while under repair in 1882 .
= = Design and description = =
The Pará @-@ class monitors were designed to meet the need of the Brazilian Navy for small , shallow @-@ draft armored ships capable of withstanding heavy fire . The monitor configuration was chosen as a turreted design did not have the same problems engaging enemy ships and fortifications as did the central battery ironclads already in Brazilian service . The oblong gun turret sat on a circular platform that had a central pivot . It was rotated by four men via a system of gears ; 2 @.@ 25 minutes were required for a full 360 ° rotation . A bronze ram was fitted to these ships as well . The hull was sheathed with Muntz metal to reduce biofouling .
The ships measured 39 meters ( 127 ft 11 in ) long overall , with a beam of 8 @.@ 54 meters ( 28 ft 0 in ) . They had a draft between of 1 @.@ 51 – 1 @.@ 54 meters ( 4 ft 11 in – 5 ft 1 in ) and displaced 500 metric tons ( 490 long tons ) . With only 0 @.@ 3 meters ( 1 ft 0 in ) of freeboard they had to be towed between Rio de Janeiro and their area of operations . Their crew numbered 43 officers and men .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The Pará @-@ class ships had two direct @-@ acting steam engines , each driving a single 1 @.@ 3 @-@ meter ( 4 ft 3 in ) propeller . Their engines were powered by two tubular boilers at a working pressure of 59 psi ( 407 kPa ; 4 kgf / cm2 ) . The engines produced a total of 180 indicated horsepower ( 130 kW ) which gave the monitors a maximum speed of 8 knots ( 15 km / h ; 9 @.@ 2 mph ) in calm waters . The ships carried enough coal for one day 's steaming .
= = = Armament = = =
Santa Catharina had a single 120 @-@ pounder Whitworth rifled muzzle loader ( RML ) in her gun turret . The gun had a maximum range of about 5 @,@ 540 meters ( 6 @,@ 060 yd ) . The 7 @-@ inch ( 178 mm ) shell of the 120 @-@ pounder gun weighed 151 pounds ( 68 @.@ 5 kg ) while the gun itself weighed 16 @,@ 660 pounds ( 7 @,@ 556 @.@ 8 kg ) . Most unusually the guns ' Brazilian @-@ designed iron carriage was designed to pivot vertically at the muzzle ; this was done to minimize the size of the gunport through which splinters and shells could enter .
= = = Armor = = =
The hull of the Pará @-@ class ships was made from three layers of wood that alternated in orientation . It was 457 millimeters ( 18 @.@ 0 in ) thick and was capped with a 102 @-@ millimeter ( 4 in ) layer of peroba hardwood . The ships had a complete wrought iron waterline belt , 0 @.@ 91 meters ( 3 @.@ 0 ft ) high . It had a maximum thickness of 102 millimeters amidships , decreasing to 76 millimeters ( 3 in ) and 51 millimeters ( 2 in ) at the ship 's ends . The curved deck was armored with 12 @.@ 7 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 5 in ) of wrought iron .
The gun turret was shaped like a rectangle with rounded corners . It was built much like the hull , but the front of the turret was protected by 152 millimeters ( 6 in ) of armor , the sides by 102 millimeters and the rear by 76 millimeters . Its roof and the exposed portions of the platform it rested upon were protected by 12 @.@ 7 millimeters of armor . The armored pilothouse was positioned ahead of the turret .
= = Service = =
Santa Catharina was laid down at the Arsenal de Marinha da Côrte in Rio de Janeiro on 8 December 1866 , during the Paraguayan War , which saw Argentina and Brazil allied against Paraguay . She was launched on 5 May 1868 and commissioned the next month . She reached Paraguay in mid @-@ 1868 , when the war was winding down . Santa Catharina , together with her sister ships Ceará and Piauí , broke through the Paraguayan defenses at Guaraio on 29 April 1869 and drove off the defenders . The monitor provided fire support to the army for the rest of the war . After the war she was assigned to the Mato Grosso Flotilla . While docked for repairs in 1882 , Santa Catharina sank at her moorings due to the poor condition of her hull . Her ultimate fate is unknown .
= Mary , Queen of Hungary =
Mary , also known as Maria ( 1371 – 17 May 1395 ) , was Queen regnant of Hungary and Croatia between 1382 and 1385 , and from 1386 until her death . She was the daughter of Louis the Great , King of Hungary and Poland , and his wife , Elizabeth of Bosnia . Mary 's marriage to Sigismund of Luxembourg , a member of the imperial Luxembourg dynasty , was already decided before her first birthday . A delegation of Polish prelates and lords confirmed her right to succeed her father in Poland in 1379 .
Mary was crowned " king " of Hungary on 17 September 1382 , seven days after Louis the Great 's death . Her mother , who assumed regency , absolved the Polish noblemen from their oath of loyalty to Mary in favor of Mary 's younger sister , Hedwig , in early 1383 . The idea of a female monarch remained unpopular among the Hungarian noblemen , the majority of whom regarded Mary 's distant cousin , Charles III of Naples , as the lawful king . To strengthen Mary 's position , the queen mother wanted her to marry Louis , the younger brother of Charles VI of France . Their engagement was announced in May 1385 .
Charles III of Naples landed in Dalmatia in September 1385 . Sigismund of Luxemburg invaded Upper Hungary ( now Slovakia ) , forcing the queen mother to give Mary in marriage to him in October . However , they could not prevent Charles from entering Buda . After Mary renounced the throne , Charles was crowned king on 31 December 1385 , but he was murdered at the instigation of Mary 's mother in February 1386 . Mary was restored , but the murdered king 's supporters captured her and her mother on 25 July . Queen Elizabeth was murdered in January 1387 , but Mary was released on 4 June 1387 . Mary officially remained the co @-@ ruler with Sigismund , who had meanwhile been crowned king , but her influence on the government was minimal . She and her premature son died after her horse threw her during a hunting trip .
= = Childhood ( 1371 – 1382 ) = =
Mary was born in the latter half of 1371 to Louis the Great , King of Hungary and Poland , and his second wife , Elizabeth of Bosnia . She was the second daughter of her parents . They had been childless for over a decade before Mary 's older sister , Catherine , was born in 1370 . Mary and Catherine gained another sibling , Hedwig , in 1374 .
Since Louis had fathered no sons , the expectation that he would bequeath Hungary , Poland , and his claims to the Kingdom of Naples and Provence to his daughters made them desirable spouses for members of the European royal families . Before Mary 's first birthday , her father made a promise to Charles IV , Holy Roman Emperor , that Mary would marry the emperor 's second son , Sigismund of Luxembourg . Louis confirmed his promise in a deed in June 1373 . Mary and Sigismund were closely related , because her paternal grandmother , Elizabeth of Poland , was the sister of his great @-@ grandfather , Casimir III of Poland . Pope Gregory XI issued the dispensation necessary for their marriage on 6 December 1374 . The leading Hungarian and Polish lords confirmed Louis 's promise of Mary 's and Sigismund 's marriage on 14 April 1375 .
Mary 's older sister , Catherine , who had been betrothed to Louis of France , died in late 1378 . Louis the Great confirmed his earlier promise of Mary 's and Sigismund 's marriage to Sigismund 's brother , Wenceslaus , King of the Romans , in Zólyom ( now Zvolen in Slovakia ) in 1379 . Louis and Wenceslaus also agreed that they would acknowledge Urban VI as the lawful pope against Clement VII . Mary was formally engaged to Sigismund in Nagyszombat ( now Trnava in Slovakia ) in the same year . Sigismund , who had meanwhile become Margrave of Brandenburg , came to Hungary .
Louis summoned the Polish prelates and lords to Kassa ( now Košice in Slovakia ) in September 1379 , persuading them to acknowledge Mary 's right to succeed him in Poland . The contemporaneous Jan of Czarnków , who was biased against Louis , recorded that the Poles yielded to the monarch 's demand only after he had prevented them from leaving the town by shutting its gates . At a meeting with Leopold III , Duke of Austria in early 1380 , Louis strongly hinted that he would bequeath Hungary to his younger daughter , Hedwig , who had been engaged to Leopold III 's son , William . Upon Louis 's demand , a delegation of the Polish noblemen again paid homage to Sigismund and Mary on 25 July 1382 . According to the historian Oscar Halecki , Louis wished to divide his kingdoms between his two surviving daughters , but Pál Engel and Claude Michaud write that the ailing king wanted to bequeath both Hungary and Poland on Mary and Sigismund .
= = Reign = =
= = = First years ( 1382 – 1384 ) = = =
Louis the Great died on 10 September 1382 . Cardinal Demetrius , Archbishop of Esztergom , crowned Mary " king " with the Holy Crown of Hungary in Székesfehérvár on 17 September , a day after her father 's burial . Mary 's title and her rapid coronation in the absence of her fiancé , Sigismund , show that her mother and her mother 's supporters wanted to emphasize Mary 's role as monarch and to postpone or even hinder Sigismund 's coronation .
The queen mother , Elizabeth , assumed regency . Palatine Nicholas Garai and Cardinal Demetrius became her main advisors . Most of Louis 's barons preserved their offices ; the queen mother only dismissed the master of the cupbearers , George Czudar , and his brother Peter , voivode of Ruthenia . According to the 15th @-@ century historian Jan Długosz , the Czudar brothers surrendered forts to the Lithuanians , who had " [ h ] eavily bribed " them . Queen Elizabeth had Peter Czudar imprisoned before 1 November ; her charters only stated that he " had obviously been disloyal " without specifying the reasons for his arrest .
All royal charters issued during the first six months of Mary 's reign emphasized that she had lawfully inherited her father 's crown . However , most Hungarian noblemen were strongly opposed to the very idea of a female monarch . They regarded Charles III of Naples as Louis the Great 's legitimate heir because Charles was the last male offspring of the Capetian House of Anjou . Charles could not openly lay claim to Hungary , because his rival for the Kingdom of Naples , Louis I , Duke of Anjou – who was Charles VI of France 's uncle – had invaded Southern Italy in the previous year .
Noblemen from Greater Poland offered to pay homage to either Mary or Hedwig at a meeting in Radomsko on 25 November , but they stipulated that the queen and her husband should live in Poland . The assembly of the nobility of Lesser Poland passed a similar resolution in Wiślica on 12 December . On the latter occasion , in response to Queen Elizabeth 's demand , the noblemen also promised that they would not pay homage to anyone else than either Mary or Hedwig . Mary 's fiancé , Sigismund , who had stayed in Poland , returned to Hungary . Bodzanta , Archbishop of Gniezno , the Nałęcz family , and their allies in Greater Poland favored a native prince , Siemowit IV of Masovia . To avoid a civil war , Queen Elizabeth sent envoys to the Polish noblemen 's next assembly which met in Sieradz in late February 1383 . Her envoys absolved the Poles from their 1382 oath of loyalty to Mary on 28 March , announcing that the queen mother would send her younger daughter , Hedwig , to Poland .
John of Palisna , Prior of Vrana , rose up in open rebellion against the rule of Mary and her mother in the spring of 1383 . The queens made Stephen Lackfi Ban of Croatia . The royal army marched to Croatia and laid siege to Vrana , forcing John of Palisna to flee to Bosnia . The defenders of Vrana surrendered to Mary , who had been present during the siege along with her mother , on 4 November . To strengthen Mary 's position against Charles of Naples , Queen Elizabeth sent her envoys to France and opened negotiations on the marriage of Mary to the younger brother of Charles VI of France , Louis , who had once been engaged to Mary 's sister , Catherine . Mary and the queen mother only left Croatia and Slavonia early next year . Queen Elizabeth replaced Stephen Lackfi with Thomas Szentgyörgyi , who used draconian measures to put an end to a conspiracy against the queens in Zadar in May 1384 .
Although the last Diet was held in the early 1350s , the queens convoked a Diet to deal with the grievances of the noblemen . Mary confirmed her father 's decrees of 1351 summarizing the noblemen 's privileges on 22 June 1384 . The negotiations of Mary 's marriage in France caused a new rift within the Hungarian nobility , because the Lackfis , Nicholas Zámbó and Nicholas Szécsi and other high officers , who had been appointed during Louis the Great 's reign , continued to support Mary 's fiancé , Sigismund , in accordance with Louis the Great 's will . The queen mother replaced them with Nicholas Garai 's supporters in August 1384 . The prelates were also opposed to the French marriage , because the French supported Clement VII whom the Hungarian clergy considered an antipope . Mary 's sister , Hedwig , went to Poland where she was crowned on 16 October 1384 . Cardinal Demetrius , who had accompanied Hedwig to Poland , remained absent from the queens ' court after his return to Hungary . The royal government could not properly function during his absence because he was the keeper of the royal seal .
= = = Neapolitan threat ( 1384 – 1385 ) = = =
Louis I of Anjou died on 10 September 1384 , enabling his rival , Charles III of Naples , to stabilize his rule in Southern Italy during the next months . The consolidation of Charles III 's position in Naples also contributed to the formation of a party of noblemen who supported his claim to Hungary . John Horvat , Ban of Macsó ( now Mačva in Serbia ) , and his brother , Paul , Bishop of Zagreb , were the leading figures of their movement . Sigismund of Luxembourg tried to persuade the queen mother to consent to his marriage to Mary , but she refused him . He left Hungary in early 1385 .
The queens and their supporters initiated negotiations with the representatives of the opposition , but no reconciliation was reached at their meeting in Požega in the spring of 1385 . After a French delegation came to Hungary in May 1385 , Mary was engaged to Louis of France . Louis of France thereafter signed his letters " Louis of France , King of Hungary " , according to Jean Froissart . In the same month , the queen mother dismissed Stephen Lackfi , accusing him of high treason . She also sent letters to Zagreb and other places in the kingdom , forbidding the local inhabitants to support Lackfi , Nicholas Szécsi , Bishop Paul Horvat and their relatives . John and Paul Horvat and their allies formally offered the crown to Charles III of Naples and invited him to Hungary in August . In the same month , Mary confirmed Tvrtko I of Bosnia 's acquisition of Kotor in Dalmatia . Sigismund stormed into Upper Hungary , accompanied by his cousins , Jobst and Prokop of Moravia , and occupied Pozsony County . The queen mother replaced Nicholas Garai with Nicholas Szécsi , and made Stephen Lackfi voivode of Transylvania and Nicholas Zámbó master of the treasury .
Charles III of Naples landed at Senj in Dalmatia in September 1385 and marched to Zagreb . Sigismund of Luxembourg came to Buda and persuaded the queen mother to give her consent to his marriage to Mary . The marriage took place in Buda in October , but Sigismund was not crowned king and received no governmental function . The queen mother convoked a new Diet and Mary again confirmed the noblemen 's liberties , but the queens ' rule remained unpopular . Sigismund left Buda and mortgaged the territories west of the River Vág to his Moravian cousins . Charles of Naples had meanwhile left Zagreb , stating that he wanted to restore peace and public order in Hungary .
= = = Charles 's reign ( 1385 – 1386 ) = = =
Many noblemen joined Charles of Naples who marched towards Buda . Mary and her mother received him ceremoniously before he reached Buda , and he entered the capital in the two queens ' company in early December 1385 . Mary renounced the crown without resistance in the middle of December out of fear that Charles would kill her . Charles first adopted the title governor , but the Diet elected him king . Charles was crowned king of Hungary in Székesfehérvár on 31 December . According to the contemporaneous Lorenzo de Monacis , Mary and her mother , who attended Charles 's coronation , visited Louis the Great 's tomb during the ceremony where they burst into tears because of their ill fate .
Charles did not detain Mary and her mother who continued to live in the royal palace in Buda . Queen Elizabeth and Nicholas Garai decided to get rid of Charles . They persuaded Blaise Forgách , the master of the cupbearers , to join them , promising him the domain of Gimes ( now Jelenec in Slovakia ) if he murdered the king . Upon Queen Elizabeth 's request , Charles visited her and her daughter on 7 February 1386 . During the meeting , Blaise Forgách attacked the king , seriously injuring him on the head . The wounded King Charles was carried to Visegrád where he died on 24 February .
= = = Restoration and capture ( 1386 – 1387 ) = = =
Mary was restored to the throne , with her mother ruling in her name . The queen mother informed the citizens of Kőszeg already on 14 February that " Queen Mary had regained the Holy Crown " . However , the Horvat brothers rose up in open rebellion on behalf of the murdered king 's son , Ladislaus of Naples . Mary 's husband , Sigismund , and his brother , Wenceslaus , invaded Upper Hungary in April . After weeks of negotiations , the queens acknowledged Sigismund 's position as consort in a treaty which was signed in Győr in early May . They also confirmed Sigismund 's mortgage of the lands west of the Vág to Jobst and Prokop of Moravia . After the treaty was signed , the queens returned to Buda and Sigismund went to Bohemia , suggesting that he was dissatisfied with the treaty .
Queen Elizabeth , who according to the 15th @-@ century historian Johannes de Thurocz was " driven by folly " , decided to visit the southern counties of the kingdom that were controlled by supporters of Ladislaus of Naples . The queen mother and Mary set out for Đakovo , accompanied by Nicholas Garai and a modest following around 15 July . However , John Horvát , John of Palisna and their retainers ambushed and attacked the queens and their retinue at Gorjani on 25 July . The queens ' small entourage fought the attackers , but all were killed or captured . Blaise Forgách and Nicholas Garai were beheaded and their heads were thrown into the queens ' carriage . Elizabeth took all blame for the rebellion and begged the attackers to spare her daughter 's life , according to Johannes de Thurocz 's account .
Mary and her mother were imprisoned . They were held in captivity in Gomnec Castle , which was a fortress of the Bishopric of Zagreb . In the queens ' absence , the barons of the realm convoked a Diet under the newly carved " seal of the regnicoles " . On Queen Mary 's behalf , they promised a general pardon , but the Horvats refused to submit . The two queens were dragged to Krupa , and from there to Novigrad Castle on the coast of the Adriatic Sea . The barons or the Diet elected Stephen Lackfi palatine and made Sigismund of Luxembourg regent . John Horvat 's henchmen strangled Queen Elizabeth in Mary 's presence in early January . In | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
the same month , Sigismund invaded Slavonia , but could not defeat the rebels .
Taking advantage of the anarchy in Hungary , Polish troops invaded Lodomeria and Halych in February . Only Vladislaus II of Opole , who claimed the two realms for himself , protested against their action . Sigismund was crowned king on 31 March as it was decided that the kingdom could no longer be without an effective ruler . One of his supporters , Ivan of Krk , laid siege to Novigrad Castle with the assistance of a Venetian fleet , which was under the command of Giovanni Barbarigo . They captured the castle and liberated Mary on 4 June 1387 . She was especially grateful to Barbarigo ; she knighted him and granted an annuity of 600 golden florins to him .
= = = Her husband 's co @-@ ruler ( 1387 – 1395 ) = = =
Mary met her husband in Zagreb on 4 July . She officially remained Sigismund 's co @-@ ruler until the end of her life , but her influence on government was minimal . Sigismund 's land grants were always confirmed with Mary 's own great seal during the first year of their common rule , but thereafter the grantees rarely sought her confirmation . Royal charters counted her regnal years not from her ascension , but from her husband 's coronation . Nevertheless , Mary persuaded her husband to torture and execute John Horvat who was captured in July 1394 although Sigismund would have been willing to spare his life .
Mary was pregnant when she decided to venture out alone on a hunt in a Buda forest on 17 May 1395 . Her horse tripped , threw her and landed on top of her . The trauma induced labor and she gave birth prematurely to a son . The queen succumbed to the fatal injuries ; being far from any kind of assistance , her son died as well . She was buried in the cathedral of Várad ( now Oradea in Romania ) . Mary 's sister , Hedwig , claimed the crown , but Sigismund retained it without much difficulty .
= = Ancestors = =
= Shine ( Gwen Stefani song ) =
" Shine " is a song recorded by American singer Gwen Stefani and featuring vocals by American singer Pharrell Williams . Originally intended for the band No Doubt , it was written and produced by Williams , with additional songwriting from Stefani , as the theme song for the 2014 animated film Paddington . " Shine " is a pop song that incorporates elements of reggae pop and ska , and features lyrics that revolve around the lead character Paddington Bear 's journey to London and his identity crisis . Stefani initially disagreed with Williams ' choice to use literal references to Paddington , like " bear " and " station " , in the lyrics . She later praised the lyrics after watching the film with her children and seeing the complete animation for the Paddington Bear character . She reported that her involvement with the recording was inspired by her then husband Gavin Rossdale and her children 's connection to England .
The track was released on January 13 , 2015 , through a lyric video on The Weinstein Company 's YouTube channel . The song was also promoted in the American trailer for the film . While a low @-@ quality version leaked on December 31 , 2014 , a full version of the record remains unreleased digitally . It was omitted from the film 's soundtrack , and was not included on Stefani 's third studio album This Is What the Truth Feels Like ( 2016 ) . The lyric video is included on the DVD and Blu @-@ ray releases of the film . Critical response to " Shine " was mixed . Some critics praised Stefani and Williams ' chemistry as a team , while others compared it negatively to their previous collaborations and singles . It was frequently compared to Willams ' 2013 single " Happy " , and Stefani and Williams ' 2014 song " Spark the Fire " .
= = Concept and development = =
" Shine " was written and produced by Pharrell Williams , with additional songwriting from Gwen Stefani . In November 2014 , Stefani and Williams announced that they were collaborating on a song for the animated film Paddington . The pair had collaborated previously on the singles : " Hella Good " , " Can I Have It Like That " , " Hollaback Girl " , and " Spark the Fire " . They also served as judges on the American reality television singing competition The Voice in 2014 . Williams initially pitched " Shine " to Stefani as a song for No Doubt , a band in which Stefani is the lead vocalist . Stefani later commented that she immediately noticed similarities between the demo and her music with No Doubt and played it for the rest of the band to get their reaction . No Doubt recorded their version in late 2014 , with Patrick Doyle from Rolling Stone reporting that Stefani was working with the band on a song for the Paddington soundtrack . Despite the announcement , Doyle wrote that : " the song may now be released as a Pharrell / Stefani track " .
In an official statement , film executive Bob Weinstein called Stefani and Williams " the perfect artistic duo " , saying their work " brought to life the charm that Paddington represents " . Stefani said her involvement was motivated by her personal connection to the film 's English setting through her marriage to English musician Gavin Rossdale . She said the film and the track allowed her children to " recognize where they come from " . Williams considered the song to be : " a wonderful opportunity , as a parent , to contribute to something as classic , authentic and generational to all of our lives , as Paddington Bear " ; Stefani said that she was : " honored to join forces with Pharrell and be part of bringing this beloved classic to life for Paddington 's next big adventure " . Williams called the song " a trailer into a wonderful family experience " and developed its concept from his children 's connection with Paddington Bear .
= = Composition and lyrical interpretation = =
" Shine " is a reggae pop and ska song that lasts three minutes and twenty @-@ four seconds . It is composed in the key of E minor using common time and a moderately fast tempo of 140 beats per minute . Instrumentation is provided by strings , horns , a guitar , and a piano to create a " crawling beat " . March Robisch of Thought Catalog described the song as having " that ska quality that made No Doubt so successful " . Digital Spy 's Lewis Corner and Amy Davidson wrote that it is a : " ska @-@ flecked romp of pumped @-@ up foghorns and plodding brass " . A writer from Capital XTRA described the song as having a " mellow beat " while Rolling Stone 's Daniel Sannwald wrote it has a " party @-@ vibe production " .
During the track , Stefani 's vocal range spans two octaves , from the low note of D3 to the high note of A4 . Williams equated Stefani 's tone to that of a " child whisperer " due to her ability to make music that appeals to children . The lyrics are about Paddington Bear and his travels . Rolling Stone called it : " a pop @-@ reggae allegory about a bear with an identity crisis " . The song opens with Stefani singing the first verse and Williams joining in the chorus , with lyrics including " When you 're trying to get home / When you don 't wanna be alone / Look at yourself in the mirror / That 's your way home . " The hook features Stefani repeatedly singing " Shine ! " while Williams screams " Hey ! " . Andy Morris from Gigwise described the lyrics , " So we 're in a strange new land in Paddington station / But you end up in good hands in the fancy British nation " and " that bear with the red hat " , as obvious references to Paddington . According to Daniel Sannwald of Rolling Stone , the lyrics include " Pharrell 's ' Happy " -ish ' Everybody is the same inside ' bridge " that allows the song to appeal to both children and their parents " without sounding overly patronizing " . The song ends with Williams singing in the falsetto register .
In an interview with MTV News , Stefani said that she disagreed initially with Williams ' approach to the lyrics ; while he " was very specific about the lyrics " and wanted to include words directly connected to the film and its character like " bear " , " Paddington " , " station " , Stefani said that she " wanted it to be a little more abstract " . She later reversed this view , saying that she agreed with Williams ' interpretation of the lyrics after watching the film with her children and seeing the complete animations of the Paddington Bear character . In an interview with American Top 40 's Kathleen Perricone , Stefani credited Williams as being central to the song 's development , saying that he was : " the one who really got in there and was able to channel the film lyrically and make it really happen " . MTV 's John Walker questioned whether it could repeat the success of Williams ' previous single " Happy " from the 2013 animated film Despicable Me 2 .
= = Promotion and music video = =
While a low @-@ quality version leaked on December 31 , 2014 , a full version of the record remains unreleased for consumer consumption . A minute and thirty @-@ five second video displaying clips from the film was uploaded to The Weinstein Company 's YouTube channel on January 13 , 2015 ; it received over two million views in 24 hours . The video featured scenes from the film in which : " the iconic Peruvian bear finds himself in all manner of mishaps while trying to find a home and ultimately working his way into our hearts " . It is included on the DVD and Blu @-@ ray releases along with a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes feature on the making of the song . Matthew Jacobson of The Spectrum , a newspaper which is part of the USA Today Network , criticized the video for being " just clips of the movie set to a song " rather than a proper music video . Alternatively , Cinemablend.com 's Jessica Rawden found the video to be " satsifying " and a reviewer from Fanlala enjoyed being able to sing along with the lyrics .
" Shine " is featured in the American trailer and the closing credits for Paddington , but was not included in the British version of the film . Idolator 's Christina Lee wrote that the track was : " a U.S. and Canada exclusive for Paddington " . The song was excluded from the film 's soundtrack and Stefani 's third studio album This Is What the Truth Feels Like ( 2016 ) . During an interview with Stefani and Williams on January 21 , 2015 , radio host Ryan Seacrest erroneously announced the song was available for purchase on the ITunes Store .
= = Critical reception = =
" Shine " received mixed reviews from music critics . E ! News ' Bruna Nessif gave the song a positive review , stating : " When it comes to feel @-@ good music , leave it up to Gwen Stefani and Pharrell to get the job done " . A reviewer from Vibe praised it as " the perfect theme song " . Abe Dewing , a member of the Cambridge Symphony Orchestra , described it as a " sharp , hip tune " in the Boston Herald . He compared its opening trumpet riff to music by British composer Herbert Chappell , who created the theme for the 1975 television series Paddington . Chappell also composed music for the 1986 concerto " Paddington Bear 's First Concert " , which premiered as a part of the Cambridge Symphony Orchestra Family Concerts . Dewing praised Stefani and Willams ' ability : " to compose new music for existing source material intended for children " . A reviewer from the website antiMusic described the recording as " even more feel good " than the pair 's collaboration on " Spark the Fire " . After listening to the leaked version of the song , Aaron Butterfield of the BreatheHeavy website called it : " a catchy tune which feels much more like vintage Stefani than anything we 've seen so far this era " . Rolling Stone 's Daniel Sannwald gave it three and a half stars out of five , praising its " party @-@ vibe production " , and favorably comparing its melody to the chorus of Irish rock band The Cranberries 's 1994 single " Zombie " . Sannwald felt that it would appeal to both children and their parents .
Negative reviews criticized " Shine " for lacking the energy of Williams ' and Stefani 's previous releases . Kevin Apaza of Direct Lyrics described it as " just average " and said it was worse than " Spark the Fire " . In response to the leaked version , Music Times ' Carolyn Menyes wrote that it was too slow in comparison to the " crazy , happy beats and earwormmy hand claps " of " Happy " and the " inane catchiness " of Stefani 's previous singles " Spark the Fire " and " Baby Don 't Lie " . Menyes was critical of Stefani 's vocals , saying she used " an oddly harsh tone " throughout the song . Steven Pond of TheWrap wrote that Stefani 's vocal delivery " never quite crosses the line to catchy " .
" Shine " was included in the list of 79 contenders for the Academy Award for Best Original Song , but it did not receive a nomination .
= = Partial credits = =
Partial credits adapted from American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers .
Management
ASCAP / Harajuku Lover Music
Gwen Stefani appears courtesy of Interscope Records
Pharrell Williams appears courtesy of Columbia Records and i am OTHER Entertainment
Personnel
Writers – Gwen Renee Stefani , Pharrell Williams
Performance – Gwen Stefani , Pharrell Williams
= USS Illinois ( BB @-@ 65 ) =
Illinois ( BB @-@ 65 ) was to have been the fifth Iowa @-@ class battleship constructed for the United States Navy and was the fourth ship to be named in honor of the 21st US state .
Hull BB @-@ 65 was originally to be the first ship of the Montana @-@ class battleships , but changes during World War II resulted in her being reordered as an Iowa @-@ class battleship . Adherence to the Iowa @-@ class layout rather than the Montana @-@ class layout allowed BB @-@ 65 to gain eight knots in speed , carry more 20 mm and 40 mm anti @-@ aircraft guns , and transit the locks of the Panama Canal ; however , the move away from the Montana @-@ class layout left BB @-@ 65 with a reduction in the heavier armaments and without the additional armor that were to have been added to BB @-@ 65 during her time on the drawing board as USS Montana .
Like her sister ship Kentucky , Illinois was still under construction at the end of World War II . Her construction was canceled in August 1945 , but her hull remained until 1958 when it was broken up .
= = Design = =
The passage of the Second Vinson Act in 1938 had cleared the way for construction of the four South Dakota @-@ class battleships and the first two Iowa @-@ class fast battleships ( those with the hull numbers BB @-@ 61 and BB @-@ 62 ) . The latter four battleships of the class , those designated with the hull numbers BB @-@ 63 , BB @-@ 64 , BB @-@ 65 , and BB @-@ 66 were not cleared for construction until 1940 , and at the time BB @-@ 65 and BB @-@ 66 were intended to be the first ships of the Montana class .
Originally , BB @-@ 65 was to be the United States Navy 's counter to the Empire of Japan 's Yamato @-@ class battleships , whose construction at the time was known to the highest @-@ ranking members of the United States Navy , along with the rumors that the Yamato @-@ class ships would carry guns of up to 18 in ( 460 mm ) . To combat this , the United States Navy began designing a 58 @,@ 000 ton ship with an intended armament of twelve 16 in ( 410 mm ) guns . This battleship took shape in the mid @-@ 1930s as USS Montana , the lead ship of her class of battleships . She would have fielded three more 16 in ( 410 mm ) guns than those mounted aboard the Iowa class , a more powerful secondary battery of 5 in ( 130 mm ) / 54 caliber Mark 16 dual purpose mounts , and an increase in armor designed to enable Montana to withstand the effects of enemy guns comparable to her own .
The increase in Montana 's firepower and armor came at the expense of her speed and her Panamax capabilities , but the latter issue was to be resolved through the construction of a third , much wider set of locks at the Panama Canal . As the situation in Europe deteriorated in the late @-@ 1930s , the USA began to be concerned once more about its ability to move warships between the oceans . The largest US battleships were already so large as to have problems with the canal locks ; and there were concerns about the locks being put out of action by enemy bombing . In 1939 , to address these concerns , construction began on a new set of locks for the canal that could carry the larger warships which the US had either under construction or planned for future construction . These locks which would have enabled Montana to transit between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans without the need to sail around the tip of South America . As USS Montana , BB @-@ 65 would have been the only battleship class commissioned by the US to approach the Imperial Japanese Navy 's Yamato class on the basis of armor , armament , and tonnage .
By 1942 the United States Navy shifted its building focus from battleships to aircraft carriers after the successes of carrier combat in both the Battle of the Coral Sea , and to a greater extent , the Battle of Midway . As a result , the construction of the US fleet of Essex @-@ class aircraft carriers had been given the highest priority for completion in the US shipyards by the US Navy . The Essex @-@ class carriers were proving vital to the war effort by enabling the Allies to gain and maintain air supremacy in the Pacific War , and were rapidly becoming the principal striking arm of the United States Navy in the ongoing effort to defeat the Empire of Japan . Accordingly , the United States accepted shortcomings in the armor for their North Carolina @-@ class battleships , South Dakota @-@ class , and Iowa @-@ class battleships in favor of additional speed , which enabled these battleship classes to steam at a comparable speed with the Essex @-@ class and provide the carriers with the maximum amount of anti @-@ aircraft protection .
= = Development = =
When BB @-@ 65 was redesignated an Iowa @-@ class battleship , she was assigned the name Illinois and reconfigured to adhere to the " fast battleship " designs planned in 1938 by the Preliminary Design Branch at the Bureau of Construction and Repair . Her funding was authorized via the passage of the Two @-@ Ocean Navy Act by the US Congress on 19 July 1940 , and she would now be the fifth Iowa @-@ class battleship built for the United States Navy . Her contract was assigned on 9 September 1940 , the same date as Kentucky . Illinois 's keel was laid down at the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard , on 6 December 1942 ; her projected completion date was 1 May 1945 . This amounted to a construction time of about 30 months . She would be tasked primarily with the defense of the US fleet of Essex @-@ class aircraft carriers . In adherence with the Iowa @-@ class design , Illinois would have a maximum beam of 108 ft ( 33 m ) and a waterline length of 860 ft ( 260 m ) , permitting a maximum speed of 32 @.@ 5 knots ( 60 @.@ 2 km / h ) .
Like Kentucky , Illinois differed from her earlier sisters in that her design called for an all @-@ welded construction , which would have saved weight and increased strength over a combination riveted / welded hull used on the four completed Iowa @-@ class ships . Engineers considered retaining the original Montana @-@ class armor for added torpedo and naval mine protection because the newer scheme would have improved Illinois 's armor protection by as much as 20 % . This was rejected due to time constraints and Illinois was built with an Iowa @-@ class hull design . Funding for the battleship was provided in part by " King Neptune " , a Hereford swine auctioned across the state of Illinois as a fundraiser , ultimately helping to raise $ 19 million in war bonds .
= = Fate = =
Illinois 's construction was put on hold in 1942 after the Battles of Coral Sea and Midway , while the Bureau of Ships considered an aircraft carrier conversion proposal for Illinois and Kentucky . As proposed , the converted Illinois would have had an 864 @-@ foot ( 263 m ) long by 108 @-@ foot ( 33 m ) wide flight deck , with an armament identical to the carriers of the Essex class : four twin 5 @-@ inch gun mounts and four more 5 @-@ inch guns in single mounts , along with six 40 mm quadruple mounts . It was abandoned after the design team decided that the converted carriers would carry fewer aircraft than the Essex class , that more Essex @-@ class carriers could be built in the same amount of time to convert the battleships , and that the conversion project would be significantly more expensive than new Essexes . Instead , Illinois and Kentucky were to be completed as battleships , but their construction was given very low priority .
Ultimately , the ship was canceled on 11 August 1945 , when she was about 22 % complete . She was struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 12 August 1945 . Her incomplete hulk initially was retained on the belief that it could be used as a target in nuclear weapons tests . The cost to complete the ship enough to be able to launch her — some $ 30 million — was too great , however , and the plan was abandoned . She remained in the dockyard until September 1958 , when she was broken up on the builder 's ways .
The ship 's bell was cast , and is now at the Memorial Stadium at the University of Illinois at Urbana @-@ Champaign . It reads USS Illinois 1946 . The bell is on loan from the Naval Historical Center ( Accession # 70 @-@ 399 @-@ A ) , Washington Navy Yard , Washington DC , to the Naval Reserve Officers Training Corps ( NROTC ) at the university . The bell is traditionally rung by NROTC members when the football team scores a touchdown or goal .
= Boughton Monchelsea Place =
Boughton Monchelsea Place , previously Boughton Court , is a 16th @-@ century country house in Boughton Monchelsea , Kent , England . The first part of the house was built by Robert Rudston circa 1567 – 75 on the site of an earlier manor house . It has been modified a number of times during its history achieving its present form in 1819 . It has been a home to a number of members of parliament for Maidstone or for Kent , including Sir Francis Barnham ( owner 1613 – 46 ) , Sir Robert Barnham ( 1646 – 85 ) Sir Barnham Rider ( 1698 – 1728 ) and Thomas Rider ( 1805 – 47 ) .
The house sits on a south facing slope giving views across the extensive deer park and the Weald beyond . Kitchen gardens to the north of the house remain as remnants of 16th @-@ century formal garden planting . The house is a Grade I listed building and its barn is listed Grade II . The parks and gardens are listed Grade II .
= = History = =
Prior to the sixteenth century , the manor of Boughton Monchelsea passed by marriage or sale through the ownership of several families of minor gentry . From 1214 , the manor was in the possession of the Hougham family . On the death of Robert de Hougham in 1317 , it passed to his daughter Benedicta , wife of John de Shelving . On her death in 1349 without a male heir , the manor was divided between her daughters Helen and Joan .
The portion of the manor of which the Boughton Monchelsea Place estate was part passed to Joan de Shelving 's husband John Brampton . The estate then passed to his daughter Benedicta , wife of Thomas Towne , and to her daughter Benedicta , wife of William Watton . Around 1460 , Watton sold the estate to Reginald Peckham who recombined the two parts of the manor . On the death of Peckham 's grandson Thomas Peckham in 1521 , the manor was left to his daughter . Her husband quickly sold the estate to Sir Thomas Wyatt .
His son , Sir Thomas Wyatt the younger , sold the estate to Robert Rudston in 1551 . Following Rudston 's involvement in Wyatt 's rebellion against Mary I , he was fortunate to be reprieved from a death sentence , though his estate was confiscated by the Crown . It was restored to him when Elizabeth I came to the throne in 1558 . Rudston had the first parts of the current house built circa 1567 – 75 as an extension to an earlier house to the west .
Rudston 's son Isaac next owned the house . On his death without a son , he left the house to his brother Belknap Rudston , who , on his death in 1613 , left it to Sir Francis Barnham , several times member of parliament for Maidstone . Sir Francis 's son Sir Robert Barnham next occupied the house , taking the manor 's name as his territorial designation when created a baronet in 1663 . Sir Robert served as MP for Maidstone in the Convention Parliament of 1660 and in the Cavalier Parliament from 1661 to 1679 . His son Francis predeceased him and , on his death around 1685 , the estate was inherited by his daughter Philadelphia Barnham , wife of Thomas Rider .
Thomas Rider was MP for Maidstone in 1690 and from 1696 to 1698 . He carried out a number of alterations to the house and its grounds between 1685 and 1690 . Following his death in 1698 , the estate was inherited by his son Sir Barnham Rider , MP for Maidstone from 1722 to 1727 , and then his son , Thomas Rider . The second Thomas Rider left the house to his cousin Ingram Rider in 1786 . In 1805 , Ingram Rider left it to his son Thomas Rider , MP for Kent and West Kent from 1831 to 1835 . The third Thomas Rider rebuilt parts of the house and extended and re @-@ landscaped the park . On his death in 1847 , he left the house to his nephew , also Thomas Rider , who let the house to a series of tenants . From 1903 to 1998 , the house was occupied by the Winch family , firstly as leaseholders then , from 1960 , as freeholders . The Winches sold the house in 1998 ; it remains in private ownership and belongs to the Kendrick family .
= = Buildings = =
The two @-@ storey L @-@ shaped main house forms the east and south sides of a courtyard with single @-@ storey stables forming the north and west sides . To the south @-@ west of the house , is a second , larger courtyard flanked on its west side by a large barn and on its north and south by single storey return wings .
The house is the remainder of a former courtyard house built for Robert Rudston circa 1567 – 75 as an extension to an earlier , pre @-@ 16th @-@ century house . It is built of Kentish ragstone , roughly coursed on the north half of the east range and more regularly coursed on the south half of the east range and on the south range . The centre of the east range features a two @-@ storey porch with galleted stonework on the upper level . The roof is of plain clay tiles , stone gabled at the north end of the east range but otherwise hipped , with four stone gabled dormers on the east façade and five smaller ones on the south façade . A frieze band with cornice and moulded stone base runs above the first floor windows on the east façade but is not repeated on the south , where only a moulded string course appears . Battlements were added to the eaves on both façades in 1819 as part of the third Thomas Rider 's works .
Windows on the east façade are rectangular with eight windows at ground floor and five at first floor , all with gothic frames . On the south façade , the ground floor windows are taller with a number being two- and three @-@ lighted and stone framed . A chamfered two @-@ storey bay is located slightly to the right of centre . Windows on the first floor are simpler and less tall . The 1819 works also included the demolition and replacement of the north and west ranges and substantial rebuilding of the south range . The north range is built up in red and grey brick from the stone walls of the demolished range . The west range is surmounted by a 17th @-@ century clock turret relocated from the south range when that was rebuilt . The bell is dated 1647 .
Internally , the south range includes three 16th- or early @-@ 17th @-@ century stone fireplaces that have probably been reused from the earlier house . The north room of the attic floor and principal room on the first floor include 16th- or early @-@ 17th @-@ century timber panelling . The room over the entrance hall features late @-@ 17th @-@ century panelling . Two period staircases feature ; one from each of the 16th and 17th centuries . The windows in the entrance hall and north room of the east range include armorial stained glass windows dated 1567 , 1567 and 1575 . The stairwell includes windows with 17th @-@ century German stained glass taken from the adjacent church of St Peter and other , undated stained glass .
The timber @-@ framed western barn was constructed in the 15th or early 16th century with an extension or alternations made at the north end in the late 18th or early 19th century . The walls are constructed in a combination of methods – stone walling , weatherboarding or brick infill between timber studs . The steeply pitched plain tiled roof contains six dormers on the west side and one on the east side and is hipped with a gablet to the south end and half @-@ hipped to the north end . A carriage entry passes through the centre of the barn . A single @-@ storey extension runs at a right angle to the south end of the east side , probably built in the 16th century . The two @-@ storey extension to the east side of the north end is lower than the main barn with a half @-@ hipped roof .
The house and courtyard buildings are Grade I listed buildings . The barn is listed Grade II . Within the grounds are a sundial , a mounting block and a stone arch , each Grade II listed .
= = Park = =
The house sits in grounds of approximately 40 hectares ( 99 acres ) on a south @-@ facing escarpment giving views south and east across the Weald . The formal entrance is north @-@ west of the house , which is approached through woodland along a drive of approximately 850 metres ( 930 yd ) . Immediately to the east and south of the house are open lawns . To the north of the house are three enclosed gardens , two of which are arranged as kitchen gardens . These are remnants of a 16th @-@ century formal garden scheme which was removed and replaced by informal landscaping during the third Thomas Rider 's tenure . The steeply sloping ground to the south and south @-@ east of the house is maintained as a deer park with a lake about 400 metres ( 440 yd ) south @-@ east of the house .
The estate is private property and is not usually open to the public , but the Greensand Way long distance walk crosses the parkland east @-@ west to the north of the house .
= Showdown ( Pendulum song ) =
" Showdown " is the fourth single and first track from the album In Silico by Australian drum and bass band Pendulum . It has been remixed by several artists , including DJ Clipz ( who is also Red Light ) and Excision . It is also the first single taken from In Silico not to use the album logo prominently on its cover .
The single was originally released through various online music stores on 5 January 2009 . It was not available in any physical format until 9 February , when Warner Music UK released the 12 " picture disc of " Showdown " . To help promote the single , Pendulum also released a Space Invaders themed video game which offered players a chance of winning an official framed gold disc of In Silico .
= = Background and writing = =
" Showdown " was originally written and produced for the album In Silico by Rob Swire . Although primarily influenced by drum and bass , the song contains prominent elements of both early hard rock and techno , and has even been described as " dance metal " by some critics . " Showdown " opens with vocals from Swire , before going into a heavy guitar riff which is the main focus of the track . It also makes extensive use of both sampled and acoustic drums to produce large and heavy sounds respectively .
= = Critical reception = =
" Showdown " has received generally positive reviews from music critics . Angry Ape reviewer David Adair described the single as " a snappy and slightly abrasive number that will keep their new found fans amongst the Kerrang reading community , very happy " . David Knight observed that " you won 't hear a better riff on a dance track without a great amount of searching " , but described the remixes released with the single as " absolutely terrible " . It was chosen as " Single of the Week " on 12 January 2009 by the British tabloid newspaper Daily Star .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Showdown " , directed by Nick Bartleet , was released on MySpaceTV on 12 December 2008 to promote Pendulum 's upcoming single . It was originally intended to be Internet @-@ only , but was subsequently A @-@ listed on the television channel MTV Dance .
The video draws parallels from dog fighting , focusing on a fight scene in which the dogs are replaced by two young women , and culminates in the escape of one woman at the end of the video . It also depicts controversial scenes of women being kept in cages and men gambling on the outcome of fights , which contributed to Knight describing the video as " highly problematic " . Some scenes of the video have been compared with the movie Fight Club by various sources , including Bartleet .
= = Promotional video game = =
On 24 December , shortly after the release of their music video , Pendulum presented a Space Invaders themed video game on their website to further promote " Showdown " . By scoring more points , players who submitted their details could unlock more of the " Live at the Brixton Academy " version of " Showdown " . They also had a chance of winning an official framed gold disc of In Silico .
The game was a modified version of Space Invaders , in which the aliens had been replaced with different coloured variants of the In Silico logo , and the bunkers were replaced with pairs of letters spelling out the band 's name . Players had three lives to score as many points as possible , after which their score was logged on a high score table . The album version of " Showdown " was played during the game .
= = Marketing and release = =
" Showdown " was first released on 5 January 2009 through various online music stores , including 7digital , Amazon.com , and iTunes . Along with the album version and radio edit of the song , the download bundle included a live recording and several remixes by other artists . The single was later released on a 12 " picture disc , containing the album version and Excision remix of " Showdown " , on 9 February by Warner Music UK .
The song " Showdown " was featured on In Silico as the opening track . It was the first single from the album not to use the In Silico logo prominently on its cover , although most of the logo can be seen on a bass drum in the cover art . Live versions of the song have appeared on iTunes Live : London Festival ' 08 , as a B @-@ side on " The Other Side " , as well as in the single download bundle . It was also featured in the soundtrack of Disney Interactive Studios ' off @-@ road racing video game Pure . The track is also featured in the first trailer for Forza Motorsport 3 , on the Xbox 360 as well as in the game itself during races , and CSI : NY episode " Green Piece " . The song was featured for available in the soundtrack of Marvel 's The Punisher : War Zone .
= = = Release history = = =
= = Formats and track listings = =
These are the major formats and associated track listings of single releases of " Showdown " , written and produced by Rob Swire .
= = Personnel = =
" Showdown " is credited to :
Pendulum :
Rob Swire – writer , producer , vocals , mixing
Gareth McGrillen – production assistant , bass
Peredur ap Gwynedd – guitar
Paul Kodish – acoustic drums
Other contributors :
= = = Video personnel = = =
The music video for " Showdown " is credited to :
= Armenian Monastic Ensembles of Iran =
The Armenian Monastic Ensembles of Iran , located in the West Azerbaijan and East Azerbaijan provinces in Iran , is an ensemble of three Armenian churches that were established during the period between the 7th and 14th centuries A.D. The edifices — the St. Thaddeus Monastery , the Saint Stepanos Monastery , and the Chapel of Dzordzor — have undergone many renovations . These sites were inscribed as cultural heritages in the 32nd session of the World Heritage Committee on 8 July 2008 under the UNESCO ’ s World Heritage List . The three churches lie in a total area of 129 hectares ( 320 acres ) and were inscribed under UNESCO criteria ( ii ) , ( iii ) , and ( vi ) for their outstanding value in showcasing Armenian architectural and decorative traditions , for being a major centre for diffusion of Armenian culture in the region , and for being a place of pilgrimage of the apostle St. Thaddeus , a key figure in Armenian religious traditions . They represent the last vestiges of old Armenian culture in its southeastern periphery . The ensemble is in a good state of preservation .
= = Location = =
The Armenian Monastic Ensembles of Iran are located in the West Azerbaijan and East Azerbaijan provinces in Iran . The ensemble consists of three Armenian churches that were established during the period between the 7th and 14th centuries A.D. The edifices — the St. Thaddeus Monastery , the Saint Stepanos Monastery , and the Chapel of Dzordzor — have undergone many renovations . The three churches lie in a total area of 129 hectares ( 320 acres ) . The St. Thaddeus Monastery also known as " Kara Kelisa " or " Black Church " in West Azerbaijan province is about 18 kilometres ( 11 mi ) from Maku . The Saint Stepanos Monastery is 17 kilometres ( 11 mi ) to the west of Jolfa city , East Azarbaijan Province in northwest Iran .
= = History = =
The Armenian people arrived in northwestern Iran — known as Iranian Azerbaijan — in the 6th century B.C. , and converted to Christianity in the early 4th century A.D. A portion of the region forms part of historical Armenia . Some of the oldest Armenian chapels , monasteries and churches in the world are located within this region of Iran , and the Iranian Azerbaijan region in general is home to the oldest churches in Iran .
According to unverified reports it is believed that St. Thaddeus was buried at the site of the St. Thaddeus Monastery in the 1st century A.D. , and that St. Gregory was responsible for establishing a monastery here in the 4th century . However , there is recorded proof that St. Thaddeus Monastery dates to the 7th century . It was the second Armenian church to be built , following the Etchmiadzin Cathedral and was the seat of the diocese in the 10th century . It was destroyed in an earthquake in 1319 and was rebuilt due to the efforts of Bishop Zachariah in the 1320s .
During the reign of the Safavid dynasty in the 15th century , the monasteries were preserved . The monasteries were then deserted during the 16th and 17th centuries following a period of attacks by the Ottomans that prompted many Armenians to emigrate to central Iran . Once the Safavids reestablished themselves in the area , the monasteries were reoccupied and renovated . However , during the 18th century the area became a cauldron of conflicts for domination among the Russian , Ottoman , and Persian empires . When the Persians finally gained control , the monasteries were damaged . During the Qajar era , Armenians regained control over the monasteries and they were rebuilt . The existing St. Thaddeus Monastery was rebuilt in 1814 and refurbished in the 1970s .
Similarly , it is recorded that Saint Stepanos Monastery was first established in 649 A.D. and a new building constructed at the same location in the 10th century . It was a major Christian church during the history of Armenian independence and development . After it suffered damages due to earthquake , it was rebuilt by Bishop Zachariah in the 1320s . During the entire 14th century , it was the centre of influence in the region for Christian missionary work . This period marked the creation of literary manuscripts and paintings on religious themes . The monastery was rebuilt during the period from 1819 to 1825 and again became a center of religious activity . It was refurbished in the 1970s , and again during the period from 1983 to 2001 .
The Dzordzor Chapel was built on the bank of the Makuchay River at Dzordzor by Bishop Zachariah in 1314 on very modest lines , making use of the vestiges of an earlier religious monument dated between the 10th and 12th centuries . During the period of Ottoman rule , some parts of the building were destroyed . Later , the chapel came under threat of submergence from a proposed dam and had to be shifted to a new location upstream .
= = = World heritage status = = =
The three monasteries of the ensemble were inscribed on 2008 under UNESCO criteria ( ii ) , ( iii ) , and ( vi ) for their outstanding value in showcasing Armenian architectural and decorative traditions , for being a major centre for diffusion of Armenian culture in the region , and for being a place of pilgrimage of the apostle St. Thaddeus , a key figure in Armenian religious traditions . They represent the last vestiges of old Armenian culture in its southeastern periphery . The ensemble is in a good state of preservation .
= = Architecture = =
The three monuments represent a blend of architectural styles from the Byzantine , Persian , Eastern Orthodox , Assyrian , Persian , Muslim , and Armenian cultures .
= = = Saint Thaddeus Monastery = = =
The Saint Thaddeus Monastery ensemble is in two zones , the first of which covers an area of 29 @.@ 85 hectares ( 73 @.@ 8 acres ) and comprises four chapels and the monastery itself . A compound wall of 64 by 51 metres ( 210 ft × 167 ft ) with towers at the corners encircles the main monastery complex . Adjoining this wall , residential quarters have been built for the monks . In the interior courtyard , the main religious structures are located in a space of 41 @.@ 7 by 23 @.@ 6 metres ( 137 ft × 77 ft ) . There is a large entrance that is built on four pillars . The main church — the so @-@ called White Church — is built on a Greek cross plan . It has an umbrella @-@ shaped dome and a bell tower . There is also a Black Church , the oldest part of the ensemble , which is also crowned by a dome . The exterior artwork consists of cut @-@ stone fascia of different colours , an Armenian architectural art form . The ornamentation in the interior is a blend of Armenian and Persian themes . There are also three more chapels to the northeast of the main monastery .
The second zone is about 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) away to the southeast of the monastery , occupies an area of 1 @.@ 98 hectares ( 4 @.@ 9 acres ) , and is the location of a fifth chapel , the Chapel of Sandokt . In one of the two cemeteries next to this chapel there is a sarcophagus .
= = = Saint Stepanos Monastery = = =
The Saint Stepanos Monastery ensemble is in the gorge of the Araxe River , which borders Azerbaijan . The central zone of the monastery is in an area of 72 @.@ 06 hectares ( 178 @.@ 1 acres ) . The main chapel is located on a steep slope within an enclosed wall in an area of 48 by 72 metres ( 157 ft × 236 ft ) . There are also residences built for the monks next to the monastery . The length of the church , built in a Greek cross form , is 27 metres ( 89 ft ) and its height is 25 metres ( 82 ft ) . A four @-@ pillared entrance is topped by a bell tower built in two levels ; the first level is rectangular in shape , and at the second level there are pillars supporting an umbrella @-@ shaped dome . Built in the style of Armenian religious architecture , it has cut @-@ stone fascia . Within the church there are paintings that are based on similar ones at the Echmiatsin Church , which is a blend of Christian and Islamic art forms .
Downstream of the monastery is an area of 10 @.@ 85 hectares ( 26 @.@ 8 acres ) where the village , the cemetery , and an associated church are located . The village is destroyed except for the church , which is built in the form of a basilica , with four pillars supporting a cupola . The cemetery in the village has tombs dated to 16th century .
Upstream , about 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) away , is the Chupan Chapel ( Chupan meaning " shepherd " ) , located close to the town of Jolfa on the bank of the Araxe River in an area of 4 @.@ 18 hectares ( 10 @.@ 3 acres ) . It is well preserved and is built to a rectangular plan of 5 @.@ 5 by 6 @.@ 5 metres ( 18 ft × 21 ft ) . It has a dome that is supported over a tambour , but the rest of the structures next to the chapel are in ruins .
= = = Chapel of Dzordzor = = =
The old Chapel of Dzordzor lies in the Makuchay River valley , occupying an area of 0 @.@ 79 hectares ( 2 @.@ 0 acres ) . What is present now is a remnant of the large monastery that once existed there , as the entire chapel has been shifted to a new location 600 metres ( 2 @,@ 000 ft ) away due to submergence resulting from a dam that was built on the river . Before the building was dismantled , detailed plans were made and the dismantled elements numbered so that they could be reassembled to the same design at the new site . Of 1500 stones used at the new site to rebuild the chapel with the dome , only 250 were new stones as all the numbered stones from the old site were able to be reassembled according plan . This reconstruction was carried out during the period 1987 – 88 .
= Last Day in Florida =
" Last Day in Florida " is the eighteenth episode of the eighth season of the American comedy television series The Office and the show 's 170th episode overall . The episode originally aired on NBC in the United States on March 8 , 2012 . " Last Day in Florida " was written by Robert Padnick and directed by Matt Sohn . The episode features the final appearance of Lindsay Broad and guest stars Georgia Engel .
The series — presented as if it were a real documentary — depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania , branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In the episode , Robert California ( James Spader ) reveals he hates Nellie Bertram 's ( Catherine Tate ) business plan and Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) swings into action to keep Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) from getting fired . Meanwhile , Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) learns that Erin Hannon ( Ellie Kemper ) is not going to return to Scranton . Also , Toby Flenderson ( Paul Lieberstein ) and Darryl Philbin ( Craig Robinson ) compete to sell cookies to Kevin ( Brian Baumgartner ) .
" Last Day in Florida " received mixed reviews from critics , with multiple critics praising Wilson and Krasinski 's performance . Like the previous episodes involving Florida , the Scranton sub @-@ plot received mixed reviews . According to Nielsen Media Research , " Last Day in Florida " was viewed by an estimated 4 @.@ 89 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 6 rating / 7 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . The episode ranked second in its timeslot and was also the highest @-@ rated NBC series of the night .
= = Plot = =
Dwight ( Rainn Wilson ) celebrates his winning of the Vice President position on a golf outing with Jim ( John Krasinski ) , Robert California ( James Spader ) , and Nellie Bertram ( Catherine Tate ) . After playing , Robert tells Jim that he dislikes the business plan for the Sabre store , citing the poor quality of the products ; he only approved it because Jo Bennett wanted it , but he plans to sandbag it at a high @-@ level meeting , and Jim is stunned when Robert strongly hints he 's going to fire Dwight over it . Jim makes several attempts to stop Dwight from attending the meeting with Robert , but Dwight is heedless and continually insults Jim , who finally decides to leave Dwight to his fate . However , a guilt @-@ inducing phone call to Pam ( Jenna Fischer ) makes Jim decide he has to keep parsing Dwight 's insults until he directly tells him that he 's going to lose his job . Dwight ignores the news , thinking Jim is jealous of him , so Jim resorts to wrestling with Dwight outside the conference room . In the meantime , Nellie has Todd Packer ( David Koechner ) stand in as VP in Dwight 's absence . When Dwight makes it into the conference room , he hears Robert planning to fire the VP , so he sneaks out of the conference room and lets Packer take the fall in front of those present . Dwight then silently extends a hand to Jim , and they head back to Scranton with Stanley ( Leslie David Baker ) , who has reverted to his old grumpy self over the thought of leaving Florida .
Back in Scranton , Darryl ( Craig Robinson ) and Toby ( Paul Lieberstein ) are both trying to sell girl scout cookies for their daughters . When Toby 's requests clash with Darryl 's , Darryl tells him they need their own sections of the office to sell to in order to not interfere with each other . Darryl takes accounting while Toby gets every other section . Darryl asks for accounting because Kevin ( Brian Baumgartner ) buys more cookies than everyone else put together . Toby eventually realizes Darryl 's plan and the two end up fighting over who sells Kevin cookies , with Kevin coming up with absurd competition ideas . After doing a song and dance for Kevin , Kevin still can 't make up his mind , so Darryl and Toby contemplate giving up until Kevin mentions he plans to buy hundreds of boxes of cookies , at which point continue the competition . They finally give up for good when Kevin wants to ride them like a pony , citing they still want to maintain their dignity and will not go beyond the limit to what they 'd do for their daughters . When they walk away , Kevin says he 'll doing any absurd thing for them to continue , kissing Meredith ( Kate Flannery ) to prove it , but they still refuse .
Meanwhile , Andy ( Ed Helms ) learns that Erin ( Ellie Kemper ) isn 't coming back to Scranton after she takes a job helping an elderly lady she met at the Sabre store opening , leaving Andy very distraught , especially when he learns that everyone else already knew through Ryan ( B.J. Novak ) , who is revealed to have returned to Scranton after freaking out during the previous episode . When Dwight , Jim , and Stanley return to Scranton and Andy sees Jim happily reunite with Pam , Andy decides to travel to Florida to try and bring Erin back .
= = Production = =
" Last Day in Florida " was written by Robert Padnick , his second writing credit for the season after " Gettysburg " . The episode was directed by Matt Sohn , his third director 's credit for the season after " Pam 's Replacement " and " Tallahassee " . The episode marks the fifth appearance of Catherine Tate as Nellie Bertram and her fourth consecutive appearance . Her character , Nellie , worked with several of the office workers on a special project for Sabre in a six episode arc . The episode also features a guest appearance from David Koechner , who appears as Todd Packer in the series . He recently made a deal with NBC to do more episodes for the series and also possibly join the cast of series developer Greg Daniels 's next series , Friday Night Dinner , an adaption of the British series of the same name . Lindsey Broad , who portrays Cathy Simms , Pam 's replacement during her maternity leave , makes her twelfth and final appearance on the series . The episode also marks the second appearance of Georgia Engel as Irene , Erin 's elderly new friend . Showrunner Paul Lieberstein said in an interview that he was excited for her appearance calling her performance " fantastic " . She will appeared three episodes in the season . The Season Eight DVD contains a number of deleted scenes from this episode . Notable cut scenes include Irene introducing Erin to her grandson who asks Erin to go on a date with him , which she says yes to , and Packer attempting to have a conversation with California over the HBO medieval fantasy series Game of Thrones , but learns Robert has not seen the series .
= = Cultural references = =
In the episode , Ryan mentions that he told everybody through his Tumblr account that Erin was not coming back from Florida . Kevin forces Toby and Darryl to sing " Hello ! Ma Baby " in the style of Michigan J. Frog . Sabre 's Pyramid tablet makes a reappearance in the episode . The device serves as a parody of several tablet computers , specifically the Apple iPad . B. J. Novak described the device as " really the worst piece of technology that you 've ever seen . " The device was created by Paul Lieberstein , who originally envisioned that the device only had the rights to the 1993 film Coneheads .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Last Day in Florida " aired on March 8 , 2012 . The episode was viewed by an estimated 4 @.@ 89 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 6 rating / 7 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 2 @.@ 6 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 7 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This marked a slight rise in the ratings from the previous episode , " Test the Store " . The episode finished second in its time slot , beating Fox drama series The Finder and reruns of the ABC medical drama Grey 's Anatomy and The CW drama series Supernatural . Despite this , the episode was defeated by the CBS drama Person of Interest . In addition , " Last Day in Florida " was the highest @-@ rated NBC television episode of the night .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Last Day in Florida " received mixed reviews from critics , with many of them praising Rainn Wilson and John Krasinski 's performance in the episode and their characters ' interaction . Writing for New York , Michael Tedder called the scene featuring Dwight helping Jim up " eloquent " and wrote that it summarized their relationship over the years . The A.V. Club reviewer Myles McNutt called the episode the " most satisfying episode in the Florida arc " , mainly praising the Jim @-@ Dwight relationship , and said that since Steve Carell left the series they have become the " emotional core " of the show . He also complimented the writers for adding " business logic " to Sabre , specifically with Robert criticizing the Sabre Pyramid . Despite mainly praising the Florida plotline , he went on to criticize the Andy @-@ Erin plotline for Erin 's incompetence and also the fact he stopped caring about Andy and Erin 's relationship , although he did call their video chat " charming " . He ultimately gave the episode a B + . Brian Marder of Hollywood.com had a mixed response to the episode and wrote that it ruined the positive momentum the previous two episodes had . He also wrote that the episode wasn 't a good episode until the final scene of Andy telling the camera he 's going to Florida to get Erin back , calling the development " half intriguing , half mildly uninteresting " .
IGN writer Cindy White considered the Jim and Dwight scenes to be one of the only highlights of the episode , especially due to them being the core element to the series . She criticized Robert 's role in the episode and series , calling his character " a tool [ ... ] I mean that in both senses " , and also wrote that he was too much of an inconsistent character . She concluded that while the episode wasn 't " terrible " , it was a mediocre conclusion to the Florida storyline and wrote that " I 've got a suspicion that the best part of Season 8 is behind us " . She ultimately gave the episode a 7 @.@ 0 / 10 . Jeffrey Hyatt of Screen Crave gave the episode a review of seven out of ten , writing that the only drawback for the episode was the Scranton subplot , because it " turned really old , really fast " , although he did compliment Lieberstein 's performance in the episode .
Like the previous episodes , the Scranton subplot received mixed reviews . Tedder called the subplot " typical , but likable " . VanDerWerff wrote that while it had good moments , the storyline ultimately felt like " rejected storylines from an old sitcom " while White wrote that she enjoyed the storyline .
= Srigala Item =
Srigala Item ( Indonesian for Black Wolf , also advertised with the Dutch title De Zwarte Wolf ) is a 1941 film from the Dutch East Indies that was directed by Tan Tjoei Hock and produced by The Teng Chun for Action Film . Starring Hadidjah , Mohamad Mochtar , and Tan Tjeng Bok , the film 's plot – inspired by Zorro – follows a young man who became a masked vigilante to take revenge against his conniving uncle . Srigala Item was a commercial success , which Misbach Yusa Biran credits to the plot 's use for escapism . A copy of the black @-@ and @-@ white film , which featured kroncong music , is stored at Sinematek Indonesia .
= = Plot = =
Through violence , Djoekri ( Tan Tjeng Bok ) is able to gain control of his brother Mardjoeki 's ( Bissoe ) wealth and plantation , Soemberwaras . The latter disappears , leaving behind his adult son Mochtar ( Mohamad Mochtar ) . At the plantation , the young man is treated as a servant and often beaten by Djoekri and his right @-@ hand man , Hasan . Djoekri 's son Joesoef ( Mohamad Sani ) , however , leads a life of plenty .
Soon Djoekri 's activities are targeted by a masked man known as the " Black Wolf " ( " Srigala Item " ) , who also foils Joesoef 's attempts to woo Soehaemi ( Hadidjah ) , whom Mochtar loves . Djoekri tires of the Black Wolf 's interference and takes him on in a battle . Though Djoekri almost wins , ultimately the Black Wolf emerges victorious . It is later revealed that Mardjoeki remains alive and Mochtar was the Black Wolf .
= = Production = =
The film was written and directed by Tan Tjoei Hock for Action Film , a subsidiary of producer The Teng Chun 's Java Industrial Film ( JIF ) . Tan , who had made his directorial debut in 1940 , based Srigala Item on the stories surrounding Johnston McCulley 's fictional bandit Zorro ; as with the American bandit , the Black Wolf used a whip and wore all black . The black @-@ and @-@ white film was shot by The Teng Chun 's brother Teng Gan , with Hajopan Bajo Angin as artistic designer .
The film starred Hadidjah and Mohamad Mochtar , who had first acted together in JIF 's Alang @-@ Alang ( Grass ; 1939 ) and were promoted as a celebrity couple in competition with Raden Mochtar and Roekiah of Tan 's Film . It also featured Bissoe , Tan Tjeng Bok , and Mohamad Sani . Bissoe had made his feature film debut with JIF 's Oh Iboe in 1938 , while Sani had made his debut for JIF in 1940 . Tan Tjeng Bok , a former stage star with Dardanella , made his feature film debut through Srigala Item .
Music for Srigala Item was done in the kroncong ( traditional music with Portuguese influences ) style , popular at the time , by Mas Sardi . Hadidjah is credited as singing two songs , " Ja . Ja . Ja . Ja . " ( " Yeah . Yeah . Yeah . Yeah . " ) and " Termenoeng @-@ Menoeng " ( " Pensive " ) ; Tan Tjeng Bok is also recorded as performing a song .
= = Release and reception = =
Srigala Item premiered in the first half of 1941 , one of nine films released by JIF and its subsidiaries that year . It was advertised , sometimes under the Dutch name of De Zwarte Wolf , as sensational , full of action , and mysterious " and marketed for all ages . The film was released in Batavia ( modern day Jakarta ) , the capital of the Indies , and by July 1941 it had reached Surabaya , in Eastern Java , and Singapore , then part of British Malaya .
An anonymous review of Srigala Item in the Surabaya @-@ based daily Soerabaijasch Handelsblad was positive , predicting the film would be a commercial success . This prediction was fulfilled , as Srigala Item reached extensive audiences – mostly lower @-@ class natives . The Indonesian film historian Misbach Yusa Biran credits this success to escapism . He writes that the film 's theme of an oppressed , financially destitute youth who is able to control his destiny by becoming a masked vigilante , allowed viewers to be able to see themselves as the Black Wolf , and thus take revenge against those who had wronged them .
Action Film and JIF continued producing films until the beginning of the Japanese occupation of the Indies began in early 1942 , leading to the closing of all but one film studio . The cast of Srigala Item remained with JIF until the company closed , as did Tan . According to JB Kristanto 's Katalog Film Indonesia ( Catalogue of Indonesian Films ) , a copy of Srigala Item is stored at Sinematek Indonesia in Jakarta . The reels have been damaged by acid , leading to part of the film being excised .
= = Explanatory notes = =
= University of Bristol =
The University of Bristol ( abbreviated as Bris. in post @-@ nominal letters , sometimes referred to as Bristol University ) is a red brick research university located in Bristol , United Kingdom . It received its royal charter in 1909 , and its predecessor institution , University College , Bristol , had been in existence since 1876 .
Bristol is organised into six academic faculties composed of multiple schools and departments running over 200 undergraduate courses situated in the Clifton area along with three of its nine halls of residence . The other six halls are located in Stoke Bishop , an outer city suburb located 1 @.@ 8 miles away . The university had a total income of £ 530 @.@ 9 million in 2014 / 15 , of which £ 148 @.@ 4 million was from research grants and contracts . It is the largest independent employer in Bristol .
The University of Bristol is ranked 11th in the UK for its research , according to the Research Excellence Framework ( REF ) 2014 by GPA . The University of Bristol is ranked 37th by the QS World University Rankings 2015 @-@ 16 , and is ranked amongst the top ten of UK universities by QS , THE , and ARWU . A highly selective institution , it has an average of 6 @.@ 4 ( Sciences faculty ) to 13 @.@ 1 ( Medicine & Dentistry Faculty ) applicants for each undergraduate place . The University of Bristol is the youngest British university to be ranked among the top 40 institutions in the world according to the QS World University Rankings , and has also been ranked at 15th in the world in terms of reputation with employers , placing higher than several American Ivy League universities , including Princeton University , Cornell and UPenn .
Current academics include 21 fellows of the Academy of Medical Sciences , 13 fellows of the British Academy , 13 fellows of the Royal Academy of Engineering and 44 fellows of the Royal Society . The university has been associated with 12 Nobel laureates throughout its history , including Paul Dirac , Sir William Ramsay , Cecil Frank Powell , Sir Winston Churchill , Dorothy Hodgkin , Hans Albrecht Bethe , Max Delbrück , Gerhard Herzberg , Sir Nevill Francis Mott , Harold Pinter , Jean @-@ Marie Gustave Le Clézio and most recently , 2015 Economics Nobel Prize winner Angus Deaton .
Bristol is a member of the Russell Group of research @-@ intensive British universities , the European @-@ wide Coimbra Group and the Worldwide Universities Network , of which the university 's previous vice @-@ chancellor , Eric Thomas , was chairman from 2005 to 2007 . In addition , the university holds an Erasmus Charter , sending more than 500 students per year to partner institutions in Europe .
= = History = =
= = = Foundation = = =
The earliest antecedent of the university was the engineering department of the Merchant Venturers ' Technical College ( founded as a school as early as 1595 ) which became the engineering faculty of Bristol University . The university was also preceded by Bristol Medical School ( 1833 ) and University College , Bristol , founded in 1876 , where its first lecture was attended by only 99 students . The university was able to apply for a royal charter due to the financial support of the Wills and Fry families , who made their fortunes in tobacco plantations and chocolate , respectively . The Wills Family made a vast fortune from the tobacco industry and gave generously to the city and university . The royal charter was gained in May 1909 , with 288 undergraduates and 400 other students entering the university in October 1909 . Henry Overton Wills III became its first chancellor . The University College was the first such institution in the country to admit women on the same basis as men . However , women were forbidden to take examinations in medicine until 1906 .
= = = Historical development = = =
Since the founding of the university itself in 1909 , it has grown considerably and is now one of the largest employers in the local area , although it is smaller by student numbers than the nearby University of the West of England . Bristol does not have a campus but is spread over a considerable geographic area . Most of its activities , however , are concentrated in the area of the city centre , referred to as the " University Precinct " . It is a member of the Russell Group of research @-@ led UK universities , the Coimbra Group of leading European universities and the Worldwide Universities Network ( WUN ) .
= = = = Early years = = = =
After the founding of the University College in 1876 , Government support began in 1889 . After mergers with the Bristol Medical School in 1893 and the Merchant Venturers ' Technical College in 1909 , this funding allowed the opening of a new medical school and an engineering school — two subjects that remain among the university 's greatest strengths . In 1908 , gifts from the Fry and Wills families , particularly £ 100 @,@ 000 from Henry Overton Wills III ( £ 6m in today 's money ) , were provided to endow a University for Bristol and the West of England , provided that a royal charter could be obtained within two years . In December 1909 , the King granted such a charter and erected the University of Bristol . Henry Wills became its first chancellor and Conwy Lloyd Morgan the first vice @-@ chancellor . Wills died in 1911 and in tribute his sons George and Harry built the Wills Memorial Building , starting in 1913 and finally finishing in 1925 . Today , it houses parts of the academic provision for earth sciences and law , and graduation ceremonies are held in its Great Hall . The Wills Memorial Building is a Grade II * listed building .
In 1920 , George Wills bought the Victoria Rooms and endowed them to the university as a Students ' Union . The building now houses the Department of Music and is a Grade II * listed building .
At the point of foundation , the university was required to provide for the local community . This mission was behind the creation of the Department of Extra @-@ Mural Adult Education in 1924 to provide courses to the local community . This mission continues today ; a new admissions policy specifically caters to the ' BS ' postcode area of Bristol .
Among the famous names associated with Bristol in this early period is Paul Dirac , who graduated in 1921 with a degree in engineering , before obtaining a second degree in mathematics in 1923 from Cambridge . For his subsequent pioneering work on quantum mechanics , he was awarded the 1933 Nobel Prize for Physics . Later in the 1920s , the H.H. Wills Physics Laboratory was opened by Ernest Rutherford . It has since housed several Nobel Prize winners : Cecil Frank Powell ( 1950 ) ; Hans Albrecht Bethe ( 1967 ) ; and Sir Nevill Francis Mott ( 1977 ) . The Laboratory stands on the same site today , close to the Bristol Grammar School and the city museum .
Sir Winston Churchill became the university 's third chancellor in 1929 , serving the university in that capacity until 1965 . He succeeded Richard Haldane who had held the office from 1912 following the death of Henry Wills .
During World War II , the Wills Memorial was bombed , destroying the Great Hall and the organ it housed , along with 7 @,@ 000 books removed from King 's College London for safe keeping . It has since been restored to its former glory , complete with oak panelled walls and a new organ .
= = = = Post @-@ war development = = = =
In 1946 , the university established the first drama department in the country . In the same year , Bristol began offering special entrance exams and grants to aid the resettlement of servicemen returning home . Student numbers continued to increase , and the Faculty of Engineering eventually needed the new premises that were to become Queen 's Building in 1955 . This substantial building housed all of the university 's engineers until 1996 , when the department of Electrical Engineering and Department of Computer Science moved over the road into the new Merchant Venturers ' Building to make space for these rapidly expanding fields . Today , Queen 's Building caters for most of the teaching needs of the Faculty and provides academic space for the " heavy " engineering subjects ( civil , mechanical , and aeronautical ) .
With unprecedented growth in the 1960s , particularly in undergraduate numbers , the Student 's Union eventually acquired larger premises in a new building in the Clifton area of the city , in 1965 . This building was more spacious than the Victoria Rooms , which were now given over to the Department of Music . The new Union provides many practice and performance rooms , some specialist rooms , as well as three bars : Bar 100 ; the Mandela ( also known as AR2 ) and the Avon Gorge . Whilst spacious , the Union building is thought by many to be ugly and out of character compared to the architecture of the rest of the Clifton area , having been mentioned in a BBC poll to find the worst architectural eyesores in Britain . The university has proposed relocating the Union to a more central location as part of its development ' masterplan ' . More recently , plans for redevelopment of the current building have been proposed .
The 1960s were a time of considerable student activism in the United Kingdom , and Bristol was no exception . In 1968 , many students marched in support of the Anderson Report , which called for higher student grants . This discontent culminated in an 11 @-@ day sit @-@ in at the Senate House ( the administrative headquarters of the university ) . A series of chancellors and vice @-@ chancellors led the university through these decades , with Henry Somerset , 10th Duke of Beaufort taking over from Churchill as chancellor in 1965 before being succeeded by Dorothy Hodgkin in 1970 who spent the next 18 years in the office .
As the age of mass higher education dawned , Bristol continued to build its student numbers . The various undergraduate residences were repeatedly expanded and , more recently , some postgraduate residences have been constructed . These more recent ventures have been funded ( and are run ) by external companies in agreement with the university .
Since 1988 , there have been only two further chancellors ; Sir Jeremy Morse , then chairman of Lloyds Bank who handed over in 2003 to Brenda Hale , the first female Law Lord .
One of the few Centres for Deaf Studies in the United Kingdom was established in Bristol in 1981 , followed in 1988 by the Norah Fry Centre for research into learning difficulties . Also in 1988 , and again in 2004 , the Students ' Union AGM voted to disaffiliate from the National Union of Students ( NUS ) . On both occasions , however , the subsequent referendum of all students reversed that decision and Bristol remains affiliated to the NUS .
In 2002 , the university was involved in argument over press intrusion after details of the son of then @-@ prime minister , Tony Blair 's , application to university were published in national newspapers .
As the number of postgraduate students has grown ( particularly the numbers pursuing taught master 's degrees ) , there eventually became a need for separate representation on university bodies and the Postgraduate Union ( PGU ) was established in 2000 . Universities are increasingly expected to exploit the intellectual property generated by their research activities and , in 2000 , Bristol established the Research and Enterprise Division ( RED ) to further this cause ( particularly for technology @-@ based businesses ) . In 2001 , the university signed a 25 @-@ year research funding deal with IP2IPO , an intellectual property commercialisation company . In 2007 , research activities were expanded further with the opening of the Advanced Composites Centre for Innovation and Science ( ACCIS ) and The Bristol Institute for Public Affairs ( BIPA ) .
In 2002 , the university opened the new Centre for Sports , Exercise and Health in the heart of the university precinct . At a cost , local residents are also able to use the facilities .
Expansion of teaching and research activities continues . In 2004 , the Faculty of Engineering completed work on the Bristol Laboratory for Advanced Dynamics Engineering ( BLADE ) . This £ 18.5m project provides cutting @-@ edge technology to further the study of dynamics and is the most advanced such facility in Europe . It was built as an extension to the Queen 's Building and was officially opened by Queen Elizabeth II in March 2005 .
In January 2005 , the School of Chemistry was awarded £ 4.5m by the Higher Education Funding Council for England to create Bristol ChemLabS : a Centre for Excellence in Teaching & Learning ( CETL ) , with an additional £ 350k announced for the capital part of the project in February 2006 . Bristol ChemLabS stands for Bristol Chemical Laboratory Sciences ; it is the only chemistry CETL in the UK .
September 2009 saw the opening of the university 's Centre for Nanoscience and Quantum Information . This £ 11 million state of the art building is dubbed as the quietest building in the world and has other technologically sophisticated features such as self @-@ cleaning glass . Advanced research into quantum computing , nanotechnology , materials and other disciplines are being undertaken in the building .
There is also a plan to significantly redevelop the centre of the University Precinct in the coming years . The first step began in September 2011 , with the start of construction of a state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art Life Sciences building . In a time of heavy financial pressures on all Universities , this £ 50 million project is a clear statement that Bristol is committed to world class research and teaching facilities .
= = = = 2003 admissions controversy = = = =
The university has been regarded as being elitist by some commentators , taking 41 % of its undergraduate students from non @-@ state schools , according to the most recent 2009 / 2010 figures , despite the fact that such pupils make up just 7 % of the population and 18 % of 16 + year old pupils across the UK . The intake of state school pupils at Bristol is lower than many Oxbridge colleges . The high ratio of undergraduates from non @-@ state school has led to some tension at the university . In late February and early March 2003 , Bristol became embroiled in a row about admissions policies , with some private schools threatening a boycott based on their claims that , in an effort to improve equality of access , the university was discriminating against their students . These claims were hotly denied by the university . In August 2005 , following a large @-@ scale survey , the Independent Schools Council publicly acknowledged that there was no evidence of bias against applicants from the schools it represented . The university has a new admissions policy , which lays out in considerable detail the basis on which any greater or lesser weight may be given to particular parts of an applicant 's backgrounds – in particular , what account may be taken of which school the applicant hails from . This new policy also encourages greater participation from locally resident applicants .
= = Campus = =
Some of the University of Bristol 's buildings date to its pre @-@ charter days when it was University College Bristol . These buildings were designed by Charles Hansom , the younger brother of Joseph Hansom , Joseph being the inventor of the Hansom Cab . These buildings suffered being built in stages due to financial pressure . George Oatley added to them a tower in memory of Albert Fry which can still be seen on University Road . The first large scale building project the University of Bristol undertook on gaining a charter was the Wills Memorial Building which it was hoped would be a symbol of academic permanence for the university and a memorial to the chief benefactor of the university , Henry Overton Wills . It was requested to the architect George Oatley that the building be built to last at least 400 years but the site purchased , at the top of Park Street suffered from an awkward slope and a desirability to link the building with the Museum and Art Gallery situated adjacent to the plot . The architecture critic Roger Gill has stated that the building is " remarkable in size " but noted that the " ambience of a medieval University was strangely lacking " . He goes on to criticise the building as a " sham " and a " folly " . The armorials on the Founder 's Window represent all of the interests present at the founding of the University of Bristol including the Wills and Fry families . The Tyndalls Park Estate and Royal Fort House were also purchased from the trustees of the Tyndall family allowing the university to expand . Many Departments in the Faculty of Arts are housed in large Victorian houses which have been converted for teaching .
Goldney gardens entered the property of the University of Bristol through George Wills who had hoped to build an all male hall of residence there . This was prevented due to the moral objection of the then warden of Clifton Hall House who objected to the idea of male and female residences being in such close proximity . University records show that Miss Starvey was prepared to resign over the issue and that she had the support of the then Chancellor Conwy Lloyd Morgan . Eventually land was purchased in Stoke Bishop allowing Wills Hall to be bought , allowing the building of what has been described as a " quasi @-@ Oxbridge " hall , to which was added the Dame Monica Wills Chapel added by George Wills ' widow after his death .
Burwalls , a mansion house on the other side of the Avon Gorge , was used as a halls of residence in the past and was a home of Sir George Oatley . The building is now used to house the Centre for Continuing Education .
Many of the more modern buildings , including Senate House and the newer parts of the HH Wills Physics Laboratory , were designed by Raplh Brentnall after funds from the University Grants Committee . He is also responsible for the extension to the Wills Memorial Building library which was completed to such standard that few now realise that is an extension to the original building . Brentnall oversaw the rebuilding of the Great Hall of the Wills Memorial Building after it was partly destroyed during the Bristol Blitz of World War II . The buildings of St Michael 's Hill were rebuilt using hundreds of old photographs to recreate the original houses . The flats at Goldney Hall were designed by Michael Grice and received an award from the Civic Trust for their design . Bristol University owns some of the best examples of Georgian architecture in the city , the best examples being Royal Fort House , Clifton Hill House and Goldney Hall despite some additions . The Victoria Rooms which house the Music Department were designed by Charles Dyer and is seen as a good example of a Greek revival movement in British architecture . The tympanum of the building depicts a scene from The Advent of Morning designed by Jabez Tyley . Its major feature was a large organ which has since been destroyed by fire .
= = Academic reputation = =
League tables usually place Bristol within the top ten universities in the United Kingdom and it attracts many academically gifted students . For example , edition of 21 July 2011 of Times Higher Education reported that Bristol was fifth in a UK league table for the highest proportion of students with A @-@ level grades AAB or better . Bristol was ranked 10th overall in the The Sunday Times 10 @-@ year ( 1998 – 2007 ) average ranking of British universities based on consistent league table performance , and is a member of the ' Sutton 13 ' of top ranked Universities in the UK . Internationally , the 2012 / 2013 QS World University Rankings placed Bristol at 28th overall in the world . The rankings also placed Bristol at 15th in the world in terms of reputation with employers , placing higher than several American Ivy League universities , including Princeton University , Cornell and UPenn . Bristol was chosen as the ninth best university in the UK for the quality of graduates according to recruiters from the UK 's major companies . Another international ranking , the Shanghai Jiao Tong University Academic Ranking of World Universities , placed Bristol 64th globally in 2013 The Times Higher Education World University Ranking placed Bristol at 66th in 2011 . Competition for places is high with an average 7 @.@ 7 applications per place according to the 2014 Sunday Times League Tables , making it the joint 11th most competitive university in the UK .
According to data published in The Sunday Times , Bristol has the sixth @-@ highest percentage of " good honours " of any UK university . In the 2010 Centre for Higher Education 's Development 's Excellence Rankings , Bristol is one of only four UK universities ( Oxford , UCL and Manchester ) to be rated Excellent in all seven departments .
The following courses offered by the University of Bristol managed to reach top 5 in The ' Times ranking ( 2008 ) : Computer Science ( 3rd ) ; Electrical and Electronic Engineering ( 3rd ) ; Civil Engineering ( 5th ) ; Biological Sciences ( 3rd ) ; Mathematics ( 3rd ) ; and Psychology ( 4th ) . Furthermore , the QS World University Rankings place Bristol in the world 's top 100 universities for all subject areas in 2011 : Arts and Humanities ( 57th ) , Natural Sciences ( 40th ) , Engineering & IT ( 83rd ) , Social Sciences ( 65th ) and Life Sciences ( 70th ) . A further breakdown of the QS World University Natural Sciences Ranking shows the following : Earth Sciences ( 25th ) , Mathematics ( 35th ) , Environmental Sciences ( 39th ) , Physics ( 41st ) , and Chemistry ( 48th ) .
In addition , Bristol is particularly strong in the field of social sciences , particularly in economics , finance and management , and was rated fourth in the 2008 Guardian University Guide for Business and Management Studies .
In 2011 , The Guardian also ranked Bristol as third in the UK for geography , just behind second place Oxford and ranked Bristol as 1st in the UK for Music .
In The Complete University Guide 2013 , Bristol ranked fifth for German , fourth for Russian , third for mechanical and civil engineering , third for music and second for drama .
Bristol is also known for its research strength , having 15 departments gaining the top grade of 5 * in the 2001 Research Assessment Exercise . Overall , 36 out of 46 departments rated gained the top two ratings of 5 or 5 * , and 76 % of all the academic staff working in departments scored these top two levels . In terms of teaching strength , Bristol had an average Teaching Quality Assessment score of 22 @.@ 05 / 24 before the TQA was abolished . For admission in October 2010 , Bristol reported an average of 10 @.@ 2 applications per place with the average A @-@ level score on admission being 478 @.@ 5 . Bristol 's drop @-@ out rate is also lower than the benchmark set by HEFCE of no more than 3 @.@ 1 % .
= = Academic structure = =
The university is made up of a number of schools and departments organised into six faculties :
= = = Faculty of Arts = = =
School of Arts
Archaeology and Anthropology
Film and Television
Music
Philosophy
Theatre
School of Humanities
Classics & Ancient History
English
History ( Historical Studies )
History of Art ( Historical Studies )
Religion and Theology
School of Modern Languages
French
German
Hispanic , Portuguese and Latin American Studies
Italian
Russian
Bristol Institute for Research in the Humanities and Arts
Centre for English Language and Foundation Studies
Graduate School of Arts and Humanities
= = = Faculty of Engineering = = =
Graduate School of Engineering
Merchant Venturers ' School of Engineering
Computer Science
Electrical & Electronic Engineering
Engineering Mathematics
Queen 's School of Engineering
Aerospace Engineering
Civil Engineering
Mechanical Engineering
= = = Faculty of Biomedical Sciences = = =
School of Biochemistry
School of Cellular and Molecular Medicine
School of Physiology and Pharmacology
= = = Faculty of Science = = =
School of Biological Sciences
School of Chemistry
School of Earth Sciences
School of Experimental Psychology
School of Geographical Sciences
School of Mathematics
School of Physics
Interface Analysis Centre
The Bristol Centre for Nanoscience and Quantum Information
= = = Faculty of Health Sciences = = =
Centre for Health Sciences Education
Centre for Comparative and Clinical Anatomy
Teaching and Learning for Health Professionals
School of Clinical Sciences
School of Oral & Dental Sciences
School of Social and Community Medicine
School of Veterinary Sciences
= = = Faculty of Social Sciences and Law = = =
Graduate School of Education
School for Policy Studies
Centre for Exercise , Nutrition and Health Sciences
Norah Fry Research Centre
School of Economics , Finance and Management
Accounting and Finance
Centre for Market and Public Organisation
Economics
Management
School of Sociology , Politics and International Studies
University of Bristol Law School
= = = Degrees = = =
Bristol awards a range of academic degrees spanning bachelor 's and master 's degrees as well as junior doctorates and higher doctorates . The postnominals awarded are the degree abbreviations used commonly among British universities . The university is part of the Engineering Doctorate scheme , and awards the Eng . D. in systems engineering , engineering management , aerospace engineering and non @-@ destructive evaluation .
Bristol notably does not award by title any bachelor 's degrees in music , which is available for study but awarded B.A. ( although it does award MMus and DMus ) , nor any degree in divinity , since divinity is not available for study ( students of theology are awarded a B.A. ) . Similarly , the university does not award BLitt ( Bachelor of Letters ) , although it does award both MLitt and DLitt . In regulations , the university does not name MD or DDS as higher doctorates , although they are in many universities as these degrees are normally accredited professional doctorates .
The degrees of DLitt . , DSc , DEng , LLD and DMus , whilst having regulations specifying the grounds for award , are most often conferred as honorary degrees ( in honoris causa ) . Those used most commonly are the DLitt , DSc and LLD , with the MA ( and occasionally the MLitt ) also sometimes conferred honorarily for distinction in the local area or within the University .
= = Governance = =
In common with most UK universities , Bristol is headed formally by the chancellor , currently Baroness Hale of Richmond , and led on a day @-@ to @-@ day basis by the vice @-@ chancellor , currently Hugh Brady , who is the academic leader and chief executive . There are four pro vice @-@ chancellors and three ceremonial pro @-@ chancellors . The chancellor may hold office for up to ten years and the pro @-@ chancellors for up to three , unless the University Court determines otherwise , but the vice @-@ chancellor and pro @-@ vice @-@ chancellors have no term limits . The vice @-@ chancellor is supported by a deputy vice @-@ chancellor .
Responsibility for running the university is held at an executive level by the vice @-@ chancellor , but the council is the only body that can recommend changes to the university 's statutes and charter , with the exception of academic ordinances . These can only be made with the consent of the senate , the chief academic body in the university which also holds responsibility for teaching and learning , examinations and research and enterprise . The chancellor and pro chancellors are nominated by council and appointed formally by court , whose additional powers are now limited to these appointments and a few others , including some lay members of council . Finally , Convocation , the body of all staff , ceremonial officers and graduates of the university , returns 100 members to court and one member to council , but is otherwise principally a forum for discussion and to ensure graduates stay in touch with the university .
= = Student life = =
= = = Students ' union = = =
The University of Bristol Union ( Bristol SU or BSU ) located on Queen 's Road is a founding member of the National Union of Students and is amongst the oldest students ' unions in England . The union oversees the two media outlets of the university , the Bristol University Radio Station ( BURST ) and the student newspaper Epigram . In terms of student life , the union is responsible for the organisation of the annual freshers ' fair , the co @-@ ordination of Bristol Student Community Action , which organises volunteering projects in the local community , and the organisation of entertainment events and very large number of student societies . Previous presidents have included Sue Lawley and former Liberal Democrat MP Lembit Öpik . There is a separate union for postgraduate students , as well as an athletic union , which is a member of the British Universities & Colleges Sport . In distinction to the " blues " awarded for sporting excellence at Oxford and Cambridge , Bristol 's most successful athletes are awarded " reds " .
= = = Halls of residence = = =
Accommodation for students is primarily in the central precinct of the university and two areas of Bristol : Clifton and Stoke Bishop . In Stoke Bishop , Wills Hall on the edge of the Clifton Downs was the first to be opened , in 1929 , by the then chancellor , Winston Churchill . Its original quadrangle layout has been expanded twice , in 1962 and 1990 . Churchill Hall , named for the chancellor , followed in 1956 , then Badock Hall in 1964 . At the time of Badock Hall 's establishment , some of the buildings were called Hiatt Baker Hall , but two years later , Hiatt Baker moved to its own site and is now the largest hall in the university . The first self @-@ catering hall in Stoke Bishop was University Hall , established in 1971 with expansion in 1992 . The University 's newest undergraduate residence , 33 Colston Street , was opened in the city centre in October 2011 after acquiring the property in 2009 . The university established a partnership with Unite PLC in order provide accommodation due to increase in number of students accepted for entry for academic year 2012 / 2013 . A £ 20 million project of expanding facilities of Hiatt Baker is to provide additional 327 places for undergraduate students in 2014 . All of the main halls elect groups of students to the Junior Common Room to organise the halls social calendar for the next year . Residents of student houses , private accommodation and students living at home become members of Orbital – a society organising social events for students throughout the year .
In Clifton , Goldney Hall was built first in the early 18th century by the wealthy merchant Goldney family and eventually became part of the university in 1956 . It is a popular location for filming , with The Chronicles of Narnia , The House of Eliott and Truly , Madly , Deeply , as well as episodes of Only Fools and Horses and Casualty , being filmed there . The Grotto in the grounds is a Grade I listed building . Clifton Hill House is another Grade I listed building now used as student accommodation in Clifton . The original building was constructed between 1745 and 1750 by Isaac Ware , and has been used by the university since its earliest days in 1909 . Manor Hall comprises five separate buildings , the principal of which was erected from 1927 – 1932 to the design of George Oatley following a donation from Henry Herbert Wills .
One of its annexes , Manor House , has recently been refurbished and officially ' reopened ' in 1999 . Goldney Hall has beautiful gardens and modern accommodation complexes . Clifton Hill House has more dated facilities , but as with all the Clifton residences also possesses attractive gardens . Manor Hall houses the largest and most dated rooms , some dating back to the early 20th century .
On the central precinct sits The Hawthorns , a student house accommodating 115 | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
traveling over long distances . Their dentition is adapted for grazing ; they have large incisors that clip grass blades and highly crowned , ridged molars well suited for grinding . Males have spade @-@ shaped canines ( " tushes " ) , which can be used as weapons in fighting . Equines have fairly good senses , particularly their eyesight . Their moderately long , erect ears are movable and can locate the source of a sound .
A dun @-@ colored coat with primitive markings that include a dorsal stripe and often leg striping and transverse shoulder stripes reflect the wildtype coat and are observed in most wild extant equine species . Only the mountain zebra lacks a dorsal stripe . In domestic horses , dun color and primitive markings exist in some animals across many breeds . The purpose of the bold black @-@ and @-@ white striping of zebras has been a subject of debate among biologists for over a century , but recent ( 2014 ) evidence supports the theory that they are a form of protection from biting flies . These insects appear to be less attracted to striped coats and , compared to other wild equines , zebras live in areas with the highest fly activity . With the exception of the domestic horses , which have long manes that lay over the neck and long tail hair growing from the top of the tailhead or dock , most equines have erect manes and long tails ending in a tuft of hair . The coats of some equine species undergo shedding in certain parts of their range and are thick in the winter .
= = = Ecology and daily activities = = =
Extant wild equines have scattered ranges across Africa and Asia . The plains zebra lives in lush grasslands and savannas of Eastern and Southern Africa , while the Mountain zebra inhabits mountainous areas of southwest Africa . The other equine species tend to occupy more arid environments with more scattered vegetation . The Grévy 's zebra is found in thorny scrubland of East Africa , while the African wild ass inhabits rocky deserts of North Africa . The two Asian wild ass species live in the dry deserts of the Near East and Central Asia and the Przwelski 's wild horse 's habitat is the deserts of Mongolia . Only the range of the plains and Grévy 's zebras overlap . In addition to wild populations , domesticated horses and donkeys are widespread thanks to humans . In certain parts of the world , populations of feral horses and feral donkeys exist , which are descended from domesticated animals that were released or escaped into the wild .
Equines are monogastric hindgut fermenters . They prefer to eat grasses and sedges , but may also consume bark , leaves , buds , fruits and roots if their favored foods are scarce , particularly asses . Compared to ruminants , equines have a simpler and less efficient digestive system . Nevertheless , they can subsist on lower quality vegetation . After food is passed though the stomach , it enters the sac @-@ like cecum. where cellulose is broken down by micro @-@ organisms . Fermentation is quicker in equines than in ruminants ; 30 – 45 hours for a horse compared to 70 – 100 hours for a cow . Equines may spend 60 @-@ 80 percent of their time feeding , depending on the availability and quality of vegetation . In the African savannas , the plains zebra is a pioneer grazer ; mowing down the upper , less nutritious grass canopy and preparing the way for more specialized grazers like blue wildebeests and Thomson 's gazelles which depend on shorter and more nutritious grasses below .
Wild equines may spend seven hours a day sleeping . During the day , they sleep standing up while at night they lie down . They regularly rub against trees , rocks and other objects and roll in around in dust for protection against flies and irritation . Except the mountain zebra , wild equines can roll over completely .
= = = Social behavior = = =
Equines are social animals with two basic social structures . Horses , plains zebras and mountain zebras live in stable , closed family groups or harems consisting of one adult male , several females and their offspring . These groups have their own home ranges which overlap and they tend to be nomadic . The stability of the group remains even when the family stallion dies or is displaced . Plains zebra groups gather into large herds and may create temporarily stable subgroups within a herd , allowing individuals to interact with those outside their group . Among harem @-@ holding species , this behavior has only otherwise been observed in primates like the gelada and the hamadryas baboon . Females of harem species benefit as males give them more time for feeding , protection for their young , as well as protection from predators and harassment by outside males . Among females in a harem , a linear dominance hierarchy exists based on the time at which they join the group . Harems travel in a consistent filing order with the high @-@ ranking mares and their offspring leading the groups followed by the next highest ranking mare and her offspring and so on . The family stallion takes up the rear . Social grooming ( which involves individuals rubbing their heads against each other and nipping with the incisors and lips ) is important for easing aggression and maintaining social bonds and status . Young of both sexes leave their natal groups as they mature ; females are usually abducted by outside males to be included as permanent members of their harems .
In Grévy 's zebras and the wild ass species , adults have more fluid associations and adult males will establish large territories and monopolize the females that enter them . These species live in habitats with sparser resources and standing water and grazing areas may be separated . Groups of lactating females are able to remain in groups with non @-@ lactating ones and usually gather at foraging areas . The most dominant males establish territories near watering holes , where more sexually receptive females gather . Subdominants have territories farther away , near foraging areas . Mares may wander through several territories but will remain in one when they have young . Staying in a territory offers a female protection from harassment by outside males , as well as access to a renewable resource . Some feral populations of horse exhibit features of both the harem and territorial social systems .
In both equine social systems , excess males gather in bachelor groups . These are typically young males who are not yet ready to establish a harem or territory . With the plains zebra , the males in a bachelor group have strong bonds and have a linear dominance hierarchy . Fights between males usually occur over estrus females and involve biting and kicking .
= = = Communication = = =
When meeting for the first time or after they have separated , individuals may greet each other by rubbing and sniffing their noses followed by rubbing their cheeks , moving their noses along their bodies and sniffing each other 's genitals . They then may rub and press their shoulders against each other and rest their heads on one another . This greeting is usually performed among harem or territorial males or among bachelor males playing .
Equines produce a number of vocalizations and noises . Loud snorting is associated with alarm . Squealing is usually made when in pain , but bachelors will also squeal while play fighting . The contact calls of equines vary from the whinnying and nickering of the horse , the barking of plains zebras , and the braying of asses and Grévy 's zebras . Equines also communicate with visual displays and the flexibility of their lips allows them to make complex facial expressions . Visual displays also incorporate the positions of the head , ears and tail . An equine may signal an intention to kick by laying back its ears and sometimes lashing the tail . Flattened ears , bared teeth and abrupt movement of the heads may be used as threatening gestures , particularly among stallions .
= = = Reproduction and parenting = = =
Among harem @-@ holding species , the adult females mate only with their harem stallion , while in other species , mating is more promiscuous and the males have larger testes for sperm competition . Estrous in female equines lasts 5 – 10 days ; physical signs include frequent urination , flowing muscus , and a swollen , everted labia . In addition , estrous females will stand with their hind legs spread and raise their tails when in the presence of a male . Males assess the female 's reproductive state with the flehmen response and the female will solicit mating by backing in . Length of gestation varies by species , it is roughly 11 to 13 months , and most mares will come into estrus again within a few days after foaling , depending on conditions . Usually , only a single foal is born , which is capable of running within an hour . Within a few weeks , foals will attempt to graze , but may continue to nurse for 8 – 13 months . Species in arid habitats , like the Grévy 's zebra , have longer nursing intervals and do not drink water until they are three months old .
Among harem @-@ holding species , foals are cared for mostly by their mothers , but if threatened by predators , the entire group works together to protect all the young . The group forms a protective front with the foals in the center and the stallion will rush at predators that come too close . In territory @-@ holding species , mothers may gather into small groups and leave their young in " kindergartens " under the guard of a territorial male while searching for water . Grévy 's zebra stallions may look after a foal in his territory to ensure that the mother stays , even though it may not be his .
= = Human relations = =
The earliest archaeological evidence for the domestication of the horse comes from sites in Ukraine and Kazakhstan , dating to approximately 4000 @-@ 3500 BC . By 3000 BC , the horse was completely domesticated and by 2000 BC there was a sharp increase in the number of horse bones found in human settlements in northwestern Europe , indicating the spread of domesticated horses throughout the continent . The most recent , but most irrefutable , evidence of domestication comes from sites where horse remains were interred with chariots in graves of the Sintashta and Petrovka cultures c . 2100 BC . Studies of variation in genetic material shows that very few wild stallions , possibly all from a single haplotype , contributed to the domestic horse , while many mares were part of early domesticated herds .
The Przewalski 's horse has been conclusively shown not to be an ancestor of the domestic horse , even though the two can hybridize and produce fertile offspring . The split between Przewalskii 's horse and E. ferus caballus is estimated to have occurred 120 @,@ 000 – 240 @,@ 000 years ago , long before domestication . Of the caballine equines , E. ferus , it is E. ferus ferus , also known as the European wild horse or " tarpan " that shares ancestry with the modern domestic horse . In addition , it has also been hypothesized that tarpans that lived into modern times may have been hybridized with domestic horses .
Archaeological , biogeographical , and linguistic evidence suggest that the donkey was first domesticated by nomadic pastoral people in North Africa over 5 @,@ 000 years ago . The animals were used to help cope with the increased aridity of the Sahara and the Horn of Africa . Genetic evidence finds that the donkey was domesticated twice based on two distinct mitochondrial DNA haplogroups . It also points to a single ancestor , the Nubian wild ass . Attempts to domesticate zebras were largely unsuccessful , though Walter Rothschild trained some to draw a carriage in England .
= = = Conservation issues = = =
Humans have had a great impact on the populations of wild equines . Threats to wild equines include habitat destruction and conflicts with local people and livestock . Since the 20th century , wild equines have been decimated over many of their former ranges and their populations scattered . In recent centuries , two subspecies , the quagga and the tarpan , became extinct . Only the plains zebra remains numerous and widespread . The IUCN lists the African wild ass as critically endangered , the Grévy 's zebra , mountain zebra and Przewalski 's horse as endangered , the Onager as vulnerable , the kiang as lower risk and the plains zebra as least concern . The Przewalski 's horse was considered to be extinct in the wild from the 1960s to 1996 . However , following successful captive breeding , it has been reintroduced in Mongolia .
Feral horses vary in degree of protection and generate considerable controversy . For example , in Australia , they are considered a non @-@ native invasive species , often viewed as pests , though are also considered to have some cultural and economic value . In the United States , feral horses and burros are generally considered an introduced species because descend from domestic horses brought to the Americas from Europe . While they are viewed as pests by many livestock producers , conversely , there is also a view that E. ferus caballus is a reintroduced once @-@ native species returned to the Americas that should be granted endangered species protection . At present , certain free @-@ roaming horses and burros have federal protection as " living symbols of the historic and pioneer spirit of the West " under the Wild and Free @-@ Roaming Horses and Burros Act of 1971 , and in Kleppe v. New Mexico , the United States Supreme Court ruled that the animals so designated were , as a matter of law , wildlife .
= McDonnell Douglas AV @-@ 8B Harrier II =
The McDonnell Douglas ( now Boeing ) AV @-@ 8B Harrier II is a single @-@ engine ground @-@ attack aircraft that constitutes the second generation of the Harrier Jump Jet family . Capable of vertical or short takeoff and landing ( V / STOL ) , the aircraft was designed in the late 1970s as an Anglo @-@ American development of the British Hawker Siddeley Harrier , the first operational V / STOL aircraft . Named after a bird of prey , it is primarily employed on light attack or multi @-@ role missions , ranging from close air support of ground troops to armed reconnaissance . The AV @-@ 8B is used by the United States Marine Corps ( USMC ) , the Spanish Navy , and the Italian Navy . A variant of the AV @-@ 8B , the British Aerospace Harrier II , was developed for the British military , while another , the TAV @-@ 8B , is a dedicated two @-@ seat trainer .
The project that eventually led to the AV @-@ 8B 's creation started in the early 1970s as a cooperative effort between the United States and United Kingdom ( UK ) , aimed at addressing the operational inadequacies of the first @-@ generation Harrier . Early efforts centered on a larger , more powerful Pegasus engine to dramatically improve the capabilities of the Harrier . Due to budgetary constraints , the UK abandoned the project in 1975 .
Following the withdrawal of the UK , McDonnell Douglas extensively redesigned the earlier AV @-@ 8A Harrier to create the AV @-@ 8B . While retaining the general layout of its predecessor , the aircraft incorporates a new wing , an elevated cockpit , a redesigned fuselage , one extra hardpoint per wing , and other structural and aerodynamic refinements . The aircraft is powered by an upgraded version of the Pegasus , which gives the aircraft its V / STOL ability . The AV @-@ 8B made its maiden flight in November 1981 and entered service with the USMC in January 1985 . Later upgrades added a night @-@ attack capability and radar , resulting in the AV @-@ 8B ( NA ) and AV @-@ 8B Harrier II Plus , respectively . An enlarged version named Harrier III was also studied , but not pursued . The UK , through British Aerospace , re @-@ joined the improved Harrier project as a partner in 1981 , giving it a significant work @-@ share in the project . After corporate mergers in the 1990s , Boeing and BAE Systems have jointly supported the program . Approximately 340 aircraft were produced in a 22 @-@ year production program that ended in 2003 .
Typically operated from small aircraft carriers , large amphibious assault ships and simple forward operating bases , AV @-@ 8Bs have participated in numerous military and humanitarian operations , proving themselves versatile assets . US Army General Norman Schwarzkopf named the USMC Harrier II as one of the seven most important weapons of the Gulf War . The aircraft took part in combat during the Iraq War beginning in 2003 . The Harrier II has served in Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan since 2001 , and was used in Operation Odyssey Dawn in Libya in 2011 . Italian and Spanish Harrier IIs have taken part in overseas conflicts in conjunction with NATO coalitions . During its service history , the AV @-@ 8B has had a high accident rate , related to the percentage of time spent in critical take @-@ off and landing phases . USMC and Italian Navy AV @-@ 8Bs are to be replaced by the Lockheed Martin F @-@ 35B Lightning II , with the former expected to operate its Harriers until 2025 .
= = Development = =
= = = Origins = = =
In the late 1960s and early 1970s , the first @-@ generation Harriers entered service with the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) and United States Marine Corps ( USMC ) , but were handicapped in range and payload . In short takeoff and landing configuration , the AV @-@ 8A ( American designation for the Harrier ) carried less than half the 4 @,@ 000 lb ( 1 @,@ 800 kg ) payload of the smaller A @-@ 4 Skyhawk , over a more limited radius . To address this issue , in 1973 Hawker Siddeley and McDonnell Douglas began joint development of a more capable version of the Harrier . Early efforts concentrated on an improved Pegasus engine , designated the Pegasus 15 , which was being tested by Bristol Siddeley . Although more powerful , the engine 's diameter was too large by 2 @.@ 75 in ( 70 mm ) to fit into the Harrier easily .
In December 1973 , a joint American and British team completed a project document defining an Advanced Harrier powered by the Pegasus 15 engine . The Advanced Harrier was intended to replace the original RAF and USMC Harriers , as well as the USMC 's A @-@ 4 . The aim of the Advanced Harrier was to double the AV @-@ 8 's payload and range , and was therefore unofficially named AV @-@ 16 . The British government pulled out of the project in March 1975 owing to decreased defense funding , rising costs , and the RAF 's insufficient 60 @-@ aircraft requirement . With development costs estimated to be around £ 180 – 200 million ( 1974 British pounds ) , the United States was unwilling to fund development by itself , and ended the project later that year .
Despite the project 's termination , the two companies continued to take different paths toward an enhanced Harrier . Hawker Siddeley focused on a new larger wing that could be retrofitted to existing operational aircraft , while McDonnell Douglas independently pursued a less ambitious , though still expensive , project catering to the needs of the US military . Using knowledge gleaned from the AV @-@ 16 effort , though dropping some items — such as the larger Pegasus engine — McDonnell Douglas kept the basic structure and engine for an aircraft tailored for the USMC .
= = = Designing and testing = = =
As the USMC wanted a substantially improved Harrier without the development of a new engine , the plan for Harrier II development was authorized by the United States Department of Defense ( DoD ) in 1976 . The United States Navy ( USN ) , which had traditionally procured military aircraft for the USMC , insisted that the new design be verified with flight testing . McDonnell Douglas modified two AV @-@ 8As with new wings , revised intakes , redesigned exhaust nozzles , and other aerodynamic changes ; the modified forward fuselage and cockpit found on all subsequent aircraft were not incorporated on these prototypes . Designated YAV @-@ 8B , the first converted aircraft flew on 9 November 1978 , at the hands of Charles Plummer . The aircraft performed three vertical take @-@ offs and hovered for seven minutes at Lambert – St. Louis International Airport . The second aircraft followed on 19 February 1979 , but crashed that November due to engine flameout ; the pilot ejected safely . Flight testing of these modified AV @-@ 8s continued into 1979 . The results showed greater than expected drag , hampering the aircraft 's maximum speed . Further refinements to the aerodynamic profile yielded little improvement . Positive test results in other areas , including payload , range , and V / STOL performance , led to the award of a development contract in 1979 . The contract stipulated a procurement of 12 aircraft initially , followed by a further 324 .
Between 1978 and 1980 , the DoD and USN repeatedly attempted to terminate the AV @-@ 8B program . There had previously been conflict between the USMC and USN over budgetary issues . At the time , the USN wanted to procure A @-@ 18s for its ground attack force and , to cut costs , pressured the USMC to adopt the similarly @-@ designed F @-@ 18 fighter instead of the AV @-@ 8B to fulfill the role of close air support ( both designs were eventually amalgamated to create the multirole F / A @-@ 18 Hornet ) . Despite these bureaucratic obstacles , in 1981 , the DoD included the Harrier II in its annual budget and five @-@ year defense plan . The USN declined to participate in the procurement , citing the limited range and payload compared with conventional aircraft .
In August 1981 , the program received a boost when British Aerospace ( BAe ) and McDonnell Douglas signed a Memorandum of Understanding ( MoU ) , marking the UK 's re @-@ entry into the program . The British government was enticed by the lower cost of acquiring Harriers promised by a large production run , and the fact that the US was shouldering the expense of development . Under the agreement BAe was relegated to the position of a subcontractor , instead of the full partner status that would have been the case had the UK not left the program . Consequently , the company received , in man @-@ hours , 40 percent of the airframe work @-@ share . Aircraft production took place at McDonnell Douglas ' facilities in suburban St. Louis , Missouri , and manufacturing by BAe at its Kingston and Dunsfold facilities in Surrey , England . Meanwhile , 75 percent work @-@ share for the engine went to Rolls @-@ Royce , which had previously absorbed Bristol Siddeley , with the remaining 25 percent assigned to Pratt & Whitney . The two companies planned to manufacture 400 Harrier IIs , with the USMC expected to procure 336 aircraft and the RAF , 60 .
Four full @-@ scale development ( FSD ) aircraft were constructed . The first of these ( BuNo 161396 ) , used mainly for testing performance and handling qualities , made its maiden flight on 5 November 1981 , piloted by Plummer . The second and third FSD aircraft , which introduced wing leading @-@ edge root extensions and revised engine intakes , first flew in April the following year ; the fourth followed in January 1984 . The first production AV @-@ 8B was delivered to the Marine Attack Training Squadron 203 ( VMAT @-@ 203 ) at Marine Corps Air Station Cherry Point ( MCAS Cherry Point ) on 12 December 1983 , and officially handed over one month later . The last of the initial batch of 12 was delivered in January 1985 to the front @-@ line Marine Attack Squadron 331 ( VMA @-@ 331 ) . The engine used for these aircraft was the F402 @-@ RR @-@ 404A , with 21 @,@ 450 lb ( 95 @.@ 4 kN ) of thrust ; aircraft from 1990 onwards received upgraded engines .
= = = Upgrades = = =
During the initial pilot conversion course , it became apparent that the AV @-@ 8B exhibited flight characteristics different from the AV @-@ 8A . These differences , as well as the digital cockpit fitted instead of the analog cockpit of the TAV @-@ 8A , necessitated additional pilot training . In 1984 , funding for eight AV @-@ 8Bs was diverted to the development of a two @-@ seat TAV @-@ 8B trainer . The first of the 28 TAV @-@ 8Bs eventually procured had its maiden flight on 21 October 1986 . This aircraft was delivered to VMAT @-@ 203 on 24 July 1987 ; the TAV @-@ 8B was also ordered by Italy and Spain .
With export interest from Brazil , Japan , and Italy serving as a source of encouragement to continue development of the Harrier II , McDonnell Douglas commenced work on a night @-@ attack variant in 1985 . With the addition of an infrared sensor and cockpit interface enhancements , the 87th production single @-@ seat AV @-@ 8B became the first Harrier II to be modified for night attacks , leaving the McDonnell Douglas production line in June 1987 . Flight tests proved successful and the night attack capability was validated . The first of 66 AV @-@ 8B ( NA ) s was delivered to the USMC in September 1989 . An equivalent version of the AV @-@ 8B ( NA ) also served with the RAF under the designation GR7 ; earlier GR5 aircraft were subsequently upgraded to GR7 standards .
In June 1987 , as a private venture , BAe , McDonnell Douglas , and Smiths Industries signed an MoU for the development of what was to become the AV @-@ 8B Plus , which saw the addition of radar and increased missile compatibility . The agreement was endorsed by the USMC and , after much consideration , the Spanish and Italian navies developed a joint requirement for a fleet of air @-@ defense Harriers . The United States , Spain , and Italy signed an MoU in September 1990 to define the responsibilities of the three countries and establish a Joint Program Office to manage the program . On 30 November 1990 , the USN , acting as an agent for the three participating countries , awarded McDonnell Douglas the contract to develop the improved Harrier . The award was followed by an order from the USMC in December 1990 for 30 new aircraft , and 72 rebuilt from older aircraft . Italy ordered 16 Harrier II Plus and two twin @-@ seat TAV @-@ 8B aircraft , while Spain signed a contract for eight aircraft . Production of the AV @-@ 8B Harrier II Plus was conducted , in addition to McDonnell Douglas ' plant , at CASA 's facility in Seville , Spain , and Alenia Aeronautica 's facility in Turin , Italy . The UK also participated in the program by manufacturing components for the AV @-@ 8B .
Production was authorized on 3 June 1992 . The maiden flight of the prototype ( BuNo 164129 ) took place on 22 September , marking the start of a successful flight @-@ test program . The first production aircraft was delivered to St. Louis and made its initial flight on 17 March 1993 . Deliveries of new aircraft took place from April 1993 to 1995 . At the same time , the plan to remanufacture existing AV @-@ 8Bs to the Plus standard proceeded . On 11 March 1994 , the Defense Acquisition Board approved the program , which initially involved 70 aircraft , with four converted in financial year 1994 . The program planned to use new and refurbished components to rebuild aircraft at a lower cost than manufacturing new ones . Conversion began in April 1994 , and the first aircraft was delivered to the USMC in January 1996 .
= = = End of production and further improvements = = =
In March 1996 , the US General Accounting Office ( GAO ) stated that it was cheaper to buy Harrier II Plus aircraft outright than to remanufacture existing AV @-@ 8Bs . The USN estimated the cost for remanufacture of each aircraft to be US $ 23 – 30 million , instead of $ 30 million for each new @-@ built aircraft , while the GAO estimated the cost per new aircraft at $ 24 million . Nevertheless , the program continued and , in 2003 , the 72nd and last AV @-@ 8B to be remanufactured for the USMC was delivered . Spain also participated in the program , the delivery of its last refurbished aircraft occurring in December 2003 , which marked the end of the AV @-@ 8B 's production ; the final new AV @-@ 8B had been delivered in 1997 .
In the 1990s , Boeing and BAE Systems assumed management of the Harrier family following corporate mergers that saw Boeing acquire McDonnell Douglas and BAe amalgamate with other defense companies to form BAE Systems . Between 1969 and 2003 , 824 Harriers of all models were delivered . In 2001 , Flight International reported that Taiwan might meet its requirement for a short take off and vertical landing ( STOVL ) aircraft by purchasing AV @-@ 8Bs , outfitted with the F @-@ 16 Fighting Falcon 's APG @-@ 66 radar . A Taiwanese purchase would have allowed the production line to stay open beyond 2005 . Despite the possibility of leasing AV @-@ 8Bs , interest in the aircraft waned as the country switched its intentions to procuring the F @-@ 35 and upgrading its fleet of F @-@ 16s .
Although there have been no new AV @-@ 8B variants , in 1990 McDonnell Douglas and British Aerospace began discussions on an interim aircraft between the AV @-@ 8B and the next generation of advanced STOVL aircraft . The Harrier III would have presented an " evolutionary approach to get the most from the existing aircraft " , as many of the structures employed on the Sea Harrier and AV @-@ 8B would be used . The wing and the torsion box were to be enlarged to accommodate extra fuel and hardpoints to improve the aircraft 's endurance . Due to the increase in size , the wing would have had folding wingtips . To meet the heavier weight of the aircraft , Rolls @-@ Royce was expected to design a Pegasus engine variant that would have produced 4 @,@ 000 lbf ( 18 kN ) more thrust than the latest production variant at the time . The Harrier III would have carried weapons such as AIM @-@ 120 AMRAAM and AIM @-@ 132 ASRAAM missiles . Boeing and BAE Systems continued studying the design until the early 2000s , when the project was abandoned .
In 2013 , the USMC was studying potential enhancements to keep the AV @-@ 8B Harrier IIs up to date until its planned retirement , such as a helmet @-@ mounted cueing system . It is also predicted that additional work on the aircraft 's radars and sensor systems may take place . The Marines Corps Harrier II fleet was planned to remain in service until 2030 , owing to delays with the F @-@ 35B and the fact that the Harriers have more service life left than USMC F / A @-@ 18 Hornets . However , by 2014 the USMC had decided to retire the AV @-@ 8B sooner because changing the transition orders of Harrier II and Hornet fleets to the Lightning II would save $ 1 billion . Expected to become operational in 2015 , the F @-@ 35B will start to replace the AV @-@ 8B in 2016 , with the AV @-@ 8B expected to continue service until 2025 . Meanwhile , the AV @-@ 8B will receive revamped defensive measures , updated data @-@ link capability and targeting sensors , and improved missiles and rockets , among other enhancements .
= = Design = =
= = = Overview = = =
The AV @-@ 8B Harrier II is a subsonic attack aircraft of metal and composite construction that retains the basic layout of the Hawker Siddeley Harrier , with horizontal stabilizers and shoulder @-@ mounted wings featuring prominent anhedral ( downward slope ) . The aircraft is powered by a single Rolls @-@ Royce Pegasus turbofan engine , which has two intakes and four synchronized vectorable nozzles close to its turbine . Two of these nozzles are located near the forward , cold end of the engine and two are near the rear , hot end of the engine . This arrangement contrasts with most fixed @-@ wing aircraft , which have engine nozzles only at the rear . The Harrier II also has smaller valve @-@ controlled nozzles in the nose , tail , and wingtips to provide control at low airspeeds .
The AV @-@ 8B is equipped with one centerline fuselage and six wing hardpoints ( compared to four wing hardpoints on the original Harrier ) , along with two fuselage stations for a 25 mm GAU @-@ 12 cannon and ammunition pack . These hardpoints give it the ability to carry a total of 9 @,@ 200 lb ( 4 @,@ 200 kg ) of weapons , including air @-@ to @-@ air , air @-@ to @-@ surface , and anti @-@ ship missiles , as well as unguided and guided bombs . The aircraft 's internal fuel capacity is 7 @,@ 500 lb ( 3 @,@ 400 kg ) , up 50 percent compared to its predecessor . Fuel capacity can be carried in hardpoint @-@ compatible external drop tanks , which give the aircraft a maximum ferry range of 2 @,@ 100 mi ( 3 @,@ 300 km ) and a combat radius of 300 mi ( 556 km ) . The AV @-@ 8B can also receive additional fuel via aerial refueling using the probe @-@ and @-@ drogue system . The British Aerospace Harrier II , a variant tailored to the RAF , uses different avionics , and has one additional missile pylon on each wing .
The Harrier II retains the tandem landing gear layout of the first @-@ generation Harriers , although each outrigger landing gear leg was moved from the wingtip to mid @-@ span for a tighter turning radius when taxiing . The engine intakes are larger than those of the first @-@ generation Harrier , and have a revised inlet . On the underside of the fuselage , McDonnell Douglas added lift @-@ improvement devices , which capture the reflected engine exhaust when close to the ground , giving the equivalent of up to 1 @,@ 200 lb ( 544 kg ) of extra lift .
The technological advances incorporated into the Harrier II , compared with the original Harrier , significantly reduce the workload on the pilot . The supercritical wing , hands @-@ on @-@ throttle @-@ and @-@ stick ( HOTAS ) control principle , and increased engineered lateral stability make the aircraft fundamentally easier to fly . Ed Harper , general manager for the McDonnell Douglas Harrier II development program , summarized : " The AV @-@ 8B looks a lot like the original Harrier and it uses the same operating fundamentals . It just uses them a lot better " . A large cathode @-@ ray tube multi @-@ purpose display , taken from the F / A @-@ 18 , makes up much of the instrument panel in the cockpit . It has a wide range of functions , including radar warning information and weapon delivery checklist . The pilots sit on UPC / Stencel 10B zero @-@ zero ejection seats , meaning that they are able to eject from a stationary aircraft at zero altitude .
= = = Airframe = = =
For the AV @-@ 8B , McDonnell Douglas redesigned the entire airframe of the Harrier , incorporating numerous structural and aerodynamic changes . To improve visibility and better accommodate the crew and avionics hardware , McDonnell Douglas elevated the cockpit by 10 @.@ 5 in ( 27 cm ) and redesigned the canopy . This improved the forward ( 17 ° down ) , side ( 60 ° ) , and rear visibility . The front fuselage is composed of a molded skin with an epoxy @-@ based core sandwiched between two carbon @-@ fiber sheets . To compensate for the changes in the front fuselage , the rear fuselage was extended by 18 in ( 46 cm ) , and the taller vertical stabilizer of the Sea Harrier was used . The tail assembly is made up of composites to reduce weight .
Perhaps the most thorough redesign was of the wing , the objective being to match the performance of the cancelled AV @-@ 16 while retaining the Pegasus engine of the AV @-@ 8A . Engineers designed a new , one @-@ piece supercritical wing , which improves cruise performance by delaying the rise in drag and increasing lift @-@ to @-@ drag ratio . Made of composites , the wing is thicker and has a longer span than that of the AV @-@ 8A . Compared to the AV @-@ 8A 's wing , it has a higher aspect ratio , reduced sweep ( from 40 ° to 37 ° ) , and an area increased from 200 sq ft ( 18 @.@ 6 m2 ) to 230 sq ft ( 21 @.@ 4 m2 ) . The wing has a high @-@ lift configuration , employing flaps that deploy automatically when maneuvering , and drooped ailerons . Using the leading edge root extensions , the new wing allows for a 6 @,@ 700 lb ( 3 @,@ 035 kg ) increase in payload compared with the first @-@ generation Harriers after a 1 @,@ 000 ft ( 300 m ) takeoff roll . Because the wing is almost exclusively composite , it is 330 lb ( 150 kg ) lighter than the AV @-@ 8A 's smaller wing .
The Harrier II was the first combat aircraft to extensively employ carbon @-@ fiber composite materials , exploiting their light weight and high strength ; they are used in the wings , rudder , flaps , nose , forward fuselage , and tail . Twenty @-@ six percent of the aircraft 's structure is made of composites , reducing its weight by 480 lb ( 217 kg ) compared to a conventional metal structure .
= = = Differences between versions = = =
Most of the first " day attack " AV @-@ 8B Harrier IIs were upgraded to Night Attack Harrier or Harrier II Plus standards , with the remainder being withdrawn from service . The AV @-@ 8B cockpit was also used for the early trialing of Direct Voice Input ( DVI ) , which allows the pilot to use voice commands to issue instructions to the aircraft , using a system developed by Smiths Industries . The main attack avionics system in original aircraft was the nose @-@ mounted Hughes AN / ASB @-@ 19 angle @-@ rate bombing system . The system combined a TV imager and laser tracker to provide a highly accurate targeting capability . Defensive equipment include several AN / ALE @-@ 39 chaff @-@ flare dispensers , an AN / ALR @-@ 67 radar warning receiver , and an AN / ALQ @-@ 126C jammer pod .
The trainer version of the AV @-@ 8B is the TAV @-@ 8B , seating two pilots in tandem . Among other changes , the forward fuselage features a 3 ft 11 in ( 1 @.@ 19 m ) extension to accommodate the second cockpit . To compensate for the slight loss of directional stability , the vertical stabilizer 's area was enlarged through increases in chord ( length of the stabilizer 's root ) and height . USMC TAV @-@ 8Bs feature the AV @-@ 8B 's digital cockpit and new systems , but have only two hardpoints and are not combat capable . Initial TAV @-@ 8Bs were powered by a 21 @,@ 450 lbf ( 95 @.@ 4 kN ) F402 @-@ RR @-@ 406A engine , while later examples were fitted with the 23 @,@ 000 lbf ( 105 @.@ 8 kN ) F402 @-@ RR @-@ 408A . In the early 2000s , 17 TAV @-@ 8Bs were upgraded to include a night @-@ attack capability , the F402 @-@ RR @-@ 408 engine , and software and structural changes .
Fielded in 1991 , the Night Attack Harrier was the first upgrade of the AV @-@ 8B . It differed from the original aircraft in having a forward looking infrared ( FLIR ) camera added to the top of the nose cone , a wide Smiths Industries head @-@ up display ( HUD ) , provisions for night vision goggles , and a Honeywell digital moving map system . The FLIR uses thermal imaging to identify objects by their heat signatures . The variant was powered by the F402 @-@ RR @-@ 408 engine , which featured an electronic control system and was more powerful and reliable . The flare and chaff dispensers were moved , and the ram air intake was lengthened at the fin 's base . Initially known as the AV @-@ 8D , the night @-@ attack variant was designated the AV @-@ 8B ( NA ) .
The Harrier II Plus is very similar to the Night Attack variant , with the addition of an APG @-@ 65 multi @-@ mode pulse @-@ Doppler radar in an extended nose , allowing it to launch advanced beyond @-@ visual @-@ range missiles such as the AIM @-@ 120 AMRAAM . To make additional space for the radar , the angle @-@ rate bombing system was removed . The radars used were taken from early F / A @-@ 18 aircraft , which had been upgraded with the related APG @-@ 73 . In addition to the AIM @-@ 120 , the AV @-@ 8B Plus can also carry AGM @-@ 65 Maverick and AGM @-@ 84 Harpoon missiles . According to aviation author Lon Nordeen , the changes " had a slight increase in drag and a bit of additional weight , but there really was not much difference in performance between the [ – 408 @-@ powered ] Night Attack and radar Harrier II Plus aircraft " .
= = Operational history = =
= = = United States Marine Corps = = =
The AV @-@ 8B underwent standard evaluation to prepare for its USMC service . In the operational evaluation ( OPEVAL ) , lasting from 31 August 1984 to 30 March 1985 , four pilots and a group of maintenance and support personnel tested the aircraft under combat conditions . The aircraft was graded for its ability to meet its mission requirements for navigating , acquiring targets , delivering weapons , and evading and surviving enemy actions , all at the specified range and payload limits . The first phase of OPEVAL , running until 1 February 1985 , required the AV @-@ 8B to fly both deep and close air support missions ( deep air support missions do not require coordination with friendly ground forces ) in concert with other close @-@ support aircraft , as well as flying battlefield interdiction and armed reconnaissance missions . The aircraft flew from military installations at Marine Corps Base Camp Pendleton and Naval Air Weapons Station China Lake in California , Canadian Forces Base Cold Lake in Canada , and MCAS Yuma in Arizona .
The second phase of OPEVAL , which took place at MCAS Yuma from 25 February to 8 March , required the AV @-@ 8B to perform fighter escort , combat air patrol , and deck @-@ launched intercept missions . Although the evaluation identified shortfalls in the design ( subsequently rectified ) , OPEVAL was deemed successful . The AV @-@ 8B Harrier II reached initial operating capability ( IOC ) in January 1985 with USMC squadron VMA @-@ 331 .
The AV @-@ 8B saw extensive action in the Gulf War of 1990 – 91 . Aircraft based on USS Nassau and Tarawa , and at on @-@ shore bases , initially flew training and support sorties , as well as practicing with coalition forces . The AV @-@ 8Bs were to be held in reserve during the initial phase of the preparatory air assault of Operation Desert Storm . The AV @-@ 8B was first used in the war on the morning of 17 January 1991 , when a call for air support from an OV @-@ 10 Bronco forward air controller against Iraqi artillery that was shelling Khafji and an adjacent oil refinery , brought the AV @-@ 8B into combat . The following day , USMC AV @-@ 8Bs attacked Iraqi positions in southern Kuwait . Throughout the war , AV @-@ 8Bs performed armed reconnaissance and worked in concert with coalition forces to destroy targets .
During Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm , 86 AV @-@ 8Bs amassed 3 @,@ 380 flights and about 4 @,@ 100 flight hours , with a mission availability rate of over 90 percent . Five AV @-@ 8Bs were lost to enemy surface @-@ to @-@ air missiles , and two USMC pilots were killed . The AV @-@ 8B had an attrition rate of 1 @.@ 5 aircraft for every 1 @,@ 000 sorties flown . US Army General Norman Schwarzkopf later named the AV @-@ 8B among the seven weapons — along with the F @-@ 117 Nighthawk and AH @-@ 64 Apache — that played a crucial role during the war . In the aftermath of the war , from 27 August 1992 , until 2003 , USMC AV @-@ 8Bs and other aircraft patrolled Iraqi skies in support of Operation Southern Watch . The AV @-@ 8Bs launched from amphibious assault ships in the Persian Gulf , and from forward operating bases such as Ali Al Salem Air Base , Kuwait .
In 1999 , the AV @-@ 8B participated in NATO 's bombing of Yugoslavia during Operation Allied Force . Twelve Harriers were split evenly between the 24th and 26th Marine Expeditionary Units ( MEU ) . AV @-@ 8Bs of the 24th MEU were introduced into combat on 14 April , and over the next 14 days flew 34 combat air support missions over Kosovo . During their six @-@ month deployment aboard USS Nassau , 24th MEU Harriers averaged a high mission @-@ capable rate of 91 @.@ 8 percent . On 28 April , the 24th MEU was relieved by the 26th MEU , based on USS Kearsarge . The first combat sorties of the unit 's AV @-@ 8Bs occurred two days later , one aircraft being lost . The 26th MEU remained in the theater of operations until 28 May , when it was relocated to Brindisi , Italy .
USMC AV @-@ 8Bs took part in Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan from 2001 . The USMC 15th MEU arrived off the coast of Pakistan in October 2001 . Operating from the unit 's ships , four AV @-@ 8Bs began attack missions into Afghanistan on 3 November 2001 . The 26th MEU and its AV @-@ 8Bs joined 15th MEU later that month . In December 2001 , AV @-@ 8Bs began moving into Afghanistan to a forward base at Kandahar . More AV @-@ 8Bs were deployed with other USMC units to the region in 2002 . The VMA @-@ 513 squadron deployed six Night Attack AV @-@ 8Bs to Bagram in October 2002 . These aircraft each carried a LITENING targeting pod to perform reconnaissance missions along with attack and other missions , primarily at night .
The aircraft participated in Operation Iraqi Freedom in 2003 , acting primarily in support of USMC ground units . During the initial action , 60 AV @-@ 8Bs were deployed on ships such as the USS Bonhomme Richard and Bataan , from which over 1 @,@ 000 sorties were flown throughout the war . When possible , land @-@ based forward arming and refuelling points were set up to enable prompt operations . USMC commander Lieutenant General Earl B. Hailston said that the Harriers were able to provide 24 @-@ hour support for ground forces , and noted that " The airplane ... became the envy of pilots even from my background ... there 's an awful lot of things on the Harrier that I 've found the Hornet pilots asking me [ for ] ... We couldn 't have asked for a better record " .
USMC sources documented the Harrier as holding an 85 percent aircraft availability record in the Iraq War ; in just under a month of combat , the aircraft flew over 2 @,@ 000 sorties . When used , the LITENING II targeting pod achieved greater than 75 percent kill effectiveness on targets . In a single sortie from USS Bonhomme Richard , a wave of Harriers inflicted heavy damage on a Republican Guard tank battalion in advance of a major ground assault on Al Kut . Harriers regularly operated in close support roles for friendly tanks , one of the aircraft generally carrying a LITENING pod . Despite the Harrier 's high marks , the limited amount of time that each aircraft could remain on station , around 15 – 20 minutes , led to some calls from within the USMC for the procurement of AC @-@ 130 gunships , which could loiter for six hours and had a heavier close air support capability than the AV @-@ 8B . AV @-@ 8Bs were later used in combination with artillery to provide constant fire support for ground forces during heavy fighting in 2004 around the insurgent stronghold of Fallujah . The urban environment there required extreme precision for airstrikes .
On 20 March 2011 , USMC AV @-@ 8Bs were launched from USS Kearsarge in support of Operation Odyssey Dawn , enforcing the UN no @-@ fly zone over Libya . They carried out airstrikes on Sirte on 5 April 2011 . Multiple AV @-@ 8Bs were involved in the defense of a downed F @-@ 15E pilot , attacking approaching Libyans prior to the pilot 's extraction by a MV @-@ 22 Osprey .
In addition to major conflicts , USMC AV @-@ 8Bs have been deployed in support of contingency and humanitarian operations , providing fixed @-@ wing air cover and armed reconnaissance . The aircraft served in Somalia throughout the 1990s , Liberia ( 1990 , 1996 , and 2003 ) , Rwanda ( 1994 ) , Central African Republic ( 1996 ) , Albania ( 1997 ) , Zaire ( 1997 ) , and Sierra Leone ( 1997 ) .
The AV @-@ 8B is to be replaced by the F @-@ 35B version of the Lockheed Martin F @-@ 35 Lightning II , which had been slated to enter service in 2012 . The USMC had sought a replacement since the 1980s , and has argued strongly in favor of the development of the F @-@ 35B . The Harrier 's performance in Iraq , including its ability to use forward operating bases , reinforced the need for a V / STOL aircraft in the USMC arsenal .
In November 2011 , the USN purchased the UK 's fleet of 72 retired BAe Harrier IIs ( 63 single @-@ seat GR.7 / 9 / 9As plus 9 twin @-@ seat T.12 / 12As ) and replacement engines to provide spares for the existing USMC Harrier II fleet . Although the March 2012 issue of the magazine AirForces Monthly stated that the USMC intended to fly some of the ex @-@ British Harrier IIs , instead of using them just for spare parts , the Naval Air Systems Command ( NAVAIR ) has since stated that the USMC has never had any plans to operate those Harriers .
On 14 September 2012 , a Taliban raid destroyed six AV @-@ 8Bs and severely damaged two others while they were parked on the tarmac at Camp Bastion in Afghanistan 's Helmand Province . All of the aircraft belonged to VMA @-@ 211 . The two damaged AV @-@ 8Bs were flown out of Afghanistan in the hours after the attack . The attack was described as " the worst loss of U.S. airpower in a single incident since the Vietnam War . " The lost aircraft were quickly replaced by those from VMA @-@ 231 .
On 27 July 2014 , the USS Bataan began deploying USMC AV @-@ 8Bs over Iraq to provide surveillance of Islamic State ( IS ) forces . Surveillance operations continued after the start of Operation Inherent Resolve against IS militants . In early September 2014 , a USMC Harrier from the 22nd MEU struck an IS target near the Haditha Dam in Iraq , marking the first time a USMC unit dropped ordnance in the operation .
= = = Italian Navy = = =
In the late 1960s , following a demonstration of the Hawker Siddeley Harrier on the Italian Navy ( Marina Militare ) helicopter carrier Andrea Doria , the country began investigating the possibility of acquiring the Harrier . Early efforts were hindered by a 1937 Italian law that prohibited the navy from operating fixed @-@ wing aircraft because they were the domain of the air force . In early 1989 , the law was changed to allow the navy to operate any fixed @-@ wing aircraft with a maximum weight of over 3 @,@ 300 lb ( 1 @,@ 500 kg ) . Following a lengthy evaluation of the Sea Harrier and AV @-@ 8B , an order was placed for two TAV @-@ 8Bs in May 1989 . Soon , a contract for a further 16 AV @-@ 8B Plus aircraft was signed . After the TAV @-@ 8Bs and the first three AV @-@ 8Bs , all subsequent Italian Navy Harriers were locally assembled by Alenia Aeronautica from kits delivered from the U.S. The two @-@ seaters , the first to be delivered , arrived at Grottaglie in August 1991 . They were used for proving flights with the navy 's helicopter carriers and on the light aircraft carrier Giuseppe Garibaldi .
In early 1994 , the initial batch of US @-@ built aircraft arrived at MCAS Cherry Point for pilot conversion training . The first Italian @-@ assembled Harrier was rolled out the following year . In mid @-@ January 1995 , Giuseppe Garibaldi set off from Taranto to Somalia , with three Harriers on board , to maintain stability following the withdrawal of UN forces . The Harriers , flown by five Italian pilots , accumulated more than 100 flight hours and achieved 100 percent availability during the three @-@ month deployment , performing reconnaissance and other missions . The squadron returned to port on 22 March .
In 1999 , Italian AV @-@ 8Bs were used for the first time in combat missions when they were deployed aboard Giuseppe Garibaldi , which was participating in Operation Allied Force in Kosovo . Italian pilots conducted more than 60 sorties alongside other NATO aircraft , attacking the Yugoslav army and paramilitary forces and bombing the country 's infrastructure with conventional and laser @-@ guided bombs ( LGB ) .
In 2000 , the Italian Navy was looking to acquire a further seven remanufactured aircraft to equip Giuseppe Garibaldi and a new carrier , Cavour . Existing aircraft , meanwhile , were updated to allow them to carry AIM @-@ 120 AMRAAMs and JDAM guided bombs . From November 2001 to March 2002 , eight AV @-@ 8Bs were embarked aboard Giuseppe Garibaldi and were deployed to the Indian Ocean in support of Operation Enduring Freedom . The aircraft , equipped with LGBs , operated throughout January and February 2002 , during which 131 missions were logged for a total of 647 flight hours .
In 2011 , Italian Harriers , operating from Giuseppe Garibaldi , worked alongside Italian Eurofighters and aircraft of other nations during Operation Unified Protector , as part of the 2011 military intervention in Libya . They conducted airstrikes as well as intelligence and reconnaissance sorties over Libya , using the LITENING targeting pods while armed with AIM @-@ 120 AMRAAMs and AIM @-@ 9 Sidewinders . In total , Italian military aircraft delivered 710 guided bombs and missiles during sorties : Italian Air Force Tornados and AMX fighter bombers delivered 550 bombs and missiles , while the eight Italian Navy AV @-@ 8Bs flying from Giuseppe Garibaldi dropped 160 guided bombs during 1 @,@ 221 flight hours .
Italian Navy AV @-@ 8Bs are slated to be replaced by 15 ( originally 22 ) F @-@ 35Bs , which will form the air wing of Cavour .
= = = Spanish Navy = = =
Spain , already using the AV @-@ 8S Matador , became the first international operator of the AV @-@ 8B by signing an order for 12 aircraft in March 1983 . Designated VA @-@ 2 Matador II by the Spanish Navy ( Armada Española ) , this variant is known as EAV @-@ 8B by McDonnell Douglas . Pilot conversion took place in the US . On 6 October 1987 , the first three Matador IIs were delivered to Naval Station Rota . The new aircraft were painted in a two @-@ tone matt grey finish , similar to US Navy aircraft , and deliveries were complete by 1988 .
BAe test pilots cleared the aircraft carrier Príncipe de Asturias ' for Harrier operations in July 1989 . The carrier , which replaced the World War II @-@ era Dédalo , has a 12 ° ski @-@ jump ramp . It was originally planned that the first unit to operate the aircraft would be the 8a Escuadrilla . This unit was disbanded on 24 October 1986 , following the sales of AV @-@ 8S Matadors to Thailand . Instead , 9a Escuadrilla was formed on 29 September 1987 , to become part of the Alpha Carrier Air Group and operate the EAV @-@ 8B .
In March 1993 , under the September 1990 Tripartite MoU between the U.S. , Italy , and Spain , eight EAV @-@ 8B Plus Matadors were ordered , along with a twin @-@ seat TAV @-@ 8B . Deliveries of the Plus @-@ standard aircraft started in 1996 . On 11 May 2000 , Boeing and the NAVAIR finalized a contract to remanufacture Spanish EAV @-@ 8Bs to bring them up to Plus standard . Boeing said the deal required it to remanufacture two EAV @-@ 8Bs , with an option for another seven aircraft ; other sources say the total was 11 aircraft . The remanufacture allowed the aircraft to carry four AIM @-@ 120 AMRAAMs , enhanced the pilot 's situational awareness through the installation of new radar and avionics , and provided a new engine . Eventually , five aircraft were modified , the last having been delivered on 5 December 2003 .
Spanish EAV @-@ 8Bs joined Operation Deny Flight , enforcing the UN 's no @-@ fly zone over Bosnia and Herzegovina . Spain did not send its aircraft carrier to participate in the Iraq War in 2003 , instead deploying F / A @-@ 18s and other aircraft to Turkey to defend that country against potential Iraqi attacks . Starting in 2007 , Spain was looking to replace its Harrier IIs – with the likely option being the F @-@ 35B . The Spanish government , in May 2014 however , announced that it had decided to extend the aircraft 's service life to beyond 2025 due to a lack of funds for a replacement aircraft .
Following the decommissioning of the Príncipe de Asturias in February 2013 , the sole naval platform from which Spanish Harrier IIs can operate is the Juan Carlos amphibious assault ship .
= = Variants = =
YAV @-@ 8B
Two prototypes converted in 1978 from existing AV @-@ 8A airframes ( BuNos 158394 and 158395 ) .
AV @-@ 8B Harrier II sans suffix
The initial " day attack " variant .
AV @-@ 8B Harrier II Night Attack
Improved version with a forward @-@ looking infrared ( FLIR ) camera , an upgraded cockpit with night @-@ vision goggle compatibility , and the more powerful Rolls Royce Pegasus 11 engine . This variant was originally planned to be designated AV @-@ 8D .
AV @-@ 8B Harrier II Plus
Similar to the Night Attack variant , with the addition of an APG @-@ 65 radar . It is used by the USMC , Spanish Navy , and Italian Navy . Forty @-@ six new @-@ built aircraft were assembled from 1993 to 1997 .
TAV @-@ 8B Harrier II
Two @-@ seat trainer version .
EAV @-@ 8B Matador II
Company designation for the Spanish Navy version .
EAV @-@ 8B Matador II Plus
The AV @-@ 8B Harrier II Plus , ordered for the Spanish Navy .
Harrier GR5 , GR7 , GR9
See British Aerospace Harrier II .
= = Operators = =
Italy
Italian Navy
Gruppo Aerei Imbarcati ( 1991 – present )
Spain
Spanish Navy
9a Escuadrilla Aeronaves ( 1987 – present )
United States
United States Marine Corps
VMA @-@ 211 " Wake Island Avengers " ( 1990 – present )
VMA @-@ 214 " The Black Sheep " ( 1989 – present )
VMA @-@ 223 " Bulldogs " ( 1987 – present )
VMA @-@ 231 " Ace of Spades " ( 1985 – present )
VMA @-@ 311 " Tomcats " ( 1988 – present )
VMA @-@ 331 " Bumblebees " ( 1985 – 1992 )
VMA @-@ 513 " Flying Nightmares " ( 1987 – 2013 )
VMA @-@ 542 " Tigers " ( 1986 – present )
VMAT @-@ 203 " Hawks " ( 1983 – present )
United States Navy
VX @-@ 9 " The Vampires " ( unknown )
VX @-@ 31 " Dust Devils " ( unknown – present )
= = Accidents = =
During its service with the USMC , the Harrier has had an accident rate three times that of the Corps ' F / A @-@ 18s . As of July 2013 , approximately 110 aircraft have been damaged beyond repair since the type entered service in 1985 , the first accident occurring in March that year . The AV @-@ 8 was dubbed a " widow maker " by some in the military . The Los Angeles Times reported in 2003 that the Harrier family had the highest rate of major accidents among military aircraft in service at that time , with 148 accidents and 45 people killed . However , Lon Nordeen notes that several other USMC single @-@ engine strike aircraft , like the A @-@ 4 Skyhawk and A @-@ 7 Corsair II , had worse accident rates .
Accidents have in particular been connected to the proportionate amount of time the aircraft spends taking off and landing , which are the most critical phases in flight . Further analysis shows that US Marine senior officers never understood the uniqueness of the aircraft , that the Harrier design was more complex , like that of helicopters . Cutbacks in senior maintenance personnel and pilot mistakes had a disastrous effect on the safety of the American @-@ operated AV @-@ 8B , which gained it a negative reputation in the US press that was not deserved .
= = Aircraft on display = =
AV @-@ 8B
BuNo 161396 – National Museum of the Marine Corps , Triangle , Virginia .
BuNo 161397 – Carolinas Aviation Museum , Charlotte , North Carolina .
= = Specifications ( AV @-@ 8B Harrier II Plus ) = =
Data from Nordeen , Boeing , and Airforce @-@ technology.com
General characteristics
Crew : 1 pilot
Length : 46 ft 4 in ( 14 @.@ 12 m )
Wingspan : 30 ft 4 in ( 9 @.@ 25 m )
Height : 11 ft 8 in ( 3 @.@ 55 m )
Wing area : 243 @.@ 4 sq ft ( 22 @.@ 61 m ² )
Airfoil : supercritical airfoil
Empty weight : 13 @,@ 968 lb ( 6 @,@ 340 kg )
Loaded weight : 22 @,@ 950 lb ( 10 @,@ 410 kg )
Max. takeoff weight : Rolling : 31 @,@ 000 lb ( 14 @,@ 100 kg )
Vertical : 20 @,@ 755 lb ( 9 @,@ 415 kg )
Powerplant : 1 × Rolls @-@ Royce F402 @-@ RR @-@ 408 ( Mk 107 ) vectored @-@ thrust turbofan , 23 @,@ 500 lbf ( 105 kN )
Performance
Maximum speed : Mach 0 @.@ 9 ( 585 knots , 673 mph , 1 @,@ 083 km / h )
Range : 1 @,@ 200 nmi ( 1 @,@ 400 mi , 2 @,@ 200 km )
Combat radius : 300 nmi ( 350 mi , 556 km )
Ferry range : 1 @,@ 800 nmi ( 2 @,@ 100 mi , 3 @,@ 300 km )
Rate of climb : 14 @,@ 700 ft / min ( 75 m / s )
Wing loading : 94 @.@ 29 lb / ( sq ft ) ( 460 @.@ 4 kg / m ² )
Armament
Guns : 1 × General Dynamics GAU @-@ 12 Equalizer 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 984 in ) 5 @-@ barreled Gatling cannon mounted under @-@ fuselage in the left pod , with 300 rounds of ammunition in the right pod
Hardpoints : 6 × under @-@ wing pylon stations holding up to 9 @,@ 200 lb ( 4 @,@ 200 kg ) of payload :
Rockets : 4 × LAU @-@ 5003 rocket pods ( each with 19 × CRV7 or APKWS 70 mm rockets )
Missiles : Air @-@ to @-@ air missiles :
4 × AIM @-@ 9 Sidewinder or similar @-@ sized infrared @-@ guided missiles
6 × AIM @-@ 120 AMRAAM ( on radar equipped AV @-@ 8B Plus variants )
Air @-@ to @-@ surface missiles :
6 × AGM @-@ 65 Maverick ; or
2 × AGM @-@ 84 Harpoon ; or
2 × AGM @-@ 88 HARM
Bombs : CBU @-@ 100 cluster bombs ( CBUs )
Mark 80 series of unguided bombs ( including 3 kg [ 6 @.@ 6 lb ] and 14 kg [ 31 lb ] practice bombs )
Paveway series of laser @-@ guided bombs ( LGBs )
Joint Direct Attack Munitions ( GBU @-@ 38 , GBU @-@ 32 , and GBU @-@ 54 )
Mark 77 napalm canisters
B61 nuclear bomb
Others :
up to 4 × 300 / 330 / 370 US Gallon drop tanks ( pylon stations No. 2 , 3 , 4 , & 5 are wet plumbed )
Intrepid Tiger II electronic jammer
Avionics
Raytheon APG @-@ 65 radar
AN / AAQ @-@ 28V LITENING targeting pod ( on radar @-@ equipped AV @-@ 8B Plus variants )
= = Popular culture = =
As part of its 1996 Pepsi Stuff marketing campaign , Pepsi ran an advertisement promising a Harrier jet to anyone who collected 7 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 Pepsi Points , a gag that backfired when a participant attempted to take advantage of the ability to buy additional points for 10 cents each to claim a jet for US $ 700 @,@ 000 . When Pepsi turned him down , a lawsuit ensued , in which the judge ruled that any reasonable person would conclude that the advertisement was a joke .
= Tiger II =
Tiger II is the common name of a German heavy tank of the Second World War . The final official German designation was Panzerkampfwagen Tiger Ausf . B , often shortened to Tiger B. The ordnance inventory designation was Sd.Kfz. 182 . It is also known under the informal name Königstiger ( the German name for the Bengal tiger ) , often translated literally as Royal Tiger , or somewhat incorrectly as King Tiger by Allied soldiers , especially by American forces .
The Tiger II was the successor to the Tiger I , combining the latter 's thick armour with the armour sloping used on the Panther medium tank . The tank weighed almost 70 tonnes , and was protected by 100 to 185 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 to 7 @.@ 3 in ) of armour to the front . It was armed with the long barrelled 8 @.@ 8 cm KwK 43 L / 71 anti @-@ tank cannon . The chassis was also the basis for the Jagdtiger turretless tank destroyer .
The Tiger II was issued to heavy tank battalions of the Army and the Waffen @-@ SS . It was first used in combat with 503rd Heavy Panzer Battalion during the Allied Invasion of Normandy on 11 July 1944 ; on the Eastern Front , the first unit to be outfitted with Tiger IIs was the 501st Heavy Panzer Battalion , which by 1 September 1944 listed 25 Tiger IIs operational .
= = Development = =
Development of a heavy tank design had been initiated in 1937 ; the initial design contract was awarded to Henschel . Another design contract followed in 1939 , and was given to Porsche . Both prototype series used the same turret design from Krupp ; the main differences were in the hull , transmission , suspension and automotive features .
The Henschel version used a conventional hull design with sloped armour resembling the layout of the Panther tank . It had a rear mounted engine and used nine steel @-@ tired , eighty centimeter diameter overlapping road wheels per side with internal springing , mounted on transverse torsion bars , in a similar manner to the original Henschel @-@ designed Tiger I. To simplify maintenance , however , as when the same steel @-@ tired road wheels were used on later Tiger I hulls , the wheels were only overlapping without being interleaved — the full Schachtellaufwerk rubber @-@ rimmed roadwheel system that had been in use on nearly all German half @-@ tracks used the interleaved design , later inherited by the early production versions of the Tiger I and Panther .
The Porsche hull designs included a rear @-@ mounted turret and a mid @-@ mounted engine . The suspension was the same as on the Elefant tank destroyer . This had six road wheels per side mounted in paired bogies sprung with short longitudinal torsion bars that were integral to the wheel pair ; this saved internal space and facilitated repairs . One Porsche version had a gasoline @-@ electric drive ( fundamentally identical to a Diesel @-@ electric transmission , only using a gasoline @-@ fueled engine as the prime mover ) , similar to a gasoline @-@ electric hybrid but without a storage battery ; two separate drive trains in parallel , one per side of the tank , each consisting of a hybrid drive train ; gasoline engine – electric generator – electric motor – drive sprocket . This method of propulsion had been attempted before on the Tiger ( P ) ( later Elefant prototypes ) and in some US designs , but had never been put into production . The Porsche suspension were later used on a few of the later Jagdtiger tank destroyers . Another proposal was to use hydraulic drives . Dr. Porsche 's unorthodox designs gathered little favour .
= = Design = =
Henschel won the design contract , and all Tiger IIs were produced by the firm . Two turret designs were used in production vehicles . The initial design is often misleadingly called the " Porsche " turret due to the belief that it was designed by Porsche for their prototype ; in fact it was the initial Krupp design for both prototypes . This turret had a rounded front and steeply sloped sides , with a difficult @-@ to @-@ manufacture curved bulge on the turret 's left side to accommodate the commander 's cupola . Fifty early turrets were mounted to Henschel 's hull and used in action . The more common " production " turret , sometimes called the " Henschel " turret , was simplified with a significantly thicker flat face , no shot trap ( created by the curved face of the earlier turret ) , and less @-@ steeply sloped sides , which prevented the need for a bulge for the commander 's cupola , and added additional room for ammunition storage .
The turrets were designed to mount the 8 @.@ 8 cm KwK 43 L / 71 gun . Combined with the Turmzielfernrohr 9d ( German " turret telescopic sight " ) monocular sight by Leitz , which all but a few early Tiger IIs used , it was a very accurate and deadly weapon . During practice , the estimated probability of a first round hit on a 2 m ( 6 ft 7 in ) high , 2 @.@ 5 m ( 8 ft 2 in ) wide target only dropped below 100 percent at ranges beyond 1 @,@ 000 m ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) , to 95 – 97 percent at 1 @,@ 500 metres ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) and 85 – 87 percent at 2 @,@ 000 m ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) , depending on ammunition type . Recorded combat performance was lower , but still over 80 percent at 1 @,@ 000 m , in the 60s at 1 @,@ 500 m and the 40s at 2 @,@ 000 m . Penetration of armoured plate inclined at 30 degrees was 202 and 132 mm ( 8 @.@ 0 and 5 @.@ 2 in ) at 100 m ( 110 yd ) and 2 @,@ 000 m ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) respectively for the Panzergranate 39 / 43 projectile ( PzGr — armour @-@ piercing shell ) , and 238 and 153 mm ( 9 @.@ 4 and 6 @.@ 0 in ) for the PzGr . 40 / 43 projectile between the same ranges . The Sprenggranate 43 ( SpGr ) high @-@ explosive round was available for soft targets , or the Hohlgranate or Hohlgeschoss 39 ( HlGr — HEAT or High @-@ explosive anti @-@ tank warhead ) round , which had 90 mm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) penetration at any range , could be used as a dual @-@ purpose munition against soft or armoured targets .
Powered turret traverse was provided by the variable speed Boehringer @-@ Sturm L4S hydraulic motor , which was driven from the main engine by a secondary drive shaft . A high and a low speed setting was available to the gunner via a lever on his right . The turret could be rotated 360 degrees in 60 seconds in low gear independent of engine rpm , in 19 seconds with the high speed | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
ormann 's in 1998 when German authorities ordered genetic testing on fragments of the skull . The testing was led by Wolfgang Eisenmenger , Professor of Forensic Science at Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich . Tests using DNA from one of his relatives identified the skull as that of Bormann . Bormann 's remains were cremated and the ashes were scattered in the Baltic Sea on 16 August 1999 .
= = Family = =
On 2 September 1929 , Bormann married 19 @-@ year @-@ old Gerda Buch , whose father , Major Walter Buch , served as a chairman of the Untersuchung und Schlichtungs @-@ Ausschuss ( USCHLA ; Investigation and Settlement Committee ) , which was responsible for settling disputes within the party . Hitler was a frequent visitor to the Buch house , and it was here that Bormann met him . Hess and Hitler served as witnesses at the wedding . Bormann also had a series of mistresses , including Manja Behrens , an actress .
The children of Martin and Gerda Bormann were :
Martin Adolf Bormann ( 14 April 1930 – 11 March 2013 ) ; called Krönzi ( " crown prince " ) ; named after Hitler , his godfather .
Ilse Bormann ( born 9 July 1931 ) ; named after her godmother , Ilse Hess . Later called Eike after Hess ' flight to Scotland . She died in 1958 . A twin sister , Ehrengard , died in 1932 .
Irmgard Bormann ( born 25 July 1933 ) .
Rudolf Gerhard Bormann ( born 31 August 1934 ; named after his godfather Rudolf Hess ) . His name was changed to Helmut after Hess ' flight to Scotland .
Heinrich Hugo Bormann ( born 13 June 1936 ; named after his godfather Heinrich Himmler ) .
Eva Ute Bormann ( born 4 May 1938 ) .
Gerda Bormann ( born 4 August 1940 ) .
Fritz Hartmut Bormann ( born 3 April 1942 ) .
Volker Bormann ( born 18 September 1943 , died in 1946 ) .
Gerda Bormann and the children fled Obersalzberg for Italy on 25 April 1945 after an Allied air attack . She died of cancer on 26 April 1946 , in Merano , Italy . Bormann 's children survived the war , and were cared for in foster homes . His eldest son , Martin , was ordained a Roman Catholic priest and worked in Africa as a missionary . He later left the priesthood and married .
= = Nazi awards and decorations = =
Frontbann Badge ( 1932 )
Golden Party Badge ( 1934 )
Olympic Games Decoration First Class ( 1936 )
Honour Chevron for the Old Guard
SS @-@ Honour Ring ( 1937 )
Honour Sword of the Reichsführers @-@ SS ( 1937 )
Blood Order ( 1938 )
Nazi Party Long Service Award in Bronze and Silver
Grand Officer and Knight of the Grand Cross of the Order of the Crown of Italy
= = Explanatory notes = =
= James McCudden =
James Thomas Byford McCudden VC , DSO & Bar , MC & Bar , MM ( 28 March 1895 – 9 July 1918 ) was an English flying ace of the First World War and among the most highly decorated airmen in British military history .
Born in 1895 to a middle class family with military traditions , McCudden joined the Royal Engineers in 1910 . Having an interest in mechanics he transferred to the Royal Flying Corps ( RFC ) in 1913 at which time he first came into regular contact with aircraft . At the outbreak of war in 1914 he flew as an observer before training as a fighter pilot in 1916 .
McCudden claimed his first victory in September 1916 . He claimed his fifth victory — making him an ace — on 15 February 1917 . For the next six months he served as an instructor and flew defensive patrols over London . He returned to the frontline in summer 1917 . That same year he dispatched a further 31 enemy aircraft while claiming multiple victories in one day on 11 occasions .
With his six British medals and one French , McCudden received more awards for gallantry than any other airman of British nationality serving in the First World War . He was also one of the longest serving . By 1918 , in part due to a campaign by the Daily Mail newspaper , McCudden became one of the most famous airmen in the British Isles .
At his death he had achieved 57 aerial victories , placing him seventh on the list of the war 's most successful aces . Just under two @-@ thirds of his victims can be identified by name . This is possible since , unlike other Allied aces , a substantial proportion of McCudden 's claims were made over Allied @-@ held territory . The majority of his successes were achieved with 56 Squadron RFC and all but five fell while flying the S.E.5a.
On 9 July 1918 McCudden was killed in a flying accident when his aircraft crashed following an engine fault . His rank at the time of his death was major , a significant achievement for a man who had begun his career in the RFC as an air mechanic . McCudden is buried at the British war cemetery at Beauvoir @-@ Wavans .
= = Early life and family = =
James McCudden was born in Gillingham , Kent to Sergeant @-@ Major William H. McCudden and Amelia Byford . His father had been in the military for most of his life . He joined the Royal Engineers as a teenager and served in No. 24 Company . He fought in the Anglo @-@ Egyptian War at the Battle of Tel el @-@ Kebir in 1882 . During combat he rescued a wounded soldier while under fire and was recommended for an award . However , when it emerged he was acting against orders he was denied any honours . Nevertheless , his father had a long career in the Engineers and eventually became an instructor at the School of Military Engineering as a non @-@ commissioned officer . His mother 's family also had a military background ; her grandfather served as a Master @-@ at @-@ arms in the Royal Marines aboard HMS Poictiers .
In 1890 William H. McCudden and Amelia Byford ( 1869 – 1955 ) married . They had six children ; William Thomas James ( 3 April 1891 – 1 May 1915 ) , Mary Amelia ( 23 January 1893 ) , James Thomas Byford ( 28 March 1895 – 9 July 1918 ) , Kathleen Annie ( 1 December 1899 ) , John Anthony ( 14 June 1897 – 18 March 1918 ) and Maurice Vincent ( 31 October 1901 – 13 December 1934 ) . John and William McCudden became fighter pilots but both were killed whilst flying — John would be killed in action during the war .
His father William H. McCudden took a post at the Air Ministry at the rank of warrant officer after the Great War , but would die tragically at Clapham Junction railway station on 7 July 1920 . When he stood up to offer a woman his seat the compartment door flew open , knocking him into the path of an oncoming train . Maurice Vincent became a pilot and served in the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) until he retired through illness in 1933 . He died of colitis the following year , leaving a widow and small daughter .
The McCuddens moved to Sheerness in 1909 and James transferred to the garrison school . He learned to shoot at the rifle range , box and was a reasonably intelligent student . His father 's retirement soon placed a heavy strain on the family finances and as a consequence McCudden felt obliged to find a job before he could enlist in 1915 . He filled the time from the age of 14 to the age of enlistment by working as a Post Office messenger boy . It was at this time McCudden 's interest in flying began . In nearby Leysdown , on the Isle of Sheppey , one of the first aviation centres was built . It was here John Moore @-@ Brabazon became the first Englishman to fly . McCudden and his brothers often went to see the pioneer aviators gather . McCudden expressed a desire to become a pilot after spending hours watching these early flying machines .
= = Royal Engineers and RFC = =
Unfortunately his desire to be a pilot was postponed . The family required further income after his father retired . Unable to wait for that opportunity to arise he joined the Royal Engineers on 26 April 1910 , as No. 20083 . On 24 February 1911 he set sail for Gibraltar on the southern tip of Spain . McCudden spent eighteen months in Gibraltar before returning to England in September 1912 . While in Gibraltar he read Flight manual magazine habitually , which explained the theory of flight , aircraft construction and aero engines . He excelled in his service and by 26 April 1913 he had become a qualified Sapper . He also held the grade Air Mechanic 2nd Class , No. 892 , which was awarded to him on 28 April 1913 . Soon afterwards he became a member of the Royal Flying Corps ( RFC ) . On 9 May he was posted to Farnborough depot as a mechanic .
McCudden 's tenure at the aerodrome began ominously . The same day he was granted a request to travel as an observer in a Royal Aircraft Factory B.E.2 , disaster struck which could conceivably have ended his career . Instructed to familiarise himself with the aircraft around the airfield he examined a Caudron Type A , and proceeded to turn over the engine . The aircraft was listed as unserviceable and McCudden saw no danger in leaving the throttle fully open . Suddenly the engine started and it accelerated out of the hangar and into a Farman MF.11. McCudden watched as the propeller chewed the wing to pieces and damaged his Commanding Officer 's car which had been parked nearby . He was able to reach the cockpit and switch off the ignition but not before extensive damage had been done . For this misdemeanor he was brought before Colonel Frederick Sykes , commanding the RFC Military Wing . Sykes was pleased with his overall progress , which likely saved him , but sentenced McCudden to seven days detention and a forfeiture of 14 days pay for the incident . Five years later Sykes again met McCudden — then at the height of his fame — and chaffed him on the episode , even jokingly threatening to send him a bill for the car .
On 15 June 1913 he was posted to No. 3 Squadron RFC . He managed a flight in a Blériot aircraft while there and gradually won a reputation as a first @-@ rate mechanic . By Christmas his frequent requests for trips in the aircraft had met with so much success that McCudden had logged nearly 30 hours , mostly in the Blériot monoplanes . On 1 April 1914 he was promoted to Air Mechanic First Class .
= = War service = =
= = = An observer airman = = =
In August 1914 he travelled to France as a mechanic with 3 Squadron after war was declared , which followed the German invasion of Belgium . It operated as a reconnaissance unit and McCudden began to fly as an observer . After stopping at Amiens for several days , the unit began reconnoitering enemy positions . 3 Squadron offered support to the British Army at the Battle of Mons in Belgium . That month McCudden saw his first German aircraft on 22 August . On 25 August the British began their retreat , south @-@ west , toward Paris . 3 Squadron moved to no fewer than nine different landing grounds , often delaying departure until the enemy was only a mile or two behind . Eventually they settled at Melun , south of Paris . In the autumn , McCudden participated in locating German artillery positions at the Allied armies drove back the enemy at the First Battle of the Marne and First Battle of the Aisne . McCudden flew these missions with a rifle since aircraft lacked any fixed armament .
McCudden performed well and took on more administrative responsibilities once he was promoted to Corporal on 20 November 1914 . During this period , the First Battle of Ypres was being fought and the Squadron re @-@ equipped with the higher performing Morane @-@ Saulnier L aircraft . Several months later , on 1 April 1915 , he was promoted to sergeant and made NCO in charge of all engines in his flight . McCudden 's delight at gaining a promotion was cut short by news that his brother William had been killed in an air crash while flying an elderly Blériot . Just a week later , his eldest sister Mary lost her husband in an explosion which destroyed the minelayer HMS Princess Irene on 27 May 1915 .
Undeterred , McCudden made a formal application to become a pilot and fly on operations but it was rejected on the grounds he was too valuable to risk losing . His reputation as a mechanic had spread since his supervision in the unit had led to a record @-@ low number of engine failures . He continued to fly as an observer despite the recommendation of his rejection letter .
On 8 June he made his first official observer qualifying sortie which he passed . At this time the German Luftstreitkräfte ( Air Service ) introduced the Fokker Eindecker fighter equipped with Synchronization gear . Firing through the propeller , the Germans had a machine that soon became a serious threat to McCudden 's unit . The enemy succeeded establishing a period of air superiority at this time . McCudden still flew regularly as an observer with the new commanding Officer , Edgar Ludlow @-@ Hewitt , who had taken over command on 20 November 1915 . He recorded a flight of 2 hours 40 minutes on the 27 November which included an abortive chase after a Albatros C.I reconnaissance aircraft . On 16 December 1915 he acted as aerial gunner , when he drove off an attack on his flight by the German ace Max Immelmann . While firing at the Fokker , McCudden witnessed a piece of paper or fabric fall off the German machine . Although the ground was diligently searched , no trace of it was found . On 19 January 1916 , McCudden exchanged fire with another German observer without result .
At this time , McCudden 's Squadron was also experimenting with wireless technology . Captain D.S Lewis who commanded the headquarters Flight fitted his B.E.2a with a set to help direct artillery fire . In April 1915 he commanded 3 Squadron and became McCudden 's commanding officer . He was killed a year later when he was shot down by ground @-@ fire . It is unknown whether McCudden participated in these pioneering ventures .
On 21 January 1916 McCudden was awarded the Croix de guerre for gallantry . He travelled to Lillers to receive his award from General Joseph Joffre , Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the French Army . His award aroused interest in McCudden , for on 23 January he was promoted to flight sergeant and twenty @-@ fours hours later he was ordered home to England to begin pilot training .
= = = Pilot training = = =
McCudden was based at Farnborough and began his training on 22 February 1916 . He started with a 20 @-@ minute flight in a Henry Farman pusher . McCudden had already flown 100 hours as a passenger with 25 different pilots including 46 hours as a regular observer since November 1915 and had much experience with his surroundings . His instructor was impressed with his grasp of the mechanics and theory . He practiced six landings and progressed to the more powerful Avro 504 as the last the Farman had been written off by another student .
On 9 April he was sent to Gosport and assigned to No. 41 Squadron RFC and made his first solo flight on 16 April in a Farman MF.7. Later that day he was awarded his Royal Aero Club certificate after completing four figure @-@ of @-@ eight turns , a glide from 1 @,@ 200 feet and a landing within forty yards of a selected mark . He completed 22 flights at Gosport , the longest a 50 @-@ minute flight to 7 @,@ 000 feet . On 29 April he was posted to the Central Flying School ( CFS ) at Upavon , near Salisbury Plain for advanced training , arriving on 1 May .
On 7 May he became the 107th non @-@ commissioned officer to receive his CFS certificate . He passed as Second Class Flier . He was good enough to be selected as an instructor and took his first pupil after having flown only nine hours of solo flight himself . Two of his pupils included the future ace and 56 Squadron colleague Geoffrey Hilton Bowman and Mick Mannock . Soon afterwards , while teaching a student in the Airco DH.1 in which they were flying , the aircraft entered a dangerous spin . McCudden narrowly avoided a crash , pulling up feet above the ground . An impact would certainly have killed them both .
On 30 May he was graded First Class Flier . The grade was based upon his achievements ; he had achieved a dead @-@ stick landing within a fifty @-@ yard marker , a 15 @-@ minute flight at 6 @,@ 000 feet , a 60 @-@ mile cross @-@ country flight and 15 hours solo flying . On 24 May he passed his final test with a two @-@ hour flight from Salisbury , to Southampton and onto Basingstoke . His 74 hours flying experience was well above the minimum . By the time he left for France in June he had accumulated 121 flying hours , given 177 lessons as instructor , and had personally tutored 40 student pilots .
= = = Back at the frontline = = =
McCudden joined No. 20 Squadron on 8 July 1916 . The unit was equipped with Royal Aircraft Factory F.E.2 and flew from Clairmarais , near Saint @-@ Omer . He flew his first operational sortie two days later and continued as the Battle of the Somme raged . The Squadron was ordered to intercept and shoot down German reconnaissance aircraft . He patrolled the Ypres and Roulers region . He did not spot any enemy reconnaissance machines but did come into contact with a single Fokker near Lille . Flying in formation , the British were well placed to deal with lone German fighters since they could use their gunners to form a formidable defence screen . This particular German would climb above the British , make a diving attack at the rear @-@ most aircraft and dive away if he did not score a decisive hit . Two days later McCudden ran out of fuel in the Lille district . Disorientated because of heavy mist , he force @-@ landed in Allied territory , crashing and coming to halt in the garden of a French farmhouse . Little damage was done to the machine . On 2 August he took part in an operation to bomb the Zeppelin sheds at Brussels . The flight was unmolested , though the familiar lone Fokker made an appearance and then withdrew without attacking .
That same evening McCudden was told to pack his belongings since he was to be reassigned to 29 Squadron RFC flying Airco DH.2 scouts . McCudden was pleased to be flying scouts , finding it " light after flying the F.E. " McCudden soon found from pilots that the machine was not popular and had to be handled with care . Nevertheless , while on patrol between Armentières and Ypres on 6 September 1916 he scored his first victory . He engaged an all @-@ white Albatros B.II , and shot it down . He then chased another but it escaped through superior speed . Confirmation of his victory was given three days later by an I ANZAC Corps unit . It had crashed on the Gheluve @-@ Mennin road at the time and place of his claim . McCudden nearly added to this score the following day . He engaged a Fokker monoplane but his gun jammed . Switching off his engine , he rectified the damage but the Fokker pilot took the opportunity to pursue him . Restarting his engine as the German closed , McCudden outmanoeuvred him and was presented with a close @-@ astern shot , but once again his gun jammed and the battle ended inconclusively when the faster Fokker dived away .
McCudden did not score again during the year but had a remarkable escape on 27 December 1916 . Flying from Arras to Monchy on patrol , his flight of six DH.2s engaged an enemy formation of Albatros D.IIs. McCudden rushed to the aid of Alexander James , a member of his flight , who had been attacked by a German fighter . He attacked the Albatros head @-@ on but his gun jammed after 20 shots . As he fought to clear the jam he found himself amid a number of German fighters .
One soon latched onto him and began firing . McCudden dived steeply but the enemy pilot remained behind him . At 800 feet McCudden began a spinning dive until the German , now some distance behind , abruptly turned away . The enemy aircraft was fired at by British ground forces and McCudden , who by now had unjammed his Lewis machine gun , turned to give pursuit . The enemy pilot , apparently unaware of this , was already too high and McCudden watched as he re @-@ joined his flight and departed the area .
McCudden returned to base ; in spite of his narrow escape his machine had not been hit . His squadron mates were surprised to see him ; they had witnessed his dive , assumed the spin to be terminal , and were in the process of posting him missing in action . It has been suggested that the enemy pilot was none other than Manfred von Richthofen , " The Red Baron " , in which case McCudden had narrowly avoided becoming the rising star 's 15th victim . Richthofen was credited with a " two seat Vickers biplane " that afternoon , which has usually been listed as the F.E.2b of Captain Quested and Lieutenant Dicksee , but recent research indicates that the action with McCudden may fit the time frame .
1916 ended on a personal high for McCudden . He received his commission on 28 December which came into effect on 1 January 1917 . He was granted two weeks leave and returned to England . As a second lieutenant , McCudden returned to France on 21 January . He was determined to build up his personal tally despite the limitations of his DH.2. The very same day he was forced down for the first and only time . He attacked a Albatros D.III and damaged its engine which stopped . Unfortunately another attacked and he was forced to break off a certain kill when one of his propeller blades was partly shot off . Another DH.2 intervened and McCudden landed near Arras , ordered a new propeller , and flew back to base . Since no member witnessed the fate of the Albatros no claim was made .
McCudden 's fortunes changed in the new year . He dispatched a two @-@ seater on 26 January and another on 2 February 1917 . On 5 February he attacked a Albatros C.III returning from a photo @-@ reconnaissance mission . Diving out of the sun to blind the gunner , he shot it down over the frontline where it was shelled by British artillery . Ten days later he engaged an Albatros escorted by a LFG Roland C.II. After a brief dogfight and pursuit , the Albatros escaped but he destroyed the Roland which crashed near Monchy . Twenty @-@ four hours later McCudden was awarded the Military Cross for his fifth victory . His award was eventually Gazetted on 12 March .
= = = Return to England = = =
He returned to England on 23 February and was appointed an instructor once more . He was slightly aggrieved as he felt he was now getting into his stride as a fighter pilot . He had also been hopeful that his squadron was about to receive the French @-@ designed Nieuports , which were a better match for the Albatros and Halberstadt " D " class fighters than the obsolescent DH.2. His posting was not surprising to him . The beginning of 1917 witnessed an enormous expansion of the RFC and experienced tutors were required to train the mass of new students .
McCudden was posted to the 6th Training Wing at Maidstone until transferred to Dover on 15 April where he learned to fly the Bristol Scout . One of his aircraft was adorned with the name " Teddie " , which his fellow officers suspected was the name of a girlfriend — a blonde dancer , Ms Teddie O 'Neil . McCudden was notoriously private about this aspect of his life but it was suspected that he took her on unauthorised flights in the Scout since his log book recorded such escapades in April . He praised the qualities of his Scout even though he managed to survive two accidents in this aircraft on 29 April and 2 June . Concurrent with his tenure at Dover , his brother John also enrolled as a pilot pupil there . To avoid accusations of favouritism , he remained aloof from his brother which amused his senior officers who had guessed his intentions .
In late May and June he collected and experimented on a number of the new Sopwith Pups which began to reach British units in January . He was impressed with the aircraft 's agility and flew it often . During this period he met the now famous ace Albert Ball who advised him attack tactics against reconnaissance and bomber aircraft . Ball advised McCudden to fly underneath his target , in the blind spot of the observer , and angle his guns directly above then fire . McCudden was intrigued at the prospect and believed this offered a much better chance of shooting down an enemy aircraft . It is not clear if , or how often , McCudden implemented Ball 's advice in battle and how many of his victories were claimed that way . McCudden 's principal tactics did stress surprise and minimal risk .
It is known McCudden proved remarkably good at stalking tactics , which enabled him to get up underneath an opponent , pull down the wing gun and fire up into the German machine . The first the recipients would know of the attack was bullets coming up through the bottom of the fuselage of the aircraft , often causing death or injury , holing petrol tanks and crippling engines . The gun , being fed by a drum of ammunition , could also be reloaded in its pulled @-@ down position , the pilot having two or more spare drums located in his cockpit .
This conversation coincided with the Gotha Raids in which German heavy bombers attacked London . He attempted interceptions against the high @-@ flying machines and on 13 June finally got to within range of one . He fired but it swerved and resumed course . He chased the formation 21 miles out to sea but could not get closer than 500 feet . On 7 July he succeeded in hitting the Gotha crewed by Leutnant Erwin Kollberg and Walter Aschoff ( of bomber unit Bogohl 3 ) . He damaged a second and narrowly avoided a collision with the machine as he flew by . On one raid a Gotha gunner 's bullet struck his windshield . The raids continued and British aerial defences did not gain more than a handful of successes against the Gothas .
McCudden 's last activity worthy of note before his return to France was his meeting with Frank Barnwell and Harold Barnwell , chief engineers at Vickers Limited . McCudden and the brothers exchanged information on aircraft design and operations . McCudden understood more of the technique of flying and flight while the brothers gained a greater appreciation of the pilot 's perspective . After watching him fly the F.B.9 , the brothers were convinced of his skill and consequently McCudden was invited to fly a number of their products . Among these machines was the Vickers F.B.16. McCudden claimed to have reached 136 miles per hour ( mph ) in the aircraft describing it as a " nice bus " . Other pilots noted it was faster than the French SPAD and the S.E.5. On the strength of this evaluation Vickers approached the War Office for its use on the frontline . It was not selected for production . McCudden believed the inaccessibility of the engine was a main factor in its rejection .
= = = With 56 Squadron = = =
In June he joined No. 66 Squadron RFC at Aire , equipped with the Sopwith Pup . He undertook a refresher course but his tenure there was unremarkable . He was ordered to fly with the group rather than fly solo patrols . He flew 47 hours in 66 Squadron and 21 patrols . He encountered the enemy six times but could not score . Finally on 21 and 26 July he shot down one Albatros D.V fighter for his 6 – 7th aerial victories .
He flew 13 different Pups while with the unit which meant he returned across the English Channel to collect new aircraft frequently . While collecting one from Rochester , England on 12 August 1917 a Gotha raid occurred and within 30 minutes he was flying at 17 @,@ 000 feet over Herne Bay in an attempt to intercept them . Once more , he returned without success against the high @-@ flying and ever elusive Gothas . After landing from the sortie he was informed he was to be transferred to the recently formed No. 56 Squadron which was winning a reputation as a very successful unit over the Western Front . The unit was equipped with the Royal Aircraft Factory S.E.5 ( S.E.5a ) fighters which were among the most effective combat aircraft of the war and arguably the best designed British fighter of the conflict . It was heavily armed and very fast for its time .
Along with the new fighter McCudden was eager to fly was the company he would be flying with . Albert Ball ( 44 victories ) , rising star Arthur Rhys @-@ Davids ( 27 ) and McCudden 's former pupil Geoffrey Hilton Bowman ( 32 ) were just some of the fighter aces who flew with the unit . Though Ball was killed in May 1917 , he would fly and fight alongside Rhys @-@ Davids , Bowman , Richard Maybery , Reginald Hoidge and Keith Muspratt .
This competitive group would spur McCudden to increase his score . 56 's commanding officer , Major Richard Bloomfield noticed McCudden 's leadership qualities and had hoped he could help turn the unit into an effective fighting team . At present the pilots , though talented , performed more as individuals . After flying for the first time with them Bloomfield promised to have him allocated to a position of Flight Commander . He formally took command of B flight on 14 August .
McCudden brought his substantial technical knowledge to 56 Squadron . He frequently inspected his flight 's aircraft , expecting a high standard of mechanical refinement . He believed the finer the aircraft could be tuned the less likelihood there would be of losing pilots to structural or mechanical failures , which at that time were the cause of many fatalities among aircrew . Force @-@ landings were rarely fatal owing to the low @-@ landing speeds but the prospect of coming down behind enemy lines — especially since the RFC was adopting an offensive stance — was an undesirable prospect . Alex J. Gray , Air Mechanic First Class , 56 Squadron :
When McCudden came to No. 56 he certainly kept us on our toes to begin with . In the first few weeks he tried out just about every fitter in the flight , and none of them seemed to please him . Finally Corporal Tom Rogers and myself were detailed as his fitters and Corporal Bert Card as the rigger , and from that day on we formed a great friendship with him .
= = = Victories 8 – 57 = = =
On the 31 July the Third Battle of Ypres began and the unit was heavily involved . 56 was tasked with air superiority operations to allow RFC bomber and reconnaissance units to operate with relative freedom . The Germans had adopted a defensive stratagem of massing their aircraft , now increasingly outnumbered , at critical points of the front . Their units were also a collection of highly successful aces . The S.E.5s engaged in battle with the German fighters throughout the summer .
On 18 August 1917 McCudden scored his first victory as an official member of 56 Squadron over an Albatros D.V. Another the following day and two on 20 August raised his tally from 7 to 11 victories . He was pleased with his success but berated the armourers for the frequent gun @-@ stoppages . Over the next four weeks his machine suffered engine difficulties and gun @-@ jams . He could only claim damaged enemy aircraft and once suffered a galling experience when the DFW C.V reconnaissance he was attacking holed his engine while his guns jammed . It had to be sent for major repairs . He received a new fighter , B4863 , which then became his regular mount .
McCudden was determined his machine would remain in first @-@ class fighting order . He spent three days working with his fitters and armourers , stripping down the Vickers gun 's synchronising gear , firing at the butts and making eight test flights shooting at ground targets . His armourers joked that his guns would never work in the air if he wore them out on the ground . He continued to experience jams and his unclaimed victim of 14 September 1917 — Ernst Wiegand — was able to escape and crash @-@ land wounded in German territory thanks to another stoppage . Since his crash was not witnessed his claim went uncredited .
On 19 September he attacked a Rumpler C.IV which he drove down to 1 @,@ 000 feet and saw camera and photographic plates fall from the machine as it took violent evasive action . He abandoned the chase and spotted another . This time he attacked from the sun and from behind and below . His Lewis gun stopped after one round but his Vickers fired 60 rounds and the Rumpler crashed behind enemy lines . Other pilots and gunners on the line confirmed the kill . A DFW C.V followed on 23 September — his 13th victory .
After this victory his flight engaged a Fokker Dr.I flown by the 48 @-@ victory ace Werner Voss and an Albatros piloted by Carl Menckhoff . Voss , aided by the frequent jams of his opponents ' guns , avoided being hit and drove two S.E.5 's out of the fight before being fatally hit by Rhys @-@ Davids . McCudden 's account of this fight has become famous :
He was very low ... still being engaged by an SE ... the pilot being Rhys @-@ Davids . I noticed the triplane 's movements were very erratic ... I saw him go into a steep dive ... and then saw the triplane hit the ground and disappear into a thousand fragments .
As long as I live I shall never forget my admiration for that German pilot , who single @-@ handed fought seven of us for ten minutes and also put some bullets through all our machines . His flying was wonderful , his courage magnificent , and in my opinion he was the bravest German airman whom it has been my privilege to see fight .
Over the course of September and October McCudden added five victories including a LVG C.V on 26 September , raising his tally from 13 to 18 . On 6 October he was awarded the Bar to his Military Cross . Another five in November brought his tally to 23 . His method of diving behind and under the enemy machines before firing was working particularly well .
In December he downed another 14 enemies for victory numbers 24 – 37 including several during the Battle of Cambrai . His successes included four on 23 December , three on 28th and two on the 29th . In December 1917 he received the Distinguished Service Order and a Bar He received two congratulatory messages from AOC RFC Hugh Trenchard on 6 and 12 December :
Well done . You are splendid . Your work lately has been of the finest .
McCudden had hardened to the realities of aerial combat by this time and reveled in his own success . He appeared to have limited empathy for his opponents , most of whom did not survive his attacks . On 24 January , after claiming his 43rd air victory , he remarked :
This D.F.W crew deserved to die , because they had no notion whatever of how to defend themselves , which showed that during their training they must have been slack , and lazy , and probably liked going to Berlin too often instead of sticking to their training and learning as much as they could while they had the opportunity . I had no sympathy for those fellows , and that it the mental estimate which I formed of them while flying back to my aerodrome to report the destruction of my 43rd aerial victory .
McCudden was now closing in on the tally of Albert Ball who was credited with 44 enemy aircraft . A further nine in January 1918 elevated his tally from 37 to 46 . In February , 11 aircraft brought his tally to 57 — four fell on the 16th . After achieving his 57th he probably downed a 58th — a Hannover CL.III — but it went down over enemy lines under control as McCudden 's guns seized having already fired 300 rounds at his first victim .
By this stage McCudden was suffering from combat fatigue . It manifested itself in his decisions , of late , to seek a victory at any price , which was alien to his normal , calculated approach to combat . Knowing he was to soon be sent home , he was obsessed with catching up to von Richthofen 's score . His contribution to 56 Squadron at this time was impressive ; the unit had claimed 175 enemy aircraft while reporting 14 pilots killed and missing and seven captured . As Flight Commander , B Flight , McCudden 's pilots had shot down 77 – 52 of which were his — while losing four pilots . To celebrate his success he dined with Brigadier general John Frederick Andrews Higgins and the following evening was invited to the headquarters of General Julian Byng , commanding officer of the British Third Army to be personally congratulated .
McCudden was soon rotated home on 5 March . Over 50 Officers gathered for a formal farewell dinner and they presented him with a silver model of his S.E.5A on 4 March . McCudden would not see action again . In the remaining eight months of the war , only British pilots Billy Bishop ( 72 ) and Mick Mannock ( 61 ) and Raymond Collishaw ( 60 ) would surpass his total while serving with the RFC ( and later the Royal Air Force — RAF ) . Ernst Udet ( 62 ) René Fonck ( 75 ) and Manfred von Richthofen ( 80 ) were the only foreign pilots to beat McCudden 's total .
= = = Modified S.E.5a = = =
McCudden 's long @-@ term interest in mechanics prompted him to modify his own aircraft to increase combat performance . He made a series of modifications to his aircraft which caused them to excel in performance in comparison to any other S.E.5 at the front and perhaps any other German fighter available at the time . Performance , a generic term , required improvements in all @-@ round capability . McCudden 's changes were made with one main objective in mind : high @-@ altitude performance . He had achieved some success without these personal experiments . On 23 December 1917 , for example , he intercepted an enemy aircraft at 18 @,@ 000 feet and drove it down to 8 @,@ 000 feet before shooting it down for his 30th victory . Incidentally , he was nearly killed in action when one of the wings broke away from his victim and nearly struck his own aircraft .
McCudden had always found it difficult to intercept high @-@ flying German reconnaissance aircraft . The latest Rumpler C.VII which had entered service proved particularly elusive . With a 240 horse power engine , it could reach 24 @,@ 000 feet and was thus beyond the reach of any prospective adversary . The average S.E.5 , at that point , could reach only 17 @,@ 000 feet . While most pilots were prepared to accept this tactical @-@ technological situation , McCudden was not .
Through an as yet unspecified channel , he obtained high compression pistons used in the latest Hispano @-@ Suiza 8 or V8 engine and fitted them to his power plant . It delivered revolutions at a much faster rate on the test bench . He removed any excess weight by shortening the exhaust pipes by several feet . He also added a spinner from a captured enemy aircraft which he believed added an extra 3 mph to his speed while also reducing the wing dihedral to increase agility .
A final alteration was to fit a simpler shutter ( radiator vent ) which had the object of warming the cockpit by directing heat from the engine . For McCudden this aspect was very important . At high altitude McCudden was to spend long periods of time in an extremely chilly environment . Operating the D.H.2 in 1916 , he suffered terrible agonies as adequate blood circulation returned to his muscles once he reached terra firma . McCudden reported few general side @-@ effects from high flight . Dizziness was a feature but he put this down to the cold rather than any form of anoxia . High altitude oxygen was too thin for humans which induced breathlessness . Aviation medicine was still in its infancy meaning pilots were left to solve operational problems themselves . Only the high @-@ altitude bombers were equipped with oxygen equipment to assist with breathing . Despite his circulation difficulties , McCudden proved remarkably resistant to the effects of high altitude flying without oxygen .
The results of these personal modifications mostly went unrecorded . It is believed he achieved a height of 10 @,@ 000 feet in nine minutes , curtailing the standard time by some five minutes . It was perhaps on exaggeration but no record remains to certify what McCudden did . He did note the maximum ground @-@ level speed as 135 mph in his log book . He achieved these feats with the limited resources of a front @-@ line squadron and without any official assistance .
Eager to test the modifications , he began operations on 28 January 1918 . Until the 16 February when 8491 was submitted for repair , he claimed his 45 – 50th aerial victories , the last at 11 : 30 on that date . His last victory that day was scored in another machine .
= = = War hero = = =
Unlike the German and French governments , the War Office had been reluctant to identify individual soldiers and aces for propaganda and public consumption , the most notable exception being Albert Ball . However , from December 1917 Viscount Northcliffe , the proprietor of the Daily Mail newspaper was appointed to the Ministry of Information . Northcliffe had a solid background in aviation . He campaigned for " air mindedness " , when aircraft began to make technological headway and the nation , now facing the existence and efficiency of airships which could circumvent the North Sea and English Channel , was now increasingly concerned about aerial bombardment . Northcliffe supported the creation of the Air League and the Aerial League of the British Empire , a pressure group designed to impress upon a lethargic government the promising and threatening nature of aerial vehicles .
As head of the Ministry and Daily Mail , he felt an opportunity was being missed , and so ran a campaign in his publications to name outstanding individual combatants . On 3 January 1918 he ran a story in the Daily Mail under the headline " Our Unknown Air Heroes " , which focused primarily on McCudden . In the front page segment it read :
What I want to know is why an Englishman whose hobby is bringing down sky Huns in braces and trios between luncheon and tea , who can already claim a bag of 30 enemy aircraft , should have to wait and be killed before a grateful nation waiting to acclaim him could even learn his name ?
I wonder if people in England realize that the German Air Service is the most popular and feted branch of the Kaiser 's war machine because German authorities have imagination enough to exploit its personal side ? How many people in these islands can name as many British airmen there are fingers on one hand ?
The campaign was an instant success . The Daily Chronicle echoed these sentiments with " Young Lionheart of the Air " . On 7 January the Daily Mail ran the story " Our Wonderful Airmen — Their names at Last . " The article was accompanied by a large photograph of McCudden and other pilots . Thereafter exploits of British airmen were routinely published . McCudden loathed the attention . In a letter to his father the following day he believed such " bosh " and hero worship would make him an unpopular figure in the RFC and with his comrades .
He was thankful to be posted to the No. 1 School of Aerial Fighting at Ayr in Scotland , where he flew the excellent performing Sopwith Snipe . It was in Scotland that he learned of the death of his brother , apparently shot down by the German ace Hans Wolff on 19 March . He wrote to his brother 's commanding officer , Sholto Douglas asking for any news but understanding the Major 's attention was now fixed on the German Spring Offensive . His death depressed McCudden greatly .
The same month he returned home , he was awarded the Victoria Cross , the highest award for gallantry . The letter from Trenchard confirming the King had bestowed this honour upon him was dated 30 March 1918 . The award was gazetted on 29 March and the details were published on 2 April 1918 . Shying away from this publicity , McCudden did not even tell his family of his attendance at Buckingham Palace on 6 April to receive his Victoria Cross from King George V and promotion to Major . While on leave in London , he socialised a great deal with his friend Mick Mannock . He met C. G. Grey owner of The Aeroplane weeks later who offered to help McCudden finish his manuscript for his biography , Flying Fury , due for publication that year . McCudden accepted . Now famous , he also had his portrait painted by the known artist William Orpen .
= = Death = =
McCudden remained in England until July 1918 when he was given command of No. 60 Squadron RAF . He flew to Farnborough in a Vickers F.B.16 to collect his new Royal Aircraft Factory S.E.5a before returning to France to lead his new Squadron . On 3 July he flew back in this fighter and over his home in Kingston upon Thames , taking the aircraft to 17 @,@ 000 feet and circling London for an hour . When he landed he made his last entry into his log book . His total flying time had reached 872 hours and 40 minutes .
On the morning of 9 July 1918 he travelled to the home of his fiancé , Miss Alex @-@ Tweedie in Whitehall Court . Tweedie recalled their conversation revolved around his new posting and his book . He had delivered the manuscript to Mr Grey two days earlier and was expecting its publication . While there , McCudden promised to surpass von Richthofen who had been killed in action on 21 April 1918 . In view of what happened to von Richthofen , and John McCudden , he promised that " I won 't bustle , or do anything foolish like my brother . " He then went next door and had breakfast with his sister Mary . Upon leaving , he fumbled around in his pocket and handed her a bulky envelope containing his Victoria Cross and other decorations . He took his leave of her and drove to Hounslow where he climbed into his S.E.5a ( C1126 ) . He took off shortly after 13 : 00 . McCudden certainly stopped en route , as about six o 'clock that afternoon he called the AOC No. 13 Wing , Patrick Playfair , to announce his imminent arrival at Boffles , where No. 60 Squadron was stationed .
McCudden set out across the English Channel . Unsure of the dispositions on the ground after the German advance he checked the airfield he suspected to be Boffles but found it empty . Flying in heavy mist he decided to head to Auxi @-@ le @-@ Château , France , to get directions from the RAF personnel stationed there . He approached Corporal W.H. Burdett and L. E Vallins of 52 Squadron . Burdett had served with McCudden in 3 Squadron back in 1915 . Burdett did not recognise him in his flying gear . They marked his map and McCudden returned to his machine . Around 90 seconds after takeoff from Auxi @-@ le @-@ Château , the S.E.5a plunged into the ground . 8 Squadron 's Corporal W.H. Howard was on the scene within minutes and fought through the fire to free McCudden who was lying next to one of the wings — he had not worn his safety belt . Burdett followed and recognised the pilot as soon as his headgear had been removed . He was taken to No. 21 Casualty clearing station and diagnosed with a fractured skull . He did not regain consciousness and died at 20 : 00 .
Corporal Burdett later stated , " When McCudden took off he put the machine into a nearly vertical climb , seemed to do a half @-@ roll and then nosed dived into a wood ..... it was usual for scout pilots to perform some little stunt ..... I think that is what he was doing . " Witness Lieutenant L.M Fenton had a different view , " the aircraft took off into wind and at about 100 feet did a vertical turn and flew back across the aerodrome by the side of the wood . The engine appeared to be running badly . The pilot rolled the machine , which failed to straighten out , at approximately 200 feet . It crashed nose down into the wood . " Lieutenant E.M Greenwood stated he thought the crash was the result of a failed aerobatic manoeuvre : " I was watching an S.E.5 flying over the aerodrome at about 200 feet , when it did one complete roll to the right , then dived steeply to the ground behind the trees . " Lieutenant K.V King believed a similar thing : [ It flew ] " ...... very low over the aerodrome , going east towards the wood on the south @-@ east side of the aerodrome . He had apparently been rolling . I saw him nose down and engine off entering the trees and immediately afterwards heard a crash . " Lieutenant T.H Barry , though supports the notion that something was amiss with the engine : " I saw an S.E.5 flying from west to east across the aerodrome at 200 – 300 feet . The engine was firing irregularly . Just after crossing the end of the aerodrome the pilot did a sharp stalling turn . The nose dropped and it dived behind the trees . During this dive the noise of the engine ceased . "
Usually reports were issued on any incident with every aircraft . On the date McCudden died , 29 such returns exist for S.E.5s but the report pertaining to his accident is not among them leaving the official cause of the crash unexplained . It is possible the engine failed due to a wrongly installed carburettor . However , there is some doubt as to whether a mechanical defect was the culprit . The witnesses reported the pilot was attempting low @-@ level stunts , manifesting in several turns and rolls . Many years later other witnesses disputed the aircraft performed a roll , but all agreed the trouble began when the machine entered an attitude resembling a near @-@ vertical turn .
McCudden 's remains were subsequently buried at the nearby Wavans war cemetery in the Pas de Calais . McCudden 's death occurred only two months after the death of German ace Manfred von Richthofen , whom some commented had been honoured with a longer and more elaborate funeral by the British . McCudden 's wartime score was 57 victories included 19 captured , 27 and 1 shared destroyed , 8 and 2 shared " down out of control " — an official classification which still counted the claim as a victory .
= = Relics and Memorial = =
On the morning of 9 July , McCudden had handed his sister an envelope over breakfast , which was subsequently found to contain all of his medals . Today all of McCudden 's medals including his Victoria Cross are displayed at the Royal Engineers Museum in Gillingham , Kent , alongside those of two of his brothers and his father . The original brass engraved grave plaque used , along with a wooden propeller , are also displayed . The shattered windscreen from McCudden 's crashed S.E.5a is preserved in the collection of the Imperial War Museum . The museum 's collections also include McCudden 's uniform ' maternity jacket ' and a half @-@ length portrait of McCudden by William Orpen . In March 2009 , McCudden and his contemporary Edward Mannock , were the subjects of the BBC Timewatch episode , WWI Aces Falling .
= = List of victories = =
A complete list of the 58 claims by McCudden and the 57 credited to him .
= Cry ( Michael Jackson song ) =
" Cry " is a song recorded by American recording artist Michael Jackson that features on his tenth and final studio album , Invincible ( 2001 ) . The song was written by R & B singer @-@ songwriter R. Kelly , who had previously written Jackson 's 1995 single " You Are Not Alone " . " Cry " was produced by Jackson and Kelly . It was released in December 2001 under Epic Records as the second single from Invincible . " Cry " is a R & B ballad , with lyrics that highlight problems with the planet . The lyrics also urge people to unite to make the world a better place . The track , thus , recalls previous Jackson songs that promote peace and environmentalism .
The song was released with two B @-@ side tracks ; " Shout " and " Streetwalker " . " Cry " received mixed reviews from music critics . The single had a moderate chart performance internationally , with its highest peak being number sixteen in Denmark , and its least successful charting country being Austria . The track was promoted with a music video , which was filmed by Nicholas Brandt . The video does not feature Jackson but shows people holding hands and standing side by side in a variety of settings , including a beach and a forest .
= = Background = =
" Cry " was recorded by American singer Michael Jackson for his tenth and final studio album , Invincible ( 2001 ) . The song was written by R & B singer @-@ songwriter R. Kelly , who had previously worked with Jackson on his 1995 single , " You Are Not Alone ; " Jackson and Kelly 's collaboration on " Cry " is the second of what would be three collaborations . The track was produced by Jackson and Kelly . Outside of the United States , the song was released in December 2001 as the second single from Invincible , under Epic Records . The single was released with two B @-@ side tracks , " Shout " and " Streetwalker " . " Shout " was a previously unreleased song that was originally intended for Invincible , but was replaced at the last moment by " You Are My Life " . " Streetwalker " had previously appeared as a track on the 2001 special edition of Jackson 's seventh studio album , Bad .
= = Composition = =
The themes of " Cry " are world issues such as isolation , war , and brotherhood . It also suggests if everyone pulls together as one , then they make a change to the world , with Jackson singing , " You can change the world / I can 't do it by myself " . Music critic Mark Brown of Rocky Mountain News felt that Jackson cries the lyrics " I can 't do it by myself " . The song 's lyrics and themes are similar to the ones in Jackson 's 1988 single " Man in the Mirror " and his 1991 single " Heal the World " . " Cry " is composed in the key of A major and the song 's time signature is common time . " Cry " has a moderate metronome of eighty four beats per minute . The single is built in the chord progression of A – G / A – A – A / G in the verses and A – A / G – D – A in the chorus . The sheet music indicates the vocal range spans A3 to G5 .
= = Critical reception = =
Jason Elias of Allmusic thinks " Cry " is a moody and reflective piece of material reminiscent of Jackson 's Quincy Jones @-@ produced ballads for Bad , and indicates the song 's themes are those of alienation and sorrow rather than love . He believes the strength of the strings , the competent backing vocals , and the keyboard figures prevent the listener from convulsing with laughter at Jackson 's " oh @-@ so @-@ pained delivery " and interjections of " Hold on " or " Oh my ! " Jon Pareles of the New York Times called the track the " change @-@ the @-@ world @-@ song " and wrote that the single " applies its grand buildup to one of pop 's strangest utopian schemes , " which was asking everyone to cry at the same time , at which point Jackson may answer their prayers . Catherine Halaby of Yale Daily News felt that the song is a " less triumphant use of a contemporary 's input " on the album .
NME music critic Mark Beaumont believed that Jackson " starts banging creepily on about " the lyrics which pertain to saving the children . Frank Kogan of the Village Voice noted that while " Cry " and another song from Invincible ( " Speechless " ) are " very pretty " , they give the impression that Jackson 's " standing sideways , so as to let the beauty slide off him . " Los Angeles Times staff writer Robert Hilburn wrote that the track " fills the social commentary role " of Jackson 's " Man in the Mirror " ( 1988 ) , while Hartford Courant rock music critic Roger Catlin believed that the single is a redux to Jackson 's " Heal the World " ( 1991 ) . Newsday staff writer Glenn Gamboa said that the song was " equally average " to other tracks on Invincible . James Hunter of Rolling Stone magazine wrote that R. Kelly " more or less succeeds with the kind of life affirming number " on the single .
Jim Farber of New York 's Daily News wrote that in " Cry " , Jackson " goes into his healing @-@ the @-@ world shtick , though rarely has he been this condescending about his role as universal savior . " Chicago Tribune rock music critics Greg Kot believed that R. Kelly " reprises the formula of his big gospel @-@ stoked anthem " ( " I Believe I Can Fly " ) on the track . A journalist for The Wichita Eagle wrote that Jackson " shines on the sincere ballads " such as " Cry " , " Heartbreaker " and " Speechless " . Pop music critic Thor Christensen of the Dallas Morning News described the single as being the musician 's " latest batch of inspirational cotton candy . " Francisco Cangiano of University Wire noted that the overall good songs from Invincible are " Heartbreaker , " " Cry " and " Speechless . " Pamela Davis and Gina Vininetto of St. Petersburg Times called the song " hubris- filled " and said that it was full of Jackson 's " freaky messiah @-@ savior complex . "
= = Chart performance = =
" Cry " was released as a single outside of the United States , but it had been charted at the bottom of Billboard music charts for 3 weeks within the country , which peaked at number one at Bubbling Under R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles . Unlike previous singles released from Invincible that charted internationally , " Cry " was a moderate commercial success worldwide . " Cry " debuted at number twenty five , its peak position , on December 22 , 2001 , on the UK Singles Chart . The single remained on the country 's chart for four consecutive weeks from December 2001 to January 2002 , before falling out of the top 100 positions . The track debuted at number thirty seven on December 12 , and peaked at number thirty in the succeeding week on the French Singles Chart . The song debuted at its peak position , number forty three , on December 12 , on the Australian Singles Chart . It only remained on the country 's chart for one week . " Cry " did not chart on Belgian Tip Singles Chart , but did chart on the Belgian Wallonia music chart , debuting at number thirty seven on December 15 , and peaking at number thirty one on January 12 , 2002 .
" Cry " charted on the Swedish Singles Chart for five consecutive weeks . Having debuted at number fifty on December 21 , and peaked at number forty eight the following week . The single spent the next four weeks fluctuating down the chart . The track peaked at number forty two on the Swiss Singles Chart , and remained on the country 's chart for six weeks . The single 's most commercially successful charting territory was Denmark . Although the track only remained on the singles chart for one week , it managed to chart within the top 20 , peaking at number sixteen . The single 's least successful chart territory was Austria . Having debuted on the country 's singles chart at its peak position , number sixty five on December 16 , in the succeeding week the track charted at number seventy one and fell out of the top 100 positions the following week . Regarding the song 's chart performance , Halstead and Cadman wrote that it was a " setback for sure , but not a major one " for Jackson .
= = Music video = =
" Cry " was promoted by a music video , or " short film , " as Jackson would refer to it . The video was directed by Nicholas Brandt , who had previously directed " Earth Song " ( 1995 ) , " Childhood " ( 1995 ) and " Stranger in Moscow " ( 1996 ) , all of which were featured on Jackson 's HIStory : Past , Present and Future , Book I album . The video was filmed in six different locations , five of which were in California and another in Nevada . People featured in the video included members of a real life gospel group . The video begins with dozens of people of different ages , ethnicities and races holding hands . Long lines of people were stretched over mountains , across highways , in a forest and on the beach . Everyone stands in silence for a majority of the video . Following the bridge , everyone begins singing the chorus . Towards the final chorus , the group collectively clap their hands along with the song , taking hands once more as the song ends .
" Cry " is the only Michael Jackson video to be included on an enhanced CD of the single .
" Cry " was issued as a single against Jackson 's original intentions to release " Unbreakable . " ( The same situation applied with the release of " You Rock My World " months prior . ) Due to his dissatisfaction with the way Sony was handling the album 's promotion , he refused to appear in the music video for " Cry " . Craig Halstead and Chris Cadman , authors of the book Michael Jackson : The Solo Years , believe that Jackson 's absence from the video " did little to promote it . "
= = Track listing and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Written and composed by R. Kelly
Produced by Michael Jackson and R. Kelly
Lead vocal by Michael Jackson
Percussion by Paulinho Da Costa
Keyboard and drum programming by Michael Jackson and Brad Buxer
Choir arrangement by R. Kelly
Drums by John " JR " Robinson
Guitars by Michael Landau
Recorded by Mike Ging , Bad Gilderman and Humberto Gatica
Mixed by Michael Jackson and Mick Guzauski
= = Charts = =
= 1991 FA Charity Shield =
The 1991 FA Charity Shield ( also known as the Tennent 's Charity Shield for sponsorship reasons ) was the 69th FA Charity Shield , the annual football match contested by the reigning champions of the Football League First Division and the holders of the FA Cup . It was held at Wembley Stadium , on 10 August 1991 . The game was played between Arsenal , champions of the 1990 – 91 Football League and Tottenham Hotspur , who beat Nottingham Forest to win the 1991 FA Cup Final . This was Arsenal 's twelfth Charity Shield appearance and Tottenham Hotspur 's sixth .
Arsenal began the match the brighter of the two teams , dominating in possession and the number of chances created . Tottenham created their best chance to score in the first half , but struggled to find a breakthrough in the second half , hardly troubling the Arsenal defence . With neither team able to score after 90 minutes , the match ended in a draw , meaning each team held the trophy for six months each .
= = Background = =
Arsenal qualified for the 1991 FA Charity Shield , by virtue of winning the 1990 – 91 Football League First Division , having lost one match – away to Chelsea – in the entire campaign . This was the club 's eleventh Charity Shield appearance ; Arsenal won seven previous shields ( 1930 , 1931 , 1933 , 1934 , 1938 , 1948 , 1953 ) and lost four ( 1935 , 1936 , 1979 , 1989 ) previously . Tottenham Hotspur qualified as holders of the FA Cup , beating Nottingham Forest 2 – 1 in the 1991 FA Cup Final . They appeared in five previous shields , winning four outright ( 1921 , 1951 , 1961 , 1962 ) , sharing two ( 1967 , 1981 ) and losing two ( 1920 , 1982 ) .
The last meeting between both teams was in the FA Cup ; Tottenham Hotspur won 3 – 1 in the semi @-@ final at Wembley Stadium . Tottenham were the only league opponents to avoid defeat against Arsenal , with neither side scoring in the two matches played . Manager Peter Shreeves noted the importance of the match , given this was a North London derby , but stressed there " will be more important objectives this season . " This was the first all @-@ London encounter in the 83 @-@ year history of the Shield . This would be the last time either team was to share the trophy , as new regulations were brought in a year later that allowed for extra time and subsequently a penalty shootout if a draw occurred in normal time .
= = Match = =
Anders Limpar was the main absentee for Arsenal , having sustained a knee injury , on duty for the Swedish national team . David O 'Leary started in place of the injured Steve Bould ; midfielder David Hillier was selected ahead of Michael Thomas in Limpar 's place on the left wing . Tottenham defender Terry Fenwick , recovered from a double leg break , replaced Justin Edinburgh in the first eleven . Without Paul Gascoigne , injured in the FA Cup final , Tottenham employed a five @-@ man midfield with Gary Lineker as the sole striker .
= = = Summary = = =
Arsenal began brightly in front of a crowd of 65 @,@ 483 , creating the first chance of the match in the 17th minute . Paul Davis set up striker Kevin Campbell , who hooked the ball high over goal . Four minutes later , Alan Smith headed the ball into the goal net , meeting a cross from Paul Merson ; it was ruled out by referee Terry Holbrook for offside . Tottenham improved shortly after , with Gary Mabbutt heading the ball directly at Arsenal goalkeeper David Seaman to create their first chance of the match . Their best opportunity to score was in the 36th minute . Vinny Samways set up Gary Lineker to break past the Arsenal defence . Having nudged the ball past Tony Adams , Lineker looked up , before making a cross for Nayim to head ; the shot was acrobatically saved by Seaman 's right foot .
Early in the second half , Tottenham 's Pat van den Hauwe was cautioned by Holbrook for getting tangled with Arsenal 's David Rocastle , in spite Rocastle indicating that the player used an elbow – a bookable offence . Moments after , Rocastle was shown a yellow card for attempting to get his own back on Van Den Hauwe , by tackling the player without intent . Van Den Hauwe was later booked for a wild challenge on Lee Dixon . Arsenal dominated possession during the second half , with Tottenham infrequently troubling their opponent 's defence and relying on counterattacks to fashion goal @-@ scoring chances . Smith had a chance saved in the 75th minute by goalkeeper Erik Thorstvedt , when the ball was back @-@ passed across the penalty area by Steve Sedgley . In the final seconds of the match substitute Andrew Cole , who had replaced Campbell , shot from 20 yards and into the side @-@ netting .
= = = Details = = =
= = = Statistics = = =
= = Post @-@ match = =
Despite the draw , Shreeves was content with his team 's performance . He believed the new 4 – 5 – 1 formation deployed in the match was " the system which suits us best " , but admitted the midfield needed to do more to support Lineker upfront . Arsenal manager George Graham agreed that his team played below their usual standard in the first half , accepting that his team needed " to work on ... finishing " to make use of their territorial advantage .
= Mark Kellogg ( reporter ) =
Mark Kellogg ( March 31 , 1831 – June 25 , 1876 ) was a newspaper reporter killed at the Battle of the Little Bighorn . Kellogg rode with George Armstrong Custer during the battle and was evidently one of the first men killed by the Sioux and Cheyenne . His dispatches were the only press coverage of Custer and his men in the days leading up to the battle . As a newspaper stringer whose reports were picked up around the country , Kellogg is considered the first Associated Press correspondent to die in the line of duty .
= = Life = =
Born Marcus Henry Kellogg on March 31 , 1831 , in Brighton , Ontario , Canada , Kellogg was the third of ten children . Kellogg 's family moved a number of times in his youth before they eventually settled in La Crosse , Wisconsin . While there Kellogg learned to operate a telegraph and went to work for both the Northwestern Telegraph Company and the Atlantic and Pacific Telegraph Company .
He married Martha J. Robinson in 1861 and they had two daughters . During the years of the American Civil War , Kellogg became the assistant editor for the La Crosse Democrat newspaper . He also unsuccessfully ran for the office of city clerk in 1867 and played shortstop on one of the town 's baseball teams .
In 1867 Kellogg 's wife died . Leaving his daughters to be raised by an aunt , Kellogg began drifting around the upper Midwest , working as a reporter and editorial assistant in places such as Council Bluffs , Iowa , and Brainerd , Minnesota . While living in Brainerd he ran for election to the Minnesota Legislature , but was defeated . He also worked as a string correspondent for the St. Paul Dispatch , with his articles often published under the pen name of " Frontier . "
In the early 1870s , he moved to Bismarck , North Dakota , where in 1873 he helped editor Clement A. Lounsberry found The Bismarck Tribune . Even though Kellogg was only an editorial assistant for the paper , he substituted for Lounsberry as editor of the Tribune 's second , third and fourth issues .
= = Battle of the Little Bighorn = =
When Lounsberry learned that a military column ( including the 7th U.S. Cavalry Regiment commanded by Lt. Col. George Armstrong Custer ) would soon leave Fort Abraham Lincoln for the Montana Territory , he agreed to accompany Custer and provide news coverage . However , at the last minute Lounsberry 's wife fell ill , so the editor asked Kellogg to take his place . Lounsberry expected Kellogg would cover nothing more than a sensational military victory .
Kellogg sent three dispatches back to Lounsberry , the last one four days before the battle when they were near the mouth of the Rosebud River . His last dispatch read , " By the time this reaches you we would have met and fought the red devils , with what result remains to be seen . I go with Custer and will be at the death . " Kellogg was not predicting his own death or Custer 's defeat ; instead , " at the death " is a phrase borrowed from fox hunting meaning " present at the kill " ( viz . , of the pursued ) .
Four days after that dispatch , the Battle of the Little Bighorn was fought , resulting in the deaths of Custer and the 208 soldiers , scouts , and civilians riding with him , including Kellogg .
= = Aftermath = =
Colonel John Gibbon , whose men arrived at the battle on Tuesday , June 27 , and also helped bury the dead , said he found Kellogg 's body in a ravine where a number of men from Company E died . Kellogg 's body was scalped and missing an ear ; he was identified by the boots he wore .
When Clement Lounsberry learned of the defeat of Custer 's force and Kellogg 's death , he " worked tirelessly throughout the night " to produce a special edition of The Bismarck Tribune . Published on July 6 , 1876 , the article was the battle 's first full account . Lounsberry also telegraphed the news , including Kellogg 's correspondence , to a number of eastern newspapers , including the New York Herald . Two letters written by Kellogg were published posthumously by the Herald on July 11 , 1876 .
As a newspaper stringer whose reports were picked up around the country , Kellogg is considered the first Associated Press correspondent to die in the line of duty .
Some of Kellogg 's diary and notes survived the battle and these , along with his news accounts , are one of the primary historical sources for information on the days preceding the battle . His notes are now in the possession of the State Historical Society of North Dakota . His satchel , pencil , and eyeglasses are on display in the Newseum in Washington , DC .
= Robert Abbott ( game designer ) =
Robert Abbott ( born March 2 , 1933 ) is an American game inventor , sometimes referred to by fans as " The Official Grand Old Man of Card Games " . Though early in his life he worked as a computer programmer with the IBM 360 assembly language , he has been designing games since the 1950s .
Two of his more popular creations include the chess variant Baroque chess ( also known as Ultima ) and Crossings , which later became Epaminondas . Eleusis was also successful , appearing in several card game collections , such as Hoyle 's Rules of Games and New Rules for Classic Games , among others . In 1963 , Abbott himself released a publication , Abbott 's New Card Games , which included instructions for all of his card games , in addition to Baroque chess . Abbott also invented logic mazes , the first of which appeared in Martin Gardner 's Mathematical Games column in the October 1962 issue of Scientific American . One of the more prominent of these is Theseus and the Minotaur , which was originally published in the book Mad Mazes . His game Confusion was named " Best New Abstract Strategy Game " for 2012 by GAMES Magazine .
= = Biography = =
Abbott was born in St. Louis , Missouri , and attended St. Louis Country Day School . Abbott went to Yale for two years , then attended the University of Colorado for another two , but never graduated . Soon after , Abbott moved to New York , where he and his games were discovered by Martin Gardner . In 1963 , after Abbott 's book , Abbott 's New Card Games , received only moderate success , he " got tired of being poor " and moved back to St. Louis . There , he became a computer programmer at the Washington University Computer Research Laboratory . In 1965 , he moved back to New York , where he continued to work as a computer programmer , mostly with the IBM 360 assembly language .
Abbott created all of his card games during the 1950s , starting with Babel in 1951 , and ending with Auction in 1956 . Soon after , he moved to New York City , where the rules for his game Eleusis were first published by Martin Gardner in his Mathematical Games column . Motivated by the article , Abbott self @-@ published the rules for four of his card games in the book Four New Card Games in 1962 , which Abbott sold by mail . In 1963 , the book Abbott 's New Card Games was published by Sol Stein of Stein and Day , containing the rules for all eight of his card games and the rules for his chess variant , Baroque chess . In 1968 , the publisher Funk & Wagnalls published a paperback edition of Abbott 's New Card Games , in which Abbott slightly modified the rules of Baroque chess , but these changes never became popular . Around the same time that Abbott 's New Card Games was published , Abbott sent his maze , Traffic Maze in Floyd 's Knob , to Martin Gardner . This was the first logic maze to be published , appearing in Gardner 's Mathematical Games column .
Since then , Abbott has created various mazes , most of which appeared in the books SuperMazes and Mad Mazes . In 2008 , RBA Libros published a Spanish version of his book Abbott 's New Card Games , under the title Diez juegos que no se parecen a nada , which translates to Ten games that do not resemble anything . This version was not just a Spanish translation of the original , however ; the most up @-@ to @-@ date rules for the various games were used ; in addition , the rules for Eleusis Express and Confusion were included . In 2010 , his Where are the Cows ? maze was published by the Oxford University Press in the book Cows in the Maze . In 2011 , his game Confusion was published by Stronghold Games . The game was named " Best New Abstract Strategy Game " for 2012 by GAMES Magazine .
= = Logic mazes = =
Abbott is the inventor of a style of maze called logic mazes . A logic maze has a set of rules , ranging from the basic ( such as " you cannot make left turns " ) to the extremely complicated . These mazes are also called " Multi @-@ State mazes " . The reason for this name is that sometimes you can return to a position you were in before , but be traveling in a different direction . That change in direction can put you in a different state and open up different choices for you . One example , from the book SuperMazes , would be a rolling @-@ die maze . Where you can move from a particular square depends on what number is facing up on the die . If you return to that same square , the die may be in a different state , with a different number on top . Thus , you would have different options than the first time .
= = = Traffic Maze in Floyd 's Knob = = =
The first logic maze ever published , Traffic Maze in Floyd 's Knob , appeared in the October 1962 issue of Scientific American in the Mathematical Games column .
The maze looks like a street grid , with arrows pointing down various roads at each intersection . When one comes to an intersection , only arrows leading from the road you are on to another road can be followed . One must continue in this fashion , following the arrows at the intersection , until the end is reached . When you come to an intersection from one direction , you have different options for which road to take than you would coming into the intersection from another direction ; therefore , this can be defined as a " multi @-@ state " or " logic " maze .
= = = Where Are the Cows ? = = =
Where are the Cows ? is one of Abbott 's most difficult mazes . It first appeared in his book SuperMazes . Abbott warns readers that it " may be too difficult for anyone to solve . " Since then , it has also appeared as the titular maze in the book Cows in the Maze .
The complexity in Where are the Cows ? includes self @-@ reference , changing rules , and flow charts . It is also worded so as to provoke confusion between an object ( such as red text ) , a reference to an object ( such as the word " red " ) , and even more subtle references ( the word " word " ) . The maze ends up being so complicated that it can even be difficult to work out the next move , let alone the end . In this maze , you have to use two hands , each starting at a different place . The instructions in one box might have to do with the box that the other hand is in , boxes you have already left , or complex combinations of the two .
= = = Theseus and the Minotaur = = =
Theseus and the Minotaur is another of Abbott 's better @-@ known mazes . It first appeared in his book Mad Mazes . Like Where are the Cows ? in SuperMazes , Abbott says that this " is the hardest maze in the book ; in fact , it is possible that no one will solve it . " Since then , several different versions of it have appeared , made by others , following the same theme , both on paper and in electronic forms .
= = Games = =
Abbott has created several games , including card games , board games , and one equipment game . As a whole , his games are not of particular fame , although they have some unique elements that set them apart from mainstream games . For instance , the card game Metamorphosis is a complex trick @-@ taking game . As you play the game , the rules change three times , so it is as if you are playing four different games that are threaded together .
= = = Baroque chess = = =
Baroque chess , or Ultima , was the only board game in the book Abbott 's New Card Games . Abbott 's reasoning for including this non @-@ card game in a card game book was that chess pieces are as plentiful as playing cards , and in this book , he wanted to introduce new games that did not require special equipment . Abbott 's friends , once he started teaching it to them , began to call the game " Abbott 's Ultima , " which he did not like at all . However , the publisher , Sol Stein , preferred the name " Ultima , " so that is the title that was used in the book .
= = = Eleusis = = =
Eleusis is probably Abbott 's most prominent game , due to its metaphors and its suitability for use as a teaching tool . He invented it in 1956 , and it appeared in his self @-@ published book Four New Card Games . It was also published in the book Abbott 's New Card Games a year later . Martin Gardner wrote about it in his Mathematical Games column in the June 1959 issue of Scientific American . Basically , the gameplay consists of the dealer choosing a secret rule dictating how cards are to be played , and the players playing cards in an attempt to figure out the rule through inductive reasoning . In 1973 , Abbott decided to improve Eleusis ; the result was considered to be far better than the original , with various improvements to the layouts and gameplay making it work quite a bit better . Martin Gardner wrote about this version in the October 1977 issue of Scientific American . Abbott also self @-@ published a pamphlet in 1977 with the rules for the improved version , titled The New Eleusis . It has appeared in several card game collections , such as Hoyle 's Rules of Games and New Rules for Classic Games , among others .
= = = Confusion = = =
Abbott initially created the game Confusion in the 1970s , and had it in finished form by 1980 . The game was published in Germany by Franjos in 1992 ; Abbott was not satisfied with this version , however , due to several flaws in it . The rules were published in the Spanish translation of his book Abbott 's New Card Games in 2008 , but the game did not get published in North America until 2011 . This Stronghold Games version was named " Best New Abstract Strategy Game " for 2012 by GAMES Magazine . The game is based on the idea of not knowing what your pieces are or what they do at the beginning of the game . His game Eleusis uses a similar idea , in that you do not know how cards are to be played at the beginning ; George Brancaccio , someone Abbott worked with at the Bank of New York , commented on this , saying " In your game Eleusis , you don 't know what cards can be played . Why don 't you make a board game where you don 't know how pieces move ? " This is what gave Abbott the idea , and he began work on it soon after .
= = Published work = =
Four New Card Games ( 1962 )
Abbott 's New Card Games ( 1963 , again in paperback in 1968 )
The New Eleusis ( 1977 )
Mad Mazes ( 1990 )
SuperMazes ( 1997 )
Auction 2002 and Eleusis ( 2001 )
Diez juegos que no se parecen a nada [ Ten games that do not resemble anything ] ( 2008 , translated by Marc Figueras )
= Randall Flagg =
Randall Flagg is a fictional character created by Stephen King . Flagg has appeared in at least nine of King 's novels , either as a major or very minor character . He has a variety of names , usually initialed " R.F. " but with occasional exceptions , such as Walter o 'Dim ( originally envisioned by King as a separate character ) in The Dark Tower series . Flagg is described as " an accomplished sorcerer and a devoted servant of the Outer Dark " , with supernatural abilities involving necromancy , prophecy , and influence over animal and human behavior . His goals typically center on bringing down civilizations through destruction and conflict .
Flagg first appeared in The Stand as a demonic figure who wreaks havoc after a plague kills most of the population . He makes his second appearance in The Eyes of the Dragon as an evil wizard trying to plunge the fictional medieval city of Delain into chaos . Flagg was a primary antagonist in King 's epic series , The Dark Tower , who tries to keep protagonist Roland Deschain from reaching the Tower ( the linchpin of existence ) so he can claim it for himself and become a god . The Dark Tower expanded on Flagg 's background and motivation , linking his previous appearances . Aside from King 's novels , Flagg was featured in a television miniseries adaptation of The Stand ( played by Jamey Sheridan ) and appeared in Marvel Comics ' adaptations of The Dark Tower and The Stand .
King initially cited Donald DeFreeze , primary kidnapper of Patty Hearst , as his inspiration for Flagg . Later , he attributed Flagg to an image of a man walking the roads in cowboy boots , denim jeans , and a jacket , a notion which " came out of nowhere " when he was in college . Flagg 's character and the nature of his evil have been the subject of considerable critical attention .
= = Appearances = =
= = = Novels = = =
= = = = The Stand = = = =
Randall Flagg makes his first appearance in King 's 1978 apocalyptic novel , The Stand , where he tries to construct a new civilization in the United States after a plague kills most of the population . Flagg is described as a " tall man of no age " in old blue jeans , denim jacket and old cowboy boots . He wears an old Boy Scout knapsack , and his jacket pockets are stuffed with pamphlets from dozens of fringe splinter groups . Flagg ’ s background is vague , even to him ; he says that at some point he just “ became ” , although he remembers being a Marine , a Klansman , a Viet Cong member and having a hand in the kidnapping of Patty Hearst . In Las Vegas Flagg attracts people drawn to destruction , power and draconian rule , using crucifixion , torture and other punishments on those disloyal to him . His followers reorganize society , rebuilding the city . Flagg plans to attack and destroy a rival emerging civilization ( Mother Abagail 's Free Zone in Boulder , Colorado ) to become the dominant society in the former United States .
After two of Flagg 's followers fail to kill the leaders of the Free Zone , the Boulder community sends a group of men to Las Vegas to stop him . After being taken prisoner , the men are brought before the city for a public execution . Before Flagg can kill them , one of his most loyal and devout followers ( the Trashcan Man ) arrives with a nuclear warhead . As Trash dies of radiation poisoning the Hand of God appears , detonating the warhead ( which annihilates Flagg 's followers and the two remaining prisoners ) . The novel was re @-@ published in 1990 in an expanded edition , with text cut from its original edition . This edition has Flagg reappearing on a beach , with a new group of people to control .
= = = = The Eyes of the Dragon = = = =
Flagg later appears in The Eyes of the Dragon ( 1986 ) as an evil wizard wreaking havoc in the medieval country of Delain . He is described as a " thin and stern faced man of about 50 [ years of age ] " , despite being much older . He hides himself under a dark cloak , and most of his magic comes from spells , potions and poisons . He is described as a " sickness " which seems to reappear in Delain when there is something worth destroying . In this novel , Flagg schemes to throw the kingdom of Delain into chaos by poisoning the king and framing Prince Peter ( legitimate heir to the throne ) for the crime . Thomas ( Peter 's naive , resentful younger brother ) becomes king instead ; Flagg , whom he sees as his only friend , becomes his royal advisor . Due to his youth and inexperience , Thomas allows Flagg great power and is easily manipulated by the wizard . Flagg becomes the de facto ruler of Delain , plunging the kingdom into a dark age . Years later Thomas confronts Flagg about his father 's murder , which he witnessed as a child but suppressed the memory out of fear . Thomas shoots Flagg in the eye with an arrow , and Flagg disappears from the kingdom . Peter is given his rightful throne ; Thomas and his butler , Dennis , leave the kingdom in search of Flagg . In the novel Thomas and Dennis find Flagg , but the nature of their encounter is never revealed and Flagg survives to engender chaos in later stories .
= = = = Hearts in Atlantis = = = =
In Hearts in Atlantis ( 1999 ) , Raymond Fiegler is identified near the novel 's end as leader of an activist group when he prevents Carol Gerber from retrieving an unexploded bomb on a college campus . King never identifies Fiegler as Flagg , but Christopher Golden and Hank Wagner suggest in The Complete Stephen King Universe that there is little doubt Fiegler is Flagg . Golden and Wagner cite evidence such as Fiegler 's ability to make himself appear " dim " ( an ability shared by Flagg in Eyes of the Dragon ) , his manipulation of Carol Gerber and her activist friends and Flagg 's frequent use of aliases ( usually with the initials " R.F. " )
= = = = The Dark Tower series = = = =
Flagg makes his next several appearances in King 's Dark Tower series , which follows gunslinger Roland Deschain as he travels in search of the Dark Tower . Flagg 's presence is felt in the opening sentence of the first book : " The man in black fled across the desert and the gunslinger followed " . In this series , Flagg assumes the guise of several individuals . He first appears as Walter o 'Dim , chased across the desert by Roland . In flashbacks Flagg assumes the identity of Marten Broadcloak , a wizard who conspires with the Crimson King to cause the fall of the Dark Tower . In the original Marten is a separate person from Walter , who is also not known to be Flagg , but Marten and Walter are ret @-@ conned into one character in later editions . In the original edition Walter speaks derisively of Marten , implying Marten would not be able to handle the vision that Walter showed Roland .
When Roland was young , Marten had an affair with Roland 's mother , Gabrielle , using the affair to provoke Roland to take the gunslinger test early . He hoped Roland would fail ( so he would be exiled ) but Roland passed the test . Eventually , Roland catches Walter ; they have a long discussion about Roland 's destiny and the Tower which causes him to slip into delirium . He awakens to find a pile of bones in Walter 's place . In the original edition Walter and Marten are separate characters , with Walter dying at the end of the novel . When King published an expanded edition of the novel Walter and Marten are portrayed as identical , and Walter fakes his own death .
Flagg appears briefly in a flashback in the second installment of the Dark Tower series , The Drawing of the Three . Roland recalls seeing two men named Thomas and Dennis pursuing a man named Flagg , who was almost certainly a demon . These are implied to be the same characters from The Eyes of the Dragon . This is the first example of the Dark Tower series crossing over with one of King 's other novels .
Flagg makes his next full appearance in the series ' third installment , The Waste Lands . In the city of Lud , Flagg saves Tick @-@ Tock Man Andrew Quick ( an enemy of Roland 's ka @-@ tet , left for dead in an earlier confrontation ) . Quick becomes Flagg 's devoted servant , and Flagg assumes the name of Richard Fannin . The character returns in the fourth book , Wizard and Glass , as Marten Broadcloak . Also identifying himself as Flagg , he warns Roland and his ka @-@ tet to abandon their quest for the Dark Tower . In flashbacks the reader learns that Flagg ( as Walter o 'Dim ) was an emissary for John Farson , one of those responsible for the destruction of Roland 's home Gilead .
The " Argument " ( a summary of the series thus far ) beginning Wolves of the Calla — the fifth novel in the series — notes that Flagg is known as Broadcloak , Fannin and John Farson , depending on the world in which he lives . In Wolves of the Calla , Flagg makes a brief appearance ( as Walter o 'Dim ) when Father Callahan arrives in Roland 's world . Flagg gives Callahan Black Thirteen , a dangerous crystal ball , hoping it will kill Roland on his way to the tower . In this encounter , Flagg is described with " the face of a human weasel " , and " the same welling red circle " on his forehead as the Can @-@ toi . His appearance in The Song of Susannah is via a flashback revealing that Flagg bargained with the succubus Mia ; this resulted in the birth of Mordred Deschain , son of both Roland and the Crimson King .
In The Dark Tower , Flagg indicates that he is not John Farson , but served under him until the latter 's downfall . Flagg reveals his plans to climb the Dark Tower , see the room at the top and become the god of all . His ultimate goal is to kill Roland Deschain : " ... most of all for the death of his mother , whom I once loved . " Flagg believes that he can only achieve these goals by killing Mordred and taking his birthmark @-@ stained foot . Although he tries to befriend Mordred and pledge allegiance to him , Mordred telepathically senses Flagg 's true motives and eats him , forcing him to rip out his eyes and tongue first .
The Dark Tower reveals more of Flagg ’ s background , relating that he was born Walter Padick in Delain to Sam the Miller of Eastar ’ d Barony . At age 13 Walter set out for a life on the road , but was raped by a fellow wanderer ( Bev Vincent hypothesized in The Road to the Dark Tower that Flagg 's later actions towards Delain in The Eyes of the Dragon may have been revenge for the abuse he suffered as a child ) . Resisting the temptation to crawl back home , Padick instead moves towards his destiny ; he learns various forms of magic , achieving a quasi @-@ immortality . After centuries of wreaking havoc Flagg attracts the attention of the Crimson King , who adopts him as his emissary .
In 2013 , King published a new story from The Dark Tower entitled The Wind Through the Keyhole . Here Flagg is depicted as the Covenant Man : central villain of the book 's story @-@ within @-@ a @-@ story , " The Wind Through the Keyhole " , a legend from Mid @-@ World set years before the series ' beginning . He is the Barony 's " tax collector " from Gilead , attempting to collect taxes from residents of the small town of Tree . The Covenant Man sends the story 's protagonist ( a young boy named Tim ) on a perilous quest through the Endless Forest to save his mother ; unbeknownst to Tim , the Covenant Man is supplying him with false prophecies and misinformation as part of a cruel practical joke . However , Tim succeeds in his journey ; he saves his mother after encountering the wizard Maerlyn , who has been imprisoned in the form of a " tyger " . While the Covenant Man is not explicitly identified as Flagg , with only the initials " RF / MB " in his signature as identification and at one point being referred to as ' the man in the black cloak ' , Stephen King confirmed in an interview with Bev Vincent for his book The Dark Tower Companion that the two are one and the same .
= = = Film and TV = = =
King was influential in deciding who would play Flagg in the television adaptation of The Stand . He felt Flagg was the best villain he had ever created , and wanted the actor playing him to be right for the part . Director Mick Garris and the studios wanted to give the role to an established star such as Christopher Walken , James Woods , Willem Dafoe or Jeff Goldblum . King himself had suggested Robert Duvall in his introduction to the novel . Miguel Ferrer , who played Flagg 's henchman in the film , was interested in playing the villain .
King 's idea for the role was someone who " would make the ladies ' hearts go pitty pat , that looked like the type of guy you would see on the cover of one of those sweet , savage love paperback romances " . He eventually persuaded the decision @-@ makers to cast a lesser @-@ known actor as Flagg , which turned out to be Jamey Sheridan .
Sheridan 's performance was generally well received . Entertainment Weekly ’ s Ken Tucker wrote that the best acting came from Sheridan , who gave the character a “ grim intensity ” . He commented that Sheridan had “ leading @-@ man looks ” with the hair of a “ dissolute heavy metal star ” , making him “ unsettling ” even when not wearing makeup that makes him look like a devil . Douglas E. Winter of Fangoria magazine believed that Sheridan might have been a bit young and “ zany ” for the part , but gave a credible performance ; he said that Sheridan attacked the role “ with the swagger of Elvis , the sway of David Koresh and as much craziness as your heart desires ( and network TV allows ) " .
In February 2011 , Warner Bros. announced plans to produce a new feature film adaptation of The Stand . King commented that he would like to see Dutch actor Rutger Hauer in the role of Flagg , but said that he may be too old for the part . In August 2014 it was reported that Warner Bros. wanted actor Matthew McConaughey for the role .
It was confirmed in 2016 that Matthew McConaughey would be playing the role of Walter o 'Dim , Flagg 's alter @-@ ego , in the film adaptation of The Dark Tower . Nikolaj Arcel , the film 's director and co @-@ writer , said " Matthew is an incredible actor who can do anything . That ’ s how I feel about [ Walter ] . He could do anything . " Arcel described Walter as having " a very interesting way of seeing the world . He sees it with a sort of delight , even though he is obviously on the wrong side of the light @-@ and @-@ dark spectrum . He ’ s someone I ’ ve been having a lot of fun with . "
The 2016 miniseries 11 @.@ 22 @.@ 63 , based on King 's novel 11 / 22 / 63 , incorporates numerous references to other King stories , including an appearance by Randall Flagg , who is seen cycling through the Dallas throngs just before the assassination of John F. Kennedy in the final episode .
= = = Comics = = =
Beginning in 2007 , Marvel Comics released a series of comics which were a prequel to the Dark Tower novels . Randall Flagg , appearing as Marten Broadcloak and Walter o 'Dim , plays a significant role in the series .
In April 2009 Marvel released a single @-@ issue comic written by Robin Furth and illustrated by Richard Isanove entitled The Dark Tower : Sorcerer , which focused on the character of Marten Broadcloak @-@ Walter o 'Dim . Sorcerer provides an origin for the character different from the one King initially wrote , explaining that Walter was the son of the wizard Maerlyn and Selena ( Goddess of the Black Moon ) . Walter was left at the home of a mill owner , Sam Padick , " to learn the ways of men " . At age 13 , Walter burns down his adoptive father 's mill before running away to find his true father ( Walter 's rape is not mentioned ) . Furth wrote in the afterword that the idea of Maerlyn being Walter 's father came from King . The comic also reveals that Marten had poisoned Roland 's infant brother . Furth introduced the idea that the Bends o ' the Rainbow , 13 magic spheres created by Maerlyn in the distant past , are sentient beings able to project personifications which can interact with other characters . Marten has a sexual relationship with the female personification of Maerlyn 's Grapefruit ( one of the spheres ) . This is described as incestuous , since the beings were given life by Maerlyn ( Walter 's biological father ) ; Marten and the Grapefruit repeatedly call each other as brother and sister . The siblings also refer to the Crimson King as their " cousin " , indicating that Maerlyn is related to him . In her afterword Furth says that although she conceived these ideas , King approved them . According to the comic , Marten 's romantic feelings for Roland 's mother trigger jealousy in the Grapefruit ( who influences Roland to unwittingly kill his mother ) . ( In Wizard and Glass , the witch known as Rhea of the Cöos orchestrate Roland 's matricide as revenge for his killing of her pet snake . ) Enraged , Marten imprisons his " sister " in the Grapefruit and vows revenge on Roland for his involvement in his beloved 's death . Addressing inconsistencies between the novels and the comics , Furth stated that the comics exist on another level of the Tower : " a spinoff world , one which is very similar to , but not exactly the same as the one where [ the Dark Tower novels ] take place " .
On the character of Marten , Furth noted that " [ he ] is one of the scariest characters that Stephen King has ever created . He moves from book to book , bringing chaos and anarchy with him ... He is quite a demonic figure , and as such he is one of the great anti @-@ heroes of contemporary popular fiction " and that " [ j ] ourneying into Walter 's mind is a pretty wild experience and at times a little frightening . You have to travel to very dark places " . To find Walter 's voice , Furth went to John Milton 's Paradise Lost , William Blake 's Proverbs of Hell , the Biblical Song of Solomon and the writings of Aleister Crowley for inspiration .
In his interview with Bev Vincent , Isanove opined that Walter was his favorite character to draw ; " Jae [ Lee , the original artist for the series ] established him as almost androgynous . He 's always got this bare chest , and he 's very feminine in the way he moves , with his hands raised . He 's always moving his hands around . He 's got this weird face , with a broken nose and greasy hair . He 's starting to bald , but he 's always got a very white separation in the middle of it . He 's just so greasy , he 's great to draw . And he still has to be seductive at the same time , so you can 't make him repulsive ... He 's such a great character . "
Marvel later released an comic book adaptation of The Stand , which began in September 2008 and ran for thirty issues . Writer Roberto Aguirre @-@ Sacasa described Flagg as " The man of nightmares . Or , put another way , our nightmares given human ( more or less ) form . The dark side of the American Dream ... King 's ' Walkin ' Dude ' may not be the Devil , himself , as Mother Abagail says , but he comes pretty damn close ... " Initially , artist Mike Perkins said he felt " Flagg needed to be designed less as a man — more as a force of nature . His hair will obscure his features , his face will be almost always in heavy shadow . This is the creature lurking under your bed , in your wardrobe , in your nightmares . Slightly familiar but wholly terrifying " . Roberto Aguirre @-@ Sacasa later commented on the original idea of hiding Flagg 's face : " ... the further into the book and the adaptation you go , the less feasible that becomes . Stephen spends so much time describing [ Flagg ] ' s features and smiles , you need to show those things " .
= = Concept and creation = =
King initially named Donald DeFreeze , lead kidnapper in the Patty Hearst case , as his inspiration for Randall Flagg . According to King , he remembered the Patty Hearst case when he began to write a description of DeFreeze : " Donald DeFreeze is a dark man " . He remembered that in photographs of the bank robbery in which Patty Hearst participated that DeFreeze was only partially visible , hidden under a large hat . What he looked like was based on guesses made by people who only saw a portion of him . This inspired King , who then wrote " A dark man with no face " . After reading " Once in every generation the plague will fall among them " , King began writing The Stand and developing the character of Randall Flagg .
In 2004 , King said that Flagg had been a presence in his writing since the beginning of his career , with the idea coming to him in college . He first wrote a poem , " The Dark Man " , about a man who rides the rails and confesses to murder and rape ; written on the back of a placemat in a college restaurant , the one @-@ page poem was published in 1969 , but the character never left King 's mind . To the author , what made Flagg interesting was " the idea of the villain as somebody who was always on the outside looking in , and hated people who had good fellowship and good conversation and friends " .
= = Characterization = =
Characteristic of Randall Flagg is his embodiment of evil . When King created the character , he based him around what he believed evil represented . To King , Flagg is “ somebody who ’ s very charismatic , laughs a lot , [ is ] tremendously attractive to men and women both , and [ is ] somebody who just appeals to the worst in all of us ” . This idea carries over into The Stand , in which Flagg first appears as the personification of evil opposing Mother Abagail ( the personification of good ) . Character Tom Cullen ascribes to Flagg the ability to kill animals and inflict cancer at will , referring to him as the demon Legion , while character Glen Bateman refers to him as the Lovecraftian entity Nyarlathotep ( among other ancient names ) . King wanted Flagg to embody a " gigantic evil " , although he intended the character to weaken by the end of The Stand . He said , " I think the Devil is probably a pretty funny guy . Flagg is like the archetype of everything that I know about real evil , going back all the way to Charles Starkweather in the ' 50s — he is somebody who is empty and who has to be filled with other people 's hates , fears , resentments , laughs . Flagg , Koresh , Jim Jones , Hitler — they 're all basically the same guy " . Although Flagg was not intended to represent Satan , this did not detract from what King sees as his ultimate goal . He notes that no matter who sees him or how he is seen ( Flagg appears differently to different individuals ) , his message is the same : " I know all the things that you want and I can give them to you and all you have to do is give me your soul " .
Critics also note Flagg ’ s penchant for evil . Tony Magistrale sees Flagg as a Shakespearian villain ( comparing him to Iago , Edmund and Richard III ) , contending that Flagg is an antihero . Magistrale believes that Flagg ’ s evil is based on his ability to replace peace with conflict and unity with destruction ; although he seeks power , it is merely a resource to achieve a greater level of destruction . Heidi Stringell finds Flagg “ an embodiment of pure evil ” , contending that King sees good and evil as “ real forces ” ; Flagg ’ s embodiment of evil is confirmed by the fact that “ he is a killer , a maker of mischief , a liar , and a tempter ” . To Stringell , Flagg ’ s disappearance at the end of The Stand shows that “ evil ultimately leads nowhere ” . The author calls Flagg a “ generic hybrid ” of the archetypical “ Dark Man and the Trickster ” . To her , the combination of these two characteristics ( found in different cultural realms ) forces people to face their “ flawed humanity ” with the “ amorality ” Flagg represents . Jenifer Paquette writes that " Flagg 's horror is that he looks like an ordinary man , and his behavior is a mockery of humanity — a terrible insight into the human psyche . King suggests that the thing to fear the most is inside ourselves . "
Douglas Winter believes that Flagg epitomizes the Gothic villain — an “ atavistic embodiment of evil ” — since his appearance is indistinct , malleable and a “ collection of masks ” . Flagg symbolizes “ the inexplicable fear of the return of bygone powers — both technological and , as his last name intimates , sociopolitical ” . Like other Gothic villains , Flagg ’ s plans seem to fail at every turn as he seems to need to convince others of his importance . Winter asserts that Flagg is a Miltonic superman who receives his strength from a dark , mysterious source . He compares him to J. R. R. Tolkien ’ s Sauron in The Lord of the Rings : both collapse when directly confronted . Alissa Stickler describes Flagg as a “ contemporary medievalist interpretation on the themes of evil , magic and the ( d ) evil figure ” . She likens Flagg to Merlin , whispering in the ear of Arthur . Stickler notes that Flagg is politically powerful in The Stand and The Eyes of the Dragon ; he uses his power differently in each novel , challenging depictions of evil and witchcraft common in medieval times . She explains that there does not appear to be a higher power to which Flagg “ must appeal to his abilities ” ( as there is with traditional evil ) . Flagg is more of a “ humanesque evil ” , which works against him as much as it does for him . His supernatural knowledge is fallible , and the customary black @-@ and @-@ white depiction is replaced with an “ acceptance of a shadowy gray area ” . Stickler says that although Flagg appears “ terrifying and supernatural ” as depicted by King , there are no absolutes . She concludes that Flagg represents the medieval monster both past and future , which challenges ( yet supports ) the literary Middle Ages .
Flagg ’ s character has its detractors . In his essay " The Glass @-@ Eyed Dragon " , author L. Sprague de Camp criticizes Flagg in Eyes of the Dragon , saying that he is one of the least @-@ believable characters in the book and too evil to be credible . According to de Camp , absolute evil is hard to envision ; whereas Adolf Hitler and Joseph Stalin believed they were improving the world , Flagg only enjoys causing destruction and chaos . De Camp notes that Flagg fails to see that there is no advantage to his actions .
Flagg 's embodiment of evil is not the only characteristic seen by critics . Joseph Reino commented that the character 's presence in The Stand was " Stephen King 's version of a pestilential Big Brother " . Tony Magistrale revisits the character in a second book , this time comparing him to Norman Mailer . Here , Magistrale states that in The Stand Flagg gives the reader an “ illustration of King ’ s jaundiced perspective of modern America ” as he presents the consequences of technology @-@ worship and the sacrifice of “ moral integrity to the quest for synthetic productivity ” .
Flagg 's background as a rape victim and its impact on his character have also been explored . Patrick McAleer argues that Flagg 's situation is the most sympathetic of all of King 's characters , and his evil may be retribution : " [ I ] n suspending any disbelief in the possibility that reprisal is a reaction to rape , the life of Flagg becomes one that looks to strike a balance for the sexual crime committed against him . And although Flagg 's possible search for justice and balance is that which becomes imbalanced and even prejudiced , the mitigating factor here is that Flagg is not an originator of evil - he is just caught up in its web as another wronged individual seeking justice " . McAleer compares Flagg to Satan in Paradise Lost , suggesting that he may be another " fallen angel who has a valid case supporting his devilry " . While agreeing that Flagg can be seen " relishing in evil deeds at almost every juncture " , he contends that no judgement can be made without the full story and context for his actions .
= Pteranodon =
Pteranodon ( / tᵻˈrænədɒn / ; from Greek πτερόν ( " wing " ) and ἀνόδων ( " toothless " ) is a genus of pterosaurs which included some of the largest known flying reptiles , with wingspans over 6 metres ( 20 ft ) . It existed during the late Cretaceous geological period of North America in present day Kansas , Alabama , Nebraska , Wyoming , and South Dakota . More fossil specimens of Pteranodon have been found than any other pterosaur , with about 1 @,@ 200 specimens known to science , many of them well preserved with nearly complete skulls and articulated skeletons . It was an important part of the animal community in the Western Interior Seaway .
Pteranodon was not a dinosaur . By definition , all dinosaurs belong to either order within Dinosauria , either Saurischia or Ornithischia . As such , this excludes pterosaurs . Nonetheless , Pteranodon is frequently featured in dinosaur media and is strongly associated with dinosaurs by the general public .
= = Description = =
Pteranodon species are extremely well represented in the fossil record , allowing for detailed descriptions of their anatomy and analysis of their life history . Over 1 @,@ 000 specimens have been identified , though less than half are complete enough to give researchers good information on the anatomy of the animal . Still , this is more fossil material than is known for any other pterosaur , and it includes both male and female specimens of various age groups and , possibly , species .
= = = Size = = =
Adult Pteranodon specimens from the two major species can be divided into two distinct size classes . The smaller class of specimens have small , rounded head crests and very wide pelvic canals , even wider than those of the much larger size class . The size of the pelvic canal probably allowed the laying of eggs , indicating that these smaller adults are females . The larger size class , representing male individuals , have narrow hips and very large crests , which were probably for display .
Adult male Pteranodon were among the largest pterosaurs , and were the largest flying animals known until the late 20th century , when the giant azhdarchid pterosaurs were discovered . The wingspan of an average adult male Pteranodon was 5 @.@ 6 metres ( 18 ft ) . Adult females were much smaller , averaging 3 @.@ 8 metres ( 12 ft ) in wingspan . The largest specimen of Pteranodon longiceps from the Niobrara Formation measured 6 @.@ 25 metres ( 20 @.@ 5 ft ) from wingtip to wingtip . An even larger specimen is known from the Pierre Shale Formation , with a wingspan of 7 @.@ 25 metres ( 23 @.@ 8 ft ) , though this specimen may belong to the distinct genus and species Geosternbergia maysei . While most specimens are found crushed , enough fossils exist to put together a detailed description of the animal .
Methods used to estimate the mass of large male Pteranodon specimens ( those with wingspans of about 7 meters ) have been notoriously unreliable , producing a wide range of estimates from as low as 20 kilograms ( 44 lb ) to as high as 93 kilograms ( 205 lb ) . In a review of pterosaur size estimates published in 2010 , researchers Mark Witton and Mike Habib demonstrated that the latter , largest estimates are almost certainly incorrect given the total volume of a Pteranodon body , and could only be correct if the animal " was principally comprised of aluminium . " Witton and Habib considered the methods used by researchers who obtained smaller mass estimates equally flawed . Most have been produced by scaling modern animals such as bats and birds up to Pteranodon size , despite the fact that pterosaurs have vastly different body proportions and soft tissue anatomy from any living animal .
= = = Skull and beak = = =
Unlike earlier pterosaurs such as Rhamphorhynchus and Pterodactylus , Pteranodon had toothless beaks , similar to those of birds . Pteranodon beaks were made of solid , bony margins that projected from the base of the jaws . The beaks were long , slender , and ended in thin , sharp points . The upper jaw was longer than the lower jaw . The upper jaw was curved upward ; while this normally has been attributed only to the upward @-@ curving beak , one specimen ( UALVP 24238 ) has a curvature corresponding with the beak widening towards the tip . While the tip of the beak is not known in this specimen , the level of curvature suggests it would have been extremely long . The unique form of the beak in this specimen led Alexander Kellner to assign it to a distinct genus , Dawndraco , in 2010 .
The most distinctive characteristic of Pteranodon is its cranial crest . These crests consisted of skull bones ( frontals ) projecting upward and backward from the skull . The size and shape of these crests varied due to a number of factors , including age , sex , and species . Male Pteranodon sternbergi , the older species of the two described to date ( and sometimes placed in the distinct genus Geosternbergia ) , had a more vertical crest with a broad forward projection , while their descendants , Pteranodon longiceps , evolved a narrower , more backward @-@ projecting crest . Females of both species were smaller and bore small , rounded crests . The crests were probably mainly display structures , though they may have had other functions as well .
= = = Skeleton = = =
Other distinguishing characteristics that set Pteranodon apart from other pterosaurs include narrow neural spines on the vertebrae , plate @-@ like bony ligaments strengthening the vertebrae above the hip , and a relatively short tail in which the last few vertebrae are fused into a long rod . The entire length of the tail was about 3 @.@ 5 % as long as the wingspan , or up to 25 centimetres ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) in the largest males .
= = Timespan and evolution = =
Pteranodon fossils are known primarily from the Niobrara Formation of the central United States . Broadly defined , Pteranodon existed for more than four million years , during the late Coniacian to early Campanian stages of the Cretaceous period . The genus is present in most layers of the Niobrara Formation except for the upper two ; in 2003 , Kenneth Carpenter surveyed the distribution and dating of fossils in this formation , demonstrating that Pteranodon sternbergi existed there from 88 to 85 million years ago , while P. longiceps existed between 86 and 84 @.@ 5 million years ago . A possible third species , which Kellner named Geosternbergia maysei in 2010 , is known from the Sharon Springs member of the Pierre Shale Formation in Kansas , Wyoming , and South Dakota , dating to between 81 @.@ 5 and 80 @.@ 5 million years ago .
In the early 1990s , Bennett noted that the two major morphs of pteranodont present in the Niobrara Formation were precisely separated in time with little , if any , overlap . Due to this , and to their gross overall similarity , he suggested that they probably represent chronospecies within a single evolutionary lineage lasting about 4 million years . In other words , only one species of Pteranodon would have been present at any one time , and P. sternbergi ( or Geosternbergia ) in all likelihood was the direct ancestor species of P. longiceps .
= = Biology and ecology = =
= = = Range and environment = = =
Specimens assigned to Pteranodon have been found in both the Smoky Hill Chalk deposits of the Niobrara Formation , and the slightly younger Sharon Springs deposits of the Pierre Shale Formation . When Pteranodon was alive , this area was covered by a large inland sea , known as the Western Interior Seaway . Famous for fossils collected since 1870 , these formations extend from as far south as Kansas in the United States to Manitoba in Canada . However , Pteranodon specimens ( or any pterosaur specimens ) have only been found in the southern half of the formation , in Kansas , Wyoming , and South Dakota . Despite the fact that numerous fossils have been found in the contemporary parts of the formation in Canada , no pterosaur specimens have ever been found there . This strongly suggests that the natural geographic range of Pteranodon covered only the southern part of the Niobrara , and that its habitat did not extend farther north than South Dakota .
Some very fragmentary fossils belonging to pteranodontian pterosaurs , and possibly Pteranodon itself , have also been found on the Gulf Coast and East Coast of the United States . For example , some bone fragments from the Mooreville Formation of Alabama and the Merchantville Formation of Delaware may have come from Pteranodon , though they are too incomplete to make a definite identification . Some remains from Japan have also been tentatively attributed to Pteranodon , but their distance from its known Western Interior Seaway habitat makes this identification unlikely .
Pteranodon longiceps would have shared the sky with the giant @-@ crested pterosaur Nyctosaurus . Compared to P. longiceps , which was a very common species , Nyctosaurus was rare , making up only 3 % of pterosaur fossils from the formation . Also less common was the early toothed bird , Ichthyornis .
It is likely that , as in other polygynous animals ( in which males compete for association with harems of females ) , Pteranodon lived primarily on offshore rookeries , where they could nest away from land @-@ based predators and feed far from shore ; most Pteranodon fossils are found in locations which at the time , were hundreds of kilometres from the coastline .
Below the surface , the sea was populated primarily by invertebrates such as ammonites and squid . Vertebrate life , apart from basal fish , included sea turtles such as Toxochelys , the plesiosaur Styxosaurus , and the flightless diving bird Parahesperornis . Mosasaurs were the most common marine reptiles , with genera including Clidastes and Tylosaurus . At least some of these marine reptiles are known to have fed on Pteranodon . Barnum Brown , in 1904 , reported plesiosaur stomach contents containing " pterodactyl " bones , most likely from Pteranodon .
Fossils from terrestrial dinosaurs also have been found in the Niobrara Chalk , suggesting that animals who died on shore must have been washed out to sea ( one specimen of a hadrosaur appears to have been scavenged by a shark ) .
= = = Flight = = =
The wing shape of Pteranodon suggests that it would have flown rather like a modern @-@ day albatross . This is based on the fact that Pteranodon had a high aspect ratio ( wingspan to chord length ) similar to that of the albatross — 9 : 1 for Pteranodon , compared to 8 : 1 for an albatross . Albatrosses spend long stretches of time at sea fishing , and use a flight pattern called " dynamic soaring " which exploits the vertical gradient of wind speed near the ocean surface to travel long distances without flapping , and without the aid of thermals ( which do not occur over the open ocean the same way they do over land ) . While most of a Pteranodon flight would have depended on soaring , like long @-@ winged seabirds , it probably required an occasional active , rapid burst of flapping , and studies of Pteranodon wing loading ( the strength of the wings vs. the weight of the body ) indicate that they were capable of substantial flapping flight , contrary to some earlier suggestions that they were so big they could only glide .
Like other pterosaurs , Pteranodon probably took off from a standing , quadrupedal position . Using their long forelimbs for leverage , they would have vaulted themselves into the air in a rapid leap . Almost all of the energy would have been generated by the forelimbs . The upstroke of the wings would have occurred when the animal cleared the ground followed by a rapid down @-@ stroke to generate additional lift and complete the launch into the air .
= = = Diet = = =
The diet of Pteranodon is known to have included fish ; fossilized fish bones have been found in the stomach area of one Pteranodon , and a fossilized fish bolus has been found between the jaws of another Pteranodon , specimen AMNH 5098 . Numerous other specimens also preserve fragments of fish scales and vertebrae near the torso , indicating that fish made up a majority of the diet of Pteranodon ( though they may also have taken invertebrates ) .
Traditionally , most researchers have suggested that Pteranodon would have taken fish by dipping their beaks into the water while in low , soaring flight . However , this was probably based on the assumption that the animals could not take off from the water surface . It is more likely that Pteranodon could take off from the water , and would have dipped for fish while swimming rather than while flying . Even a small , female Pteranodon could have reached a depth of at least 80 centimetres ( 31 in ) with its long bill and neck while floating on the surface , and they may have reached even greater depths by plunge @-@ diving into the water from the air like some modern long @-@ winged seabirds . In 1994 , Bennett noted that the head , neck , and shoulders of Pteranodon were as heavily built as diving birds , and suggested that they could dive by folding back their wings like the modern gannet .
= = = Crest function = = =
Pteranodon was notable for its skull crest , though the function of this crest has been a subject of debate . Most explanations have focused on the blade @-@ like , backward pointed crest of male P. longiceps , however , and ignored the wide range of variation across age and sex . The fact that the crests vary so much rules out most practical functions other than for use in mating displays . Therefore , display was probably the main function of the crest , and any other functions were secondary .
Scientific interpretations of the crest 's function began in 1910 , when George Francis Eaton proposed two possibilities : an aerodynamic counterbalance and a muscle attachment point . He suggested that the crest might have anchored large , long jaw muscles , but admitted that this function alone could not explain the large size of some crests . Bennett ( 1992 ) agreed with Eaton 's own assessment that the crest was too large and variable to have been a muscle attachment site . Eaton had suggested that a secondary function of the crest might have been as a counterbalance against the long beak , reducing the need for | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
1961 . The names Carla and Hattie were later retired . Names that were not assigned are marked in gray .
= ARA Moreno =
ARA Moreno was a dreadnought battleship designed by the American Fore River Shipbuilding Company for the Argentine Navy ( Armada de la República Argentina ) . Named after Mariano Moreno , a key member of the first independent government of Argentina , the First Assembly ( Primera Junta ) , Moreno was the second dreadnought of the Rivadavia class , and the fourth built during the South American dreadnought race .
Argentina placed orders for Moreno and its only sister ship , Rivadavia , in reply to a Brazilian naval building program . During their construction , the two dreadnoughts were subject to numerous rumors involving Argentina selling the two battleships to a country engaged in the First World War , but these proved to be false . After Moreno was completed in March 1915 , a series of engine problems occurred during the sea trials which delayed its delivery to Argentina to May 1915 . The next decade saw the ship based in Puerto Belgrano as part of the Argentine Navy 's First Division before sailing to the United States for an extensive refit in 1924 and 1925 . During the 1930s the ship was occupied with diplomatic cruises to Brazil , Uruguay , and Europe until the Second World War broke out . During this time , Moreno was employed little as Argentina was neutral . Decommissioned in 1949 , Moreno was scrapped in Japan beginning in 1957 .
= = Background = =
Moreno 's genesis can be traced to the numerous naval arms races between Chile and Argentina , which in turn were spawned by territorial disputes over their mutual borders in Patagonia and Puna de Atacama along with control of the Beagle Channel . Naval races flared up in the 1890s and in 1902 ; the latter was eventually settled via British mediation . Provisions in the dispute @-@ ending treaty imposed restrictions on both countries ' navies . The United Kingdom 's Royal Navy bought the two Constitución @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleships that were being built for Chile , and Argentina sold its two Rivadavia @-@ class armored cruisers under construction in Italy to Japan .
After HMS Dreadnought was commissioned , Brazil decided in early 1907 to halt three obsolescent pre @-@ dreadnoughts which were under construction in favor of two or three dreadnoughts . These ships , which were designed to carry the heaviest battleship armament in the world at the time , came as an abrupt shock to the navies of South America , and Argentina and Chile quickly canceled the 1902 armament @-@ limiting pact . Argentina in particular was alarmed at the possible power of the ships . The Minister of Foreign Affairs , Manuel Augusto Montes de Oca , remarked that even one Minas Geraes @-@ class ship could destroy the entire Argentine and Chilean fleets . While this may have been hyperbole , either one was much more powerful than any single vessel in the Argentine fleet . Although debates raged in Argentina over whether it would be prudent to counter Brazil 's purchase by acquiring their own dreadnoughts , which would cost upwards of two million pounds sterling , further border disputes — particularly near the River Plate with Brazil — decided the matter , and they ordered Rivadavia and Moreno from the Fore River Shipbuilding Company in the United States .
= = Construction and trials = =
After the two new dreadnoughts were awarded to Fore River , Moreno was subcontracted out to the New York Shipbuilding Corporation of Camden , New Jersey as called for in the final contract . Moreno 's keel was laid on 9 July 1910 , and construction was overseen by the Argentine Naval Commission . After the completion of the hull , it was launched on 23 September 1911 . Isabel Betbeder , wife to the chief of the Argentine Naval Commission , sponsored Moreno . The ship was then moored to a dock to commence fitting @-@ out , which was finished on 15 February 1915 . It was commissioned into the Argentine Navy nine days later .
Over the course of their construction , Rivadavia and Moreno were the subject of various rumors insinuating that Argentina would accept the ships and then sell them to a European country or Japan , a fast @-@ growing rival to the United States . The rumors were partially true ; Argentina was looking to get rid of the battleships and devote the proceeds to opening more schools . This angered the American government , which did not want its warship technology offered to the highest bidder — yet they did not want to exercise a contract @-@ specified option that gave the United States first choice if the Argentines decided to sell , as naval technology had already progressed past the Rivadavias , particularly in the adoption of the " all @-@ or @-@ nothing " armor scheme . Instead , the United States and its State Department and Navy Department put diplomatic pressure on the Argentine government .
The Argentine government , bolstered by socialist additions in the legislature , introduced several bills in May 1914 which would have put the battleships up for sale , but the bills were all defeated by late June . Following the commencement of the First World War , the German and British ambassadors to the United States both complained to the US State Department ; the former believed that the British were going to be given the ships as soon as they reached Argentina , and the latter charged the United States with ensuring that the ships fell into Argentina 's possession only . International armament companies attempted to influence Argentina into selling them to one of the smaller Balkan countries , from which they would find their way into the war .
In October 1914 , Moreno sailed the New York Naval Shipyard to be painted , then conducted its sea trials starting on the 25th . Reporters for several newspapers , including The New York Times , and American naval officers were allowed on board during this time ; the Times reporters gave a glowing account of the alcohol @-@ serving café on the ship , calling it " the cutest little bar on any of the seven seas " — alcohol was banned on U.S. Navy ships .
The trials were plagued with serious engine trouble , culminating in the failure of an entire turbine on 2 November . Moreno was forced to put in at Rockland , Maine — where many of the observers on board were left to be brought back by train to Camden — before proceeding for repairs to the Fore River Shipyard , which had built the ship 's engines .
In early 1915 , nearly five years after construction had begun , the shipbuilding contractors demanded payment from the Argentine government for additional work , but the Argentines did not believe this was warranted , as Moreno had been scheduled to be completed more than a year prior . After mediation offered by Franklin D. Roosevelt , the Assistant Secretary of the Navy at the time , Moreno was released on 20 February to Argentine sailors who had been staying in American battleships moored in the Philadelphia Navy Yard .
Even Moreno 's departure was marked by mishaps . On the night of 26 March , Moreno accidentally rammed and sank the barge Enterprise in the Delaware River , 30 miles ( 48 km ) south of Philadelphia near the city of New Castle . No one was hurt , but the battleship accidentally ran aground immediately after . Efforts to refloat it succeeded , and Moreno continued on its way at around 7 : 30 the next morning without damage . On the 29th , President Woodrow Wilson was hosted for lunch on board the warship , accompanied by the Argentine ambassador to the United States , Romulo S. Naon . On 15 April , Moreno ran aground in the river again , this time near Reedy Island . Like the previous time , the ship was not damaged and tugs were able to refloat the ship the next day .
= = Service = =
Moreno docked in Argentina for the first time on 26 May 1915 . The ship was immediately assigned to the Argentine Navy 's First Division , based out of the major naval base of Puerto Belgrano , and remained there until 1923 when it was put into the reserve fleet . In 1924 , Moreno was sent to the United States for modernization . The opportunity to show the flag was not missed ; Moreno made stops in Valparaiso and Callao before transiting the Panama Canal and sailing north .
Most of the work was done in Philadelphia , though armament changes were made in Boston . Moreno was converted to use fuel oil instead of coal , was fitted with a new fire @-@ control system , rangefinders were added to the fore and aft superfiring turrets , and the aft mast was replaced by a tripod . To reduce exhaust interference when spotting ships in a battle , a funnel cap was installed . The main armament 's range was increased from 13 @,@ 120 yards ( 12 @,@ 000 m ) to 20 @,@ 800 yards ( 19 @,@ 000 m ) , and the turrets were modified to double the firing rate . The 6 @-@ inch secondary armament was retained , but the smaller 4 @-@ inch guns were taken off in favor of four 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) anti @-@ aircraft guns and four 3 @-@ pounders .
When Moreno returned to Argentina in August 1926 , it was initially assigned to the training division of the Navy before being reassigned to the First Division . In 1932 , Moreno was moved into a new Battleship Division with Rivadavia . The remainder of the 1930s was filled with diplomatic cruises . Moreno , escorted by the three Mendoza @-@ class destroyers , brought Argentine president Agustín Pedro Justo to Brazil in 1933 for a major diplomatic visit . Departing in the afternoon of 2 October , he arrived in Rio de Janeiro on the morning of 7 October to huge celebrations . Brazilian ships of the first and second squadrons , along with three squadrons worth of warplanes , met Moreno at sea and escorted it to the harbor . When Justo landed and traveled by car to Guanabra Palace , the road was flanked by a plethora of army and naval forces along with thousands of citizens . Rio was described as " ablaze with light " , and a 95 @-@ foot ( 29 m ) high imitation of France 's Arc de Triomphe was erected , onto which various colors were projected . Justo then took a royal train , originally designed for Albert I of Belgium 's use during Brazil 's 1922 centennial celebrations , to Sao Paulo . After three days , he traveled to Santos , where he boarded Moreno to travel first to Uruguay , then back to Argentina ; he arrived in the latter on 22 October .
In 1934 , Moreno was sent as one of Argentina 's representatives for the anniversary of Brazil 's independence . In 1937 , Rivadavia and Moreno were sent on a diplomatic cruise to Europe . Departing Argentina on 6 April , they split up when they reached the English Channel . Moreno participated in the British Spithead Naval Review , where The New York Times described it as " a strange vestigial sea monster in this company of more modern fighting ships . " Afterward , Moreno met up with Rivadavia at Brest , France and cruised together to Wilhelmshaven before splitting up again ; Moreno went to Bremen , while Rivadavia put in at Hamburg . They then sailed for home and arrived in Puerto Belgrano on 29 June .
In September 1939 , Moreno and Rivadavia traveled together to Brazil with naval cadets . However , before they could return , four Buenos Aires @-@ class destroyers had to be sent to escort the ships back , as the Second World War had erupted in Europe . Since Argentina remained neutral in the war , Moreno saw little active service . By 1949 , the venerable dreadnought had been decommissioned into reserve and was used as a barracks . In 1955 , Moreno was used as a prison ship during the Liberating Revolution ( Revolución Libertadora ) . The ship was stricken from the navy list on 1 October 1956 ; on 11 January 1957 , Argentina sold Moreno for scrap for $ 2 @,@ 468 @,@ 660 to the Japanese Yawata Iron and Steel Company . On 12 May , the Argentine fleet assembled to salute the battleship one last time as it was towed out by the Dutch @-@ owned ocean tugs Clyde and Ocean . Moreno was taken through the Panama Canal to the scrappers , arriving on 17 August .
= = Endnotes = =
= SMS Kronprinz =
SMS Kronprinz was the last battleship of the four @-@ ship König class of the German Imperial Navy . The battleship was laid down in November 1911 and launched on 21 February 1914 . She was formally commissioned into the Imperial Navy on 8 November 1914 , just over 4 months after the start of World War I. The name Kronprinz ( Eng : " Crown Prince " ) refers to Crown Prince Wilhelm , and in June 1918 , the ship was renamed Kronprinz Wilhelm in his honor . The battleship was armed with ten 30 @.@ 5 @-@ centimeter ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) guns in five twin turrets and could steam at a top speed of 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) .
Along with her three sister ships , König , Grosser Kurfürst and Markgraf , Kronprinz took part in most of the fleet actions during the war , including the Battle of Jutland on 31 May and 1 June 1916 . Although near the front of the German line , she emerged from the battle unscathed . She was torpedoed by the British submarine HMS J1 on 5 November 1916 during an operation off the Danish coast . Following repairs , she participated in Operation Albion , an amphibious assault in the Baltic , in October 1917 . During the operation Kronprinz engaged the Tsesarevich and forced her to retreat .
After Germany 's defeat in the war and the signing of the Armistice in November 1918 , Kronprinz and most of the capital ships of the High Seas Fleet were interned by the Royal Navy in Scapa Flow . The ships were disarmed and reduced to skeleton crews while the Allied powers negotiated the final version of the Treaty of Versailles . On 21 June 1919 , days before the treaty was signed , the commander of the interned fleet , Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter , ordered the fleet to be scuttled to ensure that the British would not be able to seize the ships . Unlike most of the other scuttled ships , Kronprinz was never raised for scrapping ; the wreck is still on the bottom of the harbour .
= = Construction and design = =
Kronprinz was ordered under the provisional name Ersatz Brandenburg and built at the Germaniawerft shipyard in Kiel under construction number 182 . Her keel was laid in May 1912 and she was launched on 21 February 1914 . The ship was scheduled to be completed in early 1915 , but work was expedited after the outbreak of World War I in mid @-@ 1914 . Fitting @-@ out work was completed by 8 November 1914 , the day she was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet . She had cost the Imperial German Government 45 million Goldmarks .
Kronprinz displaced 25 @,@ 796 t ( 25 @,@ 389 long tons ) as built and 28 @,@ 600 t ( 28 @,@ 100 long tons ) fully loaded , with a length of 175 @.@ 4 m ( 575 ft 6 in ) , a beam of 19 @.@ 5 m ( 64 ft 0 in ) and a draft of 9 @.@ 19 m ( 30 ft 2 in ) . She was powered by three Parsons steam turbines and three oil @-@ fired and twelve coal @-@ fired boilers , which developed a total of 45 @,@ 570 shaft horsepower ( 33 @,@ 980 kW ) and yielded a maximum speed of 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) .
She was armed with ten 30 @.@ 5 cm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) SK L / 50 guns arranged in five twin gun turrets : two superfiring turrets each fore and aft and one turret amidships between the two funnels . Her secondary armament consisted of fourteen 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) SK L / 45 quick @-@ firing guns , six 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) SK L / 45 quick @-@ firing guns and five 50 cm ( 20 in ) underwater torpedo tubes , one in the bow and two on each beam .
= = Service history = =
Kronprinz was completed in November 1914 ; following her commissioning she joined the III Battle Squadron of the High Seas Fleet . Kronprinz completed her sea trials on 2 January 1915 . The first operation in which she participated was an uneventful sortie by the fleet into the North Sea on 29 – 30 March . Three weeks later , on 17 – 18 April , she and her sisters supported an operation in which the light cruisers of the II Scouting Group laid mines off the Swarte Bank . Another sweep by the fleet occurred on 22 April ; two days later III Squadron returned to the Baltic for another round of exercises . On 8 May an explosion occurred in the center turret 's right gun . The Baltic exercises lasted until 13 May , at which point the III Squadron returned to the North Sea . Another minelaying operation was conducted by the II Scouting Group on 17 May , with the battleship again in support .
Kronprinz participated in a fleet operation into the North Sea which ended without combat from 29 until 31 May 1915 . The ship supported a minelaying operation on 11 – 12 September off Texel . The fleet conducted another sweep into the North Sea on 23 – 24 October . Several uneventful sorties followed on 5 – 7 March 1916 , 31 March and 2 – 3 April . Kronprinz supported a raid on the English coast on 24 April 1916 conducted by the German battlecruiser force of the I Scouting Group . The battlecruisers left the Jade Estuary at 10 : 55 CET , and the rest of the High Seas Fleet followed at 13 : 40 . The battlecruiser Seydlitz struck a mine while en route to the target , and had to withdraw . The other battlecruisers bombarded the town of Lowestoft unopposed , but during the approach to Yarmouth , they encountered the British cruisers of the Harwich Force . A short gun duel ensued before the Harwich Force withdrew . Reports of British submarines in the area prompted the retreat of the I Scouting Group . At this point , Admiral Reinhard Scheer , who had been warned of the sortie of the Grand Fleet from its base in Scapa Flow , also withdrew to safer German waters .
= = = Battle of Jutland = = =
Kronprinz was present during the fleet operation that resulted in the battle of Jutland which took place on 31 May and 1 June 1916 . The German fleet again sought to draw out and isolate a portion of the Grand Fleet and destroy it before the main British fleet could retaliate . Kronprinz was the rearmost ship of the V Division of the III Battle Squadron , the vanguard of the fleet . She followed her sisters König , the lead ship , Grosser Kurfürst , and Markgraf . The III Battle Squadron was the first of three battleship units ; directly astern were the Kaiser @-@ class battleships of the VI Division , III Battle Squadron . Directly astern of the Kaiser @-@ class ships were the Helgoland and Nassau classes of the II Battle Squadron ; in the rear guard were the obsolescent Deutschland @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnoughts of the I Battle Squadron .
Shortly before 16 : 00 , the battlecruisers of I Scouting Group encountered the British 1st Battlecruiser Squadron under the command of David Beatty . The opposing ships began an artillery duel that saw the destruction of Indefatigable , shortly after 17 : 00 , and Queen Mary , less than half an hour later . By this time , the German battlecruisers were steaming south to draw the British ships toward the main body of the High Seas Fleet . At 17 : 30 , König 's crew spotted both the I Scouting Group and the 1st Battlecruiser Squadron approaching . The German battlecruisers were steaming to starboard , while the British ships steamed to port . At 17 : 45 , Scheer ordered a two @-@ point turn to port to bring his ships closer to the British battlecruisers , and a minute later , the order to open fire was given .
Kronprinz 's sisters opened fire on the British battlecruisers , but Kronprinz was not close enough to engage them . Instead , she and ten other German battleships fired at the 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron . Kronprinz fired at HMS Dublin from 17 : 51 to 18 : 00 at ranges of 17 @,@ 000 – 18 @,@ 600 m ( 55 @,@ 800 – 61 @,@ 000 ft ) , then shifted her fire to the fast battleship Malaya at 18 : 08 at a range of 17 @,@ 000 m . Kronprinz fired first with semi @-@ armor @-@ piercing shells to find the range to her target , then with standard armor @-@ piercing shells . By the time Malaya drew out of range 13 minutes later , only one hit had been reported by Kronprinz 's gunners . According to naval historian John Campbell , this hit was more likely " the flash of the Malaya 's guns seen through haze and smoke " . During this period , several salvos fell close to Kronprinz , though none struck her . Kronprinz again reached a firing position against Malaya at 18 : 30 , but was only able to fire for six minutes before the British ship again pulled away .
Shortly after 19 : 00 , several British destroyers attempted a torpedo attack against the leading ships of the German line . The destroyer Onslow fired a pair of torpedoes at Kronprinz at a range of 7 @,@ 300 m ( 24 @,@ 000 ft ) , though both missed . The German cruiser Wiesbaden had been disabled by a shell from the British battlecruiser Invincible , and Rear Admiral Paul Behncke in König ordered his four ships to maneuver to cover the stricken cruiser . Simultaneously , the British III and IV Light Cruiser Squadrons began a torpedo attack on the German line ; while advancing to torpedo range , they smothered Wiesbaden with fire from their main guns . Kronprinz and her sisters fired heavily on the British cruisers , but failed to drive them off . In the ensuing melee , the British armored cruiser Defence was struck by several heavy caliber shells from the German dreadnoughts . One salvo penetrated the ship 's ammunition magazines and , in a massive explosion , destroyed the cruiser . John Campbell notes that although Defence 's destruction is usually attributed to the battlecruiser Lützow , there is a possibility that it was Kronprinz 's fire that destroyed the ship . After the destruction of Defence , Kronprinz shifted her fire to Warrior ; the British cruiser was badly damaged and forced to withdraw from the battle . She was unable to reach port , and was abandoned the following morning .
By 20 : 00 , the German line was ordered to turn eastward to disengage from the British fleet . Markgraf , directly ahead of Kronprinz , had engine problems and fell out of formation , then fell in behind Kronprinz . Between 20 : 00 and 20 : 30 , Kronprinz and the other III Squadron battleships engaged the British 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron as well as the battleships of the Grand Fleet . Kronprinz attempted to find the range by observing the British muzzle flashes , but the worsening visibility prevented her gunners from acquiring a target . As a result , she held her fire in this period . Kronprinz was violently shaken by several near misses . At 20 : 18 , Scheer ordered the fleet to turn away a third time to escape from the murderous British gunfire ; this turn reversed the order of the fleet and placed Kronprinz toward the end of the line . After successfully withdrawing from the British , Scheer ordered the fleet to assume night cruising formation , though communication errors between Scheer aboard Friedrich der Grosse and Westfalen , the lead ship , caused delays . The fleet fell into formation by 23 : 30 , with Kronprinz the 14th vessel in the line of 24 capital ships .
Around 02 : 45 , several British destroyers mounted a torpedo attack against the rear half of the German line ; Kronprinz spotted several unidentified destroyers in the darkness . Kronprinz held her fire , and she and the other battleships turned away to avoid torpedoes . One torpedo , fired by the destroyer Obedient , exploded about 100 yd ( 91 m ) behind Kronprinz , in the battleship 's wake . Both Obedient and Faulknor reported a hit on Kronprinz , though she was undamaged by the near miss . Heavy fire from the German battleships forced the British destroyers to withdraw . The High Seas Fleet had managed to punch through the British light forces and subsequently reached Horns Reef by 04 : 00 on 1 June , and Wilhelmshaven a few hours later . The I Squadron battleships took up defensive positions in the outer roadstead , while Kronprinz , Kaiser , Kaiserin , and Prinzregent Luitpold stood ready just outside the entrance to Wilhelmshaven .
In the course of the battle , Kronprinz had fired 144 armor @-@ piercing and semi @-@ armor @-@ piercing rounds from her main battery guns , though the exact numbers of each are unknown . The ship did not fire her secondary 15 cm or 8 @.@ 8 cm guns during the entire engagement . Of the four König @-@ class ships , only Kronprinz escaped damage during the battle .
= = = Subsequent operations = = =
On 18 August 1916 , Kronprinz took part in an operation to bombard Sunderland . Admiral Scheer attempted a repeat of the original 31 May plan ; the two serviceable German battlecruisers — Moltke and Von der Tann — supported by three dreadnoughts , were to bombard the coastal town of Sunderland in an attempt to draw out and destroy Beatty 's battlecruisers . The rest of the fleet , including Kronprinz , would trail behind and provide cover . The British were aware of the German plans and sortied the Grand Fleet to meet them . By 14 : 35 , Admiral Scheer had been warned of the Grand Fleet 's approach and , unwilling to engage the whole of the Grand Fleet just eleven weeks after the decidedly close call at Jutland , turned his forces around and retreated to German ports .
Kronprinz participated in two uneventful fleet operations , one a month prior on 16 July to the north of Helgoland , and one into the North Sea on 18 – 20 October . Kronprinz and the rest of III Squadron were sent to the Baltic directly afterward for training , which lasted until 2 November . Upon returning from the Baltic , Kronprinz and the rest of III Squadron were ordered to cover the retrieval of a pair of U @-@ boats that were stranded on the Danish coast . On the return trip , on 5 November 1916 , Kronprinz was torpedoed by the British submarine J1 near Horns Reef . The torpedo struck the ship beneath the forward @-@ most gun turret and allowed approximately 250 metric tons ( 250 long tons ; 280 short tons ) of water into the ship . Kronprinz maintained her speed and reached port . The following day she was placed in drydock at the Imperial Dockyard in Wilhelmshaven for repairs , which lasted until 4 December .
After returning to the III Squadron , Kronprinz took part in squadron training in the Baltic before conducting defensive patrols in the German Bight . During training maneuvers on 5 March 1917 , Kronprinz was accidentally rammed by her sister ship Grosser Kurfürst in the Heligoland Bight . The collision caused minor flooding ; Kronprinz shipped some 600 t ( 590 long tons ; 660 short tons ) of water . She again went into the drydock in Wilhelmshaven , from 6 March to 17 May . On 11 September , Kronprinz was detached for training in the Baltic . She then joined the Special Unit for Operation Albion .
= = = Operation Albion = = =
In early September 1917 , following the German conquest of the Russian port of Riga , the German navy decided to eliminate the Russian naval forces that still held the Gulf of Riga . The Admiralstab ( the Navy High Command ) planned an operation to seize the Baltic island of Ösel , and specifically the Russian gun batteries on the Sworbe Peninsula . On 18 September , the order was issued for a joint operation with the army to capture Ösel and Moon Islands ; the primary naval component was to comprise the flagship , Moltke , along with the III Battle Squadron of the High Seas Fleet . The V Division included the four König @-@ class ships , and was by this time augmented with the new battleship Bayern . The VI Division consisted of the five Kaiser @-@ class battleships . Along with nine light cruisers , three torpedo boat flotillas , and dozens of mine warfare ships , the entire force numbered some 300 ships , supported by over 100 aircraft and six zeppelins . The invasion force amounted to approximately 24 @,@ 600 officers and enlisted men . Opposing the Germans were the old Russian pre @-@ dreadnoughts Slava and Tsesarevich , the armored cruisers Bayan , Admiral Makarov , and Diana , 26 destroyers , and several torpedo boats and gunboats . The garrison on Ösel numbered some 14 @,@ 000 men .
The operation began on 12 October ; at 03 : 00 König anchored off Ösel in Tagga Bay and disembarked soldiers . By 05 : 50 , König opened fire on Russian coastal artillery emplacements , joined by Moltke , Bayern , and the other three König @-@ class ships . Simultaneously , the Kaiser @-@ class ships engaged the batteries on the Sworbe peninsula ; the objective was to secure the channel between Moon and Dagö islands , which would block the only escape route of the Russian ships in the Gulf . Both Grosser Kurfürst and Bayern struck mines while maneuvering into their bombardment positions , with minimal damage to the former . Bayern was severely damaged , and had to be withdrawn to Kiel for repairs . After the bombardment , Kronprinz departed the area for Putziger Wiek , where she refueled . The ship passed through Irben Strait on 16 October .
On 16 October , it was decided to detach a portion of the invasion flotilla to clear the Russian naval forces in Moon Sound ; these included the two Russian pre @-@ dreadnoughts . To this end , Kronprinz and König , along with the cruisers Strassburg and Kolberg and a number of smaller vessels , were sent to engage the Russian battleships . They arrived by the morning of 17 October , but a deep Russian minefield thwarted their progress . The Germans were surprised to discover that the 30 @.@ 5 cm guns of the Russian battleships out @-@ ranged their own 30 @.@ 5 cm guns . The Russian ships managed to keep the range long enough to prevent the German battleships from being able to return fire , while still firing effectively on the German ships , and the Germans had to take several evasive maneuvers to avoid the Russian shells . By 10 : 00 , the minesweepers had cleared a path through the minefield , and Kronprinz and König dashed into the bay . At around 10 : 15 , Kronprinz opened fire on Tsarevitch and Bayan , and scored hits on both . König , meanwhile , dispatched Slava . The Russian vessels were hit dozens of times , until at 10 : 30 the Russian naval commander , Admiral Bakhirev , ordered their withdrawal .
On 18 October , Kronprinz was slightly grounded , though the damage was not serious enough to necessitate withdrawal for repairs . By 20 October , the fighting on the islands was winding down ; Moon , Ösel , and Dagö were in German possession . The previous day , the Admiralstab had ordered the cessation of naval actions and the return of the dreadnoughts to the High Seas Fleet as soon as possible . On the 26th , Kronprinz was more seriously grounded on the return trip to Kiel . She managed to reach Kiel on 2 November , and subsequently Wilhelmshaven . Repairs were effected from 24 November to 8 January .
= = = Fate = = =
On 27 January 1918 , the Kaiser directed that the ship be renamed Kronprinz Wilhelm in honor of the Crown Prince . The ship was formally renamed on 15 June 1918 , the 30th anniversary of the Kaiser 's reign . Kronprinz Wilhelm and her three sisters were to have taken part in a final fleet action at the end of October 1918 , days before the Armistice was to take effect . The bulk of the High Seas Fleet was to have sortied from their base in Wilhelmshaven to engage the British Grand Fleet ; Scheer — by now the Grand Admiral ( Großadmiral ) of the fleet — intended to inflict as much damage as possible on the British navy , in order to retain a better bargaining position for Germany , despite the expected casualties . Many of the war @-@ weary sailors felt the operation would disrupt the peace process and prolong the war . On the morning of 29 October 1918 , the order was given to sail from Wilhelmshaven the following day . Starting on the night of 29 October , sailors on Thüringen and then on several other battleships , including Kronprinz Wilhelm , mutinied . The unrest ultimately forced Hipper and Scheer to cancel the operation . Informed of the situation , the Kaiser stated " I no longer have a navy . "
Following the capitulation of Germany in November 1918 , most of the High Seas Fleet , under the command of Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter , were interned in the British naval base in Scapa Flow . Prior to the departure of the German fleet , Admiral Adolf von Trotha made clear to von Reuter that he could not allow the Allies to seize the ships , under any conditions . The fleet rendezvoused with the British light cruiser Cardiff , which led the ships to the Allied fleet that was to escort the Germans to Scapa Flow . The massive flotilla consisted of some 370 British , American , and French warships . Once the ships were interned , their guns were disabled through the removal of their breech blocks , and their crews were reduced to 200 officers and men .
The fleet remained in captivity during the negotiations that ultimately produced the Treaty of Versailles . Von Reuter believed that the British intended to seize the German ships on 21 June 1919 , which was the deadline for Germany to have signed the peace treaty . Unaware that the deadline had been extended to the 23rd , Reuter ordered the ships to be sunk at the next opportunity . On the morning of 21 June , the British fleet left Scapa Flow to conduct training maneuvers , and at 11 : 20 Reuter transmitted the order to his ships . Kronprinz Wilhelm sank at 13 : 15 ; The British guard detail panicked in their attempted to prevent the Germans from scuttling the ships ; British soldiers aboard a nearby drifter shot and killed a stoker from Kronprinz Wilhelm . In total , the guards killed nine Germans and wounded twenty @-@ one . The remaining crews , totaling some 1 @,@ 860 officers and enlisted men , were imprisoned .
Kronprinz Wilhelm was never raised for scrapping , unlike most of the other capital ships that were scuttled . Kronprinz Wilhelm and two of her sisters had sunk in deeper water than the other capital ships , which made a salvage attempt more difficult . The outbreak of World War II in 1939 put a halt to all salvage operations , and after the war it was determined that salvaging the deeper wrecks was financially impractical . The rights to future salvage operations on the wreck were sold to Britain in 1962 . The depth in which the three battleships sank insulated them from the radiation released by the use of atomic weapons . As a result , Kronprinz Wilhelm and her sisters are one of the few remaining sources of radiation @-@ free steel . The ships have occasionally had steel removed for use in scientific devices . Kronprinz Wilhelm and the other vessels on the bottom of Scapa Flow are a popular dive site , and are protected by a policy barring divers from recovering items from the wrecks .
= The Sarah Jane Adventures =
The Sarah Jane Adventures is a British science fiction television programme , that was produced by BBC Cymru Wales for CBBC , created by Russell T Davies starring Elisabeth Sladen . The programme is a spin @-@ off of the long @-@ running BBC science fiction programme Doctor Who and is aimed at a younger audience than Doctor Who . It focuses on the adventures of Sarah Jane Smith , an investigative journalist who , as a young woman , had numerous adventures across time and space .
The series debuted on BBC One with a 60 @-@ minute special , " Invasion of the Bane " , on 1 January 2007 , and broadcast through to 2011 . It was nominated for a British Academy Children 's Award in 2008 in the Drama category , and for a BAFTA Cymru in 2009 in the Children 's Drama category . The programme won a Royal Television Society 2010 award for Best Children 's Drama .
= = Series = =
A full series of ten 25 @-@ minute episodes began on 24 September 2007 . The first series consisted of five two @-@ part stories , and a second series , comprising six two @-@ part stories , began airing on 29 September 2008 . A third series , once again comprising six two @-@ part stories to make a total of twelve episodes , with Russell T Davies serving as executive producer , aired from 15 October 2009 to 20 November 2009 .
The fourth series was aired from 11 October 2010 . An episode of another spin @-@ off series , Sarah Jane 's Alien Files , was shown immediately after each of the first episodes of the stories . Filming for three of six two @-@ part serials planned for the fifth series was completed prior to Elisabeth Sladen 's death on 19 April 2011 . Although some UK media , including the Sun , reported in early May 2011 that production of the series was to continue , the BBC has stated explicitly that no further episodes will be filmed . The fifth series was broadcast starting 3 October 2011 on Mondays and Tuesdays . It finished just two weeks later on 18 October 2011 .
= = Background and development = =
In 2006 , Children 's BBC expressed an interest in producing a Doctor Who spin @-@ off . Their initial idea was " a drama based on the idea of a young Doctor Who " , but Russell T Davies vetoed this . " Somehow , the idea of a fourteen @-@ year @-@ old Doctor , on Gallifrey inventing sonic screwdrivers , takes away from the mystery and intrigue of who he is and where he came from , " said Davies . He suggested instead a series based on the Doctor 's former companion Sarah Jane Smith .
The character of Sarah Jane Smith , played by Sladen , appeared in Doctor Who from 1973 to 1976 , alongside Jon Pertwee as the Third Doctor and later Tom Baker as the Fourth Doctor . A pilot episode for another Doctor Who spin @-@ off series , K @-@ 9 and Company , made in 1981 , featured Sarah Jane and the robot dog K @-@ 9 ; however , a full series was never commissioned . Sarah Jane and K @-@ 9 returned to Doctor Who in various media many times over the years , most notably in the 20th anniversary special The Five Doctors ( 1983 ) , and in episodes School Reunion ( 2006 ) , The Stolen Earth / Journey 's End ( 2008 ) and The End of Time ( 2010 ) .
Sarah Jane is frequently voted the most popular Doctor Who companion by both Doctor Who fans and members of the general public . The prospect of a new television series focusing on Sarah Jane was first rumoured in The Sun in March 2006 , prior to the airing of " School Reunion " ; the report at that time suggested that Sarah Jane and K @-@ 9 would both appear in the series . The fact that a Sarah Jane series was being developed was first confirmed in the BBC 's in @-@ house newsletter , Ariel , in early August 2006 . These early rumours were associated with the working title Sarah Jane Investigates .
K @-@ 9 's only appearances in the show 's first two series were a cameo in the special and an appearance in the last episode of the first series . This was due to the concurrent development of the independently produced children 's series , K @-@ 9 , which features a remodelled version of K @-@ 9 with only indirect nods to Doctor Who . However , in 2009 the robot appeared with the Sarah Jane Adventures cast in a sketch for Comic Relief , and K @-@ 9 appeared in 6 episodes of the third series , followed by two more appearances in the fourth series . He did not appear at all in Series 5 .
= = = Production = = =
Production on the full series began in April 2007 . Two of the five two @-@ part stories were scripted by the special 's co @-@ writer Gareth Roberts . Bad Girls and New Captain Scarlet writer Phil Ford wrote two stories and Phil Gladwin wrote one . Creator and executive producer Russell T Davies was going to write one story but was forced to drop out due to other work commitments .
= = Cast and crew = =
In addition to Sladen , the first series of the programme stars Yasmin Paige as Maria Jackson , Sarah Jane 's 13 @-@ year @-@ old neighbour in Ealing , west London , and Tommy Knight as a boy named Luke , who is adopted by Sarah Jane at the conclusion of the introductory story . The third member of Sarah Jane 's young entourage is 14 @-@ year @-@ old called Clyde Langer , played by Daniel Anthony , who is introduced in the first episode of the proper series . Actress Porsha Lawrence Mavour briefly played Maria 's friend , Kelsey Harper , in the 2007 New Year 's Day special Invasion of the Bane which was created before the start of the series . Maria and her family are written out of the series in the first story of the second series , The Last Sontaran , but Maria and her father return briefly in the second part of The Mark of the Berserker . In the second story of that series , The Day of the Clown , several new regular cast members are introduced : Rani Chandra and her parents , Haresh , and Gita ( played by Anjli Mohindra , Ace Bhatti , and Mina Anwar , respectively ) .
Joseph Millson appears throughout the first series as Maria 's recently separated father , Alan , with Chrissie Jackson , Maria 's mother , played by Juliet Cowan . One other regular is Alexander Armstrong of comedy duo Armstrong and Miller , who provides the voice of Mr Smith , an extraterrestrial computer in Sarah Jane 's attic.The 2007 special featured Samantha Bond as the scheming villain Mrs Wormwood and Jamie Davis as her PR agent Davey . The first series included among its guest cast Jane Asher as Sarah Jane 's childhood friend Andrea Yates , Floella Benjamin as Professor Rivers , who returned in Series 2 , Series 3 and Series 5 , and Phyllida Law as Bea Nelson @-@ Stanley . The second series guest starred Bradley Walsh as an evil alien clown in the story The Day of the Clown and Russ Abbot as a sinister astrologer in Secrets of the Stars . Also appearing in the second series were Gary Beadle and Jocelyn Jee Esien , who portrayed Clyde 's parents Paul and Carla in The Mark of the Berserker ; Esien reprised her role briefly in Series 4 and more prominently in series 5 . Nicholas Courtney guest starred in Enemy of the Bane as classic Doctor Who character Sir Alistair Lethbridge @-@ Stewart , and Samantha Bond also returned as Wormwood for the episode .
The original executive producers for The Sarah Jane Adventures were Phil Collinson , Russell T Davies and Julie Gardner . Susie Liggat produced the pilot , but Matthew Bouch worked as producer of the series . Co @-@ writer Gareth Roberts , writing in Doctor Who Magazine , said , " We 're all determined that this will be a big , full @-@ blooded drama ; that nobody should ever think of it as ' just ' a children 's programme . " Sue Nott was the executive producer of the second series for CBBC .
In December 2007 , the BBC released a statement that Julie Gardner would be replaced by Piers Wenger as executive producer for Doctor Who in January 2009 , but that she would continue to executive @-@ produce Torchwood and The Sarah Jane Adventures through 2008 .
The fourth series in 2010 was executive produced by Russell T Davies and Nikki Wilson , and the producers were Brian Minchin and frequent writer Phil Ford . During this series , Cyril Nri was introduced as a new recurring character called The Shopkeeper . The production team remained in place for the completed episodes of Series 5 , which were shot concurrently with Series 4 . The show 's abbreviated fifth and final series introduced a new main character named Sky , played by Sinead Michael . The episode that introduced Sky also featured a return appearance by the Shopkeeper , but the fact that the second half of the series was never produced left his story arc , as well as other ongoing plot points , unresolved . A special edition of Doctor Who Magazine , The Sarah Jane Companion Volume 3 , published in August 2012 , detailed the plotlines of the three unfilmed stories .
= = = Main cast = = =
= = = Recurring cast = = =
= = = Doctor Who characters = = =
Including K @-@ 9 and Sarah Jane , some characters from the past or current run of Doctor Who have appeared in The Sarah Jane Adventures .
Numerous others have been referenced in dialogue . Several former companions of the Doctor are referenced in the story Death of the Doctor , and the episode also includes brief on @-@ screen flashbacks showing the Third , Fourth and Tenth Doctors . Companion Harry Sullivan is referenced separately in dialogue on several occasions and a photograph of the character is visible in one episode . In an issue of Doctor Who Magazine , Sophie Aldred was read an email from Russell T. Davies , in which he declared his plans to bring Ace into a story had the show continued . The episode Sky was originally to have featured the Eleventh Doctor , but Matt Smith was not available .
= = Episodes = =
The Sarah Jane Adventures was first seen by its original British audience in the form of a 60 @-@ minute New Year 's Day special in 2007 , titled " Invasion of the Bane " , which was co @-@ written by Russell T Davies and Gareth Roberts . " Invasion of the Bane " was not a pilot , although the story does contains many conventional introductory elements common to pilots . Creator Russell T Davies has commented upon the exceptional broadcast situation , saying " Sarah Jane Adventures is slightly unusual in that it was commissioned before we 'd written the script . If we 'd written a load of rubbish , they 'd still have had to make it . " He refers to " Invasion of the Bane " simply as the " first episode " . The story focused on Sarah Jane 's investigation of a popular and addictive soft drink called Bubble Shock ! .
Series one of the show aired in September of that year , consisting of five two @-@ part half @-@ hour stories . Individual half @-@ hour episodes aired once a week on BBC One , with episodes airing a week ahead on children 's digital channel CBBC . The final part aired in November 2007 . The second series started in September 2008 using the same format , with six stories instead of five , ending the series in December . The third series started 15 October 2009 , twice weekly ( Thursdays and Fridays ) on BBC One from 15 October to 20 November . The fourth series aired from 11 October 2010 . The first of each story pair was accompanied by an episode of Sarah Jane 's Alien Files , a set of 25 @-@ minute episodes in which a member of the cast updates Mr. Smith 's database about certain aliens . It accompanied series 4 of the programme .
Due to the illness of Elisabeth Sladen , and her subsequent death on 19 April 2011 , filming for the second half of the fifth series , which was due to air in the autumn of 2011 , was postponed and later cancelled . Filming for three stories of the fifth series had been finished , and thus post @-@ production on these stories was completed . The final series was aired from 3 to 18 October 2011 on CBBC and ended with a tribute to Elisabeth Sladen in the form of a video montage of scenes from the series and Doctor Who .
The script of the unfilmed Sarah Jane Adventures episode The Thirteenth Floor was rewritten and broadcast as an episode of Wizards vs Aliens .
= = Critical response = =
The Sarah Jane Adventures has been generally well received by critics and the viewing public . At the end of the first series , Abi Grant of The Daily Telegraph wrote : " With the debate about the future of children 's TV still rumbling on , this is what the BBC does best , and despite lacking the production values of Doctor Who , it 's still top tea @-@ time programming . " Daniel Martin of The Guardian described the show as looking very promising and more convincing than another Doctor Who spinoff Torchwood . Review website DVD Talk called the series " wonderful " , " thoughtful " and " imaginative children 's entertainment " that was highly recommended . The series also received praise for its willingness to tackle " darker themes [ such as ] Alzheimer 's , homelessness and loss . "
At Metacritic , the first series received an generally favourable score of 66 out of 100 based on five critics . As the series progressed reviews became slightly more positive with DVD Talk reviewer David Cornelius saying that the " second series is even better than the first . " However Eric Profancik from DVD Verdict stated that the second series suffered from " poor scripts and horrible acting " , criticising it for having " simple plots , too many conveniences and having corny humour . " Series three is described by Guy Clapperton of review site ScreenJabber.com as being slightly braver than its predecessors , while Bullz @-@ eye.com described it as " a sweet , fun little show , with some neat ideas " with " its heart very much in the right place . " Reviews for the final series were sympathetic for the series ' end and the unavoidably incomplete nature of the series ( following the death of Elisabeth Sladen ) and its story arcs . Stephen Kelly from The Guardian said that it was " a fitting tribute to Elisabeth Sladen " and has occupied a " unique place in the Whoniverse " .
= = Awards and nominations = =
= = International broadcast = =
The BBC 's children 's channel BBC Kids began broadcasting The Sarah Jane Adventures with " Invasion of the Bane " on 13 January 2008 , airing the rest of the series back @-@ to @-@ back on Sundays thereafter . The South African channel SABC 2 started airing the series beginning on 9 February 2008 . The Hong Kong channel ATV World , which has also aired Doctor Who and Torchwood , aired this series starting 17 February 2008 . The first series began airing on Sci Fi in the USA beginning on 11 April 2008 , but this is the only series broadcast on American television as of Summer 2010 , though later series have continued to be released on DVD in America without a prior television broadcast . In Australia , The Sarah Jane Adventures started on 31 October 2008 on Nickelodeon Australia . In Brazil , the show started airing on 19 November 2012 on TV Cultura , right after their broadcast of Doctor Who series 6 ended . It also screens in New Zealand on Nickelodeon New Zealand , and in Belgium on Ketnet . In 2013 the show started airing on JeemTV in Arabic .
= = Merchandising = =
= = = Toys = = =
Character Options have been awarded a licence to produce Sarah Jane Adventure play sets , action figures , and a ' Sonic Lipstick ' toy . Four 2 @-@ figure sets have been released : Sarah Jane and Star Poet ; Sarah Jane and General Kudlak ; Sarah Jane and Child Slitheen and Sarah Jane and Graske . Also released are Sarah Jane 's Sonic Lipstick with Watch Scanner and Alien Communicator . Character Options have now discontinued the range due to lack of customer interest .
= = = Audio adventures = = =
Ten audiobooks have been released on CD , all but the last two read by the series lead , Elisabeth Sladen , who read them in the first person in character as Sarah Jane Smith . The final two books , released in November 2011 after Sladen 's death , were read by Daniel Anthony and Anjili Mohindra , respectively , though not as their characters .
The first two were the first time that BBC Audiobooks had commissioned new content for exclusive release on audio .
A 20 minute mini @-@ episode in two parts called " The Monster Hunt " written by Trevor Baxendale and read by Anjli Mohindra was made especially for the Monster Hunt game on the Sarah Jane Adventures website . Two more comics were released " Return of the Krulius " and " Defending Bannerman Road " . All comics were available as a pdf and a free mp3 download on the official Sarah Jane Adventures website .
= = = Comics = = =
Five The Sarah Jane Adventures comics were released on the official Sarah Jane Adventures website . Four of them were audio and comic adventures read by Anjili Mohindra . A pdf doctument and a mp3 audio track was available to download of all of the comics . Next to the Krulius stories the comic The Silver Bullet was published on the website . It is the comic that Clyde Langer wrote in the Sarah Jane Adventures episode The Curse of Clyde Langer .
= = = Novelisations = = =
The Sarah Jane Adventures merchandising revived the concept of the novelisation , which had been part of the Doctor Who franchise from the 1970s to the 1990s ( principally under the editorship of author and former Who script editor Terrance Dicks ) . The first series and most of the second were adapted in this way , but later series saw only a few releases and a transition from print to e @-@ books .
In September 2010 , Pearson Education published four " photo @-@ novelisations " based on stories from the third series :
= = = Magazines and Books = = =
Although there has never been a Sarah Jane Adventures magazine there have been three special editions of the Doctor Who Magazine , focused on the Sarah Jane Adventures , as well as regular mentions in the standard editions of Doctor Who Magazine .
= = = Home media = = =
= = = = DVD = = = =
= = = = Blu @-@ ray = = = =
= = = Past official BBC websites = = =
The Sarah Jane Adventures Series 2 @,@ 3 @,@ 4 via Internet Archive
The Sarah Jane Adventures Series 1 Internet Archive
= Auschwitz concentration camp =
Auschwitz concentration camp ( German : Konzentrationslager Auschwitz , also KZ Auschwitz [ kɔntsɛntʁaˈtsi ̯ oːnsˌlaːɡɐ ˈʔaʊʃvɪts ] ) was a network of German Nazi concentration camps and extermination camps built and operated by the Third Reich in Polish areas annexed by Nazi Germany during World War II . It consisted of Auschwitz I ( the original camp ) , Auschwitz II – Birkenau ( a combination concentration / extermination camp ) , Auschwitz III – Monowitz ( a labor camp to staff an IG Farben factory ) , and 45 satellite camps .
Auschwitz I was first constructed to hold Polish political prisoners , who began to arrive in May 1940 . The first extermination of prisoners took place in September 1941 , and Auschwitz II – Birkenau went on to become a major site of the Nazi Final Solution to the Jewish Question . From early 1942 until late 1944 , transport trains delivered Jews to the camp 's gas chambers from all over German @-@ occupied Europe , where they were killed with the pesticide Zyklon B. At least 1 @.@ 1 million prisoners died at Auschwitz , around 90 percent of them Jewish ; approximately 1 in 6 Jews killed in the Holocaust died at the camp . Others deported to Auschwitz included 150 @,@ 000 Poles , 23 @,@ 000 Romani and Sinti , 15 @,@ 000 Soviet prisoners of war , 400 Jehovah 's Witnesses , and tens of thousands of others of diverse nationalities , including an unknown number of homosexuals . Many of those not killed in the gas chambers died of starvation , forced labor , infectious diseases , individual executions , and medical experiments .
In the course of the war , the camp was staffed by 7 @,@ 000 members of the German Schutzstaffel ( SS ) , approximately 12 percent of whom were later convicted of war crimes . Some , including camp commandant Rudolf Höss , were executed . The Allied Powers refused to believe early reports of the atrocities at the camp , and their failure to bomb the camp or its railways remains controversial . One hundred forty @-@ four prisoners are known to have escaped from Auschwitz successfully , and on October 7 , 1944 , two Sonderkommando units — prisoners assigned to staff the gas chambers — launched a brief , unsuccessful uprising .
As Soviet troops approached Auschwitz in January 1945 , most of its population was evacuated and sent on a death march . The prisoners remaining at the camp were liberated on January 27 , 1945 , a day now commemorated as International Holocaust Remembrance Day . In the following decades , survivors , such as Primo Levi , Viktor Frankl , and Elie Wiesel , wrote memoirs of their experiences in Auschwitz , and the camp became a dominant symbol of the Holocaust . In 1947 , Poland founded a museum on the site of Auschwitz I and II , and in 1979 , it was named a UNESCO World Heritage Site .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
Discrimination against Jews began immediately after the Nazi seizure of power in Germany on January 30 , 1933 . The Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service , passed on April 7 that year , excluded most Jews from the legal profession and the civil service . Similar legislation soon deprived Jewish members of other professions of the right to practise . Violence and economic pressure were used by the regime to encourage Jews to leave the country voluntarily . Jewish businesses were denied access to markets , forbidden to advertise in newspapers , and deprived of access to government contracts . Citizens were harassed and subjected to violent attacks and boycotts of their businesses .
In September 1935 the Nuremberg Laws were enacted . These laws prohibited marriages between Jews and people of Germanic extraction , extramarital relations between Jews and Germans , and the employment of German women under the age of 45 as domestic servants in Jewish households . The Reich Citizenship Law stated that only those of Germanic or related blood were defined as citizens . Thus Jews and other minority groups were stripped of their German citizenship . By the start of World War II in 1939 , around 250 @,@ 000 of Germany 's 437 @,@ 000 Jews emigrated to the United States , Palestine , the United Kingdom , and other countries .
The ideology of Nazism brought together elements of antisemitism , racial hygiene , and eugenics , and combined them with pan @-@ Germanism and territorial expansionism with the goal of obtaining more Lebensraum ( living space ) for the Germanic people . Nazi Germany attempted to obtain this new territory by invading Poland and the Soviet Union , intending to deport or kill the Jews and Slavs living there , who were viewed as being inferior to the Aryan master race . After the invasion of Poland in September 1939 , German dictator Adolf Hitler ordered that the Polish leadership and intelligentsia should be destroyed . Approximately 65 @,@ 000 civilians were killed by the end of 1939 . In addition to leaders of Polish society , the Nazis killed Jews , prostitutes , Romani , and the mentally ill . SS @-@ Obergruppenführer ( Senior Group Leader ) Reinhard Heydrich , then head of the Gestapo , ordered on September 21 that Jews should be rounded up and concentrated into cities with good rail links . Initially the intention was to deport the Jews to points further east , or possibly to Madagascar .
= = = Auschwitz I = = =
After this part of Poland was annexed by Nazi Germany , Oświęcim ( Auschwitz ) was located administratively in Germany , Province of Upper Silesia , Regierungsbezirk Kattowitz , Landkreis Bielitz . It was first suggested as a site for a concentration camp for Polish prisoners by SS @-@ Oberführer Arpad Wigand , an aide to Higher SS and Police Leader for Silesia , Erich von dem Bach @-@ Zelewski . Bach @-@ Zelewski had been searching for a site to house prisoners in the Silesia region , as the local prisons were filled to capacity . Richard Glücks , head of the Concentration Camps Inspectorate , sent former Sachsenhausen concentration camp commandant Walter Eisfeld to inspect the site , which already held sixteen dilapidated one @-@ story buildings that had once served as an Austrian and later Polish Army barracks and a camp for transient workers . Reichsführer @-@ SS Heinrich Himmler , head of the Schutzstaffel ( SS ) , approved the site in April 1940 , intending to use the facility to house political prisoners . SS @-@ Obersturmbannführer ( lieutenant colonel ) Rudolf Höss oversaw the development of the camp and served as the first commandant . SS @-@ Obersturmführer ( senior lieutenant ) Josef Kramer was appointed Höss 's deputy . Auschwitz I , the original camp , became the administrative center for the whole complex .
Local residents were evicted , including 1 @,@ 200 people who lived in shacks around the barracks . Around 300 Jewish residents of Oświęcim were brought in to lay foundations . From 1940 to 1941 , 17 @,@ 000 Polish and Jewish residents of the western districts of Oświęcim were expelled from places adjacent to the camp . The Germans also ordered expulsions of Poles from the villages of Broszkowice , Babice , Brzezinka , Rajsko , Pławy , Harmęże , Bór , and Budy to the General Government . German citizens were offered tax concessions and other benefits if they would relocate to the area . By October 1943 , more than 6 @,@ 000 Reich Germans had arrived . The Nazis planned to build a model modern residential area for incoming Germans , including schools , playing fields , and other amenities . Some of the plans went forward , including the construction of several hundred apartments , but many were never fully implemented . Basic amenities such as water and sewage disposal were inadequate , and water @-@ borne illnesses were commonplace .
The first prisoners ( 30 German criminal prisoners from the Sachsenhausen concentration camp ) arrived in May 1940 , intended to act as functionaries within the prison system . The first mass transport to Auschwitz concentration camp , which included Catholic prisoners , suspected members of the resistance , and 20 Jews , arrived from the prison in Tarnów , Poland , on June 14 , 1940 . They were interned in the former building of the Polish Tobacco Monopoly , adjacent to the site , until the camp was ready .
The inmate population grew quickly as the camp absorbed Poland 's intelligentsia and dissidents , including the Polish underground resistance . By March 1941 , 10 @,@ 900 were imprisoned there , most of them Poles . By the end of 1940 , the SS had confiscated land in the surrounding area to create a 40 @-@ square @-@ kilometre ( 15 sq mi ) " zone of interest " surrounded by a double ring of electrified barbed wire fences and watchtowers . Like other Nazi concentration camps , the gates to Auschwitz I displayed the motto Arbeit macht frei ( " Work brings freedom " ) .
= = = Auschwitz II @-@ Birkenau = = =
The initial victories of Operation Barbarossa in the summer and fall of 1941 against Hitler 's new enemy , the Soviet Union , led to dramatic changes in Nazi anti @-@ Jewish ideology and the profile of prisoners brought to Auschwitz . Construction on Auschwitz II @-@ Birkenau began in October 1941 to ease congestion at the main camp . Reichsführer @-@ SS Heinrich Himmler , head of the Schutzstaffel ( SS ) , intended the camp to house 50 @,@ 000 prisoners of war , who would be interned as forced laborers . Plans called for the expansion of the camp first to house 150 @,@ 000 and eventually as many as 200 @,@ 000 inmates . An initial contingent of 10 @,@ 000 Soviet prisoners of war arrived at Auschwitz I in October 1941 , but by March 1942 only 945 were still alive , and these were transferred to Birkenau , where most of them died from disease or starvation by May . By this time Hitler had decided to annihilate the Jewish people , so Birkenau was repurposed as a combination labor camp / extermination camp .
The chief of construction of Auschwitz II @-@ Birkenau was Karl Bischoff . Unlike his predecessor , he was a competent and dynamic bureaucrat who , in spite of the ongoing war , carried out the construction deemed necessary . The Birkenau camp , the four crematoria , a new reception building , and hundreds of other buildings were planned and realized . Bischoff 's plans initially called for each barrack to have an occupancy of 550 prisoners ( one @-@ third of the space allotted in other Nazi concentration camps ) . He later changed this to 744 prisoners per barrack . The SS designed the barracks not so much to house people as to destroy them .
The first gas chamber at Birkenau was the " red house " ( called Bunker 1 by SS staff ) , a brick cottage converted into a gassing facility by tearing out the inside and bricking up the windows . It was operational by March 1942 . A second brick cottage , the " white house " or Bunker 2 , was converted some weeks later . These structures were in use for mass killings until early 1943 . Himmler visited the camp in person on July 17 and 18 , 1942 . He was given a demonstration of a mass killing using the gas chamber in Bunker 2 and toured the building site of the new IG Farben plant being constructed at the nearby town of Monowitz .
In early 1943 , the Nazis decided to increase greatly the gassing capacity of Birkenau . Crematorium II , originally designed as a mortuary , with morgues in the basement and ground @-@ level incinerators , was converted into a killing factory by installing gas @-@ tight doors , vents for the Zyklon B ( a highly lethal cyanide @-@ based pesticide ) to be dropped into the chamber , and ventilation equipment to remove the gas thereafter . It went into operation in March . Crematorium III was built using the same design . Crematoria IV and V , designed from the start as gassing centers , were also constructed that spring . By June 1943 , all four crematoria were operational . Most of the victims were killed using these four structures .
= = = = The Gypsy camp = = = =
On December 10 , 1942 , Himmler issued an order to send all Sinti and Roma ( Gypsies ) to concentration camps , including Auschwitz . A separate camp for Roma was set up at Auschwitz II @-@ Birkenau known as the Zigeunerfamilienlager ( Gypsy Family Camp ) . The first transport of German Gypsies arrived on February 26 , 1943 , and was housed in Section B @-@ IIe of Auschwitz II . Approximately 23 @,@ 000 Gypsies had been brought to Auschwitz by 1944 , 20 @,@ 000 of whom died there . One transport of 1 @,@ 700 Polish Sinti and Roma was killed upon arrival , as they were suspected to be ill with spotted fever .
Gypsy prisoners were used primarily for construction work . Thousands died of typhus and noma due to overcrowding , poor sanitary conditions , and malnutrition . Anywhere from 1 @,@ 400 to 3 @,@ 000 prisoners were transferred to other concentration camps before the murder of the remaining population .
On August 2 , 1944 , the SS cleared the Gypsy camp . A witness in another part of the camp later told of the Gypsies unsuccessfully battling the SS with improvised weapons before being loaded into trucks . The surviving population of 2 @,@ 897 was then killed en masse in the gas chambers . The murder of the Romani people by the Nazis during World War II is known in the Romani language as the Porajmos ( devouring ) .
= = = Auschwitz III = = =
After examining several sites for a new plant to manufacture buna , a type of synthetic rubber essential to the war effort , chemicals manufacturer IG Farben chose a site near the towns of Dwory and Monowice ( Monowitz in German ) , about 7 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) east of Auschwitz I and 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) east of the town of Oświęcim . Financial support in the form of tax exemptions was available to corporations prepared to develop industries in the frontier regions under the Eastern Fiscal Assistance Law , passed in December 1940 . In addition to its proximity to the concentration camp , which could be used as a source of cheap labor , the site had good railway connections and access to raw materials . In February 1941 , Himmler ordered that the Jewish population of Oświęcim should be expelled to make way for skilled laborers that would be brought in to work at the plant . All Poles able to work were to remain in the town and were forced to work building the factory . Himmler visited in person in March and decreed an immediate expansion of the parent camp to house 30 @,@ 000 persons . Development of the camp at Birkenau began about six months later . Construction of IG Auschwitz began in April , with an initial force of 1 @,@ 000 workers from Auschwitz I assigned to work on the construction . This number increased to 7 @,@ 000 in 1943 and 11 @,@ 000 in 1944 . Over the course of its history , about 35 @,@ 000 inmates in total worked at the plant ; 25 @,@ 000 died as a result of malnutrition , disease , and the physically impossible workload . In addition to the concentration camp inmates , who comprised a third of the work force , IG Auschwitz employed slave laborers from all over Europe .
Initially the laborers walked the seven kilometers from Auschwitz I to the plant each day , but as this meant they had to rise at 3 : 00 am , many arrived exhausted and unable to work . The camp at Monowitz ( also called Monowitz @-@ Buna or Auschwitz III ) was constructed and began housing inmates on October 30 , 1942 , the first concentration camp to be financed and built by private industry . In January 1943 the ArbeitsausbildungLager ( labor education camp ) was moved from the parent camp to Monowitz . These prisoners were also forced to work on the building site . The SS charged IG Farben three Reichsmarks per hour for unskilled workers , four for skilled workers . Although the camp administrators expected the prisoners to work at 75 percent of the capacity of a free worker , the inmates were only able to perform 20 to 50 percent as well . Site managers constantly threatened inmates with transportation to Birkenau for death in the gas chambers as a way to try to increase productivity . Deaths and transfers to the gas chambers at Birkenau reduced the prisoner population of Monowitz by nearly a fifth each month ; numbers were made up with new arrivals . Life expectancy of inmates at Monowitz averaged about three months . Though the factory was initially expected to begin production in 1943 , shortages of labor and raw materials meant start @-@ up had to be postponed repeatedly . The plant was almost ready to commence production when it was overrun by Soviet troops in 1945 .
= = = Subcamps = = =
Various other German industrial enterprises , such as Krupp and Siemens @-@ Schuckert , built factories with their own subcamps . There were 45 such satellite camps , 28 of which served corporations involved in the armaments industry . Prisoner populations ranged from several dozen to several thousand . Subcamps were built at Blechhammer , Jawiszowice , Jaworzno , Lagisze , Mysłowice , Trzebinia , and other centers as far afield as the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia . Satellite camps were designated as Aussenlager ( external camp ) , Nebenlager ( extension or subcamp ) , or Arbeitslager ( labor camp ) . Industries with satellite camps included coal mines , foundries and other metal works , chemical plants , and other industries . Prisoners were also made to work in forestry and farming .
= = = Evacuation , death marches , and liberation = = =
In November 1944 , with the Soviet Red Army approaching through Poland , Himmler ordered gassing operations to cease across the Reich . Crematoria II , III , and IV were dismantled , while Crematorium I was transformed into an air raid shelter . The Sonderkommando were ordered to remove other evidence of the killings , including the mass graves . The SS destroyed written records , and in the final week before the camp 's liberation , burned or demolished many of its buildings .
Himmler ordered the evacuation of all camps in January 1945 , charging camp commanders with " making sure that not a single prisoner from the concentration camps falls alive into the hands of the enemy . " On January 17 , 58 @,@ 000 Auschwitz detainees were evacuated under guard , largely on foot ; thousands of them died in the subsequent death march west towards Wodzisław Śląski . Approximately 20 @,@ 000 Auschwitz prisoners made it to Bergen @-@ Belsen concentration camp in Germany , where they were liberated by the British in April 1945 .
Those too weak or sick to walk were left behind . When the 322nd Rifle Division of the Red Army arrived at the camp on January 27 they found around 7 @,@ 500 prisoners and about 600 corpses had been left behind . Among the items found by the Soviet soldiers were 370 @,@ 000 men 's suits , 837 @,@ 000 women 's garments , and 7 @.@ 7 tonnes ( 8 @.@ 5 short tons ) of human hair .
The camp 's liberation received little press attention at the time . Rees attributes this to three factors : the previous discovery of similar crimes at Majdanek concentration camp , competing news from the Allied summit at Yalta , and the Soviet Union 's interest , for propaganda purposes , in minimizing attention to Jewish suffering . Due to the vast extent of the camp area , at least four divisions took part in liberating the camp : 100th Rifle Division ( established in Vologda , Russia ) , 322nd Rifle Division ( Gorky , Russia ) , 286th Rifle Division ( Leningrad ) , and 107th Motor Rifle Division ( Tambov , Russia ) .
= = = After the war = = =
After liberation , parts of Auschwitz I served first as a hospital for liberated prisoners . Soviet and Polish investigators worked in the initial months to document the war crimes of the SS . In the two years that followed , the Soviets dismantled and exported the IG Farben factories , and the Birkenau barracks were looted by Polish civilians . Area residents sifted the mass graves and ashes for gold . Until 1947 , some of the facilities were used as a prison camp of the Soviet NKVD .
After the site became a museum in 1947 , exhumation work lasted for more than a decade . Antoni Dobrowolski , the oldest known survivor of Auschwitz , died aged 108 on October 21 , 2012 , in Dębno , Poland .
Camp commandant Rudolf Höss was pursued by the British Intelligence Corps , who arrested him at a farm near Flensburg , Germany , on March 11 , 1946 . Höss confessed to his role in the mass killings at Auschwitz in his memoirs and in his trial before the Supreme National Tribunal in Warsaw , Poland . He was convicted of murder and hanged at the camp on April 16 , 1947 .
Around 12 percent of Auschwitz 's 6 @,@ 500 staff who survived the war were eventually brought to trial . Poland was more active than other nations in investigating war crimes , prosecuting 673 of the total 789 Auschwitz staff brought to trial . On November 25 , 1947 , the Auschwitz Trial began in Kraków , when Poland 's Supreme National Tribunal brought to court 40 former Auschwitz staff . The trial 's defendants included commandant Arthur Liebehenschel , women 's camp leader Maria Mandel , and camp leader Hans Aumeier . The trials ended on December 22 , 1947 , with 23 death sentences , 7 life sentences , and 9 prison sentences ranging from three to fifteen years . Hans Münch , an SS doctor who had several former prisoners testify on his behalf , was the only person to be acquitted .
Other former staff were hanged for war crimes in the Dachau Trials and the Belsen Trial , including camp leaders Josef Kramer , Franz Hössler , and Vinzenz Schöttl ; doctor Friedrich Entress ; and guards Irma Grese and Elisabeth Volkenrath . The Frankfurt Auschwitz Trials , held in West Germany from December 20 , 1963 to August 20 , 1965 , convicted 17 of 22 defendants , giving them prison sentences ranging from life to three years and three months . Bruno Tesch and Karl Weinbacher , the owner and the chief executive officer of the firm Tesch & Stabenow , one of the suppliers of Zyklon B , were executed for knowingly supplying the chemical for use on humans .
= = Command and control = =
Camp guards were members of the SS @-@ Totenkopfverbände ( Death 's Head Units ) . Around 7 @,@ 000 SS personnel in total were posted to Auschwitz during the war . Of these , 4 percent of SS personnel were officers and 26 percent were non @-@ commissioned officers , while the remainder were rank @-@ and @-@ file members . Approximately three in four SS personnel worked in security . Others worked in the medical or political departments , in the camp headquarters , or in the economic administration , which was responsible for the property of dead prisoners . SS personnel at the camp included 200 women , who worked as guards , nurses , or messengers . The overall command authority for the entire camp was Department D ( the Concentration Camps Inspectorate ) of the SS @-@ Wirtschafts @-@ Verwaltungshauptamt ( SS Economics Main Office ; SS @-@ WVHA ) .
Auschwitz was considered a comfortable posting by many SS members , due to many amenities and the abundance of slave labor . Of the various prisoner groups , SS officers preferred Jehovah 's Witnesses for household slaves because of their nonviolent behavior . Höss lived with his wife and children in a villa just outside the camp grounds . Other SS personnel were also initially allowed to bring fiancees , wives , and children to live at the camp , but when the SS camp grew more crowded , Höss restricted further arrivals . Facilities for the SS personnel and their families included a library , swimming pool , coffee house , and a theater that hosted regular performances .
One prisoner in each work detail or prisoner block — usually an Aryan — was appointed as a Kapo ( " head " or " overseer " ) . The Kapos received better rations and lodging and wielded tremendous power over other prisoners , whom they often abused . Very few Kapos were prosecuted after the war , due to the difficulty in determining which Kapo atrocities had been performed under SS orders and which had been individual actions .
About 120 SS personnel were assigned to the gas chambers and lived on site at the crematoria . Several SS personnel oversaw the killings at each gas chamber , while the bulk of the work was done by the mostly Jewish prisoners known as Sonderkommando ( special squad ) . Sonderkommando responsibilities included guiding victims to the gas chambers and removing , looting , and cremating the corpses .
The Sonderkommado were housed separately from other prisoners , in somewhat better conditions . Their quality of life was further improved by access to the goods taken from murdered prisoners , which Sonderkommando were sometimes able to steal for themselves and to trade on Auschwitz 's black market . Hungarian doctor Miklós Nyiszli reported that the Sonderkommando numbered around 860 prisoners when the Hungarian Jews were being killed in 1944 . Many Sonderkommando committed suicide due to the horrors of their work ; those who did not generally were shot by the SS in a matter of weeks , and new Sonderkommando units were then formed from incoming transports . Almost none of the 2 @,@ 000 prisoners placed in these units survived to the camp 's liberation .
= = Life in the camps = =
The prisoners ' day began at 4 : 30 am ( an hour later in winter ) with morning roll call . Dr. Miklós Nyiszli describes roll call as beginning 3 : 00 am and lasting four hours . The weather was cold in Auschwitz at that time of day , even in summer . The prisoners were ordered to line up outdoors in rows of five and had to stay there until 7 : 00 am , when the SS officers arrived . Meanwhile , the guards would force the prisoners to squat for an hour with their hands above their heads or levy punishments such as beatings or detention for infractions such as having a missing button or an improperly cleaned food bowl . The inmates were counted and re @-@ counted . Nyiszli describes how even the dead had to be present at roll call , standing supported by their fellow inmates until the ordeal was over . When he was a prisoner in 1944 – 45 , five to ten men were found dead in the barracks each night . The prisoners assigned to Mengele 's staff slept in a separate barracks and were awoken at 7 : 00 am for a roll call that only took a few minutes .
After roll call , the Kommando , or work details , walked to their place of work , five abreast , wearing striped camp fatigues , no underwear , and ill @-@ fitting wooden shoes without socks . A prisoner 's orchestra ( such as the Women 's Orchestra of Auschwitz ) was forced to play cheerful music as the workers left the camp . Kapos were responsible for the prisoners ' behavior while they worked , as was an SS escort . The working day lasted 12 hours during the summer and a little less in the winter . Much of the work took place outdoors at construction sites , gravel pits , and lumber yards . No rest periods were allowed . One prisoner was assigned to the latrines to measure the time the workers took to empty their bladders and bowels . Sunday was not a work day , but the prisoners did not rest ; they were required to clean the barracks and take their weekly shower . Prisoners were allowed to write ( in German ) to their families on Sundays . Inmates who did not speak German would trade some of their bread to another inmate for help composing their letters . Members of the SS censored the outgoing mail .
A second mandatory roll call took place in the evening . If a prisoner was missing , the others had to remain standing in place until he was either found or the reason for his absence discovered , regardless of the weather conditions , even if it took hours . After roll call , individual and collective punishments were meted out , depending on what had happened during the day , before the prisoners were allowed to retire to their blocks for the night and receive their bread rations and water . Curfew was two or three hours later . The prisoners slept in long rows of wooden bunks , lying in and on their clothes and shoes to prevent them from being stolen .
According to Nyiszli , " Eight hundred to a thousand people were crammed into the superimposed compartments of each barracks . Unable to stretch out completely , they slept there both lengthwise and crosswise , with one man 's feet on another 's head , neck , or chest . Stripped of all human dignity , they pushed and shoved and bit and kicked each other in an effort to get a few more inches ' space on which to sleep a little more comfortably . For they did not have long to sleep " .
The types of prisoners were distinguishable by triangular pieces of cloth , called Winkel , sewn onto on their jackets below their prisoner number . Political prisoners had a red triangle , Jehovah 's Witnesses had purple , criminals had green , and so on . The nationality of the inmate was indicated by a letter stitched onto the Winkel . Jews had a yellow triangle , overlaid by a second Winkel if they also fit into a second category . Uniquely at Auschwitz , prisoners were tattooed with their prisoner number , on the chest for Soviet prisoners of war and on the left arm for civilians .
Prisoners received a hot drink in the morning , but no breakfast , and a thin meatless vegetable soup at noon . In the evening they received a small ration of moldy bread . Most prisoners saved some of the bread for the following morning . Nyiszli notes the daily intake did not exceed 700 calories , except for prisoners being subjected to live medical experimentation , who were better fed and clothed . Sanitary arrangements were poor , with inadequate latrines and a lack of fresh water . In Auschwitz II @-@ Birkenau , latrines were not installed until 1943 , two years after camp construction began . The camps were infested with vermin such as disease @-@ carrying lice , and the inmates suffered and died in epidemics of typhus and other diseases . Noma , a bacterial infection occurring among the malnourished , was a common cause of death among children in the Gypsy camp .
Block 11 of Auschwitz I was the prison within the prison , where violators of the numerous rules were punished . Some prisoners were made to spend the nights in standing cells . These cells were about 1 @.@ 5 m2 ( 16 sq ft ) , and held four men ; they could do nothing but stand , and were forced during the day to work with the other prisoners . Prisoners sentenced to death for attempting to escape were confined in a dark cell and given neither food nor water while being left to die .
In the basement were the " dark cells " , which had only a very tiny window and a solid door . Prisoners placed in these cells gradually suffocated as they used up all the oxygen in the cell ; sometimes the SS lit a candle in the cell to use up the oxygen more quickly . Many were subjected to hanging with their hands behind their backs for hours , even days , thus dislocating their shoulder joints .
= = Selection and extermination process = =
On July 31 , 1941 , Hermann Göring gave written authorization to Heydrich , Chief of the Reich Main Security Office ( RSHA ) , to prepare and submit a plan for Die Endlösung der Judenfrage ( the Final Solution of the Jewish question ) in territories under German control and to coordinate the participation of all involved government organizations . The resulting Generalplan Ost ( General Plan for the East ) called for deporting the population of occupied Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union to Siberia , for use as slave labor or to be murdered . In addition to eliminating Jews , the Nazis also planned to reduce the population of the conquered territories by 30 million people through starvation in an action called the Hunger Plan . Food supplies would be diverted to the German army and German civilians . Cities would be razed and the land allowed to return to forest or resettled by German colonists .
Plans for the total eradication of the Jewish population of Europe — eleven million people — were formalized at the Wannsee Conference on January 20 , 1942 . Some would be worked to death and the rest would be killed . Initially the victims were killed with gas vans or by Einsatzgruppen firing squads , but these methods proved impracticable for an operation of this scale . By 1942 , killing centers at Auschwitz , Sobibór , Treblinka , and other Nazi extermination camps replaced Einsatzgruppen as the primary method of mass killing .
The first mass exterminations at Auschwitz took place in early September 1941 , when 900 inmates were killed by gathering them in the basement of Block 11 and gassing them with Zyklon B. This building proved unsuitable for mass gassings , so the site of the killings was moved to the crematorium at Auschwitz I ( Crematorium I , which operated until July 1942 ) . There , more than 700 victims could be killed at once . In order to keep the victims calm , they were told they were to undergo disinfection and de @-@ lousing . They were ordered to undress outside and then were locked in the building and gassed . After its decommissioning as a gas chamber , the building was converted to a storage facility and later served as an air raid shelter for the SS . The gas chamber and crematorium were reconstructed after the war using the original components , which remained on site . Some 60 @,@ 000 people were killed at Crematorium I.
Mass exterminations were moved to two provisional gas chambers ( Bunkers 1 and 2 ) , where the killings continued while the larger Crematoria II , III , IV , and V were under construction . Bunker 2 was temporarily reactivated from May to November 1944 , when large numbers of Hungarian Jews were exterminated . In summer 1944 the capacity of the crematoria and outdoor incineration pits was 20 @,@ 000 bodies per day . A planned sixth facility — Crematorium VI — was never built .
Prisoners were transported from all over German @-@ occupied Europe by rail , arriving in daily convoys . By July 1942 , the SS were conducting " selections " . Incoming Jews were segregated ; those deemed able to work were sent to the selection officer 's right and admitted into the camp , and those deemed unfit for labor were sent to the selection officer 's left and immediately gassed . The group selected to die , about three @-@ quarters of the total , included almost all children , women with small children , all the elderly , and all those who appeared on brief and superficial inspection by an SS doctor not to be completely fit . After the selection process was complete , those too ill or too young to walk to the crematoria were transported there on trucks or killed on the spot with a bullet to the head . The belongings of the arrivals were seized by the SS and sorted in an area of the camp called " Canada " , so called because Canada was seen as a land of plenty . Many of the SS at the camp enriched themselves by pilfering the confiscated property .
SS officers told the victims they were to take a shower and undergo delousing . The victims undressed in an outer chamber and walked into the gas chamber , which was disguised as a shower facility . Some were even issued soap and a towel . The Zyklon B was delivered by ambulance to the crematoria by a special SS bureau known as the Hygienic Institute . The actual delivery of the gas to the victims was always handled by the SS , on the order of the supervising SS doctor . After the doors were shut , SS men dumped in the Zyklon B pellets through vents in the roof or holes in the side of the chamber . The victims were dead within 20 minutes . Despite the thick concrete walls , screaming and moaning from within could be heard outside . In one failed attempt to muffle the noise , two motorcycle engines were revved up to full throttle nearby , but the sound of yelling could still be heard over the engines .
Sonderkommando wearing gas masks then dragged the bodies from the chamber . The victims ' glasses , artificial limbs , jewelry , and hair were removed , and any dental work was extracted so the gold could be melted down . The corpses were burned in the nearby incinerators , and the ashes were buried , thrown in the river , or used as fertilizer .
The gas chambers worked to their fullest capacity from April – July 1944 , during the massacre of Hungary 's Jews . Hungary was an ally of Germany during the war , but it had resisted turning over its Jews until Germany invaded that March . A rail spur leading directly into Birkenau was completed that May to deliver the victims closer to the gas chambers . From 14 May until early July 1944 , 437 @,@ 000 Hungarian Jews , half of the pre @-@ war population , were deported to Auschwitz , at a rate of 12 @,@ 000 a day for a considerable part of that period . The incoming volume was so great that the SS resorted to burning corpses in open @-@ air pits as well as in the crematoria . The last selection took place on October 30 , 1944 .
= = = Medical experiments = = =
German doctors performed a wide variety of experiments on prisoners at Auschwitz . SS doctors tested the efficacy of X @-@ rays as a sterilization device by administering large doses to female prisoners . Prof. Dr. Carl Clauberg injected chemicals into women 's uteruses in an effort to glue them shut . Bayer , then a subsidiary of IG Farben , bought prisoners to use as research subjects for testing new drugs . Prisoners were also deliberately infected with spotted fever for vaccination research and exposed to toxic substances to study the effects .
The most infamous doctor at Auschwitz was Josef Mengele , known as the " Angel of Death " . Particularly interested in research on identical twins , Mengele performed cruel experiments on them , such as inducing diseases in one twin and killing the other when the first died to perform comparative autopsies . He also took a special interest in dwarfs , and he deliberately induced noma in twins , dwarfs , and other prisoners to study the effects .
Kurt Heissmeyer took twenty Jewish children from Auschwitz to use in pseudoscientific medical experiments at the Neuengamme concentration camp . In April 1945 , the children were killed by hanging to conceal the project .
A skeleton collection was obtained from among a pool of 115 Jewish Auschwitz inmates , chosen for their perceived stereotypical racial characteristics . Rudolf Brandt and Wolfram Sievers , general manager of the Ahnenerbe ( a Nazi research institute ) , were responsible for delivering the skeletons to the collection of the Anatomy Institute at the Reich University of Strasbourg in the Alsace region of Occupied France . The collection was sanctioned by Himmler and under the direction of August Hirt . Ultimately 87 of the inmates were shipped to Natzweiler @-@ Struthof and killed in August 1943 . Brandt and Sievers were later convicted in the Doctors ' Trial in Nuremberg .
= = = Death toll = = =
The exact number of victims at Auschwitz is difficult to fix with certainty , because many prisoners were never registered and much evidence was destroyed by the SS in the final days of the war . As early as 1942 , Himmler visited the camp and ordered that " all mass graves were to be opened and the corpses burned . In addition the ashes were to be disposed of in such a way that it would be impossible at some future time to calculate the number of corpses burned . "
Shortly following the camp 's liberation , the Soviet government stated that four million people had been killed on the site , a figure now regarded as greatly exaggerated . While under interrogation , Höss said that Adolf Eichmann told him that two and a half million Jews had been killed in gas chambers and about half a million more had died of other causes . Later he wrote , " I regard the figure of two and a half million as far too high . Even Auschwitz had limits to its destructive possibilities " . Gerald Reitlinger 's 1953 book The Final Solution estimated the number killed to be 800 @,@ 000 to 900 @,@ 000 , and Raul Hilberg 's 1961 work The Destruction of the European Jews estimated the number killed to be a maximum of 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 Jewish victims .
In 1983 , French scholar George Wellers was one of the first to use German data on deportations to estimate the number killed at Auschwitz , arriving at a figure of 1 @,@ 471 @,@ 595 deaths , including 1 @.@ 35 million Jews and 86 @,@ 675 Poles . A larger study started by Franciszek Piper used timetables of train arrivals combined with deportation records to calculate at least 960 @,@ 000 Jewish deaths and at least 1 @.@ 1 million total deaths , a figure adopted as official by the Auschwitz @-@ Birkenau State Museum in the 1990s . Piper also stated that a figure of as many as 1 @.@ 5 million total deaths was possible .
By nation , the greatest number of Auschwitz 's Jewish victims were from Hungary , accounting for 438 @,@ 000 deaths , followed by Polish Jews ( 300 @,@ 000 deaths ) , French ( 69 @,@ 000 ) , Dutch ( 60 @,@ 000 ) , and Greek ( 55 @,@ 000 ) . Fewer than one percent of Soviet Jews murdered in the Holocaust were killed in Auschwitz , as German forces had already been driven from Russia when the killing at Auschwitz reached its peak in 1944 . Approximately 1 in 6 Jews killed in the Holocaust died at the camp .
The next largest group of victims were non @-@ Jewish Poles , who accounted for 70 @,@ 000 to 75 @,@ 000 deaths . Twenty @-@ one thousand Roma and Sinti were killed , along with 15 @,@ 000 Soviet POWs and 10 @,@ 000 to 15 @,@ 000 peoples of other nations . Around 400 Jehovah 's Witnesses were imprisoned at Auschwitz , at least 152 of whom died . An estimated 5 @,@ 000 to 15 @,@ 000 gay men prosecuted under German Penal Code Section 175 ( proscribing sexual acts between men ) were detained in concentration camps of which an unknown number were sent to Auschwitz ; of those sent to Auschwitz 80 percent died .
= = Escapes , resistance , and the Allies ' knowledge of the camps = =
Inmates were at times able to distribute information from the camp via messages and shortwave radio transmissions . The Polish government @-@ in @-@ exile in London first reported the gassing of prisoners on July 21 , 1942 . However , these reports were for a long time discarded as exaggerated or unreliable by the Allied Powers , Germany 's opponents .
Information regarding Auschwitz was also available to the Allies during the years 1940 – 43 by the accurate and frequent reports of Polish Home Army ( Armia Krajowa ) Captain Witold Pilecki . Pilecki was the only known person to volunteer to be imprisoned at Auschwitz concentration camp , spending 945 days there . He gathered evidence of genocide and organized resistance structures known as Związek Organizacji Wojskowej ( ZOW ) at the camp . His first report was smuggled to the outside world in November 1940 , through an inmate who was released from the camp . He eventually escaped on April 27 , 1943 , but his personal report of mass killings was dismissed as exaggeration by the Allies , as were his previous reports .
The first information about Auschwitz concentration camp was published in winter 1940 – 41 in the Polish underground newspapers Polska żyje ( " Poland lives " ) and Biuletyn Informacyjny ( " Newsletter " ) . From 1942 members of the Bureau of Information and Propaganda of the Warsaw area Home Army published in occupied Poland a few brochures based on the accounts of escapees . The first of these was a fictional memoir " Oświęcim . Pamiętnik więźnia " ( " Auschwitz : Diary of a prisoner " ) , written by Halina Krahelska and published in April 1942 in Warsaw . Also published in 1942 were the books Auschwitz : obóz śmierci ( " Auschwitz : camp of death " ) written by Natalia Zarembina , and W piekle ( " In Hell " ) by Zofia Kossak @-@ Szczucka , the Polish writer , social activist , and founder of Żegota .
In 1943 , the Kampfgruppe Auschwitz ( Combat Group Auschwitz ) was organized with the aim of sending out information about what was happening . Sonderkommandos buried notes in the ground , hoping they would be found by the camp 's liberators . The group also took and smuggled out photographs of corpses and preparations for mass killings in mid @-@ 1944 .
The attitude of the Allies changed with receipt of the detailed , 32 @-@ page Vrba – Wetzler report , compiled by two Jewish prisoners , Rudolf Vrba and Alfréd Wetzler , who escaped on April 7 , 1944 . This report finally convinced Allied leaders that mass killings were taking place in Auschwitz . Details from the Vrba @-@ Wetzler report were released to the Swiss press by diplomat George Mantello and printed on June 6 by The New York Times . Auschwitz Plans originating with the Polish government were provided to the U.K foreign ministry in August 1944 .
Starting with a plea from the Slovakian rabbi Chaim Michael Dov Weissmandl in May 1944 , there was a growing campaign by Jewish organizations to persuade the Allies to bomb Auschwitz or the railway lines leading to it . At one point British Prime Minister Winston Churchill ordered that such a plan be prepared , but he was told that precision bombing the camp to free the prisoners or disrupt the railway was not technically feasible .
In 1978 , historian David S. Wyman published an essay titled " Why Auschwitz Was Never Bombed " , arguing that the US Air Force had the capability to attack Auschwitz and should have done so ; books by Bernard Wasserstein and Martin Gilbert raised similar questions about British inaction . Since the 1990s , other historians have argued that Allied bombing accuracy was not sufficient for Wyman 's proposed attack , and that counterfactual history is an inherently problematic endeavor . The controversy over this decision has lasted to the present day in both countries .
= = = Individual escape attempts = = =
At least 802 prisoners attempted to escape from the Auschwitz camps , mostly Polish or Soviet prisoners fleeing from work sites outside the camp . 144 were successful . The fates of 331 of the escapees are unknown . A common punishment for escape attempts was death by starvation ; the families of successful escapees were sometimes arrested and interned in Auschwitz and prominently displayed to deter others . If someone did manage to escape , the SS picked ten people at random from the prisoner 's block and starved them to death .
A daring escape from Auschwitz was staged on June 20 , 1942 by four Polish prisoners : Eugeniusz Bendera ( auto mechanic at the camp ) , Kazimierz Piechowski , Stanisław Gustaw Jaster , and Józef Lempart . After breaking into a warehouse , the four dressed as members of the SS @-@ Totenkopfverbände ( the SS units responsible for concentration camps ) , armed themselves , and stole an SS staff car , which they then drove unchallenged through the main gate .
On June 24 , 1944 , a Belgian @-@ Polish Jew , Mala Zimetbaum , escaped with her Polish boyfriend , Edek Galiński dressed in a stolen prisoner @-@ guard uniform . They were later recaptured , tortured , and executed by the SS . On July 21 , 1944 , inmate Jerzy Bielecki , dressed in an SS uniform and using a faked pass , managed to cross the camp 's gate together with his Jewish girlfriend , Cyla . Both survived the war .
= = = Birkenau revolt = = =
The Sonderkommando units were aware that as witnesses to the killings , they themselves would eventually be killed to hide Nazi crimes . Though they knew that it would mean their deaths , the Sonderkommando of Birkenau Kommando III staged an uprising on October 7 , 1944 , following an announcement that some of them would be selected to be " transferred to another camp " — a common Nazi ruse for the murder of prisoners . The Sonderkommando attacked the SS guards with stones , axes , and makeshift hand grenades . As the SS set up machine guns to attack the prisoners in Crematorium IV , the Sonderkommando in Crematorium II also revolted , some of them managing to escape the compound . The rebellion was suppressed by nightfall .
Ultimately , three SS guards were killed — one of whom was burned alive by the prisoners in the oven of Crematorium II — and 250 Sonderkommando were killed . Hundreds of prisoners escaped , but were all soon captured and executed , along with an additional group who participated in the revolt . Crematorium IV was destroyed in the fighting , and a group of prisoners in the gas chamber of Crematorium V was spared in the chaos .
= = Legacy = =
In the decades since its liberation , Auschwitz has become a primary symbol of the Holocaust . Historian Timothy D. Snyder attributes this to the camp 's high death toll as well as to its " unusual combination of an industrial camp complex and a killing facility " , which left behind far more witnesses than single @-@ purpose killing facilities such as Chełmno or Treblinka . The United Nations General Assembly has designated January 27 , the date of the camp 's liberation , as International Holocaust Remembrance Day . In a speech on the fiftieth anniversary of the liberation , German chancellor Helmut Kohl described Auschwitz as the " darkest and most horrific chapter of German history " .
Notable memoirists of the camp include Primo Levi , Elie Wiesel , and Tadeusz Borowski . In If This Is a Man , Levi wrote that the concentration camps represented the epitome of the totalitarian system :
[ N ] ever has there existed a state that was really " totalitarian . " ... Never has some form of reaction , a corrective of the total tyranny , been lacking , not even in the Third Reich or Stalin 's Soviet Union : in both cases , public opinion , the magistrature , the foreign press , the churches , the feeling for justice and humanity that ten or twenty years of tyranny were not enough to eradicate , have to a greater or lesser extent acted as a brake . Only in the Lager [ camp ] was the restraint from below non @-@ existent , and the power of these small satraps absolute .
Psychiatrist Viktor Frankl drew on his imprisonment at Auschwitz in composing Man 's Search for Meaning ( 1946 ) , one of the most widely read works about the camp . An existentialist work , the book argues that individuals can find purpose even among great suffering , and that this sense of purpose sustains them . Wiesel wrote about his own imprisonment at Auschwitz in Night ( 1960 ) and other works , and became a prominent spokesman against ethnic violence . In 1986 , he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize .
Camp survivor Simone Veil was later elected President of the European Parliament , serving from 1979 – 82 . Two Auschwitz victims — Maximilian Kolbe , a priest who volunteered to die by starvation in place of a stranger , and Edith Stein , a Jewish convert to Catholicism — were later named saints of the Roman Catholic Church .
= = = Auschwitz @-@ Birkenau State Museum = = =
On July 2 , 1947 , the Polish government passed a law establishing a state memorial to the victims of Nazism on the site of the camp . In 1955 , an exhibition opened displaying prisoner mug shots ; hair , suitcases , and shoes taken from murdered prisoners ; canisters of Zyklon B pellets ; and other objects related to the killings . UNESCO added the camp to its list of World Heritage Sites in 1979 . In 2011 , the museum drew 1 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 visitors .
Pope John Paul II performed mass over the train tracks leading to the camp on June 7 , 1979 . In the decades following his visit , controversies erupted over a group of Carmelite nuns founding a convent on the site and erecting a large cross originally used in the pope 's mass . Protesters objected to what they saw as Christianization of the site , while others argued that the cross 's presence effectively recognized the camp 's Catholic victims .
On September 4 , 2003 , three Israeli Air Force F @-@ 15 Eagles performed a fly @-@ over of Auschwitz @-@ Birkenau during a ceremony at the camp below . The flight was led by Major @-@ General Amir Eshel , the son of Holocaust survivors . On January 27 , 2015 , some 300 Auschwitz survivors and other guests gathered under a giant tent at the entrance to Auschwitz II Birkenau to commemorate the 70th anniversary of the camp 's liberation . Attendees included president of the World Jewish Congress Ronald Lauder , film director Steven Spielberg , and world leaders such as Polish president Bronisław Komorowski and King Willem @-@ Alexander of the Netherlands . As the number of remaining survivors decreases each year , the attendance at the event is unlikely to be surpassed at future major anniversaries . Commemorations also took place at Yad Vashem in Israel , Theresienstadt concentration camp , and in Berlin and Moscow .
Museum curators note that some visitors try to take artefacts as souvenirs , which is strictly prohibited and usually leads to criminal charges . For example , on June 22 , 2015 , two British men were convicted of theft for stealing apparel buttons and shards of decorative glass they found on the ground near the area where camp victims ' confiscated personal effects were stored . The men , both 17 years old , received probation and were fined £ 170 . Curators said that similar thefts happen once or twice a year .
= History of Poland ( 1945 – 89 ) =
The history of Poland from 1945 to 1989 spans the period of Soviet communist dominance imposed after the end of World War II over what had become the Polish People 's Republic . These years , while featuring general industrialization and urbanization and many improvements in the standard of living in Poland , were marred by social unrest and severe economic difficulties .
Near the end of World War II , the advancing Soviet Red Army pushed out the Nazi German forces from occupied Poland . In February 1945 , the Yalta Conference sanctioned the formation of a provisional government of Poland from a compromise coalition , until postwar elections . Joseph Stalin , the leader of the Soviet Union , manipulated the implementation of that ruling . A practically communist @-@ controlled Provisional Government of National Unity was formed in Warsaw by ignoring the Polish government @-@ in @-@ exile based in London since 1940 .
During the subsequent Potsdam Conference in July – August 1945 , the three major allied powers ratified the colossal westerly shift of Polish borders and approved its new territory between the Oder – Neisse line and Curzon Line . Caused by the events of World War II , for the first time in its history Poland became an ethnically homogeneous nation @-@ state without prominent minorities . The new population pattern was a result of the destruction of indigenous Polish @-@ Jewish population in the Holocaust , the flight and expulsion of Germans in the west , resettlement of Ukrainians in the east , and the repatriation of Poles from Kresy . The new government solidified its political power over the next two years , while the communist Polish United Workers ' Party ( PZPR ) under Bolesław Bierut gained firm control over the country , which would become part of the postwar Soviet sphere of influence in Central and Eastern Europe .
Following Stalin 's death in 1953 , a political " thaw " in the Soviet sphere allowed a more liberal faction of the Polish communists , led by Władysław Gomułka , to gain power . By the mid @-@ 1960s , Poland began experiencing increasing economic , as well as political , difficulties . They culminated in the March 1968 political crisis and in December 1970 , when a consumer price hike led to a wave of strikes . The government introduced a new economic program based on large @-@ scale borrowing from the West , which resulted in a rise in living standards and expectations , but the program meant growing integration of Poland 's economy with the world economy and it faltered after the 1973 oil crisis . In 1976 , the government of Edward Gierek was forced to raise prices again , and this led to another wave of public protests .
This vicious cycle of repression and reform and the economic @-@ political struggle acquired new characteristics with the 1978 election of Karol Wojtyła as Pope | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
performance history = = =
= = = = Premiere = = = =
Mahler made arrangements with the impresario Emil Gutmann for the symphony to be premiered in Munich in the autumn of 1910 . He soon regretted this involvement , writing of his fears that Gutmann would turn the performance into " a catastrophic Barnum and Bailey show " . Preparations began early in the year , with the selection of choirs from the choral societies of Munich , Leipzig and Vienna . The Munich Zentral @-@ Singschule provided 350 students for the children 's choir . Meanwhile , Bruno Walter , Mahler 's assistant at the Vienna Hofoper , was responsible for the recruitment and preparation of the eight soloists . Through the spring and summer these forces prepared in their home towns , before assembling in Munich early in September for three full days of final rehearsals under Mahler . His youthful assistant Otto Klemperer remarked later on the many small changes that Mahler made to the score during rehearsal : " He always wanted more clarity , more sound , more dynamic contrast . At one point during rehearsals he turned to us and said , ' If , after my death , something doesn 't sound right , then change it . You have not only a right but a duty to do so . ' "
For the premiere , fixed for 12 September , Gutmann had hired the newly built Neue Musik @-@ Festhalle , in the Munich International Exhibition grounds near Theresienhöhe ( now a branch of the Deutsches Museum ) . This vast hall had a capacity of 3 @,@ 200 ; to assist ticket sales and raise publicity , Gutmann devised the nickname " Symphony of a Thousand " , which has remained the symphony 's popular subtitle despite Mahler 's disapproval . Among the many distinguished figures present at the sold @-@ out premiere were the composers Richard Strauss , Camille Saint @-@ Saëns and Anton Webern ; the writers Thomas Mann and Arthur Schnitzler ; and the leading theatre director of the day , Max Reinhardt . Also in the audience was the 28 @-@ year @-@ old British conductor Leopold Stokowski , who six years later would lead the first United States performance of the symphony .
Up to this time , receptions of Mahler 's new symphonies had usually been disappointing . However , the Munich premiere of the Eighth Symphony was an unqualified triumph ; as the final chords died away there was a short pause before a huge outbreak of applause which lasted for twenty minutes . Back at his hotel Mahler received a letter from Thomas Mann , which referred to the composer as " the man who , as I believe , expresses the art of our time in its profoundest and most sacred form " .
The symphony 's duration at its first performance was recorded by the critic @-@ composer Julius Korngold as 85 minutes . This performance was the last time that Mahler conducted a premiere of one of his own works . Eight months after his Munich triumph , he died at the age of 50 . His remaining works — Das Lied von der Erde ( " The Song of the Earth " ) , his Ninth Symphony and the unfinished Tenth — were all premiered after his death .
= = = = Subsequent performances = = = =
On the day following the Munich premiere Mahler led the orchestra and choruses in a repeat performance . During the next three years , according to the calculations of Mahler 's friend Guido Adler the Eighth Symphony received a further 20 performances across Europe . These included the Dutch premiere , in Amsterdam under Willem Mengelberg on 12 March 1912 , and the first Prague performance , given on 20 March 1912 under Mahler 's former Vienna Hofoper colleague , Alexander von Zemlinsky . Vienna itself had to wait until 1918 before the symphony was heard there . In the US , Leopold Stokowski persuaded an initially reluctant board of the Philadelphia Orchestra to finance the American premiere , which took place on 2 March 1916 . The occasion was a great success ; the symphony was played several more times in Philadelphia before the orchestra and choruses travelled to New York , for a series of equally well @-@ received performances at the Metropolitan Opera House .
At the Amsterdam Mahler Festival in May 1920 , Mahler 's completed symphonies and his major song cycles were presented over nine concerts given by the Concertgebouw Orchestra and choruses , under Mengelberg 's direction . The music critic Samuel Langford , who attended the occasion , commented that " we do not leave Amsterdam greatly envying the diet of Mahler first and every other composer afterward , to which Mengelberg is training the music @-@ lovers of that city . " The Austrian music historian Oscar Bie , while impressed with the festival as a whole , wrote subsequently that the Eighth was " stronger in effect than in significance , and purer in its voices than in emotion " . Langford had commented on the British " not being very eager about Mahler " , and the Eighth Symphony was not performed in Britain until 15 April 1930 , when Sir Henry Wood presented it with the BBC Symphony Orchestra . The work was played again eight years later by the same forces ; among those present in the audience was the youthful composer Benjamin Britten . Impressed by the music , he nevertheless found the performance itself " execrable " .
The years after World War II saw a number of notable performances of the Eighth Symphony , including Sir Adrian Boult 's broadcast from the Royal Albert Hall on 10 February 1948 , the Japanese premiere under Kazuo Yamada in Tokyo in December 1949 , and the Australian premiere under Sir Eugene Goossens in 1951 . A Carnegie Hall performance under Stokowski in 1950 became the first complete recording of the symphony to be issued . After 1950 the increasing numbers of performances and recordings of the work signified its growing popularity , but not all critics were won over . Theodor W. Adorno found the piece weak , " a giant symbolic shell " ; this most affirmative work of Mahler 's is , in Adorno 's view , his least successful , musically and artistically inferior to his other symphonies . The composer @-@ critic Robert Simpson , usually a champion of Mahler , referred to Part II as " an ocean of shameless kitsch . " Mahler biographer Jonathan Carr finds much of the symphony " bland " , lacking the tension and resolution present in the composer 's other symphonies . Deryck Cooke , on the other hand , compares Mahler 's Eighth to Beethoven 's Choral ( Ninth ) Symphony . To Cooke , Mahler 's is " the Choral Symphony of the twentieth century : like Beethoven 's , but in a different way , it sets before us an ideal [ of redemption ] which we are as yet far from realising — even perhaps moving away from — but which we can hardly abandon without perishing " .
In the late 20th century and into the 21st , the Eighth was performed in all parts of the world . A succession of premieres in the Far East culminated in October 2002 in Beijing , when Long Yu led the China Philharmonic Orchestra in the first performance of the work in the People 's Republic of China . The Sydney Olympic Arts Festival in August 2000 opened with a performance of the Eighth by the Sydney Symphony Orchestra under its chief conductor Edo de Waart . The popularity of the work , and its heroic scale , meant that it was often used as a set piece on celebratory occasions ; on 15 March 2008 , Yoav Talmi led 200 instrumentalists and a choir of 800 in a performance in Quebec City , to mark the 400th anniversary of the city 's foundation . In London on 16 July 2010 the opening concert of the BBC Proms celebrated the 150th anniversary of Mahler 's birth with a performance of the Eighth , with Jiří Bělohlávek conducting the BBC Symphony Orchestra . This performance was its eighth in the history of the Proms .
= = Analysis = =
= = = Structure and form = = =
The Eighth Symphony 's two parts combine the sacred text of the 9th @-@ century Latin hymn Veni creator spiritus with the secular text from the closing passages from Goethe 's 19th @-@ century dramatic poem Faust . Despite the evident disparities within this juxtaposition , the work as a whole expresses a single idea , that of redemption through the power of love . The choice of these two texts was not arbitrary ; Goethe , a poet whom Mahler revered , believed that Veni creator embodied aspects of his own philosophy , and had translated it into German in 1820 . Once inspired by the Veni creator idea , Mahler soon saw the Faust poem as an ideal counterpart to the Latin hymn . The unity between the two parts of the symphony is established , musically , by the extent to which they share thematic material . In particular , the first notes of the Veni creator theme — E @-@ flat → B @-@ flat → A @-@ flat — dominate the climaxes to each part ; at the symphony 's culmination , Goethe 's glorification of " Eternal Womanhood " is set in the form of a religious chorale . The Veni creator theme is believed to be based on Maos Tzur , a Jewish song sung at Hanukkah .
In composing his score , Mahler temporarily abandoned the more progressive tonal elements which had appeared in his most recent works . The symphony 's key is , for Mahler , unusually stable ; despite frequent diversions into other keys the music always returns to its central E @-@ flat major . This is the first of his works in which familiar fingerprints — birdsong , military marches , Austrian dances — are almost entirely absent . Although the vast choral and orchestral forces employed suggest a work of monumental sound , according to critic Michael Kennedy " the predominant expression is not of torrents of sound but of the contrasts of subtle tone @-@ colours and the luminous quality of the scoring " .
For Part I , most modern commentators accept the sonata @-@ form outline that was discerned by early analysts . The structure of Part II is more difficult to summarise , being an amalgam of many genres . Analysts , including Specht , Cooke and Paul Bekker , have identified Adagio , Scherzo and Finale " movements " within the overall scheme of Part II , though others , including La Grange and Donald Mitchell , find little to sustain this division . Musicologist Ortrun Landmann has suggested that the formal scheme for Part II , after the orchestral introduction , is a sonata plan without the recapitulation , consisting of exposition , development and conclusion .
= = = Part I : Veni creator spiritus = = =
Mitchell describes Part I as resembling a giant motet , and argues that a key to its understanding is to read it as Mahler 's attempt to emulate the polyphony of Bach 's great motets , specifically Singet dem Herrn ein neues Lied ( " Sing to the Lord a new song " ) . The symphony begins with a single tonic chord in E @-@ flat , sounded on the organ , before the entry of the massed choirs in a fortissimo invocation : " Veni , veni creator spiritus " .
The three note " creator " motif is immediately taken up by the trombones and then the trumpets in a marching theme that will be used as a unifying factor throughout the work .
After their first declamatory statement the two choirs engage in a sung dialogue , which ends with a short transition to an extended lyrical passage , " Imple superna gratia " , a plea for divine grace .
Here , what Kennedy calls " the unmistakable presence of twentieth @-@ century Mahler " is felt as a solo soprano introduces a meditative theme . She is soon joined by other solo voices as the new theme is explored before the choirs return exuberantly , in an A @-@ flat episode in which the soloists compete with the choral masses . In the next section , " Infirma nostri corporis / virtute firmans perpeti " ( " Our weak frames fortify with thine eternal strength " ) , the tonic key of E @-@ flat returns with a variation of the opening theme . The section is interrupted by a short orchestral interlude in which the low bells are sounded , adding a sombre touch to the music . This new , less secure mood is carried through when " Infirma nostri corporis " resumes , this time without the choruses , in a subdued D minor echo of the initial invocation .
At the end of this episode another transition precedes the " unforgettable surge in E major " , in which the entire body of choral forces declaims " Accende lumen sensibus " ( " Illuminate our senses " ) .
The first children 's chorus follows , in a joyful mood , as the music gathers force and pace . This is a passage of great complexity , in the form of a double fugue involving development of many of the preceding themes , with constant changes to the key signature . All forces combine again in the recapitulation of the " Veni creator " section in shortened form . A quieter passage of recapitulation leads to an orchestral coda before the children 's chorus announces the doxology " Gloria sit Patri Domino " ( " Glory be to God the Father " ) .
Thereafter the music moves swiftly and powerfully to its climax , in which an offstage brass ensemble bursts forth with the " Accende " theme while the main orchestra and choruses end on a triumphant rising scale .
= = = Part II : Closing scene from Goethe 's Faust = = =
The second part of the symphony follows the narrative of the final stages in Goethe 's poem — the journey of Faust 's soul , rescued from the clutches of Mephistopheles , on to its final ascent into heaven . Landmann 's proposed sonata structure for the movement is based on a division , after an orchestral prelude , into five sections which he identifies musically as an exposition , three development episodes , and a finale . The long orchestral prelude ( 166 bars ) is in E @-@ flat minor and , in the manner of an operatic overture , anticipates several of the themes which will be heard later in the movement . The exposition begins in near @-@ silence ; the scene depicted is that of a rocky , wooded mountainside , the dwelling place of anchorites whose utterances are heard in an atmospheric chorus complete with whispers and echoes .
A solemn baritone solo , the voice of Pater Ecstaticus , ends warmly as the key changes to the major when the trumpets sound the " Accende " theme from Part I. This is followed by a demanding and dramatic aria for bass , the voice of Pater Profundus , who ends his tortured meditation by asking for God 's mercy on his thoughts and for enlightenment . The repeated chords in this section are reminiscent of Richard Wagner 's Parsifal . The mood lightens with the entry of the angels and blessed boys ( women 's and children 's choruses ) bearing the soul of Faust ; the music here is perhaps a relic of the " Christmas Games " scherzo envisioned in the abortive four @-@ movement draft plan .
The atmosphere is festive , with triumphant shouts of " Jauchzet auf ! " ( " Rejoice ! " ) before the exposition ends in a postlude which refers to the " Infirma nostri corporis " music from Part I.
The first phase of development begins as a women 's chorus of the younger angels invoke a " happy company of blessed children " who must bear Faust 's soul heavenwards . The blessed boys receive the soul gladly ; their voices are joined by Doctor Marianus ( tenor ) , who accompanies their chorus before breaking into a rapturous E major paean to the Mater Gloriosa , " Queen and ruler of the world ! " . As the aria ends , the male voices in the chorus echo the soloist 's words to an orchestral background of viola tremolos , in a passage described by La Grange as " emotionally irresistible " .
In the second part of the development , the entry of the Mater Gloriosa is signalled in E major by a sustained harmonium chord , with harp arpeggios played over a pianissimo violin melody which La Grange labels the " love " theme .
Thereafter the key changes frequently as a chorus of penitent women petition the Mater for a hearing ; this is followed by the solo entreaties of Magna Peccatrix , Mulier Samaritana and Maria Aegyptiaca . In these arias the " love " theme is further explored , and the " scherzo " theme associated with the first appearance of the angels returns . These two motifs predominate in the trio which follows , a request to the Mater on behalf of a fourth penitent , Faust 's lover once known as Gretchen , who has come to make her plea for the soul of Faust . After Gretchen 's entreaty , a solo of " limpid beauty " in Kennedy 's words , an atmosphere of hushed reverence descends . The Mater Gloriosa then sings her only two lines , in the symphony 's opening key of E @-@ flat major , permitting Gretchen to lead the soul of Faust into heaven . The final development episode is a hymn @-@ like tenor solo and chorus , in which Doctor Marianus calls on the penitents to " Gaze aloft " .
A short orchestral passage follows , scored for an eccentric chamber group consisting of piccolo , flute , harmonium , celesta , piano , harps and a string quartet . This acts as a transition to the finale , the Chorus Mysticus , which begins in E @-@ flat major almost imperceptibly — Mahler 's notation here is Wie ein Hauch , " like a breath " .
The sound rises in a gradual crescendo , as the solo voices alternately join or contrast with the chorus . As the climax approaches , many themes are reprised : the love theme , Gretchen 's song , the Accende from Part I. Finally , as the chorus concludes with " The eternal feminine draws us on high " , the off @-@ stage brass re @-@ enters with a final salute on the Veni creator motif , to end the symphony with a triumphant flourish .
= = Publication = =
Only one autograph score of the Eighth Symphony is known to exist . Once the property of Alma Mahler , it is held by the Bayerische Staatsbibliothek in Munich . In 1906 Mahler signed a contract with the Viennese publishing firm Universal Edition ( UE ) , which thus became the main publisher of all his works . The full orchestral score of the Eighth Symphony was published by UE in 1912 . A Russian version , published in Moscow by Izdatel 'stvo Muzyka in 1976 , was republished in the United States by Dover Publications in 1989 , with an English text and notes . The International Gustav Mahler Society , founded in 1955 , has as its main objective the production of a complete critical edition of all of Mahler 's works . As of 2016 its critical edition of the Eighth remains a project for the future .
= = Recordings = =
Sir Adrian Boult 's 1948 broadcast performance with the BBC Symphony Orchestra was recorded by the BBC , but not issued until 2009 when it was made available in MP3 form . The first issued recording of the complete symphony was Stokowski 's Carnegie Hall performance with the New York Philharmonic and combined New York choirs on 9 April 1950 . Nearly two years before , in July 1948 , the Hungarian @-@ born conductor Eugene Ormandy had recorded the " Veni creator spiritus " movement at the Hollywood Bowl . Since Stokowski 's version , at least 70 recordings of the symphony have been made by many of the world 's leading orchestras and singers , mostly during live performances .
= The Sixth Extinction II : Amor Fati =
" The Sixth Extinction II : Amor Fati " is the second episode of the seventh season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It was directed by Michael Watkins and written by lead actor David Duchovny and series creator Chris Carter . The installment explores the series ' overarching mythology and concludes a trilogy of episodes revolving around Fox Mulder 's ( Duchovny ) severe reaction to an alien artifact . Originally aired by the Fox network on November 14 , 1999 , " The Sixth Extinction II : Amor Fati " received a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 1 and was seen by 16 @.@ 15 million viewers . Initial reviews were mixed and the plot and dialogue attracted criticism . Later critics viewed the episode in a more positive light and several writers named it among the best in the series .
The X @-@ Files centers on Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) special agents Mulder and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) , who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , and the skeptical Scully was initially assigned to debunk his work , but the two have developed a deep friendship . In this episode , Scully returns from Africa to discover Mulder in a coma induced by exposure to shards from an alien spaceship wreck . After Mulder disappears from the hospital , Scully joins former government employee Michael Kritschgau ( John Finn ) and her boss Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) to search for him . Meanwhile , in a dream , The Smoking Man ( William B. Davis ) offers Mulder a new life and a fresh start . After conferring with a vision of Scully , Mulder awakens from his coma and realizes his duty to prevent alien colonization .
Carter was interested in the possibility that extraterrestrials were involved in ancient mass extinctions on Earth and used these themes in the episode . Much of the episode was also inspired by Nikos Kazantzakis 's novel The Last Temptation of Christ , and a scene showing an operation on Mulder has been thematically compared to the Crucifixion of Jesus . For the dream sequences , casting director Rick Millikan brought back many actors and actresses who had been absent from the show for several years , including Jerry Hardin as Deep Throat , Rebecca Toolan as Teena Mulder , and Megan Leitch as Samantha Mulder .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Background = = =
In the sixth season finale " Biogenesis " , FBI agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) investigate a rock inscribed with Navajo writing found in Côte d 'Ivoire . While examining it in Washington , D.C. , Mulder hears ringing sounds and suffers several headaches . He turns to Agent Diana Fowley ( Mimi Rogers ) , his former love interest , for help before his mental health rapidly deteriorates and he is transferred to a psychiatric hospital . Meanwhile , Scully heads to New Mexico to ask a dying Albert Hosteen ( Floyd Red Crow Westerman ) to translate what is on the rock : he discovers that the item includes passages from the Bible , and a map of the human genome .
In the seventh season premiere " The Sixth Extinction " , Scully journeys to Côte d 'Ivoire and discovers an alien spaceship wreck . After Scully examines the shards , she begins to believe that they hold the key to all of life 's mysteries . Meanwhile , Mulder slips into a coma and Assistant Director Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) enlists the help of former Department of Defense agent Michael Kritschgau ( John Finn ) to determine what is wrong with Mulder . The two discover that while Mulder 's condition has made him unresponsive , it has given him telepathic powers . Scully , working in Africa , witnesses several strange events relating to the wreck before returning to Washington .
= = = Plot = = =
Teena Mulder ( Rebecca Toolan ) and The Smoking Man ( William B. Davis ) visit Mulder , who is paralyzed in a hospital . After administering a drug that cures his paralysis , The Smoking Man reveals himself to be Mulder 's father and takes him from the hospital . Meanwhile Kritschgau visits Scully and claims that Mulder 's contact with the shard of an alien spaceship has reawakened the extraterrestrial black oil with which he was infected three years previously ; because he is infected with the virus , Mulder is proof of alien life . Skinner , who has been looking for Mulder , tells Scully that Mulder 's mother signed him out of the hospital . The Smoking Man takes Mulder to an unfamiliar neighborhood ; inside a new home , he finds his former informant Deep Throat ( Jerry Hardin ) . Deep Throat claims to have faked his own death to escape the burden he was under by being a part of the Syndicate , and he suggests Mulder can now do the same . Mulder meets Fowley , and the two become intimate .
On the hospital security tapes , Scully sees Mulder 's mother talking to The Smoking Man but is unable to contact her . Scully receives a package containing a book on Native American beliefs , which describes how one man will prevent the impending apocalypse . Again visiting Kritschgau , she notices he has a stolen copy of her information on the alien spaceship . After he admits hacking her computer , she deletes the files from his laptop .
Mulder is reunited with his sister Samantha ( Megan Leitch ) in his new life . He marries Fowley and they have children . The years pass quickly ; he grows older and Fowley dies . Mulder is revealed to be dreaming everything : in reality he is in a government facility being tended to by doctors while The Smoking Man and Fowley watch . The Smoking Man is preparing to have portions of Mulder 's cranial tissue — which have been infected and activated because of the alien virus — implanted into himself . During the operation , The Smoking Man admits that he believes that Mulder has become an alien @-@ human hybrid , and that by taking Mulder 's genetic material he alone will survive the coming alien onslaught .
Mulder becomes an old man in his dream , accompanied by an ageless Smoking Man who tells him that Fowley , Deep Throat , Samantha and Scully have all died . The Smoking Man looks out the window , revealing an alien holocaust . Back in reality , Alex Krycek ( Nicholas Lea ) kills Kritschgau , burns his papers , and steals his laptop . Scully , having earlier been visited by the spirit of Albert Hosteen who convinces her to pray , awakens in her apartment to discover that someone has slipped a security card under her door . Using it , she enters the facility where Mulder is being held . In Mulder 's dream , Scully meets him at his bedside and convinces him to break with his imaginary life . In reality , Scully finds Mulder and the two escape the facility . A week later Scully meets Mulder at his apartment and tells him that Fowley was found murdered . Mulder confides that , during his ordeal , Scully served as his " touchstone " .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
" The Sixth Extinction II : Amor Fati " was written by Duchovny and The X @-@ Files ' creator , Chris Carter . This was Duchovny 's second on @-@ screen writing credit , after the sixth season episode " The Unnatural " . He had previously helped to plot stories ; he co @-@ developed the second season finale " Anasazi " with Carter , and received teleplay credits for the third season episodes " Avatar " and " Talitha Cumi " . Duchovny worked on the script for " The Sixth Extinction II : Amor Fati " while Carter wrote the season premiere , " The Sixth Extinction " . Carter added his remaining portions to Duchovny 's script after finishing his work on the previous episode . The tagline that appears in the opening credits for this episode is " Amor fati " . This is a Latin phrase referring to the " love of fate " , which is an important phrase and concept in the work of the German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche . In the context of the episode , the subtitle has been interpreted by writer Charlton McIlwain in his book When Death Goes Pop : Death , Media & the Remaking of Community as a reference to the love of a predestined life , in this case , Mulder 's dream . In her book We Want to Believe , Amy Donaldson suggests the phrase means that Mulder must " love his suffering and passively accept it [ and ] actively embrace his journey ... and release his spirit to find new vigor . "
Mulder 's dream and decisions in " The Sixth Extinction II : Amor Fati " heavily allude to the actions of Jesus in Nikos Kazantzakis 's novel The Last Temptation of Christ . Duchovny , a fan of the book , found parallels between its central story and Mulder 's ordeal and incorporated many of the novel 's concepts into the episode . In The Last Temptation of Christ , Jesus is torn between his higher calling as the son of God and his desire towards his own humanity . Duchovny was drawn to the fact that Christ 's struggle in the novel was " not only godlike , but also profoundly human " and used this template for Mulder ; in the series , Mulder is destined towards greater things — in this case , stopping the on @-@ coming alien invasion — but he also desires to have a personal life . Duchovny noted that " Mulder is a guy who 's been given the same problem [ as Jesus ] . What I 'm doing is using the very human model of Christ " . Duchovny cautioned that he was not trying to make Mulder into a Christ @-@ like savior figure but rather " an everyman " . Executive producer Frank Spotnitz described the concept as a risk , but Duchovny felt this exploration of Mulder 's character was important to the series .
Several of the lines in the episode proved difficult for both fans and cast members to embrace . Fans did not readily accept that The Smoking Man was Mulder 's father . Davis , who portrayed The Smoking Man , noted that fans did not believe the revelation because " part of the mystique of it was that everybody had their own idea of what was going on . " The dialogue in the episode proved difficult for Anderson to present believably . She was troubled that her character was arguing against the existence of extraterrestrials , when in the previous episode her character had encountered an alien shipwreck . When she talked to Carter , she said that she did not " know if [ she could ] do this anymore " because her character was arguing against information that had been confirmed in the first two parts of the episode . Carter explained that there must be conflict between Mulder and Scully for the show 's " believer versus skeptic " dynamic to work properly .
The portions of the episode about the alien shard and Mulder 's telepathic abilities allude to the ancient astronaut theory , which proposes that intelligent extraterrestrial beings visited Earth and made contact with humans in antiquity or prehistory . Spotnitz was surprised that the show received few complaints , even though the " Biogenesis " / " The Sixth Extinction " / " Amor Fati " story arc heavily suggested that aliens developed the notions of God and religion . He praised the manner in which the show handled this subject , saying , " Often in the past , we 've done stuff where I was sure we would get angry letters . But we rarely do . And the reason is because of the way we handle things . In ' Amor Fati ' we treated the religious side [ of the story ] with respect . " Spotnitz later identified the combination of science and religion as " a conjunction of science and mysticism , of aliens and religion , that we 're starting to develop . It 's deliberate on our part , to help bring all the mythologies together into one story line . " The ancient astronaut themes were revisited in two season nine episodes : " Provenance " and " Providence " .
= = = Casting and filming = = =
When picking actors and actresses for the episode , casting director Rick Millikan interpreted the script as a flashback . Consequently , he brought back actors and actresses who had not appeared on the show for two or three years , including Hardin as Deep Throat , Rebecca Toolan as Teena Mulder , and Megan Leitch as Samantha Mulder . Hardin had last appeared in the fourth season episode " Musings of a Cigarette Smoking Man " during a flashback sequence , and Toolan 's most recent role was in the second installment of the sixth season episode " Dreamland " . Likewise , Leitch — who portrayed Samantha as an adult — had acted in the second part of the fifth season opener " Redux " . Milikan and the producers encountered difficulties in casting the boy whom Mulder meets on the beach . Originally , they cast the son of series producer Paul Rabwin , but child labor laws dictated a limit on his daily working hours , so twin boys were cast to allow the scenes to be shot in a single day .
" The Sixth Extinction II : Amor Fati " is the series ' last episode to feature Mimi Rogers as Agent Fowley . After reading a copy of the script , Rogers realized her character was going to die before she reached the ending . The script included a large part for Fowley , which Rogers described as " by far the most [ she ] had to do in an episode . " She later explained , " It occurred to me [ while I was reading the script ] , uh oh , this is way too good . I have too much to do . They 're going to kill me . "
Davis was pleased with the episode ; he stated " For me the episode was terrific to play because they ended up making the Cigarette Smoking Man somewhat tougher . We have seen so much softness in him ; it was great to play that tough side . " He described the scene in which he was strapped to an operating table with Mulder as " totally uncomfortable " . He joked that " the only upside of that was that the author [ Duchovny ] was lying right beside me , feeling equally uncomfortable . I wonder if David would have written it that way if he had known what he would have to go through . "
The majority of the episode — like the rest of seasons six , seven , eight and nine — was filmed in Los Angeles , California . The housing community in Mulder 's dream was filmed in an " affluent section " between Malibu and Pacific Palisades , California . The scene in which The Smoking Man opens a window , revealing an alien armageddon , used a special set and a matte painting background . Various special effects , such as explosions , were filmed separately . The pieces were digitally combined to create the final scene . A scene in which Mulder watched himself age was filmed but cut for unknown reasons .
= = Themes = =
The episode portrays Mulder as a Christ @-@ like figure . As scientists experiment on him , he is placed on a cross @-@ like table , which has been interpreted to be symbolic of the cross to which Jesus was nailed . Mulder wears a metal ring around his head , similar to the biblical crown of thorns . Donaldson notes that The Smoking Man 's advice to Mulder to save himself echoes the bystanders who told Jesus to save himself from the cross . She draws parallels between Mulder 's status as the " savior " of the human race — because of his immunity from the alien infection — and Jesus , whom Christians venerate as humanity 's savior .
Donaldson , in her essay " The Last Temptation of Mulder " , writes that in Kazantzakis ' novel Jesus " represents what is the utmost human challenge , that of releasing the divinity within from its earthly confines . " In this way , the Jesus of The Last Temptation of Christ represents " utter humanity " and the " struggle between the spirit and the flesh " . Mulder is similarly challenged when he is enticed by The Smoking Man and overcomes temptation by giving up his dream life and embracing his destiny to stop the alien invasion . Several characters in the episode resemble those in the novel . For instance , Fowley is similar to Kazantzakis ' version of Mary Magdalene — both characters " thwart the mission " of the hero . Scully parallels Kazantzakis ' version of Judas Iscariot , as they both call the heroes out of their respective trances .
According to McIlwain , the episode represents the series ' ultimate " coalescence of science , religion , and metaphysics " . It is one of the few episodes in which Scully sets aside her empirical reasoning to save Mulder 's life . Scully , representing the more rational one " who must anchor herself in the certainty of scientific facts " , discovers the aliens shards and deduces that they hold the key to " every question that has ever been asked " . Mulder , on the other hand , represents the one who " seeks the truth among a realm of possibilities too fantastic and beyond the realm of scientific validity " and possesses the needed tool — his immunity — to solve the puzzle . The episode also explores the moral side of The Smoking Man and his affinity for evil . Kenneth Silber of Space.com notes that The Smoking Man 's " enticing blandishments confirm he is a highly dangerous foe , one whose Machiavellian creativity borders on the Satanic . " Timothy Dunn and Joseph J. Foy note in " Moral Musings on a Cigarette Smoking Man " that The Smoking Man 's evil deeds have little to do with his mission in the Syndicate , instead reflecting his desire for " completely gratuitous " evil . The two cite his line " Aren 't you expecting me to sprout vampire fangs ? " as evidence that The Smoking Man is aware of his crimes but casually shrugs them off .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" The Sixth Extinction II : Amor Fati " originally aired in the United States on the Fox network on November 14 , 1999 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on Sky1 on March 26 , 2000 . In the U.S. , the episode was watched by 16 @.@ 15 million viewers and ranked as the 27th most @-@ watched episode of any series on network TV for the week ending November 14 . It earned a Nielsen household rating of 10 @.@ 1 , with a 14 share . Nielsen ratings are audience measurement systems that determine the audience size and composition of television programming in the U.S. This means that roughly 10 @.@ 1 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 14 percent of households watching television , were watching the episode . In the U.K. , " The Sixth Extinction II : Amor Fati " was seen by 840 @,@ 000 viewers , making it the channel 's third @-@ most watched program for that week after episodes of The Simpsons and Friends . On May 13 , 2003 , the episode was released on DVD as part of the complete seventh season . Two years later the episode was included on The X @-@ Files Mythology , Volume 3 – Colonization , a DVD collection that contains episodes involving the alien colonists .
Initial reviews of the episode were mixed . After the episode aired , Silber was disappointed in its resolution , writing , " This episode adeptly combines surrealism and a sense of impending climax — only to sputter out in disappointment when nothing much gets resolved at the end . " He dismissed " Mulder 's one @-@ week recovery from his horrifying ordeal " as " facile and unconvincing " . He did write that Mulder 's dream provided " credible insight into the recesses of his troubled personality " . The X @-@ Files researcher and independent reviewer Sarah Stegall awarded the episode a three out of five score after the episode aired . She argued that , in the episode , Mulder " is not a martyr but a victim " which makes him " pitiable , not heroic " . Tom Kessenich , in his 2002 book Examinations : An Unauthorized Look at Seasons 6 – 9 of the X @-@ Files , gave the episode a positive review , noting that the " Duchovny @-@ penned final scene is exquisite in showcasing the beauty and power of Mulder and Scully 's evolving relationship . " He deemed Mulder 's dream sequences " inspired television " and felt the episode left itself open to interpretation . In the October 2000 issue of Cinefantastique , writer Paula Vitaris gave the episode a mixed review , awarding it two stars out of four . She criticized the recycling of the " one partner lies comatose while the other runs around trying to find a cure " storyline , but she was more positive towards Mulder 's reverie , calling it visually " beautiful " .
Later reviews of the episode tended to see the installment in a more positive light . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their 2009 book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode four stars out of five . They stated that the installment " kicks off the seventh season with great style " , becoming a " rallying cry for the last leg of the race " . The two enjoyed its " real passion " , which they felt mythology @-@ heavy episodes usually lacked . In 2012 , Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club rated the episode a " B " , but criticized the writing , calling it " very purple prose " and Carter 's most " overwrought script since the glory days of ' The Blessing Way ' . " He was also critical of the " absolutely atrocious " make @-@ up used to transform Duchovny into an old man . Notwithstanding his negativity towards the writing , plot , and make @-@ up , VanDerWerff said that he truly " enjoy [ ed ] both halves of ' The Sixth Extinction ' all the same " despite calling it " entertainingly bad [ and ] ludicrously over @-@ the @-@ top " . He complimented the scene in which The Smoking Man looked out onto the alien apocalypse , deeming it a " pretty impressive TV effects accomplishment " .
Since its original airing , critics have listed " The Sixth Extinction II : Amor Fati " among the best X @-@ Files episodes . Kessenich named the entry thirteenth in his list of the top 25 The X @-@ Files episodes . Den of Geek writer Nina Sordi named the installment — as a trilogy with " Biogenesis " and " The Sixth Extinction " — the fifth best episode of the series , writing that , " it is evident that as [ The X @-@ Files ] progressed , the episodes surrounding those storylines and the breaking points Mulder and Scully endured push them further and further towards total , irreversible defeat . This is especially poignant when viewing this anxiety inducing trio of episodes . " Matt Champlin of The Post @-@ Standard named the episode the ninth best of the series . Monica S. Kuebler of Exclaim called " The Sixth Extinction " , along with " Biogenesis " and " Amor Fati " , one of the best episodes of the show 's " colonization " phase . Michael Liedtke and George Avalos , writing for the Contra Costa Times , stated that the final scene with Mulder and Scully was one of the most " tender moments " in which they did not kiss . Entertainment Weekly named the same scene one of 25 " Great TV ' I Love You 's ' " [ sic ] , declaring that it " left [ viewers ] with goosebumps " .
= St Ceidio 's Church , Rhodogeidio =
St Ceidio 's Church , Rhodogeidio is a rural 19th @-@ century church near Llannerch @-@ y @-@ medd , in Anglesey , north Wales . It was built using materials from the 14th @-@ century church that previously stood on the site , which has been used for Christian worship since some time in the 7th century . The present building , which contains an east window dating from the 14th century and a 15th @-@ century font , is no longer used for services , but has been looked after by local people .
It is a Grade II listed building , a national designation given to " buildings of special interest , which warrant every effort being made to preserve them " , in particular because it is " unusual in being built closely to the form and detail of its Medieval predecessor . " Two 19th @-@ century writers thought that the church was in a " dreary spot " , but a 2006 guide to Anglesey churches describes it as being in a pleasant location with good views .
= = History and location = =
The church is dedicated to St Ceidio , a 6th @-@ century British saint who established a number of churches in Wales . Geraint Jones , writing a guide to Anglesey churches in 2006 , said that the site of the church dates from the 7th century , and the 19th @-@ century antiquarian Angharad Llwyd wrote in her history of Anglesey that a church was thought to have been at this location since 630 . A 14th @-@ century church here was rebuilt in 1845 under the supervision of the then rector , Hugh Wynne Jones . The 19th @-@ century church reuses the foundations and materials of its predecessor .
At one time , the church on this site was used as a chapel of ease to Llantrisant church . In the 15th century , St Mary 's Church , Rhodogeidio , was built to serve as a chapel of ease for St Ceidio 's . In 2006 , one author noted that St Ceidio 's had not been regularly used for some years , but restoration work had been carried out by local people . St Mary 's , which is about 0 @.@ 75 miles ( 1 @.@ 25 km ) to the west , is no longer used for services either , but is in ruins .
St Ceidio 's is by the side of a road in the countryside about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) to the northwest of Llannerch @-@ y @-@ medd , and is set within a raised circular churchyard , known in Welsh as a llan . The area takes its name from the church : " Rhod- " is thought to be an abbreviation of Rhodwydd ( " defended mound " ) and " -geidio " is a modified form of the saint 's name ; i.e. , " the defended mound of Ceidio " .
= = Architecture and fittings = =
St Ceidio 's is constructed of rubble masonry , dressed with freestone . The roof is made of slate , and there is a stone 19th @-@ century bellcote at the west end . The roof trusses can be seen from the inside . Entrance is through a round @-@ headed doorway in the north wall at the west end . Cadw ( the Welsh Assembly Government body responsible for the built heritage of Wales ) says that this doorway is from the 14th century , but a 2009 guide to the buildings of north @-@ west Wales says that it may date from the 17th century . Inside , there is no internal structural division between the nave and the chancel apart from a single step . There are four windows , all with clear leaded glass : the east window is the oldest , dating from the 14th century . It has a single light ( section of window ) with some tracery at the top and an external hoodmould . The two windows in the south wall and the window in the north wall date from the 19th century , and are set in rectangular frames ; the windows are topped with trefoils .
The pews and the elevated pulpit date from the 19th century . The church has some marble memorials on the walls , dating from the 18th century , and a 15th @-@ century octagonal font . A 1937 survey by the Royal Commission on Ancient and Historical Monuments in Wales and Monmouthshire noted a bier from 1746 , an oak communion table from about 1700 , and an inscribed Elizabethan silver cup . Paraffin lamps are used to light the church , since there is no electricity connection .
= = Assessment = =
The church has national recognition and statutory protection from alteration as it has been designated as a Grade II listed building – the lowest of the three grades of listing , designating " buildings of special interest , which warrant every effort being made to preserve them " . It was given this status on 12 May 1970 , and has been listed because it is a " simple mid @-@ 19th century church , unusual in being built closely to the form and detail of its Medieval predecessor . " Cadw , which is responsible for the inclusion of Welsh buildings on the statutory lists , says that this means that St Ceidio 's retains " strong vernacular character . "
Angharad Llwyd , writing before St Ceidio 's was rebuilt , referred to it as a " small edifice " in a " dreary spot " . The 19th @-@ century writer Samuel Lewis , describing the rebuilt church , was more complimentary : " The expense of the re @-@ edification was very moderate ; the ancient foundations were preserved , the same stones were used , and though the present building is a much better one than the former , its style is strictly the same . " However , he too thought that the church was in a " dreary spot " . The Welsh politician and church historian Sir Stephen Glynne visited the church in 1851 . He said that the rebuilding of the church had been done " on the whole in a neat style " , with the inside " very fairly arranged " .
A 2009 guide to the buildings of the region says that it is a " tiny church in a raised llan in a hilltop circle of trees " , and calls this " the epitome of ancient siting " . The authors note that the east window is comparable to that in another Anglesey church , St Caean 's Church , Tregaean ( a comparison also made in the Royal Commission 's 1937 report ) . A 2006 guide to the churches of Anglesey describes St Ceidio 's as standing " in a pleasant , quiet rural location " , with " good views in all directions " .
= Disco Demolition Night =
Disco Demolition Night was an ill @-@ fated baseball promotion that took place on July 12 , 1979 , at Comiskey Park in Chicago , Illinois . At the climax of the event , a crate filled with disco records was blown up on the field between games of the twi @-@ night doubleheader between the Chicago White Sox and the Detroit Tigers . Many of those in attendance had come to see the explosion rather than the games and rushed onto the field after the detonation . The playing field was damaged both by the explosion and by the rowdy fans to the point where the White Sox were required to forfeit the second game of the doubleheader to the Tigers .
In the late 1970s , dance @-@ oriented disco music was very popular in the United States , particularly after being featured in hit films such as Saturday Night Fever ( 1977 ) . Despite its popularity , disco sparked a backlash from rock music fans . This opposition was prominent enough that the White Sox , seeking to fill seats at Comiskey Park during a lackluster season , engaged Chicago shock jock and anti @-@ disco campaigner Steve Dahl for the promotion at the July 12 doubleheader . Dahl 's sponsoring radio station was 97 @.@ 9 WLUP @-@ FM , so attendees would pay 98 cents and bring a disco record ; between games , Dahl would destroy the collected vinyl in an explosion .
White Sox officials had hoped for a crowd of 20 @,@ 000 , about 5 @,@ 000 more than usual . Instead , at least 50 @,@ 000 people — including tens of thousands of Dahl 's adherents — packed the stadium , and thousands more continued to sneak in even after gates were closed . Many of the records were not collected by staff and were thrown like flying discs from the stands . After Dahl blew up the collected records , thousands of fans stormed the field and remained there until dispersed by riot police . The second game was initially postponed , but was forfeited to the Tigers the next day by order of American League president Lee MacPhail . Disco Demolition Night preceded , and may have helped precipitate , the decline of disco in late 1979 ; some scholars and disco artists have described the event as expressive of racism and homophobia while others have denied this connection . Disco Demolition Night remains well known as one of the most extreme promotions in major league history .
= = Background = =
= = = Musical = = =
The genre known as disco , named for its popularity in discotheques , evolved in the early 1970s in inner @-@ city New York clubs , where disc jockeys would play imported dance music to get the crowd moving . With roots in African @-@ American and Latin American music , and in gay culture , disco became mainstream by the mid @-@ 1970s . Even white artists associated with a much more sedate style of music had disco @-@ influenced hits , such as Barry Manilow with " Copacabana " . By 1977 , disco was very popular in the United States , especially after the release that year of the hit movie Saturday Night Fever . This film starred John Travolta and featured music by the Bee Gees — the fact that both actor and performers were white and presented a heterosexual image did much to make disco widely popular . As Al Coury , president of RSO Records ( which had released the bestselling soundtrack album for the film ) put it , Saturday Night Fever " kind of took disco out of the closet . "
Despite disco 's popularity , there were many who disliked it . Some felt the music too mechanical — Time magazine deemed it a " diabolical thump @-@ and @-@ shriek " . Others hated the music for the lifestyle associated with it , feeling that in the disco scene , personal appearance and style of dress were overly important . The media , in discussing disco , emphasized its roots in gay culture . According to historian Gillian Frank , " by the time of the Disco Demolition in Comiskey Park , the media commonly emphasized that disco was gay and cultivated a widespread perception that disco was taking over " . Performers who cultivated a gay image , such as the Village People ( described by Rolling Stone as " the face of disco " ) did nothing to efface these perceptions , and fears that rock music would die at the hands of disco increased after disco albums dominated the 21st Grammy Awards in February 1979 .
In 1978 , New York 's WKTU @-@ FM , a low @-@ rated rock station , switched to disco and became the most popular station in the country ; this led other stations to try to emulate its success . In Chicago , a 24 @-@ year @-@ old Dahl was working as a disc jockey for local radio station WDAI when he was fired on Christmas Eve 1978 as part of the station 's switch from rock to disco ; Dahl was subsequently hired by rival album @-@ rock station WLUP , " The Loop " . Sensing an incipient anti @-@ disco backlash and playing off the publicity surrounding his firing ( he frequently mocked WDAI 's " Disco DAI " slogan on the air as " Disco DIE " ) , Dahl created a mock organization called " The Insane Coho Lips " , an anti @-@ disco army consisting of his listeners . According to Andy Behrens of ESPN , Dahl and his broadcast partner Garry Meier " organized the Cohos around a simple and surprisingly powerful idea : Disco Sucks " .
According to Dahl , in 1979 , the Cohos were locked in a war " dedicated to the eradication of the dreaded musical disease known as DISCO " . In the weeks leading up to Disco Demolition Night , Dahl promoted a number of anti @-@ disco public events , several of which became unruly . When a discotheque in Linwood , Indiana , switched from disco to rock in June , Dahl showed up , as did several thousand Cohos , and the police had to be called . Later that month , Dahl and several thousand Cohos occupied a teen disco in the Chicago suburbs . At the end of June , Dahl urged his listeners to throw marshmallows at a WDAI promotional van , which was at a shopping mall where a teen disco had been built . The Cohos chased the van and driver and cornered them in a nearby park , though the situation ended without violence . On July 1 , a near @-@ riot occurred in Hanover Park , Illinois , when hundreds of Cohos could not enter a sold @-@ out promotional event , and fights broke out . Some 50 police officers were needed to control the situation . When disco star Van McCoy died suddenly on July 6 , Dahl marked the occasion by destroying one of his records , " The Hustle " , on the air .
Dahl and Meier regularly mocked disco records on the radio . Dahl also recorded his own parody : " Do Ya Think I 'm Disco ? " , a satire of Rod Stewart 's disco @-@ oriented hit " Da Ya Think I 'm Sexy ? " This parody song presented discotheques as populated by effeminate men and frigid women . The lead character , named Tony like Travolta 's character in Saturday Night Fever , is unable to attract a woman until he abandons the disco scene , selling his three @-@ piece white suit at a garage sale and melting down his gold chains for a Led Zeppelin belt buckle .
A number of anti @-@ disco incidents took place elsewhere in the first half of 1979 , showing that " the Disco Demolition was not an isolated incident or an aberration " . In Seattle , hundreds of rock fans attacked a mobile dance floor , while in Portland , Oregon , a disc jockey destroyed a stack of disco records with a chainsaw as thousands looked on and cheered . In New York , a rock deejay played Donna Summer 's sexualized disco hit , " Hot Stuff " ; he received protests from his listeners .
= = = Baseball = = =
Since the 1940s , Chicago White Sox owner Bill Veeck had been noted for using promotions to attract fan interest ; he stated " you can draw more people with a losing team plus bread and circuses than with a losing team and a long , still silence " . His son , Mike , was the promotions director for the White Sox in 1979 . Mike Veeck wrote in a letter to a fan before the season that team management intended to make sure that whether the White Sox won or lost , the fans would have fun .
On May 2 , 1979 , the Detroit Tigers – Chicago White Sox game at Comiskey Park was rained out . Officials rescheduled it as part of a twi @-@ night doubleheader on July 12 . Already scheduled for the evening of July 12 was a promotion aimed at teenagers , who could purchase tickets at half the regular price .
The White Sox had had a " Disco Night " at Comiskey Park in 1977 ; Mike Veeck , WLUP Sales Manager Jeff Schwartz , and WLUP Promotions Director Dave Logan discussed the possibility of an anti @-@ disco night promotion after Schwartz mentioned that the White Sox were looking to do a promotion with the station . The matter had also been brought up early in the 1979 season when Schwartz told Mike Veeck of Dahl and his plans to blow up a crate of disco records while live on the air from a shopping mall . During a meeting at WLUP , Dahl was asked if he would be interested in blowing up records at Comiskey Park on July 12 . Since the radio frequency of WLUP was 97 @.@ 9 , the promotion for " Disco Demolition Night " ( in addition to the offer for teenagers ) was that anyone who brought a disco record to the ballpark would be admitted for 98 cents . Dahl was to blow up the collected records between games of the doubleheader .
= = Event = =
In the weeks before the event Dahl invited his listeners to bring records they wanted to see destroyed to Comiskey Park . The disc jockey feared that the promotion would fail to draw people to the ballpark , and that he would be humiliated . The previous night 's attendance had been 15 @,@ 520 , and Comiskey Park had a capacity of 44 @,@ 492 . The White Sox were not having a good year , and were 40 – 46 going into the July 12 doubleheader . The White Sox and WLUP hoped for a crowd of 20 @,@ 000 people . Mike Veeck hired enough security for 35 @,@ 000 .
Owner Bill Veeck was concerned the promotion might turn into a disaster and checked himself out of the hospital , where he had been undergoing tests . The elder Veeck 's fears were substantiated when he saw the people walking towards the ballpark that afternoon ; many carried signs that described disco in profane terms .
The doubleheader sold out , leaving at least 20 @,@ 000 people outside the ballpark . Some were not content to remain there , leaping turnstiles , climbing fences , and entering through open windows . The attendance was officially reported as 47 @,@ 795 . Bill Veeck estimated that there were anywhere from 50 @,@ 000 to 55 @,@ 000 in the park — easily the largest crowd of his second stint as White Sox owner . The Chicago Police Department closed off @-@ ramps from the Dan Ryan Expressway near the stadium . Attendees were supposed to deposit their records into a large box , some 4 by 6 by 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 by 1 @.@ 8 by 1 @.@ 5 m ) tall ; once the box was overflowing , many people brought their discs to their seats .
The first game was to begin at 6 pm , with the second game to follow . Lorelei , a model who did public appearances for WLUP and who was very popular in Chicago that summer for her sexually provocative poses in the station 's advertisements , threw out the first pitch . As the first game began , Mike Veeck got word that thousands of people were trying to get into the park without tickets . He sent his security personnel to the stadium gates to keep the would @-@ be gate crashers at bay . This left the field unattended , and fans began throwing the uncollected disco LPs and singles from the stands . Tigers outfielder Rusty Staub remembered that the records would slice through the air , and land sticking out of the ground . He urged teammates to wear batting helmets when playing their positions , " It wasn 't just one , it was many . Oh , God almighty , I 've never seen anything so dangerous in my life . " Attendees also threw firecrackers , empty liquor bottles , and lighters onto the field . The game was stopped several times because of the rain of foreign objects . Dozens of hand @-@ painted banners with such slogans as " Disco sucks " were hung from the ballpark 's seating decks . White Sox broadcaster Harry Caray could see groups of people , who were clearly music rather than baseball fans , wandering through the stadium . Others sat intently in their seats , awaiting the explosion . Mike Veeck later remembered an odor of marijuana in the grandstand and said of the attendees , " This is the Woodstock they never had . " The miasma permeated the press box , which both Caray and his broadcast partner , Jimmy Piersall , commented on over the air . The crowds outside the stadium threw records as well , or gathered them together and burned them in bonfires . Detroit won the first game , 4 – 1 .
= = Explosion = =
The first game ended at 8 : 16 pm ; at 8 : 40 Dahl , dressed in army fatigues and a helmet , emerged onto the playing surface together with Meier and Lorelei . They proceeded to center field where the vinyl @-@ filled box awaited , though they first did a lap of the field in a Jeep , showered ( according to Dahl , lovingly ) by his troops with firecrackers and beer . The large box containing the collected records had been rigged with explosives . Dahl and Meier warmed up the crowd , leading attendees in a chant of " disco sucks " . Lorelei recalled that the view from center field was surreal . On the mound , White Sox pitcher Ken Kravec , scheduled to start the second game , began to warm up . Other White Sox , in the dugout and wearing batting helmets , looked out upon the scene . Fans who felt events were getting out of control and who wished to leave the ballpark had difficulty doing so ; in an effort to deny the intruders entry , security had padlocked all but one gate .
Dahl told the crowd ,
This is now officially the world 's largest anti @-@ disco rally ! Now listen — we took all the disco records you brought tonight , we got ' em in a giant box , and we 're gonna blow ' em up reeeeeeal goooood .
Dahl set off the explosives , destroying the records and tearing a large hole in the outfield grass . With most of the security personnel still watching the gates per Mike Veeck 's orders , there was almost no one guarding the playing surface . Immediately , the first of what would be thousands of attendees rushed onto the field , causing Kravec to flee the mound and join his teammates in a barricaded clubhouse . Between 5 @,@ 000 and 7 @,@ 000 people are estimated to have taken the field . Some climbed the foul poles , others set records on fire , or ripped up the grass . The batting cage was destroyed ; the bases were pulled up and stolen . Among those taking the field was 21 @-@ year @-@ old aspiring actor Michael Clarke Duncan ; during the melee , Duncan slid into third base , had a silver belt buckle stolen , and went home with a bat from the dugout . As Bill Veeck stood with a microphone near where home plate had been , begging people to return to the stands , a bonfire raged in center field .
Years later , Lorelei remembered that she had been waving to the crowd when she was grabbed by two of the bodyguards who had accompanied the Jeep and placed back in the vehicle . The party was unable to return to home plate because of the rowdy fans , so the Jeep was driven out of the stadium and through the surrounding streets , to the delight of the many Cohos outside the stadium who recognized the occupants . They were driven to the front of the stadium , ushered back inside , and taken up to the press room where they had spent most of the first game .
Caray unsuccessfully attempted to restore order via the public address system . The scoreboard , flashing " PLEASE RETURN TO YOUR SEATS " , was ignored as was the playing of " Take Me Out to the Ball Game " . Some of the attendees were dancing in circles around the burning vinyl shards . Dahl offered his help to get the rowdy fans to leave , but it was declined .
At 9 : 08 pm , Chicago police in full riot gear arrived to the applause of the baseball fans remaining in the stands . Those on the field hastily dispersed upon seeing the police . Thirty @-@ nine people were arrested for disorderly conduct ; estimates of injuries to those at the event range from none to over thirty . Bill Veeck wanted the teams to play the second game once order was restored . However , the field was so badly torn up that umpiring crew chief Dave Phillips felt that it was still unplayable even after White Sox groundskeepers spent an hour clearing away debris . Tigers manager Sparky Anderson refused to allow his players to take the field in any event due to safety concerns . Phillips called American League president Lee MacPhail , who postponed the second game to Sunday after hearing a report on conditions . Anderson , however , demanded that the game be forfeited to the Tigers . He argued that under baseball 's rules , a game can only be postponed due to an act of God , and that , as the home team , the White Sox were responsible for field conditions . The next day , MacPhail forfeited the second game to the Tigers 9 – 0 . In a ruling that largely upheld Anderson 's arguments , MacPhail stated that the White Sox had failed to provide acceptable playing conditions .
= = Reaction and aftermath = =
The day after , Dahl began his regular morning broadcast by reading the indignant headlines in the local papers . He mocked the coverage , " I think for the most part everything was wonderful . Some maniac Cohos got wild , went down on the field . Which you shouldn 't have done . Bad little Cohos . " Tigers manager Anderson stated of the events , " Beer and baseball go together , they have for years . But I think those kids were doing things other than beer . " Columnist David Israel of the Chicago Tribune commented on July 12 that he was not surprised by what had occurred , " It would have happened any place 50 @,@ 000 teenagers got together on a sultry summer night with beer and reefer . " White Sox pitcher Rich Wortham , a Texan , suggested , " This wouldn 't have happened if they had country and western night . "
Although Bill Veeck took much of the public criticism for the fiasco , his son Mike suffered repercussions as the actual front @-@ office promoter behind it . Mike Veeck remained with the White Sox until late 1980 , when he resigned ; his father sold the team to Jerry Reinsdorf soon afterward . He was unable to find a job in baseball for several years , leading him to claim that he had been blackballed from the game . For several years , he worked for a jai @-@ alai fronton in Florida , battling alcoholism . As Mike Veeck related , " The second that first guy shimmied down the outfield wall , I knew my life was over ! " Mike Veeck has since become an owner of minor league baseball teams and in July 2014 the Charleston RiverDogs , of whom Veeck is president , held a promotion involving the destruction of Justin Bieber and Miley Cyrus merchandise . Dahl is still a radio personality in Chicago and also reaches his listeners through podcasting .
The popularity of disco declined significantly in late 1979 and 1980 . Many disco artists continued , but record companies began labeling their recordings as dance music . Dahl stated in a 2004 interview that disco was " probably on its way out . But I think it [ Disco Demolition Night ] hastened its demise " . According to Frank , " the Disco Demolition triggered a nationwide expression of anger against disco that caused disco to recede quickly from the American cultural landscape " .
Music critic Dave Marsh recalled his feelings after Disco Demolition Night , " It was your most paranoid fantasy about where the ethnic cleansing of the rock radio could ultimately lead . " Marsh , who wrote for Rolling Stone , was one of the few who at the time deemed the event an expression of bigotry , writing in a column , " white males , eighteen to thirty @-@ four are the most likely to see disco as the product of homosexuals , blacks , and Latins , and therefore they 're the most likely to respond to appeals to wipe out such threats to their security . It goes almost without saying that such appeals are racist and sexist , but broadcasting has never been an especially civil @-@ libertarian medium . " Nile Rodgers , producer and guitarist for the disco @-@ era group Chic , deemed the event akin to Nazi book burning . Gloria Gaynor , who had a huge disco hit with " I Will Survive " , stated , " I 've always believed it was an economic decision — an idea created by someone whose economic bottom line was being adversely affected by the popularity of disco music . So they got a mob mentality going . "
Historian J. Zeitz suggests that while " an obvious explanation for the Disco Demolition Night riot might center on the desire of white , working @-@ class baseball fans to strike out against an art form that they associated with African Americans , gays and lesbians , and Latinos " , he notes that that demographic group ( from which many of the July 12 participants came ) swung wildly in the 1980 presidential primaries and election , first supporting liberal Massachusetts Senator Edward M. Kennedy in the Democratic primary , then the conservative Republican nominee , former California governor Ronald Reagan , in the general election , both times opposing President Jimmy Carter . " Viewed in this light , Disco Demolition Night supports an altogether different interpretation of the 1970s as a decade that saw ordinary Americans gravitate to radical grassroots alternatives , both left and right , out of frustration with the political center . " Concerning the event , University of East London professor Tim Lawrence also proposes that , " Following the unexpected commercial success of Saturday Night Fever , major record companies had started to invest heavily in a sound that their white straight executive class did not care for , and when the overproduction of disco coincided with a deep recession , the homophobic ( and also in many respects sexist and racist ) ' disco sucks ' campaign culminated with a record burning rally that was staged at the home of the Chicago White Sox in July 1979 . "
Nevertheless , Harry Wayne Casey , singer for the disco act KC and the Sunshine Band , did not believe Disco Demolition Night itself was discriminatory , and stated his belief that Dahl was simply an idiot . Dahl himself rejects the notion that prejudice was his motivation for Disco Demolition Night . " The worst thing is people calling Disco Demolition homophobic or racist . It just wasn 't ... We weren 't thinking like that . "
In 2014 Dahl stated that the racist / homophobic view of Disco Demolition Night stemmed from a 1996 VH1 documentary , The Seventies , which presented it in that light ; Mark W. Anderson , in response , suggested that the event gave the participants an opportunity " to say they didn 't like ... who they saw as the potential victors in a cultural and demographic war ... its [ sic ] hard to believe few if any of those who organized the event didn 't see that underlying reality for what it was " .
The unplayed second game remains the last American League game to be forfeited . The last National League game to be forfeited was on August 10 , 1995 , when a baseball giveaway promotion at Dodger Stadium went awry , forcing the Los Angeles Dodgers to concede the game to the St. Louis Cardinals . According to baseball analyst Jeremiah Graves , " To this day Disco Demolition Night stands in infamy as one of the most ill @-@ advised promotions of all @-@ time , but arguably one of the most successful as 30 years later we 're all still talking about it . "
= = Game results = =
Game 1 :
Game 2 forfeited to Detroit , 9 – 0 .
= Battle of Khafji =
The Battle of Khafji was the first major ground engagement of the Gulf War . It took place in and around the Saudi Arabian city of Khafji , from 29 January to 1 February 1991 and marked the culmination of the Coalition 's air campaign over Kuwait and Iraq , which had begun on 17 January 1991 .
Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein , who had already tried and failed to draw Coalition troops into costly ground engagements by shelling Saudi positions and oil storage tanks and firing Scud surface @-@ to @-@ surface missiles at Israel , ordered the invasion of Saudi Arabia from southern Kuwait . The 1st and 5th Mechanized Divisions and 3rd Armored Division were ordered to conduct a multi @-@ pronged invasion toward Khafji , engaging American , Saudi and Qatari forces along the coastline . These three divisions , which had been heavily damaged by Coalition aircraft in the preceding days , attacked on 29 January . Most of their attacks were repulsed by U.S. Marines as well as U.S. Army Rangers and Coalition aircraft , but one of the Iraqi columns occupied Khafji on the night of 29 – 30 January . Between 30 January and 1 February , two Saudi Arabian National Guard battalions and two Qatari tank companies attempted to retake control of the city , aided by Coalition aircraft and American artillery . By 1 February , the city had been recaptured at the cost of 43 Coalition servicemen dead and 52 wounded . Iraqi Army fatalities numbered between 60 and 300 , while an estimated 400 were captured as prisoners of war .
Although the invasion of Khafji was initially a propaganda victory for the Ba 'athist Iraqi government , it was swiftly recaptured by Saudi and Qatari ground forces . The battle serves as a modern demonstration that air power in a supporting role to ground forces can be of great assistance in halting and defeating a major ground operation .
= = Background = =
On 2 August 1990 , the Iraqi Army invaded and occupied the neighboring state of Kuwait . The invasion , which followed the inconclusive Iran – Iraq War and three decades of political conflict with Kuwait , offered Saddam Hussein the opportunity to distract political dissent at home and add Kuwait 's oil resources to Iraq 's own , a boon in a time of declining petroleum prices .
In response , the United Nations began to pass a series of resolutions demanding the withdrawal of Iraqi forces from Kuwait . Afraid that Saudi Arabia would be invaded next , the Saudi government requested immediate military aid . As a result , the United States began marshalling forces from a variety of nations , styled the Coalition , on the Arabian peninsula . Initially , Saddam Hussein attempted to deter Coalition military action by threatening Kuwait 's and Iraq 's petroleum production and export . In December 1990 , Iraq experimented with the use of explosives to destroy wellheads in the area of the Ahmadi loading complex , developing their capability to destroy Kuwait 's petroleum infrastructure on a large scale . On 16 January , Iraqi artillery destroyed an oil storage tank in Khafji , Saudi Arabia , and on 19 January the pumps at the Ahmadi loading complex were opened , pouring crude oil into the Persian Gulf . The oil flowed into the sea at a rate of 200 @,@ 000 barrels a day , becoming one of the worst ecological disasters to that date .
Despite these Iraqi threats , the Coalition launched a 38 @-@ day aerial campaign on 17 January 1991 . Flying an estimated 2 @,@ 000 sorties a day , Coalition aircraft rapidly crippled the Iraqi air defense systems and effectively destroyed the Iraqi Air Force , whose daily sortie rate plummeted from a prewar level of an estimated 200 per day to almost none by 17 January . On the third day of the campaign , many Iraqi pilots fled across the Iranian border in their aircraft rather than be destroyed . The air campaign also targeted command @-@ and @-@ control sites , bridges , railroads , and petroleum storage facilities .
Saddam Hussein , who is believed to have said , " The air force has never decided a war , " nevertheless worried that the air campaign would erode Iraq 's national morale . The Iraqi leader also believed that the United States would not be willing to lose many troops in action , and therefore sought to draw Coalition ground troops into a decisive battle . In an attempt to provoke a ground battle , he directed Iraqi forces to launch Scud missiles against Israel , while continuing to threaten the destruction of oilfields in Kuwait . These efforts were unsuccessful in provoking a large ground battle , so Saddam Hussein decided to launch a limited offensive into Saudi Arabia with the aim of inflicting heavy losses on the Coalition armies .
As the air campaign continued , the Coalition 's expectations of an Iraqi offensive decreased . As a result , the United States redeployed the XVIII Airborne Corps and the VII Corps 480 kilometers ( 300 mi ) to the west . The Coalition 's leadership believed that should an Iraqi force go on the offensive , it would be launched from the al @-@ Wafra oil fields , in Southern Kuwait .
= = Order of battle = =
The Iraqi Army had between 350 @,@ 000 and 500 @,@ 000 soldiers in theater , organized into 51 divisions , including eight Republican Guard divisions . Republican Guard units normally received the newest equipment ; for example , most of the estimated 1 @,@ 000 T @-@ 72 tanks in the Iraqi Army on the eve of the war were in Republican Guard divisions . The Iraqi Army in the Kuwaiti Theater of Operations ( KTO ) also included nine heavy divisions , composed mostly of professional soldiers , but with weapons of a generally lesser grade than those issued to the Republican Guard .
Most non @-@ Republican Guard armored units had older tank designs , mainly the T @-@ 55 or its Chinese equivalents , the Type 59 and Type 69 . The remaining 34 divisions were composed of poorly trained conscripts . These divisions were deployed to channel the Coalition 's forces through a number of break points along the front , allowing the Iraqi Army 's heavy divisions and the Republican Guard units to isolate them and counterattack . However , the Iraqis left their western flank open , failing to account for tactics made possible by the Global Positioning System and other new technologies .
In Saudi Arabia , the Coalition originally deployed over 200 @,@ 000 soldiers , 750 aircraft and 1 @,@ 200 tanks . This quickly grew to 3 @,@ 600 tanks and over 600 @,@ 000 personnel , of whom over 500 @,@ 000 were from the United States .
= = = Iraqi forces = = =
Earmarked for the offensive into Saudi Arabia was the Iraqi Third Corps , the 1st Mechanized Division from Fourth Corps and a number of commando units . Third Corps , commanded by Major General Salah Aboud Mahmoud ( who would also command the overall offensive ) , had 3rd Armored Division and 5th Mechanized Division , as well as a number of infantry divisions . Fourth Corps ' commander was Major General Yaiyd Khalel Zaki . The 3rd Armored Division had a number of T @-@ 72 tanks , the only non @-@ Republican Guard force to have them , while the other armored battalions had T @-@ 62s and T @-@ 55s , a few of which had an Iraqi appliqué armor similar to the Soviet bulging armor also known as " brow " laminate armor or BDD .
During the battle of Khafji , these upgraded T @-@ 55s survived impacts from MILAN anti @-@ tank missiles . These divisions also had armored personnel vehicles such as the BMP @-@ 1 , scout vehicles such as the BRDM @-@ 2 , and several types of artillery . Also deployed along this portion of the front , though not chosen to participate in the invasion , were five infantry divisions that were under orders to remain in their defensive positions along the border .
U.S. Marine Corps reconnaissance estimated that the Iraqi Army had amassed around 60 @,@ 000 troops across the border , near the Kuwaiti town of Wafra , in as many as 5 or 6 divisions . Infantry divisions normally consisted of three brigades with an attached commando unit , although some infantry divisions could have up to eight brigades – however most infantry divisions along the border were understrength , primarily due to desertion .
Armored and mechanized divisions normally made use of three brigades , with each brigade having up to four combat battalions ; depending on the division type , these were generally a three to one mix , with either three mechanized battalions and one armored battalion , or vice versa . Given the size of the forces deployed across the border , it is thought that the Iraqi Army planned to continue the offensive , after the successful capture of Khafji , in order to seize the valuable oil fields at Dammam .
The attack would consist of a four @-@ prong offensive . The 1st Mechanized Division would pass through the 7th and 14th Infantry Divisions to protect the flank of the 3rd Armored Division , which would provide a blocking force west of Khafji while the 5th Mechanized Division took the town . The 1st Mechanized and 3rd Armored divisions would then retire to Kuwait , while the 5th Mechanized Division would wait until the Coalition launched a counteroffensive . The principal objectives were to inflict heavy casualties on the attacking Coalition soldiers and take prisoners of war , who Saddam Hussein theorized would be an excellent bargaining tool with the Coalition .
As the units moved to the Saudi border , many were attacked by Coalition aircraft . Around the Al @-@ Wafrah forest , about 1 @,@ 000 Iraqi armored fighting vehicles were attacked by Harrier aircraft with Rockeye cluster bombs . Another Iraqi convoy of armored vehicles was hit by A @-@ 10s , which destroyed the first and last vehicles , before systematically attacking the stranded remainders . Such air raids prevented the majority of the Iraqi troops deployed for the offensive from taking part in it .
= = = Coalition forces = = =
During the buildup of forces , the United States had built observation posts along the Kuwaiti @-@ Saudi border to gather intelligence on Iraqi forces . These were manned by United States Navy SEALs , Marine Corps Force Reconnaissance and Army Special Forces personnel . Observation post 8 was farthest to the east , on the coast , and another seven observation posts were positioned each 20 km ( 12 mi ) until the end of the " heel " , the geographic panhandle of southernmost Kuwait . Observation posts 8 and 7 overlooked the coastal highway that ran to Khafji , considered the most likely invasion route of the city . 1st Marine Division had three companies positioned at observation posts 4 , 5 and 6 ( Task Force Shepard ) , while the 2nd Marine Division 's 2nd Light Armored Infantry Battalion set up a screen between observation post 1 and the Al @-@ Wafrah oil fields . The U.S. Army 's 2nd Armored Division provided its 1st Tiger Brigade to give the Marines some much needed armored support .
The Saudis gave responsibility for the defense of Khafji to the 2nd Saudi Arabian National Guard Brigade and a Qatari armored battalion , attached to Task Force Abu Bakr . The 5th Battalion of the 2nd Saudi Arabian National Guard Brigade set up a screen north and west of Khafji , under observation post 7 . At the time , a Saudi Arabian National Guard Brigade could have up to four motorized battalions , each with three line companies . The brigade had a nominal strength of an estimated 5 @,@ 000 soldiers . The Saudis also deployed the Tariq Task Force , composed of Saudi Arabian Marines and a battalion of Moroccan infantry . Two further task forces , Othman and Omar Task Forces , consisted of two Mechanized Ministry of Defense and Aviation Brigades , providing screens about 3 km ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) south of the border . The country 's main defenses were placed 20 km ( 12 mi ) south of the screen .
The majority of the Arab contingent was led by General Khaled bin Sultan . The forces around Khafji were organized into the Joint Forces Command @-@ East , while Joint Forces Command @-@ North defended the border between observation post 1 and the Kuwaiti @-@ Iraqi border .
= = Battle = =
On 27 January 1991 , Iraqi President Saddam Hussein met in Basra with the two Iraqi army corps commanders who would lead the operation , and Major General Salah Mahmoud told him that Khafji would be his by 30 January . During his return trip to Baghdad , Saddam Hussein 's convoy was attacked by Coalition aircraft ; the Iraqi leader escaped unscathed .
Throughout 28 January , the Coalition received a number of warnings suggesting an impending Iraqi offensive . The Coalition was flying two brand @-@ new E @-@ 8A Joint Surveillance Target Attack Radar System ( Joint STARS ) aircraft , which picked up the deployment and movement of Iraqi forces to the area opposite of Khafji . Observation posts 2 , 7 and 8 also detected heavy Iraqi reconnoitering along the border , and their small teams of air @-@ naval gunfire liaison Marines called in air and artillery strikes throughout the day . Lieutenant Colonel Richard Barry , commander of the forward headquarters of the 1st Surveillance , Reconnaissance and Intelligence Group , sent warnings about an impending attack to Central Command . CentCom leaders were too preoccupied with the air campaign to heed them however , and so the Iraqi operation came as a surprise .
= = = Beginning of Iraqi offensive : 29 January = = =
The Iraqi offensive began on the night of 29 January , when approximately 2 @,@ 000 soldiers in several hundred armored fighting vehicles moved south . The Gulf War 's first ground engagement was near observation post 4 , built on the Al @-@ Zabr police building . Elements of the Iraqi 6th Armored Brigade , ordered to take the heights above Al @-@ Zabr , engaged Coalition units at Al @-@ Zabr . At 20 : 00 hours , U.S. Marines at the observation post , who had noticed large groups of armored vehicles through their night vision devices , attempted to talk to battalion headquarters but received no response . Contact was not established until 20 : 30 hours , which prompted Task Force Shepard to respond to the threat . Coalition soldiers at observation post 4 opened fire on the Iraqi column , but this largely ineffective fire drew a heavy Iraqi response which forced the company to retire south , by order of its commanding officer .
To cover the withdrawal , the company 's platoon of LAV @-@ 25s and LAV @-@ ATs ( anti @-@ tank variants ) moved to engage the Iraqi force . One of the anti @-@ tank vehicles opened fire , after receiving permission , at what it believed was an Iraqi tank . Instead , the missile destroyed a friendly LAV @-@ AT a few hundred meters in front of it . Despite this loss , the platoon continued forward and soon opened fire on the Iraqi tanks with the LAV @-@ 25s ' autocannons . The fire could not penetrate the tanks ' armor , but did damage their optics and prevented the tanks from fighting back effectively .
Soon thereafter , a number of A @-@ 10 ground @-@ attack aircraft arrived but found it difficult to pinpoint enemy targets and began dropping flares to illuminate the zone . One of these flares landed on a friendly vehicle , and although the vehicle radioed in its position , it was hit by an AGM @-@ 65 Maverick air @-@ to @-@ ground missile that killed the entire crew except for the driver . Following the incident , the company was withdrawn and the remaining vehicles reorganized into another nearby company . With observation post 4 cleared , the Iraqi 6th Armored Brigade withdrew over the border to Al @-@ Wafrah under heavy fire from Coalition aircraft . Coalition forces had lost 11 troops to friendly fire and none to enemy action .
While the events at observation post 4 were unfolding , the Iraqi 5th Mechanized Division crossed the Saudi border near observation post 1 . A Company of the 2nd Light Infantry Armored Battalion , which was screening the Iraqi unit , reported a column of 60 – 100 BMPs . The column was engaged by Coalition A @-@ 10s and Harrier jump jets . This was then followed by another column with an estimated 29 tanks . One of the column 's T @-@ 62 tanks was engaged by an anti @-@ tank missile and destroyed . Coalition air support , provided by A @-@ 10s and F @-@ 16s , engaged the Iraqi drive through observation post 1 and ultimately repulsed the attack back over the Kuwaiti border . Aircraft continued to engage the columns throughout the night , until the next morning . Another column of Iraqi tanks , approaching observation post 2 , were engaged by aircraft and also repulsed that night .
An additional Iraqi column crossed the Saudi border to the East , although still along the coast , towards the city of Khafji . These Iraqi tanks were screened by the 5th Mechanized Battalion of the 2nd Saudi Arabian National Guard Brigade . This battalion withdrew when it came under heavy fire , as it had been ordered to not engage the Iraqi column . Elements of the 8th and 10th Saudi Arabian National Guard Brigades also conducted similar screening operations . Due to the order to not engage , the road to Khafji was left open . At one point , Iraqi T @-@ 55s of another column rolled up to the Saudi border , signaling that they intended to surrender . As they were approached by Saudi Arabian troops , they reversed their turrets and opened fire . This prompted air support from a nearby AC @-@ 130 , destroying 13 vehicles .
Nevertheless , the Iraqi advance towards Khafji continued on this sector , despite repeated attacks from an AC @-@ 130 . Attempts by the Saudi commanders to call in additional air strikes on the advancing Iraqi column failed when the requested heavy air support never arrived . Khafji was occupied by approximately 00 : 30 on 30 January , trapping two six @-@ man reconnaissance teams from the 1st Marine Division in the city . The teams occupied two apartment buildings in the southern sector of the city and called artillery fire on their position to persuade the Iraqis to call off a search of the area . Throughout the night , Coalition air support composed of helicopters and fixed @-@ wing aircraft continued to engage Iraqi tanks and artillery .
= = = Initial response : 30 January = = =
Distressed by the occupation of Khafji , Saudi commander General Khaled bin Sultan appealed to American General Norman Schwarzkopf for an immediate air campaign against Iraqi forces in and around the city . However this was turned down because the buildings will make it difficult for aircraft to spot targets without getting too close . It was instead decided that the city would be retaken by Arab ground forces . The task fell to the 2nd Saudi Arabian National Guard Brigade 's 7th Battalion , composed of Saudi infantry and two Qatari tank companies attached to the task force . These were supported by U.S. Army Special Forces and Marine Reconnaissance personnel .
The force was put under the command of Saudi Lieutenant Colonel Matar , who moved out by 17 : 00 hours . The force met up with elements of the U.S. 3rd Marine Regiment , south of Khafji , and were ordered to directly attack the city . The engagement of that night was to be the first battle the Qatari Army had seen in its entire history . A platoon of Iraqi T @-@ 55s attacked a Qatari tank company south of the city , leading to the destruction of three T @-@ 55s by Qatari AMX @-@ 30s , and the capture of a fourth Iraqi tank . Lacking any coordinated artillery support , artillery fire was provided by the 10th Marine Regiment .
An initial attack on the city was called off after the Iraqi occupants opened up with heavy fire , prompting the Saudis to reinforce the 7th Battalion with two more companies from adjacent Saudi units . The attempt to retake the city had been preceded by a 15 @-@ minute preparatory fire from U.S. Marine artillery . However Iraqi fire did manage to destroy one Saudi V @-@ 150 armored personnel carrier .
Meanwhile , 2nd Saudi Arabian National Guard Brigade 's 5th Battalion moved north of Khafji to block Iraqi reinforcements attempting to reach the city . This unit was further bolstered by the 8th Ministry of Defense and Aviation Brigade , and heavily aided by Coalition air support . Although fear of friendly fire forced the 8th Ministry of Defense and Aviation Brigade to pull back the following morning , Coalition aircraft successfully hindered Iraqi attempts to move more soldiers down to Khafji and caused large numbers of Iraqi troops to surrender to Saudi forces .
That night , two U.S. Army heavy equipment transporters entered the city of Khafji , apparently lost , and were fired upon by Iraqi troops . Although one truck managed to turn around and escape , the two drivers of the second truck were wounded and captured . This led to a rescue mission organized by 3rd Battalion 3rd Marine Regiment , which sent a force of 30 men to extract the two wounded drivers . Although encountering no major opposition , they did not find the two drivers who had , by this time , been taken prisoner . The Marines did find a burnt out Qatari AMX @-@ 30 , with its dead crew . That same night , a U.S. Air Force AC @-@ 130 was shot down by an Iraqi surface @-@ to @-@ air missile ( SAM ) , killing the aircraft 's crew of 14 .
The interdiction on the part of Coalition aircraft and Saudi and Qatari ground forces was having an effect on the occupying Iraqi troops . Referring to Saddam Hussein 's naming of the ground engagement as the " mother of all battles " , Iraqi General Salah radioed in a request to withdraw , stating , " The mother was killing her children . " Since the beginning of the battle , Coalition aircraft had flown at least 350 sorties against Iraqi units in the area and on the night of 30 – 31 January , Coalition air support also began to attack units of the Iraqi Third Corps assembled on the Saudi border .
= = = Recapture of Khafji : 31 January – 1 February = = =
On 31 January , the effort to retake the city began anew . The attack was launched at 08 : 30 hours , and was met by inaccurate Iraqi fire which knocked @-@ out two Saudi V @-@ 150 wheeled vehicles . The 8th battalion of the Saudi brigade was ordered to deploy to the city by 10 : 00 hours , while 5th Battalion to the north engaged another column of Iraqi tanks attempting to reach the city . The latter engagement led to the destruction of around 13 Iraqi tanks and armored personnel carriers , and the capture of 6 more vehicles and 116 Iraqi soldiers , costing the Saudi battalion two dead and two wounded . The 8th Battalion engaged the city from the northeast , linking up with | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
7th Battalion . These units cleared the southern portion of the city , until 7th Battalion withdrew south to rest and rearm at 18 : 30 hours , while the 8th remained in Khafji .
The 8th continued clearing buildings and by the time the 7th had withdrawn to the south , the Saudis had lost approximately 18 dead and 50 wounded , as well as seven V @-@ 150 vehicles . Coalition aircraft continued to provide heavy support throughout the day and night . A veteran of the Iran @-@ Iraq War later mentioned that Coalition airpower " imposed more damage on his brigade in half an hour than it had sustained in eight years of fighting against the Iranians . " During the battle , an Iraqi amphibious force was sent to land on the coast and move into Khafji . As the boats made their way through the Persian Gulf towards Khafji , American and British aircraft caught the Iraqi boats in the open and largely destroyed the Iraqi amphibious force .
The Saudi and Qatari units renewed operations the following day . Two Iraqi companies , with about 20 armored vehicles , remained in the city and had not attempted to break out during the night . While the Saudi 8th Battalion continued operations in the southern portion of the city , the 7th Battalion began to clear the northern sector of the city . Iraqi resistance was sporadic and most Iraqi soldiers surrendered on sight ; as a result , the city was recaptured on 1 February 1991 .
= = Aftermath = =
During the battle , Coalition forces incurred 43 fatalities and 52 injured casualties . This included 25 Americans killed , 11 of them by friendly fire along with 14 airmen killed when their AC @-@ 130 was shot down by Iraqi SAMs . The Americans also had two soldiers wounded and another two soldiers were captured in Khafji . Saudi and Qatari casualties totaled 18 killed and 50 wounded . Two Qatari AMX @-@ 30s main battle tanks and between seven and ten lightly armored Saudi V @-@ 150s were knocked out . Most of the V150s were knocked out by RPG @-@ 7 fire in close @-@ range fighting inside the town of Khafji , although one of the two that was a catastrophic kill was hit by a 100mm main gun round from a T @-@ 55 . Iraq listed its casualties as 71 dead , 148 wounded and 702 missing . U.S. sources present at the battle claim that 300 Iraqis lost their lives , and at least 90 vehicles were destroyed . Another source suggests that 60 Iraqi soldiers were killed and at least 400 taken prisoner , while no less than 80 armored vehicles were knocked out ; however these casualties are attributed to the fighting both inside and directly north of Khafji . Whatever the exact casualties , the majority of three Iraqi mechanized / armored divisions had been destroyed . The U.S. Army 's 2nd Armored Division 's 1st Tiger Brigade claims 181 destroyed or captured enemy tanks , 148 APCs , 40 artillery pieces , 27 AA emplacements , 263 Iraqi dead and 4 @,@ 051 captured after 100 hours of combat .
The Iraqi capture of Khafji was a major propaganda victory for Iraq : on 30 January Iraqi radio claimed that they had " expelled Americans from the Arab territory " . For many in the Arab world , the battle of Khafji was seen as an Iraqi victory , and Hussein made every possible effort to turn the battle into a political victory . On the other side , confidence within the United States Armed Forces in the abilities of the Saudi and Qatari armies increased as the battle progressed . After Khafji , the Coalition 's leadership began to sense that the Iraqi Army was a " hollow force " and it provided them with an impression of the degree of resistance they would face during the Coalition 's ground offensive that would begin later that month . The battle was also a major propaganda victory for Saudi Arabia , which had successfully defended its territory .
Despite the success of the engagements between 29 January and 1 February , the Coalition did not launch its main offensive into Kuwait and Iraq until the night of 24 – 25 February . The invasion of Iraq was completed about 48 hours later . The Battle of Khafji served as a modern example of the ability of air power to serve a supporting role to ground forces . It offered the Coalition an indication of the manner in which Operation Desert Storm would be fought , but also hinted at future friendly @-@ fire casualties which accounted for nearly half of the American dead .
= Marshalsea =
The Marshalsea ( 1373 – 1842 ) was a notorious prison in Southwark ( now London ) , just south of the River Thames . It housed a variety of prisoners over the centuries , including men accused of crimes at sea and political figures charged with sedition , but it became known , in particular , for its incarceration of the poorest of London 's debtors . Over half the population of England 's prisons in the 18th century were in jail because of debt .
Run privately for profit , as were all English prisons until the 19th century , the Marshalsea looked like an Oxbridge college and functioned as an extortion racket . Debtors in the 18th century who could afford the prison fees had access to a bar , shop and restaurant , and retained the crucial privilege of being allowed out during the day , which gave them a chance to earn money for their creditors . Everyone else was crammed into one of nine small rooms with dozens of others , possibly for years for the most modest of debts , which increased as unpaid prison fees accumulated . The poorest faced starvation and , if they crossed the jailers , torture with skullcaps and thumbscrews . A parliamentary committee reported in 1729 that 300 inmates had starved to death within a three @-@ month period , and that eight to ten were dying every 24 hours in the warmer weather .
The prison became known around the world in the 19th century through the writing of the English novelist Charles Dickens , whose father was sent there in 1824 , when Dickens was 12 , for a debt to a baker . Forced as a result to leave school to work in a factory , Dickens based several of his characters on his experience , most notably Amy Dorrit , whose father is in the Marshalsea for debts so complex no one can fathom how to get him out .
Much of the prison was demolished in the 1870s , though parts of it were used as shops and rooms into the 20th century . A local library now stands on the site . All that is left of the Marshalsea is the long brick wall that marked its southern boundary , the existence of what Dickens called " the crowding ghosts of many miserable years " recalled only by a plaque from the local council . " [ I ] t is gone now , " he wrote , " and the world is none the worse without it . "
= = Background = =
= = = Etymology , Marshalsea Court = = =
Marshalsea or marshalcy referred to the office of a marshal , derived from the Anglo @-@ French mareschalcie . Marshal originally meant farrier , from the Old Germanic marh ( horse ) and scalc ( servant ) , later a title bestowed on those presiding over the courts of Medieval Europe .
Marshalsea was originally the name of the Marshalsea Court . The prison was built to hold prisoners brought before that court and the Court of the King 's Bench , to which Marshalsea rulings could be appealed . Also called the Court of the Verge , and the Court of the Marshalsea of the Household of the Kings of England , the Marshalsea court was a jurisdiction of the royal household that , from around 1290 , governed household members who lived within the verge , defined as within 12 miles ( 19 km ) of the king .
From 1530 to 1698 the verge was usually 12 miles around the Palace of Whitehall , the royal family 's main residence . But the Marshalsea was an ambulatory court that moved around the country with the king , dealing with trespass , contempt and debt , and increasingly it came to be used by people not connected to the royal household .
= = = Southwark = = =
Southwark was settled by the Romans around 43 CE . It served as an entry point into London from southern England , particularly along Watling Street , the Roman road from Canterbury ; this ran into what is now Southwark 's Borough High Street and from there north to old London Bridge . The area became known for its travellers and inns , including Geoffrey Chaucer 's Tabard Inn . The itinerant population brought with it poverty , prostitutes , bear baiting , theatres ( including Shakespeare 's Globe ) and prisons . In 1796 there were five prisons in Southwark – the Clink , King 's Bench , Borough Compter , White Lion and the Marshalsea – compared to 18 in London as a whole .
= = = Prisons in England = = =
Until the 19th century imprisonment in England was not viewed as a punishment in itself , except for minor offences such as vagrancy . Prisons simply held people until their creditors had been paid or their fate decided by judges ; options included execution ( ended 1964 ) , flogging ( 1962 ) , the stocks ( 1872 ) , the pillory ( 1830 ) , the ducking stool ( 1817 ) , joining the military , or penal transportation to America or Australia ( 1867 ) . In 1774 there were just over 4 @,@ 000 prisoners in Britain , half of them debtors , out of a population of six million . ( In 2010 there were over 85 @,@ 000 prisoners in England and Wales out of a population of 56 million . )
Eighteenth @-@ century prisons were effectively lodging houses . Poorly maintained and often filthy , they might consist of a couple of rooms in a cellar . Before the Gaols Act 1823 , then the Prisons Act of 1835 and 1877 , they were administered by the royal household , the aristocracy and the bishops , and run for profit by private individuals who bought the right to manage and make money from them .
Prisoners had to pay rent , feed and clothe themselves and , in the larger prisons , furnish their rooms . One man found not guilty at trial in 1669 was not released because he owed prison fees from his pre @-@ trial confinement , a position supported by the judge , Matthew Hale . Jailers sold food or let out space for others to open shops ; the Marshalsea contained several shops and small restaurants .
Prisoners with no money or external support faced starvation . If the prison did supply food to its non @-@ paying inmates , it was purchased with charitable donations — donations sometimes siphoned off by the jailers — usually bread and water with a small amount of meat , or something confiscated as unfit for human consumption . Jailers would load prisoners with fetters and other iron , then charge for their removal , known as " easement of irons " ( or " choice of irons " ) ; this became known as the " trade of chains . "
The prison reformer John Howard travelled around the country in the 1770s inspecting jails , and presented his research in The State of the Prisons in England and Wales ( 1777 ) . In a jail owned by the Bishop of Ely , Howard wrote , prisoners had ten years earlier been kept chained to the floor on their backs , with spiked collars round their necks and iron bars over their legs . The Duke of Portland had a one @-@ room cellar in Chesterfield that housed four prisoners , with no straw or heat , which had not been cleaned for months . Lord Arundel owned a jail in Penzance , where Howard found a debtor in a room 11 ft x 11 ft and 6 ft high , with a small window . The door of the room had not been opened for four weeks .
= = = Debt in England = = =
Before the Bankruptcy Act of 1869 , debtors in England were routinely imprisoned at the pleasure of their creditors . Around 10 @,@ 000 people in England and Wales were in prison for debt in 1641 , often for small amounts . In the 18th century debtors comprised over half the prison population : 945 of London 's 1 @,@ 500 prisoners in 1779 were debtors . Other European countries had legislation limiting imprisonment for debt to one year , but debtors in England were imprisoned until their creditors were satisfied . When the Fleet Prison closed in 1842 , two debtors were found to have been there for 30 years .
Prisoners would often take their families with them , which meant that entire communities sprang up inside the debtors ' jails . The community created its own economy , with jailers charging for room , food , drink and furniture , or selling concessions to others , and attorneys charging fees in fruitless efforts to get the debtors out . Prisoners ' families , including children , often had to find employment simply to cover the cost of the imprisonment .
Legislation began to address the problem from 1649 onwards , but it was slow to make a difference . Helen Small writes that , under George III ( 1760 – 1820 ) , new legislation prevented debts of under 40 shillings leading to jail ( £ 409 in 2014 ) , but even the smallest debt would exceed that once lawyers ' fees were added . Under the Insolvent Debtors Act 1813 , debtors could request release after 14 days by taking an oath that their assets did not exceed £ 20 , but if a creditor objected they had to stay inside . Even after years in prison , the debt remained to be paid .
= = First Marshalsea ( 1373 – 1811 ) = =
= = = Overview , sources = = =
The Marshalsea occupied two buildings on the same street in Southwark . The first dated back to the 14th century at what would now be 161 Borough High Street , between King Street and Mermaid Court . By the late 16th century the building was crumbling . In 1799 the government reported that it would be rebuilt 130 yards ( 119 m ) south on what is now 211 Borough High Street .
Measuring around 150 by 50 feet ( 46m x 15m ) , with a turreted front lodge , the first Marshalsea was set slightly back from Borough High Street . There is no record of when it was built . Historian Jerry White writes that it existed by 1300 , but according to Ida Darlington , editor of the 1955 Survey of London , there is a mention of " the good men of the town of Suthwerk " being granted a licence in 1373 to build a house on Southwark 's High Street to hold prisoners appearing before the Marshalsea of the King 's household . Darlington writes that earlier mentions of a Marshalsea prison may refer to other prisons , one kept by the Knight Marshal at York and another at Canterbury . There is a reference to the Marshalsea prison in Southwark being set on fire in 1381 by Wat Tyler during the Peasants ' Revolt .
Most of the first Marshalsea , as with the second , was taken up by debtors ; in 1773 debtors within 12 miles of Westminster could be imprisoned there for a debt of 40 shillings . Jerry White writes that London 's poorest debtors were housed in the Marshalsea . Wealthier debtors arranged to be moved – regularly securing their removal from the Marshalsea by writ of habeas corpus – to the Fleet or the King 's Bench , both of which were more comfortable . The prison also held a small number of men being tried at the Old Bailey for crimes at sea .
The Marshalsea was technically under the control of the Knight Marshal , but was let out to others who ran it for profit . For example , in 1727 the Knight Marshal , Sir Philip Meadows , hired John Darby , a printer , as prison governor , who in turn leased it to William Acton , a butcher ( who was later tried for murdering three of its prisoners ) . Acton had previously worked as one of the prison 's turnkeys . He paid Darby £ 140 a year ( roughly £ 18 @,@ 780 ) for a seven @-@ year lease , giving him the right to act as resident warden and chief turnkey , and an additional £ 260 for the right to collect rent from the rooms , and sell food and drink .
Much of our information about the first Marshalsea is about the prison in the early 18th @-@ century , courtesy of three sources . John Baptist Grano ( 1692 – c . 1748 ) , one of George Frederick Handel 's trumpeters at the opera house in London 's Haymarket , was jailed there for a debt of £ 99 ( £ 12 @,@ 000 today ) , and kept a detailed diary , A Journal of My Life inside the Marshalsea , of his 458 @-@ day incarceration from 30 May 1728 until 23 September 1729 . The other two key sources are a 1729 report by a parliamentary committee , led by James Oglethorpe MP , on the state of the Fleet and the Marshalsea , and the subsequent murder trial that year of William Acton , the Marshalsea 's chief jailor .
= = = Master 's side = = =
By the 18th century , the prison had separate areas for its two classes of prisoner : the master 's side , which housed about 50 rooms for rent , and the common or poor side , consisting of nine small rooms , or wards , into which 300 people were confined from dusk until dawn . Room rents on the master 's side were ten shillings a week in 1728 , with most prisoners forced to share . John Baptist Grano paid 2s 6d ( two shillings and six pennies ) for a room with two beds on the master 's side , shared with three other prisoners : Daniel Blunt , a tailor who owed £ 9 , Benjamin Sandford , a lighterman from Bermondsey who owed £ 55 , and a Mr. Blundell , a jeweller . Women prisoners who could pay the fees were housed in the women 's quarters , known as the oak . The wives , daughters and lovers of male prisoners were allowed to live with them , if someone was paying their way .
Known as the castle by inmates , the prison had a turreted lodge at the entrance , with a side room called the pound , where new prisoners would wait until a room was found for them . The front lodge led to a courtyard known as the park . This had been divided in two by a long narrow wall , so that prisoners from the common side could not be seen by those on the master 's side , who preferred not to be distressed by the sight of abject poverty , especially when they might themselves be plunged into it at any moment .
There was a bar run by the governor 's wife , and a chandler 's shop run in 1728 by a Mr and Mrs Cary , both prisoners , which sold candles , soap and a little food . There was a coffee shop run in 1729 by a long @-@ term prisoner , Sarah Bradshaw , and a steak house called Titty Doll 's run by another prisoner , Richard McDonnell , and his wife . There was also a tailor and a barber , and prisoners from the master 's side could hire prisoners from the common side to act as their servants .
The prison reformer John Howard visited the Marshalsea on 16 March 1774 . He reported that there was no infirmary , and that the practice of " garnish " was in place , whereby new prisoners were bullied into giving money to the older prisoners upon arrival . Five rooms on the master 's side were being let to a man who was not a prisoner ; he had set up a chandler 's shop in one of them , lived in two others with his family , and sublet two to prisoners . During Howard 's visit , the tap room , or beer room , had been let to a prisoner who was living " within the rules " or " within the liberty " of the King 's Bench prison ; this meant that he was a King 's Bench inmate who , for a fee , was allowed to live outside , within a certain radius of the prison . Although legislation prohibited jailers from having a pecuniary interest in the sale of alcohol within their prisons , it was a rule that was completely ignored . Howard reported that , in the summer of 1775 , 600 pots of beer were brought into the Marshalsea one Sunday from a public house , because the prisoners did not like the beer in the tap room .
= = = Common side = = =
Prisoners on the master 's side rarely ventured to the common side . John Baptist Grano went there just once , on 5 August 1728 , writing in his diary that , " I thought it would have kill 'd me . " There was no need for other prisoners to see it , John Ginger writes . It was enough that they knew it existed to keep the rental money , legal fees and other gratuities flowing from their families , fees that anywhere else would have seen them living in the lap of luxury , but which in the Marshalsea could be trusted merely to stave off disease and starvation .
By all accounts , living conditions in the common side were horrific . In 1639 prisoners complained that 23 women were being held in one room without space to lie down , leading to a revolt , with prisoners pulling down fences and attacking the guards with stones . Prisoners were regularly beaten with a " bull 's pizzle " ( a whip made from a bull 's penis ) , or tortured with thumbscrews and a skullcap , a vice for the head that weighed 12 lb ( 5 @.@ 4 kg ) .
What often finished them off was being forced to lie in the strong room , a windowless shed near the main sewer , next to cadavers awaiting burial and piles of night soil . Dickens described it as " dreaded by even the most dauntless highwaymen and bearable only to toads and rats . " One apparently diabetic army officer who died in the strong room – he had been ejected from the common side because inmates had complained about the smell of his urine – had his face eaten by rats within hours of his death , according to a witness .
When William Acton ran the jail in the 1720s , the income from charities , collected to buy food for inmates on the common side , was directed instead to a group of trusted prisoners who policed the prison on Acton 's behalf . The same group swore during Acton 's trial in 1729 for murder that the strong room was the best room in the house . Ginger writes that Acton and his wife , who lived in a comfortable apartment near the lodge , knew they were sitting on a powder keg : " When each morning the smell of freshly baked bread filled ... the yard ... only brutal suppression could prevent the Common Side from erupting . "
= = = 1729 Gaols Committee = = =
The common side did erupt after a fashion in 1728 when Robert Castell , an architect and debtor in the Fleet prison , who had been living in lodgings outside the jail within the rules , was taken to a " sponging house " after refusing to pay a higher prison fee to the Fleet 's notorious warden , Thomas Bambridge . Sponging houses were private lodgings where prisoners were incarcerated before being taken to jail ; they acquired the name because they squeezed the prisoner 's last money out of him . When Castell arrived at the sponging house on 14 November he was forced to share space with a man who was dying of smallpox , and as a result became infected and died less than a month later .
Castell had a friend , James Oglethorpe , a Tory MP who years later founded the American colony of Georgia . Oglethorpe began to ask questions about the treatment of debtor prisoners , and a group of debtors , perhaps at Oglethorpe 's instigation , lodged a complaint about their treatment with the mayor of London and his aldermen , who interviewed the Fleet 's warden on 21 December 1728 .
In February 1729 the House of Commons appointed a parliamentary committee , the Gaols Committee , chaired by Oglethorpe , to examine conditions in the Fleet and Marshalsea . The committee visited the Fleet on 27 February and the Marshalsea on 25 March . William Hogarth accompanied the committee on its visit to the Fleet , sketching it , then painting it in oil ( left ) . The painting was commissioned by Sir Archibald Grant , MP for Aberdeenshire , standing third from the right . The man in irons is thought to be Jacob Mendez Solas , a Portuguese prisoner .
The committee was shocked by the prisoners ' living conditions . In the Fleet they found Sir William Rich , a baronet , in irons . Unable to pay the prison fee , he had been burned with a red @-@ hot poker , hit with a stick and kept in a dungeon for ten days for having wounded the warden with a shoemaker 's knife . In the Marshalsea they found that prisoners on the common side were being routinely starved to death :
All the Support such poor Wretches have to subsist on , is an accidental Allowance of Pease , given once a week by a Gentleman , who conceals his Name , and about Thirty Pounds of Beef , provided by the voluntary Contribution of the Judge and Officers of the Marshalsea , on Monday , Wednesday , and Friday ; which is divided into very small Portions , of about an Ounce and a half , distributed with One @-@ Fourth @-@ part of an Half @-@ penny Loaf ...
When the miserable Wretch hath worn out the Charity of his Friends , and consumed the Money , which he hath raised upon his Cloaths , and Bedding , and hath eat his last Allowance of Provisions , he usually in a few Days grows weak , for want of Food , with the symptoms of a hectick Fever ; and when he is no longer able to stand , if he can raise 3d to pay the Fee of the common Nurse of the Prison , he obtains the Liberty of being carried into the Sick Ward , and lingers on for about a Month or two , by the assistance of the above @-@ mentioned Prison Portion of Provision , and then dies .
= = = Trial of William Acton = = =
As a result of the Gaols Committee 's inquiries , several key figures within the jails were tried for murder in August 1729 , including Thomas Bambridge of the Fleet and William Acton of the Marshalsea . Given the strongly worded report of the Gaols Committee , the trials were major public events . Ginger writes that , when the Prince of Wales 's bookseller presented his bill at the end of that year , two of the 41 volumes on it were accounts of William Acton 's trial .
= = = = Case of Thomas Bliss = = = =
The first case against Acton , before Mr. Baron Carter , was for the murder in 1726 of Thomas Bliss , a carpenter and debtor . Unable to pay the prison fees , Bliss had been left with so little to eat that he had tried to escape by throwing a rope over the wall , but his pursuers severed it and he fell 20 feet into the prison yard . Wanting to know who had supplied the rope , Acton beat him with a bull 's pizzle , stamped on his stomach , placed him in the hole ( a damp space under the stairs ) , then in the strong room .
Originally built to hold pirates , the strong room was just a few yards from the prison 's sewer . It was never cleaned , had no drain , no sunlight , no fresh air — the smell was described as " noisome " — and was full of rats and sometimes " several barrow fulls of dung . " Several prisoners told the court that it contained no bed , so that prisoners had to lie on the damp floor , possibly next to corpses awaiting burial . But a group of favoured prisoners Acton had paid to police the jail told the hearing there was indeed a bed . One of them said he often chose to lie in there himself , because the strong room was so clean ; the " best room on the Common side of the jail , " said another . This despite the court 's having heard that one prisoner 's left side had mortified from lying on the wet floor , and that a rat had eaten the nose , ear , cheek and left eye of another .
Bliss was left in the strong room for three weeks wearing a skullcap ( a heavy vice for the head ) , thumb screws , iron collar , leg irons , and irons round his ankles called sheers . One witness said the swelling in his legs was so bad that the irons on one side could no longer be seen for overflowing flesh . His wife , who was able to see him through a small hole in the door , testified that he was bleeding from the mouth and thumbs . He was given a small amount of food but the skullcap prevented him from chewing ; he had to ask another prisoner , Susannah Dodd , to chew his meat for him . He was eventually released from the prison , but his health deteriorated and he died in St. Thomas ’ s Hospital .
= = = = Other cases , acquittal = = = =
The court was told of three other cases . Captain John Bromfield , Robert Newton and James Thompson all died after similar treatment from Acton : a beating , followed by time in the hole or strong room , before being moved to the sick ward , where they were left to lie on the floor in leg irons .
So concerned was Acton for his reputation that he requested the indictments be read out in Latin , but his worries were misplaced . The government wanted an acquittal to protect the good name of the Knight Marshal , Sir Philip Meadows , who had hired John Darby as prison governor , who in turn had leased the prison to Acton . Acton 's favoured prisoners had testified on his behalf , introducing contradictory evidence that the trial judge stressed to the jury . A stream of witnesses spoke of his good character , including a judge , an MP , his butcher , brewer , confectioner and solicitor – his coal merchant thought Acton " improper for the post he was in from his too great compassion " – and he was found not guilty on all charges . The Gaols Committee had managed to draw attention to the plight of England 's prisoners , but reform had eluded them .
= = = Notable prisoners = = =
Though most of the prisoners in the Marshalsea were debtors , the prison was second in importance only to the Tower of London . From the 14th century onwards , minor political figures were held there instead of in the Tower , mostly for sedition . William Hepworth Dixon wrote in 1885 that it was full of " poets , pirates , parsons , plotters ; coiners , libellers , defaulters , Jesuits ; vagabonds of every class who vexed the souls of men in power ... "
The Marshalsea became the main holding prison for Roman Catholics suspected of sedition during the Elizabethan era . Bishop Bonner , the last Roman Catholic Bishop of London , was imprisoned there in 1559 , supposedly for his own safety , until his death 10 years later . William Herle , a spy for Lord Burghley , Elizabeth I 's chief adviser , was held there in 1570 and 1571 . According to Robyn Adams , the prison leaked both physically and metaphorically . In correspondence about Marshalsea prisoners Herle suspected of involvement in a plot to kill the Queen , he wrote of a network within the prison for smuggling information out of it , which included hiding letters in holes in the crumbling brickwork for others to pick up .
Intellectuals regularly found themselves in the Marshalsea . The playwright Ben Jonson , a friend of Shakespeare , was jailed in 1597 for The Isle of Dogs , a play that was immediately suppressed , with no extant copies ; on 28 July that year the Privy Council was told it was a " lewd plaie that was plaied in one of the plaie houses on the Bancke Side , contaynynge very seditious and sclandrous matter . " The poet Christopher Brooke was jailed in 1601 for helping 17 @-@ year @-@ old Ann More marry John Donne without her father 's consent . George Wither , the political satirist , wrote his poem " The Shepherd 's Hunting " in 1614 in the Marshalsea ; he was held for four months for libel over his Abuses Stript and Whipt , 20 satires criticizing revenge , ambition and lust , one of them directed at the Lord Chancellor .
Nicholas Udall , vicar of Braintree and headmaster of Eton College , was sent there in 1541 for buggery and suspected theft , though his appointment in 1555 as headmaster of Westminster School suggests the episode did his name no lasting harm . When Sir John Eliot , Vice @-@ Admiral of Devon , was moved to the Marshalsea in 1632 from the Tower of London for questioning the right of the King to tax imports and exports , he described it as leaving his palace in London for his country house in Southwark . The jurist John Selden was jailed there in 1629 for his involvement in drafting the Petition of Right , a document limiting the actions of the King , regarded as seditious although it had been passed by Parliament . Colonel Thomas Culpeper ended up in the Marshalsea in 1685 or 1687 for striking the Duke of Devonshire , William Cavendish , on the ear .
= = Second Marshalsea ( 1811 – 1842 ) = =
= = = Overview = = =
When the prison reformer James Neild visited the first Marshalsea in December 1802 , just 34 debtors were living there , along with eight wives and seven children . Neild wrote that it was in " a most ruinous and insecure state , and the habitations of the debtors wretched in the extreme . " There had been riots in the prison in 1749 and 1768 . The government acknowledged in 1799 that it had fallen into a state of decay , and a decision was made to rebuild it 130 yards south ( 119 m ) , at 150 High Street ( now called Borough High Street ) , on the site of the White Lion prison , also known as the Borough Gaol . This was on the south side of Angel Court and Angel Alley , two narrow streets that no longer exist .
Costing £ 8 @,@ 000 to complete ( £ 523 @,@ 509 in 2013 ) , the new prison opened in 1811 with two sections , one for Admiralty prisoners under court martial , and one for debtors , with a shared chapel that had been part of the White Lion .
= = = Debtors = = =
Like the first Marshalsea , the second was notoriously cramped . In 1827 , 414 out of its 630 debtors were there for debts under £ 20 ; 1 @,@ 890 people in Southwark were imprisoned that year for a total debt of ₤ 16 @,@ 442 .
The debtors ' section consisted of a brick barracks , a yard measuring 177 × 56 ft ( 54 m x 17 m ) , a kitchen , a public room , and a tap room or snuggery , where debtors could drink as much beer as they wanted , at fivepence a pot in 1815 . Philpotts reports that , by the early 19th century , most debtors spent only months in the prison ; on 19 April 1826 it held 105 debtors , 99 of whom had been there for less than six months and the other six for less than a year .
The barracks was less than 10 yards wide and 33 yards long ( 9 m x 30 m ) and was divided into eight houses , each with three floors , containing 56 rooms in all . Each floor had seven rooms facing the front and seven in the back . There were no internal hallways . The rooms were accessed directly from the outside via eight narrow wooden staircases , a fire hazard given that the stairs provided the sole exit and the houses were separated only by thin lathe and plaster partitions .
Women debtors were housed in rooms over the tap room . The rooms in the barracks ( the men 's rooms ) were 10 ft . 10 ins ( 3 @.@ 3 m ) square and 8 – 9 ft ( 2 @.@ 4 – 2 @.@ 7 m ) high , with a window , wooden floors and a fireplace . Each housed two or three prisoners , and as the rooms were too small for two beds , prisoners had to share . Apart from the bed , prisoners were expected to provide their own furniture . The anonymous witness complained in 1833 : " 170 persons have been confined at one time within these walls , making an average of more than four persons in each room – which are not ten feet square ! ! ! I will leave the reader to imagine what the situation of men , thus confined , particularly in the summer months , must be . "
Much of the prison business was run by a debtors ' committee of nine prisoners and a chair ( a position held by Dickens ' father ) . The committee was responsible for imposing fines for rules violations , an obligation they met with enthusiasm . Debtors could be fined for theft ; throwing water or filth out of windows or into someone else 's room ; making noise after midnight ; cursing , fighting or singing obscene songs ; smoking in the beer room 8 – 10p. am or 12 – 2p. pm ; defacing the staircase ; dirtying the privy seats ; stealing newspapers or utensils from the snuggery ; urinating in the yard ; drawing water before it had boiled ; and criticizing the committee .
As dreadful as the Marshalsea was , it kept the creditors away . Debtors could even arrange to have themselves arrested by a business partner to enter the jail when it suited them . Historian Margot Finn writes that discharge could therefore be used as a punishment ; one debtor was thrown out in May 1801 for " making a Noise and disturbance in the prison . "
= = = Garnish and chummage = = =
New prisoners were expected to pay garnish when they arrived , a donation to the prisoners ' committee . When the commissioners reported to parliament between 1815 and 1818 , male prisoners were paying five shillings and sixpence , increased to eight shillings and sixpence by the time the anonymous witness was writing in 1833 . Women were asked for a smaller sum . This allowed them to use the snuggery , where water could be boiled and meals cooked , and candles and newspapers obtained . Prisoners failing to pay were declared defaulters by the prison crier , had their names written up in the kitchen , and were sent to Coventry .
After paying garnish , prisoners were given a " chum ticket , " which told them which room was theirs and which prisoners they would be chumming with . They would often spend the first night in the infirmary until a room could be made ready , and sometimes three or four nights walking around the yard before a chum could be found , though they were already being charged for the room they did not have .
English professor Trey Philpotts writes that the newest arrival was usually placed with the youngest prisoner who was living alone . A wealthier prisoner could pay his roommate to go away – " buy out the chum " – for half @-@ a @-@ crown a week in 1818 , while the outcast chum would sleep in the tap room or find another room to rent in the prison . The only prisoners not expected to pay chummage were debtors who had declared themselves insolvent by swearing an oath that they had assets worth less than 40 shillings . If their creditors agreed , they could be released after 14 days , but if anyone objected , they remained confined to the poor side of the building , near the women 's side , receiving a small weekly allowance from the county and money from charity .
= = = Admiralty prisoners = = =
The Admiralty division housed a few prisoners under naval courts @-@ martial for mutiny , desertion , piracy , and what the deputy marshal preferred in 1815 to call " unnatural crimes . " Unlike other parts of the prison that had been built from scratch in 1811 , the Admiralty division – as well as the northern boundary wall , the dayroom and the chapel – had been part of the old Borough gaol and were considerably run down . The cells were so rotten they were barely able to confine the prisoners ; in 1817 one actually broke through his cell walls . The low boundary wall meant that Admiralty prisoners were often chained to bolts fixed to the floor in the infirmary .
They were supposed to have a separate yard to exercise in , so that criminals were not mixing with debtors , but in fact the prisoners mixed often and happily , according to Dickens . The parliamentary committee deplored this practice , arguing that Admiralty prisoners were characterized by an " entire absence of all control , " and were bound to have a bad effect on the debtors . The two groups would retreat to their own sections during inspections , Dickens wrote :
[ T ] he smugglers habitually consorted with the debtors ... except at certain constitutional moments when somebody came from some Office , to go through some form of overlooking something , which neither he nor anybody else knew anything about . On those truly British occasions , the smugglers , if any , made a feint of walking into the strong cells and the blind alley , while this somebody pretended to do his something ; and made a reality of walking out again as soon as he hadn 't done it – neatly epitomizing the administration of most of the public affairs , in our right little , tight little island .
= = = Women = = =
The presence of wives , lovers and daughters was taken for granted . Visitors could come and go freely , and even live with the prisoners , without being asked who they were . Female prisoners were allowed to mix freely with the men . Some of the rooms were let to prostitutes . The prison gates were closed from ten at night until eight the next morning , with a bell warning visitors half an hour before closing time , and an officer walking around the prison calling , " Strangers , women and children all out ! "
According to the anonymous eyewitness , women in the Marshalsea were in constant moral danger : " How often has female virtue been assailed in poverty ? Alas how often has it fallen , in consequence of a husband or a father having been a prisoner for debt ? " The prison doctor would visit every other day to attend to prisoners , and sometimes their children – to " protect his reputation , " according to a doctor testifying in 1815 to a parliamentary commission – but would not attend to their wives . This left women to give birth alone or with the help of other prisoners . The doctor told the commission he had helped just once with a birth , and then only as a matter of courtesy , because it was not included in his salary .
= = = Closure and abolition = = =
The Marshalsea was closed by an Act of Parliament in 1842 , and on 19 November that year the inmates were relocated to the Bethlem hospital if they were mentally ill , or to the King 's Bench Prison , at that point renamed the Queen 's Prison . On 31 December 1849 the Court of the Marshalsea of the Household of the Kings of England was abolished , and its power transferred to Her Majesty 's Court of Common Pleas at Westminster .
The buildings and land were auctioned off in July 1843 and purchased for £ 5 @,@ 100 by W. G. Hicks , an ironmonger . The property consisted of the keeper 's house , the canteen ( known as a suttling house ) , the Admiralty section , the chapel , a three @-@ story brick building and eight brick houses , all closed off from Borough High Street by iron gates . Imprisonment for debt was finally outlawed in England in 1869 , except in cases of fraud or refusal to pay , and in the 1870s the Home Office demolished most of the prison buildings , though in 1955 parts of it were still in use by George Harding & Sons , hardware merchants .
Dickens visited what was left of the Marshalsea in May 1857 , just before he finished Little Dorrit . He wrote in the preface :
Some of my readers may have an interest in being informed whether or no any portions of the Marshalsea Prison are yet standing . I did not know , myself , until the sixth of this present month , when I went to look . I found the outer front courtyard , often mentioned in this story , metamorphosed into a butter shop ; and then I almost gave up every brick of the jail for lost . Wandering , however , down a certain adjacent " Angel Court , leading to Bermondsey , " I came to " Marshalsea Place : " the houses in which I recognised , not only as the great block of the former prison , but as preserving the rooms that arose in my mind 's eye when I became Little Dorrit 's biographer ...
A little further on , I found the older and smaller wall , which used to enclose the pent @-@ up inner prison where nobody was put , except for ceremony . But , whosoever goes into Marshalsea Place , turning out of Angel Court , leading to Bermondsey , will find his feet on the very paving @-@ stones of the extinct Marshalsea jail ; will see its narrow yard to the right and to the left , very little altered if at all , except that the walls were lowered when the place got free ; will look upon the rooms in which the debtors lived ; and will stand among the crowding ghosts of many miserable years .
= = = Location of the prison remains = = =
The building on the site of the prison houses Southwark Council 's John Harvard Library and Local Studies Library , at 211 Borough High Street , just north of the junction with Tabard Street . All that remains of the Marshalsea is the brick wall that marked the southern boundary of the prison , separating it from St George 's churchyard , now a small garden . It can be reached by underground on the Northern line to Borough tube station , or by train to London Bridge station .
The surviving wall runs along an alleyway that was part of the prison , now called Angel Place . The name Angel Place has led to confusion because there were two alleyways on the north side of the Marshalsea ( Angel Court and Angel Alley ) , the first of which Dickens refers to when giving directions to the prison remains in 1857 . See Richard Horwood 's 18th century map , which shows Angel Court / Angel Alley near the Borough Goal [ sic ] , marked by the number 2 .
The wall is marked on the garden side , on what would have been the external wall of the prison , by a plaque from the local council . There is also a paving stone with information about Dickens 's father . The Cuming Museum has one of the prison 's pumps and the Dickens House Museum one of its windows .
= Bert Olmstead =
Murray Albert Olmstead ( September 4 , 1926 – November 16 , 2015 ) was a Canadian professional ice hockey left winger who played for the Montreal Canadiens , Chicago Black Hawks and Toronto Maple Leafs in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . Olmstead began his career with the Black Hawks in 1949 . In December 1950 , he was traded to the Montreal Canadiens via Detroit . Olmstead had his best statistical years playing for Montreal , leading the league in assists in 1954 – 55 with 48 , and setting a league record for assists with 56 the following season . Olmstead was claimed in an Intra @-@ League Draft by Toronto Maple Leafs in 1958 , and played there until his retirement in 1962 .
In the 1967 – 68 season , Olmstead served as coach of the expansion Oakland Seals . Olmstead played in the Stanley Cup final in 11 of his 14 seasons in the NHL , winning it five times . He won it four times with Montreal , in 1953 , and from 1956 to 1958 , and once with Toronto , in 1962 , which was his last season . He was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1985 .
= = Early life = =
Olmstead was born in Sceptre , Saskatchewan , a small village with a population of less than 200 , in southwestern Saskatchewan . In 1944 , at the age of 18 , he moved to Moose Jaw , Saskatchewan , to play junior hockey . In his first year , Olmstead and the Moose Jaw Canucks challenged for the Memorial Cup , after finishing the playoffs with a 15 – 1 record . They were unsuccessful in the series against the St. Michael 's Majors . Olmstead had 10 goals and eight assists in the 17 playoff games he played . He played another season in Moose Jaw , before being assigned to the Kansas City Pla @-@ Mors of the United States Hockey League ( USHL ) by the Chicago Black Hawks .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Chicago Black Hawks = = =
Olmstead played three full seasons for Kansas City , and part of another , later in 1950 , for the Milwaukee Sea Gulls . In the 1946 – 47 season , Olmstead joined the Pla @-@ Mors , finishing the season with 42 points in 60 games . In 1948 – 49 , the Canadiens , who had originally sponsored him and owned his rights , traded him to the Chicago Black Hawks . The same season , Olmstead made his NHL debut , called up after scoring 33 goals and 44 assists , for 77 points , in 52 games with the Pla @-@ Mors . He played nine games for the Black Hawks and collected two assists . Olmstead played the entire following season for the Black Hawks , appearing in 70 games and scoring 20 goals .
Olmstead split the 1950 – 51 season between four teams , playing for all but one of them . He began the season playing for the Black Hawks franchise , playing 15 games in the NHL and 12 in the USHL , for the Milwaukee Sea Gulls . On December 2 , 1950 , Olmstead , with Vic Stasiuk , was traded to the Detroit Red Wings , in exchange for Lee Fogolin and Steve Black . On December 19 , 1950 , 17 days after the trade to Detroit , he was traded again , without ever suiting up for the Red Wings , to Montreal , for Leo Gravelle . Olmstead would never leave the NHL until his retirement in 1962 , playing 39 games that season on a line with Maurice Richard and Elmer Lach , scoring 38 points . Olmstead also appeared in 11 playoff games , collecting six points , as the Canadiens lost the best @-@ of @-@ seven Stanley Cup finals to the Toronto Maple Leafs in five games .
= = = Montreal Canadiens = = =
Olmstead and the Canadiens appeared in the Stanley Cup finals again in the 1951 – 52 season , losing to the Detroit Red Wings ; after recording 35 points in 69 regular season games , Olmstead was limited to an assist in 11 playoff games . In his third season with the Canadiens , Olmstead won the Stanley Cup for the first time . Earning 45 points in 69 games , he was named to the Second All @-@ Star Team . On the last game of the season , Olmstead bodychecked Gordie Howe , stopping him from tying Maurice Richard 's record of 50 goals in a season . Olmstead played all the 70 games in the next two seasons , scoring 52 and 58 points in the 1953 – 54 and 1954 – 55 seasons , respectively . The Canadiens lost to the Red Wings once more in the Stanley Cup finals , in both seasons . In the 1954 – 55 season , Olmstead led the league in assists , with 48 , as Montreal lost another Stanley Cup Final to Detroit .
The 1955 – 56 season saw the start of Montreal 's five consecutive Stanley Cup championships . In that season , Olmstead played on a line with Jean Beliveau and Bernie " Boom Boom " Geoffrion . He set a record for assists , with 56 , and also scored eight points in game , recording four goals and four assists , tying Rocket Richard 's record . This record would be broken in 1976 by Darryl Sittler , who scored six goals and four assists , for ten points . As well as winning the Stanley Cup , Olmstead was again named to the Second All @-@ Star Team .
Olmstead won two more Stanley Cups in the 1956 – 57 and 1957 – 58 seasons . After the conclusion of the 1957 – 58 seasons , doctors informed him that he had no strength left in his knees , and that he should contemplate retirement . As a result of this prognosis , the Canadiens left Olmstead unprotected in the Intra @-@ League Draft , and he was claimed by Billy Reay , the head coach of the Canadiens ' chief rival , the Toronto Maple Leafs .
= = = Toronto Maple Leafs = = =
Early in the 1958 – 59 season , Punch Imlach , the assistant general manager of the Leafs , fired Reay , installed himself as head coach , and appointed Olmstead as the playing assistant coach . This meant that while Imlach coached the team during games , Olmstead was in charge of the practices ; however , Olmstead only lasted three months as assistant coach , resigning to devote more time to improving his play . The same season , the Leafs went on a long winning streak in order to qualify for the playoffs , but they lost to the Canadiens in the finals . After losing in the Finals the next season , and falling short of the Finals the next season , Olmstead won his fifth and final Stanley Cup in 1962 , missing two months of the season with a broken shoulder , and being limited to only four out of the 12 playoff games .
= = Retirement = =
Following his fifth Stanley Cup win , with Toronto , the New York Rangers claimed Olmstead in the Intra @-@ League Draft on June 4 , 1962 . This came as a surprise to Olmstead , who refused to report to the team . The Canadiens offered to acquire him from the Rangers , within a month ; Olmstead demanded an immediate trade . Since no deal came , he retired at the age of 35 . During his 14 @-@ year NHL career , Olmstead scored 181 goals and 421 assists , for 602 points ; in the playoffs , he collected 59 points , in 115 games . In his 14 seasons , Olmstead appeared in the Stanley Cup final 11 times . He won five times , four of them with the Montreal Canadiens , and once with the Toronto Maple Leafs .
After retiring from playing , Olmstead attempted coaching . In the 1965 – 66 season , Olmstead coached the Vancouver Canucks , of the WHL ; he finished with a 33 – 35 – 4 record , for a .486 winning percentage . In the 1967 – 68 season , Olmstead coached the expansion Oakland Seals , in the NHL . Olmstead did not last the full season , stepping aside after 64 games , having only won 11 games , with a .297 winning percentage .
= = Legacy = =
Known as " Dirty Bertie " because of his physical playing style , Olmstead was a power forward , making hard hits and winning battles in the corners . He was not a very good skater , and thus he had to compromise with his bodychecking . Olmstead was not regularly involved in fights , but in the ones he participated , the majority were started with his hits .
Olmstead was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1985 . Olmstead , with his wife Nora , visited the town of Okotoks , Alberta on August 13 , 2005 , with the Stanley Cup . He had previously declined to spend a day with it , believing that it was being given to much older winners only because of the lockout . Olmstead also noted , at the end of the day , that he was happy to have the Stanley Cup again . Olmstead died at his home in High River , Alberta on November 16 , 2015 , due to complications from a stroke .
= = Career statistics = =
= = Coaching record = =
= The Daily Show =
The Daily Show ( also known as The Daily Show with Jon Stewart from 1999 until 2015 , and The Daily Show with Trevor Noah as of 2015 ) is an American news satire and talk show television program , which airs each Monday through Thursday on Comedy Central and on The Comedy Network in Canada .
The half @-@ hour @-@ long show premiered on July 21 , 1996 , and was hosted by Craig Kilborn until December 17 , 1998 . Jon Stewart then took over as the host from January 11 , 1999 until August 6 , 2015 , making the show more strongly focused on politics and the national media , in contrast with the pop culture focus during Kilborn 's tenure . Stewart was succeeded by Trevor Noah , whose tenure premiered on September 28 , 2015 . The Daily Show is the longest @-@ running program on Comedy Central ( counting all three tenures ) , and has won 23 Primetime Emmy Awards .
Describing itself as a fake news program , The Daily Show draws its comedy and satire from recent news stories , political figures , media organizations , and often uses self @-@ referential humor as well . During Stewart 's tenure , the show typically opened with a long monologue , relating to recent headlines and frequently featured exchanges with one or more Daily Show correspondents , who adopted absurd or humorously exaggerated takes on current events against Stewart 's straight man persona . The final segment was devoted to a celebrity interview , with guests ranging from actors and musicians to nonfiction authors and political figures .
The program is popular among young audiences , with organizations such as the Pew Research Center suggesting that 74 % of regular viewers are between 18 and 49 , and that 10 % of the audience watch the show for its news headlines , 2 % for in @-@ depth reporting , and 43 % for entertainment , compared with 64 % who watch CNN for the news headlines . Critics have chastised Stewart for not conducting sufficiently hard @-@ hitting interviews with his political guests , some of whom he may have lampooned in previous segments . Stewart and other Daily Show writers have responded to such criticism by saying that they do not have any journalistic responsibility and that as comedians their only duty is to provide entertainment . Stewart 's appearance on the CNN show Crossfire picked up this debate , where he chastised the CNN production and hosts for not conducting informative and current interviews on a news network .
= = Format = =
= = = Opening segment = = =
Each episode begins with announcer Drew Birns announcing the date and the introduction , " From Comedy Central 's World News Headquarters in New York , this is The Daily Show with Jon Stewart , " later changing to reflect Trevor Noah as the new host . Previously , the introduction was " This is The Daily Show , the most important television program , ever . " The host then opens the show with a monologue drawing from current news stories and issues . Previously , the show had divided its news commentary into sections known as " Headlines " , " Other News " , and " This Just In " ; these titles were dropped from regular use on October 28 , 2002 and were last used on March 6 , 2003 .
= = = Correspondent segments = = =
The monologue segment is often followed by a segment featuring an exchange with a correspondent — typically introduced as the show 's " senior " specialist in the subject at hand — either at the anchor desk with the host or reporting from a false location in front of a greenscreen showing stock footage . Their stated areas of expertise vary depending on the news story that is being discussed , and can range from relatively general ( such as Senior Political Analyst ) to absurdly specific ( such as Senior Casual Racism Correspondent ) . The cast of correspondents is quite diverse , and many often sarcastically portray extreme stereotypes of themselves to poke fun at a news story , such as " Senior Latino Correspondent " or " Senior Youth Correspondent " . They typically present absurd or humorously exaggerated takes on current events against the host 's straight man .
While correspondents stated to be reporting abroad are usually performing in @-@ studio in front of a greenscreen background , on rare occasions , cast members have recorded pieces on location . For instance , during the week of August 20 , 2007 , the show aired a series of segments called " Operation Silent Thunder : The Daily Show in Iraq " in which correspondent Rob Riggle reported from Iraq . In August 2008 , Riggle traveled to China for a series of segments titled " Rob Riggle : Chasing the Dragon " , which focused on the 2008 Beijing Olympics . Additionally , Jason Jones traveled to Iran in early June 2009 to report on the Iranian elections , and John Oliver traveled to South Africa for the series of segments " Into Africa " to report on the 2010 FIFA World Cup . In March 2012 , John Oliver traveled to Gabon , on the west African coast , to report on the Gabonian government 's decision to donate $ 2 million to UNESCO after the United States cut its funding for UNESCO earlier that year .
Correspondent segments feature a rotating supporting cast , and involve the show 's members traveling to different locations to file comedic reports on current news stories and conduct interviews with people related to the featured issue . Topics have varied widely ; during the early years of the show they tended toward character @-@ driven human interest stories such as Bigfoot enthusiasts . Since Stewart began hosting in 1999 , the focus of the show has become more political and the field pieces have come to more closely reflect current issues and debates . Under Kilborn and the early years of Stewart , most interviewees were either unaware or not entirely aware of the comedic nature of The Daily Show . However , since the show began to gain popularity — particularly following its coverage of the 2000 and 2004 presidential elections — most of the subjects now interviewed are aware of the comedic element .
= = = Recurring segments = = =
Some segments have recurred periodically , such as " Back in Black " with Lewis Black , " This Week in God " and " Are You Prepared ? ! ? " with Samantha Bee , " Trendspotting " with Demetri Martin , " Wilmore @-@ Oliver Investigates " with John Oliver and Larry Wilmore , " You 're Welcome " and more recently " Money Talks " with John Hodgman . Since the 2003 invasion of Iraq , a common segment of the show has been dubbed " Mess O ' Potamia " , focusing on the United States ' policies in the Middle East , especially Iraq . Elections in the United States were a prominent focus in the show 's " Indecision " coverage throughout Stewart 's time as host . ( The title " InDecision " is a parody of NBC News ' " Decision " segment . ) During the 2000 , 2004 , and 2008 elections , the show went on the road to record week @-@ long specials from the cities hosting the Democratic and Republican National Conventions . For the 2006 U.S. midterm elections , a week of episodes was recorded in the contested state of Ohio . The " Indecision " coverage of the 2000 , 2004 , 2006 , 2008 , and 2010 elections all culminated in live Election Night specials . On March 1 , 2011 , Stewart aired the first installment of Indecision 2012 . On September 19 , 2012 , Stewart opened with a segment called " Chaos On Bullsh * t Mountain " in which he blasted Fox News for its coverage of a leaked video of Mitt Romney talking about 47 percent of Americans who don ’ t pay income taxes .
With Noah as host , one new recurring segment has been " What the Actual Fact " , with correspondent Desi Lydic examining statements made by presidential candidates at the debates .
= = = Celebrity interviews = = =
In the show 's third act , the host conducts an interview with a celebrity guest . Guests come from a wide range of cultural sources , and include actors , musicians , authors , athletes , pundits and political figures . Since Stewart became host , the show 's guest list has tended away from celebrities and more towards non @-@ fiction authors and political pundits , as well as many prominent elected officials . While in the show 's earlier years it struggled to book high @-@ profile politicians — in 1999 , for an Indecision 2000 segment , Steve Carell struggled to talk his way off Republican candidate John McCain 's press overflow bus and onto the Straight Talk Express — it has since risen in popularity , particularly following the show 's coverage of the 2000 and 2004 elections . In 2006 , Rolling Stone described The Daily Show under Stewart as " the hot destination for anyone who wants to sell books or seem hip , from presidential candidates to military dictators " , while Newsweek calls it " the coolest pit stop on television " .
Prominent political guests have included U.S. President Barack Obama , Vice President Joe Biden , former Presidents Jimmy Carter and Bill Clinton , former British Prime Ministers Tony Blair and Gordon Brown , former Pakistani President Pervez Musharraf , Liberian President Ellen Johnson Sirleaf , Bolivian President Evo Morales , Jordanian King Abdullah II , and former Mexican President Vicente Fox . The show has played host to former and current members of the Administration and Cabinet as well as members of Congress . Numerous presidential candidates have appeared on the show during their campaigns , including John McCain , John Kerry and Barack Obama .
= = = Closing segment = = =
In a closing segment , there is a brief segue to the closing credits in the form of the host introducing " Your Moment of Zen " , a humorous piece of video footage without commentary that has been part of the show 's wrap @-@ up since the series began in 1996 . The segment often relates to a story covered earlier in the episode , but occasionally is merely a humorous or ridiculous clip . Occasionally , the segment is used as a tribute to someone who has died .
In October 2005 , following The Colbert Report 's premiere , a new feature ( sometimes referred to as the toss ) was added to the closing segment in which Stewart would have a short exchange with " our good friend , Stephen Colbert at The Colbert Report " , which aired immediately after . The two would have a scripted comedic exchange via split @-@ screen from their respective sets . In 2007 , the " toss " was cut back to twice per week , and by 2009 was once a week before gradually being phased out . It was used on the 2014 mid @-@ term election night and again just before the final episode of The Colbert Report on December 18 , 2014 , and returned upon the premiere of The Nightly Show with Larry Wilmore . Stewart then regularly tossed to Wilmore at the end of his Monday night episodes .
= = Studio = =
The host sits at his desk on the elevated island stage in the style of a traditional news show . The show relocated from its original New York studio in late @-@ 1998 to NEP Studio 54 in New York City 's Hell 's Kitchen neighborhood , where it remained until 2005 , when the studio was claimed by The Colbert Report . On July 11 , 2005 , the show premiered in its new studio , NEP Studio 52 , at 733 11th Avenue , a few blocks west of its former location . The set of the new studio was given a sleeker , more formal look , including a backdrop of three large projection screens . The traditional guests ' couch , which had been a part of the set since the show 's premiere , was done away with in favor of simple upright chairs . The change was initially not well @-@ received , spawning a backlash among some fans and prompting a " Bring Back the Couch " campaign . The campaign was mentioned on subsequent shows by Stewart and supported by Daily Show contributor Bob Wiltfong . The couch was eventually featured in a sweepstakes in which the winner received the couch , round @-@ trip tickets to New York , tickets to the show , and a small sum of money .
On April 9 , 2007 the show debuted a new set . The projection screens were revamped ( with one large screen behind Stewart , while the smaller one behind the interview subject remained the same ) , a large , global map directly behind Stewart , a more open studio floor , and a J @-@ shaped desk supported at one end by a globe . The intro was also updated ; the graphics , display names , dates , and logos were all changed .
= = Production = =
The show 's writers begin each day with a morning meeting where they review material that researchers have gathered from major newspapers , the Associated Press , cable news television channels and websites , and discuss headline material for the lead news segment . Throughout the morning they work on writing deadline pieces inspired by recent news , as well as longer @-@ term projects . By lunchtime , Stewart — who describes his role as that of a managing editor — has begun to review headline jokes . The script is submitted by 3 pm , and at 4 : 15 there is a rehearsal . An hour is left for rewrites before a 6 pm taping in front of a live studio audience . While the studio capacity is limited , tickets to attend tapings are free and can be obtained if requested far enough in advance .
The Daily Show typically tapes four new episodes a week , Monday through Thursday , forty @-@ two weeks a year . The show is broadcast at 11 PM Eastern / 10 PM Central , a time when local television stations show their news reports and about half an hour before most other late @-@ night comedy programs begin to go on the air . The program is rerun several times the next day , including a 7 : 30 PM Eastern / 6 : 30 PM Central prime time broadcast .
= = History = =
= = = Craig Kilborn 's tenure ( 1996 – 98 ) = = =
The Daily Show was created by Lizz Winstead and Madeleine Smithberg and premiered on Comedy Central on July 22 , 1996 , having been marketed as a replacement for Politically Incorrect ( a successful Comedy Central program that had moved to ABC earlier that year ) . Aiming to parody conventional newscasts , it featured a comedic monologue of the day 's headlines from anchor Craig Kilborn ( a well @-@ known co @-@ anchor of ESPN 's SportsCenter ) , as well as mockumentary style on @-@ location reports , in @-@ studio segments and debates from regular correspondents Winstead , Brian Unger , Beth Littleford , and A. Whitney Brown .
= = = = Common segments = = = =
Common segments included " This Day in Hasselhoff History " and " Last Weekend 's Top @-@ Grossing Films , Converted into Lira " , in parody of entertainment news shows and their tendency to lead out to commercials with trivia such as celebrity birthdays . Another commercial lead @-@ out featured Winstead 's parents , on her answering machine , reading that day 's " Final Jeopardy ! " question and answer . In each show , Kilborn would conduct celebrity interviews , ending with a segment called " Five Questions " in which the guest was made to answer a series of questions that were typically a combination of obscure fact and subjective opinion . These are highlighted in a 1998 book titled The Daily Show : Five Questions , which contains transcripts of Kilborn 's best interviews . Each episode concluded with a segment called " Your Moment of Zen " that showed random video clips of humorous and sometimes morbid interest such as visitors at a Chinese zoo feeding baby chickens to the alligators . Originally the show was recorded without a studio audience , featuring only the laughter of its own off @-@ camera staff members . A studio audience was incorporated into the show for its second season , and has remained since .
= = = = Differences between Kilborn 's version and Stewart 's version = = = =
The show was much less politically focused than it later became under Jon Stewart , having what Stephen Colbert described as a local news feel and involving more character @-@ driven humor as opposed to news @-@ driven humor . Winstead recalls that when the show was first launched there was constant debate regarding what the show 's focus should be . While she wanted a more news @-@ driven focus , the network was concerned that this would not appeal to viewers and pushed for " a little more of a hybrid of entertainment and politics " . The show was slammed by some reviewers as being too mean @-@ spirited , particularly towards the interview subjects of field pieces ; a criticism acknowledged by some of the show 's cast . Describing his time as a correspondent under Kilborn , Colbert says , " You wanted to take your soul off , put it on a wire hanger , and leave it in the closet before you got on the plane to do one of these pieces . " One reviewer from The New York Times criticized the show for being too cruel and for lacking a central editorial vision or ideology , describing it as " bereft of an ideological or artistic center ... precocious but empty . "
= = = = Craig Kilborn 's departure = = = =
There were reports of backstage friction between Kilborn and some of the female staff , particularly the show 's co @-@ creator Lizz Winstead . Winstead had not been involved in the hiring of Kilborn , and disagreed with him over what direction the show should take . " I spent eight months developing and staffing a show and seeking a tone with producers and writers . Somebody else put him in place . There were bound to be problems . I viewed the show as content @-@ driven ; he viewed it as host @-@ driven , " she said . In a 1997 Esquire magazine interview , Kilborn made a sexually explicit joke about Winstead . Comedy Central responded by suspending Kilborn without pay for one week , and Winstead quit soon after .
In 1998 , Kilborn left The Daily Show in order to replace Tom Snyder on CBS 's The Late Late Show . He claimed the " Five Questions " interview segment as intellectual property , disallowing any future Daily Show hosts from using it in their interviews . Correspondents Brian Unger and A. Whitney Brown left the show shortly before him , but the majority of the show 's crew and writing staff stayed on . Kilborn 's last show as host aired on December 17 , 1998 , ending a 386 episode tenure . Reruns were shown until Jon Stewart 's debut four weeks later . Kilborn made a short appearance on Jon Stewart 's final edition of the Daily Show saying " I knew you were going to run this thing into the ground . "
= = = Jon Stewart 's tenure ( 1999 – 2015 ) = = =
= = = = Shift in content = = = =
Comedian Jon Stewart took over as host of the show , which was retitled The Daily Show with Jon Stewart , on January 11 , 1999 . Stewart had previously hosted Short Attention Span Theater on Comedy Central , two shows on MTV ( You Wrote It , You Watch It and an eponymous talk show ) , as well as a syndicated late @-@ night talk show , and had been cast in films and television . In taking over hosting from Kilborn , Stewart retained much of the same staff and on @-@ air talent , allowing many pieces to transition without much trouble , while other features like " God Stuff " , with John Bloom presenting an assortment of actual clips from various televangelists , and " Backfire " , an in @-@ studio debate between Brian Unger and A. Whitney Brown , evolved into the similar pieces of " This Week in God " and Stephen Colbert and Steve Carell 's " Even Stevphen " . Since the change , a number of new features have been , and continue to be , developed . The ending segment " Your Moment of Zen " , previously consisting of a random selection of humorous videos , was diversified to sometimes include recaps or extended versions of news clips shown earlier in the show . The show 's theme music , " Dog on Fire " by Bob Mould , was re @-@ recorded by They Might Be Giants shortly after Stewart joined the show .
Stewart served not only as host but also as a writer and executive producer of the series . Instrumental in shaping the voice of the show under Stewart was former editor of The Onion Ben Karlin who , along with fellow Onion contributor David Javerbaum , joined the staff in 1999 as head writer and was later promoted to executive producer . Their experience in writing for the satirical newspaper , which uses fake stories to mock real print journalism and current events , would influence the comedic direction of the show ; Stewart recalls the hiring of Karlin as the point at which things " [ started ] to take shape " . Describing his approach to the show , Karlin said , " The main thing , for me , is seeing hypocrisy . People who know better saying things that you know they don 't believe . "
Under Stewart and Karlin The Daily Show developed a markedly different style , bringing a sharper political focus to the humor than the show previously exhibited . Then @-@ correspondent Stephen Colbert recalls that Stewart specifically asked him to have a political viewpoint , and to allow his passion for issues to carry through into his comedy . Colbert says that whereas under Kilborn the focus was on " human interest @-@ y " pieces , with Stewart as host the show 's content became more " issues and news driven " , particularly after the beginning of the 2000 election campaign with which the show dealt in its " Indecision 2000 " coverage . Stewart himself describes the show 's coverage of the 2000 election recount as the point at which the show found its editorial voice . " That 's when I think we tapped into the emotional angle of the news for us and found our editorial footing , " he says . Following the September 11th attacks , The Daily Show went off the air for nine days . Upon its return , Stewart opened the show with a somber monologue , that , according to Jeremy Gillick and Nonna Gorilovskaya , addressed both the absurdity and importance of his role as a comedian . Commented Stewart :
They said to get back to work , and there were no jobs available for a man in the fetal position . . . . We sit in the back and we throw spitballs – never forgetting the fact that it is a luxury in this country that allows us to do that . . . . The view from my apartment was the World Trade Center . Now it 's gone . They attacked it . This symbol of American ingenuity and strength and labor and imagination and commerce and it is gone . But you know what the view is now ? The Statue of Liberty . The view from the south of Manhattan is now the Statue of Liberty . You can 't beat that .
Gillick and Gorilovskaya point to the September 11 attacks and the beginning of the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq as the point at which Jon Stewart emerged as a trusted national figure . Robert Thompson , the director of the Bleier Center for Television and Popular Culture at Syracuse University , recalled of this period , " When all the news guys were walking on eggshells , Jon was hammering those questions about WMDs . "
= = = = Broadening the role of the correspondent = = = =
During Stewart 's tenure , the role of the correspondent has broadened to encompass not only field segments but also frequent in @-@ studio exchanges . Under Kilborn , Colbert says that his work as a correspondent initially involved " character driven [ field ] pieces — like , you know , guys who believe in Bigfoot . " However , as the focus of the show has become more news @-@ driven , correspondents have increasingly been used in studio pieces , either as experts discussing issues at the anchor desk or as field journalists reporting from false locations in front of a green screen . Colbert says that this change has allowed correspondents to be more involved with the show , as it has permitted them to work more closely with the host and writers .
= = = = Popularity and critical respect = = = =
The show 's 2000 and 2004 election coverage , combined with a new satirical edge , helped to catapult Stewart and The Daily Show to new levels of popularity and critical respect . Since Stewart became host , the show has won 23 Primetime Emmy Awards and two Peabody Awards , and its ratings have steadily increased . In 2003 , the show was averaging nearly a million viewers , an increase of nearly threefold since the show 's inception as Comedy Central became available in more households . By September 2008 , the show averaged nearly two million viewers per night . Senator Barack Obama 's interview on October 29 , 2008 , pulled in 3 @.@ 6 million viewers .
= = = = In the political spectrum = = = =
The move towards greater involvement in political issues and the increasing popularity of the show in certain key demographics have led to examinations of where the views of the show fit in the political spectrum . Adam Clymer , among many others , has argued that The Daily Show is more critical of Republicans than Democrats . Stewart , who voted Democratic in the 2004 presidential election , says that the show does have a more liberal point of view , but that it is not " a liberal organization " with a political agenda and its duty first and foremost is to be funny . He acknowledges that the show is not necessarily an " equal opportunity offender " , explaining that Republicans tended to provide more comedic fodder because " I think we consider those with power and influence targets and those without it , not . " In an interview in 2005 , when asked how he responded to critics claiming that The Daily Show is overly liberal , Stephen Colbert , also a self @-@ proclaimed Democrat , said in an interview during the Bush Administration , when the Republicans held a majority in the House and Senate : " We are liberal , but Jon 's very respectful of the Republican guests , and , listen , if liberals were in power it would be easier to attack them , but Republicans have the executive , legislative and judicial branches , so making fun of Democrats is like kicking a child , so it 's just not worth it . "
Stewart is critical of Democratic politicians for being weak , timid , or ineffective . He said in an interview with Larry King , prior to the 2006 elections , " I honestly don 't feel that [ the Democrats ] make an impact . They have forty @-@ nine percent of the vote and three percent of the power . At a certain point you go , ' Guys , pick up your game . ' " He has targeted them for failing to effectively stand on some issues , such as the war in Iraq , describing them as " incompetent " and " unable ... to locate their asses , even when presented with two hands and a special ass map . "
Karlin , then the show 's executive producer , said in a 2004 interview that while there is a collective sensibility among the staff which , " when filtered through Jon and the correspondents , feels uniform , " the principal goal of the show is comedy . " If you have a legitimately funny joke in support of the notion that gay people are an affront to God , we 'll put that motherfucker on ! "
On November 17 , 2009 , Vice President Joe Biden appeared on the show , making him the first sitting vice president to do so . On October 27 , 2010 , President Barack Obama became the first sitting U.S. president to be interviewed on the show , wherein Obama commented he " loved " the show . Obama took issue with Stewart 's suggestion that his health care program was " timid . "
After the United States Senate failed to pass and the media failed to cover the James Zadroga 9 / 11 Health and Compensation Act , which would provide health monitoring and financial aid to sick first responders of the September 11 attacks , Stewart dedicated the entire December 16 , 2010 , broadcast to the issue . During the next week , a revived version of the bill gained new life , with the potential of being passed before the winter recess . Stewart was praised by both politicians and affected first responders for the bill 's passage . According to Syracuse University professor of television , radio and film Robert J. Thompson , " Without him , it 's unlikely it would 've passed . I don 't think Brian Williams , Katie Couric or Diane Sawyer would 've been allowed to do this . "
= = = = Writers ' strike = = = =
Due to the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike , the show went on hiatus on November 5 , 2007 . Although the strike continued until February 2008 , the show returned to air on January 7 , 2008 , without its staff of writers . In solidarity with the writers , the show was referred to as A Daily Show with Jon Stewart rather than The Daily Show with Jon Stewart , until the end of the strike . As a member of the Writers Guild of America , Stewart was barred from writing any material for the show himself which he or his writers would ordinarily write . As a result , Stewart and the correspondents largely ad @-@ libbed the show around planned topics . In an effort to fill time while keeping to these restrictions , the show aired or re @-@ aired some previously recorded segments , and Stewart engaged in a briefly recurring mock feud with fellow late @-@ night hosts Stephen Colbert and Conan O 'Brien . The strike officially ended on February 12 , 2008 , with the show 's writers returning to work the following day , at which point the title of The Daily Show was restored .
= = = = Stewart 's absence in 2013 = = = =
Starting in June 2013 Jon Stewart took a twelve @-@ week break to direct Rosewater , a drama about a journalist jailed by Iran for four months . John Oliver replaced Stewart at the anchor desk for two months , to be followed by one month of reruns . Oliver received positive reviews for his hosting , leading to his departure from the show in December 2013 for his own show Last Week Tonight with John Oliver , which debuted April 27 , 2014 on HBO .
= = = = Jon Stewart 's departure = = = =
On February 10 , 2015 , Stewart announced that he would be leaving the show later in the year . Comedy Central indicated in a statement that The Daily Show would continue without Stewart , saying it would " endure for years to come " .
On June 25 , 2015 , Comedy Central announced that to lead up to Stewart 's final episode , it would hold " Your Month of Zen " — an online marathon streaming every episode of Stewart 's tenure from June 26 to August 6 , 2015 .
On August 6 , 2015 , Stewart 's final episode aired as an hour @-@ long special in three segments . The first featured a reunion of a majority of the correspondents and contributors from throughout the show 's history as well as a pre @-@ recorded " anti @-@ tribute " ( mocking Stewart ) from various frequent guests and " friends " of the show . The second segment featured a pre @-@ recorded tour of the Daily Show production facility and studio introducing all of the show 's staff and crew . The final segment featured a short farewell speech from Stewart followed by the final " Moment of Zen " ( being ' his own ' moment of zen ) : a performance of " Land of Hope and Dreams " and " Born to Run " by Bruce Springsteen and the E Street Band .
= = = Trevor Noah 's tenure ( 2015 – present ) = = =
On March 30 , 2015 , it was announced that Trevor Noah would replace Stewart as host of The Daily Show . Stewart 's last show was on August 6 , 2015 . Trevor Noah 's first show was on September 28 , 2015 with comedian Kevin Hart as his first guest . Noah 's premiere episode was simulcast by Viacom on Comedy Central , Nick @-@ at @-@ Nite , Spike , MTV , MTV2 , mtvU , VH1 , VH1 Classic , BET , Centric , CMT , TV Land , and Logo TV .
On December 8 , 2015 , former host Jon Stewart returned to The Daily Show for the first time in an extended length show to return attention to extending the James Zadroga 9 / 11 Health and Compensation Act , otherwise referred to as 9 / 11 First Responders Bill , which Stewart enumerated had been blocked by Paul Ryan and Mitch McConnell for political reasons . In January 2016 , The Daily Show utilizes a modified version of the show 's theme , composed by Timbaland and King Logan .
In addition to changes in the tone of the show , Noah has also implemented stylistic changes to the show , with an updated set , new graphics and his monologue often taking place while standing in front of a screen , as opposed to sitting at the desk .
= = Correspondents , contributors , and staff = =
The show 's correspondents have two principal roles : experts with satirical senior titles that Stewart interviews about certain issues , or hosts of field reporting segments which often involve humorous commentary and interviews relating to a current issue . The current team of correspondents collectively known as " The Best F # @ king News Team Ever " includes Ronny Chieng , Jordan Klepper , Desi Lydic , Hasan Minhaj , and Roy Wood , Jr . Contributors such as Lewis Black and Kristen Schaal appear on a less frequent basis , often with their own unique recurring segment . Ben Karlin says that the on @-@ air talent contribute in many ways to the material they perform , playing an integral role in the creation of their field pieces as well as being involved with their scripted studio segments , either taking part early on in the writing process or adding improvised material during the rehearsal .
The show has featured a number of well @-@ known comedians throughout its run and is notable for boosting the careers of several of these . Scott Dikkers , editor @-@ in @-@ chief of The Onion , describes it as a key launching pad for comedic talent , saying that " I don 't know if there 's a better show you could put on your resume right now . " Steve Carell , who was a correspondent between 1999 and 2005 before moving on to a movie career and starring television role in The Office , credits Stewart and The Daily Show with his success . In 2005 , the show 's longest @-@ serving correspondent , Stephen Colbert , became the host of the spin @-@ off The Colbert Report , earning critical and popular acclaim . Colbert would host the program until he was chosen to replace David Letterman as host of CBS 's Late Show in 2015 . Ed Helms , a former correspondent from 2002 to 2006 , also starred on NBC 's The Office and was a main character in the 2009 hit The Hangover . After filling in as host during Stewart 's two @-@ month absence in 2014 , John Oliver went on to host his own show on HBO , Last Week Tonight with John Oliver . In 2016 , former correspondent Samantha Bee launched her own late @-@ night talk show Full Frontal with Samantha Bee . Jason Jones , another former correspondent , serves as executive producer for the show .
In June 2010 , actress @-@ comedian Olivia Munn began a tryout period on the show as a correspondent . Her credentials were questioned by Irin Carmon of the website Jezebel , who suggested that Munn was better known as a sex symbol than as a comedian . Carmon 's column was denounced by Munn and the Daily Show 's female writers , producers , and correspondents , 32 of whom posted a rebuttal on the show 's website in which they asserted that the description of the Daily Show office given by the Jezebel piece was not accurate . Munn appeared as a Daily Show correspondent in a total of 16 episodes , from June 2010 to September 2011 .
Wyatt Cenac had a tumultuous tenure on the show , revealing in a July 2015 interview on WTF with Marc Maron , that his departure from The Daily Show stemmed in part from a heated argument he had with Jon Stewart over a June 2011 Daily Show bit about Republican Presidential candidate Herman Cain .
In March 2015 , it was announced that Jason Jones would be leaving to produce a show on TBS that he and his wife Samantha Bee wrote . Bee departed The Daily Show on April 30 , 2015 , and they created together Full Frontal with Samantha Bee .
Behind the scenes , Adam Chodikoff has been credited with finding key television footage and sound bites .
= = = Guest hosts = = =
Samantha Bee and Jason Jones , 1 episode ( October 7 , 2014 )
Steve Carell , 7 episodes ( February 21 , 2001 , Mar. 27 – 29 , 2001 , Apr 2 & 4 , 2001 , and May 1 , 2001 )
Stephen Colbert , 11 episodes ( January 24 , 2001 , Feb 20 & 22 , 2001 , Mar. 26 – 27 , 2001 , Apr 3 & 5 , 2001 , May 2 – 3 , 2001 , March 6 , 2003 , and July 6 , 2004 )
Rob Corddry , 1 episode ( February 9 , 2006 )
Vance DeGeneres , 2 episodes ( Feb. 26 – 27 , 2001 )
John Oliver , 33 episodes ( June 10 , 2013 to August 15 , 2013 , and November 13 , 2014 )
Mo Rocca , 1 episode ( February 27 , 2001 )
Nancy Walls , 2 episodes ( February 21 , 2001 and March 29 , 2001 )
= = Reception = =
Television ratings from 2008 show that the program generally drew 1 @.@ 45 to 1 @.@ 6 million viewers nightly , a high figure for cable television . By the end of 2013 The Daily Show 's ratings hit 2 @.@ 5 million viewers nightly . In demographic terms , the viewership is skewed to a relatively young and well @-@ educated audience compared to traditional news shows . A 2004 Nielsen Media Research study commissioned by Comedy Central put the median age at 35 . During the 2004 U.S. presidential election , the show received more male viewers in the 18- to 34 @-@ year @-@ old age demographic than Nightline , Meet the Press , Hannity & Colmes and all of the evening news broadcasts . Because of this , commentators such as Howard Dean and Ted Koppel posit that Stewart serves as a real source of news for young people , regardless of his intentions .
The show 's writers reject the idea that The Daily Show has become a source of news for young people . Stewart argues that Americans are living in an " age of information osmosis " in which it is close to impossible to gain one 's news from any single source , and says that his show succeeds comedically because the viewers already have some knowledge about current events . " Our show would not be valuable to people who didn 't understand the news because it wouldn 't make sense , " he argues . " We make assumptions about your level of knowledge that ... if we were your only source of news , you would just watch our show and think , ' I don 't know what 's happening . ' "
A 2006 study published by Indiana University tried to compare the substantive amount of information of The Daily Show against prime time network news broadcasts , and concluded that when it comes to substance , there is little difference between The Daily Show and other news outlets . The study contended that , since both programs are more focused on the nature of " infotainment " and ratings than on the dissemination of information , both are broadly equal in terms of the amount of substantial news coverage they offer .
As the lines between comedy show and news show have blurred , Jon Stewart has come under pressure in some circles to engage in more serious journalism . Tucker Carlson and Daily Show co @-@ creator Lizz Winstead have chastised Stewart for criticizing politicians and newspeople in his solo segments and then , in interviews with the same people , rarely taking them to task face @-@ to @-@ face . In 2004 , Winstead expressed a desire for Stewart to ask harder satirical questions , saying , " When you are interviewing a Richard Perle or a Kissinger , if you give them a pass , then you become what you are satirizing . You have a war criminal sitting on your couch — to just let him be a war criminal sitting on your couch means you are having to respect some kind of boundary . " She has argued that The Daily Show 's success and access to the youth vote should allow Stewart to press political guests harder without fearing that they will not return to the show . In 2010 , Winstead had changed her views , commenting that since 2004 , Stewart did some of the hardest @-@ hitting interviews on TV . Stewart said in 2003 that he does not think of himself as a social or media critic and rejects the idea that he has any journalistic role as an interviewer .
During Stewart 's appearance on CNN 's Crossfire , Stewart criticized that show and said that it was " hurting America " by sensationalizing debates and enabling political spin . When co @-@ host Carlson argued that Stewart himself had not asked John Kerry substantial questions when Kerry appeared on The Daily Show , Stewart countered that it was not his job to give hard @-@ hitting interviews and that a " fake news " comedy program should not be held to the same standards as real journalism . " You 're on CNN ! " Stewart said , " The show that leads into me is puppets making crank phone calls ! What is wrong with you ? " Media critic Dan Kennedy says that Stewart came off as disingenuous in this exchange because " you can 't interview Bill Clinton , Richard Clarke , Bill O 'Reilly , Bob Dole , etc . , etc . , and still say you 're just a comedian . "
A 2004 study into the effect of The Daily Show on viewers ' attitudes found that participants had a more negative opinion of both President Bush and then Democratic presidential nominee John Kerry . Participants also expressed more cynical views of the electoral system and news media . Political scientists Jody Baumgartner and Jonathan Morris , who conducted the study , state that it is not clear how such cynicism would affect the political behavior of the show 's viewers . While disillusionment and negative perceptions of the presidential candidates could discourage watchers from voting , Baumgartner and Morris say it is also possible that discontent could prompt greater involvement and that by following the show , viewers may potentially become more engaged and informed voters , with a broader political knowledge .
Rachel Larris , who has also conducted an academic study of The Daily Show , disputes the findings of Baumgartner and Morris . Larris argues that the study measured cynicism in overly broad terms , and that it would be extremely hard to find a causal link between viewing The Daily Show and thinking or acting in a particular way . Bloggers such as Marty Kaplan of The Huffington Post argue that so long as Stewart 's comedy is grounded in truth , responsibility for increased cynicism belongs to the political and media figures themselves , not the comedian who satirizes them .
Stewart himself says that he does not perceive his show as cynical . " It 's so interesting to me that people talk about late @-@ night comedy being cynical , " he says . " What 's more cynical than forming an ideological news network like Fox and calling it ' fair and balanced ' ? What we do , I almost think , is adorable in its idealism . " Stewart has said that he does not take any joy in the failings of American government , despite the comedic fodder they provide . " We 're not the guys at the craps table betting against the line , " he said on Larry King Live . " If government suddenly became inspiring ... we would be the happiest people in the world to turn our attention to idiots like , you know , media people , no offense . "
In July 2009 , Time magazine held an online poll entitled " Now that Walter Cronkite has passed on , who is America 's most trusted newscaster ? " Jon Stewart won with 44 % of the vote , 15 points ahead of Brian Williams in second place with 29 % . Stewart downplayed the results on the show stating " It was an Internet poll and I was the ' None of the above ' option " .
In December 2013 , TV Guide ranked Jon Stewart 's run on the show at # 53 on its list of the 60 Best Series of All Time .
= = = Effectiveness as a news source = = =
In late 2004 , the National Annenberg Election Survey at the University of Pennsylvania ran a study of American television viewers and found that fans of The Daily Show had a more accurate idea of the facts behind the 2004 presidential election than most others , including those who primarily got their news through the national network evening newscasts and through reading newspapers . However , in a 2004 campaign survey conducted by the Pew Research Center those who cited comedy shows such as The Daily Show as a source for news were among the least informed on campaign events and key aspects of the candidates ' backgrounds while those who cited the Internet , National Public Radio , and news magazines were the most informed . Even when age and education were taken into account , the people who learned about the campaigns through the Internet were still found to be the most informed , while those who learned from comedy shows were the least informed .
In a survey released by the Pew Research Center in April 2007 , viewers who watch both The Colbert Report and The Daily Show tend to be more knowledgeable about news than audiences of other news sources . Approximately 54 % of The Colbert Report and The Daily Show viewers scored in the high knowledge range , followed by Jim Lehrer 's program at 53 % and Bill O 'Reilly 's program at 51 % , significantly higher than the 34 % of network morning show viewers . The survey shows that changing news formats have not made much difference on how much the public knows about national and international affairs , but adds that there is no clear connection between news formats and what audiences know . The Project for Excellence in Journalism released a content analysis report suggesting that The Daily Show comes close to providing the complete daily news .
= = Episodes = =
= = Awards and nominations = =
Under host Jon Stewart , The Daily Show rose to critical acclaim . It has received two Peabody Awards for its coverage of the 2000 and 2004 presidential elections . Between 2001 and 2015 , it has been awarded 21 Primetime Emmy Awards in the categories of Outstanding Variety , Music , or Comedy Series ( winner for 10 consecutive years from 2003 to 2012 ) and Outstanding Writing for a Variety , Music , or Comedy Program , and a further seven nominations . The show has also been honored by GLAAD , the Television Critics Association , and the Satellite Awards . America ( The Book ) : A Citizen 's Guide to Democracy Inaction , the 2004 bestseller written by Stewart and the writing staff of The Daily Show , was recognized by Publishers Weekly as its " Book of the Year " , and its abridged audiobook edition received the 2005 Grammy Award for Best Comedy Album . In September 2010 , Time magazine selected the series as one of " The 100 Best TV Shows of All @-@ TIME " .
= = Global editions = =
The Daily Show airs on various networks worldwide ; in addition , an edited version of the show called The Daily Show : Global Edition is produced each week specifically for overseas audiences . It has been airing outside of the U.S. on CNN International and other overseas networks since September 2002 . This edition runs for half an hour and contains a selection of segments including one guest interview from the preceding week 's shows , usually from the Monday or Tuesday episode . Stewart provides an exclusive introductory monologue in front of an audience , usually about the week 's prevalent international news story , and closing comments without an audience present . When aired on CNN International , the broadcast is prefaced by a written disclaimer : " The show you are about to watch is a news parody . Its stories are not fact checked . Its reporters are not journalists . And its opinions are not fully thought through . "
Between 2001 and 2006 , Westwood One broadcast small , ninety @-@ second portions of the show to various radio stations across America .
In Canada , The Daily Show is aired on The Comedy Network ( a cable channel similar to Comedy Central ) , in simulcast with the Comedy Central airing , as well as on the CTV broadcast network at 12 : 05 a.m. local time , following late local newscasts .
In the United Kingdom and Ireland , the digital television channel More4 used to broadcast episodes of The Daily Show Tuesday through Friday evenings with the Global Edition , which is uncensored , airs on Mondays ; regular episodes air the evening following their U.S. airing . More4 was the first international broadcaster to syndicate entire Daily Show episodes , though they made edits to the program due to content , language , length or commercial references . The program was also available to watch via the internet video on demand service 4oD . However , the ' toss ' to The Colbert Report was usually included even though it was aired on FX , another channel . In addition , the placement of commercial breaks followed the UK format , with one break midway through the show rather than several short breaks at various points . When The Daily Show was on hiatus , either re @-@ runs or alternative content were aired . Since January 2011 , only the Global Edition is broadcast . In July 2012 Comedy Central announced that The Daily Show would be shown on Comedy Central Extra in the same format as previously on More4 , with episodes shown 24 hours after airing in the U.S. The show aired on the channel from July 2012 to April 2015 .
The Global Edition of the week of July 20 , 2011 was not aired in the UK as it included a segment mocking Rupert Murdoch 's appearance before the House of Commons Culture , Media and Sport Committee in relation to the News International phone hacking scandal . Parliamentary rules ban parliamentary proceedings from being broadcast in a satirical context . Stewart dedicated a segment of the show on August 2 , 2011 to lampooning the censorship of the episode in Britain . In May that year , The Daily Show mocked the ban on using footage of the Royal Wedding in a satirical context with an animated video that showed Paddington Bear , Gollum and Adolf Hitler as guests at the wedding , and depicted its attendants engaging in various forms of violent and sexual behavior . Stewart later discussed the ban with guest Keira Knightley .
The Daily Show is aired in India on Comedy Central India .
The Daily Show is aired on Australian Pay TV channel , The Comedy Channel , weeknights at 6 : 30pm . Free @-@ to @-@ air digital channel ABC2 began broadcasting the show without commercial breaks in March 2010 , but discontinued in January 2011 when The Comedy Channel obtained exclusive rights ; episodes were also available on the network 's online service ABC iView shortly after airing . The Comedy Channel ( as well as ABC2 during 2010 ) air the show together with The Colbert Report , and both air the Global Edition on Mondays and the regular edition Tuesday through Friday . The Global Edition was previously shown weekend late nights on SBS before moving to Network TEN .
In Portugal , it airs with no commercial breaks .
In North Africa and the Middle East , the Daily Show has been broadcast since 2008 on Showtime Arabia . The regular as well as the Global Edition episodes can currently be seen on OSN First HD , which also broadcasts The Colbert Report . However episodes are often edited if they contain topics deemed inappropriate for the region .
Episodes of the U.S. version are also available online the next day at Comedy Central 's official Daily Show website , although this service is not available in all countries . However , clips for UK and Ireland viewers became available on the UK Comedy Central website in December 2011 .
= = Spin @-@ offs = =
= = = The Colbert Report = = =
A spin @-@ off , The Colbert Report , was announced in early May 2005 . The show starred former correspondent Stephen Colbert , and served as Comedy Central 's answer to the programs of media pundits such as Bill O 'Reilly . Colbert , Stewart , and Ben Karlin developed the idea for the show based on a series of faux television commercials that had been created for an earlier Daily Show segment . They pitched the concept to Comedy Central chief Doug Herzog , who agreed to run the show for eight weeks without first creating a pilot . The Colbert Report premiered on October 17 , 2005 and aired following The Daily Show for nine years . Initial ratings satisfied Comedy Central and less than three weeks after its debut the show was renewed for a year . The Colbert Report was produced by Jon Stewart 's production company , Busboy Productions .
In 2014 it was announced that Colbert would leave Comedy Central to host The Late Show with Stephen Colbert on CBS in 2015 , following the retirement of David Letterman . The final episode of The Colbert Report aired on December 18 , 2014 .
= = = The Nightly Show with Larry Wilmore = = =
On May 9 , 2014 it was announced that contributor Larry Wilmore was selected to host a late @-@ night talk show on Comedy Central , to replace The Colbert Report following Colbert 's departure from the network . The show is titled The Nightly Show with Larry Wilmore and is produced by Busboy Productions . It premiered on January 19 , 2015 , and airs Mondays through Thursdays at 11 : 30 PM ( EST ) following The Daily Show .
= = = The Daily Show : Nederlandse Editie = = =
A local spin @-@ off of the show called The Daily Show : Nederlandse Editie ( The Daily Show : Dutch Edition ) premiered on the Dutch Comedy Central on January 31 , 2011 . The program is similar to the original , except with Dutch news and a Dutch view on international news . The show is hosted by comedian Jan @-@ Jaap van der Wal , who was a team captain on Dit was het nieuws , the Dutch edition of Have I Got News For You . The first episode featured a guest appearance by Jon Stewart ( recorded at the New York studio ) , who gave his official blessing for the show . This is also the first and still only franchise of The Daily Show . The ' Dutch Edition ' didn 't make it past the test run of 12 episodes due to lack of viewers .
= = = Books = = =
America ( The Book ) : A Citizen 's Guide to Democracy Inaction , published in 2004 , is a book written by Jon Stewart and other writers of The Daily Show that parodies and satirizes American politics and worldview .
Earth ( The Book ) : A Visitor 's Guide to the Human Race , published in 2010 , is a book written by Jon Stewart and other writers of The Daily Show and is similar in style to America ( The Book ) , but focuses on planet and human culture instead of the history of America .
= = Unofficial versions = =
The Daily Show ’ s satirical format has inspired international versions unaffiliated with Comedy Central . The Persian @-@ language satire program Parazit was directly inspired by The Daily Show with the hosts even making a guest appearance on the January 20 , 2011 , episode of The Daily Show . In Germany , the heute @-@ Show has aired on ZDF since 2009 . The name is derived from the main ZDF news program heute . In Egypt , the show Al Bernameg is modeled after The Daily Show as well . Host Bassem Youssef even imitates Jon Stewart 's mannerisms , such as using his mug as a comedic prop . In Iraq , Albasheer Show is a reduced version ( with no celebrity interviews ) and is hosted by the Iraqi journalist / comedian Ahmad Al @-@ Basheer ; commenting and criticizing local political issues . In Israel , the Daily Show was one of the main inspirations for Eretz Nehederet , a popular Israeli satire . During the 2009 Portuguese legislative election campaign , Portuguese comedy group Gato Fedorento hosted Gato Fedorento Esmiúça os Sufrágios , a satirical news show modeled after The Daily Show ’ s election coverage segments , which attracted immediate public attention after securing the key political candidates as guests . In Croatia , Montirani proces , a short @-@ lived satirical program heavily inspired by The Daily Show ran for six episodes in 2016 , before being controversially cancelled by the newly appointed conservative administration of the Croatian Radiotelevision .
= History of the National Hockey League ( 1992 – present ) =
The National Hockey League ( NHL ) has endured a tumultuous period of history in recent years . It has grown from 22 teams in 1992 to 30 today as the league expanded across the United States . Repeated labour conflicts interrupted play in 1992 , 1994 – 95 , 2004 – 05 and 2012 – 13 ; the second lockout caused the entire 2004 – 05 NHL season to be canceled , the first time in North American history that a sports league has canceled an entire season in a labour dispute . Five franchises have relocated during this time : the Minnesota North Stars became the Dallas Stars ( 1993 ) , the Quebec Nordiques became the Colorado Avalanche ( 1995 ) , the Winnipeg Jets became the Phoenix Coyotes ( 1996 ) , the Hartford Whalers became the Carolina Hurricanes ( 1997 ) , and the Atlanta Thrashers became the second franchise known as the Winnipeg Jets ( 2011 ) . The Coyotes would later rebrand themselves as the Arizona Coyotes following the 2013 – 14 season .
In 1993 , the Montreal Canadiens celebrated the Stanley Cup 's 100th anniversary with their 24th championship . They remain the last Canadian team to capture the trophy . The 1994 New York Rangers broke the Curse of 1940 , winning their first title in 54 years . The renaissance of the Original Six would continue as the Detroit Red Wings ( Stanley Cup winners in 1997 , 1998 , 2002 and 2008 ) , Chicago Blackhawks ( winners in 2010 , 2013 and 2015 ) and Boston Bruins ( winners in 2011 ) broke lengthy Cup droughts of 42 , 49 and 39 seasons , respectively . Meanwhile , the NHL 's southern expansion , often maligned by Canadians and fans in the Northeastern United States , has led to championships by the Dallas Stars , Tampa Bay Lightning , Carolina Hurricanes and Anaheim Ducks in the last decade , with the Los Angeles Kings following suit .
Manon Rheaume became the first female player in the NHL when she suited up for the Lightning in a 1992 pre @-@ season game . Wayne Gretzky passed Gordie Howe as the NHL 's all @-@ time leading scorer in 1994 when he scored his 802nd career goal . Mario Lemieux overcame Hodgkin 's lymphoma to finish his NHL career with more than 1 @,@ 700 points and two championships , and now owns the Pittsburgh Penguins . Today 's NHL is led by arguably its two biggest young stars : Sidney Crosby of the Pittsburgh Penguins and Alexander Ovechkin of the Washington Capitals .
The Canada Cup gave way to the World Cup of Hockey in 1996 , while NHL players first competed in the 1998 Winter Olympics . To promote itself worldwide , the NHL played regular season games in Japan in 1996 , and throughout Europe since 2007 . The league played its first outdoor regular season game between the Canadiens and the host Edmonton Oilers in 2003 and which led to the creation of three series of outdoor games : the Heritage Classic , Winter Classic and Stadium Series .
Increased use of defence @-@ focused systems contributed to decreased scoring in the late 1990s , leading some to argue that the NHL 's talent pool had been diluted by the 1990 expansion plan . The league has attempted several times to alter its rules to increase scoring . It began awarding teams a single point for losing in overtime in 1999 , hoping to reduce the number of tie games . In 2005 , ties were eliminated altogether as the penalty shootout was introduced to ensure that all games have a winner .
= = Background = =
As the 1990s began , players were uneasy with the closeness between National Hockey League Players Association ( NHLPA ) executive director Alan Eagleson and the teams ' owners . As a result , Eagleson stepped down in December 1991 , and was replaced by Bob Goodenow . Four years later , the Federal Bureau of Investigation indicted Eagleson on charges of racketeering , fraud , embezzlement , kickbacks and obstruction of justice over allegations that he stole millions of dollars from the NHLPA . Eagleson pleaded guilty in 1998 in a plea bargain and was fined US $ 1 million and sentenced to 18 months in prison . He subsequently resigned from the Hockey Hall of Fame .
Four months after replacing Eagleson , Goodenow and the NHLPA launched the first NHL strike on April 1 , 1992 . It lasted ten days and resulted in the players receiving larger playoff bonuses , increased control over the licensing of their likenesses and improved rights to free agency . It also led the owners to dismiss league president John Ziegler and replace him on an interim basis with Gil Stein . Goodenow called the strike a major moment , stating " I don 't think the owners took the players seriously and it wasn 't until the strike that they understood the players were serious . " As part of the deal , the league also agreed to have each team play two games per season for the following two years in neutral site locations , partially to help gauge markets for potential expansion .
Desiring a fresh start , the owners replaced Stein with Gary Bettman in February 1993 . Formerly a senior vice president of the National Basketball Association , Bettman replaced the position of president with that of commissioner . He was given the task of selling the game to the American market , ending labor unrest , completing expansion plans , and modernizing the league .
= = Expansion = =
The Tampa Bay Lightning and Ottawa Senators joined the league in 1992 – 93 as part of the owners ' 1990 plan to expand the NHL to 28 teams within a decade . The Lightning made NHL history when goaltender Manon Rheaume played a period of an exhibition game for them on September 23 , 1992 . Rheaume became the first woman to play in an NHL game . She also became the first woman to sign a professional hockey contract , doing so with the Lightning 's farm team , the Atlanta Knights . One year later , the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim and Florida Panthers began play as the NHL 's 25th and 26th franchises . They were established as part of the NHL 's attempt to regain a U.S. network television presence by expanding into southern North America . The league expected that bringing in Blockbuster Video 's Wayne Huizenga to own the Panthers , and The Walt Disney Company to own the Mighty Ducks would raise its profile . The NHL 's southward push continued in 1993 when the Minnesota North Stars moved to Dallas , Texas to become the Dallas Stars .
The NHL celebrated the 100th anniversary of the Stanley Cup in 1993 . That year 's finals featured Patrick Roy and the Montreal Canadiens against Wayne Gretzky and the Los Angeles Kings . After losing the first game , the Canadiens rallied from a late deficit to win game two in overtime after the Kings ' Marty McSorley was penalized for using an illegal stick . Montreal scored on the power play , sending the game into overtime . Montreal won games three and four in overtime en route to winning the series in five games . The Canadiens won an NHL @-@ record ten consecutive overtime games in the 1993 playoffs .
The New York Rangers ended their " Curse of 1940 " after 54 years by winning the 1994 Stanley Cup in seven games over the Vancouver Canucks . The Rangers ' championship was the last hurrah for the great Edmonton Oilers dynasty of the 1980s , as there were seven ex @-@ Oilers on the team , including Mark Messier , who became the first ( and to this date , the only ) player to win Stanley Cups as the captain for two franchises , having captained the Oilers to the last of their five Stanley Cups in 1990 . The Rangers ' victory also resulted in the first Russian names to be engraved on the Stanley Cup : Alexei Kovalev , Alexander Karpovtsev , Sergei Nemchinov , and Sergei Zubov . The global audience of 285 million in 120 countries that watched the Rangers ' victory included a huge European audience , including those watching across the former Soviet Union . This Stanley Cup win was the highest @-@ rated single CBC Sports program in history to that point .
= = = 1994 – 95 lockout = = =
Four months later , the players were locked out by the owners due to the lack of a Collective Bargaining Agreement ( CBA ) . The 1994 – 95 NHL lockout lasted 104 days and resulted in the season 's being shortened from a planned 84 games to 48 . The owners wanted to control salary growth and insisted on a salary cap , changes to free agency and salary arbitration . The union instead proposed a luxury tax system that would penalize teams that spent above a set figure on player salaries . The negotiations were at times bitter , as defenceman Chris Chelios famously issued a veiled threat against Bettman , suggesting that he should be " worried about [ his ] family and [ his ] well @-@ being " , because " some crazed fans , or even a player [ ... ] might take matters into their own hands and figure they get Bettman out of the way . "
The lockout entered its fourth month in January 1995 and approached a deadline that would have canceled the season when the two sides agreed to an 11th @-@ hour deal . The owners failed to achieve a full salary cap , but the union agreed to a cap on rookie contracts , changes to the arbitration system and restrictive rules for free agency that would not grant a player the unrestricted right to choose where he played until age 31 . The deal was initially seen as a victory for the owners .
The agreement was not enough to save two teams in Canada 's smallest NHL markets . The revenue disparity between large and small market teams , exacerbated by the falling value of the Canadian dollar , led the Winnipeg Jets to relocate to Phoenix , Arizona in 1996 , becoming the Coyotes one year after the Quebec Nordiques moved to Denver , Colorado to become the Colorado Avalanche . Hoping to prevent other teams from leaving Canada , and citing the cost of doing business in American dollars while taking revenue in Canadian dollars , the NHL set up a currency assistance plan to support the remaining small market Canadian teams in 1996 . The Hartford Whalers became the third former World Hockey Association team to relocate in 1997 , moving to Raleigh , North Carolina , to become the Carolina Hurricanes .
= = Dead puck era = =
Following the 1994 – 95 lockout , the NHL entered a prolonged period of offensive decline . Throughout the 1980s , 7 @.@ 6 goals were scored per game on average . That figure had dropped below six goals per game by the 1994 – 95 season , and to 5 @.@ 19 by 1998 – 99 . There have been many arguments put forth as to what caused this decline . A common claim is that the drop in offence was due to dilution of talent caused by 1990s expansion , a position former player Brett Hull endorsed . Increased use of the neutral zone trap and similar defensive systems were also blamed . The New Jersey Devils have often been criticized for popularizing the trap , using it to win the Stanley Cup in 1995 . This period has been called the dead puck era .
The Canada Cup gave way to the World Cup of Hockey in 1996 , an NHL @-@ sanctioned eight team international tournament featuring the top professionals in the world . The inaugural tournament saw the United States upset the favored Canadians in a three @-@ game final . That same year , the Avalanche won their first Stanley Cup in their first season in Denver , sweeping the Florida Panthers . One year later , the Detroit Red Wings ended a 42 @-@ year drought , capturing their first Stanley Cup since 1955 . The team 's celebration was cut short , as defenseman Vladimir Konstantinov and team masseur Sergei Mnatsakanov were seriously injured when their limousine crashed six days following the victory . The Red Wings dedicated the 1997 – 98 season to the two . Upon repeating as champions in 1998 , they brought Konstantinov , who had suffered severe brain damage in the crash , out in a wheelchair to celebrate with the team on the ice .
The NHL added four expansion teams to increase the total number of clubs to 30 . Continuing its expansion into the southern United States , the Nashville Predators joined the league in 1998 , followed by the Atlanta Thrashers in 1999 . The Minnesota Wild and Columbus Blue Jackets then began play in 2000 .
On April 16 , 1999 , Wayne Gretzky played his final NHL game , retiring as the league 's all @-@ time scoring leader and holding 61 NHL records . His number , 99 , was retired league @-@ wide the following season . The usual three @-@ year waiting period between a player 's retirement and his induction into the Hockey Hall of Fame was waived , and he was inducted in 1999 .
For marketing reasons , the NHL agreed to participate in the Winter Olympics starting in 1998 . NHL players first competed at the Nagano Games . Led by goaltender Dominik Hasek , the tournament was won by the Czech Republic . Hasek , who finished the tournament with a 0 @.@ 97 goals @-@ against average and a .961 save percentage over six games , was the leading goaltender of the 1990s . His run of consecutive Vezina Trophies from 1994 to 1999 was interrupted only once , in 1996 by Jim Carey of the Washington Capitals . Hasek won another Vezina Trophy in 2001 , and two consecutive Lester B. Pearson and Hart Trophies in 1997 and 1998 .
The Panthers ' trip to the Stanley Cup final in 1996 began a trend in which southern @-@ based teams frequently appeared in the championship round . The Dallas Stars won the 1999 Stanley Cup over the Buffalo Sabres in controversial fashion : Brett Hull scored the Cup @-@ winning goal in overtime of game six despite arguments that his foot was in the goal crease , which under the rules at the time would have disallowed the goal . The Stars returned to the finals in 2000 , falling to the New Jersey Devils . The Hurricanes first played in the finals in 2002 , losing to the Red Wings , while the Mighty Ducks reached the final in 2003 , falling to the Devils . In 2004 , the Tampa Bay Lightning defeated the Calgary Flames to win the Cup . The Lightning win in 2004 was seen as the end to the Devils / Avalanche / Red Wings Stanley Cup era , as all three teams won a combined 8 Stanley Cups between 1995 and 2003 .
The Edmonton Oilers hosted the NHL 's first regular season outdoor hockey game , the Heritage Classic , on November 22 , 2003 . The game against the Canadiens was held at Commonwealth Stadium before a then @-@ record crowd of 57 @,@ 167 fans who endured temperatures as low as − 19 ° C ( − 2 ° F ) .
= = = Mario Lemieux = = =
When they selected him as the first overall draft pick in 1984 , the Pittsburgh Penguins hoped that Mario Lemieux would improve the team 's fortunes on the ice , and increase interest in the team in the Pittsburgh market . Lemieux , who had scored 133 goals in his final season of junior hockey , recorded his first NHL goal in his first game on his first career shot against the Boston Bruins . On December 31 , 1988 , Lemieux scored five goals , one in each of the five different ways possible : even strength , on the power play , short handed , on a penalty shot and into an empty net , a feat no player in league history has duplicated .
Injuries and illness plagued Lemieux throughout his career . He played only 26 regular season games in 1990 – 91 after surgery to repair a herniated disc in his back , but returned in time to score 44 points in the playoffs in leading the Penguins to their first Stanley Cup . Lemieux continued to struggle with back trouble the next season , though he still won the scoring title , and his second consecutive playoff MVP award in leading the Penguins to their second championship in 1992 . In 1993 , he was diagnosed with cancer . Lemieux endured 22 radiation treatments in 30 days to treat non @-@ Hodgkin lymphoma . Only 12 hours after his final treatment , Lemieux returned to the Penguins , scoring a goal in his first game back . A second surgery on his back cost Lemieux most of the 1993 – 94 season , and the entire 1994 – 95 campaign . As a result of his injuries , Lemieux retired in 1997 . He was immediately inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame ; the three @-@ year waiting period was waived by the Hall .
Inspired by his son Austin 's desire to see him play , Lemieux returned to the NHL in 2000 – 01 , earning an assist on a Jaromir Jagr goal 33 @-@ seconds into his return , and scoring one himself in the 2nd period . He also became the first player @-@ owner in NHL history ; he had bought the Penguins in the summer of 1999 to save them from bankruptcy . Lemieux finished the season with 35 goals and 76 points in 43 games . Lemieux continued to battle injuries , missing the majority of the first @-@ half of the 2001 – 02 season , however he returned to action in time to captain Team Canada to its first gold medal in 50 @-@ years at the 2002 Winter Olympics . Injuries again forced his retirement , as Lemieux finally ended his career on January 24 , 2006 with 690 goals and 1 @,@ 723 points in 915 games . Despite his injuries , it has been argued that Lemieux was the greatest player in NHL history . Hall of Famer Bobby Orr said that Lemieux was the most skilled player he had ever seen , while Mike Gartner said that if he had remained healthy , Lemieux would have scored 1 @,@ 000 goals .
= = 2004 – 05 lockout = =
By 2004 , the owners were claiming that player salaries had grown much faster than revenues , and that the league as a whole lost over US $ 300 million in 2002 – 03 . Upon the expiry of the collective bargaining agreement ( CBA ) , Gary Bettman announced that the players were again locked out to start the 2004 – 05 season . As with the 1994 – 95 lockout , the owners were demanding a salary cap , which the players were unwilling to consider until the season was on the verge of being lost . The players , for their part , offered a 24 % salary rollback to keep the free @-@ market system that was already in place . On February 16 , 2005 , after a series of last minute offers failed , Bettman announced the cancellation of the entire season , making the NHL first major North American league to cancel an entire season because of a labor stoppage .
The season 's cancellation led union president Trevor Linden and senior director Ted Saskin to take charge of negotiations from executive director Bob Goodenow . By early July , the two sides had agreed to a new CBA . The deal featured a hard salary cap , linked to a fixed percentage of league revenues , a 24 % rollback on salaries , and unrestricted free agency beginning after seven years of service .
The loss of the 2004 – 05 season led the NHL to institute a special lottery to determine the order of the 2005 draft , as there were no standings to base a drafting order from . The Pittsburgh Penguins won the lottery , and selected Sidney Crosby , a highly prized prospect whose arrival to the NHL had been greatly anticipated . Crosby and the Washington Capitals ' Alex Ovechkin , the 2004 first overall pick , were expected to become the faces of the NHL as the league entered a new era . Ovechkin was named the Calder Memorial Trophy winner as rookie of the year in 2005 – 06 , while Crosby 's presence helped Pittsburgh 's attendance increase by 33 % , over 4 @,@ 000 fans per game .
= = Recent years = =
In the 2005 – 06 season , Ovechkin and Crosby began their careers . In their first three seasons , they each won both the Art Ross and Hart trophies ; Crosby captured both in 2007 and Ovechkin in 2008 . The 2006 Stanley Cup Finals was the first time that franchises that originally played in the World Hockey Association ( WHA ) met in the Stanley Cup Final , as the Oilers lost a seven @-@ game series to the Hurricanes . The following season , the Senators lost the finals in five games to the Ducks . The three @-@ year streak of Canadian teams in the finals was halted in the 2007 – 08 season , when the Red Wings defeated the Penguins for their fourth Stanley Cup in 11 years . The Penguins returned the favor in the 2009 Stanley Cup Finals , winning in Game 7 for their third Stanley Cup , most by any post @-@ 1967 expansion team .
The first half of the 2010s was dominated by either the Chicago Blackhawks or the Los Angeles Kings . The Blackhawks , whose last Cup win was in 1961 , won three Stanley Cups in 2010 , 2013 and 2015 , while the Kings , who have not won a Cup since entering the league in 1967 , won their first two Cups in 2012 and 2014 , the former of which made them the first and only eighth @-@ seed to win the Cup . The only team other than the Blackhawks or the Kings to win the Cup during this period were the Boston Bruins , who won the Cup in 2011 , their first since 1972 . The Bruins and Blackhawks also met in the first all @-@ Original Six final since 1979 , which took place in 2013 .
The success of the Heritage Classic led the NHL to schedule more outdoor games . The Sabres hosted the 2008 NHL Winter Classic on New Year 's Day 2008 , losing to the Pittsburgh Penguins in a shootout before a crowd of 71 @,@ 217 at Ralph Wilson Stadium . The second Winter Classic was held January 1 , 2009 at Wrigley Field in Chicago between the Blackhawks and Red Wings . On January 1 , 2010 at Fenway Park in Boston the third Winter Classic was held with the Bruins defeating the Philadelphia Flyers 2 @-@ 1 in overtime . The following year the Winter Classic was held in Pittsburgh 's Heinz Field , with the Washington Capitals beating the Penguins 3 @-@ 1 , and on January 2 , 2012 ( January 1 of that year was a Sunday ) , the New York Rangers defeated the Flyers 3 @-@ 2 at Philadelphia 's Citizens Bank Park . For the 2013 – 14 season , six outdoor games are scheduled in five cities , beginning with the 2014 NHL Winter Classic at Detroit 's Michigan Stadium , and then the 2014 NHL Stadium Series at Dodger Stadium in Los Angeles , Yankee Stadium in New York City , and Soldier Field in Chicago , before concluding with the 2014 NHL Heritage Classic at Vancouver 's BC Place . To date , a total of 15 games have been played outdoors since 2003 , with three more scheduled during the 2015 – 16 season .
Intending to promote the game worldwide , the league sent the San Jose Sharks and Calgary Flames to begin the 1998 – 99 season with two games in Tokyo , Japan . Since 2007 , the NHL has been sending teams to Europe to start each season . The Los Angeles Kings met the Ducks at the O2 Arena in London , England to start the 2007 – 08 season . A year later , four teams were sent to Prague , Czech Republic and Stockholm , Sweden . One of those teams , the Rangers , also participated in the inaugural Victoria Cup , defeating the Kontinental Hockey League 's Metallurg Magnitogorsk 4 – 3 in a single game . Another four teams opened the 2009 – 10 season in Stockholm and Helsinki , Finland . In 2010 , Vancouver hosted the Winter Olympics , the first time an NHL city has hosted the event since the league began participating . The NHL 's participation in future games remains in doubt , as it had expressed a desire not to participate in the 2014 games in Sochi , Russia . However , the NHL players did ultimately participate in those games . The players strongly favour continued participation in the Olympics . The third World Cup of Hockey is expected to take place in 2011 , seven years after the 2004 tournament .
Due to the 2010 Olympics , the Canucks underwent the longest road trip in NHL history , with 14 games over 6 weeks , from January 27 to March 13 , 2010 , to allow General Motors Place to be used for ice hockey during the Winter Games . It marked the first time that an NHL @-@ sized rink was used during the Winter Olympics . GM Place was " Canada Hockey Place " during the games , as the IOC prohibits advertising , including corporate sponsorship , within Olympic venues .
Despite these successes after the lockout , a couple of teams still had financial difficulties . The Phoenix Coyotes eventually filed for bankruptcy in May 2009 after incurring several hundred million dollars of losses . The league then took control over the team later that year in order to stabilize the club 's operations , with the hopes of eventually reselling it to a new owner who would be committed to stay in the Phoenix market . Meanwhile , the City of Glendale , Arizona , home of the team 's Jobing.com Arena , financially kept the team afloat , paying $ 25 million to the NHL to cover the club 's losses for the 2010 – 11 season , and another $ 25 million for the 2011 – 12 season . The league eventually sold the team in 2013 to Renaissance Sports & Entertainment ( RS & E ) , a group of Canadian investors .
After also suffering financial losses and ownership struggles , the Atlanta Thrashers were eventually sold to True North Sports and Entertainment in 2011 , who then relocated the team to Winnipeg , a stark reversal of the league 's attempts to expand into the southern United States . Initially replacing the Thrashers in the Eastern Conference 's Southeast Division , as part of a realignment to four divisions , the Jets were moved to the Western Conference 's Central Division before the 2013 – 14 season . The Detroit Red Wings and Columbus Blue Jackets were then assigned to the Eastern Conference 's Atlantic and Metropolitan divisions , respectively .
= = = 2012 – 13 lockout = = =
The NHL again entered lockout in 2012 , cancelling the first 526 games , about 43 % of the season , until at least December 30 , 2012 . Just after 5 am on January 6 , 2013 , after approximately 16 continuous hours of negotiating , the NHL and the player 's union reached a tentative deal on a new collective bargaining agreement to end the lockout . The first games of the season were held on January 19 .
= = Rules and innovations = =
Hoping to reduce the number of tie games during the regular season , the NHL decided that beginning in the 1999 – 2000 season , in any game tied after regulation time , both teams would be guaranteed one point , while the team that won in overtime would earn a second point . The theory was that rather than playing conservatively to earn a point for a tie , teams would press for the extra point for the overtime win . In the 2005 – 06 season the NHL eliminated tie games altogether , as the shootout was introduced to decide all regular season games tied after the five @-@ minute overtime period . The shootout has proven controversial ; critics have called it a gimmick , and expressed fierce opposition to any suggestion of using it to decide playoff games , though the league has not pushed for this to happen . It has also been argued that teams are playing it safe , taking no chances in regulation in order to bring the game to overtime , where they are each guaranteed a point . The shootout also has many supporters , among them Phoenix head coach Dave Tippett , who stated that many fans enjoy it .
The shootout was one of several rule changes made in 2005 as the league attempted to increase offence following the lockout . The two @-@ line pass rule was eliminated , allowing teams to pass from their defensive zone to anywhere in the neutral zone . Previously , such passes could only be made to their own half of the neutral zone . The rule was intended to encourage long breakout passes and create more breakaways . Teams that commit an icing infraction are no longer allowed to make a line change before a faceoff , and goaltenders are now prohibited from playing the puck in the end @-@ zone corners behind the goal line . They are allowed to play the puck directly behind the net , within the trapezoid marked by diagonal lines from the goal line to the end boards .
One of the most controversial changes was the league 's zero @-@ tolerance policy on obstruction penalties . | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
The league hoped that the game could be opened up if it cracked down on " clutching and grabbing " . The tighter regulations have met with complaints about the legitimacy of some calls , that players are diving to draw penalties , and that officials are not calling enough penalties .
The changes initially led to a sharp increase in scoring . Teams combined to score 6 @.@ 1 goals per game in 2005 – 06 , more than a goal per game higher than in the 2003 – 04 season . This represented the highest single @-@ season increase in offence since 1929 – 30 . However , scoring has rapidly declined since , approaching pre @-@ lockout totals in 2007 – 08 .
= = Timeline = =
= Edmund FitzAlan , 9th Earl of Arundel =
Edmund FitzAlan , 9th Earl of Arundel ( 1 May 1285 – 17 November 1326 ) was an English nobleman prominent in the conflict between Edward II and his barons . His father , Richard FitzAlan , 8th Earl of Arundel , died on 9 March 1301 , while Edmund was still a minor . He therefore became a ward of John de Warenne , Earl of Surrey , and married Warenne 's granddaughter Alice . In 1306 he was styled Earl of Arundel , and served under Edward I in the Scottish Wars , for which he was richly rewarded .
After Edward I 's death , Arundel became part of the opposition to the new king Edward II , and his favourite Piers Gaveston . In 1311 he was one of the so @-@ called Lords Ordainers who assumed control of government from the king . Together with Thomas , Earl of Lancaster , he was responsible for the death of Gaveston in 1312 . From this point on , however , his relationship to the king became more friendly . This was to a large extent due to his association with the king 's new favourite Hugh Despenser the Younger , whose daughter was married to Arundel 's son . Arundel supported the king in suppressing rebellions by Roger Mortimer and other Marcher Lords , and eventually also Thomas of Lancaster . For this he was awarded with land and offices .
His fortune changed , however , when the country was invaded in 1326 by Mortimer , who had made common cause with the king 's wife , Queen Isabella . Immediately after the capture of Edward II , the queen , Edward III 's regent , ordered Arundel executed , his title forfeit and his property confiscated . Arundel 's son and heir Richard only recovered the title and lands in 1331 , after Edward III had taken power from the regency of Isabella and Mortimer . In the 1390s , a cult emerged around the late earl . He was venerated as a martyr , though he was never canonised .
= = Family and early life = =
Edmund FitzAlan was born in the Castle of Marlborough , in Wiltshire , on 1 May 1285 . He was the son of Richard FitzAlan , 8th Earl of Arundel , and his wife , Alice of Saluzzo , daughter of Thomas I of Saluzzo in Italy . Richard had been in opposition to the king during the political crisis of 1295 , and as a result he had incurred great debts and had parts of his land confiscated . When Richard died in 09 / 03 / 1301 , Edmund 's wardship was given to John de Warenne , Earl of Surrey . Warenne 's only son , William , had died in 1286 , so his daughter Alice was now heir apparent to the Warenne earldom . Alice was offered in marriage to Edmund , who for unknown reasons initially refused her . By 1305 he had changed his mind , however , and the two were married .
In April 1306 , shortly before turning twenty @-@ one , Edmund was granted possession of his father 's title and land . On 22 May 1306 , he was knighted by Edward I , along with the young Prince Edward – the future Edward II . The knighting was done in expectation of military service the Scottish Wars , and after the campaign was over , Arundel was richly rewarded . Edward I pardoned the young earl a debt of £ 4 @,@ 234 . This flow of patronage continued after the death of Edward I in 1307 ; in 1308 Edward II returned the hundred of Purslow to Arundel , an honour that Edward I had confiscated from Edmund 's father . There were also official honours in the early years of Edward II 's reign . At the new king 's coronation on 25 February 1308 , Arundel officiated as chief butler ( or pincerna ) , a hereditary office of the earls of Arundel .
= = Opposition to Edward II = =
Though the reign of Edward II was initially harmonious , he soon met with opposition from several of his earls and prelates . At the source of the discontent was the king 's relationship with the young Gascon knight Piers Gaveston , who had been exiled by Edward I , but was recalled immediately upon Edward II 's accession . Edward 's favouritism towards the upstart Gaveston was an offence to the established nobility , and his elevation to the earldom of Cornwall was particularly offensive to the established nobility . A group of magnates led by Henry de Lacy , Earl of Lincoln , forced Gaveston into exile in 1308 . By 1309 , however , Edward had reconciled himself with the opposition , and Gaveston was allowed to return .
Arundel joined the opposition at an early point , and did not attend the Stamford parliament in July 1309 , where Gaveston 's return was negotiated . After Gaveston returned , his behaviour became even more offensive , and opposition towards him grew . In addition to this , there was great discontent with Edward II 's failure to follow up his father 's Scottish campaigns . On 16 March 1310 , the king had to agree to the appointment of a committee known as the Lords Ordainers , who were to be in charge of the reform of the royal government . Arundel was one of eight earls among the twenty @-@ one Ordainers .
The Ordainers once more sent Gaveston into exile in 1311 , but by 1312 he was back . Now the king 's favourite was officially an outlaw , and Arundel was among the earls who swore to hunt him down . The leader of the opposition – after Lincoln 's death the year before – was now Thomas , Earl of Lancaster . In June 1312 Gaveston was captured , tried before Lancaster , Arundel and the earls of Warwick and Hereford , and executed . A reconciliation was achieved between the king and the offending magnates , and Arundel and the others received pardons , but animosity prevailed . In 1314 Arundel was among the magnates who refused to assist Edward in a campaign against the Scottish , resulting in the disastrous English defeat at the Battle of Bannockburn .
= = Return to loyalty = =
Around the time of Bannockburn , however , Arundel 's loyalty began to shift back towards the king . Edward 's rapprochement towards the earl had in fact started earlier , when on 2 November 1313 , the king pardoned Arundel 's royal debts . The most significant factor in this process though , was the marriage alliance between Arundel and the king 's new favourites , the Despensers . Hugh Despenser the Younger and his father Hugh Despenser the elder were gradually taking over control of the government , and using their power to enrich themselves . While this alienated most of the nobility , Arundel 's situation was different . At some point in 1314 – 1315 , his son Richard was betrothed to Isabel , daughter of Hugh Despenser the Younger . Now that he found himself back in royal favour , Arundel started receiving rewards in the form of official appointments . In 1317 he was appointed Warden of the Marches of Scotland , and in August 1318 , he helped negotiate the Treaty of Leake , which temporarily reconciled the king with Thomas of Lancaster .
With Arundel 's change of allegiance came a conflict of interest . In August 1321 , a demand was made to the king that Hugh Despenser and his father , Hugh Despenser the elder , be sent into exile . The king , facing a rebellion in the Welsh Marches , had no choice but to assent . Arundel voted for the expulsion , but later he claimed that he did so under compulsion , and also supported their recall in December . Arundel had suffered personally from the rebellion , when Roger Mortimer seized his castle of Clun . Early in 1322 , Arundel joined King Edward in a campaign against the Mortimer family . The opposition soon crumbled , and the king decided to move against Thomas of Lancaster , who had been supporting the marcher rebellion all along . Lancaster was defeated at the Battle of Boroughbridge in March , and executed .
In the aftermath of the rebellion , the Despensers enriched themselves on the forfeited estates of the rebels , and Hugh Despenser the elder was created Earl of Winchester in May 1322 . Also Arundel , who was now one of the king 's principal supporters , was richly rewarded . After the capture of Roger Mortimer in 1322 , he received the forfeited Mortimer lordship of Chirk in Wales . He was also trusted with important offices : he became Chief Justiciar of North and South Wales in 1323 , and in 1325 he was made Warden of the Welsh Marches , responsible for the array in Wales . He also extended his influence through marriage alliances ; in 1325 he secured marriages between two of his daughters and the sons and heirs of two of Lancaster 's main allies : the deceased earls of Hereford and Warwick .
= = Final years and death = =
In 1323 , Roger Mortimer , who had been held in captivity in the Tower of London , escaped and fled to France . Two years later , Queen Isabella travelled to Paris on an embassy to the French king . Here , Isabella and Mortimer developed a plan to invade England and replace Edward II on the throne with his son , the young Prince Edward , who was in the company of Isabella . Isabella and Mortimer landed in England on 24 September 1326 , and due to the virulent resentment against the Despenser regime , few came to the king 's aid . Arundel initially escaped the invading force in the company of the king , but was later dispatched to his estates in Shropshire to gather troops . At Shrewsbury he was captured by his old enemy John Charlton of Powys , and brought to Queen Isabella at Hereford . On 17 November – the day after Edward II had been taken captive – Arundel was executed , allegedly on the instigation of Mortimer . According to a chronicle account , the use of a blunt sword was ordered , and the executioner needed 22 strokes to sever the earl 's head from his body .
Arundel 's body was initially interred at the Franciscan church in Hereford . It had been his wish , however , to be buried at the family 's traditional resting place of Haughmond Abbey in Shropshire , and this is where he was finally buried . Though he was never canonised , a cult emerged around the late earl in the 1390s , associating him with the 9th @-@ century martyr king St Edmund . This veneration may have been inspired by a similar cult around his grandson , Richard FitzAlan , 11th Earl of Arundel , who was executed by Richard II in 1397 .
Arundel was attainted at his execution ; his estates were forfeited to the crown , and large parts of these were appropriated by Isabella and Mortimer . The castle and honour of Arundel was briefly held by Edward II 's half @-@ brother Edmund , Earl of Kent , who was executed on 3 September 1330 . Edmund FitzAlan 's son , Richard , failed in an attempted rebellion against the crown in June 1330 , and had to flee to France . In October the same year , the guardianship of Isabella and Mortimer was supplanted by the personal rule of King Edward III . This allowed Richard to return and reclaim his inheritance , and on 8 February 1331 , he was fully restored to his father 's lands , and created Earl of Arundel .
= = Issue = =
Edmund and Alice had at least seven children :
= = Ancestry = =
= Manor Farm , Ruislip =
Manor Farm is a 22 @-@ acre ( 8 @.@ 9 ha ) historic site in Ruislip , Greater London . It incorporates a medieval farm complex , with a main old barn dating from the 13th century and a farm house from the 16th . Nearby are the remains of a motte @-@ and @-@ bailey castle believed to date from shortly after the Norman conquest of England . Original groundwork on the site has been dated to the 9th century .
Ownership of the site passed to the King 's College , Cambridge in the 15th century , with whom it remained until 1931 . At this point Manor Farm was included in the sale of Park Wood as a gift to the people of Ruislip . The Great Barn and Little Barn were recognised by a member of the Royal Society of Arts in 1930 as in need of conservation . The site continued as a working farm until 1933 .
Throughout 2007 and 2008 , the site was restored with National Lottery funding , and has become a heritage area for the London Borough of Hillingdon . Manor Farm is within the Ruislip Village Conservation Area . Events are regularly held within the 13th @-@ century Great Barn and around the rest of the site .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
What remains of the motte @-@ and @-@ bailey castle can be seen today in part of the moat and bank on the site . Today , the moat on the site is a scheduled monument , believed to have been extended to create an oval area upon which a wooden castle covering 350 foot ( 110 m ) by 200 foot ( 61 m ) was built , presumably for the landowner , Ernulf de Hesdin . He was given control of the manor of Ruislip shortly after the Norman conquest , in recognition of his loyalty to William the Conqueror . The castle is believed to have been built between 1066 and 1087 , but does not appear in the 1086 Domesday Book and so could have been demolished or changed significantly . It may never have been finished .
Ruislip parish was owned by the Benedictine Bec Abbey of Normandy between 1096 and 1404 during which time the prior built a home for himself on the site , surrounded by a moat . During the 16th century , the remains of the motte @-@ and @-@ bailey site were used as the gardens of the Manor Farm House when it was built . In 1888 the moat extension was filled in by Henry James Ewer , who farmed on the site . The moat 's shape and the presence of traces of a fortified building have allowed this part of the site to be dated to the 11th century . However , the castle is believed to have been built around 1066 then either demolished or changed significantly as it does not appear as a castle in Domesday Book .
The farm buildings date back to the 13th century with the Great Barn the most prominent . The barn is the second largest such structure in Middlesex after another in Harmondsworth . The Great Barn is constructed of English oak from the nearby Ruislip Woods . It was built to a design known as an aisled barn , whereby smaller out @-@ shoots run alongside the main supports underneath one main roof .
= = = Ownership = = =
Studies by English Heritage have found that the site originally functioned not only as the manorial court hall for Ruislip , but also as a working farm . The main building was built over two existing structures , possibly to accommodate the new lessee of the manor , Robert Drury , a former Speaker of the House of Commons . The study concluded this was most likely achieved by a team of masons and carpenters . Manor Farm was also known as Ruislip Court until the 19th century .
In 1451 , ownership of the farm passed with the rest of Ruislip to King 's College , Cambridge who remain titular Lords of the Manor . King 's completed two surveys of the manor during their ownership , in 1565 and 1750 .
The Farm House was built from locally produced bricks , tiles and timber in the 16th century , and served as the manorial court until 1925 when the last court was held . Work in the 18th and 19th centuries saw the windows and doorways replaced , while an extended kitchen was installed . The kitchen extension was replaced in 1958 as part of a general refurbishment of the house .
Manor Farm and Park Wood were nearly demolished in the early 1900s to make way for a new development planned in partnership with King 's College and the Ruislip @-@ Northwood Urban District Council . A town planning competition was won by A & J Soutar from Wandsworth , who suggested a symmetrical design across the parish which would have seen a total of 7 @,@ 642 new homes built . St. Martin 's church would have been the only example of historical architecture left in Ruislip . An outline map of the new development proposal was made public on 30 November 1910 with few objections . A Local Board inquiry followed on 17 February 1911 which required negotiations with landowners to allow for a full planning scheme to be compiled . This was presented in February 1913 with an adaptation of the original Soutars plan and received approval from the Local Government Board in September 1914 . Three roads with residential housing , Manor Way , Windmill Way and Park Way were completed before the outbreak of the First World War when all construction work was halted . It was not resumed until 1919 , though the plan was substantially scaled back as work slowed throughout the next decade .
The protection of Manor Farm and the local woods from redevelopment was eventually confirmed in January 1930 , after a visit by a member of the Royal Society of Arts to choose buildings that should be conserved . The Great Barn and Little Barn were selected , along with the old Post Office , the Old Bell public house and the Priest 's House of the local church . The woods , part of the centre of the manor of Ruislip along with Ruislip village square , were included when King 's College sold the land to the district in February 1931 . Park Wood was sold for £ 28 @,@ 100 with Manor Farm and the old Post Office included as a gift to the people of Ruislip . King 's had wished to also present the wood as a gift but was required by the University and College 's Act to receive payment as it was the trustee of the land . Middlesex County Council contributed 75 % of the cost as the urban district council argued that many of those who would make use of the land would be recreational day trippers from outside the district . Under a 999 @-@ year lease , the council agreed to maintain the wood and ensure no new buildings were constructed without the permission of the county council . An area of the wood to the south was not included in the lease agreement and three residential roads were later constructed on it .
In 1932 , the two cart sheds on either side of the lane leading into the farm were removed . That year , Councillor T. R. Parker purchased a plot of land on the site from King 's College . Manor Farm continued as a working farm until the following year , when the local council began to sell off much of the land surrounding the buildings for housing developments . Councillor Parker presented his land to the Ruislip Village Trust as the site of a future public hall , and the Trust passed it to the urban district council in 1964 stipulating that that would be the sole use . The council obliged and the Winston Churchill Hall was built in 1965 .
A smaller barn built in the 16th century , the Little Barn , was converted to a library and opened on 2 November 1937 . The original cowbyre was destroyed by fire in 1979 and was rebuilt as an exhibition centre . An archaeological excavation was carried out by the Museum of London Archaeological Service in 1997 around the Farm House . This discovered the remains of the old priory were beneath the house , as this had been the bailey , surrounded by the motte .
= = = Restoration = = =
The site was refurbished with funding from the Heritage Lottery Fund in April 2007 with the work completed in June the following year . This included the renovation of the Grade II listed Manor Farm library as part of a borough @-@ wide programme by the London Borough of Hillingdon . The Duck Pond Market began in the Great Barn in December 2008 , following the refurbishment , and runs once a month . Winston Churchill Hall , not included in the original restoration work , received a £ 370 @,@ 000 grant from Hillingdon Council in March 2011 to enable its refurbishment .
= = = Comparable structures = = =
Other moated medieval farm complexes survive in the nearby area at Headstone Manor and ( without a surviving moat ) at Pinner Park . Traces of a moat survived at Harmondsworth Great Barn until 1968 .
= The Cartridge Family =
" The Cartridge Family " is the fifth episode of The Simpsons ' ninth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on November 2 , 1997 . It was written by John Swartzwelder and directed by Pete Michels . In the episode , Homer purchases a gun to protect his family , of which Marge disapproves . Homer begins to show extremely careless gun usage causing Marge to leave him when she catches Bart using the gun without their permission . The episode was intended to show guns in a neutral way , and faced some problems with the censors because of the subject matter . Critical reaction was mostly positive .
= = Plot = =
The Simpsons attend a soccer match between Mexico and Portugal . When the game starts , the crowd begins to lose interest and a violent football riot ensues . After the riot spreads throughout the town , Marge fears for the family and tells Homer to pay for a Home Security System . Finding out that the system will cost $ 500 , Homer decides to save money by buying a firearm instead . After the five @-@ day waiting period , Homer surprises Marge with his new revolver from a local gun store . Marge is horrified and demands that he get rid of the gun at once . Homer persuades Marge to come with him to the local National Rifle Association meeting to try to get her to change her mind , but after the meeting , she remains unconvinced .
Marge reveals just how uncomfortable with the gun she is , and begs Homer to get rid of it . Homer promises to do so , but instead hides it in the vegetable crisper . Later , Bart and Milhouse discover the loaded firearm and play with it in the kitchen . Marge steps into the kitchen just in time to stop them , and berates Homer for breaking his promise , by giving Homer an ultimatum .
After this , she promptly leaves with some suitcases and the children and checks into a motel . That night , Homer hosts an NRA meeting at his house but the other members are far from impressed by his reckless gun usage and he is kicked out of the association . Realizing what his behavior has cost him , Homer goes to the motel where Marge and the children are spending the night , meaning to reconcile .
Homer and Marge make up , after Homer explains he has finally gotten rid of the gun . While leaving , Snake arrives to rob the desk clerk . Homer pulls out his gun and Marge is angry with him for lying again , but while he tries to apologize , Snake snatches the gun . The other NRA members arrive and foil Snake . Homer finally says he does not trust himself and asks Marge to throw the gun away herself . However , just as Marge is about to throw away the gun , she sees a reflection of herself holding it and decides to keep it .
= = Production = =
This was the first episode to air which was executive produced by Mike Scully . Sam Simon pitched an episode for one of the first seasons which saw Homer getting a gun and nobody wanting him to have it . The episode concluded with Homer foiling a robbery and stating that although guns bring destruction , it worked for him . However , this episode was pitched by Scully for either season seven or eight , before being used for season nine . This provided the basic outline , and John Swartzwelder wrote the script . A lot of lines in the episode put guns in a positive light , as the staff felt that they could not just make an episode about how bad they were . Several of the staff , including Swartzwelder , are " pro gun " , although others , such as Matt Groening , are completely against them . The episode was designed to be non @-@ biased and to portray each side of the argument equally . Scully noted that if there is any message in the episode it is that a man like Homer should not own a gun . The censors were nervous about some of the episode 's subject matter , such as Homer pointing the gun in Marge 's face , and Bart aiming the gun at Milhouse with the apple in his mouth , but ultimately let it go .
The opening sequence where soccer is portrayed as the most boring sport imaginable was intended to show that soccer was more boring on television than live , but both Michels and Groening enjoy the game . The referee at the game is a caricature of the janitor at Film Roman , who supplied director Pete Michels with every piece of soccer information he needed to design the episode . Pelé also makes an appearance at the match , although he is voiced by Hank Azaria .
The episode closes with music from The Avengers . After the music had been recorded , Scully felt that it did not suit the ending and so wished to change it to something else . However , it was too late in production to get the full orchestra back to do a recording , and union rules meant that previous recordings could not be reused .
= = Cultural references = =
The chalkboard gag references the Richard Gere gerbil urban legend .
The gun shop is based on the shop that the Los Angeles Police Department went to during the North Hollywood bank robbery to acquire more ammunition . The title of this episode is a play on the name of 1970s television series The Partridge Family . The end music is the theme to the 1960s series The Avengers , and the song playing when Homer is sitting and watching things go by while he is waiting five days for his gun is " The Waiting " by Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers . Petty rarely lets his music be used on television , but being a fan of The Simpsons , he allowed them to use it .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " The Cartridge Family " finished 26th in ratings for the week of October 27 – November 2 , 1997 , with a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 5 , equivalent to approximately 10 @.@ 3 million viewing households . It was the third highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network , following The X @-@ Files and King of the Hill .
The episode received several positive reviews , being included in the Herald Sun 's list of the top twenty The Simpsons episodes . It was also named the fifth best episode in the show 's history in an article by The Florida Times @-@ Union . The Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette also praised the episode , calling The Simpsons " the only sitcom in memory to treat gun control with any fairness " .
On the other hand , the episode has been criticized by several outlets . The staff received several complaints from the NRA about the portrayal of the organization in the episode , despite the fact that the Springfield NRA revokes Homer 's membership for his irresponsible behavior . Ian Jones and Steve Williams criticized the episode , calling it " a messy , unfocused lampooning of gun culture " . Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , the authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , found that it was " one of the most politically unambiguous episodes ever " , but that " [ it ] is very dull and the plot isn 't sustainable " .
The episode was not initially aired on the United Kingdom satellite channel Sky1 due to scenes of flagrant gun misuse , yet was aired several times on BBC Two in an earlier evening timeslot . The episode was also included on the Too Hot for TV VHS and DVD , along with " Treehouse of Horror IX " , " Natural Born Kissers " , and " Grampa vs. Sexual Inadequacy " .
= You Only Move Twice =
" You Only Move Twice " is the second episode of The Simpsons ' eighth season . It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on November 3 , 1996 . The episode , based on a story idea by Greg Daniels , has three major concepts : the family moves to a new town ; Homer gets a friendly , sympathetic boss ; and that boss , unbeknownst to Homer , is a supervillain . Bart , Lisa , and Marge each have individual secondary storylines . It was directed by Mike B. Anderson and written by John Swartzwelder .
The episode title is a reference to the James Bond film You Only Live Twice , and many elements of the episode parody the Bond films , with a character modeled after Bond making a cameo appearance . Setting the second and third acts in a new town , Cypress Creek , required the animators to create entirely new layouts and background designs . Albert Brooks , in his fourth Simpsons appearance , guest stars as the voice of Hank Scorpio , who is one of the most popular one @-@ time characters on The Simpsons . The episode was very well received by critics and IGN named " You Only Move Twice " the best episode of the eighth season and Albert Brooks as one of the best guest stars in the history of the show .
= = Plot = =
Waylon Smithers is offered a job at the Globex Corporation . When he refuses , the offer is passed down to Homer , the next @-@ longest @-@ employed individual at the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant . He informs his family that the new job pays better and provides free health @-@ care for the family , but involves moving to Cypress Creek . The Simpson family originally opposes the move , but after they watch a promotional video about the planned community , they agree that it is much better than Springfield . Abandoning their house , the Simpsons pack up and leave town .
Shortly after the Simpsons arrive at their new house in Cypress Creek , they meet Homer 's new boss , Hank Scorpio , who is very amiable and seems like the perfect boss . After giving Homer a tour of the company , Scorpio tells him that his job is to motivate the employees in the nuclear division . Meanwhile , Bart starts school , but he finds that his new class is far above the standards of Springfield Elementary . When his teacher discovers that Bart cannot read cursive writing , he places him in a remedial class , much to Bart 's shock . Lisa goes for a nature walk and discovers that she is allergic to all of the plants around Cypress Creek . Marge tries to go about her daily chores , but the house does everything automatically . This ends up depressing her to the point where Marge starts drinking a glass of wine to cope with her depression . However , Homer does an excellent job motivating his team in the nuclear division , and productivity increases by 2 % thanks to his skills , which makes his family very proud of him .
Despite his success , Homer notices after a few days that his team members are starting to get overworked . He decides that the solution is to get them hammocks and visits Scorpio to ask where he can purchase some . Scorpio begins to tell Homer of " the Hammock district " , but he is interrupted by some urgent business . It turns out that Scorpio is a criminal mastermind formulating a plot ( known as Project Arcturus ) to take over the East Coast with a doomsday device , as he turns to a screen and threatens the United Nations Security Council by declaring that he has got hold of the doomsday device and that they have 72 hours to meet his demand of gold . To prove his intent , he blows up the 59th Street Bridge . Despite being in the same room , Homer appears oblivious to Scorpio 's nefarious plan as he was looking outside the window .
Another time was when Homer was in Globex Headquarters trying to get something from a vending machine , Scorpio has managed to capture a secret agent named Mr. Bont , who is attempting to stop him in his tracks . Scorpio intends to have Bont killed with a laser , but Bont uses a coin to free himself from his restraints before attempting to flee . However , Homer , who is unaware of events and believes that Bont is a ' loafer ' , easily knocks him down , allowing Scorpio 's soldiers to shoot the agent . A proud Scorpio happily thanks Homer for a job well done .
At dinner , Homer proudly tells of his successes at work , but discovers that his family hates Cypress Creek because of their current problems and want to go back to Springfield . At first , Homer is opposed to this , saying that he has been doing a great job for the first time in his life , but nobody else is happy . Dejected , Homer decides to visit Scorpio back at Globex Headquarters . His visit coincides with an assault by the U.S. military , but Homer still remains oblivious to what is taking place . He finds Scorpio , explains the situation , and asks what to do . Scorpio advises Homer that he should do what is best for his family , asking him only to kill someone on the way out . As Homer dejectedly walks away , Scorpio straps on a flamethrower and attacks the remaining U.S. troops , making them flee .
The next day , the family returns to Springfield , as Scorpio succeeds in his plot and seizes control of the East Coast . Homer , who previously confided to Scorpio his dream of owning the Dallas Cowboys , expresses disappointment when he instead discovers the Denver Broncos practicing ineptly on his front lawn as a present from his former boss .
= = Production = =
The original concept for the episode came from a story idea by Greg Daniels and the writing staff came up with three major concepts . The first involves the Simpson family moving out of Springfield , which the writers initially hoped would fool the audience into thinking it was a permanent move . As a result , they tried to work in as many characters as they could during the first act of the episode to make it seem that the family really was leaving . The second involved Homer getting a new job for an employee @-@ friendly boss in comparison to the tyrannical Mr. Burns . The third was that Homer 's new boss would be a supervillain resembling Ernst Stavro Blofeld . This element was meant to be in the background and Homer would be ignorant to it .
The writers sought to give every family member their own story . The writing staff spent some time arguing over whether to include in the episode the depressing idea of Marge becoming an alcoholic . There was originally another involving Grampa Simpson , wherein he is left behind in Springfield and receives recorded greeting phone calls . The plot went on for four sequences , all of which were cut from the episode for time constraints but later included in the DVD release . Cypress Creek was called " Emerald Caverns " during most of production , but the name was changed because the writers felt that " Cypress Creek " had more of a " Silicon Valley " feel .
The show 's writers did not worry too much about perfecting Scorpio 's lines because they knew Brooks would rewrite or ad lib new ones . Entire parts of Scorpio 's dialogue , such as his hammock speech , are Brooks 's lines and not the writers ' . Dan Castellaneta described how , after he prepared something for Homer to say in response to Brooks 's new Scorpio lines , Brooks would deliver totally different lines in the next take . Josh Weinstein said Homer 's reactions are exactly like someone talking to Albert Brooks . In all , his recordings amounted to over two hours in length . Brooks voiced the character Russ Cargill in The Simpsons Movie and for " about a week " , he was to reprise the role of Scorpio , but the staff felt that creating a new character was a better idea .
The animators needed to design completely new sets for the episode . Christian Roman , John Reiss , and Mike Anderson storyboarded the episode . In the original animatic , Santa 's Little Helper and Snowball II were not present , so the animators went back and added them , even though they are not a part of the story . It is a common misconception that Scorpio 's design was modeled after Richard Branson , which it was not . The final design , which underwent an overhaul , was hailed by the writers as " the perfect madman " . All of the students in Bart 's remedial class were initially given hair modeled on Ralph Wiggum 's , but the staff felt that the children looked " kinda troubled " , so their designs were altered .
The man whom Homer tackles , Mr. Bont , was initially supposed to just be James Bond , but Fox , concerned about a lawsuit , would not let them use it . The writers went with " Bont " because they felt it was the most similar name that they could legally use .
= = Cultural references = =
The final scene at Globex contains several references to action and James Bond films . The episode title and many references are from the Bond film You Only Live Twice , as well as an allusion to A View to a Kill . A character modeled after Sean Connery 's Bond is tackled by Homer and killed after a parody of the laser scene from Goldfinger . Mrs. Goodthighs from the 1967 James Bond parody Casino Royale makes an appearance in the episode and can be seen attacking a character modeled after U.S. Army general Norman Schwarzkopf .
The sign at the elementary school displays " http : / / www.studynet.edu " . Weinstein called it " one of the show 's most obviously dated jokes " because the idea of a school having its own website was almost a novelty in 1996 .
The song at the end of the show , written by Ken Keeler , is a parody of various Bond themes . Keeler originally wrote it to be three seconds longer and sound more like the Goldfinger theme , but the final version was shorter and the lyrics were sped up . The writers wanted the song to be sung by Shirley Bassey , who sang several Bond themes , but they could not get her to record the part .
At the start of the episode Smithers is singing " I work for Monty Burns " to the tune of Guys and Dolls .
= = Reception = =
Hank Scorpio is arguably the most popular Albert Brooks @-@ voiced character . In 2006 , Albert Brooks was named the best Simpsons guest star by IGN , who cited Scorpio as his best role . The Phoenix.com compiled their own list , placing Brooks in the first position . In his book Planet Simpson , author Chris Turner says Brooks is second only to Phil Hartman among Simpsons guest stars and that " Brooks brings hilarious satirical seamlessness to Scorpio 's paradoxical nature " . He also writes that the delivery of Scorpio 's final line seals Brooks 's place in Simpsons history . The Simpson family 's new street address , 15201 Maple Systems Road , is writer Ken Keeler 's favorite street name in the show .
IGN also named the episode the best of the eighth season , saying the episode " is a wonderful example of slowly building up the comedy [ ... ] it 's impossible to fathom this one not being very high up on any list of the best Simpsons episodes of all time . " Robert Canning gave the episode a " Masterful " score of ten out of ten , saying the episode " may well be the greatest Simpsons episode of all time . In my book , it 's at least tied , " with " Marge vs. the Monorail " . Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , the authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , called it " a tremendous episode " saying it had " some really good moments , most of them involving Bart , Lisa , and Marge 's loathing for Cypress Creek . The remedial kids are fab ( especially Warren ) and Lisa 's second chipmunk encounter is inspired . Scorpio is a good character , especially his Christopher Walken @-@ esque killing spree . " They also stated that the owl grabbing the chipmunk during Lisa 's trip to the forest is one of the all @-@ time greatest sight gags in the show 's history . Chris Turner would also say that the remedial boy Gordy 's line may be " the broadest parody of a Canadian accent in the history of American pop culture " . Ben Rayner of the Toronto Star included " You Only Move Twice " on his list of the best episodes of The Simpsons . In his review of The Complete Eighth Season DVD set , Raul Burriel described it as one of the " most clever episodes the series has ever given us . "
In its original broadcast , " You Only Move Twice " finished 50th in ratings for the week of October 28 – November 3 , 1996 , with a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 5 , equivalent to approximately 8 @.@ 2 million viewing households . It was the second highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following The X @-@ Files .
= New Jersey Route 7 =
Route 7 is a state highway in the northern part of New Jersey in the United States . It has two sections , an east – west alignment running from U.S. Route 1 / 9 Truck in Jersey City to Route 21 in Belleville , and a north – south alignment running from the Newark / Belleville to the Nutley / Clifton border . The New Jersey Department of Transportation lists Route 7 as a single north – south highway with a small gap between the alignments . The entire highway has a combined length of 9 @.@ 46 mi ( 15 @.@ 22 km ) .
The southern section of Route 7 , which runs from Jersey City to Belleville , passes through industrial areas , the New Jersey Meadowlands , Arlington Memorial Park , and some residential and business areas . West of the interchange with County Route 508 in Kearny , Route 7 is the Belleville Turnpike , a historic road created in 1759 . The northern section of Route 7 runs north through residential and business areas of Belleville and Nutley into Clifton , where it turns west and crosses back into Nutley , briefly turning to the north to come to its northern terminus . A portion of the route in Nutley is municipally maintained while the portion within Clifton is maintained by Passaic County . The two separate sections of Route 7 are linked by County Route 506 ( Rutgers Street ) in Belleville , which is signed as Route 7 despite the fact it is not officially part of the route .
Route 7 was established in 1927 to run from Jersey City to Paterson , replacing Pre @-@ 1927 Route 11 between Belleville and Paterson . The routing was amended in 1929 to head to Route 3 in Wallington and was extended north to Route 6 ( now U.S. Route 46 ) in East Paterson in 1949 . In 1953 , the route was modified to follow its current alignment .
= = Route description = =
= = = Southern section = = =
The first section of Route 7 begins at an intersection with U.S. Route 1 @-@ 9 Truck and County Route 645 ( Charlotte Avenue ) in Jersey City , Hudson County , heading to the west on a four @-@ lane highway that is signed east – west . The route crosses the Hackensack River on the Wittpenn Bridge into Kearny . Route 7 interchanges with County Route 659 ( Fish House Road ) and widens to a six @-@ lane divided highway . The route than passes by industrial areas and a railroad yard and then interchanges with County Route 508 . Past this interchange , Route 7 becomes the four @-@ lane , divided Belleville Turnpike , with the eastern end of the Newark Turnpike running in the division between the two sides of Route 7 . It then becomes an undivided two @-@ lane road , heading northwest , narrowing to two lanes before it passes through the New Jersey Meadowlands , under the mainline of the New Jersey Turnpike ( Interstate 95 ) and then the western spur of the New Jersey Turnpike a short distance later .
Route 7 continues northwest , widens , with a painted media , as it passes through two large cemeteries on the border of Hudson County ( Kearny ) to the south and Bergen County ( North Arlington ) to the north , though the route itself is signed north – south along that border .
After an intersection with Schuyler Avenue ( which runs as Hudson County Route 507 to the south of Route 7 and Bergen County Route 130 to the north of Route 7 ) , the road turns NNW , narrowing again to two lanes undivided . In this portion of the route , it had a concurrency with County Route 507 ( both Bergen and Hudson counties ) . It keeps this configuration for about a half mile , as it still runs along the Kearny / North Arlington border . At that point , it meets the southern terminus of State Route 17 ( Ridge Road ) and the northern terminus of Hudson County Route 697 ( Kearny Avenue ) .
Past this intersection , County Route 507 turns away from Route 7 , becoming concurrent with Route 17 @.@ by heading north on River Road , while Route 7 continues along Bellevill Turnpike for another half mile , Route 7 continues another half mile west , crossing the Passaic River on a lift bridge , known as the Belleville Turnpike Bridge or Rutgers Street Bridge , into Belleville , Essex County , where the local street name changes from Belleville Turnpike to Rutgers Street . The first section of Route 7 ends at an intersection with Main Street underneath Route 21 .
= = = Gap in the route = = =
The intersection of Main St and Rutgers Street in Belleville forms the end of one section of Route 7 ( signed north , directionally west ) . Rutgers Street is named for Colonel Henry Rutgers , an American Revolutionary War hero and benefactor of what is now Rutgers University . For its entire length , Rutgers carries Essex County Route 506 , which ends , like Rutgers Street itself , at the Rutgers Street Bridge .
Prior to turning onto Rutgers Street , CR @-@ 506 runs along Washington Street concurrent with the northern section of Route 7 . Though the northern section of Route 7 begins a few blocks south , it is not readily recognized ( minimal signing ) . As CR @-@ 506 runs concurrently with it here , and then turns down Rutgers for the short distance that bridges the gap between the two Route 7 sections , Rutgers / 506 is often viewed as if it continues Route 7 , while the short portion of the northern section that lies south of Rutgers is sometimes seen as a spur , even though it is part of the main route .
Rutgers ' identity has become so closely aligned with Route 7 , that though it is not officially part of Route 7 , Rutgers , from Washington Avenue to Main Street , is signed as if it is part of Route 7 .
= = = Northern section = = =
The second section of Route 7 , designated a north – south road , heads north on Washington Avenue from the Second River crossing on the Newark / Belleville border , passing through a business district . The route intersects County Route 506 ( Belleville Avenue ) , and that county route then forms a concurrency with Route 7 along the next block of Washington Avenue , to the intersection with Rutgers Street . At that point , County Route 506 heads to the east , ending at the intersection of Main Street , Rutgers Street , and bridge to Belleville ( which is also the other section of Route 7 ) .
Route 7 is not signed on Washington Avenue between the Second River bridge and Rutgers Street , except on some overhead signs suspended from traffic signals .
From the Rutgers Street intersection , Route 7 continues along Washington Avenue for about a mile and a half before reaching Nutley , still continuing on Washington Avenue into Nutley . At the intersection with County Route 646 ( Park Avenue ) , Route 7 turns into a municipally maintained road and enters a more residential area . Upon intersecting County Route 606 ( Kingsland Road ) , Route 7 crosses into Clifton , Passaic County and heads to the west on county @-@ maintained Kingsland Street signed east – west . Kingsland , carrying Route 7 , crosses back into Nutley , regaining state maintenance . When Kingsand becomes County Route 644 at the intersection with Cathedral Avenue , Route 7 turns north from Kingsland onto Cathedral Avenue and comes to its terminus at Orange St in Nutley . However , signage continues to indicate Route 7 up to the terminus of Cathedral Avenue at interchange with Route 3 at the intersection of Cathedral Avenue , Passaic Avenue , and Ward Avenue .
= = History = =
The Belleville Turnpike , which is the majority of the southern portion of Route 7 , was created in 1759 as a turnpike made out of cedar logs . This road was chartered in 1808 . It served as a part of the Underground Railroad route for escaped slaves to get to Jersey City .
The northern segment of Route 7 was originally a part of Pre @-@ 1927 Route 11 , which was legislated in 1917 to run from Newark to Paterson . In the 1927 New Jersey state highway renumbering , Route 7 was designated to run from Jersey City to Paterson , replacing Pre @-@ 1927 Route 11 between Belleville and Paterson .
In 1929 , the routing was amended to run from Route 25 ( now U.S. Route 1 / 9 Truck ) in Jersey City to Route 3 in Wallington . Route 7 was extended north in 1949 to continue to Route 6 ( now U.S. Route 46 ) in East Paterson ( now Elmwood Park ) .
In the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering , Route 7 was legislated onto its current alignment , with the northern terminus moved to the Nutley / Clifton border . The route was also realigned to head south on Washington Avenue between the Newark border and Rutgers Street in Belleville on what was Route 11N , a remnant of Pre @-@ 1927 Route 11 , making Route 7 discontinuous . County Route 506 used to follow the southern portion of Route 7 but has been truncated to the intersection with Routes 7 and 21 in Belleville .
= = Major intersections = =
= = = Southern section = = =
= = = Northern section = = =
= The King of Fighters ' 94 =
The King of Fighters ' 94 ( officially abbreviated KOF ' 94 ) is a fighting game released by SNK for the Neo Geo @-@ based arcade system in 1994 , as the inaugural game in The King of Fighters series . The game was soon also released for the Neo Geo home console systems , including a Neo @-@ Geo CD version . In 2008 , KOF ' 94 was one of sixteen games included in SNK Arcade Classics Vol . 1 for the PlayStation 2 , PlayStation Portable and Wii .
KOF ' 94 is a crossover featuring characters from SNK 's previous fighting game properties Fatal Fury and Art of Fighting . It also includes revised versions of characters from their pre @-@ Neo Geo games Ikari Warriors and Psycho Soldier , as well as original characters created specifically for the game . The plot features the creation of a new King of Fighters tournament created by the criminal Rugal Bernstein .
SNK developed KOF ' 94 with the initial idea of using several games from the company in order to attract gamers who played these games . The characters ' designs , as well as its innovative gameplay system based on using teams of three members , were both well received . The success of the game allowed SNK to produce a long collection of sequels in The King of Fighters series .
In 2004 , to commemorate the tenth anniversary of the series , SNK released a remake titled The King of Fighters ' 94 Re @-@ Bout . It features the original game and a new version with higher resolution graphics .
= = Gameplay = =
The basic gameplay system of KOF ' 94 is similar to SNK 's previous games like the Fatal Fury series , Art of Fighting and Samurai Shodown . The game uses a four attack button configuration similar to Fatal Fury 2 and Fatal Fury Special , that consists of light punch , light kick , strong punch and strong kick . Like in Fatal Fury 2 , specialized techniques are performed by pressing buttons in combination , allowing the player to dodge an opponent 's attack or to launch a character 's powerful knockdown attack . As with most other fighting games , each character has a set of basic , unique , and special moves that can be performed by the player with a specific series of joystick and button inputs .
Each player has a power gauge at the bottom of the screen which charges when the character is blocking or taking attacks . It can also be filled manually , although it leaves the character vulnerable to an attack , by pressing and holding three buttons at the same time . Once the power gauge is filled , the player 's basic attacks become stronger for a short period . When the characters are in this state , their players can also perform the character 's Super Move , which immediately consumes the entire power gauge . The players can also access their character 's Super Move when the life gauge is 75 % empty and flashing red like in Fatal Fury 2 . Use of taunt moves can reduce the opponent 's power gauge , slow down their manual charging , and stop them reaching the maximum level .
Notably , KOF ' 94 innovated the genre by replacing a traditional round @-@ based format used in preceding fighting games with a format consisting of 3 @-@ on @-@ 3 team based matches dubbed the Team Battle System . Instead of choosing a single character , the player selects from one of eight available teams , each consisting of three members . Before each match , the players choose the order in which each of their team member enters the battle . When the match begins , the members chosen to go first on their respective teams will fight . When one character is defeated , the following member of the same team will take his or her place , while the character on the other team will have a small portion of their life restored ( if energy was lost during the previous round ) . If a character is losing a match against the opponent , then the player can call one of the remaining teammates standing on the sidelines to jump in and perform a support attack . The match ends when all three members of either team lose .
= = Plot = =
The rich and notorious arms and drug trafficker , as well as a skilled and ruthless fighter , Rugal Bernstein has become bored with the lack of competition , so he decides to host a new King of Fighters tournament . He has his secretary travel to eight destinations around the world to invite fighters to compete in his new tournament . Unlike the previous KOF tournaments depicted in the Fatal Fury series , the new King of Fighters is a team tournament , with eight teams of three , each representing a different nationality .
= = = Characters = = =
Most characters come from other SNK games , such as Team Italy , which is composed of the three player characters from the original Fatal Fury ( Terry Bogard , Andy Bogard and Joe Higashi ) . The leading duo from Art of Fighting , Ryo Sakazaki and Robert Garcia , are featured with their mentor and Ryo 's father , Takuma Sakazaki , who make up Team Mexico . Team Korea includes Kim Kaphwan from Fatal Fury 2 as the leader of two convicts he is trying to reform ( Chang Koehan and Choi Bounge ) . Team England is a mix of female fighters from Fatal Fury 2 ( Mai Shiranui ) and the Art of Fighting series ( Yuri Sakazaki and King ) .
The two heroes from Psycho Soldier ( Athena Asamiya and Sie Kensou ) form Team China along with their mentor , Chin Gentsai . Team Brazil composes of Ikari Warriors characters Ralf Jones and Clark Still , as well as their commanding officer , Heidern . The game also features two teams composed entirely of original characters : Team Japan , including Kyo Kusanagi , Benimaru Nikaido and Goro Daimon ; and Team USA composed of Heavy D ! , Lucky Glauber and Brian Battler .
= = Development = =
According to an interview with veteran designers of The King of Fighters series , the prototype version of the game was a side @-@ scrolling beat ' em up , titled Survivor . It would only use core characters from the Art of Fighting and Fatal Fury series , specifically allowing players to play Robert Garcia and Terry Bogard for location testing . However , the idea was eventually abandoned . Since SNK were attached to the idea of the two @-@ series crossover , they eventually agreed to make their idea into a fighting game . Characters from Ikari Warriors and Psycho Soldier were also added to the roster . The concept of a three @-@ man team was one of the ideas kept from the side @-@ scrolling version . The title " The King of Fighters " was re @-@ used from the subtitle of the first Fatal Fury game , Fatal Fury : King of Fighters .
The King of Fighters series director Toyohisa Tanabe asserted that the Art of Fighting and Fatal Fury fighters were added specifically for adults , and the newer KOF characters were aimed to appeal to younger and newer audiences . Characters such as Benimaru Nikaido and Chang Koehan were added to have an off @-@ beat variety to the cast , which he has previously deemed to be too serious . SNK artist C.A.C Yamasaki commented that although the lead programmer thought the game would not sell well , he believed it would eventually become popular . Ten people arrived at the first location test , but larger numbers came to subsequent tests . The SNK staff also had troubles with advertising the game due to a lack of money and some of their ads were noted to be of a poor quality .
Designers wanted a new , " snazzy " lead character who would easily fight Fatal Fury and Art of Fighting characters . He was named Kyo Kusanagi in order to relate him with the Yamata no Orochi legend . The boss character , Rugal Bernstein , was developed to be " the mightiest ( most violent ) and most evil boss character ever " . The game was developed to have a " Fugitive Team " composed of Chang , Choi , and an unknown criminal , but Kim Kaphwan was placed in their team . The English Team was composed of King from Art of Fighting along with Billy Kane and Big Bear from the first and second Fatal Fury games . Designers had several problems with Big Bear concerning capacity and the Art of Fighting staff insisted on adding Yuri Sakazaki to KOF . Yuri replaced Billy Kane , and later Mai Shiranui took Big Bear 's place to form the England Team ( later known as Women Fighters in the following games ) .
Most of the characters from other games were meant to have some of their moves changed or removed in order to balance them with KOF 's new characters . However , designers focused in adjusting the imbalance of certain characters without removing any move . In the end , creators of the series noted that the Art of Fighting characters were the strongest ones in the game . Nevertheless , other characters such as Terry and Andy Bogard became the ones who got the designers ' utmost attention and were given new moves .
= = Release = =
= = = Neo Geo systems = = =
The King of Fighters ' 94 was released in Japanese arcades on August 25 , 1994 . Home versions of the game were released later that same year for the Neo Geo ROM cartridge based system on October 1 and for the Neo Geo CD on November 2 . In 2012 , KOF ' 94 was announced to be included in the set of twenty pre @-@ loaded games being shipped with SNK Playmore 's new handheld game console Neo @-@ Geo X , but it was ultimately replaced by The King of Fighters ' 95 .
= = = Emulations = = =
On November 6 , 2007 , the Neo Geo version was made available for download on the Wii 's Virtual Console download service , for a price of 900 Wii Points . The North American and European versions followed on November 23 , 2007 and January 7 , 2008 , respectively . In 2008 , an emulation of the game is included in the compilations SNK Arcade Classics Vol . 1 and The King of Fighters Collection : The Orochi Saga , both released for the PlayStation 2 , PlayStation Portable and Wii . It was also released by Sony Computer Entertainment for the PlayStation 3 and PlayStation Portable on December 21 , 2010 , as one of the first games in the NEOGEO Station line @-@ up .
= = = Remake = = =
A remake , titled The King of Fighters ' 94 Re @-@ Bout , was released for the PlayStation 2 in Japan only on December 28 , 2004 , commemorating the tenth anniversary of the franchise . Re @-@ Bout features the original 1994 game and an enhanced version featuring higher resolution graphics , a Team Edit option feature similar to the later KOF games , the ability to play as Saisyu Kusanagi and Rugal Bernstein , arranged music , new stages and an online versus mode . SNK Playmore commented that they received negative fan feedback regarding the game 's simple upscaling and smoothing of character sprites , so they decided to create brand new high resolution sprites for the following games in the series .
A North American version was meant to released for the Xbox . It was actually completed and was even reviewed by some publications , but was then canceled on March 23 , 2006 for an undisclosed reason .
= = = Related media = = =
The game received a variety of licensed media released in Japan in 1994 – 1995 :
The original soundtrack The King of Fighters ' 94 ( PCCB @-@ 00162 ) and the arranged soundtrack The King of Fighters ' 94 Arrange Sound Trax ( PCCB @-@ 00165 ) , both released by Pony Canyon .
The art book The King of Fighters ' 94 ( GMC @-@ 2 ) published as part of the Gamest Mook series by Shinseisha .
The Laser Disc audio and video release The King of Fighters ' 94 ( PCLP @-@ 00539 ) by Pony Canyon LD .
Several manga published in the Gamest Comics collection by Shinseisha :
A yonkoma manga by various artists , titled The King of Fighters ' 94 4 @-@ Koma Ketteiban ( ISBN 4 @-@ 88199 @-@ 150 @-@ 7 ) .
A selection of illustrations and short strips by various artists , titled The King of Fighters ' 94 Comic Anthology ( ISBN 4 @-@ 88199 @-@ 196 @-@ 5 ) .
Ryo Takamisaki 's six @-@ volume adaptation series titled The King of Fighters ' 94 Gaiden ( beginning with ISBN 4 @-@ 88199 @-@ 168 @-@ X ) .
= = Reception = =
The game was well received , with reviews generally praising the deep combat system and the matching up of fighters from different SNK franchises , though the inability to choose team lineups in Team Battle Mode was a near @-@ universal complaint among critics .
A reviewer for Next Generation argued that King of Fighters ' 94 was a particularly worthwhile arcade game , since the three @-@ character teams meant the player would effectively get three lives for each credit , providing a high value per quarter at a time when most arcade games were much more expensive than they had been in the past . Reviewing the Neo Geo home version , GamePro remarked that the character selection is massive , but very unbalanced , and that most of the new characters are " goofy looking " and underpowered compared to the other fighters . They nonetheless concluded that " The King of Fighters is the very best non @-@ Shodown game available for the Neo Geo , and it 's one of the most playable fighting games ever " , citing enjoyable gameplay additions such as the dodge move and juggle combos .
In a review of the Virtual Console release , Lucas M. Thomas of IGN praised KOF ' 94 for its graphics , including fluid animation and vibrant colors , but concluded that buyers might be better off waiting for the improved sequels to arrive on the Virtual Console . According to IGN 's Jeremy Dunham , the game " was essentially a cross between Fatal Fury and Art of Fighting , " with a faster control response . He added commented that the creation of three @-@ on @-@ three battles was an advanced feature for a game from 1994 and the idea of ' borrowing ' characters from other games from the company was also innovative . Reviewing the Virtual Console release , Dan Whitehead of Eurogamer identified the use of characters from multiple franchises and the Team Battle Mode as the most distinctive points . He concluded the game to be " a solid , technical fighting game that , like most SNK outings , skews more towards the hardcore player than the casual punching aficionado . " According to Kyle Knight of Allgame , the graphics and sounds , while better than most games of the time , were subpar by SNK standards . He concluded The King of Fighters ' 94 is " a very good fighting game , but it lacks some refinements that would have made it great . "
Electronic Gaming Monthly gave KOF ' 94 its Game of the Year awards in the categories " Best Fighting Game " and " Best Neo @-@ Geo Game " of 1994 ; additionally , Mai Shiranui was awarded the title of " Hottest Game Babe " of the year . In Japan , the game was awarded the title of " Best Game of 1994 " in the Eighth Annual Grand Prize by the arcade magazine Gamest , also placing first in the categories of " Best Competitive Fighting Game " and " Best Direction " , fifth in " Best Graphics " , and third in " Best VGM " ( several characters from the game were also featured in their list of 1994 's top 50 , including Athena at # 3 , Kyo at # 4 , Yuri at # 7 , King at # 8 and Mai at # 10 ) .
The game was acclaimed in a number of retrospective articles and top lists by several publications . G4 noted that The King of Fighters ' 94 was regarded by some fans as the " Street Fighter beater " and was unique due to its team system . Maximum similarly called it " the first beat @-@ em @-@ up to offer more than the Street Fighter series " and said that the game " helped spearhead the SNK renaissance " . 1UP.com lauded the game for its large and well @-@ balanced cast of characters , calling it " a hell of a cast in 1994 " . In 2010 , UGO.com listed it among the Top 25 Fighting Games of All Time , while GamePlayBook ranked it as the seventh best 2D fighting game ever made . Complex writers ranked it as the eighth best fighting game of all time in 2011 , as well as the eleventh all @-@ time best SNK fighting game in 2012 , commenting that " the unique team selection and elimination style matches of the series made their origin in this great ' 90s fighter . "
= Mackensen @-@ class battlecruiser =
The Mackensen class was the last class of battlecruisers to be built by Germany in World War I. The design initially called for seven ships , but three of them were redesigned as the Ersatz Yorck class . Of the four ships of the Mackensen class , Mackensen , Graf Spee , and Prinz Eitel Friedrich were launched , and Fürst Bismarck was not — but none were completed , after wartime shipbuilding priorities were redirected towards U @-@ boat — and the ships were broken up in the early 1920s . The lead ship of the class was named for August von Mackensen , a prominent military commander during the war . In response to the Mackensen @-@ class ships , the British Royal Navy laid down the Admiral @-@ class battlecruisers , all but one of which would eventually be cancelled ; the sole survivor , HMS Hood , was completed after the end of the war .
The design of the Mackensens was a much improved version of the previous Derfflinger class . The most significant improvement was a new , more powerful 35 cm ( 14 in ) gun , compared to the 30 @.@ 5 cm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) gun of the earlier ships . The Mackensen @-@ class ships also featured more powerful engines that gave the ships a higher top speed and a significantly greater cruising range . The Mackensen design provided the basis for the subsequent Ersatz Yorck class , armed with 38 cm ( 15 in ) main @-@ battery guns , after the Battle of Jutland in 1916 made the need for the larger guns clear .
= = Design = =
The fourth and final Naval Law , passed in 1912 , governed the building program of the German navy during World War I. The Imperial Naval Office ( Reichsmarineamt ) decided the Navy should construct one battleship and one battlecruiser every year between 1913 and 1917 , with an additional unit of both types in 1913 and 1916 . Design work on the new class began in 1912 , with construction intended to begin in the 1914 budget year . The question about the main battery for the new battlecruisers was the most pressing ; the previous Derfflinger class was armed with 30 @.@ 5 @-@ centimeter ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) guns , though some consideration had been given to redesigning the last two ships — SMS Lützow and Hindenburg — with 35 cm ( 14 in ) guns .
The 35 cm guns were of course heavier than the 30 @.@ 5 cm guns , but there were problems with enlarging the new ships to accommodate the heavier armament . The Imperial dry docks were deep enough only for ships with a draft of 9 m ( 30 ft ) , and simply accepting an increased displacement on the same hull as the Derfflinger class would entail a reduction in speed . This meant that an increase in displacement would necessitate a longer and wider hull to keep any increases in draft minimal and avoid reducing the speed . The constraints on enlarging the hull were compounded by restrictions on width imposed by the locks of the canal in Wilhelmshaven . As a result , Großadmiral ( Grand Admiral ) Alfred von Tirpitz , the head of the RMA , prohibited a design displacement greater than 30 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 29 @,@ 526 long tons ) .
The initial design was approved on 30 September 1912 , though the heads of the General Navy Department — Vizeadmiral ( Vice Admiral ) Günther von Krosigk and Konteradmiral ( Rear Admiral ) Reinhard Scheer — and the Weapons Department head , Vizeadmiral Gerhard Gerdes , had to submit any revisions they deemed were necessary . The design staff suggested using triple or even quadruple gun turrets to keep the displacement under the 30 @,@ 000 @-@ ton limit . Another suggested alternative was to use six 38 cm ( 15 in ) guns in twin turrets , one forward and two aft ; Wilhelm II accepted that design on 2 May 1913 , though Admiral Friedrich von Ingenohl , the commander in chief of the High Seas Fleet , preferred the 30 @.@ 5 cm gun of the Derfflinger @-@ class ships . As a compromise , the new battlecruisers were to be armed with eight 35 cm ( 13 @.@ 8 inch ) guns .
The question of whether the new ships should be powered entirely by oil @-@ fired boilers was less controversial . The design staff was generally in agreement with the standard practice of using coal @-@ fired boilers for two @-@ thirds of the power plant , with the remainder being oil @-@ fired boilers . Coal @-@ fired boilers were preferred because the coal , stored in the sides of the ship , provided additional protection , particularly for the battlecruisers , which carried less armor than their battleship counterparts . The finalized design was approved on 23 May 1914 .
= = = General characteristics = = =
The Mackensen @-@ class ships were 223 m ( 731 ft 8 in ) long and had a beam of 30 @.@ 4 m ( 99 ft 9 in ) and a draft of 9 @.@ 3 m ( 30 ft 6 in ) forward and 8 @.@ 4 m ( 27 ft 7 in ) aft . The ships were designed to displace 31 @,@ 000 t ( 30 @,@ 510 long tons ) on a standard load , and up to 35 @,@ 300 t ( 34 @,@ 742 long tons ) fully laden . The Mackensens ' hulls were composed of longitudinal steel frames , over which the outer hull plates were riveted . This was the same type of construction as in the preceding Derfflinger @-@ class battlecruisers , and was intended to save weight compared to the traditional method of construction , which incorporated both longitudinal and transverse frames . The ships ' hulls contained 18 watertight compartments and a double bottom that ran for 92 percent of the length of the hull . This was significantly greater than the older Derfflinger @-@ class ships , which had a double bottom for only 65 percent of the length of the hull .
Experience with previous battlecruiser designs led to the adoption of a continuous upper deck , which raised the level of the deck aft . This was necessary because the aft decks of earlier designs were usually awash when steaming at high speed , even in calm seas . The ships were also equipped with a bulbous bow to reduce drag on the hull , the first time the feature was used in the German Navy . The ships as designed required a crew of 46 officers and 1 @,@ 140 enlisted sailors . Service as a squadron flagship would increase that number by an additional 14 officers and 62 sailors . The vessels carried a number of small boats , including two picket boats , one barge , two launches , two cutters , and three yawls .
= = = Machinery = = =
The ships of the Mackensen class were equipped with four sets of marine @-@ type turbine engines , each of which drove a three @-@ bladed screw propeller that was 4 @.@ 2 m ( 13 ft 9 in ) in diameter . The turbines mounted in Fürst Bismarck were equipped with Föttinger fluid transmission , while those on the other three ships were two sets of direct @-@ coupled turbines with geared transmissions . The ships had 24 coal @-@ fired marine @-@ type single ended boilers and eight oil @-@ fired marine @-@ type boilers . The power plants were designed to provide 88 @,@ 769 shaft horsepower ( 66 @,@ 195 kW ) and 295 revolutions per minute . Maximum speed was rated at 28 knots ( 52 km / h ; 32 mph ) . The ships were equipped with a pair of rudders mounted side by side , as opposed to the tandem rudders used on the Derfflinger @-@ class ships .
The ships ' turbines were equipped with Föttinger gears , which significantly improved performance at cruising speeds and provided a corresponding increase in range of about 20 percent . The vessels were designed to store 800 t ( 790 long tons ) of coal and 250 t ( 250 long tons ) of oil in purpose @-@ built storage spaces ; the hull areas between the torpedo bulkhead and the outer wall of the ship were used to store additional fuel . Maximum fuel capacity was 4 @,@ 000 t ( 3 @,@ 900 long tons ) of coal and 2 @,@ 000 t ( 2 @,@ 000 long tons ) of oil . This was estimated to give a range of up to about 8 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 15 @,@ 000 km ; 9 @,@ 200 mi ) at a cruising speed of 14 kn ( 26 km / h ; 16 mph ) . Electrical power on the vessels was provided by eight diesel generators that put out 2 @,@ 320 kilowatts at 220 volts .
= = = Armament = = =
The Mackensens were equipped with a main battery of eight new 35 cm SK L / 45 guns in four twin gun turrets . The turrets were mounted in superfiring pairs fore and aft of the main superstructure . The guns were placed in Drh LC / 1914 mountings , which could elevate to 20 degrees and depress to − 5 degrees . The guns were supplied with a total of 720 armor @-@ piercing shells , or 90 per gun . The weapons were designed to fire 600 kg ( 1 @,@ 323 lb ) shells at a rate of fire of around 2 @.@ 5 shots per minute . The shells were fired with a muzzle velocity of 820 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 700 ft / s ) . As with other heavy German guns , these weapons used a fore propellant charge in a silk bag with a main charge in a brass case . These guns could hit targets out to a maximum distance of 23 @,@ 300 m ( 25 @,@ 500 yd ) .
The ships ' secondary battery consisted of fourteen 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) SK L / 45 quick @-@ firing guns mounted in armored casemates along the central superstructure . Each gun was supplied with 160 rounds , and had a maximum range of 13 @,@ 500 m ( 44 @,@ 300 ft ) , though this was later extended to 16 @,@ 800 m ( 55 @,@ 100 ft ) . The guns had a sustained rate of fire of 7 rounds per minute . The shells were 45 @.@ 3 kg ( 99 @.@ 8 lb ) , and were loaded with a 13 @.@ 7 kg ( 31 @.@ 2 lb ) RPC / 12 propellant charge in a brass cartridge . The guns fired at a muzzle velocity of 835 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 740 ft / s ) . The guns were expected to fire around 1 @,@ 400 shells before they needed to be replaced .
The ships were also armed with eight 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 45 in ) L / 45 Flak guns in single pedestal mounts . Four were arranged around the rear superfiring main battery turret and the other four around the forward conning tower . The Flak guns were emplaced in MPL C / 13 mountings , which allowed depression to − 10 degrees and elevation to 70 degrees . These guns fired 9 kg ( 19 @.@ 8 lb ) shells , and had an effective ceiling of 9 @,@ 150 m ( 30 @,@ 020 ft ) at 70 degrees .
As was standard for warships of the period , the Mackensens were equipped with submerged torpedo tubes . There were five 60 cm ( 24 in ) tubes : one in the bow , and two on each flank of the ship . The torpedoes were the H8 type , which were 9 m ( 30 ft ) long and carried a 210 kg ( 463 lb ) Hexanite warhead . The torpedoes had a range of 8 @,@ 000 m ( 8 @,@ 700 yd ) when set at a speed of 35 knots ( 65 km / h ; 40 mph ) ; at a reduced speed of 28 knots ( 52 km / h ; 32 mph ) , the range increased significantly to 15 @,@ 000 m ( 16 @,@ 000 yd ) .
= = = Armor = = =
The Mackensen @-@ class ships were protected with Krupp cemented steel armor , as was the standard for German warships of the period . Specific figures for the arrangement of the armor layout have not survived , but according to naval historian Erich Gröner " The outfit of Krupp armour was similar to that of the [ preceding ] Derfflinger class " . The figures listed here are those for the Derfflinger class . They had an armor belt of 300 mm ( 11 @.@ 8 in ) thickness in the central citadel of the ship , where the most important parts of the vessel were located . This included the ammunition magazines and the machinery spaces . The belt was reduced in less critical areas , to 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) forward and 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) aft . The belt tapered down to 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) at the bow , though the stern was not protected by armor at all . A 45 mm ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) torpedo bulkhead ran the length of the hull , several meters behind the main belt . The main armored deck ranged in thickness from 30 mm in less important areas to 80 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) in the sections that covered the more critical areas of the ship .
The forward conning tower was protected with heavy armor : the sides were 300 mm thick and the roof was 130 mm ( 5 @.@ 1 in ) . The rear conning tower was less well armored ; its sides were only 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) , and the roof was covered with 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) of armor plate . The main battery gun turrets were also heavily armored : the turret sides were 270 mm ( 11 in ) and the roofs were 110 mm ( 4 @.@ 3 in ) . The 15 cm guns had 150 mm worth of armor plating in the casemates ; the guns themselves had 70 mm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) shields to protect their crews from shell splinters .
= = Construction and cancellation = =
Seven ships were originally planned in the class : Mackensen , Graf Spee , Prinz Eitel Friedrich , Ersatz A , and three other vessels . The last three ships were redesigned as the Ersatz Yorck class , leaving four ships to be built to the Mackensen design . The first two ships were ordered on 14 August 1914 , shortly after the outbreak of World War I. Mackensen was funded through the 1914 budget , while funding for Graf Spee came from the war budget . Mackensen — ordered under the provisional name Ersatz Victoria Louise , as a replacement for the old protected cruiser Victoria Louise — was named after Generalfeldmarschall ( Field Marshal ) August von Mackensen . The ship was laid down on 30 January 1915 at Blohm & Voss in Hamburg , under construction number 240 . She was launched on 21 April 1917 ; at the small launching ceremony , Generaloberst ( Colonel General ) Josias von Heeringen gave the speech and the ship was christened by Mackensen 's wife . Construction was halted about 15 months before she would have been completed . The British mistakenly believed the ship to have been completed , and so they included the ship on the list of vessels to be interned at Scapa Flow instead of the fleet flagship Baden . Mackensen was stricken from the German navy , according to the terms of the Treaty of Versailles , on 17 November 1919 . She was sold for scrap and eventually broken up in 1922 at Kiel @-@ Nordmole .
Graf Spee was named for Vice Admiral Maximilian von Spee , the commander of the German East Asia Squadron ; he was killed when his squadron was annihilated at the Battle of the Falkland Islands in 1914 . Graf Spee was laid down on 30 November 1915 in the Schichau yards in Danzig ( now Gdańsk , Poland ) , under the provisional name Ersatz Blücher , to replace the large armored cruiser Blücher that had been sunk at the Battle of Dogger Bank in January 1915 . She was launched on 15 September 1917 . At the launching ceremony , Großadmiral Prince Heinrich gave the speech and Spee 's widow Margarete christened the ship . Construction stopped about 12 months away from completion ; Graf Spee was the furthest along of all four ships when work was halted . She too was struck on 17 November 1919 ; on 28 October 1921 the unfinished hull was sold for 4 @.@ 4 million Marks and broken up in Kiel @-@ Nordmole .
Prinz Eitel Friedrich , ordered as Ersatz Freya ( a replacement for SMS Freya ) was named for one of Kaiser Wilhelm II 's sons , Eitel Friedrich . She was laid down on 1 May 1915 at Blohm & Voss under construction number 241 . She was 21 months away from completion when she was launched to clear the slip on 13 March 1920 and was broken up at Hamburg in 1921 . At the launching ceremony , dockyard workers named the ship Noske , after Reichswehr Minister Gustav Noske . Ersatz A , which might have been named Fürst Bismarck for the famous German chancellor Otto von Bismarck , was laid down on 3 November 1915 at the Wilhelmshaven Imperial Shipyard under construction number 25 . She was about 26 months from completion when work ended . She was never launched ; instead , the vessel was broken up on the slip in 1922 .
Experience at the Battle of Jutland led the RMA to conclude that ships with 38 cm guns , heavier armor , and a higher top speed were necessary . The Mackensen design was used as the basis for the Ersatz @-@ Yorck class , which incorporated the larger guns and more armor for the main battery turrets and barbettes . More powerful engines were unavailable to compensate for the extra weight , so the designers were forced to accept a reduced speed . Nevertheless , like the Mackensens , the three ships ordered under the Ersatz @-@ Yorck design were never completed . In response , the British ordered the four Admiral @-@ class battlecruisers , though the British designed the class under the mistaken impression that the Mackensen class would be armed with 38 @.@ 6 cm ( 15 @.@ 2 in ) guns and would be capable of 30 knots ( 56 km / h ; 35 mph ) . Three of the four Admiral @-@ class ships were cancelled ; only HMS Hood was completed after the end of the war .
The primary reason construction halted on the four ships was the shifting of construction materials and manpower from capital ships to U @-@ boats in the last two years of the war . The RMA filed a report dated 1 February 1918 stating that capital ship construction had ground to a halt primarily for this reason .
= Nemesis ( Stargate SG @-@ 1 ) =
" Nemesis " is the last episode from season 3 of the science fiction television series Stargate SG @-@ 1 . Written by Robert C. Cooper and directed by Martin Wood , the episode first aired in the United Kingdom on Sky One on February 11 , 2000 , and had its American premiere on Showtime on March 8 , 2000 . The episode sets up the Replicators as a new major enemy , ending in a cliffhanger that is resumed in the season 4 premiere " Small Victories " .
" Nemesis " was the first SG @-@ 1 episode to be filmed entirely on 35 mm film before the series switched from 16 mm film to 35 mm film for all purposes in season 4 . A visual effects milestone for the series , the episode was nominated for an Emmy Award in the " Outstanding Special Visual Effects for a Series " category , and won a Leo Award for " Best Overall Sound in a Dramatic Series " .
= = Plot = =
The SG @-@ 1 team gets leave time as Daniel Jackson ( Michael Shanks ) had his appendix removed . Just after Major Carter ( Amanda Tapping ) declines Colonel O 'Neill 's ( Richard Dean Anderson ) invitation to go fishing , O 'Neill is beamed aboard the cloaked Asgard ship Beliskner orbiting Earth . Encountering bug @-@ like robots , O 'Neill learns from the dying Asgard , Thor , that the creatures are called Replicators . They ingest the ship 's alloys in order to self @-@ replicate and will eventually land on Earth in the search of more raw material . O 'Neill contacts Stargate Command with a request to beam up explosives , however , General Hammond ( Don S. Davis ) also sends along Carter and Teal 'c ( Christopher Judge ) against O 'Neill 's wishes . An Earth shuttle may be sent to pick them up later .
SG @-@ 1 plan to steer the vessel towards Earth to vaporize it during atmospheric reentry . Because the Replicators prevent SG @-@ 1 from retaking the bridge , Carter and Thor suggest placing an elementary naqahdah @-@ enhanced bomb on the deceleration drive . When Teal 'c leaves the spaceship to place the bomb on the outside of the hull , his airtank blows , however , Carter manages to beam him back on board . Thor , whose vitals crash at this moment , is put into a stasis pod to preserve his life .
While SG @-@ 1 waits for the right time to detonate the bomb , they must devise a plan to get off the ship . They eventually beam Stargate Command 's Stargate on @-@ board and intend to travel to the planet P3X @-@ 234 before returning home using Earth 's secondary gate ( " Touchstone " ) . After Teal 'c has dialed the gate manually , O 'Neill detonates the bomb , crashing the ship in the Pacific Ocean . The last shot of the episode shows a Replicator crawling on remains of the sinking spaceship .
= = Production = =
The season 3 finale " Nemesis " was written by Robert C. Cooper and directed by Martin Wood . After the first three seasons of Stargate SG @-@ 1 had been filmed on 16 mm film ( although scenes involving visual effects had always been shot on 35 mm film for various technical reasons ) , " Nemesis " was the first episode filmed entirely on 35 mm film . Stargate SG @-@ 1 switched to 35 mm film for all purposes at the beginning of season 4 . The visual effects team used the episode to experiment with the design of the Replicators , a new recurring enemy to whom the character Thor had first alluded in the early season 3 episode " Fair Game " . " Nemesis " featured more visual effects than any previous episode , but was excelled by the season 4 premiere , " Small Victories " , which showed the best computer @-@ generated shots of " Nemesis " in its " Previously on " segment . Visual effects supervisor James Tichenor considered the few episodes with big visual effects budgets the most likely works to contain visual cues that impress Academy of Television Arts & Sciences ( Emmy Awards ) voters . Tichenor claimed that effective visual effects do not call attention to themselves and instead rely on the actors ' reactions to nonexistent things .
Daniel Jackson 's appendicitis reflected Michael Shanks ' real @-@ world condition at the end of season 3 . During the last shooting day of " Crystal Skull " , Shanks suffered an appendicitis attack , which he had first misinterpreted as food poisoning from the Thanksgiving dinner . While Robert C. Cooper desperately tried to rewrite the script of " Nemesis " , producer Brad Wright contrived elaborate storylines to reduce Shanks ' involvement in the episode . Cooper eventually decided to use a common health issue to explain Daniel 's absence from the episode 's action scenes . Shanks appeared in four scenes set at Stargate Command , although he also provided the voice of the Asgard Thor in post @-@ production . Although much of Daniel 's and O 'Neill 's exchange in the infirmary was improvised , critic Jo Storm speculated in his book Approaching The Possible that Daniel 's question in the infirmary bed to O 'Neill ( " Did you get a haircut ? " ) may reflect the actors ' hairstyles which had significantly changed since the season 2 finale ; the lines may have been added to appease the many viewers who had commented on the characters ' new looks on the online boards . " Nemesis " was the last episode before actor Christopher Judge started sporting a small blond beard for several episodes in season 4 .
= = Reception = =
" Nemesis " first aired in the United Kingdom on Sky One on February 11 , 2000 , and had its American premiere on Showtime on March 8 , 2000 . In Germany , " Nemesis " was held back from season 3 and aired as the first hour of the season 4 premiere . Airing in American broadcast syndication during the 2001 May sweeps , " Nemesis " had a 2 @.@ 7 / 2 @.@ 8 household rating , which helped Stargate SG @-@ 1 's placement as second among first @-@ run entertainment hours ( a second airing after a premiere on an American subscription channel is not regarded as an off @-@ network rerun ) and placed fifth overall in the U.S. syndication market . " Nemesis " was nominated for an Emmy in the " Outstanding Special Visual Effects " category in 2000 , but lost to the X @-@ Files episode " First Person Shooter " ; the other competitors were Star Trek : Voyager episodes " Life Line " and " The Haunting of Deck Twelve " , and the X @-@ Files episode " Rush " . " Nemesis " won a Leo Award for " Best Overall Sound In A Dramatic Series " in 2000 .
Jo Storm wrote that the " cleverly disguised action mini @-@ arc " gives insight into the imperfection of the Asgard and that the " foreign , creepy " Replicators are " conquerors who make the Goa 'uld look nice by comparison " . He felt that the episode had " all the classic elements of fiction " , and lauded Robert C. Cooper 's storytelling idea to take the Stargate from the SGC and Don S. Davis 's following " best nonspeaking moment " . In Storm 's mind , the visual effects were well @-@ placed and did not overthrow the story , but he wondered about the " ubiquitous Sam / Jack interest " . If not interpreted as " flirtatiousness " , Carter could be " truly touched at being let into the ' inner circle ' of [ O 'Neill 's ] life , and finally being ' one of the guys ' " .
= Forest Whitaker =
Forest Steven Whitaker III ( born July 15 , 1961 ) is an American actor , director , and producer .
He has earned a reputation for intensive character study work for films such as Bird , Platoon , Ghost Dog : The Way of the Samurai and Lee Daniels ' The Butler , for his work in independent films and for his recurring role as LAPD Internal Affairs Lieutenant Jon Kavanaugh on the Emmy Award @-@ winning television series The Shield . He is set to portray Saw Gerrera in the Star Wars spin @-@ off film , Rogue One : A Star Wars Story .
Whitaker won the Academy Award , British Academy Film Award , Golden Globe Award , National Board of Review Award , Screen Actors Guild Award , and various critics groups awards for his performance as Ugandan dictator Idi Amin in the 2006 film The Last King of Scotland .
= = Early life = =
Whitaker was born July 15 , 1961 , in Longview , Texas . His family moved to Carson , California when he was four . His father , Forest Steven Jr . , was an insurance salesman . Forest 's mother , Laura Francis ( née Smith ) , was a special education teacher who put herself through college and earned two master 's degrees while raising her children . Whitaker has two younger brothers , Kenn and Damon , and an older sister , Deborah .
His first role as an actor was the lead in Dylan Thomas ' play , Under Milk Wood .
Whitaker then attended Cal Poly Pomona on a football scholarship , but due to a debilitating back injury , he changed his major to music ( voice ) . He toured England with the Cal Poly Chamber Singers in 1980 . While still at Cal Poly , he briefly changed | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
event , along with its revised release period in 2011 and a playable demonstration . According to Miaymoto , the game was delayed from its planned 2010 release window as the staff felt that they would be releasing an unfinished product if they put the convenience of the company ahead of creating a quality experience . They used the extra year to both finish the core elements and polish up the game as a whole .
Multiple promotional elements were created : a five @-@ part online comic was written and illustrated by Jerry Holkins and Mike Krahulik under their Penny Arcade Presents series , and television commercials featuring actor and comedian Robin Williams and his daughter Zelda were made , playing on the actor 's stated love for the series . Skyward Sword released in all regions in November 2011 : it released in Europe on November 18 , North America on November 20 , Japan on November 23 , and Australia on November 24 . The game was released as both a standard edition and a limited deluxe edition that included a gold Wii Remote Plus . An anniversary CD was included with both editions containing orchestrated versions of various iconic musical pieces from the series . Following its release , a game @-@ breaking bug that corrupted save files if three late @-@ game events were taken in a certain order was discovered . Once revealed , Nintendo issued instructions on avoiding it and set up a special channel on their Wii site in Japan to gain feedback , along with offering to manually repair corrupted save files .
= = = Scenario = = =
The script for cinematic scenes was written by Naoki Mori , who joined the project for one and a quarter years in his role : the cinematic director was Shigeki Yoshida , who was brought on at the same time as and worked on the storyboards with Mori . The initial script was proposed by Fujibayashi based on his perception of the game 's structure . As the game 's theme was the use of the sword , and the sword most associated with the series was the Master Sword , the team decided to make it an origin story for the weapon . An early element was whether to incorporate the creation of Hyrule , while also needing to explain the creation of Skyloft : this initial stage of story development ended up being difficult as their initial story plans were full of contradictions to established series lore due to them wanting to create an origin story for the entire series . These issues were further complicated by the third year of development with the necessity of finalizing the gameplay and environments . Feigning illness , Fujibayashi shut himself away in a hotel room and wrote the synopsis in a single day . Mori wrote the dialogue based on Fujibayashi 's synopsis , who needed to work out the fine details with Fujibayashi . A scene Fujibayashi was intent on including was where Zelda jumped from the edge of Skyloft and Link caught her : this was fitted in for the two characters after the end of Link 's exam . The early part of the story was quite different from earlier Zelda titles , playing out in a similar way to a school drama . Once the script was finished , it was handed to Yoshida so his team could create the cinematics . The total number of cinematics was estimated as 79 , coming to over 120 minutes .
The relationship between Link and Zelda was quite different from earlier incarnations , in particular the fact that Zelda was not a member of royalty . According to Aonuma , a recurring difficulty was how contrived the necessity for Link to rescue Zelda became with each passing installment , as their contact may only have been fleeting beforehand . In response to this , the team considered how to make the player care about Zelda and want to rescue her . Having the two characters as childhood friends both served this purpose and cut down on extraneous plot elements . They continued to encourage the player by having Link only just miss her on her early travels across the Surface . Mischievous elements were also added to Zelda 's personality by her pushing Link over an ledge : initially intended as a rule of three @-@ style gag , it was cut down to two during development . The figure of Hylia was a new addition to the world 's lore , although her existence was linked to Zelda , with the two being essentially the same character known under different names in subsequent ages . Groose , who acted as Link 's rival , was introduced to make the story more interesting within the school setting . Groose 's maturation during the course of the story was intended to help convey Link 's parallel growth as a character as he was otherwise mute and static .
Fi was created before the implantation of Wii MotionPlus , when she was going to be part of some different undefined gameplay concepts unrelated to motion control . Her design was based on the design of the Master Sword , referencing her origins as the sword 's spirit . She also served as an alternative explanatory voice as Link was a silent protagonist . According to staff , Fi 's technical dialogue for each area of the game was written by different people , verbal inconsistencies arose that needed addressing , so Fujibayashi adjusted them all so she sounded consistent . Nearly all of Fi 's dialogue was ultimately written by Fujibayashi . Ghirahim was designed to be similar to the Dark Link character from Ocarina of Time : he could read Link 's movements , requiring players to think strategically to defeat him rather than simply swinging Link 's sword around randomly . Character designs were far more detailed than in previous Zelda titles . Clothing was frequently designed to complement backgrounds , such as Zelda 's pink and red dress in the opening . The game 's use of warm colors and brushstroke @-@ like aesthetics was inspired by impressionist artwork , pioneered in the 19th century by painters such as Claude Monet : a particular element cited by Miyamoto was the sky , which he called a tribute to the work of Paul Cézanne . The basic starting point for the art style was the fact of it being a fantasy world . The final version was referred to as a balance between the more overt cartoon styling of The Legend of Zelda : The Wind Waker and Twilight Princess , where the cartoon shading was transferred onto an older version of Link . The team settled this artstyle as it would properly portray the more exaggerated actions of some characters and general swordplay while preserving Link 's mature appearance .
= = = Design = = =
During development , the team faced a lot of problems when designing the game so it would be both familiar for series fans and fresh to old and new players . The pieces of gameplay experimentation meant that the development was " a more fundamental ground @-@ up process " than earlier titles such as The Wind Waker . Their earlier titles had involved lifting elements from earlier games and pasting them into a new entry , but for Skyward Sword the developers wanted to add a new play structure to avoid fans seeing it as more of the same . The original concept for gameplay using the Wii MotionPlus was proposed by Fujibayashi at a point when the team were already developing the gameplay around the console 's standard Wii Remote and Nunchuk control scheme . When first proposed , Aonuma was highly enthusiastic , and his wish to change to Wii MotionPlus meant that work on the game needed to begin all over again . The use of Wii MotionPlus proved challenging for the developers to implement , to the point where at one point Aonuma seriously considered dropping it from the game entirely . After the release of Wii Sports Resort , the team saw how motion controls could be used for swordplay : after talking with the development team , they were able to borrow the technology and used it to create the motion @-@ driven swordplay . The implementation of Wii MotionPlus meant that the enemy artificial intelligence needed to be able to counter it , adjusting their stances depending on the position of Link 's sword .
When creating Link 's sword movements , the team initially wanted them to be as realistic as possible , but as this was being detrimental to the character 's portrayal , they had to include unrealistic movements to preserve the atmosphere . The Skyward Strike was initially born from Aonuma thinking up a possible mechanic of holding the sword still above Link : these also gave rise to the game 's title . Having sword fighting relying on Wii MotionPlus freed up other buttons on the controller , allowing the addition of the Dash sprinting option . So as not to interrupt the flow of gameplay , they incorporated other elements into the Dash function , such as scaling walls rather than just slamming into them . The Dowsing mechanic was created early on , based on the gameplay themes of discovery and exploration . Due to the introduction of Dowsing , the team did not have to create environmental landmarks for places and objects of importance as they had done in previous titles . So players would not get lost in the terrain , they also introduced the marker beacons . Items were designed so they could be visible in any area , such as the bright blue Bombs . They were also designed based on their original location : those from Skyloft used a bird motif , while those from other Surface regions used more intricate designs . The Beetle acted as a replacement for the Boomarang , as the team wanted an item that players could control . The Beetle and other pseudo @-@ technical items gave rise to the ancient mechanical theme that appeared in the Lanayru Desert region . At Miyamoto 's insistence , the more desirable items that were normally placed towards the end of a campaign were made available to players from an early stage . When designing items , the developers were faced with the usual problems of the interdependence of items and dungeons creating a chicken @-@ and @-@ egg scenario for the developers . The menu for Item access was also redesigned around the use of Wii MotionPlus .
In past Zelda titles , the team had made numerous new fields for player exploration , but this time they limited the number of overworlds to three and expanded their content so players would be able to full appreciate them through repeated visits . The team also created the world based on their experiences with Twilight Princess : feeling that the overworld and dungeons were too large with puzzles too thinly dispersed , the team both sought to compact areas and have environmental puzzles in the overworld . The biggest difficulty was ensuring that players could reach areas quickly while still discovering new features and puzzles . The creation of the Skyloft overworld was due to difficulties connecting the three Surface @-@ based overworlds with each other due to drastically contrasting environments . The sky was initially going to be presented similar to the course selection screen from the Super Mario series , but this was changed to an overworld with its own quests and population so Link had a place where he could prepare for his adventures . An initial idea , when jumping down from the sky seemed unlikely to be approved , was to have a huge tower acting as a central hub , with the height at which Link jumped lengthening the duration of his free fall . Once the concept of traveling from the sky had been chosen instead , the Loftwing mounts were created so it looked and felt more rational to players . These overlapping gameplay mechanics triggered the creation of Skyloft , along with elements of the early game such as the Knight Academy . The continual movements and routines of Skyloft 's people were modeled after similar time @-@ driven mechanics from The Legend of Zelda : Majora 's Mask , with similar links between character @-@ specific side quests and the main narrative . Despite the aerial element , the mechanics necessary for free navigation meant a Loftwing racing minigame could not be implemented .
Each Surface overworld had a specific theme : the forest overworld revolved around landforms altering gameplay , the volcano overworld focused around changing the rules of gameplay , while the desert overworld was themed around duality between past and present . The first areas , the Sealed Grounds and Faron Woods , were created so players could be eased into the game 's mechanics and navigation . While the forest areas were made to be mostly flat , the Eldin Volcano overworld was made with height differences in mind to provide a greater challenge . Elements in the volcano terrain included areas of lava , and slopes where Link 's sprinting ability would become necessary for reaching new areas . For the Lanayru Desert , the team created three different overworld zones due to its unique time shifting mechanics , triggered with Time Shift stones : this shifting between different zones was inspired by similar systems in Ocarina of Time and Twilight Princess . The portable Time Shift stones were one of many ideas included in the desert overworld as they did not fit with the forest or volcano environments . A difficult feature to include naturally was the remnants of Lanayru 's Ancient Civilization , which used electricity to power both its technology and citizens . Enemy types that recurred in all Surface @-@ based overworld areas were given slightly altered designs so they would be unique to each overworld . The Silent Realms were created as a new mechanic , filled with enemies that could not be defeated and relying on Link 's sprinting ability rather than his weapons or items . While they had experimented with indestructible enemies in Phantom Hourglass and Spirit Tracks , but this time it was changed by restricting Link 's options and actions . They also created a time limit for added strategy , as knowledge of the areas where the Spirit Realms were located was key to completing them . This was also why they were set up in areas players would already be familiar with . They were originally in the form of special dungeons , but this was discarded in favor of the familiar areas .
= = = Audio = = =
The game 's sound team consisted of ten people : five handling general sound design , and five handling music composition . Hajime Wakai acted as the game 's sound director and lead composer , with the other composers being Shiho Fujii , Mahito Yokota , and Takeshi Hama . Longtime series composer Koji Kondo had a supervisory role , only composing a single piece by himself : the music accompanying the prologue video describing the mythical origins of Demise and Hylia . He also helped in arranging the other composer 's pieces , using an electric piano and a Mac computer . Fujii was responsible for the music focused on environments , dungeons , boss battles : among her work was the music for Skyloft . She used art and environmental assets so that her compositions would fit in with their environments . A first for the Zelda series , the music was performed using a live orchestra rather synthesized instruments . It was the first time Nintendo EAD had used a live orchestra . Any previous orchestral elements in Twilight Princess , which amounted only to one track , were handled by their Tokyo division . Due to his experience , the department 's musical lead Yokota was brought on to help orchestrate the score . Aonuma initially did not think of using an orchestra , and was still sure the score would remain synthesized even after Wakai asked him about it . An orchestra was finally chosen after Miyamoto insisted upon it , a decision which surprised the entire team .
Using the orchestra enabled a greater expression of emotion , which meant that they used it when creating scores for environments , cinematic scenes , and emotional moments within the story . Conversely , the team were given less freedom to adjust tracks as they had been able to with synthesized tracks . Something new they did for Skyward Sword was producing unique themes for specific characters such as Link and Zelda . They also added people singing songs , another element new to the series . One notable element was the game 's main theme " Ballad of the Goddess " , which was actually a reversed version of the recurring tune " Zelda 's Lullaby " . Due to the use of an orchestra and the sheer amount of extra work going into the sound design , the music team doubled in size from the standard five @-@ person group , and became the largest sound team at the time to have worked on a Nintendo game . The positive reception of the orchestral score within the company led to the creation of The Legend of Zelda 25th Anniversary Symphony Concert , a celebratory concert featuring orchestrated versions of classic Zelda themes . Music was also woven into the story and gameplay through the use of the harp Link receives , using a recurring theme within the series of music being a central part of the experience . In contrast to previous titles , the instrument could be played at any time rather than at specific times and places .
= = Reception = =
Skyward Sword received " universal " critical acclaim from multiple journalistic magazines and websites upon release : it received a score of 93 / 100 on aggregate site Metacritic based on 81 reviews . It was the site 's 10th highest scoring game of 2011 , and also ranked as the 6th best @-@ reviewed Wii game of all time . It received perfect scores from multiple publications : these included Famitsu , IGN , Eurogamer , Game Informer , Edge Magazine and VideoGamer.com. In the case of Famitsu , Skyward Sword was the third Zelda title and sixteenth video game in the magazine 's history to be given a perfect score at that time .
Famitsu was highly positive , praising the overworld and gameplay : one reviewer felt that it would form the new standard for both the Zelda series and video games as a whole . Edge was highly positive about all aspects of the game aside from the player @-@ driven upgrade system , and even then it was not enough to spoil the experience for the reviewer . Nintendo Power gave it similar praise , saying that " it 's truly worthy of being called ' epic ' " . Ray Carsillo of Electronic Gaming Monthly appreciate the game 's nostalgic value , but found the motion control difficult to handle and kept the game from being truly great . Jose Otero , writing for 1UP.com , praised the developers for putting effort into moving away from Zelda tradition and called it one of the better games in the series , but said that those detrimental elements that remained such as side quests and some item usage made Skyward Sword " a weird middle ground filled with genuine surprises , inessential carry @-@ overs , and copy / paste quest structures " .
GameSpot 's Tom McShea was notably less positive than other critics , praising the storyline , dungeons , enemies and visuals while faulting the controls for being unreliable and feeling that most of the experience felt both unnecessary and overly familiar . Destructoid 's Jonathan Holmes called Skyward Sword his new 3D game from the series , but noted that its exclusive use of motion controls would put off potential players . Oli Welsh of Eurogamer was highly positive , praising the controls , gameplay experience and additional elements such as upgrades : he gave particular praise to the game 's visuals , which were impressive despite hardware limitations . Game Informer 's Phil Kollar echoed both general praise of the gameplay and presentation , and minor issues experienced with the motion controls : he concluded by saying that Nintendo had fulfilled its initial promises for the Wii with Skyward Sword . GamesRadar 's Carolyn Gudmundson called it " perfectly balanced mix of innovation and classic Zelda gameplay " despite minor control issues .
GameTrailers noted that , despite its many strengths such as a believable relationship between Link and Zelda , Skyward Sword represented the series ' " first gray hairs " due to some of its mechanics feeling dated in the modern gaming landscape . IGN 's Richard George felt that the game returned The Legend of Zelda to being a revolutionary series in the gaming industry , praising almost every aspect of the game with the exception of the soundtrack , which he felt did not live up to series standards despite its quality . Joystiq writer Griffin McElroy noted that a lot of the game 's content seemed unnecessary and extravagant , but said that beneath this surface lay " the best Zelda game of all time " . Steve Hogarty of Official Nintendo Magazine shared many points of praise with other positive journalist reviews , calling it the greatest game in the series to date . VideoGamer.com 's Chris Schilling called it one of the best Zelda games , praising its motion controls , narrative and treatment of series tradition .
= = = Awards = = =
Following its release , Skyward Sword won numerous awards . At IGN 's " Best of 2011 " awards , it was awarded " Best Game " , " Best Graphics " , " Best Sound " and " Best Story " in the Wii category . It was also given the " Reader 's Choice " award in the " Best Overall Game " category : it was also among those nominated as the site 's " Game of the Year " . In Digital Trends ' similar awards , it was named as " Best Action @-@ Adventure " and " Best Wii Exclusive " , and was nominated for the site 's " Game of the Year " award . RPGamer 's own " Best of 2011 " awards named Skyward Sword " Best Console and PC Game " and awarded it for " Best Music " . It also received " Game of the Year " awards from Electronic Gaming Monthly , GameSpot , Edge and Nintendo Power . It received " Excellence " and " Most Valuable Character " awards from Famitsu , the latter being awarded for the protagonist Link . It received multiple nominations in 2012 at the D.I.C.E. Awards , Game Developers Choice Awards and the BAFTA Games Awards . At Spike , the game won awards for " Best Wii Game " and " Best Motion Game " . Skyward Sword has since been ranked among the best games developed for the Wii .
= = = Sales = = =
Upon its Japanese debut , Skyward Sword sold nearly 195 @,@ 000 units , reaching the top of sales charts . Sales quickly declined , dropping out of the Top 20 within a few weeks . By the end of December , it had sold less than 320 @,@ 000 units : this was below equivalent sales for other recent home console and portable Zelda titles . The game 's sales were strong overall going into January 2012 , with its largest sales coming from North America . Its first month sales in North America came to around 600 @,@ 000 units , nearly double its Japanese sales . In the UK , Skyward Sword was the seventh best @-@ selling game of November in the multiformat charts , stated as impressive given the waning popularity of the platform . It was also the region 's top @-@ selling Wii title during its week of release , supplanting the previous week 's top seller Just Dance 3 . It failed to reach the top @-@ five best @-@ selling Wii titles for that year . Its total worldwide first @-@ week sales came to 919 @,@ 119 units . According to Nintendo of America president Reggie Fils @-@ Aime , Skyward Sword was the fastest selling title in the series at that time . As of December 2011 , the game has sold 3 @.@ 41 million units worldwide : 380 @,@ 000 of these units were sold in Japan while 3 @.@ 04 million units were sold overseas .
= = Legacy = =
When development started on the next home console Zelda title , The Legend of Zelda : Breath of the Wild , the developers wanted to improve on what they had achieved with Skyward Sword , along with creating a non @-@ linear world based on player complaints about the linearity of Skyward Sword . Aonuma and Fujibayashi both returned respectively as producer and director . Aonuma 's stated wish with Breath of the Wild was to make " to expand and make a better Skyward Sword " . In addition , Aonuma stated that it might be possible to create an HD remake of Skyward Sword for current hardware .
= = = External references = = =
= = = Primary references = = =
Nintendo EAD ( 2011 @-@ 11 @-@ 18 ) . The Legend of Zelda : Skyward Sword . Wii . Nintendo .
= Blackdown Hills =
The Blackdown Hills are a range of hills along the Somerset @-@ Devon border in south @-@ western England , which were designated an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty ( AONB ) in 1991 .
The plateau is dominated by hard chert bands of Upper Greensand with some remnants of chalk , and is cut through by river valleys . The hills support an extensive range of wildlife leading to the designation of 16 Sites of Special Scientific Interest ( SSSIs ) .
There is evidence of human occupation since the Iron Age . Fortifications include the remains of ancient hill forts , Norman motte @-@ and @-@ bailey castles and Second World War airfields . There are also religious buildings such as Dunkeswell Abbey and village churches . The hills are crossed by a network of minor roads with major transport routes including the M5 motorway running around the periphery .
= = Natural region = =
The Blackdowns form a natural region that has been designated as a national character area - No. 147 - by Natural England , the public body responsible for England 's natural environment . Neighbouring natural regions are : the Devon Redlands to the west , the Vale of Taunton and Quantock Fringes to the north , the Mid Somerset Hills to the northeast , the Yeovil Scarplands to the east and the Marshwood and Powerstock Vales to the southeast .
= = Geography = =
Straddling the borders of Somerset and Devon , the Blackdown Hills AONB covers an area of 370 square kilometres ( 143 sq mi ) . Heavily cut with sharp valleys , the hills reach their highest point of 315 metres ( 1 @,@ 033 ft ) above sea level at Staple Hill in Somerset . The hills in the southern part of the area , near Honiton in Devon , are more gentle . The Blackdown Hills are a sparsely populated area ; much of the land is used for dairy farming .
The River Culm rises at a spring ( grid reference ST2205016050 ) near Culmhead and flows west through Hemyock , then Culmstock to Uffculme before joining the River Exe on the north @-@ western outskirts of Exeter . The name of the river is thought to mean ' knot ' or ' tie ' , in reference to the river 's twists and loops ; or is derived from a Celtic river @-@ name meaning winding stream . The River Otter rises near Otterford , where a stream feeds the Otterhead lakes : ( ST225152 ) . It then flows south for 32 kilometres ( 20 mi ) through East Devon to the English Channel at the western end of Lyme Bay . The Permian and Triassic sandstone aquifer in the Otter Valley is one of Devon 's largest groundwater sources , supplying drinking water to Taunton . The other rivers are the River Yarty and the Corry Brook .
Villages in the northern , Somerset part of the hills include Staple Fitzpaine , Buckland St Mary , Whitestaunton , Wambrook and Churchstanton . The larger , more southerly area in Devon includes Dunkeswell , Upottery , Smeatharpe , Hemyock , Blackborough , Yarcombe , Membury , Stockland , Sheldon and Cotleigh .
= = Geology = =
The geology of the Blackdown Hills together with the adjoining East Devon AONB is unique in south @-@ west England , forming part of the only extensive outcrop of Upper Greensand in the region .
The Blackdown Hills form a flat plateau dominated by hard chert bands , made up of clay with flints , of Upper Greensand with some remnants of chalk . The cretaceous rocks rest over eroded Jurassic and Triassic beds , with an outcrop of Rhaetian beds . In the western areas the Upper Greensand is devoid of calcareous material but the sands yield fossils of marine bivalves and gastropods ( snails ) preserved in silica .
= = Climate = =
Along with the rest of south @-@ west England , the Blackdown Hills have a temperate climate that is generally wetter and milder than the rest of England . The mean temperature is approximately 10 ° C ( 50 ° F ) and shows a seasonal and a diurnal variation , but because of the modifying effect of the sea the range is less than in most other parts of the United Kingdom ( UK ) . January is the coldest month with mean minimum temperatures between 1 ° C ( 34 ° F ) and 2 ° C ( 36 ° F ) . July and August are the warmest months , with mean daily maxima around 21 ° C ( 70 ° F ) . December is normally the most cloudy month and June the sunniest . High pressure over the Azores often brings clear skies to south @-@ west England , particularly in summer .
Cloud often forms inland , especially near hills . The average annual sunshine totals around 1 @,@ 600 hours . Rainfall tends to be associated with Atlantic depressions or with convection . In summer , convection caused by solar surface heating sometimes forms shower clouds , and a large proportion of rain falls from showers and thunderstorms at this time of year . Average rainfall is around 35 – 60 inch ( 900 – 1500 mm ) . About 10 @-@ 20 days of snowfall is typical . From November to March , mean wind speeds are highest ; winds are lightest from June to August . The predominant wind direction is from the south @-@ west .
= = Ecology = =
There are 16 Sites of Special Scientific Interest ( SSSIs ) in the Blackdown Hills ranging from the 156 @-@ hectare ( 390 @-@ acre ) Black Down and Sampford Commons to Reed Farm pit at just less than 1 @-@ hectare ( 2 @.@ 5 @-@ acre ) . In total they cover 640 hectares ( 1 @,@ 600 acres ) , or just under 2 % of the AONB . Of these SSSIs 79 % are deemed by English Nature to be being positively managed . SSSI is a conservation designation denoting a protected area in the United Kingdom , selected by Natural England , for areas with particular landscape and ecological characteristics . It provides some protection from development , from other damage , and ( since 2000 ) from neglect , under the Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000 .
The grasslands , heathland , meadows and mire support extensive populations of birds such as barn owls ( Tyto alba ) and nightjar , with butterflies including marbled white ( Melanargia galathea ) , green hairstreak ( Callophrys rubi ) and the gatekeeper butterfly ( Pyronia tithonus ) . The flora includes the heath spotted @-@ orchid ( Dactylorhiza maculata ) , corky fruited water dropwort ( pimpinelloides ) , green @-@ winged orchid ( Anacamptis morio ) , heather ( Calluna vulgaris ) , lousewort ( Pedicularis ) and birds foot trefoil ( Lotus corniculatus ) . The hedgerows and woodlands are made up of ash , hazel ( Corylus ) , grey willow ( Salix cinerea ) and pedunculate oak ( Quercus robur ) which support populations of dormouse ( Gliridae ) , common lizards , siskin , stinking iris ( Iris foetidissima ) and the purple hairstreak butterfly ( Neozephyrus quercus ) . The rivers and streams are home to kingfisher , otter and the Daubenton 's bat .
Blackdown and Sampford Commons have extensive surviving examples of the heathland , carr woodland and marshy grassland habitats that have developed on the acidic soils overlying the Greensand and Keuper Marls of the Blackdown Hills . The heathland supports a typical invertebrate fauna , including a wide variety of butterfly species , and with spiders notably abundant . The site is regionally important for birds which favour heathland habitats .
Quants , a grassland clearing in a forestry plantation well known for its butterflies including Duke of Burgundy , marsh fritillary and wood white , is a candidate for Special Area of Conservation ( cSAC ) . These are designated under the European Commission Habitats Directive ( 92 / 43 / EEC ) as internationally important habitats .
= = History = =
Palaeoenvironmental studies have shown that organic material began to accumulate on the Blackdown Hills in the Mesolithic and Neolithic periods with areas of open meadow , grass land with small woodland components being identified . There are several Bronze Age burial sites including Robin Hood 's Butts near Otterford .
Notable archaeological sites include the Iron Age hill forts at Membury Castle , Hembury and Castle Neroche . Hembury is a Neolithic causewayed enclosure near Honiton . It dates to the late fifth and early fourth millennia BC and is believed to have been the capital of the Dumnonii tribe . The fort is situated on a promontory to the north of and overlooking the River Dart at approx 178 m ( 584 ft ) above sea level . It has given its name to some of the earliest Neolithic pottery in southern Britain . An Iron Age hill fort was later built on the same site . There has been archaeological evidence found on the site of Roman Military occupation , suggesting a Fort within the existing Iron Age site . It is now a Scheduled Ancient Monument .
Fourteen hill slope enclosures , dating from the Iron Age have been identified on the Blackdown Hills , and prehistoric remains , from about 100 BC , have been found in Hemyock .
Castle Neroche is a Norman motte @-@ and @-@ bailey castle on the site of an earlier hill fort near Staple Fitzpaine . The hill rises to 260 metres ( 853 ft ) on the northern escarpment of the Blackdown Hills . The castle was probably built by Robert of Mortain in the 11th century and probably went out of use in the 12th century . Around the crossroads at Staple Fitzpaine there are several large sandstone boulders . They are called devilstones and are said to have been thrown by the Devil from Castle Neroche . According to legend if you prick them with a pin they draw blood . English word ' Stapol ' means pillar or post and it is thought likely that this gave the village the first part of its name . The second part of the name comes from the Fitzpaine family who owned the manor between 1233 and 1393 .
A Roman bath house and Edwardian folly in the village of Whitestaunton were excavated by the archaeological television programme Time Team . There is also evidence of iron workings in the Romano @-@ British period , at Dunkeswell , which radiocarbon dating has placed in the 2nd century . It has been suggested that these and other iron @-@ based technologies gave the hills a fairly industrial landscape during the Romano @-@ British period , providing a source of the name Blackdown Hills . Local iron ores were smelted at Hemyock in small bloomeries ( furnaces ) to produce pure iron until the Middle Ages .
At Simonsburrow a battle between the native Britons and King Ine 's Saxon army , put an end ( temporarily ) to the Kings expansion to the west . In 710 , Ine and Nothhelm fought against Geraint of Dumnonia , according to the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle ; John of Worcester states that Geraint was killed in this battle . Ine 's advance brought him control of what is now Devon , the new border with Dumnonia being the river Tamar .
Just to the north of Culmstock , at Culmstock Beacon , is one of a chain of Elizabethan beacons built to warn of possible invasion by the Spanish Armada . On 5 November 1380 , King Richard II granted Sir William and Lady Margaret Asthorpe a licence to crenellate the Hemyock manor house , meaning the permission to fortify it . Over the centuries , Hemyock Castle had many notable owners including Lord Chief Justice Sir John Popham . During the English Civil War it was held for Parliament , subjected to a brief but brutal siege and eventually slighted to destroy its military value . Parts of the castle walls , towers and moat still remain . They are a scheduled ancient monument and include displays of history and archaeology . The castle was also owned by General Sir John Graves Simcoe the first lieutenant @-@ governor of Upper Canada in 1792 . He is buried at Wolford Chapel near Dunkeswell . The chapel is now owned by the Province of Ontario .
Early attempts were made by Charles I to enclose parts of the Blackdowns in the 1630s however this was opposed by the local lord and the commoners . He managed to enclose 1 @.@ 634 acres ( 6 @,@ 610 m2 ) and soon sold these , but many of the hedges and fences were removed during the English Civil War . This was followed by further attempts at enclosure in 1658 but again only about a third was successfully enclosed , which remained the situation until 1833 when the rest of the hills were enclosed .
Coldharbour Mill was built around 1800 to exploit the available water power of the River Culm and was used for wool and yarn production until its commercial closure in 1981 . It is now managed by an educational trust and plays a role in telling the industrial history of the area .
The Wellington Monument is located on Wellington Hill at grid reference ST137171 , 3 km ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) south of Wellington , Somerset . It was erected to celebrate the Duke of Wellington 's victory at the Battle of Waterloo . The foundation stone was laid in 1817 , on land belonging to the Duke , but the monument was not completed until 1854 . Its design was inspired by an Egyptian obelisk , but in the shape of the type of bayonet used by Wellington 's armies . It is now owned by the National Trust , and is floodlit at night .
The artist Robert Polhill Bevan worked in the Blackdown Hills from 1912 – 1925 as a guest of landowner and amateur artist Harold Harrison . Until the end of his life Bevan continued to paint in the Bolham valley and nearby Luppitt his angular style sitting well with the strong patterning of the landscape . Many of the images that he produced in the area are now in national museums .
In the Second World War , airbases were built at Dunkeswell , Upottery and Culmhead . Dunkeswell Aerodrome ( IATA : N / A , ICAO : EGTU ) was built in the Second World War by the RAF , briefly used by the USAF , and then the Fleet Airwing 7 of the USN . It was the only American Navy air base commissioned on UK soil during the Second World War .
According to local legend , the Holman Clavel Inn is the home of a hearth spirit called Chimbley Charlie .
= = Government and politics = =
The Blackdown Hills have , since 1991 , been designated as an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty ( AONB ) . As they have the same landscape quality , AONBs may be compared to the national parks of England and Wales . AONBs are created under the same legislation as the national parks : the National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949 . However , National Parks , unlike AONBs , have their own authorities and have special legal powers to prevent unsympathetic development . By contrast , there are very limited statutory duties imposed on local authorities within an AONB . Further regulation and protection of AONBs was added by the Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000 .
The total population of the Blackdown Hills AONB in 2001 was 13 @,@ 300 ; of which 10 @,@ 500 live in Devon and 2 @,@ 800 within Somerset . Many of the villages have their own parish councils which have some responsibility for local issues . The Blackdown Hills AONB is managed by a partnership of public bodies , local organisations and voluntary groups with an active interest in the hills . Funding is provided by Devon and Somerset County Councils , East Devon , Mid Devon , South Somerset and Taunton Deane Councils and Natural England .
The AONB straddles the borders of three parliamentary constituencies : Tiverton and Honiton , Taunton Deane and Yeovil . The area is also part of the European Parliament 's South West England constituency .
= = Religious sites = =
Dunkeswell Abbey , a Cistercian monastery and offshoot of Forde Abbey , was founded in 1201 by William Briwere . The abbey was closed in 1539 and granted to Lord Russell . It was mostly demolished promptly , though a section remained in domestic use until the 19th century . In 1842 , a parish church was built on a part of the site . Some surviving fragments of monastery include the partial end wall of the cellerars range and parts of a gatehouse . Some carved fragments survive within the Victorian era church .
The Church of St Peter in Staple Fitzpaine was originally built in the Norman style , and has a Norman doorway reset in the south aisle . The chancel dates from the 14th century ; the north aisle was added and the church refenestrated in the 15th century . The tower dates from about 1500 . The south porch and the vestry are much more recent , dating from 1841 . The crenellated 3 @-@ stage tower , has merlons pierced with trefoil headed arches set on a quatrefoil pierced parapet . The church has been designated by English Heritage as a grade I listed building .
= = Transport = =
The Blackdown Hills are crossed by a network of minor roads . There are several major roads including the A30 , A303 and A35 . The M5 motorway is at the northwestern boundary of the AONB . The Bristol to Exeter line and the remains of the Grand Western Canal run , quite close in places , to the west of the M5 motorway but do not pass through the Blackdown Hills .
The Culm Valley Light Railway opened in 1876 , having been built by local enterprise . The line was purchased by the Great Western Railway , which had operated it from the start , in 1880 . The line closed to passengers in 1963 but served the milk depot at Hemyock until its closure in 1975 .
Dunkeswell Aerodrome ( IATA : N / A , ICAO : EGTU ) is now a busy civilian airfield with a mix of light aircraft , microlights and parachuting .
= = Economy = =
The Blackdown Hills AONB is unique in that there are no towns or cities within its boundary . Employment opportunities are concentrated in the surrounding towns and in a number of small @-@ scale industrial parks — notably around Dunkeswell airfield . A resurgence of interest in local and sustainable food production has led to significant growth in the number and variety of small @-@ scale food and drink businesses in the area in recent years . Tourism is also a significant contributor to the local economy with visitors attracted by activities such as walking and riding .
The Blackdown Hills Business Association was established as a member organisation in 2002 to encourage and support all businesses that are based in or serve the Blackdown Hills . Membership stands at around 400 businesses .
= On My Way ( Glee ) =
" On My Way " is the fourteenth episode and winter finale of the third season of the American musical television series Glee , and the fifty @-@ eighth overall . Written by Roberto Aguirre @-@ Sacasa and directed by Bradley Buecker , the episode aired on Fox in the United States on February 21 , 2012 . It features New Directions competing against the Dalton Academy Warblers at the Regionals show choir competition , Rachel ( Lea Michele ) and Finn ( Cory Monteith ) moving up their wedding , the return of special guest stars Jeff Goldblum and Brian Stokes Mitchell as Rachel 's fathers , and the attempted suicide of Dave Karofsky ( Max Adler ) .
The episode received a strong and varied reaction from reviewers . Most heaped praise on the scenes featuring Karofsky , both the events leading up to his suicide attempt and when Kurt ( Chris Colfer ) visited him in the hospital . However , many felt the strength of this storyline unbalanced the episode , and the rest of the episode , particularly the Regionals competition and the Rachel and Finn wedding storyline , did not measure up . The final scene , which ended with Quinn ( Dianna Agron ) being in a potentially fatal car crash , was controversial .
The only song that was given a strongly enthusiastic reception was " Cough Syrup " , which was sung by Blaine ( Darren Criss ) and used to soundtrack the Karofsky suicide sequence . The other songs , all performances for the Regionals competition , received a mixture of reviews . Five of the six singles released from this episode charted on both the Billboard Hot 100 and the Billboard Canadian Hot 100 ; the mash @-@ up of " Fly " and " I Believe I Can Fly " performed by New Directions charted the highest in the US , while " What Doesn 't Kill You ( Stronger ) " performed by the Troubletones as part of the New Directions set charted the best of the five in Canada .
Upon its initial airing , this episode was viewed by 7 @.@ 46 million American viewers and received a 3 @.@ 0 / 8 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic . The total viewership was up from " Heart " , which aired the previous week .
= = Plot = =
With the Regionals Competition imminent , Dalton Academy Warblers captain Sebastian Smythe ( Grant Gustin ) threatens to post a sexually explicit photoshopped picture of Finn Hudson ( Cory Monteith ) on the Internet unless New Directions co @-@ captain Rachel Berry ( Lea Michele ) withdraws from the competition . Rachel , who believes that her performance is crucial to her admission to NYADA , refuses to do so , which angers Finn .
Dave Karofsky ( Max Adler ) is outed at his school and subsequently bullied by his teammates in the locker room . He is also mercilessly attacked online . Karofsky , devastated , attempts suicide by hanging , but is saved in time by his father . The news causes shock at his old school , McKinley High : Members of the staff believe they could have done more to help him when he had been a student there , while Kurt blames himself for ignoring Karofsky 's repeated phone calls that week . It also shocks Sebastian , who had cruelly rebuffed Karofsky at a gay bar , and he destroys the photos of Finn , thus abandoning his attempt at blackmail . New Directions coach Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) has all of the members reveal something they are looking forward to in the future , to remind them that no matter how low they think their lives have sunk , they should not forget what is ahead of them . Rachel and Finn apologize to each other , and decide to get married the day after Regionals .
Regionals opens with the Warblers performing two songs , " Stand " and " Glad You Came " , and the second group , the Golden Goblets , are strong performers as well . In the choir room , before New Directions goes on , Finn announces that he and Rachel are getting married afterward , and tells the group to live each day as if it is their last . New Directions opens their set with a mash @-@ up of " Fly " and " I Believe I Can Fly " , which is followed by a Troubletones performance of " What Doesn 't Kill You ( Stronger ) " . Rachel ends the set by performing " Here 's to Us " , and New Directions wins the competition , with the Warblers finishing second .
Quinn Fabray ( Dianna Agron ) asks cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) to allow her to rejoin the Cheerios , but Sue refuses , although she confides in Quinn that she is pregnant . However , following Regionals , she changes her mind , and gives Quinn a cheerleading uniform . Quinn also changes her mind about Finn and Rachel 's marriage and tells Rachel that she now supports it , and hopes it isn 't too late to be a bridesmaid .
Hiram Berry ( Jeff Goldblum ) and Burt Hummel ( Mike O 'Malley ) attempt to devise a last @-@ minute scheme to derail the wedding . Rachel is reluctant to start without Quinn , who has driven home to pick up her bridesmaid 's dress , and texts Quinn to find out where she is . Quinn is responding to Rachel 's text when a truck crashes into the driver 's side of her car .
= = Production = =
" On My Way " is the second episode to be written by co @-@ producer Roberto Aguirre @-@ Sacasa , whose first episode was this season 's " The First Time " ; the episode was directed by co @-@ executive produce Bradley Buecker . The cast began work on the episode on January 30 , 2012 ; the final two numbers for the previous episode , " Heart " , were filmed on the following day , January 31 , 2012 . The Regionals competition scenes concluded the filming for the episode , and were shot on the two days ending February 8 , 2012 .
Special guest stars Jeff Goldblum and Brian Stokes Mitchell return as Rachel 's fathers Hiram and LeRoy Berry . Other recurring guest stars include glee club members Sam Evans ( Chord Overstreet ) , Rory Flanagan ( Damian McGinty ) and Sugar Motta ( Vanessa Lengies ) , Dalton Academy Warbler Sebastian Smythe ( Grant Gustin ) , Kurt and Finn 's parents Burt Hummel ( Mike O 'Malley ) and Carole Hudson @-@ Hummel ( Romy Rosemont ) , former McKinley student Dave Karofsky ( Max Adler ) and his father Paul ( Daniel Roebuck ) , Principal Figgins ( Iqbal Theba ) , football coach Shannon Beiste ( Dot @-@ Marie Jones ) , and new McKinley transfer student Joe Hart ( Samuel Larsen ) . Glee co @-@ creator Ian Brennan appeared in the episode as a Regionals competition judge named Svengoobles , a parody of the character Svengoolie . NeNe Leakes , who plays coach Roz Washington , was announced by a Fox press release as guest starring in the episode , and Leakes and Chris Colfer both tweeted a picture of the two of them together from the set during the filming of the Regionals competition , but the scenes shot with Leakes did not appear in the episode as broadcast , nor was she credited . A scene between Rachel and Quinn , which was shown during a promo for the episode , also did not appear , having been cut " for time " , but it was released as a YouTube video on August 2 , 2012 , by executive producer Ryan Murphy .
The episode features performances of cover versions of eight songs , and seven of them are being released as six singles , available for downloading , with the two @-@ song mash @-@ up released as one single . The songs on the singles include " Cough Syrup " by Young the Giant , performed by Darren Criss ; " Glad You Came " by The Wanted and " Stand " by Lenny Kravitz , performed by the Dalton Academy Warblers ; Kelly Clarkson 's " What Doesn 't Kill You ( Stronger ) " performed by the Troubletones , a mash @-@ up of " Fly " by Nicki Minaj featuring Rihanna with R. Kelly 's " I Believe I Can Fly " performed by New Directions ; and " Here 's to Us " by Halestorm , performed by Michele and New Directions . The eighth song is performed by a glee club from the school Our Lady of Perpetual Sorrow : Eric Barnum 's setting of Lord Byron 's poem " She Walks in Beauty " . The vocal rendition comes from a 2008 recording by University of Redlands ' Madrigal Singers . The soundtrack uses the original " Chapel of Love " by The Dixie Cups during the episode 's final sequence ; the song was briefly covered by Hiram and LeRoy Berry in the previous episode , " Heart " .
The teen suicide storyline , and the public service announcement broadcast during the episode for The Trevor Project , an organization that works to prevent LGBT suicide , resulted in a record number of calls to the project 's hotline and record traffic for its website . According to Trevor Project cofounder Peggy Rajski , because the show " worked in conjunction " with them , they were prepared in advance to handle the greater hotline traffic , which was " triple the [ usual ] number of calls " ; they also saw a nearly sevenfold increase to 10 @,@ 000 website visitors on the evening the program aired .
The " idea for a character to get into a texting @-@ while @-@ driving accident " has been under consideration since April 2010 , and was inspired by the appearance of the show 's cast early that month on The Oprah Winfrey Show . At the time , the cast members signed contracts at Winfrey 's behest , pledging not to text while they were driving .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" On My Way " was first broadcast on February 21 , 2012 in the United States on Fox . It received a 3 @.@ 0 / 8 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic , and attracted 7 @.@ 46 million American viewers during its initial airing , an increase over the 2 @.@ 8 / 8 rating / share and 6 @.@ 99 million viewers of the previous episode , which was broadcast on February 14 , 2012 . Viewership increased slightly in Canada , where 1 @.@ 74 million viewers watched the episode on the same day as its American premiere . It was the fifteenth most @-@ viewed show of the week , down two slots but up about 1 % from the 1 @.@ 72 million viewers who watched " Heart " the previous week .
In the United Kingdom , " On My Way " first aired on March 29 , 2012 , and was watched on Sky 1 by 763 @,@ 000 viewers . Viewership was down over 3 % from " Heart " , which attracted 792 @,@ 000 viewers when it aired the week before . In Australia , " On My Way " was broadcast on March 23 , 2012 . It was watched by 558 @,@ 000 viewers , which made Glee the fifteenth most @-@ watched program of the night , down from fourteenth two weeks before , when the previous episode , " Heart " , aired . Actual viewership declined less than 1 % from the 563 @,@ 000 viewers on March 9 , 2012 .
= = = Critical reception = = =
There was a strong and varied reaction to the episode by reviewers . Erica Futterman of Rolling Stone described it as " an emotional rollercoaster that at times may have been jarring or heavy @-@ handed , but overall did what a winter finale should : gave us plenty of surprises , while setting things up for the future " . IGN 's Robert Canning was " won over by a powerfully acted and directed story " and gave the episode a " great " rating of 8 @.@ 0 out of 10 ; he noted that " as is often the case , the smaller stories involving Karofsky and Quinn were more successful than larger arcs like Rachel and Finn 's " . Bobby Hankinson of the Houston Chronicle said that rather than " a million different storylines " there were a few " really good ones " and added , " It was chaos , but controlled chaos . " The A.V. Club 's Todd VanDerWerff wrote , " The sequence in which Karofsky prepared himself for death was , unquestionably , one of the best things Glee has ever done . " He added that it was " all the more a shame " that it occurred in an episode that did not know how to make effective use of " the impact of that moment " , and he gave the episode as a whole a " D " grade . In a similar vein , James Poniewozik of Time said , " the beginning of the episode was a very effective 15 minutes or so of television " , but said that was also the episode 's problem . Michael Slezak of TVLine noted that the show 's " audacity " allowed it " to tackle some of the most important issues of the day with a headiness and honesty that aren ’ t merely refreshing , but absolutely necessary " , and added , " If I ’ ve got any complaint with the episode , it would have to be that for a show that ’ s billed as a musical comedy , there certainly weren ’ t many laughs , and the musical interludes seemed like something of an afterthought " . In a similar vein , Billboard 's Rae Votta wrote , " Any thoughts that Glee is , in fact , a comedy should be soundly crushed by now . It 's a fantastical reality , and sometimes you laugh at that , but other times you cry . "
The sequence where Karofsky attempts suicide was greatly praised on many levels ; Slezak called it " as devastating as anything I ’ ve seen on TV this year " . Canning wrote that " the initial locker room scene was heartbreaking " and " Max Adler 's subtle facial expressions were brilliant " . Crystal Bell of HuffPost TV applauded Adler " for doing such an amazing job " on the suicide scene . She stated , " I would have preferred if Karofsky 's story line would have been the focus of the entire episode . " BuddyTV 's John Kubicek was critical of the entire storyline , and wrote that teen suicide was " one of those incredibly sensitive issues " that " shouldn 't be taken on so directly by a light , silly musical comedy like Glee " . VanDerWerff commented that " as the show got the little details of Karofsky 's desperate act just right , the whole thing took on a weight " , and singled out the scene " where the teachers talked about what had happened and the smash cut to Karofsky 's father screaming at him to get up " as " heart @-@ wrenching " ; he added , " This was the Glee I had first loved , the Glee that could blend music and romance and comedy and highly volatile drama into one cocktail " , though he also said that the episode had failed to " pay off those emotions " . Bell declared that " best scene in the entire episode is when Kurt visits Karofsky in the hospital " . Joseph Brannigan Lynch of Entertainment Weekly called it " one of the most touching scenes of this season " and " guileless , well @-@ acted and eye @-@ watering " . Votta wrote , " As always , Kurt and Karofsky 's scenes shine as the strongest in whichever episode they 're featured . "
MTV 's Kevin P. Sullivan wrote that the episode " jammed in Regionals , something that used to matter " , and did so without any " meaningful buildup to the competition " . Poniewozik described the competition showdown as " unconnected with the episode we began watching " , and Canning said that " Regionals just got in the way " and the performances " did a disservice to what was going on with Karofsky " . Votta characterized the McKinley victory as " so secondary to the point of this episode that it feels completely anticlimactic " , and VanDerWerff summarized , " When New Directions hoists that trophy aloft at the end , it ’ s about the least compelling victory for the group yet . "
VanDerWerff said that Morrison had " a nice moment when he underplays the scene where he talks about how Will once contemplated suicide after getting caught cheating on a test " , though while Lynch thought the " idea of the scene was nice " , it was " more awkward than meaningful " . Slezak called it " the worst moment of the episode " , and criticized the " utter lack of context " regarding what else Will might have been going through . Kubicek described it as an " embarrassingly uncomfortable speech " , and Will 's implicit comparison of cheating on a test to the stresses of teenage homosexuality was " just wrong " . VanDerWerff thought that the next part of the sequence had " a smallness , a realness to the scene that 's kind of beautiful , really " , and that it feels " like they 're actual high school kids " ; Votta commented that " as the kids admit all the things they are looking forward to " , it reminds viewers why they are " rooting for this ragtag bunch " .
The wedding of Rachel and Finn did not excite interest among reviewers . Votta said the plot " continues to feel exhausting " and was " small in comparison to the other threads going on " , and Raymund Flandez of The Wall Street Journal called it the " most preposterous of all " the storylines . VanDerWerff wrote , " I can buy that Finn and Rachel would be that stupid as to think getting married would perk everybody right on up " , as could Votta , who likened it to " people needing to find [ something ] positive to focus " on , " even if that supposedly positive thing is its own train wreck " . The Washington Post 's Jen Chaney wondered why the showed " squander [ ed ] the presence of Jeff Goldblum and Brian Stokes Mitchell for the second week in a row " .
Bell lauded the " brilliant conversation between Quinn and Sue toward the end where Sue told Quinn that she admired her " . Lynch though that Kurt was " out of line " when he " declared Quinn didn 't know what it was like to truly suffer " . He noted that she was " kicked out of her house and disowned by her father while pregnant " and added , " she 's suffered plenty for a teenager " . He said about the episode 's final scene , which ended as the car Quinn was driving was about to be hit by a rapidly moving truck , " you can 't help but feel sucker @-@ punched when something like this happens " . Flandez called it a " cowardly ending " , but Canning praised the " good cliffhanger " , and the " subtle enough " storytelling that did not " telegraph anything " before the closing sequence .
A number of reviewers praised Sebastian 's villainous ways despite his decision to abandon his blackmail attempt . Futterman noted that people had just gotten " used to the idea of a well @-@ played villain on the show " , while Amy Reiter of The Los Angeles Times expressed doubt about a complete conversion : " We 'll see how long that lasts . " Slezak called him a " gem when it comes to delivering spicy one @-@ liners " , though he was less enthusiastic about the character 's vocal solos , as was Canning , who nevertheless hailed Sebastian as a " fine nemesis " .
Absent more screen time for the Karofsky storyline , Bell said that the episode " felt more like a PSA " as it " plugged everything from The Trevor Project to Lady Gaga 's Born This Way Foundation " . Flandez stated that " this incredibly monumentous message of hope became sullied with unexpected product placements : Edible Arrangements , Peanut Butter & Co . , even Sex and the City 3 . " Sullivan was unsure whether the God Squad 's plan to bring " an Edible Arrangement to Karofsky " was a " poorly timed joke or product placement " , but deemed it " regrettable either way " .
= = = Music and performances = = =
The musical performances were given a mixed response by reviewers . Canning wrote that " the performances of the episode didn 't measure up " to the non @-@ musical material , and " were bland and flat " , while Chaney characterized them as " often lackluster " and added that they were part of " the most boring regionals competition ever " . Hankinson , however , called it a " night of very solid performances " . Chaney said that Criss " did a fine job " with the first number , " Cough Syrup " , which was sung during the Karofsky suicide sequence , and gave it a " B " . Futterman said Blaine " flawlessly deliver [ ed ] the vocal " . Lynch called it a " chilling rendition " that was " hard to shake " and gave it an " A − " , the same grade given by Slezak , who wrote , " taken on its own , Blaine 's vocal was strong and passionate — perhaps better than the original " . Hankinson said it was the " best " of the episode , and added that the " scene was really , really well done and carried maximum emotional punch " .
The Regionals songs by the Warblers were given a lukewarm reception . " Stand " was characterized by Lynch as " bouncy fun , but in a bland , forgettable sense " , and " Glad You Came " as " rather unmemorable " ; both songs received a " B − " grade . Slezak gave the two songs a " C + " , and called Sebastian 's lead vocals " as bland as a bowl of plain lasagna noodles " , and Canning described his as " a weak voice that doesn 't deliver a very convincing performance " . Votta described " Stand " as " lackluster and mild " , but called " Glad You Came " the " strongest Warbler number since Blaine 's defection " . She added , " It 's catchy and well @-@ choreographed , and if Sebastian 's addition to the Warblers spurred them to finally take their in @-@ Dalton dance @-@ heavy and exuberant performance style to competition , then it 's a welcome one . " Hankinson noted that the Warblers " performed two wonderful songs " that were new to him . Flandez and Chaney , among others , wished it were Blaine leading the Warblers , not Sebastian .
Chaney wrote that the mash @-@ up of " Fly " and " I Believe I Can Fly " was " an unexpectedly lovely mix " and gave it a " B + " . Futterman said it " seamlessly " wove the two " into an uplifting and thematically appropriate mash @-@ up " , and credited Santana and Blaine with " an impressive job on Minaj 's rap verses , while Rachel , Artie and Mercedes split tastefully understated solos " . Slezak credited " solid vocals from Artie , Finn , Rachel , and Mercedes , and some not terrible rapping from Blaine and Santana " , but he thought the number " lacked the epic scope you want from a Regionals showdown " and disliked the song " I Believe I Can Fly " ; his grade was a " B − " . Votta characterized the mashup as " just off " and " better visually than it is just to listen to the track " . Lynch said Santana had " attitude to spare " in her rap and New Directions " harmonized wonderfully on this very re @-@ listenable mash @-@ up " , and gave it a " B + " grade .
Slezak said that the vocals on " What Doesn 't Kill You ( Stronger ) " were " fantastic " and graded the song an " A − " . Flandez called the Troubletones " fine , fierce and fabulous " , though Chaney wrote that the rendition was " a fairly routine take " . Chaney and Slezak both wondered about the extra girls in the number , but Lynch simply said , " Nice to get a little Troubletones action separate from ( but still part of ) the New Directions " . Lynch 's grade was a " B " , in part because Mercedes 's voice " seemed strangely buried " .
Reviewers of " Here 's to Us " differed on what they felt worked and didn 't . Lynch said the song " seemed the wrong fit " for Rachel — " not horrible , but a misfire " — and gave it a " B − " . Chaney was more critical of the song itself when she gave her " C + " grade and described it as " so bland " that it " had little emotional impact " despite Michele 's " determined ferocity " . Votta called the number " pretty " but said the placement of the boys in the balconies was " cute but not really compelling as a staged performance " . Slezak stated that it was " hard to find any fault with Lea Michele 's vocal performances " and gave it a " B + " , and Futterman wrote , " It 's bouyant [ sic ] and celebratory , and Rachel kills it . "
= = = Chart history = = =
Of the six singles released for the episode , five debuted on US and Canadian top 100 charts . The mash @-@ up of " Fly " and " I Believe I Can Fly " was the highest debut in the US at number fifty @-@ six on the Billboard Hot 100 , followed by " Cough Syrup " at number sixty @-@ five , " What Doesn 't Kill You ( Stronger ) " at number sixty @-@ six , " Here 's to Us " at number seventy @-@ three and " Glad You Came " at number ninety . The chart order was different on the Billboard Canadian Hot 100 , where " ( What Doesn 't Kill You ) Stronger " had the highest debut at number fifty @-@ one , " Fly / I Believe I Can Fly " debuted at number fifty @-@ nine , " Here 's to Us " at number sixty @-@ four , " Cough Syrup " at number sixty @-@ seven and " Glad You Came " at number seventy @-@ four .
The singles also had an effect on the charting of the original versions of three of the songs . Kelly Clarkson 's " Stronger ( What Doesn 't Kill You ) " moved back into first place from fourth on the Billboard Hot 100 , and from fourth to third , equalling its previous best showing , on the Canadian Hot 100 . It was beaten there by The Wanted 's " Glad You Came " , which was that chart 's " greatest gainer " , and moved from number twenty @-@ six to number two , its highest position on the Canadian chart to date . " Glad You Came " also made a big jump in the US , and went from number eighteen to number five . " Cough Syrup " by Young the Giant debuted on both charts , at number ninety @-@ five in the US and number eighty @-@ two in Canada , and was the first time the group had been on the Billboard Hot 100 , though the song had previously " bubbled under " the chart at number 117 .
= She 's Done it Again =
She 's Done it Again is a 1910 American silent short comedy written by Lloyd Lonergan and produced by the Thanhouser Company in New Rochelle , New York . A thief named Sikes decides to rob a society woman who falsely claimed to have been robbed when she in fact pawned her jewelry . A gentleman thief strikes and robs her , but no one believes her . The thief is caught only by a clever detective . The film was the third release of the Thanhouser company and featured the leading players , Anna Rosemond and Frank H. Crane . The film was met with positive reviews , but is presumed to be lost .
= = Plot = =
The official synopsis of the film survives in The Moving Picture World . It states : " Sikes , a gentleman of the Raffles order , reads in the paper that Mrs. Eldridge , a young society woman , who alleged that she had been robbed of her jewels , confessed that she had in reality pawned them - admitting that the robbery was a prearranged affair in which she played the leading role and her maid the supporting one . Sikes decides to have it appear that the lady robbed herself a second time . Disguised as a clergyman , he obtains the jewels . Naturally , everybody believes Mrs. Eldridge [ is lying ] again [ ... ] ! And then - a clever detective turns up and shows [ that the ] public opinion [ is ] mistaken by fastening the offense on the real offender . " It is likely that Anna Rosemond played the role of Mrs. Eldridge and that Frank H. Crane played the role of Sikes .
= = Production = =
The scenario was written by Lloyd F. Lonergan . Lonergan was the writer of both of the previous productions , The Actor 's Children and St. Elmo . This release marked the first comedy release of a scenario written by Lonergan and also the first comedy produced by the Thanhouser company . Lonergan was an experienced newspaperman still employed by The New York Evening World while writing scripts for the Thanhouser productions . He was the most important script writer for Thanhouser , averaging 200 scripts a year from 1910 to 1915 . Film historian Q. David Bowers attributes the director of the production to Lloyd B. Carleton , the stage name of Carleton B. Little . He would direct a number of films for the Thanhouser Company before moving to the Biograph Company by the summer of 1910 . Bowers also credits Blair Smith as the cameraman .
The two known credits in the film are for the leading players Anna Rosemond and Frank H. Crane . Rosemond was one of two leading ladies for the first year of the company and joined in the autumn of 1909 , their first year of productions . Crane was involved in the very beginnings of the Thanhouser Company from 1909 . Crane was the first leading man of the company and acted in numerous productions before becoming a director at Thanhouser .
= = Release and reception = =
The film was released on March 29 , 1910 and was met with some positive reviews . The film was known to have an alternate or working title of The Liar and the Thief , which is credited by Bowers and appears in an index in the Moving Picture World . Another reference for the film instead shortens the name to Done it Again . Two reviews for the film would appear in Moving Picture World , with the first praising the release and using a testimonial by Ray Norton to support that it is a good comedy . The second review was more nuanced and descriptive by highlighting the original plot and stating , " The acting is sympathetic - one almost wants to say vigorous , and the photographer has performed his part satisfactorily . The combination of these elements has contributed to the success of the picture . "
The film had advertisements announcing its showing in Pennsylvania and Indiana . The film is presumed lost , but a surviving film still exists from a quarter @-@ page advertisement in Billboard .
= Operation Hardboiled =
Operation Hardboiled was a Second World War military deception . Undertaken by the Allies in 1942 , it was the first attempt at deception by the London Controlling Section ( LCS ) and was designed to convince the Axis powers that the Allies would soon invade German @-@ occupied Norway . The LCS had recently been established to plan deception across all theatres , but had struggled for support from the unenthusiastic military establishment . The LCS had little guidance in strategic deception , an activity pioneered by Dudley Clarke the previous year , and was unaware of the extensive double agent system controlled by MI5 . As a result , Hardboiled was planned as a real operation rather than a fictional one . Clarke had already found this approach to be wasteful in time and resources , preferring to present a " story " using agents and wireless traffic .
Resistance to the operation by the chosen units meant that much of the preparation was not completed . Adolf Hitler ordered the reinforcement of Scandinavia in March and April 1942 , before Hardboiled was shelved in May . It is unclear to what extent the operation contributed to his decision . Despite its limited impact , the operation gave the LCS experience in planning deceptions , and laid the groundwork for future exploitation of Hitler 's belief that Northern Europe was strategically important .
= = Background = =
Strategic deception was a new topic for the Allies , having been pioneered in 1941 in Cairo by Dudley Clarke and his Advanced Headquarters ' A ' Force . Following a presentation in September by Clarke , the Joint Planning Staff of the British War Ministry decided that a special organisation should be set up to plan and execute deception operations . They recommended that a " controlling section " be set up to oversee strategic deception planning , which would then be put into practice at the operational level by the armed services . The idea was approved and Clarke was offered the role . After he declined , the Chiefs of Staff chose Colonel Oliver Stanley , the former Secretary of State for War , as the new Controlling Officer .
Stanley had great difficulty in convincing the Allied military establishment , which was sceptical of strategic deception and resistant to the idea of a central planning authority , to take part in an operation . Despite obtaining a few staff officers , the London Controlling Section ( LCS ) was , in the words of one member , in a state of " near impotence " . In December 1941 Stanley received permission to plan the LCS 's first operation , following several months of pressure on the Allied command .
= = Planning = =
Hardboiled had no specific goal for the Allies , other than to convince the Germans of an imminent invasion threat against Norway . Clarke had already established that deception operations should have a clear idea of what the enemy was supposed to do ( rather than what they were expected to think ) . Stanley was unaware of this , not being in communication with Clarke 's department in Cairo . As a result , the objective for Hardboiled was chosen because the resources existed and it would not affect real future operations ( planners had already rejected Norway as a viable target ) , rather than for any strategic advantage it brought the Allies . Stanley was also unaware of the extensive double agent network under the control of the Twenty Committee , having merely been told that MI5 had an avenue through which to pass information to the enemy .
Stanley at first proposed that the notional target should be Narvik or Trondheim . Allied commanders decided these were implausible targets because of their northern location and an amphibious landing at Stavanger was chosen , based on planning for Operation Dynamite ( a previously considered , and rejected , invasion of the country ) . The date of the fictional invasion was set for 1 May 1942 . Hardboiled was planned as a real operation , involving actual training and troop movements , culminating in the embarkation of a fake invasion . The plan relied on German intelligence , rumour and leaks to convey the deception to the enemy . Clarke and ' A ' Force had already discovered in previous operations that realistic training was wasteful , having found that much of the effort could be falsified using agents and wireless traffic . The LCS lacked guidance from Cairo and so made many of the same mistakes .
The LCS also lacked knowledge of MI5 's Double @-@ Cross System and its double agents . The department were unaware that no uncontrolled German operatives were active in the UK , and so incorrectly believed any deception would have to be highly realistic to appear genuine .
Before the operation could go into action , Stanley had one final objection ; he found the codename Hardboiled " silly " . LCS member Dennis Wheatley had picked it from a book of codewords , and explained to Stanley ( who was unaware ) that the name had been randomly selected so as to bear no relation to the operation 's aims .
= = Operation = =
The Royal Marines Division were earmarked for Hardboiled , trained in mountain warfare , and given cold weather equipment . Realistic invasion plans were drawn up and Norwegian currency was stockpiled . These preparations met with considerable resistance from the armed forces , who considered the operation to be a waste of effort . The need for soldiers in real operations and training meant that , in the end , a lot of the preparation never occurred .
The LCS attempted passive deception as part of Hardboiled . Agents canvassed Norwegian refugees for information about Stavanger and for possible interpreters . The hope was that rumours would reach neutral countries and filter back to the German intelligence network . Some deception was also passed on via agents .
= = Impact = =
Hardboiled soon petered out as the Royal Marines were required for an amphibious operation in Madagascar in July 1942 . It had appeared effective , as during April and May the Germans had reinforced the region . Historian Joshua Levine notes that Hitler had a " near @-@ obsession with defence of Scandinavia " during this period and that it is unclear how much the operation had contributed to his strategy . Michael Howard , who wrote the official British history of strategic deception , attributes the lacklustre response to severe setbacks the Allies were then facing on every front , and writes that it is difficult to imagine the Germans believing that a major offensive operation was being planned .
The operation did not give the Allies any tactical or strategic advantage ; Howard notes that it provided experience for the planners in handling deception and for the Twenty Committee in proving the worth of double agents . Terry Crowdy , writing in 2008 , argued that any experience that the LCS attained was limited by the lack of guidance from Cairo and knowledge of double agents . Dudley Clarke had already shown that the most effective method of deception involved the use of agents and faked wireless traffic , rather than major training and troop movements . Hardboiled was the first deception plan aimed at Norway . It led into several others , including Operation Tindall and Operation Solo , culminating in the 1944 Operation Fortitude North , one of the Allies ' largest and most successful deceptions .
In May 1942 , John Bevan replaced Stanley as head of the LCS , after the latter had asked Winston Churchill for permission to re @-@ enter politics . At the same time , the committee was given much broader powers . Hardboiled was sidelined by the new regime , and had been dropped entirely from the LCS programme by the end of May .
= Exhumation and reburial of Richard III of England =
The exhumation and reburial of Richard III began with the discovery of the king 's remains within the site of the former Greyfriars Friary Church in Leicester , England , in September 2012 . Following extensive anthropological and genetic testing , the remains of Richard III , the last English king killed in battle , were ultimately reinterred at Leicester Cathedral on 26 March 2015 .
Richard III , the final ruler of the Plantagenet dynasty , was killed on 22 August 1485 in the Battle of Bosworth Field , the last significant battle of the Wars of the Roses . His body was taken to Greyfriars Friary in Leicester , where it was buried in a crude grave in the friary church . Following the friary 's dissolution in 1538 and subsequent demolition , Richard 's tomb was lost . An account arose that Richard 's bones had been thrown into the River Soar at the nearby Bow Bridge .
A search for Richard 's body began in August 2012 , initiated by the Looking for Richard project with the support of the Richard III Society . The archaeological excavation was led by the University of Leicester Archaeological Services , working in partnership with Leicester City Council . On the first day a human skeleton belonging to a man in his thirties was uncovered showing signs of severe injuries . The skeleton , which had several unusual physical features , most notably a severe curvature of the back was exhumed to allow scientific analysis . Examination showed that the man had probably been killed either by a blow from a large bladed weapon , probably a halberd , which cut off the back of his skull and exposed the brain , or by a sword thrust that penetrated all the way through the brain . Other wounds on the skeleton had probably occurred after death as " humiliation injuries " , inflicted as a form of posthumous revenge .
The age of the bones at death matched that of Richard when he was killed ; they were dated to about the period of his death and were mostly consistent with physical descriptions of the king . Preliminary DNA analysis showed that mitochondrial DNA extracted from the bones matched that of two matrilineal descendants , one 17th @-@ generation and the other 19th @-@ generation , of Richard 's sister Anne of York . Taking these findings into account along with other historical , scientific and archaeological evidence , the University of Leicester announced on 4 February 2013 that it had concluded beyond reasonable doubt that the skeleton was that of Richard III .
As a condition of being allowed to disinter the skeleton , the archaeologists agreed that , if Richard were found , his remains would be reburied in Leicester Cathedral . A controversy arose as to whether an alternative reburial site , York Minster or Westminster Abbey , would be more suitable . A legal challenge confirmed there were no public law grounds for the courts to be involved in that decision . Reinterment took place in Leicester on 26 March 2015 , during a televised memorial service held in the presence of the Archbishop of Canterbury and senior members of other Christian denominations .
= = Death and initial burial = =
Richard was killed fighting Henry Tudor at the Battle of Bosworth in 1485 , the last major battle of the Wars of the Roses . The Welsh poet Guto 'r Glyn credited Richard 's death to Sir Rhys ap Thomas , a Welsh member of Henry 's army who was said to have struck the fatal blow . Following his death , Richard 's body was stripped naked and taken to Leicester where it was put on public display . The anonymous Ballad of Bosworth Field says that " in Newarke laid was hee , that many a one might looke on him " — almost certainly a reference to the collegiate Church of the Annunciation of Our Lady of the Newarke , a Lancastrian foundation on the outskirts of medieval Leicester . According to the chronicler Polydore Vergil , Henry VII " tarried for two days " in Leicester before leaving for London , and on the same date as Henry 's departure — 25 August 1485 — Richard 's body was buried " at the convent of Franciscan monks [ sic ] in Leicester " with " no funeral solemnity " . The Warwickshire priest and antiquary John Rous , writing between 1486 and 1491 , recorded that Richard had been buried " in the choir of the Friars Minor at Leicester " . Although later writers ascribed Richard 's burial to other places , the accounts of Vergil and Rous were seen by modern investigators as the most credible .
= = = Burial site = = =
In 1495 , ten years after the burial , Henry VII paid for a marble and alabaster monument to mark Richard 's grave . Its cost is recorded in surviving legal papers relating to a dispute over payment showing that two men received payments of £ 50 and £ 10.1s respectively to make and transport the tomb from Nottingham to Leicester . No first @-@ person descriptions of the tomb survive , but Raphael Holinshed wrote in 1577 ( perhaps quoting someone who had seen it in person ) that it incorporated " a picture of alabaster representing [ Richard 's ] person " . Sir George Buck 40 years later wrote that it was " a fair tomb of mingled colour marble adorned with his image " . Buck also recorded the epitaph inscribed on the tomb .
Following the dissolution of Greyfriars in 1538 , the friary was demolished and the monument either was destroyed , or slowly decayed as a result of being exposed to the elements . The site of the friary was sold to two Lincolnshire property speculators and was later acquired by Robert Herrick , the Mayor of Leicester . Herrick built a mansion close to Friary Lane , on a site that is now buried under the modern Grey Friars Street , and turned the rest of the land into gardens . Although Richard 's monument had evidently disappeared by this time , the site of his grave was still known . The antiquary Christopher Wren ( father of Christopher Wren the architect ) recorded that Herrick erected a monument on the site of the grave in the form of a stone pillar three feet ( 1 m ) high carved with the words , " Here lies the Body of Richard III , Some Time King of England . " The pillar was visible in 1612 but had disappeared by 1844 .
The cartographer and antiquarian John Speed wrote in his Historie of Great Britaine ( 1611 ) that local tradition held that Richard 's body had been " borne out of the City , and contemptuously bestowed under the end of Bow @-@ Bridge , which giveth passage over a branch of Soare upon the west side of the town . " His account was widely accepted by later authors . In 1856 a memorial plaque to Richard III was erected next to Bow Bridge by a local builder , stating , " Near this spot lie the remains of Richard III the last of the Plantagenets 1485 " . The discovery of a skeleton in 1862 in the river sediments near the bridge led to claims that Richard 's bones had been found , but closer examination showed they were probably those of a man in his early 20s and not Richard 's .
The origin of Speed 's claim is unclear ; it was not attributed to any source , nor did it have any antecedents in other written accounts . The writer Audrey Strange suggests that the account may be a confused retelling of desecration of the remains of John Wycliffe in nearby Lutterworth in 1428 , when a mob disinterred him , burned his bones and threw them into the River Swift . The independent British historian John Ashdown @-@ Hill proposes that Speed made a mistake over the location of Richard 's grave and invented the story to account for its absence . If Speed had been to Herrick 's property he would surely have seen the commemorative pillar and gardens , but instead he reported that the site was " overgrown with nettles and weeds " and there was no trace of Richard 's grave . The map of Leicester drawn by Speed incorrectly shows Greyfriars where the former Blackfriars was , suggesting that he had looked for the grave in the wrong place .
Another local legend arose about a stone coffin that supposedly held Richard 's remains , which Speed wrote was " now made a drinking trough for horses at a common Inn " . A coffin certainly seems to have existed ; John Evelyn recorded it on a visit in 1654 , and Celia Fiennes wrote in 1700 that she had seen " a piece of his tombstone [ sic ] he lay in , which was cut out in exact form for his body to lie in ; it remains to be seen at ye Greyhound [ Inn ] in Leicester but is partly broken . " William Hutton found in 1758 that the coffin , which had " not withstood the ravages of time " , was kept at the White Horse Inn on Gallowtree Gate . Although the coffin 's location is no longer known , its description does not match the style of late 15th @-@ century coffins , and it is unlikely to have had any connection with Richard . It is more likely that it was salvaged from one of the religious establishments demolished following the Dissolution .
Herrick 's mansion , Greyfriars House , remained in the possession of his family until his great @-@ grandson Samuel sold it in 1711 . The property was subsequently divided and sold in 1740 ; three years later , New Street was built across the western part of the site . Many burials were discovered when houses were laid out along the street . A townhouse , 17 Friar Lane , was built on the eastern part of the site in 1759 and survives today . During the 19th century , the site became increasingly built on . In 1863 Alderman Newton 's Boys ' School built a schoolhouse on part of the site . Herrick 's mansion was demolished in 1871 , the present Grey Friars Street was laid through the site in 1873 , and more commercial developments , including the Leicester Trustee Savings Bank , were built . In 1915 the rest of the site was acquired by Leicestershire County Council which built offices on it in the 1920s and 1930s . The council relocated in 1965 when its new County Hall opened , and Leicester City Council moved in . The rest of the site , where Herrick 's garden had once been , was turned into a staff car park in about 1944 , but was not otherwise built on .
In 2007 , a single @-@ storey building from the 1950s was demolished on Grey Friars Street giving archaeologists the opportunity to excavate and search for traces of the medieval friary . Very little was unearthed , except for a fragment of a post @-@ medieval stone coffin lid . The results of the dig suggested that the remains of the friary church were farther west than previously thought .
= = Looking for Richard project = =
The location of Richard III 's body has long been of interest to the members of the Richard III Society , a group established to bring about a reappraisal of the King 's tarnished reputation . In 1975 an article by Audrey Strange was published in the society 's journal , The Ricardian , suggesting that his remains were buried under Leicester City Council 's car park . The claim was repeated in 1986 , when historian David Baldwin suggested that the remains were still in the Greyfriars area . He speculated , " It is possible ( though now perhaps unlikely ) that at some time in the twenty @-@ first century an excavator may yet reveal the slight remains of this famous monarch . " In 2004 and 2005 , John Ashdown @-@ Hill tracked down two 17th @-@ generation matrilineal descendants of Richard III 's sister Anne of York . He concluded from his knowledge of the layout of Franciscan priories that the ruins of the priory church at Greyfriars were likely to lie under the car park and had not been built over .
Although the Richard III Society remained interested in discussing the possible location of the king 's grave , they did not search for his remains . Individual members suggested possible lines of investigation , but neither the University of Leicester nor local historians and archaeologists took up the challenge , probably because it was widely thought that the grave site had been built over or the skeleton had been scattered , as John Speed 's account suggested .
In 2004 and 2005 , Philippa Langley , secretary of the Scottish Branch of the Richard III Society , carried out research in Leicester in connection with a biographical Richard III screenplay . She became convinced that the car park was the key location for investigation and contacted Ashdown @-@ Hill after hearing of his DNA research . At her urging , he contacted the producers of Channel 4 's Time Team archaeology series to propose an excavation of the car park , but they declined as the dig would take longer than the standard three @-@ day window for Time Team projects . Three years later , another writer , Annette Carson , in her book Richard III : The Maligned King ( 2008 ) , independently came to the conclusion that his body probably lay under the car park . She joined forces with Langley and Ashdown @-@ Hill to carry out further research , in the course of which she found what she called a " smoking gun " — a medieval map of Leicester showing the Greyfriars Church at the north end of what was now the car park .
In February 2009 , Langley , Carson and Ashdown @-@ Hill teamed up with Richard III Society members — Dr David Johnson and his wife Wendy — to launch a project with the working title Looking for Richard : In Search of a King , which Langley envisaged as a " landmark TV special " . Its premise was a search for Richard 's grave " while at the same time telling his real story " , with an objective " to search for , recover and rebury his mortal remains with the honour , dignity and respect so conspicuously denied following his death at the battle of Bosworth . "
The project gained the backing of several key partners — Leicester City Council , Leicester Promotions ( responsible for tourist marketing ) , the University of Leicester , Leicester Cathedral , Darlow Smithson Productions ( responsible for the planned TV show ) and the Richard III Society . Funding for the initial phase of pre @-@ excavation research came from the Richard III Society 's bursary fund and members of the Looking for Richard project , with Leicester Promotions agreeing to pick up the £ 35 @,@ 000 cost of the dig . The University of Leicester Archaeological Services — an independent body with offices at the university — was appointed as the project 's archaeological contractor .
= = Greyfriars project and excavations = =
In March 2011 an assessment of the Greyfriars site began to identify where the monastery had stood , and which land might be available for excavation . A desk @-@ based assessment was conducted to determine the archaeological viability of the site , followed by a survey in August 2011 using ground @-@ penetrating radar ( GPR ) . The GPR results were inconclusive ; no clear building remains could be identified owing to a layer of disturbed ground and demolition debris just below the surface . The survey was useful in finding modern utilities crossing the site , such as pipes and cables .
Three possible excavation sites were identified : the staff car park of Leicester City Council Social Services , the disused playground of the former Alderman Newton 's School and a public car park on New Street . It was decided to open two trenches in the Social Services car park , with an option for a third in the playground . Because most of the Greyfriars site had been built on , only seventeen per cent of its former area was available to excavate ; the area to be investigated amounted to just one per cent of the site , owing to the limitations of the project 's funding .
The proposed excavation was announced in the June 2012 issue of the Richard III Society 's magazine , the Ricardian Bulletin , but a month later one of the main sponsors pulled out leaving a £ 10 @,@ 000 funding shortfall ; an appeal resulted in members of the several Ricardian groups donating £ 13 @,@ 000 in two weeks . A press conference held in Leicester on 24 August announced the start of the work . Archaeologist Richard Buckley admitted the project was a long shot : " We don 't know precisely where the church is , let alone where the burial site is . " He had earlier told Langley that he thought the odds were " fifty @-@ fifty at best for [ finding ] the church , and nine @-@ to @-@ one against finding the grave . "
Digging began the next day with a trench 1 @.@ 6 metres ( 5 @.@ 2 ft ) wide by 30 metres ( 98 ft ) long , running roughly north @-@ south . A layer of modern building debris was removed before the level of the former monastery was reached . Two parallel human leg bones were discovered about 5 metres ( 16 ft ) from the north end of the trench at a depth of about 1 @.@ 5 metres ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) , indicating an undisturbed burial . The bones were covered temporarily to protect them while excavations continued further along the trench . A second , parallel trench was dug next day to the south @-@ west . Over the following days , evidence of medieval walls and rooms was uncovered , allowing the archaeologists to pinpoint the area of the friary . It became clear that the bones found on the first day lay inside the east part of the church , possibly the choir , where Richard was said to have been buried . On 31 August , the University of Leicester applied for a licence from the Ministry of Justice to permit the exhumation of up to six sets of human remains . To narrow the search , it was planned that only the remains of men in their thirties , buried within the church , would be exhumed .
The bones found on 25 August were uncovered on 4 September and the grave soil dug back further over the next two days . The feet were missing , and the skull was found in an unusual propped @-@ up position , consistent with the body being put into a grave that was slightly too small . The spine was curved in an S @-@ shape . No sign of a coffin was found ; the skeleton 's posture suggested the body had not been put in a shroud , but had been hurriedly dumped into the grave and buried . As the bones were lifted from the ground , a piece of rusted iron was found underneath the vertebrae . The skeleton 's hands were in an unusual position , crossed over the right hip , suggesting they were tied together at the time of burial , although this could not be established definitively . After the exhumation , work continued in the trenches over the following week , before the site was covered with soil to protect it from damage and re @-@ surfaced to restore the car park and playground to their former condition .
= = Analysis of the discovery = =
On 12 September , the University of Leicester team announced that the human remains were a possible candidate for Richard 's body , but emphasised the need for caution . The positive indicators were that the body was of an adult male ; it was buried beneath the choir of the church ; it had severe scoliosis of the spine possibly making one shoulder higher than the other . An object that appeared to be an arrowhead was found under the spine and the skull had severe injuries .
= = = DNA evidence = = =
After the exhumation the emphasis shifted from the excavation to laboratory analysis of the bones that had been recovered . Ashdown @-@ Hill had used genealogical research to track down matrilineal descendants of Anne of York , Richard 's older sister , whose matrilineal line of descent is extant through her daughter Anne St Leger . Academic Kevin Schürer subsequently traced a second individual in the same line .
Ashdown @-@ Hill 's research came about as a result of a challenge in 2003 to provide a DNA sequence for Richard 's sister Margaret , to identify bones found in her burial place , the Franciscan priory church in Mechelen , Belgium . He tried to extract a mitochondrial DNA sequence from a preserved hair from Edward IV held by the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford but the attempt proved unsuccessful , owing to degradation of the DNA . Ashdown @-@ Hill turned instead to genealogical research to identify an all @-@ female @-@ line descendant of Cecily Neville , Richard 's mother . After two years he found a British @-@ born woman who had emigrated to Canada after World War II , Joy Ibsen ( née Brown ) , was a direct descendant of Richard 's sister , Anne of York ( and therefore Richard 's 16th @-@ generation great @-@ niece ) . Ibsen 's mitochondrial DNA was tested and found to belong to mitochondrial DNA Haplogroup J , which by deduction should be Richard 's mitochondrial DNA haplogroup . The mtDNA obtained from Ibsen showed that the Mechelen bones were not those of Margaret .
Joy Ibsen , a retired journalist , died in 2008 , leaving three children : Michael , Jeff and Leslie . On 24 August 2012 , her son Michael ( born in Canada in 1957 , a cabinet maker based in London ) gave a mouth @-@ swab sample to the research team to compare with samples from the human remains found at the excavation . Analysts found a mitochondrial DNA match between the exhumed skeleton , Michael Ibsen , and an unnamed second direct maternal line descendant , who shares a relatively rare mitochondrial DNA sequence , mitochondrial DNA haplogroup J1c2c .
The other living female @-@ line relative of Richard III , since named as New Zealander Wendy Duldig , is a 19th @-@ generation descendant of Anne of York ; their female lines of descent separated after Anne of York 's granddaughter Catherine Manners . Duldig 's mitochondrial DNA is a match apart from one mutation . Wendy Duldig has no surviving children .
Despite the matching mitochondrial DNA , geneticist Turi King continued to pursue a link between the paternally @-@ inherited Y @-@ DNA and that of descendants of John of Gaunt . Four living male @-@ line descendants of Gaunt have been located , and their results are a match to each other . The Y @-@ DNA from the skeleton is somewhat degraded , but proved not to match any of the living male @-@ line relatives , showing that a false @-@ paternity event had happened somewhere in the 19 generations between Richard III and Henry Somerset , 5th Duke of Beaufort ; work by Turi King and others has shown that historical rates of false paternity are around 1 – 2 % per generation .
= = = Bones = = =
An osteological examination of the bones showed them to be in generally good condition and largely complete except for the missing feet , which may have been destroyed by Victorian building work . It was immediately apparent that the body had suffered major injuries , and further evidence of wounds was found as the skeleton was cleaned . The skull shows signs of two lethal injuries ; the base of the back of the skull had been completely cut away by a bladed weapon , which would have exposed the brain , and another bladed weapon had been thrust through the right side of the skull , striking the inside of the left side through the brain . Elsewhere on the skull , a blow from a pointed weapon had penetrated the crown of the head . Bladed weapons had clipped the skull and sheared off layers of bone , without penetrating it . Other holes in the skull and lower jaw were found to be consistent with dagger wounds to the chin and cheek . The multiple wounds on the king ’ s skull indicated that he was not wearing his helmet , which he may have removed or lost when he was on foot after his horse had become stuck in the marsh . One of his right ribs had been cut by a sharp implement , as had the pelvis . There was no evidence of the withered arm that afflicted the character in William Shakespeare 's play Richard III .
Taken together , the injuries appear to be a combination of battle wounds , which were the cause of death , followed by post @-@ mortem humiliation wounds inflicted on the corpse . The body wounds show that the corpse had been stripped of its armour , as the stabbed torso would have been protected by a backplate and the pelvis would have been protected by armour . The wounds were made from behind on the back and buttocks while they were exposed to the elements , consistent with the contemporary descriptions of Richard 's naked body being tied across a horse with the legs and arms dangling down on either side . There may have been further flesh wounds not apparent from the bones .
The head wounds are consistent with a 1485 poem by Guto 'r Glyn in which a Welsh knight , Sir Rhys ap Thomas killed Richard and " shaved the boar 's head " . It had been thought that this was a figurative description of Richard being decapitated , but the skeleton 's head had clearly not been severed . Guto 's description may instead be a literal account of the injuries that Richard suffered , as the blows sustained to the head would have sliced away much of his scalp and hair and slivers of bone . Other contemporary sources refer explicitly to head injuries and the weapons used to kill Richard ; the French chronicler Jean Molinet wrote that " one of the Welshmen then came after him , and struck him dead with a halberd " , and the Ballad of Lady Bessie recorded that " they struck his bascinet to his head until his brains came out with blood . " Such accounts would certainly fit the damage inflicted on the skull .
Sideways curvature of his spine was evident as the skeleton was excavated . It has been attributed to adolescent @-@ onset scoliosis . Although it was probably visible in making his right shoulder higher than the left and reducing his apparent height , it did not preclude an active lifestyle , and would not have caused a hunchback . The bones are those of a male with an age range estimation of 30 – 34 , consistent with Richard , who was 32 when he died .
= = = Radiocarbon dating and other scientific analyses = = =
Two radiocarbon datings to find the age of the bones suggested dates of 1430 – 60 and 1412 – 49 — both too early for Richard 's death in 1485 . Mass spectrometry carried out on the bones found evidence of much seafood consumption , which is known to make radiocarbon dating samples appear older than they are . A Bayesian analysis suggested there was a 68 @.@ 2 % probability that the true date of the bones was between 1475 and 1530 , rising to 95 @.@ 4 % for between 1450 and 1540 . Although by itself not enough to prove that the skeleton was Richard 's , it was consistent with the date of his death . The mass spectrometry result indicating the rich seafood diet was confirmed by a chemical isotope analysis of two teeth , a femur and a rib . From the isotope analysis of carbon , nitrogen and oxygen in the teeth and bones the researchers discovered the diet included much freshwater fish and exotic birds such as swan , crane and heron , and a vast quantity of wine — all items at the high end of the luxury market . Close analysis of the soil immediately below the skeleton revealed that the man had been infested with roundworm parasites at the time of his death .
The excavators found an iron object under the skeleton 's vertebrae and speculated it might be an arrowhead that had been embedded in its back . An X @-@ ray analysis showed it was a nail , probably of Romano @-@ British date , that by chance had been in the ground immediately under the grave or was in soil disturbed when it was dug and had nothing to do with the body .
= = Identification of Richard III and other findings = =
On 4 February 2013 , the University of Leicester confirmed that the skeleton was that of Richard III . The identification was based on mitochondrial DNA evidence , soil analysis , and dental tests , and physical characteristics of the skeleton consistent with contemporary accounts of Richard 's appearance . Osteoarchaeologist Jo Appleby commented : " The skeleton has a number of unusual features : its slender build , the scoliosis , and the battle @-@ related trauma . All of these are highly consistent with the information that we have about Richard III in life and about the circumstances of his death . "
Caroline Wilkinson , Professor of Craniofacial Identification at the University of Dundee , led the project to reconstruct the face , commissioned by the Richard III Society . On 11 February 2014 , the University of Leicester announced a project headed by Turi King to sequence the entire genome of Richard III and Michael Ibsen — a direct female @-@ line descendant of Richard 's sister , Anne of York – whose mitochondrial DNA confirmed the identification of the excavated remains . Richard III is thus the first ancient person with known historical identity whose genome has been sequenced . A study published in Nature in December 2014 confirmed a perfect whole @-@ mitochondrial genome match between Richard 's skeleton and Michael Ibsen and a near @-@ perfect match between Richard and his other confirmed living relative . However , Y chromosome DNA inherited via the male line found no link with five other claimed living relatives , indicating that at least one " false @-@ paternity event " occurred in the generations between Richard and these men . One of these five was found to be unrelated to the other four , showing that another false @-@ paternity event had occurred in the four generations separating them .
The story of the excavation and subsequent scientific investigation was told in a Channel 4 documentary , Richard III : The King in the Car Park , broadcast on 4 February 2013 . It proved a ratings hit for the channel , watched by up to 4 @.@ 9 million viewers , and won a Royal Television Society award . Channel 4 subsequently screened a follow @-@ up documentary on 27 February 2014 , Richard III : The Untold Story , which detailed the scientific and archaeological analyses that led to the identification of the skeleton as Richard III .
The site was re @-@ excavated in July 2013 to learn more about the friary church , before building work on the adjacent disused school building . In a project co @-@ funded by Leicester City Council and the University of Leicester , a single trench about twice the area of the 2012 trenches was excavated . It succeeded in exposing the entirety of the sites of the Greyfriars presbytery and choir sites , confirming archaeologists ' earlier hypotheses about the layout of the church 's east end . Three burials identified but not excavated in the 2012 project were tackled afresh . One burial was found to have been interred in a wooden coffin in a well @-@ dug grave , while a second wooden @-@ coffined burial was found under and astride the choir and presbytery ; its position suggests that it pre @-@ dates the church .
A stone coffin found during the 2012 excavation was opened for the first time , revealing a lead coffin inside . An investigation with an endoscope revealed the presence of a skeleton along with some head hair and fragments of a shroud and cord . The skeleton was at first assumed to be male , perhaps that of a knight called Sir William de Moton who was known to have been buried there , but later examination showed it to be of a woman — perhaps a high @-@ ranking benefactress . She may not necessarily have been local , as lead coffins were used to transport corpses over long distances .
= = = Plans and challenges = = =
The University of Leicester 's plan to inter Richard 's body in Leicester Cathedral was in keeping with British legal norms which hold that Christian burials excavated by archaeologists should be reburied in the nearest consecrated ground to the original grave and was a condition of the licence granted by the Ministry of Justice to exhume any human remains found during the excavation . The British Royal Family made no claim on the remains – Queen Elizabeth II was reportedly consulted but rejected the idea of a royal burial – so the Ministry of Justice initially confirmed that the University of Leicester would make the final decision on where the bones should be re @-@ buried . David Monteith , Canon Chancellor of Leicester Cathedral , said Richard 's skeleton would be reinterred at the cathedral in early 2014 in a " Christian @-@ led but ecumenical service " , not a formal reburial but rather a service of remembrance , as a funeral service would have been held at the time of burial .
The choice of burial site proved controversial and proposals were made for Richard to be buried in places which some felt were more fitting for a Roman Catholic and Yorkist monarch . Online petitions were launched calling for Richard to be buried in Westminster Abbey , where 17 other English and British kings are interred ; York Minster , which some claimed was Richard 's own preferred burial site ; the Roman Catholic Arundel Cathedral ; or in the Leicester car park in which his body was found . Only two options received significant public support , with Leicester receiving 3 @,@ 100 more signatures than York . The issue was discussed in the Houses of Parliament ; the Conservative MP and historian Chris Skidmore proposed that a state funeral should be held , while John Mann , the Labour MP for Bassetlaw , suggested that the body should be buried in Worksop in his constituency – halfway between York and Leicester . All options were rejected in Leicester , whose mayor Peter Soulsby retorted : " Those bones leave Leicester over my dead body . "
After legal action brought by the " Plantagenet Alliance " , a group representing claimed collateral descendants of Richard , his final resting place remained uncertain for nearly a year . The group , which described itself as " his Majesty 's representatives and voice " , called for Richard to be buried in York Minster , which they claimed was his " wish " . The Dean of Leicester called their challenge " disrespectful " , and said that the cathedral would not invest any more money until the matter was decided . Historians said there was no evidence that Richard III wanted to be buried in York . Mark Ormrod of the University of York expressed scepticism over the idea that Richard had devised any clear plans for his own burial . The standing of the Plantagenet Alliance was challenged . Mathematician Rob Eastaway calculated that Richard III may have millions of living collateral descendants , saying that " we should all have the chance to vote on Leicester versus York " .
In August 2013 Justice Haddon @-@ Cave granted permission for a judicial review since the original burial plans ignored the common law duty " to consult widely as to how and where Richard III 's remains should appropriately be reinterred " . The judicial review opened on 13 March 2014 and was expected to last two days but the decision was deferred for four to six weeks . Lady Justice Hallett , sitting with Justice Ouseley and Justice Haddon @-@ Cave , said the court would take time to consider its judgment . On 23 May the High Court ruled there was " no duty to consult " and " no public law grounds for the court to interfere " , so reburial in Leicester could proceed . The litigation cost the defendants £ 245 @,@ 000 – far more than the cost of the original investigation .
= = = Reburial and commemorations = = =
In February 2013 , Leicester Cathedral announced a procedure and timetable for the reinterment of Richard 's remains . The cathedral authorities planned to bury him in a " place of honour " within the cathedral . Initial plans for a flat ledger stone , perhaps modifying the memorial stone installed in the chancel in 1982 , proved unpopular . A table tomb was the most popular option among members of the Richard III Society and in polls of Leicester people . In June 2014 the design was announced , in the form of a table tomb of Swaledale fossil stone . In June 2014 the statue of Richard III that had stood in Leicester 's Castle Gardens was moved to the redesigned Cathedral Gardens , which were reopened on 5 July 2014 .
The reburial took place during a week of events between 22 and 27 March 2015 . The sequence of events included :
Sunday 22 March 2015 : Richard 's bones were sealed in a lead @-@ lined ossuary and placed in a wooden coffin . The remains were moved from the University of Leicester to Leicester Cathedral via the site of the Battle of Bosworth at Fenn Hill Farm and through Dadlington , Sutton Cheney , Bosworth Battlefield Heritage Centre and Market Bosworth retracing part of Richard 's last journey . The coffin , made from English oak from the Duchy of Cornwall estate by Richard 's present @-@ day collateral mitochondrial relative Michael Ibsen , was transferred from a motor hearse to a four @-@ horse drawn hearse for entry into the city of Leicester .
Monday 23 – Wednesday 25 March 2015 : Remains lay in repose in the cathedral . Waiting times to view the coffin were reported to exceed four hours .
Monday 23 March 2015 : Cardinal Vincent Nichols , the Archbishop of Westminster , celebrated Mass for Richard III 's soul in Holy Cross Priory , Leicester , the Catholic parish church , and in Holy Cross Church .
Thursday 26 March 2015 : Reburial in the presence of Archbishop of Canterbury , Justin Welby , and senior members of other Christian denominations . The service , shown live on Channel 4 , included memorial prayers for Richard III and the victims of Bosworth and other conflicts . Actor Benedict Cumberbatch , a distant relative of Richard III , read a poem written for the service by the poet laureate , Carol Ann Duffy . The Royal Family was represented by Sophie , Countess of Wessex , Prince Richard , Duke of Gloucester , and his wife Birgitte , Duchess of Gloucester — Richard III was Duke of Gloucester before coming to the throne himself . Music during the service included a setting of Psalm 138 by Leonel Power ; Ghostly Grace , an anthem composed for the service by Judith Bingham ; a setting of Psalm 150 by Philip Moore ; and an arrangement of " God Save the Queen " by Judith Weir .
Friday 27 March 2015 : Unveiling the tomb to the public , followed by commemorations across Leicester .
= = Reactions = =
After the discovery , Leicester City Council set up a temporary exhibition about Richard III in the city 's medieval guildhall . The council announced it would create a permanent attraction and subsequently spent £ 850 @,@ 000 to buy the freehold of St Martin 's Place , formerly part of Leicester Grammar School , in Peacock Lane , across the road from the cathedral . The site adjoins the car park where the body was found , and overlies the chancel of Greyfriars Friary Church . It was converted into a £ 4 @.@ 5 million visitor centre telling the story of Richard 's life , death , burial and rediscovery , with artefacts from the dig including Philippa Langley 's Wellington boots and the hard hat and high @-@ visibility jacket worn by archaeologist Mathew Morris on the day he found Richard 's skeleton . Visitors can see the grave site under a glass floor . The council anticipated that the visitor centre , which opened in July 2014 , would attract 100 @,@ 000 visitors a year .
In Norway , archaeologist Øystein Ekroll hoped that the interest in the discovery of the English king would spill over to Norway . In contrast to England where , with the possible exception of Edward V , all the kings since the 11th century have now been discovered , in Norway about 25 medieval kings are buried in unmarked graves around the country . Ekroll proposed to start with Harald Hardrada , who was probably buried anonymously in Trondheim , beneath what is today a public road . A previous attempt to exhume Harald in 2006 was blocked by the Norwegian Directorate for Cultural Heritage ( Riksantikvaren ) .
Richard Buckley of the University of Leicester Archaeological Services , who said he would " eat his hat " if Richard was discovered , fulfilled his promise by eating a hat @-@ shaped cake baked by a colleague . Buckley later said :
Cutting edge research has been used in the project and the work has really only just begun . The discoveries , such as the very precise carbon dating and medical evidence , will serve as a benchmark for other studies . And it is , of course , an incredible story . He 's a controversial figure , people love the idea he was found under a car park , the whole thing unfolded in the most amazing way . You couldn 't make it up .
= Phantom Phorce =
Phantom Phorce is a remix album of Super Furry Animals ' 2003 record Phantom Power . The remixes had previously appeared on the DVD version of Phantom Power — they were re @-@ released as Phantom Phorce on the band 's own Placid Casual label as a way of ensuring the remixers would receive royalties for the tracks . The album features a commentary from the fictional ' Kurt Stern ' who appears between songs to discuss the re @-@ recording of Phantom Power under his guidance after being unhappy with the original . First editions of the album came packaged in a case that doubled as a paper model of a video game arcade cabinet , and included a bonus CD ; the Slow Life EP . Critical reaction to Phantom Phorce was generally positive .
= = Origins , concept and music = =
Phantom Phorce features remixes previously available on the DVD version of Phantom Power . According to drummer Dafydd Ieuan the band didn 't have the money to pay the artists involved for these remixes so , in order to provide them with royalties , promised to release an album featuring the tracks on their own label .
The record features remixes of every track from 2003 's Phantom Power presented in sequence , along with extra versions of " Valet Parking " and " Hello Sunshine " which appear at the end of the album . The remixes vary from radical reworkings such as Killa Kella 's beatbox treatment of " Golden Retriever " and Wauvenfold 's " unrecognisable " version of " Sex , War and Robots " , to the likes of Mario Caldato Jr 's take on " Liberty Belle " and High Llamas ' " Valet Parking " which are merely " spruced up " .
The remixes are interspersed with anecdotes from ' Kurt Stern ' ( actually the band 's road manager ) who supposedly made the decision to make these remixes after being unhappy with the original Phantom Power . According to bassist Guto Pryce this " running commentary is tongue in cheek , it 's our road manager pretending to be a producer , and he ends up sounding like a ... twat ! " These anecdotes give the actual release a different track listing from that which appears on the back of the album .
= = Release and reception = =
Initial copies of the album came bundled with the Slow Life EP in packaging which could be folded into the shape of a video game arcade cabinet , or " personal console " as described on the instructions section of the sleeve . The CDs themselves were housed in individual sleeves designed to look like 3 @.@ 5 " floppy disks . Zeth Lundy , reviewing the album for PopMatters , commented that he constructed the arcade cabinet with " sheer geeky delight " while CokeMachineGlow called the packaging " nostalgic but infuriating " . Phantom Phorce was also issued on gold @-@ coloured vinyl .
Critical reaction to Phantom Phorce was generally positive with Uncut stating that the album features an " inspired overhaul " of tracks from Phantom Power , the Western Mail describing the record as a " mind @-@ bending collection that radically re @-@ works each track from the original record to create something entirely different , but equally appealing " and musicOMH calling it " an innovative and thoroughly enjoyable set of remixes " . Some reviews pointed out that the album compares favourably with other remix albums with The Guardian calling Phantom Phorce " stimulating and often rather beautiful , bucking the trend set by most other self @-@ indulgent and pointless remix albums " and the NME stating that " hearing a rock band get the remix treatment is usually a mildly diverting experience rather than a life @-@ changing one . So it 's an extremely pleasant surprise to be faced with a whole album of the buggers ... and be thoroughly entertained . " Q stated that the commentary by ' Kurt Stern ' was one of the best features of the album and The Times expressed surprise that these " ' amusing interludes ' between tracks are actually funny " , however Pitchfork Media found that ' Stern ' " gets in the way more than he helps " and claimed that , by the time the listener had heard the full album he or she would " likely consider redubbing it without [ ' Stern 's ' ] contributions " . Reviewing Phantom Phorce for DiSCORDER magazine , Jordie Yow called it " good , but not exceptional " and claimed that the remixes simply made him want to listen to the original versions of the tracks while website Angry Ape was scathing , calling the album a " bland & uninspiring package to put you off remixes for life " and suggested that it was merely a " cash @-@ in " by the band .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Super Furry Animals .
= = Personnel = =
The following people contributed to Phantom Phorce :
= = = Band = = =
Gruff Rhys – Lead vocals , rhythm guitar
Huw Bunford – Lead guitar , backing vocals
Guto Pryce – Bass guitar
Cian Ciaran – Keyboards , backing vocals
Dafydd Ieuan – Drums , backing vocals
= = = Remixers = = =
= = = Additional musicians = = =
= = = Artwork = = =
Pete Fowler – Illustration & design
John Mark James – Illustration & design
= Windsor Locks , Connecticut tornado =
The Windsor Locks , Connecticut tornado struck the towns of Windsor , Windsor Locks , and Suffield , Connecticut and Feeding Hills , Massachusetts on October 3 , 1979 . The short @-@ lived but intense tornado struck without warning and caused three deaths and 500 injuries .
The storm , rated F4 on the Fujita scale , also caused more than $ 400 million in property damage along an 11 @.@ 3 @-@ mile ( 18 @.@ 2 km ) path , and ranks as the ninth most destructive tornado in American history .
= = Storm synopsis = =
The storm system that caused the tornado had produced severe weather , including two weak tornadoes , in eastern Pennsylvania and New Jersey that morning . This was an unusual setup for a significant tornado , associated with a warm front near a low @-@ pressure center . A thunderstorm cell formed south of Long Island around 10 : 20 am , and became a supercell sometime later after interacting with a surface low @-@ pressure center . It turned north as a left @-@ moving supercell , meaning it moved left with respect to the mean atmospheric flow . Left @-@ moving supercells are very rare , as cyclonic storms usually turn to the right of the mean flow . It is unknown whether this leftward movement was due to an atmospheric interaction or terrain @-@ induced movement , as the storm moved straight up the Connecticut River valley .
No tornado watches or warnings were issued before the storm struck . This was later determined to be because of missing atmospheric sounding data , as well as an incorrect assessment of the height of the tropopause , which led to an underestimation of the strength of the thunderstorm which produced the tornado . Although a severe thunderstorm warning was issued at 2 : 57 pm , very few people received the warnings in time .
The tornado touched down in Poquonock , Connecticut , a village in the town of Windsor , just north of Hartford . Poquonock Elementary School was heavily damaged ; fortunately , students were sent home early at 1 : 30 pm on Wednesdays . Students at a Brownie meeting were led into a hallway just before the auditorium they had been in was destroyed . The historic Poquonock Community Church building had its roof ripped off . Miraculously , all but one of the stain glass windows from the old church were salvaged . The tornado traveled almost due north , an unusual direction for a tornado . The most severe damage occurred along River Road , Hollow Brook Road , Pioneer Drive and Settler Circle , where large frame houses were left " in splinters " . The tornado roughly followed Connecticut Route 75 just east of Bradley International Airport . The airport 's weather station recorded a wind gust of 39 m / s ( 87 mph ; 140 km / h ) as the tornado passed nearby . A United Airlines flight with 114 passengers was attempting to land as the tornado was passing the airport ; the pilot saw the tornado and was able to abort the landing just in time . The tornado then crossed the northern portion of the airport , where the New England Air Museum was located . More than 20 vintage aircraft were completely destroyed , with many more damaged . The museum 's hangar was also rendered unusable . The tornado moved north into Feeding Hills before dissipating near the Westfield city line , about five miles north of the Massachusetts state line .
The tornado was accompanied by more than 7 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) of rain , and several instances of downburst winds . Damage from downburst winds was reported across the Connecticut River in Enfield .
= = Aftermath = =
Because there were no tornado warnings before the storm ( and it occurred in an area where tornadoes are rare ) , the initial damage reports claimed an explosion had damaged a roof . Soon , however , the storm 's nature and impact became apparent . Governor Ella Grasso lived just a block away from the tornado 's path , though she was in Hartford at the time of the storm . She declared an 8 pm – 5 am curfew in the days following the tornado . About 500 National Guardsmen were activated to prevent looting and direct traffic , and the area was declared a disaster area by President Carter . FEMA trailers were provided within a few days , and were used by many residents until reconstruction or repairs could be completed . In all , at least 38 businesses were damaged or destroyed , 65 homes were completely destroyed , and at least 75 homes were damaged . Twenty @-@ five tobacco sheds were " extensively damaged " . At the airport , at least 30 vintage aircraft were damaged or destroyed , as well as most of the state 's National Guard helicopters . The final damage total reached $ 200 million ( 1979 USD ) , or $ 442 million in 1997 dollars .
Because of the vast scope of the damage , initially Windsor town officials feared many , possibly even hundreds , of people could have been killed . While there were many serious injuries , only three people were killed by the storm . Two victims , construction workers working in a bank parking lot , took shelter in a work truck when they saw the storm approach . The first victim was killed immediately by a piece of flying lumber , the other died a few weeks later from his injuries becoming the 3rd victim . The second victim was found the next day across the street from her obliterated house . Over 400 people were hospitalized , mostly for injuries from flying glass or the victims ' having been thrown by winds .
= = Records = =
The tornado was the costliest on record in the Northeastern United States , and the 10 @-@ costliest in US history . The three people who were killed made it the deadliest tornado in Connecticut since the 1878 Wallingford tornado .
= Traveling ( song ) =
" Traveling " ( stylized as " traveling " ) is a song recorded by Japanese – American recording artist Utada Hikaru . It was released as the second single from her fourth studio and third Japanese language album , Deep River ( 2002 ) . The track was written and composed by Utada , whilst production was handled by Utada , her father Teruzane Utada , and long @-@ time collaborator Akira Miyake . Musically , " Traveling " is a dance @-@ pop song , influenced by house music . Lyrically , it discusses human activities and dreams .
The song received positive reviews from most music critics . Many selected it as one of Utada 's best singles , and was complimented for its production and dance @-@ oriented composition . It was also successful in Japan , peaking at number one on both the Oricon Singles Chart and Tokyo Broadcasting System 's ( TBS ) Count Down TV singles chart . It was certified in two categories by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) , and was the second best selling single of the year 2001 . A music video was filmed for " Traveling " in 2001 , featuring Utada as a hostess travelling on a spacecraft with passengers . It has been performed on some of Utada 's tours , including Utada in Bokuhan ( 2004 ) and Utada United ( 2006 ) .
= = Background and release = =
" Traveling " was written and composed by Utada , whilst production was handled by Utada , her father Teruzane Utada , and long @-@ time collaborator Akira Miyake . This was Utada 's first original single to have been handled by Utada , her father , and Miyake since her single releases from her debut album First Love ( 1999 ) ; she had primarily worked with American producers , such as Rodney Jenkins , Jimmy Jam & Terry Lewis for her second studio album Distance ( 2001 ) . The song included live instrumentation by Saito Mitsutaka , who played the bass guitar , and Tsunemi Kazuhide , who played synthesizers , while it was arranged by Utada and Kawano Kei . The song was recorded and mixed by Ugajin Masaaki and Matsui Atushi in 2001 at Bunkamura Studio , Shibuya , Tokyo . It was released as the second single from her fourth studio and third Japanese language album , Deep River ( 2002 ) . Since then , the song has been remastered and re @-@ released twice ; the first on April 1 , 2004 , and the second time on December 9 , 2014 for Utada 's first greatest hits album Utada Hikaru Single Collection Vol . 1 ( 2003 ) .
It was released as a CD single , in both Japan and China . Both formats included the original track , two remixes by PlanetB and Bahiatronic , plus the instrumental version . The artwork for the CD single 's were photographed by Utada 's husband at the time , Kazuaki Kiriya . It has a close @-@ up shot of Utada in front of a multi @-@ colored background . A promotional 12 " vinyl was released by Toshiba @-@ EMI in December 2001 , and included both the remixed tracks . Then on January 30 , 2002 , Toshiba @-@ EMI released " Traveling " as a DVD single , which included the " behind the scenes " video and the music video . The vinyls artwork was a screenshot taken by Kiriya .
= = Composition = =
Musically , " Traveling " is a dance @-@ pop song , influenced by house music . Kano , editor in chief for Rockin 'On Japan magazine noted elements of house music in the song 's composition . An editor for Amazon labelled the track a " party tune " . CD Journal staff member 's wrote that the song had a " speedy dance beat " . Similarly , rock musician and music journalist David Bertrand Wilson had reviewed the parent album Deep River , and described the composition as a dance song . Lyrically , it discusses human activities and dreams . Kano felt that although the song themes are about dreams and nightmares , he believed it should " be taken seriously " as he felt it intertwined with reality . The reviewer from Amazon stated that " Traveling " was proof that Utada was one of the most successful singer @-@ songwriters in Japanese music .
= = Critical response = =
" Traveling " received very positive reviews from music critics . Journalist and rock musician David Bertrand Wilson had reviewed the parent album with journalist John Alroy , and selected it as the album 's best track ; he believed that the song was a " consistently catchy [ melody ] " , one of the major factors that made the parent album " work " . Similarly , AllMusic 's David Jeffries selected the song as one of Utada 's best singles . Fellow Japanese recording artist Kyary Pamyu Pamyu contributed to The Guardian 's music playlist columns , and highlighted " Traveling " as one of Utada 's best songs ; she further stated in a detailed review : " People living outside Japan will also enjoy her creativity . It ’ s pop and yet a little bit dark and scary . I like the chemistry . " A reviewer from Amazon praised the track , calling it " perfect " . In another positive review , a critic from CD Journal complimented the dance composition , but favored the lyrical content as the best feature from the track .
= = = Accolades = = =
At the 16th Japan Gold Disc Awards , Utada won the Song of the Year award for " Traveling " ; she had also won another similar award that year for her single " Can You Keep a Secret ? " " . Similarly , she also received the Silver Award recognition at the 2003 Japanese Society for Rights of Authors , Composers and Publishers Awards ( JASRAC ) . In December 2015 , in honor of Utada 's comeback into the music business , Japanese website Goo.ne.jp hosted a poll for fans to rank their favourite songs by Utada out of 25 positions ; the poll was held in only twenty @-@ four hours , and thousands submitted their votes . As a result , " Traveling " was ranked at number seven with 71 votes in total .
= = Commercial performance = =
Commercially , " Traveling " was a success in Japan . It became her sixth single to debut at number one on the Oricon Singles Chart , with over 277 @,@ 100 units sold in its first week . It stayed at number one for a sole week , and spent a total of 20 weeks on that chart . By the end of 2002 , the single was ranked at number two on Oricon 's Annual 2002 chart , just behind Ayumi Hamasaki 's extended play H ; it sold 856 @,@ 140 units by the end of the year . This made it the second highest selling single by a female artist , just behind Hamasaki 's entry , but was the highest selling single that did not include any other b @-@ side or a @-@ side tracks . The single was certified million by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) for physical shipments of one million units .
The single debuted at number one on Tokyo Broadcasting System 's ( TBS ) Count Down TV chart during the chart week of December 8 , 2001 , her seventh non @-@ consecutive single to do so . It stayed at the top spot for two consecutive weeks . The single stayed in the chart for 20 weeks , and was ranked at number 26 and 39 on their 2001 and 2002 Annual Chart . Eight years after its initial release , " Traveling " entered the Billboard Adult Alternative Radio Songs chart at number 81 during the chart week of April 6 . It re @-@ entered the chart during the chart week of May 6 , 2015 , peaking at number 75 . It was certified gold by RIAJ for cellphone downloads of 100 @,@ 000 units . According to the Oricon Style database , it is Utada 's sixth highest selling single .
The DVD single was a success on the Oricon DVD Chart , peaking at number one . The Oricon Style database ranks the DVD single as Utada 's second best selling DVD , just behind the live release of her Bohemian Summer 2000 Concert tour . As of May 2016 , it is the 51st best selling DVD in Japan , selling over 820 @,@ 000 units .
= = Music video = =
An accompanying music video was directed by Kazuaki Kiriya . It opens with the camera traveling through a tunnel full of lights , and includes the song 's title and Utada 's name . For the first part of the song , it has Utada singing into a microphone , whilst walking inside the head of a spacecraft . The spacecraft exits the station , and flies all over a futuristic cityscape . The first verse has Utada as a hostess on the spacecraft , helping and serving the passengers in a dancing manner ; the passengers are wearing theatrical clothing and headpieces that cover their faces . During the pre @-@ chorus , Utada sings in front of a forest @-@ like backdrop , whilst a stop @-@ motion animation of her is walking through the woods , observing disfigured creatures . The chorus has Utada and the passengers marching across a bridge , while continuous intercut scenes of Utada outside a party is seen .
During the second verse , it has the spacecraft traveling past the moon , whilst Utada cleans up the mess the passengers left on their tables . By the second pre @-@ chorus , several passengers play ping pong , as Utada exercises . The second chorus has Utada dancing inside a party , whilst intercut scenes of different stop motion animations are seen . In the bridge section , it has a close @-@ up of Utada in front of a forest @-@ like backdrop again , and also has Utada sitting on a swing . The final chorus has the spacecraft falling onto the ground , | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
Frederator Studios then pitched an Adventure Time series to Nicktoons Network , but the network rejected it twice . Eventually , the studio 's rights to commission a full series expired , and Frederator — the short 's production animation studio — pitched it to other channels . The studio approached Cartoon Network , which said it would be willing to produce a series if Ward could prove the short could be expanded into a full series while maintaining elements of the original 's pilot . Rob Sorcher , the chief content officer at Cartoon Network , was influential in getting the network to take a chance on the show ; he recognized the series as " something that felt really indie ... comic book @-@ y [ and ] really new " .
Ward quickly rethought the concept of the pilot ; he wanted a potential series to be " fully realized " , rather than be characterized by the " pre @-@ school vibe " that permeated the original film . Ward 's college friends Patrick McHale and Adam Muto helped him produce a rough storyboard that featured Finn and Princess Bubblegum going on a spaghetti @-@ supper date . Cartoon Network was not happy with this story and asked for another . Ward then created a storyboard for the episode " The Enchiridion ! " , which was his attempt to emulate the style of the original Nicktoons short . Cartoon Network approved the first season in September 2008 , and " The Enchiridion ! " was the first episode to enter into production . Ward and his production team began storyboarding episodes and writing plot outlines . Cartoon Network was still concerned about the direction of the new series . During the pitch of an episode titled " Brothers in Insomnia " — which was eventually scrapped — McHale said the room was filled with executives from Cartoon Network . The pitch went well ; the production staff were soon inundated with questions about the stylistic nature of the series . Hoping to resolve these issues , Cartoon Network management hired three veteran animators who had worked on SpongeBob SquarePants : Derek Drymon ( who served as executive producer for the first season of Adventure Time ) , Merriwether Williams ( who served as head story editors for the show 's first and second seasons ) , and Nick Jennings ( who became the series ' long @-@ serving art director ) . Thurop Van Orman , the creator of The Marvelous Misadventures of Flapjack , was also hired to guide Ward and his staff for the first two seasons .
One of the main changes from the pilot to the series was the emphasis placed on the background art . Dan " Ghostshrimp " James , a freelance illustrator who had also storyboarded on Flapjack , was tasked with designing the show 's world ; Ward told him to make the series look as though it took place " in a ' Ghostshrimp World ' " . James designed major locations , including Finn and Jake 's home , the Candy Kingdom , and the Ice Kingdom . During the production of season one , Ward assembled a storyboarding team for the series . He was drawn to " younger , inexperienced people " , and he used the Internet to help with his search . During this time , Phil Rynda , who worked as the series ' lead character designer for two and a half seasons , was hired .
= = = Production = = =
While many cartoons are based on script pitches to network executives , Cartoon Network allowed Adventure Time to " build their own teams organically " and communicate through the use of storyboards and animatics . Rob Sorcher said this novel approach was sanctioned because the company was dealing with " primarily visual people " , and that by using storyboards the writers and artists could learn and grow " by actually doing the work " . The storyboard artists generally work on an episode in pairs , independent from other storyboarders , which , according to freelance writer David Perlmutter in his book America Toons In , prevents creative ennui and results in no two episodes being " alike in either content or tone " . Many members of the series ' production staff have backgrounds in indie comics , and Pendleton Ward has called them " really smart , smartypants people " who were responsible for inserting more idiosyncratic and spiritual ideas into the series during its third and later seasons .
In an interview with The A.V. Club , Ward said the writing process for the show usually begins with the writers telling each other what they had done the previous week in an attempt to find something humorous to build from . He also said , " a lot of the time , if we 're really stuck , we 'll start saying everything that comes to our mind , which is usually the worst stuff , and then someone else will think that 's terrible but it 'll give him a better idea and the ball just starts rolling like that " . Ward also said a major inspiration for the series is the fantasy role @-@ playing game Dungeons and Dragons of which many of the show 's writers were fans . Because of the busy schedule of writing and coordinating a television series , they no longer had time to play the game . Ward said because the writers were too busy , they would attempt to write stories they would " want to be playing D & D with " . Sometimes , the writers and storyboard artists convene and play writing games . One game is called exquisite corpse ; one writer starts a story on a sheet of paper , which is then folded and another writer tries to finish it . Ward said , " the ideas are usually terrible " . Storyboard artist Cole Sanchez said episode scripts are either created by expanding the good ideas produced by these writing games , or are based upon an idea proposed by a storyboard artist in the hope it can be developed into an episode .
After the writers pitch stories , the ideas are compiled onto a two @-@ or @-@ three @-@ page outline that contain " the important beats " . The episodes are then passed to storyboard artists who are given a week to " thumbnail a storyboard " and fill in the details complete with action , dialogue , and jokes . Ward and his creative directors then review the storyboard and make notes . The artists are then given another week to implement the notes and clean up the episode . Storyboard writing and revising can take up to a month . Following the revisions , the voices for the episode are recorded and an animatic is compiled to reduce the running time to the necessary 11 minutes . Prop , character , and background designers then create and clean up the designs . After this , the animation process begins . The episodes ' design and coloring are done in Burbank , California . Animation is handled in South Korea by either Rough Draft Korea or by Saerom Animation .
Animating an episode can take between three and five months . During this time , retakes , music scoring , and sound design are completed . Once the animation is finished , it is sent back to the United States where it is reviewed ; the staff look for mistakes in the animation or " things that didn 't animate the way [ the staff ] intended " . These problems are then fixed in Korea and the episode is finished . It takes between eight and nine months for each episode to be created ; because of this , multiple episodes are worked on concurrently . According to former lead character designer Phil Rynda , most pre @-@ production is done in Photoshop . The animation is hand @-@ drawn on paper which is then digitally composited and painted with digital ink and paint . The series has occasionally hired guest animators for certain episodes . For instance , the second season entry " Guardians of Sunshine " was partially rendered in 3 @-@ D to emulate the style of a video game . The fifth @-@ season episode " A Glitch is a Glitch " was written and directed by Irish filmmaker and writer David OReilly , and features his distinctive 3 @-@ D animation . Another fifth season episode , " James Baxter the Horse " featured animation courtesy of noted animator James Baxter . The sixth season episode Food Chain was written , storyboarded , and directed by Japanese anime director Masaaki Yuasa , and was animated entirely by Yuasa 's own studio . Another sixth season episode " Water Park Prank " features Flash animation by David Ferguson . A stop @-@ motion episode titled " Bad Jubies " , directed by Kirsten Lepore , aired near the middle of the show 's seventh season . Lindsay and Alex Small @-@ Butera , noted for their web animation series Baman Piderman , also contributed animation for the seventh season episode " Beyond the Grotto " .
Ward described the show as a " dark comedy " and said he enjoys experiencing ambivalent emotions , such as the feeling of being " happy and scared at the same time " . Executive producer Fred Seibert compared the show 's animation style to that of Felix the Cat and various Max Fleischer cartoons , but said its world was also inspired by Dungeons and Dragons and video games . Ward intends the show 's world to have a physical logic rather than " cartoony slapstick " . Although magic exists in the story , the show 's writers try to create an internal consistency in the characters ' interactions with the world . In the United States , the series is rated TV @-@ PG ; Ward has said he does not want to push the show 's PG rating . He said , " I 've never really even thought about the rating ... we don 't like stuff that 's overly gross . We like cute stuff and nice things . "
In an interview with Rolling Stone , Ward said he had stepped down as series showrunner sometime during the fifth season in favor of Muto . As a naturally introverted person , he found dealing with people every day to be exhausting . Adam Muto , a storyboard artist and creative director for the show since the first season , became the show 's new showrunner . Until late 2014 , Ward continued to work on the series as a storyboard artist and storyline writer . After November 2014 , he stopped writing episode stories and focused on producing an Adventure Time movie .
= = = Cast = = =
Voice actors for the series include : Jeremy Shada ( who portrays Finn the Human ) , John DiMaggio ( who portrays Jake the Dog ) , Tom Kenny ( who plays the Ice King ) , Hynden Walch ( who voices Princess Bubblegum ) , and Olivia Olson ( who voices Marceline the Vampire Queen ) . Ward provides voices for several minor characters and Lumpy Space Princess . Former storyboard artist Niki Yang voices the sentient video game console BMO in English , and Jake 's girlfriend Lady Rainicorn in Korean . Polly Lou Livingston , a friend of Pendleton Ward 's mother Bettie Ward , plays the voice of the small elephant named Tree Trunks .
The Adventure Time cast members record their lines together in group recordings rather than individually , with the goal of recording natural @-@ sounding dialogue . Hynden Walch has described these group recordings as being akin to " doing a play reading — a really , really out there play " . The series regularly employs guest actors for minor and recurring characters . The crew members cast people they are interested in working with . For instance , in a panel , both Adam Muto and Kent Osborne said the Adventure Time crew has been attempting to cast the entire cast of Star Trek : The Next Generation and The Office as various characters .
= = = Setting and mythology = = =
The show is set in a fictional continent called the " Land of Ooo " , in a post @-@ apocalyptic future about a thousand years after a nuclear holocaust called the " Great Mushroom War " . According to Ward , the show takes place " after the bombs have fallen and magic has come back into the world " . Before the series was fully developed , Ward 's intended the Land of Ooo to be simply " magical " . After the broadcast of " Business Time " , in which an iceberg containing reanimated business men floats to the surface of a lake , the show became post @-@ apocalyptic ; Ward said the production crew " just ran with it " . Ward later described the setting as " candyland on the surface and dark underneath " , and said he had never intended the Mushroom War and the post @-@ apocalyptic elements to be " hit over the head in the show " . He limited it to " cars buried underground in the background [ and other elements that do not ] raise any eyebrows " . Ward has said the post @-@ apocalyptic elements of the series were influenced by the 1979 film Mad Max . Kenny called the way in which the elements are worked into the plot " very fill @-@ in @-@ the @-@ blanks " , and DiMaggio said , " it 's been obvious the Land of Ooo has some issues " .
The series has a canonical mythology — an overarching plot and backstory — that is expanded upon in various episodes . The backstory mainly involves the Mushroom War , the origin of the series ' principal antagonist the Lich , and the backstories of several of the series ' principal and recurring characters . Ward has said the details behind the Mushroom War and the series ' dark mythology form " a story worth telling " , and that he feels the show will " save it and continue to dance around how heavy the back @-@ history of Ooo is " .
= = = Title sequence and music = = =
When Ward was developing the show 's title sequences , the rough draft version consisted of quick shots and vignettes that were " just sort of crazy , nonsensical " , which alluded to the show 's theme of quirky adventures . These drafts included " the characters ... just punching random ghosts and monsters , jumping through anything and everything [ and ] there were a bunch of atomic bombs at the end of it " . Ward later called this version " really silly " . He sent the draft to Cartoon Network ; they did not enjoy it and wanted something more graphical like the introduction to The Brady Bunch . Inspired by the title sequences of The Simpsons and Pee @-@ wee 's Playhouse , Ward developed a new title sequence that featured a panning sweep of the Land of Ooo while a synthesizer note rose slowly until the main theme was played . Ward 's draft for this idea was handed to layout animators and the sequence evolved ; Ward added " silly character stuff on top of his pass " , and Pat McHale worked on the Ice King 's shot and gave him a " high school [ year ] book " smile . The crew also struggled to get the shadows in the shot featuring Marceline correct . After the panning sweep , the sequence cuts to the theme song as shots of Finn and Jake adventuring are shown . For this part of the sequence , Ward was inspired by the " simple " aspects of the introduction of the 2007 comedy film Superbad . When the theme mentions " Jake the Dog " and " Finn the Human " , the characters ' names are displayed next to their heads , with a solid color in the background . The sequence was finalized immediately before the series was aired .
The show 's eponymous theme song is performed by Ward , who is accompanied by a ukulele . The theme first appeared in the pilot episode ; in this version Ward was accompanied by an acoustic guitar . In the version used in the series , Ward sings in a noticeably higher register ; this is because Ward felt it was necessary to match his singing with the higher key of the ukulele . The finalized version of the theme song was originally supposed to be a temporary version . Ward said , " I recorded the lyrics for the opening title in the animatics room where we have this little crummy microphone just so that we could add it to the titles and submit it to the network . Later , we tried re @-@ recording it and I didn 't like it ... I only liked the temp one ! " According to Ward , much of the series ' music has " hiss and grit " because one of the show 's original composers , Casey James Basichis , " lives in a pirate ship he 's built inside of an apartment [ and ] you can hear floorboards squeak and lots of other weird sounds " . As the show progressed , Basichis 's friend Tim Kiefer joined the show as an additional composer . The two currently work together on its music .
The show 's title sequence and theme song have mostly stayed consistent throughout its run , with two exceptions . During the Fionna and Cake episodes , all of the characters featured in the sequence are gender @-@ bent and the theme is sung by former storyboard revisionist Natasha Allegri . Similarly , the introduction of the miniseries Stakes places most of the emphasis on Marceline , and the theme song is sung by Olivia Olson .
The series regularly features songs and musical numbers . Many of the cast members — including Shada , Kenny , and Olson — sing their characters ' songs . Characters often express their emotions in song ; examples of this include Marceline 's song " I 'm Just Your Problem " and Finn 's " All Gummed Up Inside " . Although the background music for the series is composed by Basichis and Kiefer , the songs sung by characters are often written by the storyboard artists . For instance , the " Fry Song " was written by storyboard artist Rebecca Sugar , who storyboarded its parent episode " It Came from the Nightosphere " . Frederator , Seibert 's production company , often posted demos and full versions of songs sung by the characters . The show also rarely but occasionally refers to popular music .
= = Broadcast = =
Each Adventure Time episode is about eleven minutes in length ; pairs of episodes are often telecast in order to fill a half @-@ hour program time slot .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
Since its debut , Adventure Time has been a ratings success for Cartoon Network . In March 2013 , it was reported that the show averages roughly 2 to 3 million viewers an episode . According to a 2012 report by Nielsen , the show consistently ranks first in its time slot among boys aged 2 to 14 . The show premiered on April 5 , 2010 , and was watched by 2 @.@ 5 million viewers . The episode was a ratings success ; according to a press release by Cartoon Network , the episode 's time slot saw triple @-@ digit percentage increases from the previous year . The program was viewed by 1 @.@ 661 million children aged 2 – 11 — a 110 percent increase from the previous year 's figures . It was watched by 837 @,@ 000 children aged 9 – 14 — an increase 239 percent on the previous year 's figures . Between the second and sixth seasons , the show 's ratings continued to grow ; the second season premiere was watched by 2 @.@ 001 million viewers ; the third season debut was watched by 2 @.@ 686 million , the fourth season premiere was watched by 2 @.@ 655 million ; the fifth season premiere was watched by 3 @.@ 435 million ; and the sixth season premiere was watched by 3 @.@ 321 million . The show 's seventh season opener , however , took a substantial ratings tumble , being watched by only 1 @.@ 07 million viewers .
= = = Critical reviews = = =
The show has received positive reviews from critics and has developed a strong following among children , teenagers , and adults ; fans are drawn to Adventure Time because of " the show 's silly humor , imaginative stories , and richly populated world " . Television critic Robert Lloyd , in an article for the LA Times , said the series was a good companion piece " to the network 's [ then ] currently airing Chowder and The Marvelous Misadventures of Flapjack . " He complimented the setting and compared the show to the two previously mentioned series , saying each takes place " in a fantastical land peopled with strange , somewhat disturbing characters and has at its center a young male person or person @-@ like thing making his way in that world with the help of unusual , not always reliable , mentors " . He also said the show is " not unlike CN 's earlier Foster 's Home for Imaginary Friends , about a boy and his imaginary friend , though darker and stranger and even less connected to the world as we know it " . Lloyd also compared it to " the sort of cartoons they made when cartoons themselves were young and delighted in bringing all things to rubbery life " . In a review of the third season , Mike LeChevallier of Slate , wrote that the series " scores relatively high marks for storytelling , artwork , music , voice acting , and realization with its neatly wrapped , 11 @-@ minute packages of multicolored awesomeness " , awarding the third and fourth seasons a rating of four stars out of five . He said the show " scarcely appears to be trying too hard to attract attention , yet it does just that " . He also said , " the short @-@ form format leaves some emotional substance to be desired " , and that this was inevitable for a series with such short episodes . In a review of season four , LeChevallier complimented the show for " growing up " with its characters , and said " the show 's dialogue is among the best of any current animated series " . He concluded that the series has " strikingly few faults " .
The A.V. Club reviewer Zack Handlen called Adventure Time " a terrific show [ that ] fits beautifully in that gray area between kid and adult entertainment in a way that manages to satisfy both a desire for sophisticated ( i.e. , weird ) writing and plain old silliness " . He concluded that the show was " basically what would happen if you asked a bunch of 12 @-@ year @-@ olds to make a cartoon , only it 's the best possible version of that , like if all the 12 @-@ year @-@ olds were super geniuses and some of them were Stan Lee and Jack Kirby and the Marx Brothers " . Robert Mclaughlin of Den of Geek said Adventure Time " is the first cartoon in a long time that is pure imagination " . He heavily complimented the show for " its non @-@ reliance on continually referencing pop culture ... and the general outlook is positive and fun " . Eric Kohn of IndieWire said the show " represents the progress of [ cartoon ] medium " in the current decade . Kohn said he enjoyed the way the show revels in " random , frequently adorable and effusive " aspects and " toys with an incredibly sad subtext " . Entertainment Weekly named Adventure Time number 20 on its " The 25 Greatest Animated Series Ever " list . In 2013 , Entertainment Weekly reviewer Darren Franich awarded the series an " A " and called it " a hybrid sci @-@ fi / fantasy / horror / musical / fairy tale , with echoes of Calvin and Hobbes , Hayao Miyazaki , Final Fantasy , Richard Linklater , Where the Wild Things Are , and the music video you made with your high school garage band " . Franich praised the series ' " consistently inventive " plotlines and its " vivid landscape " , as well as its continued maturation . Emily Nussbaum of The New Yorker praised the show , likening it to " World of Warcraft as recapped by Carl Jung " , and praised its unique approach to emotion , humor , and philosophy . Freelance writer David Perlmutter , in his book America Toons In , wrote favorably of Adventure Time , calling it " a more sophisticated blend of high and low comedy " . Perlmutter applauded the show 's voice acting , noting that " the dialogue delivery is far less frantic and rushed than it can be in other series " , and he also wrote positively of the show 's transcending of its source material . With this being said , he argued that the show 's vacillation between high and low comedy epitomizes the fact that Cartoon Network is " unsure of what direction to pursue " . He also noted that " while some of [ Adventure Time 's ] episodes work well , others simply [ are ] confusing . "
= = = Industry impact = = =
Heidi MacDonald of Slate has argued that Adventure Time 's scouting of indie comic creators has led to an " Animation Gold Rush " in which major studios are actively seeking under @-@ the @-@ radar talent for their shows . She also pointed out that Adventure Time has influenced the tone of modern comics , noting , " Where once young cartoonists overwhelmingly produced gloomy masculine self @-@ absorption and misanthropy in the tradition of Daniel Clowes or Chris Ware , these days many booths feature fantasy epics with colorful characters and invented worlds heavy on the talking animals . It shouldn 't be surprising that up @-@ and @-@ coming cartoonists are absorbing the Adventure Time aesthetic . "
= = = Academic interest = = =
Adventure Time has attracted academic interest for its examination of gender and gender roles . Emma A. Jane said although the two main characters are male and that many episodes involve them engaging in violent acts to save princesses , " Finn and Jake are part of an expansive ensemble cast of characters who are anything but stereotypical and who populate a program which subverts many traditional gender @-@ related paradigms " . She said the show features " roughly equal numbers of female and male characters in protagonist , antagonist , and minor roles " ; includes characters with no fixed gender ; uses " gendered ' design elements ' " such as eyelashes and hair to illustrate character traits rather than gender ; equally distributes traits regardless of gender ; privileges found , adoptive families or extended families ; frames gender in ways that suggest it is fluid ; and features elements of queer and transgender sub @-@ text . Carolyn Lesie agrees , saying , " despite having two male leads , Adventure Time is particularly strong when it comes to questioning and challenging gender stereotypes " . She uses Princess Bubblegum , BMO , and Fionna and Cake as examples of characters who refuse to be readily categorized and genderized .
= = = Fandom = = =
Since its debut , Adventure Time has amassed a steadily growing fandom . The show is often described as having a cult following among teenagers and adults ; Eric Kohn of Indiewire said while it began with a cult following , the series has " started to look like one of the biggest television phenomenons of the decade " . The show is popular at fan conventions , such as the San Diego @-@ hosted Comic Con. Reporter Emma @-@ Lee Moss said , " This year 's [ 2014 ] Comic @-@ Con schedule reflected Adventure Time 's growing success , with several screenings , a dramatic reading with the show 's voice talent and a special Adventure Time Cosplay ball " .
The show is also popular with cosplayers , or performance artists who wear costumes and fashion accessories to represent characters from the Adventure Time universe . Moss wrote , " Looking into the crowd , it was clear that [ Finn 's ] distinctive blue shirt and white hat were being mirrored by hundreds of Cosplayers , male and female " . In an interview , Olivia Olson said , " Literally , anywhere you look , anywhere in your range , you 're going to see at least two people dressed up like Finn . It 's crazy . "
= = = Accolades = = =
= = = = Television = = = =
= = = = Comics = = = =
= = Related media = =
= = = Comic books = = =
On November 19 , 2011 , KaBOOM ! Studios announced plans for an Adventure Time comic book series written by independent web comic creator Ryan North , who wrote the series Dinosaur Comics . The series launched on February 8 , 2012 , with art by Shelli Paroline and Braden Lamb . In October 2014 , it was revealed that North had left the comic series after three years . His duties were assumed by Christopher Hastings , the creator of The Adventures of Dr. McNinja .
After the success of the ongoing comic book line , several spin @-@ off mini @-@ series were launched . In April 2012 , a six @-@ issue miniseries titled Adventure Time : Marceline and the Scream Queens and written by Meredith Gran — who created the series Octopus Pie — was announced . It was launched in July 2012 and features the characters Marceline and Princess Bubblegum touring the Land of Ooo as a part of Marceline 's rock band Scream Queens . Another six @-@ issue mini @-@ series , Adventure Time with Fionna & Cake was launched in January 2013 . This series , drawn by Adventure Time series character designer and storyboard revisionist Natasha Allegri , follows the gender @-@ bent characters Fionna the Human and Cake the Cat from the episode " Fionna and Cake " . Other spin @-@ off comic series including Candy Capers , Flip Side , Banana Guard Academy , and Adventure Time : Ice King , have been released ; each written and illustrated by different writers and artists . One @-@ shot spin @-@ offs have also been announced ; the first , Spoooktacular # 1 , was released in October 2015 .
A separate line of comics , officially denoted as graphic novels , have also been released . The first of these , titled Adventure Time : Playing with Fire , was written by Danielle Corsetto and illustrated by Zack Sterling . It was released in April 2013 , and focuses on Flame Princess ' " very first adventure " with Finn and Jake . Playing with Fire was followed by several other volumes , including : Pixel Princesses ( November 6 , 2013 ) , Seeing Red ( May 2 , 2014 ) , Bitter Sweets ( November 11 , 2014 ) , Graybles Schmaybles ( May 12 , 2015 ) , Masked Mayhem ( November 11 , 2015 ) , and The Four Castles ( May 17 , 2016 ) An eighth original graphic novel , entitled President Bubblegum , is slated for release in September 2016 .
= = = Other literature = = =
Other Adventure Time @-@ themed books have also been released . The Adventure Time Encyclopaedia , published on July 22 , 2013 , was written by comedian Martin Olson , who is the father of Olivia Olson and the voice of recurring antagonist Hunson Abadeer . This book was followed by Adventure Time : The Enchiridion & Marcy 's Super Secret Scrapbook ! ! ! , which was released on October 6 , 2015 . This book — written by Martin and Olivia Olson — is presented as a combination of the Enchiridion and Marceline 's secret diary . An official Art of ... book , titled The Art of Ooo was published on October 14 , 2014 ; it contains interviews with cast and crew members , and opens with an introduction by film @-@ maker Guillermo del Toro . There are also a series of prose novels published under the header " Epic Tales from Adventure Time " , including : The Untamed Scoundrel written by Adrianne Ambrose , and Queen of Rogues and The Lonesome Outlaw both written by Leigh Dragoon . These books were published under the pseudonym " T. T. MacDangereuse " . Two volumes with collections of the show 's title cards have also been released .
= = = Video games = = =
A video game based on the series was announced by Pendleton Ward on his Twitter account . The game , titled Adventure Time : Hey Ice King ! Why 'd You Steal Our Garbage ? ! ! , was developed by WayForward Technologies for Nintendo DS , and Nintendo 3DS , and was released by D3 Publisher on November 20 , 2012 . Various video games , including Legends of Ooo , Fionna Fights , Beemo – Adventure Time , and Ski Safari : Adventure Time , have been released on the iOS App Store . In May 2013 , it was announced that a new game called Adventure Time : Explore the Dungeon Because I Don 't Know ! would be released . The game follows Finn and Jake as they strive " to save the Candy Kingdom by exploring the mysterious Secret Royal Dungeon deep below the Land of Ooo . " It was released in November 2013 .
A video game titled Finn & Jake 's Quest was released on April 11 , 2014 , on Steam . Adventure Time : The Secret of the Nameless Kingdom was released on November 18 , 2014 , for Nintendo 3DS , Xbox 360 , PlayStation 3 , and Microsoft Windows . Cartoon Network also released a multiplayer online battle arena ( MOBA ) game titled Adventure Time : Battle Party on Cartoonnetwork.com , on June 23 , 2014 . In April 2015 , two downloadable content packs for LittleBigPlanet 3 on PlayStation 3 and PlayStation 4 were released ; one contained Adventure Time costumes , the other contained a level kit with decorations , stickers , music , objects , a background and a bonus Fionna costume . In October 2015 , the fourth major Adventure Time video game , titled Finn & Jake Investigations , was released . It is the first in the series to feature full 3D graphics .
A virtual reality game entitled Adventure Time : Magic Man 's Head Games was also released to Oculus Rift , HTC Vive , and PlayStation VR . Adventure Time characters will be added to the LEGO Dimensions game in September 2016 .
= = = Other merchandise = = =
Jazwares has produced an assortment of 2- , 5- , 10- , and 20 @-@ inch licensed action figures for the series , which were launched in late 2011 . " Grow Your Own " characters that expand when immersed in water were also released . Role playing toys have been produced ; a 24 @-@ inch " Finn Sword " was released first . Jazwares is also producing a " cuddle pillow " of Jake and Lumpy Space Princess . " Splat toys " of the same characters were released in early 2012 . Since the dramatic increase in popularity of the series , many graphic T @-@ shirts have been officially licensed through popular clothing retailers . Pendleton Ward hosted T @-@ shirt designing contests on two of these retailers ' websites . Other shirts can be purchased directly from Cartoon Network 's store . A collectible card game called Card Wars , inspired by the season four episode of the same name , has been released . On March 11 , 2016 , it was announced by Lego via Lego Ideas that an official Adventure Time Lego set from an idea by site user , aBetterMonkey , had met voting qualifications and was approved to be produced in cooperation with Cartoon Network . The set has been slated for an early 2017 release .
= = = Film = = =
In February 2015 , it was reported that a theatrical Adventure Time movie was being developed by Cartoon Network Studios , Frederator Films , and Warner Animation Group . The film is being executive produced and written by Pendleton Ward , and produced by Roy Lee and Chris McKay . In October 2015 , series producer Adam Muto confirmed that series creator Pendleton Ward was “ working on the premise ” for the film , but that there was “ nothing official to announce yet . ”
= = Home media = =
On September 27 , 2011 , Cartoon Network released the region 1 DVD My Two Favorite People , which features a random selection of 12 episodes from the series ' first two seasons . The success of this DVD led to the release of several other region @-@ 1 compilation DVDs , including : It Came from the Nightosphere ( 2012 ) , Jake vs. Me @-@ Mow ( 2012 ) , Fionna and Cake ( 2013 ) , Jake the Dad ( 2013 ) , The Suitor ( 2014 ) , Princess Day ( 2014 ) , Adventure Time and Friends ( 2014 ) , Finn the Human ( 2014 ) , Frost & Fire ( 2015 ) , The Enchiridion ( 2015 ) , Stakes ( 2016 ) , and Card Wars ( 2016 ) . In addition , seasons one through five have been released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray . On March 30 , 2013 , the first season of Adventure Time was made available on the Netflix Instant Watch service for online streaming ; the second season was made available on March 30 , 2014 . Both seasons were removed on March 30 , 2015 , although seasons one through six were eventually made available for streaming on Hulu on May 1 , 2015 .
= John Peckham =
John Peckham ( / ˈpɛkəm / ; also Pecham ; c . 1230 – 8 December 1292 ) was Archbishop of Canterbury in the years 1279 – 1292 . He was a native of Sussex who was educated at Lewes Priory and became a Friar Minor about 1250 . He studied at the University of Paris under Bonaventure , where he would later teach theology . From his teaching , he came into conflict with Thomas Aquinas , whom he debated on two occasions . Known as a conservative theologian , he opposed Aquinas ' views on the nature of the soul . Peckham also studied optics and astronomy , and his studies in those subjects were influenced by Roger Bacon .
In around 1270 , Peckham returned to England , where he taught at the University of Oxford , and was elected the provincial minister of England ( Minoriten ) in 1275 . After a brief stint in Rome , he was appointed Archbishop of Canterbury in 1279 . His time as archbishop was marked by efforts to improve discipline in the clergy as well as reorganize the estates of his see . Pluralism , or holding more than one clerical benefice , was one of the abuses that Peckham combatted . He served King Edward I of England in Wales , where he formed a low opinion of the Welsh people and laws . Before and during his time as archbishop , he wrote a number of works on optics , philosophy , and theology , as well as writing hymns . Numerous manuscripts of his works survive . On his death , his body was buried in Canterbury Cathedral , but his heart was given to the Franciscans for burial .
= = Early life = =
Peckham came from a humble family , possibly from Patcham in Sussex . He was born about 1230 and was educated at Lewes Priory . About 1250 , he joined the Franciscan order at Oxford . He then went to the University of Paris , where he studied under Bonaventure and became regent master , or official lecturer , in theology . While at Paris , he wrote a Commentary on Lamentations , which sets out two possible sermons .
For years Peckham taught at Paris , where he was in contact with many of the leading scholars of his time , including Thomas Aquinas . He famously debated Aquinas on at least two occasions during 1269 and 1270 , during which Peckham defended the conservative theological position , and Thomas put forth his views on the soul . The Thomist doctrine of the unity of form was condemned after these debates . His theological works later were used by his pupil Roger Marston who in turn inspired Duns Scotus .
Peckham also studied other fields , however ; and was guided by Robert Grosseteste and Roger Bacon 's views on the value of experimental science . Where Peckham met Bacon is not known , but it would have been at either Paris or Oxford . Bacon 's influence can be seen in Peckham 's works on optics ( the Perspectiva communis ) and astronomy .
= = Return to England = =
= = = Reorganization of the archdiocese = = =
About 1270 , he returned to England to teach at Oxford , and was elected provincial minister of the Franciscans in England in 1275 . He did not long remain in that post , being summoned to Rome as lector sacri palatii , or theological lecturer at the papal palace . It is likely that he composed his Expositio super Regulam Fratrum Minorum , a work that included information on preaching , a subject that Peckham felt was of great importance . In 1279 he was appointed Archbishop of Canterbury by Pope Nicholas III who had prohibited the election of Robert Burnell , Edward I 's preferred candidate . He was provided ( appointed by the pope to the see ) on 25 January 1279 and consecrated on 19 February 1279 .
Peckham laid stress on discipline , which often resulted in conflict with his clergy . His first episcopal act was calling a council at Reading in July 1279 to implement ecclesiastical reform , but Peckham 's specifying that a copy of Magna Carta should be hung in all cathedral and collegiate churches offended the king as an unnecessary intrusion into political affairs . Another ruling was on non @-@ residence of clergy in their livings . The only exception Peckham was prepared to make on non @-@ residence was if the clerk needed to go abroad to study . At the Parliament of Winchester in 1279 , the archbishop compromised and Parliament invalidated any regulation of the council dealing with royal policies or power . The copies of Magna Carta were taken down . One reason the archbishop may have backed down was that he was in debt to the Italian banking family of the Riccardi , who also were bankers to Edward and the pope , and Peckham was under threat of excommunication from the pope unless he repaid the loans .
However , Peckham worked hard to reorganise the estates of the diocese , and held an inquiry in 1283 through 1285 into the revenues of the see . He set up administrative structures in the manors that divided them into seven administrative groups . Peckham , though , was almost continually in debt , and because he was a Franciscan , he had no personal property to help with his living expenses . He had inherited the diocesan debts that his predecessor had allowed to accumulate , and never managed to clear them .
= = = Relations with the Welsh = = =
Notwithstanding his other actions , Peckham 's relations with the king were generally good , and Edward sent him on a diplomatic mission to Llywelyn ap Gruffudd in Wales . In 1282 he attempted to mediate between the Welsh and King Edward , but given that Edward would not budge on the main issues , it was a hopeless mission . In the end , Peckham excommunicated some of the Welsh who were resisting Edward , not unsurprising given Peckham 's views of the Welsh . Peckham visited the Welsh dioceses as part of his tour of all his subordinate dioceses . While there , Peckham criticised the Welsh clergy for their unchaste lives , conspicuous consumption , and heavy drinking . He also found the Welsh clergy to be uneducated , although he did order a Welsh @-@ speaking suffragan bishop to be appointed to help with pastoral duties in the diocese of Coventry and Lichfield . Peckham also criticised the Welsh people as a whole , contrasting their pastoral economy with the farming @-@ based economy of England , and finding the Welsh to be lazy and idle .
As part of his diplomatic duties , Peckham wrote to Llywelyn , and in those letters the archbishop continued his criticisms of the Welsh people , this time condemning their laws as contrary to both the Old and New Testament . Peckham was particularly offended that Welsh laws sought to get parties to homicides or other crimes to settle their differences rather than the process of English law which condemned the criminal .
Peckham also had problems with his subordinate Thomas Bek , who was Bishop of St David 's in Wales . Bek tried to revive a scheme to make St David 's independent from Canterbury , and to elevate it to metropolitan status . This had originally been put forth by Gerald of Wales around 1200 , but had been defeated by the actions of Hubert Walter , then the Archbishop of Canterbury . Bek did not manage even the four @-@ year fight that Gerald had managed , for Peckham routed him quickly .
= = = Ecclesiastical matters = = =
Skirmishes with Edward over clerical privileges , royal power , Peckham 's use of excommunication , and ecclesiastical taxation continued , but in October 1286 , Edward issued a writ entitled Circumspecte Agatis which specified what types of cases the ecclesiastical courts could hear . These included moral issues , matrimonial issues , disputes about wills and testaments , the correction of sins , and slander and physical attacks on the clergy .
Peckham was very strict in his interpretations of canon law , and once wrote to Queen Eleanor that her use of loans from Jewish moneylenders to acquire lands was usury and a mortal sin . He also felt that Welsh laws were illogical and conflicted with Biblical teachings . He also mandated that the clerical tonsure worn by the clergy should not just include the top of the head , but also have the nape and over the ears shaved , which allowed the clergy to be easily distinguished from the laity . To help with this , the archbishop also forbade the clergy from wearing secular clothing , especially military garb . He also forbade an effort by the Benedictine order in England to reform their monastic rule , to allow more time for study and for more education for the monks . Peckham 's reason was that they were against custom , but he may also have had concerns that these reforms would have drawn recruits away from the Franciscans .
At an ecclesiastical council held at Lambeth in 1281 , Peckham ordered the clergy to instruct their congregations in doctrine at least four times a year . They were to explain and teach the Articles of Faith , the Ten Commandments , the Works of Mercy , the Seven Deadly Sins , the Seven Virtues and the Sacraments . This command was issued as a canon , or law , of the council , and the group is known as the Lambeth Constitutions . Even later these constitutions were collected as the Ignorantia sacerdotum . The six doctrines comprised the minimum theological knowledge the archbishop considered necessary for the laity to know . The constitutions , which were originally in Latin , were the basis and inspiration for pastoral and devotional works throughout the remainder of the Middle Ages , and were eventually translated into English in the 15th century .
The crime of " plurality , " or pluralism , which was the holding by one cleric of two or more benefices , was one of Peckham 's targets , as were clerical absenteeism and laxity in the monastic life . His main method of fighting these was a system of " visitation " of his subordinate dioceses and religious houses , which he used with an unprecedented frequency . This often resulted in conflicts over whether or not the archbishop had jurisdiction to conduct these visits , but Peckham was also papal legate , which added a layer of complexity to the resulting disputes . The numerous legal cases that resulted from his visitation policy strengthened the archiepiscopal court at the expense of the lower courts . Peckham also fought with Thomas de Cantilupe , Bishop of Hereford over the right to visit subordinate clergy . The quarrel involved an appeal over the jurisdiction of the archbishop , that Thomas sent to Rome in 1281 , but Thomas died before the case could be decided . Peckham also decreed that the clergy should preach to their flocks at least four times a year .
Peckham often was in conflict with his subordinate bishops , mainly because of his efforts to reform them , but Peckham 's own attitude and handling of his clergy contributed to the problem . He once wrote to Roger de Meyland , the Bishop of Coventry and Lichfield " These things need your attention , but you have been absent so long that you seem not to care . We therefore order you , on receipt of this letter , to take up residence in your diocese , so that — even if you are not competent to redress spiritual evils — you may at least minister to the temporal needs of the poor . " The historian Richard Southern says that Peckham 's disputes with his suffragan bishops were " conducted in an atmosphere of bitterness and perpetual ill @-@ will " , which probably owed something to a " petulant strain in Peckham 's character " . Peckham 's conflicts started because his own ideals were those of a Franciscan , but most of his clergy were concerned with more mundane and materialistic affairs . These strains between the archbishop and his subordinates were intensified by clashes over ecclesiastical and secular authority , as well as Edward 's great need for income .
Archbishop John Peckham was a notable anti @-@ semite . On August 19 , 1282 , in a letter to Richard Gravesend , Bishop of London , he ordered the Bishop to compel the Jews of London , using every instrument of ecclesiastical censure , to destroy all their synagogues except one within a brief time period to be determined by the Bishop . In a second letter he congratulates the Bishop because the Judaica perfidia is being overcome by the bishop 's attention and vigilance .
= = Death and legacy = =
A number of manuscripts of Peckham 's works on philosophy and biblical commentary remain extant . Queen Eleanor persuaded him to write for her a scholarly work in French , which was later described as " unfortunately rather a dull and uninspired little treatise . " His poem Philomena is considered one of the finest poems written in its time .
Peckham died on 8 December 1292 at Mortlake and was buried in the north transept , or the Martyrdom , of Canterbury Cathedral . His heart , however , was buried with the Franciscans under the high altar of their London church . His tomb still survives . He founded a college at Wingham , Kent in 1286 , probably a college of canons serving a church .
= = = Works = = =
A number of his works have survived , and some have appeared in print in various times :
Peckham is the earliest Archbishop of Canterbury to have his registers , the principal records of archiepiscopal administration , held at Lambeth Palace Library .
= Zombi 2 =
Zombi 2 is a 1979 zombie film directed by Lucio Fulci . The film was adapted from an original screenplay by Dardano Sacchetti to serve as a sequel to George A. Romero 's Dawn of the Dead , released in Italy as Zombi . It stars Tisa Farrow , Ian McCulloch and Richard Johnson , and featured a score by frequent Fulci collaborator Fabio Frizzi .
The film tells the story of a Caribbean island cursed by voodoo , whose dead residents rise as zombies to attack the living . A scientist 's daughter journeys to the island after her father 's boat turns up abandoned in New York City . Intended as a return to " classic zombie tales " by its writer , Zombi 2 was filmed in Italy , with further location shooting in New York and Santa Domingo .
Produced on a small budget of ₤ 410 million , the film earned several times its production costs back in international gross . It attracted controversy upon its United Kingdom release , becoming listed as a " video nasty " ; however , later years have seen a greater appreciation for the film from critics . Frizzi 's score has also been released independently of the film , as well as being performed live on tour by the composer .
= = Plot = =
Investigating an abandoned boat in a New York harbour , a patrolman is killed by a zombie before his partner chases it overboard . The dead patrolman 's body is taken to the morgue . Anne Bowles ( Tisa Farrow ) is questioned by police , as the boat belonged to her father . She claims he is conducting research on Matul , a Caribbean island . A newspaper reporter , Peter West ( Ian McCulloch ) , is investigating the story . He and Bowles learn that Bowles ' father is suffering from a strange illness on the island . They hire a boat and two guides — Brian Hull ( Al Cliver ) and his wife Susan Barrett ( Auretta Gay ) — to reach Matul .
Meanwhile , on Matul , Dr. David Menard ( Richard Johnson ) , and his wife Paola ( Olga Karlatos ) have been researching the phenomenon of zombie reanimation . Paola wishes to flee the island but Menard insists on staying . That night , Paola is alone in the house when a zombie tries to enter . She pushes the door shut but it breaks through with one arm . Paola is dragged through the hole and killed , with her eye being gouged out by splintered wood .
Approaching Matul , Barrett dives in the ocean around the boat . She encounters a shark and flees behind a reef , only to be accosted by a submerged zombie . Surfacing , she reaches the boat while the shark and zombie attack each other . Eventually , the boat docks at Matul .
Menard is alarmed to find that one of his colleagues has died of the zombie infection ; he waits for the body to reanimate before shooting it in the head . While digging a grave for the body , he hears gunfire and follows it to discover the boat group . Menard takes them back to his mansion , discovering Paola 's corpse being eaten by zombies . The group fends off an attack and escapes in a jeep , with West suffering an ankle injury when the vehicle veers off @-@ road . Resting in a jungle clearing , the group realise they have encountered a Conquistador @-@ era graveyard ; Barrett is killed when one of the corpses rises from the earth and bites out her throat .
As more corpses reanimate , the group flees to a hospital , where Menard explains that the dead are rising as a result of a voodoo curse which he has been trying to stop . The hospital is besieged by zombies , and Menard is killed by one of his former staff . As the zombies attempt to enter , those being treated for infection inside the hospital also reanimate , killing several hospital staff who have stayed behind . As the dead outside breach the door , Bowles sets the building on fire . The undead Barrett attacks Hull but is shot in the head by West . Bowles , West and Hull escape to the boat and leave the island .
At sea , Hull dies of his infection , and his body is locked in a cabin to be used as evidence of what has happened . However , as the boat approaches New York again , a radio broadcast reports that the city is under attack from zombies — the result of the initial attack in the harbour .
= = Production = =
= = = Pre @-@ production = = =
Zombi 2 serves as a sequel to Zombi , a re @-@ edited Italian release of George A. Romero 's 1978 film Dawn of the Dead ; Zombi had been edited by Dario Argento and given a new score by the Italian band Goblin , and proved successful upon its release in Italy . As Italian copyright law allows any film to be marketed as a sequel to another work , the film was quickly greenlit and financed by producer Fabrizio De Angelis . Enzo G. Castellari was offered to direct Zombi 2 , but turned it down as he didn 't feel he would be the right director for a horror film . Director Lucio Fulci was De Angelis ' second choice for the project , and was hired based on his handling of violent scenes in his previous films Sette note in nero and Non si sevizia un paperino .
Screenwriter Dardano Sacchetti had already worked with Fulci on Sette note in nero . Sacchetti has since stated that his initial script for Zombi 2 — originally written under the title Nightmare Island — had been influenced by The Island of Doctor Moreau and had been intended to return to " classic zombie tales " such as I Walked with a Zombie , The Walking Dead or Voodoo Island . Sacchetti began work on this script in July 1978 , before it was optioned by Angelis ' company Variety Films that December and re @-@ tooled as Zombi 2 . Lead star McCulloch was cast primarily on the success in Italy of the 1975 BBC television series Survivors , which had impressed producer Ugo Tucci .
= = = Filming = = =
Production occurred during June and July 1979 . Filming took place in Latina , Italy , as well as in New York City and Santo Domingo . Several of the actors ' contracts had specified being provided with trailers for the duration of production ; however , none were present when filming started and only Johnson was able to convince the producers to provide one . McCulloch and Johnson had known each other for many years by the time they collaborated on Zombi 2 , having first met while they were members of the Royal Shakespeare Company in 1962 , with the younger McCulloch coming to idolise Johnson 's work .
= = Music = =
The score to Zombi 2 was composed by Fabio Frizzi , who frequently scored Fulci 's works , including Sette note in nero , I quattro dell 'apocalisse and Sella d 'argento previously . Zombi 2 marked the first time the two had worked together on a straight horror movie as opposed to their previous spaghetti western and giallo thriller work ; Frizzi would go on to compose for many more horror films with and without Fulci .
Frizzi 's work on Zombi 2 — particularly " Seq . 6 " , the sequence composed for the eye @-@ gouging scene — was inspired by the melody of The Beatles ' 1967 song " A Day in the Life " . Elsewhere in the score , Frizzi included Caribbean musical cues , which he noted were intended to " pleasantly deceive " the audience . A medley of the score was later included as part of Frizzi 's 2013 Fulci 2 Frizzi live tour , including the 2014 live album release Fulci 2 Frizzi : Live at Union Chapel . The score itself was released on vinyl by Death Waltz Records in 2015 , with new artwork by Tom Beauvais .
= = = Track listing = = =
All songs written and composed by Fabio Frizzi .
= = Release = =
Zombi 2 was first released in September 1979 in Italy , before being released in English @-@ speaking markets in 1980 . The film would go on to gross over ₤ 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 worldwide , significantly higher than its ₤ 410 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 budget . Zombi 2 has also been released under the titles Sanguella , The Island of the Living Dead , Zombie Flesh Eaters , Zombie , Zombie The Dead Walk Among Us , Gli Ultimi Zombi , Woodoo , L 'Enfer de Zombies , Zombie 2 : The Dead Are Among Us and Nightmare Island .
Upon its release in the United Kingdom on 2 January 1980 , the British Board of Film Classification required a total of one minute and forty @-@ six seconds of material to be cut in order to obtain an X rating ; its most recent home release on 1 August 2005 passed for an 18 rating with no cuts required . However , the 1980 release found itself classified as a " video nasty " , having been considered a breach of the Obscene Publications Act . This classification , and the de facto " ban " it involved , has subsequently been used for publicity when advertising future home releases
Zombi 2 has been released several times on home video , beginning with a 1981 VHS version by VIPCO following the theatrical cuts directed by the BBFC . VIPCO produced an uncut release , marketed as the " strong uncut version " , on VHS the following year ; this is the release which was widely confiscated as a " video nasty " . Further VHS releases followed in 1991 and 1994 , with the latter being edited for widescreen viewing . The film was first released on DVD by VIPCO in 2004 , with minor cuts , and uncut by Anchor Bay Entertainment in 2005 . Other DVD releases include a 2004 version by Cornerstone Media , and a 2012 DVD and Blu @-@ ray version by Arrow Films .
= = Reception = =
Zombi 2 grossed higher in the domestic Italian box office than its predecessor , leading to future sequels — Fulci began directed Zombi 3 before illness forced him to hand over the reigns to Bruno Mattei and Claudio Fragasso , the latter of whom would also direct Zombi 4 .
In a contemporary review , Tom Milne reviewed a 89 @-@ minute English @-@ language dub in the Monthly Film Bulletin and compared the film to Dawn of the Dead . While noting that the cast was competent and the film featured " sometimes effective make @-@ up work " , Milne opined that the film " lacks @-@ for all weaknesses of Romero 's film — even a tenth of the minatory charge harboured by Zombies . " The review noted that the censorship trimmed a " promisingly gruesome sequence " with a corpse undergoing an autopsy . In Italy , La Stampa described the film as " pedestrian " , as well finding it hard to bear Olga Karlatos ' character 's death scene .
In a 2012 review for The Guardian , Phelim O 'Neill described the film as " the ultimate undead movie " , praising its commitment to gory scenes and convincing effects . O 'Neill felt that the film stood the passage of time well , and explained that this was " because it delivers , plain and simple " . He also highlighted Frizzi 's work on the score , and summed the film up as " a real influence on what followed " . Anne Billson , writing for The Daily Telegraph in 2013 , included Zombi 2 in her list of the top ten zombie films , describing its opening scenes as " sublimely creepy " and the eye @-@ gouging scene as " memorably nasty " . Writing for the Daily Mirror , James Kloda praised Fulci 's directing , finding that he consistently made evocative use of particular shots to accentuate the film 's action or horror . Kloda felt that the film " can often blind with its shock violence but is well worth the look " .
Writing for AllMovie , Robert Firsching described Zombi 2 as a " relatively well made shocker " which " led to the zombie @-@ gore film becoming the dominant motif of 1980s Italian horror " . Firsching rated the film three stars out of five . Empire 's Kim Newman awarded the film two stars out of five , chalking up much of its " video nasty " reputation to the " eye gouging " scene , comparing this unfavourably to similar material in 1929 's Un Chien Andalou . Newman did compliment several sequences as interesting , particularly one underwater scene depicting a zombie attacking a shark , but found that overall the film did no " keep up the pace or plausability sufficiently " .
= New York State Route 195 =
New York State Route 195 ( NY 195 ) was a 6 @.@ 20 @-@ mile ( 9 @.@ 98 km ) long north – south state highway located within the town of Lawrence in St. Lawrence County , New York , in the United States . The southern terminus of the route was at NY 11B in the hamlet of Nicholville . Its northern terminus was at U.S. Route 11 ( US 11 ) in the community of Lawrenceville . NY 195 was located in an extremely rural portion of the county and had only three intermediary intersections with other through traffic roads .
NY 195 was first a piece of the former Route 30 , a legislative route designated by the state in 1908 . The route was replaced in 1924 , by NY 2 , the first set of signed state routes in New York , with a bypassed section near Lawrenceville being designated as NY 2A about two years later . NY 2 and NY 2A were decommissioned in 1927 for US 11 , leaving the route unnumbered for a few years . In the 1930 state highway renumbering , the Nicholville – Lawrenceville route was designated as NY 11B . By 1938 , NY 11B was realigned to Malone , and the route was replaced by NY 195 . The route was officially decommissioned by the New York State Department of Transportation on April 10 , 1980 , but the route remained under state control for two more years , until September 1 , 1982 , when the alignment was turned over to St. Lawrence County and designated as County Route 55 ( CR 55 ) and County Route 54 ( CR 54 ) .
= = Route description = =
NY 195 began at an intersection with NY 11B in the hamlet of Nicholville within the town of Lawrence . It headed north out of the community and into a series of cultivated fields . About quarter of the way between Nicholville and Lavery 's Corner , the fields gave way to forested areas , which themselves ceded to more fields near an intersection with Cady Road . NY 195 continued on to Lavery 's Corner , where it intersected with a pair of county highways and turned east toward Lawrenceville . On its way to Lawrenceville , the highway met Ferris Road , the last through route along NY 195 's routing excluding the roadway at its northern terminus . East of Ferris Road , NY 195 curved northeast to enter Lawrenceville , where it ended at US 11 .
= = History = =
In 1908 , the New York State Legislature created Route 30 , an unsigned legislative route extending from Niagara Falls to Rouses Point via Maple View , Potsdam and Lawrenceville . Route 30 followed what is now NY 11B east from Potsdam to Nicholville , where it turned north to follow modern County Route 55 ( CR 55 ) and CR 54 to Lawrenceville . When the first set of posted routes in New York were assigned in 1924 , NY 2 was assigned to most of legislative Route 30 between Maple View and Rouses Point . The lone exception was from Potsdam to Lawrenceville , where NY 2 followed a more northerly alignment via Winthrop and North Lawrence . The bypassed section of legislative Route 30 between Potsdam and Lawrenceville was designated as NY 2A by 1926 .
The Nicholville – Lawrenceville segment of NY 2A was concurrent with NY 56 , another route assigned in the mid @-@ 1920s that extended from Massena in the northwest to Meacham Lake in the southeast via Winthrop and Saint Regis Falls . When NY 2 was redesignated as US 11 in 1927 , the NY 2A designation was eliminated and replaced with a realigned NY 56 from Potsdam to Nicholville . The Nicholville – Lawrenceville roadway was left unnumbered until the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York when it was designated as NY 11B . The designation was extended west to Potsdam by the following year . NY 11B was rerouted c . 1938 to continue east from Nicholville to Malone while its former routing north of Nicholville was designated as NY 195 .
NY 195 remained unchanged up to April 10 , 1980 , when the designation was officially removed from the route . However , the highway remained under state jurisdiction until September 1 , 1982 , when ownership and maintenance of NY 195 's former routing was transferred from the state of New York to St. Lawrence County as part of a larger highway maintenance swap between the two levels of government . The alignment that NY 195 once followed is now part of CR 55 from Nicholville to Lavery 's Corner and part of CR 54 from Lavery 's Corner to Lawrenceville .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route was in Lawrence , St. Lawrence County .
= The Experienced English Housekeeper =
The Experienced English Housekeeper , is a cookery book by the English businesswoman Elizabeth Raffald ( 1733 – 1781 ) . It was first published in 1769 , and went through 13 authorised editions and at least 23 pirated ones .
The book contains some 900 recipes for : soups ; main dishes including roast and boiled meats , boiled puddings , and fish ; desserts , table decorations and " little savory dishes " ; potted meats , drinks , wines , pickles , preserves and distilled essences . The recipes consist largely of direct instructions to the cook , and do not contain lists of ingredients . The book is illustrated with three fold @-@ out copper plate engravings .
The book is noted for its practicality , departing from earlier practice in avoiding plagiarism , consisting instead almost entirely of direct instructions based on Raffald 's experience . It introduced the first known recipe for a wedding cake covered in marzipan and royal icing , and is an early use of barbecue . The book remains a reference for cookery writers .
= = Context = =
Raffald was born in Doncaster in 1733 . Between 1748 and 1763 she was employed as a housekeeper by several families , including the Warburtons of Arley Hall in Cheshire , where she met her future husband , John Rafford , Arley Hall 's head gardener . In 1763 the couple moved to Manchester , where Elizabeth opened a confectionery shop and John sold flowers and seeds at a market stall . They had 16 children , all girls . As well as her cookery book , she wrote a book on midwifery and ran a registry office in Manchester . In 1773 , she sold the copyright to the book to her publisher for £ 1400 , equivalent to about £ 160 @,@ 000 as of 2015 .
Raffald writes in her Preface that she not only worked as a housekeeper " in great and worthy families " , but " had the opportunity of travelling with them " . The bibliographer William Carew Hazlitt observes that in this way she " widened her sphere of observation . " A 2005 article in Gastronomica described Raffald as " the most celebrated English cookery writer of the eighteenth century after Hannah Glasse . "
= = Book = =
= = = Contents = = =
The following page numbers refer to the 4th edition of 1775 .
Part I [ Soups , meat , fish , pies and puddings ]
Chapter 1 : Soups . Page 1
Chapter 2 : Dressing Fish . Page 14
Chapter 3 : Roasting and Boiling . Page 52
Chapter 4 : Made Dishes . Page 79
Chapter 5 : Pies . Page 143
Chapter 6 : Puddings . Page 167
Part II [ Desserts and accompanying dishes ]
Chapter 7 : Making Decorations for a Table . Page 186
Chapter 8 : Preserving . Page 209
Chapter 9 : Drying and Candying . Page 237
Chapter 10 : Creams , Custards , and Cheese @-@ Cakes . Page 247
Chapter 11 : Cakes . Page 264
Chapter 12 : Little Savory Dishes . Page 280
Part III [ Preserves , pickles , wines , distilled essences ]
Chapter 13 : Potting and Collaring . Page 293
Chapter 14 : Possets , Gruel , & c . Page 308
Chapter 15 : Wines , Catchup , and Vinegar . Page 317
Chapter 16 : Pickling . Page 342
Chapter 17 : Keeping Garden @-@ Stuff , and Fruit . Page 358
Chapter 18 : Distilling . Page 364
[ Appendices ]
A correct List of every Thing in Season in every Month of the Year . Page 368
Directions for a Grand Table . Page 381
Index . Page 383 [ Finis Page 397 ]
= = = Approach = = =
The book begins without a table of contents , though the three parts are described on the title page . The front matter consists of a dedication " To the Honourable Lady Elizabeth Warburton " , occupying two pages , a three @-@ page Preface to the First Edition , and a fold @-@ out plate of a suitable stove , complete with a " Description of the Plate " on the facing page . Plagiarism was combated in later editions ( from as early as 1775 ) with the declaration at the foot of the title page " N. B. No Book is genuine but what is signed by the Author " , and a matching handwritten signature in brownish @-@ black ink bracketing the heading of Chapter 1 .
Each chapter begins with a section of " Observations " on the topic of the chapter ; thus , Chapter 3 has three pages of " Observations on Roasting and Boiling " . The observations are close to instructions , as " when you boil mutton or beef , observe to dredge them well with flour before you put them into the kettle of cold water , keep it covered , and take off the scum " .
The rest of each chapter consists entirely of " receipts " ( recipes ) . These are usually named as instructions like " To roast a Pig " , " To make Sauce for a Pig " . Occasionally there is a comment , as in " A nice way to dress a Cold Fowl " .
The names of dishes are overwhelmingly in English , even when the dish is in fact foreign ; thus " To make Cream Cakes " is the heading for the recipe for meringue , beginning " Beat the whites of nine eggs to a stiff froth , then stir it gently with a spoon , for fear the froth should fall " .
Raffald is however not afraid to use foreign words for new techniques , as " to fricassee Lamb Stones " , " to barbecue a Pig " , " Bouillie Beef " , " Ducks a @-@ la @-@ mode " , " To fricando Pigeons " , " To ragoo Mushrooms " . In explanation of this , she writes in the Preface to the First Edition :
And though I have given some of my dishes French names , as they are known only by those names , yet they will not be found very expensive , nor add compositions but as plain as the nature of the dish will admit of .
The recipes themselves are written entirely as directions , without lists of ingredients . They are generally terse , the reader being assumed to know how to beat eggs and to separate the white from the yolk , to boil starchy foods in milk without burning the pan , or to make a " paste " ( pastry ) , all of which are required skills for this recipe for sago pudding :
A SAGO PUDDING another way .
Boil two ounces of sago till it is quite thick in milk , beat six eggs , leaving out three of the whites , put to it half a pint of cream , two spoonfuls of sack , nutmeg and sugar to your taste ; put a paste round your dish .
= = = Illustrations = = =
Official editions contained three engravings on pages that folded out , interspersed with the text . The first illustrated a stove ; the other two , suggested table layouts for the first course and for the second course . Raffald explains in her Directions for a GRAND TABLE that :
being desirous of rendering it easy for the future , have made it my study to set out the dinner in as elegant a manner as lies in my power , and in the modern taste ; but finding I could not express myself to be understood by young house @-@ keepers , in placing the dishes upon the table , obliged me to have two copper @-@ plates ; as I am very unwilling to leave even the weakest capacity in the dark , it being my greatest study to render my whole work both plain and easy .
The book , intended for " a burgeoning middle class that required explanation and elucidation " , provided an accurate description of how to serve an elegant meal à la française , complete with two fold @-@ out engravings of the layout of a table with 25 " prettily @-@ shaped " and symmetrically @-@ arranged serving @-@ dishes " laid in generous profusion on the table " , each annotated with the name of the appropriate recipe . It is not clear whether the term " cover " for the layout of such a " Grand meal " is an acknowledgement of the French couvert , as it may simply mean , with Hannah Glasse , " a large table to cover " .
The layout for the second course contains the dishes ( from top ) :
Pheasant ,
Snow balls , Crawfish in savory jelly , Moonshine ,
Pickl 'd Smelts , Marbl 'd Veal ,
Fish pond , Mince Pies , Globes of gold web with mottoes in them ,
Stewed Cardoon , Pompadore Cream ,
Roast Woodcocks , transparent pudding covered with a silver web , pea Chick with asparagus ,
Maccaroni , Stew 'd mushrooms ,
Pistacha Cream , Crocrant with Hot Pippins , Floating Island ,
Collared Pig , Pott 'd Lampreys ,
Rocky Island , Snipes in savory jelly , Burnt Cream ,
Roast 'd Hare .
= = Influence = =
= = = Contemporary = = =
The Monthly Review , Or , Literary Journal of 1770 listed the book , commenting only that " The Reviewers are sorry to own , but their regard to truth obliges them to it , that there are subjects with which , alas ! they are too little acquainted , to pretend to be judges of what the learned may publish concerning them . "
The Experienced English Housekeeper was " extremely successful " , going through 13 authorised editions and at least 23 pirated ones . To attempt to reduce the piracy , Raffald signed each copy on the first page of the main text in ink , and printed the message " N.B. No Book is genuine but what is signed by the Author " on the title page . Finally in 1773 , she sold the copyright to her publisher for £ 1400 , equivalent to about £ 160 @,@ 000 in 2015 .
As well as direct piracy , the book inspired other " experienced housekeepers " to try to profit by publishing books of culinary advice . In 1795 , Sarah Martin published The New Experienced English Housekeeper , for the Use and Ease of Ladies ' Housekeepers , Cooks , & c. written purely for her own practice . Similarly , Susanna Carter entitled her 1822 book The Experienced Cook and Housekeeper 's Guide . It included 12 engravings " for the arrangement of dinners of two courses " .
As an illustration of how familiar Raffald had made the idea of the experienced English housekeeper , The Critical Review , Or , Annals of Literature of 1812 wrote that " The arranging of a dinner @-@ table is attended in Iceland with little trouble , and would afford on scope for the display of the elegant abilities of an experienced English housekeeper . On the cloth was nothing but a plate , a knife and fork , a wine glass , and a bottle of claret , for each guest , except that in the middle stood a large and handsome glass @-@ castor of sugar , with a magnificent silver top . "
= = = Firsts = = =
The Experienced English Housekeeper was the first book to contain a recipe for what became the classic wedding cake complete with marzipan and royal icing .
The Oxford English Dictionary of 1888 credited Raffald as one of the earliest sources in English to mention barbecue in cookery .
= = = On modern cookery = = =
The Cambridge Guide to Women 's Writing in English noted in 1999 that Raffald distinguishes her work as purely from practice , unlike books of untried recipes copied from elsewhere , and that she apologises for " the plainness of the style " in her introductory letter . The Guide observes , however , that " this is the essence of her lasting appeal , and her clarity and economy with words find an echo in the work of Eliza Acton a century later . "
The cookery writer Sophie Grigson wrote in The Independent that her mother Jane made Raffald 's Orange Custards " every year when the Seville orange season was in full swing , a treat to look forward to . "
In 2013 , Raffald 's former workplace , Arley Hall , brought some of her recipes including lamb pie , pea soup and rice pudding back to their tables . The general manager Steve Hamilton however said they would avoid Raffald 's turtle and calf 's foot pudding .
= = Publication = =
Raffald states in her Preface that she personally " perused [ every sheet ] as it came from the press , having an opportunity of having it printed by a neighbour , whom I can rely on " . She writes that " The whole work being now compleated to my wishes " , she must thank her friends and subscribers ; she states that over 800 of them contributed , " raising me so large a subscription , which far excells my expectations " . She was thus a self @-@ publisher .
= The Bourne Identity ( 2002 film ) =
The Bourne Identity is a 2002 American @-@ German spy action thriller film adaptation of Robert Ludlum 's novel of the same name . It stars Matt Damon as Jason Bourne , a man suffering from extreme memory loss and attempting to discover his true identity amidst a clandestine conspiracy within the Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) . The film also features Franka Potente , Chris Cooper , Clive Owen , Julia Stiles , Brian Cox and Adewale Akinnuoye @-@ Agbaje . This , the first in the Bourne film series , is followed by The Bourne Supremacy ( 2004 ) , The Bourne Ultimatum ( 2007 ) , The Bourne Legacy ( 2012 ) , and Jason Bourne ( 2016 ) .
The film was directed by Doug Liman and adapted for the screen by Tony Gilroy and William Blake Herron . Although Robert Ludlum died in 2001 , he is credited as the film 's producer alongside Frank Marshall . Universal Pictures released the film to theatres in the United States on June 14 , 2002 , and it received a positive critical and public reaction .
= = Plot = =
In the Mediterranean Sea , Italian fishermen rescue an unconscious American ( Matt Damon ) floating adrift with two gunshot wounds in his back . They tend to his wounds , and when the man wakes , they find he suffers from dissociative amnesia . He has no memory of his own identity , while he retains his speech and finds himself capable of advanced combat skills and fluency in several languages . The skipper finds a tiny laser projector under the man 's hip that , when activated , gives a number of a safe deposit box in Zürich . Upon landing , the man heads to investigate the box . Arriving at the bank , the man finds the box contains a large sum of money in various currencies , numerous passports and identity cards with his picture on all of them , and a handgun . The man takes everything but the gun , and leaves , opting to use the name on the American passport , Jason Bourne .
After Bourne 's departure , a bank employee contacts Operation Treadstone , a CIA black ops program . Treadstone 's head , Alexander Conklin ( Chris Cooper ) , contacts CIA Deputy Director Ward Abbott ( Brian Cox ) about the reappearance of Bourne . Abbott warns that Bourne , a CIA agent , had been assigned the silent assassination of exiled African dictator Nykwana Wombosi ( Adewale Akinnuoye @-@ Agbaje ) , but the attempt failed , and Bourne must be dealt with . Conklin activates three agents to take down Bourne : Castel ( Nicky Naude ) , Manheim ( Russell Levy ) , and the Professor ( Clive Owen ) , while also issuing alerts to local police to capture Bourne .
Bourne attempts to evade the Swiss police by using his U.S. passport to enter the American consulate , but he is discovered by guards . He evades capture , leaves the embassy , and gives a German woman , Marie Kreutz ( Franka Potente ) , $ 20 @,@ 000 to drive him to an address in Paris listed on his French driving license . At the address , an apartment , he hits redial on the phone and reaches a hotel . He inquires about the names on his passports there , learning that a " John Michael Kane " had been registered but died two weeks prior in a car crash . Castel ambushes Bourne and Kreutz in the apartment , but Bourne gets the upper hand . Instead of allowing himself to be interrogated , Castel throws himself out a window to his death . Kreutz finds wanted posters of Bourne and herself , and agrees to continue to help Bourne .
Meanwhile , Wombosi approaches the police about the attempt on his life . Conklin , having anticipated this , had planted a body in the Paris morgue to appear as the assailant , but Wombosi is not fooled and threatens to report this . The Professor assassinates Wombosi on Conklin 's orders . Bourne , posing as Kane , learns about Wombosi 's yacht , and that the assailant had been shot twice during the escape ; Bourne now considers himself to have been the assailant . He and Kreutz take refuge at the French countryside home of her ex @-@ lover Eamon ( Tim Dutton ) and his children . Conklin tracks their position and sends the Professor there , but Bourne shoots him twice with Eamon 's shotgun , mortally wounding him . The Professor reveals their shared connection to Treadstone before dying . Bourne sends Kreutz , Eamon , and Eamon 's children away for their protection , and then contacts Conklin via the Professor 's phone to arrange a meeting . From a rooftop near the arranged location in Paris , Bourne sees Conklin has brought backup , so he abandons the meeting , but uses the opportunity to place a tracking device on Conklin 's car , leading Bourne to Treadstone 's safe house .
Bourne breaks in and holds Conklin and logistics technician Nicolette " Nicky " Parsons ( Julia Stiles ) at gunpoint . Bourne starts to recall fully | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
the assassination attempt through successive flashbacks . As Kane , and working under orders from Treadstone , Bourne infiltrated Wombosi 's yacht but could not bring himself to kill Wombosi while Wombosi 's children were present , and instead fled , being shot during his escape . Bourne announces he is resigning from Treadstone and is not to be followed . As agents descend on the safe house , Bourne fights his way free . Meanwhile , when Conklin leaves the safe house , he is killed by Manheim , who was ordered by Abbott to terminate Treadstone .
Abbott reports to an oversight committee that Treadstone is " all but decommissioned " before discussion turns to a new project codenamed " Blackbriar " . In the final scene , Bourne finds Kreutz renting out scooters to tourists on Mykonos , and the two reunite .
= = Cast = =
Matt Damon as Jason Bourne
Franka Potente as Marie Helena Kreutz
Chris Cooper as Alexander Conklin
Clive Owen as The Professor
Brian Cox as Ward Abbott
Adewale Akinnuoye @-@ Agbaje as Nykwana Wombosi
Gabriel Mann as Danny Zorn
Julia Stiles as Nicolette " Nicky " Parsons
Josh Hamilton as Research Tech
Walton Goggins as Research Tech
Orso Maria Guerrini as Giancarlo
Tim Dutton as Eamon
Nicky Naude as Castel
Russell Levy as Manheim
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Director Doug Liman has said that he had been a fan of the source novel by Robert Ludlum since he read it in high school . Near the end of production of Liman 's previous film Swingers , Liman decided to develop a film adaptation of the novel . After more than two years of securing rights to the book from Warner Bros. and a further year of screenplay development with screenwriter Tony Gilroy , the film went through two years of production . Universal Pictures acquired the film rights to Ludlum 's books in the hopes of starting a new film franchise . William Blake Herron was brought in to rewrite the script in 1999 .
The inner workings of the fictitious Treadstone organization were inspired by Liman 's father 's job in the National Security Agency ( NSA ) under Ronald Reagan . Of particular inspiration were Liman 's father 's memoirs regarding his involvement in the investigation of the Iran – Contra affair . Many aspects of the Alexander Conklin character were based on his father 's recollections of Oliver North . Liman admitted that he jettisoned much of the content of the novel beyond the central premise , in order to modernize the material and to conform it to his own beliefs regarding United States foreign policy . However , Liman was careful not to cram his political views down " the audience 's throat " . There were initial concerns regarding the film 's possible obsolescence and overall reception in the aftermath of the September 11 attacks , but these concerns proved groundless .
= = = Casting = = =
Liman approached a wide range of actors for the role of Bourne , including Brad Pitt , who turned it down to star in Spy Game , as well as Russell Crowe , Arnold Schwarzenegger , Tom Cruise and Sylvester Stallone , before he eventually cast Damon . Liman found that Damon understood and appreciated that , though The Bourne Identity would have its share of action , the focus was primarily on character and plot . Damon , who had never played such a physically demanding role , insisted on performing many of the stunts himself . With stunt choreographer Nick Powell , he underwent three months of extensive training in stunt work , the use of weapons , boxing , and eskrima . He eventually performed a significant number of the film 's stunts himself , including hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat and climbing the safe house walls near the film 's conclusion .
= = = Filming = = =
From the onset of filming , difficulties with the studio slowed the film 's development and caused a rift between the director and Universal Pictures , as executives were unhappy with the film 's pacing , emphasis on small scale action sequences , and the general relationship between themselves and Liman , who was suspicious of direct studio involvement . A number of reshoots and rewrites late in development , plus scheduling problems , delayed the film from its original release target date of September 2001 to June 2002 and took it $ 8 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 over budget from the initial budget of $ 60 million ; screenwriter Tony Gilroy faxed elements of screenplay rewrites almost throughout the entire duration of filming . A particular point of contention with regard to the original Gilroy script were the scenes set in the farmhouse near the film 's conclusion . Liman and Matt Damon fought to keep the scenes in the film after they were excised in a third @-@ act rewrite that was insisted upon by the studio . Liman and Damon argued that , though the scenes were low key , they were integral to the audience 's understanding of the Bourne character and the film 's central themes . The farmhouse sequence consequently went through many rewrites from its original incarnation before its inclusion in the final product .
Other issues included the studio 's desire to substitute Montreal or Prague for Paris in order to lower costs , Liman 's insistence on the use of a French @-@ speaking film crew , and poor test audience reactions to the film 's Paris finale . The latter required a late return to location in order to shoot a new , more action @-@ oriented conclusion to the Paris story arc . In addition to Paris , filming took place in Prague , Imperia , Rome , Mykonos , and Zürich ; several scenes set in Zürich were also filmed in Prague . Damon described the production as a struggle , citing the early conflicts that he and Liman had with the studio , but denied that it was an overtly difficult process , stating , " When I hear people saying that the production was a nightmare it 's like , a ' nightmare ' ? Shooting 's always hard , but we finished . "
Liman 's directorial method was often hands @-@ on . Many times he operated the camera himself in order to create what he believed was a more intimate relationship between himself , the material , and the actors . He felt that this connection was lost if he simply observed the recording on a monitor . This was a mindset he developed from his background as a small @-@ scale indie film maker .
The acclaimed car chase sequence was filmed primarily by the second unit under director Alexander Witt . The unit shot in various locations around Paris while Liman was filming the main story arc elsewhere in the city . The finished footage was eventually edited together to create the illusion of a coherent journey . Liman confessed that " anyone who really knows Paris will find it illogical " , since few of the locations used in the car chase actually connect to each other . Liman took only a few of the shots himself ; his most notable chase sequence shots were those of Matt Damon and Franka Potente while inside the car .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
The film received positive reviews . The film review collection website Rotten Tomatoes gave the film an 83 % approval rating based on 184 reviews collected , and an average score of 7 / 10 . The site 's consensus reads " Expertly blending genre formula with bursts of unexpected wit , The Bourne Identity is an action thriller that delivers — and then some . "
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times gave the film three out of four stars and praised it for its ability to absorb the viewer in its " spycraft " and " Damon 's ability to be focused and sincere " concluding that the film was " unnecessary , but not unskilled " . Walter Chaw of Film Freak Central praised the film for its pacing and action sequences , describing them as " kinetic , fair , and intelligent , every payoff packaged with a moment 's contemplation crucial to the creation of tension " and that the movie could be understood as a clever subversion of the genre . Charles Taylor of Salon.com acclaimed the film as " entertaining , handsome and gripping , The Bourne Identity is something of an anomaly among big @-@ budget summer blockbusters : a thriller with some brains and feeling behind it , more attuned to story and character than to spectacle " and praised Liman for giving the film a " tough mindedness " that never gives way into " cynicism or hopelessness " .
Ed Gonzalez of Slant Magazine also noted Doug Liman 's " restrained approach to the material " as well as Matt Damon and Franka Potente 's strong chemistry , but ultimately concluded the film was " smart , but not smart enough " . J. Hoberman of The Village Voice dismissed the film as " banal " and as a disappointment compared against Liman 's previous indie releases ; Owen Gleiberman also criticised the film for a " sullen roteness that all of Liman 's supple handheld staging can 't disguise " . Aaron Beierle of DVDTalk gave particular praise to the film 's central car chase which was described as an exciting action highlight and one of the best realized in the genre .
= = = Box office = = =
In its opening weekend , The Bourne Identity took in US $ 27 @,@ 118 @,@ 640 in 2 @,@ 638 theaters . The film grossed $ 121 @,@ 661 @,@ 683 in North America and $ 92 @,@ 263 @,@ 424 elsewhere for a total worldwide gross of $ 214 @,@ 034 @,@ 224 .
= = = Accolades = = =
= = Home media = =
On January 21 , 2003 , Universal Pictures released The Bourne Identity on VHS , and on DVD in the U.S. in two formats ; a single @-@ disc widescreen collector 's edition and a single @-@ disc full screen collector 's edition . Both contain supplemental materials including a making @-@ of documentary , a commentary from director Doug Liman and deleted scenes . On July 13 , 2004 , Universal released a new DVD of the film in the U.S. in preparation for the sequel 's cinema debut . This DVD came in the same two formats : a single @-@ disc widescreen ( Extended edition ) and a single @-@ disc full screen ( Extended edition ) . Both contain supplemental materials including interviews with Matt Damon , deleted scenes , alternative opening and ending , a documentary on the consulate fight and information features on the CIA and amnesia . The alternate ending on the DVD has Bourne collapsing during the search for Marie , waking up with Abbott standing over him , and getting an offer to return to the CIA . Neither contain the commentary or DTS tracks present in the collector 's edition . The film was also released on UMD for Sony 's PlayStation Portable on August 30 , 2005 and on HD DVD on July 24 , 2007 . With the release of The Bourne Ultimatum on DVD , a new DVD of The Bourne Identity was included in a boxed set with The Bourne Supremacy and The Bourne Ultimatum . The boxed set is entitled The Jason Bourne Collection . A trilogy set was released on Blu @-@ ray in January 2009 .
= = Soundtrack = =
The score for the Bourne Identity was composed by John Powell . Powell was bought in to replace Carter Burwell , who had composed and recorded a more traditional orchestral score for the film , which director Doug Liman rejected . Since a lot of the music budget had been spent recording the rejected score , Powell 's score was initially conceived to be entirely non @-@ orchestral , making extensive use of percussion , guitars , electronics and studio techniques . However , a string section was later overdubbed onto many of the cues to give them a ' cinematic ' quality .
The Bourne Identity : Original Motion Picture Soundtrack was released on June 11 , 2002 . In addition to the score , the film also featured the songs " Extreme Ways " by Moby and " Southern Sun / Ready Steady Go " by Paul Oakenfold . The soundtrack won an ASCAP Award .
= = Sequels = =
The Bourne Identity was followed by a 2004 sequel , The Bourne Supremacy , which received a similar positive critical and public reception , but received some criticism for its hand @-@ held camerawork , which observers argued made action sequences difficult to see . The Bourne Supremacy was directed by Paul Greengrass with Matt Damon reprising his role as Jason Bourne . A third film , The Bourne Ultimatum , was released in 2007 and again was directed by Paul Greengrass and starred Matt Damon . Like Supremacy , Ultimatum received generally positive critical and public reception , but also received similar criticism for the camera @-@ work .
The fourth film of the Bourne franchise , The Bourne Legacy was released in 2012 . Neither Damon nor Greengrass was involved .
= Typhoon Amy ( 1951 ) =
Typhoon Amy was an intense and deadly tropical cyclone that struck areas of the central Philippines in December 1951 . Impacting the archipelago during the 1951 eruption of Mount Hibok @-@ Hibok , Amy exacerbated the effects of the volcano , greatly increasing the number of resulting deaths . The fifteenth named storm and fourteenth typhoon within the western Pacific Ocean that year , Amy developed from an area of low pressure near the Kwajalein Atoll on December 3 . Tracking in a general westward direction , the storm quickly intensified to reach typhoon intensity the next day . However , the typhoon 's asymmetricity resulted in a fluctuation of intensity over the following few days . Afterwards , Amy intensified to reach its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 220 km / h ( 140 mph ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 950 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 05 inHg ) on December 8 . Over the ensuing two days , Amy moved over several islands in the central Philippines before emerging in the South China Sea on December 11 as the equivalent of a minimal typhoon . Shortly after , the tropical cyclone executed a tight anticyclonic loop while oscillating in strength several times before eventually weakening and dissipating on December 17 , just east of Vietnam .
Amy was considered one of the worst typhoons to strike the Philippines on record . Making its initial landfall along with the concurrent eruption of Mount Hibok @-@ Hibok on Camiguin , the typhoon disrupted volcanic relief operations and forced the displacement of victims already displaced by the volcano . Cebu City suffered the worst impacts of Amy – most of the city 's buildings were heavily damaged , and 29 people died in the city . Strong winds and rainfall in the city associated with Amy also set records which still remain unbroken today . Damage there was estimated at 560 million Philippine pesos . Along the east coast of Leyte , where Amy initially struck , ninety percent of homes were destroyed , and a large swath of coconut plantations were wiped out . In Panay , located on the western side of the Philippines , at least a thousand homes were destroyed in 41 towns . Overall , Amy caused $ 30 million in damage , and at least 556 fatalities , though the final death toll may have been as high as 991 , making the typhoon one of the deadliest in modern Philippine history . An additional 50 @,@ 000 people were displaced .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Typhoon Amy can be traced back to a low @-@ pressure area first detected over Kwajalein at 0500 UTC on November 29 . Tracking westward , the Fleet Weather Center in Guam began to monitor vorticity for potential development , assigning the numeric designation 11122 to the tropical system . Late on December 2 , a routine weather reconnaissance flight unexpectedly intercepted the disturbance and detected unusually strong westerly winds , a characteristic typically indicative of a tropical cyclone . As such , the flight , named Vulture George , was rerouted to investigate the area . After finding conclusive evidence of a closed low @-@ pressure area , the Fleet Weather Center in Guam classified the disturbance as a tropical storm with winds of 100 km / h ( 60 mph ) . At the time , Amy had two separate centers of circulation , resulting in an asymmetrical wind field .
Following tropical cyclogenesis , the fast @-@ moving tropical cyclone quickly intensified , reaching the equivalent of a Category 1 on the modern @-@ day Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . Between December 4 and 5 , however , Amy briefly weakened back to tropical storm intensity before restrengthening . Steady intensification followed afterwards , with the typhoon reaching the equivalent of a Category 3 hurricane by 0000 UTC on December 6 . By this time , the storm had slowed in forward speed . Later that day , the two , formerly separate circulation centers merged , resulting in an eye spanning 26 km ( 16 mi ) in diameter . At 1200 UTC on December 8 , Amy reached its peak intensity with winds of 220 km / h ( 140 mph ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 950 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 05 inHg ) , which would classify it as a modern @-@ day Category 4 typhoon . At the same time , the tropical cyclone began to track slightly southwestward . At 0600 UTC the following day , Amy made its first landfall on southern Samar with an intensity equivalent of a Category 2 typhoon . Over the next two days , the typhoon weakened and moved over several islands in the Philippines including Leyte , Cebu , and Panay before emerging into the South China Sea on December 11 .
In the South of China Sea on December 11 , Amy quickly slowed in forward motion and began to execute a cyclonic loop . Late that day , the typhoon strengthened back to Category 2 intensity , and as such concurrently attained a tertiary peak intensity with winds of 160 km / h ( 100 mph ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 968 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 59 inHg ) . Late on December 13 , Amy weakened back to a Category 1 typhoon for a transient period of time before restrengthening and reaching a quaternary peak intensity as a Category 3 typhoon with maximum sustained winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) . Afterwards , the typhoon began to weaken , and at 0900 UTC on December 17 , the Fleet Weather Center in Guam issued their last bulletin on the tropical cyclone . Upon the issuance of the last advisory , Amy set records for most typhoon bulletins issued at 58 , and most reconnaissance fixes at 25 . However , Amy continued to persist through the next day before degenerating into a remnant low @-@ pressure area late on December 18 . The following day , the associated remnants of Amy dissipated east of Vietnam .
= = Impact and aftermath = =
Beginning on September 1 , 1948 , the then @-@ active volcano Mount Hibok @-@ Hibok on Camiguin Island in the Philippines began to release lava in a series of eruption events which continued for the ensuing three years . On December 4 , 1951 , a large , Peléan eruption event later rated between a 2 and 3 on the Volcanic Explosivity Index , sending pyroclastic flows and lahars down the northeast flank of the volcano . The resultant ash flows alone killed an estimated 500 people on the island , making it one of the deadliest volcanic eruption events in recorded history . As the typhoon approached the archipelago , relief agencies were forced to divert aid operations to victims of the recent eruption , slowing the recovery process .
Upon making landfall on south Samar on December 10 , Hibok @-@ Hibok erupted six times in rapid succession , worsening the effects of both the typhoon and the volcano . Amy had also made landfall on an area impacted by a second typhoon three weeks prior . Strong winds displaced and destroyed residences and uprooted trees , while torrential rainfall caused rivers to overflow , resulting in the flooding of sugarcane fields and the washing away of bridges . Radio communications to and between most of the central Philippine islands were disrupted .
Cebu was one of the worst impacted cities . At the local airport , an anemometer recorded sustained winds of 160 km / h ( 100 mph ) early on December 10 , which remains a record for the city . Rainfall peaked at 195 @.@ 3 mm ( 7 @.@ 69 in ) ; at the time this made the typhoon the wettest tropical cyclone in Cebu history . All buildings made of light construction materials were at least partially damaged , with many large structures sustaining roof or other damage . At least 29 people were killed in the city , including the drownings of three due to the resultant flooding . The typhoon 's effects caused the cessation of the city 's power supply . Damage in Cebu totaled 560 million Philippine pesos . At least a hundred other people in Cebu City were displaced . Offshore , 28 ships capsized due to winds caused by Amy , including 7 inter @-@ island vessels . This set a new record for vessels sunk by a typhoon in Cebu , and held until Typhoon Mike sunk 88 ships in 1990 .
On Samar , where Amy first struck , reports indicated that 27 people died , despite initial reports that stated that there were no fatalities . In Iloilo City on Visayas , two people were killed and seventeen others were injured . Property damage in Bacolod , Negros was estimated at $ 250 @,@ 000 , and 52 people died , with an additional 2 @,@ 250 persons rendered homeless . Elsewhere on Negros , 30 percent of the island 's vital sugar crop was destroyed . On the east coast of Leyte , the typhoon was considered the worst in living memory , and ninety percent of homes there were destroyed . In Negros Oriental , schoolhouses in Canlaon , Vallehermoso , Negros Oriental , and Guihulngan were blown down . An aerial survey mission estimated that at least30 sq mi ( 78 km2 ) of coconut plantations were devastated ; other coconut plantations throughout the Philippines also suffered considerable damage . Copra crops also suffered sizeable losses , though production was expected to remain at forecast levels . Tacloban 's San Jose Airfield was severely damaged by the strong storm surge from Amy . In the Tacloban and Surigao Strait area , an estimated 146 people were killed . In the Leytenian town of Abuyog , the mayor had announced that 176 people were killed in the town alone . Another 135 fatalities were confirmed in Sogod . More than 100 persons were injured by falling coconuts and other airborne debris . On Leyte alone , damage was estimated at $ 8 million . The Red Cross estimated over a thousand homes in 41 towns on Panay were destroyed by the storm . More than 20 percent of crops and infrastructure were destroyed . Four people were killed on the island . Upon looping in the South China Sea , Amy brought torrential rainfall to areas of Manila , though no damage was reported .
Overall , Amy caused at least an estimated $ 30 million in damage throughout the central Philippines . However , the total number of fatalities directly associated with the effects of the typhoon remain disputed , and may range anywhere from 569 to 991 , making Amy one of the deadliest typhoons to strike the island nation in recorded history . An additional 50 @,@ 000 people were rendered homeless by the storm . The typhoon was characterized by the Philippine weather bureau to be the worst typhoon to strike the Philippines in at least 70 years . In the aftermath of Amy , then @-@ president of the Philippines Elpidio Quirino declared a state of public calamity for eleven central Philippine provinces including the island of Camiguin , which was heavily affected by both the typhoon and Mount Hibok @-@ Hibok . On December 24 , the American Red Cross granted $ 25 @,@ 000 to the Philippine Red Cross .
= Crazy for You ( Madonna song ) =
" Crazy for You " is a song by American singer Madonna from the soundtrack album to the 1985 film Vision Quest . It was released on March 2 , 1985 by Geffen Records as the first single from the soundtrack . The song appears remixed on the greatest hits compilation The Immaculate Collection ( 1990 ) and was re @-@ released on February 24 , 1991 by Sire Records to promote the album . The song was also included on the ballads compilation Something to Remember ( 1995 ) and the greatest hits compilation Celebration ( 2009 ) . Producers Jon Peters and Peter Guber , along with music director Phil Ramone , decided to use Madonna after listening to her previous recordings , employing John Bettis and Jon Lind to write the song . After reading the script of the film , Bettis and Lind wrote the song about the situation in which the lead characters meet at a nightclub . Initial recording sessions did not impress Bettis and Lind , and they felt that " Crazy for You " would be dropped from the soundtrack . However , a new version was recorded to their liking .
John " Jellybean " Benitez was the producer for the song , and it was a challenge for him , as previously he was associated with recording dance @-@ pop songs only . Initially Warner Bros. Records did not want the song to be released as a single , since they believed that it would take away the attention from Madonna 's second studio album Like a Virgin ( 1984 ) . In the end , Peters and Guber convinced Warner officials to greenlight its release . " Crazy for You " ushered a new musical direction for Madonna , as she had not previously released a ballad as a single . The track features instrumentation from snare drums , harp , bass synthesizer and electric guitar . Lyrically , the song speaks of sexual desire between two lovers and consists of innuendos .
" Crazy for You " received positive response from music critics and earned Madonna her first Grammy Award nomination in the Best Female Pop Vocal Performance category in 1986 . The song became Madonna 's second number @-@ one single on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 , and reached the top position in the charts of Australia and Canada as well . It also peaked at number two in Ireland , New Zealand and the United Kingdom , where it was released twice , once in 1985 and again in 1991 . Madonna has performed " Crazy for You " in three of her concert tours , The Virgin Tour in 1985 , Re @-@ Invention World Tour in 2004 and in some dates of Rebel Heart Tour in 2016 . The performance from The Virgin Tour was included in the home video releases on VHS and LaserDisc whereas the Re @-@ Invention World Tour remains unreleased . " Crazy for You " has been covered by a number of artists .
= = Background = =
" Crazy for You " was written by John Bettis and Jon Lind . The ballad was released as the first single from the soundtrack of the 1985 film Vision Quest , a coming of age drama about a high school wrestler , played by Matthew Modine . Producers Jon Peters and Peter Guber and music director Phil Ramone were aware of the then unknown Madonna , who was just signed to Sire Records . Ramone took her for dinner at his house in Carolwood Records , where she played some of her music videos . Ramone and the other Warner executives present there , were impressed by Madonna 's self @-@ possession and fishnet @-@ crucifix style , and they decided to test her voice in a New York studio . Peters assigned Joel Sill , an executive in charge of music at Warner Bros. Pictures , to handle the recording of the two songs for the film . Sill sent the script of the film to Bettis and Lind . After reading through the script , Bettis wanted to write a song about the situation where the main characters – a young boy and a girl boarding at a house – dance together at a nightclub . He elaborated :
" We were noodling around and ' Crazy for You ' was something that Jon was singing over that section of the song . It was really descriptive of the scene in the film . [ ... ] After that , I was out on vacation out in the desert and [ Sill ] called and said Phil Ramone was in love with the song and wanted to cut it on Madonna . [ Laughing ] ' Borderline ' was out at that time and I said , ' Excuse me ? This is for Madonna ? Really ? Can she sing a song like this ? ' Jon and I were surprised at the choice of artist at the time , if you want to know the truth . "
= = Recording = =
After Sill let Bettis and Lind know that Madonna was singing the song , some time elapsed before either of them heard anything from Warner Bros. Records . In between , they went to one of the recording sessions and were not impressed with the process of recording the song . Bettis commented , " We went to one of the sessions , and to be honest , that particular session did not go all that well . [ ... ] Jon and I were depressed about the way the song had come out . We heard nothing else about it and we were a little nervous that the song was going to be dropped from the picture . " Bettis went to England to work on the 1985 fantasy film Legend with music producer Jerry Goldsmith . It was there he received a call from Lind , who informed Bettis that a new version of " Crazy for You " was recorded and was made ready for a single release . Bettis was surprised and went over to Lind 's house , where he warmly received the new recorded version of the song . It had a different arrangement from the demo version , and the arrangement was done by composer Rob Mounsey who rearranged the original track and added the background vocals . Bettis said : " We owe a big debt of gratitude to [ Mounsey ] . He really made a hit record out of [ the song ] . " Mounsey was introduced in the project by record producer John " Jellybean " Benitez who was producing " Crazy for You " . Benitez was previously associated with producing dance @-@ pop themed songs and it was the first time that he produced a ballad . In Fred Bronson 's The Billboard Book of Number 1 Hits , Benitez commented ,
" The song was recorded live . It was the first time that I produced a live session , as opposed to having synthesizers and drum machines do everything . [ ... ] I was tense because I had never done a record like this . [ ... ] Everything I did was totally on instinct . I tried to make the song stand on its own , but at the same time work in the two scenes in which it was used in the movie . "
Benitez also noted that " Crazy for You " was an important recording for Madonna , as the song being a ballad , was openly accepted at adult contemporary radios . She had already charted with her singles " Like a Virgin " and " Material Girl " , hence Madonna wanted to prove that she can sing in a different genre of music . However , Warner initially did not want the song to be released as a single , since the release of Vision Quest coincided with the release of Madonna 's second studio album Like a Virgin and releasing " Crazy for You " would have distracted attention from the album . Warner Bros. Records chief Mo Ostin went to Robert A. Daly , chairman of Warner , and requested him to pull out the Madonna tracks from the Vision Quest soundtrack . Daly summoned Peters and Guber to his office and informed them that they had to let @-@ go of the Madonna tracks . Peters protested and shouted at Daly , resulting him escaping in fright and Warner allowing " Crazy for You " to be released as a single .
= = Composition = =
" Crazy for You " was a new musical direction for Madonna , as she had not recorded ballad songs before . According to author Rikky Rooksby , the song is sophisticated compared to her previous singles . The introduction features a melody by a woodwind instrument and an electric guitar chord , sliding from one motif to the other . It has a snare drum on the last beat of the bar , leading to the spacey quality to most of the verses . Other instrumentation comes from a harp , a bass synthesizer and a chattering single note guitar lick . The fuller rhythm of the song does not start , until the chorus is reached . The turn of the melody allows Madonna 's voice to stretch further on the higher notes .
According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Alfred Publishing , " Crazy for You " is set in the time signature of common time , with a medium tempo of 104 beats per minute . It is set in the key of E major with Madonna 's voice spanning between the high note of C ♯ 5 to the low note of G ♯ 3 . The song has a basic sequence of E – A – B – A as its chord progression . Unlike her previous singles , the chord sequence does not repeat itself and the chorus slowly unravels to the climax of the song . Lyrically , the song talks about extreme love for one another . It contains innuendos similar to The Crystals ' 1963 song " Then He Kissed Me " . According to scholar Dave Marsh , the lyrics talk about frank sexual desire among two teenagers . He believed that the line " I 'm crazy for you , Touch me once and you 'll know it 's true " was not ambiguous and it helped Madonna to capitalize on such disambiguation .
= = Critical reception = =
Keith Caulfield of Billboard said that " Crazy for You " is " [ p ] erhaps the ultimate slow @-@ dance song . " Rikky Rooksby , author of The Complete Guide to the Music of Madonna , called the song sophisticated . Alex Henderson of Allmusic felt that the other Madonna song on the Vision Quest soundtrack , " Gambler " , should have been the more successful single . Biographer J. Randy Taraborrelli characterized the song as " sassy " and commented that the song provided proof that Madonna was vocally capable of delivering a serious ballad . Author Andrew Morton believed that the song cemented Madonna as a talented and serious singer which " had been missing from her past recordings . " Allen Metz and Carol Benson , authors of The Madonna Companion : Two Decades of Commentary , said that the song sounded like a " remake of sweet @-@ sixteen Connie Francis tune , dripping with old @-@ fashioned , hand @-@ held romance " especially in the line " It 's so brand new ; I 'm really crazy for you . " Edna Gundersen from USA Today felt that the song is " touching and beautifully arranged . "
Dave Marsh , author of The Heart of Rock & Soul : The 1001 Greatest Singles Ever Made , felt that with the coda of the song , Madonna transformed her record into an adult love song . William McKeen , author of Rock and Roll is Here to Stay : An Anthology , said that the song " offered an aggressive sexuality for women " . Maria Raha , author of Cinderella 's Big Score : Women of the Punk and Indie Underground , said that with the song , " Madonna brought a trunk full of trite lyrics on the long @-@ standing tradition of pop music , love . " " Crazy for You " was nominated for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance at 1986 Grammy Awards , but lost to Whitney Houston 's " Saving All My Love for You " . The song was ranked number 38 on VH1 's " 100 Greatest Love Songs " , and during the special it was revealed that " Crazy for You " was recorded in one take . In 2003 , Madonna fans were asked to vote for their Top 20 Madonna singles of all time by Q ; " Crazy for You " was allocated the eleventh spot .
= = Chart performance = =
In the United States , " Crazy for You " became Madonna 's second number @-@ one single on the Billboard Hot 100 . The song debuted on the chart at number 54 on the issue dated March 2 , 1985 . After six weeks , the song reached the top of the chart , replacing " We Are the World " by USA for Africa . " Crazy for You " was the second number @-@ one song for Bettis as a songwriter , after " Top of the World " by The Carpenters ( 1973 ) . With " Crazy for You " , Bettis was in doubt whether the song would reach the top , after it was stuck at number two for three weeks , behind " We Are the World " . Both he and Lind commented , " If you gotta lose to something , it might as well be ' We Are the World ' . Luckily enough , the final week of the upsurge of the record , we topped ' We Are the World ' , which lets you know how hot the song and how hot the artist [ Madonna ] was . " " Crazy for You " was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on July 16 , 1985 , for shipment of one million copies of the single across United States — the requirement for a gold single prior to 1989 . The song reached number two on the Adult Contemporary Singles and 80 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . It placed at nine on the year @-@ end chart for 1985 , with Madonna becoming the top pop artist for the year . In Canada , the song debuted at number 70 on the RPM issue dated March 16 , 1985 . On its eleventh week on the chart , the song reached the top position . It was present on the chart for a total of 25 weeks and was ranked seventh on the RPM Year @-@ end chart for 1985 . A music video was released , featuring Madonna singing the song in a night @-@ club . The video was included in Celebration : The Video Collection , released in 2009 .
" Crazy for You " reached number one in Australia and displaced another Madonna release , " Angel " / " Into the Groove " , from the top spot on the Kent Music Report chart , making Madonna one of the few acts in Australian chart history to replace themselves at the number @-@ one spot . After the song was released in the United Kingdom on June 8 , 1985 , it debuted at number 25 and peaked at number two . In February 1991 , the song was re @-@ released and again reached a peak of number two . " Crazy for You " was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) for shipment of 500 @,@ 000 copies across United Kingdom . Such was Madonna 's popularity that when Vision Quest was released in home video in the UK , it was renamed as Crazy for You , to cash in on her success . According to the Official Charts Company , the song has sold 670 @,@ 000 copies there . " Crazy for You " was also a number @-@ two hit in Ireland and New Zealand . The song reached the top 20 in Belgium , Europe , Italy , Japan , Netherlands , Spain , Sweden and Switzerland and top 40 in Austria , France and Germany .
= = Live performances = =
Madonna first performed " Crazy for You " on The Virgin Tour in 1985 . She wore a black top and long black skirt with her hair in knots and a crucifix attached . After an energetic performance of " Over and Over " , Madonna sat on some steps and sang " Crazy for You " . Paul Grein , music editor of Billboard , commented that " She was at her best on ' Crazy for You ' , making good use of a deeper , huskier vocal quality that mirrors the song 's deeper lyrical approach . The performance was included in the VHS release Madonna Live : The Virgin Tour recorded in Detroit , Michigan .
In the Re @-@ Invention World Tour of 2004 , Madonna performed the song in the last segment of the show , the Scottish segment . During that segment , she wore a Scottish kilt and a t @-@ shirt which had different captions in different venues ; usually it had the caption " Kabbalists Do It Better " , however she also had " Brits Do It Better " and " Irish Do It Better " on the British and Irish stops of the tour , respectively . Generally after finishing the performance of " Papa Don 't Preach " , Madonna would dedicate the next song to the fans of twenty years , and start singing " Crazy for You " on top of a rising platform . At the end of the performance , she would usually throw her t @-@ shirt to the audience . The performance was excluded from the album of the documentary on the tour titled I 'm Going to Tell You a Secret , which was released in 2006 .
On Febaruary 25 , 2016 , Madonna performed " Crazy for You " during the Manila stop of her Rebel Heart Tour as a tribute to the 30th anniversary of the 1986 EDSA Revolution . Before the performance she said ; " I believe 30 years ago you fought for your freedom , am I correct ? It 's called People Power Freedom [ sic ] , did I say that right ? Up with democracy and freedom ! That is the revolution of love . And that 's what a rebel heart fights for . So on this very special occasion , I want to sing this song " .
= = Cover versions = =
Several Filipino acts have recorded remakes of " Crazy for You " including Sponge Cola in 2004 , Michael Cruz in 2005 and MYMP on their album New Horizon ( 2006 ) . In 2007 , Groove Armada recorded a cover with Alan Donohoe of art rock band The Rakes on vocals for the compilation Radio 1 Established 1967 . New Found Glory recorded a pop punk cover of the song with Max Bemis for their 2007 album From the Screen to Your Stereo Part II . A cover of the song by Lion of Panjshir was included on the 2007 Madonna tribute compilation Through the Wilderness . Melissa Totten did a Hi @-@ NRG cover for her 2008 dance album , Forever Madonna . An instrumental version was played in the Full House episode 13 Candles when Kimmy dares D.J. to kiss Kevin at her party . The original Madonna recording was also featured in the 2004 film 13 Going on 30 , starring Jennifer Garner . At the end of the film , the song is played again , but to signify Jenna Rink 's life staying on the " good path " 17 years later , and a bigger , modern rock / string orchestration by the film 's composer Theodore Shapiro is added . Chris Griffin performed the song during the " Long John Peter " episode of Family Guy . Kelly Clarkson covered the song during her 2012 Stronger Tour per fan request in Bossier City , Louisiana .
= = Track listing and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Madonna – lead vocals , background vocals
John Bettis – writer
Jon Lind – writer
John " Jellybean " Benitez – record producer
Rob Mounsey – music arrangement
Greg Fulginiti – mastering
Credits adapted from the soundtrack 's liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= Harry Shearer =
Harry Julius Shearer ( born December 23 , 1943 ) is an American actor , voice actor , comedian , writer , musician , author , radio host , director and producer . He is known for his long @-@ running roles on The Simpsons , his work on Saturday Night Live , the comedy band Spinal Tap and his radio program Le Show . Born in Los Angeles , California , Shearer began his career as a child actor . From 1969 to 1976 , Shearer was a member of The Credibility Gap , a radio comedy group . Following the breakup of the group , Shearer co @-@ wrote the film Real Life with Albert Brooks and started writing for Martin Mull 's television series Fernwood 2 Night .
He was a cast member on Saturday Night Live on two occasions , between 1979 – 80 , and 1984 – 85 . Shearer co @-@ created , co @-@ wrote and co @-@ starred in the 1984 film This Is Spinal Tap , a satirical rockumentary , which became a cult hit . In 1989 , Shearer joined the cast of The Simpsons ; he provides voices for numerous characters , including Mr. Burns , Waylon Smithers , Ned Flanders , Reverend Lovejoy , Kent Brockman , and more . Shearer has appeared in several films , including A Mighty Wind and The Truman Show , has directed two , Teddy Bears ' Picnic and The Big Uneasy , and has written three books . Since 1983 , Shearer has been the host of the public radio comedy / music program Le Show , a hodgepodge of satirical news commentary , music , and sketch comedy .
Shearer has won a Primetime Emmy Award , has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in the radio category , and has received several other Emmy and Grammy Award nominations . He has been married to singer @-@ songwriter Judith Owen since 1993 . He is currently " artist in residence " at Loyola University , New Orleans .
= = Early life = =
Shearer was born December 23 , 1943 in Los Angeles , the son of Dora Warren ( née Kohn ) ( d . 2008 ) , a book @-@ keeper , and Mack Shearer . His parents were Jewish immigrants from Austria and Poland . Starting when Shearer was four years old , he had a piano teacher whose daughter worked as a child actress . The piano teacher later decided to make a career change and become a children 's agent , as she knew people in the business through her daughter 's work . The teacher asked Shearer 's parents for permission to take him to an audition . Several months later , she called Shearer 's parents and told them that she had gotten Shearer an audition for the radio show The Jack Benny Program . Shearer received the role when he was seven years old . He described Jack Benny as " very warm and approachable [ ... ] He was a guy who dug the idea of other people on the show getting laughs , which sort of spoiled me for other people in comedy . " Shearer said in an interview that one person who " took him under his wing " and was one of his best friends during his early days in show business was voice actor Mel Blanc , who voiced many animated characters , including Bugs Bunny , Daffy Duck and Barney Rubble . Shearer made his film debut in the 1953 film Abbott and Costello Go to Mars , in which he only had a small part . Later that year , he made his first big film performance in The Robe . Throughout his childhood and teenage years he worked in television , film , and radio . In 1957 , Shearer played the precursor to the Eddie Haskell character in the pilot episode of the television series Leave It to Beaver . After the filming , Shearer 's parents said they did not want him to be a regular in a series . Instead they wanted him to just do occasional work so that he could have a normal childhood . Shearer and his parents made the decision not to accept the role in the series if it was picked up by a television network .
Shearer attended UCLA as a political science major in the early 1960s and decided to quit show business to become a " serious person " . However , he says this lasted approximately a month , and he joined the staff of the Daily Bruin , UCLA 's school newspaper , during his first year. and as editor of the college humor magazine ( Satyr ) including the June 1964 parody , Preyboy He also worked as a newscaster at KRLA , a top 40 radio station in Pasadena , during this period . According to Shearer , after graduating , he had " a very serious agenda going on , and it was ' Stay Out of the Draft ' . " He attended graduate school at Harvard University for one year and worked at the state legislature in Sacramento ( California ) . In 1967 and 1968 he was a high school teacher , teaching English and social studies . He left teaching following " disagreements with the administration . "
From 1969 to 1976 , Shearer was a member of The Credibility Gap , a radio comedy group that included David Lander , Richard Beebe and Michael McKean . The group consisted of " a bunch of newsmen " at KRLA 1110 , " the number two station " in Los Angeles . They wanted to do more than just straight news , so they hired comedians who were talented vocalists . Shearer heard about it from a friend so he brought over a tape to the station and nervously gave it to the receptionist . By the time he got home , there was a message on his answering machine asking , " Can you come to work tomorrow ? " The group 's radio show was canceled in 1970 by KRLA and in 1971 by KPPC @-@ FM , so they started performing in various clubs and concert venues . While at KRLA , Shearer also interviewed Creedence Clearwater Revival for the Pop Chronicles music documentary . In 1973 , Shearer appeared as Jim Houseafire on How Time Flys , an album by The Firesign Theatre 's David Ossman . The Credibility Gap broke up 1976 when Lander and McKean left to perform in the sitcom Laverne & Shirley . Shearer started working with Albert Brooks , producing one of Brooks ' albums and co @-@ writing the film Real Life . Shearer also started writing for Martin Mull 's television series Fernwood 2 Night . In the mid @-@ 1970s , he started working with Rob Reiner on a pilot for ABC . The show , which starred Christopher Guest , Tom Leopold and McKean , was not picked up .
= = Career = =
= = = Saturday Night Live = = =
In August 1979 , Shearer was hired as a writer and cast member on Saturday Night Live , one of the first additions to the cast , and an unofficial replacement for John Belushi and Dan Aykroyd , who were both leaving the show . Al Franken recommended Shearer to Saturday Night Live creator Lorne Michaels . Shearer describes his experience on the show as a " living hell " and " not a real pleasant place to work . " He did not get along well with the other writers and cast members and states that he was not included with the cast in the opening montage ( although he was added to the montage for latter episodes of the 1979 @-@ 80 season ) and that Lorne Michaels had told the rest of the cast that he was just a writer . Michaels left Saturday Night Live at the end of the fifth season , taking the entire cast with him . Shearer told new executive producer Jean Doumanian that he was " not a fan of Lorne 's " and offered to stay with the show if he was given the chance to overhaul the program and bring in experienced comedians , like Christopher Guest . However , Doumanian turned him down , so he decided to leave with the rest of the cast .
In 1984 , while promoting the film This Is Spinal Tap , Shearer , Christopher Guest and Michael McKean had a performance on Saturday Night Live . All three members were offered the chance to join to the show in the 1984 – 1985 season . Shearer accepted because he was treated well by the producers and he thought the backstage environment had improved but later stated that he " didn 't realize that guests are treated better than the regulars . " Guest also accepted the offer while McKean rejected it , although he would join the cast in 1994 . Dick Ebersol , who replaced Lorne Michaels as the show 's producer , said that Shearer was " a gifted performer but a pain in the butt . He 's just so demanding on the preciseness of things and he 's very , very hard on the working people . He 's just a nightmare @-@ to @-@ deal @-@ with person . " In January 1985 , Shearer left the show for good , partially because he felt he was not being used enough . Martin Short said Shearer " wanted to be creative and Dick [ Ebersol ] wanted something else . [ ... ] I think he felt his voice wasn 't getting represented on the show . When he wouldn 't get that chance , it made him very upset . "
= = = Spinal Tap = = =
Shearer co @-@ created , co @-@ wrote and co @-@ starred in Rob Reiner 's 1984 film This Is Spinal Tap . Shearer , Reiner , Michael McKean and Christopher Guest received a deal to write a first draft of a screenplay for a company called Marble Arch . They decided that the film could not be written and instead filmed a 20 @-@ minute demo of what they wanted to do . It was eventually greenlighted by Norman Lear and Jerry Perenchio at Embassy Pictures . The film satirizes the wild personal behavior and musical pretensions of hard rock and heavy metal bands , as well as the hagiographic tendencies of rockumentaries of the time . The three core members of the band Spinal Tap — David St. Hubbins , Derek Smalls and Nigel Tufnel — were portrayed by McKean , Shearer and Guest respectively . The three actors play their musical instruments and speak with mock English accents throughout the film . There was no script , although there was a written breakdown of most of the scenes , and many of the lines were ad @-@ libbed . It was filmed in 25 days .
Shearer said in an interview that " The animating impulse was to do rock ' n ' roll right . The four of us had been around rock ' n ' roll and we were just amazed by how relentlessly the movies got it wrong . Because we were funny people it was going to be a funny film , but we wanted to get it right . " When they tried to sell it to various Hollywood studios , they were told that the film would not work . The group kept saying , " No , this is a story that 's pretty familiar to people . We 're not introducing them to anything they don 't really know , " so Shearer thought it would at least have some resonance with the public . The film was only a modest success upon its initial release but found greater success , and a cult following , after its video release . In 2000 , the film was ranked 29th on the American Film Institute 's list of the top 100 comedy movies in American cinema and it was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being " culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant " .
Shearer , Guest and McKean have since worked on several projects as their Spinal Tap characters . They released three albums : This Is Spinal Tap ( 1984 ) , Break Like the Wind ( 1992 ) and Back From The Dead ( 2009 ) . In 1992 , Spinal Tap appeared in an episode of The Simpsons called " The Otto Show " . The band has played several concerts , including at Live Earth in London on July 7 , 2007 . In anticipation of the show , Rob Reiner directed a short film entitled Spinal Tap . In 2009 , the band released Back from the Dead to commemorate the 25th anniversary of the release of the film . The album features re @-@ recorded versions of songs featured in This Is Spinal Tap and its soundtrack , and five new songs . The band performed a one date " world tour " at London 's Wembley Arena on June 30 , 2009 . The Folksmen , a mock band featured in the film A Mighty Wind that is also made up of characters played by Shearer , McKean and Guest – was the opening act for the show .
= = = The Simpsons = = =
Shearer is also known for his prolific work as a voice actor on The Simpsons . Matt Groening , the creator of the show , was a fan of Shearer 's work , while Shearer was a fan of a column Groening used to write . Shearer was asked if he wanted to be in the series , but he was initially reluctant because he thought the recording sessions would be too much trouble . He felt voice acting was " not a lot of fun " because traditionally , voice actors record their parts separately . He was told that the actors would record their lines together and after three calls , executive producer James L. Brooks managed to convince Shearer to join the cast . Shearer 's first impression of The Simpsons was that it was funny . Shearer , who thought it was a " pretty cool " way to work , found it peculiar that the members of the cast were adamant about not being known to the public as the people behind the voices .
Shearer provides voices for Principal Skinner , Kent Brockman , Mr. Burns , Waylon Smithers , Ned Flanders , Reverend Lovejoy , Dr. Hibbert , Lenny Leonard , Otto Mann , Rainier Wolfcastle , Dr. Marvin Monroe and many others . He has described all of his regular characters ' voices as " easy to slip into . [ ... ] I wouldn 't do them if they weren 't easy . " Shearer modeled Mr. Burns 's voice on the two actors Lionel Barrymore and Ronald Reagan . Shearer says that Burns is the most difficult character for him to voice because it is rough on his vocal cords and he often needs to drink tea and honey to soothe his voice . He describes Burns as his favorite character , saying he " like [ s ] Mr. Burns because he is pure evil . A lot of evil people make the mistake of diluting it . Never adulterate your evil . " Shearer is also the voice of Burns ' assistant Smithers , and is able to perform dialogue between the two characters in one take . In the episode , " Bart 's Inner Child " , Harry Shearer said " wow " in the voice of Otto , which was then used when Otto was seen jumping on a trampoline . Ned Flanders had been meant to be just a neighbor that Homer was jealous of , but because Shearer used " such a sweet voice " for him , Flanders was broadened to become a Christian and a sweet guy that someone would prefer to live next to over Homer . Dr. Marvin Monroe 's voice was based on psychiatrist David Viscott . Monroe has been retired since the seventh season because voicing the character strained Shearer 's throat .
In 2004 , Shearer criticized what he perceived as the show 's declining quality : " I rate the last three seasons as among the worst , so season four looks very good to me now . " Shearer has also been vocal about " The Principal and the Pauper " ( season nine , 1997 ) one of the most controversial episodes of The Simpsons . Many fans and critics reacted negatively to the revelation that Principal Seymour Skinner , a recurring character since the first season , was an impostor . The episode has been criticized by both Shearer and Groening . In a 2001 interview , Shearer recalled that after reading the script , he told the writers , " That 's so wrong . You 're taking something that an audience has built eight years or nine years of investment in and just tossed it in the trash can for no good reason , for a story we 've done before with other characters . It 's so arbitrary and gratuitous , and it 's disrespectful to the audience . " Due to scheduling and availability conflicts , Shearer decided not to participate in The Simpsons Ride , which opened in 2008 , so none of his characters have vocal parts and many do not appear in the ride at all . In a 2010 interview on The Howard Stern Show , Shearer alluded that the reason he was not part of the ride was because he would not be getting paid for it .
Until 1998 , Shearer was paid $ 30 @,@ 000 per episode . During a pay dispute in 1998 , Fox threatened to replace the six main voice actors with new actors , going as far as preparing for casting of new voices . The dispute , however , was resolved and Shearer received $ 125 @,@ 000 per episode until 2004 , when the voice actors demanded that they be paid $ 360 @,@ 000 an episode . The dispute was resolved a month later , and Shearer 's pay rose to $ 250 @,@ 000 per episode . After salary re @-@ negotiations in 2008 , the voice actors received $ 400 @,@ 000 per episode . Three years later , with Fox threatening to cancel the series unless production costs were cut , Shearer and the other cast members accepted a 30 percent pay cut , down to just over $ 300 @,@ 000 per episode .
On May 13 , 2015 , Shearer announced he was leaving the show . After the other voice actors signed a contract for the same pay , Shearer refused , stating it was not enough . Al Jean made a statement from the producers saying " the show must go on , " but did not elaborate on what might happen to the characters Shearer voiced . On July 7 , 2015 , Shearer agreed to continue with the show , on the same terms as the other voice actors .
= = = Le Show and radio work = = =
Since 1983 , Shearer has been the host of the public radio comedy / music program Le Show . The program is a hodgepodge of satirical news commentary , music , and sketch comedy that takes aim at the " mega morons of the mighty media " . It is carried on many National Public Radio and other public radio stations throughout the United States . Since the merger of SIRIUS and XM satellite radio services the program is no longer available on either . The show has also been made available as a podcast on iTunes and by WWNO . On the weekly program Shearer alternates between DJing , reading and commenting on the news of the day after the manner of Mort Sahl , and performing original ( mostly political ) comedy sketches and songs . In 2008 , Shearer released a music CD called Songs of the Bushmen , consisting of his satirical numbers about former President George W. Bush on Le Show . Shearer says he criticizes both Republicans and Democrats equally , and also says that " the iron law of doing comedy about politics is you make fun of whoever is running the place " and that " everyone else is just running around talking . They are the ones who are actually doing something , changing people 's lives for better or for worse . Other people the media calls ' satirists ' don 't work that way . "
Since encountering satellite news feeds when he worked on Saturday Night Live , Shearer has been fascinated with the contents of the video that does not air . Shearer refers to these clips as found objects . " I thought , wow , there is just an unending supply of this material , and it 's wonderful and fascinating and funny and sometimes haunting – but it 's always good , " said Shearer . He collects this material and uses it on Le Show and on his website . In 2008 , he assembled video clips of newsmakers from this collection into an art installation titled " The Silent Echo Chamber " which was exhibited at The Aldrich Contemporary Art Museum in Ridgefield , Connecticut . The exhibit was also displayed in 2009 at Institut Valencià d 'Art Modern ( IVAM ) in Valencia , Spain and in 2010 at the New Orleans Contemporary Arts Center .
In 2006 Shearer appeared with Brian Hayes in four episodes of the BBC Radio 4 sitcom Not Today , Thank You , playing Nostrils , a man so ugly he cannot stand to be in his own presence . He was originally scheduled to appear in all six episodes but had to withdraw from recording two due to a problem with his work permit .
On June 19 , 2008 , it was announced that Shearer would receive a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in the radio category . The date of the ceremony where his star will be put in place has yet to be announced .
= = = Further career = = =
In 2002 , Shearer directed his first feature film Teddy Bears ' Picnic , which he also wrote . The plot is based on Bohemian Grove , which hosts a three @-@ week encampment of some of the most powerful men in the world . The film was not well received by critics . It garnered a 0 % approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes , with all 19 reviews being determined as negative and received a rating of 32 out of 100 ( signifying " generally negative reviews " ) on Metacritic from 10 reviews . In 2003 , he co @-@ wrote J. Edgar ! The Musical with Tom Leopold , which spoofed J. Edgar Hoover 's relationship with Clyde Tolson . It premiered at the U.S. Comedy Arts Festival in Aspen , Colorado and starred Kelsey Grammer and John Goodman .
In 2003 , Shearer , Guest and McKean starred in the folk music mockumentary A Mighty Wind , portraying a band called The Folksmen . The film was written by Guest and Eugene Levy , and directed by Guest . Shearer had a major role in the Guest @-@ directed parody of Oscar politicking For Your Consideration in 2006 . He played Victor Allan Miller , a veteran actor who is convinced that he is going to be nominated for an Academy Award . He also appeared as a news anchor in Godzilla with fellow The Simpsons cast members Hank Azaria and Nancy Cartwright . His other film appearances include The Right Stuff , Portrait of a White Marriage , The Fisher King , The Truman Show , EdTV and Small Soldiers .
Shearer has also worked as a columnist for the Los Angeles Times Magazine , but decided that it " became such a waste of time to bother with it . " His columns have also been published in Slate and Newsweek . Since May 2005 he has been a contributing blogger at The Huffington Post . Shearer has written three books . Man Bites Town , published in 1993 , is a collection of columns that he wrote for The Los Angeles Times between 1989 and 1992 . Published in 1999 , It 's the Stupidity , Stupid analyzed the hatred some people had for then @-@ President Bill Clinton . Shearer believes that Clinton became disliked because he had an affair with " the least powerful , least credentialed women cleared into his official compound . " His most recent book is Not Enough Indians , his first novel . Published in 2006 , it is a comic novel about Native Americans and gambling . Without the " pleasures of collaboration " and " spontaneity and improvisation which characterize his other projects " , Not Enough Indians was a " struggle " for Shearer to write . He said that " the only fun thing about it was having written it . It was lonely , I had no deal for it and it took six years to do . It was a profoundly disturbing act of self @-@ discipline . "
Shearer has released five solo comedy albums : It Must Have Been Something I Said ( 1994 ) , Dropping Anchors ( 2006 ) , Songs Pointed and Pointless ( 2007 ) , Songs of the Bushmen ( 2008 ) and Greed and Fear ( 2010 ) . His most recent CD , Greed and Fear is mainly about Wall Street economic issues , rather than politics like his previous albums . Shearer decided to make the album when he " started getting amused by the language of the economic meltdown – when ' toxic assets ' suddenly became ' troubled assets , ' going from something poisoning the system to just a bunch of delinquent youth with dirty faces that needed not removal from the system but just ... understanding . "
In May 2006 , Shearer received an honorary doctorate from Goucher College .
= = = The Big Uneasy = = =
Shearer is the director of The Big Uneasy ( 2010 ) , a documentary film about the impacts of Hurricane Katrina on New Orleans . Narrated by actor John Goodman , the film describes levee failures and catastrophic flooding in the New Orleans metropolitan area , and includes extended interviews with former LSU professor Ivor Van Heerden , Robert Bea , an engineering professor at the University of California at Berkeley , and Maria Garzino , an engineer and contract specialist for the Los Angeles district of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers . The film is critical of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and its management of flood protection projects in Southern Louisiana . Shearer maintains that Hurricane Katrina 's " ... tragic floods creating widespread damage were caused by manmade errors in engineering and judgment . "
Shearer 's film currently has a 74 % rating on Rotten Tomatoes , based on twenty @-@ three reviews by approved critics .
= = Personal life = =
Shearer married Penelope Nichols in 1974 . They divorced in 1977 . He has been married to singer @-@ songwriter Judith Owen since 1993 . In 2005 , the couple launched their own record label called Courgette Records . Shearer has homes in Santa Monica , California , the French Quarter of New Orleans , Louisiana , and London . He first went to New Orleans in 1988 and has attended every edition of New Orleans Jazz & Heritage Festival since .
Shearer often speaks and writes about the failure of the Federal levee system which flooded New Orleans during Hurricane Katrina , belittling the coverage of it in the mainstream media and criticizing the role of the United States Army Corps of Engineers . Prior to the DVD release of his film , The Big Uneasy , Shearer would hold screenings of the film at different venues and take questions from audience members .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Television = = =
= = = Music video = = =
= = = Video games = = =
= = Discography = =
= = Awards = =
Shearer was the last of the six regular voice actors from The Simpsons to win the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Character Voice @-@ Over Performance . His win came for the season 25 episode " Four Regrettings and a Funeral " .
= Over ( Lindsay Lohan song ) =
" Over " is a song by American actress and singer @-@ songwriter Lindsay Lohan from her debut studio album Speak ( 2004 ) . The song was written by Lohan , Kara DioGuardi and John Shanks , and produced by Shanks and DioGuardi . " Over " was released as the second single from Speak on December 13 , 2004 in the United States , by Casablanca Records . Lyrically , " Over " is about how her boyfriend will not commit and that their relationship feels " on again , off again " .
Critically , " Over " received positive reviews from music critics , who called the song " catchy " and praised Lohan 's vocal performance . " Over " also achieved moderate commercial success worldwide , reaching top thirty positions in Australia , Ireland and the United Kingdom . In the United States , the song peaked at number one on Billboard 's Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles for three weeks .
Jake Nava directed the accompanying music video for " Over " , which decipts Lohan and her love interest being distanced by his parents . The singer performed the track in TV programs such as Good Morning America , in addition to online performances .
= = Composition = =
" Over " was written by Kara DioGuardi , John Shanks , and Lohan , produced by Shanks and DioGuardi , with Shanks playing the bass , guitar , keyboards , and doing the audio mixing , while DioGuardi provided background vocals for the song . Jeff Rothschild was responsible for Lohan 's vocal recording , which occurred at the Henson Recording Studios in Hollywood , California . He also handled the song 's mixing , programming and engineering . Other engineers involved were Dave Audé and Mark Valentine . " Over " is written in the time signature of common time with a moderate tempo of 90 beats per minute . It is composed in the key of C minor with Lohan 's voice spanning from C4 to C5 . According to Spence D. of IGN , " Over " begins like a song by The Cure , complete with a " mournful acoustic guitar " and a " haunting piano @-@ tuned synth " . He wrote that since the song was not penned by Robert Smith , " it quickly turns into a slow rocker in which Lohan returns to her ' can 't live without you ' love torn subject matter " . In an interview with The Ellen DeGeneres Show on March 28 , 2014 , Lohan told DeGeneres the song was about her break @-@ up with Wilmer Valderrama .
= = Reception = =
" Over " received positive reviews from music critics . While responding negatively to a majority of Speak , John Murphy of MusicOMH cited " Over " as being " actually rather good " and noted similarities between the song and the works of Michelle Branch . Nicholas Fonseca from Entertainment Weekly considered the track a " tween @-@ slumber @-@ party @-@ friendly " which " is perfect for singing into your curling iron in front of the mirror " . Sputnikmusic called " Over " " awesomely catchy " , and complimented its guitar tone .
" Over " achieved moderate commercial success worldwide . In the United States , the song reached on Billboard 's Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart for three weeks , and reached number 39 on the Pop Songs component chart . In the United Kingdom , the song reached a peak of number 27 on its singles chart . In Australia , " Over " debuted at its peak of number 27 on the ARIA Charts , falling out of the chart seven weeks later . The song also attained the top thirty in Ireland , peaking at number 19 . On the European Hot 100 Singles , " Over " managed to reach number 79 .
= = Music video = =
The accompanying music video for " Over " was directed by Jake Nava in Los Angeles , California , who also directed the video for her previous single " Rumors " ( 2004 ) . It was inspired by the 1999 film American Beauty . In the video , Lohan is walking home , when she sees her love interest ( played by Drew Fuller ) looking out of a window in his house as his mother sets the table behind him . Then his father comes up to him , and they begin to argue . The curtains close and Lohan continues on to her house , next door to her boyfriend ’ s , and runs up to her bedroom . Looking out her window , she sees that he is looking back at her . As noted inside Lohan ’ s bedroom , she is starting to experiment with rebellious adolescence . There are Teletubbies and stuffed pandas , but also posters of bands such as L7 , the Dead Kennedys and CBGB . These imagery are intercut with shots of Lohan and her band playing in a garage , a pool party , and also her love interest destroying his father ’ s car in the family garage .
The video received positive reviews from critics . IGN 's Spence D. commented that " you 've got a somewhat cliched , but nonetheless hit @-@ worthy video montage " . Justin Moran , while ranking Lohan 's best music videos in Paper magazine , stated ,
" In the video for angry rock @-@ pop track " Over , " Lindsay stares at a neighbor boy from her bedroom window , wears too much black eye makeup , hooks up with said boy in a random trailer and cries ... a lot . This video has a completely over @-@ the @-@ top dramatic ending with Lindsay doing donuts with the neighbor boy in a vintage car ( amazing ) , only to be interrupted by his abusive father . Lindsay cries more , breaks through a window with her heel and shatters a lamp on the ground . Yes , Lindsay , yes . We love it when you 're angry . "
= = Live performances = =
In order to promote the single , Lohan appeared on Sessions @ AOL on December 2 , 2004 , where she performed " Over " . Her first televised appearance was on Good Morning America , four days later , as a part of the Women Rule Concert Series , where she sang " Over " accompanied by a performance of " Rumors " . While she sung " Over " with no problems , her mouth was not moving for a second during the performance of " Rumors " , leading the media to accuse her of lip synching . Lohan denied that she was lip synching , claiming that there was a background track because she had fallen ill recently . Kim Jakwerth , of Casablanca Records , supported this statement by saying , " Yes , on the first song there were background tracks , which were not on the second song . " In addition to these performances , she sang the song on The Ellen DeGeneres Show on December 16 . In January 2005 , Lohan performed " Over " and " Speak " at Yahoo 's Live @ Launch , where she also gave an interview .
= = Track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Recorded and mixed at Henson Recording Studios at Los Angeles , California .
Personnel
Lindsay Lohan – songwriting , vocals
Kara DioGuardi – songwriting , producer , background vocals
John Shanks – songwriting , producer , bass , guitar , keyboards , mixing
Dave Audé – engineer
Jeff Rothschild – drums , engineer , mixing , programming
Mark Valentine – engineer
Credits are taken from Speak liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= Gefjon =
In Norse mythology , Gefjon or Gefjun ( with the alternate spelling Gefion ) is a goddess associated with ploughing , the Danish island of Zealand , the legendary Swedish king Gylfi , the legendary Danish king Skjöldr , foreknowledge , and virginity . Gefjon is attested in the Poetic Edda , compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources ; the Prose Edda and Heimskringla , written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson ; in the works of skalds ; and appears as a gloss for various Greco @-@ Roman goddesses in some Old Norse translations of Latin works .
The Prose Edda and Heimskringla both report that Gefjon plowed away what is now lake Mälaren , Sweden , and with this land formed the island of Zealand , Denmark . In addition , the Prose Edda describes that not only is Gefjon a virgin herself , but that all who die a virgin become her attendants . Heimskringla records that Gefjon married the legendary Danish king Skjöldr and that the two dwelled in Lejre , Denmark .
Scholars have proposed theories about the etymology the name of the goddess , connections to fertility and ploughing practices , the implications of the references made to her as a virgin , five potential mentions of the goddess in the Old English poem Beowulf , and potential connections between Gefjon and Grendel 's Mother and / or the goddesses Freyja and Frigg .
= = Etymology = =
The etymology of the name Gefjon has been a matter of dispute . In modern scholarship , the element Gef- in Gef @-@ jon is generally theorized as related to the element Gef- in the name Gef @-@ n . The name Gefn is one of the numerous names for the goddess Freyja , and likely means " she who gives ( prosperity or happiness ) . " The connection between the two names has resulted in etymological results of Gefjun meaning " the giving one . " The names Gefjun and Gefn are both related to the Matron groups the Alagabiae or Ollogabiae .
Albert Murey Sturtevant notes that " the only other feminine personal name which contains the suffix -un is Njǫr @-@ un , recorded only in the þulur [ ... ] , and among the kvenna heiti ókend . Whatever the stem syllable Njǫr- represents ( perhaps * ner- as in * Ner @-@ þuz > Njǫrðr ) , the addition of the n- and un @-@ suffixes seems to furnish an exact parallel to Gef @-@ n : Gefj @-@ un ( cf . Njǫr @-@ n : Njǫr @-@ un ) . "
A Finnish word for " bride 's outfit , trousseau " may derive from Gefjon 's name .
= = Attestations = =
= = = Poetic Edda = = =
In the Poetic Edda , Gefjon appears solely in three stanzas of the poem Lokasenna , where an exchange occurs between Gefjun and Loki at a dinner feast , and the god Odin comes to Gefjon 's defense . After an exchange occurs between Loki and the goddess Iðunn , Gefjon questions why Loki wants to bring negativity into the hall with the assembled gods :
The last two lines of the stanza above differ greatly by translation . Henry Adams Bellows comments that the manuscript text for these two lines is " puzzling " and that as a result they have been " freely amended . " In the stanza that follows , Loki responds to Gefjon , commenting that a youthful male once gave her a necklace , and that with this youth Gefjon slept :
Odin interjects ; stating that Loki must be quite insane to incur the wrath of Gefjon , for she knows the destinies of mankind just as well as Odin himself :
= = = Prose Edda = = =
The Prose Edda book Gylfaginning begins with a prose account stating that King Gylfi was once the ruler of " what is now called Sweden , " and that he was said to have given " a certain vagrant woman , as reward for his entertainment , one plough @-@ land in his kingdom , as much as four oxen could plow up in a day and night . " This woman was " of the race of the Æsir " and her name was Gefjun . Gefjun took four oxen from Jötunheimr in the north . These oxen were her sons from a jötunn ( name not provided ) . Gefjun 's plough " cut so hard and deep that it uprooted the land , and the oxen drew the land out into the sea to the west and halted in a certain sound . " Gefjun there placed the land , and bestowed upon it the name Zealand . Where the land had been taken from a lake stands . According to Snorri , the lake is now known as Lake Mälar , located in Sweden , and the inlets in this lake parallel the headlands of Zealand ; however , since this is much more true of Lake Vänern , the myth was probably originally about Vänern , not Mälaren .
As a reference , the prose account presents a stanza from a work attributed to the 9th century skald Bragi Boddason :
Gefjun dragged from Gylfi ,
gladly the land beyond value .
Denmark 's increase ,
steam rising from the swift @-@ footed bulls .
The oxen bore eight
moons of the forehead and four heads ,
hauling as they went in front of
the grassy isle 's wide fissure .
In chapter 35 of Gylfaginning , the enthroned figure of High presents a list of goddesses . High presents Gefjun fourth , and says that Gefjun is a virgin , and all who die as virgins attend her . In relation , High notes that , like Gefjun , the goddess Fulla is also a virgin . At the beginning of the Prose Edda book Skáldskaparmál , Gefjun is listed among nine goddesses who attend a banquet for Ægir on the island of Hlesey ( modern Læsø , Denmark ) . In chapter 32 , Gefjun is listed among six goddesses who attend a party held by Ægir . In chapter 75 , Gefjun is included among a list of 27 ásynjur names . In addition , Gefjun appears in a kenning for the völva Gróa ( " ale @-@ Gefjun " ) employed in the skald Þjóðólfr of Hvinir 's composition Haustlöng as quoted in chapter 17 of Skáldskaparmál .
= = = Heimskringla = = =
In chapter 5 of Ynglinga saga ( as collected in Heimskringla ) , an euhemerized prose account relates that Odin sent Gefjun from Odense , Funen " north over the sound to seek for land . " There , Gefjun encountered king Gylfi " and he gave her ploughland . " Gefjun went to the land of Jötunheimr , and there bore four sons to a jötunn ( whose name is not provided ) . Gefjun transformed these four sons into oxen , attached them to a plough , and drew forth the land westward of the sea , opposite to Odense . The saga adds that this land is now called Zealand , and that Gefjun married Skjöldr ( described here as " a son of Odin " ) . The two dwelled in Lejre thereafter . From where Gefjun took the land that formed Zealand , a lake was left behind call Lögrinn , and the saga posits that the bays in lake Lögrinn correspond to the nesses of Zealand . This is followed by the same stanza used in Gylfaginning above composed by the skald Bragi Boddason .
= = = Völsa þáttr = = =
Gefjun is sworn by in the þáttr Völsa þáttr , where the daughter of a thrall reluctantly worships a penis severed from a horse :
= = = Glosses = = =
Gefjon appears in some Old Norse translations of Latin works as a gloss on the names of goddesses from Greco @-@ Roman mythology . In several works , including Breta sögur ( based on Geoffrey of Monmouth 's Historia Regum Britanniae ) the goddess Diana is glossed as Gefjon . In Stjórn , Gefjon appears as a gloss for the goddess Aphrodite . In other works , Gefjon glosses the goddesses Athena and Vesta .
= = Theories = =
= = = Ploughing , folk customs , parallels , and fertility = = =
A reoccurring theme in legend and folktale consists of a man or , more often , a woman who is challenged to gain as much land as can be traveled within a limited amount of time . This motif is attested by Livy around 1 CE , 5th century BCE Greek historian Herodotus , and in folktales from Northern Europe . In six tales from Jutland , Denmark and one from Germany a plough is used similarly as in Livy 's account , though the conditions are often met by walking or riding .
Hilda Ellis Davidson points out a tale from Iceland that features a female settler " whose husband had died on the voyage out , establishing her claim to a piece of land by driving a young hiefer round it . " Davidson notes that in Landnámabók , this is recorded as a recognized method for a woman to claim land , and the work further details that " she might not possess more than she could encircle in this way between sunrise and sunset on a spring day . " Davidson comments that " this sounds like a ritual taking over of land rather than a legal requirement , like the custom of men lighting fires when taking new land , and it is possible that the women 's custom was linked with the fertility goddess . " In addition , Davidson notes that Zealand is the most fertile region of Denmark .
Davidson further links folk customs recorded in the 19th century involving ploughs in Northern and Eastern Europe to practices involving Gefjon from the heathen period . Davidson points out that in eastern Europe , a custom is recorded in Russia where women with loosened hair and clad in white would assemble and drag a plough three times around their village during serious disease outbreaks . In Western Europe , yearly ploughing rituals occurring in England and Denmark in preparation for spring sowing which are , in eastern England , held on Plough Monday after the Christmas break . Gangs of young men dragged round a plough , while taking various names . Davidson states that " Gefjon with her giant sons transformed into oxen seems a fitting patroness of ceremonies of this kind . "
Davidson finds similar elements and parallels in non @-@ Germanic traditions , such as a folktale regarding the Lady of the Lake from Wales recorded in the 19th century . In the tale , the Lady brings forth " a herd of wondrous cattle " from the water after she consents to marrying a local farmer . Years later , he unwittingly breaks conditions that she had laid down . As a result , the Lady returns to her dwelling beneath the lake , and calls for her cattle to accompany her , calling them by name . In one version of the tale , the Lady calls forth four gray oxen who were ploughing in a field six miles away . Responding to her call , the oxen dragged the plough with them , and the gash in the land that the plough produced was said to have once been clearly visible .
A woman was recorded in 1881 as having claimed to recall that people once gathered at the lake on the first Sunday of August , waiting to see whether or not the water would boil up as an indication that the Lady and her oxen would make an appearance . Davidson notes that " here again a supernatural woman is linked both with water and ploughing land . "
Davidson states that in Germanic areas of Europe , traditions also exist of supernatural women who travel about the countryside with a plough , examples including Holde and Holle ( from the western and central regions of Germany ) and Berchte and Perchte in traditions from upper Germany , Switzerland , and Austria . Davidson explains that " they were frequently said to travel with a plough around the countryside , in a way reminiscent of the journey of the fertility goddess to bless the land in pre @-@ Christian times , and on these occasions they might be accompanied by a host of tiny children ; it was suggested that these children who died unbaptized , or human offspring replaced by changelings , but another possibility is that they were the souls of the unborn . " Davidson details that some local tales feature the plough breaking down , the supernatural woman gaining assistance from a helper , and the supernatural woman giving him wooden chips , only for the chips to later to turn to gold .
Regarding the plough and Gefjon , Davidson concludes that " the idea behind the taking of the plough round the countryside seems to be that it brought good fortune and prosperity , gifts of a benevolent goddess . Gefjon and her plough thus fit into a large framework of the cult of a goddess associated with fertility of both land and water . "
= = = Possible Gylfaginning manuscript alteration = = =
Questions have been proposed over the seemingly contradictory description of Gefjon as a virgin in Gylfaginning , yet also as attested as having sexual relations ( Lokasenna , Heimskringla ) and marrying ( Heimskringla ) . John Lindow says that the Gefjon / Gylfi story in Gylfaginning is absent in one branch of manuscripts of the work , and that " the fact that Gylfi is reintroduced directly after it in the other manuscripts , suggests that that it was not part of Snorri 's [ author of the Prose Edda and Heimskringla ] original text but may have been added by a later scribe . " Lindow says that if Snorri did not write it , the possibility exists that whoever added the story either was aware of an association made between Gefjon and the Greek goddess Diana ( as in the " glosses " section above ) " or took the view of the pagan gods as demons and therefore made a whore out of Gefjon . " However , Lindow adds that the reference to Gefjon made by Loki in Lokasenna suggest that the notion of Gefjon partaking in sexual activity may have been widespread .
= = = Beowulf = = =
Mentions of Gefjon may appear in Beowulf in five passages ( line 49 , line 362 , line 515 , line 1394 , and line 1690 ) . Scholar Frank Battaglia refers to these passages as " the Gefion passages , " and asks " Does Beowulf oppose the Earth Goddess of ancient Germanic religion ? The possibility of such an interpretation follows upon the discovery that the name Gefion , by which early Danes called their female chthonic deity , may occur in the Old English poem five times . " Battaglia further theorizes that :
The five Gefion passages seem to highlight the championing of a new order antagonistic to goddess worship . In light of what appears to be an elaborate thematic statement about patrilineage in the poem , the new order may also have entailed a change in kinship systems . Grendel and his mother may stand as types of earlier , matrilineal tribes . Further the hall which is the object of struggle between Beowulf and the first two monsters may symbolize the consolidation of new hierarchical social organization among the northern Germanic peoples .
Battaglia says that if the passages are taken to represent Gefjon , gēafon mentioned in line 49 refers directly to Gefjon 's sadness at Skjöldr 's ( described as having wed Gefjon in Heimskringla ) death , and that here " we may with some confidence conclude that in a poem about Scyld 's funeral for an Anglo @-@ Danish audience , the word gēafon could probably not have been used without invoking Gefion . "
Battaglia posits translations for line 362 ( Geofenes begang ) as " Gefion 's realm , " line 515 ( Geofon ȳðum wēol ) as " Gefion welled up in waves , " line 1394 ( nē on Gyfenes grund , gā þær hē wille ) as " not ( even ) in the ground of Gefion , go where he will , " and line 1690 ( Gifen gēotende gīgante cyn ; ) as " Gefion gushing , the race of giants . "
Scholar Richard North theorizes that Old English geofon and Old Norse Gefjun and Freyja 's name Gefn may all descend from a common origin ; gabia a Germanic goddess connected with the sea , whose name means " giving " .
= = = Frigg and Freyja = = =
Some scholars have proposed a connection between Gefjun and the goddesses Frigg and Freyja due to perceived similarities . Britt @-@ Mari Näsström theorizes that Gefjun is simply another aspect of Freyja , and that the " white youth " that Freyja is accused of sleeping with by Loki in Gylfaginning may be the god Heimdallr .
Hilda Ellis Davidson says that " there seems ample indication that Gefjon represents one aspect of a once powerful goddess of the north , the figure representing in Scandinavian myths as either Frigg , the wife of Odin , or Freyja , sister of fertility god Freyr . Freyja , desired by gods , giants and dwarves alike , acted as dispenser of bounty and inspirer of sexual love between men and women like the Greek Aphrodite . " In addition , Davidson says that " as Axel Olrik ( 1901 ) pointed out long ago , we know very little about Gefion , and it is possible that she can be identified with Frigg or Freyja " and not only does the Prose Edda associate her with an afterlife realm of the dead , " in Lokasenna , Loki claims that Gefion was given a jewel by a lover , traditions that would fit in very well with what we know of Freyja . "
Regarding parallels drawn between Freyja and Gefjon proposed from the exchange found in Lokasenna , Rudolf Simek says that Lokasenna is a " late composition and the reproach is too much of a stereotype to carry much weight . " Simek says that , regardless , even if Gefjon shouldn 't be identified with Freyja , Gefjon could still be considered " one of the fertility and protective goddesses because of the meaning of her name ( ' the giving one ' ) . "
= = Modern influence = =
Gefjon appears prominently as the allegorical mother of Norway , Sweden , and Denmark in the forty @-@ page Swedish Romantic poem Gefion , a Poem in Four Cantos by Eleonora Charlotta d 'Albedyhll ( 1770 – 1835 ) . A fountain depicting Gefjun driving her oxen sons to pull her plough ( The Gefion Fountain , 1908 ) by Anders Bundgaard stands in Copenhagen , Denmark , on the island of Zealand , as in the myth . The Gefion family , a family of asteroids , and asteroid 1272 Gefion ( discovered in 1931 by Karl Wilhelm Reinmuth ) both derive their names from that of the goddess .
The highest mountain in Queen Louise Land ( Danish : Dronning Louise Land ) , NE Greenland was named after Gefjon by the 1912 – 13 Danish Expedition to Queen Louise Land led by J.P. Koch .
= Brian Williamson =
Brian Williamson ( 4 September 1945 – 9 June 2004 ) was a Jamaican gay rights activist who co @-@ founded the Jamaica Forum for Lesbians , All @-@ Sexuals and Gays ( J @-@ FLAG ) . He was known for being one of the earliest openly gay men in Jamaican society and for being one of its best known gay rights activists .
Born to an upper @-@ middle @-@ class family in Saint Ann Parish , Williamson initially considered a life in the Roman Catholic clergy before deciding to devote himself to the cause of gay rights in Jamaica . In the 1990s , he purchased an apartment building in the New Kingston area of Kingston , in which he established a gay nightclub , which remained open for two years despite opposition from police . In 1998 , he co @-@ founded J @-@ FLAG with other lesbian , gay , bisexual , and transgender ( LGBT ) rights activists , soon becoming the public face of the organisation . As J @-@ FLAG 's representative , he argued in favour of LGBT rights during appearances on Jamaican television and radio programs . This attracted great hostility within Jamaica – a country with particularly high rates of anti @-@ gay prejudice – with J @-@ FLAG members receiving death threats and Williamson surviving a knife attack . For a time he left Jamaica , living in Canada and England for several years , before returning to Kingston in 2002 .
In June 2004 , Williamson was murdered in his apartment by an acquaintance , Dwight Hayden , whom he had been aiding with financial handouts . Police believed that Hayden 's motive was robbery , although J @-@ FLAG also suggested that homophobia may have played a part in the killing . Hayden was subsequently sentenced to life in prison . Upon learning of the murder , a crowd assembled in New Kingston to celebrate Williamson 's death , chanting homophobic slogans and lyrics . Conversely , the Jamaican LGBT community held a secret memorial for him , while protests against the killing were held by LGBT rights groups in the United Kingdom .
= = Biography = =
Williamson was born to an upper @-@ middle @-@ class family in the rural Saint Ann Parish . He initially considered joining the clergy of the Roman Catholic Church , studying for this position in Montego Bay , but eventually decided against this . In 1979 , he began to devote himself to the cause of gay rights in Jamaica , becoming the first individual to do so in such a public manner . Jamaica had a reputation for its widespread anti @-@ gay prejudice , an attitude that pervaded public discourse at all levels of society , with a number of popular Jamaican musicians inciting violence against gay men in their lyrics . Initially , Williamson offered his apartment in Kingston as a space in which gay Jamaicans could meet roughly every fortnight . In the early 1990s he purchased a large property on New Kingston 's gentrified Haughton Street , converting part of this building into a gay nightclub that he called Entourage . Many of those who attended the club worked in the city 's foreign embassies . Although the police tried to close it down , the club remained open for two years until Williamson was attacked by a patron carrying a knife , which was used to slash Williamson 's arm . Although same @-@ sex sexual relations between men were illegal in Jamaica , Williamson was openly gay .
Williamson and other members of Jamaica 's lesbian , gay , bisexual , and transgender ( LGBT ) community decided to form an organisation to campaign for their rights , resulting in the establishment of the Jamaica Forum for Lesbians , All Sexuals , and Gays ( J @-@ FLAG ) in December 1998 . J @-@ FLAG sought to enhance LGBT rights through advocacy and encouraging legal reform , as well as through educational and social service programs . They also kept a record of anti @-@ LGBT hate crimes including assaults , home invasions , and the corrective rape of lesbians , further recording the murder of 30 gay men between 1997 and 2004 . From the time of the group 's foundation , its members were subjected to repeated death threats . Williamson became the public face of the group , appearing on radio talk shows and television shows such as Perspective and Nationwide in which he argued against homophobia and called for greater government investment to tackle the HIV / AIDS pandemic . Unlike most other LGBT rights activists in Jamaica , Williamson did not seek to protect himself by using a pseudonym , disguising his voice , or hiding his appearance . Facing hostility and threats of violence , Williamson left Jamaica and moved to Canada and then England , before returning to the island in 2002 . There , he moved into an apartment in his Haughton Street compound and decided to take a renewed role within Jamaica 's LGBT rights movement . He lived in one room of his apartment block and rented out a number of others .
= = Murder = =
Financially affluent , Williamson would often offer money or odd jobs to his acquaintances in the LGBT community . Among those whom Williamson befriended was Dwight Hayden , a closeted gay man in his mid @-@ 20s who had been a user of crack cocaine prior to 2002 and who was known locally as " Dog " and " Swong " . They met in New Kingston and Williamson helped Hayden out by purchasing newspapers which he could then sell on the streets . According to one of Williamson 's flatmates , Desmond Chambers , " I have seen [ Hayden ] here about six times ( and ) anything him want , Brian give him . Brian give him money , Brian give him food and help him to purchase ( newspaper ) to sell on the road . " On 7 June 2004 Hayden arrived at Williamson 's flat with another man , with Williamson welcoming them in and offering them bottles of Guinness . Hayden asked for money from Williamson , who agreed he would give it to him later in the evening . At this , Hayden attacked Williamson , stabbing him around seventy times .
Williamson 's body was discovered by Chambers at approximately 11.15am. Chambers noticed that the air conditioning had been left on , something that Williamson was unlikely to have done , and then realised that Williamson 's bedroom door had been left ajar . Investigating further , he opened the door and discovered Williamson 's corpse lying face down on the floor , with multiple stab wounds to the neck and surrounded by a pool of blood . Williamson 's dog , Tessa , was running about in the room and barking .
The scene of the crime was visited by Father Michael Lewis of the Stella Maris Church , who was accompanied by Williamson 's sister Gradryn Williams ; she was convinced not to look at the body by Williamson 's friends . Crowds assembled outside the apartment block , made up of individuals who were laughing and celebrating Williamson 's death . Some of the assembled people shouted out statements such as " This is long overdue " , " Battyman he get killed " , " Let 's get them one at a time " , " That 's what you get for sin " , and " Batty man fi dead ! " ( " Faggots should die ! " ) . Others sang " Boom Bye Bye " , a line from a dancehall song by Buju Banton that discusses shooting and burning gay men . Rebecca Schleifer , a Human Rights Watch ( HRW ) researcher , had a meeting with Williamson planned for that day , and arrived at his home to find the assembled crowd ; she noted that " It was like a parade . They were basically partying " .
= = = Police investigation and conviction = = =
Police issued a statement declaring that they were searching for two men whom Chambers had observed at Williamson 's apartment prior to his death . Corporal Devon Hugh Williams of the Constabulary Communication Network ( CCN ) informed press that the police suspected that the motive of the attack had been robbery , as evidence pointing to the fact that Williamson 's apartment had been ransacked and a safe removed . However , both friends of Williamson and human rights organisations suggested that – given Williamson 's status as an openly gay man – robbery might have been a secondary issue , with homophobia being the main motive behind the crime . J @-@ FLAG expressed its suspicion that the killing was a " hate @-@ related crime " , articulating the view that Williamson had been killed because he was a publicly visible gay man . Amnesty International urged police not to dismiss alternative possible motives . Amnesty 's Piers Bannister informed press that " We do know that there 's a high level of homophobia in Jamaica , so there was a possibility that it was a hate crime . Many hate crime victims are robbed afterward . We 're not saying it wasn 't a robbery ; we just want a full investigation . " Schleifer publicly stated that it is " really important to investigate [ the crime ] thoroughly . Because there are really strong indications that it might have been a homophobic attack " .
On June 11 , two days after the murder , police arrested their suspect . Hayden provided a confession and subsequently pleaded guilty in court . | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
encouraged systematic looting of the sailors ' personal possessions , even confiscating the surgeon 's tools in the middle of an operation . Against the established conventions of warfare , he forced the captured crew to assist in bringing Leander safely into Corfu , and denied them food and medical treatment unless they co @-@ operated with their captors .
Lejoille 's published account of the action greatly exaggerated the scale of his success , and , although he was highly praised in the French press , he was castigated in Britain for his conduct . Thompson , Berry and most of the British officers were exchanged and acquitted at court martial , and the captains were knighted for their services , while Leander and many of the crew were recaptured in March 1799 by a Russian squadron that seized Corfu , and returned to British control by order of Tsar Paul . Généreux survived another year in the Mediterranean , but was eventually captured off Malta in 1800 by a British squadron under Lord Nelson .
= = Background = =
On 1 August 1798 a British fleet of 13 ships of the line and one fourth rate ship under Rear @-@ Admiral Sir Horatio Nelson discovered a French fleet of 13 ships of the line and four frigates at anchor in Aboukir Bay on the Mediterranean coast of Egypt . Nelson had been in pursuit of the French for three months , crossing the Mediterranean three times in his efforts to locate the fleet and a convoy under its protection which carried the French army commanded by Napoleon Bonaparte intended for the invasion of Egypt . The convoy successfully eluded Nelson and the army landed at Alexandria on 31 June , capturing the city and advancing inland . The fleet was too large to anchor in Alexandria harbour and instead Bonaparte ordered its commander , Vice @-@ Admiral François @-@ Paul Brueys D 'Aigalliers to take up station in Aboukir Bay .
On discovering the French Nelson attacked immediately , ordering his ships to advance on the French line and engage , beginning the Battle of the Nile . As he closed with the French line , Captain Thomas Foley on the lead ship HMS Goliath realised that there was a gap at the head of the French line wide enough to allow his ship passage . Pushing through the gap , Foley attacked the French van from the landward side , followed by four ships , while Nelson engaged the van from the seaward side with three more . The remainder of the fleet attacked the French centre , except for HMS Culloden which grounded on a shoal and became stuck . The smaller ships in the squadron , the fourth rate HMS Leander and the sloop HMS Mutine , attempted to assist Culloden , but it was soon realised that the ship was immobile . Determined to participate in the battle , Captain Thomas Thompson of Leander abandoned the stranded Culloden and joined the second wave of attack against the French centre , focusing fire on the bow of the 120 @-@ gun French first rate Orient . Within an hour , Orient caught fire under the combined attack of three ships and later exploded , effectively concluding the engagement in Nelson 's favour . During the next two days , the lightly damaged Leander was employed in forcing the surrender of several grounded French vessels , and by the afternoon of 3 August Nelson was in complete control of Aboukir Bay . Only four French ships , two ships of the line and two frigates , escaped , sailing north out of the bay on the afternoon of 2 August under the command of Rear @-@ Admiral Pierre @-@ Charles Villeneuve .
Having won the battle , Nelson needed to send despatches to his commander , Vice @-@ Admiral Earl St. Vincent reporting on the destruction of the French Mediterranean fleet . These messages were entrusted to Captain Edward Berry , who had served as Nelson 's flag captain on HMS Vanguard during the battle . Thompson was ordered to escort Berry to St. Vincent , believed to be with the blockade squadron off Cadiz , in Leander . Although Leander had not suffered serious damage in the battle , Thompson had manning problems : casualties from the Battle of Santa Cruz de Tenerife in July 1797 had never been replaced , 14 men had been wounded in the battle at Aboukir Bay and two officers and fifty men had been detached to man the captured French prizes . This left Thompson with just 282 men on board Leander . Following Nelson 's orders , Thompson sailed on 5 August .
= = Battle = =
After fleeing Aboukir Bay , Admiral Villeneuve had been delayed in the Eastern Mediterranean by northeasterly winds , and on 17 August he decided to split his forces , sailing for Malta with his flagship Guillaume Tell and the two frigates while Captain Louis @-@ Jean @-@ Nicolas Lejoille on Généreux was ordered to Corfu . Before they departed , a number of men were transferred to Généreux , which was already carrying survivors from Timoléon , one of the ships destroyed in Aboukir Bay , giving Généreux a crew of 936 men . As Généreux rounded the island of Goza off the western tip of Crete ( then known as Candia ) on the following morning , his lookouts reported a sail to the northwest . This vessel was Leander . Learning of the strange ship to the southeast , Captain Thompson deduced that it must be one of Villeneuve 's ships and immediately ordered all sails set in an effort to avoid an unequal combat : Généreux carried 30 more guns than Leander and was more strongly built , carrying a broadside of over 1 @,@ 000 lbs to Leander 's 432 lbs .
Assisted by a strong breeze behind his ship that did not carry to Thompson 's vessel , Lejoille rapidly gained on the fourth rate , hoisting Neapolitan and then Ottoman flags in an unsuccessful attempt to confuse Thompson into approaching his ship . By 09 : 00 it was inevitable that Généreux would catch Leander and Thompson responded by shortening sail and turning northwards to aim his broadside at the French ship . Within minutes Généreux had fired a shot across Leander 's bows and Thompson responded to the threat by ordering a full broadside against Généreux . Lejoille replied with his own broadside , and the two ships continued firing as they sailed to the east , Généreux gradually closing the range with Leander . The smaller British vessel took the worst of the damage and at 10 : 30 the combatants were so close that Lejoille decided to attempt to board the British ship , Thompson unable to manoeuvre the battered Leander out of the way . Généreux 's bow collided with the bow of Leander and the French ship swung alongside , Lejoille preparing his men to board . Thompson was prepared for this manoeuvre and mustered his Royal Marines and teams of sailors armed with muskets along the rail of the quarterdeck and poop deck . The volleys of musket fire were sufficient to kill any Frenchman who attempted to board the British ship and the tangled ships turned southwards together , their main batteries continuing to exchange broadsides at extreme close range . Gradually the strengthening breeze dragged Généreux free of Leander , the French ship faster as more of its sails and rigging were intact .
As Généreux pulled away to the west , Thompson , who had already been wounded several times , succeeded in turning his battered ship so that his broadside was directed at the stern of Généreux . Despite the collapsed wreckage of the mizzenmast and fore topmast , his gunnery teams managed to cut away enough of the obstruction to fire a raking broadside at the French vessel . Although Leander had inflicted severe damage , the size and power of the French ship was beginning to tell , and Lejoille was able to turn Généreux southwards again . The ships continued exchanging broadsides until 15 : 30 , by which time Leander 's crew had run out of regular shot and were firing scrap metal at the French ship . Eventually Lejoille succeeded in bringing Généreux across Leander 's bow and hailed the British ship , asking if they had surrendered . Unable to continue fighting due to the wreckage that lay across the forward guns , Thompson ordered a French flag raised on a pike , which was sufficient for Lejoille to cease firing .
The French were initially unable to take possession of the fourth rate as every single one of the boats on board had been smashed by British shot . In the end , a French midshipman and a boatswain dived into the sea and swam to the British ship to take the formal surrender . Leander had lost a third of the crew : 35 men killed and 57 wounded , the latter including Thompson three times and Berry , who had a piece of human skull lodged in his arm . The ship had been completely dismasted except the stubs of the fore and main masts and the bowsprit , and was leaking badly from dozens of shot holes . Généreux had also been damaged , losing the mizzen topmast and almost losing the foremast as well . Losses on the crowded decks had been far more severe than on Leander , with casualties estimated at 100 killed and 188 wounded , again approximately a third of the total .
= = Aftermath = =
The two French sailors that reached Leander immediately began a systematic pillaging of the British officers ' personal effects . Rather than tossing the men into the sea , as historian William James suggests they should have done , Thompson instead ordered one of the British boats to be repaired and launched to transport him to the French ship and bring back Captain Lejoille in the belief that he would end the looting . However , when the French captain arrived he immediately joined his officers , commandeering all but two of Captain Thompson 's shirts and the wounded officer 's cot . When Captain Berry complained that a pair of ornamental pistols had been stolen from him , Lejoille summoned the thief to the quarterdeck and took them for himself . The sailors who accompanied Lejoille were equally voracious : among the many things taken were the ship surgeon Mr Mulberry 's operating tools , stolen in the middle of an operation . Without the correct equipment , the surgeon could not assist the many wounded , including Captain Thompson , who had a musket ball still embedded deeply in his arm . When Captain Berry complained , Lejoille replied " J 'en suis fâché , mais le fait est , que les Français sont bons au pillage " ( " I 'm sorry , but the fact is , that the French are good at plunder " ) .
Dividing the captured British sailors , Lejoille transferred half to Généreux and left half on Leander with a French prize crew under Louis Gabriel Deniéport . In direct contravention of the established conventions of war , both sets of prisoners were immediately ordered to effect repairs to the vessels . Only once both ships were ready for the journey to Corfu were the prisoners given bread and water , although the wounded were still denied medical attention . For ten days after the engagement the battered ships sailed northwards against the wind , Généreux forced to attach a tow to Leander to avoid leaving the prize behind . On 28 August , a sail appeared to the south . Panic broke out on Généreux , and Lejoille ordered the prisoners confined below and for preparations to be made to abandon Leander and make all speed for Corfu . The new arrival was in fact the 16 @-@ gun British sloop HMS Mutine under Lieutenant Thomas Bladen Capel , carrying the second copies of Nelson 's despatches to Britain . Capel sighted the ships to the north , but assumed that they were Généreux and Guillaume Tell and so passed by displaying French colours . Lejoille was not fooled by the disguise but did not pursue the small vessel , continuing his passage to Corfu once Mutine had sailed out of sight .
At Corfu the prisoners were confined but the wounded were still not provided with treatment : Thompson was only able to have the musket ball removed from his arm when Mulberry was smuggled aboard Généreux in Corfu harbour without Lejoille 's knowledge or permission . The British officers were eventually paroled and returned to Britain , although the carpenter Thomas Jarrat was detained because he refused to supply Lejoille with the specifications of Leander 's masts . Most of the ship 's regular seamen were held prisoner at Corfu . They were subsequently encouraged to join the French Navy , Lejoille attempting to enlist them on Généreux when a Russian squadron blockaded the port . Lejoille 's demands were met with a response from a maintopman named George Bannister , who called out " No , you damned French rascal , give us back our little ship , and we 'll fight you again until we sink " . Généreux subsequently escaped from Corfu and anchored off Brindisi , where Lejoille was killed by artillery fire from the Neapolitan castle overlooking the town . The ship was captured in a battle in February 1800 by a squadron under Nelson , off Malta . Leander was captured by a Russian force that seized Corfu in March 1799 and was returned to the Royal Navy by Tsar Paul , along with the sailors held on the island .
The account of the battle Captain Lejoille sent to France was inaccurate in a number of important features , describing Leander as a 74 @-@ gun ship and claiming that his men actually boarded the British ship , only to subsequently retreat . Coming so soon after their disaster at the Battle of the Nile and encouraged by Lejoille 's highly inaccurate reports , French newspapers exaggerated the scale of the victory , Le Moniteur Universel publishing several imaginative accounts in the months after the battle . Despite the defeat the action was celebrated in Britain , Thompson and Berry praised for their defiance against a much larger vessel rather than criticised for losing their ship . Lejoille 's conduct in the treatment of his prisoners was derided in the popular press and on 17 December 1798 Thompson , Berry and the ship 's officers were brought before a court martial on HMS America at Sheerness for the loss of their ship and honourably acquitted , the court announcing that ;
" The Court having heard the evidence brought forward in support of Captain Thompson 's narrative of the capture of Leander , and having very maturely and deliberately considered the whole , is of opinion , that the gallant and almost unprecedented defence of Captain Thompson , of his majesty 's late ship Leander , against so superior force as that of the Généreux , is deserving of every praise his Country and this Court can give ; and that his conduct , with that of the officers and men under his command , reflects not only the highest honour upon himself and them , but on their Country at large , and the court does therefore most honourably acquit Captain Thompson , his officers , and ship 's company ; and he and they are most honourably acquitted accordingly . "
Thompson and Berry were subsequently voted the thanks of Parliament and in December 1798 Berry was made a Knight Bachelor , given the Freedom of the City of London and a chest worth 100 guineas . He was subsequently made commander of the new 80 @-@ gun HMS Foudroyant in early 1799 , and returned to the Mediterranean to operate as Nelson 's flag captain again during the Siege of Malta . Thompson was knighted in January 1799 and given a pension of £ 200 per annum , returning to service that spring as captain of HMS Bellona attached to the Channel Fleet under Lord Bridport .
Captain Peune , who had commanded the bomb @-@ ship chartered to ferry Thompson and his staff from Corfu to Trieste , wrote a letter to answer the charges of pillage . He stated that the 30 @-@ men French prize crew was unarmed , having had to swim to Leander because all the boats on Généreux and Leander had been destroyed in the battle , and that the 200 men still able on Leander would have stopped them from plundering their effects ; that neither the captain not the surgeon of the ship had complained at Corfu nor at Trieste ; and that on his ship , he had seen Thompson with three trunks of personal effects , and the other members of his staff with their own as well . In his Batailles navales de la France , Troude accuses William James of further " augmenting " the accusations originally published in the Gazette de Vienne . The allegations are not present in Thompson 's account in The Gentleman 's Magazine .
= Cyclone Vaianu ( 2006 ) =
Severe Tropical Cyclone Vaianu ( RSMC Nadi designation : 12F , JTWC designation : 11P ) was the fourth named tropical cyclone of the 2005 – 06 South Pacific cyclone season . The system formed on February 11 , and moved generally towards the south throughout its life . Vaianu ultimately peaked with winds corresponding to Category 1 status on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale , and passed between Fiji and Tonga . Moving into cooler waters , the storm dissipated on February 16 . Although the cyclone avoided land for the most part , it caused heavy rainfall and gusty winds in portions of Tonga . Flooding hit the capital city of Nuku 'alofa , and on some islands , the storm destroyed crops .
= = Meteorological history = =
Late on February 9 , the Regional Specialized Meteorological Centre ( RSMC ) in Nadi , Fiji reported that Tropical Depression 12F had developed within a convergence zone which was located about 140 km ( 87 mi ) to the northeast of Vanua Levu . The depression tracked southeastward , although further development was initially inhibited by wind shear . During the next day , the depression turned towards the southeast and moved into a more favorable environment for intensification . It was then designated as Tropical Depression 11P at 1800 UTC by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) . On February 11 , the system significantly organized , and at 1200 UTC that day , RSMC Nadi reported that the depression had intensified into a Category 1 tropical cyclone on the Australian tropical cyclone intensity scale ; it was assigned the name Vaianu .
At the time of being upgraded to a cyclone , Vaianu was situated about 190 km ( 120 mi ) to the northwest of Vavaʻu , a Tonga island chain . The storm turned southwestward under the steering currents of a ridge to the southeast . The JTWC recognized the system as a tropical storm on February 12 , and upgraded it into a tropical cyclone shortly thereafter . Vaianu continued to strengthen , and passed west of Tonga . The JTWC reported that the cyclone peaked in intensity at 1200 UTC on February 13 , with maximum sustained 1 @-@ minute winds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) . RSMC Nadi assessed the storm as having peaked slightly later , with 10 @-@ minute winds of 130 km / h ( 80 mph ) , which made it a Category 3 severe tropical cyclone .
The storm held its strength for some time as it moved southward between Ono @-@ i @-@ Lau and Tongatapu . Beginning to accelerate , Vaianu entered the area of responsibility of the Tropical Cyclone Warning Centre in Wellington , New Zealand . It curved southeastward and slowly deteriorated due to increasing wind shear and colder sea surface temperatures . The JTWC downgraded it to a tropical storm on February 15 , and by the next day it was undergoing an extratropical transition . At 0600 UTC , the JTWC classified it as extratropical , but it remained a powerful storm system for several days as it tracked over the open ocean .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Early on February 10 , RSMC Nadi placed Niuafo 'ou and Niuatoputapu under a tropical cyclone alert , before early the next day extending the alert to the whole of Tonga . Later that day the Vavau , Haapai , and Nomuka islands were placed under a gale warning . The warnings stayed in force until late on February 12 when the gale warning was canceled , and concurrently , southern Tonga was placed under a tropical cyclone warning . These warnings were canceled on February 14 . During the cyclone , RSMC Nadi placed the Lau Islands under a strong wind warning , and a damaging swell warning was declared for Fiji . Businesses in Nuku 'alofa closed as the storm passed by .
At the Fuaʻamotu station , sustained winds blew at 68 km / h ( 42 mph ) during the worst of the storm , with gusts reaching 100 km / h ( 62 mph ) . Barometric pressure there fell to 995 millibars at 1400 UTC on February 13 , and 97 @.@ 7 mm ( 3 @.@ 85 in ) of rain fell . Since the cyclone remained predominately over water , its effects were limited . Nonetheless , portions of Tongan experienced torrential rainfall and high winds . On Tongatapu and Eua , the storm inflicted extensive crop damage , and it is estimated that 70 % of the banana crop was destroyed . While little property damage took place , the storm caused power outages across its path that took up a week to fully restore . In Nuku 'alofa , the capital of Tonga , flooding of low @-@ lying areas reportedly shut down the city for two days . The high winds brought down trees and dispersed debris throughout the region , while schools were forced to close .
= Air India Express Flight 812 =
Air India Express Flight 812 was a scheduled passenger service from Dubai to Mangalore , which , at around 01 : 00 UTC on 22 May 2010 , overshot the runway on landing , fell over a cliff , and caught fire , spreading wreckage across the surrounding hillside . Of the 160 passengers and six crew members on board , only eight passengers survived .
With its 158 fatalities , the accident was the third deadliest aviation disaster in India , after the 1996 Charkhi Dadri mid @-@ air collision , which killed 349 , and the 1978 crash of Air India Flight 855 , which killed 213 . It marked the first major Indian aviation accident since the July 2000 crash of Alliance Air Flight 7412 in Patna . The accident is the deadliest crash of a 737 aircraft ( all series ) and the eighth hull loss of a Boeing 737 @-@ 800 aircraft . The crash caused the highest number of aviation fatalities in 2010 and was the second of the year to involve a 737 @-@ 800 . It was the second time that an aircraft had overshot a runway at Mangalore .
= = Aircraft and crew = =
The accident involved a Boeing 737 @-@ 800 aircraft , one of Boeing 's 737 Next Generation series , with aircraft registration VT – AXV and manufacturer 's serial number 36333 , line number 2481 . The aircraft first flew on 20 December 2007 with the Boeing test registration N1787B and was delivered on 18 January 2008 . Commanded by Captain Zlatko Glušica , the remaining crew consisted of first officer Harbinder Singh Ahluwalia and four flight attendants . Glušica ( a former employee of Jat Airways of Serbia ) , aged 55 , a British and Serbian national with over 10 @,@ 000 hours of flying and over 7 @,@ 500 hours of command experience , and Ahluwalia ( a former employee of Jat Airways who joined Air India Express in April 2009 ) were both killed in the incident . Both pilots were based in Mangalore .
= = Flight = =
The flight departed Dubai International Airport at 01 : 06 GST ( 21 : 06 UTC ) . It crashed upon landing at Mangalore International Airport at 06 : 05 IST ( 00 : 35 UTC ) . Situated in a hilly area , the airport is one of seven Indian airports designated as a " critical airfield " by the Directorate General of Civil Aviation ( DGCA ) . DGCA rules at critical airfields prohibit " supervised take offs and landings " , so that only the captain ( not the first officer ) may pilot an aircraft during take @-@ off and landing . The airport is one of three airports in India having table top runways ( the others being Kozhikode and Lengpui ) that require heightened awareness and a very precise landing approach .
= = Crash = =
After touching down on the 8 @,@ 033 @-@ foot ( 2 @,@ 448 m ) runway 24 , the plane overran and crashed down the hill at its far end . The final conversations between Air traffic control ( ATC ) and the pilot prior to the landing showed no indication of distress .
The then Civil Aviation Minister , Praful Patel said that the aircraft was following an Instrument landing system ( ILS ) approach for landing on the newer , longer , runway , which was commissioned in 2006 . The pilot reported to ATC that it was ' established ' on an ILS approach about 4 @.@ 3 miles ( 6 @.@ 9 km ) from touchdown ; landing clearance was then given at 2 @,@ 000 feet ( 610 m ) from touchdown . The aeroplane concluded its ILS approach on runway 24 , touching down 5 @,@ 200 feet ( 1 @,@ 600 m ) from the start of the runway , leaving 2 @,@ 800 feet ( 850 m ) in which to stop . It overran the runway and ploughed through a 90 @-@ metre ( 300 ft ) sand arrestor bed which did not stop it . As the aircraft passed the arrestor bed , its starboard wing collided with the concrete socket of the ILS localiser antenna ; it finally plunged over the edge of the table @-@ top about 790 feet ( 240 m ) beyond the end of the runway and down the steep hillside coming to a stop 660 to 980 feet ( 200 to 300 m ) metres past the top of the slope .
" The plane broke in two " said one survivor " and a dense black smoke invaded the cabin . I jumped out through an opening in the window . Six other passengers followed me . We fled , with the help of the inhabitants of the nearby village " . Television footage from shortly after the crash showed the remains of the aircraft on fire and lying on its belly with smoke rising from the wreckage . The minister also stated that weather conditions were normal with a visibility of 3 @.@ 7 miles ( 6 @.@ 0 km ) , and said wind conditions were calm and there was no rain at the time of the crash . A drizzle started only after the accident .
= = Victims = =
Apart from the six crew members , a total of 160 passengers were on board at the time of the crash . Although there were 169 names on the original passenger list , nine did not board the flight . All the bodies were recovered from the wreckage . Karnataka Home Minister V. S. Acharya said eight people were initially reported to have survived , although one person died of his injuries — this was however refuted by an Air India spokesman who confirmed that all initial survivors were alive . This confusion arose after fire fighters rescued a little girl who died on the way to hospital . The airport manager at Mangalore , Peter Abraham confirmed that there were difficulties when trying to reach the plane .
After the crash , some comments surfaced online , which poke fun at the victims and their families . The comments appeared on a news website , which has been taken down .
On 27 July 2010 , the names of all the victims were inscribed on a memorial installed near the crash site which was destroyed by vandals on 5 October 2010 .
= = Rescue and response = =
Local villagers were among the first on the scene to help while an estimated 15 fire trucks , 20 ambulances and 100 rescue workers were immediately allocated to rescue operations . Karnataka Western Range Inspector General of Police , Gopal Hosur , said that eight to ten people had been moved to hospitals , and that the Karnataka Police force , bomb squad , Karnataka Fire and Emergency Services , Karnataka State Reserve Police and all hospitals were working together to help out . The Central Industrial Security Force ( CISF ) sent 150 personnel to Mangalore to help in the relief and rescue operations . Bodies of all of the deceased were recovered from the crash site on the day of the crash , with relatives of the deceased receiving 87 of the bodies .
After the rapid establishment of a special emergency information service , Praful Patel , Indian Civil Aviation minister , arrived from New Delhi to be at the scene and the one @-@ year @-@ in @-@ office celebrations of the UPA government 's second tenure were postponed . Patel was soon followed by Karnataka Chief Minister B. S. Yeddyurappa and Kerala Chief Minister V. S. Achuthanandan to take control of the situation . The chairperson of the governing UPA , Sonia Gandhi issued a message of grief and wished a " speedy recovery " to all . The Indian Minister for Civil Aviation , Praful Patel , took moral responsibility for the accident and offered to resign his post , an offer rejected by the Prime Minister of India , Manmohan Singh . Many countries and organisations expressed sorrow and condolences to the people of India over the crash . The accident was predicted to cost the insurers , and their reinsurers ₹ 4 billion ( US $ 60 million ) . Air India 's insurance company paid out ₹ 900 million ( US $ 10 million ) in settlement of the hull loss , and the company had already received ₹ 1 @.@ 38 billion ( US $ 20 million ) , that is 60 per cent of the estimated ₹ 2 @.@ 3 billion ( US $ 30 million ) . School of social Work , roshni nilaya conducted a study on Psychosocial Support for Survivors and Families of the Victims of Mangalore Air Crash to give the psyco @-@ emotional support .
= = Investigation = =
Initial investigations revealed that the plane landed at least 2 @,@ 000 feet ( 610 m ) beyond the usual touch down point on Mangalore 's new 8 @,@ 040 @-@ foot ( 2 @,@ 450 m ) runway 24 . A team of airline officials , staff and officials from the Airports Authority of India and officers of the Directorate General of Civil Aviation ( India ) were rushed to the scene to investigate the accident and assist with rescue efforts . Boeing also announced that a team would be sent to provide technical assistance following a request from Indian authorities . The Directorate General of Civil Aviation ordered an inquiry into the crash , which began the same day . The NTSB also assisted the investigation by sending a team of specialists including a senior air safety investigator , a flight operations specialist , an aircraft systems specialist and technical advisers for Boeing and the Federal Aviation Administration .
Captain Glušica was given clearance to land , however , he suddenly aborted the attempted landing . The aircraft 's throttle handle was found in the forward position , suggesting that the pilot had attempted to abort the landing and take off again . The co @-@ pilot Ahluwalia had warned his commander three times to go around instead of landing ; the first of these warnings had come 2 @.@ 5 miles before the runway threshold .
The cockpit voice recorder ( CVR ) was recovered on 23 May , and the flight data recorder ( FDR ) two days later . The recorders were sent to New Delhi by the Directorate General of Civil Aviation for data acquisition and analysis and subsequently to the US NTSB for investigation . DGCA official Zaidi claimed " better data protection " while unnamed officials mentioned heavy damage to the devices . In direct response to the accident the Government of India decided to set up an independent air accident enquiry board called the Civil Aviation Authority that would function independently of the DGCA . Effectively this meant that the DGCA would be the regulator and the CAA the investigator . The Director General of the DGCA said that it would be set up though legislation , and would comply with the recommendations of the International Civil Aviation Organization .
The enquiry report submitted by the Civil Aviation Ministry claimed that Glušica slept for over 90 minutes during the flight . The Air India Express IX 812 Boeing 737 @-@ 800 carrying 166 people from Dubai including the crew , crashed while negotiating a tricky landing at Mangalore city 's " table @-@ top " airport overlooking a ravine . The American National Transportation Safety Board says it was the first instance of snoring recorded on a Cockpit Voice Recorder ( CVR ) . Analysis of the accident revealed that had the pilot " deployed détente reverse thrust and applied maximum manual braking at touchdown " , the aircraft could have been stopped within the paved overrun area of the runway . The captain had exacerbated the long landing by attempting a go @-@ around following deployment of the thrust reversers .
= = Court of Inquiry = =
On 3 June 2010 , the Government of India appointed Former Vice Chief of Air Staff , Air Marshal Bhushan Nilkanth Gokhale as head of a Court of Inquiry to investigate the air crash . The " Gokhale Inquiry " was to investigate the reasons behind the crash , and submit its findings by 31 August 2010 , a deadline later extended by a month to 30 September 2010 . The Government also appointed four experts to this Court of Inquiry to assist in the investigation . The Court of Inquiry started its investigations by visiting the crash site on 7 June 2010 , and visited all eight crash survivors to gather information .
On 17 August 2010 , the Court of Inquiry began a three @-@ day public hearing in Mangalore to interview airport officials and witnesses . On day one , airport and airline officials deposed that the aircraft had approached at an altitude higher than usual , and that it had landed beyond the landing zone ( LDZ ) . They also mentioned that the airport 's radar was operational from 20 May 2010 . The airport chief fire officer testified that crash tenders had taken four minutes to reach the aircraft because the road leading away from the airport perimeter to the crash site was very narrow and undulating . On day two , a transcript of the cockpit to ATC conversation was released , which indicated that the co @-@ pilot had suggested a " go around " after the pilot informed ATC that it was ' clear to land ' .
Doctors who conducted post mortems on the bodies recovered recorded that most victims had died of burns . On day four Air India 's flight safety officer informed the inquiry that the aircraft 's thrust lever and thrust reverse levers were both in the forward position , possibly indicating that the pilot intended to go around . The inquiry panel stated that information from the FDR would be released at the next hearing of the Court of Inquiry in New Delhi on 3 September 2010 , and that of the CVR soon after . The Court of Inquiry would submit its report on 30 September 2010 .
On 8 September 2010 , details from the CVR and FDR were presented to the Court of Inquiry . The CVR analysis revealed that one of the pilots was asleep in the cockpit . For 110 minutes the CVR had picked up no conversation from the pilots , with the report adding that the sound of nasal snoring and deep breathing could be heard during this recording . The FDR analysis indicated that the flight started its final descent at an altitude of 4 @,@ 400 feet ( 1 @,@ 300 m ) , instead of the normal 2 @,@ 000 feet ( 610 m ) . The aircraft also touched down at the 4 @,@ 638 @-@ foot ( 1 @,@ 414 m ) mark on the runway instead of the 1 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 300 m ) mark , whereupon the pilot then tried to take off with just 800 feet ( 240 m ) of the runway remaining which resulted in the crash . Both pilots had been aware of the wrong flight path since they are both heard saying " Flight is taking wrong path and wrong side " , while the aircraft 's instruments had given repeated warnings of this .
On 16 November 2010 , five months after the Court of Inquiry was constituted , it submitted its report with input from the NTSB and Boeing , and stated that pilot error was the cause of the accident since the flight path was incorrect .
As of Jan 2013 , Directorate General of Civil Aviation ( DGCA ) , AAI and Ministry of Aviation , and the Government of India have not implemented the recommendations of the 812 crash inquiry committee . Work on runway lengthening has not started . 812 Foundation , a Mangalore @-@ based trust , has filed the criminal charges for negligence against regulatory authorities and the airline . Regulatory authority and other organisations named in the petition are thinking of seeking anticipatory bail for their top officials , as the petition seeks non @-@ bailable arrest warrants against those responsible .
= = Compensation = =
The Prime Minister of India , Manmohan Singh announced ₹ 200 @,@ 000 ( US $ 3 @,@ 000 ) or € 3 @,@ 390 ) for the families of the dead and ₹ 50 @,@ 000 ( US $ 740 ) for the injured to be allocated from the Prime Minister 's National Relief Fund . Karnataka Chief Minister Yeddyurappa has also announced compensation of ₹ 200 @,@ 000 ( US $ 3 @,@ 000 ) to the families of the dead . In addition to this , the Civil Aviation Ministry advised that the Airline will provide up to ₹ 7 @.@ 2 million ( US $ 106 @,@ 990 ) to family members of each victim as per the provisions of the Indian Carriage by Air ( Amendment ) Act which follows the Montreal Convention .
The Airline announced interim compensation of ₹ 1 million ( US $ 14 @,@ 860 ) for passengers above 12 years of age , ₹ 500 @,@ 000 ( US $ 7 @,@ 400 ) for passengers below 12 years of age and ₹ 200 @,@ 000 ( US $ 3 @,@ 000 ) for every injured passenger . This compensation is over and above the ex @-@ gratia payment announced by the Prime Minister . Additionally , Air India has said it would offer jobs to the survivors . As of 11 June 2010 an amount of ₹ 170 million ( US $ 3 million ) had been distributed as compensation to the families of the victims and to the eight survivors . Victims ' families have become increasingly vocal as to the inequitable nature of compensation paid out by Air India , and also of the alleged hostile attitude of the airline 's counsel .
Members of the Democratic Youth Federation of India ( DYFI ) along with Kasargod MP P Karunkaran staged a protest on 8 September 2010 at the airline 's office in Mangalore where they submitted a memorandum to officials demanding that families of the victims receive early and equitable settlements of compensation due . They also demanded the settlement process be made more transparent by opening it to the media rather than holding sessions in camera .
On 20 July 2011 , the Kerala High Court based on the petition filed by one of the victims ruled that Air India was liable to pay a no fault liability of one lakh SDR or the Indian rupee equivalent of ₹ 7 @.@ 5 million ( US $ 111 @,@ 450 ) . In its ruling the court noted that India was a signatory to the Montreal Convention , " It is clear that the intention of lawmakers was to bring about a parity in the matter of payment of compensation to the passengers , irrespective of class of travel , while providing for a ' two tier system ' of compensation as adopted in Montreal convention . " The court further ruled that this was over and above any other compensation that the petitioners are entitled to . Air India appealed this order in the Kerala High Court and on 25 August 2011 , the division bench stayed the single bench order on compensation of ₹ 7 @.@ 5 million ( US $ 111 @,@ 450 ) . However , on 5 September 2011 based on a petition by relatives of one of the deceased passengers the Kerala High Court ordered Air India to pay an interim compensation of ₹ 1 million ( US $ 14 @,@ 860 ) .
= Ji Yeon =
" Ji Yeon " ( / ˌdʒiː ˈjiːɒn / ; from Korean 지연 [ tɕi jʌn ] ) is the seventh episode of the American Broadcasting Company 's fourth season of Lost and 79th episode overall . The episode was written by co @-@ executive producers Edward Kitsis and Adam Horowitz , and directed by regular Lost editor Stephen Semel . It was first aired in the United States and Canada on March 13 , 2008 . It is the first episode to feature Harold Perrineau since his departure at the last episode of the second season , and features Zoë Bell as a guest star . " Ji Yeon " was watched by 12 million American viewers and received mostly positive reviews . Before the premiere of the fourth season , the principal cast of Lost called " Ji Yeon " the most shocking of the first seven episodes . The title of the episode is the name of Sun 's daughter , and means " flower of wisdom . "
The episode 's story focuses on married couple Sun ( Yunjin Kim ) and Jin Kwon ( Daniel Dae Kim ) . In late 2004 , on the island , they debate whether to defect to the rival faction of survivors led by John Locke ( Terry O 'Quinn ) . Intercut throughout the episode , a series of off @-@ island scenes show Sun about to give birth and Jin experiencing a series of difficulties in his efforts to reach the hospital with a gift of a stuffed panda . The ending shows that Jin 's and Sun 's scenes do not focus on the same birth ; Jin 's scenes are flashbacks to events before the plane crash , while Sun 's are flashforwards to sometime after she escapes the island . A subplot follows Sayid Jarrah ( Naveen Andrews ) and Desmond Hume ( Henry Ian Cusick ) on board the Kahana , where they learn more about the freighter 's mission and find somebody they once knew .
= = Plot = =
The episode presents four storylines , three of which follow Jin and Sun . The other storyline focuses upon Sayid and Desmond on the freighter Kahana .
On the island , Sun becomes increasingly worried about the intentions of Kahana crew . Despite Juliet Burke 's ( Elizabeth Mitchell ) warning to Sun that women who conceive on the island die during their second trimester , Sun arranges to defect with Jin to the rival faction led by John Locke ( Terry O 'Quinn ) , who does not want to leave the island . Juliet tries to stop Sun from leaving by telling Jin that Sun had an affair , causing him to angrily back out of the journey at the last minute . After having a heartfelt conversation while fishing with Bernard Nadler , the only other married man on the island , he forgives Sun , who assures him that the baby is his .
On the Kahana , Desmond and Sayid are still waiting to speak to the captain of the freighter , Gault ( Grant Bowler ) . When they are taken to see him , Regina ( Zoë Bell ) jumps off the side of the ship , having wrapped herself in chains , but Gault dismisses it as " a heightened case of cabin fever " , and asserts that losing her is better than losing several more in saving her . He says that he is employed by Charles Widmore ( Alan Dale ) , Desmond 's girlfriend 's father , and later takes them into his cabin , and tells that Benjamin Linus ( Michael Emerson ) faked the plane crash by expending tremendous resources in the process and procured 324 dead bodies to make everybody believe that all the passengers were dead . Gault proceeds by saying that is one of the reasons why Mr. Widmore is keen on finding Benjamin Linus and the island . After their meeting , Desmond and Sayid are relocated to a different part of the ship , where they meet Michael Dawson ( Harold Perrineau , Jr . ) working as a deckhand under the alias " Kevin Johnson " .
The episode 's off @-@ island storyline seemingly depicts Jin rushing to the hospital while Sun , who has become one of the " Oceanic Six " , goes into labor . Jin 's journey to the hospital is marred by several unfortunate incidents , including difficulty in purchasing a stuffed panda and his cell phone being broken . Sun gives birth to a girl , who she names " Ji Yeon " , the name chosen by Jin . The final off @-@ island scenes establish that Jin and Sun 's stories are separate ; Jin 's story is set in the past , two months into his marriage to Sun . He was rushing to the birth of a Chinese ambassador 's grandchild to deliver the panda as a gift on behalf of his employer , Sun 's father . In the final flashforward , Sun and her daughter are visited by Hurley ( Jorge Garcia ) , who takes her to pay her respects to Jin . His tombstone indicates that he died on the day of the crash of Oceanic 815 .
= = Production = =
The episode was filmed in late October and early November 2007 , primarily on the island of Oahu , where Lost is filmed . Several days before shooting , Daniel Dae Kim was arrested for driving under the influence of alcohol . His arrest prompted speculation about his future on the series , due to co @-@ stars Michelle Rodriguez ( Ana @-@ Lucia Cortez ) and Cynthia Watros ( Libby ) leaving Lost after DUI arrests . With the revelation of Sun as one of the Oceanic Six , all six members have been revealed . Executive producers and writers Carlton Cuse and Damon Lindelof left the identity of the sixth deliberately ambiguous to provoke debate after the episode .
" Ji Yeon " is the first episode since the second season finale , " Live Together , Die Alone " , in which Harold Perrineau , Jr. appears as Michael Dawson . Perrineau was the only actor from the original cast of fourteen to not appear in the third season of Lost . Perrineau was " really hurt " by the creative decision to leave him out , and went on to appear in the British horror film 28 Weeks Later and Demons , a pilot for CBS . When the latter was not picked up by CBS , Perrineau returned to Lost ; his return was confirmed during Lost 's slot at the 2007 Comic @-@ Con International .
= = Reception = =
" Ji Yeon " was watched live or recorded and watched within six hours of broadcast by 12 @.@ 083 million viewers in the United States , achieving a 4 @.@ 9 / 13 in the key adults 18 – 49 demographic and ranking fourth for the week in viewers . The episode brought in 689 000 viewers in Australia and was in the top five key adults 25 – 54 and 18 – 49 demographics for the night .
Mark Madley of the National Post praised the episode for " [ continuing ] the near @-@ perfect season four " . He asked " has there ever been an episode that answered so many questions yet advanced the plot so little ? " , but immediately noted that the question was not negative . He also found Jin 's line " I will hunt you down and rip your head off ! " particularly humorous . Tim Goodman , critic for the San Francisco Chronicle , thought highly of the romantic plot of the episode , and more generally the characters of Jin and Sun , noting that " Lost has always treated the Jin and Sun relationship with both interest and respect " and " few primetime televised portrayals of intimacy among Asians have been this well done . " Matt Roush of TV Guide stated that the episode made him cry , the " ultimate compliment in the Roush playbook " . Later in his review , he commented he was " already a puddle of emotion before the climactic reveal " . In comparison , the TMZ.com staff gave a largely negative review . The reviewer thought that " [ they ] feel like [ Lindelof and Cuse ] purposely manipulated us with Jin 's flashback and the reveal really wasn 't even all that interesting as a result . And the reveal of Michael being the man on the boat was as un @-@ suspenseful as it was predictable " , and thought Sun 's request for Jin to be at her bedside was deceptive , and rehashed Jack Shephard 's ( Matthew Fox ) comment about his deceased father in " Through the Looking Glass " . Television Without Pity 's LTG gave the episode an " A- " , called it " trippy " and " confusing " and also praised Yunjin Kim and Daniel Dae Kim 's performances as " fantastic " .
= Russian monitor Admiral Chichagov =
The Russian monitor Admiral Chichagov ( Russian : Адмирал Чичагов ) was the second and last of the two Admiral Spiridov @-@ class monitors built for the Imperial Russian Navy in the late 1860s . The ship was assigned to the Baltic Fleet upon completion and remained there for her entire career . Aside from an incident where she ran aground , her service was uneventful . The sister ships were reclassified as coast @-@ defense ironclads in 1892 before they became training ships in 1900 . Admiral Spiridov was stricken from the Navy List in 1907 and became a target ship . Her ultimate fate is unknown .
= = Design and description = =
The Admiral Spiridov @-@ class monitors were significantly larger than their predecessors , the Charodeika class , and were 254 feet ( 77 @.@ 4 m ) long at the waterline . They had a beam of 43 feet ( 13 @.@ 1 m ) and a maximum draft of 21 feet ( 6 @.@ 4 m ) . The ships were designed to displace 3 @,@ 196 long tons ( 3 @,@ 247 t ) , but turned out to be overweight and actually displaced 3 @,@ 505 to 3 @,@ 587 long tons ( 3 @,@ 561 to 3 @,@ 645 t ) . Their crew consisted of 280 officers and crewmen . The Admiral Spiridov class had a single two @-@ cylinder horizontal direct @-@ acting steam engine . It drove a single propeller using steam provided by four rectangular fire @-@ tube boilers . The engine was designed to produce a total of 2 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 1 @,@ 500 kW ) which gave the ships speeds between 9 @.@ 1 – 9 @.@ 5 knots ( 16 @.@ 9 – 17 @.@ 6 km / h ; 10 @.@ 5 – 10 @.@ 9 mph ) when they ran their initial sea trials in 1869 . The ship carried 280 long tons ( 280 t ) of coal which gave her a range of 1 @,@ 400 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 600 km ; 1 @,@ 600 mi ) at full speed . She was fitted with three masts in a light fore @-@ and @-@ aft rig to steady her and aid in maneuvering .
The monitors were ultimately designed to be armed with four Obukhov 9 @-@ inch rifled guns , a pair in each turret . In 1874 – 75 the guns were replaced by a single 11 @-@ inch ( 279 mm ) gun . During the Russo @-@ Turkish War of 1877 – 78 , a 9 @-@ inch mortar was fitted to attack the thin deck armor of enemy ships , but accuracy was poor and they were later removed , probably in the early 1880s . An improved , more powerful , 11 @-@ inch gun was installed aboard Admiral Chichagov during the 1880s . Light guns for use against torpedo boats were added to the Admiral Spiridov @-@ class ships during the Russo @-@ Turkish War when a pair of 4 @-@ pounder 3 @.@ 4 @-@ inch ( 86 mm ) guns were mounted on the roofs of each gun turret . A variety of other small guns are known to have been fitted , but details are lacking . The ships could also carry 12 to 15 mines .
The hull of the Admiral Spiridov @-@ class monitors was completely covered by wrought @-@ iron armor that was 5 @.@ 5 to 6 @.@ 5 inches ( 140 to 165 mm ) thick amidships and thinned to 3 @.@ 25 inches ( 83 mm ) aft and 3 @.@ 5 inches ( 89 mm ) forward of the main belt . The turrets had 6 inches of armor , except around the gun ports , where it thickened to 6 @.@ 5 inches . The conning tower was 5 inches ( 127 mm ) thick and the deck armor was in two layers with a total thickness of 1 inch .
= = Construction and service = =
Admiral Chichagov , named for Admiral Vasily Chichagov , was ordered on 4 June 1865 from the Semiannikov & Poletika Shipyard , Saint Petersburg , although the formal keel @-@ laying was not until 20 November 1866 . Construction was delayed by changes to the design and late deliveries of components . She was launched on 28 August 1868 and then transferred to Kronstadt for fitting out as the shallow waters around Saint Petersburg prevented deep @-@ draft ships from being completed . This added more delays as the dockyard there lacked the equipment to efficiently fit out the ships , and she officially entered service in 1869 at the cost of 1 @,@ 177 @,@ 500 rubles .
On 20 July 1870 , Admiral Chichagov struck a sandbank near Koivisto at full speed . While not damaged in the incident , she was very firmly stuck and , an attempt by the armored frigate Sevastopol pull her off failed two days later when the hawser snapped . The Russians started to off @-@ load coal and equipment onto the low deck of the Strelets in preparation for another attempt . While rigging another hawser aboard Strelets , it moved unexpectedly , badly injuring the ship 's executive officer and a bosun , who later died of his injuries . The subsequent attempt by Sevastopol also failed , so several barges and a floating crane were summoned from Kronstadt the next day . As much weight as possible was transferred to the barges , including her forward guns , and she was successfully pulled free on 25 July . Admiral Chichagov was not damaged in the incident .
On 18 July 1875 , she accidentally collided with the monitor Veschun , but neither ship was seriously damaged . Admiral Chichagov served as the flagship for Captain 1st Rank Stepan Makarov during the 1885 fleet maneuvers in the approaches to the Gulf of Riga . She was reclassified as a coast @-@ defense ironclad on 13 February 1892 . By this time , her role in Russian war plans was to defend the Gulf of Riga against an anticipated German amphibious landing . In 1900 , Admiral Chichagov was assigned to the Kronstadt Engineering School as a training ship , although she was transferred to Libau during the Russo @-@ Japanese War of 1904 – 05 to reinforce the port 's defenses . The ship was transferred to the Port of Kronstadt on 31 March 1907 for disposal . The ship was stricken on 14 August and her hulk was used as a target near Reval . Her ultimate fate is unknown .
= Divergent ( novel ) =
Divergent is the debut novel of American novelist Veronica Roth , published by HarperCollins Children 's Books in 2011 . The novel is the first of the Divergent trilogy , a series of young @-@ adult dystopian novels set in the Divergent Universe . The novel Divergent features a post @-@ apocalyptic version of Chicago and follows Beatrice " Tris " Prior as she explores her identity within a society that defines its citizens by their social and personality @-@ related affiliation with five factions , which removes the threat of anyone exercising independent will and re @-@ threatening the population 's safety . Underlying the action and dystopian focused main plot is a romantic subplot between Tris and one of her instructors in the Dauntless faction , nicknamed Four .
The novel has been compared to other young adult books such as The Hunger Games and The Maze Runner because of its similar themes and target audience . In particular , the novel explores the themes common to young adult fiction , such as adult authority and the transition from childhood to maturity , as well as such broader motifs as the place of violence and social structures within a post @-@ apocalyptic society . Its major plot device , the division of society into personality types , is one used in other science fiction works . Beyond its literary context , Roth 's open declaration of her religion as a Christian has brought commentary from Christian communities both endorsing and challenging the novel .
Roth wrote Divergent while working on a Creative Writing degree at Northwestern University , and it was quickly purchased for publication alongside the subsequent books in the trilogy ( completed in October 2013 ) . Summit Entertainment purchased the media rights to the book in 2011 and subsequently produced a film adaptation titled Divergent which was released March 21 , 2014 . The film , a success amongst audiences , generated $ 288 @,@ 747 @,@ 895 at the box office despite mixed reviews from critics .
= = Background and setting = =
The novel is Veronica Roth 's debut novel and was published a little over a year after Roth graduated with a Bachelor 's degree from the Creative Writing program at Northwestern University . Roth wrote the novel during her senior year winter break and sold movie rights to the novel before she graduated .
The novel is set in a post @-@ apocalyptic Chicago . Roth indicated that she did not originally intend to use Chicago as the setting :
I wrote the rough draft and I felt like it needed a more grounded sense of place , and I looked at the city I had described , which is all these trains constantly moving , and this lake marsh , and these rivers . And I realized that it was Chicago already , and it was just because that 's the city I 've known and loved the longest .
= = Plot = =
In a post @-@ apocalyptic Chicago , survivors are divided into five factions based on their dispositions : Abnegation , for the selfless ; Amity , for the peaceful ; Candor , for the honest ; Dauntless , for the brave ; and Erudite , for the intellectual . Each year , all sixteen @-@ year @-@ olds take an aptitude test that determines the faction for which they are best suited . After receiving the results , test takers choose a faction at the Choosing Ceremony , no matter what their results were . Those who do not complete initiation into their new faction become " factionless " and are forced to live in poverty on the streets of the city .
Sixteen @-@ year @-@ old Beatrice Prior is born into an Abnegation family . She doesn 't feel she belongs in Abnegation because she doesn 't see herself as naturally selfless . Her aptitude test results are inconclusive and indicate aptitude for three factions – Abnegation , Erudite , and Dauntless . The test administrator warns her never to tell anyone that her results were inconclusive as this marks her as " Divergent " . Beatrice agonizes over Choosing Day , unsure about staying in Abnegation with her parents or moving to a different faction . On Choosing Day , Beatrice decides to leave Abnegation and join Dauntless . Her brother Caleb chooses Erudite .
The Dauntless instructor , Four , explains that not all Dauntless initiates will be allowed to enter the faction . The initiates will have to go through a series of training and evaluation . Unique to this faction , only the top ten initiates will stay , while the rest will be dismissed and become factionless ; by contrast , the other factions allow everyone who complete initiation to enter . During her initiation , Beatrice renames herself Tris and befriends transfer initiates Christina , Al , and Will but comes into conflict with fellow initiates Peter , Drew , and Molly . She also befriends Dauntless @-@ born initiates Uriah , Lynn , and Marlene .
Initiation into Dauntless is composed of three stages . The first involves learning how to handle guns and knives and hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat with other initiates . Tris lacks the physical strength of most of her fellow initiates but finishes in sixth place by beating the higher @-@ ranked Molly . When the rankings for Stage 1 of initiation are announced , a jealous Peter , who finished second , stabs first @-@ place Edward in the eye with a butter knife during the night . Edward then leaves Dauntless to be Factionless , and his girlfriend Myra follows him out of Dauntless .
During Visiting Day , Tris learns that her mother 's faction of origin was Dauntless .
Erudite stirs dissent against the Abnegation leadership in the city 's government and accuses Marcus , the Abnegation leader , of abusing his son . The fact that Marcus 's son joined Dauntless two years before , and Tris ' and Caleb 's choices at the Choosing Ceremony , where they switched factions instead of remaining in Abnegation adds to the rumors . Abnegation is also alleged to be hoarding supplies meant to be sent out in the city .
The initiates enter Stage 2 of their training , which involves simulations similar to the aptitude tests . Initiates are forced to face hallucinations based upon their deepest fears . The simulations act in a hypnotic fashion and initiates forget their situation isn 't real . Tris ' Divergent abilities enable her to remember that she 's facing a simulation , not reality . She uses this advantage and wins top rank in the class . Peter , Drew , and Al attack Tris in revenge with a threatened sexual assault and attempt to kill her by throwing her into the chasm at Dauntless headquarters . Four intervenes and stops it . Later , Al begs for Tris 's forgiveness , but she rebuffs him . He later commits suicide by jumping into the chasm where he tried to kill Tris .
The final stage of Dauntless initiation gathers all their fears in a single simulation landscape . All the initiates , including the Divergents , are aware they are under a simulation and must use the skills they 've learned in the previous stages to overcome each obstacle . Tris ' relationship with Four continues to grow as she prepares for the last stage of testing , and he lets her into his own fear landscape . Four has four fears in his landscape , which is an uncommonly low number , hence his nickname . She also learns he is really Marcus ' son Tobias , the child of the Abnegation leader the Erudites accused of child abuse . Four shares information with Tris that he discovered about Erudite 's plans to use Dauntless to stage an attack on Abnegation .
Tris successfully overcomes seven fears in her fear landscape . After her test , she and the other Dauntless members are injected with a new " tracking " serum that supposedly activates if someone goes missing .
Before the official initiation ceremony , Four invites Tris back to his private apartment , and Tris expresses her feelings for him . The ceremony begins with the post of final rankings and Tris is ranked first . In the midst of celebrating she suddenly realizes Erudite will use the " tracking " serum to force Dauntless members to carry out their invasion of Abnegation .
The night after the ceremony , the serum induces a simulation and all the Dauntless become sleep @-@ walking soldiers under orders to attack the Abnegation compound . The serum doesn 't work on Tris or Tobias ( Four ) because they are Divergent . Tris and Tobias try to break away from the pack and escape as they arrive at the Abnegation compound , but Tris is shot and wounded . Tobias refuses to leave her behind and they are captured and brought before Jeanine , the Erudite leader who is the mastermind of the whole attack . She injects Four with an experimental serum that overrides his Divergence , to control what he can see and hear . Jeanine directs Tobias back to the Dauntless control room to oversee the attack and sentences Tris to death . Tris wakes up sealed inside a real @-@ life glass tank that fills up with water , but her mother breaks the tank and rescues her . Her mother reveals that she is also Divergent before she is killed helping Tris escape . Tris gets away but is forced to kill Will , who attacks her under the influence of the simulation .
She finds her father , Andrew , and Tobias ' father , Marcus in a safe house . Tris tells them the reason for Dauntless ' attack on Abnegation . Later , Caleb , Marcus , Andrew , and Tris head to the Dauntless compound to find the source of the simulation and fight their way through to Dauntless headquarters . Tris ' father sacrifices himself to clear the way for her to reach the control room . She confronts the mind @-@ controlled Tobias , who attacks her . Tris realizes she can 't bring herself to kill him and surrenders . This causes Tobias to break through the special sight @-@ and @-@ sound @-@ only simulation . Freed , Tobias helps Tris shut down the Erudite simulation and free the remaining Dauntless from their mind control . They rejoin Caleb , Marcus , and Peter , who helped Tris find the control room in exchange for his safety . The group boards a train to the Amity sector to find the rest of the Abnegation survivors .
= = Style = =
Many reviewers stated that the novel 's writing style offers a distinctive , quick prose that creates a fast @-@ paced reading experience . Susan Dominus , writing in The New York Times described the style as " brisk pacing , lavish flights of imagination and writing that occasionally startles with fine detail " . Abby Nolan , from The American Prospect , noted that Divergent follows the structural and stylistic patterns of The Hunger Games and Blood Red Road .
= = Themes = =
= = = Identity = = =
As in other children 's and young adult fiction , the novel probes placement of authority and identity within the youth 's relationship to parents and other social forces . Critic Antero Garcia describes the thematic similarity between these dystopian novels as an interest in the " grasp of power between youth and adult authority " and compared the novel to Unwind by Neal Shusterman . In The New York Times , Susan Dominus stated that Divergent " explores a more common adolescent anxiety--the painful realization that coming into one 's own sometimes means leaving family behind ideologically and physically " . The Voice of Youth Advocates agrees , writing that Divergent shows the pressure of " having to choose between following in your parents ' footsteps or doing something new " . Critic Antero Garcia compared the thematic interest in the characters being " forced into limiting constraints of identity and labor associated with their identity " to similar interest in forced identities and labor in the dystopian children 's novels Matched by Allyson Braithwaite Condie and The Maze Runner by James Dashner .
= = = Social structure and knowledge = = =
Government division of its population into fragmented communities is a frequent device in young adult ( YA ) children 's fiction . YA classics such as Lois Lowry ’ s The Giver , Monica Hughes ’ s The Dream Catcher , and Zilpha Snyder ’ s Green Sky Trilogy use this device to different ends . In her masters thesis , Ashley Ann Haynes describes fractioning of societies within Divergent as a supporting comparison with Hunger Games . Divergent adds a new layer of complexity with its creation of an illusion of democracy for participants in its fractioned society , with the factions controlled by outside force .
Some reviews criticize the lack of depth and realism of the social structures within the novel . Kirkus Reviews called the social structure a " preposterous premise " . Booklist called the structure a " simplistic , color @-@ coded world [ that ] stretches credibility on occasion " . In a review for the University of Wisconsin @-@ Whitewater 's student newspaper " Royal Purple News " , Abrielle Backhaus notes how the " entire system seems insubstantial " and asks rhetorically " How could it be possible for any individual , with his or her infinite emotions and experiences , to be condensed to one single quality to tolerate for the rest of their lives and to choose at the mere age of 16 ? " In an interview Roth describes the social structure to have expanded from her initial conception , adding Candor to fill " a gap in the reasoning behind the world that needed to be filled " .
Social structure most affects the novel 's themes by socially dividing different knowledge types that characters can access . In her book chapter exploring how literacy in different knowledge types affects the series , Alice Curry describes the factions , and character indoctrination in those factions , as deliberately creating knowledge gaps between initiates to different factions . Because of the initiation process , the characters become illiterate in the knowledge valued by the other factions . Tris 's " divergence " allows her to be successful because she can become literate in a broad set of knowledges and information types , and thus she becomes more admirable to the reader . Curry argues that Jeanine 's leadership within Erudite represents an academic " Ivory Tower " that alienates other types of knowledge , thus the book critiques academic learning , in favor of the broader literacy embodied by Tris . Curry compares the novel to Julie Bertagna 's 2002 Exodus , describing both as using spaces and landscapes where knowledge is learned to critique " crumbling knowledge institutions " , like academic spaces , that " dissemble " knowledge instead of facilitating deeper holistic knowledge literacies that create " understanding " .
= = = Violence and fear = = =
Like The Hunger Games , Divergent depicts considerable violence for a Young Adult novel . The Publishers Weekly review emphasized this stylistic choice , calling it " edgy " and describing the initiation rituals that Tris endures " as spellbinding as they are violent [ requiring ] sadistic tests of strength and courage " . But , as Susan Dominus points out , the novel doesn 't keep this violence at the forefront of reader experience ; she writes in The New York Times , that " Terrible things happen to the people Tris loves , yet the characters absorb these events with disquieting ease . Here , somehow , the novel 's flights from reality distance the reader from the emotional impact that might come in a more affecting realistic ( or even fantasy ) novel . "
When describing her inspiration for the Dauntless training their initiates through exposing them to their fears , Roth , in an interview for the website " PopSugar " , says , though influenced by many sources , the most important was her " Psych 101 my first year of college [ where ] I learned about exposure therapy , which is when they treat people with fear , like for anxiety . It exposes them repeatedly to what they 're afraid of , and gradually you become less afraid of it , or have a healthy level of fear , and I thought of the Dauntless then , because they 're conditioning perfectly normal people to get over perfectly rational fears . " Daniel Kraus 's Booklist review of the novel described the intense psychological pressure as like " akin to joining the marines " but also providing the " built @-@ in tension " that makes the novel a compelling read .
= = = Christianity = = =
Though the novel does not maintain an overtly Christian thematic interest , some readers place the novel 's themes within this context because of Roth 's professed religiosity . In the postscript " Acknowledgements " , Roth emphasizes her Christian faith saying " Thank you , God , for your Son and for blessing me beyond comprehension . " For some reviewers this element of Roth 's lifestyle is important to the novel 's impact ; for example , when reviewing the novel for the Christian Ministry " Break Point " , Sherry Early describes Roth as " a Christian " and the novel setting as " post @-@ feminist , maybe even Christian " . She also says that though the novel is " not overtly Christian " , it follows a " Christian point of view " because it " fight [ s ] against the restrictions placed upon her by a controlling and totalitarian state " and because " Tris must also explore the cracks and imperfections within her own psyche . " K. B. Hoyle also acknowledges that the novel would have a " Christian message " , when reviewing the novel for the Evangelical book review organization The Gospel Coalition . However , Hoyle criticizes the novel for using profane terminology and for never " clarify [ ing ] what the practices are supposed to mean " .
Reviewers outside the Christian community have also noticed the Christian context of the novel . In a review of the book and first movie , David Edelstein observed the book 's treatment of intellectuals as following a tendency in Christian culture to question genetic modification and majority : the intellectual Erudite faction are largely depicted as control @-@ hungry villains pitted against the Abnegation faction , who are depicted as righteous and merciful . He wrote " The novelist , Veronica Roth , reserves her loathing for the ' Erudites ' , who spend their days in intellectual pursuit , " and that the trend of intellectualism ( thinking without feeling ) " makes people apt to seize power and impose Maoist @-@ like uniformity on entire populations — on pain of death . "
= = Reception = =
Divergent has received mostly positive reviews . In a review in The New York Times , Susan Dominus wrote that it was " rich in plot and imaginative details " , but also that , compared to other such books in the same genre as the Hunger Games trilogy , it did " not exactly distinguish itself " . In a review for Entertainment Weekly , Breia Brissey said that it was " flimsier and less nuanced " than The Hunger Games but was good , giving it a B + rating . Similarly , though critiquing the " simplistic , color @-@ coded world " , Booklist reviewer Daniel Kraus positively concluded that the novel was full of " gutsy action and romance " and called it a " spin on Brave New World " . Kirkus said it was " built with careful details and intriguing scope " . Common Sense Media commented on the book 's " deep messages about identity and controlling societies " and on the " unstoppable plot that 's remarkably original " . It was rated 5 out of 5 stars and given an age 13 + rating .
The book debuted at number six on the New York Times Children 's Chapter Books Best Seller list on May 22 , 2011 , and remained on the list for 11 weeks . It also spent 39 weeks on the Children 's Paperback list in 2012 , reaching number one . The Times changed its Children 's Best Seller lists in December 2012 , eliminating the Children 's Paperback list and recognizing " middle grade " and " young adult " books separately ; Divergent continued its run on the new Young Adult Best Seller list . The novel stayed on the list for 47 weeks until November 3 , 2013 . According to Publishers Weekly , the combined three volumes of the Divergent series sold over 6 @.@ 7 million copies in 2013 ( three million hardcovers , 1 @.@ 7 million paperbacks , and just under two million e @-@ books ) . In the lead up to the release of the film adaptation , Roth 's novel topped USA Today 's Best @-@ Selling Books list in January 2014 .
Divergent won Favorite book of 2011 in 2011 's Goodreads Readers Choice Awards , and won the senior category of the 2014 Young Reader 's Choice Award . It was also number one in the Teens ' Top Ten Vote , sponsored by YALSA .
= = Film adaptation = =
Summit Entertainment bought the rights to film an adaptation of the novel in 2011 . Summit recruited Neil Burger to direct . Initially , Summit gave the film a budget of $ 40 million , but Lionsgate later increased it to $ 80 million ( which finally changed to $ 85 million ) due to the success of The Hunger Games .
Shailene Woodley was chosen to star as Beatrice " Tris " Prior . The role of Tobias " Four " Eaton eventually went to Theo James after an extensive search . Kate Winslet was signed as Jeanine Matthews . Also recruited into the cast were Maggie Q as Tori , Zoe Kravitz as Christina , Ansel Elgort as Caleb , Miles Teller as Peter , Ashley Judd as Natalie Prior , Tony Goldwyn as Andrew Prior , and Jai Courtney as Eric .
Filming began in Chicago on April 16 , 2013 and concluded on July 16 , 2013 , with nearly all filming taking place in Chicago . The film was released March 21 , 2014 , earning $ 150 @,@ 947 @,@ 895 in North America , and $ 137 @,@ 228 @,@ 004 in other countries , for a worldwide total of $ 288 @,@ 175 @,@ 899 . The critic aggregating sites Rotten Tomatoes and Metacritic both noted the films mixed reviews . However , audience surveyor CinemaScore showed that audiences were very receptive to the film .
= 1945 Texas hurricane =
The 1945 Texas hurricane was a slow @-@ moving tropical cyclone which paralleled the Texas Gulf Coast , causing extensive damage in late @-@ August 1945 . The fifth tropical storm and second hurricane of the annual hurricane season , the storm formed out of an area of disturbed weather which had been situated over the Bay of Campeche on August 24 . In favorable conditions , the system quickly intensified as it steadily moved northward , attaining hurricane intensity later that day . As it approached the coast , however , the hurricane quickly slowed in forward motion , allowing it time to intensify off the Texas coast . After reaching major hurricane status , the storm reached peak intensity on August 26 as a minimal Category 3 hurricane with maximum sustained winds of 115 miles per hour ( 185 km / h ) . Later that day , the cyclone executed a slight curve toward the Texas coast , and early the next day made landfall near Seadrift at peak intensity . Once inland , it quickly weakened , and degenerated into a remnant low on August 29 over Central Texas .
The hurricane 's slow movement and strong intensity was a catalyst for extensive and damaging impacts in Texas . Prior to making landfall , thousands of people were ordered to evacuate from cities along coastal regions . Upon making landfall , the storm brought strong winds , which caused widespread power outages and infrastructural damage . A peak gust of 135 mph ( 215 km / h ) measured in Collegeport , Texas . Northeast of Houston , Texas , a tornado killed a person after traveling for 22 mi ( 35 km ) . At the coast , the hurricane produced strong storm surge which swept and damaged port cities . Port Lavaca , Texas was inundated by a 15 ft ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) storm surge , which at the time was the third highest ever recorded in the state . Damage in the port alone was estimated to be as high as $ 1 million . The strong wave action killed two people when it capsized a fishing vessel . Further inland , the storm produced torrential rainfall , which was also aided by the hurricane 's slow movement . Rainfall peaked at 19 @.@ 6 in ( 500 mm ) in Hockley , Texas . The heavy rains caused extensive crop damage , particularly to cotton and rice crops . Damage to cotton in the Corpus Christi , Texas area alone was estimated at $ 1 @.@ 5 million . Overall , the hurricane caused $ 20 @.@ 1 million in damage , mostly to crops , and three deaths .
= = Meteorological history = =
Towards the end of August 1945 , an area of squally weather persisted in the Bay of Campeche , near the Gulf Coast of Mexico . After a prolonged period of marginal development , the cluster of thunderstorms began to quickly organize beginning on August 24 . According to HURDAT – the official database listing positions and intensities of Atlantic tropical cyclones dating back to 1851 – the disturbance became sufficiently organized to be classified as a tropical storm by 0000 UTC on August 24 . At the time , the storm already maintained maximum sustained winds of 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) . Initially , the tropical storm moved generally northward at approximately 18 mph ( 29 km / h ) , but gradually slowed as it neared the United States Gulf Coast . Quickly developing past tropical cyclogenesis , the system reached the equivalent of a modern @-@ day Category 1 hurricane at 0600 UTC on August 25 . Its forward motion continued to slow until it moved nearly stationary at roughly 5 mph ( 8 km / h ) , which allowed the system to remain a tropical cyclone for an extended period of time , despite its proximity to the coast . The hurricane 's intensity continued to quickly increase , and by 1200 UTC on August 26 , the storm had attained major hurricane status , the equivalent of a modern @-@ day Category 3 hurricane .
The hurricane executed a slight curve to the northeast later that day , causing it to move inland over the Texas coast . Initially , the major hurricane was analyzed to have made landfall early on August 27 over Port Aransas with winds of 140 mph ( 225 km / h ) , equivalent to a modern @-@ day Category 4 hurricane . However , an reanalysis was conducted on the system , and concluded that it had only attained Category 3 intensity before making landfall at 1200 UTC that day . The reanalysis moved the landfall point closer to Seadrift as well . At the time , the storm had maximum sustained winds confined within an area about 10 miles ( 16 km ) from the hurricane 's center . The reanalysis also concluded that the storm contained a minimum central pressure of 963 millibars ( 28 @.@ 44 inHg ) at landfall . Once inland , the hurricane slowly weakened , but maintained hurricane intensity until 1200 UTC on August 28 . After further weakening to a tropical depression by 0000 UTC the next day , the disturbance dissipated over the Texas interior at 1800 UTC on August 29 .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Upon classification as a hurricane by the former United States Weather Bureau ( USWB ) on August 25 , a hurricane warning was issued for coastal areas between Corpus Christi and Brownsville , Texas , and between Galveston , Texas and Lake Charles , Louisiana . At the time , the storm was forecast to make landfall between Port O 'Connor and Freeport , Texas . However , all small craft offshore from the mouth of the Rio Grande and Burrwood , Louisiana were warned to remain in port or return to the coast . All other shipping in the western Gulf of Mexico were advised to exercise extreme caution . Despite having just formed , forecasters already suggested that it would be potentially the most destructive storm of the hurricane season thus far . As a result of the storm 's intensity and repeated warnings , thousands evacuated potentially affected coastal regions . In Freeport , Texas , 20 @,@ 000 people evacuated . Mustang Island was fully evacuated prior to the storm impacting land . Throughout the hurricane 's early developmental stages , reconnaissance flights were periodically made into the storm to gather data .
Though situated on the opposite side of the Gulf of Mexico as Florida , tropical moisture extending from the hurricane caused torrential rainfall in the state . In St. Petersburg , the heavy rains set a 30 @-@ year record and flooded low @-@ lying areas . Inundated streets blocked traffic and delayed transit bus routes . In Booker and Salt Creeks , the floodwaters backed up sewage systems . Though there were no deaths as a result of the floods , two people were rescued by police after their house was surrounded by water . Telecommunications in the Tampa Bay Area were delayed for up to two hours due to damage sustained to communication lines as a result of the rains . Despite its nearby proximity , effects in Tampa , Florida were much less severe , with only small showers and gusts never exceeding 25 mph ( 40 km / h ) .
Upon making landfall on the Texas coast late on August 27 , the hurricane caused a wide swath of destruction , and was considered one of the worst hurricanes to impact the state in at least 25 years . A 400 mi ( 645 km ) wide swath of land experienced moderate to severe impacts during the storm . Strong winds were reported in various locations , with a peak gust of 135 mph ( 215 km / h ) measured in Collegeport , Texas . At a weather station in Naval Air Station Corpus Christi , a wind gust of 101 mph ( 163 km / h ) was measured . Across Corpus Christi , the strong winds knocked down communication and power lines , causing widespread power outages . Thus , all local radio stations were off air for a period of time . However , power was quickly restored within an hour after cutoff . Winds within the city peaked at 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . Damage in the city was estimated to be below $ 100 @,@ 000 . Further south in Port Isabel , Texas , winds peaked at 76 mph ( 122 km / h ) . However , in nearby Brownsville , Texas , damage associated with the hurricane . In El Campo , Texas , strong winds blew the roof off of a local hospital . Thus , 30 patients were evacuated to hospitals in Wharton , Texas . Power in Wharton was temporarily knocked out for a short time . As the storm progressed further inland , additional damage was reported . In Bay City , Texas , gusts uprooted trees and scattered debris over the city streets . Heavy rains there inundated roads under as much as 2 ft ( 0 @.@ 6 m ) of water . As a result , only one highway remained open . In Rockport , Texas , additional homes were unroofed , with damages estimated at $ 500 @,@ 000 . Offshore , the hurricane produced strong waves which caused coastal impacts . In Port Aransas , Texas , waves inundated roads to a depth of 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) . The strong waves later separated the port from the mainland , and destroyed or damage all buildings and structures there , causing an estimated $ 750 @,@ 000 in damage there . Power in Port Aransas was disrupted during the night of August 27 . At Aransas Pass , surf was as high as automotive running boards . At Port Lavaca , Texas , the tide rose up to 15 ft ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) above normal , inundating the coastal city and forcing the coastline to retreat 50 ft ( 15 m ) from its initial position . At the time , the measured storm surge was only the third highest recorded in Texas history , behind peak measurements taken during the 1900 Galveston hurricane and 1919 Florida Keys hurricane . Damage estimates for Port Lavaca ranged from $ 750 @,@ 000 – $ 1 million . Offshore of Port Isabel , the strong waves capsized a fishing vessel , killing all two of its crew members .
The hurricane 's slow movement parallel to the Texas coast resulted in torrential rainfall , peaking at 19 @.@ 6 in ( 500 mm ) near Hockley over a period of a little over three days . The excessive precipitation helped increase monthly rainfall amounts in the region to three times above average . Cotton and rice crops were badly damaged during the storm . The American Crop Growers Association estimated that up to 20 % of the rice crop was lost during the stom . Damage to unpicked cotton in the Corpus Christi area alone totaled to $ 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 . In Houston , the heavy rains halted traffic and increased flood risk to property near the city 's bayous . Precipitation in the city peaked at 15 @.@ 65 in ( 398 mm ) in a 24 @-@ hour period . However , the Barker Dam prevented a large scale flooding event in the city . A gust of 55 mph ( 90 km / h ) collapsed a suburban residence , killing the occupant inside . Approximately 8 mi ( 13 km ) north @-@ northeast of Houston , a small tornado formed and traversed for 22 mi ( 35 km ) across the northern suburbs of the city , killing a person and causing 15 injuries . The tornado also had a path width of 75 yd ( 70 m ) , and damage to property was estimated at $ 35 @,@ 000 . Heavy rainfall from the storm was reported as far west as San Antonio , Texas . Overall , the hurricane caused $ 20 @.@ 1 million in damages , with $ 14 million attributable to agricultural losses , $ 5 @.@ 883 million to infrastructural damage , and $ 250 @,@ 000 to cattle and poultry losses . Despite the large swath of devastation , only three people were killed due to the extensive precautionary measures taken before the storm .
After the hurricane passed , the American Red Cross and other relief agencies began to survey damage and assist in repair and rehabilitation activities . Red Cross personnel in the central coastal area assisted 15 @,@ 000 refugees with food and care necessities . Robert Edison , then @-@ director of the Midwest sector of the agency , requested 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ft ( 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 m ) of lumber and 52 tons ( 47 tonnes ) of steel . The Salvation Army , stationed in Houston , issued an appeal for clothing materials . State health department and agency crews were dispatched to check water and other sanitation facilities .
= Bruce Castle =
Bruce Castle ( formerly the Lordship House ) is a Grade I listed 16th @-@ century manor house in Lordship Lane , Tottenham , London . It is named after the House of Bruce who formerly owned the land on which it is built . Believed to stand on the site of an earlier building , about which little is known , the current house is one of the oldest surviving English brick houses . It was remodelled in the 17th , 18th and 19th centuries .
The house has been home to Sir William Compton , the Barons Coleraine and Sir Rowland Hill , among others . After serving as a school during the 19th century , when a large extension was built to the west , it was converted into a museum exploring the history of the areas now constituting London Borough of Haringey and , on the strength of its connection with Sir Rowland Hill , the history of the Royal Mail . The building also houses the archives of the London Borough of Haringey . Since 1892 the grounds have been a public park , Tottenham 's oldest .
= = Origins of the name = =
The name Bruce Castle is derived from the House of Bruce , who had historically owned a third of the manor of Tottenham . However , there was no castle in the area , and it is unlikely that the family lived nearby . Upon his accession to the Scottish throne in 1306 , Robert I of Scotland forfeited his lands in England , including the Bruce holdings in Tottenham , ending the connection between the Bruce family and the area . The former Bruce land in Tottenham was granted to Richard Spigurnell and Thomas Hethe .
The three parts of the manor of Tottenham were united in the early 15th century under the Gedeney family and have remained united since . In all early records , the building is referred to as the Lordship House . The name Bruce Castle first appears to have been adopted by Henry Hare , 2nd Baron Coleraine ( 1635 – 1708 ) , although Daniel Lysons speculates in The Environs of London ( 1795 ) the name 's use dates to the late 13th century .
= = Architecture = =
A detached , cylindrical Tudor tower stands immediately to the southeast of the house , and is generally considered to be the earliest part of the building ; however , Lysons believes it to have been a later addition . The tower is built of local red brick , and is 21 feet ( 6 @.@ 4 m ) tall , with walls 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) thick . In 2006 , excavations revealed that it continues for some distance below the current ground level . It was described in 1829 as being over a deep well , and being used as a dairy .
Sources disagree on the house 's initial construction date , and no records survive of its construction . There is some archaeological evidence dating parts of the building to the 15th century ; William Robinson 's History and Antiquities of the Parish of Tottenham ( 1840 ) suggests a date of about 1514 , although the Royal Commission on Historic Monuments attributes it to the late 16th century . Nikolaus Pevsner speculates the front may have formed part of a courtyard house of which the remainder has disappeared .
The Grade I mansion 's principal facade has been substantially remodelled . The house is made of red brick with ashlar quoining and the principal facade , terminated by symmetrical matching bays , has tall paned windows . The house and detached tower are among the earliest uses of brick as the principal building material for an English house .
Henry Hare , 2nd Baron Coleraine ( 1635 – 1708 ) oversaw a substantial remodelling of the house in 1684 , and much of the existing south facade dates from that time . The end bays were heightened , and the central porch was rebuilt with stone quoins and pilasters , a balustraded top and a small tower and cupola . A plan from 1684 shows the hall in the house 's centre , with service rooms to the west and the main parlour to the east . On the first floor , the dining room was over the hall , the main bedchamber over the kitchen , and a lady 's chamber over the porch .
In the early 18th century Henry Hare , 3rd Baron Coleraine ( 1694 – 1749 ) oversaw a remodelling of the north of the house , that added a range of rooms to the north and the Coleraine coat of arms to the pediment of the north facade . In the late 18th century , under the ownership of James Townsend , the narrow east facade of the house was remodelled into an entrance front , and given the appearance of a typical Georgian house . At the same time , the south front 's gabled attics were removed , giving the house 's southern elevation its current appearance . An inventory of the house made in 1789 in preparation for its sale listed a hall , saloon , drawing room , dining room and breakfast parlour on the ground floor , with a library and billiard room on the first floor .
In the early 19th century , the house 's west wing was demolished , leaving it with the asymmetrical appearance it retains today . The house was converted into a school , and in 1870 a three @-@ story extension was built in the Gothic Revival style to the northwest of the house .
The 2006 excavations by the Museum of London uncovered the chalk foundations of an earlier building on the site , of which nothing is known . Court rolls of 1742 refer to the repair of a drawbridge , implying that the building then had a moat . A 1911 archaeological journal made passing reference to " the recent levelling of the moat " .
= = Early residents = =
It is generally believed the house 's first owner was Sir William Compton , Groom of the Stool to Henry VIII and one of the period 's prominent courtiers , who acquired the manor of Tottenham in 1514 . However , there is no evidence of Compton 's living in the house , and there is some evidence the building dates to a later period .
The earliest known reference to the building dates from 1516 , when Henry VIII met his sister Margaret , Queen of Scots , at " Maister Compton 's House beside Tottenham " . The Comptons owned the building throughout the 16th century , but few records of the family or the building survive .
In the early 17th century , Richard Sackville , 3rd Earl of Dorset and Lady Anne Clifford owned the house . Sackville ran up high debts through gambling and extravagant spending ; the house ( then still called " The Lordship House " ) was leased to Thomas Peniston . Peniston 's wife , Martha , daughter of Sir Thomas Temple was said to be the Earl of Dorset 's mistress . The house was later sold to wealthy Norfolk landowner Hugh Hare .
= = 17th century : the Hare family = =
= = = Hugh Hare , 1st Baron Coleraine = = =
Hugh Hare ( 1606 – 1667 ) had inherited a large amount of money from his great @-@ uncle Sir Nicholas Hare , Master of the Rolls . On the death of his father , his mother had remarried Henry Montagu , 1st Earl of Manchester , allowing the young Hugh Hare to rise rapidly in Court and social circles . He married Montagu 's daughter by his first marriage and purchased the manor of Tottenham , including the Lordship House , in 1625 , and was ennobled as Baron Coleraine shortly thereafter .
As he was closely associated with the court of Charles I , Hare 's fortunes went into decline during the English Civil War . His castle at Longford and his house in Totteridge were seized by Parliamentary forces , and returned upon the Restoration in a severe state of disrepair . Records of Tottenham from the period are now lost , and the ownership and condition of the Lordship House during the Commonwealth of England are unknown . Hugh Hare died at his home in Totteridge in 1667 , having choked to death on a bone eating turkey while laughing and drinking , and was succeeded by his son Henry Hare , 2nd Baron Coleraine .
= = = Henry Hare , 2nd Baron Coleraine = = =
Henry Hare ( 1635 – 1708 ) settled at the Lordship House , renaming it Bruce Castle in honour of the area 's historic connection with the House of Bruce . Hare was a noted historian and author of the first history of Tottenham . He grew up at the Hare family house at Totteridge , and it is not known when he moved to Tottenham . At the time of the birth of his first child , Hugh , in 1668 , the family were still living in Totteridge , while by the time of the death of his first wife Constantia , in 1680 , the family were living in Bruce Castle . According to Hare , Constantia was buried in All Hallows Church in Tottenham . However , the parish register for the period is complete and makes no mention of her death or burial .
Following the death of Constantia , Hare married Sarah Alston . They had been engaged in 1661 , but she had instead married John Seymour , 4th Duke of Somerset . There is evidence that during Sarah 's marriage to Seymour and Hare 's marriage to Constantia , a close relationship was sustained between them .
The house was substantially remodelled in 1684 , following Henry Hare 's marriage to the dowager Duchess of Somerset , and much of the existing south facade dates from this time . The facade 's dominating feature is a central tower with a belvedere , a motif of the English Renaissance of the late 16th / early 17th centuries ( the Compton family 's Warwickshire home Castle Ashby was also given Renaissance features during the 17th century ) . Hatfield House , also close to London , had a similar central tower constructed in 1611 , as does Blickling Hall in Norfolk , built circa 1616 . However , in resemblance the house appears to favour the style of Burton Agnes Hall constructed between 1601 and 1610 .
= = = = The Ghostly Lady of Bruce Castle = = = =
Although sources such as Pegram speculate that Constantia committed suicide in the face of a continued relationship between Hare and the Duchess of Somerset , little is known about her life and the circumstances of her early death , and her ghost reputedly haunts the castle .
The earliest recorded reference to the ghost appeared in 1858 — almost two hundred years after her death — in the Tottenham & Edmonton Advertiser .
A lady of our acquaintance was introduced at a party to an Indian Officer who , hearing that she came from Tottenham , eagerly asked if she had seen the Ghostly Lady of Bruce Castle . Some years before he had been told the following story by a brother officer when encamped on a march in India . One of the Lords Coleraine had married a beautiful lady and while she was yet in her youth had been seized with a violent hatred against her — whether from jealousy or not is not known . He first confined her to the upper part of the house and subsequently still more closely to the little rooms of the clock turret . These rooms looked on the balconies : the lady one night succeeded in forcing her way out and flung herself with child in arms from the parapet . The wild despairing shriek aroused the household only to find her and her infant in death 's clutches below . Every year as the fearful night comes round ( it is in November ) the wild form can be seen as she stood on the fatal parapet , and her despairing cry is heard floating away on the autumnal blast .
The legend has now been largely forgotten , and there have been no reported sightings of the ghost in recent times .
= = Residents in the 18th century = =
Sarah Hare died in 1692 and was buried in Westminster Abbey , and Hare in 1708 , to be succeeded by his grandson Henry Hare , 3rd Baron Coleraine . Henry Hare was a leading antiquary , residing only briefly at Bruce Castle between lengthy tours of Europe .
The house was remodelled again under the 3rd Baron Coleraine 's ownership . An extra range of rooms was added to the north , and the pediment of the north front ornamented with a large coat of the Coleraine arms .
Hare 's marriage was not consummated , and following an affair with a French woman , Rosa du Plessis , du Plessis bore him his only child , a daughter named Henrietta Rosa Peregrina , born in France in 1745 . Hare died in 1749 leaving his estates to the four @-@ year @-@ old Henrietta , but her claim was rejected owing to her French nationality . After many years of legal challenges , the estates , including Bruce Castle , were granted to her husband James Townsend , whom she had married at age 18 .
James Townsend was a leading citizen of the day . He served as a magistrate , was Member of Parliament for West Looe , and in 1772 became Lord Mayor of London , while Henrietta was a prominent artist , many of whose engravings of 18th @-@ century Tottenham survive in the Bruce Castle Museum .
After 1764 , under the ownership of James Townsend , the house was remodelled again . The narrow east front was remodelled into an entrance front , and given the appearance of a typical Georgian house , while the gabled attics on the south front were removed , giving the south facade the appearance it has today .
James and Henrietta Townsend 's son , Henry Hare Townsend , showed little interest in the area or in the traditional role of the Lord of the Manor . After leasing the house to a succession of tenants , the house and grounds were sold in 1792 to Thomas Smith of Gray 's Inn as a country residence .
= = John Eardley Wilmot = =
John Eardley Wilmot ( c . 1749 – 23 June 1815 ) was Member of Parliament for Tiverton ( 1776 – 1784 ) and Coventry ( 1784 – 1796 ) , and in 1783 led the Parliamentary Commission investigating the events that led to the American Revolution . He also led the processing of compensation claims , and the supply of basic housing and provisions , for the 60 @,@ 000 Loyalist refugees who arrived in England after the independence of the United States .
Following the beginning of the French Revolution in 1789 , a second wave of refugees arrived in England . Although the British government did not offer them organised relief , Wilmot , in association with William Wilberforce , Edmund Burke and George Nugent @-@ Temple @-@ Grenville , 1st Marquess of Buckingham , founded " Wilmot 's Committee " , which raised funds to provide accommodation and food , and found employment for refugees from France , large numbers of whom settled in the Tottenham area .
In 1804 , Wilmot retired from public life and moved to Bruce Castle to write his memoirs of the American Revolution and his role in the investigations of its causes and consequences . They were published shortly before his death in 1815 .
After Wilmot 's death , London merchant John Ede purchased the house and its grounds , and demolished the building 's west wing . It was never rebuilt , resulting in the current skewed shape of the building . In 1827 , Ede sold the house and grounds to Worcestershire educationalist Rowland Hill , for use as a school .
= = The Hill School = =
Hill and his brothers had taken over the management of their father 's school in Birmingham in 1819 , which opened a branch at Bruce Castle in 1827 , with Rowland Hill as Headmaster . The school was run along radical lines inspired by Hill 's friends Thomas Paine , Richard Price and Joseph Priestley ; all teaching was on the principle that the teacher 's role is to instill the desire to learn , not to impart facts , corporal punishment was abolished and alleged transgressions were tried by a court of pupils , while the school taught a radical ( for the time ) curriculum including foreign languages , science and engineering . Among other pupils , the school taught the sons of many London @-@ based diplomats , particularly from the newly independent nations of South America , and the sons of computing pioneer Charles Babbage .
In 1839 Rowland Hill , who had written an influential proposal on postal reform , was appointed as head of the General Post Office ( where he introduced the world 's first postage stamps ) , leaving the school in the hands of his younger brother Arthur Hill . Arthur retired in 1868 , leaving the school in the hands of his son Birkbeck Hill .
During the period of the School 's operation , the character of the area had changed beyond recognition . Historically , Tottenham had consisted of four villages on Ermine Street ( later the A10 road ) , surrounded by marshland and farmland . The construction of the Northern and Eastern Railway in 1840 , with stations at Tottenham Hale and Marsh Lane ( later Northumberland Park ) , made commuting from Tottenham to central London feasible for the first time ( albeit by a circuitous eight @-@ mile route via Stratford , more than double the distance of the direct road route ) , as well as providing direct connections to the Port of London . In 1872 the Great Eastern Railway opened a direct line from Enfield to Liverpool Street station , including a station at Bruce Grove , close to Bruce Castle ; the railway provided subsidised workmen 's fares to allow poor commuters to live in Tottenham and commute to work in central London . As a major rail hub , Tottenham grew into a significant residential and industrial area ; by the end of the 19th century , the only remaining undeveloped areas were the grounds of Bruce Castle itself , and the waterlogged floodplains of the River Lea at Tottenham Marshes and of the River Moselle at Broadwater Farm .
In 1877 Birkbeck Hill retired from the post of headmaster , ending his family 's association with the school . The school closed in 1891 , and Tottenham Council purchased the house and grounds . The grounds of the house were opened to the public as Bruce Castle Park in June 1892 , the first public park in Tottenham . The house opened to the public as Bruce Castle Museum in 1906 .
= = = Heraud 's Tottenham = = =
Bruce Castle was among the buildings mentioned in John Abraham Heraud 's 1820 Spenserian epic , Tottenham , a romantic depiction of the life of Robert the Bruce :
Lovely is moonlight to the poet 's eye ,
That in a tide of beauty bathes the skies ,
Filling the balmy air with purity ,
Silent and lone , and on the greensward dies —
But when on ye her heavenly slumber lies ,
TOWERS OF BRUS ! ' tis more than lovely then . —
For such sublime associations rise ,
That to young fancy 's visionary ken ,
'Tis like a maniac 's dream — fitful and still again .
= = Present day = =
Bruce Castle is now a museum , holding the archives of the London Borough of Haringey , and housing a permanent exhibition on the past , present and future of Haringey and its predecessor boroughs , and temporary displays on the history of the area . Other exhibits include an exhibition on Rowland Hill and postal history , a significant collection of early photography , a collection of historic manorial documents and court rolls related to the area , and one of the few copies available for public reading of the Spurs Opus , the complete history of Tottenham Hotspur . In 1949 , the building was Grade I listed ; the round tower was separately Grade I listed at the same time , and the 17th @-@ century southern and western boundary walls of the park were Grade II listed in 1974 . In 1969 the castle became home to the regimental museum of the Middlesex Regiment whose collection was subsequently transferred to the National Army Museum .
In July 2006 a major community archaeological dig was organised in the grounds by the Museum of London Archaeological Archive and Research Centre , as part of the centenary celebrations of the opening of Bruce Castle Museum , in which large numbers of local youths took part . As well as large quantities of discarded everyday objects , the chalk foundations of what appears to be an earlier house on the site were discovered .
In 2012 the public grounds at Bruce Castle were used for PARK ART in Haringey , part of the borough ’ s cultural Olympiad offer for 2012 . Up Projects , in partnership with Haringey Council and funded by Arts Council England , commissioned Ben Long to create " Lion Scaffolding Sculpture " , a nine @-@ metre tall classical lion on a plinth that was constructed from builder 's scaffolding . The monumental sculpture , created for the front lawn of Bruce Castle Museum , referenced the traditional archetype of the regal lion commonly found in the grounds of stately homes , but also the heraldic emblem of Robert the Bruce , therefore reflecting on the heritage of the building . Build in situ over four weeks , the fabrication became a durational performance , highlighting the role that work and labour play in the development of any artistic or creative pursuit .
= A6 ( Croatia ) =
The A6 motorway ( Croatian : Autocesta A6 ) is a motorway in Croatia spanning 80 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 49 @.@ 8 mi ) . It connects the nation 's capital , Zagreb , via the A1 , to the seaport of Rijeka . The motorway forms a major north – south transportation corridor in Croatia and is a part of European route E65 Nagykanizsa – Zagreb – Rijeka – Zadar – Split – Dubrovnik – Podgorica . The A6 motorway route also follows Pan @-@ European corridor Vb .
The A6 motorway runs near a number of Croatian cities , provides access to Risnjak National Park and indirectly to numerous resorts , notably in the Istria and Kvarner Gulf regions . The motorway route was completed in 2008 . The motorway is nationally significant because of its positive economic impact on the cities and towns it connects , and because of its contribution to tourism in Croatia . The importance of the motorway as a transit route will be further increased upon completion of a proposed expansion of the Port of Rijeka and Rijeka transport node .
The motorway consists of two traffic lanes and an emergency lane in each driving direction separated by a central reservation . Sections of the motorway that have a gradient greater than 4 % are divided into three lanes to prevent traffic problems caused by slower vehicles . These sections have no emergency lanes . Similarly , there are no emergency lanes in the tunnels . All intersections of the A6 motorway are grade separated . As the route traverses rugged mountains it requires numerous long bridges , viaducts , tunnels , and other structures . As of 2010 there are nine exits and three rest areas situated along the route . The majority of the motorway is a ticket system toll road with pricing tied to vehicle classification . Each exit between Grobnik mainline toll plaza and Bosiljevo 2 interchage has a toll plaza . No toll is charged at Bosiljevo 2 where the traffic switches to the A1 motorway ; traffic is tolled upon leaving the A1 motorway . Exits between the mainline toll plaza and Orehovica interchange have no toll plazas , as that part of the A6 route is not tolled .
A motorway connecting Zagreb and Rijeka was originally designed in the early 1970s , and construction started north of Rijeka and south of Zagreb . The first section , between Rijeka and Kikovica , opened on September 9 , 1972 , and a Zagreb – Karlovac section followed on December 29 , 1972 . Those sections were the first modern motorways to be built in Croatia and Yugoslavia . Due to political upheavals in Croatia and Yugoslavia , construction of the motorway was labeled a " nationalist project " and , along with the proposed Zagreb – Split motorway , was cancelled in 1971 . After the Croatian War of Independence , efforts to build the motorway were renewed and construction resumed in 1996 . In 2004 , a two @-@ lane , single carriageway expressway was completed between the sections completed 25 years previously , and the second carriageway was built ; the motorway was completed on October 22 , 2008 . Construction costs are estimated at 661 @.@ 5 million euro . Although Hrvatske autoceste normally designs , builds , and operates motorways in Croatia , the A6 motorway is operated and maintained by Autocesta Rijeka – Zagreb .
= = Route description = =
The A6 motorway is a significant north – south motorway in Croatia connecting the largest seaport of the country , Rijeka , to its hinterland and to the rest of the Croatian motorway network via the A1 motorway Bosiljevo 2 interchange . The motorway follows a route through the Gorski Kotar region . Part of the road network of Croatia , the motorway is also part of European route E65 Nagykanizsa – Zagreb – Rijeka – Zadar – Split – Dubrovnik – Podgorica . The motorway is of major importance to Croatia in terms of development of the economy ; it is especially important for tourism and as a transit transport route . The road serves tourist resorts in Istria and the Kvarner Gulf islands . Because of the link formed between Zagreb and Rijeka , tourism @-@ related traffic originating from the countries neighbouring Croatia to the north flows via this road to the Adriatic coast on the south . The road also serves tourists originating in the northern inland areas of Croatia . The A6 route predominantly follows an east – west orientation , but the motorway is locally regarded as a north – south communication . The ultimate importance of the motorway as a transit route shall be achieved upon completion of the proposed expansion of Port of Rijeka and the Rijeka transport node . The expansion is planned to encompass an enhancement of the cargo handling capacity of the Port of Rijeka ; improved railroad links ; and a new Rijeka bypass motorway linking the A6 , via a new interchange , with the present routes of the A7 and A8 motorways . One of the aims of the project is to increase traffic along the A6 route . As of the June 1997 Pan @-@ European Transport Conference in Helsinki , the motorway is a part of the Pan @-@ European corridor Vb .
The motorway spans 80 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 49 @.@ 8 mi ) between Bosiljevo 2 interchange and Rijeka – Orehovica interchange on the A7 motorway . The route serves Vrbovsko via the D42 , Delnice via the D3 , Crikvenica and Krk via the D501 , and Bakar via the D40 state road . The route is complete and further development of the motorway includes only the construction of additional rest areas . The A6 motorway consists of at least two traffic lanes and an emergency lane in each driving direction along its entire length , except in tunnels , where there are emergency bays instead . Sections of the A6 motorway steeper than 4 % grade have three traffic lanes , and slow vehicles are restricted to driving in the rightmost lane . All of the interchanges are trumpet interchanges . There are a number of rest areas along the motorway providing various types of services ranging from simple parking spaces and restrooms to filling stations , restaurants , and hotels . As of October 2010 , the motorway has nine interchanges providing access to numerous towns and cities and the Croatian state road network . The motorway is operated by Autocesta Rijeka – Zagreb .
An automatic traffic monitoring and guidance system is in place along the motorway . It consists of measuring , control , and signalling devices , located in zones where driving conditions may vary — at interchanges , near viaducts , bridges , tunnels , and in zones where fog and strong wind are known to occur . The system comprises variable traffic signs used to communicate changing driving conditions , possible restrictions , and other information to motorway users .
The A6 motorway mainly runs through the mountainous Gorski Kotar region , requiring not only large bridges and viaducts and long tunnels along the route , but also special care must be paid to protection of the environment , as the route is located in karst terrain , with numerous water supply protection zones and significant natural heritage . Risnjak National Park is located near the A6 route , and is accessed via the Delnice interchange . Due to the motorway access and its proximity to a number of seaside resorts , Risnjak is the most visited national park in Croatia . Karst terrain is especially susceptible to water pollution , so the A6 motorway is equipped with a closed water drainage system designed to channel rainwater , meltwater , and any spillages to purpose @-@ built processing facilities . Approximately 200 karst features — caves and other types of karst features — were observed and protected during construction of the motorway . An extraordinary example of this was a cavern 83 m ( 272 ft ) long by 63 m ( 207 ft ) wide and 45 m ( 148 ft ) tall , found during execution of the 260 m ( 850 ft ) long Vrata Tunnel . The cavern was bridged by one of the tunnel tubes , which was sealed to protect the cavern and the water flowing through it .
= = Toll = =
The A6 is a tolled motorway based on the vehicle classification in Croatia using a closed toll system integrated with the A1 motorway . The two roads connect at the Bosiljevo 2 interchange , forming a unified toll system . Since the A1 motorway is operated jointly by Autocesta Rijeka – Zagreb and Hrvatske autoceste , the toll collection system is operated jointly by the two operators . As of October 2010 , the toll charged along the A6 route between Bosiljevo 2 interchange ( A1 Bosiljevo exit ) and the Kikovica mainline toll plaza varies depending on the length of route travelled and ranges from 6 @.@ 00 kuna ( 0 @.@ 82 euros ) to 33 @.@ 00 kuna ( 4 @.@ 52 euros ) for passenger cars and 25 @.@ 00 kuna ( 3 @.@ 42 euro ) to 139 @.@ 00 kuna ( 19 @.@ 04 euro ) for semi @-@ trailer trucks . The toll is payable in either Croatian kuna or euros and by major credit cards and debit cards . A number of prepaid toll collection systems are also used , including various types of smart cards issued by the motorway operator and ENC — an electronic toll collection ( ETC ) system which is shared by most motorways in Croatia and provides drivers with discounted toll rates for dedicated lanes at toll plazas .
The toll collected by Autocesta Rijeka – Zagreb for use of the A6 motorway is not reported separately . Autocesta Rijeka – Zagreb only reports it total toll revenue , including toll revenue collected on the A7 motorway ( Rupa – Jurdani section ) and the A1 motorway ( Lučko – Bosiljevo 2 section ) as well as on the Krk Bridge . In the first half of the 2010 their toll revenue was 188 @.@ 2 million Croatian kuna ( 25 @.@ 3 million euros ) .
= = Notable structures = =
As the A6 motorway route runs through mountainous terrain of Gorski Kotar , it comprises a substantial number of major structures — bridges , viaducts , tunnels , underpasses , flyovers , and culverts . Out of the total length of the Rijeka – Zagreb motor | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
way of 146 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 91 @.@ 0 mi ) , 22 @.@ 1 kilometres ( 13 @.@ 7 mi ) are situated within such structures . The northern part of the Rijeka – Zagreb motorway , designated as the A1 motorway , comprising 38 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 24 @.@ 0 mi ) between Zagreb and Karlovac , contains only 572 metres ( 1 @,@ 877 ft ) of such structures as the section is situated in a plain . The 11 @.@ 4 kilometres ( 7 @.@ 1 mi ) between Karlovac and Bosiljevo 2 interchanges , contains as much as 4 @,@ 036 metres ( 13 @,@ 241 ft ) of the structures . Thus the A6 motorway has 17 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 10 @.@ 9 mi ) , or 21 % of the route , located within such structures . The Rijeka – Zagreb motorway has a total of 24 viaducts , 13 tunnels , 5 bridges , 45 underpasses , and 26 flyovers . All of the bridges , viaducts , and tunnels on the A6 motorway have at least two driving lanes in each direction .
The longest tunnel on the A6 motorway route is the 2 @,@ 143 @-@ metre ( 7 @,@ 031 ft ) Tuhobić Tunnel , located on the Oštrovica – Vrata section . The tunnel was initially opened as a single @-@ tube tunnel in 1996 . The second tunnel tube was excavated in August 2007 and opened to traffic in 2008 . The European Tunnel Assessment Programme ( EuroTAP ) , a tunnel safety assessment programme supported by the European Commission , coordinated by FIA and led by the German motoring club ADAC , tested Tuhobić Tunnel twice — once in 2004 , when it achieved poor results , and again in 2009 after implementation of EuroTAP safety recommendations . The 2009 test ranked the tunnel as the second safest in Europe . An unusual feature associated with the A6 tunnels is the close proximity of the 1 @,@ 490 @-@ metre ( 4 @,@ 890 ft ) Javorova Kosa and the 610 @-@ metre ( 2 @,@ 000 ft ) Podvugleš tunnels — they are separated by less than 60 metres ( 200 ft ) of road . In order to prevent abrupt changes in road conditions caused by the weather , the distance between the tunnels is covered by translucent roofing . The tunnels are located on the Vrbovsko – Ravna Gora section . Other significant tunnels on the A6 motorway are the 1 @,@ 130 @-@ metre ( 3 @,@ 710 ft ) Veliki Gložac and Vrata tunnels . While the former , as with all the other tunnels mentioned , is significant due to its length , the latter is notable for the large cavern encountered during its excavation .
The most significant bridges and viaducts on the A6 motorway route are the 485 @-@ metre ( 1 @,@ 591 ft ) Bajer Bridge spanning Lake Bajer near Fužine , on the Vrata – Oštrovica section , and the Zečeve Drage and Severinske Drage viaducts . The two viaducts are 924 metres ( 3 @,@ 031 ft ) and 725 metres ( 2 @,@ 379 ft ) long respectively . The remaining viaducts on the motorway that are longer than 500 metres ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) are Hreljin and Golubinjak viaducts .
= = History = =
Transport links between Rijeka and Zagreb have always been of substantial importance because of the transport requirements of the Port of Rijeka . This was first recognised by the Habsburg Empire in 1728 , when the Carolina road was completed , and again in 1780 when the road was modernized . The original Rijeka – Zagreb road was replaced in 1811 by a new route , the Louisiana road , in order to avoid the steep sections of its predecessor . The new road remained the primary transport link to Rijeka until 1873 , when the first railroad to the city was built . Further development of the port and industry in Rijeka and Zagreb required a more efficient road , which was built in 1954 . That road was to remain the principal road transport link between the two cities for decades .
Zagreb – Rijeka motorway , of which the A6 motorway is a part , was one of three routes defined in 1971 as priority transport routes of Yugoslavia that were to be developed as motorways . The first section of the A6 motorway , between Orehovica and Kikovica , was 10 @.@ 5 km ( 6 @.@ 5 mi ) long and opened on September 9 , 1972 . The section was also the first six @-@ lane motorway built in Yugoslavia . The 39 @.@ 3 @-@ kilometre ( 24 @.@ 4 mi ) long Zagreb – Karlovac section , now designated the A1 motorway , was completed on December 29 , 1972 . Further construction was suspended for the following 25 years , as a political decision had been made by the Yugoslav leadership to withdraw funding for the construction . The funds were instead allocated to the construction of a motorway that would travel between Ljubljana , Zagreb , Belgrade , and Skopje , then known as the Brotherhood and Unity Highway . The Croatian section of the highway later became the A3 motorway . After the breakup of Yugoslavia , construction of the Rijeka – Zagreb motorway was still on hold due to the Croatian War of Independence , and no further construction took place until 1996 . The sole exception to the 25 @-@ year @-@ long hiatus was the 7 @.@ 25 @-@ kilometre ( 4 @.@ 50 mi ) long Kikovica – Oštrovica section , which was originally executed as an expressway and opened in 1982 .
In 1996 , construction of the A6 motorway resumed , and in 1997 , a further 30 km ( 19 mi ) of expressway between Oštrovica and Kupjak was completed . In December 1997 , the government of the Republic of Croatia founded the Autocesta Rijeka – Zagreb company and tasked it with operating the completed sections of motorway and the construction of the remainder of the route . The new motorway operator resumed construction in three stages . During the first stage , 60 @.@ 18 km ( 37 @.@ 39 mi ) of expressway between Kupjak and Karlovac were completed by the end of June 2004 , comprising 60 @.@ 18 kilometres ( 37 @.@ 39 mi ) of motorway and semi @-@ motorway . In the second stage , the expressway was upgraded to a full motorway by the end of October 2008 . This stage required additional construction along 55 @.@ 57 kilometres ( 34 @.@ 53 mi ) of the route . The upgraded motorway was officially opened on October 22 , 2008 , by Prime Minister Ivo Sanader at a ceremony held at the southern portal of Tuhobić Tunnel . The opening ceremony coincided with opening of a new bridge over the river Mura on the border between Croatia and Hungary , connecting the A4 to the Hungarian M7 motorway . Thus the route spanning Budapest – Zagreb – Rijeka was completed as a modern motorway . Construction costs incurred are estimated at 661 @.@ 5 million euros . Even though Hrvatske autoceste normally develops motorways in Croatia , the A6 motorway is operated and maintained by Autocesta Rijeka – Zagreb .
= = Traffic volume = =
Traffic is regularly counted by means of a traffic census at toll stations and reported by Autocesta Rijeka – Zagreb , the operator of the motorway , and published by Hrvatske ceste . The reported traffic volume exhibits no significant variations as the motorway chainage increases , and as it passes by various major destinations and the interchanges that serve them , except at the Vrata interchange , where traffic to and from Krk Island , Crikvenica , and Novi Vinodolski flows . The greatest volume of traffic is registered between Delnice and Vrata interchanges — with a 12 @,@ 600 @-@ vehicle annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) , and a 21 @,@ 150 @-@ vehicle average summer daily traffic ( ASDT ) figure . Sections south of Kikovica interchange likely carry substantial traffic volume as they serve Rijeka commuter traffic as well as the volume registered between the Oštrovica and Kikovica interchanges . However , no traffic volume figures are published for those sections , since motorway traffic is counted by means of toll ticket sales analyses , and the sections south of Kikovica interchange are not tolled .
Substantial variations observed between AADT and ASDT are normally attributed to the fact that the motorway carries significant tourist traffic to Istria and Kvarner Gulf . The seasonal increase in traffic volume ranges from 41 % on the Oštrovica – Kikovica section to 69 % as measured on the Bosiljevo 2 – Vrbovsko section . The average summer @-@ season traffic volume increase on the motorway is 65 % .
= = Rest areas = =
As of October 2010 , there are four rest areas operating along the A6 motorway , as a new rest area opened on October 9 , 2010 next to the western portal of Tuhobić Tunnel on the Vrata – Oštrovica section of the route . Applicable legislation provides for four types of rest areas designated as types A through D : A @-@ type rest areas comprise a full range of amenities including a filling station , a restaurant and a hotel or a motel ; B @-@ type rest areas have no lodging ; C @-@ type rest areas are very common and include a filling station and a café , but no restaurants or accommodations ; and D @-@ type rest areas offer parking spaces only , with possibly some picnic tables , benches , and restrooms . Even though the rest areas found along the A6 motorway generally follow this ranking system , there are considerable variations , as some of them offer extra services . The most notable example is Lepenica rest area — even though it has no restaurant and therefore falls below B @-@ type rest area standard , there is , for instance , an RV park available . The filling stations typically have small convenience stores and some of them offer LPG fuel . As of October 2010 , all of the rest areas found along the A6 motorway comply with C @-@ type rest area standards or above .
The primary motorway operator , Autocesta Rijeka – Zagreb , leases the rest areas to various operators through public tenders . As of October 2010 , there are three such rest area operators on the A1 motorway : INA , OMV and Tifon . The rest area operators are not permitted to sub @-@ lease the fuel operations ; the Tifon @-@ operated rest area has a restaurant and a hotel operated by Marché , a Mövenpick Hotels & Resorts subsidiary , but they are also penalized if some facilities required by the lease contract are not operating . All of the A6 motorway rest areas , except Ravna Gora , are accessible from one of the directions of the motorway traffic only . The rest areas normally operate 24 hours a day , seven days a week .
= = Exit list = =
= CM Punk =
Phillip Jack " Phil " Brooks ( born October 26 , 1978 ) , also known by the ring name CM Punk , is an American comic book writer , actor , upcoming mixed martial artist and retired professional wrestler who is signed with the Ultimate Fighting Championship ( UFC ) . He is perhaps best known for his time in WWE , where he was the longest @-@ reigning WWE Champion of the " modern era , " having held the title for 434 days from November 20 , 2011 to January 27 , 2013 . His reign is officially recognized as the sixth longest of all time , as well as the longest since 1988 .
Brooks began his professional wrestling career on the American independent circuit , primarily with Ring of Honor ( ROH ) until 2005 when he signed with World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) . He is a seven @-@ time world champion in professional wrestling , having won the WWE Championship twice , WWE 's World Heavyweight Championship three times , and the ECW and ROH World Championships once each . Along with Daniel Bryan and Seth Rollins , he is one of three men to have been world champion in both WWE and ROH . Punk is also a one @-@ time World Tag Team Champion ( with Kofi Kingston ) , and one @-@ time Intercontinental Champion , making him the 19th WWE Triple Crown Champion and the fastest man in WWE history to achieve this feat , doing so in 203 days . In addition , he was the 2011 WWE Superstar of the Year and the first two @-@ time Money in the Bank winner .
Throughout his career , Punk consistently portrayed the character of an outspoken , sharp @-@ tongued , anti @-@ establishment , straight edge iconoclast . Most of the straight edge principles he portrayed , such as not drinking alcohol or not taking recreational drugs , are his real life views . Depending on his alignment as a hero or villain , he emphasized different aspects of the straight edge culture to garner the desired audience reaction .
= = Early life = =
Brooks was born in Chicago , Illinois and raised in nearby Lockport , Illinois . He was one of five children ; his father was an engineer , while his mother was a homemaker . He attended Lockport Township High School .
= = Professional wrestling career = =
= = = Early career ( 1999 – 2000 ) = = =
Punk 's first venture into wrestling was a stint in a backyard wrestling federation called the Lunatic Wrestling Federation with his friends and brother Mike Brooks in the mid @-@ late 1990s . He first started using the ring name CM Punk when he was put into a tag team named The Chick Magnets with CM Venom after another performer skipped out on the card . Unlike his friends , Punk genuinely wanted to be a wrestler and saw it as more than simple fun . When the promotion started taking off , doing spot shows out of a warehouse in Mokena , Illinois , Punk found out that his brother Mike had embezzled thousands of dollars from the small company , causing them to become estranged . They have not spoken since .
He soon left the federation and enrolled as a student at the " Steel Dominion " wrestling school in Chicago , where he was trained by Ace Steel , Danny Dominion and Kevin Quinn to become a professional wrestler . As part of the training , he wrestled at Steel Domain Wrestling in St. Paul , Minnesota . It was in the Steel Domain that he met Scott Colton , who soon adopted the stage name Colt Cabana . Punk and Cabana became best friends and spent most of their early career together working in the same independent circuit promotions , as opponents or allies . In the independents , along with fellow Steel Domain graduates Colt Cabana , Chuckee Smooth , Adam Pearce , and manager Dave Prazak , Punk formed an alliance named the Gold Bond Mafia .
= = = IWA Mid @-@ South and Pro Wrestling Zero @-@ One ( 2000 – 2005 ) = = =
Punk 's home promotion for his early career was considered to be Independent Wrestling Association Mid @-@ South ( IWA Mid @-@ South ) . During Punk 's time in IWA : Mid @-@ South , he had high profile feuds with Colt Cabana and Chris Hero while also rising to the top of the roster winning the IWA Mid @-@ South Light Heavyweight Championship twice and the IWA Mid @-@ South Heavyweight Championship on five separate occasions , beating stars like A.J. Styles , Cabana and even Eddie Guerrero for that Championship . Punk 's feud with Hero included a 55 @-@ minute TLC match , a 93 @-@ minute two out of three falls match , and several 60 @-@ minute time limit draws .
Punk 's matches with Cabana led him to being hired by the Ring of Honor promotion . From February 2003 until May 2004 , Punk refused to wrestle for IWA : Mid @-@ South , explaining this as a protest to Ian Rotten 's mistreatment of Chris Hero in the company . Hero , however , has stated he believes there were other reasons , and Rotten 's treatment of him was just an excuse by Punk to stop working for the company . Eventually Punk returned to IWA : Mid @-@ South and continued to perform as a wrestler and commentator for them until 2005 when he was signed to World Wrestling Entertainment . His last appearance in IWA : Mid @-@ South was on July 2 , 2005 in which he competed in a 60 @-@ minute time limit draw against Delirious .
On August 1 , 2003 , Punk wrestled for Japanese promotion Pro Wrestling ZERO @-@ ONE on the final day of its 2003 Fire Festival at Korakuen Hall , teaming with C.W. Anderson , Josh Daniels , and Vansack Acid in an eight @-@ man tag team match against Ikuto Hidaka , Jun Kasai , Naohiro Hoshikawa , and Tatsuhito Takaiwa ; Punk 's team was defeated .
= = = Ring of Honor and Total Nonstop Action Wrestling = = =
= = = = Feud with Raven ( 2002 – 2004 ) = = = =
Initially , Punk joined Ring of Honor ( ROH ) as a face , but quickly became a heel in a feud with Raven that featured numerous variants of no disqualification matches . Their rivalry was rooted in Punk 's straight @-@ edge lifestyle , with him likening Raven to his alcoholic father ; it lasted most of 2003 and was considered one of ROH 's top feuds of the year . Their rivalry was settled at The Conclusion in November 2003 , where Punk defeated Raven in a Steel Cage match . At the same time , Punk joined the wrestling promotion NWA Total Nonstop Action ( TNA ) , in which he was paired with Julio Dinero as members of Raven 's TNA alliance The Gathering .
Punk started climbing the ranks of ROH , including coming in second at the Second Anniversary Show during the tournament to crown the first ROH Pure Champion , losing to A.J. Styles in the finals and winning the ROH Tag Team Championship twice with Colt Cabana as the Second City Saints . Both times Punk and Cabana defeated the Briscoe Brothers to win the championship . Circa October 2003 , Punk was hired as the first head trainer of the Ring of Honor wrestling school , having previously been a trainer for the Steel Domain and Primetime Wrestling .
Shortly before a TNA show on February 25 , 2004 , Punk had a physical scuffle with Teddy Hart outside of a restaurant that was broken up by Sabu . The scuffle reportedly stemmed from an ROH show in which Hart performed three unplanned spots putting several other wrestlers in danger of injury . Around the time of the scuffle , Punk and Dinero stopped appearing on TNA shows , leading to speculation he was fired for the incident . Punk , however , said the scuffle had no bearing on his TNA career . He said the reason he and Dinero stopped appearing on TNA pay @-@ per @-@ views was that TNA officials believed that he and Dinero had not connected with the fans as villains , having turned against the popular Raven and instead formed a villainous tag team managed by James Mitchell . The officials decided that since the teams was not working as villains , the storyline would be put on hold indefinitely , and thus had no work for Punk or Dinero . Punk officially quit TNA in March 2004 during the Rob Feinstein controversy , after having a dispute with the TNA offices over his ability to compete in ROH following a TNA order that their contracted wrestlers were to no longer wrestle in ROH .
= = = = " Summer of Punk " ( 2004 – 2005 ) = = = =
In ROH , Punk faced off against ROH World Champion Samoa Joe for the championship in a three match series . The first match , on June 12 , 2004 at World Title Classic in Dayton , Ohio , resulted in a 60 @-@ minute time limit draw when neither Punk nor Joe could pin or cause the other to submit in the 60 minutes . The second match between Punk and Joe was planned for December 4 , 2004 ; however , due to Steve Corino being pulled from a match with Joe by Pro Wrestling ZERO @-@ ONE , the second match was hastily rescheduled on October 11 , 2004 for October 16 in Punk 's hometown of Chicago . At Joe vs. Punk II on October 16 , they wrestled to a second 60 @-@ minute draw . In addition to Joe vs. Punk II becoming Ring of Honor 's best @-@ selling DVD at the time , the match received a five @-@ star rating by Dave Meltzer 's Wrestling Observer Newsletter . It was the first match in North America to receive a five @-@ star rating in seven years , the last one being the Hell in a Cell match between Shawn Michaels and The Undertaker at Badd Blood : In Your House in 1997 . Joe ended the series by defeating Punk in the third and final match on December 4 , 2004 at All @-@ Star Extravaganza 2 in which there was a no time limit stipulation .
After a try @-@ out match on May 9 , 2005 ( which aired May 15 ) where he lost to Val Venis on the Sunday Night Heat show , Punk accepted a deal offered by World Wrestling Entertainment in June . Even though he had accepted the deal , Punk went on to defeat Austin Aries with his Pepsi Plunge move , winning the ROH World Championship on June 18 , 2005 at Death Before Dishonor III . Immediately after the match , Punk proceeded to become a villain and started a storyline where he threatened to bring the ROH World Championship to WWE with him . For weeks , Punk teased the ROH locker room and the ROH fans as well as mocking the championship he possessed , going so far as to sign his WWE contract on it . During the storyline , referred to by ROH as the " Summer of Punk " , Mick Foley made several ROH appearances , attempting to convince Punk to do the right thing and defend the title on his way out . On August 12 , 2005 in Dayton , Ohio , Punk lost the ROH World Championship to James Gibson in a four corner elimination match consisting of himself , Gibson , Samoa Joe and Christopher Daniels . Punk 's final scheduled match in Ring of Honor took place at Punk : The Final Chapter on August 13 , 2005 against long @-@ time friend Colt Cabana in a two out of three falls match , which he lost . In his last match , Punk was visibly crying and was showered with streamers when he posed in the middle of the ring .
Punk made a special appearance at the ROH show Unscripted II on February 11 , 2006 , when the original card had to be scrapped due to Low Ki leaving ROH the week prior . In addition , most of the ROH roster contracted to TNA were pulled from the show because of a snowstorm that TNA officials thought might prevent performers from reaching a pay @-@ per @-@ view scheduled the next day . In the main event , Punk teamed with Bryan Danielson to defeat Jimmy Rave and Adam Pearce in a tag team match .
= = = World Wrestling Entertainment / WWE = = =
= = = = Ohio Valley Wrestling ( 2005 – 2006 ) = = = =
In September 2005 , Punk was assigned to Ohio Valley Wrestling ( OVW ) , a WWE developmental territory . He made his debut on September 8 , 2005 , in a dark match , where he , Nigel McGuinness and Paul Burchill were defeated by Deuce Shade , Elijah Burke and Seth Skyfire . On September 26 , 2005 in his OVW television debut , Punk suffered a ruptured eardrum and broken nose after Danny Inferno hit him with an overly stiff right hand . Despite the injury , Punk finished the match and quickly recovered .
On November 9 , 2005 , Punk became the OVW Television Champion after defeating Ken Doane , which immediately led to a feud between Punk and Brent Albright , who had previously been feuding with Doane for the Television Championship and had lost his chance to wrestle Doane after Punk hit him with a chair so he himself could wrestle Doane . They wrestled in series of matches , including one that ended in overtime with Albright having Punk submit to Albright 's finisher , the Crowbar , but Punk was able to keep the championship , as he had not agreed to the extra time . On January 4 , 2006 , Punk lost the OVW Television Championship during a three way dance among himself , Albright and Doane . Doane was injured halfway through the match and was replaced by Aaron " The Idol " Stevens . Punk submitted to Albright 's Crowbar and was eliminated , but he returned later in the match to distract Albright allowing Stevens to pin Albright and become the new OVW Television Champion . Albright and Punk then briefly teamed . They became opponents again after Punk denied Albright the respect he demanded and proceeded to continually " punk him out " ( get the better of him ) . This feud continued for weeks with Punk always coming out on top , until a double turn occurred on February 1 , 2006 . Albright turned heel during a tag match , allowing the Spirit Squad to beat Punk , turning him face . Punk had a minor appearance at WrestleMania 22 on April 2 , 2006 as one of the gangsters who rode a 1930s era car to the ring before John Cena 's entrance .
After Matt Cappotelli vacated the OVW Heavyweight Championship because of a brain tumor in February 2006 , a tournament was held to crown a new champion . The finals were Brent Albright vs. CM Punk with Albright defeating Punk to become the new champion . Punk and Albright continued their feud , with Albright becoming more unstable and paranoid about maintaining his championship after several close call matches against Punk , resulting in acts such as threatening Maria . On May 3 , 2006 , Punk finally defeated Albright in a strap match to win the OVW Heavyweight Championship . As champion , Punk retained the title in matches against opponents such as Shad Gaspard , Ken Kennedy , Johnny Jeter and Mike " The Miz " Mizanin .
On July 28 , 2006 , Punk and Seth Skyfire defeated Shad Gaspard and the Neighborhoodie to win the OVW Southern Tag Team Championship at a house show . They lost the Tag Team Championship on August 2 , 2006 to Deuce Shade and " Domino " Cliff Compton after an injured Skyfire tagged in an already injured Punk . This altercation led to a feud between Punk and Skyfire after a rematch for the Tag Team Championship on August 7 , 2006 in which a healthy Punk purposefully tagged in an injured Skyfire to be beaten by Shade and Compton . On August 30 , 2006 , a match was scheduled to take place between Punk and Skyfire for the OVW Heavyweight Championship . Prior to the match , however , Skyfire was attacked by Charles " The Hammer " Evans , with whom Skyfire had also been feuding , and was replaced in the match by Chet Jablonski ( Chet the Jet ) who pinned Punk to win the OVW Heavyweight Championship . As Punk no longer possessed the championship , OVW no longer required him . He was removed from the roster and brought up to the WWE roster full @-@ time . He continued to make sporadic appearances for OVW , such as on their 400th TV episode , until WWE and OVW ended their developmental partnership on February 7 , 2008 .
= = = = ECW ( 2006 – 2008 ) = = = =
On June 24 , 2006 , Punk made his ECW debut during a house show at the former ECW Arena , defeating Stevie Richards . He made his TV debut on the July 4 ECW on Sci Fi , cutting a brief pre @-@ taped promo about his straight edge lifestyle emphasizing the disciplinary aspects of being drug and alcohol free . Although he had retained the straight edge gimmick , he now had a Muay Thai training background . Punk made his TV wrestling debut on August 1 , 2006 at the Hammerstein Ballroom , defeating Justin Credible . Punk established himself in ECW by going undefeated , defeating opponents such as Christopher W. Anderson , Stevie Richards and Shannon Moore .
Soon after , Punk began feuding with Mike Knox after Knox 's girlfriend , Kelly Kelly , was seen to have feelings for Punk . Punk defeated Knox in their first singles match ( qualifying for the Extreme Elimination Chamber at December to Dismember in the process ) as well as the rematch , after which Kelly Kelly celebrated Punk 's victory over her boyfriend . Punk then teamed with D @-@ Generation X and the Hardy Boyz in their Survivor Series match against Rated @-@ RKO , Knox , Johnny Nitro and Gregory Helms , a match in which all the participants on DX 's side survived elimination . At December to Dismember , Punk participated in the Elimination Chamber for the ECW Championship ; however , he was the first person eliminated by Rob Van Dam .
Following the pay @-@ per @-@ view , Punk entered into a feud with Hardcore Holly , who ended Punk 's six @-@ month unbeaten streak in singles competition on January 9 , 2007 . Punk went on to feud with Matt Striker , who gave him his second singles loss since being in ECW on January 30 . Punk then qualified for the Money in the Bank ladder match at WrestleMania 23 by defeating Johnny Nitro . In the final week leading up to WrestleMania 23 , Punk made appearances on both Raw and SmackDown ! , defeating Kenny Dykstra and former World Heavyweight Champion King Booker , respectively . At WrestleMania 23 , Punk competed in , but did not win , the Money in the Bank ladder match , being knocked off the ladder just seconds before the winner , Mr. Kennedy , claimed the briefcase .
On the April 10 , 2007 ECW on Sci Fi , Punk briefly became a villain by officially joining the New Breed alliance , after several weeks in which both the New Breed and the ECW Originals had attempted to recruit him . Two weeks later , however , Punk betrayed the New Breed during a four on four elimination match between the New Breed and ECW Originals by kicking New Breed leader Elijah Burke in the back of the head and costing them the match . After the match , Punk proceeded to deliver his finisher , the Go To Sleep , on Burke and sarcastically apologized before leaving the ring alone , becoming a fan favorite again . WWE.com later confirmed that Punk was no longer a member of the New Breed . At Judgment Day , Punk wrestled and defeated Burke in his first singles match on a pay @-@ per @-@ view . Punk then went on to One Night Stand and teamed up with Tommy Dreamer and The Sandman in a tables match to defeat the New Breed .
When ECW Champion Bobby Lashley was drafted to Raw and stripped of the ECW Championship , a tournament to declare a new champion was held , with Punk , Elijah Burke , Marcus Cor Von and Chris Benoit . Punk defeated Marcus Cor Von on the June 19 ECW on Sci Fi . He was meant to face Chris Benoit at Vengeance : Night of Champions for the ECW Championship , but Benoit was hastily replaced by Johnny Nitro when Benoit no @-@ showed , after killing his family and self . Nitro subsequently defeated Punk at Vengeance for the vacant championship . Punk won another shot at the title at The Great American Bash against Nitro , who had changed his moniker to John Morrison by this point ; however , Punk was defeated again by Morrison . The next week , Punk challenged Elijah Burke and Tommy Dreamer in a triple threat match to determine the next competitor in Morrison 's 15 Minutes of Fame Challenge , in which Punk came out victorious . A week later , Punk defeated Morrison with the Go To Sleep to earn an ECW Championship title match at SummerSlam . At SummerSlam , however , Punk lost the match when Morrison used the ropes for leverage .
At the September 1 , 2007 ( aired September 4 ) ECW taping , in a " last chance " title match , Punk defeated Morrison for the ECW Championship . Punk then went on to have successful title defenses against the likes of Elijah Burke ( at Unforgiven ) , Big Daddy V via disqualification ( at No Mercy ) and The Miz ( at Cyber Sunday ) . On the November 6 , 2007 ECW , Punk retained the ECW Championship in a match against Morrison following The Miz 's interference . At Survivor Series , Punk retained his title in a Triple Threat match , beating The Miz and John Morrison . On the January 22 , 2008 ECW , Chavo Guerrero defeated Punk in a No Disqualification match to win the ECW Championship after Edge , ( acting as a guest commentator at ringside ) ran in and speared Punk .
= = = = World Heavyweight Champion ( 2008 – 2009 ) = = = =
At WrestleMania XXIV on March 30 , 2008 , Punk won the Money in the Bank ladder match , after defeating Chris Jericho , Montel Vontavious Porter , Shelton Benjamin , John Morrison , Mr. Kennedy and Carlito .
On June 23 , Punk was drafted to the Raw brand during the 2008 WWE draft . His first night on Raw came the following week ; after Batista beat down World Heavyweight Champion Edge , Punk cashed in his Money in the Bank contract and won the World Heavyweight Championship ( and later , the Slammy Award for the " Oh my God " Moment of the Year . ) . Later that night , Punk made his first title defense against JBL , who had challenged him shortly after his win . Punk continued to hold and defend the title until Unforgiven on September 7 . Before the Championship Scramble match , Punk was attacked by The Legacy ( Randy Orton , Cody Rhodes and Ted DiBiase with Manu ) . Orton finished the assault by punting Punk in the head . Punk could not participate in the match due to the attack and so forfeited the title . He was replaced by Chris Jericho , who won the match and the title . He received a rematch eight days later on the September 15 Raw , where he failed to regain the title in a steel cage match against Jericho .
On the October 27 episode of Raw , Punk and Kofi Kingston defeated Cody Rhodes and Ted DiBiase to win the World Tag Team Championship . The duo were members of Team Batista at Survivor Series , where their team lost to Team Orton . Punk then entered in a number one contender Intercontinental Championship Tournament . He defeated Snitsky and John Morrison in the first two rounds . Punk and Kingston lost the World Tag Team Championship to John Morrison and The Miz at a live event on December 13 , 2008 . The next day Punk defeated Rey Mysterio at Armageddon to win the tournament . On the January 5 , 2009 , episode of Raw , Punk received his title match against William Regal , which ended in a disqualification , when Regal grabbed the referee 's jersey . Due to this , Stephanie McMahon awarded Punk a rematch the following week , but this time it was himself that was disqualified . McMahon awarded him another rematch , this time a No Disqualification match on January 19 Raw , Punk won the match and the title . With this win , he became the 19th Triple Crown Champion , and the fastest to accomplish the feat , shattering Kevin Nash 's old record . Punk lost the title on the March 9 Raw to JBL . At WrestleMania XXV , Punk won the Money in the Bank ladder match and became the first person to win the match twice , as well as the only person to have won twice in a row .
On April 13 , 2009 during the 2009 WWE draft , Punk was drafted from Raw to SmackDown . In the period after the draft , Punk feuded with Umaga over Umaga 's repeated surprise attacks while Punk was attempting to cash in his Money in the Bank contract . This ultimately resulted in a Samoan strap match at Extreme Rules , which was won by Punk .
At the end of the pay @-@ per @-@ view , Punk cashed in his Money in the Bank contract to defeat Jeff Hardy for the World Heavyweight Championship . Punk retained his title in a Triple Threat match against both Edge and Hardy eight days later on the June 15 Raw . At The Bash in Sacramento , California , Punk lost to Hardy by disqualification after kicking the referee ; in the storyline Punk was injured his eye and said he could not see the referee . Because titles do not change hands on a disqualification , Punk retained the championship . Hardy called Punk 's eye injury into question , believing it to be feigned . Punk turned heel , claiming to be the moral superior of those who support Hardy due to his drug @-@ free lifestyle . At Night of Champions , Punk lost the championship to Hardy . Their feud continued through SummerSlam , where Punk regained the title in a Tables , Ladders , and Chairs match ; afterward , Punk was attacked by The Undertaker . On the August 28 episode of SmackDown , Punk concluded his program with Hardy and achieved his booked goal of excising him from WWE , defeating Hardy in a steel cage match wherein the loser agreed to leave the company . This earned Punk a second Slammy that December , for 2009 's " Shocker of the Year " .
At Breaking Point , Punk defeated The Undertaker in a submission match to retain the World Heavyweight Championship . Undertaker originally won the match with his Hell 's Gate submission hold . SmackDown general manager Theodore Long restarted the match after stating that the ban that former general manager Vickie Guerrero had placed on the move was still in effect . Punk won the match with his Anaconda Vise when referee Scott Armstrong called for the bell despite Undertaker never submitting ( reminiscent to the Montreal Screwjob , which took place in the same venue in 1997 ) . The feud between the two continued and at the Hell in a Cell PPV , Punk lost the World Heavyweight Championship to The Undertaker in a Hell in a Cell match . He lost two subsequent rematches against The Undertaker on SmackDown and in a Fatal Four Way match at Bragging Rights also involving Batista and Rey Mysterio .
= = = = The Straight Edge Society ( 2009 – 2010 ) = = = =
His character took on a more sinister direction on the November 27 SmackDown when he revealed that he had converted Luke Gallows , who had previously been portrayed as the mentally incompetent wrestler Festus , to the straight @-@ edge lifestyle which had rid him of his mental troubles . Continuing to espouse his straight @-@ edge philosophy , Punk began to present himself as a cult @-@ like savior to the crowd , growing the hair on his head , face and chest in an allusion to Jesus . Through January 2010 , Punk began to convert planted members of the audience to a straight @-@ edge lifestyle , making them take a pledge of allegiance to him and shaving their head as a sign of renewal and devotion . After converting many people who were not seen again , convert Serena began accompanying Punk and Gallows to form the Straight Edge Society . As well as leading this alliance , Punk was also the mentor of WWE NXT rookie Darren Young who flirted with the idea of becoming straight @-@ edge before refusing just before his head was to be shaved .
Punk continued to show messianic traits , frequently giving sermons including during the annual Royal Rumble match as well as during an Elimination Chamber match at both of the eponymous pay @-@ per @-@ views . In the Chamber match , he was eliminated by Rey Mysterio , whom he had feuding with leading into the PPV . Tensions escalated as Mysterio prevented him from winning a Money in the Bank qualifying match , causing Punk to interrupt Mysterio 's celebration of his daughter 's ninth birthday . Mysterio challenged Punk to a Street Fight at WrestleMania XXVI but lost to Gallows . Punk added the stipulation that if Rey lost , he would join the Society . At WrestleMania , Punk lost to Mysterio sparking a rematch at Extreme Rules where Punk would have to shave his head , like his disciples , if he lost . Punk won this match after interference from a fourth member of the Society who kept his face covered . At Over The Limit , a third and final match was booked with both stipulations reactivated . In the match Punk lost and was subsequently shaved bald .
Embarrassed by being shaved bald as he considered himself always pure unlike his followers , Punk appeared on the following SmackDown , May 29 , wearing a mask to hide his baldness . At Fatal 4 @-@ Way , Punk challenged for the World Heavyweight Championship against Mysterio , The Big Show and the champion Jack Swagger , but was unsuccessful when he was attacked by Kane , who was accusing various people of attacking The Undertaker . On July 16 's SmackDown , Punk was finally unmasked by Big Show while healing from an arm injury . The following week Show also unmasked the anonymous member of the Straight Edge Society who was revealed to be Joey Mercury . This led to a handicap match at SummerSlam where Show defeated the entire Society after Punk abandoned his teammates . Show also beat Punk in a singles match at Night of Champions . Following this Serena was released from WWE while Mercury became injured , severely thinning the Society . Gallows began showing signs of dissension too , and Punk defeated him on SmackDown , airing September 24 , ending the group .
= = = = The New Nexus ( 2010 – 2011 ) = = = =
Punk was traded back to the Raw brand on October 11 after being swapped with Edge . He took part in the interbrand tag team match at Bragging Rights after injuring Evan Bourne to win a place , but the team lost . It was reported later that he was suffering with a hip injury that would stop him from competing . To keep a presence on television , he began commentating on Raw from November 22 , having already commentated one NXT . During his commentary , he criticized John Cena for his actions against The Nexus . Sometimes he favored heel wrestlers over face wrestlers . At the end of December , Punk left the commentary team after assaulting John Cena on Raw and SmackDown with a chair . Punk later revealed that his motives for the attacks were that he had joined and assumed control of The Nexus . Punk then made each member of the group prove themselves worthy of a spot , with some choosing to join The Corre , which had been started by former Nexus leader Wade Barrett on SmackDown , instead .
Punk then used the group to attack Randy Orton , blaming him for prematurely ending Punk 's first World Heavyweight Championship reign in 2008 . Punk and The Nexus cost Orton his match with The Miz for the WWE Championship at the Royal Rumble in January 2011 . Orton , in turn , responded by taking out all of the New Nexus members by punting them in the head , leaving Punk alone as the sole surviving member of the group . This all led to a WrestleMania XXVII match and a Last Man Standing match at Extreme Rules both of which Punk lost . Punk then spent the next few months involved in filler feuds , often teaming with fellow Nexus members .
= = = = WWE Champion ( 2011 – 2013 ) = = = =
In June , after pinning WWE Champion John Cena on Raw , Rey Mysterio at Capitol Punishment and finally Alberto Del Rio again in a contendership match ( which also included Mysterio ) all within one week , Punk revealed his contract would expire at Money in the Bank and vowed to leave the company with the WWE Championship ; some of his speeches and mannerisms echoed his final months with Ring of Honor . After making a scathing yet highly acclaimed on @-@ air speech concerning the way in which WWE is run and its owner Vince McMahon , he was given a storyline suspension from televised WWE events but was reinstated the following week on Cena 's insistence . Upon his return , Punk ceased to appear with the remaining members of Nexus and the group quietly dissolved that month . This helped transition him from a villainous character back to being a fan @-@ favorite . Two weeks later , at Money in the Bank , Punk defeated John Cena to become the WWE Champion on his final night under contract with WWE .
On July 21 , Punk made a surprise appearance at a joint WWE – Mattel panel at the San Diego Comic Con , to mock new Chief Operating Officer Triple H and offer WWE Championship tournament finalist Rey Mysterio a match for his WWE Championship , as long as it was in Punk 's hometown , Chicago . Punk appeared at July 23 's All American Wrestling show , showing respect to Gregory Iron , a wrestler with cerebral palsy . Mysterio won the WWE Championship tournament on the July 25 Raw , only to lose it to Cena later that night . After Cena 's victory , Punk returned to Raw and upstaged the new WWE Champion 's victory celebration while also entering into a title dispute . Triple H later upheld both Punk and Cena 's claims to the WWE Championship as legitimate and scheduled the two to a match at SummerSlam to decide the undisputed WWE Champion . Punk won , but lost the title minutes later to Alberto Del Rio , who had cashed in his Money in the Bank contract after Kevin Nash attacked Punk .
The night after SummerSlam , Punk accused Nash of conspiring with Triple H to keep Punk away from the WWE Championship . After repeated confrontations Nash and Punk demanded to face each other at Night of Champions , to which Triple H acquiesced . However , after Punk 's repeated verbal attacks towards him and his wife Stephanie McMahon , Triple H booked himself to replace Nash . At Night of Champions , Punk lost a No Disqualification match after Nash , The Miz , and R @-@ Truth attacked both men . Miz and Truth also attacked Punk at Hell in a Cell after he lost a WWE Championship triple threat match . He attempted to avenge this by teaming with Triple H against Miz and Truth at Vengeance , but lost again due to Nash attacking Triple H. This helped transition Punk 's anti @-@ establishment voice from Triple H to John Laurinaitis , who became the interim Raw general manager . Punk balked at Laurinaitis ' promotion and verbally attacked him as a dull yes man .
On October 31 , Punk strong @-@ armed his way into a match with Del Rio at Survivor Series , where he regained the WWE Championship by way of submission with the Anaconda Vise . He went on to defend the title through the end of the year , retaining in a rematch with Del Rio on the November 28 Raw and against both Del Rio and The Miz in a triple threat TLC match at TLC : Tables , Ladders and Chairs . On the December 26 Raw , Punk was defeated by Dolph Ziggler in a gauntlet match ; as a result Ziggler became the number one contender to the WWE Championship . Had he been successful , Punk would have earned the right to face Laurinaitis in a match . The following Raw , Punk was defeated by Ziggler via countout following interference from Laurinaitis ; retaining the championship as a result . Intermeddling from Laurinaitis caused Punk to lose to Ziggler throughout January which ultimately led to Punk attacking Laurinaitis in retaliation . At the Royal Rumble event , Punk successfully defended his title against Ziggler , despite Laurinaitis acting as the outside enforcer .
On the January 30 Raw , Chris Jericho attacked Punk and Daniel Bryan during their Champion vs. Champion match , giving Bryan the win . The following week , Jericho explained his actions by dismissing the WWE roster as imitations of himself and singling out Punk for calling himself the best in the world , a moniker Jericho used the last time he was in WWE . Their rivalry continued through Elimination Chamber where Punk retained the WWE Championship in the namesake structure ; while four competitors were eliminated , Jericho was unable to continue the match after being kicked out of the chamber by Punk , causing temporary injury . The following night on Raw , Jericho earned a match against Punk at WrestleMania XXVIII , and in a bid to psychologically unsettle him , he revealed Punk 's father was an alcoholic and alleged that his sister was a drug addict , asserting that Punk 's straight edge philosophy was paranoia to avoid the same vices and vowing to make Punk turn to alcohol by winning the title from him . John Laurinaitis added the stipulation that the WWE Championship could change hands via disqualification , which led to Jericho inciting Punk into using a weapon , but Punk resisted and retained the title . On the April 2 and 9 episodes of Raw SuperShow , Punk retained the WWE Championship against Mark Henry after losing to him via count @-@ out and disqualification . Following both matches , Jericho attacked Punk and doused him with alcohol . On the April 16 Raw SuperShow , Punk pinned Henry in a no disqualification , no countout match to retain his title . After repeated altercations , the feud between Jericho and Punk culminated in a Chicago Street Fight at Extreme Rules where Punk defeated Jericho to retain the WWE Championship .
Punk began a rivalry with Daniel Bryan at the May event Over the Limit , retaining the title after reversing Bryan 's submission hold the " Yes ! " Lock into a pinning combination ; the pinfall saved Punk from his own submission only moments later . Shortly before Over the Limit , Bryan interfered in a non @-@ title match between Punk and Kane to frame Punk for attacking Kane with a steel chair , beginning a three @-@ way rivalry . On the June 1 SmackDown , a WWE Championship match between Punk and Kane ended in a double disqualification after Bryan attacked both men . Meanwhile , Bryan 's jilted ex @-@ girlfriend AJ turned her affections to both Punk and Kane . This feud culminated in a triple threat match at No Way Out , where Punk managed to retain the title after AJ distracted Kane . At Money in the Bank , Punk successfully defended the WWE Championship against Bryan in a No Disqualification match with AJ as special guest referee .
On July 23 at Raw 1000 , Punk defended his title against Money in the Bank winner John Cena and lost by disqualification after interference from Big Show . When the night 's special guest The Rock – who had interrupted Punk earlier to announce he would wrestle for the WWE Championship at the Royal Rumble – intervened to save Cena from Big Show 's assault , Punk attacked him , turning heel . The following week , Punk justified his actions , explaining he was tired of people like Cena and Rock overshadowing him when the WWE Champion should be the focus of the company ; Punk asserted himself further soon after by disrupting a number one contender 's match between Cena and Big Show . As a result , both men were entered into the title match against Punk at SummerSlam where he successfully retained the WWE Championship . In the following weeks , Punk demanded respect from people like AJ Lee , Jerry Lawler and Bret Hart and eventually aligned with Paul Heyman in his feud with Cena . At Night of Champions , Punk retained the WWE Championship after he fought Cena to a draw . Punk continued to feud with Cena , despite the latter 's arm injury , rejecting the requests of Mick Foley and Jim Ross to pick him as his Hell in a Cell opponent and leading to a brawl with WWE chairman Vince McMahon . Cena was eventually pulled from the title match at Hell in a Cell , and replaced by Ryback . On October 28 at the pay @-@ per @-@ view , Punk , with help from referee Brad Maddox , defeated Ryback in a Hell in a Cell match to retain the WWE Championship .
The next night on Raw , a furious Mick Foley confronted Punk for refusing to pick John Cena as his Hell in a Cell opponent . This led to the two agreeing to meet at Survivor Series in a traditional five @-@ on @-@ five elimination tag team match with Punk choosing Alberto Del Rio , Cody Rhodes , Damien Sandow , and The Miz for his own team . The next week , Punk was replaced as captain by Dolph Ziggler , and booked in a Triple Threat WWE Championship match against John Cena and Ryback instead by Mr. McMahon . On November 18 at the pay @-@ per @-@ view , Punk won the match by pinning Cena , following interference from the debuting faction called The Shield , composed of Dean Ambrose , Seth Rollins , and Roman Reigns , allowing him to retain the WWE Championship and hold the championship for a full year . On December 4 , Punk underwent surgery to repair a partially torn meniscus , removing him from his title match against Ryback at TLC : Tables , Ladders and Chairs . Despite his injury , Punk became the longest reigning WWE Champion in the past 25 years on December 5 , when he hit 381 days , surpassing John Cena 's 380 @-@ day reign . Punk returned to in @-@ ring action on the January 7 , 2013 Raw , retaining the WWE Championship against Ryback in a Tables , Ladders , and Chairs match , following interference from The Shield .
On January 27 at the Royal Rumble , Punk defended the WWE Championship against The Rock in a match with the stipulation that if The Shield interfered , Punk would be stripped of the title . Punk originally pinned The Rock to retain after The Shield put Rock through a table while the arena lights were out . Vince McMahon began to announce that Punk would be stripped of the title , but he instead restarted the match at The Rock 's request . Punk went on to lose the match , ending his record @-@ setting reign at 434 days . Punk received a title rematch with Rock on February 17 at the Elimination Chamber event , with the stipulation that the Rock would lose the WWE Championship if he was disqualified or counted out , but Rock pinned Punk to retain the title . On the February 25 Raw , Punk faced Royal Rumble winner John Cena for his number one contendership to the WWE Championship , but was defeated .
= = = = Final storylines ( 2013 – 2014 ) = = = =
Punk set his sights on ending The Undertaker 's WrestleMania streak on the March 4 Raw , in an effort to " take something away from the fans " , as he believed they had taken the WWE title away from him . Punk subsequently defeated Big Show , Randy Orton , and Sheamus in a four @-@ way match to earn the right to face Undertaker . After the real @-@ life death of Paul Bearer the following day , a storyline involving Punk regularly spiting The Undertaker through displays of flippancy and disrespect towards Bearer 's death began . Punk interrupted The Undertaker 's ceremony to honor Bearer on Raw , stealing his trademark urn and later using it to attack Kane , humiliate The Brothers of Destruction , and mock Bearer . On April 7 at WrestleMania 29 , Punk was defeated by The Undertaker who , in the process , extended his streak to 21 – 0 and took back the urn . On the April 15 Raw , Punk addressed the crowd and after briefly recalling his historic championship reign , walked out of the arena .
Punk returned at Payback on June 16 , defeating Chris Jericho . The next night on Raw , Punk turned face confronting World Heavyweight Champion Alberto Del Rio and telling Heyman to stay away from him during his matches . Later in the night , after Punk 's win over Del Rio , Brock Lesnar returned and executed an F @-@ 5 on Punk . The next week on Raw , Heyman promised Punk that he did not send Lesnar to attack him , and that he still considered Punk his best friend , stating that any problem Punk and Lesnar had with each other was between them . Following that , Punk defeated Darren Young ; when Young and his tag team partner Titus O 'Neil began attacking him , Heyman summoned his other client , the WWE Intercontinental Champion , Curtis Axel to help Punk fight them off , much to Punk 's dismay . On the July 1 Raw , Punk said that he trusted Heyman but did not trust Axel . On July 14 at Money in the Bank , Punk competed in the WWE Championship Money in the Bank ladder match , but Heyman turned on him by hitting him with a ladder , costing him the match that was ultimately won by Randy Orton . The following night on Raw , Punk called out Heyman , who said that , without him , Punk was no longer the " Best in the World " . He revealed that he did not believe that Punk could beat Lesnar , who then came out and hit the F @-@ 5 on Punk onto the announce table . The following week on Raw , Punk challenged Lesnar to a match at SummerSlam , which Heyman accepted on Lesnar 's behalf . On the August 5 Raw , Punk wrestled Axel to a no @-@ contest , after Heyman attacked him . Lesnar then came out and brawled with Punk , eventually getting the upper hand . Punk got revenge the next week by attacking Lesnar with a camera and a steel chair , after Heyman tried to change the scheduled match between Punk and himself to a handicap match involving Lesnar . He then delivered a Go to Sleep to Axel , who had interfered while Punk was chasing Heyman . On August 18 , at SummerSlam , Punk lost to Lesnar in a No Disqualification match , after interference by Heyman .
On the next Raw , Punk had the chance to again become a " Paul Heyman guy " , but declined by attacking Axel . The next week , Punk defeated Axel before being assaulted by him and Heyman . Punk was then scheduled to face Axel and Heyman in a handicap elimination match at Night of Champions , later adding a No Disqualification to the stipulation . During the match , Punk made Axel submit , leaving only Heyman left to deal with , but in the process of attacking Heyman , Ryback attacked Punk and placed Heyman on top of Punk for the pin . At Battleground , Punk defeated Ryback after executing a low blow , while the referee was distracted by Heyman attempting to interfere in the match . On the October 14 episode of Raw , Punk defeated Axel in a Beat the Clock challenge match to determine the stipulation for his rematch with Ryback at the Hell in a Cell pay @-@ per @-@ view . He announced that his match would a be two @-@ on @-@ one handicap match in the Hell in a Cell , in which he would face Paul Heyman and Ryback . On October 27 , at Hell in a Cell , Punk defeated Ryback and Paul Heyman . Punk faced Ryback again in a Street Fight match the following night on Raw , defeating Ryback by submission , thus ending their feud .
Punk then moved on to feud with the Wyatt Family ( Bray Wyatt , Luke Harper and Erick Rowan ) , forming an alliance with former rival Daniel Bryan . At Survivor Series , Punk and Bryan defeated Harper and Rowan in a tag team match . After Bryan was " abducted " by the Wyatt Family the following night on Raw , Punk was attacked by former allies The Shield ( Dean Ambrose , Seth Rollins , and Roman Reigns ) . The following week on Raw , Kane announced that Punk would face The Shield in a 3 @-@ on @-@ 1 handicap match at TLC : Tables , Ladders and Chairs , which Punk won after Reigns accidentally speared Ambrose .
On January 26 , 2014 , Punk was the first entrant in the annual Royal Rumble match . After having lasted until the final four , Kane , who was already eliminated earlier in the match by Punk , eliminated Punk from the outside and proceeded to chokeslam him through the announce table .
= = = = Departure and retirement ( 2014 ) = = = =
Punk did not appear the following night on Raw , nor did he appear at the SmackDown taping on Tuesday despite being advertised for the event . By Wednesday , WWE.com stopped advertising Punk for future events . The Wrestling Observer reported that , on Monday and prior to Raw , Punk had legitimately walked out after telling Vince McMahon and Triple H that he was " going home " . On February 20 , during a conference call to investors , McMahon said Punk was " taking a sabbatical " . On the March 3 episode of Raw , WWE acknowledged Punk 's absence on television when the show started with Punk 's entrance music playing , only for former manager Paul Heyman to walk out . WWE proceeded to remove Punk from footage of their promotional videos ; this lasted until the first half of July , where WWE used footage of Punk to promote the WWE Network . In an interview published in late May , Punk was asked how it felt " to be retired at 35 " and replied that " it feels good " . On July 15 , WWE.com moved Punk from the active roster to the alumni page without releasing a statement . On the same day , Punk thanked his fans without mentioning WWE . In late July , Punk said that he was " never ever " going to return to wrestling .
On an episode of Colt Cabana 's Art of Wrestling podcast released in November 2014 , Punk broke his silence regarding his exit from WWE . In a detailed interview , Punk said that he was suspended for two months after walking out on the company in January and that after the suspension ended , nobody from WWE contacted him . He also told that when he reached out to them for unpaid royalties , he was given a run @-@ around by company executives until he was handed his termination papers and was fired by WWE on his wedding day in June 2014 . The manner of firing was the last straw for Punk , stating that he would never return to WWE and that following a legal settlement with WWE , there would be no further working relationship between them . The settlement included Punk giving WWE permission to sell his remaining merchandise .
Punk cited his health as the main reason he left WWE , describing that in his final months in the company , he had been working through an untreated and potentially fatal MRSA infection , broken ribs , injured knees , and multiple concussions including one at the Royal Rumble , as well as having lost his appetite and ability to sleep well . Punk felt that WWE was pressuring and rushing him to wrestle before he had fully recovered . According to him , he found a lump on his back in November 2013 and it was diagnosed as a fatty deposit by Dr. Chris Amann , who refused to remove it despite Punk 's requests .
A few days after Punk left WWE , his then @-@ fiancé , April Mendez ( AJ Lee ) , convinced him to get the infection checked by her doctor in Tampa . The doctor , Bateman , not knowing who Punk was or of his medical history , took one look at the lump and diagnosed it as a full @-@ blown MRSA infection and told Punk he could have died due to ignoring it for such a long time . Opting out of going to the hospital for an IV drip , Punk had the doctor get everything out of the infection , describing getting it cut and squeezed out as " the most painful experience of my entire life " , but said that once it was all out and he was on stronger medication , he was able to sleep better than he had in weeks .
Other sources of unhappiness Punk had with WWE were his failure to main @-@ event a WrestleMania ( deeming his entire career to be a failure as a result ) , being paid less than other top wrestlers for WrestleMania 29 , doing favors for Vince McMahon ( turning heel while champion , working dangerous matches with Ryback , and working with part @-@ time wrestlers ) and not being owed back , being " creatively stifled " and feeling that there were no long @-@ term plans for wrestlers other than John Cena , as well as receiving smaller paychecks and not getting answers as to how the WWE Network would affect wrestlers ' salaries . Lastly , Punk described having left with " zero passion " for wrestling , and described himself at the time of the interview to be the happiest in many years .
Less than a week later , when Vince McMahon was interviewed on The Steve Austin Show via the WWE Network , he apologized to Punk for the manner of his termination , which he termed a " coincidence " while blaming a lack of communication within the organization . McMahon said that he was open to working with Punk again . In a second Art of Wrestling podcast , Punk rejected McMahon 's apology as insincere and a " publicity stunt " as McMahon did not contact him directly to apologize and could have apologized earlier .
= = = Wrestling character = = =
A key part of Punk 's gimmick emerges in the form of iconoclasm which can be shown in his disinclination to conform and penchant for challenging popular and accepted beliefs , traditions , and customs . A prime example , Punk has adopted his real @-@ life following of the straight edge movement as a major attribute of his professional wrestling character . The character utilizes different elements of Punk 's personality and beliefs of the straight edge movement dependent on his antagonist / protagonist alignment . While portraying a crowd favorite , Punk 's character tends to be that of Punk 's normal personality , largely indifferent to others who drink alcohol , smoke tobacco , partake in recreational drug use or have promiscuous sexual behavior , but emphasizing the social discipline involved with personally abstaining from these behaviors . During his WWE career , Punk also incorporated a belligerently anti @-@ establishment and anti @-@ corporate attitude into his persona . Conversely , his villainous personality tends to be that of one who is hardline or militant straight edge , exemplifying the elitist attitudes and superiority complexes — defined by Punk 's common mantra during villainous @-@ themed promos that , because he is straight edge , he is " better than you " . Punk performs the straight edge symbol of crossing his arms in an X formation while having the letter X written on the back of his hands , usually drawn on his wrist tape .
Originally , the initials CM in his ring name represented the phrase " Chick Magnet " , the name of the tag team he was in as a backyard wrestler . Punk , however , later changed CM into a pseudo @-@ acronym , declaring that it has no meaning , though when asked since he has taken to making up meanings that fit the initials , going so far as to make up long stories to explain the origins that do not match the actual origin story at all . Since beginning this practice , Punk has stated CM stands for " Cookie Monster " , " Cookie Master " , " Crooked Moonsault " , " Chuck Mosley " , " Charles Montgomery " , " Charles Manson " , " Chicago Made " , among others .
During his entrance , Punk yells " It 's clobberin ' time ! " The phrase is a reference to New York hardcore punk band Sick of It All , who wrote a song with the same name , and Marvel 's fictional character The Thing .
An integral part of Punk are the numerous tattoos that adorn his body , some of which have become symbols associated with Punk , as well as mantras and declarations that have been integrated into his gimmick . The tattoos as a whole , due to their large quantity and variety , have also become an attribute identifiable to Punk . The most important of the individual tattoos in Punk 's character , whether through association , symbol , or mantra , are :
A Pepsi Globe logo on his left shoulder that inspired the names of two of his signature moves . It also became a symbol of Punk himself , who wore the logo on his ring gear in the independent circuit , as well as a slightly modified Pepsi logo being used as part of his TitanTron entrance video . Punk , a keen Pepsi drinker , chose to receive a Pepsi tattoo to emphasize his straight edge beliefs . The tattoo is also a reference to former Minor Threat guitarist Brian Baker , who had a Coca @-@ Cola tattoo and explained this by saying " I like Coca @-@ Cola " . When people inquire about Punk 's Pepsi tattoo , he often replies " I like Pepsi " in a similar fashion .
The words " Straight Edge " are spelled out on Punk 's stomach . This is one of his oldest tattoos ; he has referred to it as his identity .
A sleeve tattoo on his left arm that reads " luck is for losers " and features numerous good luck symbols , including a rabbit 's foot , four @-@ leaf clover and a horseshoe . The tattoo also features four ace playing cards as a tribute to trainer Ace Steel .
A tattoo on the back of his left hand reading " No gimmicks needed " , a tribute to deceased wrestler Chris Candido .
A tattoo across his knuckles with the words " DRUG FREE " ( " DRUG " on his right knuckles and " FREE " on his left ) .
A tattoo of his little sister 's jersey number ( 31 ) behind his left ear surrounded by stars , each of which also representing his siblings as a way to bond away from home .
A tattoo on his right shoulder of the Cobra Command logo , G.I. Joe 's enemy . Punk is well known for his love of comic books , considering them along with jazz and professional wrestling as three of the original arts that America has given to the world .
A tattoo of a rose on his left wrist .
A tattoo on his knuckles , below the drug @-@ free tattoo , that reads " romance " when his fingers are intertwined with an arrowed heart on his left pinkie at the end .
Punk 's character has been parodied by the wrestling federation Chikara who used a mascot character CP Munk , the straight edge chipmunk . The character includes references to Punk , such as X @-@ marked wrist tape , a Pepsi logo on the costume 's left shoulder , and a high @-@ pitch version of Punk 's best @-@ known independent circuit theme song " Miseria Cantare – The Beginning " , by the band AFI . On his website , Punk has said about the character CP Munk , and the people behind it :
= = Mixed martial arts career = =
= = = Ultimate Fighting Championship ( 2014 – present ) = = =
At UFC 181 , on December 6 , 2014 , Brooks announced that he had signed a multi @-@ fight contract with Ultimate Fighting Championship ( UFC ) . Regarding his ring name , he told the Las Vegas Sun , " I 've come this far with CM Punk . That 's what people know . I 'm trying to stick with that . I 'm not shying away from it . I 'm not ashamed of it . " His UFC profile lists him as CM Punk .
In January 2015 , Brooks began training under Duke Roufus at Roufusport MMA Academy , alongside former UFC Lightweight Champion Anthony Pettis and ONE FC Welterweight Champion Ben Askren . In June 2015 , Punk moved to Milwaukee to be closer to the Roufusport gym , while still retaining his home in Chicago . In October 2015 , Roufus announced that Brooks had suffered a shoulder injury , delaying his UFC debut until the next calendar year . On February 6 , 2016 , Brooks was diagnosed with herniated disc in his back , and underwent surgery a few days later .
Punk is scheduled to fight Mickey Gall on September 10 , 2016 , at UFC 203 .
= = Writing = =
Punk wrote the introduction for the hardcover edition of Marvel Comics ' 2012 crossover event Avengers vs. X @-@ Men , and described the opportunity as a " geek dream come true " .
In 2013 , Punk wrote a foreword for his friend and ex @-@ girlfriend Natalie Slater 's cookbook Bake and Destroy : Good Food for Bad Vegans .
In February 2015 , Marvel Comics ' Thor Annual # 1 , partly written by Punk , was released . Punk co @-@ wrote " The Most Cursed " , which appeared in Vertigo Comics ' Strange Sports Stories # 3 in May 2015 . Punk is also co @-@ writing Marvel Comics ' Drax ongoing series , the first issue of which was published on November 4 , 2015 .
= = Other media = =
Punk made an appearance on the February 16 , 2004 episode of Monster Garage , " Box Truck Wrestling Car " , performing a short match with Samoa Joe . On October 31 , 2006 , Punk joined The Atlantic Paranormal Society ( TAPS ) to shoot the Sci Fi Channel special Ghost Hunters Live , which was a six @-@ hour show broadcast live Halloween night from the Stanley Hotel in Estes Park , Colorado . Initially skeptical about what he might find , Punk said he heard children giggling and footsteps when there were not any children booked into the hotel .
In 2008 , Punk appeared as the Sports Grand Marshal of the nationally @-@ televised McDonald 's Thanksgiving Parade in downtown Chicago . He reprised this role in 2012 .
On July 15 , 2011 , Punk threw out the ceremonial first pitch at Wrigley Field before a Chicago Cubs game . On May 8 , 2012 , Punk returned to Wrigley Field to throw out the first pitch before the Cubs vs. Braves game . He also threw the first pitch at the New York Mets vs. Miami Marlins game on April 5 , 2013 at Citi Field .
On February 13 , 2012 , Punk appeared alongside his friend and Brazilian Jiu @-@ Jitsu coach Rener Gracie for an edition of Gracie Breakdown , a YouTube series that explains mixed martial arts matches and specifically the BJJ techniques used in them . In the episode , he helped explain the techniques used in the UFC 4 match between Royce Gracie and Dan Severn . Punk had mentioned holding a white belt in BJJ during a January 26 , 2012 interview with Ariel Helwani .
Punk has done various work with Nerdist Industries . As part of YouTube Comedy Week in 2013 , Punk starred in a series titled CM Punk 's Grammar Slam on Nerdist 's YouTube channel , explaining grammatical mistakes in messages from wrestling fans and berating them . Later that year , he took part in Nerdist 's All @-@ Star Celebrity Bowling alongside AJ Lee , Fandango , and Kofi Kingston . In 2014 , he was a correspondent for Nerdist at the San Diego Comic Con. He also appeared on The Nerdist Podcast in December 2012 .
In November 2013 , Punk was the headlining performer on the I Shit You Not comedy show at Lincoln Lodge in his hometown of Chicago .
= = = Filmography = = =
= = = = Film = = = =
= = = = Television = = = =
= = = = Music videos = = = =
= = = Video games = = =
Punk is a playable character in numerous video games : WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2008 , WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2009 , WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2010 , WWE All Stars , WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2011 , WWE ' 12 , WWE ' 13 ( for which he was on the cover ) , WWE 2K14 , WWE 2K15 , and EA Sports UFC 2 .
There were legal discussions between Punk and WWE over Punk 's appearance in WWE 2K15 . Despite this , he is still in the video game , with his feud with John Cena being one of the two highlighted rivalries in the " 2K Showcase " mode .
= = Personal life = =
Brooks is an atheist . He is an avid fan of the Chicago Blackhawks and Chicago Cubs . In his spare time , he reads and collects comics . He once worked for a shop named All American Comics , and cites Preacher as his favorite comic . He is close friends with professional wrestlers Colt Cabana ( whom he met when he trained at Steel Domain Wrestling ) and Cliff Compton , as well as Rancid vocalist Lars Frederiksen .
Brooks married April " AJ Lee " Mendez on June 13 , 2014 . They split their time between homes in Chicago , Illinois , and Milwaukee , Wisconsin .
On February 19 , 2015 , Christopher M. Amann , the WWE doctor who Brooks alleges misdiagnosed his staph infection and mistreated his concussion , filed a lawsuit against Brooks and Scott Colton ( Colt Cabana ) for defamation and invasion of privacy . He is seeking $ 1 million in compensation from each defendant and an undisclosed amount in punitive damages . WWE issued a statement and video in support of Amann , stating that Brooks had never informed anyone at WWE of his staph infection .
= = In wrestling = =
World Wrestling Entertainment / WWE
Finishing moves
Anaconda vise
GTS – Go to Sleep ( Fireman 's carry dropped into a knee lift )
Signature moves
Arm trap elbow strikes
Arm trap swinging neckbreaker
Arm wrench followed by stepping a leg over the wrenched arm and performing a mule kick with the leg below the opponent 's face
Belly @-@ to @-@ back suplex , sometimes from the top rope
DDT
Diving crossbody
Diving elbow drop – adopted from and used in tribute to Randy Savage
Double underhook powerbomb
German suplex
Hangman 's neckbreaker to one opponent while simultaneously DDTing another opponent
Hurricanrana
Koji Clutch
Mongolian chop
Multiple kick variations
Calf
Leg lariat
Muay Thai
Roundhouse
Soccerball
Spinning back
Step @-@ up enzuigiri
Pepsi Twist ( Hammerlock twisted into a short @-@ range lariat )
Rope hung arm trap can opener
Shining wizard
Sitout suplex slam
Slingshot somersault senton
Springboard clothesline
Step @-@ up high knee to a cornered opponent followed by a bulldog or a short @-@ arm clothesline
Suicide dive
Super frankensteiner
Swinging neckbreaker
Tiger suplex , sometimes from the second turnbuckle
Tilt @-@ a @-@ whirl backbreaker
Two slaps to the opponent 's face , followed by a spinning back kick to the gut , and then a roundhouse kick to finish the combination
Welcome to Chicago ... ( Double underhook backbreaker )
Ring of Honor / Independent circuit
Finishing moves
Anaconda vise or an arm triangle choke
Pepsi Plunge ( Diving double underhook facebuster )
Shining wizard
Signature moves
Arm wrench followed by stepping a leg over the wrenched arm and performing a mule kick with the leg below the opponent 's face
Corkscrew dive transitioned into a diving neckbreaker
Crooked Moonsault ( Split @-@ legged moonsault )
Delayed vertical suplex
Devil Lock DDT ( Hammerlock legsweep DDT )
Facewash
Inverted facelock backbreaker
Inverted frankensteiner
Jackie Chan ( While sitting in a corner , grasps the top rope with one hand on each side of the turnbuckle and when the opponent attempts to pull him off the ropes by his legs , he performs a back tuck , landing on his feet )
Pepsi Twist ( Jumping hammerlock twisted into a short @-@ range lariat )
Punk @-@ Handle Piledriver ( Pumphandle reverse piledriver )
Rolling fireman 's carry slam
Slingshot somersault senton
Springboard corkscrew crossbody
Suicide dive
Welcome to Chicago , Motherfucker ( Double underhook backbreaker )
Managers
Milo Beasley
Traci Brooks
Bobby Heenan
Paul Heyman
Serena
Luke Gallows
Alexis Laree / Vicki Adams
Lucy
Joshua Masters
James Mitchell
Dave Prazak
Wrestlers managed
The Straight Edge Society ( Serena , Luke Gallows , and Joseph Mercury )
The New Nexus ( David Otunga , Husky Harris , Michael McGillicutty , and Mason Ryan )
Nicknames
" The Best in the World "
" Mr. Money in the Bank "
" Paul Heyman Guy "
" The only straight edge World Heavyweight Champion in history "
" The Second City Saint / Savior "
" The Straight Edge Savior / Superstar "
" The Voice of the Voiceless "
Entrance themes
Independent circuit
" South of Heaven " by Slayer
" A Call for Blood " by Hatebreed
Ring of Honor
" Miseria Cantare ( The Beginning ) " by AFI
" Cult of Personality " by Living Colour
" Night Train " by The Bouncing Souls
" ¡ Olé ! " by The Bouncing Souls
World Wrestling Entertainment / WWE
" This Fire Burns " by Killswitch Engage ( August 1 , 2006 – July 17 , 2011 )
" Cult of Personality " by Living Colour ( July 25 , 2011 – January 26 , 2014 )
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
Independent Wrestling Association Mid @-@ South
IWA Mid @-@ South Heavyweight Championship ( 5 times )
IWA Mid @-@ South Light Heavyweight Championship ( 2 times )
International Wrestling Cartel
IWC World Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
Mid @-@ American Wrestling
MAW Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
NWA Cyberspace
NWA Cyberspace Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Julio Dinero
NWA Revolution
NWA Revolution Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
Ohio Valley Wrestling
OVW Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
OVW Southern Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Seth Skyfire
OVW Television Championship ( 1 time )
Second OVW Triple Crown Champion
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
Feud of the Year ( 2011 ) vs. John Cena
Match of the Year ( 2011 ) vs. John Cena at Money in the Bank
Most Popular Wrestler of the Year ( 2011 )
Most Hated Wrestler of the Year ( 2012 )
Wrestler of the Year ( 2011 , 2012 )
Ranked # 1 of the top 500 singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 2012
Revolver
Golden Gods Award for Most Metal Athlete ( 2012 )
Ring of Honor
ROH World Championship ( 1 time )
ROH Tag Team Championship ( 2 times ) – with Colt Cabana
St. Paul Championship Wrestling
SPCW Northern States Light Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
SDW Northern States Television Championship ( 2 times )
World Wrestling Entertainment / WWE
ECW Championship ( 1 time )
World Heavyweight Championship ( 3 times )
World Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Kofi Kingston
WWE Championship ( 2 times )
Intercontinental Championship # 1 contenders Tournament ( 2008 )
WWE Intercontinental Championship ( 1 time )
Money in the Bank ( 2008 , 2009 )
Nineteenth Triple Crown Champion
Slammy Award ( 7 times )
" OMG " Moment of the Year ( 2008 ) – Cashing in Money in the Bank to win the World Heavyweight Championship
Shocker of the Year ( 2009 ) – Forcing Jeff Hardy out of the WWE after steel cage match victory
Despicable Me ( 2010 ) – Harassing Rey Mysterio and his family
Superstar of the Year ( 2011 )
" Pipe Bomb " of the Year ( 2011 )
T @-@ shirt of the Year ( 2011 ) – " Best in the World "
Extreme Moment of the Year ( 2013 ) – For exacting revenge on Paul Heyman at Hell in a Cell
Wrestling Observer Newsletter
5 Star Match ( 2004 ) vs. Samoa Joe at ROH Joe vs. Punk II on October 16
5 Star Match ( 2011 ) vs. John Cena at Money in the Bank
Best Gimmick ( 2009 , 2011 )
Best on Interviews ( 2011 , 2012 )
Feud of the Year ( 2009 ) vs. Jeff Hardy
Feud of the Year ( 2011 ) vs. John Cena
Match of the Year ( 2011 ) vs. John Cena at Money in the Bank
= = = Luchas de Apuestas record = = =
= Bergen Aviation =
A / S Bergen Aviation was a Norwegian airline that never operated any flights . Based in Bergen and established in 1984 , it signed an agreement to fly charter flights with Vestlandsreiser in 1986 . It had also made an unsuccessful attempt to receive concession to operate domestic scheduled flights between Oslo Airport , Fornebu and Bergen Airport , Flesland . The airline bought a Sud Aviation Caravelle , but never received permission to operate . The company 's largest owners were Vesta and Vestlandsreiser .
= = History = =
Bergen Aviation was established in 1984 . Fifty percent of Bergen Aviation was owned by the insurance company Vesta , twenty percent was owned by Vestlandreiser , and the rest was owned by various companies based in Bergen . The airline 's first contract was with charter tour operator Vestlandsreiser , which was scheduled to begin on 1 May 198 | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
valued less . Many plates were a mixture of both . Several scholars have suggested that mezzotint and aquatint were also used . Lennox @-@ Boyd , however , claims that " close examination of the plates confirms " that these two methods were not used and argues that they were " totally unsuitable " : mezzotint wore quickly and aquatint was too new ( there would not have been enough artists capable of executing it ) . Most of Boydell 's engravers were also trained artists ; for example , Bartolozzi was renowned for his stippling technique .
Boydell 's relationships with his illustrators were generally congenial . One of them , James Northcote , praised Boydell 's liberal payments . He wrote in an 1821 letter that Boydell " did more for the advancement of the arts in England than the whole mass of the nobility put together ! He paid me more nobly than any other person has done ; and his memory I shall ever hold in reverence " . Boydell typically paid the painters between £ 105 to £ 210 , and the engravers between £ 262 and £ 315 . Joshua Reynolds at first declined Boydell 's offer to work on the project , but he agreed when pressed . Boydell offered Reynolds carte blanche for his paintings , giving him a down payment of £ 500 , an extraordinary amount for an artist who had not even agreed to do a specific work . Boydell eventually paid him a total of £ 1 @,@ 500 .
There are 96 illustrations in the nine volumes of the illustrated edition and each play has at least one . Approximately two @-@ thirds of the plays , 23 out of 36 , are each illustrated by a single artist . Approximately two @-@ thirds of the total number of illustrations , or 65 , were completed by three artists : William Hamilton , Richard Westall , and Robert Smirke . The primary illustrators of the edition were known as book illustrators , whereas a majority of the artists included in the folio were known for their paintings . Lennox @-@ Boyd argues that the illustrations in the edition have a " uniformity and cohesiveness " that the folio lacks because the artists and engravers working on them understood book illustration while those working on the folio were working in an unfamiliar medium .
The print folio , A Collection of Prints , From Pictures Painted for the Purpose of Illustrating the Dramatic Works of Shakspeare , by the Artists of Great @-@ Britain ( 1805 ) , was originally intended to be a collection of the illustrations from the edition , but a few years into the project , Boydell altered his plan . He guessed that he could sell more folios and editions if the pictures were different . Of the 97 prints made from paintings , two @-@ thirds of them were made by ten of the artists . Three artists account for one @-@ third of the paintings . In all , 31 artists contributed works .
= = Gallery building = =
In June 1788 , Boydell and his nephew secured the lease on a site at 52 Pall Mall ( 51 ° 30 ′ 20 @.@ 5 ″ N 0 ° 8 ′ 12 ″ W ) to build the gallery and engaged George Dance , then the Clerk of the City Works , as the architect for the project . Pall Mall at that time had a mix of expensive residences and commercial operations , such as bookshops and gentleman 's clubs , popular with fashionable London society . The area also contained some less genteel establishments : King 's Place ( now Pall Mall Place ) , an alley running to the east and behind Boydell 's gallery , was the site of Charlotte Hayes 's high @-@ class brothel . Across King 's Place , immediately to the east of Boydell 's building , 51 Pall Mall had been purchased on 26 February 1787 by George Nicol , bookseller and future husband of Josiah 's elder sister , Mary Boydell . As an indication of the changing character of the area , this property had been the home of Goostree 's gentleman 's club from 1773 to 1787 . Begun as a gambling establishment for wealthy young men , it had later become a reformist political club that counted William Pitt and William Wilberforce as members .
Dance 's Shakespeare Gallery building had a monumental , neoclassical stone front , and a full @-@ length exhibition hall on the ground floor . Three interconnecting exhibition rooms occupied the upper floor , with a total of more than 4 @,@ 000 square feet ( 370 m2 ) of wall space for displaying pictures . The two @-@ storey façade was not especially large for the street , but its solid classicism had an imposing effect . Some reports describe the exterior as " sheathed in copper " .
The lower storey of the façade was dominated by a large , rounded @-@ arched doorway in the centre . The unmoulded arch rested on wide piers , each broken by a narrow window , above which ran a simple cornice . Dance placed a transom across the doorway at the level of the cornice bearing the inscription " Shakespeare Gallery " . Below the transom were the main entry doors , with glazed panels and side lights matching the flanking windows . A radial fanlight filled the lunette above the transom . In each of the spandrels to the left and right of the arch , Dance set a carving of a lyre inside a ribboned wreath . Above all this ran a panelled band course dividing the lower storey from the upper .
The upper façade contained paired pilasters on either side , and a thick entablature and triangular pediment . The architect Sir John Soane criticised Dance 's combination of slender pilasters and a heavy entablature as a " strange and extravagant absurdity " . The capitals topping the pilasters sported volutes in the shape of ammonite fossils . Dance invented this neo @-@ classical feature , which became known as the Ammonite Order , specifically for the gallery . In a recess between the pilasters , Dance placed Thomas Banks 's sculpture Shakespeare attended by Painting and Poetry , for which the artist was paid 500 guineas . The sculpture depicted Shakespeare , reclining against a rock , between the Dramatic Muse and the Genius of Painting . Beneath it was a panelled pedestal inscribed with a quotation from Hamlet : " He was a Man , take him for all in all , I shall not look upon his like again " .
= = Reaction = =
The Shakespeare Gallery , when it opened on 4 May 1789 , contained 34 paintings , and by the end of its run it had between 167 and 170 . ( The exact inventory is uncertain and most of the paintings have disappeared ; only around 40 paintings can be identified with any certainty . ) According to Frederick Burwick , during its sixteen @-@ year operation , the Gallery reflected the transition from Neoclassicism to Romanticism . Works by artists such as James Northcote represent the conservative , neoclassical elements of the gallery , while those of Henry Fuseli represent the newly emerging Romantic movement . William Hazlitt praised Northcote in an essay entitled " On the Old Age of Artists " , writing " I conceive any person would be more struck with Mr. Fuseli at first sight , but would wish to visit Mr. Northcote oftener . "
The gallery itself was a fashionable hit with the public . Newspapers carried updates of the construction of the gallery , down to drawings for the proposed façade . The Daily Advertiser featured a weekly column on the gallery from May through August ( exhibition season ) . Artists who had influence with the press , and Boydell himself , published anonymous articles to heighten interest in the gallery , which they hoped would increase sales of the edition .
At the beginning of the enterprise , reactions were generally positive . The Public Advertiser wrote on 6 May 1789 : " the pictures in general give a mirror of the poet ... [ The Shakespeare Gallery ] bids fair to form such an epoch in the History of the Fine Arts , as will establish and confirm the superiority of the English School " . The Times wrote a day later :
This establishment may be considered with great truth , as the first stone of an English School of Painting ; and it is peculiarly honourable to a great commercial country , that it is indebted for such a distinguished circumstance to a commercial character — such an institution — will place , in the Calendar of Arts , the name of Boydell in the same rank with the Medici of Italy .
Fuseli himself may have written the review in the Analytical Review , which praised the general plan of the gallery while at the same time hesitating : " such a variety of subjects , it may be supposed , must exhibit a variety of powers ; all cannot be the first ; while some must soar , others must skim the meadow , and others content themselves to walk with dignity " . However , according to Frederick Burwick , critics in Germany " responded to the Shakespeare Gallery with far more thorough and meticulous attention than did the critics in England " .
Criticism increased as the project dragged on : the first volume did not appear until 1791 . James Gillray published a cartoon labelled " Boydell sacrificing the Works of Shakespeare to the Devil of Money @-@ Bags " . The essayist and soon @-@ to @-@ be co @-@ author of the children 's book Tales from Shakespeare ( 1807 ) Charles Lamb criticised the venture from the outset :
What injury did not Boydell 's Shakespeare Gallery do me with Shakespeare . To have Opie 's Shakespeare , Northcote 's Shakespeare , light headed Fuseli 's Shakespeare , wooden @-@ headed West 's Shakespeare , deaf @-@ headed Reynolds ' Shakespeare , instead of my and everybody 's Shakespeare . To be tied down to an authentic face of Juliet ! To have Imogen 's portrait ! To confine the illimitable !
Northcote , while appreciating Boydell 's largesse , also criticised the results of the project : " With the exception of a few pictures by Joshua [ Reynolds ] and [ John ] Opie , and — I hope I may add — myself , it was such a collection of slip @-@ slop imbecility as was dreadful to look at , and turned out , as I had expected it would , in the ruin of poor Boydell 's affairs " .
= = Collapse = =
By 1796 , subscriptions to the edition had dropped by two @-@ thirds . The painter and diarist Joseph Farington recorded that this was a result of the poor engravings :
West said He looked over the Shakespeare prints and was sorry to see them of such inferior quality . He said that excepting that from His Lear by Sharpe , that from Northcote 's children in the Tower , and some small ones , there were few that could be approved . Such a mixture of dotting and engraving , and such a general deficiency in respect of drawing which He observed the Engravers seemed to know little of , that the volumes presented a mass of works which He did not wonder many subscribers had declined to continue their subscription .
The mix of engraving styles was criticised ; line engraving was considered the superior form and artists and subscribers disliked the mixture of lesser forms with it . Moreover , Boydell 's engravers fell behind schedule , delaying the entire project . He was forced to engage lesser artists , such as Hamilton and Smirke , at a lower price to finish the volumes as his business started to fail . Modern art historians have generally concurred that the quality of the engravings , particularly in the folio , was poor . Moreover , the use of so many different artists and engravers led to a lack of stylistic cohesion .
Although the Boydells ended with 1 @,@ 384 subscriptions , the rate of subscriptions dropped , and remaining subscriptions were also increasingly in doubt . Like many businesses at the time , the Boydell firm kept few records . Only the customers knew what they had purchased . This caused numerous difficulties with debtors who claimed they had never subscribed or had subscribed for less . Many subscribers also defaulted , and Josiah Boydell spent years after John 's death attempting to force them to pay .
The Boydells focused all their attention on the Shakespeare edition and other large projects , such as The History of the River Thames and The Complete Works of John Milton , rather than on lesser , more profitable ventures . When both the Shakespeare enterprise and the Thames book failed , the firm had no capital to fall back upon . Beginning in 1789 , with the onset of the French revolution , John Boydell 's export business to Europe was cut off . By the late 1790s and early 19th century , the two @-@ thirds of his business that depended upon the export trade was in serious financial difficulty .
In 1804 , John Boydell decided to appeal to Parliament for a private bill to authorise a lottery to dispose of everything in his business . The bill received royal assent on 23 March , and by November the Boydells were ready to sell tickets . John Boydell died before the lottery was drawn on 28 January 1805 , but lived long enough to see each of the 22 @,@ 000 tickets purchased at three guineas apiece ( £ 250 each in modern terms ) . To encourage ticket sales and reduce unsold inventory , every purchaser was guaranteed to receive a print worth one guinea from the Boydell company 's stock . There were 64 winning tickets for major prizes , the highest being the Gallery itself and its collection of paintings . This went to William Tassie , a gem engraver and cameo modeller , of Leicester Fields ( now Leicester Square ) . Josiah offered to buy the gallery and its paintings back from Tassie for £ 10 @,@ 000 ( worth about £ 730 @,@ 000 now ) , but Tassie refused and auctioned the paintings at Christie 's . The painting collection and two reliefs by Anne Damer fetched a total of £ 6 @,@ 181 18s . 6d . The Banks sculpture group from the façade was initially intended to be kept as a monument for Boydell 's tomb . Instead , it remained part of the façade of the building in its new guise as the British Institution until the building was torn down in 1868 – 69 . The Banks sculpture was then moved to Stratford @-@ upon @-@ Avon and re @-@ erected in New Place Garden between June and November 1870 . The lottery saved Josiah from bankruptcy and earned him £ 45 @,@ 000 , enabling him to begin business again as a printer .
= = Legacy = =
From the outset , Boydell 's project inspired imitators . In April 1788 , after the announcement of the Shakespeare Gallery , but a year before its opening , Thomas Macklin opened a Gallery of the Poets in the former Royal Academy building on the south side of Pall Mall . The first exhibition featured one work from each of 19 artists , including Fuseli , Reynolds , and Thomas Gainsborough . The gallery added new paintings of subjects from poetry each year , and from 1790 supplemented these with scenes from the Bible . The Gallery of the Poets closed in 1797 , and its contents were offered by lottery . This did not deter Henry Fuseli from opening a Milton Gallery in the same building in 1799 . Another such venture was the Historic Gallery opened by Robert Bowyer in Schomberg House at 87 Pall Mall in about 1793 . The gallery accumulated 60 paintings ( many by the same artists who worked for Boydell ) commissioned to illustrate a new edition of David Hume 's The History of Great Britain . Ultimately , Bowyer had to seek parliamentary approval for a sale by lottery in 1805 , and the other ventures , like Boydell 's , also ended in financial failure .
The building in Pall Mall was purchased in 1805 by the British Institution , a private club of connoisseurs founded that year to hold exhibitions . It remained an important part of the London art scene until disbanded in 1867 , typically holding a Spring exhibition of new works for sale from the start of February to the first week of May , and a loan exhibition of old masters , generally not for sale , from the first week of June to the end of August .
The paintings and engravings that were part of the Boydell Gallery affected the way Shakespeare 's plays were staged , acted , and illustrated in the 19th century . They also became the subject of criticism in important works such as Romantic poet and essayist Samuel Taylor Coleridge 's " Lectures on Shakespeare " and William Hazlitt 's dramatic criticism . Despite Charles Lamb 's criticism of the Gallery 's productions , Charles and Mary Lamb 's children 's book , Tales from Shakespeare ( 1807 ) , was illustrated using plates from the project .
The Boydell enterprise 's most enduring legacy was the folio . It was reissued throughout the 19th century , and in 1867 , " by the aid of photography the whole series , excepting the portraits of their Majesties George III. and Queen Charlotte , is now presented in a handy form , suitable for ordinary libraries or the drawing @-@ room table , and offered as an appropriate memorial of the tercentenary celebration of the poet 's birth " . Scholars have described Boydell 's folio as a precursor to the modern coffee table book .
= = = Sculptures = = =
Shakespeare attended by Painting and Poetry by Thomas Banks ( on façade of gallery building )
Present location : New Place Gardens , Stratford @-@ upon @-@ Avon
Coriolanus by Anne Seymour Damer ( bas relief )
Antony and Cleopatra by Anne Seymour Damer ( bas relief )
= = = Paintings = = =
The Paintings list is derived from the numbered catalogue The exhibition of the Shakspeare gallery , Pall @-@ Mall : being the last time the pictures can ever be seen as an entire collection ( London : W. Bulmer & Co . , 1805 ) , The Boydell Shakespeare Gallery edited by Walter Pape and Frederick Burwick ( Bottrop : Peter Pomp , 1996 ) , and " What Jane Saw " .
= = = Folio engravings = = =
= = = Illustrated edition = = =
= Clyde Bruckman 's Final Repose =
" Clyde Bruckman 's Final Repose " is the fourth episode of the third season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . Directed by David Nutter and written by Darin Morgan , the installment serves as a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story — a stand @-@ alone plot unconnected to the overarching mythology of The X @-@ Files . Originally aired by the Fox network on October 13 , 1995 , " Clyde Bruckman 's Final Repose " received a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 2 and was seen by 15 @.@ 38 million viewers . The episode received critical acclaim , and several writers named it among the best in the series . The episode won both an Emmy for Outstanding Writing in a Drama Series as well as an Emmy for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the abnormal ; the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work , but the two have developed a deep friendship . In this episode , Mulder and Scully investigate a series of murders of psychics and fortune tellers . The two are assisted by Clyde Bruckman ( Peter Boyle ) , an enigmatic and reluctant individual who possesses the ability to foresee how people are going to die .
Morgan wished to write an episode of The X @-@ Files wherein one of the characters commits suicide at the end . Although Morgan was initially afraid to add humor to his script , he created a compromise by making the episode as dark as possible . Several of the characters ' names are references to silent film @-@ era actors and screenwriters . Notably , the episode features a prediction by Bruckman — that Agent Scully will not die — that is later bookended by the sixth season episode " Tithonus . "
= = Plot = =
St. Paul , Minnesota : In a store , Clyde Bruckman ( Peter Boyle ) , a life insurance salesman , purchases a paper and a lottery ticket and leaves . In the street , he almost bumps into an inconspicuous man ( Stuart Charno ) , who heads to a gypsy palm reader named Madame Zelma ( Karin Konoval ) . After seeking his fortune , the inconspicuous man attacks and kills her . A few days later , the eyes and entrails of a tea leaf reader , who was also a doll collector , have been found in her apartment , her body being missing . FBI agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) arrive at the scene of that murder to help the local cops , who have recruited the help of a psychic , the eccentric Stupendous Yappi ( Jaap Broeker ) . Although the psychic delivers extremely vague clues , the cops are thoroughly impressed ; both Scully and Mulder , however , are not , especially after Yappi diagnoses that it is Mulder — not Scully — who is a skeptic .
Meanwhile , after Bruckman takes the trash out for his neighbor , he discovers the body of Madame Zelma outside in his dumpster . When interviewed by Mulder and Scully , he reveals details about the crime that he could not have known from the media accounts , which causes Mulder to believe that Bruckman has psychic ability . Mulder insists that Bruckman join them in a visit to the crime scene at the doll collector 's apartment . Thanks to seemingly psychically gained information from Bruckman , her body is soon found in a nearby lake .
At the police station , Mulder tests Bruckman 's ability by having him handle various objects to see what they " tell " him . It becomes apparent that Bruckman 's only real psychic talent is an ability to see details of people 's deaths . Scully arrives with a key chain bearing the insignia of an investment company that uses astrology to make financial predictions , taken from the doll collector 's body - the same key chain was found on two of the other dead fortunetellers . Bruckman knows that the firm is owned by one Claude Dukenfield , not through a psychic revelation but because he coincidentally sold the man an insurance policy recently . He says that Mulder and Scully will not be able to talk to Dukenfield though , because he has been murdered .
Mulder and Scully drive Bruckman to a wooded spot where Bruckman has said they will find Dukenfield 's body . As they tromp through the woods , Bruckman explains how he gained his ability following the death of Buddy Holly and The Big Bopper in a plane crash . Bruckman cannot pinpoint the exact spot where the body is , however , so they return to the parked car , where they see a lifeless hand sticking out of the wet mud underneath . Traces of silk fibers are subsequently found on Dukenfield similar to fibers found on previous victims - they are later analyzed and found to be from lace .
At his home Bruckman has gotten a note from the killer saying he is going to die when they first meet , and telling him to say " hi " to the FBI agents . The killer apparently also has some psychic ability - the postmark is dated before Bruckman joined the murder investigation . Bruckman describes Mulder 's death as the killer sees it : getting his throat slit by the killer after stepping in a pie in a kitchen . However Bruckman tells Mulder he 's not able to see what happens afterwards . Meanwhile , the inconspicuous man consults a tarot card reader , who says that the killer seeks answers from " a man with special wisdom " and that his confusion will soon abruptly end " with the arrival of a woman - a blonde or a brunette , possibly a redhead . " When there is just one card left unturned , the killer says that it is not meant for him but for the reader , and turns it over to reveal the " death " card .
Since the killer knows Bruckman 's home address , the agents bring him to a hotel where they take turns guarding him . While Scully does not believe in Bruckman 's power , the two develop a fast friendship . Bruckman asks Scully why she is not interested in knowing how she will die . Scully finally breaks down and asks him to tell her , to which Bruckman , joyfully , but cryptically , replies , " You don 't . " Bruckman later tells Scully that they will end up in bed together , in a very special moment neither of them will forget . This reinforces her skepticism .
A detective named Havez ( Dwight McFee ) takes over as Bruckman 's guard when Mulder and Scully are called to investigate yet another new murder victim : the tarot card reader . As they leave they bump into a bellhop who is delivering food to Bruckman 's room . The bellhop is actually the killer , and when he enters the room ( while Havez is in the washroom ) , he is delighted to discover that Bruckman has been brought right to where he works . As he is about to kill Bruckman , Havez re @-@ enters and the killer attacks and kills him instead . Meanwhile , Scully finds the same silk fiber at the new crime scene , and realizing that the bellhop had it on his tray , deduces that he is the murderer . They rush back to the hotel . Mulder chases the killer to the basement kitchen and the scene plays out as described in Bruckman 's earlier premonition , but when the killer attacks Mulder , Scully arrives in the nick of time and shoots him — what Bruckman had seen was the dying killer 's last thoughts , not Mulder 's death .
Unable to find Bruckman in the hotel , Mulder and Scully return to Bruckman 's apartment to find that Bruckman has committed suicide ; Scully sees a plastic bag has been tied around his head , and that he is clutching a bottle of pills in his hand . Scully sits on Bruckman 's bed holding his hand , deeply moved , just as he had predicted . That night Scully sees a commercial for the Stupendous Yappi on TV , causing her to throw her phone at it .
= = Production = =
= = = Conception and writing = = =
This episode was the second of four episodes written for the series by Darin Morgan . Morgan had previously written the second season episode " Humbug " , which was more overtly humorous than any other episode of the series . Morgan , who felt he had scripted the episode the " wrong " way , sought to return to " what the show is really about " in his next episode . For inspiration , Morgan watched the first season episode " Beyond the Sea " , which features a questionable psychic ; after viewing it multiple times , he expressed a desire to write an episode with a similar feel . After the scripting of " Humbug " , Morgan claims that he entered into a state of depression . Using this period of his life as inspiration , he decided to write a plot about a character who committed suicide at the end of the episode . Another reason for this stylistic choice was because Morgan feared putting too much comedy into the episode , like his previous effort " Humbug " . As such , he purposely tried to make it as serious and dark as possible , only to end up adding more jokes by the time the final draft was completed .
The episode 's concern with the nature of free will and determinism grew out of Morgan 's difficulties with plotting and constructing plot @-@ twists ; he explained that Bruckman and the killer interact in ways " that were really easy to plot , but which makes the story seem complicated . " While writing the character 's lines , Morgan realized that Mulder , were he to interact with a " normal person " , would come off as sounding insane when in fact he is supposed to be a smart person . As such , Morgan decided to " shake up Mulder 's image " to make him look slightly ridiculous ; in the episode , Mulder views Bruckman " only as a phenomenon " and not as a person . To counter this , Morgan wrote Scully to see Bruckman , not as a psychic , but as a human .
Bruckman 's cryptic prediction that Scully would not die " sent fans into a frenzy " due to its implications . Morgan explained that the line merely was a reference to Bruckman knowing how Scully would die , but liking her too much to divulge the information . However , many interpreted the warning to mean that Scully could not actually die and was , in essence , immortal . This interpretation , popular with fans on the internet , was verified by Frank Spotnitz . However , Spotnitz later admitted that this sub @-@ plot was bookended by the sixth season episode " Tithonus , " which showed Scully starting to die , only to have her come back , fulfilling Bruckman 's prophecy . Spotnitz later called this ending " very satisfying . " Series creator Chris Carter , however , stated in a 2014 reddit AMA that Scully is in fact , immortal .
The joke in the episode about Fox Mulder 's predicted death being by autoerotic asphyxiation was inspired by previous jokes in the series about Mulder 's interest in pornography . It was also inspired by a book Morgan had read on homicide investigations . While Morgan noted that he hypothesized that might be a way that Mulder would die , the line was meant as a joke . Many of the names used in the episode are homages to the silent film era . The name " Clyde Bruckman " refers to an actual screenwriter and director of silent comedies of the same name who committed suicide . The names of characters Detective Havez and Detective Cline are also references to a writer and director from that era : Jean Havez and Eddie Cline , respectively . One of the victims , Claude Dukenfield , is a reference to the real name of W.C. Fields . The name of the hotel in this episode , " Le Damfino " is a reference to a boat used by Buster Keaton in the movie The Boat .
= = = Casting and filming = = =
The role of the title character Clyde Bruckman — who was based on Morgan 's " depressive " father — was originally written with Bob Newhart in mind , but Peter Boyle later won the part . Although Chris Carter preferred to not cast well @-@ known actors , he felt that Boyle was such a gifted character actor that he ignored his usual prejudice for this episode . The character of the Stupendous Yappi was specifically written for Jaap Broeker , David Duchovny 's stand @-@ in . Morgan described the character as a cross between Uri Geller and the Amazing Kreskin . The character later appeared again in the episode " Jose Chung 's From Outer Space " . Stuart Charno — credited as Stu Charno in the episode — played the part of the killer in this episode ; he is the husband of Sara Charno , a former writer on the show who wrote the second season episode " Aubrey " .
" Clyde Bruckman 's Final Repose " was filmed in British Columbia , as were the rest of the third season episodes . Visual effects producer Mat Beck and Toby Lindala created the elaborate dream sequence where Bruckman 's body decomposes . The two used a skeleton rib cage made of copper wire along with fake skin that melted into gelatin when the wires were heated . Eight different stages were used for the effect — starting with Boyle in makeup , progressing to the dummy , and eventually a computer generated skeleton — which were morphed together . Morgan explained that , because Nutter and fellow director Kim Manners were under time constraints , Morgan was allowed to function almost " as a producer of [ the ] episode . " After filming for the entry ceased , he was allowed to personally work with the series ' editor . The episode 's original cut was 10 minutes too long , resulting in multiple scenes with Bruckman and Scully being removed from the episode .
= = Reception = =
" Clyde Bruckman 's Final Repose " originally aired on the Fox network on October 13 , 1995 . The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 2 , with an 18 share , meaning that roughly 10 @.@ 2 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 18 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . The episode was watched by 15 @.@ 38 million viewers . The success of the episode led to it earning two Primetime Emmy Awards — writer Darin Morgan won the Emmy for Outstanding Writing in a Drama Series , while Peter Boyle won the Emmy for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series .
" Clyde Bruckman 's Final Repose " has been critically lauded . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , gave the episode a full five stars and called it " a little slice of genius " . The two applauded the episode 's rich humor , as well as its exploration of extremely dark themes in a lighthearted way . Shearman and Pearson concluded that " the troubled questions Morgan poses here " about free will and death " are best answered by the writing of the episode itself … an episode like this isn 't random — it 's finely wrought , and thoughtful , and compassionate , and is a triumph of individualism . " Author Phil Farrand rated the episode as his third favorite episode of the first four seasons in his book The Nitpickers Guide to the X @-@ Files . Both Paul Cornell and Keith Topping , in the book Extreme Possibilities applauded the episode ; Cornell called it " an extraordinary piece of work " and altogether gorgeous " , whereas Topping labelled it a " little gem " . Conversely , Martin Day , in the same book , wrote a negative review , calling it " duller than a dull thing with dull knobs " , despite noting that it was " clever and well @-@ acted " .
Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode four stars out of four and called it " one of those rare episodes where everything comes together — funny , bizarre , absurd , ironies , and sad . " She applauded Boyle 's acting , noting that he " gives a performance that simply takes over the TV screen " , and argued that " only actors as strong as Duchovny and Anderson , with their blissfully deadpan delivery , could withstand such a titanic presence , but withstand it they do . " Entertainment Weekly gave the episode a rare " A + " , writing , " Boyle gets lots of help from another superlative , laugh @-@ a @-@ minute script [ which ] nicely captures one of the overarching themes of the show : fate and man 's isolation . " Reviewer Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club gave the episode an " A " and wrote positively of the ending , writing that , " for an episode that ends with a likable character killing himself , ' Bruckman ' isn 't what I 'd call a downer . " He called the entry his " favorite episode of The X @-@ Files because it 's funny , suspenseful , does well by Scully and Mulder , and creates some indelible characters . "
Since its original airing , critics have listed " Clyde Bruckman 's Final Repose " among the best X @-@ Files episodes . TV Guide called it the tenth greatest episode in television history . Review website IGN named it the best standalone X @-@ Files episode of the entire series , writing that the episode " is a distinctive episode of the series , mixing a healthy amount of humor [ ... ] with some very nasty business [ ... ] In just 44 minutes , Boyle creates a fully formed character who makes a big impact in his one and only appearance . " Topless Robot named it the ninth @-@ funniest episode of the series . Starpulse listed it as the third @-@ best X @-@ Files episode . Charlie Jane Anders and Javier Grillo @-@ Marxuach of io9 included it on the list of " 10 TV Episodes that Changed Television " . Tom Kessenich , in Examination : An Unauthorized Look at Seasons 6 – 9 of the X @-@ Files , named the episode the seventh @-@ best installment of the series , noting that it features " a wonderful blend of humor , drama , and pathos , something The X @-@ Files did better than just about any other show this past decade . " The cast and crew of the series have expressed their enjoyment of the installment . Duchovny considers " Clyde Bruckman 's Final Repose " to be one of his favorite episodes of the third season . Nutter highlighted it as one of the most enjoyable entries that he had worked on . He also noted that , " the writing was so tight and so crisp and so fresh that I think , as a director , the only thing you have to do is create the atmosphere , set up the characters , set up the shots and you are basically invisible . Then you step back and just let it happen . " Series writer and producer Frank Spotnitz stated that the episode worked on many levels and that it is his favorite of the episodes written for the show by Morgan . In 2016 , Ira Madison of Vulture.com named it the best episode of the series and " one of the best episodes of television ever " , stating that the episode " takes every element that made the series so iconic and throws them all into one heartbreaking installment " .
= Ficus aurea =
Ficus aurea , commonly known as the Florida strangler fig ( or simply strangler fig ) , golden fig , or higuerón , is a tree in the family Moraceae that is native to the U.S. state of Florida , the northern and western Caribbean , southern Mexico and Central America south to Panama . The specific epithet aurea was applied by English botanist Thomas Nuttall who described the species in 1846 .
Ficus aurea is a strangler fig . In figs of this group , seed germination usually takes place in the canopy of a host tree with the seedling living as an epiphyte until its roots establish contact with the ground . After that , it enlarges and strangles its host , eventually becoming a free @-@ standing tree in its own right . Individuals may reach 30 m ( 100 ft ) in height . Like all figs , it has an obligate mutualism with fig wasps : figs are only pollinated by fig wasps , and fig wasps can only reproduce in fig flowers . The tree provides habitat , food and shelter for a host of tropical lifeforms including epiphytes in cloud forests and birds , mammals , reptiles and invertebrates . F. aurea is used in traditional medicine , for live fencing , as an ornamental and as a bonsai .
= = Description = =
Ficus aurea is a tree which may reach heights of 30 m ( 98 ft ) . It is monoecious : each tree bears functional male and female flowers . The size and shape of the leaves is variable . Some plants have leaves that are usually less than 10 cm ( 4 in ) long while others have leaves that are larger . The shape of the leaves and of the leaf base also varies — some plants have leaves that are oblong or elliptic with a wedge @-@ shaped to rounded base , while others have heart @-@ shaped or ovate leaves with cordate to rounded bases . F. aurea has paired figs which are green when unripe , turning yellow as they ripen . They differ in size ( 0 @.@ 6 – 0 @.@ 8 cm [ 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 3 in ] , about 1 cm [ 0 @.@ 4 in ] , or 1 @.@ 0 – 1 @.@ 2 cm [ 0 @.@ 4 – 0 @.@ 5 in ] in diameter ) ; figs are generally sessile , but in parts of northern Mesoamerica figs are borne on short stalks known as peduncles .
= = Taxonomy = =
With about 750 species , Ficus ( Moraceae ) is one of the largest angiosperm genera ( David Frodin of Chelsea Physic Garden ranked it as the 31st largest genus ) . Ficus aurea is classified in the subgenus Urostigma ( the strangler figs ) and the section Americana . Recent molecular phylogenies have shown that subgenus Urostigma is polyphyletic , but have strongly supported the validity of section Americana as a discrete group ( although its exact relationship to section Galoglychia is unclear ) .
Thomas Nuttall described the species in the second volume of the his 1846 work The North American Sylva with specific epithet aurea ( ' golden ' in Latin ) . In 1768 , Scottish botanist Philip Miller described Ficus maxima , citing Carl Linnaeus ' Hortus Cliffortianus ( 1738 ) and Hans Sloane 's Catalogus plantarum quæ in insula Jamaica ( 1696 ) . Sloane 's illustration of the species , published in 1725 , depicted it with figs borne singly , a characteristic of the Ficus subgenus Pharmacosycea . As a member of the subgenus Urostigma , F. aurea has paired figs . However , a closer examination of Sloane 's description led Cornelis Berg to conclude that the illustration depicted a member of the subgenus Urostigma ( since it had other diagnostic of that subgenus ) , almost certainly F. aurea , and that the illustration of singly borne figs was probably artistic license . Berg located the plant collection upon which Sloane 's illustration was based and concluded that Miller 's F. maxima was , in fact , F. aurea . In his description of F. aurea , which was based on plant material collected in Florida , Thomas Nuttall considered the possibility that his plants belonged to the species that Sloane had described , but came to the conclusion that it was a new species . Under the rules of botanical nomenclature , the name F. maxima has priority over F. aurea since Miller 's description was published in 1768 , while Nuttall 's description was published in 1846 .
In their 1914 Flora of Jamaica , William Fawcett and Alfred Barton Rendle linked Sloane 's illustration to the tree species that was then known as Ficus suffocans , a name that had been assigned to it in August Grisebach 's Flora of the British West Indian Islands . Gordon DeWolf agreed with their conclusion and used the name F. maxima for that species in the 1960 Flora of Panama . Since this use has become widespread , Berg proposed that the name Ficus maxima be conserved in the way DeWolf had used it , a proposal that was accepted by the nomenclatural committee .
Reassigning the name Ficus maxima did not leave F. aurea as the oldest name for this species , as German naturalist Johann Heinrich Friedrich Link had described Ficus ciliolosa in 1822 . Berg concluded that the species Link described was actually F. aurea , and since Link 's description predated Nuttall 's by 24 years , priority should have been given to the name F. ciliolosa . Since the former name was widely used and the name F. ciliolosa had not been , Berg proposed that the name F. aurea be conserved . In response to this , the nomenclatural committee ruled that rather than conserving F. aurea , that it would be better to reject F. ciliolosa . Conserving F. aurea would mean that precedence would be given to that name over all others . By simply rejecting F. ciliolosa , the committee left open the possibility that the name F. aurea could be supplanted by another older name , if one were to be discovered .
= = = Synonyms = = =
In 1920 , American botanist Paul C. Standley described three new species based on collections from Panama and Costa Rica — Ficus tuerckheimii , F. isophlebia and F. jimenezii . DeWolf concluded that they were all the same species , and Berg synonymised them with F. aurea . These names have been used widely for Mexican and Central American populations , and continue to be used by some authors . Berg suspected that Ficus rzedowskiana Carvajal and Cuevas @-@ Figueroa may also belong to this species , but he had not examined the original material upon which this species was based .
Berg considered F. aurea to be a species with at least four morphs . " None of the morphs " , he wrote , " can be related to certain habitats or altitudes . " Thirty years earlier , William Burger had come to a very different conclusion with respect to Ficus tuerckheimii , F. isophlebia and F. jimenezii — he rejected DeWolf 's synonymisation of these three species as based on incomplete evidence . Burger noted that the three taxa occupied different habitats which could be separated in terms of rainfall and elevation .
= = Reproduction and growth = =
Figs have an obligate mutualism with fig wasps , ( Agaonidae ) ; figs are only pollinated by fig wasps , and fig wasps can only reproduce in fig flowers . Generally , each fig species depends on a single species of wasp for pollination . The wasps are similarly dependent on their fig species in order to reproduce . Ficus aurea is pollinated by Pegoscapus mexicanus ( Ashmead ) .
Figs have complicated inflorescences called syconia . Flowers are entirely contained within an enclosed structure . Their only connection with the outside is through a small pore called ostiole . Monoecious figs like F. aurea have both male and female flowers within the syconium . Female flowers mature first . Once mature , they produce a volatile chemical attractant . Female wasps squeeze their way through the ostiole into the interior of the syconium . Inside the syconium , they pollinate the flowers , lay their eggs in some of them , and die . The eggs hatch and the larvae parasitise the flowers in which they were laid . After four to seven weeks ( in F. aurea ) , adult wasps emerge . Males emerge first , mate with the females , and cut exit holes through the walls of the fig . The male flowers mature around the same time as the female wasps emerge . The newly emerged female wasps actively pack their bodies with pollen from the male flowers before leaving through the exit holes the males have cut and fly off to find a syconium in which to lay their eggs . Over the next one to five days , figs ripen . The ripe figs are eaten by various mammals and birds which disperse the seeds .
= = = Phenology = = =
Figs flower and fruit asynchronously . Flowering and fruiting is staggered throughout the population . This fact is important for fig wasps — female wasps need to find a syconium in which to lay their eggs within a few days of emergence , something that would not be possible if all the trees in a population flowered and fruited at the same time . This also makes figs important food resources for frugivores ( animals that feed nearly exclusively on fruit ) ; figs are one of the few fruit available at times of the year when fruit are scarce .
Although figs flower asynchronously as a population , in most species flowering is synchronised within an individual . Newly emerged female wasps must move away from their natal tree in order to find figs in which to lay their eggs . This is to the advantage of the fig , since it prevents self @-@ pollination . In Florida , individual F. aurea trees flower and fruit asynchronously . Within @-@ tree asynchrony in flowering is likely to raise the probability of self @-@ pollination , but it may be an adaptation that allows the species to maintain an adequate population of wasps at low population densities or in strongly seasonal climates .
Flowering phenology in Ficus has been characterised into five phases . In most figs , phase A is followed almost immediately by phase B. However , in F. aurea immature inflorescences can remain dormant for more than nine months .
= = = Growth = = =
Ficus aurea is a fast @-@ growing tree . As a hemiepiphyte it germinates in the canopy of a host tree and begin life as an epiphyte before growing roots down to the ground . F. aurea is also a strangler fig ( not all hemiepiphytic figs are stranglers ) — the roots fuse and encircle the host tree . This usually results in the death of the host tree , since it effectively girdles the tree . Palms , which lack secondary growth , are not affected by this , but they can still be harmed by competition for light , water and nutrients . Following Hurricane Andrew in 1992 , F. aurea trees regenerated from root suckers and standing trees .
= = Distribution = =
Ficus aurea ranges from Florida , across the northern Caribbean to Mexico , and south across Central America . It is present in central and southern Florida and the Florida Keys , The Bahamas , the Caicos Islands , Hispaniola , Cuba , Jamaica , the Cayman Islands , San Andrés ( a Colombian possession in the western Caribbean ) , southern Mexico , Belize , Guatemala , Honduras , Nicaragua , El Salvador , Costa Rica and Panama . It grows from sea level up to 1 @,@ 800 m ( 5 @,@ 500 ft ) above sea level , in habitats ranging from Bahamian dry forests , to cloud forest in Costa Rica .
Ficus aurea is found in central and southern Florida as far north as Volusia County ; it is one of only two native fig species in Florida . The species is present in a range of south Florida ecosystems , including coastal hardwood hammocks , cabbage palm hammocks , tropical hardwood hammocks and shrublands , temperate hardwood hammocks and shrublands and along watercourses . In The Bahamas , F. aurea is found in tropical dry forests on North Andros , Great Exuma and Bimini . F. aurea occurs in 10 states in Mexico , primarily in the south , but extending as far north as Jalisco . It is found in tropical deciduous forest , tropical semi @-@ evergreen forest , tropical evergreen forest , cloud forest and in aquatic or subaquatic habitats .
= = Ecology = =
Ficus aurea is a strangler fig — it tends to establish on a host tree which it gradually encircles and " strangles " , eventually taking the place of that tree in the forest canopy . While this makes F. aurea an agent in the mortality of other trees , there is little to indicate that its choice of hosts is species specific . However , in dry forests on Great Exuma in The Bahamas , F. aurea establishes exclusively on palms , in spite of the presence of several other large trees that should provide suitable hosts . Eric Swagel and colleagues attributed this to the fact that humus accumulates on the leaf bases of these palms and provides a relatively moist microclimate in a dry environment , facilitating seedling survival .
Figs are sometimes considered to be potential keystone species in communities of fruit @-@ eating animals because of their asynchronous fruiting patterns . Nathaniel Wheelwright reports that emerald toucanets fed on unripe F. aurea fruit at times of fruit scarcity in Monteverde , Costa Rica . Wheelwright listed the species as a year @-@ round food source for the resplendent quetzal at the same site . In the Florida Keys , F. aurea is one of five fruit species that dominate the diet fed by white @-@ crowned pigeons to their nestlings . F. aurea is also important in the diet of mammalian frugivores — both fruit and young leaves are consumed by black howler monkeys in Belize .
The interaction between figs and fig wasps is especially well @-@ known ( see section on reproduction , above ) . In addition to its pollinators ( Pegoscapus mexicanus ) , F. aurea is exploited by a group of non @-@ pollinating chalcidoid wasps whose larvae develop in its figs . These include gallers , inquilines and kleptoparasites as well as parasitoids of both the pollinating and non @-@ pollinating wasps .
The invertebrates within F. aurea syconia in southern Florida include a pollinating wasp , P. mexicanus , up to eight or more species of non @-@ pollinating wasps , a plant @-@ parasitic nematode transported by the pollinator , mites , and a predatory rove beetle whose adults and larvae eat fig wasps . Nematodes : Schistonchus aureus ( Aphelenchoididae ) is a plant @-@ parasitic nematode associated with the pollinator Pegoscapus mexicanus and syconia of F. aurea . Mites : belonging to the family Tarsonemidae ( Acarina ) have been recognized in the syconia of F. aurea and F. citrifolia , but they have not been identified even to genus , and their behavior is undescribed . Rove beetles : Charoxus spinifer is a rove beetle ( Coleoptera : Staphylinidae ) whose adults enter late @-@ stage syconia of F. aurea and F. citrifolia . Adults eat fig wasps ; larvae develop within the syconia and prey on fig wasps , then pupate in the ground .
As a large tree , F. aurea can be an important host for epiphytes . In Costa Rican cloud forests , where F. aurea is " the most conspicuous component " of intact forest , trees in forest patches supported richer communities of epiphytic bryophytes , while isolated trees supported greater lichen cover .
Florida International University ecologist Suzanne Koptur reported the presence of extrafloral nectaries on F. aurea figs in the Florida Everglades . Extrafloral nectaries are structures which produce nectar but are not associated with flowers . They are usually interpreted as defensive structure and are often produced in response to attack by insect herbivores . They attract insects , primarily ants , which defend the nectaries , thus protecting the plant against herbivores .
= = Uses = =
The fruit of Ficus aurea is edible and was used for food by the indigenous people and early settlers in Florida ; it is still eaten occasionally as a backyard source of native fruit . The latex was used to make a chewing gum , and aerial roots may have been used to make lashings , arrows , bowstrings and fishing lines . The fruit was used to make a rose @-@ coloured dye . F. aurea was also used in traditional medicine in The Bahamas and Florida . Allison Adonizio and colleagues screened F. aurea for anti @-@ quorum sensing activity ( as a possible means of anti @-@ bacterial action ) , but found no such activity .
Individual F. aurea trees are common on dairy farms in La Cruz , Cañitas and Santa Elena in Costa Rica , since they are often spared when forest is converted to pasture . In interviews , farmers identified the species as useful for fence posts , live fencing and firewood , and as a food species for wild birds and mammals .
Ficus aurea is used as an ornamental tree , an indoor tree and as a bonsai . Like other figs , it tends to invade built structures and foundations , and need to be removed to prevent structural damage . Although young trees are described as " rather ornamental " , older trees are considered to be difficult to maintain ( because of the adventitious roots that develop off branches ) and are not recommended for small areas . However , it was considered a useful tree for " enviroscaping " to conserve energy in south Florida , since it is " not as aggressive as many exotic fig species , " although it must be given enough space .
= Cyclone Hollanda =
Cyclone Hollanda was the worst tropical cyclone in Mauritius in 19 years . It formed on February 6 , 1994 , in the central Indian Ocean in the southern hemisphere . The cyclone moved southwestward for much of its duration , striking Mauritius on February 10 at peak intensity with winds of 155 km / h ( 100 mph ) . It later passed just southeast of Réunion before turning to the south and weakening . The cyclone became extratropical on February 14 in the southern Indian Ocean .
On Mauritius , Hollanda destroyed or severely damaged 450 houses , which left at least 1 @,@ 500 people homeless . High winds left half of the island without power , and also caused severe crop damage ; nearly half of the island 's sugar crop was destroyed , which necessitated for the government to assist in replanting efforts . Hollanda killed 2 people and caused $ 135 million in damage on Mauritius . About a week after the cyclone struck , Cyclone Ivy also affected the area , although to a lesser degree . The highest rainfall from the cyclone fell on Réunion , with 741 mm ( 29 @.@ 2 in ) recorded at Grand Coude .
= = Meteorological history = =
Based on analysis from Météo @-@ France ( MFR ) , a disturbance in the Indian Ocean intertropical convergence zone became evident south of the Chagos Archipelago on February 6 , after Cyclone Geralda struck Madagascar and moved away from the region . The Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) assessed it as developing a day prior in the same general area . Later on February 6 , a circulation developed concurrently with an area of organized convection . On February 8 , the system intensified into Tropical Storm Hollanda as it moved southwestward , its motion influenced by a ridge to its south . A trough turned the storm to the south @-@ southwest , and Hollanda intensified into a tropical cyclone – the equivalence of a hurricane – on February 9 .
After becoming a tropical cyclone , Hollanda developed a small 20 km ( 12 mi ) eye as it tracked toward the island of Mauritius , located east of Madagascar . Continuing to intensify , the cyclone struck the northern coast of the island at 1800 UTC on February 10 at peak intensity , with winds of 155 km / h ( 100 mph ) ( 10 minute sustained winds ) as assessed by MFR . In addition , the cyclone produced gusts to 230 km / h ( 140 mph ) . At the same time , the JTWC estimated peak winds of 195 km / h ( 120 mph ) ( 1 minute sustained winds ) . While moving over Mauritius , the eye became disrupted , although Hollanda maintained much of its intensity as it passed just southeast of Réunion early on February 11 . The cyclone remained well @-@ defined as it moved more poleward , and an irregular eye remained visible on satellite imagery . On February 13 , Hollanda turned eastward due to a trough , and the next day it became extratropical over the southern Indian Ocean . Its remnants persisted at least two more days .
= = Impact = =
Before Hollanda struck Mauritius , most people were already residing at home , due to the cyclone striking during the Chinese New Year . Officials closed the airport prior to the cyclone 's arrival , and most stores and banks were also closed . Officials also ordered for cars to be off the roads during the storm and for people to remain indoors . Forecasters initially expected the storm would remain slightly offshore .
Ultimately , Cyclone Hollanda made landfall at peak intensity , producing wind gusts of 216 km / h ( 134 mph ) in Mauritius 's capital city of Port Louis . Strong winds affected the northern and western portions of the island , particularly near the coast , and the cyclone was considered the worst to hit there since Cyclone Gervaise in 1975 . In addition to the winds , the storm dropped torrential rainfall that reached 711 mm ( 28 @.@ 0 in ) in Mare aux Vacoas . Across the island , Hollanda destroyed 290 houses and severely damaged another 160 , which left at least 1 @,@ 500 people homeless . Included among the damaged buildings was the Russian embassy , which faced such difficulties making repairs that the ambassadors moved their offices . Damage to schools was estimated at 25 million rupees ( $ 1 @.@ 3 million 1994 USD ) , causing some to be closed for as long as 12 days . High winds downed 30 % of the island 's trees . Many fell onto power lines , which left 60 % of Mauritians without power and about half without telephone service . All external communications were cut to the country during the cyclone . In addition , nearly half of the sugar plantations were destroyed , although the primary industry of tourism was not significantly affected . In total , the cyclone killed two people , and left $ 135 million in damage ( 1994 USD ) ; the total included lost productivity , such as decreased sugar output . Less than a week after Hollanda struck , Cyclone Ivy also hit Mauritius , although to a lesser extent than Hollanda . The combined impact caused most roads to be blocked by either fallen trees or mudslides ; all main roads were quickly restored .
Following the storm 's passage , the Mauritius government opened 130 shelters , and also provided 5 @,@ 000 rupees to each homeless family . The crop damage from Hollanda , in addition to a drought , decreased the following year 's output by 22 % . In response , the government provided seeds to farmers so they could replant their crops . Most of the island had their power restored by ten days after the storm . The country 's prime minister issued an appeal to the European Union for 67 million rupees ( $ 3 @.@ 6 million 1994 USD ) in assistance , although later dropped it to less than half that total . The requested aid was for the restoration of phone and power utilities . The storm 's severe impact on Mauritius caused a sharp drop in the country 's gross domestic product ( GDP ) per capita , and the overall GDP decreased by 10 % .
Although the cyclone did not strike the island of Réunion , Hollanda produced strong wind gusts that peaked at 234 km / h ( 145 mph ) in Sainte @-@ Rose . Rainfall on the island peaked at 741 mm ( 29 @.@ 2 in ) at Grand Coude . The cyclone left damage to crops , power systems , telephones , and the water network , mostly due to the strong winds .
= Prevailing winds =
Prevailing winds are winds that blow predominantly from a single general direction over a particular point on the Earth 's surface . The dominant winds are the trends in direction of wind with the highest speed over a particular point on the Earth 's surface . A region 's prevailing and dominant winds are often affected by global patterns of movement in the Earth 's atmosphere . In general , easterly flow occurs at low and medium latitudes globally . In the mid @-@ latitudes , westerly winds are the rule and their strength is largely determined by the polar cyclone . In areas where winds tend to be light , the sea breeze / land breeze cycle is the most important to the prevailing wind ; in areas which have variable terrain , mountain and valley breezes dominate the wind pattern . Highly elevated surfaces can induce a thermal low , which then augments the environmental wind flow .
Wind roses are tools used to determine the direction of the prevailing wind . Knowledge of the prevailing wind allows the development of prevention strategies for wind erosion of agricultural land , such as across the Great Plains . Sand dunes can orient themselves , or perpendicular to , the prevailing wind regime within coastal and desert locations . Insects drift along with the prevailing wind , while birds are able to fly more independently of it . Prevailing winds in mountainous locations can lead to significant rainfall gradients within the topography , ranging from wet across windward @-@ facing slopes to desert @-@ like conditions along their lee slopes . Prevailing winds can have differences due to the uneven heating of the Earth .
= = Determination for a location = =
A wind rose is a graphic tool used by meteorologists to give a succinct view of how wind speed and direction are typically distributed at a particular location . Presented in a polar coordinate grid , the wind rose shows the frequency of winds blowing from particular directions . The length of each spoke around the circle is related to the frequency that the wind blows from a particular direction per unit time . Each concentric circle represents a different frequency , emanating from zero at the center to increasing frequencies at the outer circles . A wind rose plot may contain additional information , in that each spoke is broken down into color @-@ coded bands that show wind direction ranges . Wind roses typically use 8 or 16 cardinal directions , such as north ( N ) , NNE , NE , etc . , although they may be subdivided into as many as 32 directions .
= = Climatology = =
= = = Trades and their impact = = =
The trade winds ( also called trades ) are the prevailing pattern of easterly surface winds found in the tropics near the Earth 's equator , equatorward of the subtropical ridge . These winds blow predominantly from the northeast in the Northern Hemisphere and from the southeast in the Southern Hemisphere . The trade winds act as the steering flow for tropical cyclones that form over world 's oceans , guiding their path westward . Trade winds also steer African dust westward across the Atlantic ocean into the Caribbean sea , as well as portions of southeast North America .
= = = Westerlies and their impact = = =
The westerlies or the prevailing westerlies are the prevailing winds in the middle latitudes ( i.e. , between 35 and 65 degrees latitude ) , which blow in areas poleward of the high pressure area known as the subtropical ridge in the horse latitudes . These prevailing winds blow from the west to the east , and steer extra @-@ tropical cyclones in this general manner . The winds are predominantly from the southwest in the Northern Hemisphere and from the northwest in the Southern Hemisphere . They are strongest in the winter when the pressure is lower over the poles , such as when the polar cyclone is strongest , and weakest during the summer when the polar cyclone is weakest and when pressures are higher over the poles .
Together with the trade winds , the westerlies enabled a round @-@ trip trade route for sailing ships crossing the Atlantic and Pacific oceans , as the westerlies lead to the development of strong ocean currents in both hemispheres . The westerlies can be particularly strong , especially in the southern hemisphere , where there is less land in the middle latitudes to cause the flow pattern to amplify , which slows the winds down . The strongest westerly winds in the middle latitudes are called the Roaring Forties , between 40 and 50 degrees south latitude , within the Southern Hemisphere . The westerlies play an important role in carrying the warm , equatorial waters and winds to the western coasts of continents , especially in the southern hemisphere because of its vast oceanic expanse .
The westerlies explain why coastal North America tends to be wet , especially from Northern California to Alaska , during the winter . Differential heating from the sun between the land which is quite cool and the ocean which is relatively warm causes areas of low pressure to develop over land . This results in moisture rich air from the Pacific Ocean to flow from the west , resulting in frequent rainstorms and wind on the coast . This moisture continues to flow eastward until orographic lift caused by the Coast , Cascade , Columbia and Rocky Mountains cause a rain shadow effect which limits further penetration of these systems and associated rainfall eastward . This trend reverses in the summer when strong heating of the land causes high pressure and tends to block moisture @-@ rich air from the Pacific from reaching land . This explains why most of coastal North America in the middle latitudes experiences dry summers , despite abundant rainfall in the winter .
= = = Polar easterlies = = =
The polar easterlies ( also known as Polar Hadley cells ) are the dry , cold prevailing winds that blow from the high @-@ pressure areas of the polar highs at the north and South poles towards the low @-@ pressure areas within the westerlies at high latitudes . Like trade winds and unlike the westerlies , these prevailing winds blow from the east to the west , and are often weak and irregular . Due to the low sun angle , cold air builds up and subsides at the pole creating surface high @-@ pressure areas , forcing an equatorward outflow of air ; that outflow is deflected westward by the Coriolis effect .
= = Local considerations = =
= = = Sea and land breezes = = =
In areas where the wind flow is light , sea breezes and land breezes are important factors in a location 's prevailing winds . The sea is warmed by the sun to a greater depth than the land due to its greater specific heat . The sea therefore has a greater capacity for absorbing heat than the land , so the surface of the sea warms up more slowly than the land 's surface . As the temperature of the surface of the land rises , the land heats the air above it . The warm air is less dense and so it rises . This rising air over the land lowers the sea level pressure by about 0 @.@ 2 % . The cooler air above the sea , now with higher sea level pressure , flows towards the land into the lower pressure , creating a cooler breeze near the coast .
The strength of the sea breeze is directly proportional to the temperature difference between the land mass and the sea . If an offshore wind of 8 knots ( 15 km / h ) exists , the sea breeze is not likely to develop . At night , the land cools off more quickly than the ocean due to differences in their specific heat values , which forces the daytime sea breeze to dissipate . If the temperature onshore cools below the temperature offshore , the pressure over the water will be lower than that of the land , establishing a land breeze , as long as an onshore wind is not strong enough to oppose it .
= = = Circulation in elevated regions = = =
Over elevated surfaces , heating of the ground exceeds the heating of the surrounding air at the same altitude above sea level , creating an associated thermal low over the terrain and enhancing any lows which would have otherwise existed , and changing the wind circulation of the region . In areas where there is rugged topography that significantly interrupts the environmental wind flow , the wind can change direction and accelerate parallel to the wind obstruction . This barrier jet can increase the low level wind by 45 percent . In mountainous areas , local distortion of the airflow is more severe . Jagged terrain combines to produce unpredictable flow patterns and turbulence , such as rotors . Strong updrafts , downdrafts and eddies develop as the air flows over hills and down valleys . Wind direction changes due to the contour of the land . If there is a pass in the mountain range , winds will rush through the pass with considerable speed due to the Bernoulli principle that describes an inverse relationship between speed and pressure . The airflow can remain turbulent and erratic for some distance downwind into the flatter countryside . These conditions are dangerous to ascending and descending airplanes .
Daytime heating and nighttime cooling of the hilly slopes lead to day to night variations in the airflow , similar to the relationship between sea breeze and land breeze . At night , the sides of the hills cool through radiation of the heat . The air along the hills becomes cooler and denser , blowing down into the valley , drawn by gravity . This is known a katabatic wind or mountain breeze . If the slopes are covered with ice and snow , the katabatic wind will blow during the day , carrying the cold dense air into the warmer , barren valleys . The slopes of hills not covered by snow will be warmed during the day . The air that comes in contact with the warmed slopes becomes warmer and less dense and flows uphill . This is known as an anabatic wind or valley breeze .
= = Effect on precipitation = =
Orographic precipitation occurs on the windward side of mountains and is caused by the rising air motion of a large @-@ scale flow of moist air across the mountain ridge , resulting in adiabatic cooling and condensation . In mountainous parts of the world subjected to consistent winds ( for example , the trade winds ) , a more moist climate usually prevails on the windward side of a mountain than on the leeward or downwind side . Moisture is removed by orographic lift , leaving drier air ( see katabatic wind ) on the descending and generally warming , leeward side where a rain shadow is observed .
In South America , the Andes mountain range blocks Pacific moisture that arrives in that continent , resulting in a desertlike climate just downwind across western Argentina . The Sierra Nevada range creates the same effect in North America forming the Great Basin and Mojave Deserts .
= = Effect on nature = =
Insects are swept along by the prevailing winds , while birds follow their own course . As such , fine line patterns within weather radar imagery , associated with converging winds , are dominated by insect returns . In the Great Plains , wind erosion of agricultural land is a significant problem , and is mainly driven by the prevailing wind . Because of this , wind barrier strips have been developed to minimize this type of erosion . The strips can be in the form of soil ridges , crop strips , crops rows , or trees which act as wind breaks . They are oriented at a right angle to the wind in order to be most effective . In regions with minimal vegetation , such as coastal and desert areas , transverse sand dunes orient themselves perpendicular to the prevailing wind direction , while longitudinal dunes orient themselves parallel to the prevailing winds .
= Bergen Light Rail =
Bergen Light Rail ( Norwegian : Bybanen ) is a light rail system in Bergen , Norway . The first stage of the project is a twenty @-@ station stretch between the city center and Lagunen Storsenter , where the first 15 stations comprising a 9 @.@ 8 @-@ kilometre ( 6 @.@ 1 mi ) stretch opened in 2010 , and the second is a 3 @.@ 6 @-@ kilometre ( 2 @.@ 2 mi ) stretch from Nesttun to Lagunen which opened in June 2013 . Construction on a third stretch from Lagunen to Bergen Airport , Flesland is planned to open in 2016 . Further plans for the project involve mooted extensions to Åsane and Storavatnet .
Plans for rail transit have existed since the 1970s , following the 1965 closing of the Bergen Tramway . A rapid transit design was first discarded , and in the 1990s a light rail line was proposed . The decision to start construction was made in 2005 . The first stage was built by the municipality , with financing from the state and the toll road ring , based on the Bergen Program . Ownership , maintenance and further extensions and vehicles are the responsibility of Hordaland County Municipality through its wholly owned subsidiary Bybanen AS . Operation is governed by public service obligation contracts issued by the county public transport authority Skyss . From 2010 to 2017 the line and its 20 Variotrams will be operated by Keolis Norge ( formerly Fjord1 Partner ) .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
The first public transport in Bergen was the Bergen Tramway , which operated between 1897 and 1965 . It was limited to the inner parts of the city and did not reach the suburbs . The city council therefore decided to close it , arguing that the future lay in private cars , diesel buses and trolleybuses . In the 1960s , the removal on restriction on car sales created more traffic than the roads could handle and consequently both buses and cars began increasingly being stuck in rush @-@ hour queues . The municipality and the Norwegian Public Roads Administration started looking at rectifying the situation by building a ring road around the city , and by alternative means of public transport .
Prior to the shortening of the main Bergen Line railway with the Ulriken Tunnel , the Bergen – Nesttun Line was an important commuter rail service , feeding suburban residents from Fana into the city center . In 1917 , the section was the most heavily trafficked railway in the country , with a travel time between 20 and 27 minutes . There were up to 27 trains per day , of which five continued to Garnes . In 1918 , the line was proposed for doubling and electrification : the latter was completed in 1954 . The same year , annual ridership were down to 870 @,@ 000 passengers . After the opening of the Ulriken Tunnel commuter trains were kept for six months , with the last trip ran on 31 January 1965 .
During the 1970s , plans had existed for an extensive rapid transit system , with an underground section in the city center . Inspired by the successful Oslo Metro that had opened in 1966 , similar plans were developed . The proposed network was close to the current long @-@ term plans for the light rail system , and consisted of three branches from the city center to Flaktveit , Olsvik and the airport . Four @-@ car trains would operate at ten @-@ minute headways . The suggestion was discussed by the city council in 1973 , but no decision was taken . As an alternative , expansion of the railway from Bergen to Eidsvåg , Åsane and Nesttun was proposed . Fast commuter trains could then be supplemented with buses .
During the 1980s and 1990s , a toll ring was constructed around Bergen to finance a massive investment in motorways . This included European Route E39 north and south of the center , the road to the airport , and west to Loddefjord and Storavatnet . Bridges were constructed to Lindås , Askøy and Sotra , and large parking garages were built in the city center . Despite this congestion continued , and it was no better in the 2000s than in the 1970s . Proposals to build bus lanes and traffic signal preemption was disregarded by the Public Roads Administration .
In 1995 , the municipal bus company Bergen Sporvei made a proposal to establish what they called the Lightning Tram , from Varden in Fyllingsdalen via a tunnel to Møhlenpris and the city center , then make a 120 ° turn and return along the route of the Bergen trolleybus to Birkelundstoppen . The same year , the Norwegian Society for the Conservation of Nature proposed a more extensive system , the Environmental Tram , which more closely resembles the current proposals . From the city center , it would run northwards via Åsane to Flaktveit and southwards via Rådal to the airport ( not via Nesttun ) . The southern section would have branches from Hop to Nesttun and Midttun , and from Minde westwards to Fyllingsdalen and Loddefjord . Later , Bergen Sporvei 's successor , Gaia Trafikk , proposed building a bus rapid transit .
= = = Political process = = =
The plans launched by the city administration most closely resembled the Environmental Tram , with slight changes . The initial plans involved a line from the city center via Nesttun to the airport at Flesland . It became part of a political compromise , the Bergen Program , which ensured a number of road investments at the same time as the light rail system , all financed through the toll ring . However , a lack of funds made it necessary to build the line to Nesttun only , instead of all the way to the airport . The initial decision was taken by Bergen City Council on 13 March 2000 , in the Parliament of Norway in 2002 , and with the financing secured , by the city council in 2005 . Only the Progress Party and the Pensioners ' Party voted against light rail . Forty per cent is financed by the state , the remainder by the county , the municipality and through the toll ring .
The arguments for light rail were mainly related to the environment , urban development and reduction in road congestion . Light rail is estimated to increase the use of public transport from Fana , reducing both local and global pollution . The roads do not have capacity for further growth , and any increase in public transport would need to be taken along the light rail routes on buses — this would give higher operating costs for public transport or higher investment costs for roads . Around the stations , high @-@ density commercial and residential centers can be established . Opponents of the project argued that it is unfair that public transport be funded by car drivers through toll roads . Protests from people in northern and western areas of the city have risen , since they are paying for the system but will not receive the benefits . Another issue has been speed : the line to Nesttun has 15 stops in 10 kilometers ( 6 mi ) , giving an average speed of 28 km / h ( 17 mph ) . For people living south of Nesttun , this will give a longer travel time to the city center than with direct buses that do not make intermediate stops .
The naming of the stations caused local debate . A draft for names were made by the municipal administration and then sent to the borough councils in Fana , Årstad and Bergenhus . Four names were changed : Nonneseteren from Jernbanen , Florida from Strømmen , Brann stadion from Nymark and Hop from Troldhaugen . Brann stadion and Troldhaugen were afterwards considered by the municipal administration , because they could be in violation of the Place Name Act . The general rule is to use the place name where the station is located , and naming after institutions or facilities nearby is not permitted unless they are in the immediate vicinity . Brann stadion , named for the football venue , was declared a borderline case , but within the rules , while Troldhaugen was not permitted because the area is not in the vicinity of the station .
= = = Construction = = =
Initial works commenced in August 2007 , when Pastasentralen was demolished to make room for a temporary bus terminal that would allow Kaigaten to be closed for construction . Contracts for building the line were awarded to Svein Boasson , NCC Construction , Fyllingen Maskinstasjon and Veidekke Entreprenør . The contract for laying the tracks was awarded to Baneservice .
Construction started in January 2008 . To pass over Strømmen , a fourth Nygård Bridge was built for cars , and the oldest was upgraded and used by the light rail line . In several places the road needed to be dug up to remove pipes and cables . In November 2009 , Gulating Court of Appeal ruled that the power company BKK had to pay 80 million NOK for the moving of power lines , and could not charge the costs to the project . By June 2008 , the first tracks had been laid .
Four companies bid for the initial public service obligation to operate the line : Fjord1 Partner , Norges Statsbaner , Tide Bane and Veolia Transport Norge . On 3 April 2009 , the public transport agency Skyss announced that Fjord1 Partner , a joint venture between Fjord1 AS and Keolis , had won the tender competition . Fjord1 Partner received 324 applications for their 26 jobs as drivers and 10 jobs as traffic controllers . In 2014 Fjord1 AS sold their shares in Fjord1 Partner to Keolis , and the company changed its name to Keolis Norge AS .
Along with the establishment of the light rail service , the public transport in Bergen underwent other changes . Skyss was established in 2007 to administer the public transport system , manage routes and market public transport , which would be operated by private companies based on public service obligations . At the same time , a new electronic ticketing system was introduced .
Because of delays from Stadler 's subcontractors , five instead of eight trams were available when the line opened on 22 June 2010 . Skyss had planned to operate with a ten @-@ minute headway until August , but had a 15 @-@ minute headway until 16 August . To compensate , none of the parallel bus routes ceased until then . On 7 June , two trams collided at low speed at Byparken , causing a derailment and forced the two trams to be repaired . This caused the summer schedule to be reduced to a 30 @-@ minute headway . From 1 November , the line started running every six minutes during the rush hour . On 22 June , the first part of the line was officially opened by Queen Sonja of Norway .
= = Route = =
The first part of the line is 9 @.@ 8 @-@ kilometre ( 6 @.@ 1 mi ) and runs from the city center to Nesttun . The northernmost part of the line , Byparken Terminal , is a transit mall at the heart of the city center and has interchange with all buses serving the city center . The line runs south along Kaigaten , with Nonneseter stop serving the railway station and Bystasjonen serving the bus station . Southwards , the line runs in a grass right @-@ of @-@ way through Nygård and Florida , serving the campus of the University of Bergen . The line passes over Nygård Bridge before coming to Danmarks plass , the only island platform on the system . In this area , the track is on maize , a type of surface that allows emergency vehicles to drive safely , but makes the surface look unsafe for cars .
The line passes the depot at Kronstad before reaching Kronstad stop , almost at the door of the Bergen University College . From here , the line follows Inndalsveien , where Brann Stadion stop serves the Brann Stadion football venue . Wergeland is at the mouth of the 1 @.@ 1 @-@ kilometer ( 0 @.@ 68 mi ) Fageråstunnelen , S @-@ shaped with a 6 @.@ 0 % gradient and a curve radius of 150 meters ( 490 ft ) . From the southern portal the line changes to conventional railway track with ballast , allowing trams to operate at 80 km / h ( 50 mph ) . The next stops are Sletten , Slettebakken and Fantoft , the later serving a large complex of student dormitories . Southwards is the 1 @.@ 2 @-@ kilometer ( 0 @.@ 75 mi ) Fantoft Tunnel , followed by Paradis stop . The line continues along the Nesttunvannet inlet to Hop , along the former right @-@ of @-@ way of Bergen 's first motorway . Nesttun Terminal was the terminus until the extension to Lagunen was finished .
After the completion to Nesttun , the line was exteneded southwards to Rådal at Lagunen Storsenter . Construction began in January 2011 , on its own right @-@ of @-@ way parallel to the existing road ; , the track was completed in October 2012 . The first test run to Lagunen was conducted on 6 December 2012 , and the line was opened to the public on 22 June 2013 .
The light rail is now under construction from Lagunen via Kokstad to Bergen Airport , Flesland . Both Sørås and Indre Steinsvik have experienced rapid housing construction without a corresponding increase of public transport . Further out is a large corporate center with many of Bergen 's largest employers , such as Telenor , Statoil and BKK . The area was built without sufficient roads or public transport , and has among the worst road congestion in the urban area . Building the light rail line to Flesland will supplement the airport shuttles and offer cheaper service for locals and employees at the airport . Another incentive to build to Flesland was that there was sufficient available land which allows a large depot to be constructed . After the line was opened to Lagunen , there was insufficient space at Kronstad to house additional trams . The line to the airport is scheduled to open in 2016 .
= = Plans = =
Plans for the expansion northwards from the city center to Åsane involve either building the system to replace many of the local buses operating in Sandviken , or make the light rail line an express service . If the latter is chosen , the line will bypass Bryggen in a tunnel and make few stops before Åsane . An important stop mid @-@ way is the Norwegian School of Economics . The terminus will probably be Åsane Senter or Nyborg ; the former shopping center has set aside areas for a station . At Åsane , a major bus terminal would allow connections to the northern parts of Bergen , suburbs further north and areas in Nordhordland . An important political argument for prioritizing this line is to spread out the investments to all parts of the city , since the line is being financed by taxpayers and car @-@ users throughout the city .
The third planned expansion runs from the city center southwards , east of the Center – Nesttun Line , serving Haukeland University Hospital . It then heads west , intersecting with the first line at Kronstad , runs through a tunnel before serving the areas of Fyllingsdalen . The line can use parts of the Norwegian National Rail Administration 's right of way from the city center to Kronstad , and would feature a station under the hospital , which is Western Norway 's largest work place . It is not planned an extension to Loddefjord and Storavatnet from Fyllingsdalen at this time because the time of travel will be much higher than the direct bus line using the highway to the city center .
A project group with members of the Norwegian Public Roads Administration and the National Rail Administration have proposed that instead of rebuilding the Ulriken Tunnel to double track , a new double @-@ track light rail tunnel could be built from the city center to Arna . This would allow the light rail line to replace the two @-@ station Bergen Commuter Rail service , and give better access to the city center for people from Arna . Several politicians , including the majority in Hordaland County Council , have stated that they in the long run they want the light rail line extended northwards to Knarvik and westwards to Straume and Kleppestø .
= = Operation = =
The building of the line is the responsibility of Bybanen Utbygging , which is an agency within Hordaland County . The physical infrastructure and trams are owned by Bybanen AS , a limited company wholly owned by Hordaland County . This company is responsible for maintenance of the right @-@ of @-@ way and the vehicles , and for extensions . Light rail operations are based on contracts granted after public tender competitions held by Skyss , a county agency that administers all public transport in Hordaland , including buses , boats and ferries . From 2010 to 2017 , with the possibility for a two @-@ year extension , the line will be operated by Keolis Norge AS . Stadler has the responsibility for maintenance of the trams for the first seven years , as part of the purchase contract .
The line is operated on a four / five @-@ minute headway by all @-@ stops trams , with an eight @-@ minute headway in off @-@ peak times and a 20 minutes headway at night . Travel time from Byparken to Lagunen is 32 minutes . In 2015 , the full price of a single ticket is NOK 35 . Tickets are valid with free transfer to buses in Bergen .
= = Rolling stock = =
In 2007 , the Planning Office ordered 12 Variotrams from Stadler Rail , with an additional four on option . The first tram arrived on 7 December 2009 , and was used for testing in the months leading up to the opening . Before the opening , three more trams were in place . The trams are 32 @.@ 180 m ( 105 @.@ 58 ft ) long and 2 @.@ 65 meters ( 8 ft 8 in ) wide , weighing 35 @.@ 7 tonnes ( 35 @.@ 1 long tons ; 39 @.@ 4 short tons ) . They have five articulated sections , and are expandable with another two modules to a length of 42 meters ( 138 ft ) , should higher capacity be necessary . All stations are built for extended trams .
There is a slightly elevated driver 's cab at each end . Eight motors provide a total of 360 kW ( 480 hp ) for three bogies . This allows a maximum speed of 70 km / h ( 43 mph ) , limited to 50 km / h ( 31 mph ) in city streets and 25 km / h ( 16 mph ) in the depots . Acceleration is 1 @.@ 25 m / s2 ( 4 @.@ 13 ft / s2 ) , and they are capable of operating on a 7 @.@ 0 % gradient . Current is collected via a pantograph , at 750 volts direct current . Each tram is sufficiently powerful to haul another unit in case of emergencies .
Capacity is for 212 passengers , of which 84 can sit four abreast . The entire tram is step @-@ free , including between the cars and the platforms . Seats are designed for travel times up to 60 minutes . There are four slide and plug doors on each side ; three are double , with a total width of 1 @,@ 300 @-@ millimeter ( 4 ft 3 in ) , while the last is a single 800 @-@ millimeter ( 2 ft 7 in ) door . Stop buttons are only available at the doors ; this has been chosen to speed alighting times . Between the seats there is a minimum width of 720 mm ( 2 ft 4 in ) , which allows wheelchair and buggy access along the full length of the car . All stations are announced visually and orally . The trams have wireless Internet access .
All stations are announced with a short distinctive melody and the station 's name . The melodies were composed by Snorre Valen , while the voice was recorded by Heidi Lambach .
= = Infrastructure = =
The system is standard gauge with 2 @.@ 65 @-@ meter ( 8 ft 8 in ) -wide cars , with the platforms built to allow 44 @-@ meter ( 144 ft ) long trams . The line has no terminal balloon loops , so trams must be bi @-@ directional . The current is supplied from six rectifiers , specified so the system can operate with two rectifiers out of service . In the city center the overhead wire has been designed to minimize the number of poles , while in the suburban areas a conventional system has a carrier wire above the power wire .
The line is double track , allowing visual signaling and speed adjustment on all at @-@ grade stretches . In city streets S60 track is used ; on private right @-@ of @-@ way , S49 track . The minimum curve radius is 25 metres ( 82 ft ) and tracks in city streets are laid within a rubber jacket to reduce noise . In the tunnels , only one tram can operate in each direction ; this is regulated by lights and an automatic Train Protection system . Signaling uses the German BOStrab system , not traditional Norwegian light signals . The line has traffic signal preemption , so the trams send a signal to the traffic light control when the driver starts the door @-@ closing signal to give the tram priority at traffic lights .
The depot is at Kronstad , at a former yard used by the Norwegian State Railways , where a track that connects the light rail network to the Bergen Line . The depot was finished in 2009 , and has room for 16 40 @-@ meter ( 130 ft ) trams plus a workshop with space for two trams and a garage with place for three . There is sufficient area for further expansion , but tracks have not been laid . When the light rail line is expanded to Flesland , a new main depot is planned in an area with cheaper land , and Kronstad depot will be converted to a pure overnighting facility .
= = = Stations = = =
Fifteen stations were built for the first stage , and five for the second stage . The stations and the visual profile of the system as a whole are designed by the Bergen @-@ based design groups Cubus and Fuggi Baggi Design , and Copenhagen @-@ based Kontrapunkt . The stations of the first two stages are at street level , with facilities for buying tickets and dynamic displays that show when the next tram will arrive . The platforms have step @-@ free access to the trams , allowing unhindered accessibility by wheelchairs and perambulators .
The municipal government has permitted denser development around the stations , where it wants most new housing and commercial property to be built . Development projects for Slettebakken , Wergeland , Paradis and Lagunen have been announced by private developers . Many of the stations are in primarily residential areas , and the projects have met resistance from residents who fear that the character of their neighborhoods will be altered .
= Myth : The Xenogears Orchestral Album =
Myth : The Xenogears Orchestral Album is an arranged soundtrack to Square Enix 's role @-@ playing video game Xenogears . It is the third soundtrack to the game , after Xenogears Original Soundtrack and Creid , another arranged album , both released in 1998 . Myth was composed by the game 's composer Yasunori Mitsuda and arranged by Mitsuda , Youki Yamamoto , Sachiko Miyano , and Natsumi Kameoka . The album contains 14 tracks , including a song performed by the Irish singer Joanne Hogg , and has a length of 51 : 33 . The orchestration was performed by the Bulgarian Symphony Orchestra , conducted by Yamamoto . The album was announced in October 2010 , and was released on February 23 , 2011 by Square Enix . A vinyl record version of the album was released on April 1 , 2011 , consisting of six tracks from the full album .
Reviewers were consistent in their praises and criticism of the album . They noted the high production values and the quality of the original compositions and the performance of the orchestra . They also felt that the later tracks in the album were notably weaker than the early tracks , that the arrangements in general did not stray far from the source material , and that several of the track choices did not seem to fit as well as orchestral renditions as others .
= = Creation = =
Xenogears composer Yasunori Mitsuda announced plans to create an album of orchestral arrangements of music from that game on October 6 , 2010 , via his Twitter account . Mitsuda had previously released two albums of music from the game , both in 1998 , the year the game was released — Xenogears Original Soundtrack , a soundtrack album for the game , and Creid , an album of arranged music inspired by Celtic folk music and Japanese rock . He has said that he decided to make the album due to the emotions that he and fans still felt about the game 13 years after its release , which led him to want to commemorate that . The music of Xenogears is particularly close to Mitsuda , as it was the last soundtrack that he worked on for Square Enix — the first video game company he worked for — and he knew that he would be leaving when he composed the soundtrack for the game . He has said that he had been considering the idea of a Xenogears orchestral album for six or seven years prior to starting on it , but until then did not have both the opportunity to work on the project and the confidence in his own abilities as an orchestrator to make the album sound as he wished .
When the album was announced , Square Enix opened a poll for members of their fan club to vote on tracks that they would like to see in the album . The poll was closed on October 20 and in December the top ten results were published . Eight of these were eventually included in the final album — " Crimson Knight " and " Awakening " were excluded . Although Mitsuda tried to put as many of the suggestions into the album as he felt were appropriate , he only included the top three " without thinking " . He was limited in his track selection due to many of the original tunes sharing common themes , while he wanted only one instance of a given theme to be present on Myth . The tracklist was initially set to feature ten tracks , but was later expanded to fourteen .
The album was recorded with the Bulgarian Symphony Orchestra in Bulgaria and was mixed in London in December , 2010 . Of the fourteen tracks , Mitsuda only arranged one for orchestration ; Youki Yamamoto , who also conducted the orchestra , arranged three , Sachiko Miyano arranged two , and Natsumi Kameoka of Mitsuda 's Procyon Studio arranged seven . Joanne Hogg reprised her role as the vocalist for " Small Two of Pieces " ; however , the lyrics were not re @-@ recorded . Instead , her original performance from the game 's soundtrack was used . The title " Myth " was chosen by Mitsuda so that " this work may become everyone ’ s myth " , as he wanted the music to remind listeners of " fond memories and thoughts of the world of " the original game and soundtrack .
The album was released on February 23 , 2011 . It contains 14 tracks with a total length of 51 : 33 . The album was published by Square Enix and has a catalog number of SQEX @-@ 10230 . The physical release of the album was only in Japan , though it was additionally released digitally on iTunes outside of the country . Additionally , on April 1 , 2011 , Square Enix published a vinyl record version of the album . This version contains six tracks , corresponding to tracks 1 , 3 , 4 , 8 , 12 , and 13 from the full album . It has a length of 28 : 33 and the catalog number SE @-@ M0004 . Ringtones for " Village Pride " , " A Distant Promise " , " Dark Dawn " and " Small Two of Pieces " were released on January 28 , 2011 . Mitsuda noted that there might be a second orchestral album in the future if the first was successful ; he described himself as " very keen on the idea of producing the second album " .
= = Reception = =
In his review of the album , Connary Fagen of Original Sound Version concluded that it was " part masterpiece , part phone @-@ in . " He felt that the majority of the album , especially the first two @-@ thirds , was composed of strong , high @-@ quality tracks . However , he felt that a few pieces , in particular the final three tracks , were " underwhelming " . He described the overall effect as " a row of books with only one bookend " as the album in his opinion did not have a strong or defined ending . Ben Schweitzer of Square Enix Music Online said that while " the album as a whole is worthwhile " , that it was " in some ways like a wasted opportunity . " He felt that the majority of the tracks were short orchestrations that did not attempt to stray from the original material , which in his opinion meant that they were left to stand on the merits of the original compositions rather than their own merits . He did note that the quality of the orchestra was high , and called out " Cage of Remorse and Relief " and " Soaring " as especially well done .
Myth was reviewed by two separate critics from RPGFan . Eric Farand praised the album , saying that half of the songs were great and the other half were " pretty good " ; he called out " Village Pride " as one of the best . Like Fagen he felt that the second half of the album contained several tracks that were " forgettable , phoned @-@ in or a poor song selection for this album " . He agreed with Schweitzer that the majority of the arrangements did not deviate much from the original compositions , but said that it was what he expected and wanted from an orchestral arrangement album . Stephen Meyerink , in his review , was less receptive to the album , saying that " It 's good . It 's not great . " He praised the technical quality of the performances , especially those of the string section of the orchestra , but criticized the lack of originality in the arrangements . He noted " Soaring " and " Bonds of Sea and Flames " as some of the few tracks he felt brought something unique to the arrangement . He felt that while the original compositions were strong , that the album felt " rushed " and " phoned @-@ in " with poor track selection , made more to tie in with the release of Xenogears on the PlayStation Network that year than for the love of the music .
= = Track listing = =
For many of the tracks , the English names used in the iTunes release are different than the literal translation of the Japanese names , which were used for the original soundtrack . When the literal translation differs , it is marked after the Japanese name .
= = Personnel = =
Yasunori Mitsuda – composer , arranger , orchestrator , producer
Youki Yamamoto - arranger , orchestrator , conductor
Sachiko Miyano - arranger , orchestrator
Natsumi Kameoka - arranger , orchestrator
The Bulgarian Symphony Orchestra – orchestra
Joanne Hogg – vocals on " Small Two of Pieces "
Tetsuya Takahashi - lyrics on " The Beginning and the End "
Masato Kato - lyrics on " Small Two of Pieces "
= Syndicate ( 2012 video game ) =
Syndicate is a first @-@ person shooter video game developed by Starbreeze Studios and published by Electronic Arts for Microsoft Windows , PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 . It is a reboot of the Syndicate series of real @-@ time tactical shooter games developed by Bullfrog Productions . The game was released in February 2012 worldwide .
Set in the year 2069 , the narrative revolves around Miles Kilo , an agent of EuroCorp , one of the world 's largest corporations . As an agent , Miles must help EuroCorp to eliminate important personnel from rival corporations ; in the process , he discovers the evil , secret practice used by EuroCorp to recruit agents . The game features a large variety of weapons ; from standard pistols to the futuristic guns . Kilo is implanted with a computer chip that allows him to access the dataverse and can use hacking to defeat enemies and solve environmental puzzles .
Pre @-@ production of the game began in 2007 . Electronic Arts approached Starbreeze Studios to revive the franchise because Electronic Arts was impressed with the quality of Starbreeze Studios ' previous games and believed they could add " style " to the series . The game was returned to the drawing board after a year of development , and the co @-@ operative multiplayer mode was added to the main game . The development team hoped the game would appeal to both newcomers and players of the original game ; they maintained the theme of the original and drastically changed the gameplay . Richard K. Morgan was hired to write the story for the game .
The game received mixed critical reviews upon release . Critics praised the gameplay , style , graphics , art direction , artificial intelligence and the co @-@ operative mode , but the game 's story was criticized . The game 's budget was smaller than typical AAA video game , and was considered as a commercial failure for Electronic Arts . The game 's excessive violence led to the game being banned in Australia .
= = Gameplay = =
Unlike the original series of games , Syndicate is a first @-@ person shooter set in 2069 . Players assume control of Miles Kilo , an augmented agent working for EuroCorp in a corrupted , deceitful world in which corporations compete with each other for power . Players can run , jump , slide , hide behind covers , and carry two weapons and grenades to defeat enemies and bosses , who each have unique abilities . The game features 19 weapons , ranging from assault rifles , rocket launchers and machine pistols , to futuristic weapons such as laser rifles , Gauss Guns with bullets that can track enemies automatically , and Riotlance Dark Shooters that can paralyze enemies for a short time . Weapons can be customized and upgraded with 87 attachments and 25 upgrade options . These upgrades may alter the nature of these weapons , transforming standard ammunition to cover @-@ penetrating ammunition . The game also features an " execution " mechanic , allowing players to perform melee takedowns .
Miles has a " DART @-@ 6 " chip that grants him hacking and " breaching " abilities . Some enemies also have this type of chip , and Miles can interact with them . With the chips , objects , collectibles and enemies are automatically tagged and highlighted via augmented reality of the heads @-@ up display . Players can use the " breaching " abilities to hack into enemies ' minds and control their actions . They have access to three options ; " Backfire " that causes enemies ' weapons to malfunction and backfire , stunning them ; " Suicide " that causes enemies to kill themselves ; and " Persuade " that leads enemies to defect to the player 's side before committing suicide . The game also allows players to locate enemies behind cover with the use of " Dart Overlay " and slow down time temporarily , which increases the damages dealt by players and their health regeneration rate . Abilities and skills implanted in the chip can be enhanced by collecting and extracting the chips of fallen enemies . The upgrades can boost players ' damages and increases their recovery speed . Players are tasked with using the breaching abilities to interact with objects , solve environmental puzzles , strip the special armor of enemies and disarm explosives . The breaching mechanic has a time limit and must be recharged before another activation .
The game does not have a competitive multiplayer mode , but it has a cooperative multiplayer mode that pits four players together to complete a nine @-@ mission campaign based on the campaign of the original Syndicate games . Players face enemies that become increasingly difficult to deal with as the game progresses . They can choose from four character classes : Medic , Spec Ops , Assault and Generic , each with different abilities . The breaching mechanic is also present in the mode for defensive and offensive purposes . For instance , they can hack into a turret to disable its armor or heal team @-@ mates using this mechanic . Players receive points as they progress through the game 's levels ; these points can be used to research new weapons .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Setting = = =
In 2017 , the mega @-@ corporation Eurocorp is created by a merger between the world 's largest corporations . In 2025 , Eurocorp releases the DART chip , a neural implant that allows users to access the dataverse , making most electronic devices obsolete . As a result of the DART chip , the world is no longer ruled by governments but by mega @-@ corporations known as " Syndicates " . However , only half of the world 's population embrace the chip ; the " unchipped " are abandoned and denied the benefits afforded by their chipped counterparts . Corporate espionage and corporate warfare for dominance between syndicates becomes the norm , resulting in the creation of " agents " — bio @-@ engineered enforcers augmented by a militarized version of the chip who protect the interests of their corporate masters .
= = = Plot = = =
In 2069 , Agent Miles Kilo , EuroCorp 's latest agent , is equipped with the new prototype DART 6 chip created by Eurocorp scientist Lily Drawl ( voiced by Rosario Dawson ) . After a successful test run of the chip 's abilities , EuroCorp CEO Jack Denham ( voiced by Brian Cox ) assigns him to kill Lily 's counterpart , Chang , at the rival syndicate Aspari . Accompanied by his mentor Agent Jules Merit ( voiced by Michael Wincott ) , Kilo attacks the Los Angeles branch of Aspari and corners Chang , who shoots himself . Kilo retrieves Chang 's chip and learns from an encrypted conversation that Lily has been sharing information about the DART 6 chip with him .
Although shocked by Lily 's betrayal , Denham decides to have Kilo and Merit keep Lily under surveillance because she is too valuable to eliminate . As they observe her in her apartment , Lily has an argument with a person named Kris before she is suddenly kidnapped by the syndicate Cayman @-@ Global . Kilo fights off the Cayman @-@ Global forces and follows Lily 's abductors to their floating base in the Atlantic Ocean . Kilo kills a major Cayman @-@ Global agent and rescues Lily , and they learn the syndicate is preparing a war against Eurocorp .
In New York , Kilo and Lily land in the Downzone where the unchipped , lower @-@ class population lives . After they split up and head towards Eurocorp HQ , Kilo is betrayed by Lily and is sent into a trap with EMP mines , injuring him and disabling his chips . After his chips regain function , Kilo is given orders to either capture or kill Lily . After fighting off subverters , Kilo learns their leader Kris — Lily 's ex @-@ boyfriend and colleague — is responsible for instigating a war between the syndicates . Kris reveals he started the war so he could hack into the dataverse and kill the syndicates and their chipped populations as punishment for abandoning the unchipped . Lily , who wants to find a peaceful solution and make the syndicates care about the unchipped , opposes the idea . Kilo fights Kris , who attempts to suicide bomb him but kills himself instead . Kilo apprehends Lily ; he can either kill her or release her . Lily is captured and a barely @-@ alive Kilo is retrieved .
At Eurocorp New York HQ , Denham and Merit believe Kilo is brain @-@ dead and send him to be rebooted while they plan to retrieve Lily 's chip and recover useful information on DART 6 . Kilo begins to remember his secret past : he learns that Denham led a Eurocorp team to kill his parents and abduct him as a baby because he has genes ideal for becoming an agent . Kilo escapes from his restraints and rescues Lily , who tells Kilo that like him , all of Eurocorp 's agents were abducted as children and their memories were modified so they would remain loyal to Eurocorp . Lily created the DART 6 chip , hoping to use it to make the syndicates retain their humanity and care about both chipped and un @-@ chipped civilians , but she realizes she was naïve to think that way .
As Cayman @-@ Global attacks Eurocorp 's New York HQ , Kilo and Lily head towards Denham 's office to prevent him from activating the kill switch on their DART chips . Kilo has to fight off both Eurocorp and Cayman @-@ Global forces , as well as several EuroCorp agents . At the top of the tower , he is forced to fight Merit and two other agents , who are under Denham 's orders to kill him . Kilo defeats the agents , and overpowers and kills Merit . Kilo then heads towards Denham 's office but finds Denham has activated his kill switch , which starts to affect Kilo 's movements . Weakened , Kilo confronts Denham , who justifies abducting him as a child . Kilo manages to fight against the kill @-@ switch order and corners Denham , who lets himself fall over a ledge to his death . As the game ends , Eurocorp lies in ruins and Lily gives Kilo a pistol , telling him that he is free from anyone 's control .
= = Development = =
The original version of Syndicate is a tactical shooter developed by Bullfrog Productions and produced by Peter Molyneux in 1993 . Electronic Arts had wanted to make a new Syndicate game for several years but had not found an opportunity to do so . They hoped to bring new elements and drastically altered gameplay concepts that would suit the franchise 's universe . They eventually partnered with Starbreeze , which they recognized as an excellent studio for making first @-@ person video games with distinctive styling . Pre @-@ production of the game began in 2007 ; it was carried out by a small team of staff members after the studio completed work on The Chronicles of Riddick : Assault on Dark Athena . However , mid way through the game 's development , there were also many creative differences between the developer and the publisher , and the two companies suffered from an inharmonious relationship .
During the first stage of development , the game had no co @-@ operative multiplayer mode ; it focused on the story instead of the cyberpunk element . A year after development began , the game was sent for reworking because the studio thought they had not captured the essence of the Syndicate series . The team had little experience in making a co @-@ operative games due to technological restraints , but decided to experiment with it . The internal reception of the co @-@ op prototype was positive ; testers said it fit with the canonical fiction of the franchise . The team had once worked on a competitive multiplayer mode for the game , but thought it was not original enough for inclusion . As the game lacked a cooperative multiplayer element , the developers abandoned the use of an online pass , unlike most EA games at that time .
The development team hoped the new title would appeal to both newcomers and fans of the series , be accessible and introduce the franchise to a broader audience . They assumed most players would not have played the original Syndicate games . The team also considered that because of the change in audience tastes and the introduction of new video game platforms , altering the game 's perspective to first @-@ person was a correct decision . Turning it into a first @-@ person game was the first design choice made by the team , who hoped allowing players to view from the agent 's perspective directly would make the game more immersive for players .
The team aimed to replicate the playing experience and difficulty of the extant Syndicate . Starbreeze considered the difficulty of the first game to be part of the franchise 's legacy and was worth preserving ; they hoped the new game would be challenging enough for players without being frustrating . They introduced a rarely scripted artificial intelligence ( AI ) into the game . The AI reacts to players ' actions and was programmed to relocate itself after being attacked . The new game has less gore than the older one ; players still can kill innocent civilians but the team minimized these scenarios , which they thought were part of the game 's environment rather than gameplay elements .
The game was designed to have a sense of unpredictability so it can be played without confining the player to rules . To achieve this , the company added the breaching system , which adds more varieties of combat and gives players more choices when dealing with the artificial intelligence . The breaching system , which originated as a mini @-@ game , was designed to be simple so it would not interrupt the flow of gameplay . Instead of being purely a first @-@ person shooter , the game features action @-@ adventure elements that allow players to choose their progression and tasks them with solving environmental puzzles .
Because the new game is set within a well @-@ established franchise , Starbreeze tried to retain the essence of the world and rebuild these elements . The game 's story was written by British science @-@ fiction writer Richard K Morgan , whom the team approached after they read his book Altered Carbon . Syndicate was Morgan 's second video @-@ game script after 2011 's Crysis 2 ; he used the original game for reference and included elements that those who had played it would immediately recognize . He preserved the original 's dystopian setting and theme , and hoped to use these elements to build a powerful story . Morgan traveled to Sweden to meet Starbreeze 's game designers to ensure the game 's story would not contradict its overall design .
The team 's goal was to make the game different from contemporaneous first @-@ person shooters . The team ensured the game had its own style that would differentiate itself from other games . This was achieved by using a " split @-@ world aspect " , which divided the game 's into two areas , each with a different artstyle . The team added details and aesthetics to the game 's three syndicates in the upper zone so they would easily be recognized and be different from each another . " The Downzone " , where non @-@ implanted poor people live , has a different design from the three syndicates . The team took ideas for this area from Mirror 's Edge . Both sides were inspired by futuristic films such as Blade Runner , Minority Report and Gattaca . In addition , the split @-@ world concept applies to the gameplay . The Downzone enemies tend to be more aggressive and anti @-@ agents , and some gameplay segments such as the breaching system are inapplicable in such areas .
Syndicate uses Starbreeze 's in @-@ house game engine , which had been modified for the creation of the game . The team used Beast to achieve global illumination and a realistic lighting system , and a new physics solver to deliver more physical interactions . The team aimed to maintain a consistent visual quality on all the platforms on which the game was released , even though the PC version had the advantage of higher resolution and frame rate . The engine allowed the inclusion of post @-@ process @-@ effects previously used in Assault on Dark Athena , such as motion blur and depth of field . Their artstyle was changed to suit the game 's overall style .
= = = Marketing = = =
In 2008 , Electronic Arts announced that Starbreeze Studios was working with EA on two projects ; one was a new project set in one of EA 's older franchises under the name Project Redlime . The name " Syndicate " was trademarked multiple times by Starbreeze and EA , and a small portion of the game 's script was accidentally leaked before the game 's official revelation . EA officially revealed the game on 12 September 2011 , and announced that it is a reboot for the franchise . A demo of the game , which only included the co @-@ op mode and the " Western Europe " map , was released for the Xbox Live Marketplace and PlayStation Network on 31 January 2012 . The game was announced and shipped in under six months ; it was released worldwide on 21 February 2012 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Syndicate received generally positive reviews from critics . The game 's story received mixed responses . The reviewer from GameTrailers called the plot predictable and considered several of the game 's plot points boring . He praised the game 's dialogue for its flow and the backstory presented . The reviewer said the campaign lacked scale but was nevertheless enjoyable and worthwhile playing . He also said the celebrity @-@ led voice cast had successfully brought " believability " to the game . This was echoed by Jeff Gerstmann from Giant Bomb . In contrast , Martin Gaston from VideoGamer.com said he was disappointed with the campaign and considered it one of the game 's biggest flaws . He said the world deserves more exploration than it had in Syndicate , and that the development team did not seem to understand the creative vision of the first version of the game . He also said the emphasis on morals did not excel because it does not fit the game 's overall style . He disliked the game 's protagonist , whom he thought was bland , making him difficult for players to relate to . Xav De Matos from Joystiq said the story is filled with promises but the overall product failed to differentiate itself from other shooters with similar themes . Dan Whitehead from Eurogamer compared it unfavourably to its predecessors and called it unambitious and uninspiring .
The overall gameplay received praise . Gaston described the shooting as " clever " and said the DART @-@ 6 breaching abilities have encouraged players to experiment . He said the combination of the breaching system and gunfights made Syndicate better than some other contemporaneous first @-@ person shooters . GameTrailers ' reviewer said the DART @-@ 6 system provides players with choice and the recharge time of the breaching abilities tasks players with managing a " micro @-@ economy " that encourages and rewards skills . Both Gaston and GameTrailers said the game missed out opportunities for limiting the use of some of Kilo 's powers , which are only shown in cutscenes . Gerstmann liked the game 's gameplay and said the control was fun , and that he appreciated the ability to shoot while running . He also admired the breaching abilities and found them satisfying to use . Whitehead shared similar thoughts , saying the breaching abilities tasks players with deploying strategy and make the game deeper than typical run @-@ and @-@ gun video games .
The game 's AI received praise . GameTrailers ' reviewer said enemies " know how to die in style " and that the boss fights are memorable , even though they can be repetitive . Gaston considered it " missed opportunities " . De Matos appreciated the boss fights and said it was fun and interesting , and tasks players with learning the pattern of these boss fights and using the correct skill to defeat them .
Reviewers praised the game 's graphical quality . Gerstmann said the use of lighting added a unique style to the game . He also liked the depiction of the two major areas of the game , and the game 's sounds , which he said suited the tone of the game . Alexandra Hall from GamesRadar said " Starbreeze really coaxed some beautiful sights out of aging hardware " . She added that some players may not be pleased with the game 's bloom effects . David Houghton of the same publication said the game is " a decent shooter " but that its lightbloom effects were " nonsensically over @-@ the @-@ top " . Peter Eykemans from IGN echoed similar thoughts , declaring that the motion bloom and blinding light a problem . However , he admitted that the game " constantly looks great " , and that its simple design has made the game to look very polished .
The four @-@ player , co @-@ operative , multiplayer mode received acclaim . Gaston said it was a " watered down version of Left 4 Dead " , but it was nonetheless a fun and pleasant experience for most players . De Matos said the game had encouraged players to work together to defeat enemies and to plan before attacking , which he said had turned the mode to a " gratifying " experience . He criticized the game 's difficulty , which he said does not scale well , and the scripted enemies , which made the game less dynamic . Whitehead highly recommended the co @-@ operative mode , which he thought should have been the game 's main focus . He added that it provided more freedom to the players than the campaign .
Critics had mixed feelings about the game . Gerstmann said he had an " outstanding time " with it , and that it had offered an excellent twist to the genre . De Matos said it had successfully branched out the franchise to a new direction , even though it may not be what players of the original Syndicate would expect . However , he said the spirit of the franchise is still maintained and preserved . Gaston said Starbreeze was not able to capture the franchise 's vision and that the game was not well @-@ executed overall . Whitehead described the game as " fun " , even though he thought Syndicate was a forgettable experience that will live under the shadow of rival shooters .
= = = Sales = = =
In an interview with Computer and Video Games , Frank Gibeau of EA said the Syndicate revival had not been as successful as had been hoped , saying , " Syndicate was something that we took a risk on . It didn 't pay off — it didn 't work . " In a 2012 interview with Edge , Mikael Nermark , CEO of Starbreeze Studios , said the game sold around 150 @,@ 000 copies worldwide . According to Nermark , the budget for creating this game was less than those of other triple @-@ A video games ; he also said that despite the poor commercial performance , the team was still proud of the final product .
= = = Australian censorship = = =
On 20 December 2011 , it was reported that Syndicate has been refused classification by the Australian Classification Board . The board was especially critical of what it considered to be the game 's excessive violence : explicit depictions of dismemberment , decapitation , exposed flesh and bone from injuries ; and copious blood spray . EA Australia said they would not appeal the decision or change the game to address the Board 's concerns . EA also complained about Australia 's " arcane censorship on games " and said Syndicate would be released on schedule and uncut with an adults @-@ only rating in New Zealand .
= Nick & Norah 's Infinite Playlist =
Nick & Norah 's Infinite Playlist is a 2008 romantic comedy @-@ drama film directed by Peter Sollett and starring Michael Cera and Kat Dennings . Written by Lorene Scafaria and based on the novel of the same name by Rachel Cohn and David Levithan , the story tells of teenagers Nick ( Cera ) and Norah ( Dennings ) , who meet when Norah asks Nick to pretend to be her boyfriend for five minutes . Over the course of the night , they try to find their favorite band 's secret show and search for Norah 's drunken best friend .
The film came into development in 2003 when producer Kerry Kohansky Roberts found Cohn and Levithan 's novel and decided to adapt it for film . Scafaria was hired to write the script in 2005 , and Sollett signed on to direct the film in 2006 . Principal photography took place over 29 days from October to December 2007 , primarily in Manhattan and Brooklyn , New York City .
The film premiered on September 6 , 2008 at the 2008 Toronto International Film Festival and was released theatrically on October 3 , 2008 . It tripled its US $ 10 million budget with a total gross of US $ 33 @.@ 5 million . An accompanying soundtrack was released on September 23 , 2008 , and the film was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray on February 3 , 2009 . It attracted generally positive reviews from critics and received nominations for three Satellite Awards , one GLAAD Media Award , one MTV Movie Award and one Golden Reel Award .
= = Plot = =
A straight bass player in an " all gay band " called The Jerk @-@ Offs , Nick O 'Leary ( Michael Cera ) is a teenager from Hoboken , New Jersey . Nick is still heartbroken after his girlfriend , Tris ( Alexis Dziena ) , broke up with him three weeks , two days , and 23 hours ago , and continues to make " breakup " mix CDs for her . Thom ( Aaron Yoo ) and Dev ( Rafi Gavron ) , his gay bandmates who both hate Tris , convince Nick to perform at a club because his favorite band — the legendary , publicity @-@ shy indie band Where 's Fluffy ? — is performing somewhere in New York City that night . Norah Silverberg ( Kat Dennings ) attends the same high school as Tris , Convent of the Sacred Heart , and though Norah and Tris dislike each other , they have a mutual friend named Caroline ( Ari Graynor ) . Norah has not met Nick , but shares his taste in music based on recovering his mix CDs after Tris discards them in the trash . That night , the three girls end up at Arlene 's Grocery on Manhattan 's Lower East Side , where The Jerk @-@ Offs are playing . Norah asks Nick to pretend to be her boyfriend to show up Tris . Norah kisses him , unaware that he is the ex @-@ boyfriend of Tris . Caroline gets drunk and Norah wants to take her home , but Nick 's bandmates ( who see Norah as a potential new girlfriend for him ) offer to take Caroline home so Norah and Nick can spend time together trying to find the show .
When Thom and Dev stop at Gray 's Papaya for hot dogs , a confused Caroline escapes from Thom 's van . Nick and Norah meet up with Thom and Dev to try to find her . A confusing phone call leads them to look for her at a club that " Where 's Fluffy ? " is rumored to be playing , but with no success . Tris , eager to win back Nick , catches up with them when she gets a phone call from Caroline , who is now able to tell Norah that she has " found Jesus " and " an altar boy without pants . " They find a drunk Caroline on stage at a gay cabaret dressed as a Christmas tree . When they arrive at Nick 's car , Tris is sitting on the hood waiting for him . Norah tells him how nice it was to meet him , but he leaves to talk with Tris without giving Norah a response . An upset Norah meets up at a club with her friend with benefits , Tal ( Jay Baruchel ) , but soon realizes that he has an ulterior motive and hopes to get a deal for his band with Norah 's father , a record producer ( Richard Waddingham ) . She agrees to pay for Tal and his friends ' drinks , but she tells the waitress to increase the tab because there was a miscalculation , and she leaves him to pay . Nick , meanwhile , decides to confront Tris , but she tells him she wants to be together again and asks for a ride home . Tris asks Nick to stop by the river , where she tries to seduce him . Whilst she seductively dances in front of the car , Nick reminisces fondly about Norah and the night 's events and drives away , leaving Tris behind .
Nick calls Norah , apologizing for leaving , and she agrees to meet him again . Deciding to go somewhere where no one they know will find them , they arrive at Electric Lady Studios , a music studio owned by Norah 's father . Once there , Norah gets Nick to play something he wrote in the studio , but then joins him in the recording room . Norah gets a text message from Caroline telling her where she found Where 's Fluffy ? playing . When they arrive at the show , they meet Tris , who cannot understand why Nick will not take her back , and Tal , who wants the same answer from Norah . Tal starts a fight with Nick , but Thom and Dev 's friend , Lethario ( Jonathan B. Wright ) , steps in and headbutts Tal . Nick and Norah share a smile and leave together . At Pennsylvania Station , Nick admits that he does not care about missing the concert , and they kiss on the escalator as the sun rises over New York City .
= = Cast = =
Michael Cera plays Nick O 'Leary , the " straight bass player in a gay band " teenager who is heartbroken after his girlfriend breaks up with him . Cera was the first actor to be cast after being recommended to Sollett by producer Kerry Kohansky Roberts based on his performance in Arrested Development . Sollett called him a " genius " and a " terrific actor " , as well as a " brilliant improvisational comedian " . Cera , who had previously taken improvisation classes , said that " It 's fun [ to improvise ] , just having a conversation . It always feels real because it is real . " He lived in an apartment in New York 's East Village for the duration of filming . Cera had never driven a stick shift vehicle before filming , and was taught so that he could be shot driving Nick 's Yugo .
Kat Dennings plays Norah Silverberg , the teenage daughter of a wealthy record producer who shares Nick 's passion for music . Dennings was the second actor to be cast ( Cera having been first ) , Sollett saying that " her being liberated from [ people 's expectations ] liberated the film in many ways , and certainly her character from cliché . " Dennings felt that she related to Norah more than any other she had played before and " wanted to make sure she was really fleshed out " . Her favorite day of shooting was with a group of drag queens at a gay cabaret , but she said that filming Norah 's first orgasm was " really uncomfortable ... Really , really . "
Ari Graynor plays Caroline , Norah 's best friend . Graynor auditioned for the roles of both Norah and Caroline , and was chosen to play Caroline , which she says rescued her from " one of those horrible actor black holes of really thinking that I 'd probably never work again " . Graynor related to both characters , saying that " I 've had many nights as Caroline . And I 've had many nights as Norah , taking care of Caroline . " Sollett claimed that " everything she did in the movie was her own invention " , calling her improvisation " brilliant " . She improvised an entire scene taking place at the Port Authority Bus Station in which Caroline talks to a stranger and which was not part of the script . When Caroline vomits , Graynor held a mixture of ginger ale and ginger cookie in her mouth which she spat into a toilet and a bag .
Alexis Dziena plays Tris , Nick 's unfaithful ex @-@ girlfriend who attends school with Norah and Caroline . Dziena was one of the first actors cast , having done her final read @-@ through audition with Cera , Dennings , and Graynor . She said that the filming period was " a really fantastic time " , but complained about the night shoots and having to sleep through the day : " Oh , it 's terrible . ... I 'm okay as long as the sun 's not up when I 'm going to sleep but sleeping during the day is rough . "
Aaron Yoo plays Thom , Nick 's friend and the guitarist for The Jerk @-@ Offs . Yoo was supposed to mime playing the guitar when filming The Jerk @-@ Offs ' concert , but requested that he be taught the chords to play when he had spare time . He found it very difficult to drive the van featured in the film and jokingly referred to it as a " tank " and a " World War II veteran " .
Rafi Gavron plays Dev , Nick 's friend and the lead singer of The Jerk @-@ Offs . Gavron recorded a song performed by The Jerk @-@ Offs in the film at Electric Lady Studios , where part of the story takes place . Filming The Jerk @-@ Offs ' concert at Don Hill 's in New York , the owner of the bar , Don Hill , mistook Gavron for a professional musician in spite of Gavron 's calling himself a " useless singer " .
Jay Baruchel plays Tal , Norah 's " friend with benefits " and an amateur musician . Baruchel said that the film was " by far the hippest movie I 've ever been in — that 's for damn sure " .
Jonathan B. Wright as Lethario , a friend of Thom and Dev .
Rachel Cohn and David Levithan , authors of the same @-@ titled novel on which the film is based , cameo as a couple sitting behind Nick and Norah at a diner .
Eddie Kaye Thomas , Graynor 's then boyfriend , cameos as Jesus in a gay cabaret
Devendra Banhart , John Cho , Seth Meyers , and Andy Samberg are also featured .
Kevin Corrigan agreed to cameo so long as he had no speaking lines ; his scene , which was not scripted , was entirely improvised by Graynor .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
Nick and Norah 's Infinite Playlist was originally the novel written by Rachel Cohn and David Levithan , which producer Kerry Kohansky Roberts brought into development as a film in 2003 . Lorene Scafaria was hired by Roberts in early 2005 to adapt the novel for Chris and Paul Weitz and Focus Features ; the script was her first film adaptation . Peter Sollett signed on to direct the film in 2006 , when the script was in its second draft , and collaborated with Scafaria . Scafaria said that Norah " was me on the page " , while Sollett felt that as a teenager he was " not dissimilar to Nick " . Both had similar experiences to Nick and Norah , commuting into Manhattan at night , Scafaria from New Jersey and Sollett from Staten Island .
Cohn and Levithan had written the novel in alternating chapters : Cohn writing from Norah 's perspective and Levithan writing from Nick 's perspective . Cera and Dennings recorded voice @-@ over narration to mimic the first @-@ person perspective from which the novel is written , but the voice @-@ overs were not included in the final cut of the film . Scafaria says that the differences between the novel and the film were " to make it a little more cinematic " . She said that Nick and Norah 's parents were written out of the script " to absorb what it 's like to be young , [ because ] you 're not thinking about your parents when you 're out all night " . In addition to searching for Where 's Fluffy ? , Sollett felt that the film needed a second MacGuffin to propel the story forwards , so Norah 's best friend Caroline got drunk and then lost , giving Nick and Norah an additional objective .
= = = Filming = = =
Shooting on a budget of US $ 10 million , principal photography of Nick and Norah 's Infinite Playlist took place from late October to early December 2007 . The film was shot over 29 days in one @-@ week blocks , and was one of the first to receive a filming subsidy from the state of New York under the " Made in NY " incentive program . Filming took place mainly in Manhattan 's East Village and Lower East Side , as well as Williamsburg , Brooklyn . Filming locations included Katz 's Delicatessen , Mercury Lounge , Arlene 's Grocery , Pennsylvania Station , Port Authority Bus Terminal , the Veselka restaurant and Don Hill 's bar . Union Pool , a bar in Brooklyn , was also used for filming but requested to be called " Brooklyn Pool " in the film , and Norah 's father 's recording studio was filmed at Electric Lady Studios . Some scenes were shot on a sound stage in a studio in Brooklyn .
The cast did many rehearsals , including on @-@ location rehearsals , which Dennings described as " the most practical thing I 've ever heard of " . During the course of filming , the actors slept during the day , woke in the afternoon , had their make @-@ up applied on set , and filmed from dusk until dawn . The cast and crew members would often sit inside the The Jerk @-@ Offs ' van between takes to avoid the cold , and sometimes stayed inside , out of sight , while scenes were being filmed in the van . Reshoots of the film began in May 2008 ; the film had originally begun at The Jerk @-@ Offs ' show where Nick and Norah first meet , and all prior scenes were written in later . Editor Myron Kerstein cut some of the shots on set due to time and budgetary restraints .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Nick and Norah 's Infinite Playlist received generally positive reviews from critics . Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a score of 74 % based on 179 reviews , with an average score of 6 @.@ 5 / 10 . The site 's critical consensus reads , " Nick and Norah 's Infinite Playlist combines a pair of charming leads , the classic New York backdrop and a sweet soundtrack " . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the film received an average score of 64 out of 100 , based on 32 reviews , indicating " generally favorable reviews " .
Claudia Puig of USA Today gave the film 3 @.@ 5 out of 4 stars , praising Dennings ' on @-@ screen presence , the " considerable chemistry " between Cera and Dennings , and the " excellent " soundtrack . The New York Times | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
critic A. O. Scott described Nick and Norah 's Infinite Playlist as a " shy , sweet romance " that " surveys the varieties of teenage experience with tolerant sympathy " . James Berardinelli of ReelViews reviewed the film warmly with 3 out of 4 stars , complimenting the soundtrack , the " witty " dialog and the appeal of the film to both adults and teenagers . Michael Ordona wrote for the Los Angeles Times that the film is familiar , but is " fleshed out with atmosphere , a nice blend of broad goofiness and sophistication , and two appealing leads who bring it to life " . Entertainment Weekly 's Lisa Schwarzbaum graded the film as an A – , giving particular commendation to its nonchalant portrayal of gay teenagers and Norah 's Jewish identity . Richard Corliss of Time magazine opined that the film was " smart , sweet , [ and ] bordering @-@ on @-@ adorable " while the title characters were " worth watching , admiring and cuddling up to " .
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times wrote that Nick and Norah 's Infinite Playlist " doesn 't bring much to the party . [ ... ] It 's not much of a film , but it sort of gets you halfway there , like a Yugo . " Rolling Stone 's Peter Travers gave the film 2 out of 4 stars , saying , " I 'm yawning just writing this . [ ... ] Sollett , hoping for a Before Sunrise / Before Sunset vibe , sadly settles for a soggy aftertaste . " In a review for The Village Voice , Robert Wilonsky likened the film to " something crafted in a lab by 54 @-@ year @-@ old hucksters trying to sell shit to the kids under the cheerless guise of ' alternative . ' The only thing it 's an alternative to ? Good . " Variety magazine 's John Anderson described it as a " sparsely plotted comedy " that is " sweet , no doubt , but a bit too slick for its own good " .
= = = Box office = = =
The world premiere of Nick and Norah 's Infinite Playlist was held on September 6 , 2008 at the 2008 Toronto International Film Festival . It was released theatrically in the United States on October 3 , 2008 , grossing US $ 11 @,@ 311 @,@ 751 from 2 @,@ 421 screens on its debut weekend , placing third in the box office rankings . The following weekend , it grossed $ 6 @,@ 420 @,@ 474 with a per @-@ screen average of $ 2 @,@ 652 and a cumulative gross of $ 20 @,@ 730 @,@ 708 , ranking fifth . It earned another $ 3 @,@ 693 @,@ 384 on its third weekend with a per @-@ screen average of $ 1 @,@ 648 and a cumulative gross of $ 26 @,@ 500 @,@ 875 , dropping to eighth place . The film ended its theatrical run with a total domestic gross of $ 31 @,@ 487 @,@ 293 and a foreign gross of $ 2 @,@ 018 @,@ 844 , giving a worldwide total of $ 33 @,@ 506 @,@ 137 . It placed 92nd for the highest @-@ grossing films of 2008 and 85th for the year 's highest @-@ grossing opening weekends .
The film was screened at the London Film Festival in October 2008 and at the Buenos Aires International Festival of Independent Cinema in March 2009 .
= = = Award nominations = = =
Nick and Norah 's Infinite Playlist was nominated for three Satellite Awards , in the categories of Best Film – Musical or Comedy , Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy ( Michael Cera ) , Best Actress – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy ( Kat Dennings ) , but failed to win any . The film was also nominated at the GLAAD Media Awards in the category of Outstanding Film – Wide Release , and Kat Dennings was nominated for an MTV Movie Award for Best Breakthrough Performance – Female . The film 's supervising music editor Andrew Dorfman was nominated for a Golden Reel Award by the Motion Picture Sound Editors for Best Sound Editing – Music in a Feature Film , but did not win .
= = Home media = =
Nick and Norah 's Infinite Playlist was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray in North America on February 3 , 2009 . The disc includes : one audio commentary with Peter Sollett , Michael Cera , Kat Dennings and Ari Graynor , and another with Sollett , Rachel Cohn , David Levithan , and Lorene Scafaria ; the featurettes " A Nick and Norah Puppet Show by Kat Dennings " and " Ari Graynor 's Video Diary : A Look Behind @-@ the @-@ Scenes " ; a music video for Bishop Allen 's song " Middle Management " ; storyboard animations with optional audio commentary ; a faux interview with Michael Cera , Kat Dennings and Eddie Kaye Thomas ; deleted scenes ; outtakes ; and a photo gallery .
= = Soundtrack = =
Cohn and Levithan 's novel contained many musical references , including songs by The Cure and Green Day , as did Scafaria 's screenplay , which she originally submitted with a mix CD featuring her ideas for the film 's soundtrack , including songs by The Black Keys , Bloc Party , and Frou Frou . In the final cut of the film , however , most of the music was chosen by Sollett , editor Myron Kerstein and music supervisor Linda Cohen . Sollett said that he " got lucky " with the songs that he was able to choose because , within the financiers and the studio , " there was nobody in that group who knew all that much about music or the music that we had in the film " . His objective when selecting the music was to find " the best music you haven 't heard yet " , primarily from bands based in New York City . While filming in New York , he emailed songs " right out of my iTunes [ library ] " which he thought would suit particular scenes to Kerstein , who was in Los Angeles assembling the film as it was shot .
= Saadanius =
Saadanius is a genus of fossil primate dating to the Oligocene that is closely related to the common ancestor of the Old World monkeys and apes , collectively known as catarrhines . It is represented by a single species , Saadanius hijazensis , which is known only from a single partial skull tentatively dated between 29 and 28 mya ( million years ago ) . It was discovered in 2009 in western Saudi Arabia near Mecca and was first described in 2010 after a comparison with both living and fossil catarrhines .
Saadanius had a longer face than living catarrhines and lacked the advanced frontal sinus ( airspaces in the facial bones ) found in living catarrhines . However , it had a bony ear tube ( ectotympanic ) and teeth comparable to those of living catarrhines . The discovery of Saadanius may help answer questions about the evolution and appearance of the last common ancestors of Old World monkeys and apes .
= = Discovery = =
Saadanius is known from a single specimen , the holotype , named " SGS @-@ UM 2009 @-@ 002 " , stored in Jeddah , Saudi Arabia , at the Paleontology Unit of the Saudi Geological Survey ( SGS ) . Its type locality , or the place it was discovered , was on top of an oolitic ironstone fossil bed of the middle Shumaysi Formation located in the southwest corner of Harrat Al Ujayfa , in western Saudi Arabia , close to Mecca . The specimen was discovered in February 2009 by paleontologist Iyad Zalmout , who had traveled to the region to search for ancient whale and dinosaur fossils . While looking for dinosaur fossils in an area that , according to the maps he was working from , contained rock layers that dated to the Cretaceous ( 145 – 66 mya ) , Zalmout found the jawbone of a hippo @-@ like creature , called an anthracotheriid ( a close relative of whales and hippos ) , which dated to Eocene or Oligocene . This indicated that the rock layers were much younger than what was dated on the maps . The following day , he noticed fossil teeth , which he immediately recognized as those of a primate . Zalmout emailed a photo of the teeth to paleontologist Philip D. Gingerich , with whom he was working as a postdoctoral fellow . Gingerich , an expert on ancient primates and whales , confirmed that it was indeed a primate . Due to a tight schedule , Zalmout had to leave the exposed fossil embedded in the rock for the next few days because collecting it would require days of work . The fossil was soon recovered by a joint expedition involving the SGS and the University of Michigan .
The fossil was not formally described until 2010 when its discovery was announced in the journal Nature . The fossil was dated to about 28 or 29 million years ago based on comparisons of fossils of anthracotheriids and paenungulates ( members of the group that includes elephants and hyraxes ) found nearby with fossils from similarly aged African deposits . However , the date has yet to be confirmed by other dating techniques . The genus name , Saadanius , comes from the Arabic word , saadan ( Arabic : سَعدان ) , which is the collective term for apes and monkeys . The species name , hijazensis , is a reference to the al Hijaz region , in which it was discovered .
= = Type specimen = =
Saadanius had a longer face than living catarrhines , more closely resembling New World monkeys in appearance , although it was larger — possibly the size of a gibbon . Its enlarged , deep @-@ rooted canine teeth , the diastema ( space ) between its canine teeth and second incisors , and its sagittal crest ( ridge of bone running lengthwise down the top of the skull ) suggest that the specimen was a male . These features are shared among male Old World monkeys . Saadanius lacks the advanced frontal sinus found in living catarrhines , but it does possess an ectotympanic , or bony ear tube , found in living catarrhines . Propliopithecoids , the oldest stem group of catarrhines , which date back 35 to 30 mya , lacked a fully developed ectotympanic .
The specimen had serious puncture wounds on the front of the skull , indicating that it had been preyed upon by a large carnivore . One puncture wound was on the right side of the braincase and may have been the fatal blow . There was also a bite mark on the frontal trigon .
Like other catarrhine primates , Saadanius was probably a tree @-@ dweller ( arboreal ) . During the time it would have lived , the Red Sea had not yet formed , and new plant and animal species would have been arriving from nearby Eurasia as it converged with the Afro @-@ Arabian landmass .
= = Phylogeny and significance = =
Comparative anatomy and cladistic analysis indicate that Saadanius is more closely related to the last common ancestor of crown catarrhines than any other known fossil catarrhines , placing the common ancestry of Catarrhini in Arabia and Africa . Other stem catarrhines include propliopithecoids , such as Aegyptopithecus , and pliopithecoids , such as Pliopithecus . The closer similarities between Saadanius and crown catarrhines , particularly its ectotympanic , suggest Saadanius of all known fossil primates most closely resembled the last common ancestor of living catarrhines . Its discovery has provided new details about human evolution , particularly the split between the Old World monkeys and the ape lineage that eventually led to humans .
The discovery of Saadanius provides new evidence for competing hypotheses about the facial appearance of the ancestral crown catarrhines , or common ancestor . One reconstruction is based on living catarrhine traits and predicts a short face and a rounded braincase , similar to that of a gibbon . Another reconstruction , based on the morphology of early Miocene apes and the basal cercopithecoid Victoriapithecus , predicts that the last common ancestor had a projecting snout and tall face , like that of living baboons and the oldest fossil apes and Old World monkeys . The conservative features of Saadanius , similar to those of the older stem catarrhines , support the latter hypothesis , according to Zalmout et al . However , one palaeontologist , Eric Delson , has cautioned that geological pressure may have distorted the shape of the skull .
According to Zalmout et al . , Saadanius may also help resolve the age of the hominoid – cercopithecoid split . Paleoanthropological work has typically placed the divergence between 25 and 23 mya , but genetic @-@ based estimates have placed it in the early Oligocene , approximately 33 mya . Despite the predictions from the genetic tests , little fossil evidence has been found for a last common ancestor between 30 and 23 mya , favoring a later split . Only isolated teeth of Kamoyapithecus hinted at the existence of potential basal hominoids in the late Oligocene ( between 24 and 27 @.@ 5 mya ) , while the oldest fossil Old World monkey , Victoriapithecus macinnesi , dates to 19 mya . With the discovery of Saadanius , Zalmout et al. suggested a later split than the genetic data , dating between 29 – 28 and 24 mya . However , Pozzi et al. later argued that although Saadanius is a significant discovery , because it is a stem catarrhine , it could not be used to date the divergence of the crown group . The presence of stem taxa in the fossil record does not indicate that crown groups have evolved , and stem taxa may survive for millions of years after the crown taxa appear . For this reason , the fossil record can only suggest a hard minimum boundary for divergence dates , which corresponds to the first appearance of a crown taxon . Furthermore , Pozzi et al. pointed out that the supplementary material published by Zalmout et al. demonstrated that Pliopithecoidea were more closely related to living catarrhines than Saadanius .
The fossil find has also been seen by the SGS as an important find for Saudi Arabia , because it enriches the fossil record for the region . As a result of the find , both the SGS and the University of Michigan are considering more collaborative field explorations in the country .
= Belle ( Disney ) =
Belle is a fictional character who appears in Walt Disney Pictures ' 30th animated feature film Beauty and the Beast ( 1991 ) . Originally voiced by American actress and singer Paige O 'Hara – who auditioned for the role five times after first reading about it in The New York Times – Belle is the non @-@ conforming daughter of an eccentric inventor . Ostracized by her village peers due to her intelligence and love of books , Belle yearns to abandon her uneventful life in favor of adventure . When her father Maurice is imprisoned by a cold @-@ hearted beast , Belle offers him her own freedom in exchange for her father 's , and eventually learns to love the Beast despite his outward appearance .
Disney chairman Jeffrey Katzenberg commissioned Beauty and the Beast as an animated musical with a strong heroine , and hired first @-@ time screenwriter Linda Woolverton to write it . Basing her on the heroine of Jeanne @-@ Marie Leprince de Beaumont 's fairy tale " Beauty and the Beast " , Woolverton adapted Belle into a stronger and less passive character for the film . Inspired by the women 's rights movement , Woolverton wanted Belle to be a unique Disney heroine different from The Little Mermaid 's popular Ariel , and thus deliberately conceived the character as a feminist in an effort to avoid the criticism Disney had long been receiving due to the studio 's reputation of depicting its female characters as victims .
Belle 's strength and love of reading was inspired by American actress Katharine Hepburn 's performance as Jo March in the film Little Women ( 1933 ) , while the writers instilled the adventure @-@ seeking heroine with goals and aspirations beyond romance . However , the story artists and animators often disagreed with Woolverton 's liberated vision for the character . Animated by James Baxter and Mark Henn , the former of whom based the character 's graceful gait on those of impressionist Edgar Degas ' ballerinas , Belle 's European facial features were inspired by those of British actresses Vivien Leigh and Audrey Hepburn . Several additional Hollywood actresses inspired Belle 's appearance , including Natalie Wood , Elizabeth Taylor and Grace Kelly .
Belle has garnered widespread acclaim from film critics who appreciated the character 's bravery , intelligence and independence . Reception towards her feminism , however , has been more mixed , with commentators accusing the character 's actions of being romance @-@ oriented . The fifth Disney Princess , Belle is often ranked among the franchise 's best . Highly regarded as one of Disney 's strongest examples of a feminist character , critics agree that Belle helped spearhead a generation of independent film heroines while changing the reputation of a Disney princess . Also one of Disney 's most iconic characters , Belle was the only animated heroine nominated for the American Film Institute 's greatest heroes in film ranking . The character also appears in the film 's several sequels and spin @-@ offs , as well as her own live @-@ action television series . American actress Susan Egan originated the role of Belle in the Broadway musical adaptation of the film , for which she was nominated for a Tony Award for Best Actress in a Musical .
= = Development = =
= = = Conception and writing = = =
After the success of Walt Disney Productions ' first feature @-@ length animated film Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs ( 1937 ) , filmmaker Walt Disney himself made several attempts to adapt the fairy tale " Beauty and the Beast " by Jeanne @-@ Marie Leprince de Beaumont into one of the studio 's earliest animated feature films during the 1940s and 1950s . However , the project was continuously abandoned due to the fairy tale 's " static " plot and main characters . The filmmaker was also concerned about the " unnecessary intensity " required to depict Belle imprisoned . Inspired by the unprecedented success of The Little Mermaid ( 1989 ) , Disney chairman Jeffrey Katzenberg green @-@ lit another attempt at adapting " Beauty and the Beast " under the direction of Richard Purdum . However , Katzenberg did not approve of Purdum 's dark , somber version of the fairy tale , and ultimately ordered that it be restarted from scratch in favor of creating a Broadway @-@ style musical film starring a strong heroine , similar to The Little Mermaid . Opting instead for a " feminist twist " on the story , Katzenberg hired television writer Linda Woolverton , who had never written an animated film before , to write the film 's screenplay .
Before Beauty and the Beast , Disney 's tradition of depicting female characters as victims had already long been established . The fact that Belle was hardly depicted as a feminist in earlier versions of the film became a point of contention among the filmmakers . Despite the fact that Disney wanted Beauty and the Beast to resemble an old @-@ fashioned film , the filmmakers envisioned Belle as " a woman that was ahead of her time " . As the first woman in the history of Disney to write a feature @-@ length animated film , Woolverton decided to explore Belle as an opportunity to create a female character who would ultimately be better received than Disney 's previous animated heroines , specifically Ariel from The Little Mermaid . Woolverton was aware that the task would be particularly challenging due to the previous character 's popularity , but fought relentlessly to make sure that she was creating " a new kind of Disney heroine . " Inspired by the women 's rights movement Woolverton herself had experienced during the 1960s and 1970s , the screenwriter was determined to avoid creating another " insipid " Disney princess and decided to conceive Belle as a headstrong feminist . Woolverton strongly believed that contemporary audiences would not identify with Belle unless she was updated appropriately , and thus evolved the character into " a woman of the ' 90s " . The screenwriter refused to watch Jean Cocteau 's 1946 film adaptation of the fairy tale and chose to base Belle on American actress Katharine Hepburn 's portrayal of Jo March in the 1933 film adaptation of Louisa May Alcott 's book Little Women instead , who she felt was " a real depiction of womanhood . " Similarly , story artist Brenda Chapman drew influence from Hepburn 's on @-@ screen bickering with actor Spencer Tracy during the scene in which Belle tends to the Beast 's wounds .
Animator Mark Henn observed that , unlike Ariel , Belle does not " fall in love at first sight " ; instead " there 's an actual relationship you see grow " . In the original fairy tale , Belle has two selfish sisters who both have their own respective love interests , all of whom Woolverton omitted from the screenplay in favor of focusing solely on Belle 's relationship with Gaston . At one point , Belle had a younger sister named Clarice and a cruel aunt named Marguerite , both of whom were discarded – Clarice to emphasize Belle 's loneliness , and Marguerite to be replaced by Gaston as the film 's villain . Woolverton also eliminated the subplot of Belle asking her father for a rose . Despite constant " regressive " re @-@ writes , Woolverton 's overall vision for Belle generally remained intact . Beauty and the Beast 's story department was predominantly male , a time during which few women were involved . Woolverton often found herself at odds and disagreeing with the more traditional story artists in regards to Belle 's role in the film , but continued to be supported by Katzenberg and lyricist Howard Ashman .
According to Woolverton , the story team challenged nearly every line of dialogue Woolverton suggested for the character . On one occasion , the story artists re @-@ wrote what Woolverton had originally scripted as Belle using a map to indicate places to where she would like to travel to the character baking a cake . Arguing that the liberated Belle would not even know how to bake , Woolverton decided to compromise by having the character read a book instead , which was similarly debated because some filmmakers considered reading to be too passive an activity . To resolve this , Woolverton scripted Belle walk while reading , an activity in which Woolverton herself partook as a child . In Beaumont 's fairy tale , Belle is essentially forced to replace her father as the Beast 's prisoner . To make the character more independent , Woolverton re @-@ wrote her so that she willingly ventures into the woods in search of her father , bravely confronts the Beast and ultimately trades her own freedom in return for Maurice 's instead . During Gaston 's climactic fight with the Beast , the character 's line " Time to die ! " was changed to " Belle is mine ! " in order return the focus of the story to Belle .
= = = Voice = = =
Disney had originally considered casting American actress and singer Jodi Benson , who famously provided the voice of Ariel in The Little Mermaid , as Belle , but ultimately felt that the actress sounded " too American " and young . Describing the character as " a woman that was ahead of her time , " the filmmakers wanted Belle to sound " more like a woman than a girl . " Director Kirk Wise was specifically searching for an actress capable of " creat [ ing ] a character completely with her voice " , inspired by American entertainer Judy Garland . American actress and singer Paige O 'Hara was performing on Broadway in New York when she first read about the role and Beauty and the Beast in The New York Times . Upon discovering that the studio was holding auditions for the lead role of Belle and specifically recruiting Broadway performers at the behest of lyricist Howard Ashman and composer Alan Menken , O 'Hara immediately insisted that her agent schedule her an audition . O 'Hara auditioned for the role five times , competing against approximately 500 hopefuls . O 'Hara 's first two auditions required the actress to mail audio recordings of her voice to the studio in Los Angeles . The actress was also required to perform a song of her choice , selecting " Heaven Help My Heart " from the musical Chess . At her first legitimate audition , O 'Hara spoke and sang in a higher register than her own in an effort to mimic the voice of Snow White from Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs , but the filmmakers insisted that she use her natural voice instead . O 'Hara 's last few auditions were attended by Ashman and Menken , directors Wise and Gary Trousdale , and producers Katzenberg and Don Hahn . Ashman was already familiar with O 'Hara 's Broadway stint as Ellie May Chipley in the musical Show Boat . An hour after her fifth and final audition , O 'Hara received a telephone call from Disney on her birthday informing her that she had successfully been cast . The actress was fairly confident that the role was hers before she was officially cast , and credits the fact that Ashman enjoyed her performance on the cast recording of the musical Show Boat . O 'Hara admitted , " I 'm not usually confident about auditions ... but I just understood ( Belle ) so much . "
Despite her successful stage career , O 'Hara was virtually unknown to Hollywood audiences before was cast in Beauty and the Beast ; she is recognized as one of the last relatively obscure actresses to be cast in a feature @-@ length Disney animated film . 30 years old at the time of her audition , O 'Hara consequently imbued Belle 's voice with a mature , " womanly quality " despite the character 's young age . Woolverton appreciated the fact that O 'Hara sounded more mature than traditional Disney heroines . Additionally , O 'Hara identified with her character because they were both ostracized by their peers throughout their childhood because of their unconventional interests , explaining , " I was odd growing up myself . I mean , I was into musical theater and Gershwin and Rodgers and Hammerstein while people were going to Led Zeppelin concerts . So I understood that ... I wasn 't the norm either . I was very focused on my career , on my performing all through my childhood and my teens ... I had a one @-@ track mind , and I think that Belle was like that a lot . " O 'Hara also shares Belle 's interest in reading . Wise was pleased with the quality of O 'Hara 's voice , which reminded him of Garland . O 'Hara initially found it challenging to control her speaking volume due to having been trained to project as a stage actress . O 'Hara told The Guardian that to solve this she " softened and used the microphone . " The actress would occasionally ad @-@ lib her own dialogue . However , none was included in the final film because it sounded " too modern " . O 'Hara and American actor Robby Benson , who provides the voice of the Beast , asked Disney to allow the co @-@ stars to record together as opposed to the traditional method of being isolated in a recording booth , to which the studio agreed despite its costliness . O 'Hara credited the filmmaker 's decision with developing both the film and Belle and the Beast 's relationship . O 'Hara and Benson became the first Disney voice actors to record together . In total , the recording process took over two years to complete .
Since the November 1991 release of Beauty and the Beast , O 'Hara has returned to The Walt Disney Company on several occasions to voice Belle in a variety of media and merchandise , including its direct @-@ to @-@ video sequels Beauty and the Beast : The Enchanted Christmas ( 1997 ) , Belle 's Magical World ( 1998 ) and Belle 's Tales of Friendship ( 1999 ) , as well as various video game releases such as the Kingdom Hearts series and several audio and video recordings associated with the Disney Princess franchise . Additionally , O 'Hara was hired by Disney to perform the song " Belle " at the 64th Academy Awards in 1992 . O 'Hara has referred to the studio as her " main employer for 20 years " . In 2011 , O 'Hara was officially replaced by actress Julie Nathanson , who first voiced Belle in the video game Kinect Disneyland Adventures ( 2011 ) . O 'Hara revealed to the Las Vegas Review @-@ Journal that news of the replacement greatly upset her to the point of which she was willing to re @-@ record much of Belle 's dialogue in an attempt to prove to the company that she is still capable of voicing the character . However , O 'Hara eventually admitted that she found the process quite difficult as a result of the way in which her voice has changed over the course of 20 years .
= = = Personality and design = = =
According to producer Don Hahn , Beaumont 's original Belle is an " incredibly passive " character , the personality of whom he likened to those of Sleeping Beauty and Cinderella , as well as American actress and animal rights activist Doris Day , describing them as women who are " capable , but filling a role that women might fill in the 1950s and 1960s . ” The filmmakers painstakingly reworked Belle into a more three @-@ dimensional character by providing her with goals and aspirations beyond romance and marriage , while expanding her passive role into that of a more inquisitive heroine . Determined to have Belle resemble " an unusual Disney heroine , " Woolverton deliberately molded her into an independent character who is not a princess , enjoys books and has little interest in marriage for marriages sake , and worked closely with Ashman to create a proactive heroine " who was a thinker and a reader and she wasn ’ t about what she looked like and she wasn ’ t a victim . " Both Woolverton and O 'Hara encouraged the filmmakers to emphasize the intelligent and book @-@ loving aspects of Belle 's personality . However , at times the animators struggled to realize Woolverton 's vision . Originally , Belle was depicted constantly crying throughout her imprisonment ; Woolverton resented this , arguing that the character was much more likely to be either searching for an escape or simply " be intrigued that she was living in an enchanted castle " than crying . " Once everybody realized she wasn ’ t going to be this typical Disney female , they would go to the extreme ... She became bitchy " ; the screenwriter argued that Belle would be " too smart " to act this way . A few years older than The Little Mermaid 's Ariel , Belles ' love of reading makes the character more worldly and mature than her predecessor . Belle is believed by Henn to be " probably " the oldest of Disney 's princesses , at 20 years of age . Although Belle being well @-@ read is mentioned in the original fairy tale , it is hardly important to the plot . Thus , Belle 's love of reading was expanded upon , borrowing from both the Little Woman character Jo March and Woolverton 's own love of reading to demonstrate the character 's intelligence and open mind .
To demonstrate that the character is not perfect , Woolverton described " a little wisp of hair that keeps falling in her face , " which was the only direction she used to describe Belle 's physical appearance . Belle 's supervising animators were James Baxter and Mark Henn . Henn 's second Disney heroine , the animator had previously contributed to animating Ariel . Wanting Belle to be significantly different and more European in appearance than Ariel , the animators drew her with fuller lips , narrower eyes and darker eyebrows , which were inspired by the facial features of British actresses Vivien Leigh and Audrey Hepburn ; Belle 's yellow ballgown was inspired by a similar costume Hepburn had worn in the film Roman Holiday ( 1953 ) . Hahn and a team of male filmmakers designed the ballgown while consuming pizza and drinking alcohol . More statuesque than most Disney princesses , Belle 's appearance was inspired by that of American actress Jennie Garth . The animators also used photographs of Hollywood actresses Natalie Wood , Elizabeth Taylor and Grace Kelly for reference . Baxter studied the art of French impressionist Edgar Degas , a painter known for his portraits of ballerinas , whose work inspired the animator to incorporate " graceful , swan @-@ like movements " into Belle 's performance . Henn was specifically assigned certain scenes to animate from the studio 's Florida division , namely the character exploring the West Wing , the scene in which Belle tends to the Beast 's wounds , and the " Something There " musical sequence . Art director Brian McEntee suggested that Belle be the only character in her village to wear blue in order emphasize the fact that she is different and an outcast . The colors Belle wears also mimic her emotions , blue being associated with sadness and loneliness . Blue was also used to symbolize good , while Gaston 's red represented evil . According to the Directory of World Cinema : American Hollywood by Lincoln Geraghty , Belle was inspired by actress Judy Garland 's role as Dorothy Gale in The Wizard of Oz ( 1939 ) and Julie Andrews ' performance as Maria von Trapp in The Sound of Music ( 1965 ) .
O 'Hara felt that Belle originally looked " too perfect , " likening the character 's appearance to actresses Elizabeth Taylor and Angelina Jolie . Actress and model Sherri Stoner served as the performance model for Belle , providing live @-@ action reference for the animators as they drew the character . Belle 's tendency to constantly brush her hair away from her face was also inspired by both Stoner and O 'Hara . " I was constantly doing that and little quirky things that they would catch , " O 'Hara told The Guardian . The animators also incorporated O 'Hara 's eyes , cheekbones and the way in which she raises her eyebrow into Belle 's face . Writing for the Los Angeles Times , Charles Solomon observed inconsistencies in Belle 's appearance , writing , " The prettiest and liveliest Belle waltzes with Beast in his marble ballroom and weeps over his body before he 's transformed into the Prince " while " The Belle who receives the library from Beast has wider @-@ set eyes and a more prominent mouth than the noticeably slimmer Belle who sings ' Something There ' " . Beauty and the Beast became the first animated film to fully credit each animator responsible for animating a specific character during the film 's closing credits . Having since animated Jasmine in Aladdin ( 1992 ) , Mulan in Mulan ( 1998 ) and Tiana in The Princess and the Frog ( 2009 ) , Henn has established himself " as the go @-@ to man behind many Disney princesses . "
= = Characterization and themes = =
Woolverton created Belle as part of " her self @-@ directed mandate to move women and girls forward . " The Express @-@ Times described the character as an intelligent young woman who " sings songs about reading and wanting to gain knowledge , rather than falling in love . " Woolverton credits Belle 's knowledge and love of books with providing the character with a " point of view of her life and that doesn 't necessarily involve a man getting her there . " One of the film 's main themes , Belle is considered an outsider because her love of reading provides her with knowledge of the outside world as opposed to her " narrow @-@ minded " village peers . Writing for Wired.com , Matt Blum dubbed Belle " the geekiest heroine of any Disney animated film . " Similarly , Boxoffice 's Amy Nicholson coined the character " Disney 's Smartest Heroine , " while Rob Burch of The Hollywood News observed that the character " comes across as arrogant at times " because she " spends much of the first act complaining . " In her book Sex , Love and Abuse : Discourses on Domestic Violence and Sexual Assault , author Sharon Hayes described Belle as " the quintessential beautiful young ingenue . " Comparing Belle 's personality to that of the princess in the Brothers Grimm 's fairy tale " The Frog Prince " , The Meanings of " Beauty and the Beast " : A Handbook author Jerry Griswold described the character as a similarly " feisty and outspoken " heroine . Writing for St. Francis Xavier University , Dawn Elizabeth England observed that Belle possesses equally as many traditionally feminine as she does masculine traits , citing her bravery , independence and assertiveness as masculine , and her sensitivity and fearfulness as feminine . According to Hard Bodies : Hollywood Masculinity in the Reagan Era author Susan Jeffords , " Belle 's credentials as heroine are established ... when she is the only one of the town 's single women not to swoon over Gaston , " while the character 's love of reading is essentially manipulated " to mark her as better than the rest of the townspeople . " Writing for The Statesman , David O 'Connor cited Belle 's intelligence and bibliophilia as " in stark opposition to the insensitive and significantly dim @-@ witted Gaston . " Critics continue to debate over whether Belle or the Beast is the film 's protagonist . Susan Jeffords , author of Hard Bodies : Hollywood Masculinity in the Reagan Era , felt that although Belle appears to be the protagonist in Beaumont 's original fairy tale , the character becomes " less the focus of the narrative " in Disney 's adaptation and more of a " mechanism for solving the Beast 's ' dilemma ' . " In her article " The Tangled Evolution of the Disney Princess " , Noelle Buffam felt that Belle arrived just in time when Disney 's heroines were " in a dire need for some change , " awarding her " the red stamp of approval " for her intelligence and spirit .
Analyzing ways in which Disney 's heroines have evolved overtime due to " the approach to the characterization of the princesses chang [ ing ] " as the characters gradually transformed from passive young women into heroines who " had ambitions and desires aside from finding true love , " critics often divide the Disney Princesses into three separate categories and rank Belle among the middle of the timeline , with Kit Steinkellner of HelloGiggles observing that the character improved upon " the Disney princess archetype " by simultaneously serving as both a " dreamer " and a " doer " in her film , as opposed to exclusively the former . Film historian Paula Sigman Lowery explained to the Daily Express that Belle 's personality is a combination of Ariel 's spirit and burgeoning independence , and Pocahontas ' maturity , while Belle is " a little older [ than Ariel ] and a little further along in their journey towards independence . " About.com 's David Nusair believes that Belle belongs to a category of Disney Princesses known as " The Lady Vanishes , " in which the heroines , in spite of being brave , outspoken and independent , nonetheless " are forced to behave passively as others help them achieve their respective goals . " Michelle Munro , writing for Durham College of Applied Arts and Technology , felt that even though Belle shares several traits with her more passive predecessors , the character introduced " new possibilities for princesses . " Girls in Capes wrote that Belle pioneered a generation of princesses who taught " about ambition , self @-@ discovery and the pursuit of what we want . " Additionally , Belle remains Disney 's first and only princess to have hazel eyes .
= = Appearances = =
= = = Film and television = = =
Belle debuted in Beauty and the Beast ( 1991 ) as a beautiful bibliophile who , although praised by her fellow villagers for her unrivaled beauty , is at the same time ridiculed for her intelligence and non @-@ conformity . Having grown weary of her uneventful provincial life , in which she is relentlessly romantically pursued by an arrogant hunter named Gaston , Belle longs for adventure . When her father Maurice is imprisoned by a cold @-@ hearted beast , Belle sacrifices her own freedom in return for his , promising to remain with the Beast in his castle among his staff of enchanted objects forever . Although she initially dislikes her captor , Belle gradually learns to accept the Beast in spite of his appearance and eventually befriends him . Belle and the Beast 's strong bond greatly envies Gaston to the point of which he storms the castle and kills him , only to fall to his own death in the process . However , Belle confesses her love for the Beast just in time to break the spell under which he had been placed by an enchantress as punishment for his selfish ways , and the Beast ultimately transforms back into a handsome prince .
In Beauty and the Beast : The Enchanted Christmas ( 1997 ) , Belle attempts to reignite the castle 's waning spirit by reintroducing and celebrating Christmas , in spite of the Beast 's strong resentment towards the holiday . Meanwhile , a solemn pipe organ named Forte grows determined to sabotage Belle and the Beast 's burgeoning friendship because he longs to maintain his co @-@ dependent relationship with his master . Tricked by Forte into retrieving a large Christmas tree from a frozen pond , Belle nearly drowns , only to be rescued by the Beast . The Beast , however , having been misinformed by Forte , wrongly accuses Belle of trying to escape again , and locks her in the dungeon as punishment . When the Beast finally discovers the truth , they forgive each other , and Belle helps him thwart Forte 's plan to destroy the castle . Beauty and the Beast : Belle 's Magical World ( 1998 ) , depicts Belle as she interacts with both the Beast and his enchanted servants in various segments , exploring themes such as forgiveness , friendship , cooperation and respect .
In Belle 's Tales of Friendship ( 1999 ) , a spin @-@ off of the film series , Belle owns a bookstore in which she teaches valuable lessons to children by reading and retelling well @-@ known stories and fairy tales , narrating four classic Disney animated shorts : The Three Little Pigs ( 1933 ) , Peter and the Wolf ( 1946 ) , The Wise Little Hen ( 1934 ) and Morris the Midget Moose ( 1950 ) . For the first time , Belle appears as both animated and live @-@ action versions of herself , voiced and portrayed by actresses Paige O 'Hara and Lyndsey McLeod , respectively . In the television series Sing Me a Story with Belle ( 1995 – 1999 ) , Belle , in a role reprised by McLeod , owns her own music and bookshop , where she is visited by children to whom she tells and sings stories .
= = = Broadway musical = = =
Belle appeared in the Broadway musical adaptation of Beauty and the Beast . The role was originated by actress Susan Egan , who was initially reluctant to audition for Beauty and the Beast because she " thought it was a terrible idea for Disney to put a cartoon on Broadway . " However , her agent managed to convince her otherwise , and Egan ultimately turned down callbacks for roles in the musicals My Fair Lady , Carousel and Grease in favor of starring as Belle in Beauty and the Beast because she had always wanted to originate a Broadway role . Egan had never watched Beauty and the Beast prior to her audition , relying solely on " her own creative instincts " instead . Egan 's performance earned her a Tony Award nomination for Best Actress in a Musical at the 48th Tony Awards . A total of seventeen actresses have portrayed Belle in the Broadway musical , among them recording artists Debbie Gibson and Toni Braxton , The Sopranos ' Jamie @-@ Lynn Sigler , and Disney Channel alumnae Christy Carlson Romano and Anneliese van der Pol , the latter of whom became Broadway 's final Belle when the show ended its thirteen @-@ year @-@ long run in 2007 . Actress Sarah Litzsinger remains Broadway 's longest @-@ running Belle .
A best @-@ selling R & B singer , Braxton made her Broadway debut when she was cast as Belle in 1998 , turning down actress Halle Berry 's role in the film Why Do Fools Fall In Love ( 1998 ) . Braxton 's desire to pursue an acting career stemmed from a series of conflicts with the singer 's record label at the time , in turn making her the only African American to portray Belle in the show 's history . Belle 's ballad " A Change in Me " was written by songwriters Alan Menken and Tim Rice specifically for Braxton . However , the song was ultimately so well @-@ received that it has been included in the musical ever since . During her tenure as Belle , Braxton was stalked by an " obsessed fan . " The stalker had reportedly " bombarded " Braxton with threatening e @-@ mails and letters . Several measures were taken to ensure the singer 's safety , including forcing Braxton to dress in full disguise when traveling to and from the theatre in addition to reducing her total number of weekly performances from eight to seven . The stalker was eventually arrested and charged with " aggravated harassment . "
= = = Miscellaneous = = =
Belle along with Beast and Chip appeared at the 64th Academy Awards as presenters for Best Animated Short Feature . She also makes a brief cameo appearance in Disney 's 34th animated feature film The Hunchback of Notre Dame ( 1996 ) during the " Out There " musical sequence . Belle appeared in the animated television series Disney 's House of Mouse and its direct @-@ to @-@ video films Mickey 's Magical Christmas : Snowed in at the House of Mouse and Mickey 's House of Villains . In the television series , Belle is voiced by American actress and singer Jodi Benson , while O 'Hara reprises her role in the film . She was featured as one of the seven Princesses of Heart in the Kingdom Hearts video game series . A live @-@ action version of Belle appears as a main character in the ABC television series Once Upon a Time , where she serves as the love interest of Rumplestiltskin ( who is the show 's version of the Beast ) . She is portrayed by Australian actress Emilie de Ravin . Another live @-@ action version of the character appeared in the 2015 television film Descendants , where she was played by Keegan Connor Tracy ( who is also a cast member on Once Upon a Time , except she plays The Blue Fairy / Mother Superior in the series ) and serves as the Queen of the United States of Auradon . The series Sofia the First included a cameo by Belle in a 2013 episode . In January 2015 , English actress Emma Watson announced that she will be portraying Belle in a live @-@ action adaptation of the film , scheduled for a 2017 release .
Belle was also the main character in various comic books based on the film , including one set during Belle 's stay at the castle published by Marvel Comics , and a prequel set several years before the film distributed by Disney Comics . In the former , the storylines generally have the servants trying to coax Belle into doing something with the Beast , only for it to backfire and nearly ruin their friendship before they make up . In the latter serial , Belle ends up locked up in a cellar by village children after reluctantly playing pirates with them , and later nearly goes down the path leading to Beast 's castle . The latter serial also implies that she holds misandric views and refuses to associate herself with the village children , especially the males , due to their not being as well @-@ versed in literature as she .
Belle and the other characters from the first movie appear in the stage show , Beauty and the Beast Live on Stage at Disney 's Hollywood Studios , Walt Disney World . Belle appears in a meet @-@ and @-@ greet attraction at Magic Kingdom 's Fantasyland called Enchanted Tales with Belle . In season 18 of Dancing With the Stars , Danica McKellar played Belle while performing a Quickstep on a Disney themed episode . Ginger Zee and Edyta Śliwińska also both portrayed Belle while performing a Foxtrot and Waltz respectively during the Disney night episode of the 22nd season of Dancing with the Stars .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Belle has garnered widespread acclaim from film critics , several of whom voiced their preference for the character over her predecessor , Ariel from The Little Mermaid . Hal Hinson of The Washington Post described Belle as a " compelling " character who is " more mature , more womanly and less blandly asexual " than Ariel , as well as " a more worldly girl " , describing her as " a bookworm , with gumption and a mind of her own . " Similarly comparing Belle to Ariel , John Hartl of The Seattle Times wrote that , in Beauty and the Beast , " there 's rarely a sense of deja vu , perhaps because the heroine is so different from ' Mermaid 's ' dependent Ariel , and her dilemma is more poignant , " while Boxoffice scribed , " Undoubtedly in response to criticism that the cute little ' Mermaid ' Ariel was nothing more than a precocious sexpot , the idea @-@ people behind this beauty — aptly named Belle ... chose to make her an icon of self @-@ reliance and a voracious reader with a curiosity and love for everything around her . " Jennie Punter of The Globe and Mail extolled Belle as a " smart , courageous ... ' take @-@ charge kind of gal ' , " while crowning her the " main attraction of Beauty and the Beast . " Emma Cochrane of Empire hailed Belle as " a feminist heroine who [ is ] more rounded than previous Disney characters " , while Paste 's Annlee Ellingson similarly enjoyed the character 's " feminist kick . " Stephen Hunter of The Baltimore Sun wrote that " Belle ... is no passive fairy tale princess , but a real live girl , with a spunky personality and her own private agenda . " TV Guide wrote that " The familiar narrative is strengthened by the independent , self @-@ assured character of Belle , " concluding , " Unlike Disney heroines from Snow White through Ariel , Belle is smart , knows what she wants , and doesn 't spend her time pining away for the love of a handsome prince . " Marc Bernardin of Entertainment Weekly praised Belle 's heroism , dubbing her " the hero " of Beauty and the Beast , while Entertainment Weekly 's Christian Blauvelt opined , " Unlike previous Disney heroines who needed to be rescued by a prince themselves , Belle not only saves the Beast 's life , she saves his soul . " TLC 's Vicki Arkoff received Belle as a " smart " and " sharp @-@ tongued " heroine , crediting the character for " break [ ing ] Disney 's passive @-@ princess mold . " About.com 's David Nusair described Belle as an " admirable " heroine . AllMovie 's Don Kaye and Perry Seibert echoed each other 's reviews of the character , with Kaye describing both Belle and the Beast as " three @-@ dimensional ... complex individuals who defy stereotyping and change over the course of the story , " and Seibert calling Belle a " strong female character " who " sidesteps most of the clichés surrounding Disney heroines . " Common Sense Media hailed Belle as " one of Disney 's smartest , most independent heroines . "
Meanwhile , Belle 's relationship with the Beast has also been met with positive reviews . About.com 's David Nusair wrote that " the palpable chemistry between Belle and The Beast ensur [ es ] that Beauty and the Beast lives up to its reputation as one of the most memorable romances of all time . " Describing it as an " unconventional romance , " Charles Solomon of the Los Angeles Times opined , " The idea of a young woman learning to love a gentle heart hidden beneath a baleful exterior represented a major break with tradition . " Likewise , critics enjoyed O 'Hara 's performance . According to Variety , Belle was " magnificently voiced by O ’ Hara . " The Star @-@ Ledger 's Stephen Whitty enjoyed O 'Hara 's " pretty soprano . " John Hartl of The Seattle Times wrote , " O 'Hara does a spirited job of investing the character with warmth , intuition and maturity , " while the Sun @-@ Sentinel 's Candice Russel felt that O 'Hara " does a good job of creating Belle as intellectual , wisely feminine and disarmed by the stirrings of her heart . " According to the Young Writers Society , Belle remains the best @-@ reviewed Disney Princess to @-@ date .
One of the character 's few negative reviews was written by Ethan Alter of Television Without Pity , who opined :
[ T ] he movie ... present [ ed ] audiences with a willful female protagonist that was firmly in control of her romantic destiny and regularly placed reading books above chasing after boys . And it 's true that in that respect at least , Belle stood in stark contrast to past Disney heroines ... Still , the filmmakers didn 't do the character any favors by swapping out that boy crazy trait for a pronounced maternalistic streak that comes across as a little creepy . Besides being utterly devoted to her father , Belle 's relationship with the Beast possesses a distinctly mother / toddler dynamic ... Their romance also lacks spark because – due to the fundamental set @-@ up of the narrative ... it 's always clear that he needs her far more than she needs him . Particularly when compared to some of the dynamic animated heroines that came after her ... today Belle can 't help but seem ... bland .
= = = Feminist analysis = = =
Jezebel determined that Belle " is often held up as the standard of the ' feminist ' Disney princess . " According to Tales , Then and Now : More Folktales as Literary Fictions for Young Adults author Anna E. Altmann , Disney heavily promoted Beauty and the Beast as " a feminist fairy tale " due to Belle 's characterization and role in the film . In his book Hearing a Film , Seeing a Sermon : Preaching and Popular Movies , author Timothy B. Cargal agreed that the character indicated " Disney 's ... continued efforts to reshape their heroines for a more feminist age . " According to Girl Culture : An Encyclopedia author Claudia Mitchell , Belle 's feminism was influenced by third @-@ wave feminism and the relatively new concept of girl power during the 1990s . Feminist critics have been generally mixed in their analyses of Belle , arguing over whether or not the character is in fact " feminist enough . " Although Beauty and the Beast was initially lauded upon release for starring a " forward thinking and feminist " heroine , critics tend to agree that , in spite of Belle 's independence and resentment towards Gaston , Beauty and the Beast essentially remains a romance about a girl who finally " meets her ideal man . " Acknowledging that Belle " represented significant change from [ her ] sweet , mop @-@ wielding predecessors , " Twilight and History author Nancy Reagin observed that " the end result of fulfillment through marriage has been maintained . " Kathleen Maher of The Austin Chronicle cited Belle as an example of " pseudo @-@ feminism " because she rejects one man , Gaston , in favor of another , a prince . While commending Belle for " seeing past the beast 's appearance , " Judith Welikala of The Independent in the end accused the character of " melting back into the role of wife when he turns back into a handsome prince . " Fairy Tale author Andrew Teverson referred to Belle as Disney 's attempt to address " feminist criticism of its representation of women in earlier films , " but ultimately criticized the character 's curiosity for " extend [ ing ] only to romance , " additionally accusing her of being " a zealous individualist with a pathological hostility to common men and women . " Meanwhile , Stylist ranked Belle among the most feminist Disney characters , describing her as an " incredibly intelligent " woman who " doesn 't stand for a man who considers her as just a piece of meat ... she wants someone who loves her for her mind too . " Acknowledging the character 's " feminist longings , " Daniel Eagen , author of America 's Film Legacy : The Authoritative Guide to the Landmark Movies in the National Film Registry , cited Belle as Disney 's " modern @-@ day corrective to Snow White . " Beyond Adaptation : Essays on Radical Transformations of Original Works author Phyllis Frus wrote that , initially , Beauty and the Beast does not seem " remotely feminist . " However , the author did acknowledge Belle as " an appealing character with a noticeable feminist streak , " but in the end criticized Disney 's Consumer Products of reversing what the film had nearly accomplished by inducting the character into the Disney Princess franchise . In Refinery29 's " Definitive Ranking Of Disney Princesses As Feminist Role Models , " author Vanessa Golembewski ranked the character eighth but described her personality and ambitions as " confusing . " Complex 's Tara Aquino described Belle as " a kinda feminist ... who 's well @-@ read , self @-@ sufficient , and with standards high enough that she doesn 't fall for the town 's brain @-@ dead pretty boy . "
Commentators have generally reacted more cynically towards Belle 's relationship with the film 's male characters , particularly the Beast , questioning its morality . Writing for the University of Central Florida , Faith Dickens felt that after Belle 's introduction , the character becomes little more than " a vehicle for exploring the Beast 's dilemmas , " while her initial pining for adventure is replaced by romance . Dickens went on to criticize the fact that while Belle appears to be " perfect the way she is , " the Beast " need [ s ] to be reformed . " Anna E. Altmann , author of Tales , Then and Now : More Folktales as Literary Fictions for Young Adults , disliked the fact that Belle appears to share a motherly relationship with both the Beast and Maurice . Altman also panned the fact that Belle 's interest in reading appears to be limited to fairy tales , ultimately dismissing the character as little more than " a feisty North American version of " Beaumont 's heroine . Orange Coast writer Henry A. Giroux felt that Belle serves as little more than " a prop for resolving the Beast 's problems . " Sonia Saraiya of Nerve ranked Belle the sixth moth feminist Disney Princess , writing that , unlike Ariel , " Belle 's sass doesn 't come from teenage rebellion , but rather from intellectual acuity . " Saraiya commended Belle for resisting " her village 's expectations of what her life should look like , " crediting her with being " the first princess to express some skepticism about married life . " While calling Belle 's sacrifice " brave , " the author also labeled it " not much of a step for womankind , " in the end accusing her of falling " for a domineering man . " Similarly , Kit Steinkellner of HelloGiggles expressed concern over the " abusive undercurrents running through Belle and Beast ’ s relationship . " Meanwhile , Bustle 's Mary Grace Garis also commended Belle 's aspirations and love of reading , but criticized her relationship with the Beast , concluding , " Though the ’ 90s showed a move toward princesses wanting to buck conventions and free themselves from their fathers ( or the town misogynist ) the endgame is the still the same , elaborating , " When the movie ends , they ’ re still solidly with a man , their dreams of adventure abandoned . Therefore , the Disney renaissance is characterized more by theoretical want of adventure rather than a genuine pursuit . "
= = = Accolades and legacy = = =
Deemed an " iconoclast " by Boxoffice , Belle continues to be recognized for her role in Beauty and the Beast . Established as an icon , the character holds the distinction of being Disney 's first feminist princess . According to Kevin Fallon of The Daily Beast , before Belle " being a Disney princess meant singing songs about how much you love combing your hair with a fork and giving away your voice if it meant you got to marry the guy with that dreamy chiseled jaw . " Commentators believe that the character 's performance in Beauty and the Beast as one of Disney 's first strong female leads is responsible for changing the way in which women would be depicted in future animated films . According to About.com 's David Nusair , Belle " updated the princess formula for an entirely new generation . " The Atlantic 's Lindsay Lowe echoed Nusair 's sentiment , citing Belle as the character responsible for ending Disney 's " long history of ... docile heroines . " The Daily Campus ' Cathy Schmidt recognized Belle and Ariel as " the beginnings of the more modern Disney princesses . " Writing for Virgin Media , Limara Salt believes that the character " proved that audiences could fall in love with a brown @-@ haired intellectual . " A survey conducted by Disney proved that Belle inspired young woman to read after the film 's release . Justin Humphreys of The Hook expressed , " Belle remains a most successful princess because people can relate " to her . Meanwhile , the Los Angeles Times ' Charles Solomon ranked Belle among the four Disney Princesses responsible for breaking " the bonds of convention . " Elina Bolokhova of Parenting believes that Belle 's " bravery and independence helped redefine the meaning of a Disney princess . " The character was placed first on E ! ' s ranking of the Disney Princesses due to her lack of vanity , relatability and intelligence , while Cosmopolitan ranked her fourth . In the magazine 's " Definitive Ranking Of Disney Princesses " , Seventeen ranked Belle fifth . Similarly , BuzzFeed also ranked the character fifth , praising her love of reading . BuzzFeed also determined that Belle is the most popular Disney Princess , with the character having garnered 18 % of votes . Belle is the fifth most successful Disney Princess in terms of box office revenue , with her film grossing over $ 350 million . However , following the release of Frozen and popularity of its heroines Elsa and Anna , even though neither of them are officially part of the line @-@ up , Belle became the lowest @-@ selling Disney Princess on eBay in 2013 , with sales of less than $ 7 @,@ 000 despite the fact that she is often cited as a favorite among customers .
Belle remains one of Disney 's most beloved animated heroines . The character was the only animated heroine to be nominated for the American Film Institute 's greatest heroes in film ranking . CNN ranked Belle among " Merida and other animated heroines " , a list recognizing some of Disney 's greatest heroines . According to the Daily Mirror , Belle is Disney 's second most iconic character , describing her as a " portrait of bravery , teaching us to look beyond appearances and stand up for what we believe in . " Meanwhile , PopMatters ranked Belle Disney 's second best hero . Considered to be both a sex symbol and fashion icon , Belle has garnered accolades for both her appearance and costumes . The character was ranked 64th on UGO 's list of the most attractive female cartoon characters , while being ranked 14th on Complex 's " 25 Hottest Cartoon Women of All Time " . E ! ranked Belle the second best @-@ dressed Disney Princess , crowning her " the most couture of all the Disney princesses . " Author Emily Popp went on to praise the character 's ballgown for being " off the Oscar de la Renta runway , " while Vogue included it among the " Most Famous Dresses " , with author Sarah Karmali dubbing it " One of the most instantly recognisable dresses in Disney history . " Revered as iconic , the dress is currently among the most famous in film history . Belle appeared on BuzzFeed 's " Definitive Ranking Of 72 Disney Princess Outfits " four times , ranking the character 's green , blue , pink and yellow dresses 51st , 37th , 31st and 15th , respectively . Similarly , Belle 's blue , pink , yellow and green costumes were ranked 18th , 10th , ninth and fourth by Official Disney Blogs , whose author believes that the character 's ballgown " went down in the history books . " Belle appeared on Stylist 's list of the " Best beauty looks in Disney " twice , both for the character 's hairstyles . Entertainment Weekly ranked Belle 's hair fifth in the magazine 's " Disney Princesses : Ranking Their Hairdos – and Don 'ts ! "
Belle helped establish Woolverton as a " legendary screenwriter " ; the writer continues to be commended for her dedication to creating strong female characters ; ever since Belle , the majority of Woolverton 's female characters have been headstrong , independent women , namely Nala in The Lion King ( 1994 ) , Mulan in Mulan ( 1998 ) , Alice in Alice in Wonderland ( 2010 ) and Maleficent in Maleficent ( 2014 ) . Susan Wloszczyna of Indiewire wrote that " Woolverton set a new standard for fully fleshed @-@ out fairy @-@ tale heroines ... with Belle " , in turn paving the way for The Hunger Games ' Katniss Everdeen , and Frozen 's Anna and Elsa ( 2013 ) . Woolverton remains protective of Belle , explaining , " [ she ] was my first @-@ born child , so there ’ s a little bit of possessiveness , which really I had to let it go " . Beauty and the Beast , Belle performs the film 's opening number , " Belle " , which was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Song at the 64th Academy Awards in 1992 . In 1998 , O 'Hara was nominated for an Annie Award for Outstanding Individual Achievement for Voice Acting by a Female Performer in an Animated Feature Production for reprising her role as Belle in the second of Beauty and the Beast 's three direct @-@ to @-@ video sequels , Belle 's Magical World . To commemorate her work on Beauty and the Beast and various contributions to Disney , O 'Hara was honored with a Disney Legends award on August 19 , 2011 . Disney hired Spanish actress Penélope Cruz to pose as Belle in photographer Annie Leibovitz 's Disney Dream Portrait Series , while actor Jeff Bridges posed as the Beast . The Daily Mail described the image as Cruz " wearing Belle 's gorgeous yellow gown and being lifted high into the air by her prince , " accompanied by the phrase " Where a moment of beauty lasts forever . "
= SS Empire Simba =
SS Empire Simba was a British steam @-@ powered cargo ship . She was originally an American ship , launched in 1918 as SS West Cohas . During a stint in the United States Navy from 1918 to 1919 , she was called USS West Cohas ( ID @-@ 3253 ) .
West Cohas was built in 1918 for the United States Shipping Board ( USSB ) as part of the West boats , a series of steel @-@ hulled cargo ships built on the West Coast of the United States for the World War I war effort . She was the 24th ship built by Skinner & Eddy of Seattle , Washington , and was completed in 88 calendar days . She was commissioned into the Naval Overseas Transportation Service ( NOTS ) of the United States Navy as USS West Cohas ( ID @-@ 3253 ) in June 1918 . After several overseas trips for the Navy , she was decommissioned in May 1919 and returned to the USSB .
West Cohas ran aground off Sable Island in 1925 while trying to assist a vessel in distress , but otherwise had a relatively uneventful merchant career for the USSB . In 1933 , she was sold to the Lykes Brothers Steamship Company . In 1939 , she collided with the Irish passenger ship Munster , which damaged both vessels . In June 1940 , West Cobalt was sold to British interests and renamed Empire Simba .
During convoy service in World War II , Empire Simba initially sailed between the United Kingdom and North America carrying cargos of scrap iron from the United States . She was bombed by a German aircraft on 1 March and abandoned . She was towed to port for repairs but was struck by a German land mine dropped in a bombing raid . After six months of repairs , she began sailing roundtrips to Freetown , Sierra Leone . On one return voyage to the UK in July 1944 , she collided with another ship in the convoy . After splitting the rest of the war between voyages to North America and Africa , Empire Simba was loaded with chemical weapons in August 1945 and scuttled west of Ireland .
= = Design and construction = =
The West ships were cargo ships of similar size and design built by several shipyards on the West Coast of the United States for the United States Shipping Board ( USSB ) for emergency use during World War I. All were given names that began with the word West , like West Cohas , one of some 24 West ships built by Skinner & Eddy of Seattle , Washington .
West Cohas ( Skinner & Eddy No. 24 , USSB No. 1177 ) was launched on 4 May 1918 and delivered to the United States Navy upon completion later in the month . West Cohas was built in a total of 73 working days , 88 calendar days , and was listed in seventh place on a list of the ten fastest @-@ built ocean @-@ going vessels compiled in 1920 . Skinner & Eddy received a $ 64 @,@ 000 bonus for completing the ship early .
The ship was 409 @.@ 6 ft ( 124 @.@ 8 m ) long between perpendiculars and 423 ft 9 in ( 129 @.@ 16 m ) overall , and had a beam of 54 @.@ 2 ft ( 16 @.@ 5 m ) . Her draught was 24 feet 2 inches ( 7 @.@ 37 m ) ( mean ) or 27 @.@ 1 ft ( 8 @.@ 3 m ) and her depth of hold was 29 ft 9 in ( 9 @.@ 07 m ) . Her tonnages were 5 @,@ 647 GRT , 5 @,@ 173 tons under deck ; 3 @,@ 465 NRT 8 @,@ 554 DWT 12 @,@ 225 displacement .
The ship had a double reduction @-@ geared steam turbine that drove her single screw propeller , giving her a speed of 10 @.@ 5 knots ( 19 @.@ 4 km / h ) . By 1930 her equipment included submarine signalling and radio .
= = Military career = =
USS West Cohas ( ID @-@ 3253 ) was commissioned into the Naval Overseas Transportation Service ( NOTS ) on 4 June with Lieutenant Commander W.F. Andrews , USNRF , in command . After successfully completing sea trials , West Cohas sailed for Arica , Chile , to carry a cargo of nitrates to the United States . Sailing from Arica on 29 July , West Cohas transited the Panama Canal and arrived at Charleston , South Carolina , where she unloaded the cargo . She sailed up the East Coast to Norfolk , Virginia , where she arrived on 25 September . After taking on a full load of matériel for the American Expeditionary Force in France , she sailed on 9 October for Brest , France , where she arrived on 28 October . While in port discharging her cargo , the Armistice was signed on 11 November , ending the fighting . She sailed for the United States ten days later .
After her return , West Cohas made two post @-@ war more voyages to La Pallice , France . She was employed as a transport during her return trips to the United States . Though specific information about the number of troops West Cohas carried ( or was capable of carrying ) is unknown , SS West Arrow , a Skinner & Eddy @-@ constructed sister ship , carried 23 men on at least one voyage . She returned to Norfolk on 5 May at the conclusion of her second voyage where she was decommissioned 4 days later and returned to the USSB .
= = Civilian career = =
After her return to the United States Shipping Board ( USSB ) , West Cohas sailed on a France – Southampton – New York route through 1920 . In September 1919 , West Grama carried 56 passengers from Bassens to New York .
Little is known about West Cohas 's subsequent civilian career until 1925 . On 20 July , The Washington Post carried a news report that West Cohas had run aground on shoals off Sable Island . The French fishing trawler Labrador had run aground on the shoals on the morning of 19 July and had issued a distress call . The nearby West Cohas steamed to her aid , but became stranded on the rocks nearby and issued her own distress call . Lifesaving crews had been dispatched but could reach neither ship because of fog and waves . At press time the Canadian government buoy tender and several tugs were reported on their way to aid both ships . There were no follow up reports to indicate how much damage West Cohas sustained , but she escaped the fate of the 399 GRT Labrador , which was a total loss . West Cohas had been repaired and was back in service by November 1926 , when The Wall Street Journal reported that she was to begin service carrying grain from Galveston , Texas , to London .
In 1933 , West Cohas was sold to the Lykes Brothers Steamship Company , which assigned her to its Ripley Steamship Company subsidiary . During the 1930s , Lykes Brothers primarily operated cargo ships between Gulf Coast and Caribbean ports , and , though there is little specific information available regarding West Cohas 's movements , it is likely that she called at Gulf coast and Caribbean ports for portions of her Lykes Brothers career . In July 1938 , she was sailing from New Orleans to Liverpool when she rammed the Irish motor vessel Munster 15 nautical miles ( 28 km ) north of Dublin . Munster , with 200 passengers aboard , was damaged on her starboard side , while West Cohas 's bow was twisted from the impact . Both vessels made it to Liverpool without loss of life .
= = World War II = =
On 21 June 1940 , Lykes Brothers sold West Cohas to British interests for transfer to British registry . The crew for the newly British ship was shipped from Liverpool on the Cunard Line ocean liner Scythia to New York via Halifax and bussed to Galveston , Texas , to take possession of the ship . Sailing from that port , they took on a load of scrap iron and headed for Bermuda . At Bermuda , West Cohas joined a convoy to Halifax and then on to Liverpool . At about 1030 hrs on 19 August West Cohas lost track of the convoy but continued on independently , arriving at Liverpool on 23 August . West Cohas sailed for Methil five days later and arrived on 1 September .
The ship was transferred to the Ministry of War Transport , which renamed her Empire Simba and assigned Andrew Weir & Co. of London to manage her . After spending six weeks at Methil , where she had an advanced ship degaussing system installed among other repairs , Empire Simba proceeded to Oban via Lyness in mid November . She set out for North America in Convoy OB @-@ 253 on 2 December . Four days out , heavy weather dispersed the convoy , and Empire Simba proceeded independently . The ship continued to take a beating from heavy seas which opened the number one cargo hold to the ocean . Because the water was coming in faster than the bilge pumps in the hold number one could pump , the crew cut through the bulkheads into cargo hold number two to double the pumping capacity and were able to keep the ship under control long enough to arrive in Bermuda on 26 December . After temporary repairs were made there , Empire Simba sailed on 6 January 1942 first to Halifax and then to Baltimore for more permanent repairs .
After two weeks in Baltimore , Empire Simba headed to Hampton Roads , Virginia , to take on another load of scrap iron for the UK . After making her way to Halifax by early February , she sailed on 9 February as a part of Convoy HX @-@ 108 , but dropped out and joined up with Convoy SC @-@ 22 , a slower convoy that had left Halifax a day earlier . Off the Northern Ireland coast , the convoy escorts broke off and Empire Simba and three other ships sailed into the Irish Sea . Headed to her destination of Port Talbot , Empire Simba was at the back of the line of the four ships . At 1300 hrs on 1 March , a Heinkel He 111 bomber of Kampfgeschwader 27 , Luftwaffe attacked the column , and had a near miss on Empire Simba . The force of the explosion shattered the main water injection pipe in the engine room , flooding her engine room and leaving the ship dead in the water . The German bomber , with smoke trailing from it after being hit by bullets from one of Empire Simba 's two Hotchkiss Mark I machine guns , headed off for Ireland . There were no towing vessels immediately available for Empire Simba , so as darkness approached , Empire Simba 's crew abandoned the ship for the escorting trawler . Taking the ship 's two machine guns , the chronometer , and some personal belongings , the crew were landed at Milford Haven . Empire Simba was saved and towed into Birkenhead , where the officers rejoined with their erstwhile ship . During an overnight bombing raid on the night of 12 / 13 March , German bombers parachuted land mines on Birkenhead . One landed on Empire Simba and exploded , causing significant damage to the ship .
By mid @-@ August 1941 , Empire Simba , with a completely new crew , had been repaired enough to set out in a Liverpool – Freetown convoy , but evidently returned to Liverpool the same day . After making her way to Oban on 9 September , she began the first of seven roundtrips to Freetown over the next 18 months , including convoy SL 125 . Twice , when setting out with convoys , Empire Simba had to return to port with unspecified problems . In a third convoy sailing , a problem with her steering gear caused her to collide with another convoy ship , Empire Scott , and on 1 August Empire Simba straggled and dropped out of the convoy .
In February and March 1944 , Empire Simba made an extended round trip from the UK to Gibraltar . During this time , she called in neutral Spain at Valencia on 15 March and Burriana on 18 March . Between April 1944 and June 1945 she made four transatlantic crossings , interrupted by another trip to Freetown in December 1944 .
= = = Scuttling = = =
By August 1945 , Empire Simba was at anchor in the harbour of Cairn Ryan in the west of Scotland . There she was loaded with 8 @,@ 000 tons of chemical weapons that had been stockpiled for use if the Germans had used chemical weapons first . On 11 September Empire Simba was scuttled in the North Atlantic beyond the continental shelf , 120 nautical miles ( 138 miles ; 222 km ) northwest of Ireland . Her wreck is at 55 ° 30 ′ N 11 ° 00 ′ W in 8 @,@ 200 feet ( 2 @,@ 500 m ) of water .
Empire Simba was one of four redundant cargo ships that the Admiralty used to dispose of chemical ammunition at the same site in the North Atlantic in 1945 . The others were SS Empire Cormorant on 1 October , SS Wairuna on 30 October , and SS Lambridge on 30 December .
= Bonfire ( horse ) =
Bonfire ( March 21 , 1983 – October 28 , 2013 ) , full name Gestion Bonfire , was an Oldenburg gelding that competed in dressage with Dutch rider Anky van Grunsven . Between 1991 and 2000 , the pair competed in multiple national and international championships , including three Olympic Games and two World Equestrian Games . They won one gold medal and four silver medals at the Olympics and one gold and three silvers at the World Equestrian Games . Although known for having a hot temperament , Bonfire mellowed as he aged , becoming one of Van Grunsven 's best horses – until she found his replacement , Salinero , she did not think she would ever find a horse to match Bonfire 's talent . A statue of Bonfire stands in Van Grunsven 's home town of Erp .
= = Early life = =
The brown Oldenburg gelding was born March 21 , 1983 , bred by Karl Bernd Westerholt of Lemwerder , Germany . His sire was Welt As and his dam was Warine ( his dam 's sire was Praefectus xx ) .
Van Grunsven first met Bonfire when he was two and a half years old , having been under saddle for only a week . He was later purchased by Van Grunsven 's father . At first it appeared that the young horse would be a poor prospect , as his hot temperament led to poor gaits . However , he did well at learning advanced dressage moves such as the piaffe and passage , and so Van Grunsven continued to work with him . He improved , and by the time he was seven years old , he was competing at the Grand Prix level . His temperament continued to lead to difficult rides , and he had a tendency to spook at small items near the ring ; these tendencies decreased as he grew older .
= = Competitive career = =
Bonfire competed with Van Grunsven at his first Olympic Games ( her second Games ) in 1992 at the Barcelona Games . There , the pair took 4th individually , while helping the Dutch team to a silver medal . At the 1996 Summer Olympics , they repeated the team performance , while improving to take an individual silver medal . In 2000 , at the Sydney Games , the pair won their first ( and only ) individual gold , while helping the Dutch team to a third silver medal . After the Sydney Games , Van Grunsven replaced Bonfire with Salinero as her Olympic horse . Bonfire and Van Grunsven also competed in two World Equestrian Games . The first , the 1994 The Hague Games , resulted in two medals for the pair – an individual gold and a team silver . At the second , the 1998 World Equestrian Games in Rome , the pair took home both the individual and team silver . However , Van Grunsven considered the judging at this Games so poor that she said " I thought I would quit dressage . "
In 1991 , Bonfire made his European Dressage Championship debut at Donaueschingen , Germany , where he and Van Grunsven took an individual 5th , while assisting the Dutch team to a bronze medal . At the 1995 Championships in Mondorf , Luxembourg , the pair took the silver medal both individually and with the Dutch team . At the 1999 Championships at Arnhem , the Netherlands Bonfire and Van Grunsven took the title – gold in the individual – as well as assisting the Dutch team to another silver medal . He was also a nine @-@ time national dressage champion in the Netherlands .
= = Later life and legacy = =
As he grew older , he retained his famed elasticity but show signed of age in other areas , especially at the walk , which was his weakest skill in the dressage ring . Bonfire was retired from competition after the 2000 Olympic Games . To celebrate his retirement , there was a ceremony in Van Grunsven 's home town and a farewell ride at an international jumping competition in Maastricht , Netherlands . After Bonfire 's retirement , Van Grunsven stated that she never thought she would find another horse as good as he was ; however , his successor Salinero proved to be even more successful .
In Van Grunsven 's home town of Erp there is a statue of Bonfire . As of 2012 , he lived on Van Grunsven 's farm in the Netherlands .
Bonfire was euthanized following adrenal disease and hoof inflammation on 28 October 2013 , aged 30 .
= Lights and Sounds ( song ) =
" Lights and Sounds " is a song by the American pop punk band Yellowcard . The song was written collaboratively by all the band members for their fifth album , Lights and Sounds ( 2006 ) . The track is built around an instrumental guitar riff , which is then followed with a repetitive drumming beat , then it is followed by a roaring guitar sound .
The song 's lyrics are based on the band coping with the success they were enduring when writing songs for their second album . It is also based on how they have aged in the process . " Lights and Sounds " also goes with what vocalist Ryan Key described as when he was preoccupied with making the album .
The song was released on November 15 , 2005 , and peaked at number four on Billboard 's Modern Rock Tracks chart . It also appeared at number twenty @-@ six on the Hot Digital chart . The song peaked at number 50 on Billboard 's Hot 100 and Pop 100 in the 42 spot . Internationally , the track appeared for one week in the UK Singles Chart at number 56 . It also appeared in the Australian and New Zealand charts , respectively .
" Lights and Sounds " was well received by music critics , who noted the track 's general sound . The song won the 2006 Spike Video Game Award in the category for Best Song , after it was featured in the video game , Burnout Revenge . During promotion for the band 's album , the music video for " Lights and Sounds " was featured in a Verizon Wireless V @-@ cast commercial . The music video was shot in October 2005 and the video is a performance @-@ only video , in which the band play in a dark room with thin lights , a homage to the song 's title .
= = Background = =
In an interview with Rolling Stone magazine in June 2005 , Yellowcard vocalist Ryan Key revealed that the song was written " really late in the process " when development of the album began . Key also talked about the sound featured in the song , saying : " ... it 's got such an amazing , driving , rock- & -roll vibe to it , with none of that frickin ' pop @-@ punk and alternative rock stigma . Secondly , I hate yellowcard being tagged as an alternative rock band . It 's just a great rock song . That 's something we 've been striving to write for a long time , so when we were done , it was a relief . "
In another Rolling Stone interview , the band explained the meaning of the title track , saying that is based on a " whirlwind rocker about the pressures on the band members " and how they have changed as they have aged . Bassist Peter Mosely , in discussion of this , said : " We 're older than people think we are . [ ... ] We go through months of serenity , and then there 'll be this one night where there will be evil . " In another interview discussion about " Lights and Sounds " , Key noted that it is " about a band like us coming into a career that we didn 't think we 'd have . You find yourself surrounded by a lot of false people , a lot of people who are not doing it for the same reasons you are . That song is about the struggle of not giving in to that . " The band explained that the lyrics , " Make it new but stay in the lines / Just let go but keep it inside / Smile big for everyone / Even when you know what they 've done / They gave you the end but not where to start / Not how to build , how to tear it apart " , were written because of that particular reason . Key also revealed that the lyrics , " They gave you the end / But not where to start / Not how to build / But how to tear it apart " , were references to bands Nofx and Bad Religion . Key also explained that when he was preoccupied by distractions , in which he referred to them as " lights and sounds " , which ultimately resulted in the band naming the album and track title just that . Key also revealed that it was because that is how it surrounded the band , when working on the album .
= = Release and reception = =
Yellowcard released " Lights and Sounds " in the United States on November 15 , 2005 , as the lead single of their fifth album . The song peaked at number four on Billboard 's Hot Modern Rock Tracks chart . The song also appeared on the Hot Digital Songs chart on the number twenty @-@ six position . It also charted in Billboard 's Hot 100 and Pop 100 , respectively . Internationally , the song appeared in the UK Singles Chart on March 18 , 2006 , in the number 56 position , for one week . " Lights and Sounds " also appeared in the Australian chart , in the number twenty @-@ four spot . The track peaked on the New Zealand charts at number twenty @-@ three . Afterward , the song spent 11 weeks on the chart , before retiring on April 19 .
The song received positive reception from critics . In the Blender magazine review of the album , critic Andy Greenwald , wrote : " The title track [ Lights and Sounds ] , bursting with buzzing distortion , builds into a satisfying anti @-@ glitz rant . " Tom Beajour of Entertainment Weekly reported that the song " crams all of the genre 's essential tropes — distorted power chords , abrupt dynamic shifts , and singsong melodies — into three and a half minutes of radio @-@ friendly fire . " Chris Saunders of MusicOMH noted that the song is laden with " memorable hooks , quiet / loud dynamics and emotive lyrics which will no doubt cut through to many a disenchanted youth : ' They gave you the end but not the where to start / not how to build , how to tear it apart . ' " Saunders concluded that the song " is as lively and rousing as most of their best tracks . " Sputnikmusic wrote : " The adventure is only on the second track [ Lights and Sounds ] and the guys of Yellowcard are just getting started . This is by far the best tune on the album . " Bart Gottula of The Clarion wrote : " The album 's single and title cut , ' Light 's and Sounds ' , follows with an amazing performance by every band member . The song provides a quick , hard @-@ hitting beat that brings back Yellowcard 's hybrid punk and emo music that the band explored in its previous single , ' Way Away ' . "
" Lights and Sounds " was featured on a Verizon Wireless Vcast commercial around the time of the album 's release . The song was also featured in the video game Burnout Revenge and won the 2006 Spike Video Game Award for Best Song . The song is also featured in the 2010 video game Tony Hawk : Shred , and an episode of the teen drama One Tree Hill .
= = Music video = =
The video for " Lights and Sounds " was shot on a Van Nuys , California sound stage in October 2005 . Originally , the video was supposed to be directed by Ryan Key , when the time came to start production , it was instead directed by Marc Webb , who had previously worked with Yellowcard on their 2004 video for " Ocean Avenue " . The video premiered on November 7 , 2005 , on MTV2 .
In an interview with MTV News , Webb revealed that the band wanted a " performance video " and that they wanted to go back to their " rock roots " . When asked the concept behind the video , Webb said : " They provided the sound and I provided the lights . A whole lot of lights . We used the same guy who did the lighting setup for Lenny Kravitz 's ' Are You Gonna Go My Way ? ' and Coldplay 's ' Speed of Sound . ' But it 's also rough around the edges — we used a bunch of different processes when developing the film . " He also concluded with , " ... it 's a big performance video . But it 's them performing inside of this wind @-@ tunnel of light . It 's a lot of smoke and mirrors , and a lot of camera tricks . There 's a big light wall , streaks of light , xenon lighting effects and strobe lights . [ ... ] But it 's all wrapped around this very simple performance environment " .
The video opens with a scene of the band in a stage room with a tunnel light , which is accompanied by the song playing in the background . The scene moves to the band grabbing their instruments , respectively . The band proceeds in performing the song . The scene then shifts to Key when he begins to sing . The camera shifts all around the room with different color lights , including a bullet hole scenery , as it then shifts to the band , as they continue performing . When Key sings " ' Cause nobody 's there " the light wall changes into a bright purple background . As the video shows the band continuing the song still at a fast pace , the effect is followed by a slow motion sequence . In the middle of the song , the lights are turned off , leaving the room pitch black . This is followed with the camera switching to the band members as they begin to play , once more , only with a bright yellow light on the tip of their instruments ; the tips of the drum sticks that Parsons is holding also have yellow lights . As Key sings " I 've got a way to work this out " blue lights emerge in the wall behind the group . The video ends with a focus on Key 's microphone .
= = Track listing = =
AU Single :
" Lights and Sounds " – 3 : 28
" Three Flights Down " – 4 : 44
" When We 're Old Men " – 3 : 32
" Lights and Sounds " ( Live ) – 3 : 38
Maxi :
" Lights and Sounds " – 3 : 30
" When We 're Old Men " – 3 : 32
" Lights and Sounds " ( Live ) – 6 : 08
" Lights and Sounds " ( Multimedia Track )
= = Charts = =
= George Washington in the American Revolution =
George Washington ( February 22 , 1732 – December 14 , 1799 ) commanded the Continental Army in the American Revolutionary War ( 1775 – 1783 ) , and was the first President of the United States , serving from 1789 to 1797 . Because of his central role in the founding of the United States , Washington is often called the " Father of his Country " . His devotion to republicanism and civic virtue made him an exemplary figure among early American politicians .
Washington played a leading military and political role in the American Revolution . His involvement began as early as 1767 , when he first took political stands against the acts of the British Parliament . After the war broke out with the Battles of Lexington and Concord in April 1775 , his role became military with his appointment as commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Continental Army . He appeared before the Second Continental Congress in military uniform , signaling that he was prepared for war . Congress created the Continental Army on June 14 ; the next day it selected Washington as commander @-@ in @-@ chief . The task he took on was enormous , balancing regional demands , competition among his subordinates , morale among the rank and file , attempts by Congress to manage the army 's affairs too closely , requests by state governors for support , and an endless need for resources with which to feed , clothe , equip , arm , and move the troops .
In the early years of the war Washington was often in the middle of the action , first directing the Siege of Boston to its successful conclusion , but then losing New York City and almost losing New Jersey before winning surprising and decisive victories at Trenton and Princeton at the end of the 1776 campaign season . At the end of the year in both 1775 and 1776 , he had to deal with expiring enlistments , since the Congress had only authorized the army 's existence for single years . With the 1777 establishment of a more permanent army structure and the introduction of three @-@ year enlistments , Washington built a reliable stable of experienced troops , although hard currency and supplies of all types were difficult to come by . In 1777 Washington was again defeated in the defense of Philadelphia , but sent critical support to Horatio Gates that made the defeat of Burgoyne at Saratoga possible . Following a difficult winter at Valley Forge and the entry of France into the war in 1778 , Washington followed the British army as it withdrew from Philadelphia back to New York , and fought an ultimately inconclusive battle at Monmouth Court House in New Jersey .
Washington 's activities from late 1778 to 1780 were more diplomatic and organizational , as his army remained outside New York , watching Sir Henry Clinton 's army that occupied the city . Washington strategized with the French on how best to cooperate in actions against the British , leading to ultimately unsuccessful attempts to dislodge the British from Newport , Rhode Island and Savannah , Georgia . His attention was also drawn to the frontier war , which prompted the 1779 Continental Army expedition of John Sullivan into upstate New York . When General Clinton sent the turncoat General Benedict Arnold to raid in Virginia , Washington began to detach elements of his army to face the growing threat there . The arrival of Lord Cornwallis in Virginia after campaigning in the south presented Washington with an opportunity to strike a decisive blow . Washington 's army and the French army moved south to face Cornwallis , and a cooperative French navy under Admiral de Grasse successfully disrupted British attempts to control of the Chesapeake Bay , completing the entrapment of Cornwallis , who surrendered after the Siege of Yorktown in October 1781 . Although Yorktown marked the end of significant hostilities in North America , the British still occupied New York and other cities , so Washington had to maintain the army in the face of a bankrupt Congress and troops that were at times mutinous over conditions and pay . The army was formally disbanded after peace in 1783 , and Washington resigned his commission as commander @-@ in @-@ chief on December 23 , 1783 .
= = Military experience = =
Born into a well @-@ to @-@ do Virginia family near Fredericksburg in 1732 [ O.S. 1731 ] , Washington was schooled locally until the age of 15 . The early death of his father when he was 11 eliminated the possibility of schooling in England , and his mother rejected attempts to place him in the Royal Navy . Thanks to the connection by marriage of his half @-@ brother Lawrence to the wealthy Fairfax family , Washington was appointed surveyor of Culpeper County in 1749 ; he was just 17 years old . Washington 's brother had purchased an interest in the Ohio Company , a land acquisition and settlement company whose objective was the settlement of Virginia 's frontier areas , including the Ohio Country , territory north and west of the Ohio River . Its investors also included Virginia 's Royal Governor , Robert Dinwiddie , who appointed Washington a major in the provincial militia in February 1753 .
Washington played a key role in the outbreak of the French and Indian War , and then led the defense of Virginia between 1755 and 1758 as colonel of the Virginia Regiment . Although Washington never received a commission in the British Army , he gained valuable military , political , and leadership skills , and received significant public exposure in the colonies and abroad . He closely observed British military tactics , gaining a keen insight into their strengths and weaknesses that proved invaluable during the Revolution . He demonstrated his toughness and courage in the most difficult situations , including disasters and retreats . He developed a command presence — given his size , strength , stamina , and bravery in battle , he appeared to soldiers to be a natural leader and they followed him without question . Washington learned to organize , train , and drill , and discipline his companies and regiments . From his observations , readings and conversations with professional officers , he learned the basics of battlefield tactics , as well as a good understanding of problems of organization and logistics . He gained an understanding of overall strategy , especially in locating strategic geographical points . He developed a very negative idea of the value of militia , who seemed too unreliable , too undisciplined , and too short @-@ term compared to regulars . On the other hand , his experience was limited to command of at most 1 @,@ 000 men , and came only in remote frontier conditions that were far removed from the urban situations he faced during the Revolution at Boston , New York , Trenton and Philadelphia .
= = Political resistance = =
In December 1758 Washington resigned his military commission , and spent the next 16 years as a wealthy Virginia plantation owner ; as such he also served in the Virginia House of Burgesses . Although he expressed opposition to the 1765 Stamp Act , the first direct tax on the colonies , he did not take a leading role in the growing colonial resistance until protests of the Townshend Acts ( enacted in 1767 ) became widespread . In May 1769 , Washington introduced a proposal , drafted by his friend George Mason , calling for Virginia to boycott British goods until the Acts were repealed . Parliament repealed the Townshend Acts in 1770 , and , for Washington at least , the crisis had passed . However , Washington regarded the passage of the Intolerable Acts in 1774 as " an Invasion of our Rights and Privileges " . In July 1774 , he chaired the meeting at which the " Fairfax Resolves " were adopted , which called for , among other things , the convening of a Continental Congress . In August , Washington attended the First Virginia Convention , where he was selected as a delegate to the First Continental Congress . As tensions rose in 1774 , he assisted in the training of county militias in Virginia and organized enforcement of the boycott of British goods instituted by the Congress .
= = Boston = =
After the Battles of Lexington and Concord near Boston in April 1775 , the colonies went to war . Washington appeared at the Second Continental Congress in a military uniform , signaling that he was prepared for war . Congress created the Continental Army on June 14 , 1775 , | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
and discussed who should lead it . Washington had the prestige , military experience , charisma and military bearing of a military leader and was known as a strong patriot ; he was also popular in his home province . There was no other serious competition for the post , although Washington did nothing to actively pursue the appointment . Massachusetts delegate John Adams nominated Washington , believing that appointing a southerner to lead what was then primarily an army of northerners would help unite the colonies . Washington reluctantly accepted , declaring " with the utmost sincerity , I do not think myself equal to the Command I [ am ] honored with . "
Washington assumed command of the colonial forces outside Boston on July 3 , 1775 , during the ongoing siege of Boston , after stopping in New York City to begin organizing military companies for its defense . His first steps were to establish procedures and to weld what had begun as militia regiments into an effective fighting force . He was assisted in this effort by his adjutant , Brigadier General Horatio Gates , and Major General Charles Lee , both of whom had significant experience serving in the British Army .
When inventory returns exposed a dangerous shortage of gunpowder , Washington asked for new sources . British arsenals were raided ( including some in the West Indies ) and some manufacturing was attempted ; a barely adequate supply ( about 2 @.@ 5 million pounds ) was obtained by the end of 1776 , mostly from France . In search of heavy weapons , he sent Henry Knox on an expedition to Fort Ticonderoga to retrieve cannons that had been captured there . He resisted repeated calls from Congress to launch attacks against the British in Boston , calling war councils that supported the decisions against such action . Before the Continental Navy was established in November 1775 he , without Congressional authorization , began arming a " secret navy " to prey on poorly protected British transports and supply ships . When Congress authorized an invasion of Quebec , believing that province 's people would also rise against British military control , Washington reluctantly went along with it , even authorizing Benedict Arnold to lead a force from Cambridge to Quebec City through the wilderness of present @-@ day Maine .
As the siege dragged on , the matter of expiring enlistments became a matter of serious concern . Washington tried to convince Congress that enlistments longer than one year were necessary to build an effective fighting force , but he was rebuffed in this effort . The 1776 establishment of the Continental Army only had enlistment terms of one year , a matter that would again be a problem in late 1776 .
Washington finally forced the British to withdraw from Boston by putting Henry Knox 's artillery on Dorchester Heights overlooking the city , and preparing in detail to attack the city from Cambridge if the British tried to assault the position . The British evacuated Boston and sailed away , although Washington did not know they were headed for Halifax , Nova Scotia . Believing they were headed for New York City ( which was indeed Major General William Howe 's eventual destination ) , Washington rushed most of the army there .
= = Defeated at New York City = =
Washington 's success in Boston was not repeated in New York . Recognizing the city 's importance as a naval base and gateway to the Hudson River , he delegated the task of fortifying New York to Charles Lee in February 1776 . Despite the city 's poor defensibility , Congress insisted that Washington defend it . The faltering military campaign in Quebec also led to calls for additional troops there , and Washington detached six regiments northward under John Sullivan in April . The wider theaters of war had also introduced regional frictions into the army . Somewhat surprised that regional differences would be a problem , on August 1 he read a speech to the army , in which he threatened to punish " any officers or soldiers so lost to virtue and a love of their country " that might exacerbate the regional differences . The mixing of forces from different regions also brought more widespread camp diseases , especially dysentery and smallpox .
Washington had to deal with his first major command controversy while in New York , which was partially a product of regional friction . New England troops serving in northern New York under General Philip Schuyler , a scion of an old patroon family of New York , objected to his aristocratic style , and their Congressional representatives lobbied Washington to replace Schuyler with General Gates . Washington tried to resolve the issue by giving Gates command of the forces in Quebec , but the collapse of the Quebec expedition brought renewed complaints . Despite Gates ' experience , Washington personally preferred Schuyler . To avoid a potentially messy situation , General Washington gave Schuyler overall command of the northern department , but assigned Gates as second in command with combat authority . The episode exposed Washington to Gates ' desire for advancement , possibly at his expense , and to the latter 's influence in Congress .
General Howe 's army , reinforced by thousands of additional troops from Europe and a fleet under the command of his brother , Admiral Richard Howe , began arriving off New York in early July , and made an unopposed landing on Staten Island . Without intelligence about Howe 's intentions , Washington was forced to divide his still poorly trained forces , principally between Manhattan and Long Island . The Howes , who were politically ambivalent about the conflict , had been authorized to act as peace commissioners , and attempted to establish contact with Washington . However , they refused to address their letters to " General George Washington " , and his representatives refused to accept them .
In August , the British finally launched their campaign to capture New York City . They first landed on Long Island in force , and flanked Washington 's forward positions in the Battle of Long Island . General Howe refused to act on a significant tactical advantage that could have resulted in the capture of the remaining Continental troops on Long Island , but he chose instead to besiege their positions . Although Washington has been criticized by many historians for sending additional troops to reinforce the redoubts on Long Island , it was clear to both Washington and the Howes that the Americans had successfully blocked the East River against major shipping by sinking ships in the channel , and that he was consequently not risking the entrapment of additional men . In the face of a siege he seemed certain to lose , Washington then decided to withdraw . In what some historians call one of his greatest military feats , he executed a nighttime withdrawal from Long Island across the East River to Manhattan to save those troops .
The Howe brothers then paused to consolidate their position , and the admiral engaged in a fruitless peace conference with Congressional representatives on September 11 . Four days later the British landed on Manhattan , scattering inexperienced militia into a panicked retreat , and forcing Washington to retreat further . After Washington stopped the British advance up Manhattan at Harlem Heights on September 16 , Howe again made a flanking maneuver , landing troops at Pell 's Point in a bid to cut off Washington 's avenue of retreat . To defend against this move , Washington withdrew most of his army to White Plains , where after a short battle on October 28 he retreated further north . This isolated the remaining Continental Army troops in upper Manhattan , so Howe returned to Manhattan and captured Fort Washington in mid November , taking almost 3 @,@ 000 prisoners . Four days later , Fort Lee , across the Hudson River from Fort Washington , was also taken . Washington brought much of his army across the Hudson into New Jersey , but was immediately forced to retreat by the aggressive British advance .
During the campaign a general lack of organization , shortages of supplies , fatigue , sickness , and above all , lack of confidence in the American leadership resulted in a melting away of untrained regulars and frightened militia . Washington grumbled , " The honor of making a brave defense does not seem to be sufficient stimulus , when the success is very doubtful , and the falling into the Enemy 's hands probable . " Washington was fortunate that General Howe was more focused on gaining control of New York than on destroying Washington 's army . Howe 's overly rigid adherence to his plans meant that he was unable to capitalize on the opportunities that arose during the campaign for a decisive action against Washington .
= = Counterattack in New Jersey = =
After the loss of New York , Washington 's army was in two pieces . One detachment remained north of New York to protect the Hudson River corridor , while Washington retreated across New Jersey into Pennsylvania , chased by General Charles , Earl Cornwallis . Spirits were low , popular support was wavering , and Congress had abandoned Philadelphia , fearing a British attack . Washington ordered General Gates to bring troops from Fort Ticonderoga , and also ordered General Lee 's troops , which he had left north of New York City , to join him . Lee , whose relationship with Washington was at times difficult , made excuses and only traveled as far as Morristown , New Jersey . When Lee strayed too far from his army on December 12 , his exposed position was betrayed by Loyalists , and a British company led by Lieutenant Colonel Banastre Tarleton surrounded the inn where he was staying and took him prisoner . Lee 's command was taken over by John Sullivan , who finished marching the army to Washington 's camp across the river from Trenton .
The capture of Lee resulted an important point in negotiations between the sides concerning the treatment of prisoners . Since Lee had previously served in the British Army , he was treated as a deserter , and threatened with military punishments appropriate to that charge . Even though he and Lee did not get on well , Washington threatened to treat captured British officers in the same manner Lee and other high @-@ profile prisoners were treated . This resulted in an improvement in Lee 's captivity , and he was eventually exchanged for Richard Prescott in 1778 .
Despite the loss of troops due to desertion and expiring enlistments , Washington was heartened by a rise in militia enlistments in New Jersey and Pennsylvania . These militia companies were active in circumscribing the furthest outposts of the British , limiting their ability to scout and forage . Although Washington did not coordinate this resistance , he took advantage of it to organize an attack on an outpost of Hessians in Trenton . On the night of December 25 – 26 , 1776 , Washington led his forces across the Delaware River and surprised the Hessian garrison , capturing 1 @,@ 000 men .
This action significantly boosted the army 's morale , but it also brought Cornwallis out of New York . He reassembled an army of more than 6 @,@ 000 men , and marched most of them against a position Washington had taken south of Trenton . Leaving a garrison of 1 @,@ 200 at Princeton , Cornwallis then attacked Washington 's position on January 2 , 1777 , and was three times repulsed before darkness set in . During the night Washington evacuated the position , masking his army 's movements by instructing the camp guards to maintain the appearance of a much larger force . Washington then circled around Cornwallis 's position with the intention of attacking the Princeton garrison .
Hugh Mercer , leading the American advance guard , encountered British soldiers from Princeton under the command of Charles Mawhood . The British troops engaged Mercer and in the ensuing battle , Mercer was mortally wounded . Washington sent reinforcements under General John Cadwalader , which were successful in driving Mawhood and the British from Princeton , with many of them fleeing to Cornwallis in Trenton . The British lost more than one quarter of their force in the battle , and American morale rose with the victory .
These unexpected victories drove the British back to the New York City area , and gave a dramatic boost to Revolutionary morale . During the winter , Washington , based in winter quarters at Morristown , loosely coordinated a low @-@ level militia war against British positions in New Jersey , combining the actions of New Jersey and Pennsylvania militia companies with careful use of Continental Army resources to harry and harass the British and German troops quartered in New Jersey .
Washington 's mixed performance in the 1776 campaigns had not led to significant criticism in Congress . Before fleeing Philadelphia for Baltimore in December , Congress granted Washington powers that have ever since been described as " dictatorial " . The successes in New Jersey nearly deified Washington in the eyes of some Congressmen , and the body became much more deferential to him as a result . John Adams complained of the " superstitious veneration " that Washington was receiving . Washington 's performance also received international notice : Frederick the Great , one of the greatest military minds , wrote that " the achievements of Washington [ at Trenton and Princeton ] were the most brilliant of any recorded in the history of military achievements . " The French foreign minister , a strong supporter of the American cause , renewed the delivery of French supplies .
= = Philadelphia and Valley Forge = =
= = = Early maneuvers = = =
In May 1777 , uncertain whether General Howe would move north toward Albany or south toward Philadelphia , Washington moved his army to the Middlebrook encampment in New Jersey 's Watchung Mountains . When Howe then moved his army southwest from New Brunswick , Washington correctly interpreted this as a move to draw him out of his strong position , and refused to move . Only after Howe apparently retreated back toward the shore did Washington follow , but Howe 's attempt to separate him from his mountain defenses was foiled in the Battle of Short Hills in late June . Howe , who had already decided to campaign against Philadelphia , then withdrew from New Jersey , embarked much of his army on ships in late July , and sailed away , leaving Washington mystified as to his destination .
Washington 's difficulty in discerning Howe 's motives was due to the presence of a British army moving south from Quebec toward Fort Ticonderoga under the command of General John Burgoyne . Howe 's departure was in part prompted by the successful capture of the fort by Burgoyne in early July . Although there had been an expectation on Burgoyne 's part that Howe would support his campaign to gain control of the Hudson , Howe was to disappoint Burgoyne , with disastrous consequences to the British . When Washington learned of the abandonment of Ticonderoga ( which he had been told by General Anthony Wayne " can never be carried , without much loss of blood " ) , he was shocked . Concerned that Howe was heading up the Hudson , he ordered Arnold , along with Daniel Morgan and his corps of riflemen , north to assist General Gates with the defense of the Hudson .
Washington had had some difficulty with General Arnold in the spring . Congress had adopted a per @-@ state scheme for the promotion of general officers , which resulted in the promotion of several officers to major general ahead of other officers with more experience or seniority . Combined with the commissioning of foreign officers to high ranks , this had led to the resignation of John Stark . Arnold , who had distinguished himself in the Canadian campaign , had also threatened to resign . Washington wrote to Congress on behalf of Arnold and other officers who were disgruntled by this promotion scheme , stating that " two or three other very good officers " might be lost because of it . Washington had also laid the seeds for conflict between Arnold and Gates when he gave Arnold command of forces in Rhode Island in late 1776 ; because of this move Gates came to view Arnold as a competitor for advancement , and the previously positive relationship between Gates and Arnold cooled . However , Arnold put aside his complaints when the news of Ticonderoga 's fall arrived , and agreed to serve .
Congress , at the urging of its diplomatic representatives in Europe , had also issued military commissions to a number of European soldiers of fortune in early 1777 . Two of those recommended by Silas Deane , the Marquis de Lafayette and Thomas Conway , would prove to be important in Washington 's activities . Lafayette , just twenty years old , was at first told that Deane had exceeded his authority in offering him a major general 's commission , but offered to volunteer in the army at his own expense . Washington and Lafayette took an instant liking to one another when they met , and Lafayette became one of Washington 's most trusted generals and confidants . Conway , on the other hand , did not think highly of Washington 's leadership , and proved to be a source of trouble in the 1777 campaign season and its aftermath .
= = = Fall of Philadelphia = = =
When Washington learned that Howe 's fleet was sailing north in Chesapeake Bay , he hurried his army south of Philadelphia to defend the city against Howe 's threat . General Howe turned Washington 's flank at the Battle of Brandywine on September 11 , 1777 , and marched unopposed into Philadelphia on September 26 after some further maneuvers . Washington 's failure to defend the capital brought on a storm of criticism from Congress , which fled the city for York , and from other army officers . In part to silence his critics , Washington planned an elaborate assault on an exposed British base in Germantown . The October 4 Battle of Germantown failed in part due to the complexity of the assault , and the inexperience of the militia forces employed in it . Over 400 of Washington 's men were captured , including Colonel George Mathews and the entire 9th Virginia Regiment . It did not help that Adam Stephen , leading one of the branches of the attack , was drunk , and broke from the agreed @-@ upon plan of attack . He was court martialed and cashiered from the army . Historian Robert Leckie observes that the battle was a near thing , and that a small number of changes might have resulted in a decisive victory for Washington .
Meanwhile , Burgoyne , out of reach from help from Howe , was trapped and forced to surrender his entire army on October 17 , ten days after the Battle of Bemis Heights . The victory made a hero of General Gates , who received the adulation of Congress . While this was taking place Washington presided from a distance over the loss of control of the Delaware River to the British , and marched his army to its winter quarters at Valley Forge in December . Washington chose Valley Forge , over recommendations that he camp either closer or further from Philadelphia , because it was close enough to monitor British army movements , and protected rich farmlands to the west from the enemy 's foraging expeditions .
= = = Valley Forge = = =
Washington 's army stayed at Valley Forge for the next six months . Over the winter , 2 @,@ 500 men ( out of 10 @,@ 000 ) died from disease and exposure . The army 's difficulties were exacerbated by a number of factors , including a quartermaster 's department that had been badly mismanaged by one of Washington 's political opponents , Thomas Mifflin , and the preference of farmers and merchants to sell their goods to the British for hard currency instead of the nearly worthless Continental currency . Profiteers also sought to benefit at the army 's expense , charging it 1 @,@ 000 times what they charged civilians for the same goods . Congress authorized Washington to seize supplies needed for the army , but he was reluctant to use such authority , since it smacked of the tyranny the war was supposedly being fought over .
During the winter he introduced a full @-@ scale training program supervised by Baron von Steuben , a veteran of the Prussian general staff . Despite the hardships the army suffered , this program was a remarkable success , and Washington 's army emerged in the spring of 1778 a much more disciplined force .
Washington himself had to face discontent at his leadership from a variety of sources . His loss of Philadelphia prompted some members of Congress to discuss removing him from command . They were prodded along by Washington 's detractors in the military , who included Generals Gates , Mifflin , and Conway . Gates in particular was viewed by Conway and Congressmen Benjamin Rush and Richard Henry Lee as a desirable replacement for Washington . Although there is no evidence of a formal conspiracy , the episode is known as the Conway Cabal because the scale of the discontent within the army was exposed by a critical letter from Conway to Gates , some of whose contents were relayed to Washington . Washington exposed the criticisms to Congress , and his supporters , within Congress and the army , rallied to support him . Gates eventually apologized for his role in the affair , and Conway resigned . Washington 's position and authority were not seriously challenged again . Biographer Ron Chernow points out that Washington 's handling of the episode demonstrated that he was " a consummate political infighter " who maintained his temper and dignity while his opponents schemed .
= = French entry into the war = =
The victory at Saratoga ( and to some extent Washington 's near success at Germantown ) were influential in convincing France to enter the war openly as an as an American ally . French entry into the war changed its dynamics , for the British were no longer sure of command of the seas and had to worry about an invasion of their home islands and other colonial territories across the globe . The British , now under the command of General Sir Henry Clinton , evacuated Philadelphia in 1778 and returned to New York City , with Washington attacking them along the way at the Battle of Monmouth ; this was the last major battle in the north . Prior to the battle Washington gave command of the advance forces to Charles Lee , who had been exchanged earlier in the year . Lee , despite firm instructions from Washington , refused Lafayette 's suggestion to launch an organized attack on the British rear , and then retreated when the British turned to face him . When Washington arrived at the head of the main army , he and Lee had an angry exchange of words , and Washington ordered Lee off the command . Washington , with his army 's tactics and ability to execute improved by the training programs of the previous winter , was able to recover , and fought the British to a draw . Lee was court martialed and eventually dismissed from the army .
Not long after Clinton 's return to New York , a French fleet arrived off the North American coast . Washington was involved in the discussion on how to best use this force , and an attack was planned against the British outpost at Newport , Rhode Island . Despite the presence of two of Washington 's most reliable subordinates , Lafayette and Greene , the attempt at cooperation was a dismal failure . British and Indian forces organized and supported by Sir Frederick Haldimand in Quebec began to raid frontier settlements in 1778 , and Savannah , Georgia was captured late in the year .
During the comparatively mild winter of 1778 – 79 , Washington and Congress discussed options for the 1779 campaign season . The possibility of a Franco @-@ American campaign against Quebec , first proposed for 1778 , had a number of adherents in Congress , and was actively supported by Lafayette in Washington 's circle . Despite known weaknesses in Quebec 's provincial defenses , Washington was adamantly opposed to the idea , citing the lack of troops and supplies with which to conduct such an operation , the nation 's fragile financial state , and French imperial ambitions to recover the territory . Under pressure from Congress to answer the frontier raids , Washington countered with the proposal of a major expedition against the Iroquois . This was approved , and in the summer of 1779 a sizable force under Major General John Sullivan made a major expedition into the northwestern frontier of New York in reprisal for the frontier raids . The expedition successfully drove the Iroquois out of New York , but otherwise had little effect on the frequency and severity of frontier raids .
Washington 's opponent in New York , however , was not inactive . Clinton engaged in a number of amphibious raids against coastal communities from Connecticut to Chesapeake Bay , and probed at Washington 's defenses in the Hudson River valley . Coming up the river in force , he captured the key outpost of Stony Point , but advanced no further . When Clinton weakened the garrison there to provide men for raiding expeditions , Washington organized a counterstrike . General Anthony Wayne led a force that , solely using the bayonet , recaptured Stony Point . The Americans chose not to hold the post , but the operation was a boost to American morale and a blow to British morale . American morale was dealt a blow later in the year , when the second major attempt at Franco @-@ American cooperation , an attempt to retake Savannah , failed with heavy casualties .
= = British southern strategy and treason = =
The winter of 1779 – 80 was one of the coldest in recorded colonial history . New York Harbor froze over , and the winter camps of the Continental Army were deluged with snow , resulting in hardships exceeding those experienced at Valley Forge . The war was declining in popularity , and the inflationary issuance of paper currency by Congress and the states alike harmed the economy , and the ability to provision the army . The paper currency also hit the army 's morale , since it was how the troops were paid . Congress fixed the rate between paper and gold dollars at 40 @-@ to @-@ 1 in March 1780 , but many merchants refused to accept the Continental currency at the official exchange rate . One Loyalist wrote , " Mock @-@ money and mock @-@ states shall melt away / / And the mock troops disband for want of pay . "
The British in late 1779 embarked on a new strategy based on the assumption that most Southerners were Loyalists at heart . General Clinton withdrew the British garrison from Newport , and marshalled a force of more than 10 @,@ 000 men that in the first half of 1780 successfully besieged Charleston , South Carolina . In June 1780 he captured over 5 @,@ 000 Continental soldiers and militia in the single worst defeat of the war for the Americans . Washington had at the end of March pessimistically dispatched several regiments troops southward from his army , hoping they might have some effect in what he saw as a looming disaster . He also ordered troops stationed in Virginia and North Carolina south , but these were either captured at Charleston , or scattered later at Waxhaws and Camden . Camden saw the ignominious defeat of General Gates , who had been appointed to the southern command by Congress without Washington 's advice or knowledge beforehand . Gates famously abandoned his army and retreated 180 miles ( 290 km ) by horse after his battle lines were broken . The debacle ended Gates ' career as a field officer , but he eluded formal inquiries into his behavior because of his political connections .
Washington 's army suffered from numerous problems in 1780 : it was undermanned , underfunded , and underequipped . Because of these shortcomings Washington resisted calls for major expeditions , preferring to remain focused on the principal British presence in New York . Knowledge of discontent within the ranks in New Jersey prompted the British in New York to make two attempts to reach the principal army base at Morristown . These attempts were defeated , with significant militia support , in battles at Connecticut Farms and Springfield .
September 1780 brought a new shock to Washington . British Major John André had been arrested outside New York , and papers he carried exposed a conspiracy between the British and General Benedict Arnold . Washington respected Arnold for his military skills , and had , after Arnold 's severe injuries in the Battles of Saratoga in October 1777 , given him the military command of Philadelphia . During his administration there , Arnold had made many political enemies , and in 1779 he began secret negotiations with General Clinton ( mediated in part by André ) that culminated in a plot to surrender West Point , a command Arnold requested and Washington gave him in July 1780 . Arnold was alerted to André 's arrest and fled to the British lines shortly before Washington 's arrival at West Point for a meeting . In negotiations with Clinton , Washington offered to exchange André for Arnold , but Clinton refused . André was hanged as a spy , and Arnold became a brigadier general in the British Army . Washington organized an attempt to kidnap Arnold from New York City ; it was frustrated when Arnold was sent on a raiding expedition to Virginia .
= = Yorktown = =
The early months of 1781 continued to be difficult for the American cause . Troops mutinied in Pennsylvania , inspiring troops in New Jersey to also do so . Washington was uninvolved in resolving the Pennsylvania troops ' demands , but he sent troops under General Robert Howe that harshly put down the New Jersey mutiny , hanging two men .
General Arnold 's raiding expedition to Virginia was a notable success , ravaging the countryside and destroying military and economic infrastructure and supplies . He was ineffectually opposed by Virginia militia and Continental recruits under Baron von Steuben . Washington ordered Lafayette and additional Continental troops south , and convinced French Admiral Destouches to send his Newport @-@ based fleet to the Chesapeake . Destouches was however opposed by the British fleet of Admiral Marriot Arbuthnot at the Battle of Cape Henry in March 1781 , and was unable to gain entry to the bay . General Clinton thereafter sent more troops to Virginia under General William Phillips , who resumed raiding operations in central Virginia .
In the early months of 1781 the French foreign minister , the comte de Vergennes , realized that the war , now being conducted on a global stage , could not last much longer without decisive action in North America . To this end , the French army at Newport was ordered to join Washington 's outside New York , and the Comte de Grasse , commander of that year 's West Indies fleet , was ordered to assist in operations in North America . France also gave six million livres to the United States to assist in the war effort .
In May 1781 Washington and the French army command met at Wethersfield , Connecticut after the French instructions arrived . They discussed options for joint operations , with Washington arguing for an assault on New York , and Rochambeau for operations in Virginia against General Phillips . Rochambeau agreed to bring his army to New York , and dispatches were sent to the West Indies outlining the options to de Grasse .
General Clinton had turned over command of the southern army to General Cornwallis . After the defeat of Gates at Camden , he had nominally gained control over South Carolina , although there was significant militia skirmishing , led by partisan fighters like Francis Marion and Thomas Sumter . Cornwallis then attempted to extend British authority into North Carolina , but one wing of his army was defeated in the October 1780 Battle of Kings Mountain , and another was defeated in the January 1781 Battle of Cowpens . Kings Mountain in particular proved a decisive blow to further attempts to recruit Loyalists , and force Cornwallis had been instructed to rely upon . In the wake of Camden , Washington had selected Nathanael Greene to replace Gates at the head of the southern Continental forces , and Greene waged an effect partisan campaign against Cornwallis . When he finally reached sufficient strength , Greene offered Cornwallis open battle at Hillsboro , North Carolina in March . Although he lost the Battle of Guilford Court House , Greene inflicted significant casualties on Cornwallis while retaining his own army intact .
Cornwallis moved to Wilmington , North Carolina to regroup , and then made the controversial decision to bring his army into Virginia , which he saw as the supply base for Greene 's army . Joining with the army of Phillips , he maneuvered against the growing Continental presence led by Lafayette , while continuing to raid and destroy economic and military targets in the state . Eventually his decision to enter Virginia reached Clinton , who was surprised at the move . After a series of confusing and sometimes contradictory suggestions , Clinton in late July issued firm orders to Cornwallis to establish a fortified deep @-@ water port in Virginia . Cornwallis informed Clinton that he would do so at Yorktown .
= = = Siege and victory = = =
Admiral de Grasse received the dispatches of Washington and Rochambeau in mid @-@ July . He immediately sent dispatches north indicating that he would be sailing for the Chesapeake Bay to assist in operations there . When Washington learned of this decision , he reluctantly abandoned the idea of attacking New York . In a brilliant but risky strategic move , he marched 6 @,@ 000 soldiers from New York to Virginia , leaving the New York highlands only lightly defended . Washington would in later years claim that early preparations to operate against New York were intended to deceive Clinton , but the documentary record of 1781 did not support him . Later operations , as the march got underway , did involve deliberate deception . As part of the march troops appeared to establish camps and other works on the west side of the Hudson , as if preparing for an attack on New York . By the time Clinton saw through the deception , Washington had already crossed the Delaware .
De Grasse sailed north with his entire fleet ( 28 ships of the line ) , while his British counterpart , Admiral Rodney ( not expecting de Grasse to take his entire fleet ) sent only 15 ships in pursuit . In early September , while the French and Continental armies marched south , de Grasse and the British fleet ( enlarged by the inclusion of ships from New York to 19 ships ) met in the Battle of the Chesapeake . The French victory was strategically vital , for it denied the British control of the Chesapeake and set the stage for the encirclement of Cornwallis at Yorktown .
Upon his arrival at Yorktown Washington had command of 5 @,@ 700 Continentals , 3 @,@ 200 militia and 7 @,@ 800 French regulars . On September 28 the Franco @-@ American army blockaded Yorktown , and began digging siege trenches on October 6 . By the 9th guns had been emplaced on the first parallel , and began firing on the entrenched British camp . Work proceeded rapidly thereafter on the second parallel , only 300 yards ( 270 m ) from the British defenses . On the 14th two outer redoubts of the British defenses were stormed , and the entirety of the British camp was with range of the French and American cannons . After a failed attempt to escape across the York River , Cornwallis opened negotiations on October 17 . Two days later terms were agreed , and his 8 @,@ 000 men paraded in surrender . Despite the size of the contending forces , and the importance of the siege , there were only 260 allied and 550 British casualties . One of the American casualties was Washington 's stepson and aide @-@ de @-@ camp John Parke Custis , who died of a camp disease during the siege .
The disaster at Yorktown broke the morale of the governing class in London and paralyzed Britain 's national will to make war . The war party in Britain lost control of Parliament , and the new government opened peace talks . These came to fruition in 1783 with the Treaty of Paris , in which Britain recognized American independence .
= = Waiting for peace = =
Following Yorktown , Washington 's army returned to New York , while Rochambeau 's remained in Virginia . Washington , concerned that Congress " may think our work too nearly closed " , worked to make sure that the army would be prepared for a campaign in 1782 . Although British ship movements caused Washington some concerns during the winter of 1781 – 2 , he was able to enjoy relative comfort in Philadelphia . He returned to his headquarters in Newburgh , New York in March 1782 , where he had to deal with greedy military supply contractors . The execution of militia officer Joshua Huddy by Loyalists occasioned an exchange between Washington and Clinton , and led to the so @-@ called " Asgill Affair " , after the officer selected to be executed in retaliation for Huddy 's hanging . Despite the onset of peace negotiations in the second half of 1782 , Washington remained vigilant , treating with suspicion assertions on the part of General Clinton 's replacement , Sir Guy Carleton , that he had suspended " all hostilities " . To boost morale , Washington introduced the Badge of Military Merit , to be awarded for " unusual gallantry " or " extraordinary fidelity and essential service " . The badge , a purple @-@ colored cloth in the shape of a heart , is a precursor to the modern American Purple Heart .
In 1783 Washington continued to keep the army ready at Newburgh , although some of his officers made veiled threats to Congress about long @-@ overdue pay . Washington diffused this hint at mutiny with an address to the troops on March 15 recommending patience . On March 26 he was informed that France and Spain had made peace with Britain , one of the last preconditions for a final peace . Thereafter he was occupied with the logistics of prisoner exchanges , and pressed Congress to ensure soldiers being furloughed or discharged received at least some of their back pay . He met once with General Carleton to discuss the return of runaway slaves , a contentious point on which Carleton refused to budge . ( Carleton announced in the meeting , to Washington 's apparent chagrin , that 6 @,@ 000 Negroes had already been sent to Nova Scotia , and refused to assist the efforts of slave hunters . ) In June troops in Pennsylvania mutinied , marching on Philadelphia and surrounding the State House where Congress sat . In response Congress temporarily relocated to Princeton , and Washington dispatched troops south from New York . After action by Congress addressed their concerns , the mutinous troops returned to their posts .
The Treaty of Paris was signed on September 3 , 1783 . On November 21 , the British evacuated New York City , and Washington and Governor George Clinton took possession of the city , ending large @-@ scale British occupation of American territory . ( Britain continued to occupy frontier forts that had been ceded to the United States until the mid @-@ 1790s . )
= = Resignation and post @-@ war career = =
Washington 's contribution to victory in the war was not that of a great battlefield tactician . He has been characterized , according to historian Edward G. Lengel , in many different ways : " charismatic hero , master of guerrilla warfare , incompetent or infallible battlefield commander , strategic genius , nationalist visionary , fanatical micromanager , and lucky dog " . Although he has frequently been said to engage in the Fabian strategy of wearing his opponent down , the truth is more nuanced . On a number of occasions his subordinates convinced him to hold off on plans of attack they saw as rash . Washington only really adopted a Fabian strategy between late 1776 and the middle of 1777 , after losing New York City and seeing much of his army melt away . Trenton and Princeton were Fabian examples . By August 1777 , however , Washington had rebuilt his strength and his confidence and stopped using raids and went for large @-@ scale confrontations , as at Brandywine , Germantown , Monmouth and Yorktown .
Washington is often characterized as complaining about undisciplined militia forces , but he understood that they were a vital part of the nation 's defenses , since regular army troops could not be everywhere . He was also at times critical of the mercenary spirit and " the dearth of public spirit " that often underlay difficulties in recruiting for the army .
One of Washington 's important contributions as commander @-@ in @-@ chief was to establish the precedent that elected civilian officials , rather than military officers , possessed ultimate authority over the military . Throughout the war , he deferred to the authority of Congress and state officials , and he relinquished his considerable military power once the fighting was over . This principle was especially visible in his handling of the Newburgh conspiracy , and in his " Farewell Orders " . The latter document was written at his final wartime headquarters , a house on the outskirts of Princeton owned by the widow Berrien ( later to be called Rockingham ) , but was sent to be read to the assembled troops at West Point on November 2 . At Fraunces Tavern in New York City on December 4 , he formally bade his officers farewell . On December 23 , 1783 , Washington resigned his commission as commander @-@ in @-@ chief to the Congress of the Confederation at Annapolis , Maryland , and retired to his home at Mount Vernon .
After the war Washington chaired the Constitutional Convention that drafted the United States Constitution , and was then elected the first President of the United States , serving two terms . He briefly engaged in additional military service during a threatened war with France in 1798 , and died in December 1799 . He is widely recognized as the " Father of his country " .
In 2012 , a poll conducted by the British National Army Museum recognized Washington as " Britain 's Greatest Military Enemy . " He beat out Ataturk , Irish independence hero Michael Collins , Erwin Rommel , and Napoleon .
= = = Cited sources = = =
= Aboriginal Memorial =
The Aboriginal Memorial is a work of contemporary Indigenous Australian art from the late 1980s , and comprises 200 decorated hollow log coffins . It was conceived by Djon ( John ) Mundine in 1987 – 88 and realised by 43 artists from Ramingining and neighbouring communities of Central Arnhem Land , in the Northern Territory . Artists who participated in its creation included David Malangi and George Milpurrurru .
The work was created to coincide with the Australian Bicentenary and commemorates those Indigenous Australians who died as a result of European settlement . It was acquired by the National Gallery of Australia , where it is on permanent display . Its first exhibition was at the Sydney Biennale in 1988 , and it was the centrepiece of an exhibition of Indigenous art at Russia 's Hermitage Museum in 2000 . As of 2014 it stands at the entry to the National Gallery 's new wing that opened in September 2010 .
= = Creation = =
In 1988 , Australia marked 200 years since its first official white settlement , established by Captain Arthur Phillip on Sydney Harbour in 1788 . While some Indigenous Australians protested the event , and referred to the occasion as Invasion Day rather than Australia Day , a group of Indigenous artists from Ramingining in the Northern Territory decided to create an artwork to mark the anniversary . The project was initiated by Djon Mundine , an Indigenous art advisor and curator , who was working at Ramingining prior to the Bicentenary . A small group of artists including David Malangi , Paddy Dhathangu , George Milpurrurru and Jimmy Wululu decided the form of the project , but ultimately 43 artists from the region contributed pieces to the Memorial .
The work takes the form of 200 hollow log coffins , known as dupun : the number was chosen to mark the years of European settlement . Such coffins are a form of funerary art and are used throughout the Arnhem Land region for reburial ceremonies . The items displayed in Aboriginal Memorial , however , were created for the purpose of the artwork and have not at any stage contained human remains , nor been used in reburial ceremonies . The work was intended " to commemorate the thousands of Aboriginal people who had perished in the course of European settlement , and for whom it has not been possible to conduct appropriate mortuary rites " . The intention behind the work drew attention in 2005 when Melbourne newspaper The Age ran an editorial asking whether it might be appropriate to commemorate Aboriginal resistance to white settlement at the Australian War Memorial , and to move the Aboriginal Memorial to that location as part of that commemoration .
Log coffins are made from trees that have been naturally hollowed out by termites . They are cut , cleaned and then painted with natural pigments during a ceremonial camp . The Aboriginal Memorial decorations reflect traditional clan designs and significant dreamings for which the artists had responsibility .
= = Exhibition and critical reception = =
The creators of the Aboriginal Memorial always intended that it be publicly displayed , and in 1987 the work was offered to the National Gallery of Australia , which helped fund its completion . After being first exhibited at the Sydney Biennale in 1988 , it was moved to the National Gallery , its present home . In 2000 , the Memorial formed the centrepiece of a major exhibition of Australian Indigenous art held in the prestigious Nicholas Hall at the Hermitage Museum in Russia . The exhibition received a positive reception from Russian critics , one of whom wrote :
This is an exhibition of contemporary art , not in the sense that it was done recently , but in that it is cased in the mentality , technology and philosophy of radical art of the most recent times . No one , other than the Aborigines of Australia , has succeeded in exhibiting such art at the Hermitage .
Described as an icon of the National Gallery 's collection , and " one of the outstanding works of art to have been created in Australia " , the memorial is laid out with a central pathway between the log @-@ coffins representing the passage of the Glyde River through central Arnhem Land . In the late 2000s , the work was included in the list of the 20 most valuable artworks in the Gallery 's collection , and was the only Australian artwork to make that list . At that time , of the 20 most valuable Australian artworks in the collection , it was also the only one by Indigenous artists . Andrew Sayers , former head of Australia 's National Portrait Gallery and the National Museum of Australia , described the work as " among the most profound works of art to emerge from the last 20 years " .
In the late 2000s , the work was temporarily withdrawn from display to undergo significant conservation work . Completed in October 2009 , the restoration was followed by the work 's relocation in 2010 to the entrance area of the new gallery building , where it is intended to be the first work seen by visitors to the gallery .
= 2015 Italian Grand Prix =
The 2015 Italian Grand Prix ( formally known as the Formula 1 Gran Premio d 'Italia 2015 ) was a Formula One motor race held on 6 September 2015 at the Autodromo Nazionale Monza in Monza , Italy . The race was the twelfth round of the 2015 season , and marked the eighty @-@ fifth running of the Italian Grand Prix .
Lewis Hamilton of Mercedes was the defending race winner , and entered with a 28 @-@ point lead over teammate Nico Rosberg in the Drivers ' Championship , with Sebastian Vettel a further 39 points behind . Mercedes lead the Constructors ' Championship by 184 points over Ferrari , with Williams a further 81 points behind in third .
Hamilton completed the second Grand Slam of his career by winning the race , taking pole position , setting the fastest lap and leading every lap of the race . He finished 25 seconds ahead of Vettel , while Felipe Massa finished third for Williams . Rosberg retired with three laps to go due to an engine failure , resulting in Hamilton extending his lead in the Drivers ' Championship to 53 points . Hamilton 's victory was confirmed a few hours after the race following an investigation from race stewards after it was discovered that the left @-@ rear tyre on his Mercedes was below Pirelli 's recommended minimum tyre pressure standards in a random check but due to procedural inconsistencies , no sanctions were imposed against either Mercedes driver or the team .
= = Report = =
= = = Background = = =
Tyre supplier Pirelli brought its white @-@ banded medium compound tyre as the harder " prime " tyre and the yellow @-@ banded soft compound as the softer " option " compound , as opposed to the previous year where the company brought the hard compound as the prime and medium compound as the option . Sauber 's Head of Track Engineering , Giampaolo Dall 'Ara , praised the updated choice , summing up that it will challenge teams to make time in the corners in addition to going for pure top speed , putting on a better show for the fans . However , Pirelli had received criticism from several drivers and commentators following tyre failures on Nico Rosberg 's and Sebastian Vettel 's cars at the Belgian Grand Prix . Prior to the Italian Grand Prix , Formula One commercial rights holder Bernie Ecclestone called for the drivers to keep their concerns to themselves , saying : " We ’ re not going to let them [ Pirelli ] go . They ’ re doing a good job . "
The Lotus team , who had their cars impounded by bailiffs following Belgium two weeks earlier , managed to get their cars back in time for the Grand Prix . Despite their financial troubles , the team said it had enough funds for the rest of the season . Meanwhile , contract negotiations were high in the agenda prior to the weekend , with Williams announcing that the team would retain Felipe Massa and Valtteri Bottas for 2016 , while Nico Hülkenberg signed a new two @-@ year deal with Force India . An additional talking point was the future of the Italian Grand Prix at Monza , with the event at risk to be dropped from the calendar . After the race , Ferrari 's Sebastian Vettel spoke out in favour of the venue , saying : " If we take this race away from the calendar for any shitty money reasons , you are basically ripping our hearts out " .
In terms of technical developments , Ferrari upgraded their engine for their home race by using three of their development tokens while Mercedes spent all seven of their remaining engine tokens . As a result of this , Mercedes became the first team in 2015 to use all their tokens , with both Honda and Ferrari having four tokens remaining and Renault having twelve tokens left for later in the season . Because of these changes both Mercedes cars were on their third powerplants , whilst both Ferraris were on their fourth power units . Additionally , Toro Rosso , Red Bull and McLaren received grid penalties for exceeding their parts usage , forcing them to start at the back of the grid . McLaren went back to using their snub nose design , which they had replaced earlier in the season ahead of the Austrian Grand Prix , in order to achieve better aerodynamics and lower drag for the high @-@ speed Monza circuit .
Prior to the race , Lewis Hamilton was leading the World Championship on 227 points , 28 clear of teammate Rosberg . Sebastian Vettel was in third place , another 39 points adrift . In the Constructors ' standings , Mercedes were in front on 426 points , with Ferrari and Williams second and third on 242 and 161 points respectively .
= = = Free practice = = =
Per the regulations for the 2015 season , three practice sessions were held ; there were two 90 @-@ minute sessions on Friday and another one @-@ hour session before qualifying on Saturday . In what The Guardian described as an " as dominant as ever " performance , Mercedes and Lewis Hamilton lead the times in both practice sessions on Friday , with Nico Rosberg in second on both occasions . During the first session on Friday morning , Hamilton led his teammate by half a second , with Sebastian Vettel in third , another full second behind . Daniel Ricciardo was the fastest driver in a Renault @-@ powered car , and trailed Hamilton by more than two seconds . Jolyon Palmer again replaced Romain Grosjean in the Lotus during the first practice and ended the session half a second off his teammate 's pace in fifteenth . Carlos Sainz , Jr. briefly brought out a red flag when he got stuck in the gravel after spinning out at Parabolica .
At the second practice session on Friday afternoon , Ferrari was able to reduce the gap to Mercedes , with Vettel third a little more than seven tenths of a second behind Hamilton . Nico Rosberg was just 0 @.@ 021 seconds off his teammate 's time of 1m24.279s , even leading through the first two sectors but losing fastest time through the third and final sector . The two Force India cars of Sergio Pérez and Nico Hülkenberg split the two Ferraris , with Kimi Räikkönen finishing in sixth . Max Verstappen was the second Toro Rosso driver of the day to spin out into the gravel , but he was able to continue after losing control of his car at the Ascari chicane . There were technical problems for both Daniel Ricciardo and Jenson Button . While the Australian had to cut his first run short due to a hydraulical issue , Button was summoned back into the pits after only three laps with an unspecified problem .
In the third session on Saturday morning , Lewis Hamilton once more finished fastest , but this time it was Sebastian Vettel in second , 0.264s behind Hamilton 's time of 1m24.544s. The session started on a slightly wet track caused by rain over the night , but it soon dried up . Ricciardo 's session was marred by another technical problem , this time an engine failure to his newly equipped power unit . His teammate Daniil Kvyat did not have a productive session either as he spent most of the time in the garage , setting only seventeenth best time .
= = = Qualifying = = =
Qualifying consisted of three parts , 18 , 15 and 12 minutes in length respectively , with five drivers eliminated from competing after each of the first two sessions . Before qualifying began on Saturday afternoon , Mercedes was forced to change the power unit in Nico Rosberg 's car back to the one used in Belgium , which had already run for six full races , after finding an issue with the new specification unit . Meanwhile , Lotus was forced to borrow tyre blankets from other teams , as their own had been rendered unusable by rain during the night . When the session began , Nico Hülkenberg was one of the first out on track , but his fast lap was disrupted by Marcus Ericsson , who was later penalised for the incident . Both Daniel Ricciardo and Max Verstappen spent most of the session in the pits . While Ricciardo was able to get out and set a lap sufficient to see him proceed to the second part of qualifying ( Q2 ) , Verstappen went out only to see his engine cover blown off at Curva Grande , scattering the track with debris , though at the very end of the session , so no other cars were affected . Next to Verstappen , both Manor Marussia and McLaren drivers were eliminated .
During the first timed runs in Q2 , Lewis Hamilton was seven @-@ tenths of a second quicker than teammate Rosberg , while the Ferraris split the pair to place provisional second and third . Nevertheless , both Mercedes drivers did not go out again . Sebastian Vettel set a second timed lap to improve his time , now a little more than a tenth behind Hamilton . Many drivers only set one timed lap towards the end of the session , with Pastor Maldonado , Felipe Nasr , Carlos Sainz , Jr. and Daniil Kvyat unable to move on into Q3 , while Ricciardo did not set a time , leaving him fifteenth for the time being .
When Q3 was contested by the top ten drivers , Nico Rosberg was the first to set a time , but Hamilton immediately went faster , setting a time of 1 : 23 @.@ 397 , which eventually secured him pole position . Again , both Ferraris went faster than Rosberg , being about three @-@ tenths of a second behind Hamilton . During the last timed runs , Räikkönen moved ahead of Vettel to qualify on the front row , while Rosberg improved his time , but stayed in fourth on the grid . He would later refer to his old power unit as the main reason for his qualifying performance . Nico Hülkenberg posted a time good enough for ninth , but his car came to a halt at the pit lane entrance , after his team had miscalculated the fuel put into his car . The two Williams of Massa and Bottas qualified fifth and sixth respectively , with Hülkenberg 's teammate Pérez behind them in seventh , ahead of Romain Grosjean . Marcus Ericsson rounded up the top ten , but was later dropped to twelfth on the grid for impeating Hülkenberg in Q1 . It was Hamilton 's eleventh pole position in twelve races in the season so far .
Toro Rosso ’ s Max Verstappen was handed a drive @-@ through penalty to be served within the first three laps of the race due to an unsafe pit release during qualifying . Kimi Räikkönen expressed delight with his front row performance , saying that the team was surprised by the strong result and calling it " our best qualifying of the year as a team " .
= = = Race = = =
As the race got under way , Kimi Räikkönen 's Ferrari remained motionless on the spot and only started after all other cars had passed the Finn . Meanwhile , Hamilton got through the first chicane in front of Vettel , but his teammate Rosberg had to avoid Räikkönen 's car and lost two places to the two Williams of Felipe Massa and Valtteri Bottas . Both Lotus drivers were forced to retire before the end of the second lap , Grosjean due to contact with another car , while Maldonado damaged his chassis when he went over a kerb . While Räikkönen charged through the field to get back up to twelfth place by lap three , Lewis Hamilton quickly increased his advantage over Vettel and moved out of the one @-@ second DRS window . Nico Rosberg was unable to pass Bottas on track and was told by his team to cool his brakes . Further back , the Red Bull sponsored cars moved up the order as well , with Carlos Sainz , Jr . , Daniel Ricciardo and Daniil Kvyat fighting for tenth position . Sainz yielded his place on lap 11 , when he needed to go into the pits for a five @-@ second penalty handed to him for cutting the chicane at the start . By lap 14 , Hamilton led Vettel by over eight seconds , with Rosberg still behind both Williams in fifth place , pushing Bottas by enabling DRS on the long straights . Behind the German were the two Force Indias of Sergio Pérez and Nico Hülkenberg .
On lap 18 , Rosberg was the first of the front runners to come in , attempting to " undercut " the two Williams , who were forced to pit shortly after . Massa came in a lap later and Bottas on lap 22 , both emerging from the pits behind the Mercedes of Rosberg , who was now third . By lap 26 , both Hamilton and Vettel had pitted as well , as Hamilton was leading the Ferrari by more than twelve seconds . By that point , Räikkönen , who had yet to stop , was in third place but easily overtaken by Rosberg on lap 28 . On lap 29 , Daniel Ricciardo , also still on his original tyres , moved past Pérez into sixth position , only for the Mexican to retrieve it a lap later . At the end of lap 29 , Räikkönen pitted but almost collided with Roberto Merhi at the pit entrance . After his stop , the Finn emerged tenth , but quickly moved up the order again , taking eighth from Marcus Ericsson on lap 32 . By lap 36 , Nico Rosberg had moved within four seconds of Sebastian Vettel in front of him , while Räikkönen moved into seventh at the expense of Nico Hülkenberg .
By lap 45 , Vettel and Rosberg encountered backmarkers on track , which allowed Rosberg to move closer to his compatriot , trailing him by less than three seconds . On lap 49 , Mercedes told Hamilton to increase his speed , without giving the driver an explanation . With Hamilton leading Vettel by 23 seconds , the call came unexpected . It later proved to be caused by the fact that Hamilton 's left rear tyre had too little pressure at the start , leading the team to fear for a time penalty after the race . Fernando Alonso retired from the race on lap 50 due to loss of power . One lap later , Räikkönen moved into sixth place by overtaking the Force India of Sergio Pérez . With one lap to go , Rosberg was moving ever closer to Vettel in front , when his engine failed , forcing him to retire , handing Felipe Massa the final spot on the podium , who defended the position from teammate Bottas over the final lap . Lewis Hamilton finished the race to take victory on what he himself described as " the best [ weekend ] I ’ ve ever driven " . He finished more than 25 seconds ahead of Vettel .
= = = Post @-@ race = = =
For more than two hours after the race , Hamilton 's victory was still up for debate , as his left rear tyres was found to have had 0.3psi less tyre pressure than regulated . While Lewis Hamilton stated in the post @-@ race press conference that he had not been aware of the issue , Williams officials Pat Symonds and Rob Smedley called for Hamilton 's disqualification , with the latter pointing out that it was " a safety issue " . The stewarts eventually decided not to take any further action , stating that : " In making this determination regarding the pressure , the stewards noted that the tyre warming blankets had been disconnected from their power source , as is normal procedure , and the tyres were significantly below the maximum permitted tyre blanket temperature at the time of the FIA 's measurement on the grid and at significantly different temperatures from other cars measured on the grid . Further , the stewards are satisfied that the team followed the currently specified procedure , supervised by the tyre manufacturer for the safe operation of the tyres . Therefore , the stewards decide to take no further action . "
At the podium interview , conducted by film director George Lucas , Lewis Hamilton expressed gratitude to his team and the fans at the venue . Felipe Massa , asked about his last lap fight with teammate Bottas , stated : " I ’ m getting old for that ! I even said to the team I ’ m getting old ! The last three laps of the race I was fighting with my team @-@ mate . It was very difficult but we managed to be here . " During the post @-@ race press conference , Hamilton expressed surprise over his championship lead , since he had not been made aware of Rosberg 's retirement at that point . When asked about the tyre pressure issue , Sebastian Vettel defended Hamilton , saying : " I think it ’ s not fair to hand that question to Lewis because he doesn ’ t know what ’ s going on [ ... ] . In a lot of respect and fairness he did a very good job today and you have to accept that . "
Following the race , Red Bull team principal Christian Horner said that Mercedes had made a " worrying step forward " with their new engine specification , admitting that the team was " in a league of their own at the moment " . Nico Rosberg , who had raced with the old specification version of the power unit , described the race as a " massive step in the wrong direction " . After the race , the team revealed that they had turned his engine up in order to help him catch Vettel in the closing stages . The team later admitted that using the new power unit at the Italian Grand Prix had been " a risk " .
As a result of the race , Lewis Hamilton extended his lead in the championship to 53 points over teammate Rosberg . His second @-@ place finish meant that Sebastian Vettel moved closer to Rosberg , now trailing him by 21 points . In the Constructors ' Championship , Mercedes now led the field on 451 points , with Ferrari and Williams in second and third , on 270 and 188 points respectively .
= = Classification = =
= = = Qualifying = = =
Notes
^ 1 – Marcus Ericsson received a 3 @-@ spot grid penalty for impeding Nico Hülkenberg , but only dropped two places due to the penalty incurred by Sainz . ^ 2 – Carlos Sainz , Jr. received a 35 @-@ place grid penalty for an assortment of changes to his power unit . ^ 3 – Daniil Kvyat received a 35 @-@ place grid penalty for an assortment of changes to his power unit . ^ 4 – Daniel Ricciardo received a 50 @-@ place grid penalty for an assortment of changes to his power unit . ^ 5 – Jenson Button received a 5 @-@ place grid penalty for changing to his ninth ICU , but moved up one place due to more severe penalties incurred by other drivers . ^ 6 – Fernando Alonso received a 10 @-@ place grid penalty for changing to his ninth ICU , but moved up one place due to more severe penalties incurred by other drivers . ^ 7 – Max Verstappen received a 30 @-@ place grid penalty for an assortment of changes to his power unit , which provisionally placed him in the 17th position . However , he further failed to set a qualifying time within 107 % , but was allowed to start in the final grid spot by the stewards .
= = = Race = = =
Notes
^ 1 – Nico Rosberg and Fernando Alonso were both classified as they had completed 90 % of the race distance .
= = = Championship standings after the race = = =
Note : Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings .
= Countershading =
Countershading , or Thayer 's Law , is a form of camouflage . Countershading is the pattern of animal coloration in which an animal ’ s pigmentation is darker on the upper side and lighter on the underside of the body . This pattern is found in many species of mammals , reptiles , birds , fish , and insects , and has existed since at least the Cretaceous period .
When light falls on a uniformly coloured object such as a sphere from above , it makes the upper side appear lighter and the underside darker , grading from one to the other . This pattern of light and shade makes the object appear solid , and therefore acts as a visual cue which makes the object easier to detect . Countershading reduces the ease of detection of predators and prey by counterbalancing the effects of self @-@ shadowing , again typically with grading from dark to light . In theory this could be useful for military camouflage , but in practice it has rarely been applied , despite the best efforts of the artist Abbott Handerson Thayer and the zoologist Hugh Cott .
The precise function of various patterns of animal coloration has been debated by zoologists such as Hannah Rowland ( 2009 ) , with the suggestion that there may be multiple functions including flattening and background matching when viewed from the side ; background matching when viewed from above or below , implying separate colour schemes for the top and bottom surfaces ; outline obliteration from above ; and a variety of largely untested non @-@ camouflage theories . A related mechanism , counter @-@ illumination , adds the creation of light by bioluminescence or lamps to match the actual brightness of a background . Counter @-@ illumination camouflage is common in marine organisms such as squid . It has been studied up to the prototype stage for military use in ships and aircraft , but it too has rarely or never been used in warfare .
The reverse of countershading , with the belly pigmented darker than the back , enhances contrast and so makes animals more conspicuous . It is found in animals that can defend themselves , such as skunks . The pattern is used both in startle or deimatic displays and as a signal to warn off experienced predators . However , animals that habitually live upside @-@ down but lack strong defences , like the Nile catfish and the luna moth caterpillar , have upside @-@ down countershading for camouflage .
= = Early research = =
The English zoologist Edward Bagnall Poulton , author of The Colours of Animals ( 1890 ) discovered the countershading of various insects , including the pupa or chrysalis of the purple emperor butterfly , Apatura iris , the caterpillar larvae of the brimstone moth , Opisthograptis luteolata and of the peppered moth , Biston betularia . However he did not use the term countershading , nor did he suggest that the effect occurred widely .
The New Hampshire artist Abbott Handerson Thayer was one of the first to study and write about countershading . In his 1909 book Concealing @-@ Coloration in the Animal Kingdom , he correctly described and illustrated countershading with photographs and paintings , but wrongly claimed that almost all animals are countershaded . For this reason countershading is sometimes called Thayer ’ s Law . Thayer wrote :
Animals are painted by Nature darkest on those parts which tend to be most lighted by the sky 's light , and vice versa . ... the fact that a vast majority of creatures of the whole animal kingdom wear this gradation , developed to an exquisitely minute degree , and are famous for being hard to see in their homes , speaks for itself .
Thayer observed and painted a number of examples , including the Luna moth caterpillar Actias luna , both in its habitual upside @-@ down feeding position , where its countershading makes it appear flat , and artificially inverted from that position , where sunlight and its inverted countershading combine to make it appear heavily shaded and therefore solid . Thayer obtained a patent in 1902 to paint warships , both submarines and surface ships , using countershading , but failed to convince the US Navy to adopt his ideas .
Hugh Bamford Cott in his 1940 book Adaptive Coloration in Animals described many instances of countershading , following Thayer in general approach but criticising Thayer 's excessive claim ( " He says ' All patterns and colors whatsoever of all animals that ever prey or are preyed upon are under certain normal circumstances obliterative . ' " ) that effectively all animals are camouflaged with countershading . Cott calls this " Thayer straining the theory to a fantastic extreme " .
Both Thayer and Cott include in their books photographs of a non @-@ countershaded white cockerel against a white background , to make the point that in Thayer 's words " a monochrome object can not be ' obliterated ' , no matter what its background " or in Cott 's words " Colour resemblance alone is not sufficient to afford concealment " . Cott explains that
Contrary to what might have been expected by any one lacking in artistic perception , the bird appears highly conspicuous , the back looking lighter , and the breast darker , than the background , although in actual fact , back , background and breast are all pure white . "
= = Application = =
= = = In animals = = =
Countershading is observed in a wide range of animal groups , both terrestrial , such as deer , and marine , such as sharks . It is the basis of camouflage in both predators and prey . It is used alongside other forms of camouflage including colour matching and disruptive coloration . Among predatory fish , the gray snapper , Lutianus griseus , is effectively flattened by its countershading , while it hunts an " almost invisible " prey , the hardhead fish , Atherina laticeps which swims over greyish sands . Other countershaded marine animals include blue shark , herring , and dolphin ; while fish like the mackerel and sergeant fish are both countershaded and patterned with stripes or spots .
It tones the canvas on which are painted the Leopard 's spots , the Tiger 's stripes ... It is the dress almost universally worn by rodents ... It is the essential uniform adopted by Conies , Asses , Antelopes , Deer ... It is repeated extensively among the marsupials ... It provides a basic livery for the great majority of snakes , lizards , and amphibians . Among insects it reaches a fine state of perfection in different caterpillars and grasshoppers . ... It is , however , in rivers , and in the surface waters of the sea , that countershading reaches its maximum development and significance .
Countershading existed in marine reptiles in the Cretaceous period . Fossilised skin pigmented with dark @-@ coloured eumelanin reveals that both leatherback turtles and mosasaurs had dark backs and light bellies .
= = = A related mechanism : counter @-@ illumination = = =
Another form of animal camouflage uses bioluminescence to increase the average brightness of an animal to match the brightness of the background . This is called counter @-@ illumination . It is common in mid @-@ water pelagic fish and invertebrates especially squid . It makes the counter @-@ illuminated animal practically invisible to predators viewing it from below . As such , counter @-@ illumination camouflage can be seen as an extension beyond what countershading can achieve . Where countershading only paints out shadows , counter @-@ illumination can add in actual lights , permitting effective camouflage in changing conditions , including where the background is bright enough to make an animal that is not counter @-@ illuminated appear as a shadow .
= = = Military = = =
Countershading , like counter @-@ illumination , has rarely been applied in practice for military camouflage , though not because military authorities were unaware of it . Both Abbott Thayer in the First World War and Hugh Cott in the Second World War proposed countershading to their countries ' armed forces . They each demonstrated the effectiveness of countershading , without succeeding in persuading their armed forces to adopt the technique , though they influenced military adoption of camouflage in general .
Cott was a protege of John Graham Kerr who had quarrelled with Norman Wilkinson in the First World War about dazzle camouflage for ships . Wilkinson remained influential in 1939 as an inspector of camouflage , so a political argument developed . Cott was invited to camouflage a 12 @-@ inch rail @-@ mounted gun , alongside a similar gun camouflaged conventionally . Cott carefully combined disruptive contrast to break up the gun barrel 's outlines with countershading to flatten out its appearance as a solid cylinder . The guns were then photographed from the air from various angles , and in Peter Forbes 's view " the results were remarkable . " Cott 's gun is " invisible except to the most minute scrutiny by someone who knows exactly where to look and what to look for . The other gun is always highly visible . " The authorities hesitated , appearing to be embarrassed by the evidence that Cott was right . Cott was posted to the Middle East , and Kerr unsuccessfully intervened , pleading for guns to be painted Cott 's way and Cott to be brought home .
The Australian zoologist William Dakin in his 1941 book The Art of Camouflage followed Thayer in describing countershading in some detail , and the book was reprinted as a military handbook in 1942 . Dakin photographed model birds , much as Thayer and Cott had done , and argued that the shoulders and arms of battledress should be countershaded .
Countershading was described in the US War Department 's 1943 Principles of Camouflage , where after four paragraphs of theory and one on its use in nature , the advice given is
Upper surfaces should be painted and textured so as to conform to the color and tone of the surrounding country ( background ) and the sides graded and toned from this to the white which the under surfaces and parts in shade should be painted .
Inventors have continued to advocate military usage of countershading , with for example a 2005 US patent for personal camouflage including countershading in the form of " statistical countercoloring " with varying sizes of rounded dark patches on a lighter ground .
Research by Ariel Tankus and Yehezkel Yeshurun investigating " camouflage breaking " , the automated detection of objects such as tanks , showed that analysing images for convexity by looking for graded shadows can " break very strong camouflage , which might delude even human viewers . " More precisely , images are searched for places where the gradient of brightness crosses zero , such as the line where a shadow stops becoming darker and starts to become lighter again . The technique defeated camouflage using disruption of edges , but the authors observed that animals with Thayer countershading are using " counter @-@ measures to convexity based detectors " , which implied " predators who use convexity based detectors . "
= = Function = =
Hannah Rowland , reviewing countershading 100 years after Abbott Thayer , observed that countershading , which she defines as " darker pigmentation on those surfaces exposed to the most lighting " is a common but poorly understood aspect of animal coloration . She noted there had been " much debate " about how countershading works . She considered the evidence for Thayer 's theory that this acts as camouflage " by reducing ventral shadowing " , and reviewed alternative explanations for countershading .
Camouflage theories of countershading , Rowland wrote , include " self @-@ shadow concealment which results in improved background matching when viewed from the side " ; " self @-@ shadow concealment that flattens the form when viewed from the side " ; " background matching when viewed from above or below " ; and " body outline obliteration when viewed from above " . These are examined in turn below .
= = = Flattening and background matching when viewed from the side = = =
Cott , like Thayer , argued that countershading would make animals hard to see from the side , as they would " fade into a ghostly elusiveness " . Rowland notes that Cott is here reviewing Thayer 's theory and " reinforcing the view that a gradation in shading would act to eliminate the effects of ventral shadowing . " Kiltie measured the effect of the countershading of the grey squirrel , Sciurus carolinensis , showing that when the squirrel is horizontal the self @-@ shadowing of the belly is partly concealed , but that when the squirrel is vertical ( as when climbing a tree trunk ) this effect did not occur .
Thayer 's original argument , restated by Cott , was that nature did the exact opposite with countershading that an artist did with paint when creating the illusion of solid three @-@ dimensionality , namely counteracting the effect of shade to flatten out form . Shading is a powerful cue used by animals in different phyla to identify the shapes of objects . Research with chicks showed that they preferred to peck at grains with shadows falling below them ( as if illuminated from above ) , so both humans and birds may make use of shading as a depth cue .
= = = Background matching from above or below = = =
A completely different function of animal ( and military vehicle ) coloration is to camouflage the top and bottom surfaces differently , to match their backgrounds below and above respectively . This was noted , for example , by Frank Evers Beddard in 1892 :
Among pelagic fish it is common to find the upper surface dark @-@ coloured and the lower surface white , so that the animal is inconspicuous when seen either from above or below .
Early researchers including Alfred Russel Wallace , Beddard , Cott and Craik argued that marine animals including pelagic fish such as marlin and mackerel , as well as dolphins , sharks , and penguins the upper and lower surfaces are sharply distinct in tone , with a dark upper surface and often a nearly white lower surface . They suggested that when seen from the top , the darker dorsal surface of the animal would offer camouflage against the darkness of the deep water below . When seen from below , the lighter ventral area would similarly provide the least possible contrast with the sunlit ocean surface above . There is some evidence for this in birds , where birds that catch fish at a medium depth , rather than at the surface or on the seabed , are more often coloured in this way , and the prey of these birds would see only the underside of the bird . Rowland concluded that each possible role for coloration patterns lumped together as " countershading " needs to be evaluated separately , rather than just assuming it functions effectively .
= = = Outline obliteration from above = = =
Rowland ( 2009 ) identified an additional mechanism of countershading not previously analysed , namely that a round body like a cylinder illuminated and seen from above appears to have dark sides . Using a graphics tool , she demonstrated that this effect can be flattened out by countershading . Since predators are known to use edges to identify prey , countershading may therefore , she argues , make prey harder to detect when seen from above .
= = = Non @-@ camouflage theories = = =
Non @-@ camouflage theories include protection from ultraviolet light ; thermoregulation ; and protection from abrasion . All three of these " plausible " theories remained largely untested in 2009 , according to Rowland .
= = Evidence = =
Despite demonstrations and examples adduced by Cott and others , little experimental evidence for the effectiveness of countershading was gathered in the century since Thayer 's discovery . Experiments in 2009 using artificial prey showed that countershaded objects do have survival benefits and in 2012 , a study by William Allen and colleagues showed that countershading in 114 species of ruminants closely matched predictions for " self @-@ shadow concealment " , the function predicted by Poulton , Thayer and Cott .
= = Mechanism = =
Evolutionary developmental biology ( ' Evo Devo ' ) has assembled evidence from embryology and genetics to show how evolution has acted at all scales from the whole organism down to individual genes , proteins and genetic switches . In the case of countershaded mammals with dark ( often brownish ) upper parts and lighter ( often buff or whitish ) under parts , such as in the house mouse , it is the Agouti gene which creates the difference in shading . Agouti encodes for a protein , the Agouti signalling peptide ( ASP ) , which specifically inhibits the action of the Melanocortin 1 receptor ( MC1R ) . In the absence of the Agouti protein , alpha @-@ melanocyte @-@ stimulating hormone stimulates the cells bearing MC1R , melanocytes , to produce dark eumelanin , colouring the skin and fur dark brown or black . In the presence of the Agouti protein , the same system produces the lighter @-@ coloured , yellow or red phaeomelanin . A genetic switch active in the cells of the embryo that will become the belly skin causes the Agouti gene to become active there , creating the countershading seen in adult mammals .
= = Reverse countershading = =
If countershading paints out shadows , the reverse , darkening the belly and lightening the back , would maximise contrast by adding to the natural fall of light . This pattern of animal coloration is found in animals like the skunk and honey badger with strong defences — the offensive stink of the skunk , and the sharp claws , aggressive nature and stink of the honey badger . These animals do not run when under attack , but move slowly , often turning to face the danger , and giving deimatic or threat displays either to startle inexperienced predators , or as an aposematic signal , to warn off experienced ones .
The caterpillar of the Luna moth , as discovered by Thayer , is in Cott 's phrase " countershaded in relation to [ its ] attitude " , i.e. shaded with a light back grading to a dark belly , as also is the Nile catfish , Synodontis batensoda for the same reason : these animals ( and other caterpillars including Automeris io and the eyed hawkmoth , Smerinthus ocellatus ) habitually live ' upside down ' with the belly uppermost . Similarly in the sea slug Glaucus atlanticus , the reverse countershading is associated with inverted habits . These animals are thus employing countershading in the usual way for camouflage .
= = Examples in animals = =
= = = Pioneering books = = =
Beddard , F. E. ( 1892 ) . Animal coloration ; an account of the principal facts and theories relating to the colours and markings of animals . Swan Sonnenschein .
Cott , Hugh B. ( 1940 ) . Adaptive Coloration in Animals . Oxford University Press .
Thayer , Gerald H. ( 1909 ) . Concealing @-@ Coloration in the Animal Kingdom . An Exposition of the Laws of Disguise Through Color and Pattern : Being a Summary of Abbott H. Thayer 's Discoveries . Macmillan .
Wallace , A.R. ( 1889 ) . Darwinism . An exposition of the theory of natural selection with some of its applications . Macmillan .
= = = General reading = = =
Behrens , Roy R ( 2009 ) . Goldstein , E Bruce , ed . Encyclopedia of Perception , Volume 1 . Sage. pp. 233 – 235 .
Edmunds , Malcolm ( 2008 ) . " Deimatic Behavior " . In Capinera , John L. Encyclopedia of Entomology . Springer .
Forbes , Peter ( 2009 ) . Dazzled and Deceived : Mimicry and Camouflage . Yale .
Rowland , Hannah M ( 2011 ) . " The history , theory and evidence for a cryptic function of countershading " . In Stevens , Martin ; Merilaita , Sami . Animal Camouflage : Mechanisms and Function . Cambridge University Press .
Ruxton , Graeme D ; Sherratt , Tom N ; Speed , Michael P ( 2004 ) . " 3 . Countershading and counterillumination " . Avoiding Attack : The Evolutionary Ecology of Crypsis , Warning Signals and Mimicry . Oxford University Press .
= = = Journals = = =
Allen , William L ; Baddeley , Roland ; Cuthill , Innes C ; Scott @-@ Samuel , Nicholas E ( December 2012 ) . " A Quantitative Test of the Predicted Relationship between Countershading and Lighting Environment " . The American Naturalist 180 ( 6 ) : 762 – 776 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1086 / 668011 .
Anon ( 4 November 1943 ) . " Principles of Camouflage " . Tactical and Technical Trends 37 .
Behrens , Roy ( 27 February 2009 ) . " Revisiting Abbott Thayer : non @-@ scientific reflections about camouflage in art , war and zoology " . Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B ( Royal Society Publishing ) 364 ( 1516 ) : 497 – 501 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1098 / rstb.2008.0250. PMC 2674083 . PMID 19000975 . Retrieved 2009 @-@ 05 @-@ 05 .
Craik , KJ ( 1944 ) . " White plumage of sea @-@ birds " . Nature 153 : 288 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1038 / 153288 .
Edmunds , M ; Dewhirst , RA ( 1994 ) . " The survival value of countershading with wild birds as predators " . Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 51 ( 4 ) : 447 – 452 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1111 / j.1095 @-@ 8312.1994.tb00973.x.
Elias , Ann ( 2011 ) . " Camouflage Australia : Art , Nature , Science and War " . Sydney University Press. pp. 47 – 53 .
Hershberger , W ( 1970 ) . " Attached @-@ shadow orientation perceived as depth by chickens reared in an environment illuminated from below " . J. Comp . Physiol . Psychol 73 : 407 – 411 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1037 / h0030223 .
Jones , BW ; Nishiguchi , MK ( 2004 ) . " Counterillumination in the Hawaiian bobtail squid , Euprymna scolopes Berry ( Mollusca : Cephalopoda ) " ( PDF ) . Marine Biology 144 ( 6 ) : 1151 – 1155 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1007 / s00227 @-@ 003 @-@ 1285 @-@ 3 .
Kiltie , RA ( 1944 ) . " Testing Thayer 's countershading hypothesis - an image @-@ processing approach " . Animal Behaviour 38 : 542 – 544 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1016 / S0003 @-@ 3472 ( 89 ) 800 .
ONR ( 2013 ) . " Ocean Life : Mammals -Adaptation " . Office of Naval Research . Retrieved 11 January 2013 .
Poulton , Edward B. ( October 1887 ) . " Notes in 1886 upon Lepidopterous Larvae , etc . " . Transactions of the Entomological Society of London : 294 .
Poulton , Edward B ( October 1888 ) . " Notes in 1887 upon Lepidopterous Larvae , etc . " . Transactions of the Entomological Society of London : 595 – 596 .
Rowland , Hannah M. ( 2009 ) . " Abbott Thayer to the present day : what have we learned about the function of countershading ? " ( PDF ) . Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 364 : 519 – 527 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1098 / rstb.2008.0261. PMC 2674085 . PMID 19000972 .
Ruxton , Graeme D ; Speed , Michael P ; Kelly , David J ( 2004 ) . " What , if anything , is the adaptive function of countershading ? " ( PDF ) . Animal Behaviour 68 : 445 – 451 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1016 / j.anbehav.2003.12.009.
Speed , MP ; Kelly , David J ; Davidson , AM ; G.D. Ruxton ( 2005 ) . " Countershading enhances crypsis with some bird species but not others " . Behavioral Ecology 16 ( 2 ) : 327 – 334 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1093 / beheco / arh166 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link )
Tankus , Ariel ; Yeshurun , Yehezkel . " Convexity @-@ based Camouflage Breaking " ( PDF ) . Tel Aviv University. pp. 1 – 4 . Retrieved 19 January 2013 .
Tooley , Kurt ( 15 December 2005 ) . " Advanced camouflage system and method , Patent application 11 / 159 @,@ 911 , Publication US 2005 / 0276955 A1 " . US Patent Office. pp. 1 – 4 . Retrieved 19 January 2013 .
Young , RE ; Roper , CFE ( 1976 ) . " Bioluminescent countershading in midwater animals : Evidence from living squid " . Science 191 ( 4231 ) : 1046 – 1048 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1126 / science.1251214. PMID 1251214 .
Young , RE ; Roper , CFE ( 1977 ) . " Intensity regulation of bioluminescence during countershading in living midwater animals " . Fishery Bulletin 75 ( 2 ) : 239 – 252 .
= Allosaurus =
Allosaurus ( / ˌæləˈsɔːrəs / ) is a genus of large theropod dinosaur that lived 155 to 150 million years ago during the late Jurassic period ( Kimmeridgian to early Tithonian ) . The name " Allosaurus " means " different lizard " . It is derived from the Greek ἄλλος / allos ( " different , other " ) and σαῦρος / sauros ( " lizard / generic reptile " ) . The first fossil remains that can definitely be ascribed to this genus were described in 1877 by paleontologist Othniel Charles Marsh , and it became known as Antrodemus . As one of the first well @-@ known theropod dinosaurs , it has long attracted attention outside of paleontological circles . Indeed , it has been a top feature in several films and documentaries about prehistoric life .
Allosaurus was a large bipedal predator . Its skull was large and equipped with dozens of sharp , serrated teeth . It averaged 8 @.@ 5 m ( 28 ft ) in length , though fragmentary remains suggest it could have reached over 12 m ( 39 ft ) . Relative to the large and powerful hindlimbs , its three @-@ fingered forelimbs were small , and the body was balanced by a long and heavily muscled tail . It is classified as an allosaurid , a type of carnosaurian theropod dinosaur . The genus has a complicated taxonomy , and includes an uncertain number of valid species , the best known of which is A. fragilis . The bulk of Allosaurus remains have come from North America 's Morrison Formation , with material also known from Portugal and possibly Tanzania . It was known for over half of the 20th century as Antrodemus , but study of the copious remains from the Cleveland @-@ Lloyd Dinosaur Quarry brought the name " Allosaurus " back to prominence , and established it as one of the best @-@ known dinosaurs .
As the most abundant large predator in the Morrison Formation , Allosaurus was at the top of the food chain , probably preying on contemporaneous large herbivorous dinosaurs and perhaps even other predators . Potential prey included ornithopods , stegosaurids , and sauropods . Some paleontologists interpret Allosaurus as having had cooperative social behavior , and hunting in packs , while others believe individuals may have been aggressive toward each other , and that congregations of this genus are the result of lone individuals feeding on the same carcasses . It may have attacked large prey by ambush , using its upper jaw like a hatchet .
= = Description = =
Allosaurus was a typical large theropod , having a massive skull on a short neck , a long tail and reduced forelimbs . Allosaurus fragilis , the best @-@ known species , had an average length of 8 @.@ 5 m ( 28 ft ) , with the largest definitive Allosaurus specimen ( AMNH 680 ) estimated at 9 @.@ 7 meters ( 32 feet ) long , and an estimated weight of 2 @.@ 3 metric tons ( 2 @.@ 5 short tons ) . In his 1976 monograph on Allosaurus , James Madsen mentioned a range of bone sizes which he interpreted to show a maximum length of 12 to 13 m ( 39 to 43 ft ) . As with dinosaurs in general , weight estimates are debatable , and since 1980 have ranged between 1 @,@ 500 kilograms ( 3 @,@ 300 pounds ) , 1 @,@ 000 to 4 @,@ 000 kg ( 2 @,@ 200 to 8 @,@ 800 lb ) , and 1 @,@ 010 kilograms ( 2 @,@ 230 pounds ) for modal adult weight ( not maximum ) . John Foster , a specialist on the Morrison Formation , suggests that 1 @,@ 000 kg ( 2 @,@ 200 lb ) is reasonable for large adults of A. fragilis , but that 700 kg ( 1 @,@ 500 lb ) is a closer estimate for individuals represented by the average @-@ sized thigh bones he has measured . Using the subadult specimen nicknamed " Big Al " , researchers using computer modelling arrived at a best estimate of 1 @,@ 500 kilograms ( 3 @,@ 300 lb ) for the individual , but by varying parameters they found a range from approximately 1 @,@ 400 kilograms ( 3 @,@ 100 lb ) to approximately 2 @,@ 000 kilograms ( 4 @,@ 400 lb ) .
Several gigantic specimens have been attributed to Allosaurus , but may in fact belong to other genera . The closely related genus Saurophaganax ( OMNH 1708 ) reached perhaps 10 @.@ 9 m ( 36 ft ) in length , and its single species has sometimes been included in the genus Allosaurus as Allosaurus maximus , though recent studies support it as a separate genus . Another potential specimen of Allosaurus , once assigned to the genus Epanterias ( AMNH 5767 ) , may have measured 12 @.@ 1 meters ( 40 feet ) in length . A more recent discovery is a partial skeleton from the Peterson Quarry in Morrison rocks of New Mexico ; this large allosaurid may be another individual of Saurophaganax .
= = = Skull = = =
The skull and teeth of Allosaurus were modestly proportioned for a theropod of its size . Paleontologist Gregory S. Paul gives a length of 845 mm ( 33 @.@ 3 in ) for a skull belonging to an individual he estimates at 7 @.@ 9 m ( 26 ft ) long . Each premaxilla ( the bones that formed the tip of the snout ) , held five teeth with D @-@ shaped cross @-@ sections , and each maxilla ( the main tooth @-@ bearing bones in the upper jaw ) had between 14 and 17 teeth ; the number of teeth does not exactly correspond to the size of the bone . Each dentary ( the tooth @-@ bearing bone of the lower jaw ) had between 14 and 17 teeth , with an average count of 16 . The teeth became shorter , more narrow , and more curved toward the back of the skull . All of the teeth had saw @-@ like edges . They were shed easily , and were replaced continually , making them common fossils .
The skull had a pair of horns above and in front of the eyes . These horns were composed of extensions of the lacrimal bones , and varied in shape and size . There were also lower paired ridges running along the top edges of the nasal bones that led into the horns . The horns were probably covered in a keratin sheath and may have had a variety of functions , including acting as sunshades for the eye , being used for display , and being used in combat against other members of the same species ( although they were fragile ) . There was a ridge along the back of the skull roof for muscle attachment , as is also seen in tyrannosaurids .
Inside the lacrimal bones were depressions that may have held glands , such as salt glands . Within the maxillae were sinuses that were better developed than those of more basal theropods such as Ceratosaurus and Marshosaurus ; they may have been related to the sense of smell , perhaps holding something like Jacobson 's organ . The roof of the braincase was thin , perhaps to improve thermoregulation for the brain . The skull and lower jaws had joints that permitted motion within these units . In the lower jaws , the bones of the front and back halves loosely articulated , permitting the jaws to bow outward and increasing the animal 's gape . The braincase and frontals may also have had a joint .
= = = Postcranial skeleton = = =
Allosaurus had nine vertebrae in the neck , 14 in the back , and five in the sacrum supporting the hips . The number of tail vertebrae is unknown and varied with individual size ; James Madsen estimated about 50 , while Gregory S. Paul considered that to be too many and suggested 45 or less . There were hollow spaces in the neck and anterior back vertebrae . Such spaces , which are also found in modern theropods ( that is , the birds ) , are interpreted as having held air sacs used in respiration . The rib cage was broad , giving it a barrel chest , especially in comparison to less derived theropods like Ceratosaurus . Allosaurus had gastralia ( belly ribs ) , but these are not common findings , and they may have ossified poorly . In one published case , the gastralia show evidence of injury during life . A furcula ( wishbone ) was also present , but has only been recognized since 1996 ; in some cases furculae were confused with gastralia . The ilium , the main hip bone , was massive , and the pubic bone had a prominent foot that may have been used for both muscle attachment and as a prop for resting the body on the ground . Madsen noted that in about half of the individuals from the Cleveland @-@ Lloyd Dinosaur Quarry , independent of size , the pubes had not fused to each other at their foot ends . He suggested that this was a sexual characteristic , with females lacking fused bones to make egg @-@ laying easier . This proposal has not attracted further attention , however .
The forelimbs of Allosaurus were short in comparison to the hindlimbs ( only about 35 % the length of the hindlimbs in adults ) and had three fingers per hand , tipped with large , strongly curved and pointed claws . The arms were powerful , and the forearm was somewhat shorter than the upper arm ( 1 : 1 @.@ 2 ulna / humerus ratio ) . The wrist had a version of the semilunate carpal also found in more derived theropods like maniraptorans . Of the three fingers , the innermost ( or thumb ) was the largest , and diverged from the others . The phalangeal formula is 2 @-@ 3 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 @-@ 0 , meaning that the innermost finger ( phalange ) has two bones , the next has three , and the third finger has four . The legs were not as long or suited for speed as those of tyrannosaurids , and the claws of the toes were less developed and more hoof @-@ like than those of earlier theropods . Each foot had three weight @-@ bearing toes and an inner dewclaw , which Madsen suggested could have been used for grasping in juveniles . There was also what is interpreted as the splint @-@ like remnant of a fifth ( outermost ) metatarsal , perhaps used as a lever between the Achilles tendon and foot .
= = Classification = =
Allosaurus was an allosaurid , a member of a family of large theropods within the larger group Carnosauria . The family name Allosauridae was created for this genus in 1878 by Othniel Charles Marsh , but the term was largely unused until the 1970s in favor of Megalosauridae , another family of large theropods that eventually became a wastebasket taxon . This , along with the use of Antrodemus for Allosaurus during the same period , is a point that needs to be remembered when searching for information on Allosaurus in publications that predate James Madsen 's 1976 monograph . Major publications using the name " Megalosauridae " instead of " Allosauridae " include Gilmore , 1920 , von Huene , 1926 , Romer , 1956 and 1966 , Steel , 1970 , and Walker , 1964 .
Following the publication of Madsen 's influential monograph , Allosauridae became the preferred family assignment , but it too was not strongly defined . Semi @-@ technical works used Allosauridae for a variety of large theropods , usually those that were larger and better @-@ known than megalosaurids . Typical theropods that were thought to be related to Allosaurus included Indosaurus , Piatnitzkysaurus , Piveteausaurus , Yangchuanosaurus , Acrocanthosaurus , Chilantaisaurus , Compsosuchus , Stokesosaurus , and Szechuanosaurus . Given modern knowledge of theropod diversity and the advent of cladistic study of evolutionary relationships , none of these theropods is now recognized as an allosaurid , although several , like Acrocanthosaurus and Yangchuanosaurus , are members of closely related families .
Below is a cladogram by Benson et al. in 2010 .
Allosauridae is one of four families in Carnosauria ; the other three are Neovenatoridae , Carcharodontosauridae and Sinraptoridae . Allosauridae has at times been proposed as ancestral to the Tyrannosauridae ( which would make it paraphyletic ) , one recent example being Gregory S. Paul 's Predatory Dinosaurs of the World , but this has been rejected , with tyrannosaurids identified as members of a separate branch of theropods , the Coelurosauria . Allosauridae is the smallest of the carnosaur families , with only Saurophaganax and a currently unnamed French allosauroid accepted as possible valid genera besides Allosaurus in the most recent review . Another genus , Epanterias , is a potential valid member , but it and Saurophaganax may turn out to be large examples of Allosaurus . Recent reviews have kept the genus Saurophaganax and included Epanterias with Allosaurus .
= = Discovery and history = =
= = = Early discoveries and research = = =
The discovery and early study of Allosaurus is complicated by the multiplicity of names coined during the Bone Wars of the late 19th century . The first described fossil in this history was a bone obtained secondhand by Ferdinand Vandiveer Hayden in 1869 . It came from Middle Park , near Granby , Colorado , probably from Morrison Formation rocks . The locals had identified such bones as " petrified horse hoofs " . Hayden sent his specimen to Joseph Leidy , who identified it as half of a tail vertebra , and tentatively assigned it to the European dinosaur genus Poekilopleuron as Poicilopleuron [ sic ] valens . He later decided it deserved its own genus , Antrodemus .
Allosaurus itself is based on YPM 1930 , a small collection of fragmentary bones including parts of three vertebrae , a rib fragment , a tooth , a toe bone , and , most useful for later discussions , the shaft of the right humerus ( upper arm ) . Othniel Charles Marsh gave these remains the formal name Allosaurus fragilis in 1877 . Allosaurus comes from the Greek allos / αλλος , meaning " strange " or " different " and sauros / σαυρος , meaning " lizard " or " reptile " . It was named ' different lizard ' because its vertebrae were different from those of other dinosaurs known at the time of its discovery . The species epithet fragilis is Latin for " fragile " , referring to lightening features in the vertebrae . The bones were collected from the Morrison Formation of Garden Park , north of Cañon City . Marsh and Edward Drinker Cope , who were in scientific competition , went on to coin several other genera based on similarly sparse material that would later figure in the taxonomy of Allosaurus . These include Marsh 's Creosaurus and Labrosaurus , and Cope 's Epanterias .
In their haste , Cope and Marsh did not always follow up on their discoveries ( or , more commonly , those made by their subordinates ) . For example , after the discovery by Benjamin Mudge of the type specimen of Allosaurus in Colorado , Marsh elected to concentrate work in Wyoming ; when work resumed at Garden Park in 1883 , M. P. Felch found an almost complete Allosaurus and several partial skeletons . In addition , one of Cope 's collectors , H. F. Hubbell , found a specimen in the Como Bluff area of Wyoming in 1879 , but apparently did not mention its completeness , and Cope never unpacked it . Upon unpacking in 1903 ( several years after Cope had died ) , it was found to be one of the most complete theropod specimens then known , and in 1908 the skeleton , now cataloged as AMNH 5753 , was put on public view . This is the well @-@ known mount poised over a partial Apatosaurus skeleton as if scavenging it , illustrated as such by Charles R. Knight . Although notable as the first free @-@ standing mount of a theropod dinosaur , and often illustrated and photographed , it has never been scientifically described .
The multiplicity of early names complicated later research , with the situation compounded by the terse descriptions provided by Marsh and Cope . Even at the time , authors such as Samuel Wendell Williston suggested that too many names had been coined . For example , Williston pointed out in 1901 that Marsh had never been able to adequately distinguish Allosaurus from Creosaurus . The most influential early attempt to sort out the convoluted situation was produced by Charles W. Gilmore in 1920 . He came to the conclusion that the tail vertebra named Antrodemus by Leidy was indistinguishable from those of Allosaurus , and Antrodemus thus should be the preferred name because as the older name it had priority . Antrodemus became the accepted name for this familiar genus for over fifty years , until James Madsen published on the Cleveland @-@ Lloyd specimens and concluded that Allosaurus should be used because Antrodemus was based on material with poor , if any , diagnostic features and locality information ( for example , the geological formation that the single bone of Antrodemus came from is unknown ) . " Antrodemus " has been used informally for convenience when distinguishing between the skull Gilmore restored and the composite skull restored by Madsen .
= = = Cleveland @-@ Lloyd discoveries = = =
Although sporadic work at what became known as the Cleveland @-@ Lloyd Dinosaur Quarry in Emery County , Utah had taken place as early as 1927 , and the fossil site itself described by William J. Stokes in 1945 , major operations did not begin there until 1960 . Under a cooperative effort involving nearly 40 institutions , thousands of bones were recovered between 1960 and 1965 . The quarry is notable for the predominance of Allosaurus remains , the condition of the specimens , and the lack of scientific resolution on how it came to be . The majority of bones belong to the large theropod Allosaurus fragilis ( it is estimated that the remains of at least 46 A. fragilis have been found there , out of at minimum 73 dinosaurs ) , and the fossils found there are disarticulated and well @-@ mixed . Nearly a dozen scientific papers have been written on the taphonomy of the site , suggesting numerous mutually exclusive explanations for how it may have formed . Suggestions have ranged from animals getting stuck in a bog , to becoming trapped in deep mud , to falling victim to drought @-@ induced mortality around a waterhole , to getting trapped in a spring @-@ fed pond or seep . Regardless of the actual cause , the great quantity of well @-@ preserved Allosaurus remains has allowed this genus to be known in detail , making it among the best @-@ known theropods . Skeletal remains from the quarry pertain to individuals of almost all ages and sizes , from less than 1 meter ( 3 @.@ 3 feet ) to 12 meters ( 39 feet ) long , and the disarticulation is an advantage for describing bones usually found fused .
= = = Recent work : 1980s – present = = =
The period since Madsen 's monograph has been marked by a great expansion in studies dealing with topics concerning Allosaurus in life ( paleobiological and paleoecological topics ) . Such studies have covered topics including skeletal variation , growth , skull construction , hunting methods , the brain , and the possibility of gregarious living and parental care . Reanalysis of old material ( particularly of large ' allosaur ' specimens ) , new discoveries in Portugal , and several very complete new specimens have also contributed to the growing knowledge base .
= = = = " Big Al " and " Big Al Two " = = = =
In 1991 " Big Al " ( MOR 693 ) , a 95 % complete , partially articulated specimen of Allosaurus was discovered . It measured about 8 meters ( about 26 ft ) in length . MOR 693 was excavated near Shell , Wyoming , by a joint Museum of the Rockies and University of Wyoming Geological Museum team . This skeleton was discovered by a Swiss team , led by Kirby Siber . In 1996 the same team discovered a second Allosaurus , " Big Al Two " , which is the best preserved skeleton of its kind to date .
The completeness , preservation , and scientific importance of this skeleton gave " Big Al " its name ; the individual itself was below the average size for Allosaurus fragilis , and was a subadult estimated at only 87 % grown . The specimen was described by Breithaupt in 1996 . Nineteen of its bones were broken or showed signs of infection , which may have contributed to " Big Al 's " death . Pathologic bones included five ribs , five vertebrae , and four bones of the feet ; several damaged bones showed osteomyelitis , a bone infection . A particular problem for the living animal was infection and trauma to the right foot that probably affected movement and may have also predisposed the other foot to injury because of a change in gait . Al had an infection on the first phalanx on the third toe that was afflicted by an involucrum . The infection was long lived , perhaps up to 6 months . Big Al Two is also known to have multiple injuries .
= = Species and taxonomy = =
There are currently four valid and one undescribed species of Allosaurus ( A. amplus , A. europaeus , the type species A. fragilis , the as @-@ yet not formally described " A. jimmadseni " , and A. lucasi ) .
A. fragilis , " A. jimmadseni " , and A. lucasi are all known from remains discovered in the Kimmeridgian – Tithonian Upper Jurassic @-@ age Morrison Formation of the United States , spread across the states of Colorado , Montana , New Mexico , Oklahoma , South Dakota , Utah , and Wyoming . A. fragilis is regarded as the most common , known from the remains of at least sixty individuals . For a while in the late 1980s and early 1990s it was common to recognize A. fragilis as the short @-@ snouted species , with the long @-@ snouted taxon being A. atrox ; however , subsequent analysis of specimens from the Cleveland @-@ Lloyd Quarry , Como Bluff , and Dry Mesa Quarry showed that the differences seen in the Morrison Formation material could be attributed to individual variation . A study of skull elements from the Cleveland @-@ Lloyd site found wide variation between individuals , calling into question previous species @-@ level distinctions based on such features as the shape of the lacrimal horns , and the proposed differentiation of " A. jimmadseni " based on the shape of the jugal . A. europaeus was found in the Kimmeridgian @-@ age Porto Novo Member of the Lourinhã Formation , but may be the same as A. fragilis .
Allosaurus tendagurensis was found in Kimmeridgian @-@ age rocks of Tendaguru , in Mtwara , Tanzania . It was subsequently classified as a more basal tetanuran , before being finally recognized as a carcharodontosaurid , Although obscure , it was a large theropod , possibly around 10 meters ( 33 feet ) long and 2 @.@ 5 metric tons ( 2 @.@ 8 short tons ) in weight .
Allosaurus is regarded as a probable synonym of the genera Creosaurus , Epanterias , and Labrosaurus . Most of the species that are regarded as synonyms of A. fragilis , or that were misassigned to the genus , are obscure and were based on scrappy remains . One exception is Labrosaurus ferox , named in 1884 by Marsh for an oddly formed partial lower jaw , with a prominent gap in the tooth row at the tip of the jaw , and a rear section greatly expanded and turned down . Later researchers suggested that the bone was pathologic , showing an injury to the living animal , and that part of the unusual form of the rear of the bone was due to plaster reconstruction . It is now regarded as an example of A. fragilis .
Other remains formerly thought to pertain to Allosaurus were described from Australia , and Siberia , but these fossils have been reassessed as belonging to other dinosaurs .
The issue of synonyms is complicated by the type specimen of Allosaurus fragilis ( catalog number YPM 1930 ) being extremely fragmentary , consisting of a few incomplete vertebrae , limb bone fragments , rib fragments , and a tooth . Because of this , several scientists have interpreted the type specimen as potentially dubious , and thus the genus Allosaurus itself or at least the species A. fragilis would be a nomen dubium ( " dubious name " , based on a specimen too incomplete to compare to other specimens or to classify ) . To address this situation , Gregory S. Paul and Kenneth Carpenter ( 2010 ) submitted a petition to the ICZN to have the name " A. fragilis " officially transferred to the more complete specimen USNM4734 ( as a neotype ) . This request is currently pending review .
= = Paleoecology = =
Allosaurus was the most common large theropod in the vast tract of Western American fossil @-@ bearing rock known as the Morrison Formation , accounting for 70 to 75 % of theropod specimens , and as such was at the top trophic level of the Morrison food web . The Morrison Formation is interpreted as a semiarid environment with distinct wet and dry seasons , and flat floodplains . Vegetation varied from river @-@ lining forests of conifers , tree ferns , and ferns ( gallery forests ) , to fern savannas with occasional trees such as the Araucaria @-@ like conifer Brachyphyllum .
The Morrison Formation has been a rich fossil hunting ground . The flora of the period has been revealed by fossils of green algae , fungi , mosses , horsetails , ferns , cycads , ginkgoes , and several families of conifers . Animal fossils discovered include bivalves , snails , ray @-@ finned fishes , frogs , salamanders , turtles , sphenodonts , lizards , terrestrial and aquatic crocodylomorphans , several species of pterosaur , numerous dinosaur species , and early mammals such as docodonts , multituberculates , symmetrodonts , and triconodonts . Dinosaurs known from the Morrison include the theropods Ceratosaurus , Ornitholestes , and Torvosaurus , the sauropods Apatosaurus , Brachiosaurus , Brontosaurus , Camarasaurus , and Diplodocus , and the ornithischians Camptosaurus , Dryosaurus , and Stegosaurus . Allosaurus is commonly found at the same sites as Apatosaurus , Camarasaurus , Diplodocus , and Stegosaurus . The Late Jurassic formations of Portugal where Allosaurus is present are interpreted as having been similar to the Morrison but with a stronger marine influence . Many of the dinosaurs of the Morrison Formation are the same genera as those seen in Portuguese rocks ( mainly Allosaurus , Ceratosaurus , Torvosaurus , and Stegosaurus ) , or have a close counterpart ( Brachiosaurus and Lusotitan , Camptosaurus and Draconyx ) .
Allosaurus coexisted with fellow large theropods Ceratosaurus and Torvosaurus in both the United States and Portugal . The three appear to have had different ecological niches , based on anatomy and the location of fossils . Ceratosaurs and torvosaurs may have preferred to be active around waterways , and had lower , thinner bodies that would have given them an advantage in forest and underbrush terrains , whereas allosaurs were more compact , with longer legs , faster but less maneuverable , and seem to have preferred dry floodplains . Ceratosaurus , better known than Torvosaurus , differed noticeably from Allosaurus in functional anatomy by having a taller , narrower skull with large , broad teeth . Allosaurus was itself a potential food item to other carnivores , as illustrated by an Allosaurus pubic foot marked by the teeth of another theropod , probably Ceratosaurus or Torvosaurus . The location of the bone in the body ( along the bottom margin of the torso and partially shielded by the legs ) , and the fact that it was among the most massive in the skeleton , indicates that the Allosaurus was being scavenged .
= = Paleobiology = =
= = = Life history = = =
The wealth of Allosaurus fossils , from nearly all ages of individuals , allows scientists to study how the animal grew and how long its lifespan may have been . Remains may reach as far back in the lifespan as eggs — crushed eggs from Colorado have been suggested as those of Allosaurus . Based on histological analysis of limb bones , bone deposition appears to stop at around 22 to 28 years , which is comparable to that of other large theropods like Tyrannosaurus . From the same analysis , its maximum growth appears to have been at age 15 , with an estimated growth rate of about 150 kilograms ( 330 lb ) per year .
Medullary bone tissue ( endosteally derived , ephemeral , mineralization located inside the medulla of the long bones in gravid female birds ) has been reported in at least one Allosaurus specimen , a shin bone from the Cleveland @-@ Lloyd Quarry . Today , this bone tissue is only formed in female birds that are laying eggs , as it is used to supply calcium to shells . Its presence in the Allosaurus individual has been used to establish sex and show it had reached reproductive age . However , other studies have called into question some cases of medullary bone in dinosaurs , including this Allosaurus individual . Data from extant birds suggested that the medullary bone in this Allosaurus individual may have been the result of a bone pathology instead . However , with the confirmation of medullary tissue indicating gender in a specimen of Tyrannosaurus , it may be possible to ascertain whether or not the Allosaurus in question was indeed female .
The discovery of a juvenile specimen with a nearly complete hindlimb shows that the legs were relatively longer in juveniles , and the lower segments of the leg ( shin and foot ) were relatively longer than the thigh . These differences suggest that younger Allosaurus were faster and had different hunting strategies than adults , perhaps chasing small prey as juveniles , then becoming ambush hunters of large prey upon adulthood . The thigh bone became thicker and wider during growth , and the cross @-@ section less circular , as muscle attachments shifted , muscles became shorter , and the growth of the leg slowed . These changes imply that juvenile legs has less predictable stresses compared with adults , which would have moved with more regular forward progression . Conversely , the skull bones appear to have generally grown isometrically , increasing in size without changing in proportion .
= = = Feeding = = =
Paleontologists accept Allosaurus as an active predator of large animals . There is dramatic evidence for allosaur attacks on Stegosaurus , including an Allosaurus tail vertebra with a partially healed puncture wound that fits a Stegosaurus tail spike , and a Stegosaurus neck plate with a U @-@ shaped wound that correlates well with an Allosaurus snout . Sauropods seem to be likely candidates as both live prey and as objects of scavenging , based on the presence of scrapings on sauropod bones fitting allosaur teeth well and the presence of shed allosaur teeth with sauropod bones . However , as Gregory Paul noted in 1988 , Allosaurus was probably not a predator of fully grown sauropods , unless it hunted in packs , as it had a modestly sized skull and relatively small teeth , and was greatly outweighed by contemporaneous sauropods . Another possibility is that it preferred to hunt juveniles instead of fully grown adults . Research in the 1990s and first decade of the 21st century may have found other solutions to this question . Robert T. Bakker , comparing Allosaurus to Cenozoic sabre @-@ toothed carnivorous mammals , found similar adaptations , such as a reduction of jaw muscles and increase in neck muscles , and the ability to open the jaws extremely wide . Although Allosaurus did not have sabre teeth , Bakker suggested another mode of attack that would have used such neck and jaw adaptations : the short teeth in effect became small serrations on a saw @-@ like cutting edge running the length of the upper jaw , which would have been driven into prey . This type of jaw would permit slashing attacks against much larger prey , with the goal of weakening the victim .
Similar conclusions were drawn by another study using finite element analysis on an Allosaurus skull . According to their biomechanical analysis , the skull was very strong but had a relatively small bite force . By using jaw muscles only , it could produce a bite force of 805 to 2 @,@ 148 N , less than the values for alligators ( 13 @,@ 000 N ) , lions ( 4 @,@ 167 N ) , and leopards ( 2 @,@ 268 N ) , but the skull could withstand nearly 55 @,@ 500 N of vertical force against the tooth row . The authors suggested that Allosaurus used its skull like a hatchet against prey , attacking open @-@ mouthed , slashing flesh with its teeth , and tearing it away without splintering bones , unlike Tyrannosaurus , which is thought to have been capable of damaging bones . They also suggested that the architecture of the skull could have permitted the use of different strategies against different prey ; the skull was light enough to allow attacks on smaller and more agile ornithopods , but strong enough for high @-@ impact ambush attacks against larger prey like stegosaurids and sauropods . Their interpretations were challenged by other researchers , who found no modern analogues to a hatchet attack and considered it more likely that the skull was strong to compensate for its open construction when absorbing the stresses from struggling prey . The original authors noted that Allosaurus itself has no modern equivalent , that the tooth row is well @-@ suited to such an attack , and that articulations in the skull cited by their detractors as problematic actually helped protect the palate and lessen stress . Another possibility for handling large prey is that theropods like Allosaurus were " flesh grazers " which could take bites of flesh out of living sauropods that were sufficient to sustain the predator so it would not have needed to expend the effort to kill the prey outright . This strategy would also potentially have allowed the prey to recover and be fed upon in a similar way later . An additional suggestion notes that ornithopods were the most common available dinosaurian prey , and that allosaurs may have subdued them by using an attack similar to that of modern big cats : grasping the prey with their forelimbs , and then making multiple bites on the throat to crush the trachea . This is compatible with other evidence that the forelimbs were strong and capable of restraining prey . Studies done by Stephen Lautenschager et al. from the University of Bristol also indicate Allosaurus could open its jaws quite wide and sustain considerable muscle force . When compared with Tyrannosaurus and the therizinosaurid Erlikosaurus in the same study , it was found that Allosaurus had a wider gape than either ; the animal was capable of opening its jaws to a 79 degree angle . The findings also indicate that large carnivorous dinosaurs , like modern carnivores , had wider jaw gapes than herbivores .
A biomechanical study published in 2013 by Eric Snively and colleagues found that Allosaurus had an unusually low attachment point on the skull for the longissimus capitis superficialis neck muscle compared to other theropods such as Tyrannosaurus . This would have allowed the animal to make rapid and forceful vertical movements with the skull . The authors found that vertical strikes as proposed by Bakker and Rayfield are consistent with the animal 's capabilities . They also found that the animal probably processed carcasses by vertical movements in a similar manner to falcons , such as kestrels : the animal could have gripped prey with the skull and feet , then pulled back and up to remove flesh . This differs from the prey @-@ handling envisioned for tyrannosaurids , which probably tore flesh with lateral shakes of the skull , similar to crocodilians . In addition , Allosaurus was able to " move its head and neck around relatively rapidly and with considerable control " , at the cost of power .
Other aspects of feeding include the eyes , arms , and legs . The shape of the skull of Allosaurus limited potential binocular vision to 20 ° of width , slightly less than that of modern crocodilians . As with crocodilians , this may have been enough to judge prey distance and time attacks . The arms , compared with those of other theropods , were suited for both grasping prey at a distance or clutching it close , and the articulation of the claws suggests that they could have been used to hook things . Finally , the top speed of Allosaurus has been estimated at 30 to 55 kilometers per hour ( 19 to 34 miles per hour ) .
Allosaurus could have also used a bone saw technique in which the carnivore would shake its head back and forth vertically and use its serrated teeth to slice through the thick skin and bones of dead animals . It is even possible that all carnosaurs could saw through bone , but at the moment , it is just a hypothesis .
A new study on Allosaurus ' skull and how it worked has deemed the hatchet jaw attack unlikely since the animal would be wasting great amounts of energy with each bite . It seems more likely that Allosaurus hunted prey like any typical carnosaur by ripping great chunks of flesh from the animal and letting it bleed to death .
= = = Social behavior = = =
It has been speculated since the 1970s that Allosaurus preyed on sauropods and other large dinosaurs by hunting in groups . Such a depiction is common in semitechnical and popular dinosaur literature . Robert T. Bakker has extended social behavior to parental care , and has interpreted shed allosaur teeth and chewed bones of large prey animals as evidence that adult allosaurs brought food to lairs for their young to eat until they were grown , and prevented other carnivores from scavenging on the food . However , there is actually little evidence of gregarious behavior in theropods , and social interactions with members of the same species would have included antagonistic encounters , as shown by injuries to gastralia and bite wounds to skulls ( the pathologic lower jaw named Labrosaurus ferox is one such possible example ) . Such head @-@ biting may have been a way to establish dominance in a pack or to settle territorial disputes .
Although Al | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
losaurus may have hunted in packs , it has been argued that Allosaurus and other theropods had largely aggressive interactions instead of cooperative interactions with other members of their own species . The study in question noted that cooperative hunting of prey much larger than an individual predator , as is commonly inferred for theropod dinosaurs , is rare among vertebrates in general , and modern diapsid carnivores ( including lizards , crocodiles , and birds ) very rarely cooperate to hunt in such a way . Instead , they are typically territorial and will kill and cannibalize intruders of the same species , and will also do the same to smaller individuals that attempt to eat before they do when aggregated at feeding sites . According to this interpretation , the accumulation of remains of multiple Allosaurus individuals at the same site , e.g. in the Cleveland – Lloyd Quarry , are not due to pack hunting , but to the fact that Allosaurus individuals were drawn together to feed on other disabled or dead allosaurs , and were sometimes killed in the process . This could explain the high proportion of juvenile and subadult allosaurs present , as juveniles and subadults are disproportionally killed at modern group feeding sites of animals like crocodiles and Komodo dragons . The same interpretation applies to Bakker 's lair sites . There is some evidence for cannibalism in Allosaurus , including Allosaurus shed teeth found among rib fragments , possible tooth marks on a shoulder blade , and cannibalized allosaur skeletons among the bones at Bakker 's lair sites .
= = = Brain and senses = = =
The brain of Allosaurus , as interpreted from spiral CT scanning of an endocast , was more consistent with crocodilian brains than those of the other living archosaurs , birds . The structure of the vestibular apparatus indicates that the skull was held nearly horizontal , as opposed to strongly tipped up or down . The structure of the inner ear was like that of a crocodilian , and so Allosaurus probably could have heard lower frequencies best , and would have had trouble with subtle sounds . The olfactory bulbs were large and seem to have been well suited for detecting odors , although the area for evaluating smells was relatively small .
= = = Paleopathology = = =
In 2001 , Bruce Rothschild and others published a study examining evidence for stress fractures and tendon avulsions in theropod dinosaurs and the implications for their behavior . Since stress fractures are caused by repeated trauma rather than singular events they are more likely to be caused by the behavior of the animal than other kinds of injury . Stress fractures and tendon avulsions occurring in the forelimb have special behavioral significance since while injuries to the feet could be caused by running or migration , resistant prey items are the most probable source of injuries to the hand . Allosaurus was one of only two theropods examined in the study to exhibit a tendon avulsion , and in both cases the avulsion occurred on the forelimb . When the researchers looked for stress fractures , they found that Allosaurus had a significantly greater number of stress fractures than Albertosaurus , Ornithomimus or Archaeornithomimus . Of the 47 hand bones the researchers studied , 3 were found to contain stress fractures . Of the feet , 281 bones were studied and 17 found to have stress fractures . The stress fractures in the foot bones " were distributed to the proximal phalanges " and occurred across all three weight @-@ bearing toes in " statistically indistinguishable " numbers . Since the lower end of the third metatarsal would have contacted the ground first while an allosaur was running it would have borne the most stress . If the allosaurs ' stress fractures were caused by damage accumulating while walking or running this bone should have experience more stress fractures than the others . The lack of such a bias in the examined Allosaurus fossils indicates an origin for the stress fractures from a source other than running . The authors conclude that these fractures occurred during interaction with prey , like an allosaur trying to hold struggling prey with its feet . The abundance of stress fractures and avulsion injuries in Allosaurus provide evidence for " very active " predation @-@ based rather than scavenging diets .
The left scapula and fibula of an Allosaurus fragilis specimen catalogued as USNM 4734 are both pathological , both probably due to healed fractures . The specimen USNM 8367 preserved several pathological gastralia which preserve evidence of healed fractures near their middle . Some of the fractures were poorly healed and " formed pseudoarthroses . " A specimen with a fractured rib was recovered from the Cleveland @-@ Lloyd Quarry . Another specimen had fractured ribs and fused vertebrae near the end of the tail . An apparent subadult male Allosaurus fragilis was reported to have extensive pathologies , with a total of fourteen separate injuries . The specimen MOR 693 had pathologies on five ribs , the sixth neck vertebra the third eighth and thirteenth back vertebrae , the second tail vertebra and its chevron , the gastralia right scapula , manual phalanx I left ilium metatarsals III and V , the first phalanx of the third toe and the third phalanx of the second . The ilium had " a large hole ... caused by a blow from above " .The near end of the first phalanx of the third toe was afflicted by an involucrum .
Other pathologies reported in Allosaurus include : Willow breaks in two ribs . Healed fractures in the humerus and radius . Distortion of joint surfaces in the foot possibly due to osteoarthritis or developmental issues . Osteopetrosis along the endosteal surface of a tibia . Distortions of the joint surfaces of the tail vertebrae possibly due to osetoarthritis or developmental issues . " [ E ] xtensive ' neoplastic ' ankylosis of caudals , " possibly due to physical trauma as well as the fusion of chevrons to centra . Coossification of vertebral centra near the end of the tail . Amputation of a chevron and foot bone , both possibly a result of bites . " [ E ] xtensive exostoses " in the first phalanx of the third toe . Lesions similar to those caused by osteomyelitis in two scapulae . Bone spurs in a premaxilla , ungual , and two metacarpals . Exostosis in a pedal phalanx possibly attributable to an infectious disease . A metacarpal with a round depressed fracture .
= = In popular culture = =
Along with Tyrannosaurus , Allosaurus has come to represent the quintessential large , carnivorous dinosaur in western popular culture . It is a common dinosaur in American museums , due in particular to the excavations at the Cleveland @-@ Lloyd Dinosaur Quarry ; by 1976 , as a result of cooperative operations , 38 museums in eight countries on three continents had Cleveland @-@ Lloyd allosaur material or casts . Allosaurus is the official state fossil of Utah .
Allosaurus has been depicted in popular culture since the early years of the 20th century . It is top predator in both Arthur Conan Doyle 's 1912 novel , The Lost World , and its 1925 film adaptation , the first full @-@ length motion picture to feature dinosaurs . Allosaurus was used as the starring dinosaur of the 1956 film The Beast of Hollow Mountain , and the 1969 film The Valley of Gwangi , two genre combinations of living dinosaurs with Westerns . In The Valley of Gwangi , Gwangi is billed as an Allosaurus , although Ray Harryhausen based his model for the creature on Charles R. Knight 's depiction of a Tyrannosaurus . Harryhausen sometimes confuses the two , stating in a DVD interview " They 're both meat eaters , they 're both tyrants ... one was just a bit larger than the other . " Allosaurus appeared in the second episode of the 1999 BBC television series Walking with Dinosaurs and the follow @-@ up special The Ballad of Big Al , which speculated on the life of the " Big Al " specimen , based on scientific evidence from the numerous injuries and pathologies in its skeleton . Allosaurus also made an appearance in the Discovery Channel series Dinosaur Revolution . Its depiction in this series was based upon a specimen with a smashed lower jaw that was uncovered by paleontologist Thomas Holtz . Allosaurus also appears in the 2011 BBC docu @-@ mini @-@ series Planet Dinosaur in the episode " Fight for Life " .
= The Boat Race 2012 =
The 158th Boat Race took place on 7 April 2012 . Held annually , The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames in London . Despite Cambridge having the heavier crew , Oxford were pre @-@ race favourites having had a successful preparation period , including a victory over Leander . Cambridge won the toss and chose to start on the Surrey side of the river . Partway through , with the boats level , the race was temporarily halted to avoid injury to protester Trenton Oldfield , who swam in front of the two crews . After the race was restarted , one of the Oxford crew suffered irreparable damage to his blade following a clash of oars with the Cambridge boat , ending Oxford 's chances of victory . The race was eventually won by Cambridge by four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ quarter lengths , in a consolidated time of 17 minutes 23 seconds .
Immediately after completing the race , a member of the Oxford crew collapsed , but later recovered . Oldfield was later jailed for six months for causing a public nuisance , and as a result of the disruption , security for subsequent Boat Races was increased . The reserve race was won by Oxford 's Isis in a record time , while the Women 's Boat Race was won by Cambridge .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities , followed throughout the United Kingdom and broadcast worldwide . Oxford went into the 2012 race as reigning champions , having beaten Cambridge by four lengths in the previous year 's race . However , Cambridge held the overall lead , with 80 victories to Oxford 's 76 . Oxford were pre @-@ race favourites , having beaten Leander , Molesey Boat Club and a German national under @-@ 23 crew in the previous weeks .
The first Women 's Boat Race took place in 1927 , but did not become an annual fixture until the 1960s . Until 2014 , the contest was conducted as part of the Henley Boat Races , but as of the 2015 race , it is held on the River Thames Tideway , on the same day as the men 's main and reserve races . The reserve race , contested between Oxford 's Isis boat and Cambridge 's Goldie boat , has been held since 1965 . It usually takes place on the Thames , prior to the main Boat Race .
= = Crews = =
The trial crews competed against one another on 13 December 2011 on The Championship Course . Oxford 's boats were titled Hell and High Water , while Cambridge 's two crews rowed in Cloak and Dagger . Hell and Dagger won their respective races . The official crews were announced at the weigh @-@ in , held on 5 March 2012 at a venue nearby the London 2012 Olympic Stadium . For the first time in Cambridge 's Boat Race history , their boat featured just one British oarsman , Mike Thorp , who , along with stroke David Nelson and Oxford 's number five Karl Hudspith , were the only participants who had featured in the 2011 race . The remainder of the Cambridge crew comprised three Americans , two Australians , a German , a New Zealander and cox Ed Bosson , another Briton . The Oxford crew consisted of a British cox , four British oarsmen , two Americans , a German and a Dutch rower .
The Cambridge oarsmen weighed an average of 7 @.@ 9 kilograms ( 17 lb ) more than their Oxford counterparts , with Cambridge 's cox Ed Bosson outweighing Oxford 's Zoe de Toledo by 6 kilograms ( 13 lb ) . Despite the fact that heavier Oxbridge crews were traditionally more successful , Oxford boat club president Hudspith , himself part of the successful 2011 Dark Blue crew which defeated a heavier Cambridge crew , downplayed the disparity , " It 's a big difference but it 's a very long race and you have to have the power to carry that weight down the course " .
= = Races = =
= = = Women 's and reserves = = =
The women 's race , the 66th meeting of Cambridge University Women 's Boat Club and Oxford University Women 's Boat Club , was held at the Henley Boat Races on 25 March . In a close race , Cambridge won by a quarter of a length , in a time of 6 minutes , 38 seconds . Oxford 's Osiris won the women 's reserve race against Cambridge 's Blondie .
The reserve race , between Oxford 's Isis and Cambridge 's Goldie , was held thirty minutes before the main race , at 1 : 45pm . Goldie won the toss and elected to start on the Surrey station . Despite rating higher and taking an early lead , Goldie was caught by Isis between Fulham Football Club and Hammersmith Bridge at Barn Elms . Oxford 's reserve boat held a half @-@ length lead by the Mile Post , and extended their lead to over a length by Hammersmith Bridge . Isis continued to pull away and completed the race in a record time of 16 minutes 41 seconds , beating the previous best by seven seconds , five lengths ahead of Cambridge .
= = = Main race = = =
The race , sponsored by Xchanging , commenced at 2 : 15pm , with conditions overcast and a light rain , and a light wind . The umpire for the race was John Garrett , who had rowed for the Light Blues three times in the 1980s . Cambridge won the toss and chose the Surrey station , leaving Oxford with the longer outside bend from the Middlesex station . The crews were level at Fulham Football Club and Hammersmith Bridge but on the approach to Chiswick Pier , assistant umpire Matthew Pinsent spotted a person in the water and alerted umpire John Garrett , who stopped the race . Trenton Oldfield , a protestor against class elitism , had swum in front of the boats as they headed into the final bend , and narrowly avoided being struck . A representative of the Metropolitan Police noted : " They almost took his head off " . It was the first time the race had been stopped since 2001 , and only the second time in the history of the event . Oldfield was pulled from the water onto the umpire 's boat , handcuffed and arrested .
The race was restarted some thirty minutes later , after Garrett had been satisfied that both crews were located as close as possible to where the disruption took place , in rough water caused by the flotilla following the race . Within a minute of the restart , the crews drifted together with Oxford being warned by Garrett , causing a clash of oars which resulted in Oxford 's number six , Hanno Wienhausen , breaking the shaft of his blade in half . This effectively ended the race as a contest , as Cambridge rowed away from Oxford to win by four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ quarter lengths . Cambridge 's winning time was recorded by finish judge Ben Kent as 17 minutes 23 seconds , the consolidation of the times that the crews actually rowed .
= = Reaction = =
= = = Post @-@ race = = =
Immediately after the race , Oxford 's bow man , Alex Woods , collapsed and lost consciousness . After receiving treatment on the bank of the river , he was taken to Charing Cross Hospital , where he made a complete recovery . Oxford 's coach Sean Bowden suggested that the loss of one of Oxford 's blades had driven Woods to push himself " beyond his limits " . As a result of the disruption and the concern for Woods ' condition , the traditional award ceremony was cancelled . Woods later apologised to the Cambridge crew and coach for his collapse that " prevented their celebrations " while thanking them for their " sportsmanlike behaviour " . Cambridge boat club president Nelson said " I feel bad . Finishing the race there was a lot of raw emotion and some of the celebrations seem pathetic in retrospect " while his coach Steve Trapmore commented " it 's not the way anyone wants to take away the win " . Oxford cox Zoe de Toledo made a request that the race be re @-@ rowed as a result of the broken blade , but the appeal was dismissed by umpire Garrett , who said " I listened to Oxford ’ s complaint but I explained I did not see the clash as being the reason for the eventual result " .
The Observer described the race as " one of the most bizarre and dramatic in the competition 's history " , while The Daily Telegraph suggested the event had been " ruined " and described Cambridge 's victory as " hollow " . British Olympic Association chairman and former Blue Colin Moynihan claimed that the race was " effectively destroyed ... by the actions of a crazy guy who was hugely putting his life at risk " .
= = = Trenton Oldfield = = =
Oldfield , an Australian national , said he was making " a protest against inequalities in British society , government cuts , reductions in civil liberties and a culture of elitism " . Oxford number two , William Zeng , denounced Oldfield and described him as " a mockery of a man " , while Oxford boat club president Karl Hudspith tweeted " my team went through seven months of hell , this was the culmination of our careers and [ Oldfield ] took it from us " . Educated at the Sydney Church of England Grammar School , the University of Sydney and the London School of Economics , and Fellow of the Royal Society of Arts , Oldfield tweeted the day after the race , " Having been deep within elite institutions I have a very good understanding of them . I protest their injustices – ask anyone that knows me " . On his blog , Oldfield compared his actions to those of Emily Davison , the suffragette killed after stepping in front of the King 's horse at the Epsom Derby in 1913 . Despite later stating he had some sympathy for both the rowers and spectators , he said he had no regrets and that he " would have felt less of a man " had he not made the protest . In October 2012 , Oldfield was jailed for six months for causing a public nuisance and ordered to pay £ 750 costs . In June 2013 , he was refused leave to remain in the United Kingdom , the Home Office claiming his presence there was not " conducive to the public good " . Oldfield , whose wife is from India , appealed on the grounds that she would be threatened in Australia , and in December 2013 , the deportation order was overturned . Security for the 2013 race was increased as a result of Oldfield 's actions , with Royal Marines , additional stewards and the Metropolitan Police Marine Policing Unit in attendance .
= North Bank Depot Buildings =
The North Bank Depot Buildings , located in central Portland , Oregon , United States , are a pair of buildings formerly used as a freight warehouse and passenger terminal for the Spokane , Portland and Seattle Railway ( SP & S ) . Formed in 1905 , the SP & S was commonly known as the North Bank Road ( or North Bank road , " road " being short for railroad ) during the period in which these buildings were in use . The Portland buildings ' passenger facilities were also used by the Oregon Electric Railway after that railway was acquired by the SP & S. Located in what is now known as the Pearl District , the buildings were listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1996 . They were in use by the SP & S and its successor , Burlington Northern Railroad , from 1908 until the 1980s . Only the east building was used as a passenger station , and this usage lasted from 1908 until 1931 .
= = Location = =
The two matching , two @-@ story brick buildings face one another on opposite sides of NW 11th Avenue immediately north of Hoyt Street , the east building being at 1029 NW Hoyt Street and the west at 1101 NW Hoyt . Historically , they were known as the East and West Freighthouses of the Spokane , Portland & Seattle Railway . In references to passenger services , the east building was formally referred to as the North Bank Station ( or North Bank Passenger Station ) , but alternatively was known by various other names , including North Bank depot , Hoyt Street depot , Hoyt Street terminal , 11th & Hoyt Streets depot , 10th & Hoyt depot , or similar . Each building measures 50 feet ( 15 m ) by 200 feet ( 61 m ) .
= = Background = =
The SP & S was formed jointly by the Northern Pacific Railway ( NP ) and Great Northern Railway in 1905 , originally as the Portland & Seattle Railway , to build and ultimately operate new railroad lines connecting Portland with Seattle and with Spokane , but was renamed Spokane , Portland & Seattle Railway in early 1908 , before opening any track sections . The planned new railroad was commonly referred to as the " North Bank road " ( road being short for railroad or railroad line ) , or North Bank line , because the Seattle line would follow the Columbia River 's north bank as far as Kelso and the Spokane line would also follow the north bank , running east from Vancouver . East from Portland , the south bank of the Columbia already had a rail line , owned by the Oregon Railroad and Navigation Company ( later absorbed by Union Pacific Railroad ) .
By September 1905 , Northern Pacific had already acquired the property for the future terminal buildings and rail yard — a strip of land two blocks wide , from 10th to 12th avenues , and stretching north from Hoyt Street to the Willamette River . Construction of the railroad itself began in early 1906 . The new company needed freight storage and handling facilities in Portland , and to this end it built the two " freight houses " at 11th Avenue and Hoyt Street , in 1908 . SP & S passenger train service was originally expected to terminate at Union Station , located about 1 @,@ 600 feet ( 490 m ) to the east , but lengthy negotiations between SP & S and Union Station 's operator , the Northern Pacific Terminal Company , eventually reached an impasse . The Terminal Company was only partially owned by SP & S parent Northern Pacific Railway , and partially by competing railroads . With only a few weeks to go until passenger service to Portland was to be started , it was reported that SP & S would instead equip one of its new freight houses for use as a passenger station , in place of access to Union Station , at least temporarily .
= = Period of active use = =
Passenger trains began using the new station — the east building , at 1029 NW Hoyt Street — in November 1908 . The west building , used exclusively for freight , came into use at the same time , as SP & S initiated its operations in Portland . Trains operating from this station served routes within the Pacific Northwest , including to Seattle , Spokane and Seaside via Astoria . The Portland – Spokane train , named the Inland Empire Express , connected in Spokane with Great Northern 's Oriental Limited to and from Chicago and was advertised as the " Portland – Chicago " service .
SP & S began shifting some of its passenger trains to Union Station in 1920 , and additional trains were shifted in 1922 , after new platforms and train sheds were constructed at Union Station for this purpose . However , only some trains used Union Station , including the long @-@ distance services to Chicago ( which began carrying through sleeping cars , Portland – Chicago , at this time ) , while other trains continued to use the Hoyt Street station for a time . SP & S inaugurated passenger service between Portland and Vernonia in March 1923 , with two round trips per day ; a passenger @-@ only train ran to and from Union Station , but a mixed freight @-@ passenger train operated instead from the Hoyt Street station .
In 1912 , Oregon Electric Railway ( OE ) interurban passenger trains began serving the North Bank Depot , after that company laid new track through downtown Portland along Salmon Street and 10th Avenue to reach the terminal . OE was owned by SP & S ( acquired in 1910 ) . Electric interurbans departed from this station on journeys west to Hillsboro and Forest Grove , and south through the Willamette Valley to Salem and Eugene .
The last OE service to this station operated on June 19 , 1931 , after the company requested , and received , permission from the Interstate Commerce Commission to abandon that section of route because of declining ridership and worsening traffic congestion . The service was cut back to Front and Jefferson streets the following day , and OE moved its ticket office to that location . The tracks along 10th and Salmon streets were abandoned and soon removed . Just two years later , in May 1933 , the Oregon Electric discontinued all its remaining passenger service , becoming exclusively a freight railroad .
SP & S was merged with other railroads in 1970 to form Burlington Northern Railroad ( BN ) . The former North Bank Depot Buildings continued to be used by the railroad for freight purposes until the 1980s , and then were vacant for a time , until at least the mid @-@ 1990s .
= = Preservation and conversion = =
During the course of the 1980s , usage of the railroad yards adjacent to and north of the two now @-@ Burlington Northern @-@ owned warehouses declined to the point of their being nearly vacant . Redevelopment of the area as a mixed @-@ use neighborhood with residential and retail uses was envisioned , and in 1989 , the Portland Planning Commission approved a rezoning of a 40 @-@ acre ( 16 ha ) tract , along with a master plan to foster such change . By this time , the Glacier Park Company , a property @-@ development subsidiary of Burlington Resources , had taken over the former North Bank Depot Buildings from BN , and it was reported that the new master plan for the area would include renovation of these two Hoyt Street warehouses .
In November 1990 , Glacier Park sold the 40 @-@ acre site to a Portland @-@ based development company , Prendergast & Associates . It was determined that extensive clean @-@ up of contaminated soil from decades of industrial use would be needed before most redevelopment could proceed . Prendergast & Associates were predicting an approximately 20 @-@ year timeframe for redevelopment of the entire area of former railyards and associated buildings . The two former @-@ SP & S freighthouses were listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1996 , as the North Bank Depot Buildings . At that time , they were vacant and had not yet been renovated . In the late 1990s , they were renovated and converted for residential use .
= Hell – Sunnan Line =
The Hell – Sunnan Line ( Norwegian : Hell – Sunnanbanen ) is a 105 @-@ kilometer @-@ long ( 65 mi ) railway line between Hell , Stjørdal and Sunnan , Steinkjer in Nord @-@ Trøndelag , Norway . The name is no longer in official use and the line is now considered part of the Nordland Line . The Hell – Sunnan Line branches from the Meråker Line at Hell and runs on the east shore of the Trondheimsfjord passing through the municipalities of Stjørdal , Levanger , Verdal , Inderøy and Steinkjer .
The Norwegian State Railways ( NSB ) started construction in 1899 and the first part of the line , from Hell to Stjørdalshalsen , opened on 1 February 1902 . The railway opened to Levanger on 29 October 1902 , to Verdalsøra on 1 November 1904 and to Sunnan on 15 November 1905 . Sunnan was chosen as terminus because of its location on the southern end of the lake of Snåsavatnet . The line was further extended to Snåsa in 1926 , after which it has been classified as part of the Nordland Line . The railway is the most heavily trafficked non @-@ electrified line in Norway , with the Trøndelag Commuter Rail running south of Steinkjer . It is also used by intercity passenger and freight trains .
= = Route = =
The Hell – Sunnan Line constitutes the section of the Nordland Line between Hell , Stjørdal and Sunnan , Steinkjer . At the time of the line 's opening , it was 105 @.@ 2 kilometers ( 65 @.@ 4 mi ) long . The railway is single track , standard gauge , non @-@ electrified , and equipped with centralized traffic control , partial automatic train control , and GSM @-@ R. The railway line is owned and maintained by the Norwegian National Rail Administration .
Starting in the south at Hell Station , which is located 31 @.@ 54 kilometers ( 19 @.@ 60 mi ) from Trondheim Central Station ( Trondheim S ) , the Meråker Line branches from the Nordland Line . The latter crosses the river of Stjørdalselva on a 149 @-@ meter @-@ long ( 489 ft ) truss bridge . It passes the closed Sandferhus Station before reaching Trondheim Airport Station ( 33 @.@ 17 km or 20 @.@ 61 mi from Trondheim S ) , which serves as an airport rail link and is situated below the terminal of Trondheim Airport , Værnes . Previously there was a 3 @-@ kilometer @-@ long ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) spur from Sandferhus to Værnes and Øyanmoen . The mainline continues under the airport 's taxiway and runway in the two Værnes Tunnels , the latter which is 150 meters ( 490 ft ) long , after which the line reaches Stjørdal Station ( 34 @.@ 67 km or 21 @.@ 54 mi ) .
The line continues past the closed Vold Station , which was built to serve a mill , to Skatval , through which the line makes a semi @-@ circular detour . Here it serves Skatval Station ( 41 @.@ 90 km or 26 @.@ 04 mi ) and the closed Alstad Station . Alstad was previously an important station as it was conveniently placed for boat access from Frosta . Located at 89 @.@ 6 meters ( 294 ft ) above mean sea level ( AMSL ) , it was the highest elevated station on the line . The line then enters the municipality of Levanger , where it first reaches the closed Langstein Station and then the closed Vudu Station . After Vudu , the line reaches its highest elevation of 99 meters ( 325 ft ) when it crosses over European Road 6 ( E6 ) . The line then reaches Åsen Station ( 61 @.@ 40 km or 38 @.@ 15 mi ) before continuing past the closed Hammerberg Station to Ronglan Station ( 69 @.@ 65 km or 43 @.@ 28 mi ) .
Before reaching Skogn Station ( 76 @.@ 01 km or 47 @.@ 23 mi ) , a 2 @.@ 8 @-@ kilometer @-@ long ( 1 @.@ 7 mi ) spur branches off to Fiborgtangen , serving Norske Skog Skogn . It mainline continues past Eggen Station and over the E6 , past the closed Sykehuset Levanger Station , which served Levanger Hospital , before reaching Levanger Station ( 83 @.@ 90 km or 52 @.@ 13 mi ) . It then crosses the river Levangselva on a 27 @.@ 4 @-@ meter @-@ long ( 90 ft ) bridge . It passes the closed Elberg Station and to reach HiNT Station ( 69 @.@ 65 km or 43 @.@ 28 mi ) , which serves the Levanger campus of Nord @-@ Trøndelag University College .
The line continues past the closed Østborg Station and Rinnan Station before entering the municipality of Verdal . After Bergsgrav Station ( 93 @.@ 70 km or 58 @.@ 22 mi ) , which serves the neighborhood of Vinne , a spur branches off to Verdal 's industrial area . The mainline crosses the river of Verdalselva on a 210 @-@ meter @-@ long ( 690 ft ) truss bridge before reaching Verdal Station ( 96 @.@ 23 km or 59 @.@ 79 mi ) . It is followed by the closed Fleskhus Station and Bjørga Station before entering the municipality of Inderøy at the 103 @-@ meter @-@ long ( 338 ft ) Koabjørgen Tunnel . The only station in Inderøy is Røra Station ( 105 @.@ 47 km or 65 @.@ 54 mi ) ; however the line does not enter Steinkjer before passing through the 385 @-@ meter @-@ long ( 1 @,@ 263 ft ) Lunnan Tunnel .
After passing the closed Vollan Station , the line reaches Sparbu Station ( 112 @.@ 93 km or 70 @.@ 17 mi ) . It then passes the closed Mære Station and Vist Station and crosses over the 46 @-@ meter ( 151 ft ) bridge over Figgja to reach Steinkjer Station ( 125 @.@ 50 km or 77 @.@ 98 mi ) . The line runs over the river of Steinkjerelva on a 96 @-@ meter @-@ long ( 315 ft ) truss bridge . Then come two spurs , to Eggebogen and Byafossen . The line continues past the closed Byafossen Station and Fossemvatnet Station and terminates at the closed Sunnan Station ( 1 @,@ 136 @.@ 66 km or 706 @.@ 29 mi ) . The Nordland Line continues over a bridge across Snåsavatnet .
= = History = =
= = = Planning = = =
Planning of a railway to connect Trøndelag and Jämtland , Sweden , started in 1869 , with one of the proposals being to build a line from Trondheim via Verdal to Sweden . However , surveys along the Verdal alternative deemed it unsuitable , and instead the line was built via Stjørdalen and Meråker . To conform with Swedish standards , the line was built with standard gauge instead of the more common narrow gauge . The Meråker Line opened on 22 July 1882 .
In Stjørdal , controversy arose over the route . The river of Stjørdalselva creates a barrier just north of Hell , which made it cheaper to build the line on the south shore of the river to Hegra . However , the major population center was located at Stjørdalshalsen , on the north shore of the river . Locally , there were many protests against the line bypassing such a large town , but the cost of the bridge made Parliament choose the southern alternative . This gave residents in the town a considerably longer route to the train , since they had to cross the river to get access to the railway . This decreased the railway 's ability to compete with the steam ships and thus the overall profitability of the line . With the arrival of the railway , transport to Trondheim became much easier than to Stjørdalshalsen and Levanger , helping Trondheim grow as a regional center .
The Nordland Line was first publicly proposed by Ole Tobias Olsen in a letter to the editor in Morgenbladet in 1872 , where he argued for a railway between Trondheim and his home county of Nordland . The same year , Nord @-@ Trøndelag County Council voted in favor to start planning of a railway between Trondheim and Namsos . The county council appointed a railway committee in 1875 , who on 23 August 1876 published a report to encourage national authorities to consider the line , which resulted in surveying starting in 1877 . On 27 April 1881 , the committee made its recommendation to the county council and ceased its work . No planning was done the next three years , until three county councilors , Vilhelm Andreas Wexelsen , Peter Theodor Holst and Bernhard Øverland , made a new proposal . However , it was not until 1889 that the county council appointed a new railway committee , which was led by Wexelsen .
In 1891 , the county 's road committee , led by Øverland , sent an official request to the railway committee , asking for details about their plans , so the appropriate roads could be planned . This spurred the committees work and a cooperation with Nordland County Council was initiated to increase the projects priority by national politicians . On 2 March 1896 , with 87 against 27 votes , Parliament passed legislation approving a railway from Hell to Sunnan . Costs were estimated at 8 @.@ 75 million Norwegian krone ( NOK ) , of which 15 percent was to be financed with local grants and the remainder by the state . Construction was scheduled to take 15 years . The decision initially called for the railway to be built in two stages , with the split at Rinnan in Levanger — the site of the military camp Rinnleiret . Final approval of construction was made by Parliament on 11 June 1898 .
= = = Construction = = =
At Hell , there arose a disagreement about where the Hell – Sunnan Line should branch from the Meråker Line . Initial proposals were to place the branch from a location before Hell Station , thus forcing trains to back up from Hell Station before continuing northwards . The station building at Hell was also too small for the increased traffic , so it was moved to Sunnan Station and a new station building , with capacity for 25 employees , was built at Hell . In Skatval , there was a controversy as to whether the station should be built at Mæhre or Alstad . Mæhre ( later Skatval ) had support from the municipal council and was closer to the larger share of the area 's population . However , the military wanted Alstad , as it was a rally point for the military in case of a Swedish invasion , and gave easy waterway access from Frosta . The station was placed at Mæhre , while a passing loop was built at Alstad .
The most difficult work was through Grubbåsen , near Åsen . The ground consisted of quick clay , which the railway was to pass through in a trench . On 5 May 1900 , a landslide filled the trench , killing three navvies . Past the lake of Nesvannet , there was also weak soil mechanics , resulting in the need for piling . One worker was killed after getting hit by a piling log . In Levanger , there was debate as to whether the station should be on the west or east side of the tracks , with the decision falling on the west side . The 3 @.@ 0 @-@ kilometer @-@ long ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) section from Hell to Stjørdal started revenue service on 1 February 1902 . The 49 @.@ 4 @-@ kilometer @-@ long ( 30 @.@ 7 mi ) section from Stjørdalshalsen to Levanger was officially opened on 27 October 1902 , with ordinary services starting on 29 October .
Construction on the line 's second part , from Levanger to Sunnan , started in 1901 . Part of the reason for the early start was to help employ older navvies who were working on the southern section during the summer . By early 1904 , the right @-@ of @-@ way to Fleskhus was completed and the laying of tracks could begin . The bridge over Verdalselva was built using 473 tonnes ( 466 long tons ; 521 short tons ) of stone , which had to be transported 12 kilometers ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) from Bagloåsen in Levanger . The superstructure was built by Vulkan of Oslo and was installed between 9 September and 27 November 1903 .
In Verdalsøra there again arose a debate over which side of the tracks the station should be on . The townspeople wanted it on the west side , which was on the same side as the town center , while farmers wanted it east side , which was most accessible from the valley . The result was that the station was placed on the east side . The 12 @.@ 4 @-@ kilometer @-@ long ( 7 @.@ 7 mi ) section from Levanger to Verdal was opened on 1 November 1904 , although the station building was not completed until 1905 . At the time there were two trains per direction per day , one passenger train and one post train .
For the bridge over Ydseelva in Verdal , which had a main span of only 1 @.@ 5 meters ( 4 ft 11 in ) , construction started in April 1903 and was completed on 21 November . The area has quik clay , so the bridge needed piling . At Røra , a spur was originally planned to Hylla , but this was discarded late in the planning phase . At Hellem in Inderøy the right @-@ of @-@ way had to be moved because of poor soil mechanics . There were similar issues north of the Lunnan Tunnel , forcing the tunnel to be extended and a supporting being built . Construction of the tunnel was performed by 40 men during the winter of 1904 and 1905 . It cost NOK 90 @,@ 179 and took 23 @.@ 9 man @-@ hours per meter to build .
In the former municipality of Sparbu , there was a contentious debate over both the route and the location of the station . Although the line was built where it had originally been planned , two alternatives were launched , both which saw the line go further east and higher up in the terrain . At the time both the dairy and store were located at Lein . The current villages of Sparbu and Mære had not been established , and locals wanted the railway to go through Lein , which was the de facto municipal center . However , the alternatives were 2 kilometers ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) longer and would run through more rolling terrain , so the engineers insisted on the original route . The plans called for a station at Leira ( today known as Sparbu ) and at Vist , but many locals instead wanted it at Mære , in part to serve the new Mære Agricultural School . On 5 June 1900 , Parliament voted in favor of only one station , at Mære . However , the decision was reverted by Parliament on 24 April 1901 .
A support wall was built at Sørlia , just south of Steinkjer , after there was a clay landslide . Construction of the bridge over Figgja , just south of Steinkjer , was performed in 1904 . The superstructure was built by Kværner of Oslo and installed between 11 November and 21 December 1904 . The bridge over Steinkjerelva took up a significant portion of the old river port in Steinkjer , resulting in a spur being built to a new port location . The railway ran right through the town center , forcing 20 houses to be demolished and splitting the town in two . The arrival and route of the railway was described by some locals as vandalism . A counter @-@ proposal which saw the line run further up and cross through Steinkjersannan and Furuskogen — and thus avoid the town itself — was discarded because it would wreck the military camp at Steinkjersannan and would be located too far from the port . There was also a major debate as to whether the station should be on the south side or north side of the river . The municipal council voted for the south side with the mayor 's double vote being decisive . Construction of the bridge over Steinkjerelva started in August 1902 and was completed on 7 May 1904 . A proposal to build the bridge as a swing bridge was dropped , forcing the railways to pay NOK 45 @,@ 402 in compensation to companies with facilities upstream .
Steinkjer is surrounded by a moraine which had to be traversed with a cutting , 85 meters ( 279 ft ) long and up to 21 meters ( 69 ft ) deep . 125 @,@ 000 cubic meters ( 4 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 cu ft ) of earthwork was removed , half with a steam shovel , and largely used to build reclaimed land for the railway 's right @-@ of @-@ way through Steinkjer . The official opening of the 40 @.@ 4 @-@ kilometer @-@ long ( 25 @.@ 1 mi ) section between Verdal and Sunnan took place on 14 November 1905 . Revenue service started the following day .
= = = Operation = = =
The choice of route through Innherred was largely without much debate , as the line naturally went through all the towns and most of the important villages . Sunnan was a natural place to halt construction , as it is located at the foot of the lake of Snåsavatnet , allowing connection with steam ships . Scheduled services on Snåsavatnet started in 1871 with SS Dina , which was replaced with SS Bonden in 1885 . From 1904 to 1921 , Bonden was supplemented with MS St. Olaf , although SS Bonden remained in corresponding service with the train until 1926 .
Even before planning of the Hell – Sunnan Line was completed , there arose disagreement as to the route onwards . In a plan from the 1870s , there was consensus that the towns of Stjørdal , Levanger , Steinkjer and Namsos should receive a line , but there was a disagreement as to the route . The Beitstad Line would run from Steinkjer via Beitstad and Namdalseid to Namsos and from there to Grong , while the Snåsa Line would run from Sunnan via Snåsa to Grong , with a branch from Grong to Namsos . The Beitstad Line would run through the most densely populated areas , while the Snåsa Line was shorter . Parliament decided on the Snåsa Line in 1900 . The railway was extended from Sunnan to Snåsa Station on 30 October 1926 , with the section from Hell to Sunnan becoming classified as part of the Nordland Line . The railway was completed to Bodø on 7 June 1962 .
In 1909 , a station was opened at Fossemvatnet , followed by a station at Fleskhus in 1913 . Mære continued to be the dominant center of Sparbu , so in 1915 , the national authorities offered to build a station there . However , the municipality would not grant the necessary NOK 6 @,@ 300 , so the station was funded with private donations . Construction started in 1916 and Mære Station opened on 1 April 1917 . In the original plans for the railway , a spur was planned from north of Steinkjerelva to Eggebogen in Egge . However , in the parliamentary voting for the line , the spur was removed . In 1915 , a public report criticized the railway for not having sufficient access to a proper port in Steinkjer , as Sørsileiret was located on the river and did not have a deep quay . The municipal council voted in favor of a new quay at Eggebogen on 16 May 1916 , which was completed in 1924 . The 2 @.@ 2 @-@ kilometer @-@ long ( 1 @.@ 4 mi ) spur to Bogakaia opened on 15 August 1927 , having cost NOK 139 @,@ 200 . A station was opened at Østborg in 1923 , at Alstad in 1934 , and at Hammerberg , Eggen and Bergsgrav in 1938 .
In 1940 , a 3 @-@ kilometer @-@ long ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) spur was built to Værnes Air Station and Øyanmoen . A new , wooden station building was built at Åsen in 1943 and 1944 . The section to Værnes was removed in 1947 . Vudu Station opened in 1950 , followed by Vollan in 1952 and Bjørga and Sandferhus in the following year . From June to October 1953 , a station was in use at Bjørga . From 1957 , NSB started replacing steam trains on the line by introducing Di 3 locomotives . In 1956 , NATO granted funding for an expansion of the runway at Trondheim Airport , Værnes . The easiest way was to extend the runway by building it over the road and railway and into the river . Construction started in 1959 and on 1 June 1960 , the Værnes Tunnel was taken into use . A 2 @.@ 8 @-@ kilometer @-@ long ( 1 @.@ 7 mi ) spur was built to Fiborgtangen in February 1966 . Two years later , Elberg Station wax opened . Fossemvatnet Station was closed in 1972 .
The line received centralized traffic control in four phases : from Trondheim to Stjørdal on 11 January 1976 , to Levanger on 9 January 1977 , to Steinkjer on 6 December 1977 and to Snåsa on 23 November 1984 . Bergsgrav Station was opened on 6 December 1977 . In 1981 , Di 4 @-@ locomotives were introduced . The spur to Øyanmoen was taken out of use and removed in October 1982 . NSB introduced Class 92 diesel multiple units in 1985 , cutting travel time on local services between Steinkjer and Trondheim by 25 minutes . In 1989 , the station building at Sunnan was demolished . In 1989 and 1990 , five stations were closed , consisting on Sandferhus , Vold , Vollan , Vist and Sunnan .
On 1 September 1993 , NSB launched the Trøndelag Commuter Rail , of which the main service ran from Steinkjer to Trondheim . The initial plans called to the continued use of the Class 92 rolling stock , but saw change in schedules and the upgrading platforms for NOK 15 million . At the same time , the stations of Alstad , Langstein and Fleskhus were closed . The service from Trondheim to Steinkjer had ten daily round trips . After six months operation , the service had experienced a 40 percent growth in patronage . This was further increased with the opening of Trondheim Airport Station on 15 November 1994 , which cost NOK 24 million . The upgrades to the airport also included a new taxiway , which resulted in second Værnes Tunnel being built . A station was also established to serve Levanger Hospital on 20 December 1995 . On 10 November 1994 , the line received automatic train control . NSB was split up on 1 December 1996 and the ownership of the tracks and infrastructure was inherited by the Norwegian National Rail Administration , while the operation of trains was taken over by the new NSB . From 1994 , Di 6 and Di 8 locomotives were introduced , but the Di 6 proved unreliable and returned to the manufacturer .
In 2000 , NSB started using Class 93 diesel multiple units on intercity trains , retiring the Di 3 . In March 2000 , NSB announced the closing of several stations for the commuter train service . Fifty percent of the stations were responsible for only two percent of the traffic , and NSB instead wanted buses to transport people to the closest railway station , which would reduce overall transport time for most passengers . From 7 January 2001 , a fixed , hourly headway was introduced on the trains from Steinkjer to Trondheim . Mære , Østborg , Rinnan and Elberg were closed , but HiNT Røstad opened . From June 2001 , NSB introduced additional rush @-@ hour trains between Trondheim and Steinkjer , giving a half @-@ hour headway . The Nordland Line had not received NSB 's first generation of train radio , Scanet , so was among the first lines to receive GSM @-@ R from 1 December 2004 . In 2010 , CargoNet started using Vossloh Euro locomotives . Sykehuset Levanger Station was closed on 11 December 2010 . Despite generating some 90 @,@ 000 annual patrons and being one of the busiest stations on the line , it was located too close to Levanger Station to meet safety requirements .
= = Architecture = =
The stations were designed by Paul Due ( 1835 – 1919 ) and his son , Paul Armin Due ( 1870 – 1926 ) . Original stations between Stjørdal and Levanger were designed by Paul Due , while those from Rinnan to Byafossen , as well as Hell Station , were designed by Paul Armin Due . The designs are characterized by the transition period between Dragestil and Art Nouveau , with early stations dominated more by the former and later stations more by the latter . Norway went through a nationalistic period during the construction , and Paul Due chose to replace his older buildings ' foreign elements with traditional Norwegian elements . Røra and Byafossen were the only stations not custom designed , while Sunnan was designed by Peter Andreas Blix — as it was originally built at Hell in 1881 .
At the time of construction , the railways provided a leap in transport for the communities it passed through . NSB saw beautiful and grandeur stations as a way to draw patronage , and chose , in addition to impressive architecture , to build a park adjacent each stations . As construction went by , funding for stations were reduced , resulting in less grandeur further north . Most stations had two stories and an attic , although some of the stations serving lesser places had smaller buildings . From Steinkjer to Skogn , the ground floors were built in random rubble . As construction continued , budgets were reduced and station costs were cut . From Rinnan to Sparbu , the ground floors were instead built in brick , and from Mære and north , the stations have wooden ground floors . In addition to a station buildings , stations consisted of an outhouse and a freight house ; selected stations also featured a water tower and motive power depot .
Levanger Station is the most spectacular station on the line and also the best preserved town station . Built entirely in stone , it has a dominant position in town and with a park in front of the station . It was designed in combined Medieval style , with strong elements of Gothic and Romanesque style . Steinkjer Station was the other station entirely built in stone . It has a combined Baroque Revival and Art Nouveau style , and is more anonymous than Levanger Station . Its characteristics were largely lost after it was connected with the bus station . Three stations , Langstein , Skogn and Levanger , have been preserved , while Skatval and Hell have been protected .
In 1993 , NSB built new sheds on all stations served by the commuter rail . Linje Arkitekter designed sheds which combined the existing architectural traditions in material and roof shapes , with modern style . The sheds have a roof , glass walls and a framework in wood . They were optimized to give good protection from various types weather .
= = Service = =
The main passenger service on the section from Hell to Steinkjer is the Trøndelag Commuter Rail . Operated by the Norwegian State Railways , it runs at a fixed hourly headway — with additional rush @-@ hour services — between Lerkendal Station in Trondheim and Steinkjer , calling at 13 stations on the Hell – Sunnan Line . Travel time from Steinkjer is 24 minutes to Verdal , 37 minutes to Levanger , 1 hour and 24 minutes to Stjørdal and 2 hours and 4 minutes to Trondheim . The services are operated with Class 92 diesel multiple units .
NSB also operates intercity services from Trondheim to Bodø on the Nordland Line . These consist of two daily through trains , one day and one night service , with an additional service between Trondheim and Mo i Rana . Stjørdal and Steinkjer are the only stations along the line which remain manned . NSB uses a combination of Class 93 diesel multiple units and Di 4 @-@ hauled trains . CargoNet and Cargolink operate freight trains along the line . CargoNet hauls using Vossloh Euro , while Cargolink uses Di 6 locomotives , respectively .
= = Future = =
Politicians have signalized that they want to electrify the tracks from Trondheim to Steinkjer along with the Meråker Line . NSB will need to replace the Class 92 trains towards the end the 2010s , and want to coordinate the new stock with electrification . The county municipalities of Nord @-@ Trøndelag and Sør @-@ Trøndelag proposed during the early 2000s that the Nordland Line between Trondheim and Steinkjer be upgraded reduce travel time to one hour . This would require the average speed to be increased to 115 kilometers per hour ( 71 mph ) , mainly through a modernization of the existing line . Specific projects include electrification , double track between Trondheim and Trondheim Airport , additional passing loops , a new bridge over Stjørdalselva and a rearrangement of the tracks at Hell . This would have to be combined with a reduction in the number of stops . The National Rail Administration estimates that the mentioned investments , which would cost between NOK 4 and 6 billion , will allow a travel time of one hour and ten minutes . If a number of curves are straightened , increased capacity is introduced between Stjørdal and Steinkjer and a further number of stops are removed , travel time could be reduced to one hour .
Norsk Bane , a lobbyist organization which is suggesting to build a high @-@ speed line from Oslo to Trondheim and onwards to Steinkjer , have proposed building an all @-@ new right @-@ of @-@ way on the route . They estimate that regional trains would , with their infrastructure , be able to operate trains from Steinkjer to Trondheim in 40 minutes . The proposals involves only keeping the stations at Trondheim Airport , Stjørdal , Åsen , Levanger , Verdal , Røra and Steinkjer along the Hell – Sunnan segment . It would involve three services per hour and direct trains to Oslo , with speeds up to 300 kilometers per hour ( 190 mph ) .
= The Impossible Astronaut =
" The Impossible Astronaut " is the first episode of the sixth series of the British science fiction television series Doctor Who . Written by show runner Steven Moffat , and directed by Toby Haynes , the episode was first broadcast on 23 April 2011 in the United Kingdom , as well as the United States and Canada . It also aired in Australia on 30 April 2011 . The episode features alien time traveller the Doctor ( Matt Smith ) and his companions Amy Pond ( Karen Gillan ) and Rory Williams ( Arthur Darvill ) , and is the first of a two @-@ part story , which concluded with " Day of the Moon " .
In the episode , Amy Pond , Rory and River Song are summoned to Utah , United States , by the Eleventh Doctor , who is killed by a mysterious figure in a space suit . The dead Doctor is revealed to be an older self , after his younger version returns . They try to understand what the future Doctor said and are sent to Washington D.C. The team deals with the Silence , a race of aliens with the ability to make people forget their encounter with them when they look away .
The Silence was created to compete with other past aliens in terms of " scariness , " including the Weeping Angels . The episode was partially filmed on location at Lone Rock , Utah ; the first time in Doctor Who that principal photography took place in the United States . Before the broadcast , a fan leaked the plot of the episode following a press screening . The episode was seen by 8 @.@ 86 million viewers in the United Kingdom , and received generally positive reviews from critics . " The Impossible Astronaut " gained an Appreciation Index of 88 – considered excellent . The episode was dedicated to Elisabeth Sladen , known for playing former companion Sarah Jane Smith , who died from cancer on 19 April 2011 .
= = Plot = =
= = = Prequel = = =
On 22 March 2011 , a short scene serving as a prequel for the first episode was released on the programme 's website . In the prequel , Nixon receives a phone call from the little girl who keeps calling him in the episode . She begs for the President to look behind him , but he asks how she got that number , which the ' spaceman ' told her . She tells him it is about monsters , to which he replies " Young lady , there are no monsters in the Oval Office . " He then hangs up and leans back . Behind him stands an out @-@ of @-@ focus Silent .
= = = Synopsis = = =
After a two @-@ month break from their travels with the Doctor , his companions , Amy Pond and her husband Rory Williams , receive a " TARDIS blue " -coloured envelope providing a time , date and set of coordinates leading them to Utah . They arrive to meet River Song ( Alex Kingston ) , who also received an envelope , and the Doctor , now 1 @,@ 103 years old , 194 years older than he was when he last saw them . He takes them to a picnic at a nearby lake , telling them he is taking them on a trip to " Space 1969 . " Amy catches a glimpse of a mysterious figure from a distance , but appears to immediately forget about it after she looks away . Later , a figure in an American astronaut suit emerges from the lake ; the Doctor approaches it but warns his companions not to interfere . The astronaut shoots the Doctor , causing him to begin to regenerate , but his companions are horrified to witness the astronaut shoot him again , killing him before he can fully regenerate . The three are met by Canton Everett Delaware III ( William Morgan Sheppard ) who also received an envelope and was instructed to bring a can of gasoline , which the group then uses to give the Doctor a Viking @-@ style funeral .
Regrouping at a diner , Amy , Rory , and River are speculating about who might have sent the envelopes when they are shocked to see the Doctor walking in , 200 years younger again . He reveals that he too was given an envelope , but does not know who sent it to him . Reluctantly his companions decide not to tell the Doctor either about his death or that the sender was his future self . The four do a search on Delaware and " Space 1969 . " The TARDIS travels back to 8 April 1969 , and ends up cloaked in the Oval Office . President Richard Nixon ( Stuart Milligan ) converses with a younger Delaware ( Mark Sheppard ) about a series of phone calls he received from a young girl asking for help . The Doctor quickly gains Delaware 's trust , convincing Nixon to give him a few minutes to locate the girl .
While the Doctor works , Amy sees the mysterious figure again , and excuses herself to the restroom . There , the figure , a member of a species known as the Silence , waits for her and kills an innocent woman despite Amy 's pleas . Realising the alien is wiping her memory of their encounters , Amy takes a picture of the alien . When she leaves the restroom , however , she yet again forgets the encounter . By then the Doctor has found the girl 's location , a building near Cape Canaveral , Florida , at the intersection to streets named Jefferson , Adams , and Hamilton . The Doctor and his companions leave in the TARDIS , followed closely by a curious Delaware .
Upon arrival , they find pieces of a space suit and alien technology . River and Rory explore a vast network of tunnels that have apparently spread across the planet for centuries , unnoticed by the human population . The two find a control room with a design similar to one seen in " The Lodger " but are unaware they are surrounded by the Silence . Meanwhile , Delaware hears the little girl screaming and gives chase . As Amy and the Doctor follow , Amy tells him she is pregnant . When they find Delaware unconscious , a figure in an astronaut suit appears . Quickly , Amy picks up Delaware 's gun and shoots at the suit . However , she realises too late that the helmet 's visor has opened to reveal the little girl .
= = = Continuity = = =
The episode ties into the series five story arc phrase , " Silence will fall . " The phrase was first used in the series five premiere , " The Eleventh Hour , " and repeated through that series , but was left unresolved in the series ending to be carried into this series .
River Song tells Rory that she and the Doctor are travelling through time " in opposite directions . " She comments that a day is coming when " I 'll look into that man 's eyes , my Doctor , and he won 't have the faintest idea who I am . And I think it 's going to kill me . " In the series four episodes " Silence in the Library " and " Forest of the Dead , " the Tenth Doctor meets River for the first time ( from his perspective ) ; at the conclusion of that story , River is killed saving people trapped inside the Library 's core , although only corporeally ; her consciousness is " saved , " preserved in the core , along with those of all her crewmates .
The TARDIS had been previously turned invisible by damage to its visual stabiliser in the Second Doctor story The Invasion . When Canton first leaves the TARDIS , the Doctor remarks , " Brave heart , Canton , " a reference to the Fifth Doctor 's recurrent statement to his companion Tegan Jovanka , " Brave heart , Tegan . " When Amy asks the younger Doctor to trust her , he asks her to swear to him on something that matters . After some thought , she smiles and says " Fish fingers and custard , " referring to events in " The Eleventh Hour , " when Amy first meets the Doctor as a little girl .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
The episode was written by Steven Moffat , who took charge of the show in 2010 . Moffat wanted the 2011 season to start with a two @-@ part story in an attempt to begin with more gravity and a wider scope in plot , as well as wanting the episodes to be one of the darker ones in the series . " The Impossible Astronaut " / " Day of the Moon " was the first two @-@ part episode to open a series since the 1985 Sixth Doctor story Attack of the Cybermen .
In the Doctor Who Confidential episode following the broadcast of " The Impossible Astronaut , " Moffat stated that in his view , it was one of the darker episodes of the series , but still maintained the same level of humour . The inclusion of the Doctor 's death felt like a series ender for some of the producers , but was actually there to " kick it off . " In writing the death scene of the older version of the Doctor , Moffat wanted to acknowledge to the audience that Time Lords are not invincible , and could still die permanently if killed before regeneration . In creating the Silence , the alien antagonists of the episode , Moffat wanted them to challenge past monsters in terms of " scariness . " He felt these creatures are a " much bigger deal . " The aliens ' design was partially inspired by the figure from the Edvard Munch painting The Scream .
= = = Casting = = =
In October 2010 , it was announced that Mark Sheppard , who had appeared in other past science fiction series , including Battlestar Galactica , Firefly , Supernatural , and Warehouse 13 , would make a guest appearance on Doctor Who . Sheppard described playing Canton as a " dream job , " and said he wished to appear in another of Moffat 's works , including Sherlock . Even though Sheppard is an English actor , it was his first appearance in a British @-@ made television show . For the scene depicting the older Canton Delaware , the producers originally planned that Sheppard would appear older using makeup effects . However , Sheppard suggested instead that his father , William Morgan Sheppard , play the role , a suggestion that was accepted .
American actor Stuart Milligan was cast as President Nixon , which he said he found exciting , having played other presidents in the past , including Dwight D. Eisenhower . Prosthetic pieces were applied on Milligan 's cheeks , nose , and ears to make him resemble Nixon as much as possible . He also practiced how Nixon would speak , but initially found it difficult since he had to wear fake teeth . Milligan previously appeared in the animated Tenth Doctor special Dreamland as the voice of Colonel Stark . Chuk Iwuji , who played Carl , previously appeared in the Seventh Doctor audio drama A Thousand Tiny Wings , where he played Joshua Sembeke .
= = = Filming and effects = = =
This pair of episodes marks the first time that Doctor Who has filmed principal photography footage within the United States ; the American @-@ produced TV movie of 1996 was filmed in Canada , and some second unit establishing shots of New York and the Statue of Liberty were filmed on Liberty Island for the episode " Daleks in Manhattan " , but none of the cast of the episode were involved in the shoot . Filming took place in the state of Utah . For the opening shot for the location , director Toby Haynes wanted it to be epic so that the audience could recognise where the episode was set . Scenes on the roadway were filmed on U.S. Route 163 ( several miles east of the coordinates listed on the Doctor 's invitations ) . The crew wanted to add as many American icons as they could into those shots , including a Stetson hat , a 1950s Edsel Villager , and a yellow school bus . Moffat , having enjoyed writing episodes featuring River Song , wanted to give her an impressive entrance . Haynes had Alex Kingston block the sunlight from the camera angle and blow smoke from her revolver . The scenes involving the picnic and the future @-@ Doctor dying took place on the shore of Lake Powell . The suit worn by the future @-@ Doctor 's killer was a fabricated replica of an Apollo space suit . In filming the death scene the filming crew noticed that Karen Gillan was genuinely upset and " was acting her heart out . " In filming the " Viking funeral " scene , Haynes wished to film it during the sunset . However , the sun set over the desert , so was instead filmed during sunrise , as the sun rose over the water .
Kingston had to genuinely slap Matt Smith several times in a scene because it was difficult to fake . Kingston recalled that after a few takes , Smith got red cheeked and grew frustrated at having to do the sequence over and over again . The Oval Office set was constructed at Upper Boat Studios in South Wales . Because the production crew had access to several pictures and plans of the real office , they were able to replicate it in almost every detail . The main problem for building the set was the plastering ; the crew normally plaster one wall at a time for normal rooms , but because the Oval Office was round , they had to do the entire set at once . The American @-@ style diner scene when the companions reunite with the Doctor in this episode is actually located in Cardiff Bay . The Laurel and Hardy film The Flying Deuces , in which the Doctor intruded , was done by Smith dancing in front of greenscreen .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
= = = Pre @-@ broadcast leak = = =
At some point before the broadcast of the episode , it and " Day of the Moon " were released in a press screening , where a number of fans were invited to attend . The production team present asked them not to give away any spoilers . However , following the screening a fan gave away the entire plot of the two episodes on an internet forum . News of this angered Moffat . In an interview on BBC Radio 5 Live , Moffat stated ;
Despite this he added that the majority of Doctor Who fans are " spoiler @-@ phobes , " who refused to go online to be spoiled .
= = = Broadcast and ratings = = =
" The Impossible Astronaut " was first broadcast on BBC One in the United Kingdom on 23 April 2011 at 6 pm . It began with a still @-@ caption tribute to actress Elisabeth Sladen , who died from cancer on 19 April 2011 . Sladen had previously appeared in the series as companion Sarah Jane Smith , and as the same character on the spin @-@ off series The Sarah Jane Adventures . After the broadcast " The Impossible Astronaut " received preliminary , overnight figures of 6 @.@ 52 million viewers . Final consolidated ratings for the episode increased to 8 @.@ 86 million , with a 43 @.@ 2 per cent audience share . This made the episode the second highest rated programme of the day , behind Britain 's Got Talent on ITV1 . The episode was the third most watched on BBC One , and sixth overall for the entire week ending 24 April . An additional 300 @,@ 000 viewed the episode from BBC iPlayer within two days of its original broadcast . It received an Appreciation Index of 88 , one of the higher scores for the weekend .
In the United States the episode aired on BBC America on the same day it was released in the United Kingdom , as was the case in Canada for Space . 1 @.@ 3 million viewers saw " The Impossible Astronaut " on BBC America , making it the highest rated telecast in the history of the channel . It was reportedly up by 71 @,@ 000 from " The Eleventh Hour " . When Live + 7 day DVR ratings were added , the total rose to 1 @.@ 8 million . In Canada , the episode was seen by 538 @,@ 000 , making it the most watched Who episode for the channel , and its most watched telecast in 2011 . It was shown on ABC1 in Australia on 30 April 2011 , and was viewed by 860 @,@ 000 from the five capital cities , matching the ratings from " A Christmas Carol " on Boxing Day 2010 .
Audience measurement service Kantar Media reported that " The Impossible Astronaut " is the most recorded television event of all time . Analysis of BARB data revealed that 4 @.@ 11 million people recorded and viewed the programme within a week of broadcast , accounting for 46 % of the episode 's total viewers . A total of 1 @.@ 38 million requests were placed on iPlayer for the month of April , placing it at number one for the month .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The episode was met with generally positive reviews from television critics . Dan Martin of The Guardian reacted positively towards the episode , believing the cast performed better than the previous fifth series . He stated " Steven Moffat has thrown away the rule book and made Doctor Who as , you imagine , he 's pictured it should be his whole life . Killing the Doctor leaves the shape of the series mapped out , raises the bar so that no one is safe , and sees Amy , Rory and River facing a terrible dilemma . " Martin liked that " Amy 's numbed horror ramps things up to a series @-@ finale level on intensity from the off , " and then switches " into an Oval Office comedy of manners , " and " morphs into gothic horror and finally flings you to the ground with its cinematic cliffhanger . " He was also positive towards the American setting , and " our eccentric British foursome bumbling through it , " believing the series raised its game with this . With regards to the Silence , Martin believed it was " a standard Moffat psychological trick , but the most refined to date . " Martin later rated it the second best episode of the series , though the finale was not included in the list .
Morgan Jeffery of Digital Spy called the episode " a fantastic launch for the sixth series , " adding " the Doctor Who team 's US location shooting has certainly paid off , lending these early scenes a grand scale that the series could scarcely have expected to achieve in 2005 , let alone in 1963 . " Commenting on the future @-@ Doctor 's death , Jeffery said " seven minutes in , a nation 's collective jaw dropped as The Doctor — this show 's lead — is mercilessly gunned down . This plot twist is simply stunning , and it 's difficult to imagine even casual viewers not sitting up to pay attention at this point . " Jeffery also believed that the series regulars were on " top form , " adding " the more abrasive aspects of Amy Pond 's personality seem to have been toned down this year , and Karen Gillan responds with her best , most sympathetic performance to date . Arthur Darvill also lives up to his recent promotion to full @-@ time companion . His comic timing is simply superb , but he excels too in the episode 's darker moments . " Jeffery rated the episode five stars out of five .
Gavin Fuller of The Daily Telegraph believed it was " a cracking start to the first part of the 2011 series , with the shocking ending of Amy seemingly shooting a girl making one keen wait for the conclusion next week to see how it all resolves itself , " as well as enjoying the concept of the Silence . Rick Marshall of MTV believed that " Steven Moffat and the Doctor Who crew offer up yet another great episode , " but also said the " big cliffhanger will likely cause more than a few fans ' heads to explode . " In addition , Marshall believed the alien antagonists " give the Weeping Angels a run for their money in scare factor . " Simon Brew of Den of Geek thought the episode was " a triumphant return for Doctor Who , bubbling with confidence and throwing down story strands that hint at an engrossing series . " Brew liked Sheppard 's performance as Delaware and Darvill 's increasing presence as Rory . Brew also complimented Haynes ' work in the United States , saying it was an improvement from " Daleks in Manhattan " , which featured British actors attempting to play with American accents . Tom Phillips of Metro said the 1969 US setting were " beautifully used , " and enjoyed the " spookiness " of the Silence . However Phillips felt the episode would be " a bit hard to get into " for new viewers . Kevin O 'Sullivan The Sunday Mirror was more negative towards the episode , stating it was " impossible to understand , " and for " strictly sci @-@ fi nerds only , " adding that Smith " remains a derivative Doctor who brings nothing new to the party . "
= The Tale of the Pie and the Patty @-@ Pan =
The Tale of the Pie and the Patty @-@ Pan ( originally , The Pie and the Patty @-@ Pan ) is a children 's book written and illustrated by Beatrix Potter , and published by Frederick Warne & Co. in October 1905 . It tells of a cat called Ribby and a tea party she holds for a dog called Duchess . Complications arise when Duchess tries to replace Ribby 's mouse pie with her own veal and ham pie , and then believes she has swallowed a small tin pastry form called a patty @-@ pan . Its themes are etiquette and social relations in a small town .
A version of the tale was composed by Potter in 1903 , but set aside to develop other projects . In 1904 , she failed to complete a book of nursery rhymes for Warnes , and the 1903 tale was accepted in its stead . Potter elaborated its setting and storyline , and developed the tale more fully before publication . The illustrations depict the cottages and gardens of Sawrey , a village in the Lake District near Potter 's Hill Top farm , and have been described as some of the most exquisite Potter ever produced . Ribby was modelled on a cat living in Sawrey , Duchess on two Pomeranians belonging to Potter 's neighbour Mrs Rogerson , Tabitha Twitchit on Potter 's cat at Hill Top , and Dr Maggoty on the magpies in the London Zoological Gardens .
The tale was published in a larger size than Potter 's previous books , but was reduced in the 1930s to bring it into line with the other books in the Peter Rabbit series . It was given its present title at that time . Potter declared the tale her next favourite to The Tailor of Gloucester . Beswick Pottery released porcelain figurines of the tale 's characters through the latter half of the 20th century , and Schmid & Co. released a music box in the 1980s .
= = Development and publication = =
The Potter family summered occasionally at Lakefield , a country house in the village of Sawrey . " They came with their servants , their carriage and pair , and Miss Potter with her pony and phaeton , " a village resident recalled . " Miss Potter was about the village sketching everywhere and often came to our house . "
Close to Lakefield and off the road in their own enclosure were three dwellings known as Lakefield Cottages . Mr. Rogerson , a gardener and caretaker at Lakefield , lived in one of the cottages , and eventually his wife 's two pedigree Pomeranians – Darkie and Duchess – would become the models for Potter 's fictional Duchess . Darkie had a fine black mane , but Duchess was more intelligent and could sit up with a lump of sugar balanced on her nose .
In the summer of 1902 , Potter sketched the interior of the third Lakefield Cottage belonging to a Mrs. Lord . These drawings included a watercolour and pen @-@ and @-@ ink sketches of the living @-@ room , pen @-@ and @-@ ink sketches of the pots of geraniums on the living @-@ room window sill , the entrance passage , the pantry , the stairs , some of the upstairs rooms , and details of the carved oak furniture . In some of the sketches Potter roughly outlined a cat . She also sketched the village including the sloping path down to the Lakefield Cottages and the post office door . These became the backgrounds for The Pie and The Patty @-@ Pan .
During a rainy holiday in Hastings at the end of November 1903 , Potter outlined a tale about a cat , a dog , and a tea party she called Something very very NICE . She discussed the Lakefield sketches as backgrounds for the tale with Warne . He proposed a large format volume similar to L. Leslie Brooke 's Johnny Crow 's Garden to do justice to the detail of the illustrations , but the entire project was set aside when The Tale of Benjamin Bunny and The Tale of Two Bad Mice were chosen for development and publication in 1904 .
Potter had long wanted to develop a book of nursery rhymes , but such a project left Warne cold . Rhymes were already well represented in the firm 's catalogue , and Warne felt Potter 's unbridled enthusiasm for the genre would make the project a headache for him . In the past , he had tried to discourage Potter 's interest in rhymes , believing her own stories superior , but she persisted . He reluctantly agreed to a book of rhymes for 1905 , but Potter did not have it ready at the end of 1904 , so he accepted the tea party tale instead . Early in 1905 , it was decided the book would be published at the end of the year .
By March 1905 , Potter was anxious to begin work on the tale . She thought the 1903 version too thin and rewrote the entire story , retaining Ribby the cat and Duchess the dog as the central characters while elaborating the setting and developing a stronger plot line . It was decided the tale would be published in a format slightly larger than her previous productions with ten full @-@ colour illustrations and other illustrations in pen @-@ and @-@ sepia ink .
Like the tale 's companion piece set in the Newlands Valley , The Tale of Mrs. Tiggy @-@ Winkle , the cat and dog story is set in a real place , Near Sawrey , and is the only Potter tale to refer to Sawrey by name . Tabitha Twitchit disdainfully comments on her cousin 's choice of party guest : " A little dog , indeed ! Just as if there were no CATS in Sawrey ! " The characters in the tale were modelled on real world individuals . Ribby 's counterpart lived in Sawrey , and Tabitha Twitchit 's counterpart lived at Hill Top , though her fictional shop is located in nearby Hawkshead . Dr. Maggotty was drawn from magpies in the London Zoological Gardens . Potter made notes in her sketchbook about the bird 's anatomical structure and the colour of its feathers : " Brown black eye , nose a little hookier than jackdaw , less feathered . " The bird 's tail was over half its total length she noted , and its feathers were " very blue " and parts were green .
The illustrations depict the village 's gardens , cottages , and , in the background of the frontispiece , Hill Top . Although the real Duchess lived at Lakefield Cottages , in the tale her home became Buckle Yeat , a picturesque cottage in the village , and Duchess is shown in its garden reading Ribby 's invitation . In the illustration of Duchess leaving home with her veal and ham pie in a basket , Potter took some artistic license and combined the doorway of the village post office with the Buckle Yeat garden . Completely faithful to life in the village , Potter even included the pattens Mrs. Rogerson wore to the pump in the illustration depicting Duchess standing in the Lakefield Cottage porch holding a bouquet . The illustration of Duchess standing on a red sofa cushion was painted at Melford Hall and Potter 's young cousin Stephanie Hyde Parker was permitted to put some red paint on the cushion . She later wondered if Potter removed it .
Towards the end of May 1905 , Potter sent the illustrations to Warne for his review , writing , " I think it promises to make a pretty book . " He criticised a picture of the cat and Potter wrote him , " If you still feel doubtful about the little cat — will you post it back to me at once ... I don 't feel perfectly satisfied with the eyes of the large head , but I think I can get it right , by taking out the lights carefully , if you will ask Hentschel not to do it before we have proofs . The drawing is getting much too rubbed . "
On 25 May , Warne asked Potter to send him one of the two dummy books she had in her possession in order to check the size of the plates before continuing with the printer 's blocks . He thought there was " too much bend " about the dog 's nose and the division between its legs was unclear . He kept the two plates back for Potter 's inspection before sending them off to make the blocks . On 26 May , he received two more originals and the circular portrait of the cat for the cover . He thought the background of the colour illustration of Ribby and Duchess sitting at the table too light , but liked the pen @-@ and @-@ ink sketches . Potter struggled with the dog illustrations , and sent Warne a photograph of her canine model to prove the dog 's ruff was as large as she had depicted it .
One of the illustrations did not coordinated properly with Potter 's text . She altered the drawing and wrote Warne , " I have altered the oven as it will save a good many corrections . I did a good deal to the cat but she is still looking at the top one . I don 't think it signifies as she talks about both ovens ... I don 't think I have ever seriously considered the state of the pie but the book runs some risk of being over cooked if it goes on much longer ! I am sorry about the little dog 's nose . I saw it was too sharp . I think I have got it right . I was intending to explain the ovens by saying the middle handle is very stiff so that Duchess concludes it is a sham ; – like the lowest . I think only two pages want changing ; I think it will come right . "
The drawings were finished and in early June 1905 Warne approved . Potter wrote she was glad he liked the drawings , and " if the book prints well , it will be my next favourite to Tailor . She was energized with the completion of the book and wrote Warne she wanted to settle on future work before leaving for a holiday in Wales . In Merioneth she received his letter of proposal on 25 July and accepted , but he died suddenly and unexpectedly on 25 August 1905 before a marriage took place . Potter became deeply depressed and was ill for many weeks . However , she rallied to complete the last two tales she had discussed with him : The Pie and the Patty @-@ Pan and The Tale of Mr. Jeremy Fisher .
The Pie and the Patty @-@ Pan was published in October 1905 in a large format , priced at one shilling , and dedicated to Joan , the sixth child of Potter 's former governess Annie Carter Moore , and to Beatrix , Mrs. Moore 's newborn and Potter 's god @-@ daughter : " For Joan , to read to Baby " . The Pie was the first of Potter 's books to be published in a format larger ( 177 mm by 138 mm ) than the standard size ( 139 mm by 104 mm ) of the Peter Rabbit books ; and the first of her books to integrate pen @-@ and @-@ ink and colour illustrations between its boards .
The book 's endpapers had been overlooked . Potter wrote to the firm : " I conclude there is no time to get an end @-@ paper design done — unless Mr. Stokoe has already designed one — I do not mind one way or another ; I had begun to scribble something but it looks a bit stiff . " Mr. Stokoe apparently did not design one because the endpapers were either plain white or mottled lavender . Several years later , they were replaced with a design featuring a pie and a patty @-@ pan and the cover illustration changed to Ribby sitting by the fire . In the 1930s , the book 's size was reduced to bring it into line with the rest of the Peter Rabbit books . The title was changed at that time to The Tale of the Pie and the Patty @-@ Pan .
= = Plot = =
Potter declared the tale her next favorite to The Tailor of Gloucester . The pictures are some of the most beautiful Potter ever created , especially the profusions of flowers in the doorways and garden plots . The colors in the illustrations are not the muted browns and greens the reader expects in a Potter illustration , nor are they the contrasting colors such as the muted reds and blues Potter uses occasionally to give her illustrations a splash of color Instead , the colors are bright oranges , violets , and yellows seldom seen in her other books . Even Ribby 's lilac dress and Duchess 's black mane illustrate Potter 's concern for color in this book .
Potter 's own three @-@ door oven , her hearthrug , her indoor plants , her coronation teapot , and her water pump are minutely detailed with more color than in other productions . The large format of the original edition , the captions accompanying the full page color illustrations , and the occasional lack of coordination between picture and text all display Potter 's delight in the pictures , sometimes at the expense of the text .
" Once upon a time " , Ribby , a " Pussy @-@ cat " invites a little dog called Duchess to tea with plans to serve her " something so very very nice " baked in a pie dish with a pink rim . Ribby promises Duchess she shall have the entree entirely to herself . Duchess accepts the invitation but hopes she will not be served mouse . " I really couldn 't , couldn 't eat mouse pie . And I shall have to eat it , because it is a party . "
Duchess has prepared a ham and veal pie in a pink @-@ rimmed dish ( just like Ribby 's dish ) , and would much rather eat her own pie . " It is all ready to put into the oven , " she says , " Such a lovely pie @-@ crust ; and I put in a little tin patty @-@ pan to hold up the crust . " She reads the invitation again and realizes she will have the opportunity to switch the pies when Ribby leaves on an errand .
Ribby has two ovens , one above the other , and she puts her mouse pie in the lower oven . She tidies the house , sets the table , and leaves to buy tea , marmalade , and sugar . Duchess meantime has left home with her ham and veal pie in a basket , passes Ribby on the street , and hurries on to Ribby 's house . She puts her pie into the upper oven , and searches quickly for the mouse pie ( which she does not find because she neglects to look in the lower oven ) . She slips out the back door as Ribby returns .
At the appointed hour , Duchess appears at Ribby 's door and the party begins . Distracted for a moment , Duchess does not see which oven Ribby opens to remove the pie . Duchess eats greedily , believing she is eating her ham and veal pie . She wonders what has happened to the patty @-@ pan she put in her pie , and , not finding it under the crust , is convinced she has swallowed it . She sets up a howl ; Ribby is perplexed and annoyed but leaves to find Dr. Maggoty , a magpie .
Duchess is left alone before Ribby 's fire , and discovers her ham and veal pie in the oven . " Then I must have been eating MOUSE ! ... No wonder I feel ill , " she muses . Knowing she cannot adequately explain her ham and veal pie to Ribby , she puts it outside the back door intending to sneak back and carry it home after she leaves for home . Ribby and Dr. Maggoty arrive and , after much fuss , Duchess takes her leave , only to find that the magpie ( who has left by the back door ) and a couple of jackdaws have eaten her ham and veal pie . Ribby later finds the remains of the pie dish and the patty @-@ pan outside the back door and declares , " Well I never did ! ... Next time I want to give a party – I will invite Cousin Tabitha Twitchit ! "
= = Scholarly commentaries = =
M. Daphne Kutzer , Professor of English at the State University of New York at Plattsburgh at the time of her Beatrix Potter : Writing in Code ( 2003 ) believes The Pie and its two immediate predecessors ( the tales of Two Bad Mice and Mrs. Tiggy @-@ Winkle ) are transitional works in Potter 's life and literary career . All three books confront the meaning of domesticity , work , and social hierarchies while exhibiting an underlying restiveness with the unyielding strictures of Victorian domesticity , and a disengagement from the broad political and social concerns of her earlier books to the more narrow political and social concerns of working farmers and rural people .
Ruth K. MacDonald of New Mexico State University at the time of her Beatrix Potter ( 1986 ) argues that the theme of The Pie is the very proper social relations between neighbours in a small town . She points to the overly formal quality of the letters exchanged between the heroines as one example of the theme , and another , she indicates , is the manner in which the two pass each other on the street without a word to one another because " they were going to have a party " . Though Duchess probably does not speak to Ribby for fear of revealing her plan to switch the two pies , Ribby probably does not speak to Duchess out of an exaggerated sense of politeness or because she is rushed . At the hour of the party , Duchess is anxious to arrive on time , yet not too early , and loiters outside Ribby 's cottage before delivering her most " genteel little tap @-@ tappity " and asking " Is Mrs. Ribston at home ? " MacDonald notes that these instances not only underscore the elaborate codes of behaviour Potter 's fictional animals observe but , by extension , the villagers of Sawrey . For Potter , the result of such elaborate etiquette was nonsensical , distorted behaviour . Nevertheless , the cat and dog remain friends at the end of the story , and , in carefully avoiding any offence , their social pretenses and codes of etiquette are maintained .
= = Merchandise = =
Potter asserted her tales would one day be nursery classics , and part of the process in making them so was marketing strategy . She was the first to exploit the commercial possibilities of her characters and tales with spinoffs such as a Peter Rabbit doll , an unpublished Peter Rabbit board game , and a Peter Rabbit nursery wallpaper between 1903 and 1905 . Similar " side @-@ shows " ( as she termed the spinoffs ) were conducted over the following two decades .
In 1947 , Frederick Warne & Co. gave Beswick Pottery of Longton , Staffordshire rights and licences to produce the Potter characters in porcelain . Ribby coming from the farm with butter and milk was released as a figurine in 1951 ; Duchess with a bouquet of flowers in 1955 ; Duchess holding the ham and veal pie in 1979 ; and Ribby and the broken pie dish in 1992 . A limited edition tableau depicting Duchess | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
and Ribby was produced only in 2000 .
Schmid & Co. of Toronto and Randolph , Massachusetts was granted licensing rights to Beatrix Potter in 1977 . A music box playing " Music Box Dancer " and topped with a porcelain figure of Duchess holding a bouquet was released in 1980 .
= = Reprints and translations = =
As of 2010 , all of Potter 's 23 small format books remain in print , and available as complete sets in presentation boxes , and as a 400 @-@ page omnibus . First edition copies and early reprints of The Pie are offered by antiquarian booksellers . The Pie was available as a hardcover volume but also in paperback , audiobook , and electronic formats .
The English language editions of the books still bore the Frederick Warne imprint in 2010 though the company was bought by Penguin Books in 1983 . The printing plates for the Potter books were remade from new photographs of the original drawings in 1985 , and all 23 volumes released in 1987 as The Original and Authorized Edition .
Potter 's books have been translated into nearly thirty languages including Greek and Russian . In 1986 , MacDonald observed that the Potter books had become a traditional part of childhood in both English @-@ speaking lands and those in which the books had been translated .
= All Things Must Pass ( song ) =
" All Things Must Pass " is a song by English musician George Harrison , issued in November 1970 as the title track to his triple album of the same name . Billy Preston released the song originally – as " All Things ( Must ) Pass " – on his Apple Records album Encouraging Words ( 1970 ) , after the Beatles had rejected it for inclusion on their Let It Be album in January 1969 . The composition reflects the influence of the Band 's sound and communal music @-@ making on Harrison , after he had spent time with the group in Woodstock , New York , in late 1968 , while Timothy Leary 's poem " All Things Pass " , a psychedelic adaptation of the Tao Te Ching , provided inspiration for his song lyrics .
The subject matter deals with the transient nature of human existence , and in Harrison 's All Things Must Pass reading , words and music combine to reflect impressions of optimism against fatalism . On release , together with Barry Feinstein 's album cover image , commentators viewed the song as a statement on the Beatles ' break @-@ up . Widely regarded as one of Harrison 's finest compositions , its rejection by his former band has provoked comment from biographers and reviewers . Music critic Ian MacDonald described " All Things Must Pass " as " the wisest song never recorded by The Beatles " , while author Simon Leng considers it " perhaps the greatest solo Beatle composition " . The recording was co @-@ produced by Phil Spector in London ; it features an orchestral arrangement by John Barham and contributions from musicians such as Ringo Starr , Pete Drake , Bobby Whitlock , Eric Clapton and Klaus Voormann .
Although the Beatles failed to formally record the song , a 1969 solo demo by Harrison appears on their compilation Anthology 3 ( 1996 ) . An early version from the All Things Must Pass sessions was released on Harrison 's posthumous compilation Early Takes : Volume 1 in 2012 . Paul McCartney performed " All Things Must Pass " at the Concert for George tribute in November 2002 , a year after Harrison 's death . Jim James , the Waterboys , Klaus Voormann and Yusuf Islam , and Sloan Wainwright are among the other artists who have covered the song .
= = Background = =
Like his friend Eric Clapton , George Harrison was inspired by Music from Big Pink , the seminal debut album from the Band , the former backing group for Bob Dylan . Released in July 1968 , Music from Big Pink was partly responsible for Harrison 's return to the guitar , his first instrument , after he had spent two years attempting to master the more complex Indian sitar . Harrison duly shared his enthusiasm with the British music press , declaring Big Pink " the new sound to come from America " , drummer Levon Helm later recalled , thus helping to establish the Band internationally . In appreciation , Robbie Robertson , the Band 's guitarist , extended an invitation to Harrison to stop by in Woodstock , New York , when the opportunity arose .
Late in 1968 , after producing sessions in Los Angeles for a solo album by Apple Records signing Jackie Lomax , Harrison spent Thanksgiving and much of December in upstate New York , where he renewed his friendship with a now semi @-@ retired Dylan and took part in informal jam sessions with the Band . According to Helm , they discussed making a possible " fireside jam " album with Clapton and an Apple Films " rock western " called Zachariah , but neither project progressed beyond the planning stage . The bucolic surroundings proved fruitful for Harrison as a songwriter , producing his first collaboration with Dylan , " I 'd Have You Anytime " , and leading him to write " All Things Must Pass " . He later described the latter song as a " Robbie Robertson – Band type of tune " , and said that he always imagined it being sung by Helm .
= = Composition = =
While discussing " All Things Must Pass " with music journalist Timothy White in 1987 , Harrison recalled that his " starting point " for the composition was Robertson 's " The Weight " – a song that had " a religious and a country feeling to it " . Musically , the verses of " All Things Must Pass " are set to a logical climb within the key of E ; the brief choruses form a departure from this , with their inclusion of a B minor chord rather than the more expected major voicing . Author Ian Inglis notes that the composition incorporates the same " modes , cadences and suspensions " found in Band songs such as " The Weight " and " The Night They Drove Old Dixie Down " .
For his lyrics , Harrison drew inspiration from " All Things Pass " , a poem published in Timothy Leary 's 1966 book Psychedelic Prayers after the Tao Te Ching . In his 1980 autobiography , I Me Mine , Harrison refers to the idea for the song originating from " all kinds of mystics and ex @-@ mystics " , including Leary . Like later Harrison compositions such as " Here Comes the Sun " , " So Sad " and " Blow Away " , the lyrical and emotional content is based around metaphors involving the weather and the cycle of nature . Harrison states in the opening lines of verse one : " Sunrise doesn 't last all morning / A cloudburst doesn 't last all day " .
According to Harrison biographer Simon Leng , the lyrics reflect " life 's ephemeral character " and the " transitory " nature of love . Inglis suggests that the song is " [ o ] stensibly " about " the end of a love affair " . He and theologian Dale Allison note the optimism offered in Harrison 's words , since , as Leng puts it , " a new day always dawns . " Although " All Things Must Pass " avoids religiosity , Allison writes that its statement on the " all @-@ inclusive " transience of things in the material world explains why so much of its 1970 parent album , All Things Must Pass , " finds hope and meaning only in God , who does not pass away " . The song 's main message is offered in its middle eight :
All things must pass
None of life 's strings can last
So I must be on my way
And face another day .
Ultimately , the cycle of nature offers " consolation " , Leng writes , as further evidenced in the verse @-@ three lines " Now the darkness only stays at night time " and " Daylight is good at arriving at the right time " .
The lyrics underwent some minor changes after Harrison presented the song to the Beatles in January 1969 , when they began working at London 's Twickenham Film Studios for the so @-@ called Get Back project ( released as the Let It Be album and film ) . He had initially written the second line of verse two as the more literal " A wind can blow those clouds away " , but bootlegs from the sessions reveal John Lennon suggesting the word " mind " to introduce a bit of " psychedelia " into the song . Similarly , the repeated line " it 's not always gonna be this grey " was originally " It 's not always been this grey " in verses one and two .
= = Pre @-@ All Things Must Pass recording history = =
= = = The Beatles ' Get Back rehearsals = = =
In contrast with the creative equality he enjoyed with Dylan and the Band in Woodstock , Harrison returned to the Beatles fold and found the same discordant atmosphere that had blighted the White Album sessions in 1968 . Early on during the Get Back rehearsals – and tellingly , music journalist John Harris notes , before the arrival that day of Lennon and his partner Yoko Ono – Harrison enthused with fellow Beatles Ringo Starr and Paul McCartney about the Band 's camaraderie and group ethos , saying : " They 're just living , and they happen to be a band as well . "
On 2 January , day one of the Twickenham film shoot , Harrison introduced " All Things Must Pass " , and the band worked on the song intermittently over the next four days of filming . In the search for a suitable musical arrangement , Harrison stressed his preference for a " feel " akin to the Band , a suggestion that resulted in Lennon switching from guitar to Lowrey organ , a keyboard favoured by the Band 's Garth Hudson . During the Twickenham rehearsals , the Beatles also discussed the idea of Harrison performing " All Things Must Pass " solo for inclusion in the proposed film .
They returned to the song briefly towards the end of January , by which time the project had moved location to their own Apple Studio , in central London – one of Harrison 's conditions for rejoining the Beatles after his temporary walkout on 10 January . Although the band gave a fair amount of time to " All Things Must Pass " , it was ultimately pushed aside , just as other Harrison compositions including " Old Brown Shoe " , " Isn 't It a Pity " , " Let It Down " and " I Me Mine " received a lukewarm reception , particularly from Lennon . David Fricke of Rolling Stone has referred to this period as a " struggle " for Harrison " against the patronizing restrictions of writing within and for the Beatles " . Doug Sulpy and Ray Schweighardt , authors of Get Back : The Unauthorized Chronicle of The Beatles ' Let It Be Disaster , observe that Lennon and McCartney routinely rejected Harrison 's songs , " even though some were far better than their own " .
The Beatles never formally recorded " All Things Must Pass " , and only rehearsal takes circulate on bootleg compilations from the sessions . The Fly on the Wall bonus disc accompanying the McCartney @-@ instigated Let It Be ... Naked album ( 2003 ) includes a snippet of the Beatles indulging in some Band @-@ like chorusing on the song .
= = = Harrison 's solo demo = = =
During the Beatles ' Apple Studio session on 28 January , Harrison talked with Lennon and Ono about possibly doing a solo album of his unused songs , in order to " preserve this , the Beatle bit , more " . Lennon offered his support for the idea . While author Bruce Spizer has suggested that Lennon was keen to " spare " the band from having to work on Harrison 's songs , Sulpy and Schweighardt consider that Lennon 's enthusiasm was because such a solo project would allow him and Ono to continue their own recording activities " without causing friction within The Beatles " .
On 25 February 1969 , his 26th birthday , Harrison entered Abbey Road Studios alone and recorded a demo of the song , along with other recent compositions " Old Brown Shoe " and " Something " . With Ken Scott serving as engineer , he recorded two takes of " All Things Must Pass " , adding extra electric guitar onto the second . This version was eventually released in 1996 on the Beatles ' outtake collection Anthology 3 .
= = = Billy Preston 's version = = =
Soon after Harrison had begun talking publicly about making a solo album , during the final months of 1969 , he offered " All Things Must Pass " , along with the more recent " My Sweet Lord " , to Billy Preston for the latter 's album Encouraging Words . Through Harrison 's invitation , Preston had played keyboards for the Beatles once the Get Back / Let It Be sessions resumed at Apple Studio , where the 22 @-@ year @-@ old Texan had impressed with his superior musicianship and convivial presence . Preston was soon offered a recording deal with Apple Records , Encouraging Words being the second album under the contract .
Co @-@ produced by Harrison , Preston 's reading of " All Things Must Pass " betrays an obvious debt to his former mentor , Ray Charles . While Harrison 's later recording is generally viewed as the definitive version , Bruce Eder of AllMusic considers this treatment of the song the superior of the two . Preston 's version appeared in September 1970 , five months after the Beatles ' break @-@ up .
= = All Things Must Pass recording = =
While completing his production on Preston 's release , Harrison chose to record the song himself for what became the title track of his post @-@ Beatles solo debut , the triple album All Things Must Pass . In describing " All Things Must Pass " as a " haunting hymn about the mortality of everything " , author Elliot Huntley notes the added poignance in Harrison 's version , due to the death of his mother in July 1970 after a long period of illness .
With Phil Spector as his co @-@ producer , Harrison taped the basic track at Abbey Road Studios between 26 May and early in June . Other participants included Clapton , German bassist Klaus Voormann and Starr , the latter another avowed Band fan . Leng credits the song 's piano part to Bobby Whitlock , who also sang backing vocals with Clapton , his future bandmate in Derek and the Dominos . In his 2010 autobiography , Whitlock states that it was Preston who played the piano on " All Things Must Pass " , while his own contribution was pump organ , or harmonium . Although Leng lists both Harrison and Clapton as having played acoustic guitar and Starr and Jim Gordon on drums , according to the personnel that Whitlock offers , neither Clapton nor Gordon played on the song . Among the overdubs on the track , Nashville session musician Pete Drake recorded a pedal @-@ steel guitar part during a brief visit to London , to participate in sessions for Harrison songs such as " Behind That Locked Door " and " I Live for You " .
Spector 's erratic behaviour during the All Things Must Pass sessions left Harrison to handle most of the project alone , but in August 1970 , after receiving a tape of Harrison 's early mixes of the songs , Spector provided him with written feedback and guidance . Spector wrote of " All Things Must Pass " , " This particular song is so good that any honest [ vocal ] performance by you is acceptable as far as I 'm concerned " , but he expressed his disapproval of the horns at the start of the track . In the words of authors Chip Madinger and Mark Easter , " clearer heads prevailed " and Jim Price and Bobby Keys ' horn parts were retained .
The recording opens with " unvaryingly steady " piano chords , Inglis writes , and what Leng terms " sensitive " string orchestration from John Barham , soon joined by the horns and Drake 's pedal steel . Leng highlights this combination as providing the song with its rising and falling musical moods , implying variously light and darkness ; Inglis writes of the musical arrangement mirroring the " competing impressions " of hope and melancholy found in Harrison 's lyrics . True to its Catskill roots , the recording evokes the Band 's " The Weight " and their eponymous second album , the tracks on which were similarly inspired by " the beauty of that autumn in Woodstock " , according to Helm .
= = Release and album artwork = =
Almost two years after Harrison wrote the song , " All Things Must Pass " was released in November 1970 , closing side three of the triple album in its original LP format . Despite its high retail price , All Things Must Pass was a major commercial success , comfortably outselling concurrent solo releases by Lennon and McCartney .
The song 's title was invariably seen as a statement on the demise of the Beatles , as commentators viewed the album as Harrison 's liberation from the artistic constraints imposed on him within the band . The album 's cover image , showing Harrison seated on his Friar Park lawn surrounded by four reclining garden gnomes – thought to represent the Beatles – was also viewed as reflecting this theme . While commenting that " All Things Must Pass " had " accrue [ d ] new layers of relevance " during the album 's creation , particularly with the death of Harrison 's mother , former Mojo editor Paul Du Noyer writes : " Nobody in November 1970 could have mistaken the title 's significance ... As if to cement the association of ideas , the wry cover picture has George in solitary splendour , surrounded by a quartet of gnomes . " In a 2001 interview , photographer Barry Feinstein admitted that the words " All Things Must Pass " had helped inspire his set @-@ up for the photo , saying : " What else could it be ? ... [ It ] was over with The Beatles , right ? And that title ... Very symbolic . "
= = Reception and legacy = =
On release , Ben Gerson of Rolling Stone described " All Things Must Pass " as " eloquently hopeful and resigned " while labelling the album " the music of mountain tops and vast horizons " . Beatles Forever author Nicholas Schaffner noted in 1977 , with reference to Harrison 's commercial and critical dominance over his former bandmates following the break @-@ up : " The very fact that the Beatles had kept George 's flowering talents so under wraps proved to be his secret weapon . " Schaffner named " All Things Must Pass " and " Beware of Darkness " as the two " most eloquent " songs on All Things Must Pass , " musically as well as lyrically " , with " mysterious , seductive melodies , over which faded strings and horns hover like Blue Jay Way fog " .
Writing for Rolling Stone in 2000 , Anthony DeCurtis praised the song for its musical demonstration of " the sweet satisfactions of faith " . On a triple album where " nearly every song is excellent " , AllMusic picks " All Things Must Pass " as one of five standout tracks ( or AMG track picks ) , with Richie Unterberger writing of its autumnal theme : " It 's the kind of song that fits the mood in November , when the trees are getting stripped bare of their leaves , the days are getting shorter and colder , and you have to resign yourself to knowing it 's going to be tougher and tougher in those regards for months , also knowing that those hardships will pass away come springtime . " In his book on Harrison , subtitled A Spiritual Biography , Gary Tillery refers to the song as " magisterial " and a " majestic title track " that " leaves even the shallowest listener contemplative " . Michael Gallucci of Ultimate Classic Rock places " All Things Must Pass " third on his list of Harrison 's best solo songs ( behind the two hit singles from All Things Must Pass , " My Sweet Lord " and " What Is Life " ) , and comments : " The album 's title track takes on more poignancy after Harrison 's death [ in 2001 ] , but it 's always been great . " Writing for Rough Guides , Chris Ingham similarly describes the song as " a heart @-@ rending piece of significant prescience which seems to take on more poignancy with every passing year " .
Among Harrison 's biographers , Simon Leng considers " All Things Must Pass " a " classic of Harrison 's lyrical ambiguity , in essence a hopeful song , without sounding so " , with a lyric that " approaches Bob Dylan standard " . Ian Inglis also praises the lyrics , writing : " The song contains some of Harrison 's most insightful and pensive words . ' Daylight is good at arriving at the right time ' is a fine example of his ... ability to position the profound within the commonplace . " Elliot Huntley rates it as one of Harrison 's " most beautiful " songs , " if not the very best " , and suggests that the sentiments behind " All Things Must Pass " would have made it a " fitting conclusion " to the final album recorded by the Beatles , Abbey Road ( 1969 ) .
Bruce Spizer similarly rates " All Things Must Pass " a highlight of Harrison 's career , while Leng considers it " perhaps the greatest solo Beatle composition " of all . In his book Revolution in the Head , Ian MacDonald describes " All Things Must Pass " as " the wisest song never recorded by The Beatles " . In 2009 , The Guardian included the track in its list of " 1000 Songs Everyone Must Hear " .
= = Performance and later releases = =
" All Things Must Pass " was not a track that Harrison ever played in concert , although it appeared on his preliminary setlist for the 1971 Concert for Bangladesh shows . He twice performed the song live in front of TV cameras during the final years of his life , beginning with his appearance with Ravi Shankar on VH1 's Hard Rock Live , filmed in New York on 14 May 1997 . The pair were on the show to promote their recent collaboration , Chants of India , but at host John Fugelsang 's urging , Harrison accepted an acoustic guitar and performed a brief rendition of " All Things Must Pass " . In late 2000 , Harrison sang " All Things Must Pass " while again seated on a stool on Friar Park 's main lawn , a performance that was included in the press kit for All Things Must Pass 's 30th anniversary reissue early the following year .
Coinciding with this 2001 reissue , the song appeared on a promotional single as the B @-@ side to " My Sweet Lord ( 2000 ) " . After being omitted from the " cursory " selection of 1970 – 75 tracks on The Best of George Harrison ( 1976 ) , Inglis writes , the song appeared on Harrison 's 2009 career @-@ spanning compilation Let It Roll .
In Martin Scorsese 's 2011 documentary George Harrison : Living in the Material World , " All Things Must Pass " is the first song featured in the movie , played over footage of German air raids over Britain during World War II . In November that year , a 1970 @-@ recorded demo of the song ( featuring just Harrison , Starr and Voormann ) appeared on the deluxe edition CD accompanying the British DVD release of the film ; this CD was subsequently issued worldwide in May 2012 as Early Takes : Volume 1 .
= = Cover versions = =
Steve Wood and Daniel May composed music to the 1998 documentary film Everest incorporating melodies from some of George Harrison 's songs , one of which was " All Things Must Pass " . At the Concert for George tribute to Harrison , held at London 's Royal Albert Hall on 29 November 2002 , Paul McCartney sang " All Things Must Pass " , backed by a large band that included Preston , Clapton , Voormann and Starr . Leng notes the irony in McCartney performing the song , while Beatles biographer Peter Doggett comments : " it wasn 't hard to imagine Harrison 's cynicism as McCartney led the band into a soulful rendition of ' All Things Must Pass ' – one of the songs that the other Beatles had refused to take seriously in January 1969 . " According to Clapton , author Robert Rodriguez writes , McCartney " was humbled at having to relearn it " .
Several other artists have recorded " All Things Must Pass " in the years since Harrison 's death . In 2003 , Bobby Whitlock and his wife , CoCo Carmel , included the song on their acoustic live album Other Assorted Love Songs , Live from Whitney Chapel . Jazz guitarist Joel Harrison covered " All Things Must Pass " on his album Harrison on Harrison : Jazz Explanations of George Harrison , released in October 2005 . In 2007 , a live version by the Waterboys appeared on their CD single " Everybody Takes a Tumble " , and the following year Sloan Wainwright included a cover of the song on her album Rediscovery .
" All Things Must Pass " was among the Harrison compositions covered by Jim James on his Tribute To EP , recorded in December 2001 but not released until August 2009 . Also in 2009 , Klaus Voormann released a version of the song on his solo album A Sideman 's Journey , with Yusuf Islam on vocals and acoustic guitar .
= = Personnel = =
The musicians who performed on Harrison 's All Things Must Pass version of the song are believed to be as follows :
George Harrison – vocals , acoustic guitar , backing vocals
Eric Clapton – acoustic guitar , backing vocals
Pete Drake – pedal steel
Billy Preston – piano
Bobby Whitlock – harmonium , backing vocals
Klaus Voormann – bass
Ringo Starr – drums , tambourine
Jim Gordon – drums
Bobby Keys – saxophone
Jim Price – trumpet , trombone , horn arrangement
John Barham – string arrangement
= 2002 Oman cyclone =
The 2002 Oman cyclone ( JTWC designation : 01A , officially known as Cyclonic Storm ARB 01 ) was an uncommon tropical cyclone that struck the Dhofar region of Oman in May 2002 . The first storm of the 2002 North Indian Ocean cyclone season , it developed on May 6 in the Arabian Sea , and it maintained a general west @-@ northwest track for much of its duration . The system reached cyclonic storm status on May 9 , meaning it attained winds of greater than 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) , and on May 10 it made landfall near Salalah ; shortly thereafter it dissipated . The storm was rare , in the sense that it was one of only eleven tropical cyclones on record to approach the Arabian Peninsula in the month of May .
The storm brought the heaviest rainfall totals to Dhofar in 30 years , causing flooding and creating rivers in wadis , or typically dry riverbeds . Several people drowned after their vehicles were swept away by the flooding . The storm caused locally heavy damage , totaling $ 25 million ( 2002 USD ) .
= = Meteorological history = =
An area of convection developed on May 2 , 2002 near Sri Lanka , associated with a weak and broad circulation center . The system tracked west @-@ northwestward through the Arabian Sea along a trough near the equator . Its thunderstorm activity was enhanced by a ridge to its north , though was also removed from the center . By May 5 , the circulation had become better defined , and concurrently the convection increased over the center . After further organization , the India Meteorological Department ( IMD ) classified the system as Depression ARB01A on May 6 . Around the same time , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) classified it as Tropical Depression 01A , while located about 1300 km ( 800 mi ) southeast of Salalah , Oman .
After becoming a tropical cyclone , the depression turned to a northwest motion before resuming a track to the west @-@ northwest . On May 7 it intensified into a deep depression , and though its winds had increased , the structure became disorganized as the center became exposed from the thunderstorm activity . The convection waned , due to the influence of dry air from the Arabian Peninsula , as well as from wind shear . As a result , the IMD downgraded it to depression status early on May 8 . However , later in the day , convection redeveloped over the western half of the circulation , and it again reached deep depression status , about 830 km ( 515 mi ) southeast of Oman .
The storm maintained poleward outflow as it continued west @-@ northwestward . Early on May 9 the IMD upgraded the system to a cyclonic storm , estimating winds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) and a pressure of 994 mbar ( 29 @.@ 4 inHg ) . Around that time , the storm was estimated by the JTWC to have attained peak winds of 85 km / h ( 50 km / h ) , with an atmospheric pressure of 991 mbar . While located a short distance offshore , the storm turned to the northwest and weakened slightly . At about 0900 UTC on May 10 , the storm made landfall near Salalah , Oman . Shortly thereafter , it began dissipation over Oman . Its landfall in the Dhofar region of Oman was uncommon ; in the period from 1891 to 1990 , only 17 tropical depressions or storms struck the region .
= = Impact = =
Along the coastline , the arrival of the storm resulted in strong waves of up to 4 metres ( 13 ft ) . The storm dropped heavy rainfall in the vicinity of its landfall , which were the greatest totals in 30 years in the Dhofar region . The city of Salalah reported 58 mm ( 2 @.@ 28 in ) in a 24 ‑ hour period as the storm moved ashore , which was more than 300 % of its average monthly for May . As a result , some flooding was reported in the city , and several wadis , or typically dry riverbeds , became sudden rivers in the area ; one station recorded a discharge of 1146 m3 / s ( 40 @,@ 470 ft3 / s ) . In Qairoon , precipitation amounted to 251 mm ( 9 @.@ 88 in ) , which was the highest total in Oman . Severe thunderstorms were reported during its passage , with wind gusts peaking at 106 km / h ( 66 mph ) . In neighboring Yemen , the city of Al Ghaydah reported light winds of about 45 km / h ( 30 mph ) .
Damage was severe and widespread , estimated at $ 25 million ( 2002 USD ) . Storm impact included property , crop , transportation , and agricultural damage , with hundreds of cattle drowning during the passage of the storm . Across the Dhofar region of Oman , the storm caused several injuries and a total of nine fatalities ; most of the deaths were drownings , occurring when their vehicles were swept away by flooding in typically dry areas . Two army soldiers and one police officer drowned while saving other people in danger .
In the aftermath of the storm , the Omani government received 4 @,@ 000 requests for assistance , and in turn provided financial aid to 500 families ; additionally , the government supplied temporary housing for displaced people .
= Temple Israel ( Dayton , Ohio ) =
Temple Israel is a Reform congregation located at 130 Riverside Drive in Dayton , Ohio . Formed in 1850 , it incorporated as " Kehillah Kodesh B 'nai Yeshurun " in 1854 . After meeting in rented quarters , the congregation purchased its first synagogue building , a former Baptist church at 4th and Jefferson , in 1863 . Strongly influenced by Rabbi Isaac Mayer Wise , it rapidly modernized its services , and , in 1873 , was a founding member of the Union for Reform Judaism .
The congregation sold its existing building in 1893 , and constructed a larger one at First and Jefferson , later severely damaged by the Great Dayton Flood of 1913 . In 1927 , the congregation moved to still larger , multi @-@ purpose premises at Salem and Emerson Avenues , outside downtown Dayton , and began to use the name " Temple Israel " , adding a new sanctuary to the building in 1953 . Temple Israel moved to its current building in 1994 .
Synagogue membership grew steadily for over 100 years , from 12 families in 1850 to 150 in the early 1900s , 200 by 1927 , and 500 by 1945 , peaking at 1 @,@ 100 in the 1960s . By 1995 , however , membership was down to 800 families .
Temple Israel has had a number of long @-@ tenured rabbis who were influential both in the congregation and in the larger Dayton community . These have included David Lefkowitz ( 1900 – 1920 ) , Louis Witt ( 1927 – 1947 ) , Selwyn Ruslander ( 1947 – 1969 ) and P. Irving Bloom ( 1973 – 1997 ) . As of 2011 , the rabbis were David M. Sofian and Karen Bodney @-@ Halasz .
= = The early years , at 4th and Jefferson = =
What was later to become Temple Israel was originally formed as a Hebrew Society in 1850 by twelve Jewish men under the leadership of Joseph Lebensburger , a German Jew and first permanent Jewish resident of Dayton . The Society met daily for prayers in rented rooms : first above a shop in the old Dayton Bank Building ( which was later the Steele High School , and has since been demolished ) near Monument and Main Streets , and later in larger quarters in a building next to the Cooper building , a block south on Main Street . It also hired its first Torah reader , a " Mr. Wendel " , and purchased — for $ 100 ( today $ 2 @,@ 800 ) — a small piece of land for a cemetery on what is now Rubicon Street .
The Society incorporated as " Kehillah Kodesh B 'nai Yeshurun " in 1854 . It moved to larger facilities , first near First and Main Streets in 1860 , and then , in 1863 , to the northeast corner of 4th and Jefferson Streets . There Kehillah Kodesh B 'nai Yeshurun purchased for $ 1 @,@ 500 ( today $ 29 @,@ 000 ) its first owned premises , the building of a Baptist church whose congregation was moving to Main Street .
The structure required " extensive remodeling " , and Lebensburger , as building chairman , led the campaign to raise the necessary $ 9 @,@ 000 ( today $ 173 @,@ 000 ) . Funds came not only from the membership but also from non @-@ Jewish members of many local societies , including the Odd Fellows and Masons . Rabbi Isaac Mayer Wise assisted B 'nai Yeshurun 's then – religious leader Rev. Mr. Delbanco with the dedication of what became " the seventh congregation @-@ owned Jewish House of Worship in Ohio . "
= = Move to Reform , and early rabbis = =
Influenced by Wise , the congregation implemented many reforms in its services . In 1861 they adopted Wise 's Minhag America prayer book . In that same decade they added an organ , did away with the prayer shawl , and started a religious school . In the 1870s the congregation removed yahrzeit candles from the sanctuary , and added family pews and a mixed choir ( men and women together ) . In 1873 B 'nai Yeshurun was one of the first thirteen founding members of the Union of American Hebrew Congregations ( UAHC ) , now Union for Reform Judaism .
By 1889 B 'nai Yeshurun had outgrown its original cemetery , and the congregation purchased 8 acres ( 3 @.@ 2 ha ) on West Schantz Avenue in Oakwood . Oakwood was a " restricted community " ; Jews were not allowed to reside or own stores there . According to Leonard Spialter , president of the Dayton Jewish Genealogical Society , " if you were dead , you could be buried in Oakwood , but if you were alive , you couldn ’ t live there " . Relatives began moving those buried at the Rubicon cemetery to the new " Riverview Cemetery " , including Lebensburger , who had died by this time . This process was not completed until 1967 .
In its first forty years the congregation had a series of generally short @-@ tenured religious leaders . These included Delbanco ( 1862 – 63 ) , Moses Bauer ( 1863 – 64 ) , L. Liebman ( 1864 – 67 ) , Abraham Blum ( 1868 – 69 ) , Leon Leopold ( 1870 – 72 ) , Ben Weil ( 1872 – 76 ) , Ephraim Fischer ( 1876 – 81 ) , Godfrey / Gottheil Taubenhaus ( later rabbi of Congregation Beth Elohim of Brooklyn , New York ) ( 1881 – 85 ) , and Israel Saenger ( 1885 – 89 ) .
During this period the membership also transformed from immigrant @-@ born to native @-@ born . In 1881 the congregation 's " language of record " was changed from German to English , and in 1889 the synagogue hired its first American @-@ trained rabbi , Max Wertheimer .
A graduate of Wise 's Hebrew Union College , Wertheimer had been born in Germany to Orthodox parents . He was popular with the congregation , and Dayton 's Christian community highly respected him . Non @-@ Jews attended his Friday evening sermons , and he in turn was a guest speaker at many Dayton churches .
= = First and Jefferson building , and David Lefkowitz as rabbi = =
In 1893 the congregation sold its building at 4th and Jefferson , and constructed a new one at First and Jefferson . Wise again assisted with the dedication .
Wertheimer 's wife died young , leaving him with two small children . This tragedy made him question his faith ; in 1899 he resigned from the congregation , resigned his membership in the Central Conference of American Rabbis ( CCAR ) , and , in 1900 , converted to Christian Science ; in 1938 David Max Eichhorn wrote that " Mary Baker Eddy herself financed Wertheimer 's study " . Wertheimer later became a Baptist .
David Lefkowitz was hired as rabbi in 1900 , when the congregation comprised around 150 families . Born in Eperies , Hungary in 1875 , he had emigrated to the United States with his widowed mother and two brothers around 1881 . Due to financial difficulties , he and one brother grew up in the Hebrew Orphan Asylum of New York , where he later worked to help pay for his schooling . A graduate of both the College of the City of New York and the University of Cincinnati , he was ordained at Hebrew Union College in 1900 . Held in " high regard " by the membership , Lefkowitz was also " an active force in Dayton 's civic and interfaith activities " and an " ambassador of the Jewish Community to the Dayton area " . He was the first president of the Dayton chapter of the Red Cross and served on its Executive Board , and also served as president of the Humane Society .
Later president of the CCAR , Lefkowitz was also anti @-@ Zionist . He was one of the prominent Jewish signatories of a petition presented in 1919 by United States Congressman Julius Kahn to President of the United States Woodrow Wilson who " asserted their wish not to see Palestine ' either now or at any time in the future ' become a Jewish state . " In 1942 , he was one of the founders of the American Council for Judaism , " the only American Jewish organization ever formed for the specific purpose of fighting Zionism and opposing the establishment of a Jewish state in Palestine . "
During Lefkowitz 's tenure , the synagogue building was severely damaged by the Great Dayton Flood of 1913 . Lefkowitz was " in charge of one of the districts outside the flooded area " . There he assisted around 28 @,@ 000 refugees in finding shelter , and " established a bread line to feed them " . However , his suggestion that the congregation move to a larger building in a new location outside downtown Dayton , while taken seriously , was not acted on .
Membership had grown to 206 families by 1919 . The congregational school held classes twice a week , and had 8 classes , 10 teachers , and 140 students . That year the synagogue 's total income was $ 10 @,@ 000 ( today $ 136 @,@ 000 ) . In 1920 , Lefkowitz moved to Temple Emanu @-@ El , Dallas 's largest and oldest synagogue .
= = Salem and Emerson building = =
Samuel S. Mayersberg succeeded Lefkowitz as rabbi . He was " known for his oratorical skills and his crusades for moral and police reforms in Dayton " . His major goal during his ministry was to acquire larger premises outside downtown Dayton , which was realized in 1927 when the congregation moved to a new building at Salem and Emerson Avenues . Besides the main sanctuary , which had seating for 600 people , the structure included a social hall and kitchen , classrooms , and offices . It was at that time that the congregation began to use the name " Temple Israel " . Mayersberg left that year , and became the rabbi of Congregation B 'nai Jehudah of Kansas City , Missouri . During his tenure , membership increased to 200 families .
Louis Witt succeeded Mayersberg in 1927 . He worked on fostering interfaith relations , and , like his predecessors , was active in community and civic life . A tall man who sometimes wore a swallow @-@ tail coat when conducting services , he was a strong proponent of " Classical Reform " principles , and while he was rabbi , following his preference , no one wore a skullcap in the Temple .
In 1929 , at the second UAHC convention , Witt had asserted that America " by its very pleasantness and friendliness lures us away from our ancient loyalties . Its secularism is so delightful , its mutuality so penetrative , its universalism so delightful , that by a sort of sheer spiritual osmosis it incorporates us into itself and makes us look and become more and more like itself " . Witt argued that Jews had to resist this pull . Ten years later , however , in a 1939 article in The Christian Century , he argued that Jews should celebrate Christmas . In his view , Christians were now more liberal and celebrated " the inherent humanness and universalism " of Christmas , rather than any specifically Christian doctrine . Stating that his children had been deprived of the holiday 's pleasures , Witt asserted that Judaism was already a syncretic religion , and that celebrating the holiday was an ecumenical act which did not indicate that he was " thereby drawn even by the breadth of a hair nearer to the worship of an ecclesiastical Christ " . He concluded by asking " Is it neither treason of Jew nor triumph of Christian but partnership of Jew and Christian in the making of a better world in which the Christ can have part only by energizing and perpetuating and hallowing the partnership ? "
During Witt 's tenure , Dayton experienced an influx of Jewish immigration , and the original German @-@ Jewish constituency of the congregation became more diverse . Family membership reached 500 by 1945 .
= = New sanctuary during Selwyn Ruslander 's tenure = =
Following Witt 's retirement in 1947 , Selwyn D. Ruslander succeeded him . Born in Pennsylvania in 1911 , Ruslander had graduated from the University of Cincinnati in 1931 , and was ordained at Hebrew Union College in Cincinnati in 1935 . He worked at a number of non @-@ rabbinic jobs ( including as an Ordinary Seaman in the U.S. Merchant Marine ) , and several rabbinic positions , including both pulpit and non @-@ pulpit roles . In 1939 he was appointed Director of Youth Education for the UAHC , and also became the first director of the National Federation of Temple Youth ( now North American Federation of Temple Youth ) . In 1942 , during World War II , he took a leave of absence from the UAHC to volunteer for the armed forces as a U.S. Navy chaplain . From 1943 to 1945 he served with the United States Eighth Fleet in the Mediterranean Sea , " the first Jewish chaplain in the history of the Navy to serve with a combat fleet " , and earned a Combat Star for his participation in Operation Shingle . He was released from active duty in December 1946 , and returned briefly to the UAHC , then went to South Shore Temple in Chicago , before taking the role at Temple Israel .
Ruslander brought some traditionalism back to the congregation ; he reinstated the Bar Mitzvah and inaugurated the Bat Mitzvah celebrations , and re @-@ organized the religious school and added Hebrew to its curriculum . Like his predecessors , he was very active in Dayton 's civic life , serving on the boards of a large number of community organizations . Ruslander was possibly Dayton 's then " best known clergyman of any faith " , and during his tenure Temple Israel experienced rapid growth . In 1953 , Temple Israel constructed a new sanctuary at its Salem and Emerson location , and connected it to the original building . By the end of the 1960s membership increased to 1 @,@ 100 families , and Temple Israel hired Howard R. Greenstein and Joseph S. Weizenbaum as assistant rabbis . Ruslander died in 1969 , and for several years Greenstein and Weisenbaum served as interim spiritual leaders . In 1972 , Weizenbaum became rabbi of Temple Emanu @-@ El of Tucson , Arizona , where he served until 1993 . Greenstein joined Jacksonville , Florida 's Congregation Ahavath Chesed as rabbi in 1973 , and served there until 1995 .
= = The move to Riverside Drive , led by P. Irving Bloom = =
P. ( Paul ) Irving Bloom joined as rabbi in 1973 . He had previously been a U.S. Air Force chaplain , then rabbi of Congregation Sha 'arai Shomayim in Mobile , Alabama from 1960 to 1973 . Bloom introduced a number of innovations to the synagogue , including joint programs with other Dayton synagogues , a new curriculum for the religious school and Jewish studies classes for adults , and enhanced Friday programs and lay @-@ led services in the summer . Bloom strongly believed that Temple Israel should relocate to a more central location , as the Jewish community of Dayton had by then spread throughout Miami Valley . His vision was realized in 1994 , when the congregation moved to a new building on Riverside Drive , near downtown Dayton . The building at Salem and Emerson was sold to a Baptist church . As noted by Bloom , the congregation had " come full circle " ; it purchased its first building from a Baptist church in downtown Dayton , and had sold its most recent building to a Baptist church in order to return to the area . By 1995 , however , membership was only eight hundred families .
Bloom retired in 1997 , and was succeeded by Marc Gruber . A graduate of Brandeis University , Gruber attended Hebrew Union College in Jerusalem and New York , and was ordained in 1981 . A vegetarian , he also wrote a syndicated vegetarian cooking column from 1990 to 1993 . At Temple Israel he reformed the services and introduced Bar and Bat Mitzvah classes for adults . During his tenure , in 2000 , the congregation celebrated its Sesquicentennial , with a number of " religious , cultural , social and social action programs " throughout the year . Gruber also served on the Steering Committee for the UAHC Department of Jewish Family Concerns from 1995 to 2002 , working on " the inclusion of people with disabilities and special needs " . Gruber moved to Central Synagogue of Nassau County in Rockville Centre , New York in 2002 , and Michael Remson served as interim rabbi .
= = Recent events = =
David M. Sofian joined as Rabbi in 2003 . A graduate of Hebrew Union College and the University of Missouri , Sofian had served as assistant rabbi at Temple Emanuel in Worcester , Massachusetts , at Temple Shaarai Shomayim in Lancaster , Pennsylvania , and at Emanuel Congregation in Chicago , before coming to Temple Israel . Karen Bodney @-@ Halasz , a graduate of Northwestern University , joined as Religious School Director in 2003 and became Director of Education in 2005 . After her rabbinic ordination in June 2007 , she became Rabbi @-@ Educator .
Sofian retired in 2014 , IIlene Bogosian was hired as interim senior rabbi and Bodney @-@ Halasz was elevated to associate rabbi . After an eight @-@ month search process , the temple 's search committee unanimously recommended Bodney @-@ Halasz become the next senior rabbi . The temple 's board of directors approved that recommendation in January 2016 , making Bodney @-@ Halasz Temple Israel 's first senior rabbi . She will officially take over July 1 .
= County Borough of Leeds =
The County Borough of Leeds , and its predecessor , the Municipal Borough of Leeds , was a local government district in the West Riding of Yorkshire , England , from 1835 to 1974 . Its origin was the ancient borough of Leeds , which was reformed by the Municipal Corporations Act 1835 . In 1889 , when West Riding County Council was formed , Leeds became a county borough outside the administrative county of the West Riding ; and in 1893 the borough gained city status . The borough was extended a number of times , expanding from 21 @,@ 593 acres ( 8 @,@ 738 ha ) in 1911 to 40 @,@ 612 acres ( 16 @,@ 435 ha ) in 1961 ; adding in stages the former area of Roundhay , Seacroft , Shadwell and Middleton parishes and gaining other parts of adjacent districts . In 1971 Leeds was the fifth largest county borough by population in England . The county borough was abolished in 1974 and replaced with the larger City of Leeds , a metropolitan district of West Yorkshire .
= = Origins = =
= = = Manorial borough 1207 – 1626 = = =
The Borough of Leeds was created in 1207 , when Maurice Paynel , Lord of the Manor , granted a charter to the inhabitants of the town of Leeds . They were created " burgesses " , and were given the right to hold half an acre of land , trade as they liked , and transport their goods by land or water , subject to tolls and restrictions paid to the manor . The only officer of the borough was a praetor , appointed annually at the Feast of Pentecost by the Lord of the Borough . The praetor had the duty of administering justice and collecting fines and other revenues . The borough formed only a small area adjacent to a crossing of the River Aire , between the old settlement centred on Leeds Parish Church to the east and the manor house and mills to the west . The borough consisted of a single street with approximately thirty burgage plots . By the seventeenth century the title of praetor had been abandoned in favour of the more customary " bailiff " , but otherwise the government of the town remained in the form introduced in the thirteenth century . An enquiry into the administration of local charities in 1620 disclosed that many of the funds were diverted by the bailiff for his private use . This , and other irregularities , led the inhabitants of Leeds to petition Charles I for a charter of incorporation .
= = = Incorporated borough ( 1626 – 1836 ) = = =
= = = = Incorporation = = = =
A charter of incorporation was granted on 13 July 1626 , incorporating the entire parish of Leeds St Peter as the " Borough of Leedes in the County of York " . The parish and borough consisted of eleven chapelries ( Armley , Beeston , Bramley , Chapel Allerton , Farnley , Headingley cum Burley , Holbeck , Hunslet , Leeds , Potternewton and Wortley ) and parts of two more ( Seacroft and Temple Newsam ) .
The governing corporation of the borough was styled " The Alderman and Burgesses of the Borough of Leedes in the County of York " , and consisted of one Alderman , nine principal burgesses and twenty assistants . The charter named the members of the first corporation , with Sir John Savile becoming the first alderman .
= = = = Charter of Charles II = = = =
In January 1643 , during the English Civil War , Leeds fell to parliamentary forces . Royalist members of the corporation were replaced with those loyal to the Commonwealth . With the restoration of the monarchy in 1660 , moves were made to reform the borough 's government . The leading merchants of the town submitted a petition to Charles II requesting a new charter as they felt the constitution and operation of the governing body was inadequate to the needs of the town .
A second charter was duly granted on 2 November 1661 , with the earlier charter withdrawn . The new corporation thus created consisted of a mayor , twelve aldermen , twenty four assistants , a recorder and a town clerk and was entitled the " Mayor , Aldermen and Burgesses of the Borough of Leedes in the County of York " . The charter named the first mayor as Thomas Danby . The new corporation was given extensive powers to enforce and make laws to regulate trade and ensure the good governance of the town . From 1684 to 1689 the town was governed under a charter of James II which gave the crown power over all appointments to the town council . With the accession of William III and Mary II the 1661 charter was restored to the townspeople , and remained the governing charter until 1836 .
= = Municipal borough ( 1836 – 1889 ) = =
In 1833 the Whig Government of Lord Grey began enquiries into the government of the various boroughs in England and Wales , with a view to reforming their constitutions and methods of election . Following the recommendations of a Royal Commission , legislation was enacted as the Municipal Corporations Act 1835 .
Leeds was among the 178 boroughs reformed by the act , becoming the " Municipal Borough of Leeds " . The reformed borough was initially unchanged in area , and was divided into 12 wards , with a town council of 16 aldermen and 48 councillors , headed by a mayor . Each ward was represented by either three or six directly elected councillors . One third of the councillors retired annually . Aldermen were additional members of the council , there being one alderman for every three councillors : they had a six @-@ year term of office , with half of the aldermanic bench elected by the council itself every three years .
It was originally envisaged that the first elections would be held on 1 November 1835 , with the reformed town councils holding their first meetings on 9 November following . However , the process of dividing the boroughs into wards and preparing the burgess roll or electoral register was a lengthy one , and an Order in Council was made delaying the first elections to 26 December , with the new boroughs coming into formal existence on 1 January 1836 .
An early focus of the new authority was on policing and crime , with construction of a new borough prison begun in 1842 . The Leeds Improvement Act of 1842 gave the council further powers over markets , streets , street lighting , sewerage , building regulations , public cleansing and smoke regulation in the rapidly growing industrial city .
In 1881 the wards were redrawn , so that the borough comprised sixteen wards . The size of the town council remained the same , however , with each new ward returning one alderman and three councillors .
= = County borough 1889 – 1974 = =
The Local Government Act 1888 created elected county councils to administer services throughout England and Wales . Where a municipal borough had a population of more than 50 @,@ 000 at the 1881 Census it was created a county borough , with the powers and duties of both a borough and county council .
As Leeds had an 1881 population of 309 @,@ 119 it duly became a county borough on 1 April 1889 . The borough , while independent of the West Riding County Council for local government , remained part of the county for purposes such as the administration of justice and lieutenancy .
The change of status in 1889 made no change to the boundaries of the borough or the size of the council .
= = = City status and lord mayoralty = = =
Until 1889 the right to the title of " city " in the United Kingdom was linked to the presence of an Anglican cathedral . In that year Birmingham , Dundee and Belfast were granted letters patent raising them to cities by virtue of their population , economic importance and history of good municipal government .
In 1892 another borough in the West Riding , Sheffield , announced that it was seeking the grant of city status to celebrate the Golden Jubilee of the town 's incorporation , which was to occur in 1893 . When the members of Leeds Town Council became aware of the application by Sheffield , which was both smaller in population and of more recent creation than Leeds , they immediately began the process of applying for the dignity themselves . A petition was approved on 4 January 1893 , which set out the reasons it was felt that Leeds deserved to become a city : these were the antiquity of the town , its many charters , its large area , its population that was " approaching 400 @,@ 000 " , the fact that it was the largest municipality not to be a city , and its commercial importance for the woollen industry .
A delegation from Leeds , including two Members of Parliament ( MPs ) , met with the Home Secretary , H H Asquith on 27 January to press the borough 's case . Along with the claims of the borough as set out in the original petition , the delegation made two more points : Leeds was the only university town not a city , and Leeds and Sheffield were the only boroughs returning five MPs to the House of Commons without the status ( of a city ) .
The Home Secretary forwarded the petitions of both boroughs to The Queen on 3 February , recommending that the honour be granted in both cases as they were the " only towns in the United Kingdom with a population exceeding 300 @,@ 000 to which the title of City , enjoyed by many smaller of less important places , has not been granted ; and that both appear to be well fitted by their loyalty , public spirit , and industrial progress , for this mark of your Majesty 's favour . "
On 7 February , Sir Godfrey Lushington , permanent secretary to the Home Office , wrote to the mayors of both towns signifying that the applications had been approved . The award was made by letters patent on 13 February , and was announced in the London Gazette on 21 February :
The Queen has been pleased , by Letters Patent under the Great Seal of the United Kingdom , bearing date the 13th February 1893 , to
ordain and declare that the Borough of Leeds shall be a City , and shall be called and styled " The City of Leeds " .
Four years later the Diamond Jubilee of the accession of Queen Victoria occurred . As part of the celebrations it was announced on 21 June that the mayor of Leeds " shall in future bear the title of Lord Mayor " . The award which empowered the Lord Mayor to enjoy and use all the rights , privileges , pre @-@ eminencies and advantages to " such degree duly and of right belonging " was made by Letters Patent dated 12 July , and was published in the London Gazette on the following day :
The Queen has been pleased , by Letters Patent under the Great Seal of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland , bearing date the 12th July , 1897 to ordain that the Chief Magistrate , now , and for the time being , of the City of Leeds , shall be styled Lord Mayor of Leeds .
= = = Parishes to 1912 = = =
Townships and chapelries which were separately rated for poor law purposes were formed into civil parishes in 1866 . The borough of Leeds contained eleven parishes and part of two others , and no changes were made to their boundaries until 1894 . The Local Government Act 1894 provided that no parish could lie in more than one local government area , with parishes being divided or amalgamated as required .
In Leeds this was effected by constituting the part of Temple Newsam parish within the city a separate parish of Osmondthorpe , and merging the portion of Seacroft that lay within the municipal boundaries with the existing parish of Potternewton . The number of parishes into which the city was divided was reduced to five in 1904 by the following mergers : A second application was made late in 1911 . The corporation sought to add 4 @,@ 839 acres ( 19 @.@ 58 km2 ) to the north and east of the city : the parishes of Roundhay and Seacroft ( comprising Leeds Rural District ) , the parish of Shadwell ( from Wetherby Rural District ) and the Crossgates area of the parish of Barwick in Elmet ( from Tadcaster Rural District ) . The proposed extension would increase the county borough 's population by 7 @,@ 603 to 452 @,@ 171 . An inquiry was held in January 1912 , at which the strong opposition of the West Riding County Council and all the parish and rural district councils involved was made clear . On 4 May the town clerk of Leeds was informed that the extension had been granted , with the exception of 169 acres ( 0 @.@ 68 km2 ) of agricultural land with an estimated population of 50 to 100 .
The extension took effect on 9 November 1912 , with the added areas initially being added to the existing north ward and to the parish of Leeds .
= = = 1920 extension = = =
In 1919 the city council sought another extension , this time to the south , by taking in the parish of Middleton from Hunslet Rural District . The boundary change took effect on 1 April 1920 , and Middleton formed a 17th ward , electing 3 councillors and 1 alderman to the city council , which was increased in size accordingly . The parish of Middleton was abolished , with its area added to the existing parish of Hunslet . The extra territory was acquired by the county borough for a major scheme of council housing , the construction of which commenced almost immediately . On 1 April 1925 the five parishes in the county borough were united into a single parish of Leeds .
= = = 1928 extension = = =
In 1927 Leeds Corporation promoted a bill to add further areas to the city , namely Gildersome Urban District , and parts of the rural districts of Hunslet , Tadcaster and Wharfedale ( the parishes of Adel cum Eccup , Alwoodley , Austhorpe – except for a detached part – and Templenewsham ) . The Leeds Corporation Act 1927 , as passed , omitted Gildersome and most of Austhorpe from the area added to Leeds . The extension , which took effect on 1 April 1928 added approximately 7 @,@ 131 acres ( 28 @.@ 86 km2 ) to the county borough . The area added comprised the parishes of Adel cum Eccup and Alwoodley to the north , and Templenewsham with 206 acres ( 0 @.@ 83 km2 ) from the parish of Austhorpe to the east .
In 1930 the wards of the county borough were redrawn , necessitating a general election of the entire city council . Twenty @-@ six wards were created , each returning 3 councillors and 1 alderman . The membership of the council was increased from 68 ( 51 councillors and 17 aldermen ) to 104 ( 78 councillors and 26 aldermen ) . The twenty @-@ six wards were as follows :
On 1 April 1937 the boundary of the county borough with the surrounding areas of the West Riding was adjusted under a county review order . The city exchanged areas with the following districts :
In 1950 the city council petitioned for an alteration in the number and boundaries of the municipal wards , and a consequent change in the number of aldermen and councillors . The petition was successful , with an Order in Council made on 28 July dividing the city into twenty @-@ eight wards :
The redrawing of wards made a general election of the entire council necessary in May 1951 . The new council had a membership of 112 : 84 councillors and 28 aldermen .
= = = 1957 extension = = =
Following the Second World War a Local Government Boundary Commission was appointed to review administrative structures throughout England and Wales . While the commission was in existence , local authorities were not permitted to make unilateral proposals for boundary changes . Although the commission recommended that Leeds should form the basis of a new unitary " one tier county " no action was taken . The commission itself was wound up in 1949 , and the final enlargement of the county borough took place under the Leeds Corporation Act 1956 , on 1 April 1957 . 2 @,@ 322 acres ( 9 @.@ 40 km2 ) of Tadcaster Rural District were added to the city . The 1958 commission was disbanded in 1966 , and the Redcliffe @-@ Maud Commission appointed in its place . When their report was published in 1969 , they recommended a system of large unitary authorities . A new Leeds authority was proposed , with an area of 317 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 280 km2 ) and a population of 840 @,@ 000 . The boundaries would have included a large rural area including part of the Yorkshire Dales and the town of Harrogate . The proposal was welcomed by Leeds City Council . Following a change of government , a white paper issued in 1971 rejected the unitary structure and instead proposed a metropolitan county of West Yorkshire , with Leeds forming a district in a two @-@ tier system . During the passing of the subsequent legislation , which was enacted as the Local Government Act 1972 , the boundaries of the Leeds Metropolitan District ( or District 6b ) were altered . Knaresborough and Harrogate were removed ( becoming the basis of a non @-@ metropolitan district in North Yorkshire ) while Rothwell was added from the neighbouring Wakefield district .
= = = Metropolitan borough = = =
The 1972 legislation came into effect on 1 April 1974 , with the county borough ceasing to exist at midnight on 31 March . The county borough 's area was combined with that of the Municipal Borough of Morley , the Municipal Borough of Pudsey , Aireborough Urban District , Horsforth Urban District , Otley Urban District , Garforth Urban District , Rothwell Urban District and parts of Tadcaster Rural District , Wetherby Rural District and Wharfedale Rural District from the West Riding . The new Leeds district was one of five metropolitan districts in West Yorkshire . It was granted a borough and city status to become the City of Leeds .
= The Deal ( 2003 film ) =
The Deal is a 2003 British television film directed by Stephen Frears from a script by Peter Morgan , based in part upon The Rivals by James Naughtie . The film stars David Morrissey as Gordon Brown and Michael Sheen as Tony Blair , and depicts the Blair @-@ Brown deal — a well @-@ documented pact that Blair and Brown made whereby Brown would not stand in the 1994 Labour leadership election , so that Blair could have a clear run at becoming leader of the party and Prime Minister . The film begins on 9 June 1983 , as Blair and Brown are first elected to Parliament , and concludes in May 1994 at the Granita restaurant — the location of the supposed agreement — with a brief epilogue following the leadership contest .
The film was first proposed by Morgan in late 2002 and was taken on by Granada Television for ITV . After Frears agreed to direct , and the cast were signed on , ITV pulled out of it over fears that the political sensitivity could affect its corporate merger . Channel 4 picked up the production and filming was carried out for five weeks in May 2003 . The film was broadcast on 28 September 2003 , the weekend prior to the Labour Party 's annual party conference .
The film was critically praised . Morrissey received considerable praise , winning a Royal Television Society award for playing Brown , and Frears was nominated for Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Television Movie / Serial by the Directors Guild of Great Britain . The film also nominated for an International Emmy for Best TV Movie / Miniseries . Sheen later reunited with Morgan , Frears , and producer Christine Langan in 2006 to reprise his role as Blair in The Queen , which depicts the aftermath of the death of Princess Diana on 31 August 1997 . Sheen reprised his role once again in 2010 in The Special Relationship , that chronicles the " special relationship " between Blair and US President Bill Clinton up until the inauguration of Clinton 's successor George W. Bush , and was broadcast on BBC Two in the United Kingdom and HBO in North America .
= = Plot = =
In the prologue , opening in medias res , shows Gordon Brown ( David Morrissey ) taking a telephone call from Tony Blair ( Michael Sheen ) to arrange a meeting at the Granita restaurant in Islington .
The narrative shifts to 1983 ; in the wake of the Falklands War , Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher and her Conservative government enjoy huge public popularity as the general election approaches , while Labour 's radical election manifesto loses them key voters . Brown is elected as the new Member of Parliament for Dunfermline East . In London , he is shown to his office in the Houses of Parliament . John Smith ( Frank Kelly ) , a senior Labour MP , introduces Brown to Blair , his new office @-@ mate and the new MP for Sedgefield . Blair makes pleasantries with Brown and , though Brown is not initially impressed , the two become friends . Smith soon introduces the pair to Peter Mandelson ( Paul Rhys ) , Neil Kinnock 's director of communications . Shortly afterwards , Kinnock appoints Blair to be an assistant Treasury spokesman . Brown turns down a promotion to the Scottish Office , hoping a better position will come along . He and Blair discuss their political futures and both agree that , of the two , Brown would make a better leader of the party .
Labour is unable to make significant dents in the Conservative majority at the 1987 general election . Kinnock promotes Smith to Shadow Chancellor of the Exchequer , with Brown as his " number two " . Three years later , Thatcher resigns as Prime Minister after the Conservative leadership election is not decided on the first ballot . Despite contrary predictions , the Conservatives led by John Major win the 1992 general election . Blair tells Brown that a new approach is needed , and that Brown should stand for the party leadership . Brown refuses to stand against Smith , his friend and mentor . Mandelson privately suggests to Brown that Blair should stand as leader but Brown ridicules the idea . Smith is elected and , over the next two years , Labour gains support as scandals rock the government . Blair , as Shadow Home Secretary , pledges to be " tough on crime , tough on the causes of crime " in the wake of the murder of James Bulger . Smith tells Brown that he sees Blair as his natural successor as leader of the party .
A year later , Smith suffers a fatal heart attack . Blair , encouraged by his wife Cherie ( Elizabeth Berrington ) , decides to stand in the leadership contest . He later meets with Mandelson to tell him that he has received support from key Labour frontbenchers . Previously a supporter of Brown , Mandelson switches his allegiance to Blair . Brown is furious that Blair has gone back on their unwritten agreement . Smith 's funeral passes , and Blair 's camp is sure that Brown will run . Charlie Whelan ( Dexter Fletcher ) and Ed Balls ( Matt Blair ) advise Brown that he will receive support from significant trade unions . Blair decides to arrange a meeting with Brown . At Granita , Blair tells Brown that he will run for the leadership , and in return offers Brown unprecedented power as his Chancellor , should they win the next election . Brown asks what Blair 's plan is for Labour 's second term , and Blair tells him that he will step down and offer his support to Brown as Prime Minister . Brown agrees and Mandelson prepares a statement from him , but discards Brown 's alterations . The leadership contest is won by Blair .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
The film was commissioned in 2002 by ITV 's head of drama Nick Elliott , who encouraged Peter Morgan to put aside any other projects and start work on a script as soon as possible . Granada was initially sceptical of producing it ; the company 's executive chairman and chief executive — Charles Allen and Simon Shaps respectively — believed that Blair would be forced to resign as Prime Minister over the impending war in Iraq , consequently leaving the story outdated . The project was believed to be " too cerebral " and attempts were made to persuade Morgan to develop a television series to replace Cold Feet , another Granada production . John Whiston and Andy Harries convinced Allen and Shaps otherwise , citing Granada 's history of producing ground @-@ breaking drama and film as reasons for why The Deal should be made . ITV 's director of channels , David Liddiment , who supported the production , resigned in December 2002 and was replaced by Nigel Pickard , who shared the concerns of Allen and Shaps . Peter Morgan wrote his first script draft in the three weeks preceding Christmas 2002 . Recent events such as the 2001 foot and mouth outbreak and the contention surrounding the September Dossier made him believe that the perceived adversity between Brown and Blair was no longer in the public consciousness . His opinion was changed when he watched the 2002 Labour Party Conference and saw a " thunderous expression " on Brown 's face as Bill Clinton praised Blair in his speech ; Morgan realised that the rivalry was not over . This draft was extremely sympathetic to Brown , focusing on what Morgan called " Gordon 's heartbreak " . Subsequent rewrites toned down this approach , though Brown still remained the " main character " .
The relationship between Brown and Blair as depicted in the script was based on that between Aaron Altman and Tom Grunick , the characters portrayed by Albert Brooks and William Hurt in Broadcast News . Morgan wanted to set the entire film in the 12 days following the death of John Smith , but the time frame was widened because the Labour Party 's disastrous result at the 1992 general election was " absolutely crucial " to the relationship and motives of the main characters ; Morgan had to show the moment Blair decided to aim to become leader of the party . Morgan and the producers engaged in a lengthy research process during script writing and editing , interviewing 40 to 50 of Brown and Blair 's closest friends and advisors , as well as aides involved in the 1992 and 1997 elections . Significantly , many of the facts in the film are based on the first three chapters of James Naughtie 's book The Rivals : The Intimate Portrait of a Political Marriage . The film briefly adopted The Rivals as a working title , but soon reverted to The Deal . Another title considered by Frears was Bambi and Stalin , based on a line in a speech given by Blair in 1995 .
Scenes set in the House of Commons chamber and committee rooms use the actual words as recorded in Hansard . In other scenes Morgan utilised dramatic licence , conceding that there was no evidence to suggest that any of the lines spoken elsewhere in the film were ever said in real life . The relationship between Brown and Blair received many thematic analogies ; Morgan likened Brown 's story to a " tragedy of an over @-@ qualified Scot , who the Labour Party probably rightly felt at the time that it could not have as its leader . " ; Despite the quote at the head of the film referring to Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid , Frears wryly likened Brown and Blair to Beavis and Butt @-@ head . Producer Christine Langan alluded to both Shakespearean and Biblical themes , painting Brown and Blair as Cain and Abel .
= = = Casting = = =
At the time of commissioning , Douglas Henshall and Daniel Craig were considered for the parts of Brown and Blair respectively , though David Morrissey and Michael Sheen were eventually announced as the leads in March 2003 . Morrissey gained two stone for his role and had his hair permed and dyed . He researched Brown 's background by travelling to Kirkcaldy — where Brown grew up — and reviewing numerous biographies and information about the Treasury . In comparison to his preparation for the BBC thriller State of Play , Morrissey discovered that no politicians wanted to help him with his research , so he turned to journalists Jon Snow and Simon Hoggart . Director Stephen Frears was unfamiliar with his previous work and had to be convinced by other production staff to cast him .
Sheen worked with an accent coach to effectively mimic Blair 's speech style , although he and Morrissey avoided doing simple impersonations of the men they played . Sheen cited Will Smith 's title performance of Ali as a basis for his part ; despite playing a real @-@ life figure , he treated the role as if it were any other character . Sheen had made his film debut in Frears ' Mary Reilly ( 1996 ) , and although he was unsure whether his minor role had " burned into [ Frears ' ] brain " , Frears confirmed that Sheen had remembered from that . Frears ' casting director approached Sheen in the audience of a play , inviting him to appear in " a love story about Tony Blair and Gordon Brown " . An informal meeting was scheduled between Frears and Sheen , at the end of which Sheen was cast as Blair .
Paul Rhys studied Donald Macintyre 's 1999 biography of Peter Mandelson and gained an appreciation of the politician 's work on the Northern Ireland peace process , and of his sexuality . Rhys portrayed Mandelson with a " myopic loyalty " and identified him as " remain [ ing ] preposterously loyal to Blair " after his defection from Kinnock and Brown . The representation of Mandelson was compared to both Iago and Pandarus . Other people associated with Blair and Brown who appear in the film are Anji Hunter , Blair 's assistant ( played by Glenna Morrison ) , journalist Sheena McDonald ( played by Valerie Edmond ) , and Sue Nye , Brown 's assistant ( played by Joanna Scanlan ) .
= = = Filming = = =
In March 2003 , shortly before filming began , ITV abandoned its plan to screen the film , citing fears that such a politically sensitive film could affect the Granada @-@ Carlton corporate merger , which was due to go before the government 's Competition Commission . Within 24 hours , Channel 4 backed the production . A £ 2 million budget was assigned to the film . Filming was postponed until May to accommodate Sheen 's rehearsal schedule for the play Caligula . Frears ended shooting at 6 p.m. each day , so Sheen could leave the set in time to appear in the play at the Donmar Warehouse . The shoot was scheduled for five weeks . Set design was carried out by Michael Pickwood , a longtime production designer for Granada . The Blairs ' house was " played " by a house formerly owned by Lord Hailsham .
Certain personal effects of the characters that were familiar to the public were added to the sets . The prologue and climactic scene in the Granita restaurant was shot on location in the restaurant itself . Frears subdued Berrington 's performance to avoid portraying Cherie as too much of a Lady Macbeth figure ; in the scene where Cherie encourages Blair to stand for the leadership , Frears had Berrington stand with her back towards the camera . Editing and post @-@ production went on until September . Some historical events — such as the Sheffield Rally and footage of the 1997 general election — were too costly to refilm so archive footage was used instead . Adam Curtis assisted in the editing of the archive footage .
= = Release = =
After John Yorke recommissioned the film for Channel 4 , it was scheduled as part of a " Tony Blair season " . The Deal aired on 28 September 2003 , the day before the Labour Party Conference began in Bournemouth . Despite heavy media attention , the broadcast was seen by only 1 @.@ 5 million viewers .
The film received a screening at the San Francisco Film Festival on 5 May 2007 , following an interview with Peter Morgan . International rights for North America and Australasia were purchased from Channel 4 International by The Weinstein Company in 2007 , who sold it to American cable network HBO . HBO screened The Deal on 8 November 2007 . Channel 4 released it on region 2 DVD on 19 May 2008 under its 4dvd brand . Genius Products , an imprint of The Weinstein Company , released The Deal on region 1 DVD on 29 July 2008 . The region 1 edition features an audio commentary by Morgan and Langan , and an interview with Frears .
The ending of the film was changed for the American release ; a closing caption that had read " Gordon is still waiting [ for the leadership ] " was replaced by one that says that Brown became Prime Minister in 2007 , thirteen years after the Granita meeting . Despite these changes , the copyright date on the film remains 2003 . HBO promoted it as " a | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
On 12 November 2013 , Lorde performed several songs from Pure Heroine during the Late Show with David Letterman to promote the album , including " Team " . The track was also performed by Lorde during the ARIA Music Awards of 2013 . At the 2014 MuchMusic Video Awards , Lorde performed a Goth @-@ influenced medley of " Tennis Court " and " Team " .
American alternative rock band Local H recorded a cover version of " Team " at Electrical Audio in Chicago , Illinois . The Local H version was released as a single on 21 April 2014 .
J Gramm released a remix of " Team " in December of 2013 . Noisey gave the remix a positive review , stating that J Gramm " turns the ballad up a notch — with some triumphant drums and overall , a more victorious feel for the stories of the cities she 's dreaming up . "
A heavily modified , instrumental version of the song is used towards the end of the season eighteen episode of South Park , entitled Gluten Free Ebola .
= = Track listing = =
Digital download
" Team " – 3 : 13
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Varahi =
Varahi ( Sanskrit : वाराही , Vārāhī ) is one of the Matrikas , a group of seven or eight mother goddesses in the Hindu religion . With the head of a sow , Varahi is the shakti ( feminine energy , or sometimes , consort ) of Varaha , the boar Avatar of the god Vishnu . In Nepal , she is called Barahi .
Varahi is worshipped by all the three major schools of Hinduism : Shaktism ( goddess worship ) ; Shaivism ( followers of the god Shiva ) ; and Vaishnavism ( devotion to Vishnu ) . She is usually worshipped at night , and according to secretive Vamamarga Tantric practices . The Buddhist goddesses Vajravārāhī and Marichi are believed to have their origins in the Hindu goddess Varahi .
= = Hindu legends = =
According to the Shumbha @-@ Nishumbha myth of the Devi Mahatmya from the Markandeya Purana religious texts , the Matrikas goddesses appear as shaktis ( feminine powers ) from the bodies of the gods . The scriptures say that Varahi was created from Varaha . She has a boar form , wields a chakra ( discus ) , and fights with a sword . After the battle described in the myth , the Matrikas dance – drunk on their victim 's blood .
According to a latter episode of the Devi Mahatmya that deals with the killing of the demon Raktabija , the warrior @-@ goddess Durga creates the Matrikas from herself and with their help slaughters the demon army . When the demon Shumbha challenges Durga to single combat , she absorbs the Matrikas into herself . In the Vamana Purana , the Matrikas arise from different parts of the Divine Mother Chandika ; Varahi arises from Chandika 's back .
The Markendeya Purana praises Varahi as a granter of boons and the regent of the northern direction , in a hymn where the Matrikas are declared as the protectors of the directions . In another instance in the same Purana , she is described as riding a buffalo . The Devi Bhagavata Purana says Varahi , with the other Matrikas , is created by the Supreme Mother . The Mother promises the gods that the Matrikas will fight demons when needed . In the Raktabija episode , Varahi is described as having a boar form , fighting demons with her tusks while seated on a preta ( corpse ) .
In the Varaha Purana , the story of Raktabija is retold , but here each of Matrikas appears from the body of another Matrika . Varahi appears seated on Shesha @-@ nāga ( the serpent on which the god Vishnu sleeps ) from the posterior of Vaishnavi , the Shakti of Vishnu . Varahi is said to represent the vice of envy ( asuya ) in the same Purana .
The Matsya Purana tells a different story of the origin of Varahi . Varahi , with other Matrikas , is created by Shiva to help him kill the demon Andhakasura , who has the ability – like Raktabija – to regenerate from his dripping blood .
= = Associations = =
The Devi Purana paradoxically calls Varahi the mother of Varaha ( Varahajanani ) as well as Kritantatanusambhava , who emerges from Kritantatanu . Kritantatanu means " death personified " and could be an attribute of Varaha or a direct reference to Yama , the god of death . Elsewhere in the scripture , she is called Vaivasvati and described as engrossed in drinking from a skull @-@ cup . Pal theorizes that the name " Vaivasvati " means that Varahi is clearly identified with Yami , the shakti of Yama , who is also known as Vivasvan . Moreover , Varahi holds a staff and rides a buffalo , both of which are attributes of Yama ; all Matrikas are described as assuming the form of their creator @-@ gods .
In the context of the Matrikas ' association to the Sanskrit alphabet , Varahi is said to govern the pa varga of consonants , namely pa , pha , ba , bha , ma . The Lalita Sahasranama , a collection of 1 @,@ 000 names of the Divine Mother , calls Varahi the destroyer of demon Visukaran . In another context , Varahi , as Panchami , is identified with the wife of Sadashiva , the fifth Brahma , responsible for the regeneration of the Universe . The other Panch Brahmas ( " five Brahmas " ) are the gods Brahma , Govinda , Rudra , and Isvara , who are in charge of creation , protection , destruction , and dissolution respectively . In yet another context , Varahi is called Kaivalyarupini , the bestower of Kaivalya ( " detachment of the soul from matter or further transmigrations " ) – the final form of mukti ( salvation ) . The Matrikas are also believed to reside in a person 's body . Varahi is described as residing in a person 's navel , and governs the manipura , svadhisthana , and muladhara chakras .
Haripriya Rangarajan , in her book Images of Varahi — An Iconographic Study , suggests that Varahi is none other than Vak devi , the goddess of speech .
= = Iconography = =
Varahi 's iconography is described in the Matsya Purana and agamas like the Purva @-@ karnagama and the Rupamandana . The Tantric text Varahi Tantra mentions that Varahi has five forms of Varahi : Svapna Varahi , Canda Varahi , Mahi Varahi ( Bhairavi ) , Krcca Varahi , and Matsya Varahi . The Matrikas , as shaktis of gods , are described to resemble those gods in form , jewellery , and mount , but Varahi inherits only the boar @-@ face of Varaha .
Varahi is usually depicted with her characteristic sow face on a human body with a black complexion comparable to a storm cloud . The scholar Donaldson informs us that the association of a sow and a woman is seen derogatory for the latter , but the association is also used in curses to protect " land from invaders , new rulers , and trespassers " . Rarely , she is described as holding the Earth on her tusks , similar to Varaha . She wears the karaṇḍa mukuṭa , a conical basket @-@ shaped crown . Varahi can be depicted as standing , seated , or dancing . Varahi is often depicted pot @-@ bellied and with full breasts , while most all other Matrikas – except Chamunda – are depicted as slender and beautiful . One belief suggests that since Varahi is identified with the Yoganidra of Vishnu , who holds the universe in her womb ( Bhugarbha Paranmesvari Jagaddhatri ) , that she should be shown as pot @-@ bellied . Another theory suggests that the pot @-@ belly reflects a " maternal aspect " , which Donaldson describes as " curious " because Varahi and Chamunda " best exemplify " the terrible aspect of the Divine Mother . A notable exception is the depiction of Varahi as human @-@ faced and slender at the sixth @-@ century Rameshvara cave ( Cave 21 ) , the Ellora Caves . She is depicted here as part of the group of seven Matrikas . A third eye and / or a crescent moon is described to be on her forehead .
Varahi may be two , four , or six @-@ armed . The Matsya Purana , the Purva @-@ karnagama , and the Rupamandana mention a four @-@ armed form . The Rupamandana says she carries a ghanta ( bell ) , a chamara ( a yak 's tail ) , a chakra ( discus ) , and a gada ( mace ) . The Matsya Purana omits the ghanta and does not mention the fourth weapon . The Purva @-@ Karanagama mentions that she holds the Sharanga ( the bow of Vishnu ) , the hala ( plough ) , and the musula ( pestle ) . The fourth hand is held in the Abhaya ( " protection gesture " ) or the Varada Mudra ( " blessing gesture " ) . The Devi Purana mentions her attributes as being sword , iron club , and noose . Another description says her hair is adorned with a garland with red flowers . She holds a staff and drinking skull @-@ cup ( kapala ) . The Varahini @-@ nigrahastaka @-@ stotra describes her attributes as a plough , a pestle , a skull @-@ cup , and the abhaya mudra . The Vamana Purana describes her seated on Shesha while holding a chakra and a mace . The Agni Purana describes her holding the gada , shankha , sword , and ankusha ( goad ) . The Mantramahodadhi mentions she carries a sword , shield , noose , and goad . In Vaishnava images , since she is associated with Vishnu , Varahi may be depicted holding all four attributes of Vishnu — Shankha ( conch ) , chakra , Gada , and Padma ( lotus ) . The Aparajitapriccha describes her holding a rosary , a khatvanga ( a club with a skull ) , a bell , and a kamandalu ( water @-@ pot ) .
The Vishnudharmottara Purana describes a six @-@ armed Varahi , holding a danda ( staff of punishment ) , khetaka ( shield ) , khadga ( sword ) , and pasha ( noose ) in four hands and the two remaining hands being held in Abhaya and Varada Mudra ( " blessing gesture " ) . She also holds a shakti and hala ( plough ) . Such a Varahi sculpture is found at Abanesi , depicted with the dancing Shiva . She may also be depicted holding a child sitting on her lap , like Matrikas are often depicted .
Matsya Varahi is depicted as two @-@ armed , with spiral @-@ coiled hair and holding a fish ( matsya ) and a kapala . The fish and wine @-@ cup kapala are special characteristics of Tantric Shakta images of Varahi , the fish being exclusive to Tantric descriptions .
The vahana ( vehicle ) of Varahi is usually described as a buffalo ( Mahisha ) . In Vaishnava and Shakta images , she is depicted as either standing or seated on a lotus pitha ( pedestral ) or on her vahana ( a buffalo ) or on its head , or on a boar , the serpent Shesha , a lion , or on Garuda ( the eagle @-@ man vahana of Vishnu ) . In Tantric Shakta images , the vahana may be specifically a she @-@ buffalo or a corpse ( pretasana ) . An elephant may be depicted as her vahana . The goddess is also described as riding on her horse , Jambini . Garuda may be depicted as her attendant . She may also be depicted seated under a kalpaka tree .
When depicted as part of the Sapta @-@ Matrika group ( " seven mothers " ) , Varahi is always in the fifth position in the row of Matrikas , and thus is called Panchami ( " fifth " ) . The goddesses are flanked by Virabhadra ( Shiva 's fierce form ) and Ganesha ( Shiva 's elephant @-@ headed son and wisdom god ) .
= = Worship = =
For worship and temples of Varahi as part of the Sapta @-@ Matrika group , see Matrika Worship
Varahi is worshipped by Shaivas , Vaishnavas , and Shaktas . Varahi is worshipped in the Sapta @-@ Matrikas group ( " seven mothers " ) , which are venerated in Shaktism , as well as associated with Shiva .
Varahi is a ratri devata ( night goddess ) and is sometimes called Dhruma Varahi ( " dark Varahi " ) and Dhumavati ( " goddess of darkness " ) . According to Tantra , Varahi should be worshipped after sunset and before sunrise . Parsurama Kalpasutra explicitly states that the time of worship is the middle of the night . Shaktas worship Varahi by secretive Vamamarga Tantric practices , which are particularly associated with worship by panchamakara – wine , fish , grain , meat , and ritual copulation . These practices are observed in the Kalaratri temple on the bank of the Ganges , where worship is offered to Varahi only in the night ; the shrine is closed during the day . Shaktas consider Varahi to be a manifestation of the goddess Lalita Tripurasundari or as " Dandanayika " or " Dandanatha " – the commander @-@ general of Lalita 's army . The Sri Vidya tradition of Shaktism elevates Varahi to the status of Para Vidya ( " transcendental knowledge " ) . The Devi mahatmya suggests evoking Varahi for longevity . Thirty yantras and thirty mantras are prescribed for the worship of Varahi and to acquire siddhis by her favour . This , according to the scholar Rath , indicates her power . Some texts detailing her iconography compare her to the Supreme Shakti .
Prayers dedicated to Varahi include Varahi Anugrahashtakam , for her blessing , and Varahi Nigrahashtakam , for destruction of enemies ; both are composed in Tamil .
= = = Temples = = =
Apart from the temples in which Varahi is worshipped as part of the Sapta @-@ Matrika , there are notable temples where Varahi is worshipped as the chief deity .
India
A 9th @-@ century Varahi temple exists at Chaurasi about 14 km from Konark , Orissa , where Varahi is installed as Matysa Varahi and is worshipped by Tantric rites . The famous Jaganath temple , Puri , is associated with and sends offerings to a Barahi temple , which is a centre of Tantric activities . In Varanasi , Varahi is worshipped as Patala Bhairavi . In Chennai , there is a Varahi temple in Mylapore , while a bigger temple is being built near Vedanthangal . Ashadha Navaratri , in the Hindu month of Ashadha ( June / July ) , is celebrated as a nine @-@ day festival in honour of Varahi at the Varahi shrine at Brihadeeswarar temple ( a Shaiva temple ) , Thanjavur . The goddess is decorated with different types of alankarams ( ornaments ) every day . Full moon days are considered sacred to Varahi . An ancient Varahi devi temple worshipped as Uttari Bhawani is situated in Gonda District . In Gujarat , there is a Varahi temple in a village named Dadhana where the goddess is venerated as the Gotra @-@ devi of a surname " Dadhaniya " Another temple in Gujarat is located in Talaja town of Bhavnagar district where idol of goddess was brought from hathasani village near palitana The idol of goddess was found by digging in shetrunji river in that area .
Maha Varahi temple is located in Peelamedu ( 118 , Sowripalayam Pirivu ) , Coimbatore , Tamil Nadu . This temple has both Maha varahi and Goddess Dhandanatha ( Varthali ) , the commander in chief of Goddess Lalitha ( Sri Raja Rajeshwari 's ) army . This temple is run by Sri Varahi Mantralayam Trust . Varahi homam happens here on every panchami . This temple performs Dasamahavidhya homam ( the 10 cosmic forms of goddess ) . Homa for Goddess Bagalamukhi and Goddess Dhumavathi ( Dhumra Varahi ) are done on amavasai ( new moon ) and pournami ( full moon ) .
Nepal
A Barahi temple is situated in the middle of Phewa Lake , Nepal . Here , Barahi , as she is known as in Nepal , is worshipped in the Matysa Varahi form as an incarnation of Durga and an Ajima ( " grandmother " ) goddess . Devotees usually sacrifice male animals to the goddess on Saturdays . Jaya Barahi Mandir , Bhaktapur , is also dedicated to Barahi .
Other countries
Devi Varahi Ambika Homam is done at the Parashakthi temple in Pontiac , Michigan , USA on every Amavaasya ( New moon ) night . Devi Varahi was installed at the Temple in February 2005 by Yanthra Prana prateeshta . Varahi was installed in Sri Maha Muthu Mariamman temple Lunas , Kedah on 21 February 2014 . That is the only Varahi Amman temple in the Malaysia .
= = In Buddhism = =
Vajravarahi ( " vajra @-@ hog " or Buddhist Varahi ) , the most common form of the Buddhist goddess Vajrayogini , originated from the Hindu Varahi . Vajravarahi is also known as Varahi in Buddhism . Vajravarahi inherits the fierce character and wrath of Varahi . Both are invoked to destroy enemies . The sow head of Varahi is also seen as the right @-@ side head attached to the main head in one of Vajravarahi 's most common forms . The hog head is described in Tibetan scriptures to represent the sublimation of ignorance ( " moha " ) . According to Elizabeth English , Varahi enters the Buddhist pantheon through the yogatantras . In the Sarvatathagatatattvasamgaraha , Varahi is described initially as a Shaiva sarvamatr ( " all @-@ mother " ) located in hell , who is converted to the Buddhist mandala by Vajrapani , assuming the name Vajramukhi ( " vajra @-@ face " ) . Varahi also enters the Heruka @-@ mandala as an attendant goddess . Varahi , along with Varttali ( another form of Varahi ) , appears as the hog @-@ faced attendant of Marichi , who also has a sow face – which may be an effect of the Hindu Varahi .
= Climate of the Tampa Bay area =
The Tampa Bay area has a humid subtropical climate ( Köppen Cfa ) , with warm and humid summers with frequent thunderstorms and drier winters with freezing temperatures occurring every 2 – 3 years . The area experiences a significant summer wet season , as nearly two @-@ thirds of the annual precipitation falls in the months of June through September . The area is listed by the United States Department of Agriculture ( USDA ) as being in hardiness zone 10 , which is about the northern limit of where coconut palms and royal palms can be grown . Highs usually range between 65 and 95 ° F ( 18 and 35 ° C ) year round . Though known for hot summers , Tampa 's official high has never reached 100 ° F ( 38 ° C ) – the city 's all @-@ time record temperature is 99 ° F ( 37 ° C ) . St. Petersburg 's all @-@ time record high is exactly 100 ° F ( 38 ° C ) .
Pinellas County lies on a peninsula between Tampa Bay and the Gulf of Mexico , and much of the city of Tampa lies on a smaller peninsula jutting out into Tampa Bay . This proximity to large bodies of water both moderates temperatures and introduces large amounts of humidity into the atmosphere . In general , the local communities farthest from the coast have larger temperature ranges , both during a single day and throughout the seasons of the year .
= = Seasonal weather = =
= = = Spring = = =
Spring in the Tampa area is usually mild and dry , with highs in the 70s ( around 25 C ) and lows in the 50s ( around 13 C ) . However , the calm is occasionally disturbed by the arrival of late @-@ season cold fronts . The collision of a cold air mass with warm and humid local air can create a squall line which brings brief heavy rain , strong winds , and sometimes small tornadoes to the area . A dramatic example of this was the Storm of the Century in March 1993 , but other smaller @-@ scale events ( such as the brief but intense squall which caused a freighter to strike and partially collapse the original Sunshine Skyway bridge in May 1980 ) occur almost every year .
= = = Summer = = =
Temperatures are hot from around mid @-@ May through mid @-@ October , which coincides approximately with the rainy season . Summertime weather is very consistent , with highs in the low 90s ° F ( around 32 ° C ) , lows in the mid @-@ 70s ° F ( around 24 ° C ) , accompanied by high humidity and an almost daily chance of afternoon thundershowers .
The typical summer weather pattern is for heat @-@ produced thermals , powered by either the Gulf or Atlantic sea breeze ( and occasionally both simultaneously ) , to build puffy white cumulus clouds into threatening thunderheads over the interior of the Florida peninsula . Usually , the resulting storms drift slowly westward to the bay area , though they may rain themselves out before reaching Tampa if the easterly winds are light or the sea breeze from the Gulf of Mexico is too strong . Occasionally , the storms survive to move out over the Gulf of Mexico , where they can be seen at night from the beaches as spectacular light shows . Nighttime storms offshore are driven by the land @-@ breeze front which is the dermal counterpart of the daytime sea @-@ breeze front .
The afternoon storms typically bring brief periods of heavy rain with frequent cloud @-@ to @-@ ground lightning , and are usually followed by a pleasantly clear and cooler evening . At times , they can grow severe , bringing gusty winds , small hail , and torrential rain , and an occasional tornado . While Florida does rank # 1 in the USA in terms of tornadoes per square mile , the majority of the twisters are small , weak , and short @-@ lived . Waterspouts are relatively common in Tampa Bay and off the gulf coast during strong summer thunderstorms , occasionally moving onshore as a short @-@ lived tornado .
Though the Tampa Bay area is sometimes referred to as the " Lightning Capital of the World " , it is more accurately called the “ Lightning Capital of North America ” if measured by average number of days with thunderstorm activity per year . During the summer , west @-@ central Florida receives as much lightning as the world ’ s true lightning leaders such as the Lake Victoria region of Africa and the central Amazon River Basin . However , there are few thunderstorms in the Tampa Bay area from approximately October to May , decreasing the yearly average .
Every year , Florida averages 10 deaths and 30 injuries from lightning strikes , with several of these usually occurring in or around Tampa . University of Florida lightning expert Martin A. Uman has calculated that the average resident is within a half @-@ mile of 10 to 15 lightning strikes every year . TECO Energy , the local electric utility , spends over USD $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 annually to repair transformers and other equipment damaged by lightning strikes .
= = = Autumn = = =
Both the temperature and the average rainfall decline as September turns to October . Highs moderate into the 80s , and the lessening heat leads to lower evaporation @-@ generated humidity and fewer convection @-@ generated thundershowers , which are unusual after around mid @-@ October . While everyday rain is less frequent , the hurricane season extends until the end of November , and the area is sometimes affected by a drenching hurricane or tropical storm during the fall .
= = = Winter = = =
Winters in the Tampa Bay Area are generally dry and mild ; highs during the season average near 70 ° F ( 21 ° C ) with mostly sunny skies . The occasional passage of a cold front will bring rain followed by a few days of cooler temperatures . Lows rarely drop below freezing 32 ° F ( 0 ° C ) , an occurrence which happens , on average , once every other year . While deep freezes are very infrequent , serious cold snaps are a significant concern due to the diverse range of freeze @-@ sensitive agriculture and aquaculture industries in the area .
Frozen precipitation is very rare in the area . In the Great Blizzard of 1899 , Tampa suffered its one and only known blizzard , with " bay effect " snow coming off Tampa Bay .
The last officially measurable snow in Tampa fell on January 19 , 1977 . While the accumulation amounted to less than 0 @.@ 5 inches ( 13 mm ) , the area is quite unaccustomed to and unprepared for frozen precipitation , so various schools , businesses , and roads closed , at least until the snow melted away that afternoon . Many residents of southern Pinellas County reported a light snowfall on December 23 , 1989 . However , no snow fell at official weather stations , and the weather record indicates that light sleet fell on St. Petersburg that day .
The winter of 2009 @-@ 2010 was one of the coldest in local history . Both Tampa and St. Petersburg set records for consecutive days in which the high temperature did not reach 60 ° F ( 16 ° C ) , and Tampa experienced ten consecutive days with a low temperature below freezing . Much of the area received a " wintry mix " of rain , sleet , and possibly a few snowflakes on January 9 – 10 .
Tampa 's all @-@ time record low temperature is 18 ° F ( − 8 ° C ) and St. Petersburg 's is 20 ° F ( − 7 ° C ) , both occurring during the same cold snap on December 13 , 1962 .
During El Niño , the Tampa Bay area receives cooler and wetter conditions during the dry season while during La Niña , the Tampa Bay area becomes drier and warmer than normal .
= = = Precipitation and sunshine trends = = =
Due to the frequent summer thunderstorms , Tampa has a pronounced wet season , receiving an average total of 28 inches ( 710 mm ) of rain from June and September but only about 18 inches ( 460 mm ) during the remaining eight months of the year combined . The historical averages during the late summer , especially September , are augmented by tropical cyclones , which can easily deposit many inches of rain in one day . Outside of the summer rainy season , most of the area 's precipitation is delivered by the occasional passage of a weather front .
Tampa 's precipitation data falls near the median for the area . Nearby communities to the interior tend to receive a bit more rain every year ; those closer to the coast a bit less .
The area receives plentiful sunshine throughout the year , averaging a total of 2920 hours , or 66 @.@ 7 % of the possible total . The daily sunshine amount is highest in May , when the sun 's angle of incidence has increased the hours of daylight and the rainy season has not yet begun .
= = Tropical systems = =
June through November is hurricane season in the Atlantic Basin and Caribbean Sea , with the most tropical activity occurring between mid @-@ August to mid @-@ October . Rain dropped by tropical systems is an important component of the area 's annual precipitation and is vital for replenishing the water supply of communities around Tampa Bay .
The area feels some effect from passing tropical systems almost every year , but direct hits are uncommon . Estimates of the probability of a hurricane making landfall in the Tampa Bay area during any given year range from 1 in 25 to 1 in 50 . While the historical record has shown that the area is vulnerable to a large storm ( such as the Great Gale of 1848 , which destroyed most of the village of Tampa ) , Tampa Bay has not seen the landfall of any hurricane since 1946 , and has not taken a hit from a major hurricane since 1921 .
= = = The 2004 Tropical Season = = =
The 2004 Atlantic Hurricane Season was historically busy for the Tampa Bay area . The region was affected by a record four hurricanes that year ; Frances , Jeanne , Charley , and to a lesser extent , Ivan . Jeanne and Frances passed over Tampa as tropical storms after making their way across the state from the east coast . Charley was forecast to make a direct hit on Tampa Bay from the south @-@ southwest , which would have been the worst @-@ case scenario for local storm surge flooding . But the storm made a sudden and unexpected turn to the northeast and brought only tropical storm force winds to the region , devastating the Ft . Myers / Port Charlotte area instead . Ivan also threatened the area as it moved north up the eastern Gulf of Mexico . It remained far to the west of central Florida , however , and brought only a bit of rain and wind to Tampa Bay before eventually slamming into coastal Alabama and the Florida Panhandle .
= = Tampa and St. Petersburg climate summaries = =
= The Little Mermaid ( 1989 film ) =
The Little Mermaid is a 1989 American animated musical fantasy film produced by Walt Disney Feature Animation and released by Walt Disney Pictures . Based on the Danish fairy tale of the same name by Hans Christian Andersen , The Little Mermaid tells the story of a beautiful mermaid princess who dreams of becoming human . Written , directed , and produced by Ron Clements and John Musker , with music by Alan Menken and Howard Ashman ( who also served as a co @-@ producer ) , the film features the voices of Jodi Benson , Christopher Daniel Barnes , Pat Carroll , Samuel E. Wright , Jason Marin , Kenneth Mars , Buddy Hackett , and René Auberjonois .
The 28th Disney animated feature film , The Little Mermaid was released to theaters on November 17 , 1989 to largely positive reviews , garnering $ 84 million at the domestic box office during its initial release , and $ 211 million in total lifetime gross worldwide . After the success of the 1988 Disney / Amblin film Who Framed Roger Rabbit , The Little Mermaid is given credit for breathing life back into the art of Disney animated feature films after a string of critical or commercial failures produced by Disney that dated back to the early 1970s . It also marked the start of the era known as the Disney Renaissance .
A stage adaptation of the film with a book by Doug Wright and additional songs by Alan Menken and new lyricist Glenn Slater opened in Denver in July 2007 and began performances on Broadway January 10 , 2008 .
= = Plot = =
Ariel , a sixteen @-@ year @-@ old mermaid princess , is dissatisfied with underwater life and is curious about the human world . With her best friend Flounder , Ariel collects human artifacts and goes to the surface of the ocean to visit Scuttle the seagull , who offers very inaccurate knowledge of human culture . She ignores the warnings of her father King Triton , the ruler of Atlantica , and his adviser and court composer Sebastian that contact between merpeople and humans is forbidden .
One night , Ariel , Flounder , and an unwilling Sebastian travel to the ocean surface to watch a celebration for the birthday of Prince Eric on a ship . Ariel quickly becomes enamored with Eric . The birthday celebration is cut short by a violent storm which wrecks the ship and tosses Eric overboard . Ariel saves him from drowning and brings him to shore . She sings to him , but quickly leaves as soon as he regains consciousness to avoid being discovered . Fascinated by the memory of her voice , Eric vows to find who saved and sang to him , and Ariel vows to find a way to join him and his world . Noticing a change in Ariel 's behavior , Triton questions Sebastian about her behavior and learns of her love for Eric . Furious , Triton confronts Ariel in her grotto , where she and Flounder store human artifacts , and destroys the objects with his trident to her dismay . After Triton leaves , two eels named Flotsam and Jetsam convince Ariel to visit Ursula the sea witch .
Ursula makes a deal with Ariel to transform her into a human for three days in exchange for Ariel 's voice , which Ursula puts in a nautilus shell . Within these three days , Ariel must receive the " kiss of true love " from Eric . If Ariel gets Eric to kiss her , she will remain a human permanently , otherwise , she will transform back into a mermaid and belong to Ursula . Ariel agrees and is then given human legs and taken to the surface by Flounder and Sebastian . Eric finds Ariel on the beach and takes her to his castle , unaware that she is the one who had saved him earlier . Ariel spends time with Eric , and at the end of the second day , they almost kiss but are thwarted by Flotsam and Jetsam . Angered at their narrow escape , Ursula disguises herself as a beautiful young woman named Vanessa and appears onshore singing with Ariel 's voice . Eric recognizes the song and , in her disguise , Ursula casts a hypnotic enchantment on Eric to make him forget about Ariel .
The next day , Ariel finds out that Eric will be married to the disguised Ursula . Scuttle discovers that Vanessa is actually Ursula in disguise , and informs Ariel who immediately pursues the wedding barge . Sebastian informs Triton , and Scuttle disrupts the wedding with the help of various animals . In the chaos , the nautilus shell around Ursula 's neck is broken , restoring Ariel 's voice and breaking Ursula 's enchantment over Eric . Realizing that Ariel is the girl who saved his life , Eric rushes to kiss her , but the sun sets and Ariel transforms back into a mermaid . Ursula reveals herself and kidnaps Ariel . A furious Triton confronts Ursula and demands Ariel 's release , but the deal is inviolable . At Ursula 's urging , Triton agrees to take Ariel 's place as Ursula 's prisoner , giving up his trident . Ariel is released as Triton transforms into a polyp and loses his authority over Atlantica . Ursula declares herself the new ruler , but before she can use the trident , Eric hits her with a harpoon . Ursula tries to strike down Eric , but Ariel interferes , causing Ursula to inadvertently kill Flotsam and Jetsam . Enraged , Ursula uses the trident to grow into monstrous proportions .
Ariel and Eric reunite on the surface just before Ursula grows past and towers over the two . She then gains full control of the entire ocean , creating a storm and bringing sunken ships to the surface . Just as Ursula attempts to kill Ariel , Eric steers a wrecked ship towards Ursula , impaling her with the ship 's splintered bowsprit . With Ursula destroyed , Triton and the other polyps in Ursula 's garden revert into their original forms . Realizing that Ariel truly loves Eric , Triton willingly changes her from a mermaid into a human and blesses her marriage to Eric . Ariel and Eric marry on a ship and depart .
= = Cast = =
Jodi Benson as Princess Ariel
Christopher Daniel Barnes as Prince Eric
Pat Carroll as Ursula
Jodi Benson as Vanessa ( Ursula 's human alter @-@ ego )
Samuel E. Wright as Sebastian
Jason Marin as Flounder
Kenneth Mars as King Triton
Buddy Hackett as Scuttle
Ben Wright as Grimsby
Paddi Edwards as Flotsam and Jetsam
Edie McClurg as Carlotta the maid
Kimmy Robertson and Caroline Vasicek as Ariel 's Sisters
Will Ryan as Harold the Seahorse
Frank Welker as Max the Sheepdog
René Auberjonois as Chef Louis
= = Production = =
= = = Story development = = =
The Little Mermaid was originally planned as part of one of Walt Disney 's earliest feature films , a proposed package film featuring vignettes of Hans Christian Andersen tales . Development started soon after Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs in the late 1930s , but was delayed due to various circumstances .
In 1985 , Ron Clements became interested in a film adaptation of The Little Mermaid while he was serving as a director on The Great Mouse Detective ( 1986 ) alongside John Musker . Clements discovered the Hans Christian Andersen fairy tale while browsing through a bookstore . Believing the story provided an " ideal basis " for an animated feature film and keen on creating a film that took place underwater , Clements wrote and presented a two @-@ page treatment of Mermaid to Disney CEO Jeffrey Katzenberg at a " gong show " idea suggestion meeting . Katzenberg passed the project over , because at that time the studio was in development on a sequel to their live @-@ action mermaid comedy Splash ( 1984 ) and felt The Little Mermaid would be too similar a project . The next day , however , Katzenberg approved of the idea for possible development , along with Oliver & Company . While in production in the 1980s , the staff found , by chance , original story and visual development work done by Kay Nielsen for Disney 's proposed 1930s Andersen feature . Many of the changes made by the staff in the 1930s to Hans Christian Andersen 's original story were coincidentally the same as the changes made by Disney writers in the 1980s .
That year Clements and Musker expanded the two @-@ page idea into a 20 @-@ page rough script , eliminating the role of the mermaid 's grandmother and expanding the roles of the Merman King and the sea witch . However , the film 's plans were momentarily shelved as Disney focused its attention on Who Framed Roger Rabbit and Oliver & Company as more immediate releases . In 1987 , songwriter Howard Ashman became involved with the writing and development of Mermaid after he was asked to contribute a song to Oliver & Company . He proposed changing the minor character Clarence , the English @-@ butler crab , to a Jamaican crab and shifting the music style throughout the film to reflect this . At the same time , Katzenberg , Clements , Musker , and Ashman revised the story format to make Mermaid a musical with a Broadway @-@ style story structure , with the song sequences serving as the tentpoles of the film . Ashman and composer Alan Menken , both noted for their work as the writers of the successful Off @-@ Broadway stage musical Little Shop of Horrors , teamed up to compose the entire song score . In 1988 , with Oliver out of the way , Mermaid was slated as the next major Disney release .
= = = Animation = = =
More money and resources were dedicated to Mermaid than any other Disney animated film in decades . Aside from its main animation facility in Glendale , California , Disney opened a satellite feature animation facility during the production of Mermaid in Lake Buena Vista , Florida ( near Orlando , Florida ) , within Disney @-@ MGM Studios Theme Park at Walt Disney World . Opening in 1989 , the Disney @-@ MGM facility 's first projects were to produce an entire Roger Rabbit cartoon short , Roller Coaster Rabbit , and to contribute ink and paint support to Mermaid . Another first for recent years was the filming of live actors and actresses for motion reference material for the animators , a practice used frequently for many of the Disney animated features produced under Walt Disney 's supervision . Broadway actress Jodi Benson was chosen to play Ariel , and Sherri Lynn Stoner , a former member of Los Angeles ' Groundlings improvisation comedy group , acted out Ariel 's key scenes .
Mermaid 's supervising animators included Glen Keane and Mark Henn on Ariel , Duncan Marjoribanks on Sebastian , Andreas Deja on King Triton , and Ruben Aquino on Ursula . Originally , Keane had been asked to work on Ursula , as he had established a reputation for drawing large , powerful figures , such as the bear in The Fox and the Hound ( 1981 ) and Professor Ratigan in The Great Mouse Detective ( 1986 ) . Keane , however , was assigned as one of the two lead artists on the petite Ariel and oversaw the " Part of Your World " musical number . He jokingly stated that his wife looks exactly like Ariel " without the fins . " The character 's body type and personality were based upon that of Alyssa Milano , then starring on TV 's Who 's the Boss ? and the effect of her hair underwater was based on both footage of Sally Ride when she was in space , and scenes of Stoner in a pool for guidance in animating Ariel 's swimming .
The design of the villainous Ursula was based upon drag performer Divine . An additional early inspiration before Divine was Joan Collins in her role as Alexis Carrington in the television show Dynasty , due to a suggestion from Howard Ashman , who was a fan of the series . Pat Carroll was not Clements and Musker 's first choice to voice Ursula ; the original script had been written with Bea Arthur of the Disney @-@ owned TV series The Golden Girls in mind . After Arthur turned the part down , actresses such as Nancy Marchand , Nancy Wilson , Roseanne , Charlotte Rae , and Elaine Stritch were considered for the part . Stritch was eventually cast as Ursula , but clashed with Howard Ashman 's style of music production and was replaced by Carroll . Various actors auditioned for additional roles in the film , including Jim Carrey for the role of Prince Eric , and comedians Bill Maher and Michael Richards for the role of Scuttle .
The underwater setting required the most special effects animation for a Disney animated feature since Fantasia in 1940 . Effects animation supervisor Mark Dindal estimated that over a million bubbles were drawn for this film , in addition to the use of other processes such as airbrushing , backlighting , superimposition , and some computer animation . The artistic manpower needed for Mermaid required Disney to farm out most of the underwater bubble effects animation in the film to Pacific Rim Productions , a China @-@ based firm with production facilities in Beijing . An attempt to use Disney 's famed multiplane camera for the first time in years for quality " depth " shots failed because the machine was reputedly in dilapidated condition . The multiplane shots were instead photographed at an outside animation camera facility .
The Little Mermaid was the last Disney feature film to use the traditional hand @-@ painted cel method of animation . Disney 's next film , The Rescuers Down Under , used a digital method of coloring and combining scanned drawings developed for Disney by Pixar called CAPS ( Computer Animation Production System ) , which would eliminate the need for cels , the multiplane camera , and many of the optical effects used for the last time in Mermaid . A CAPS prototype was used experimentally on a few scenes in Mermaid , and one shot produced using CAPS — the penultimate shot in the film , of Ariel and Eric 's wedding ship sailing away under a rainbow — appears in the finished film . Computer @-@ generated imagery was used to create some of the wrecked ships in the final battle , a staircase behind a shot of Ariel in Eric 's castle , and the carriage Eric and Ariel are riding in when she bounces it over a ravine . These objects were animated using 3D wireframe models , which were plotted as line art to cels and painted traditionally .
= = = Music = = =
The Little Mermaid was considered by some as " the film that brought Broadway into cartoons " . Alan Menken wrote the Academy Award winning score , and collaborated with Howard Ashman on the songs . One of the film 's most prominent songs , " Part of Your World " , was nearly cut from the film when it seemingly tested poorly with an audience of school children , who became rowdy during the scene . This caused Jeffrey Katzenberg to feel that the song needed to be cut , an idea that was resisted by Musker , Clements , and Keane . Both Muscker and Clements cited the similar situation of the popular song " Over the Rainbow " nearly being cut from 1939 's The Wizard of Oz when appealing to Katzenberg . Keane pushed for the song to remain until the film was in a more finalized state . During a second test screening , the scene , now colorized and further developed , tested well with a separate child audience , and the musical number was kept .
= = Release = =
The film was originally released on November 17 , 1989 , followed by a November 14 , 1997 , reissue . After the success of the 3D re @-@ release of The Lion King , Disney announced a 3D re @-@ release of The Little Mermaid scheduled for September 13 , 2013 , but this was cancelled on January 14 , 2013 , due to the under @-@ performances of other Disney 3D re @-@ releases . The 3D version was released on Blu @-@ ray instead , but it did play a limited engagement at the El Capitan Theatre from September to October 2013 . On September 20 , 2013 , The Little Mermaid began playing in select theaters where audiences could bring iPads and use an app called Second Screen Live . The film was also screened out of competition at the 1990 Cannes Film Festival .
= = = Home media = = =
In a then atypical and controversial move for a new Disney animated film , The Little Mermaid was released as part of the Walt Disney Classics line of VHS and Laserdisc home video releases in May 1990 , six months after the release of the film . Before Mermaid , only a select number of Disney 's catalog animated films had been released to home video , as the company was afraid of upsetting its profitable practice of theatrically reissuing each film every seven years . Mermaid became that year 's top @-@ selling title on home video , with over 10 million units sold ( including 7 million in its first month ) . This success led future Disney films to be released soon after the end of their theatrical runs , rather than delayed for several years .
Following Mermaid 's 1997 re @-@ release in theaters , a new VHS version was released in March 1998 as part of the Masterpiece Collection and included a bonus music video of Jodi Benson singing " Part of Your World " during the end credits , replacing " Under the Sea " as the end credit song . The VHS sold 13 million units and ranked as the third best @-@ selling video of the year .
The Little Mermaid was released in a Limited Issue " bare @-@ bones " DVD in 1999 , with a standard video transfer . The film was re @-@ released on DVD on October 3 , 2006 , as part of the Walt Disney Platinum Editions line of classic Walt Disney animated features , including the song " Kiss the Girl " performed by Ashley Tisdale . Deleted scenes and several in @-@ depth documentaries were included , as well as an Academy Award @-@ nominated short film intended for the shelved Fantasia 2006 , The Little Match Girl . The DVD sold 1 @.@ 6 million units on its first day of release , and over 4 million units during its first week , making it the biggest animated DVD debut for October . By year 's end , the DVD had sold about 7 million units and was one of the year 's top ten selling DVDs . The Platinum Edition DVD was released as part of a " Little Mermaid Trilogy " boxed set on December 16 , 2008 . The Platinum Edition of the film , along with its sequels , went on moratorium in January 2009 . The film was re @-@ released on 3 @-@ disc Blu @-@ ray / DVD / Digital Copy Combo , a 2 @-@ disc Blu @-@ ray / DVD combo and 3D Blu @-@ ray on October 1 , 2013 , as part of the Walt Disney Diamond Editions line .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
Early in the production of The Little Mermaid , Jeffrey Katzenberg cautioned Clements , Musker , and their staff , reminding them that since Mermaid was a " girl 's film " , it would make less money at the box office than Oliver & Company , which had been Disney 's biggest animated box office success in a decade . However , by the time the film was closer to completion , Katzenberg was convinced Mermaid would be a hit and the first animated feature to earn more than $ 100 million and become a " blockbuster " film .
During its original 1989 theatrical release , Mermaid earned $ 84 @,@ 355 @,@ 863 at the North American box office , falling just short of Katzenberg 's expectations but earning 64 % more than Oliver . The film was theatrically reissued on November 14 , 1997 , on the same day as Anastasia , a Don Bluth animated feature for Fox Animation Studios . The reissue brought $ 27 @,@ 187 @,@ 616 in additional gross . The film also drew $ 99 @.@ 8 million in box office earnings outside the United States and Canada between both releases , resulting in a total international box office figure of $ 211 million .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The Little Mermaid received largely positive reviews from critics . Review aggregation site Rotten Tomatoes reported that the film has a 93 % " Certified Fresh " score based on 67 reviews , with an average rating of 8 @.@ 2 / 10 . The site 's consensus reads " The Little Mermaid ushered in a new golden era for Disney animation with warm and charming hand @-@ drawn characters and catchy musical sequences " . Roger Ebert , film critic for the Chicago Sun @-@ Times , was enthusiastic about the film and wrote that , " The Little Mermaid is a jolly and inventive animated fantasy — a movie that 's so creative and so much fun it deserves comparison with the best Disney work of the past . " Ebert also commented positively on the character of Ariel , stating , " ... Ariel is a fully realized female character who thinks and acts independently , even rebelliously , instead of hanging around passively while the fates decide her destiny . " The staff of TV Guide wrote a positive review , praising the film 's return to the traditional Disney musical as well as the film 's animation . Yet they also wrote that the film is detracted by the juvenile humor and the human characters ' eyes . While still giving a positive review , they stated that the film " can 't compare to the real Disney classics ( which appealed equally to both kids and adults ) . " The staff of Variety praised the film for its cast of characters , Ursula in particular , as well as its animation , stating that the animation " proves lush and fluid , augmented by the use of shadow and light as elements like fire , sun and water illuminate the characters . " They also praised was the musical collaboration between Howard Ashman and Alan Menken " whose songs frequently begin slowly but build in cleverness and intensity . "
Todd Gilchrist of IGN wrote a positive review of the film , stating that the film is " an almost perfect achievement . " Gilchrist also praised how the film revived interest in animation as it was released at a time when interest in animation was at a lull . Hal Hinson of The Washington Post wrote a mixed review of the film , referring to it as a " likably unspectacular adaptation of the Hans Christian Andersen classic . " Hinson went on to write that the film is average even at its highest points . He wrote that while there is nothing wrong with the film , it would be difficult for children to identify with Ariel and that the characters seemed bland . Hinson concluded his review saying that the film is " accomplished but uninspiring , The Little Mermaid has enough to please any kid . All that 's missing is the magic . " Empire gave a positive review of the film , stating that " [ The Little Mermaid is ] a charmer of a movie , boasting all the ingredients that make a Disney experience something to treasure yet free of all the politically correct , formulaic elements that have bogged down the more recent productions . "
In April 2008 – almost 20 years after the film 's initial release in 1989 – Yahoo ! users voted " The Little Mermaid " as No. 14 on the top 30 animated films of all time . Later , when Yahoo ! updated the list in June of the same year , the film remained on the list but dropped six slots to end at # 20 . ( Only three other traditionally animated Disney animated films - Aladdin , Beauty and the Beast , and The Lion King , respectively - scored above it in the poll even after the update . ) In 2011 , Richard Corliss of TIME Magazine named it one of " The 25 All @-@ TIME Best Animated Films " .
The Little Mermaid , Disney 's first animated fairy tale since Sleeping Beauty ( 1959 ) , is an important film in animation history for many reasons . Chief among these are its re @-@ establishment of animation as a profitable venture for The Walt Disney Company , as the company 's theme parks , television productions , and live @-@ action features had overshadowed the animated output since the 1950s . Mermaid was the second film , following Oliver & Company , produced after Disney began expanding its animated output following its successful live action / animated film Who Framed Roger Rabbit , and became Disney 's first animated major box office and critical hit since The Rescuers in 1977 . Walt Disney Feature Animation was further expanded as a result of Mermaid and increasingly successful follow @-@ ups — Beauty and the Beast ( 1991 ) , Aladdin ( 1992 ) , and The Lion King ( 1994 ) . The staff increased from 300 members in 1988 to 2 @,@ 200 in 1999 spread across three studios in Burbank , California , Lake Buena Vista , Florida , and Montreuil , Seine @-@ Saint @-@ Denis , France .
In addition , Mermaid signaled the re @-@ establishment of the musical film format as a standard for Disney animated films . The majority of Disney 's most popular animated films from the 1930s on had been musicals , though by the 1970s and 1980s the role of music had been de @-@ emphasized in the films . 1988 's Oliver & Company had served as a test of sorts to the success of the musical format before Disney committed to the Broadway @-@ style structure of The Little Mermaid .
= = = Accolades = = =
In January 1990 , The Little Mermaid earned three Academy Award nominations , making it the first Disney animated film to earn an Academy Award nomination since The Rescuers in 1977 . The film won two of the awards , for Best Song ( " Under the Sea " ) and Best Score . The film also earned four Golden Globe nominations , including Best Picture — Comedy or Musical , and won the awards for Best Song ( " Under the Sea " ) and Best Score .
In addition to the box office and critical success of the film itself , the Mermaid soundtrack album earned two awards at the 33rd Grammy Awards in 1991 : the Grammy Award for Best Album for Children and the Grammy Award for Best Score Soundtrack Album for a Motion Picture , Television or Other Visual Media . Bolstered by the film 's success and the soundtrack 's Oscars , Golden Globes and Grammy Awards , was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America in September 1990 for shipments of two million copies of the soundtrack album , an unheard of feat for an animated film at the time . To date , the soundtrack has been certified six times platinum .
The Little Mermaid won two Academy Awards for Best Original Score as well as Best Song for Alan Menken and Howard Ashman 's " Under the Sea " , sung by Samuel E. Wright in a memorable scene . Another song from the film , " Kiss the Girl " , was nominated but lost to " Under the Sea " . The film also won two Golden Globes for Best Original Score as well Best Original Song for " Under the Sea " . It was also nominated in two other categories , Best Motion Picture and another Best Original Song . Menken and Ashman also won a Grammy Award in 1991 for " Under the Sea . "
American Film Institute Lists
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Passions — Nominated
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Heroes and Villains :
Ursula — Nominated Villain
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Songs :
Under the Sea — Nominated
AFI 's Greatest Movie Musicals — Nominated
AFI 's 10 Top 10 — Nominated Animated Film
= = = Controversy = = =
Controversy arose regarding the artwork for the cover for the Classics VHS cassette when the film was first released on video when close examination of the artwork revealed an oddly shaped structure on the castle , closely resembling a human penis . Disney and the cover designer insist it was an accident , resulting from a late night rush job to finish the cover artwork . The questionable object does not appear on the cover of the second releasing of the movie . A second allegation is that a clergyman is seen with an erection during a scene late in the film . The clergyman is a short man , dressed in Bishop 's clothing , and a small bulge is slightly noticeable in a few of the frames that are actually later shown to be the stubby @-@ legged man 's knees , but the image is small and is very difficult to distinguish . The combined incidents led an Arkansas woman to file suit against The Walt Disney Company in 1995 , though she dropped the suit two months later .
= = Live action film = =
Deadline reports that Disney are in early development for an Live action version of the film .
= Joseph J. Romm =
Joseph J. Romm ( born June 27 , 1960 ) is an American author , blogger , physicist and climate expert who advocates reducing greenhouse gas emissions and global warming and increasing energy security through energy efficiency , green energy technologies and green transportation technologies . Romm is a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science . In 2009 , Rolling Stone magazine named Romm to its list of " 100 People Who Are Changing America " , and Time magazine named him one of its " Heroes of the Environment ( 2009 ) " , calling him " The Web 's most influential climate @-@ change blogger " .
Romm is a Senior Fellow at the Center for American Progress , where he founded their climate blog , Climate Progress , part of their Think Progress website . In 2008 , Time magazine named Romm 's blog one of the " Top 15 Green Websites " . In 2009 , Thomas L. Friedman , in The New York Times , called Climate Progress " the indispensable blog " , and in 2010 , Time included it in a list of the 25 " Best Blogs of 2010 " . Romm has also written for other energy and news sources .
In the 1990s , Romm served as Acting Assistant Secretary of the U.S. Department of Energy . He has published several books on global warming and energy technology . His 2006 book , Hell and High Water summarized observations and forecasts of climate change , discussed technology and policy solutions , and criticized political disinformation used to undermine climate science . Romm 's 2012 book , Language Intelligence , concerns persuasion and the effective use of rhetoric . He is the Chief Science Advisor for documentary series Years of Living Dangerously , which won the 2014 Emmy Award for Outstanding Documentary or Nonfiction Series . His 2015 book , Climate Change : What Everyone Needs to Know , covers basic climate science in a Q & A format .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life and career = = =
Romm was born and grew up in Middletown , New York , the youngest of three sons of Al Romm , managing editor of the Times Herald @-@ Record newspaper , and Ethel Grodzins Romm , an author , retired project manager , and former CEO of a technology company . Romm 's brother David was the host and producer of Shockwave Radio Theater , and his brother Daniel is a physician . His uncle is physicist Lee Grodzins . Romm graduated from Middletown High School in 1978 .
Romm then attended the Massachusetts Institute of Technology , where he earned a Bachelor of Science degree in 1982 and a Ph.D. in 1987 , both in physics . He pursued part of his graduate work at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography . In 1987 , Romm was awarded an American Physical Society Congressional Science Fellowship for the U.S. House of Representatives , where he provided science and security policy advice on the staff of Representative Charles E. Bennett .
From 1988 to 1990 , Romm worked as Special Assistant for International Security at the Rockefeller Foundation . From 1991 to 1993 , he was a researcher at the Rocky Mountain Institute . He co @-@ authored the 1994 Rocky Mountain Institute Report , Greening the Building and the Bottom Line : Increasing Productivity Through Energy @-@ Efficient Design . For the Global Environment and Technology Foundation , he performed the first environmental analysis of a system integrating cogenerating fuel cells , fly wheels , and power electronics aimed at achieving very high @-@ availability power . In 1990 and 1991 , Romm taught a course entitled " Rethinking National Security " at Columbia University 's School of International and Public Affairs .
In 1992 , Romm published The Once and Future Superpower , a book describing his views on how to spend the peace dividend to restore America 's economic , energy and environmental security . In 1993 , he wrote Defining National Security : The Nonmilitary Aspects , for the Council on Foreign Relations , describing how America 's security depends on non @-@ military factors such as how it obtains energy . In 1994 , Romm published Lean and Clean Management , a book that discussed management techniques that can reduce the impact of manufacturing and other industries on the environment while increasing productivity and profits . He co @-@ authored , with Charles B. Curtis , " MidEast Oil Forever , " the cover story of the April 1996 issue of the Atlantic Monthly , which predicted higher oil prices within a decade and discussed alternative energy strategies . The same year , he co @-@ authored a paper for the ACEEE Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Buildings on " Policies to Reduce Heat Islands " . In 1999 , Romm published Cool Companies : How the Best Businesses Boost Profits and Productivity by Cutting Greenhouse Gas Emissions , the first book to benchmark corporate best practices for using advanced energy technologies , including fuel cells , to reduce greenhouse gas emissions .
= = = Service at the U.S. Department of Energy = = =
Romm served as Acting Assistant Secretary of the U.S. Department of Energy , in charge of the Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy during 1997 and as Principal Deputy Assistant Secretary from August 1995 through June 1998 , and Special Assistant for Policy and Planning from 1993 to July 1995 . This office , with an annual budget at the time of $ 1 billion and 550 employees , assists businesses in the industrial , utility , transportation and buildings sectors to develop and use advanced clean energy technologies to cut costs , increase reliability , and reduce pollution .
As Principal Deputy Assistant Secretary , Romm was in charge of all policy and technology analysis and programmatic development for the Office , which was then developing PEM fuel cells , microturbines , advanced cogeneration , superconductivity , building controls , photovoltaics and other renewables , biofuels , and hydrogen production and storage . Among other projects , he initiated , supervised , and publicized a comprehensive technical analysis in 1997 by five national laboratories of how energy technologies can best reduce greenhouse gas emissions cost @-@ effectively , entitled Scenarios of U.S. Carbon Reductions .
= = = 1998 to 2006 = = =
After leaving the Department of Energy , Romm was the executive director and founder of the non @-@ profit Center for Energy and Climate Solutions , an organization based in the Washington DC area that helped businesses and U.S. States adopt high @-@ leverage strategies for saving energy and cutting pollution and greenhouse gas emissions . He was also a principal of the Capital E Group , which consulted on technology assessment and sustainable design services for clean energy technologies , and sat on the Advisory Board of Securing America 's Future Energy . While at Capital E Group , Romm was also a registered lobbyist , representing the interests of clients Ion America and Sunpower Corp.
During these years , Romm wrote widely on global warming and energy technologies that can reduce global warming . His 2004 book , The Hype about Hydrogen , argues that putting off the implementation of current green technologies in favor of waiting for technological breakthroughs in hydrogen cars is a dangerous distraction that will delay urgently needed government action on reducing greenhouse gas emissions . The book was named one of the best science and technology books of 2004 by Library Journal . In reviewing the book , Daniel I. Sperling , a member of Arnold Schwarzenegger 's California Air Resources Board , offered dissenting views . In 2004 , Romm also wrote the National Commission on Energy Policy 's report , " The Car and Fuel of the Future " , which was rated the # 1 Hottest Article on Energy Policy by ScienceDirect . He was also the principal investigator for the National Science Foundation project , Future Directions for Hydrogen Energy Research and Education ( 2004 ) . Romm is interviewed in the 2006 documentary film Who Killed the Electric Car ? , directed by Chris Paine and narrated by Martin Sheen . In the film , Romm gives a presentation intended to show that the government 's " hydrogen car initiative " was a bad policy choice and a distraction that was delaying the exploitation of more promising technologies , such as electric and hybrid cars that could reduce greenhouse gas emissions and increase America 's energy security . As of 2010 , Romm continued to view hydrogen as a " breakthrough technology illusion " .
Romm 's 2006 book Hell and High Water projects that humans have a window of opportunity of only about a decade to head off the most catastrophic effects of global warming . It calls upon Americans to demand government action to encourage and require the use of current emission @-@ cutting technologies . Tyler Hamilton , in his review of the book for The Toronto Star , wrote : " Whereas the first third of Romm 's book presents overwhelming and disturbing evidence that human @-@ caused greenhouse gases are the primary ingredients behind global warming , the pages that follow offer alarming detail on how the U.S. public is being misled by a federal government ( backed by conservative political forces ) that is intent on inaction , and that 's also on a mission to derail international efforts to curb emissions . " Technology Review wrote that Hell and High Water " provides an accurate summary of what is known about global warming and climate change , a sensible agenda for technology and policy , and a primer on how political disinformation has undermined climate science . "
= = = Climate Progress and recent years = = =
Since late 2006 , Romm has been a Senior Fellow at the Center for American Progress , founding their climate blog , Climate Progress , which focuses on climate science , policy and reporting . In 2008 , Time magazine named his blog one of the " Top 15 Green Websites " , writing that it " counters bad science and inane rhetoric with original analysis delivered sharply . ... Romm occupies the intersection of climate science , economics and policy . Resist temptation to lump him in with knee @-@ jerk enviros . On his blog and in his December 2006 book , Hell and High Water , you can find some of the most cogent , memorable , and deployable arguments for immediate and overwhelming action to confront global warming . " In 2010 , Time magazine wrote , " Viewing climate change through the prism of national security , Romm analyzes breaking energy news and the relevant research , but most important , he challenges the beliefs and conclusions of the mainstream media on climate @-@ change issues . " As of 2016 , Romm continues to contribute to the site . Romm also writes for other top internet energy and news sites , including The Huffington Post , Grist , Slate , CNN , and Salon.com. His July 2012 New York Times opinion piece was called " Without Carbon Controls , We Face a Dust Bowl " .
Romm has testified numerous times before congressional committees on energy and global warming issues , offering his views on government action to curb global warming . For example , in July 2012 , he testified before a Natural Resources Subcommittee of the U.S. House of Representatives on the 2012 U.S. drought and wildfires . In March of the same year , he testified before the House Energy & Commerce Committee on the " The American Energy Initiative " and rising gasoline prices . In 2010 , he testified before the House Ways and Means Committee on how to optimize " Energy Tax Incentives Driving the Green Job Economy " , and in 2007 , he testified before the House Committee on Science and Technology on the subject of " Fuels for the Future " , specifically the use of liquid fuel from coal , which he believes would accelerate global warming . He also lectures on energy technology , global warming and how the media portrays climate change .
Romm 's 2010 book , Straight Up is " largely a selection of his best blog postings over the past few years related to climate change issues " . TreeHugger describes the book as " a whirlwind tour through the state of climate change , the media that so badly neglects it , the politicians who attempt to address it ( and those who obstruct their efforts and ignore [ the ] science ) , and the clean energy solutions that could help get us out of the mess . " In 2011 , Romm sat on the panel of the Green Car Summit of the Washington Auto Show . His 2012 book , Language Intelligence , concerns persuasion and the effective use of rhetoric . Ed Markey commented on the book , " Joe masterfully ... scripts ways to master the metaphor , and incorporate irony . Solutions the reader can use for speeches , social media , or just winning the debate around the kitchen table . " Romm wrote an article for Time magazine in August 2012 using the research from Language Intelligence to analyze whether Mitt Romney or Barack Obama is the more effective communicator . In speeches and lectures since then , Romm has advocated that scientists use the principles of effective communication outlined in the book ( instead of their usual , technical , neutral style ) to better explain the dangers of , and solutions to , climate change to lay people and the media .
Romm is the chief science editor for the documentary TV series Years of Living Dangerously , about the impact of and solutions to climate change . The first season of the series ran in 2014 on the Showtime network . He wrote " Climate Change 101 : An Introduction " , for the series ' website . A second season is scheduled to run in 2016 on the National Geographic Channel . The first season won the 2014 Emmy Award for Outstanding Documentary or Nonfiction Series . In 2015 , The Weather Channel included Romm as one of " the world 's 25 most compelling voices " on climate in its series The Climate 25 . That year , Romm also wrote the book Climate Change : What Everyone Needs to Know , a primer on the topic , in Q & A format . Ralph Benko in Forbes magazine wrote that the " impressive book ... lucidly presents the case both for deep concern and optimism " .
= = Media comment and interviews = =
Romm is often cited , quoted or interviewed by journalists to explain the impact of public policy and energy technologies and applications on global warming and energy security , or to explain causes and impacts of climate change or the influence of the media . For example , In 2009 , MSNBC relied on him to assess natural gas hydrates , and he was featured on 60 Minutes discussing the scientific evidence that " clean coal " is not clean . In 2010 , MSNBC 's Countdown with Keith Olbermann program interviewed Romm on how the military is taking action on climate change to improve national security ; Guernica Magazine interviewed him on the science and politics of global warming ; The New Yorker asked him to comment on the Koch @-@ funded exhibit on evolution and climate change at the National Museum of Natural History ; and The Atlantic and CBS News each reviewed a media call by Romm concerning the relationship between the January 2010 snowstorms in Washington , DC and global warming .
In 2011 , The Washington Post linked with approval to Romm 's review of the scientific literature on climate change . Time magazine explored Romm 's critique of Matthew Nisbet and praised his analysis of the decline of media coverage regarding climate change . National Geographic quoted him about the part that the media has played in the dearth of information about climate reaching the public . The same year , Technology Review quoted Romm regarding the relationship between government @-@ assisted deployment and rapid innovation in energy technologies , and the Toronto Star quoted him regarding President Obama 's 2011 State of the Union address . In 2012 in The New York Times , economist Paul Krugman cited Romm on the connection between drought and Climate change , and The Atlantic interviewed and cited him on the reluctance of the Democrats to discuss climate change . National Geographic quoted him about disappearing arctic ice and the effect of climate change on the polar bear , and Current TV 's Bill Press interviewed Romm about record @-@ breaking heat .
In 2014 Businessweek quoted Romm regarding the lack of commercial viability of hydrogen fuel cells for cars , and The Guardian quoted him concerning international cooperation on climate change . In 2015 , The Guardian quoted Romm about historic high global temperatures , and MarketWatch quoted him on actions that Donald Trump might take concerning climate agreements if he were to be elected president . Later that year , Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists interviewed him about nuclear power and climate change . The Wall Street Journal quoted Romm in 2016 about the cost and pace of change in clean energy technology .
= = Romm 's views = =
The New York Times " Dot Earth " column reviewed Romm 's views on global warming solutions on November 24 , 2008 , including his belief that , to combat global warming , humans cannot wait for new technologies and scientific breakthroughs ; that instead we must " deploy existing and near @-@ term low @-@ carbon technologies as fast as is humanly possible " . In his blog , Romm has described the technology solutions that he believes can control global warming . The New York Times also quoted Romm as stating that , to solve the climate crisis , " We will need a WWII @-@ style approach " . The article noted Romm 's belief that " credible people " and the press should publicly support the notion that government action is needed to help solve the global warming crisis . In particular , the press should explain how current news stories , such as hurricanes , droughts and insect infestations are related to global warming .
According to U.S. News & World Report , Romm believes that global warming " is advancing more swiftly than most people think and than the mainstream media usually report . He has called for significantly ramping up government spending on clean energy technology , halting the construction of new coal plants , rapidly increasing the use of energy @-@ efficient technologies , and imposing a cap @-@ and @-@ trade system to sharply limit carbon dioxide emissions " . In 2006 , in a radio interview , Romm stated , " Global warming is going to transform this country and our transportation and the way we live our lives . If we don 't act pretty soon , in an intelligent fashion , then change will be forced upon us by the radically changed climate ... global warming is the issue of the century " . In March 2009 , Romm summarized and updated his views in an " introduction " to his blog , and in another post , setting forth a summary of " global warming impacts " .
In 2011 , Romm stated that " Feeding some 9 billion people by mid @-@ century in the face of a rapidly worsening climate may well be the greatest challenge the human race has ever faced . " Romm 's 2010 book , Straight Up notes : " the bottom line is that the economic cost of action is low , whereas the cost of inaction is incalculably greater " . Romm calculates that deployment of existing technologies on the massive scale that can save the climate can be accomplished at the cost of 0 @.@ 12 percent of global GDP per year . He also asks in the book , " will the United States be a global leader in creating jobs and exports in clean energy technologies , or will we be importing them from Europe , Japan , and the likely clean energy leader in our absence , China . " In 2005 , with respect to the U.S. Congress 's actions on climate , including its votes on the XL Pipeline , Romm told The Guardian : " Future generations suffering from the consequences of our inaction will be bewildered that the legislative body of the richest country in the world could devote so little effort to ameliorating the climate problem and so much effort to making it worse . "
Romm has been critical of media coverage of global warming . In his 2010 book , Straight Up , he wrote , " Historically , even the most respected newspapers have fallen into the trap of giving the same credence – and often the same amount of space – to a handful of U.S. scientists , most receiving funds from the fossil fuel industry , as they give to hundreds of the world 's leading climate scientists . No surprise that much of the public has ended up with a misimpression about the remarkable strength of our scientific understanding and the need for action " . He concludes , " more and more pieces are being written by senior political reporters , who know very little about global warming " . Romm also believes that scientists and politicians need to be more effective communicators about climate change .
= = Reputation = =
In 2008 , Romm was elected a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science for " distinguished service toward a sustainable energy future and for persuasive discourse on why citizens , corporations , and governments should adopt sustainable technologies " . In 2009 , Rolling Stone magazine named Romm to its list of " 100 People Who Are Changing America " , quoting journalist David Roberts as follows : " Joe combines two qualities you don 't often find together . A deep knowledge of technology , policy and science along with genuine moral passion . " Former Houston , Texas mayor Bill White called Romm " the nation ’ s leading expert on energy efficiency . " U.S. News & World Report featured Romm as one of eight " key players " who were " Driving Public Policy in Washington " , calling Romm an " oft @-@ cited expert on climate change issues , and a go @-@ to witness at congressional hearings " . Time magazine named Romm one of its " Heroes of the Environment ( 2009 ) " , writing , " He combines ... intellect with a strong sense of moral outrage . He also possesses a Jon Stewart @-@ like quality for pointing out the absurdity of his opponents . " Time named his blog as one of the " Top 15 Green Websites " , and Technorati ranked it as the leading " Green site " in 2009 . The same year , Thomas L. Friedman , in The New York Times , called Climate Progress " the indispensable blog " .
In 2010 , Time included Romm 's blog in a list of the 25 " Best Blogs of 2010 " and one of the " Top Five Blogs TIME Writers Read Daily " . The same year , TreeHugger named Romm 's blog the " Best Politics Website " , adding , " this is the art of blogging at its best " . The UK 's The Guardian ranked Climate Progress at the top of its list of blogs in its " Top 50 Twitter climate accounts to follow " . Reviewing Romm 's 2010 book Straight Up , Bill McKibben wrote that Romm " knows his climate science ... [ and ] has been a persuasive voice for the most important truth about global warming : that it is a far worse problem than either politicians or the general public understand . ... Romm has been consistent in insisting that we have much of the technology necessary to at least begin tackling the problem . " He called Romm " a tireless foil to the ' right @-@ wing disinformation machine ' that has tried – with great success ... to delay action by confusing and disheartening Americans about global warming . ... It requires a thick skin to take on the daily task of dealing with the disinformers , but Romm has the taste for this kind of blood sport , and the talent as well . " In 2011 , The New York Times called Romm " one of the country ’ s most influential writers on climate change " . In 2012 , Planetsave wrote that Romm is " considered the world ’ s best blogger on climate science , and politics related to it . "
= = Personal life = =
Romm lives in Washington , D.C. He has long had an interest in comedy . From 1994 through 2007 , he was a regular contributor to The Style Invitational , a weekly humor contest run by The Washington Post . His entries appeared 343 times , including 16 winning entries , and he was the first " Rookie of the Year " . Among his submissions was the winning entry of what was later declared to be the best overall week 's results of the Style Invitational 's first decade . ( A discarded first draft of some famous line : " We hold these truths to be , like , du @-@ uuh . " )
= = = Books by Romm = = =
Romm , Joseph ( 1992 ) . The Once and Future Superpower : How to Restore America 's Economic , Energy , and Environmental Security . New York : William Morrow & Co . ISBN 0 @-@ 688 @-@ 11868 @-@ 2 .
Romm , Joseph ( 1993 ) . Defining National Security : The Nonmilitary Aspects . Washington : Council on Foreign Relations . ISBN 0 @-@ 87609 @-@ 135 @-@ 4 .
Romm , Joseph ( 1994 ) . Lean and Clean Management : How to Boost Profits and Productivity by Reducing Pollution . New York : Kodansha Amer Inc . ISBN 1 @-@ 56836 @-@ 037 @-@ 1 .
Romm , Joseph ( 1999 ) . Cool Companies : How the Best Businesses Boost Profits and Productivity by Cutting Greenhouse Gas Emissions . New York : Island Press . ISBN 1 @-@ 55963 @-@ 709 @-@ 9 .
Romm , Joseph ( 2004 ) . The Hype about Hydrogen , Fact and Fiction in the Race to Save the Climate . New York : Island Press . ISBN 1 @-@ 55963 @-@ 703 @-@ X. An updated edition was published in 2005 ( ISBN 1 @-@ 55963 @-@ 704 @-@ 8 ) . The book has also been translated into German as Der Wasserstoff @-@ boom .
Romm , Joseph ( 2006 ) . Hell and High Water : Global Warming — the Solution and the Politics — and What We Should Do . New York : William Morrow . ISBN 0 @-@ 06117 @-@ 212 @-@ X.
Romm , Joseph ( 2010 ) . Straight Up : America 's Fiercest Climate Blogger Takes on the Status Quo Media , Politicians , and Clean Energy Solutions . New York : Island Press . ISBN 9781597267168 .
Romm , Joseph ( 2012 ) . Language Intelligence : Lessons on Persuasion from Jesus , Shakespeare , Lincoln , and Lady Gaga . CreateSpace . ISBN 1477452222 .
Romm , Joseph ( 2015 ) . Climate Change : What Everyone Needs to Know . Oxford University Press . ISBN 0190250178 .
= = = Selected journal articles and reports = = =
Report : " The Self @-@ Limiting Future of Nuclear Power " AmericanProgressAction.org , 2008
" The Car and Fuel of the Future " , Energy Policy , 34 ( 2006 ) , pp. 2609 – 14
" Future Directions for Hydrogen Energy Research and Education " ( Principal Investigator ) , Report to the National Science Foundation , November 2004
" The internet and the new energy economy " , Resources , Conservation and Recycling , p . 36 ( 2002 ) pp. 197 – 210
" Combined Heat and Power for Saving Energy and Carbon in Buildings " ( with Kaarsberg , Koomey , Rosenfeld and Teagen ) , Proceedings of 1998 ACEEE Summer Study , Pacific Grove , CA , 1999
Report : " The Internet Economy and Global Warming " ( with Arthur H. Rosenfeld and Susan Herrmann ) , Center for Energy and Climate Solutions , The Global Environment and Technology Foundation , 1999 – 2000
" Engineering @-@ Economic Studies of Energy Technologies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions : Opportunities and Challenges " ( with Brown , Levine , Rosenfeld and Koomey ) , Annual Review of Energy and the Environment , 1998
" A Roadmap for U.S. Carbon Reductions " ( with Levine , Brown , and Petersen ) , Science , January 30 , 1998 , vol . 279 , no . 5351 , pp. 669 – 70
" Cool Communities : Strategies for Heat Island Mitigation and Smog Reduction " ( with Rosenfeld , Hashem Akbari and Melvin Pomerantz ) , Energy and Buildings 28 ( 1998 ) pp. 51 – 62
" Policies to Reduce Heat Islands " " Policies to Reduce Heat Islands " ( with Rosenfeld , Akbari , Pomerantz and Haider G. Taha ) , 1996 ACEEE Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Buildings , Pacific Grove , CA . Vol . 9 , p . 177
" Greening the Building and the Bottom Line : Increasing Productivity Through Energy @-@ Efficient Design " ( with Browning ) , Rocky Mountain Institute , November 1994 ( peer @-@ reviewed by U.S. Green Building Council ) ; first published as Proceedings of 1994 ACEEE Summer Study , Pacific Grove , CA
= Digimon Racing =
Digimon Racing ( デジモンレーシング , Dejimon Rēshingu ) is a racing video game developed by Griptonite Games and published by Bandai ( now Namco Bandai Games ) for the Game Boy Advance . Part of the Digimon media franchise and video game series , it utilizes Digimon 's characters and elements . Its gameplay largely resembles that of traditional racing games , but also utilizes elements of kart racing and action games . Its eleven playable characters can be increased to over 40 via Digivolution .
Digimon Racing uses Mode 7 and voice acting . The game was initially announced at Electronic Entertainment Expo ( E3 ) 2003 and later exhibited at E3 2004 . It was released on April 1 , 2004 in Japan ; April 30 in Europe ; and September 13 in North America . It received mixed reviews from critics upon release , with criticism directed at its resemblance to other kart racers of the time and praise at some aesthetic and gameplay aspects .
= = Gameplay = =
Digimon Racing is a racing video game that utilizes characters and elements from Digimon as well as those of traditional racing games . The game follows a group of Digimon competing in a racing tournament within the Digital World , home to all Digimon . The purpose of the grand prix is to determine who is the best racer ; thus , they use specially designed karts that equate all contestants in terms of ability .
Digimon Racing 's gameplay largely resembles that of traditional racing games . It focuses on competing against seven CPU @-@ controlled characters in cup races consisting of three laps . The usage of items to attack opponents and improve one 's own condition is an integral part of the gameplay , and adds an element of kart racing games . A new feature in the game is " kart hopping " : using the karts to jump onto opponents , slowing them down . This adds an element of action gameplay . Digivolution , a recurring theme in Digimon , also plays a role in the game . Driving over energy hotspots scattered throughout the tracks increases an energy meter located at the bottom left of the game 's HUD . As the meter increases , the player traverses the Digimon 's evolutionary line , becoming more powerful and ultimately gaining the ability to use a special attack .
The game 's fifteen tracks — four of which are available immediately — are based on conventional video game environments such as jungles , volcanoes , and cities . After completing a track for the first time , the player unlocks a time trial mode for this track , and a boss battle . The action @-@ oriented boss battles involve defeating a generally static Digimon using items scattered throughout the areas , which are not designed as race tracks . The player can also compete in single races unrelated to the story in any unlocked tracks . The game uses the Game Boy Advance Wireless Adapter or Game Link Cable accessories for a multiplayer racing mode supporting up to four players .
= = = Playable characters = = =
The game features eleven Digimon as playable characters . Eight characters are available immediately ; the rest are unlockable by completing cup races . However , the Digivolution mechanic increases the total number of playable Digimon to over 40 . The cast predominantly includes popular Digimon from the Digimon anime . Characters ' racing abilities differ through their ranking in three areas : speed , handling and acceleration .
= = Development = =
Unlike previous games in the series which were developed by Japanese companies , Digimon Racing 's development was handled by the Kirkland , Washington , United States @-@ based Griptonite Games . However , Digimon series veteran Bandai ( now Namco Bandai Games ) returned to publish the game . It was the first original Digimon game for the Game Boy Advance , since Digimon Battle Spirit and Digimon Battle Spirit 2 were ports of WonderSwan Color games . The game uses the Mode 7 engine to create three @-@ dimensional gameplay on the handheld console otherwise incapable of such a feat . It occasionally uses voice acting during races , uncommon in Game Boy Advance games . The game was initially announced at E3 2003 . It was later exhibited at E3 2004 , with the North American release announced for August 2004 . Upon completion of development , the game received a rating of " E " ( Everyone ) from the Entertainment Software Rating Board ( ESRB ) and " 3 + " from Pan European Game Information ( PEGI ) .
= = Reception = =
Digimon Racing 's release fell on April 1 , 2004 in Japan ; April 30 in Europe ; and September 13 in North America . The game received mixed reviews from critics upon release ; it has a score of 62 % at Metacritic and 63 @.@ 67 % at Game Rankings . Critics criticized the game for its close resemblance to other kart racers of the time . IGN 's Craig Harris and 1UP.com 's Garnett Lee stated that Digimon Racing 's gameplay mirrored that of Crash Nitro Kart and the Mario Kart series respectively . Aside from the familiar format , critics praised specific aesthetic points such as the graphics and music ( GameZone 's Michael Lafferty ) and the tracks ' layouts and themes ( Lee ) . Aspects of the gameplay were also praised , such as control ( Harris and Lee ) , multiplayer mode ( Lee ) , replay value , and kart hopping ( Harris ) . Nintendo Power stated that " [ t ] he racing action is similar to that of other kart games , but the Digimon influence adds a fun gameplay edge . " Famitsu 's four reviewers gave the game scores of 5 , 5 , 7 , and 6 out of 10 , respectively , resulting in a total score of 23 out of 40 . Allgame 's T.J. Deci gave the game three stars out of five , although he did not provide a more thorough review .
= Jeffrey Spender =
FBI Special agent Jeffrey Frank Spender is a fictional character in the American Fox television series The X @-@ Files , a science fiction show about a government conspiracy to hide or deny the truth of alien existence . Spender ( along with his partner , Diana Fowley ) was in control of the X @-@ Files office after Fox Mulder 's and Dana Scully 's forced leaves in " The Beginning " . The X @-@ Files office is concerned with cases with particularly mysterious or possibly supernatural circumstances that were left unsolved and shelved by the FBI . Portrayed by Canadian actor Chris Owens , Spender was a recurring character during the fifth , sixth and final seasons of The X @-@ Files .
Federal Bureau of Investigation Special agent Spender made his first appearance in the fifth season 1998 episode " Patient X " . During his earlier appearances in the series , because of Mulder 's belief in extraterrestrial life , Spender acted unfriendly towards him . But when re @-@ appearing in the ninth season , Spender had moved on to respect and agree with Mulder 's beliefs , which is proven to him in " Two Fathers " , when he sees and helps to kill an alien rebel .
= = Character arc = =
Spender was a skeptic who was assigned to The X @-@ Files after Fox Mulder 's forced leave . Spender is the son of the " Cigarette Smoking Man " , and the " Cigarette Smoking Man 's " ex @-@ wife , multiple abductee Cassandra Spender . Heavily involved in the Syndicate at that time , the " Cigarette Smoking Man " abandoned the family when Spender was 12 years old . Subsequently , his mother was driven insane by what she claims were multiple alien abductions . Shortly after Samantha Mulder was abducted and then returned , Jeffrey and Samantha were raised together by his father in California . Spender met Agents Fox Mulder and Dana Scully in 1998 . The same year , the " Cigarette Smoking Man " began sending him letters ; however Spender returned them unopened . After his father set fire on The X @-@ Files in " The End " , Spender with Agent Diana Fowley start working on the X @-@ Files . Spender got orders from the " Cigarette Smoking Man " to push and eventually get Mulder and Scully fired from the FBI , which he eventually does in " Two Fathers " . Later on he reinstates Mulder and Scully to The X @-@ Files but is shot in the head and apparently killed by his father in " One Son " .
Three years later it is revealed in " William " , that he survived the gunshot , but was subjected to horribly disfiguring experiments at the hand of his father . Posing as Mulder , he infiltrated Scully 's house , and injected William with a magnetite substance to seemingly " cure " the baby of his telekinetic powers . The motivation or repercussions of his actions are never fully explained . He testified for the defense during Mulder 's murder trial in " The Truth " . He also revealed during the trial that Teena Mulder was having an affair with the " Cigarette Smoking Man " , and that he and Fox Mulder are half @-@ brothers . A DNA test conducted on a disfigured Spender in the episode " William " initially led agents Scully , Doggett and Reyes to believe he was Mulder thus lending further credence to Spender 's claim that both he and Mulder are the children of the " Cigarette Smoking Man " .
= = Conceptual history = =
= = = Creation and early development = = =
Chris Owens had previously portrayed the Cigarette Smoking Man in the episodes , " Musings of a Cigarette Smoking Man " and " Demons " , he had portrayed The Great Mutato in " The Post @-@ Modern Prometheus " on the show before being cast as Spender . Owens had also landed a guest role on The X @-@ Files spin @-@ off Millennium . Chris Carter and David Duchovny were so pleased with his portrayal of The Great Mutato that he was picked for the role , without making an audition . Most of the crew members reacted positively to the selection . When creating the character of Spender , Carter had no long term plans for Owens involvement , meaning that Spender 's involvement wouldn 't differ much from different previous recurring characters of the show . Michal Suchanek made a small cameo appearance in " The Red and the Black " as a young version of Spender .
However , as the fifth season 's production period entered its final months , rumors began to circulate – especially among the production crew members in Vancouver , Canada – about the future of the series , particularly concerning whether the show would be moving to Los Angeles , California for the sixth season and whether the new recurring character of Jeffrey Spender was planned ( in case David Duchovny cut back his commitment to the series ) to become a replacement for Duchovny 's character of Fox Mulder – either as a part @-@ time or full @-@ fledged substitute . Other , contradictory rumors that Owens heard were that either he or Duchovny would appear in only eight episodes of the sixth season and that his casting as Spender was a sign that the series would either be leaving Vancouver or staying there . According to the actor himself , he always knew that Duchovny would not be leaving the series but only discovered that The X @-@ Files would indeed be moving to Los Angeles when the official announcement was made .
According to Owens , he first learned of Spender 's seeming demise in " One Son " via the usual way – when Chris Carter phoned the actor to discuss his latest script – and , upon Carter telling him that Jeffrey Spender would make an heroic exit from the series ' story arc , Owens questioned himself about this news as he was slightly unable to believe that he was leaving the series so soon . Apparently , the news of Spender 's departure from the series was confirmed for him shortly thereafter , however , when he received the episode 's script .
When it came time to film Spender 's final scene in " One Son " , actor William B. Davis became upset , saying that he didn 't want to shoot Owens and adding that he enjoyed working with the actor . On the other hand , Davis had no trouble with slapping Owens , in a scene of " Two Fathers " in which Spender is twice hit by the Cigarette Smoking Man .
= = = Later development in Season 9 = = =
Three years after Spender had been written out of the series and actor Chris Owens had moved to Toronto , Canada , Owens received an unexpected phone call from David Duchovny , who said that The X @-@ Files ' production crew was filming the series ' finale as well as another episode late in the season , and that he wanted to bring Spender back for these two episodes . Duchovny reassured Owens that Spender 's survival of the shooting years earlier could be explained away via the plot device of an alien injection but mentioned that the experience would not be fun for Owens , as he would be " under all that shit " ; Owens did not realize what Duchovny meant until he got to the studio and saw the makeup for Spender 's disfigured appearance , a sight that shocked Owens .
= = Reception = =
Entertainment Weekly writer Ken Tucker called Chris Owens portrayal of Spender " gloriously stiff @-@ necked " . Lon Grahnke from The Chicago Sun @-@ Times responded positively to the character , calling Spender " devious " . Shortly after the premiere of " Terms of Endearment " , Owens started to notice " strange reactions " from people on the street . He assumed their odd expressions were those of " annoyance " with his character because of his actions . One day , one particularly aggravated fan of the series actually shook his finger at Owens and called him a " Paper shredder ! " .
= Titan ( moon ) =
Titan ( or Saturn VI ) is the largest moon of Saturn . It is the only natural satellite known to have a dense atmosphere , and the only object other than Earth where clear evidence of stable bodies of surface liquid has been found .
Titan is the sixth ellipsoidal moon from Saturn . Frequently described as a planet @-@ like moon , Titan 's diameter is 50 % larger than Earth 's natural satellite , the Moon , and it is 80 % more massive . It is the second @-@ largest moon in the Solar System , after Jupiter 's moon Ganymede , and is larger than the smallest planet , Mercury , although only 40 % as massive . Discovered in 1655 by the Dutch astronomer Christiaan Huygens , Titan was the first known moon of Saturn , and the sixth known planetary satellite .
Titan is primarily composed of water ice and rocky material . Much as with Venus before the Space Age , the dense opaque atmosphere prevented understanding of Titan 's surface until new information accumulated when the Cassini – Huygens mission arrived in 2004 , including the discovery of liquid hydrocarbon lakes in Titan 's polar regions . The geologically young surface is generally smooth , with few impact craters , although mountains and several possible cryovolcanoes have been found .
The atmosphere of Titan is largely nitrogen ; minor components lead to the formation of methane and ethane clouds and nitrogen @-@ rich organic smog . The climate — including wind and rain — creates surface features similar to those of Earth , such as dunes , rivers , lakes , seas ( probably of liquid methane and ethane ) , and deltas , and is dominated by seasonal weather patterns as on Earth . With its liquids ( both surface and subsurface ) and robust nitrogen atmosphere , Titan 's methane cycle is analogous to Earth 's water cycle , although at the much lower temperature of about 94 K ( − 179 @.@ 2 ° C ) .
= = History = =
Titan was discovered on March 25 , 1655 by the Dutch astronomer Christiaan Huygens . Huygens was inspired by Galileo 's discovery of Jupiter 's four largest moons in 1610 and his improvements in telescope technology . Christiaan , with the help of his brother Constantijn Huygens , Jr . , began building telescopes around 1650 and discovered the first observed moon orbiting Saturn with one of the telescopes they built .
He named it simply Saturni Luna ( or Luna Saturni , Latin for " Saturn 's moon " ) , publishing in the 1655 tract De Saturni Luna Observatio Nova ( A New Observation of Saturn 's Moon ) . After Giovanni Domenico Cassini published his discoveries of four more moons of Saturn between 1 | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
673 and 1686 , astronomers fell into the habit of referring to these and Titan as Saturn I through V ( with Titan then in fourth position ) . Other early epithets for Titan include " Saturn 's ordinary satellite " . Titan is officially numbered Saturn VI because after the 1789 discoveries the numbering scheme was frozen to avoid causing any more confusion ( Titan having borne the numbers II and IV as well as VI ) . Numerous small moons have been discovered closer to Saturn since then .
The name Titan , and the names of all seven satellites of Saturn then known , came from John Herschel ( son of William Herschel , discoverer of Mimas and Enceladus ) in his 1847 publication Results of Astronomical Observations Made at the Cape of Good Hope . He suggested the names of the mythological Titans ( Ancient Greek : Τῑτάν ) , brothers and sisters of Cronus , the Greek Saturn . In Greek mythology , the Titans were a race of powerful deities , descendants of Gaia and Uranus , that ruled during the legendary Golden Age .
= = Orbit and rotation = =
Titan orbits Saturn once every 15 days and 22 hours . Like the Moon and many of the satellites of the giant planets , its rotational period is identical to its orbital period ; Titan is thus tidally locked in synchronous rotation with Saturn , and permanently shows one face to the planet . Because of this , there is a sub @-@ Saturnian point on its surface , from which the planet would always appear to hang directly overhead . Longitudes on Titan are measured westward , starting from the meridian passing through this point . Its orbital eccentricity is 0 @.@ 0288 , and the orbital plane is inclined 0 @.@ 348 degrees relative to the Saturnian equator . Viewed from Earth , Titan reaches an angular distance of about 20 Saturn radii ( just over 1 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 kilometres ( 750 @,@ 000 mi ) ) from Saturn and subtends a disk 0 @.@ 8 arcseconds in diameter .
The small , irregularly shaped satellite Hyperion is locked in a 3 : 4 orbital resonance with Titan . A " slow and smooth " evolution of the resonance — in which Hyperion would have migrated from a chaotic orbit — is considered unlikely , based on models . Hyperion probably formed in a stable orbital island , whereas the massive Titan absorbed or ejected bodies that made close approaches .
= = Bulk characteristics = =
Titan is 5 @,@ 151 kilometres ( 3 @,@ 201 mi ) in diameter , compared to 4 @,@ 879 kilometres ( 3 @,@ 032 mi ) for the planet Mercury , 3 @,@ 474 kilometres ( 2 @,@ 159 mi ) for the Moon , and 12 @,@ 742 kilometres ( 7 @,@ 918 mi ) for Earth . Before the arrival of Voyager 1 in 1980 , Titan was thought to be slightly larger than Ganymede ( diameter 5 @,@ 262 kilometres ( 3 @,@ 270 mi ) ) and thus the largest moon in the Solar System ; this was an overestimation caused by Titan 's dense , opaque atmosphere , which extends many kilometres above its surface and increases its apparent diameter . Titan 's diameter and mass ( and thus its density ) are similar to those of the Jovian moons Ganymede and Callisto . Based on its bulk density of 1 @.@ 88 g / cm3 , Titan 's bulk composition is half water ice and half rocky material . Though similar in composition to Dione and Enceladus , it is denser due to gravitational compression .
Titan is likely differentiated into several layers with a 3 @,@ 400 @-@ kilometre ( 2 @,@ 100 mi ) rocky center surrounded by several layers composed of different crystal forms of ice . Its interior may still be hot and there may be a liquid layer consisting of a " magma " composed of water and ammonia between the ice Ih crust and deeper ice layers made of high @-@ pressure forms of ice . The presence of ammonia allows water to remain liquid even at a temperature as low as 176 K ( − 97 ° C ) ( for eutectic mixture with water ) . Evidence for such an ocean was uncovered by the Cassini probe in the form of natural extremely @-@ low @-@ frequency radio waves in Titan 's atmosphere . Titan 's surface is thought to be a poor reflector of extremely @-@ low @-@ frequency radio waves , so they may instead be reflecting off the liquid – ice boundary of a subsurface ocean . Surface features were observed by the Cassini spacecraft to systematically shift by up to 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) between October 2005 and May 2007 , which suggests that the crust is decoupled from the interior , and provides additional evidence for an interior liquid layer . Further supporting evidence for a liquid layer and decoupled ice shell comes from the way the gravity field varies as Titan orbits Saturn . Comparison of the gravity field with the RADAR @-@ based topography observations also suggests that the ice shell may be substantially rigid .
= = Formation = =
The moons of Jupiter and Saturn are thought to have formed through co @-@ accretion , a similar process to that believed to have formed the planets in the Solar System . As the young gas giants formed , they were surrounded by discs of material that gradually coalesced into moons . However , whereas Jupiter possesses four large satellites in highly regular , planet @-@ like orbits , Titan overwhelmingly dominates Saturn 's system and possesses a high orbital eccentricity not immediately explained by co @-@ accretion alone . A proposed model for the formation of Titan is that Saturn 's system began with a group of moons similar to Jupiter 's Galilean satellites , but that they were disrupted by a series of giant impacts , which would go on to form Titan . Saturn 's mid @-@ sized moons , such as Iapetus and Rhea , were formed from the debris of these collisions . Such a violent beginning would also explain Titan 's orbital eccentricity .
In 2014 , analysis of Titan 's atmospheric nitrogen suggested that it has possibly been sourced from material similar to that found in the Oort cloud and not from sources present during co @-@ accretion of materials around Saturn .
= = Atmosphere = =
Titan is the only known moon with a significant atmosphere , and its atmosphere is the only nitrogen @-@ rich dense atmosphere in the Solar System aside from Earth 's . Observations of it made in 2004 by Cassini suggest that Titan is a " super rotator " , like Venus , with an atmosphere that rotates much faster than its surface . Observations from the Voyager space probes have shown that Titan 's atmosphere is denser than Earth 's , with a surface pressure about 1 @.@ 45 atm . It is also about 1 @.@ 19 times as massive as Earth 's overall , or about 7 @.@ 3 times more massive on a per surface area basis . It supports opaque haze layers that block most visible light from the Sun and other sources and renders Titan 's surface features obscure . Titan 's lower gravity means that its atmosphere is far more extended than Earth 's . The atmosphere of Titan is opaque at many wavelengths and a complete reflectance spectrum of the surface is impossible to acquire from orbit . It was not until the arrival of the Cassini – Huygens spacecraft in 2004 that the first direct images of Titan 's surface were obtained .
Titan 's atmospheric composition in the stratosphere is 98 @.@ 4 % nitrogen with the remaining 1 @.@ 6 % composed mostly of methane ( 1 @.@ 4 % ) and hydrogen ( 0 @.@ 1 – 0 @.@ 2 % ) . There are trace amounts of other hydrocarbons , such as ethane , diacetylene , methylacetylene , acetylene and propane , and of other gases , such as cyanoacetylene , hydrogen cyanide , carbon dioxide , carbon monoxide , cyanogen , argon and helium . The hydrocarbons are thought to form in Titan 's upper atmosphere in reactions resulting from the breakup of methane by the Sun 's ultraviolet light , producing a thick orange smog . Titan spends 95 % of its time within Saturn 's magnetosphere , which may help shield it from the solar wind .
Energy from the Sun should have converted all traces of methane in Titan 's atmosphere into more complex hydrocarbons within 50 million years — a short time compared to the age of the Solar System . This suggests that methane must be replenished by a reservoir on or within Titan itself . The ultimate origin of the methane in its atmosphere may be its interior , released via eruptions from cryovolcanoes .
On April 3 , 2013 , NASA reported that complex organic chemicals could arise on Titan , based on studies simulating the atmosphere of Titan .
On June 6 , 2013 , scientists at the IAA @-@ CSIC reported the detection of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the upper atmosphere of Titan .
On September 30 , 2013 , propene was detected in the atmosphere of Titan by NASA 's Cassini spacecraft , using its composite infrared spectrometer ( CIRS ) . This is the first time propene has been found on any moon or planet other than Earth and is the first chemical found by the CIRS . The detection of propene fills a mysterious gap in observations that date back to NASA 's Voyager 1 spacecraft 's first close flyby of Titan in 1980 , during which it was discovered that many of the gases that make up Titan 's hazy brown colored haze were hydrocarbons , theoretically formed via the recombination of radicals created by the Sun 's ultraviolet photolysis of methane .
On October 24 , 2014 , methane was found in polar clouds on Titan .
= = Climate = =
Titan 's surface temperature is about 94 K ( − 179 @.@ 2 ° C ) . At this temperature , water ice has an extremely low vapor pressure , so the little water vapor present appears limited to the stratosphere . Titan receives about 1 % as much sunlight as Earth . Before sunlight reaches the surface , about 90 % has been absorbed by the thick atmosphere , leaving only 0 @.@ 1 % of the amount of light Earth receives .
Atmospheric methane creates a greenhouse effect on Titan 's surface , without which Titan would be far colder . Conversely , haze in Titan 's atmosphere contributes to an anti @-@ greenhouse effect by reflecting sunlight back into space , cancelling a portion of the greenhouse effect and making its surface significantly colder than its upper atmosphere .
Titan 's clouds , probably composed of methane , ethane or other simple organics , are scattered and variable , punctuating the overall haze . The findings of the Huygens probe indicate that Titan 's atmosphere periodically rains liquid methane and other organic compounds onto its surface .
Clouds typically cover 1 % of Titan 's disk , though outburst events have been observed in which the cloud cover rapidly expands to as much as 8 % . One hypothesis asserts that the southern clouds are formed when heightened levels of sunlight during the southern summer generate uplift in the atmosphere , resulting in convection . This explanation is complicated by the fact that cloud formation has been observed not only after the southern summer solstice but also during mid @-@ spring . Increased methane humidity at the south pole possibly contributes to the rapid increases in cloud size . It was summer in Titan 's southern hemisphere until 2010 , when Saturn 's orbit , which governs Titan 's motion , moved Titan 's northern hemisphere into the sunlight . When the seasons switch , it is expected that ethane will begin to condense over the south pole .
= = Surface features = =
The surface of Titan has been described as " complex , fluid @-@ processed , [ and ] geologically young " . Titan has been around since the Solar System 's formation , but its surface is much younger , between 100 million and 1 billion years old . Geological processes may have reshaped Titan 's surface . Titan 's atmosphere is twice as thick as Earth 's , making it difficult for astronomical instruments to image its surface in the visible light spectrum . The Cassini spacecraft is using infrared instruments , radar altimetry and synthetic aperture radar ( SAR ) imaging to map portions of Titan during its close fly @-@ bys . The first images revealed a diverse geology , with both rough and smooth areas . There are features that may be volcanic in origin , disgorging water mixed with ammonia onto the surface . However , there is also evidence that Titan 's ice shell may be substantially rigid , which would suggest little geologic activity .
There are also streaky features , some of them hundreds of kilometers in length , that appear to be caused by windblown particles . Examination has also shown the surface to be relatively smooth ; the few objects that seem to be impact craters appeared to have been filled in , perhaps by raining hydrocarbons or volcanoes . Radar altimetry suggests height variation is low , typically no more than 150 meters . Occasional elevation changes of 500 meters have been discovered and Titan has mountains that sometimes reach several hundred meters to more than 1 kilometer in height .
Titan 's surface is marked by broad regions of bright and dark terrain . These include Xanadu , a large , reflective equatorial area about the size of Australia . It was first identified in infrared images from the Hubble Space Telescope in 1994 , and later viewed by the Cassini spacecraft . The convoluted region is filled with hills and cut by valleys and chasms . It is criss @-@ crossed in places by dark lineaments — sinuous topographical features resembling ridges or crevices . These may represent tectonic activity , which would indicate that Xanadu is geologically young . Alternatively , the lineaments may be liquid @-@ formed channels , suggesting old terrain that has been cut through by stream systems . There are dark areas of similar size elsewhere on Titan , observed from the ground and by Cassini ; at least one of these , Ligeia Mare , Titan 's second @-@ largest sea , is almost a pure methane sea .
= = = Lakes = = =
The possibility of hydrocarbon seas on Titan was first suggested based on Voyager 1 and 2 data that showed Titan to have a thick atmosphere of approximately the correct temperature and composition to support them , but direct evidence was not obtained until 1995 when data from Hubble and other observations suggested the existence of liquid methane on Titan , either in disconnected pockets or on the scale of satellite @-@ wide oceans , similar to water on Earth .
The Cassini mission confirmed the former hypothesis , although not immediately . When the probe arrived in the Saturnian system in 2004 , it was hoped that hydrocarbon lakes or oceans would be detected from the sunlight reflected off their surface , but no specular reflections were initially observed . Near Titan 's south pole , an enigmatic dark feature named Ontario Lacus was identified ( and later confirmed to be a lake ) . A possible shoreline was also identified near the pole via radar imagery . Following a flyby on July 22 , 2006 , in which the Cassini spacecraft 's radar imaged the northern latitudes ( that were then in winter ) , a number of large , smooth ( and thus dark to radar ) patches were seen dotting the surface near the pole . Based on the observations , scientists announced " definitive evidence of lakes filled with methane on Saturn 's moon Titan " in January 2007 . The Cassini – Huygens team concluded that the imaged features are almost certainly the long @-@ sought hydrocarbon lakes , the first stable bodies of surface liquid found outside of Earth . Some appear to have channels associated with liquid and lie in topographical depressions . The liquid erosion features appear to be a very recent occurrence : channels in some regions have created surprisingly little erosion , suggesting erosion on Titan is extremely slow , or some other recent phenomena may have wiped out older riverbeds and landforms . Overall , the Cassini radar observations have shown that lakes cover only a few percent of the surface , making Titan much drier than Earth . Although most of the lakes are concentrated near the poles ( where the relative lack of sunlight prevents evaporation ) , a number of long @-@ standing hydrocarbon lakes in the equatorial desert regions have also been discovered , including one near the Huygens landing site in the Shangri @-@ La region , which is about half the size of Utah 's Great Salt Lake . The equatorial lakes are probably " oases " , i.e. the likely supplier is underground aquifers .
In June 2008 , the Visual and Infrared Mapping Spectrometer on Cassini confirmed the presence of liquid ethane beyond doubt in Ontario Lacus . On December 21 , 2008 , Cassini passed directly over Ontario Lacus and observed specular reflection in radar . The strength of the reflection saturated the probe 's receiver , indicating that the lake level did not vary by more than 3 mm ( implying either that surface winds were minimal , or the lake 's hydrocarbon fluid is viscous ) .
Specular reflections are indicative of a smooth , mirror @-@ like surface , so the observation corroborated the inference of the presence of a large liquid body drawn from radar imaging . The observation was made soon after the north polar region emerged from 15 years of winter darkness .
On July 8 , 2009 , Cassini 's VIMS observed a specular reflection indicative of a smooth , mirror @-@ like surface , off what today is called Jingpo Lacus , a lake in the north polar region shortly after the area emerged from 15 years of winter darkness .
Early radar measurements made in July 2009 and January 2010 indicated that Ontario Lacus was extremely shallow , with an average depth of 0 @.@ 4 – 3 m , and a maximum depth of 3 to 7 m ( 9 @.@ 8 to 23 @.@ 0 ft ) . In contrast , the northern hemisphere 's Ligeia Mare was initially mapped to depths exceeding 8 m , the maximum discernable by the radar instrument and the analysis techniques of the time . Later science analysis , released in 2014 , more fully mapped the depths of Titan 's three methane seas and showed depths of more than 200 meters ( 660 ft ) . Ligeia Mare averages from 20 to 40 m ( 66 to 131 ft ) in depth , while other parts of Ligeia did not register any radar reflection at all , indicating a depth of more than 200 m ( 660 ft ) . While only the second largest of Titan 's methane seas , Ligeia " contains enough liquid methane to fill three Lake Michigans . "
During a flyby on 26 September 2012 , Cassini 's radar detected in Titan 's northern polar region what is likely a river with a length of more than 400 kilometers . It has been compared with the much larger Nile river on Earth . This feature ends in Ligeia Mare .
During six flybys of Titan from 2006 to 2011 , Cassini gathered radiometric tracking and optical navigation data from which investigators could roughly infer Titan 's changing shape . The density of Titan is consistent with a body that is about 60 % rock and 40 % water . The team 's analyses suggest that Titan 's surface can rise and fall by up to 10 metres during each orbit . That degree of warping suggests that Titan 's interior is relatively deformable , and that the most likely model of Titan is one in which an icy shell dozens of kilometres thick floats atop a global ocean . The team 's findings , together with the results of previous studies , hint that Titan 's ocean may lie no more than 100 kilometres ( 62 mi ) below its surface . On July 2 , 2014 , NASA reported the ocean inside Titan may be as salty as the Dead Sea . On September 3 , 2014 , NASA reported studies suggesting methane rainfall on Titan may interact with a layer of icy materials underground , called an " alkanofer , " to produce ethane and propane that may eventually feed into rivers and lakes .
= = = Impact craters = = =
Radar , SAR and imaging data from Cassini have revealed few impact craters on Titan 's surface . These impacts appear to be relatively young , compared to Titan 's age . The few impact craters discovered include a 440 kilometres ( 270 mi ) wide two @-@ ring impact basin named Menrva seen by Cassini 's ISS as a bright @-@ dark concentric pattern . A smaller , 60 kilometres ( 37 mi ) wide , flat @-@ floored crater named Sinlap and a 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) crater with a central peak and dark floor named Ksa have also been observed . Radar and Cassini imaging have also revealed a number of " crateriforms " , circular features on the surface of Titan that may be impact related , but lack certain features that would make identification certain . For example , a 90 kilometres ( 56 mi ) wide ring of bright , rough material known as Guabonito has been observed by Cassini . This feature is thought to be an impact crater filled in by dark , windblown sediment . Several other similar features have been observed in the dark Shangri @-@ la and Aaru regions . Radar observed several circular features that may be craters in the bright region Xanadu during Cassini 's April 30 , 2006 flyby of Titan .
Many of Titan 's craters or probable craters display evidence of extensive erosion , and all show some indication of modification . Most large craters have breached or incomplete rims , despite the fact that some craters on Titan have relatively more massive rims than those anywhere else in the Solar System . However , there is little evidence of formation of palimpsests through viscoelastic crustal relaxation , unlike on other large icy moons . Most craters lack central peaks and have smooth floors , possibly due to impact @-@ generation or later eruption of cryovolcanic lava . Although infill from various geological processes is one reason for Titan 's relative deficiency of craters , atmospheric shielding also plays a role ; it is estimated that Titan 's atmosphere reduces the number of craters on its surface by a factor of two .
The limited high @-@ resolution radar coverage of Titan obtained through 2007 ( 22 % ) suggested the existence of a number of nonuniformities in its crater distribution . Xanadu has 2 – 9 times more craters than elsewhere . The leading hemisphere has a 30 % higher density than the trailing hemisphere . There are lower crater densities in areas of equatorial dunes and in the north polar region ( where hydrocarbon lakes and seas are most common ) .
Pre @-@ Cassini models of impact trajectories and angles suggest that where the impactor strikes the water ice crust , a small amount of ejecta remains as liquid water within the crater . It may persist as liquid for centuries or longer , sufficient for " the synthesis of simple precursor molecules to the origin of life " .
= = = Cryovolcanism and mountains = = =
Scientists have long speculated that conditions on Titan resemble those of early Earth , though at a much lower temperature . The detection of argon @-@ 40 in the atmosphere in 2004 indicated that volcanoes had spawned plumes of " lava " composed of water and ammonia . Global maps of the lake distribution on Titan 's surface revealed that there is not enough surface methane to account for its continued presence in its atmosphere , and thus that a significant portion must be added through volcanic processes .
Still , there is a paucity of surface features that can be unambiguously interpreted as cryovolcanoes . One of the first of such features revealed by Cassini radar observations in 2004 , called Ganesa Macula , resembles the geographic features called " pancake domes " found on Venus , and was thus initially thought to be cryovolcanic in origin , although Kirk et al. refuted this hypothesis at the American Geophysical Union annual meeting in December 2008 . The feature was found to be not a dome at all , but appeared to result from accidental combination of light and dark patches . In 2004 Cassini also detected an unusually bright feature ( called Tortola Facula ) , which was interpreted as a cryovolcanic dome . No similar features have been identified as of 2010 . In December 2008 , astronomers announced the discovery of two transient but unusually long @-@ lived " bright spots " in Titan 's atmosphere , which appear too persistent to be explained by mere weather patterns , suggesting they were the result of extended cryovolcanic episodes .
In March 2009 , structures resembling lava flows were announced in a region of Titan called Hotei Arcus , which appears to fluctuate in brightness over several months . Though many phenomena were suggested to explain this fluctuation , the lava flows were found to rise 200 metres ( 660 ft ) above Titan 's surface , consistent with it having been erupted from beneath the surface .
A mountain range measuring 150 kilometres ( 93 mi ) long , 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) wide and 1 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) high was also discovered by Cassini in 2006 . This range lies in the southern hemisphere and is thought to be composed of icy material and covered in methane snow . The movement of tectonic plates , perhaps influenced by a nearby impact basin , could have opened a gap through which the mountain 's material upwelled . Prior to Cassini , scientists assumed that most of the topography on Titan would be impact structures , yet these findings reveal that similar to Earth , the mountains were formed through geological processes . In December 2010 , the Cassini mission team announced the most compelling possible cryovolcano yet found . Named Sotra Patera , it is one in a chain of at least three mountains , each between 1000 and 1500 m in height , several of which are topped by large craters . The ground around their bases appears to be overlaid by frozen lava flows .
If volcanism on Titan really exists , the hypothesis is that it is driven by energy released from the decay of radioactive elements within the mantle , as it is on Earth . Magma on Earth is made of liquid rock , which is less dense than the solid rocky crust through which it erupts . Because ice is less dense than water , Titan 's watery magma would be denser than its solid icy crust . This means that cryovolcanism on Titan would require a large amount of additional energy to operate , possibly via tidal flexing from nearby Saturn . The low @-@ pressure ice , overlaying a liquid layer of ammonium sulfate , ascends buoyantly , and the unstable system can produce dramatic plume events . Titan is resurfaced through the process by grain @-@ sized ice and ammonium sulfate ash , which helps produce a wind @-@ shaped landscape and sand dune features .
In 2008 Jeffrey Moore ( planetary geologist of Ames Research Center ) proposed an alternate view of Titan 's geology . Noting that no volcanic features had been unambiguously identified on Titan so far , he asserted that Titan is a geologically dead world , whose surface is shaped only by impact cratering , fluvial and eolian erosion , mass wasting and other exogenic processes . According to this hypothesis , methane is not emitted by volcanoes but slowly diffuses out of Titan 's cold and stiff interior . Ganesa Macula may be an eroded impact crater with a dark dune in the center . The mountainous ridges observed in some regions can be explained as heavily degraded scarps of large multi @-@ ring impact structures or as a result of the global contraction due to the slow cooling of the interior . Even in this case , Titan may still have an internal ocean made of the eutectic water – ammonia mixture with a temperature of 176 K ( − 97 ° C ) , which is low enough to be explained by the decay of radioactive elements in the core . The bright Xanadu terrain may be a degraded heavily cratered terrain similar to that observed on the surface of Callisto . Indeed , were it not for its lack of an atmosphere , Callisto could serve as a model for Titan 's geology in this scenario . Jeffrey Moore even called Titan Callisto with weather .
= = = Dark terrain = = =
In the first images of Titan 's surface taken by Earth @-@ based telescopes in the early 2000s , large regions of dark terrain were revealed straddling Titan 's equator . Prior to the arrival of Cassini , these regions were thought to be seas of liquid hydrocarbons . Radar images captured by the Cassini spacecraft have instead revealed some of these regions to be extensive plains covered in longitudinal dunes , up to 330 ft ( 100 m ) high about a kilometer wide , and tens to hundreds of kilometers long . Dunes of this type are always aligned with average wind direction . In the case of Titan , steady zonal ( eastward ) winds combine with variable tidal winds ( approximately 0 @.@ 5 meters per second ) . The tidal winds are the result of tidal forces from Saturn on Titan 's atmosphere , which are 400 times stronger than the tidal forces of the Moon on Earth and tend to drive wind toward the equator . This wind pattern , it was theorized , causes granular material on the surface to gradually build up in long parallel dunes aligned west @-@ to @-@ east . The dunes break up around mountains , where the wind direction shifts .
The longitudinal ( or linear ) dunes were initially presumed to be formed by moderately variable winds that either follow one mean direction or alternate between two different directions . However , subsequent observations indicate that the dunes point to the east although climate simulations indicate Titan 's surface winds blow toward the west . At less than 1 meter per second , they are not powerful enough to lift and transport surface material . Recent computer simulations indicate that the dunes may instead be the result of rare storm winds that happen only every fifteen years when Titan is in equinox . These storms produce strong downdrafts , flowing eastward at up to 10 meters per second when they reach the surface .
The " sand " on Titan is likely not made up of small grains of silicates like the sand on Earth , but rather might have formed when liquid methane rained and eroded the water @-@ ice bedrock , possibly in the form of flash floods . Alternatively , the sand could also have come from organic solids produced by photochemical reactions in Titan 's atmosphere . Studies of dunes ' composition in May 2008 revealed that they possessed less water than the rest of Titan , and are thus most likely derived from organic soot like hydrocarbon polymers clumping together after raining onto the surface . Calculations indicate the sand on Titan has a density of one @-@ third that of terrestrial sand .
= = Observation and exploration = =
Titan is never visible to the naked eye , but can be observed through small telescopes or strong binoculars . Amateur observation is difficult because of the proximity of Titan to Saturn 's brilliant globe and ring system ; an occulting bar , covering part of the eyepiece and used to block the bright planet , greatly improves viewing . Titan has a maximum apparent magnitude of + 8 @.@ 2 , and mean opposition magnitude 8 @.@ 4 . This compares to + 4 @.@ 6 for the similarly sized Ganymede , in the Jovian system .
Observations of Titan prior to the space age were limited . In 1907 Spanish astronomer Josep Comas i Solà observed limb darkening of Titan , the first evidence that the body has an atmosphere . In 1944 Gerard P. Kuiper used a spectroscopic technique to detect an atmosphere of methane .
The first probe to visit the Saturnian system was Pioneer 11 in 1979 , which revealed that Titan was probably too cold to support life . It took images of Titan , including Titan and Saturn together in mid to late 1979 . The quality was soon surpassed by the two Voyagers .
Titan was examined by both Voyager 1 and 2 in 1980 and 1981 , respectively . Voyager 1 's trajectory was designed to provide an optimized Titan flyby , during which the spacecraft was able to determine the density , composition , and temperature of the atmosphere , and obtain a precise measurement of Titan 's mass . Atmospheric haze prevented direct imaging of the surface , though in 2004 intensive digital processing of images taken through Voyager 1 's orange filter did reveal hints of the light and dark features now known as Xanadu and Shangri @-@ la , which had been observed in the infrared by the Hubble Space Telescope . Voyager 2 , which would have been diverted to perform the Titan flyby if Voyager 1 had been unable to , did not pass near Titan and continued on to Uranus and Neptune .
= = = Cassini – Huygens = = =
Even with the data provided by the Voyagers , Titan remained a body of mystery — a large satellite shrouded in an atmosphere that makes detailed observation difficult . The mystery that had surrounded Titan since the 17th @-@ century observations of Christiaan Huygens and Giovanni Cassini was revealed by a spacecraft named in their honor .
The Cassini – Huygens spacecraft reached Saturn on July 1 , 2004 , and began the process of mapping Titan 's surface by radar . A joint project of the European Space Agency ( ESA ) and NASA , Cassini – Huygens has proved a very successful mission . The Cassini probe flew by Titan on October 26 , 2004 , and took the highest @-@ resolution images ever of Titan 's surface , at only 1 @,@ 200 kilometres ( 750 mi ) , discerning patches of light and dark that would be invisible to the human eye . Huygens landed on Titan on January 14 , 2005 , discovering that many of its surface features seem to have been formed by fluids at some point in the past . Titan is the most distant body from Earth to have a space probe land on its surface . On July 22 , 2006 , Cassini made its first targeted , close fly @-@ by at 950 kilometres ( 590 mi ) from Titan ; the closest flyby was at 880 kilometres ( 550 mi ) on June 21 , 2010 . Liquid has been found in abundance on the surface in the north polar region , in the form of many lakes and seas discovered by Cassini .
= = = = Huygens landing site = = = =
The Huygens probe landed just off the easternmost tip of a bright region now called Adiri . The probe photographed pale hills with dark " rivers " running down to a dark plain . Current understanding is that the hills ( also referred to as highlands ) are composed mainly of water ice . Dark organic compounds , created in the upper atmosphere by the ultraviolet radiation of the Sun , may rain from Titan 's atmosphere . They are washed down the hills with the methane rain and are deposited on the plains over geological time scales .
After landing , Huygens photographed a dark plain covered in small rocks and pebbles , which are composed of water ice . The two rocks just below the middle of the image on the right are smaller than they may appear : the left @-@ hand one is 15 centimeters across , and the one in the center is 4 centimeters across , at a distance of about 85 centimeters from Huygens . There is evidence of erosion at the base of the rocks , indicating possible fluvial activity . The surface is darker than originally expected , consisting of a mixture of water and hydrocarbon ice . The " soil " visible in the images is interpreted to be precipitation from the hydrocarbon haze above .
In March 2007 , NASA , ESA , and COSPAR decided to name the Huygens landing site the Hubert Curien Memorial Station in memory of the former president of the ESA .
= = = Proposed or conceptual missions = = =
There have been several conceptual missions proposed in recent years for returning a robotic space probe to Titan . Initial conceptual work has been completed for such missions by NASA , the ESA and JPL . At present , none of these proposals have become funded missions .
The Titan Saturn System Mission ( TSSM ) was a joint NASA / ESA proposal for exploration of Saturn 's moons . It envisions a hot @-@ air balloon floating in Titan 's atmosphere for six months . It was competing against the Europa Jupiter System Mission ( EJSM ) proposal for funding . In February 2009 it was announced that ESA / NASA had given the EJSM mission priority ahead of the TSSM .
There was also a notional concept for a Titan Mare Explorer ( TiME ) , which would be a low @-@ cost lander that would splash down in a lake in Titan 's northern hemisphere and float on the surface of the lake for three to six months .
Another mission to Titan proposed in early 2012 by Jason Barnes , a scientist at the University of Idaho , is the Aerial Vehicle for In @-@ situ and Airborne Titan Reconnaissance ( AVIATR ) : an unmanned plane ( or drone ) that would fly through Titan 's atmosphere and take high @-@ definition images of the surface of Titan . NASA did not approve the requested $ 715 million , and the future of the project is uncertain .
Another lake lander project was proposed in late 2012 by the Spanish @-@ based private engineering firm SENER and the Centro de Astrobiología in Madrid . The concept probe is called Titan Lake In @-@ situ Sampling Propelled Explorer ( TALISE ) . The major difference compared to the TiME probe would be that TALISE is envisioned with its own propulsion system and would therefore not be limited to simply drifting on the lake when it splashes down .
A Discovery Program contestant for its mission # 13 is Journey to Enceladus and Titan ( JET ) , an astrobiology Saturn orbiter that would assess the habitability potential of Enceladus and Titan .
In 2015 , NASA 's Innovative Advanced Concepts ( NIAC ) awarded a Phase II grant to a proposal in order to mature the concept of a submarine to explore the seas of Titan .
= = Prebiotic conditions and life = =
Titan is thought to be a prebiotic environment rich in complex organic chemistry with a possible subsurface liquid ocean serving as a biotic environment .
Although the Cassini – Huygens mission was not equipped to provide evidence for biosignatures or complex organic compounds , it showed an environment on Titan that is similar , in some ways , to ones theorized for the primordial Earth . Scientists surmise that the atmosphere of early Earth was similar in composition to the current atmosphere on Titan , with the important exception of a lack of water vapor on Titan .
= = = Formation of complex molecules = = =
The Miller – Urey experiment and several following experiments have shown that with an atmosphere similar to that of Titan and the addition of UV radiation , complex molecules and polymer substances like tholins can be generated . The reaction starts with dissociation of nitrogen and methane , forming hydrogen cyanide and acetylene . Further reactions have been studied extensively .
In October 2010 , Sarah Horst of the University of Arizona reported finding the five nucleotide bases — building blocks of DNA and RNA — among the many compounds produced when energy was applied to a combination of gases like those in Titan 's atmosphere . Horst also found amino acids , the building blocks of protein . She said it was the first time nucleotide bases and amino acids had been found in such an experiment without liquid water being present .
On April 3 , 2013 , NASA reported that complex organic chemicals could arise on Titan based on studies simulating the atmosphere of Titan .
= = = Possible subsurface habitats = = =
Laboratory simulations have led to the suggestion that enough organic material exists on Titan to start a chemical evolution analogous to what is thought to have started life on Earth . Although the analogy assumes the presence of liquid water for longer periods than is currently observable , several theories suggest that liquid water from an impact could be preserved under a frozen isolation layer . It has also been theorized that liquid @-@ ammonia oceans could exist deep below the surface . Another model suggests an ammonia – water solution as much as 200 kilometres ( 120 mi ) deep beneath a water @-@ ice crust with conditions that , although extreme by terrestrial standards , are such that life could indeed survive . Heat transfer between the interior and upper layers would be critical in sustaining any subsurface oceanic life . Detection of microbial life on Titan would depend on its biogenic effects . That the atmospheric methane and nitrogen might be of biological origin has been examined , for example .
= = = Methane and life at the surface = = =
It has been suggested that life could exist in the lakes of liquid methane on Titan , just as organisms on Earth live in water . Such organisms would inhale H2 in place of O2 , metabolize it with acetylene instead of glucose , and exhale methane instead of carbon dioxide .
Although all living things on Earth ( including methanogens ) use liquid water as a solvent , it is speculated that life on Titan might instead use a liquid hydrocarbon , such as methane or ethane . Water is a stronger solvent than methane . However , water is also more chemically reactive , and can break down large organic molecules through hydrolysis . A life @-@ form whose solvent was a hydrocarbon would not face the risk of its biomolecules being destroyed in this way .
In 2005 , astrobiologist Chris McKay argued that if methanogenic life did exist on the surface of Titan , it would likely have a measurable effect on the mixing ratio in the Titan troposphere : levels of hydrogen and acetylene would be measurably lower than otherwise expected .
In 2010 , Darrell Strobel , from Johns Hopkins University , identified a greater abundance of molecular hydrogen in the upper atmospheric layers of Titan compared to the lower layers , arguing for a downward flow at a rate of roughly 1025 molecules per second and disappearance of hydrogen near Titan 's surface ; as Strobel noted , his findings were in line with the effects McKay had predicted if methanogenic life @-@ forms were present . The same year , another study showed low levels of acetylene on Titan 's surface , which were interpreted by McKay as consistent with the hypothesis of organisms consuming hydrocarbons . Although restating the biological hypothesis , he cautioned that other explanations for the hydrogen and acetylene findings are more likely : the possibilities of yet unidentified physical or chemical processes ( e.g. a surface catalyst accepting hydrocarbons or hydrogen ) , or flaws in the current models of material flow . Composition data and transport models need to be substantiated , etc . Even so , despite saying that a non @-@ biological catalytic explanation would be less startling than a biological one , McKay noted that the discovery of a catalyst effective at 95 K ( − 180 ° C ) would still be significant .
As NASA notes in its news article on the June 2010 findings : " To date , methane @-@ based life forms are only hypothetical . Scientists have not yet detected this form of life anywhere . " As the NASA statement also says : " some scientists believe these chemical signatures bolster the argument for a primitive , exotic form of life or precursor to life on Titan 's surface . "
In February 2015 , a hypothetical cell membrane capable of functioning in liquid methane in Titan conditions was modeled . Composed of small molecules containing carbon , hydrogen , and nitrogen , it would have the same stability and flexibility as cell membranes on Earth , which are composed of phospholipids , compounds of carbon , hydrogen , oxygen , and phosphorus . This hypothetical cell membrane was termed an " azotosome " , a combination of " azote " , French for nitrogen , and " liposome " .
= = = Obstacles = = =
Despite these biological possibilities , there are formidable obstacles to life on Titan , and any analogy to Earth is inexact . At a vast distance from the Sun , Titan is frigid , and its atmosphere lacks CO2 . At Titan 's surface , water exists only in solid form . Because of these difficulties , scientists such as Jonathan Lunine have viewed Titan less as a likely habitat for life , than as an experiment for examining theories on the conditions that prevailed prior to the appearance of life on Earth . Although life itself may not exist , the prebiotic conditions on Titan and the associated organic chemistry remain of great interest in understanding the early history of the terrestrial biosphere . Using Titan as a prebiotic experiment involves not only observation through spacecraft , but laboratory experiments , and chemical and photochemical modeling on Earth .
= = = Panspermia hypothesis = = =
It is hypothesized that large asteroid and cometary impacts on Earth 's surface may have caused fragments of microbe @-@ laden rock to escape Earth 's gravity , suggesting the possibility of transpermia . Calculations indicate that a number of these would encounter many of the bodies in the Solar System , including Titan . On the other hand , Jonathan Lunine has argued that any living things in Titan 's cryogenic hydrocarbon lakes would need to be so different chemically from Earth life that it would not be possible for one to be the ancestor of the other .
= = = Future conditions = = =
Conditions on Titan could become far more habitable in the far future . Five billion years from now , as the Sun becomes a red giant , its surface temperature could rise enough for Titan to support liquid water on its surface making it habitable . As the Sun 's ultraviolet output decreases , the haze in Titan 's upper atmosphere will be depleted , lessening the anti @-@ greenhouse effect on the surface and enabling the greenhouse created by atmospheric methane to play a far greater role . These conditions together could create a habitable environment , and could persist for several hundred million years . This was sufficient time for simple life to evolve on Earth , although the presence of ammonia on Titan would cause chemical reactions to proceed more slowly .
= Kaddish ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Kaddish " is the fifteenth episode of the fourth season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It was written by producer Howard Gordon and directed by Kim Manners . The episode originally aired on the Fox network on February 16 , 1997 . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , a stand @-@ alone plot which is unconnected to the series ' wider mythology , or overarching history . The episode received a Nielsen household rating 10 @.@ 3 and was viewed by 16 @.@ 56 million viewers . It received moderately positive reviews from critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In the episode , Isaac Luria ( Harrison Coe ) , a Jewish man , is killed by a group of teenagers working for a racist shop owner . One of the assailants , however , is soon strangled to death and the fingerprints on his neck are Isaac 's . Despite other factors , Mulder becomes convinced that a Golem is attempting to avenge Isaac 's murder .
" Kaddish " was written by Gordon due to his fascination with the legend of the Golem from the Kabbalah . Originally , the script called for the antagonist to be an African American " Louis Farrakhan @-@ like " character , but Fox was concerned that the show 's increasing popularity with black viewers would be damaged by this , and Gordon agreed to make the villains into , in his words , " cartoonish neo @-@ Nazis " . Gastown , Vancouver stood in for many of the exterior shots that were supposed to be Brooklyn . No Jewish synagogue would rent out their space for the episode , so Shaughnessy Heights United Church was renovated to look like one . This included completely redecorating the pews , carpet , and light fixtures , as well as crafting a Jewish altar . The episode 's title is a reference to the Jewish mourning prayer service ( Hebrew : קדיש ) . Furthermore , " Kaddish " has been critically examined for its themes concerning love and hate .
= = Plot = =
In Brooklyn , New York , a group of Hasidic Jews gather at a cemetery for the funeral of Isaac Luria ( Harrison Coe ) , who had been beaten and shot to death by a gang of three young Neo @-@ Nazis . The last to leave is Isaac 's betrothed , Ariel ( Justine Miceli ) , and her father , Jacob Weiss ( David Groh ) . During nightfall , a dark figure enters the cemetery and crafts a man @-@ shaped sculpture out of mud .
When one of Isaac 's assailants is found strangled with the dead man 's fingerprints on his body , Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) are called in to investigate . Scully suggests that the murder was an act of retribution , and argues that the evidence was staged to look like revenge from beyond the grave . When the agents visit Ariel and Jacob , their request for the exhumation of Isaac 's body angers the old man .
Mulder and Scully then interview Curt Brunjes ( Jonathan Whittaker ) , a racist owner of a copy shop across the street from the market where Isaac worked . Mulder tells Brunjes that the other two boys , who work for Brunjes , are in danger . Scully mentions that there is a rumor spreading that Isaac has risen from the grave to avenge his death . The two boys , who are eavesdropping on the conversation , are terrified at this prospect .
That night , the boys dig up Isaac 's grave and find his body intact . While retrieving tools from the car , one of the boys is brutally murdered . The next morning , Mulder and Scully find a book on Jewish mysticism buried with Isaac 's body ; it mysteriously bursts into flames . On the book is Jacob 's name . The agents search for Jacob , finding him in a synagogue with the hanged body of the last remaining boy . Although Jacob admits to both of the murders , Mulder believes that a Golem — a creature from Jewish mysticism — is the true murderer .
Later , Brunjes is found murdered and Mulder and Scully watch the shop 's surveillance tape . They discover that the Golem has features similar to Isaac . Mulder deduces that , because Ariel and Isaac were not officially wed in a Jewish synagogue , Ariel created the Golem out of love to serve as a surrogate for her late husband . The two agents arrive at the synagogue to find Ariel and the creature exchanging wedding vows . After an intense fight , in which Jacob and Mulder are both wounded , Ariel declares her love for Isaac and returns the creature to dust .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
" Kaddish " was written by producer Howard Gordon and directed by Kim Manners . The episode was dedicated to the memory of Lillian Katz , Gordon 's grandmother . The episode 's title is a reference to the Jewish mourning prayer service . Gordon was inspired to write the episode based on his heritage . He noted , " I was always compelled by the Golem mythology . We had never dealt with the horrors of anti @-@ Semitism and the power of the word [ on The X @-@ Files ] . And because I 'm Jewish , it was something that was really compelling to me personally . " The idea to create a story centering on a Golem , however , had been proposed several times before by " probably every Jewish writer who 's passed through " , according to Gordon .
Gordon claimed that he had wanted to write a story like " Kaddish " since the first season , but that the " emotional basis " had eluded him . The inspiration for Gordon was the communal ring featured in the episode . The ring was a real Jewish relic owned by a rabbi who survived the Holocaust . In fact , the rabbi had used it to wed two of Gordon 's friends . During that wedding , Gordon developed a " Romeo and Juliet @-@ like " story that revolved around themes of love and wanting to bring a loved one back from the dead .
In order to ensure his story would be chosen to air , Gordon decided to play up the elements of anti @-@ Semitism . Originally , however , the script called for both the protagonists and the antagonists to be African Americans , and the main protagonist to be a " Louis Farrakhan @-@ like " character . Gordon later rewrote the script because he realized " black anti @-@ Semitism is a very subtle and difficult subject and not what I needed in my dramatic structure . " To create the kind of hate propaganda that Brunjes and his printshop made in the episode , Gordon contacted the Anti @-@ Defamation League and requested samples . The articles that were presented were used in the episode , with only " minor alterations " .
= = = Casting and characterization = = =
Justine Miceli was chosen to play the role of Ariel ; she based her character 's sorrowful demeanor on the memory of her own father 's death due to cancer . Although she is not Jewish , Miceli was assisted by a friend 's rabbi in order to successfully play the part ; he helped her learn the proper pronunciation for many of the Jewish prayers used in the episode . Gordon was adamant that he did not want Jacob Weiss to be portrayed in a stereotypical way . Initially , he was dismayed when actor David Groh affected a distinct Yiddish accent , for fear that Weiss ' scenes could " lapse into parody rather easily " . Gordon , however , stated that Groh had a " certain verisimilitude " and that it was " the right choice " to have the accent .
Many fans on the internet were hoping that the episode would reveal whether or not Mulder is Jewish . In the episode , however , Mulder is unable to identify a Jewish book , states that he does not know Hebrew , and quips that Jesus returned from the dead . When asked whether or not Mulder is Jewish , Gordon said that he did not think that he is , nor did he think he is " even half @-@ Jewish " . He did , however , note that " there 's something about David [ Duchovny ] that could be Jewish or that has a Jewish sensibility . "
= = = Filming and music = = =
The scene featuring the burning book was difficult to film . For some unknown reason , the pyrotechnics required to create the fire refused to cooperate . David Duchovny and Gillian Anderson ended up spending hours trying to shoot the scene . Gastown , Vancouver — described as " the only area in Vancouver that even remotely resembles residential Queens in New York " — stood in for many of the exterior shots . Shots at the Weiss ' apartment were filmed at the Winter 's Hotel . Originally , the production team was going to remove the hotel 's neon sign , but director Manners , instead , decided to " move the camera another five feet " to prevent " prohibitive " expenses .
Unfortunately for the series , no Jewish synagogue would rent out their space for the episode . The scenes in the synagogue were actually filmed at Shaughnessy Heights United Church . The church was chosen because it possessed a " gothic interior " and " stained glass windows " that " resembled many New York synagogues " . The church was booked for two weeks so that the entire interior could be redecorated to look like a legitimate Jewish temple . This included completely redecorating the pews , carpet , and light fixtures , as well as crafting a Jewish altar . During the construction of the altar , a Hebrew translation of the Ten Commandments was scheduled to be created . However , the series ' on @-@ set Hebrew advisor was not available and so , according to art director Gary Allen , the staff ended up " faking " the text .
Series composer Mark Snow mixed in " clarinet , violin , and cello solos " to the episode 's score . In addition , he admits to borrowing elements of J.S. Bach 's Fugue in G minor , " Little " , BWV 578 piece . He noted , " the aim was to wind up somewhere between a Klezmer band and Schindler 's List . "
= = Themes = =
Gordon said that love is the central conceit of the episode . Although , in the myth of the Golem , the creature is soulless , Gordon took " some liberties " with the legend . He wanted " Kaddish " to " literally be about resurrection " . Ariel creates an imperfect reflection of her husband by crafting the Golem from mud . In essence , she is trying to play God , a role that Gordon later likened to Victor Frankenstein , the scientist from Mary Shelley 's famous novel Frankenstein ; or , The Modern Prometheus ( 1823 ) . However , Ariel and Frankenstein differ in the fact that Ariel 's flaw was related to her " loving [ Isaac ] too much , not being able to let go , because of the cruelty and injustice of what she suffered . " In this manner , Ariel 's motivation for creating the Golem are " slightly more romantically skewed " .
Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , analyzed Gordon 's portrayal of racism and anti @-@ Semitism . They wrote that Gordon " makes [ a ] very convincing point " when he argues that hatemongers like Carl Brunjes — who are openly hateful of other cultures but would never , personally , hurt them — are " just as guilty " as openly violent individuals , such as the " three Nazi thugs who beat and shoot a defenceless man . "
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Kaddish " originally aired on the Fox network on February 16 , 1997 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC One on December 17 , 1997 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 3 , with a 15 share , meaning that roughly 10 @.@ 3 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 15 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 16 @.@ 56 million viewers .
The episode received moderately positive reviews from television critics . Andy Meisler , in his book I Want to Believe : The Official Guide to the X @-@ Files Volume 3 , called the episode " one of the best non @-@ mythological episodes of the fourth season " due to its " seamless integration of character development , social commentary and the supernatural . " Juliette Harrisson of Den of Geek named " Kaddish " the best stand @-@ alone episode of season four and called its conceit " absolutely real and utterly tragic " despite being " highly fantastical " . Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club rated the episode " B + " , claiming that , while it was " the sort of episode that works best if you enjoy it for its style and presentation without getting too caught up in the script " , it felt " appropriate " . Handlen did , however , criticize the episode 's characterization of Scully , noting that her scientific counter @-@ arguments were " becoming less about applying common sense to madness , and more just arguing for arguing 's sake . "
Shearman and Pearson awarded the episode three stars out of five and called it " one of [ Gordon 's ] best " . Furthermore , the two praised many aspects of the script , particularly the " real anger " which made the episode " something special " . Despite this , they felt that the plot " offer [ ed ] nothing unexpected " and that its position , after the revelation that Scully has cancer in " Leonard Betts " caused it to look " as if it 's cheating on the consequences of Scully 's illness " . Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a positive review and awarded it three stars out of four . She called it a " flawed yet unusually affecting episode " . Vitaris cited the Golem 's disintegration as " a leitmotif , a reminder of death , a beautiful way to translate into visual terms the depth of Ariel 's grief . "
= Walter de Coventre =
Walter de Coventre ( died 1371 or 1372 ) was a 14th @-@ century Scottish ecclesiastic . There is no direct evidence of his birthdate , his family , or his family 's origin , although he may have come from the region around Abernethy ( in modern @-@ day Perth and Kinross ) , where a family with the name de Coventre is known to have lived . Walter appeared in the records for the first time in the 1330s , as a student at the University of Paris . From there he went on to the University of Orléans , initially as a student before becoming a lecturer there . He studied the arts , civil law and canon law , and was awarded many university degrees , including two doctorates . His studies were paid for , at least partially , by his benefices in Scotland . Despite holding perhaps more than five benefices at one stage , he did not return to Scotland until the late 1350s .
Following his return to Scotland , Walter soon became Dean of Aberdeen Cathedral . From there he became engaged in high @-@ level ecclesiastical affairs with the Scottish church and political affairs with the Earl of Mar. Sometime before June 1361 , the cathedral chapter of Dunblane elected him Bishop of Dunblane . He went to France to secure confirmation from the Pope at Avignon , who authorised his consecration . Walter was bishop for 10 years after returning home to Scotland . Records of his episcopate are thin , but there are enough to allow a modest reconstruction of his activities : he presided over legal disputes , issued a dispensation for an important irregular marriage , attended parliaments , and acted as an envoy of the Scottish crown in England . He died in either 1371 or 1372 .
= = Background = =
Walter de Coventre was typical of a new class of men in 14th @-@ century Scotland , the university @-@ educated career cleric from the lower nobility . Such men often acquired university education through their family resources , through the patronage of more substantial nobles , or through church influence , particularly support from the pope and his court . Patronage gave access to the resources needed to finance the considerable expense of a 14th @-@ century university education , particularly through the presentation of benefices , gifts of land or income made by the church .
Scotland had no universities in de Coventre 's time , requiring travel either to England or Continental Europe to acquire a university education . Continental Europe , particularly France , was the favoured destination , partly because of bad relations between Scotland and England . After their university education , some Scottish graduates chose to remain abroad and teach at a foreign university or to serve the papacy ; most returned to Scotland and offered their services to the king , a magnate , or an ecclesiastical institution . The ultimate reward for such services was a bishopric , which brought wealth , prestige , and a " job for life " .
Walter de Coventre 's life is not well documented . There are no biographies , and no histories or chronicles devote any space to him . His activities can be traced only through a small number of incidental references in legal deeds , church documents and papal records . No modern historian has written a monograph about him , and the most extensive attempt to reconstruct his life in modern literature is a two @-@ page entry in D. E. R. Watt 's Biographical Dictionary of Scottish Graduates to A.D. 1410 ( 1977 ) . James Hutchison Cockburn , in his Medieval Bishop of Dunblane and their Church ( 1959 ) devoted seven less extensively sourced pages , but they emphasized the analysis of a few events during de Coventre 's episcopate , and the events of his time .
During most of de Coventre 's recorded lifetime Scotland was ruled by King David II . Coming to the throne at age five , King David was driven into exile in France at the age of ten . In the 1330s , civil war raged in Scotland as those loyal to David fought Edward Balliol and his English backers . In some sense , the conflict became a side @-@ show of the Hundred Years ' War , and David resided at Château Gaillard in northern France for much of his exile , until he could return to Scotland in 1341 . In 1346 , in response to a plea from France to come to its aid , David led an army into England only to be taken prisoner at Neville 's Cross ; he remained in captivity until he was ransomed in 1357 . David 's exile in France corresponded with Walter 's own period in that country , prompting one historian to suggest that Walter was part of David 's court while both were in northern France , and that Walter subsequently benefited from the relationship .
= = Biography = =
= = = Origins and personal background = = =
James Hutchison Cockburn , a historian of Dunblane 's medieval bishops , assumed that Walter 's surname derived from the town of Coventry in England . D. E. R. Watt has suggested that the medieval settlement of Coventre or Covintrie near Abernethy in the diocese of Dunblane was the origin of the name .
There is no direct evidence of de Coventre 's family , but two other men bearing the name " de Coventre " are known to have been active during Walter 's lifetime . A " John de Coventre " is found registered as a student at the University of Paris on 21 January 1331 . Before December 1341 , when he resigned , John de Coventre held the parish church of Inverarity , Angus , in the diocese of St Andrews . On 7 December 1345 , a William de Coventre , also from the diocese of Dunblane , held a canonry and prebends ( a cathedral priesthood with stipends ) in the diocese of Ross and the Collegiate Church of Abernethy , when he was granted the church of Inverarity that had previously been held by John de Coventre . William thus appears to have succeeded John ( and later Walter succeeded William ) to all of these benefices .
Watt suggested that all three were brothers , John the first @-@ born , William the second @-@ born , and Walter the youngest of the three . He further suggested that the family was probably closely connected to Margaret de Abernethy , heiress of the old lay abbots and lords of Abernethy . Margaret had patronage over both the church of Abernethy and , as probable owner of the barony of Inverarity , the church there .
= = = Early life = = =
= = = = Education = = = =
De Coventre received a B. A. under John de Waltirstone from the University of Paris by Lent , 1333 . Although he had probably completed a Licentiate in the Arts and a Master of Arts by 1335 , because of gaps in the Paris records it is not certain that he was a Master until April 1345 .
He moved on to study civil law at the University of Orléans , and by 24 March 1337 , he was serving as the proctor of the Scottish Nation in Orléans . By 7 December 1345 , he had received a Licentiate in Civil Law . On 20 December 1348 he was at Avignon as an envoy of his university , and while there he obtained a grace regarding his own benefice holding from Pope Clement VI . On 7 October 1349 , Pope Clement granted an indult to Walter allowing him to be absent from his cure while he continued his studies at Orléans .
He may already have been a Doctor of Civil Law by that point , because in the following year , on 22 November 1350 , he is found as such acting as the Regent of Orléans presenting a candidate for licence . Having studied civil law for the highest qualification available , de Coventre moved on to canon law . By 28 March 1351 , he possessed a Bachelorate in Decrees ( canon law ) . This was perhaps why on 16 April 1353 , he obtained from Pope Innocent VI another grace for himself . Precisely when he obtained his doctorate is unclear , but he was D. U. J. ( doctor utriusque juris ) , Doctor of Both Laws , by 4 September 1359 .
= = = = Benefices = = = =
Walter 's first known benefices were a canonry ( with prebend ) in the Collegiate Church of Abernethy and a prebend in the diocese of Ross , northern Scotland , which he was holding by 12 April 1345 . None of these benefices , neither parish nor office , are known by name . While Walter would retain his Ross benefice until becoming Bishop of Dunblane , he lost his Abernethy benefice at some point between 20 December 1348 and 28 March 1351 . During that period he obtained another unnamed prebend in exchange for the Abernethy prebend . Walter is only the second known canon of Abernethy Collegiate Church .
On 12 April 1345 , he was granted a canonry in the diocese of Dunkeld with expectation of a prebend , but does not appear to have obtained this in practice , although he did obtain a different Dunkeld canonry with prebend on 12 May 1352 . This he retained until his consecration as Bishop of Dunblane in 1361 . Walter also obtained a fourth prebend in this period . He had been pursuing a benefice in the diocese of St Andrews , and while he was granted this on 28 March 1351 , the grant was still not effective by 16 April 1353 , when he was granted a prebend in the diocese of Moray instead . This was not effective either , but Walter did eventually obtain a St Andrews diocese benefice , namely the church of Inverarity in Angus , which had become vacant on the death of its incumbent , William de Coventre , probably Walter 's older brother . On 7 December 1345 , Walter was appointed ( provided ) as Archdeacon of Dunblane , his most substantial benefice to date , but the appointment does not appear to have been carried through .
Walter obtained one more benefice during this period . On 20 December 1348 , he was made Dean of Aberdeen Cathedral , a high @-@ ranking office which Walter was not technically eligible to hold without a papal grace , being only a sub @-@ deacon in orders . The deanery had been made vacant by the death of the long @-@ serving Gilbert Fleming . Although in July the Pope had given it as an extra prebend for Annibald de Ceccano , Cardinal Bishop of Tusculum , this had been cancelled by 20 December , when it was given to Walter instead .
These benefices provided an income without the obligation to perform any pastoral services . Their revenues were assigned to pay for his studies , leaving poorly paid vicars to carry out the pastoral work . Walter remained as a teacher and official at Orléans , perhaps without returning to Scotland at all , until the late 1350s , by when he would have been absent from his native country for more than 25 years . In an Aberdeen document dated 12 July 1356 , it was noted that he was still absent from his post .
= = = Bishop of Dunblane = = =
= = = = Return to Scotland and episcopal election = = = =
Walter cannot be traced back in Scotland with certainty before his appearance as a witness to a charter of Thomas , Earl of Mar , on 9 July 1358 . He may have returned a year earlier , as a document dated sometime between November 1357 and April 1359 records him in the sheriffdom of Forfar ( royal demesne in Angus ) assisting a justice ayre . He appears again on 4 September 1359 , witnessing another charter of Earl Thomas at the latter 's residence of Kildrummy Castle .
Following the death in 1361 of William de Cambuslang , Bishop of Dunblane , Walter was elected by the Dunblane cathedral chapter to be the new bishop . On his election , Walter possessed no benefices in the diocese , and had had none since giving up his Abernethy prebend a decade before . However , it was probably the diocese of his birth , and he had almost become archdeacon of the diocese in 1345 .
Walter , bishop @-@ elect , travelled to the papal court at Avignon , and was provided ( appointed ) as bishop by Pope Innocent on 18 June 1361 . The papal letter of provision expressed displeasure that the chapter ( by electing ) and Walter ( by accepting the election ) were ignoring a previous papal reservation of the bishopric . Pope Innocent quashed the election , but nevertheless agreed to appoint ( provide ) Walter to the bishopric .
Walter may have been consecrated soon after , probably by 23 August . It was on that date that he presented a roll of petitions to the Pope on behalf of several Scotsmen , including Michael de Monymusk , future Bishop of Dunkeld . On 20 September , Bishop Walter made a " promise of services " to the papacy , the first payment of which was delivered to Avignon in 1363 by Walter 's proctor .
= = = = Early episcopate = = = =
Walter had returned to Scotland by 30 June 1362 , when his presence is attested at Partick near Glasgow . The document in which Walter is mentioned recorded that William Rae , Bishop of Glasgow , along with his cathedral chapter , agreed to put a dispute to arbitration .
The remainder of his episcopate is not well documented . His only surviving episcopal deed was issued at Abernethy on 8 February 1365 . The deed authorised the reduction of canons at Abernethy Collegiate Church from ten to five , adding the consent of the patroness Margaret , Countess of Angus . These details are also recorded in a papal letter to the Bishop of St Andrews in 1373 :
Recently a petition of the secular Prior and Chapter [ of Abernethy ] for confirmation described how the [ Collegiate ] Church was founded by lay patrons for a prior and five canons . At a later date some of the patrons were eager to augment its rents , and the number of canons was hopefully raised to ten . No such augmentation took place , and because of wars , fires and ruin the Prior and Chapter were brought to straits . Bishop Walter , therefore , with the assent of the patrons and King David , reduced the canons to five .
The changes were confirmed by the Pope on 31 October 1375 , several years after Bishop Walter 's death .
A document of Inchaffray Abbey , preserved in the original ( as opposed to a later copy ) , recorded that Bishop Walter had been involved in settling a dispute involving Inchaffray , an abbey which lay in his diocese . Inchaffray 's dispute was with Naomhán Mac Eóghainn ( Nevin MacEwen ) and his wife Mairead ( Mariota ) . Under Abbot Symon de Scone , previous Abbot of Inchaffray , the abbey had given some lands in exchange for 40 marks to Mairead 's father Maol Mhuire ( Malmoran ) of Glencarnie .
Under the new abbot , Abbot John , the abbey sought the return of those lands . The case appears to have gone to Bishop Walter 's consistorial court , which he held at the chapel of Innerpeffry . Here Naomhán and Mairead agreed to accept a payment of 40 marks in exchange for returning the documents of ownership given to them by the abbot and for acknowledging the abbey 's ownership . The couple pledged to honour the agreement by swearing an oath on the chapel 's Gospels . The case then proceeded to a hearing held under Robert Stewart , Earl of Strathearn and High Steward of Scotland ( later King Robert II ) , at Perth , where the couple were forced under the threat of severe penalties to swear again never to renew their claim . The decision was sealed by the witnesses , including Bishop Walter , at a Perth church on 30 November 1365 .
= = = = Final years = = = =
On 13 March 1366 , Walter was commissioned by the papacy to authorise dispensation for the irregular marriage between John Stewart , Earl of Carrick ( much later King Robert III ) and Annabella Drummond .
Bishop Walter attended at least five meetings of the Scottish national parliament during his episcopate . He was present at the Scone parliament of 27 September 1367 , which discussed royal revenues and relations with the English crown . He was also present at the Scone parliament of June 1368 , and the Perth parliament of 6 March 1369 ; the latter discussed royal business , relations with the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Norway , and law and order in the Scottish Highlands . Robert Stewart , Thomas , Earl of Mar , Uilleam III , Earl of Ross , and other Highland lords , were ordered to impose greater control in their regions . Bishop Walter took part in two parliamentary committees , the first a clerical committee devoted to general business , and the second a judicial committee authorised to review earlier legal judgments in the kingdom .
The parliament 's discussions on Anglo @-@ Scottish relations preceded peace negotiations later in the year , at which Bishop Walter was one of the Scottish envoys . There was some urgency behind the matter , in view of the impending end to the five @-@ year Anglo @-@ Scottish truce agreed by King Edward III of England on 20 May 1365 . King David travelled to London , where he resided in May and June , in order to take part in the negotiations . Walter and the rest of the embassy , which included four other bishops , were in London by June 1369 , the month in which Edward agreed to a new truce . When it was ratified by the Scots at Edinburgh on 20 July , Bishop Walter was again present , as a witness .
Walter attended the Perth parliament of 18 February 1370 , and was named as one of the members of a special committee " for the deliberation concerning the consideration of common justice " . He is mentioned for the last time swearing fealty to the new king , Robert II , at his accession parliament at Scone on 27 March 1371 . Walter de Coventre must have died later in 1371 or in very early 1372 , because on 27 April 1372 , the Pope appointed Andrew Magnus to the vacant bishopric of Dunblane .
= Darrun Hilliard =
Darrun Hilliard II ( born April 13 , 1993 ) is an American professional basketball player for the Detroit Pistons of the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) . He attended Liberty High School in Bethlehem , Pennsylvania , where he was a two @-@ time Associated Press first @-@ team selection . As a senior in high school , he averaged 19 @.@ 7 points per game . Hilliard committed to play college basketball for the Villanova Wildcats and coach Jay Wright . He showed steady improvement every year , going from 4 @.@ 8 points per game as a freshman to 14 @.@ 3 points per game as a senior as he helped Villanova reach the NCAA Tournament in three straight seasons . As a senior , he was named to the first @-@ team All @-@ Big East and was honored as Big 5 Player of the Year .
= = Early life = =
Hilliard was born on April 13 , 1993 to Charlene Jenkins and Darrun Hilliard . His mother is a representative for an insurance company . His father played basketball at the high school level and first introduced his son to the sport when he was five years old . The younger Hilliard also played football growing up , but preferred basketball . His favorite NBA player was Allen Iverson . He used to bike to Philadelphia Eagles practices as a kid .
= = High school career = =
Hilliard attended Liberty High School in Bethlehem , Pennsylvania , where he was a two @-@ time Associated Press first @-@ team selection . Despite eating , writing , and throwing a football right handed , Hilliard shoots left @-@ handed . As a freshman , he measured 6 ' 1 . His parents split up after his freshman year , and he developed a unique bond with Liberty assistant coach Mike Bachman . As a junior , he averaged 18 points and six rebounds per game and shot 52 percent from the field . Hilliard led the Hurricanes to PIAA state semifinals , where Liberty lost to Penn Wood . In the loss to Penn Wood , Hilliard had 26 points . He was named Morning Call player of the year as a junior . In addition , he was selected to the First Team Class AAAA .
Hilliard averaged 19 @.@ 7 points per game as a senior . He was named Express @-@ Times player of the year after leading the Hurricanes to the second round of the PIAA playoffs . Hilliard scored 1 @,@ 413 points in his high school career , finishing second in Liberty history to Warren West . He committed to Villanova in November 2010 . When Hilliard informed his mother he was receiving a full scholarship to Villanova , she did not understand and was trying to figure how much she would have to pay for her son 's education . In addition to his basketball prowess , Hilliard was the quarterback on his high school football team and could throw the ball 65 yards .
= = College career = =
= = = Freshman = = =
Villanova coach Jay Wright considered redshirting Hilliard in his freshman season , but Wright decided against it after a rash of injuries to his players . He had 13 points in back @-@ to @-@ back games against Penn and Missouri in December 2011 . As a freshman , Hilliard averaged 4 @.@ 8 points , 2 @.@ 5 rebounds and 18 @.@ 1 minutes per game in 29 games and shot 29 @.@ 2 percent from behind the 3 @-@ point arc . During the season , he reached out to his family and friends to see if he made the right decision to come to Villanova . He said , " Freshman year was probably my toughest year of basketball " , due to difficulties in adjusting to a new coach and teammates . He described himself as a mentally unstable 17 @-@ year @-@ old .
= = = Sophomore = = =
In his sophomore season ( 2012 – 13 ) , he averaged 11 @.@ 4 points in just under 30 minutes a game . This proved to be his breakout season and he would go on to start all 34 games that year . He helped Villanova defeat a few top five teams that season . In a comeback win over # 5 Louisville on January 22 , he made a 3 @-@ point play after making a steal at halfcourt which helped spark the rally . In a 75 – 71 overtime victory over # 3 Syracuse on January 26 , 2013 , he had 25 points and six assists in 38 minutes . As a result of his play against Syracuse , Hilliard was honored as Big East Player of the Week and Oscar Robertson National Player of the Week . He also helped them beat then # 5 Georgetown on March 6 by the score of 67 – 57 . In that game , he had 14 points and three steals .
Villanova enjoyed a 20 – 14 season after a down year and reached the NCAA Tournament where they were seeded ninth and matched up with eight seed North Carolina in the first round . Hilliard had a strong showing in a 78 – 71 loss to North Carolina , scoring 18 points .
= = = Junior = = =
Hilliard improved in most offensive categories in the 2013 – 14 season , his junior year . He averaged 14 @.@ 3 points per game that season and improved his three @-@ point shooting percentage to 41 @.@ 4 percent ( up from 31 @.@ 5 percent the year before ) . He made 70 three @-@ pointers that year out of 169 attempts . Hilliard scored 20 points on 8 @-@ of @-@ 13 shooting against Marquette in a 94 – 85 victory on January 25 , 2014 . In an 82 – 79 win over Providence , he hit a crucial 3 @-@ pointer with a minute left in overtime . In a 73 – 56 win over Marquette on March 2 at the Wells Fargo Center , he established a new career high with 26 points on 7 @-@ of @-@ 11 shooting from the field .
Villanova compiled a 29 – 5 record and won the Big East regular season championship and Battle for Atlantis title despite not being ranked in the preseason . In the 2014 NCAA Tournament , Hilliard scored 16 points to help Villanova get past Milwaukee . Villanova lost to eventual national champion Connecticut in the Round of 32 , with Hilliard adding 13 points in the 77 – 65 loss . He was an honorable mention all @-@ Big East selection at the conclusion of the regular season . He shared Big East Most Improved Player award with teammate Daniel Ochefu . Hilliard joined teammate Ryan Arcidiacono on the All @-@ Big 5 Second Team .
= = = Senior = = =
Coming into the 2014 – 15 season , Hilliard was named to the Preseason Second Team All @-@ Big East . He averaged 14 @.@ 3 points , 3 @.@ 6 rebounds , and 2 @.@ 1 assists per game as a senior . Villanova was ranked in the top ten for most of the season thanks to a balanced offense . Hilliard scored 23 points on December 20 in an overtime victory over Syracuse , hitting 9 @-@ of @-@ 17 shots . He hit two free throws to give the Wildcats the first lead of the game in overtime before being kicked in the face and tested for concussion @-@ like symptoms . Against Creighton on January 25 , 2015 , he scored 24 points and made 6 @-@ of @-@ 10 three @-@ pointers in a 71 – 50 victory at home . On February 14 , in a 78 – 75 victory over Butler , Hilliard scored a career @-@ high 31 points and also set a career high with 8 three @-@ pointers made out of 13 attempts . He also hit the game @-@ winning three @-@ pointer with 1 @.@ 5 seconds to play in the game . Eight of his nine field goals in that game were three @-@ pointers , and his eight rebounds were one short of a career @-@ high . He averaged 18 @.@ 7 points during a nine @-@ game stretch that included the Butler game .
Hilliard led the Wildcats to a 33 – 3 season . His final game at Villanova was a 71 @-@ 68 upset at the hands of N.C. State in the NCAA Tournament Round of 32 , despite contributing 27 points . Hilliard finished his Villanova career with 1 @,@ 511 points , 18th highest in school history ; 400 rebounds ; and 176 steals . Hilliard was a 2014 – 15 Men 's All @-@ District II Team selection by the U.S. Basketball Writers Association . The Sporting News selected him to be a Second Team All American . Hilliard was one of three players , along with LaDontae Henton and Kris Dunn , to be named to the All Big East First Team . He was named to the First Team All @-@ District V by the National Association of Basketball Coaches , and was named Big 5 Player of the Year . After the season he was invited to the Portsmouth Invitational Tournament .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Detroit Pistons ( 2015 – present ) = = =
Prior to the 2015 NBA draft , Hilliard signed with James Dunleavy as his agent . He was listed in the 55 @-@ 70 range among NBA Draft prospects by several media agencies . On June 25 , 2015 , Hilliard was selected 38th overall by the Detroit Pistons in the second round of the draft . Hilliard attributed the decision to a productive workout with the team . After averaging 9 @.@ 4 points per game in Orlando Summer League play , on July 20 , Hilliard signed a three @-@ year deal with the Pistons , with one year being guaranteed . Coach Stan Van Gundy praised Hilliard 's shooting prowess , despite a poor showing in the Summer League .
He broke his nose during training camp after engaging in a pickup game . The injury required surgery and he needed to wear a mask . On November 23 , he made his NBA debut in a 109 – 88 loss against the Milwaukee Bucks , recording two points and three rebounds in 12 minutes . During his rookie season , he received multiple assignments to the Grand Rapids Drive , the Pistons ' D @-@ League affiliate .
On June 30 , 2016 , Hilliard was ruled out of the 2016 NBA Summer League after he suffered a stress fracture of the lower back .
= = NBA career statistics = =
= = = Regular season = = =
= Upper Pine Bottom State Park =
Upper Pine Bottom State Park is a 5 @-@ acre ( 2 @.@ 0 ha ) Pennsylvania state park in Lycoming County , Pennsylvania in the United States . The park is in Cummings Township on Pennsylvania Route 44 and is surrounded by the Tiadaghton State Forest . It is on Upper Pine Bottom Run , which gave the park its name and is a tributary of Pine Creek . Upper Pine Bottom State Park is in the Pine Creek Gorge , where the streams have cut through five major rock formations from the Devonian and Carboniferous periods .
The earliest recorded inhabitants of the area were the Susquehannocks , followed by the Iroquois , Lenape , and Shawnee . Upper Pine Bottom Run was the site of a furnace for pig iron in 1814 , the first sawmill was built on it in 1815 , and in 1825 an earlier bridle path across its headwaters became a turnpike . The lumber industry led to the clearcutting of the area in the 19th century . The state forest was started in 1898 and the park was formed from it in the early 1920s as a Class B public camp . The Civilian Conservation Corps had a camp on the run and improved the park in the 1930s , but it was not transferred to the Bureau of State Parks until 1962 . Though it began as a public campsite and once had a picnic pavilion , as of 2009 it is for day use only and its only facilities are a few picnic tables and a parking area .
Upper Pine Bottom State Park is one of the smallest state parks in Pennsylvania , and is maintained by staff from nearby Little Pine State Park . In addition to picnics , its chief use is as a parking area for local hunters , anglers , hikers , cross @-@ country skiers , snowmobilers , and all @-@ terrain vehicle riders . Upper Pine Bottom Run is state @-@ approved and stocked for trout fishing in season . Second @-@ growth forest now covers the region ; the surrounding state forest and park are home to a variety of flora and fauna
= = History = =
= = = Native Americans = = =
Humans have lived in what is now Pennsylvania since at least 10 @,@ 000 BC . The first settlers were Paleo @-@ Indian nomadic hunters known from their stone tools . The hunter @-@ gatherers of the Archaic period , which lasted locally from 7000 to 1000 BC , used a greater variety of more sophisticated stone artifacts . The Woodland period marked the gradual transition to semi @-@ permanent villages and horticulture , between 1000 BC and 1500 AD . Archeological evidence found in the state from this time includes a range of pottery types and styles , burial mounds , pipes , bows and arrows , and ornaments .
Upper Pine Bottom State Park is in the West Branch Susquehanna River drainage basin , the earliest recorded inhabitants of which were the Iroquoian @-@ speaking Susquehannocks . They were a matriarchal society that lived in stockaded villages of large long houses . Upper Pine Bottom Run is at the southern end of the Pine Creek Gorge , and the mountains surrounding the gorge were " occasionally inhabited " by the Susquehannocks . Their numbers were greatly reduced by disease and warfare with the Five Nations of the Iroquois , and by 1675 they had died out , moved away , or been assimilated into other tribes .
After this , the lands of the West Branch Susquehanna River valley were under the nominal control of the Iroquois . They lived in long houses , primarily in what is now New York , and had a strong confederacy which gave them power beyond their numbers . The Iroquois and other tribes used the Pine Creek Path through the gorge , traveling between a path on the Genesee River in modern New York in the north , and the Great Shamokin Path along the West Branch Susquehanna River in the south . The Seneca tribe of the Iroquois believed that the Pine Creek Gorge was sacred land and never established a permanent settlement there , though they did use the path through the gorge and had seasonal hunting camps along it .
To fill the void left by the demise of the Susquehannocks , the Iroquois encouraged displaced tribes from the east to settle in the West Branch watershed , including the Shawnee and Lenape ( or Delaware ) . The valleys of Pine Creek and its tributaries in Cummings Township were used by the Iroquois and Algonkian tribes as a hunting ground . Historians believe that there may have been a Shawnee village and burial ground just to the north of Little Pine State Park on Little Pine Creek , just a few miles from what became Upper Pine Bottom State Park .
The French and Indian War ( 1754 – 1763 ) led to the migration of many Native Americans westward to the Ohio River basin . In October 1784 , the United States acquired a large tract of land , including what is now Upper Pine Bottom State Park , from the Iroquois in the Second Treaty of Fort Stanwix ( this acquisition is known as the Last Purchase in Pennsylvania ) . In the years that followed , Native Americans almost entirely left Pennsylvania ; however some isolated bands of natives remained in the Pine Creek Gorge until the War of 1812 .
= = = Lumber and turnpike = = =
The land that became Cummings Township was first settled by European Americans in 1784 . Lycoming County was formed from a part of Northumberland County on April 13 , 1795 . Upper Pine Bottom Run was originally " famed for the wonderful white pine forest that clothed all the bottomlands " , and the region was covered with eastern white pine and eastern hemlock trees , which lumbermen harvested . To accommodate larger @-@ scale lumber operations and the large quantities of pine logs which these floated downstream to the West Branch Susquehanna River , the Pennsylvania General Assembly declared Pine Creek a public highway on March 16 , 1798 .
The area surrounding Upper Pine Bottom State Park has been a wilderness for much of its history . In 1806 – 1807 a bridle path was cut through the woods just west of the source of Upper Pine Bottom Run as part of a 72 @-@ mile ( 116 km ) path between Jersey Shore ( to the south , at the mouth of Pine Creek ) and Coudersport ( to the northwest , on the Allegheny River in Potter County ) . The bridle path was widened to a road to accommodate wagons in 1812 .
The new road soon brought industry to the region . The discovery of iron ore along the road led seven men to form a company to manufacture iron . In 1814 they built a furnace to produce pig iron on Upper Pine Bottom Run . It took one to two days to haul the ore to the furnace , and other supplies had to be transported 15 miles ( 24 km ) to the furnace on steep mountain roads . These costs were too high , and the furnace lost almost $ 7 @,@ 000 ( approximately $ 104 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) before closing in 1817 . The ruins of the iron furnace were visible through much of the 19th century .
The first two sawmills were built on Upper Pine Bottom Run in 1815 and 1817 . In 1817 , Michael and Henry Wolf also arrived in the area from Berks County and built a sawmill near the mouth of Little Pine Creek , which is 1 @.@ 8 miles ( 2 @.@ 9 km ) downstream along Pine Creek from the mouth of Upper Pine Bottom Run . The Wolfs ' sawmill and the land they cleared for farming helped establish the unincorporated village of Waterville , which became the most significant population center in Cummings Township , and is about 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) southeast of Upper Pine Bottom State Park .
The Jersey Shore and Coudersport Turnpike was built along the former bridle path between 1825 and 1834 . The turnpike , which operated until 1860 , had toll booths every 5 miles ( 8 km ) and charged a horse @-@ drawn wagon $ 1 @.@ 68 to travel the entire road . A post office was established in nearby Waterville in 1849 ; the early businesses included two stores and a hotel , which still stands . Pennsylvania Route 44 , which passes through the park , still follows the course of the former path and turnpike between Haneyville ( at the western end of Upper Pine Bottom Run ) and Coudersport .
Economic development and increased settlement led the Pennsylvania General Assembly to establish Cummings Township in 1832 from land taken from parts of Mifflin and Brown Townships . The new township was named for John Cummings , who was an associate judge in the local court system at the time . Early industry in the township included lumber and quarries for flag and building stone . In 1839 Clinton County was formed from the western part of Lycoming County , with much of the eastern border of the new county formed by the turnpike .
In 1851 the Susquehanna Boom opened on the West Branch Susquehanna River at Williamsport . The log boom , a series of artificial islands with chains between them to catch logs , led to an expansion of the lumber industry and to Williamsport 's nickname , " Lumber Capital of the World " . In 1852 , the 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) upstream of the mouth of Upper Pine Bottom Run were made a public highway by the state legislature , and by 1888 the West Branch Lumber Company owned the headwaters of Upper Pine Bottom Run .
The lumber era did not last ; the old @-@ growth forests were clearcut by the early 20th century and the Pine Creek Gorge was stripped bare . Nothing was left except the discarded , dried @-@ out tree tops , which became a fire hazard , so much of the land burned and was left barren . In the spring of 1894 a fire burned in what is now Tiadaghton State Forest along Route 44 to near Haneyville . In the summer of 1908 the area around the park burned again , in a fire that stretched from Galeton to Jersey Shore . The soil was depleted of nutrients , fires baked the ground hard , and jungles of blueberries , blackberries , and mountain laurel covered the clearcut land , which became known as the " Pennsylvania Desert " . Disastrous floods swept the area periodically and much of the wildlife was wiped out .
= = = State forest and park = = =
As the timber was exhausted and the land burned , many companies simply abandoned their holdings . Conservationists like Joseph Rothrock became concerned that the forests would not regrow if they were not managed properly . They called for the state to purchase land from the lumber companies and for a change in the philosophy of forest management . In 1895 Rothrock was appointed the first commissioner of the Pennsylvania Department of Forests and Waters , the forerunner of today 's Department of Conservation and Natural Resources . In 1897 the Pennsylvania General Assembly passed legislation which authorized the purchase of " unseated lands for forest reservations " and the first Pennsylvania state forest lands were acquired the following year .
On July 13 , 1898 , the state bought a 409 @-@ acre ( 166 ha ) tract of land in Cummings Township for $ 72 @.@ 99 ( $ 2076 in 2016 terms ) . This was the first purchase for what became Tiadaghton State Forest , which surrounds Upper Pine Bottom State Park . Most of the major purchases for it were made between 1900 and 1935 . As of 2009 , the Tiadaghton State Forest covered 146 @,@ 500 acres ( 59 @,@ 300 ha ) , chiefly in Lycoming County with small tracts in Clinton , Potter , Tioga , and Union Counties . The largest section of the state forest is in the Pine Creek valley .
Upper Pine Bottom State Park traces its existence to the early 1920s , when the Pennsylvania Department of Forestry built 31 campsites on state forest land between 1921 and 1925 . The park was originally established as " Upper Pine Bottom Class B Public Camp " and named for the stream that flows through it . Class B camps were on secondary highways and were " used primarily by hikers , hunters , fishermen , vacationists , and picknickers who desire to go far into the woods and make their stay comfortable " . Each Class B camp had a lean @-@ to shelter for camping , potable water , picnic tables , a fireplace , garbage can , and a latrine . There was no charge to use any of the camps , but stays were limited to two consecutive nights .
During the Great Depression , the Civilian Conservation Corps ( CCC ) set up nine camps in Tiadaghton State Forest . The camps included two near Upper Pine Bottom State Park : CCC Camp S @-@ 82 @-@ Pa ( Waterville , also known as Haneyville ) was on Upper Pine Bottom Run about 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) west of the park and operated from May 1933 to 1941 ; CCC Camp S @-@ 129 @-@ Pa ( Little Pine ) was at the site of nearby Little Pine State Park and operated from 1933 to 1937 . The CCC planted large numbers of trees in the state forest , did work in the park , and built a pavilion at the site in 1936 . Although the roof of a structure was still visible in the park in a 1959 aerial photo , as of 2009 there are no pavilions or other buildings in the park . The United States ' entry into the Second World War led to the end of the CCC and all its camps were closed by the summer of 1942 .
In 1950 the park was known as " Upper Pine Bottom State Forest Picnic Area " and was mentioned in a New York Times article on the Pine Creek Gorge . On November 11 , 1954 , the Pennsylvania Geographic Board made the picnic area name official . The Pennsylvania Bureau of Forestry 's Division of State Parks became the Bureau of State Parks in 1962 and Upper Pine Bottom ( and all state parks and picnic areas ) were transferred to it from Forestry that year . In 1972 , Upper Pine Bottom was one of 10 state forest picnic areas kept by the Bureau of State Parks ( 35 were transferred to the Bureau of Forestry ) , and Forrey 's 1984 History of Pennsylvania 's State Parks referred to it as a state forest picnic area . The Pennsylvania Department of Transportation ( Penn DOT ) 1990 map still called it a picnic area , but Cupper 's 1993 Our Priceless Heritage : Pennsylvania 's State Parks 1893 – 1993 called it a state park , as did the Penn DOT 2002 map .
As of 2016 Upper Pine Bottom State Park is a roadside park for day use only , with a small parking lot and a few picnic tables . In addition to picnics , its chief use is as a parking area for local hunters , anglers , hikers , cross country skiers , and snowmobilers . Staff from nearby Little Pine State Park maintain Upper Pine Bottom , and it is one of the smallest state parks in Pennsylvania . Prouty Place State Park , a picnic area to the northwest in Potter County , is also 5 acres ( 2 @.@ 0 ha ) . Only Sand Bridge State Park , another picnic area to the south in Union County , is smaller , at 3 acres ( 1 @.@ 2 ha ) .
= = Geology and climate = =
Although the rock formations exposed in Upper Pine Bottom State Park and the Pine Creek Gorge are at least 300 million years old , the gorge itself formed about 20 @,@ 000 years ago , in the last ice age . Pine Creek had flowed northeasterly until then , but was dammed by rocks , soil , ice , and other debris deposited by the receding Laurentide Continental Glacier . The dammed creek formed a lake near what would later be the village of Ansonia in Shippen Township in Tioga County , and the lake 's glacial meltwater overflowed the debris dam , reversing the flow of Pine Creek . The creek flooded to the south and quickly carved a deep channel on its way to the West Branch Susquehanna River .
The land on which Upper Pine Bottom State Park sits was part of the coastline of a shallow sea that covered a great portion of what is now North America about 300 million years ago , in the Pennsylvanian subperiod . The high mountains to the east of the sea gradually eroded , causing a buildup of sediment made up primarily of clay , sand and gravel . Tremendous pressure on the sediment caused the formation of the rocks that are found today in the Pine Creek drainage basin : sandstone , shale , conglomerates , limestone , and coal .
The park is at an elevation of 938 feet ( 286 m ) on the Allegheny Plateau , which formed in the Alleghenian orogeny some 300 million years ago , when the part of Gondwana that became Africa collided with what became North America , forming Pangaea . Although the gorge and its surroundings seem to be mountainous , the area is a dissected plateau . Years of erosion have cut away the soft rocks , forming the valleys , and left the hardest of the ancient rocks relatively untouched on the top of sharp ridges , giving them the appearance of " mountains " .
Five major rock formations from the Devonian and Carboniferous periods are present in Upper Pine Bottom State Park and Cummings Township . The youngest of these , which forms the highest points in the township , is the early Pennsylvanian Pottsville Formation , a gray conglomerate that may contain sandstone , siltstone , and shale , as well as anthracite coal . Low @-@ sulfur coal was once mined at three locations within the Pine Creek watershed , and there is a coal deposit between the headwaters of Upper Pine Bottom and Lower Pine Bottom Runs . Below this is the late Mississippian Mauch Chunk Formation , which is formed with grayish @-@ red shale , siltstone , sandstone , and conglomerate .
Next below these is the Mississippian Burgoon Sandstone , which is buff colored with shale , coal , and conglomerate inclusions . Below this is the late Devonian and early Mississippian Huntley Mountain Formation , which is made of relatively soft grayish @-@ red shale and olive @-@ gray sandstone . The lowest and oldest layer is the red shale and siltstone of the Catskill Formation , some 375 million years old . This layer is relatively soft and easily eroded , which helped to form the Pine Creek Gorge . The source of Upper Pine Bottom Run is on Mauch Chunk rock , and the stream cuts deeper as it flows east to Pine Creek . In the park Upper Pine Bottom Run has cut through layers of Burgoon sandstone and Huntley Mountain rock , and downstream of the park to its mouth the deepest parts of the valleys are made of the Catskill Formation .
The Allegheny Plateau has a continental climate , with occasional severe low temperatures in winter and average daily temperature ranges ( difference between the daily high and low ) of 20 ° F ( 11 ° C ) in winter and 26 ° F ( 14 ° C ) in summer . The mean annual precipitation for the Pine Creek watershed is 36 to 42 inches ( 914 to 1 @,@ 070 mm ) . January is the coldest month at Upper Pine Bottom State Park , July the warmest , and June the wettest . The highest recorded temperature at the park was 104 ° F ( 40 ° C ) in 1988 , and the record low was − 19 ° F ( − 28 ° C ) in 1982 .
= = Ecology = =
Descriptions from early explorers and settlers give an idea of what the Pine Creek Gorge was like before it was clearcut . The forest was up to 85 percent hemlock and white pine ; hardwoods made up the rest . The Pine Creek watershed , which Upper Pine Bottom Run is part of , was home to large predators such as wolves , lynx , wolverines , panthers , fishers , bobcats and foxes ; all except the last three are locally extinct as of 2007 . The area had herds of American bison , elk and white @-@ tailed deer , and large numbers of black bears , river otters , and beavers . Rattlesnakes and insects plagued early explorers and settlers in the region .
The virgin forests cooled the land and streams , and centuries of accumulated organic matter in the forest soil caused slow percolation of rainfall into the creeks and runs so that they flowed more evenly year @-@ round . Pine Creek and its tributaries were home to large numbers of fish , including trout , but dams downstream on the Susquehanna River have eliminated the shad and eels once found here by blocking their migrations . Habitat for land animals was destroyed by the clearcutting of forests , but there was also a great deal of hunting , with bounties paid for large predators .
Upper Pine Bottom Run 's virgin white pines were all clearcut , but in 1925 the Department of Forests and Waters reported " thrifty young growth has now taken in its place " . In the 1920s chestnut blight killed almost all the American chestnut trees in the Tiadaghton State Forest , and oak trees suffered from oak leaf tier moths in the 1950s and oak leaf roller moths in 1967 . Gypsy moths defoliated the state forest between 1978 and 1982 . As of 2009 the surrounding state forest is " dominated by mixed oak forests " , along with hardwoods such as ash , beech , birch , cherry , and maple , as well as hemlock and pine . The Pine Creek Gorge is home to over 225 species of wildflowers , plants and trees , 40 species of mammals , 245 species of birds , and 26 species of fish . Common animals include deer , squirrels , bear , eagles , wild turkey , and ravens .
= = Recreation = =
As of 2009 recreational opportunities within the 5 @-@ acre ( 2 @.@ 0 ha ) Upper Pine Bottom State Park were limited to picknicking and fishing . Although the park was established in the early 1920s as a campground with a latrine , the park today has no campsites or sanitary facilities . Upper Pine Bottom Run was listed in a guide for trout and bass fishing in 1885 , and in 1925 the Department of Forests and Waters said there was good fishing and hunting in the camp . Brown trout over 20 inches ( 51 cm ) long were reported in the stream in 1994 . In 2009 , all of Upper Pine Bottom Run has been designated as approved trout waters by the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission , which means that it is stocked with trout and may be fished during trout season .
Upper Pine Bottom State Park also serves as a parking area and access point for the surrounding state forest , where recreational opportunities include hiking and hunting . The most common game animals are black bear , ruffed grouse , white @-@ tailed deer , and wild turkey . The state forest trails are also open to mountain biking and horseback riding , and in winter are used for cross @-@ country skiing and snowmobiling . Just north of the park is the 19 @-@ mile ( 31 km ) Haneyville ATV Trail system for all @-@ terrain vehicles . The parking area for the trail is on PA 44 at the site of the former CCC camp S @-@ 82 @-@ Pa , and the history of the stream is reflected in the names of three of the trails in the system : Furnace Trail ( for the iron furnace ) , CCC Trail , and Plantation Loop ( for the plantations of trees planted by the CCC ) .
= = Nearby state parks = =
The following state parks are within 30 miles ( 48 km ) of Upper Pine Bottom State Park :
= SpongeBob 's Last Stand =
" SpongeBob 's Last Stand " is the eighth episode of the seventh season and the 134th overall episode of the American animated television series SpongeBob SquarePants . It originally aired on Nickelodeon in the United States on April 22 , 2010 , in celebration of Earth Day .
The series follows the adventures and endeavors of the title character and his various friends in the underwater city of Bikini Bottom . In this episode , SpongeBob and Patrick protest the construction of a highway that would destroy Jellyfish Fields .
The episode was written by Aaron Springer , Steven Banks , and Derek Iversen , and was directed by Andrew Overtoom and Tom Yasumi . Upon release , the episode met positive reviews . On March 16 , 2010 , the episode became available on DVD .
Similar to that of The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie , the episode was originally planned to be the final episode of the series , but Nickelodeon decided to keep it on afterwards .
= = Plot summary = =
Early one day , SpongeBob and Patrick become the first visitors to a new section of Jellyfish Fields . As they wander in the area , they discover a sign that states that a " super highway " will be built through Jellyfish Fields . Believing that the highway will pollute and ultimately destroy Jellyfish Fields , SpongeBob resolves to prevent the highway 's creation .
SpongeBob asks Mr. Krabs for assistance , but he supports the highway , as it can bring more customers to the Krusty Krab . SpongeBob then shows Mr. Krabs the highway 's blueprint , which shows that the highway with concrete columns will run over the Krusty Krab and end directly at the Chum Bucket , revealing that Plankton is responsible for the highway 's development . Mr. Krabs thus decides to support SpongeBob . They both go to the Chum Bucket and ask Plankton to not develop the highway , but he states that , already , the whole rest of the town has unanimously voted to build the highway .
Refusing to give up , SpongeBob and Patrick peacefully petition to stop the highway . Nobody listens to them , however , and they are quickly exiled for their actions . Shortly after arriving there , they see a parade meant to commemorate the groundbreaking of the highway . It is rapidly built and , as SpongeBob predicted , it turns Jellyfish Fields into a wasteland .
A few days later , the Krusty Krab 's business quickly dwindles due to the highway . Believing that no one will come to the Krusty Krab , Mr. Krabs decides to finally give Plankton the Krabby Patty formula . Mere seconds before he does , however , the jellyfish from Jellyfish Fields invade Bikini Bottom and start attacking civilians . Seeing this as an opportunity to demolish the highway , SpongeBob makes an appeal to the people , who agree to destroy it . Everybody in Bikini Bottom turns against Plankton and destroys the pavement and the columns of the highway ( Plankton , who thinks his highway is unremovable , tries to save it but gets run over ) . Jellyfish Fields is restored instantly to its natural state .
= = Production = =
" SpongeBob 's Last Stand " was written by Aaron Springer , Steven Banks , and Derek Iversen . Springer also served as storyboard director . Directed by Andrew Overtoom and Tom Yasumi , the episode was part of Nickelodeon 's 2010 Earth Day celebration . The episode originally aired on Nickelodeon in the United States on April 22 , 2010 , following a two @-@ hour marathon of nature @-@ themed SpongeBob episodes . A tie @-@ in game to the episode was released online prior to its television airing . According to Nickelodeon , " [ kids will ] learn about the environment through different levels at different Bikini Bottom locales . "
Nickelodeon officially announced the episode on a press release on April 5 , 2010 . According to the network , " SpongeBob and Patrick learn the ' Shelly Super Highway ' is coming to Bikini Bottom - right through Jellyfish Fields ! They must find a way to galvanize their neighbors , or it could be the end for Jellyfish Fields forever . " It was promoted as SpongeBob 's campaign to save the jellyfish . Writer Banks told that the episode never set out to teach environmental lessons . He said " When you entertain someone and make it funny , sometimes you can get a message across [ ... ] Not that we 're out here to send messages everywhere . " The episode featured two musical numbers , including " Give Jellyfish Fields a Chance " , a salute to the 1960s protest songs with similarities to John Lennon 's " Give Peace a Chance " . Banks , on the song , said that " [ It is a ] sort of Bob Dylan meets John Lennon . "
On March 16 , 2010 , prior to the episode 's television airing , the episode was released on the DVD compilation of the same name in the United States and Canada , on July 18 , 2011 in region 2 , and on June 6 , 2011 in region 4 . The DVD features six other episodes including " Pet or Pests " , " Komputer Overload " , " Gullible Pants " , " Overbooked " , " No Hat for Pat " , and " Toy Store of Doom " . It was also released on the series ' season seven DVD compilation , alongside 25 other episodes .
= = Reception = =
According to the Nielsen Media Research , Nickelodeon averaged 2 @.@ 1 million total viewers . SpongeBob SquarePants was ranked as the number @-@ one program on broadcast and basic cable in April and scored the number @-@ one telecast , " SpongeBob 's Last Stand " , with kids 2 @-@ 11 for the month .
The episode received positive reviews from critics . Paul Mavis of DVD Talk said " [ the episode have ] a nicely worked @-@ out story and strong , integrated gags . He added " it 's a particularly well @-@ crafted entry . " C. S. Strowbridge of The Numbers said " There are a number of funny gags on this double @-@ length short , but it feels padded . It 's also heavy @-@ handed . I do like that they have a message to go with the jokes , but it would have been more effective if it were more subtle . " Josh Rode of DVD Verdict described the episode as " decent " . Shannon Gosney of The Mommy @-@ Files said " there were many parts where my boys just burst out laughing . Even I found myself laughing at times . "
= Texas Giant =
The New Texas Giant is a steel roller coaster located at Six Flags Over Texas in Arlington , Texas . The ride opened in 2011 after an 18 @-@ month refurbishment of the former Texas Giant wooden roller coaster . Manufactured by Rocky Mountain Construction , the New Texas Giant stands 153 ft ( 47 m ) tall and features a 79 ° drop stretching 147 ft ( 45 m ) . The ride also features multiple turns banked up to 115 ° and over 4 @,@ 506 feet ( 1 @,@ 373 m ) of track .
The original Texas Giant was manufactured by Dinn Corporation and designed by Curtis D. Summers . For more than a decade after its opening in 1990 , the Texas Giant remained popular , ranking in the Golden Ticket Awards as the number one wooden roller coaster in 1998 and 1999 . However , throughout the 2000s the ride 's popularity declined as a result of the ride becoming rougher . Despite maintenance attempts by the park , Six Flags Over Texas announced the ride 's closure in 2009 . Much of the original wooden structure was kept , with the track being replaced with steel .
After the ride 's relaunch in 2011 as the New Texas Giant , its popularity returned , winning Amusement Today 's Golden Ticket Award for Best New Ride of 2011 and ranking highly in industry polls . On July 19 , 2013 , a woman died after falling from the ride , resulting in modifications and additions to the ride 's restraint system .
= = History = =
The Texas Giant was originally constructed by Dinn Corporation , with Curtis D. Summers as the designer . The ride was made up of over 900 @,@ 000 board feet ( 2 @,@ 100 m3 ) of wood . The trains were manufactured by Philadelphia Toboggan Coasters . The Texas Giant officially opened on March 17 , 1990 . At opening , the ride was the world 's tallest wooden roller coaster , standing 143 feet ( 44 m ) high .
Following the ride 's opening it had several modifications and renovations , which included reprofiling parts of the ride , shortening the seven @-@ car trains to six @-@ car trains , and performing maintenance on the wooden track . Six Flags Over Texas performed over 1 @,@ 200 feet ( 370 m ) of trackwork on the ride in the 2008 – 2009 offseason , with the ultimate aim of improving the ride 's smoothness . Although the maintenance did improve the ride , park officials needed a more permanent solution . Initial speculation indicated the ride would be removed entirely from the park ; however , Six Flags Over Texas denied any intention or consideration to do so . In March 2009 , the park announced the closure of Texas Giant prior to a $ 10 million renovation . Following Fright Fest for that year , the ride closed on November 1 , 2009 .
Renovations began almost immediately and involved the removal of all of the wooden track and modifications to some of the support structure . On March 3 , 2010 , Six Flags Over Texas and Rocky Mountain Construction ( RMC ) unveiled the steel I @-@ Box track which would be used on the refurbished ride . The track was developed over the course of three years by RMC owner Fred Grubb , and Ride Centerline , LLC engineers Alan Schilke and Dody Bachtar . The steel track was designed to be a replacement for any existing wooden track structure , with the rail shape , approximate weight , and dimensions remaining the same . Schilke designed the layout for the New Texas Giant , giving specifications to Grubb for manufacturing at RMC 's Idaho plant . There , two @-@ dimensional plates of steel were machine @-@ welded to form the three @-@ dimensional track parts . The redevelopment saw much of the track get reprofiled ; the lift hill was increased by 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) , the first drop was steepened to 79 degrees , and several overbanked turns ( ranging from 90 ° to 115 ° ) were added . The renovated ride , dubbed the New Texas Giant , reopened on April 4 , 2011 .
= = = 2013 accident = = =
On July 19 , 2013 , a 52 @-@ year @-@ old woman fell to her death while riding the Texas Giant . A park official released a statement saying , " We are committed to determining the cause of this tragic accident and will utilize every resource throughout this process ... When we have new information to provide , we will do so . Our thoughts , prayers and full support remain with the family . " The ride was closed indefinitely pending further investigation . On September 10 , 2013 , Six Flags Over Texas released a statement stating that the park has finished its investigation on the recent incident , with several parties ruling out mechanical failure . The New Texas Giant reopened on September 14 , 2013 , with all three trains featuring re @-@ designed restraint bar pads and seat belts . The incident saw Six Flags introduce seat belts as secondary restraints on other roller coasters within their chain .
= = Characteristics | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
Carolina replaced numerous trees after the storm . Wind damage was quite significant across South Carolina , particularly the city of Beaufort , South Carolina , with many downed trees , telephone poles , and streetlights . Also , numerous windows were shattered and shingles were torn off of roofs . A number of creeks overflowed causing floodwaters that , in areas , were several feet deep . The opening of the Beaufort Center of the University of South Carolina was delayed due to Gracie . It would be 30 years before another major hurricane struck South Carolina ; Hurricane Hugo in September 1989 .
= = = Elsewhere in the United States = = =
Heavy rains fell well ahead of the storm along an inverted trough extending north of the storm , causing 6 @.@ 79 inches ( 172 mm ) between the mornings of September 28 and September 29 at Norfolk , Virginia . The highest rainfall amount measured during the storm was 13 @.@ 20 inches ( 335 mm ) at Big Meadows . The storm spawned seven tornadoes in all . A few of the tornadoes which accompanied the dissipating storm through Virginia killed twelve people near Charlottesville , Virginia . Other tornadoes touched down in the Carolinas and Pennsylvania . For the most part , rainfall from Gracie was beneficial as it moved up the Appalachians since the area had been in a drought preceding the cyclone .
= = Long @-@ term impact = =
Edisto Beach , South Carolina was changed forever by Gracie , due to human efforts to renourish the beach after its passage . Most of the shell hash beach currently at Edisto was placed there after Gracie . In order to expand the beach , an inland marsh was excavated and moved to the shoreline . This created highly desirable beach front property which led to new development along the coast seaward of Palmetto Boulevard , but also created an environmental catastrophe along the nearby ocean floor . A species of isopod which grows in coastal estuaries , the Cyathura Polita , disappeared after the passage of this hurricane from the Ashepoo River in South Carolina . The Kermadec petrel , a bird , was swept to Lookout Mountain Sanctuary in Pennsylvania during Gracie , marking the first time it appeared in North America .
= All Singing , All Dancing =
" All Singing , All Dancing " is the eleventh episode of The Simpsons ' ninth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on January 4 , 1998 . In the fourth clip show aired by The Simpsons , Homer claims he hates singing , so Marge shows family videos of musical numbers from the previous seasons of the series . The original material was directed by Mark Ervin and written by Steve O 'Donnell . It was executive produced by David Mirkin . It features guest appearances from George Harrison , Patrick Stewart , and Phil Hartman , although these are all clips and none of them recorded original material for the episode .
= = Plot = =
Homer and Bart rent the film Paint Your Wagon , expecting it to be a shoot @-@ em @-@ up Western . Homer is dismayed to find out that it is actually a musical , and expresses his distaste for such films . Marge is baffled by this , saying that he ironically loves singing . The family starts delivering their dialogue in song form , and Marge decides to prove that Homer loves to sing by showing family videos . Several clips are shown of various songs from past episodes , but Homer is not convinced . At this moment , Snake breaks into their house and holds them hostage . However once he hears them singing , Snake decides that they would not make good hostages and leaves .
The family continues to sing and more videos are shown . Snake again breaks into the house and claims that he got a song stuck in his head and the only way to get rid of it is to kill the Simpsons . He tries to shoot them , but discovers that his gun is out of ammunition and leaves again .
After more clips , Snake returns for a final time , with ammunition , and aims his gun at them , but the family reveals that they are done singing . Snake declares that he has no problems with them and leaves .
= = Songs = =
The clip show features several full songs from previous episodes of The Simpsons .
Many of them are among the most popular songs from the show . " Who Needs The Kwik @-@ E @-@ Mart ? " and " We Do " had previously been nominated for best song at the Primetime Emmy Awards , and " We Put the Spring in Springfield " won the award in 1997 .
= = Production = =
The episode is the fourth and penultimate clip show episode of The Simpsons . It was put together by Steve O 'Donnell , who wrote this episode and " The Joy of Sect " ( which , in production order , preceded this episode ) . Executive producer David Mirkin hated doing clip shows and " wouldn 't do them if we had a choice " and this is referenced at the end of the episode . The episode contains two " screw the audience act breaks " in which a major problem is presented before the commercial but suddenly ends after the break . The episode also had problems with the censors as they objected to scenes of Snake pointing his shotgun at the Simpsons ' baby daughter , Maggie . In spite of this , " All Singing , All Dancing " is one of the few episodes of The Simpsons that has been given a G @-@ rating on American television .
= = Cultural references = =
Clint Eastwood is dressed as the Man with No Name from the Dollars Trilogy films . The film Paint Your Wagon is referenced at the beginning of the episode . The film does star Eastwood and Lee Marvin and was directed by Joshua Logan , but the writers did not base their parody or the song on the film at all . The man in the film that confronts Clint Eastwood is modelled after Lee Van Cleef .
Several of the songs featured in the episode are references to actual musicals . " Springfield , Springfield " , sung by Bart and Milhouse , is a reference to " New York , New York " , from On the Town . Krusty 's " Send in the Clowns " uses different lyrics than the original version by Stephen Sondheim . Lyle Lanley 's " The Monorail Song " takes references from a performance by character Professor Harold Hill in The Music Man , including Lanley 's costume and " the crowd 's mindless acceptance of his deceitful proposal " . " See My Vest " is a parody of the song " Be Our Guest " , sung by Angela Lansbury in the 1991 film Beauty and the Beast . While at the First Church of Springfield , Bart substitutes the lyrics from Iron Butterfly 's " In @-@ A @-@ Gadda @-@ Da @-@ Vida " to " In the Garden of Eden " .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " All Singing , All Dancing " finished 26th in ratings for the week of December 29 , 1997 – January 4 , 1998 , with a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 1 , equivalent to approximately 8 @.@ 9 million viewing households . It was the second highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following The X @-@ Files .
Although he normally hates clip shows , David Mirkin liked this episode because of the singing and dancing and called the clips " truly wonderful " . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , wrote " for a clips show , it 's not bad . The only one missing really is " Dr Zaius " from " A Fish Called Selma " . In his book Planet Simpson , author Chris Turner wrote , " when songs spring up one at a time , you might notice a clever line or two , or the way that they serve the same kind of plot @-@ advancing or energy @-@ generating purposes they do in Singin ' in the Rain or Cats , but piled together in [ " All Singing , All Dancing " ] , they amount to a sort of Simpsonian side project : Springfield : The Musical . And ... it 's a very impressive side project at that . " The episode was nominated for a 1998 Emmy Award , in the " Music Direction " category . A review of The Simpsons season 9 DVD release in the Daily Post noted that it includes " super illustrated colour commentaries " on " All Singing , All Dancing " and " Lost Our Lisa " . Isaac Mitchell @-@ Frey of the Herald Sun cited the episode as a " low moment " of the season , noting it " recycles parts of previous episodes " .
Michael Dunne analyzed the episode in his book American Film Musical Themes and Forms , and gave examples from it while explaining that singing and dancing performances are generally not seen as acceptable in the television medium . He notes that Homer calls singing " fruity " and " the lowest form of communication " during the episode . However , Dunne also notes the fact that Homer himself sings " his objection that musicals are fake and phony " . Dunne describes the frame narrative as establishing Marge as " more favorably disposed toward musicals than the males in her house " . Dunne concluded that " musicals come out on top in this episode , but the victory is marginal at best " . Of the episode itself , Dunne wrote that " the parodies contained in the show demonstrate that its creators are familiar enough with various forms of musical performance to echo them and confident enough that their viewers will catch the references " .
= Audition Day =
" Audition Day " is the fourth episode of the fourth season of the American television comedy series 30 Rock , and the 62nd overall episode of the series . The episode was written by supervising producer Matt Hubbard and directed by Beth McCarthy @-@ Miller . It originally aired on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) network in the United States on November 5 , 2009 . Guest stars in this episode include Craig Castaldo , Nick Fondulis , Daniel Genalo , Marceline Hugot , Angela Grovey , Michael Mulheren , David Perlman , and Brian Williams . There are cameos by Gilbert Gottfried , Martin Scorsese , and Christopher Walken , though , the three did not appear as themselves , but provided their voices in the episode .
In the episode , Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) and Pete Hornberger ( Scott Adsit ) attempt to rig The Girlie Show with Tracy Jordan ( TGS ) auditions to guarantee that their preferred candidate ( Fondulis ) will be selected by their boss , Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) . Meanwhile , Jack learns a valuable lesson about humanity when he becomes infected with bedbugs .
" Audition Day " has received generally good reception from television critics . According to the Nielsen Media Research , it was watched by 5 @.@ 940 million households during its original broadcast , and received a 2 @.@ 9 rating / 7 share among viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic .
= = Plot = =
Writer Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) and producer Pete Hornberger ( Scott Adsit ) of the show TGS with Tracy Jordan have decided to rig the TGS auditions — in which they are in search of a new cast member on the show — by planning to add bad actors so that their preferred choice , Jayden Michael Taylor ( Nick Fondulis ) , gets hired by their boss , Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) . TGS cast member Jenna Maroney ( Jane Krakowski ) learns that the auditions are taking place and worries that her position on the show will be lessened with the arrival of a new actor . Although Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) , the star of the show , reassures Jenna that the two have nothing to worry about , she remains uneasy . Later , Jenna discovers that Liz and Pete want Jayden to be cast , but she pleads with Liz to pull Jayden out of his audition . Jenna hates him for humiliating her after working together on a play , but Liz does not change her mind about Jayden . Jenna eventually figures out what Liz and Pete are scheming , so she and Tracy go out and find people ( Angela Grovey and David Perlman ) and bring them to the TGS auditions .
Meanwhile , Jack learns from NBC page Kenneth Parcell ( Jack McBrayer ) that he has bedbugs . As a result of being ostracized due to his condition , and now feeling compassionate , Jack tells Liz to give everyone a chance to audition , after catching her trying to get rid of people trying out . During the audition process , Jack , Liz , and Pete witness auditions from TGS staff writers Frank Rossitano ( Judah Friedlander ) , James " Toofer " Spurlock ( Keith Powell ) , J.D. Lutz ( John Lutz ) , NBC news anchor Brian Williams , Kathy Geiss ( Marceline Hugot ) , the daughter of General Electric ( GE ) CEO Don Geiss ( Rip Torn ) , " Dot Com " Slattery ( Kevin Brown ) , former TGS cast member Josh Girard ( Lonny Ross ) , and a robot street performer ( Daniel Genalo ) . During Jayden 's audition , Liz realizes that Jayden 's supposed references — Gilbert Godfried , Martin Scorsese , and Christopher Walken — were not legit and that Jayden impersonated them . She confronts him about this , however , Jayden plans to blackmail Liz with a camera marked by her fingerprints — that features provocative photos of Jayden , to make it look like Liz would only hire him if he would let her take pictures of his genitals . Liz tries to stop Jack from casting Jayden , though Jack has made up his mind in hiring the robot street performer . Jack casts him after he shook his hand without being concerned that Jack had bedbugs .
= = Production = =
" Audition Day " was written by 30 Rock supervising producer Matt Hubbard , his first episode for the fourth season , and his eighth writing credit overall . The episode was directed by Beth McCarthy @-@ Miller , making it her eighth for the series . " Audition Day " originally aired in the United States on November 5 , 2009 , on NBC as the fourth episode of the show 's fourth season and the 62nd overall episode of the series . This episode of 30 Rock was filmed on October 29 , 2009 .
Actress Marceline Hugot made her seventh appearance on the show as Kathy Geiss , the daughter of GE CEO Don Geiss , after appearing in the episodes " Jack Gets in the Game " , " Succession " , " Sandwich Day " , " Cooter " , " Do @-@ Over " , and " Reunion " . News anchor Brian Williams , of NBC Nightly News , made his second appearance as himself with this episode , in which he auditions to become a cast member of TGS . He first appeared in the season three episode " The Ones " . In one scene of " Audition Day " , a homeless man keeps his distance from Jack Donaghy after Jack said he had bedbugs . The homeless man was credited as Moonvest and played by Craig Castaldo , or known as Radio Man . Castaldo has made numerous appearances on 30 Rock . At the end of the credits , Gilbert Gottfried , Martin Scorsese , and Christopher Walken are credited as doing their actual voices on Liz Lemon 's phone .
Jack hiring the robot street performer in " Audition Day " was first introduced in the fourth season premiere episode " Season 4 " . Actor Cheyenne Jackson made his 30 Rock debut as Danny Baker in " The Problem Solvers " , the next episode . Jackson did not play the robot in this episode , instead actor Daniel Genalo played the character . This is the last episode to feature Lonny Ross as Josh Girard until the 100th episode .
= = Cultural references = =
In the beginning of this episode , Jack tells Liz " That 's what I 'm talking about . Human empathy , it 's as useless as the Winter Olympics ... this February on NBC . " Realizing Kenneth might know what is going on with the TGS auditions , Jenna floats towards him with the wind in her hair , and when Kenneth sees her he calls her " Vampyr ! " . Later , Jenna reveals to Liz that she has been brought into auditions , similar to what Liz and Pete are doing with rigging the TGS auditions , to make actress Kim Cattrall seem grounded and human .
Jenna mentions that she met Jayden 20 years ago . The scene then flashes back to Jenna getting dissed by a young Jayden . The costume she is wearing is essentially the same costume that Jane Krakowski wore 20 years previously in the Broadway musical Starlight Express . In addition , Jayden is dressed similar to the street urchin Gavroche in Les Misérables because the young boy playing that role on Broadway was also providing the voice of Control in Starlight .
During her audition , Kathy sings as Scottish amateur singer Susan Boyle who gained worldwide attention for her performance of the song " I Dreamed a Dream " from the musical Les Misérables on the reality show Britain 's Got Talent . Kathy 's performance ( sung by operatic soprano Lisette Oropesa ) gets Liz and Jack teared up , similar to Boyle 's performance on Britain 's Got Talent . It is revealed that Dot Com once portrayed the character Boris Alexeyevich Trigorin in Anton Chekhov 's play The Seagull . When Kenneth refuses to embrace him , Jack asks him " Et tu , Kenneth ? " , prompting Kenneth to explain in Latin why he will not embrace Jack due to his bedbugs .
During his meeting with fellow GE executives , in which Jack is not allowed to be with them due to his bedbugs condition , a telepresence system — a television screen in which the executives can be seen — is placed in Jack 's office to witness the meeting . One of the executives ( Michael Mulheren ) asks Jack if he likes the Cisco Systems equipment , which he does , calling it " the gold standard by which all business technology is judged . Cisco : The Human Network " , then after an argument with the executives , they mute him , prompting Jack to say " Did you just mute me ! ? Did you just use Cisco 's cutting edge SureMute ™ technology to mute me ! ? " Some reviewers wondered whether or not 30 Rock continued doing more product placement with the addition of Cisco Systems , as they have done in the past with Snapple , Verizon , and SoyJoy .
= = Reception = =
According to the Nielsen Media Research , " Audition Day " was watched by 5 @.@ 940 million households in its original American broadcast . It earned a 2 @.@ 9 rating / 7 share in the 18 – 49 demographic . This means that it was seen by 2 @.@ 9 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 7 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This episode constituted a six percent drop in viewership from the previous week 's episode , " Stone Mountain " . During its original broadcast , " Audition Day " ranked third in its 9 : 30 p.m. slot , behind CBS ' CSI : Crime Scene Investigation and ABC 's Grey 's Anatomy .
Television columnist Alan Sepinwall of The Star @-@ Ledger noted " I use the phrase ' funny forgives a lot ' in my 30 Rock reviews when an episode fails to cohere but is still entertaining . [ ... ] That changed with ' Audition Day ' , which still wasn 't 30 Rock at its peak but which had one perfect , hilarious sequence that almost singlehandedly redeemed the episode for me . " He enjoyed Jack 's scene in the subway , calling it " the funniest moment " from the episode , and " one of the funniest things Alec Baldwin has done on the show in a long time " . TV Squad 's Bob Sassone wrote that he did not enjoy Jack 's plot , explaining that the bedbug bit " got to be a little too much " , and much preferred Jenna and Tracy 's storyline " because it fit in with the auditioning plot . " Time contributor James Poniewozik opined that this was an " amusing episode overall " , and was glad that it gave Scott Adsit 's Pete " something to do " here . Los Angeles Times 's Meredith Blake was favorable towards " Audition Day " , writing it was a " fine return to form " , following the airing of " Stone Mountain " , which she disliked . IGN contributor Robert Canning said this episode of 30 Rock had fun , comedic chaos , and that it " worked well , but never quite reached the hilarity tipping point . " He disliked that Brian Williams ' cameo was ruined by the promos " because the surprise of the bit would have been far funnier than what the bit actually turned out to be . " Canning said the auditions were " fun , though not a complete knockout " , enjoyed the fact that Kathy participated in the auditions and her Susan Boyle reference " had great timing " , and was " let down " by the revelation that Jayden was psychotic , noting it " [ s ] eemed like a bit of a cop out to the story as a whole . " In conclusion , Canning gave this episode an 8 @.@ 2 out of 10 rating .
The A.V. Club 's Nathan Rabin said he did not laugh much during the broadcast of " Audition Day " , but admitted he grinned during the closing segment of the episode in which Jack is in the subway along with a group quartet . Rabin said he enjoyed Brian Williams 's " array of characters " , during his audition , and gave this episode a B- grade rating . Sean Gandert of Paste wrote that the episode " had a good premise ... but I wasn 't really feeling the whole thing . " Gandert reported that the new cast member angle was " predictable and not too interesting , as well as the audition process in general . "
= In Utero ( album ) =
In Utero is the third and final studio album by the American rock band Nirvana , released on September 21 , 1993 , by DGC Records . Nirvana intended the record to diverge significantly from the polished production of its previous album , Nevermind ( 1991 ) . To capture a more abrasive and natural sound , the group hired engineer Steve Albini to record In Utero during a two @-@ week period in February 1993 at Pachyderm Studio in Cannon Falls , Minnesota . The music was recorded quickly with few studio embellishments , and the song lyrics and album packaging incorporated medical imagery that conveyed frontman Kurt Cobain 's outlook on his publicized personal life and his band 's newfound fame .
Soon after recording was completed , rumors circulated in the press that DGC might not release the album in its original state , as the record label felt that the result was not commercially viable . Although Nirvana publicly denied the statements , the group was not fully satisfied with the sound Albini had captured . Albini declined to alter the album further , and ultimately the band hired R.E.M. producer Scott Litt to make minor changes to the album 's sound and remix the singles " Heart @-@ Shaped Box " and " All Apologies " .
Upon release , In Utero entered the Billboard 200 chart at number one and received critical acclaim as a drastic departure from Nevermind . The record has been certified five times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America , and has sold 15 million copies worldwide .
= = Background = =
Nirvana broke into the musical mainstream with its major label debut album Nevermind in 1991 . Despite modest sales estimates — the band 's record company , DGC Records , forecast sales of 50 @,@ 000 copies — Nevermind became a huge commercial success popularized the Seattle grunge movement and alternative rock in general . Nevertheless , all three members of Nirvana — singer and guitarist Kurt Cobain , bassist Krist Novoselic , and drummer Dave Grohl — later expressed dissatisfaction with the sound of the album , citing its production as too polished . Early in 1992 , Cobain told Rolling Stone that he was sure that the band 's next album would showcase " both of the extremes " of its sound , saying " it 'll be more raw with some songs and more candy pop on some of the others . It won 't be as one @-@ dimensional [ as Nevermind ] " . Cobain wanted to start work on the album in the summer of 1992 , but the band was unable as Cobain and his bandmates lived in different cities , and the singer and his wife Courtney Love were expecting the birth of their daughter Frances Bean . DGC had hoped to have a new album by the band ready for a late @-@ 1992 holiday season release ; since work on it proceeded slowly , the label released the compilation album Incesticide in December 1992 .
In a Melody Maker interview published in July 1992 , Cobain told the English journalist Everett True he was interested in recording with Jack Endino ( who had produced the group 's 1989 debut album Bleach ) and Steve Albini ( former frontman of the noise rock band Big Black and producer for various independent releases ) . Cobain said he would then choose the best material from the sessions for inclusion on the group 's next album . In October 1992 , Nirvana recorded several songs ( mainly as instrumentals ) during a demo session with Endino in Seattle ; they later re @-@ recorded many of these songs for In Utero . Endino recalled that the band did not ask him to produce its next record , but noted that the band members constantly debated working with Albini . The group recorded another set of demos while on tour in Brazil in January 1993 . One of the recordings from this session , the long improvisational track " Gallons of Rubbing Alcohol Flow Through the Strip " , was included as a hidden track on non @-@ US copies of In Utero .
Nirvana ultimately chose Albini to record its third album . Albini had a reputation as a principled and opinionated individual in the American independent music scene . While there was speculation that the band chose Albini to record the album due to his underground credentials , Cobain told Request magazine in 1993 , " For the most part I wanted to work with him because he happened to produce two of my favorite records , which were Surfer Rosa [ by Pixies ] and Pod [ by The Breeders ] . " Inspired by those albums , Cobain wanted to utilize Albini 's technique of capturing the natural ambiance of a room via the usage and placement of several microphones , something previous Nirvana producers had been averse to trying . Months before the trio had even approached Albini about the recording , rumors circulated that he was slated to record the album . Albini sent a disclaimer to the British music press denying involvement , only to get a call from Nirvana 's management a few days later about the project . Although he considered the group to be " R.E.M. with a fuzzbox " and " an unremarkable version of the Seattle sound " , Albini told Nirvana biographer Michael Azerrad he accepted because he felt sorry for the band members , whom he perceived to be " the same sort of people as all the small @-@ fry bands I deal with " , at the mercy of their record company . Before the start of recording sessions , the band sent Albini a tape of the demos it had made in Brazil . In return , Albini sent Cobain a copy of the PJ Harvey album Rid of Me to give him an idea of the acoustics at the studio where they would record .
= = Recording = =
The members of Nirvana and Albini decided on a self @-@ imposed two @-@ week deadline for recording the album . Wary of interference by DGC , Albini suggested the band members pay for the sessions with their own money , which they agreed to . Studio fees totaled US $ 24 @,@ 000 , while Albini took a flat fee of $ 100 @,@ 000 for his services . Despite the suggestions of Nirvana 's management company Gold Mountain , Albini refused to take percentage points on record sales , even though he stood to earn about $ 500 @,@ 000 in royalties . While a common practice among producers in the music industry , Albini refused to take royalties because he considered it to be immoral and " an insult to the artist " .
In February 1993 , Nirvana traveled to Pachyderm Studio in Cannon Falls , Minnesota , to record the album . Albini did not meet the band members until the first day of recording , though he had spoken to them beforehand about the type of album they wanted to make . Albini observed that " they wanted to make precisely the sort of record that I 'm comfortable doing " . The group stayed in a house located on the studio grounds during the recording sessions . Novoselic compared the isolated conditions to a gulag ; he added , " There was snow outside , we couldn 't go anywhere . We just worked . " For most of the sessions , the only people present were the band members , Albini , and technician Bob Weston . The band made it clear to DGC and Gold Mountain that it did not want any intrusion during the album production , going as far as not playing any of the work in progress for its record label A & R representative . To prevent the group 's managers and label from interfering , Albini instituted a strict policy of ignoring everyone except for the band members ; the producer explained that everyone associated with the group aside from the musicians themselves were " the biggest pieces of shit I ever met " .
The album sessions began slowly but would ultimately gain momentum ; the band arrived at Pachyderm Studio without their equipment , and spent much of the first three days there waiting for it to arrive by mail . However , once recording began on February 13 , work moved quickly . On most days the group began work around midday , took breaks for lunch and dinner , and continued work through midnight . Cobain , Novoselic , and Grohl recorded their basic instrumental tracks together as a band . The group utilized this set @-@ up on all songs except for faster compositions like " Very Ape " and " Tourette 's " , where the drums were recorded separately in a nearby kitchen due to its natural reverb . Albini surrounded Grohl 's drum kit with about 30 microphones . Cobain added additional guitar tracks to about half the songs , then added guitar solos , and finally vocals . The band did not discard takes , and kept virtually everything it captured on tape . Albini felt he was more an engineer than a producer ; despite his personal opinions , he ultimately let the band judge which were decent takes . He said , " Generally speaking , [ Cobain ] knows what he thinks is acceptable and what isn 't acceptable [ ... ] He can make concrete steps to improve things that he doesn 't think are acceptable . " Cobain reportedly recorded all his vocal tracks in six hours . The band completed recording in six days ; Cobain had originally anticipated disagreements with Albini , whom the singer heard " was supposedly this sexist jerk " , but called the process " the easiest recording we 've ever done , hands down " . The only disruption occurred a week into the sessions , when Courtney Love arrived because she missed Cobain . The band , Love , and Albini refused to go into specifics , but Weston 's girlfriend ( who served as the studio 's chef ) stated that Love created tension by criticizing Cobain 's work and being confrontational with everyone present .
The album was mixed over five days . This rate was quick by Nirvana 's standards , but not for Albini , who was used to mixing entire albums in a day or two . On occasions when work on a song mix was not producing desired results , the band and Albini took the rest of the day off to watch nature videos , set things on fire , and make prank phone calls for amusement . The sessions were completed on February 26 .
= = Music and lyrics = =
Albini sought to produce a record that sounded nothing like Nevermind . He felt the sound of Nevermind was " sort of a standard hack recording that has been turned into a very , very controlled , compressed radio @-@ friendly mix [ ... ] That is not , in my opinion , very flattering to a rock band . " Instead , the intention was to capture a more natural and visceral sound . Albini refused to double @-@ track Cobain 's vocals and instead recorded him singing alone in a resonant room . The producer noted the intensity of the singer 's vocals on some tracks ; he said , " There 's a really dry , really loud voice at the end of ' Milk It ' ... that was also done at the end of ' Rape Me ' , where [ Cobain ] wanted the sound of him screaming to just overtake the whole band . " Albini achieved the album 's sparse drum sound by simply placing several microphones around the room while Dave Grohl performed , picking up the natural reverberation of the room . Albini explained , " If you take a good drummer and put him in front of a drum kit that sounds good acoustically and just record it , you 've done your job . "
Azerrad asserted in his 1993 biography Come as You Are : The Story of Nirvana that the music of In Utero showcased divergent sensibilities of abrasiveness and accessibility that reflected the upheavals Cobain experienced prior to the album 's completion . He wrote , " The Beatlesque ' Dumb ' happily coexists beside the all @-@ out frenzied punk graffiti of ' Milk It , ' while ' All Apologies ' is worlds away from the apoplectic ' Scentless Apprentice . ' It 's as if [ Cobain ] has given up trying to meld his punk and pop instincts into one harmonious whole . Forget it . This is war . " Cobain believed , however , that In Utero was not " any harsher or any more emotional " than any of Nirvana 's previous records . Novoselic concurred with Azerrad 's comments that the album 's music leaned more towards the band 's " arty , aggressive side " ; the bassist said , " There 's always been [ Nirvana ] songs like ' About a Girl ' and there 's always been songs like ' Paper Cuts ' ... Nevermind came out kind of ' About a Girl ' -y and this [ album ] came out more ' Paper Cuts ' " . Cobain cited the track " Milk It " as an example of the more experimental and aggressive direction the band 's music had been moving in the months prior to the sessions at Pachyderm Studio . Novoselic viewed the album 's singles " Heart @-@ Shaped Box " and " All Apologies " as " gateways " to the more abrasive sound of the rest of the album , telling journalist Jim DeRogatis that once listeners played the record they would discover " this aggressive wild sound , a true alternative record " .
Several of the songs on In Utero had been written years prior to recording ; some of them dated back to 1990 . With tracks like " Frances Farmer Will Have Her Revenge on Seattle " , Cobain favored long song titles in reaction to contemporary alternative rock bands that utilized single @-@ word titles . Cobain continued to work on the lyrics while recording at Pachyderm Studio . Nonetheless , Cobain told Darcey Steinke in Spin in 1993 that in contrast to Bleach and Nevermind , the lyrics were " more focused , they 're almost built on themes . " Michael Azerrad asserted that the lyrics were less impressionistic and more straightforward than in previous Nirvana songs . Azerrad also noted that " [ v ] irtually every song contains some image of sickness and disease " . In a number of songs Cobain made reference to books he had read . " Frances Farmer Will Have Her Revenge on Seattle " was inspired by Shadowland , a 1978 biography of actress Frances Farmer , whom Cobain had been fascinated with ever since he read the book in high school . The song " Scentless Apprentice " was written about Perfume : The Story of a Murderer , a historical horror novel about a perfumer 's apprentice born with no body odor of his own but with a highly developed sense of smell , and who attempts to create the " ultimate perfume " by killing virgin women and taking their scent .
Cobain stated in a 1993 interview with The Observer that " for the most part [ In Utero ] ' s very impersonal " . The songwriter also told Q that year that the abundance of infant and childbirth imagery on the album and his newfound fatherhood were coincidental . However , Azerrad argued that much of the album contains personal themes , noting that Grohl held a similar view . Grohl said , " A lot of what he has to say is related to a lot of the shit he 's gone through . And it 's not so much teen angst anymore . It 's a whole different ball game : rock star angst . " Cobain downplayed recent events ( " I really haven 't had that exciting a life " ) and told Azerrad that he did not want to write a track that explicitly expressed his anger at the media , but the author countered that " Rape Me " seemed to deal with that very issue . While Cobain said the song was written long before his troubles with drug addiction became public , he agreed that the song could be viewed in that light . " Serve the Servants " contains comments about Cobain 's life , both as a child and as an adult . The opening lines " Teenage angst has paid off well / Now I 'm bored and old " were a reference to Cobain 's state of mind in the wake of Nirvana 's success . Cobain dismissed the media attention given to the effect his parents ' divorce had on his life with the line " That legendary divorce is such a bore " from the chorus , and directly addressed his father with the lines " I tried hard to have a father / But instead I had a dad / I just want you to know that I don 't hate you anymore / There is nothing I could say that I haven 't thought before " . Cobain said he wanted his father to know he did not hate him , but had no desire to talk to him .
= = Packaging and title = =
Cobain originally wanted to name the album I Hate Myself and I Want to Die , a phrase that had originated in his journals in mid @-@ 1992 . At the time , the singer used the phrase as a response whenever someone asked him how he was doing . Cobain intended the album title as a joke ; he stated he was " tired of taking this band so seriously and everyone else taking it so seriously " . Novoselic convinced Cobain to change the title due to fear that it could potentially result in a lawsuit . The band then considered using Verse Chorus Verse — a title taken from its song " Verse Chorus Verse " , and an earlier working title of " Sappy " — before eventually settling on In Utero . The final title was taken from a poem written by Courtney Love .
The art director for In Utero was Robert Fisher , who had designed all of Nirvana 's releases on DGC . Most of the ideas for the artwork for the album and related singles came from Cobain . Fisher recalled that " [ Cobain ] would just give me some loose odds and ends and say ' Do something with it . ' " The cover of the album is an image of a Transparent Anatomical Manikin , with angel wings superimposed . Cobain created the collage on the back cover , which he described as " Sex and woman and In Utero and vaginas and birth and death " , that consists of model fetuses , a turtle shell and models of turtles , and body parts lying in a bed of orchids and lilies . The collage had been set up on the floor of Cobain 's living room and was photographed by Charles Peterson after an unexpected call from Cobain . The album 's track listing and re @-@ illustrated symbols from Barbara G. Walker 's The Woman 's Dictionary of Symbols and Sacred Objects were then positioned around the edge of the collage .
= = Production controversy and remixing = =
After the recording sessions were completed , Nirvana sent unmastered tapes of the album to several individuals , including the president of DGC 's parent company Geffen Records Ed Rosenblatt and the group 's management company Gold Mountain . When asked about the feedback he received , Cobain told Michael Azerrad , " The grown @-@ ups don 't like it . " He said he was told his songwriting was " not up to par " , the sound was " unlistenable " , and that there was uncertainty that mainstream radio would welcome the sound of Albini 's production . There were few people at Geffen or Gold Mountain who wanted the band to record with Albini to begin with , and Cobain felt he was receiving an unstated message to scrap the sessions and start all over again . Cobain was upset and said to Azerrad , " I should just rerecord this record and do the same thing we did last year because we sold out last year — there 's no reason to try and redeem ourselves as artists at this point . I can 't help myself — I 'm just putting out a record I would like to listen to at home . " However , a number of the group 's friends liked the album , and by April 1993 Nirvana was intent on releasing In Utero as it was . According to Cobain , " Of course , they want another Nevermind , but I 'd rather die than do that . This is exactly the kind of record I would buy as a fan , that I would enjoy owning . "
The band members began to have doubts about the record 's sound . During this time Cobain admitted , " The first time I played it at home , I knew there was something wrong . The whole first week I wasn 't really interested in listening to it at all , and that usually doesn 't happen . I got no emotion from it , I was just numb . " The group concluded that the bass and lyrics were inaudible and approached Albini to remix the album . The producer declined ; as he recalled , " [ Cobain ] wanted to make a record that he could slam down on the table and say , ' Listen , I know this is good , and I know your concerns about it are meaningless , so go with it . ' And I don 't think he felt he had that yet ... My problem was that I feared a slippery slope . " The band attempted to fix its concerns with the record during the mastering process with Bob Ludwig at his studio in Portland , Maine . Novoselic was pleased with the results , but Cobain still did not feel the sound was perfect .
Soon afterward , in April 1993 Albini remarked to the Chicago Tribune that he doubted Geffen would release the completed album . Albini commented years later that in a sense he felt he spoke about the situation " from a position of ignorance , because I wasn 't there when the band was having their discussions with the record label . All I know is ... we made a record , everybody was happy with it . A few weeks later I hear that it 's unreleasable and it 's all got to be redone " . While Albini 's remarks in the article drew no immediate reply from the group or its label , Newsweek ran a similar article soon afterwards that did . Nirvana denied there was any pressure from its label to change the album 's sound , sending a letter to Newsweek that said that the article 's author " ridiculed our relationship with our label based on totally erronous [ sic ] information " ; the band also reprinted the letter in a full @-@ page ad in Billboard . Rosenblatt insisted in a press release that Geffen would release anything the band submitted , and label founder David Geffen made the unusual move of personally calling Newsweek to complain about the article .
Nirvana wanted to do further work on the recorded tracks , and considered working with producer Scott Litt and remixing some tracks with Andy Wallace ( who had mixed Nevermind ) . Albini vehemently disagreed , and claimed he had an agreement with the band that it would not modify the tracks without his involvement . Albini initially refused to give the album master tapes to Gold Mountain , but relented after a phone call from Novoselic . The band decided against working with Wallace and chose to remix and augment the songs " Heart @-@ Shaped Box " and " All Apologies " with Litt at Seattle 's Bad Animals Studio in May 1993 . Furthermore , a remix of " Pennyroyal Tea " by Scott Litt ( at Bad Animals on November 22 , 1993 ) appears on the censored Wal @-@ Mart and Kmart versions of In Utero ; this remix is also available on the band 's 2002 best @-@ of compilation , Nirvana , and is the same mix that appeared on the single . One song , " I Hate Myself and Want to Die " , was omitted from the final track listing as Cobain felt there were too many " noise " songs on the album . The rest of the album was left unaltered aside from a remastering which sharpened the bass guitar sound and increased the volume of the vocals by approximately three decibels . Albini was critical of the album 's final mix ; he said , " The end result , the record in the stores doesn 't sound all that much like the record that was made . Though it 's still them singing and playing their songs , and the musical quality of it still comes across . "
= = Release and reception = =
To avoid over @-@ hyping the album , DGC Records took a low @-@ key approach to promoting In Utero ; the company 's head of marketing told Billboard before the album 's release that the label was taking a promotional strategy similar to that of Nevermind , and explained that the label would " set things up , duck , and get out of the way " . The label aimed its promotion at alternative markets and press , and released the album on vinyl record as part of this strategy . In contrast to the previous album , the label did not release any of In Utero 's singles commercially in the United States . DGC sent promo copies of the album 's first single " Heart @-@ Shaped Box " to American college , modern rock , and album @-@ oriented rock radio stations in early September , but the label did not target Top 40 radio . Despite the label 's promotion , the band was convinced that In Utero would not be as successful as Nevermind . Cobain told Jim DeRogatis , " We 're certain that we won 't sell a quarter as much , and we 're totally comfortable with that because we like this record so much . "
In Utero was released on September 13 , 1993 on vinyl record and cassette tape in the United Kingdom , and on September 14 on vinyl in the United States , with the American vinyl pressing limited to 25 @,@ 000 copies . Although the album was issued on compact disc in the UK on September 14 , a full domestic release did not occur until September 21 . In Utero debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 album chart , selling 180 @,@ 000 copies in its first week of release . Meanwhile , retail chain stores Wal @-@ Mart and Kmart refused to sell the album . According to The New York Times , Wal @-@ Mart claimed it did not carry the album due to lack of consumer demand , while Kmart representatives explained that the album " didn 't fit within our merchandise mix " . In truth , both chains feared that customers would be offended by the artwork on the album 's back cover . DGC issued a new version of the album with reworked packaging to the stores in March 1994 . This version featured edited album artwork , listed the name of " Rape Me " as " Waif Me " , and included a Scott Litt remix of " Pennyroyal Tea " . A spokesperson for Nirvana explained that the band decided to edit the packaging because as kids Cobain and Novoselic were only able to buy music from the two chain stores ; as a result they " really want to make their music available to kids who don 't have the opportunity to go to mom @-@ and @-@ pop stores " .
In Utero received acclaim from critics , although some reviews were mixed . Time 's Christopher John Farley stated in his review of the album , " Despite the fears of some alternative @-@ music fans , Nirvana hasn 't gone mainstream , though this potent new album may once again force the mainstream to go Nirvana . " Rolling Stone reviewer David Fricke said that the album is " a lot of things – brilliant , corrosive , enraged and thoughtful , most of them all at once . But more than anything , it 's a triumph of the will . " Entertainment Weekly reviewer David Browne commented " Kurt Cobain hates it all " , and noted that the sentiment pervades the record . Browne argued , " The music is often mesmerizing , cathartic rock & roll , but it is rock & roll without release , because the band is suspicious of the old @-@ school rock cliches such a release would evoke . " NME magazine 's John Mulvey had doubts about the record ; he concluded , " As a document of a mind in flux – dithering , dissatisfied , unable to come to terms with sanity – Kurt [ Cobain ] should be proud of [ the album ] . As a follow @-@ up to one of the best records of the past ten years it just isn 't quite there . " Ben Thompson of The Independent commented that in spite of the album 's more abrasive songs , " In Utero is beautiful far more often than it is ugly " , and added , " Nirvana have wisely neglected to make the unlistenable punk @-@ rock nightmare they threatened us with . " Q magazine felt that the album showcases Cobain 's songwriting abilities and wrote , " If this is how Cobain is going to develop , the future is lighthouse @-@ bright " . Several critics ranked In Utero as one of the best releases of the year . It placed first and second in the album categories of the Rolling Stone and Village Voice Pazz & Jop year @-@ end critics ' polls , respectively . Additionally , The New York Times included it on its list of the top ten albums of the year . The album was nominated for Best Alternative Music Album at the 1994 Grammy Awards .
That October , Nirvana embarked on its first American tour in two years to promote the album . A second single , a split release that featured " All Apologies " and " Rape Me " , was issued in December in the United Kingdom . The band began a six @-@ week European leg of the tour in February 1994 , but it was cancelled after Cobain suffered a drug overdose in Rome on March 6 . Cobain agreed to enter drug rehabilitation , but the singer went missing soon afterwards , and on April 8 he was found dead in his Seattle home as the result of suicide by a shotgun blast . The intended third single from In Utero , " Pennyroyal Tea " , was cancelled in the wake of Cobain 's death and the subsequent dissolution of Nirvana ; limited promotional copies were released in Britain . Three days after Cobain 's body was discovered , In Utero moved back up the Billboard charts , from number 72 to number 27 .
In the ensuing years , In Utero has continued to perform commercially and gather critical praise . In a 2003 Guitar World article that commemorated the tenth anniversary of the album 's release , Cobain biographer Charles R. Cross argued that In Utero was " a far better record [ than Nevermind ] and one that only 10 years later seems to be an influential seed spreader , judging by current bands . If it is possible for an album that sold four million copies to be overlooked , or underappreciated , then In Utero is that lost pearl . " That same year , Pitchfork Media placed In Utero at number 13 on its list of the 100 best albums of the 1990s . In 2004 Blender ranked it at number 94 in its " 100 Greatest American Albums of All Time " list , while in 2005 , Spin placed it at number 51 on its " 100 Greatest Albums 1985 – 2005 " retrospective . Rolling Stone has ranked it at number 435 on its list " The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time " , and number 7 on its list the " 100 Best Albums of the Nineties " . In 2005 , In Utero was ranked number 358 in Rock Hard magazine 's book of The 500 Greatest Rock & Metal Albums of All Time . In Utero has been certified five times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America for shipments of over five million units , and has sold 4 @,@ 258 @,@ 000 copies in the United States , according to Nielsen SoundScan . To commemorate the album 's 20th anniversary , DGC reissued In Utero in several different formats in September 2013 . The album was also included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die .
= = Track listing = =
Bonus track on non @-@ American pressings
" Gallons of Rubbing Alcohol Flow Through the Strip " ( Cobain , Grohl , Novoselic ) – 7 : 28
= = Personnel = =
Nirvana
Kurt Cobain - guitar , lead vocals , art direction , design , photography
Krist Novoselic - bass guitar
Dave Grohl - drums , backing vocals
Additional personnel
Steve Albini – producer , engineer
Robert Fisher – art direction , design , photography
Alex Grey – illustrations
Adam Kasper – second engineer
Michael Lavine – photography
Scott Litt – mixing
Bob Ludwig – audio mastering
Karen Mason – photography
Charles Peterson – photography
Kera Schaley – cello on " All Apologies " and " Dumb "
Neil Wallace – photography
Bob Weston – technician
= = Charts = =
= = = Singles = = =
= = Certifications = =
= Battle of Tawahin =
The Battle of Tawahin ( Arabic : وقعة الطواحين Waqʿat al @-@ Ṭawāhīn , " Battle of the Mills " ) was fought in 885 between the forces of the Abbasid Caliphate under Abu 'l @-@ Abbas ibn al @-@ Muwaffaq ( the future Caliph al @-@ Mu 'tadid ) and the autonomous Tulunid ruler of Egypt and Syria , Khumarawayh . The battle took place near Ramlah ( modern Israel ) and ended with a Tulunid victory .
Following Khumarawayh 's ascension to power in 884 , the Abbasid central government decided to reassert its control over the provinces ruled by him and invaded northern Syria that year . By early 885 the conflict was proceeding favorably for the Abbasids , forcing Khumarawayh to personally take the field and try to stop their advance toward Egypt . In the battle that followed , the Abbasid troops initially defeated the Tulunids and plundered Khumarawayh 's camp , but were then ambushed by a Tulunid reserve force and routed in turn .
As a result of the battle , the Abbasid forces were forced to withdraw from Syria , and Tulunid control over the province was reaffirmed . In the following year the Abbasid government agreed to a treaty which formally recognized Khumarawayh 's rule over both Egypt and Syria .
= = Background = =
Ahmad ibn Tulun , a Turkish soldier , had managed to become governor of Egypt in 868 . By using the country 's immense wealth to raise an army of his own , and exploiting the instability of the central Abbasid government , over the next years he became de facto autonomous , although he continued to acknowledge the suzerainty of the Abbasid caliph — for most of his reign the powerless al @-@ Mu 'tamid — and to forward some tax revenue to the central government . Ibn Tulun 's power made him a major rival to the real power behind the Abbasid throne , al @-@ Mu 'tamid 's brother and regent al @-@ Muwaffaq . The latter tried in 877 to wrest Egypt from Ibn Tulun , but the attempt failed spectacularly , and in the following year Ibn Tulun extended his area of control over Syria up to the border zone with the Byzantine Empire in the north and up to al @-@ Raqqah in the western Jazira in the east , immediately adjacent to the Abbasid metropolitan province of Iraq .
Relations between Ibn Tulun and al @-@ Muwaffaq were further strained when al @-@ Mu 'tamid tried to play off the two men against each other to regain his own authority and independence . In 882 the caliph attempted to escape from his brother 's control by fleeing to Ibn Tulun 's domain , but he was apprehended en route by Ishaq ibn Kundaj , the governor of the Jazira and Mosul , and was sent back to Iraq . This led to a formal breach in relations ; al @-@ Muwaffaq ordered that Ibn Tulun be publicly cursed in mosques throughout the empire and stripped of his governorships in favour of Ishaq ibn Kundaj , while Ibn Tulun similarly had al @-@ Muwaffaq publicly cursed , declared him deposed from his position as al @-@ Mu 'tamid 's second heir and proclaimed a " holy war " against him .
When Ibn Tulun died in May 884 , he was succeeded by his second son , Khumarawayh , with the approval of the Tulunid grandees but not the Abbasid court . Immediately al @-@ Muwaffaq ended the ongoing negotiations that he had been conducting with Ibn Tulun , and refused to recognize Khumarawayh 's rule over Egypt and Syria . A prominent Tulunid general , Ahmad ibn Muhammad al @-@ Wasiti , then defected to al @-@ Muwaffaq , and urged him to make war on the " young and inexperienced " Khumarawayh and recover the latter 's provinces for the central government .
= = Prelude : Abbasid invasion of Syria = =
The initial Abbasid invasion was led by Ishaq ibn Kundaj , appointed as the nominal governor of Syria and Egypt , and another general , Muhammad ibn Diwdad Abu 'l @-@ Saj . After receiving encouragement from al @-@ Muwaffaq , who promised to send them reinforcements , the two commanders marched into Syria in mid @-@ 884 . The Tulunid governor of Damascus soon defected to their side , and they were able to take control of Antioch , Hims and Aleppo . Upon learning of the Abbasid advance , Khumarawayh sent troops to Syria . The Tulunid army first proceeded to Damascus , where they succeeded in forcing its rebel governor to flee , and then advanced to Shayzar on the Orontes . The onset of winter , however , resulted in a lull in hostilities , and both sides remained in their camps to wait out the season .
Eventually the reinforcements that al @-@ Muwaffaq had promised arrived from Iraq , under the command of his own son , Abu 'l @-@ Abbas . The combined Abbasid forces advanced to Shayzar , where the Tulunid army was still encamped . The latter was caught completely by surprise and was defeated ; many of the Egyptians were killed in the fighting . The survivors fled to Damascus , but upon learning that the Abbasid army was headed for them they abandoned the city , allowing the Abbasids to retake it in February 885 . The Tulunid forces continued south to Ramlah in the district of Palestine , where they wrote to Khumarawayh of what had transpired . Khumarawayh now decided to personally lead his troops against the Abbasids , and departed from Egypt for Syria .
At the same time , Abu 'l @-@ Abbas set out from Damascus and headed for Ramlah , during which he learned of Khumarawayh 's arrival in Syria . At this point , however , the Abbasid offensive was hampered by a dispute between its commanders , which was caused when Abu 'l @-@ Abbas accused Ishaq ibn Kundaj and Ibn Abu 'l @-@ Saj of cowardice . In response to this insult , the two generals decided to abandon the campaign , and left Abu 'l @-@ Abbas to face Khumarawayh 's forces by himself .
= = Battle of Tawahin = =
The two armies met at a village called at @-@ Tawahin ( " the Mills " ) , situated between Ramlah and Damascus , on 5 / 6 April 885 ( although later Egyptian sources like al @-@ Maqrizi give the date , probably erroneously , as 7 August ) . Khumarawayh reportedly had a significant numerical advantage , thanks in part to the departure of Ishaq ibn Kundaj and Ibn Abu 'l @-@ Saj ; according to al @-@ Kindi , the Tulunid army numbered 70 @,@ 000 while Abu 'l @-@ Abbas had only 4 @,@ 000 men . Despite this , the first engagement between the two armies went favorably for the Abbasids . Khumarawayh quickly lost his nerve and fled , according to al @-@ Tabari , " on the back of a donkey " back to Egypt with part of his army .
Believing that they had won the battle , the Abbasid troops proceeded to plunder the Tulunid camp , with Abu 'l @-@ Abbas installing himself in Khumarawayh 's own tent . A part of the Tulunid army , however , under Sa 'd al @-@ Aysar , had remained behind and prepared to ambush Abu 'l @-@ Abbas ' forces . Once the Abbasids , secure in their success , " had already laid down their arms and settled in their quarters " , Sa 'd al @-@ Aysar 's men attacked and routed them , inflicting severe casualties and killing several senior commanders . Abu 'l @-@ Abbas , who mistakenly thought that Khumarawayh had returned to the fight , decided to flee with what men he had left , and the Tulunids plundered his camp in turn .
= = Aftermath = =
Following the battle , Abu 'l @-@ Abbas and a " very few " of his men who had managed to escape made a disorganized retreat to the north . They first reached Damascus , whose inhabitants refused to allow him entry , and then proceeded to Tarsus near the Byzantine frontier . After spending some time at Tarsus , they were ousted from the city by its residents in mid @-@ 885 , at which point Abu 'l @-@ Abbas decided to withdraw from Syria and return to Iraq .
Khumarawayh learned of the outcome of the battle in Egypt . Rejoicing upon hearing of Sa 'd al @-@ Aysar 's victory , he quickly sent back his forces to Syria and re @-@ established his authority over it . A large part of the Abbasid army was captured and transported to Egypt , where Khumarawayh , in a gesture aimed at reconciliation with the caliphal government , allowed those soldiers who wanted to return to Iraq depart without ransom , while offering the rest the opportunity to settle in Egypt .
The victorious Sa 'd al @-@ Aysar went to Damascus , where he rebelled against Khumarawayh , but was defeated and killed .
Over the next couple of years , Khumarawayh followed up on the victory and succeeded in considerably extending his realm . In late 886 , he launched an offensive against the Jazira ; Ishaq ibn Kundaj was defeated and forced to flee , and the province came under the Tulunid sphere of influence . Shortly after this , Khumarawayh began negotiations with al @-@ Muwaffaq , and a treaty was signed in December 886 whereby the Abbasid government recognized Khumarawayh as hereditary ruler in his possessions for thirty years . Subsequent attempts by both Ishaq ibn Kundaj and Ibn Abu 'l @-@ Saj to retake the Jazira failed , and Ishaq ibn Kundaj eventually submitted to Khumarawayh . In 890 Yazman al @-@ Khadim , the governor of Tarsus , also declared allegiance to him , thus bringing Cilicia under Tulunid control as well .
The Tulunid triumph was to prove ephemeral , however . In 893 Abu 'l @-@ Abbas , now Caliph , succeeded in regaining the Jaziran provinces by treaty , and after Khumarawayh 's death in 896 , took advantage of Tyulunid weakness to recover northern Syria and Cilicia as well . Finally , in 905 the Abbasids launched a campaign that rapidly brought about the end of Tulunid autonomy and fully re @-@ incorporated their lands into the Caliphate .
= Hegemony or Survival =
Hegemony or Survival : America 's Quest for Global Dominance is a study of the " American Empire " written by the American linguist and political activist Noam Chomsky , a professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology . It was first published in the United States in November 2003 by Metropolitan Books , and later republished in the United Kingdom by Penguin Books .
Chomsky 's main argument in Hegemony or Survival is that the socio @-@ economic elite who control the United States have pursued an " Imperial Grand Strategy " since the end of World War II in order to maintain global hegemony through military , political and economic means . He argues that in doing so they have repeatedly shown a total disregard for democracy and human rights , in stark contrast to the US government 's professed support for those values . Furthermore , he argues that this continual pursuit of global hegemony now threatens the existence of the human species itself because of the increasing proliferation of weapons of mass destruction .
Drawing historical examples from 1945 through to 2003 to support his argument , Chomsky looks at the US government 's support for regimes responsible for mass human rights abuses ( including ethnic cleansing and genocide ) , namely El Salvador , Colombia , Turkey , Israel , Egypt , South Africa and Indonesia . He also discusses US support for militant dissident groups widely considered " terrorists " , particularly in Nicaragua and Cuba , as well as direct military interventions , such as the Vietnam War , NATO bombing of Yugoslavia , Afghan War and Iraq War , in order to further its power and grasp of resources . In doing so , he highlights that US foreign policy – whether controlled by Republican or Democratic administrations – still follows the same agenda of gaining access to lucrative resources and maintaining US world dominance .
Mainstream press reviews in the US were mixed and were largely negative in the UK , although a review in Asia was more positive . In a speech before the UN General Assembly in September 2006 , Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez openly praised the work . Sales of the book surged after the recommendation , its rank on Amazon.com rising to # 1 in paperback and # 6 in hardcover in only a few days .
= = Background = =
Noam Chomsky ( 1928 – ) was born in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , to Jewish immigrants from Eastern Europe . Becoming academically involved in the field of linguistics , Chomsky gained a PhD and secured a teaching job at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology . In the field of linguistics , he is credited as the creator or co @-@ creator of the Chomsky hierarchy and the universal grammar theory , achieving international recognition for his work .
Politically , Chomsky had held radical leftist views since childhood , identifying himself with anarcho @-@ syndicalism and libertarian socialism . A staunch critic of U.S. foreign policy , he arose to public attention for these views in 1967 , when The New York Times published his article , " The Responsibility of Intellectuals " , a criticism of the Vietnam War . His media criticism has included Manufacturing Consent : The Political Economy of the Mass Media ( 1988 ) , co @-@ written with Edward S. Herman , an analysis articulating the propaganda model theory for examining the media .
Chomsky is the author of over 100 books , and has been described as a prominent cultural figure . According to the Arts and Humanities Citation Index in 1992 , Chomsky was cited as a source more often than any other living scholar from 1980 to 1992 , and was the eighth most cited source overall .
The book was published as the first in The American Empire Series , edited for Metropolitan Books by Steve Fraser and Tom Engelhardt . The series had been devised as a vehicle for works of anti @-@ imperialism that were critical of U.S. foreign policy . Engelhardt informed an interviewer that the series reflected their " counterinterventionary impulse " and represented an attempt to reclaim " the word " from the political right in the U.S. They agreed to publish with Metropolitan because it was co @-@ run by Engelhardt and Sara Bershtel . In conjunction with the publication of the book , Chomsky answered a series of public questions on the website of The Washington Post .
= = Synopsis = =
Chomsky 's first chapter , " Priorities and Prospects " , provides an introduction to U.S. global dominance at the start of 2003 . He looks at the role of propaganda – employed by government and mass media – in shaping public opinion in both the U.S. and United Kingdom , arguing that it allows a wealthy elite to thrive at the expense of the majority . As evidence for the manner in which the media shapes public opinion on foreign policy , he discusses the role of the U.S. government in protecting its economic interests in Nicaragua , first by supporting the military junta of General Somoza and then by supporting the Contra militias , in both instances leading to mass human rights abuses which were ignored by the mainstream U.S. media .
Chapter two , " Imperial Grand Strategy " , looks at the U.S. government 's belief that it should take part in " preventative war " against states who threaten its global hegemony , despite the illegality of these actions under international law . Chomsky argues that the targets of U.S. preventative war must be weak , yet important and easy to depict as a threat to the U.S. populace . Using the 2003 invasion of Iraq as an example , he discusses how the U.S. government and media portrayed the Iraqi government of Saddam Hussein as a threat to the U.S. and other Middle Eastern states , something which Chomsky argues it was not .
Chapter three , " The New Era of Enlightenment " , explores further examples of U.S. interventionism in world affairs . Criticising the standard U.S. government claim that such interventionism is for humanitarian purposes , Chomsky maintains that it is an attempt to further the power of U.S. capitalism , with little interest in the welfare of the people involved . Using the 1999 NATO intervention in Kosovo as an example , he argues that western forces intervened not to protect Albanian Kosovans from Serbian aggression ( as they claimed ) , but to humiliate and weaken Serbian President Slobodan Milosovic , who had remained resistant to western demands for years . He asserts that western criticism of foreign human rights abuses is politically motivated , highlighting that while the U.S. were intervening in Kosovo , they were simultaneously supporting the governments of Turkey , Colombia and Indonesia , all of whom were involved in widespread human rights abuses and ethnic cleansing .
In the fourth chapter , " Dangerous Times " , Chomsky focuses primarily on U.S. interventionism throughout Latin America , which the government has defended through its Monroe Doctrine . He discusses the U.S. campaign to topple the socialist government of Fidel Castro in Cuba , highlighting both its economic embargo of the island and its financial backing for militant groups that attack Cuban targets , including the perpetrators of the Bay of Pigs invasion and the bombing of Cubana Flight 455 . He furthermore discusses the U.S. government 's role in training Latin American right wing paramilitary squads , who have perpetrated widespread human rights abuses across the region .
Chapter five , " The Iraq Connection " , looks at the background to the 2003 Iraq War , beginning with an analysis of the activities of the Reagan administration in the 1980s , who focused their military efforts in Central America and the Middle East . Chomsky argues that Reagan 's administration utilized fear and nationalist rhetoric to distract the public from the poor economic situation that the U.S. was facing , finding scapegoats in the form of the leftist governments of Libya , Grenada and Nicaragua , as well as the international drug trade . He examines the long relationship that the U.S. had with the Hussein 's Iraqi government , noting that they actively supported Hussein throughout the Iran – Iraq War , Al @-@ Anfal Campaign and the Halabja poison gas attack , only turning against their former ally after his Invasion of Kuwait in 1990 . Proceeding to critique the idea that the Bush II administration was genuinely concerned about threats to U.S. security , he criticises their attempts to undermine international efforts to prevent the militarization of space , the abolition of biological warfare , and the fight against global pollution , as well as the fact that they ignored all warnings that the Iraq invasion would cause a worldwide anti @-@ American backlash . Exploring the dismissive attitude that the U.S. took towards European governments who opposed the war , namely France and Germany , he critiques the idea that the U.S. wanted to install a democratic government in Iraq , arguing that they wanted to install a puppet regime that would be obedient to U.S. corporate interests .
In the sixth chapter , " Dilemmas of Dominance " , Chomsky explores the relationship that the U.S. has had with Eastern Europe since the collapse of the Soviet Union and with East Asia since the Second World War . In the former , Chomsky argues , the U.S. has allied itself with the capitalist reformers who have advocated privatization and neoliberalism at the expense of the welfare state , leading to increased poverty and demographic decline across the region . In the latter , he has explored the role that the U.S. has played – through the likes of the San Francisco Peace Treaty of 1951 – in supporting capitalist development , but trying to ensure its own economic hegemony at the same time .
Chapter seven , " Cauldron of Animosities " , opens with a discussion of U.S. support for the increasing militarization of Israel and its illegal development of nuclear weapons , something Chomsky believes threatens peace in the Middle East by encouraging nations like Iran and Iraq to do the same . He explores the longstanding western exploitation of the Middle East for its oil resources , first by the British Empire and subsequently by the U.S. post @-@ World War II , and then looks at the U.S. ' role in the Israeli – Palestinian conflict , continually supporting Israel both militarily and politically , furthering human right abuses against the Palestinian people and repeatedly sabotaging the peace process .
The eighth chapter , " Terrorism and Justice : Some Useful Truisms " , looks at what Chomsky calls " a few simple truths " regarding the criteria that is accepted for a conflict to be internationally recognized as a " just war " . He argues that these truisms are continually ignored when it comes to the actions of the U.S. and her allies . Exploring the concepts of " terror " and " terrorism " , he argues that the U.S. only use the term to refer to the actions of their enemies , and never to their own actions , no matter how similar they may be . As an example of such double standards , he highlights the public outcry at the killing of Leon Klinghoffer , a disabled American murdered by Palestinian militants in 1985 , contrasting it with the complete U.S. ignorance of the Israeli military 's killing of a disabled Palestinian , Kemal Zughayer , in 2002 . Focusing in on the Afghan War – widely described as a " just war " in the U.S. press – he criticizes such a description , arguing that the conflict was opposed by the majority of the world 's population , including the Afghan people .
In the final chapter , " A Passing Nightmare " , Chomsky turns his attention to weapons of mass destruction . He argues that rather than helping to eradicate nuclear , chemical and biological weaponry , the U.S. has continually increased its number of nuclear warheads , thereby encouraging other nations to do the same , putting the world in jeopardy of nuclear holocaust . Discussing the role of the U.S. in creating ballistic missile defense systems and encouraging the militarization of outer space , he notes that the U.S. government have continually undermined international treatise to decrease the number of weapons of mass destruction , because the American socio @-@ economic elite believe that " hegemony is more important than survival . " However , he argues that there is still hope for humanity if the citizens of the world – the " Second Superpower " – continue to criticize and oppose the actions of the U.S. government .
= = Main arguments = =
= = = U.S. Imperial Grand Strategy = = =
Chomsky 's primary argument in Hegemony or Survival is that the United States government has pursued an " Imperial Grand Strategy " in order to maintain its status as the world 's foremost superpower since at least the end of the Second World War . Adopting the term " Imperial Grand Strategy " from international affairs specialist John Ikenberry of Princeton University , he quotes Ikenberry on the nature of this doctrine and the manner in which it considers the " rule of force " to be more important than the " rule of law " , thereby ignoring international law . Quoting liberal statesman Dean Acheson , Chomsky asserts that the purpose of this strategy is to prevent any challenge to the " power , position , and prestige of the United States " .
Noting that economic decision making in the United States is highly centralized among a select socio @-@ economic elite who control big business , he argues that this elite play a dominant role in this Imperial Grand Strategy because they consistently maintain a strong influence over successive U.S. governments . As a result , he argues that U.S. foreign policy has focused on gaining and maintaining unrestricted access to markets , energy supplies , and strategic resources across the world . Chomsky goes on to categorize the specific purposes of the doctrine as :
containing other centers of global power within the " overall framework of order " managed by the United States ; maintaining control of the world 's energy supplies ; barring unacceptable forms of independent nationalism ; and overcoming " crisis of democracy " within domestic enemy territory .
Chomsky argues that as a part of this strategy , the U.S. has regularly engaged in " preventative war " , which he highlights is illegal under international law and could be categorised as a war crime . Preventative war refers to conflict waged to prevent a nation ever reaching the stage where it could become a potential threat , and according to Chomsky , under the regimes of Ronald Reagan , George H.W. Bush and his son George W. Bush it has actively involved attacking " an imagined or invented threat " such as Grenada and Iraq . He differentiates this " preventative war " from " preemptive war " , which he argues can be justifiable under international law in cases of self @-@ defence . Examining examples of preventative war waged by the United States , he notes that all of the nations that have been attacked have shared the same three characteristics : 1 ) they are " virtually defenseless " , 2 ) they are " important enough to be worth the trouble " and 3 ) there has been a way to portray them as " the ultimate evil and an imminent threat to our survival . "
= = = The Bush administration and the invasion of Iraq = = =
Chomsky argues that the Republican neoconservative administration of President George W. Bush , elected to the presidency in 2001 , differed from earlier administrations in one key respect : it was open about adhering to the Imperial Grand Strategy , outright declaring that it would be willing to use force to ensure U.S. global hegemony despite international condemnation . Chomsky sees this as being in contrast to previous administrations , who had never explicitly informed the public that they adhered to such a doctrine . Instead , earlier administrations had discussed their intentions within elite circles which were known only to specialists or readers of dissident literature . Thus , where once only the socio @-@ economic elite and their left @-@ wing critics knew of the Imperial Grand Strategy , now the entire American populace are potentially aware of it . He considers this a " significant difference . "
In Chomsky 's view , the invasion of Iraq by a U.S. and U.K. coalition must be seen in the wider context of the U.S. government 's Imperial Grand Strategy . He claims that the Iraq invasion fits the three criteria that he has highlighted for being classified as a U.S. target for preventative war . Considering the country " virtually defenseless " against the superior might of the western armed forces , he also notes that securing control of the country would be an important move for the U.S. socio @-@ economic elite , gaining unlimited access to the country 's lucrative oil resources and asserting their own military might to intimidate other nations into compliance . He also argued that government and media propaganda also set out to forge an erroneous link between Iraq President Saddam Hussein and Al @-@ Qaeda , playing on the American people 's horror of the 9 / 11 attacks . Furthermore , he stated that they also wrongly claimed that the Iraqi government was developing weapons of mass destruction to be used against the U.S. or its allies . Chomsky remarks that the 2003 invasion of Iraq is particularly significant because it signals the " new norm " in international relations , and that in future the U.S. might be willing to wage a preventative war against " Iran , Syria , the Andean region , and a number of others . "
= = Reviews = =
= = = Academic reviews = = =
Writing in the International Affairs journal , Michael T. Boyle of the Australian National University reviewed Hegemony or Survival alongside Immanuel Wallerstein 's The Decline of American Power : The U.S. in a Chaotic World ( 2003 ) , considering both to be " well @-@ considered if imperfect arguments " that the Bush administration 's foreign policy was in keeping with a long history of U.S. interference in global affairs . Praising its " prescient " appearance and its analysis of the historical evidence , Boyle did present some criticism of the book . In stressing the Bush administration 's continuity with earlier presidencies , Boyle argued that Chomsky had neglected to highlight the differences between the Bush administration and its predecessors , in particular its willingness to break relationships with long @-@ standing allies . Furthermore , Boyle opined that Chomsky had failed to offer a " compelling explanation " for why the U.S. government was willing to declare war on Iraq in 2003 , a conflict that was far costlier and riskier than the 1980s military adventures in Nicaragua and Grenada .
Journalism lecturer David Blackall of the University of Wollongong reviewed Chomsky 's book for the Asia Pacific Media Educator . He noted that it would polarize readers between those whose anti @-@ imperialist beliefs would be reinforced and those who would denounce Chomsky 's ideas as conspiracy theories . He thought the book was important in reminding readers that the War on Terror was keeping the US public in fear and was ensuring an ongoing international market for weaponry . However , he thought that there were " recurring attribution problems " in Chomsky 's text , for instance by referring to the international press as if it were a homogeneous entity with a single point of view . Ultimately , he thought that the book had something to teach educators of journalism : that " [ w ] hen there is a desire of the power elite to move on an issue , and the population is generally opposed , then the issue is removed from the political arena and from the news media priorities – distraction being a primary method . "
Eliza Mathews of the University of Queensland published a review of the book in the Journal of Australian Studies . She considered it similar to other books criticizing Bush 's administration , such as those of Michael Moore , John Dean , and Bob Woodward , but thought it novel in acknowledging prior policy . She thought some of his research to be " inadequate " in supporting his arguments , relying too heavily on newspaper reports and not verifying secondary sources . In other instances , she thought it unsatisfactory that Chomsky used his own work as a reference . She thought that despite being aimed at a wide audience , the text was not " light reading " , and expressed dislike at Chomsky 's " sarcastic tone " .
= = = Press reviews = = =
Views in the U.S. press were mixed . In a review for The New York Times , current U.S. ambassador to the United Nations , Harvard scholar , and Pulitzer Prize winner Samantha Power described the book as a " raging and often meandering assault " on U.S. foreign policy . Believing that Chomsky divides the world into two camps , the oppressor and the oppressed , she asserts that in Hegemony or Survival he portrays the U.S. as " the prime oppressor , [ who ] can do no right " , meanwhile overlooking the crimes of the oppressed . Arguing that he completely ignores the concept that the U.S. might undertake any foreign interventions with good intentions , she asserts that his book is not easy to read , and that his " glib and caustic tone " are distracting . Furthermore , she highlights problems with his use of end notes , particularly when some of these notes simply reference his earlier publications . Although disagreeing with his arguments , she believed that reading his book was " sobering and instructive " , having value in illustrating how many non @-@ Americans viewed the U.S. and highlighting many of the " structural defects " in U.S. foreign policy . Furthermore , recognizing that Chomsky 's " critiques have come to influence and reflect mainstream opinion elsewhere in the world , " she concedes that Chomksy 's analysis has a coherence that , for many , resolves much of the post @-@ 9 / 11 confusion and disillusionment stemming from the Bush administration 's standard response to the question , " Why do they hate us ? " .
Carol Armbrust discussed Chomsky 's book critically in The Antioch Review , claiming that his writing style was " a monumental turnoff " and that only those who already agreed with Chomsky 's political views would read the book . Claiming that his opinions constituted " conspiracy theories " , she compared his arguments to adding " two and two " together and getting " minus six " . Conversely , Publishers Weekly considered it " highly readable " and thought it both " cogent and provocative " , representing a significant addition to the debate on U.S. foreign policy .
Views in the British press were largely negative . Writing in The Observer , journalist Nick Cohen wrote disparagingly of Hegemony or Survival , describing Chomsky as a " master of looking @-@ glass politics " , exemplifying a trend in the western Left for being more interested in anti @-@ Americanism than in opposing the " fascist " regime of Saddam Hussein . Focusing his critique primarily on Chomsky and his readership than the book itself , he refers to its " convoluted prose " , and remarks that its argument is " dense and filled with non sequiturs " . In a shorter review published in The Observer , Oliver Robinson described the work as an " unequivocally incensed , if meandering " study of U.S. foreign policy .
Piyush Mathur reviewed the work for Asia Times Online , a joint Thai @-@ Hong Kongese publication . Praising the book , Mathur argued that by being a U.S. citizen who was willing to criticise his own government , Chomsky was showing " a way beyond parochialism " that avoided nationalistic or ethnocentric intentions . Highlighting Chomsky 's " wry humor and sarcasm " , he notes that the author " successfully shows that the American emperor , while preaching modesty to the rest , himself struts about rather ostentatiously . " Mathur also turned his attention to the most prominent press reviews of the book that appeared in the U.S. and U.K. , those of Power and Cohen . He argues that the former 's review was " hardly charitable " , and that she had narrowly framed Hegemony or Survival as a critique purely of the Bush administration , something Mathur stated it clearly was not . Turning to Cohen 's " venomous " review , he highlights that it actually dealt very little with Chomsky 's book , instead offering a diatribe against the Left , one which consisted of a " thoroughly convoluted vagueness " . Ultimately , Mathur notes that the " strangely defensive and rather parochial posture " adopted by Power and Cohen was " entirely in line " with the reception that Chomsky had received from the Anglo @-@ American world .
= = = Hugo Chávez 's endorsement = = =
In September 2006 , Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez held up a Spanish @-@ language copy of Hegemony or Survival during his speech at the United Nations . Chávez praised the work as an " excellent book to help us understand what has been happening in the world throughout the 20th century " . He urged everyone present to read it , including those in the U.S. , remarking that " I think that the first people who should read this book are our brothers and sisters in the United States , because their threat is right in their own house . " A vocal anti @-@ imperialist and prominent critic of U.S. foreign policy , particularly in his native Latin America , Chávez went on to describe U.S. President Bush as the " devil " in his speech .
In the U.S. , demand for the book dramatically increased . Within a week , sales had risen tenfold ; it reached number 1 on amazon.com 's best @-@ seller list , and number 6 in the best @-@ seller lists of the bookstore chains Borders Group and Barnes & Noble . A prominent critic of Chomsky 's political views , Alan Dershowitz of Harvard Law School , told The New York Times that he believed most of those buying Hegemony or Survival would not read it , remarking that " I don 't know anybody who 's ever read a Chomsky book " . Furthermore , he related that the MIT professor " does not write page turners , he writes page stoppers . There are a lot of bent pages in Noam Chomsky 's books , and they are usually at about Page 16 . "
In response to Chávez 's endorsement , Chomsky told The New York Times that he would be " happy to meet " the Venezuelan President , asserting that he was " quite interested " in what his administration had achieved and thought many of Chávez 's views to be " quite constructive " . This meeting came about in August 2009 , when Chomsky visited the Latin American country . In a press conference to commence the meeting , Chávez made reference to the intellectual 's work , remarking " Hegemony or survival ; we opt for survival " , before comparing Chomsky 's thesis with the concept of " Socialism or Barbarism " advocated by German Marxist Rosa Luxemburg in the early 20th century . Speaking through an interpreter , Chomsky replied that " I write about peace and criticize the barriers to peace ; that 's easy . What 's harder is to create a better world ... and what 's so exciting about at last visiting Venezuela is that I can see how a better world is being created . " He went on to Venezolana de Televisión , where he commented on the U.S. government 's role in orchestrating the 2009 Honduran coup d 'état to overthrow leftist President Manuel Zelaya . He also expressed cautious support for the leftist reforms being implemented by Chávez 's administration , remarking his opinion that their moves " toward the creation of another socio @-@ economic model could have a global impact if these projects are successfully carried out " .
In summer 2011 , Chomsky expressed criticism of Chávez 's government over the controversial imprisonment of judge María Lourdes Afiuni , who had been detained since December 2009 . He asserted that he was " convinced that she must be set free , not only due to her physical and psychological health conditions , but in conformance with the human dignity the Bolivarian revolution presents as a goal . " In December 2011 , Chomsky reiterated this position , sending a letter to Chávez asking him to include the judge in his " Christmas @-@ time pardons " . Afiuni was released on June 14 , 2013 .
= Don Dunstan =
Donald Allan " Don " Dunstan AC , QC ( 21 September 1926 – 6 February 1999 ) was a South Australian politician . He entered politics as the Member for Norwood in 1953 , became leader of the South Australian Branch of the Australian Labor Party in 1967 , and was Premier of South Australia between June 1967 and April 1968 , and again between June 1970 and February 1979 .
The son of a business executive , Dunstan grew up as part of the Adelaide establishment . He excelled academically before experiencing his progressive political awakening while training in law and arts at the University of Adelaide . His upper @-@ class background and scholarly bearing made him unusual for the Labor Party at the time , but he rose quickly and entered parliament at the age of 26 . Dunstan quickly achieved prominence as Labor 's standout performer , a charismatic and aggressive debater in an era of sedate political conduct . The dominant political figure at the time was Premier Thomas Playford IV , then leading the Liberal and Country League ( LCL ) through a 27 @-@ year hold on power , aided by a system of electoral malapportionment dubbed the Playmander , which gave undue weight to the LCL 's rural base since its introduction by the LCL in 1936 . Dunstan stridently pursued the LCL over the Playmander .
In the late 1950s , Dunstan became well known for his campaign against the death penalty being imposed on Max Stuart , who was convicted of rape and murder of a small girl . He harried Playford aggressively over the matter , creating an uproar over what he saw as an unfair process . Playford eventually relented , and appeared shaken thereafter ; the event was seen as a turning point in the LCL 's decline , and Labor gained momentum . During Labor 's time in opposition , Dunstan was prominent in securing some reforms in Aboriginal rights , and was at the forefront of Labor abandoning the White Australia Policy .
Labor conducted an extensive campaign in marginal LCL seats at the 1965 election , resulting in 21 of 39 seats , with Frank Walsh and the Labor Party taking power . As Deputy Premier and Attorney @-@ General , the youthful and charismatic Dunstan made his older peers look lethargic as television became increasingly ubiquitous . The LCL opposition changed leaders and installed the young Steele Hall , worrying Labor as the elderly Walsh appeared bumbling in contrast . This resulted in Labor replacing Walsh with Dunstan . Despite maintaining a much larger vote over the LCL , Labor lost two seats at the 1968 election , with the LCL forming government with support of an independent . Dunstan responded by increasing his attacks on the Playmander and was able to convincingly sustain Playmander attacks with the effect of convincing the LCL into watering down the malapportionment . Again with little change in Labor 's vote but with the Playmander removed , Labor won 27 of 47 seats at the 1970 election . With a fairer seat and boundary system in place , Dunstan won three more elections , in 1973 , 1975 and 1977 .
A reformist , Dunstan brought profound change to South Australian society . His socially progressive administration saw Aboriginal land rights recognised , homosexuality decriminalised , the first female judge appointed , the first non @-@ British governor , Sir Mark Oliphant , and later , the first indigenous governor Sir Douglas Nicholls . He enacted consumer protection laws , reformed and expanded the public education and health systems , abolished the death penalty , relaxed censorship and drinking laws , created a ministry for the environment , enacted anti @-@ discrimination law , and implemented electoral reforms such as the overhaul of the Legislative Council of parliament , lowered the voting age to 18 , enacted universal suffrage , and completely abolished malapportionment , changes which gave him a less hostile parliament and allowed him to enact his reforms . He established Rundle Mall , enacted measures to protect buildings of historical heritage , and encouraged a flourishing of the arts , with support for the Adelaide Festival Centre , the State Theatre Company , and the establishment of the South Australian Film Corporation . He encouraged cultural exchanges with Asia , multiculturalism and an increase in the state 's culinary awareness and sophistication . He is recognised for his role in reinvigorating the social , artistic and cultural life of South Australia during his nine years in office , remembered as the Dunstan Decade . However , there were also problems ; the economy began to stagnate , and the large increases to burgeoning public service generated claims of waste . One of Dunstan 's pet projects , a plan to build a new city at Monarto to alleviate urban pressures in Adelaide , was abandoned when economic and population growth stalled , with much money and planning already invested . After four consecutive election wins , Dunstan 's administration began to falter in 1978 following his dismissal of Police Commissioner Harold Salisbury , as controversy broke out over whether he had improperly interfered with a judicial investigation . In addition , policy problems and unemployment began to mount , as well as unsubstantiated rumours of corruption and personal impropriety . Dunstan became increasingly short @-@ tempered , and the strain was increased by the death of his second wife . His resignation from the premiership and politics in 1979 was abrupt after collapsing due to ill health , but he would live for another 20 years , remaining a vocal and outspoken campaigner for progressive social policy .
= = Early life = =
Dunstan was born on 21 September 1926 in Suva , Fiji to Francis Vivian Dunstan and Ida May Dunstan ( née Hill ) ( Australian parents of Cornish descent ) . His parents had moved to Fiji in 1916 after his father took up a position as manager of the Adelaide Steamship Company . He spent the first seven years of his life in Fiji , starting his schooling there . Dunstan was beset by illness , and his parents sent him to South Australia hoping that the drier climate would assist his recovery . He lived in Murray Bridge for three years with his mother 's parents before returning to Suva for a short period during his secondary education . During his time in Fiji , Dunstan mixed easily with the Indian settlers and indigenous people , something that was frowned upon by the whites on the island .
He won a scholarship in classical studies and attended St Peter 's College , a traditional private school for the sons of the Adelaide establishment . He developed public speaking and acting skills , winning the College 's public speaking prize for two consecutive years . In 1943 , he portrayed the title role in a production of John Drinkwater 's play Abraham Lincoln , and according to the school magazine , he " was the chief contributor to the success of the occasion . " His academic strengths were in classical history and languages , and he disliked mathematics . He gained a reputation as a maverick , and said that his headmaster called him a " congenital rebel " multiple times . During this time , Dunstan did not board and lived in the seaside suburb of Glenelg with relatives . Dunstan completed his secondary schooling in 1943 , ranking in the top 30 overall in the statewide matriculation examinations .
In his youth , influenced by his uncle , former Liberal Lord Mayor of Adelaide Sir Jonathan Cain , Dunstan was a supporter of the conservative Liberal and Country League ( LCL ) and handed out how @-@ to @-@ vote cards for the party at state elections . Dunstan later said of his involvement with the Liberals : " I do not call it snobbery to deride the Establishment in South Australia , I admit that I was brought up into it , and I admit that it gave me a pain . " When asked of his roots , he said " I 'm a refugee from it and thank God for somewhere honest to flee to ! "
His political awakening happened during his university years . Studying law and arts at the University of Adelaide , he became very active in political organisations , joining the University Socialist Club , Fabian Society , the Student Representative Council and the Theatre Group . A two @-@ week stint in the Communist Party was followed by membership in the Australian Labor Party . Dunstan was markedly different from the general membership of the Labor Party of the time ; upon applying for membership at Trades Hall , a Labor veteran supposedly muttered " how could that long @-@ haired prick be a Labor man ? " His peculiarities , such as his upper @-@ class accent , were a target of derision by the working @-@ class Labor old guard throughout his early political involvement . Dunstan funded his education by working in theatre and radio during his university years . He eventually graduated with a double degree , with arts majors in Latin , comparative philology , history and politics , and he came first in political science .
Whilst living in Norwood and studying at university , Dunstan met his first wife , Gretel Dunstan ( née Elsasser ) , whose Jewish family had fled Nazi Germany to Australia . They married in 1949 , and moved , after Dunstan graduated , to Fiji where he was admitted to the bar and began his career as a lawyer . They returned to Adelaide in 1951 and settled in George Street , Norwood , with the couple 's young daughter , Bronwen . The family was forced to live in squalor for a number of years while Dunstan established his legal practice ; during this time , they took in boarders as a source of extra income . Gretel later gave birth to two sons , Andrew and Paul .
= = Political beginnings = =
Dunstan was nominated as the Labor candidate for the electoral district of Norwood at the 1953 election . His campaign was noted for his colourful methods to sway voters : posters of his face were placed on every pole in the district , and Labor supporters walked the streets advocating Dunstan . He targeted in particular the large Italian migrant population of the district , distributing translated copies of a statement the sitting LCL member Roy Moir had made about immigrants . Moir had commented that " these immigrants are of no use to us — a few of them are tradesmen but most of them have no skills at all . And when they intermarry we 'll have all the colours of the rainbow " . Dunstan won the seat and was elected to the South Australian House of Assembly . His son Andrew was born nine months after the win .
Dunstan was to become the most vocal opponent of the LCL Government of Sir Thomas Playford , strongly criticising its practice of electoral malapportionment , known as the Playmander , a pun on the term gerrymander . This system gave a disproportionate electoral weight to the LCL 's rural base , with votes worth as much as ten times others − at the 1968 election the rural seat of Frome had 4 @,@ 500 formal votes , while the metropolitan seat of Enfield had 42 @,@ 000 formal votes . He added colour and flair to debate in South Australian politics , changing the existing " gentlemanly " method of conducting parliamentary proceedings . He did not fear direct confrontation with the incumbent government and attacked it with vigour — up to this point most of his Labor colleagues had become dispirited by the Playmander , and were resigned to the ongoing dominance of Playford and LCL , so they were sought to influence policy through collaborative legislating . In 1954 , the LCL introduced the Government Electoral Bill , which was designed to further accentuate the undue weight on rural voters . During the debate , Dunstan decried this " immoral Bill ... I cannot separate it from the motives of those who put it forward . Since it is immoral , so are they . " Such language , unusually aggressive by the prevailing standards , resulted in Dunstan 's removal from the parliamentary chambers after he refused a request from the Speaker to retract his remark . The first parliamentarian to be expelled in years , Dunstan found himself on the front pages of newspapers for the first time . Nevertheless , he was not able to build up much of a profile in his first few years as The Advertiser , the dominant newspaper in the city , had a policy of ignoring the young politician 's activities — its editor Lloyd Dumas was the father of one of Dunstan 's first girlfriends .
= = Max Stuart trial = =
In December 1958 there occurred an event that initially had nothing to do with Playford , but eventually intensified into a debacle that was regarded as a turning point in his premiership and marked the end of his rule . Dunstan was prominent in pressuring Playford during this time .
A young girl was found raped and murdered , and Max Stuart , an Aborigine , was convicted and sentenced to be executed . Stuart 's lawyer claimed that the confession was forced , and appeals to the Supreme and High Courts were dismissed . Amid objections against the fairness of the trial among an increasing number of legal academics and judges , The News brought much attention to Stuart 's plight with an aggressive , tabloid @-@ style campaign .
When Playford and the Executive Council decided not to reprieve Stuart , an appeal to the Privy Council was made to stall the execution . Spearheaded by Dunstan , Labor then tried to introduce legislation to stall the hanging . Amid hue and cry , Playford started a Royal Commission to review the case . However , two of the commissioners had already been involved in the trial and one of the appeals . This provoked worldwide controversy with claims of bias from Dunstan and Labor , who also attacked Playford for what they regarded as a too @-@ restrictive scope of inquiry .
The Royal Commission began its work and the proceedings were followed closely and eagerly debated by the public . As Playford did not commute Stuart 's sentence , Dunstan introduced a bill to abolish capital punishment . The vote was split along party lines and was thus defeated , but Dunstan used the opportunity to attack the Playmander with much effect in the media , portraying the failed legislation as an unjust triumph of a malapportioned minority who had a vengeance mentality over an electorally repressed majority who wanted a humane outcome .
Amid the continuing uproar , Playford decided to grant clemency . The Royal Commission concluded that the guilty verdict was sound . Although a majority of those who spoke out against the handling of the matter — including Dunstan — thought that Stuart was probably guilty , the events provoked heated and bitter debate in South Australian society and destabilised Playford 's administration , while bringing much publicity to Dunstan .
From 1959 onwards , the LCL government clung to power with the support of two independents , as Labor gained momentum . Always at the forefront , Dunstan lambasted the government for perceived underspending on social welfare , education , health and the arts . Dunstan heavily promoted himself as a reformer .
In 1960 , Dunstan became president of the State Labor Party . The year also saw the death of Opposition Leader Mick O 'Halloran and his replacement by Frank Walsh . Dunstan attempted to win both the position of Opposition Leader and , failing that , Deputy Leader . However , the Labor caucus was sceptical of his age and inexperience , and he failed to gain either position , albeit narrowly .
= = Ascent to power = =
Federally , Dunstan , together with fellow Fabian Gough Whitlam , set about removing the White Australia policy from the Labor platform . The older trade @-@ unionist @-@ based members of the Labor Party vehemently opposed changing the status quo . However , the " New Guard " of the party , of which Dunstan was a part , were determined to bring about its end . Attempts in 1959 and 1961 failed , with Labor leader Arthur Calwell stating , " It would ruin the Party if we altered the immigration policy ... it was only cranks , long hairs , academics and do @-@ gooders who wanted the change " . However , Dunstan persisted in his efforts , and in 1965 it was removed from the Labor platform at their national conference ; Dunstan personally took credit for the change . Whitlam would later bring about the comprehensive end of the White Australia policy in 1973 as Prime Minister .
Dunstan pursued similar reforms with respect to Indigenous Australians . In 1962 , the Aboriginal Affairs Bill was introduced to liberalise constraints that had been placed on Indigenous Australians in the past and had effectively resulted in segregation . The initial proposal still retained some restrictions , placing more controls over full @-@ blooded Aborigines . Dunstan was prominent in Labor 's opposition to the double standards , and called for abolition of race @-@ based restrictions , saying that social objectives could be achieved without explicit colour @-@ based schemes . He was successful in forcing amendments to liberalise controls on property and the confinement of Indigenous Australians to reserves . However , his attempt to remove the different standards required of part and full @-@ blooded Aborigines failed , as did his proposal to ensure that at least half of the members of the Aboriginal Affairs Board be Indigenous Australians . Despite the passage of the bill , restrictions remained in place and Dunstan questioned the policy of assimilation of Aborigines , which he saw as the diluting of their distinctive cultures .
Labor won the seats of Glenelg and Barossa at the 1965 election , after winning the seats of Chaffey and Unley at the 1962 election . Labor thus finally overcame the Playmander and formed government for the first time in 32 years , with Frank Walsh as Premier of South Australia . Despite winning 55 percent of the primary vote , the Playmander was still strong enough that Labor won only 21 of 39 seats , a two @-@ seat majority . Dunstan became Attorney @-@ General and Minister of Community Welfare and Aboriginal Affairs . He was far and away the youngest member of the cabinet ; he was the only minister under 50 , and only one of three under 60 . Dunstan had a major impact on Government policy as Attorney @-@ General . Having only narrowly lost out on the leadership in 1960 , Dunstan became the obvious successor to the 67 @-@ year @-@ old Walsh , who was due to retire in 1967 under Labor rules of the time .
The Walsh Government implemented significant reform in its term of office . Liquor , gambling and entertainment laws were overhauled and liberalised , social welfare was gradually expanded and Aboriginal reserves were created . Strong restrictions on Aboriginal access to liquor were lifted . Women 's working rights were granted under the mantra of " equal pay for work of equal value " , and racial discrimination legislation was enacted . Town planning was codified in law , and the State Planning Authority was created to oversee development . Workers were given more rights and the bureaucracy of the education department was liberalised . Much of the reform was not necessarily radical and was primarily to " fill the gaps " that the previous LCL government had left . Despite a consistently higher statewide vote , Labor were consistently outnumbered 16 – 4 in the Legislative Council , so some desired legislation did not make it through . In 1965 , the legislature convened for 65 days , the most for 34 years , but many bills were still yet to be debated .
Many bills were watered down , but due to public disinterest , outcry was minimal . In particular , the council blocked electoral reform legislation , paving the way for a probable LCL win at the next election . Such was Dunstan 's pre @-@ eminence during his term as Attorney @-@ General that the cabinet was often called the " Dunstan Ministry " .
An economic depression had begun in South Australia after the Labor government gained office in 1965 ; unemployment went from the lowest in the country to the second highest , while immigration levels dropped . Labor was not responsible for the depression , although it initially did little to alleviate it . The Liberals seized on this opportunity , blaming it on " twelve months of Socialist administration in South Australia " and branding it the " Dunstan Depression " .
In the 1966 federal election , Labor suffered a swing against it of 11 @.@ 8 % in South Australia , double the national average . If this was replicated at a state election , it was projected that Labor would only hold 10 of the 39 seats . The Liberals dropped Playford as the state leader , and the younger and more progressive Steele Hall took his place . In a dire situation with the next state election looming , Labor changed leaders with Walsh , a " neanderthal figure in the television age " , standing down in May 1967 . Much of the Labor Right faction , as well as Walsh , was opposed to Dunstan taking the leadership , but no other MPs had the same charisma or eloquence . Eventually , Dunstan won the leadership over Des Corcoran , winning fourteen votes to eleven on the strength of rural and marginal Laborites , having trailed by one vote on the first count before less popular candidates were eliminated .
Dunstan 's first Premiership was eventful , with a steady stream of reform and attempts to end the depression . The latter half of 1967 saw the beginnings of a slight recovery , with unemployment dipping and industrial capacity steadying . The 1967 – 68 budget ran into deficit , allocating funds to energise the economic engine whilst Dunstan lambasted the Federal Government for neglecting the South Australian economy , demanding it take a degree of responsibility for its ills .
= = Elections 1968 – 1970 = =
In preparation for the 1968 election , Labor campaigned heavily around its leader , and this resonated with voters ; in surveys conducted in parts of the metropolitan area , 84 % of respondents declared their approval of Dunstan . In a presidential @-@ style election campaign , Hall and Dunstan journeyed across the state advocating their platforms , and the major issues were the leaders , the Playmander and the economy . Television saw its first major use in the election , and Dunstan , an astute public speaker , successfully mastered it . With his upbeat style , Dunstan also made an impact in the print media , which had long been a bastion of the LCL . Despite winning a 52 % majority of the primary vote , and 54 % of the two @-@ party preferred count , Labor lost two seats , resulting in a hung parliament : the LCL and Labor each had 19 seats . Had 21 votes in the rural seat of Murray gone the other way , Labor would have retained power . The balance of power rested with the chamber 's lone independent , Tom Stott , who was offered the speakership by the LCL in return for his support on the Assembly floor . Stott , a conservative , agreed to support the LCL .
There was a degree of speculation in the press that Dunstan would call for a new election because of the adverse outcome . However , Dunstan realised the futility of such a move and instead sought to humiliate the LCL into bringing an end to malapportionment . Although Stott 's decision to support the LCL ended any realistic chance of Dunstan remaining premier , Dunstan did not immediately resign his commission , intending to force Hall and the LCL to demonstrate that they had support on the floor of the Assembly when it reconvened . He used the six weeks before the start of the new legislature to draw attention to malapportionment . Protests were held on 15 March in Light Square . There , Dunstan spoke to a crowd of more than 10 @,@ 000 : " We need to show that the people of SA feel that at last the watershed has been reached in this , and that they will not continue to put up with a system which is as undemocratic as the present one in SA . " On 16 April , the first day of the new House 's sitting , Dunstan lost a confidence vote . With it now clear that the LCL had control of the House , Dunstan tendered his resignation to Governor Edric Bastyan . Hall was then sworn in as premier . However , the six weeks of protesting had brought nationwide criticism of the unfairness of the electoral system and put more pressure on the LCL to relent to reforms ; it has been seen as one of the most important political events of its time .
With the end of Playford 's tenure , the LCL had brought younger , more progressive members into its ranks . The Hall Government continued many of the social reforms that the Walsh / Dunstan governments had initiated ; most of these at the instigation of Hall or his Attorney @-@ General , Robin Millhouse . Abortion was partially legalised , and planning for the Festival Centre began . The conservative and rural factions of the League , notably in the Legislative Council dominated by the landed gentry , were bitterly opposed to some reforms , and more than once Hall was forced to rely on Labor support to see bills passed . The LCL began to break apart ; what had once been a united party was now factionalised — four distinct groups across the political spectrum appeared within the party . The economy of South Australia began to pick up under Hall , returning to full employment . During the term in opposition , Des Corcoran became Dunstan 's deputy , and the pair worked together well despite any rift that may have been caused by the struggle to succeed Walsh .
Hall also enacted a complete reform of the electoral system . He was embarrassed that the LCL was in a position to win government despite having clearly lost the first @-@ preference vote , and was committed to a fairer electoral system . The reforms were significant , but did not go as far as the change to " one vote one value " that Labor and Dunstan had demanded . The lower house formerly had 39 seats — 13 in Adelaide and 26 in the country . Now , 47 seats were to be contested : 28 in Adelaide and 19 in the country . While there was still a slight rural weighting ( since Adelaide accounted for two @-@ thirds of the state 's population ) , with Adelaide now electing a majority of the legislature , historical results made a Labor win at the next election likely . Under the Playmander , Labor usually dominated Adelaide . In most years , the LCL won almost no seats in the capital outside of the wealthy eastern crescent and around Holdfast Bay . Under the circumstances , conventional wisdom was that Hall undertook electoral reform knowing he was effectively handing the premiership to Dunstan at the next election .
Stott withdrew support in 1970 over the Chowilla Dam , a dispute over the location of a dam on the Murray River , and South Australia went to the polls . The dam controversy was not much of an election issue , and attempts by the Democratic Labor Party to portray Dunstan as a communist over his opposition to ongoing Australian support for South Vietnam had little effect . The LCL campaigned heavily on Hall , while Dunstan promised sweeping social reform , artistic transformation and more community services . He said " We 'll set a new standard of social advancement that the whole of Australia will envy . We believe South Australia can set the pace . It can happen here . We can do it . " Dunstan won the 1970 election easily , taking 27 seats compared with the LCL 's 20 . Although the share of the votes had been similar to 1968 , the dilution of the Playmander had changed the share of the seats . As Labor had attained a majority of the popular vote for a long period , and because malapportionment had been largely ended , the political scientists Neal Blewett and Dean Jaensch said " a Dunstan decade seems assured " .
= = Dunstan decade = =
Dunstan wasted no time in organising his new ministry , taking several portfolios for himself , and again taking the position of Treasurer of South Australia . Deputy Premier Des Corcoran took on most infrastructure portfolios — Marine and Harbours , and Public Works . Corcoran became the face of the Dunstan ministry in its relationship with the Labor caucus , with his ability to use his strong manner to settle disputes . Bert Shard became Health Minister , overseeing the construction and planning of new , major public hospitals : the Flinders Medical Centre and Modbury Hospital . Hugh Hudson took on the Education portfolio , an important role in a government that was determined to bring about profound change to the South Australian education system . Geoff Virgo , the new Transport Minister , was to deal with the Metropolitan Adelaide Transport Study ( MATS ) plans . Len King was made Attorney @-@ General and Aboriginal Affairs Minister despite being a new member of parliament . Dunstan formed a strong circle of loyal ministers around him , in a style radically different from his predecessors .
Soon after the election , Dunstan travelled to Canberra for the annual Premiers ' Conference as the sole Labor premier . His Government , on a mandate to dramatically increase funding in key areas , sought to appropriate further finances from the Federal Government . This brought Dunstan into conflict with Prime Minister John Gorton , and federal funding to SA was not increased . An appeal was made to the Federal Grants Commission , and Dunstan was awarded more than he had hoped for . In addition to the money received from the Grants Commission , funds were diverted from water @-@ storage schemes in the Adelaide Hills over the advice of engineers , and cash reserves were withdrawn from the two government @-@ owned banks . The monies were subsequently used to finance health , education and arts schemes .
On the death in office of Governor Sir James Harrison in 1971 , Dunstan finally had the chance to appoint the governor of his choosing : Sir Mark Oliphant , a physicist who had worked on the Manhattan Project . Dunstan had never been happy that governors were usually British ex @-@ servicemen ; it was a personal goal of his to see an active and notable South Australian take on the role . Although the post was ceremonial , Oliphant brought energy to the role , and he used his stature to decry damage to the environment caused by deforestation , excessive open @-@ cut mining and pollution . Oliphant 's tenure was successful and held in high regard , although he did come into conflict with the premier at times as both men were outspoken and strong @-@ willed .
In 1972 , the first major developments in regard to the state 's population growth occurred . Adelaide 's population was set to increase to 1 @.@ 3 million and the MATS plan and water @-@ storage schemes were in planning to accommodate this . These were summarily rejected by the Dunstan Government , which planned to build a new city 83 kilometres from Adelaide , near Murray Bridge . The city , to be known as Monarto , was to be built on farmland to the west of the existing town . Dunstan was very much against allowing Adelaide 's suburbs to further sprawl , and thus Monarto was a major focus of his government . He argued that the new South Eastern Freeway would allow a drive of only 45 minutes from Adelaide , that the city was not far from current industry , and that water could be readily supplied from the River Murray . The government hoped that Adelaide would not sprawl into the Mount Lofty Ranges to the east and that the bureaucracy would be dispersed from the capital . In contrast , public servants feared being forced into the rural settlement . Critics — of which there were many — derided the project as " Dunstan 's Versailles in the bush " . Environmental activists aired fears of the effects of Monarto on the River Murray , which was already suffering from pollution and salinity problems . Later on , it was noticed that there was hard bedrock underneath the ground , raising drainage problems .
From 1970 to 1973 , much legislation passed through the South Australian Parliament . Workers saw increases in welfare , drinking laws were further liberalised , an Ombudsman was created , censorship was liberalised , seat belts were made mandatory , the education system was overhauled , and the public service was gradually increased ( doubling in size during the Dunstan era ) . Adelaide 's water supply was fluoridated in 1971 and the age of majority was lowered from 21 to 18 . A Commissioner of Consumer Affairs was created , a demerit point system was introduced to penalise poor driving practices in an attempt to cut the road toll , and compensation for workers was improved . Police autonomy and powers were restricted following a rally in opposition to the Vietnam War , which was broken up by police , although Dunstan had wanted the demonstrators to be able to close off the street . A royal commission was called into the police commissioner 's disregard for Dunstan 's orders , and resulted in legislation giving the government more control over the police ; the commissioner then retired . The dress code for the Parliament was relaxed during this period , the suit and tie was no longer seen as obligatory , and Dunstan himself caused media frenzy when he arrived at Parliament House in 1972 wearing pink shorts that ended above his knees . After his departure from public life he admitted that his sartorial statement may have gone beyond the limits . Nevertheless , his fashion sense resulted in his being voted " the sexiest political leader in Australia " by Woman 's Day in 1975 , and the image of Dunstan in the shorts remains iconic .
In 1972 Dunstan separated from his wife and moved into a small flat in Kent Town , adjacent to Norwood . The family home was sold as two of the children were already studying in university . In 1974 the couple were finally divorced . Dunstan notes this period as being initially a " very bleak and lonely " time for him .
In absence of his family , he made new friends and acquaintances . Friends living nearby would come to his apartment for conversation and good food — cooking was Dunstan 's hobby . Dunstan bought another house in 1974 , partially financed from a then @-@ unpublished cookbook . In 1976 , Don Dunstan 's Cookbook was published — the first cookbook released by a serving Australian leader . More generally , Dunstan promoted a revolution in fine dining in the state . Encouraged by Dunstan 's enthusiasm for multiculturalism , many new restaurants were opened by proprietors and the diversity of cuisine increased . He also promoted the viticulture industry through his patronage of wine festivals .
Having played a part in Labor 's abandonment of the White Australia Policy at national level , Dunstan was also prominent in promoting multiculturalism . He was well known for his attendance at and patronage of Cornish , Italian and Greek Australian cultural festivals and his appreciation of Asian art , and sought to build on cultural respect to create trade links with Asia . Dunstan 's involvement in such cultural exchanges was also credited with generating strong support for Labor from ethnic and non @-@ Anglo @-@ Saxon immigrant communities , although it was viewed with suspicion by some in the Anglo @-@ Saxon establishment . Dunstan himself later recalled : " When I proposed the establishment of a Cornish Festival , in Australia 's " Little Cornwall " , people of Cornish descent came flocking . "
Having been vocal in criticising Playford for sacrificing heritage to the march of development , Dunstan was prominent in protecting historic buildings from being bulldozed for high @-@ rise office blocks . In 1972 , the government intervened to purchase and thereby save Edmund Wright House on King William Street from being replaced with a skyscraper . In 1975 , the Customs House at Semaphore was purchased to save it from demolition . His support of heritage preservation overlapped with his promotion of gourmet dining when his personal efforts helped to save the historic Ayers House on North Terrace , having it converted into a restaurant to avoid demolition . In contrast , there were also some controversial developments . Part of the rocky Hallett Cove on Gulf St Vincent in Adelaide 's southern suburbs was developed for housing , as were vineyards in Morphettville , Tea Tree Gully , Modbury , and Reynella . This attracted criticism , as Dunstan was prominent in promoting South Australian viticulture and enotourism .
In pursuit of economic links with the nations of South @-@ East Asia , Dunstan came into contact with the leaders of the Malaysian state of Penang in 1973 . Striking a note with Chong Eu Lim , the Chief Minister , Dunstan set about organising cultural and economic engagement between the two states . " Penang Week " was held in Adelaide in July , and in return , " South Australia Week " was held in Penang 's capital , George Town . In the same year , the Adelaide Festival Centre was opened — Australia 's first multifunction performing arts complex .
Over a six @-@ year period , government funding for the arts was increased by a factor of seven and in 1978 , the South Australian Film Corporation commenced work . During Dunstan 's time in charge , acclaimed films such as Breaker Morant , Picnic at Hanging Rock and Storm Boy were made in the state . Dunstan 's support of the arts and fine dining was credited by commentators with attracting artists , craftspeople and writers into the state , helping to change its atmosphere .
The South Australian Legislative Council , the Upper House in the Parliament , was , due to its limited electoral roll , overwhelmingly non @-@ Labor . Unlike the Lower House , its members were elected only by voters who met certain property and wealth requirements . Combined with the remains of the " Playmander " malapportionment , it was difficult for the Labor Party to achieve the representation it wished . The Legislative Council either watered down or outright rejected a considerable amount of Labor legislation ; bills to legalise homosexuality , abolish corporal and capital punishment and allow gambling and casinos were rejected . A referendum had indicated support for Friday night shopping , but Labor legislation was blocked in the upper house by the LCL .
Dunstan called an election for March 1973 , hoping to gain a mandate to seek changes to the Council . The LCL were badly disunited ; the more liberal wing of the party under Hall joined Dunstan in wanting to introduce universal suffrage for the upper house , while the more conservative members of the LCL did not . The conservatives then decided to limit Hall 's powers , resulting in his resignation and creation of the breakaway Liberal Movement ( LM ) , which overtly branded itself as a semi @-@ autonomous component within the LCL . Labor capitalised on the opposition divisions to secure an easy victory . They campaigned under the slogan " South Australia 's Doing Well with Labor " , while the LCL was hampered by infighting ; many LCL candidates were claiming different leaders in their electoral material depending on their factional allegiance . The Labor Party won with 51 @.@ 5 % of the primary vote and secured a second consecutive majority government with 26 seats . It was only the second time that a Labor government in South Australia had been re @-@ elected for a second term , the first being the early Thomas Price Labor government . It would be the first five @-@ year @-@ incumbent Labor government however . They also gained two more seats in the Legislative Council to have six of the twenty members . Labor entered the new term with momentum when a fortnight after the election , the LCL purged LM members from its ranks , forcing them to either quit the LM or leave the LCL and join the LM as a distinct party .
Dunstan saw reform of the Legislative Council as an important goal , and later a prime achievement , of his Government . Labor , as a matter of party policy , wanted to see the Legislative Council abolished . Dunstan , seeing this as unfeasible in his term , set about to reform it instead . Two bills were prepared for Legislative Council reform ; one to lower the voting age to 18 and introduce universal suffrage , and another to make councillors elected from a single statewide electorate under a system of proportional representation . The LCL initially blocked both bills , stating that it would only accept them if modifications were made to the second one . Changes were conceded ; unlike the House of Assembly , voting would not be compulsory and the preference system was to be slightly altered . Once the amendments were made , the legislation was passed .
During his second term , Dunstan started efforts to build a petrochemical complex at Redcliff , near Port Augusta . Negotiations were held with several multinational companies , but nothing eventuated . Legislation was passed to create a Land Commission and introduce urban land price controls . However , a bill to create " a right to privacy " was defeated in the upper house after protests from journalists , as was legislation to mandate refunds to consumers for returning beverage containers and therefore promote recycling . In 1975 , Dunstan declared Australia 's first legal nude bathing reserve .
Prior to the 1975 federal and state elections , Australia , and South Australia in particular , had been hit by a series of economic problems . The 1973 oil crisis had massively increased the cost of living , domestic industry began to erode due to a lack of cost @-@ competitiveness , and government funds were waning . In response , the Dunstan Government sold loss @-@ making railways to the Commonwealth and brought in new taxes to allow wage rises . The changes had unexpected consequences : inflation , already high , increased markedly , and workers were still displeased with wages . The LCL , now known as the Liberal Party , had rebuilt after internal schism and had modernised to make themselves more appealing to the public . Having called an early election , Dunstan appealed to the electorate and pushed blame onto the Whitlam Government for South Australia 's problems . In a television address just days before the election , he said : " My Government is being smeared and it hurts . They want you to think we are to blame for Canberra 's mistakes . The vote on Saturday is not for Canberra , not for Australia , but for South Australia . "
Labor remained the largest party in Parliament , but lost the two @-@ party preferred vote at 49 @.@ 2 % and saw its numbers decrease from 26 to 23 . The LCL held 20 seats , the Liberal Movement two , the Country Party one , and the last remaining with an independent , the nominally Labor Mayor of Port Pirie , Ted Connelly . Dunstan appealed to Connelly and offered him the role of Speaker . However , the reforms to the Legislative Council 's election bore fruit . Of the 11 seats up for election , Labor won six with 47 @.@ 3 % of the vote , and the LM two , allowing Labor a total of 10 seats . This meant they could now , with the help of the LM , push through reforms opposed by the Liberals .
It was the first time that a Labor government in South Australia had been re @-@ elected for a third term , and would be the first seven @-@ year @-@ incumbent Labor government .
Dunstan continued to try to push through further legislation ; he sought to expand on the Hall Government 's electoral @-@ boundaries reform , to bring it closer to one vote one value . The legislation sought to establish 47 electoral districts containing roughly equal numbers of voters ( with a 10 % tolerance ) . Redistributions were to be presided over by an independent boundaries commission . The bill passed with the support of the breakaway LM in the upper house — former Premier Steele Hall and his former Attorney @-@ General Robin Millhouse .
One famous demonstration of Dunstan 's charismatic style and media savvy came in January 1976 . A psychic predicted that , due to Dunstan and the state 's social liberalisation — which he saw as sinful — God would destroy Adelaide with a tsunami caused by an earthquake . This was publicised by the media , prompting a not insignificant number of residents to sell their property and leave ; some businesses had clearance sales while many who decided to stay indulged in doomsday parties . Dunstan promised to stand on the seashore at Glenelg and wait for the imminent destruction . He did so on 20 January , the day of the predicted storm , and nothing happened , although he made newspaper headlines in the United Kingdom for his defiance .
In 1976 , the Dunstan Government stepped up its legislative efforts . Some bills , such as the one to remove the sodomy law and decriminalise male homosexuality , had been initially blocked by the Legislative Council . However , the bill to abolish capital punishment passed with ease , and the homosexuality law reforms eventually passed in September . Rape law was properly codified and defined as a crime within marriage for the first time in Australia . Shopping hours , previously the most restrictive in the nation , became the most open . Following a royal commission , Friday night shopping was introduced for the city and Thursday night shopping for the suburbs . The deposits on beverage containers was finally passed . The first signs of Monarto 's eventual failure began to appear : birth rates started dropping significantly , immigration slowed and the economy was stagnant . South Australia 's robust population growth , previously the highest per capita among the states , came to an abrupt halt . However , state money continued to be poured into the Monarto project , despite the fact that the Whitlam government cut funding to $ 600 @,@ 000 in 1975 , while his Liberal successor Malcolm Fraser gave nothing at all the following year . However , by the time Monarto was eventually scrapped after Dunstan 's departure , no less than $ 20 million had been used to buy land , plant trees and formulate development plans , and the failed project is often seen as Dunstan 's greatest failure . In addition , the federal government removed subsidies for shipbuilding at Whyalla , forcing the operations to be scaled down .
In 1973 Adele Koh , a Malaysian journalist formerly living in Singapore , was appointed to work for Dunstan . She had been expelled by the Singaporean Government of Lee Kuan Yew for criticising its policies . The newspaper she had been working for , the Singapore Herald , was shut down by the government and she then moved to Australia . A relationship developed in 1974 between her and Dunstan , and they were married in 1976 in a small ceremony at his residence . Dunstan was much older than his wife , who was in her 30s .
After Oliphant 's term had expired , Dunstan appointed the first Indigenous Australian Governor , Sir Douglas Nicholls , a former football player and clergyman . Following Nicholls ' resignation due to ill health in 1977 , a second consecutive clergyman took the post , Methodist Keith Seaman . However , this appointment was not successful ; Seaman became involved in an unspecified scandal and made a statement admitting to a " grave impropriety " , without elaborating further . He did not resign and kept a low profile from then on . Dunstan also appointed Dame Roma Mitchell to become the nation 's first female Supreme Court judge . She later said " I doubt anybody else in those days would have pushed for a woman " , and that Dunstan enjoyed creating a legacy of equality among social groups .
Dunstan broke new ground in Australian politics with his policies on native title for Aborigines . The North West Aboriginal Reserve ( NWAR ) covered more than 7 % of the state 's land , and was inhabited by the Pitjantjatjara people . In 1977 , when the NWAR was about to be transferred to the Aboriginal Lands Trust , a tribal delegation asked for the lands to be given to the traditional owners . Dunstan agreed to an investigation , and subsequently introduced the Pitjantjatjara Land Rights Bill . This bill proposed for a tribal body , the Anangu Pitjantjatjaraku , to take control of the NWAR and further lands after the claims were cleared by an independent tribunal . It also proposed to allow the body to decide mining proposals on the land and receive royalties . This aroused discontent among mining interests , but a bipartisan parliamentary committee endorsed the bill and it was tabled . However , Labor lost power before the bill was passed and although the new Liberal government said they would remove the mining restrictions , mass public rallies forced them to relent , and a bill similar to Dunstan 's was passed . The legislation , the bedrock of which was laid by Dunstan , was the most reformist in Australia , and in the 1980s , more than 20 % of the land was returned to its traditional owners .
Dunstan called another snap election in September at the 1977 election ; he hoped to recover from the previous election , the outcome of which had been affected by the dismissal of the Federal Labor Government . As the remnants of the Playmander had been abolished , conditions were more favourable for Labor and they wanted to end their reliance on the casting vote of the speaker . The campaign proceeded smoothly and exploited the unpopularity of the federal Liberal government , using the jingle " Thank the Lord for South Australia " . Labor won an absolute majority with 51 @.@ 6 % of the primary vote and 27 seats .
It was the first time that a Labor government in South Australia had been re @-@ elected for a fourth term , and would be the first nine @-@ year @-@ incumbent Labor government .
= = = Salisbury affair and departure from office = = =
The South Australian Police had since 1949 a " Special Branch " in its forces for the purposes of surveillance and espionage . Conceived earlier as an " intelligence branch " in 1939 for the purposes of spying on the large German Australian community in World War II , it had amassed information on tens of thousands of individuals and organisations . While such an operation was of concern to Dunstan and his government for civil liberty reasons , its apparent party @-@ political bias was even more concerning to them . In particular , the branch held information files on Labor parliamentarians , communists , church leaders , trade unionists and so @-@ called " pink files " on gay community activists dating from the time before homosexuality was decriminalised . Only two Labor MPs , from both federal and state parliaments , did not have files , whereas the branch held significantly fewer files relating to Liberal figures . Dunstan had known of the existence of the branch since 1970 , but said that he had been assured by the police commissioner that its files were not systematically focused on left @-@ wing political figures .
However , Peter Ward , a journalist and former Dunstan staffer published a story about the files . An inquiry was conducted into the branch by Justice White of the Supreme Court of South Australia , and the report was placed in Dunstan 's hands on 21 December 1977 . It said that the dossiers did exist and that they were " scandalously inaccurate , irrelevant to security purposes and outrageously unfair to hundreds , perhaps thousands , of loyal and worthy citizens " . It also noted that the reports overwhelmingly focused on left @-@ wing politicians and activists , and that Dunstan had been misled by the police commissioner . After reviewing the report , Dunstan sacked Police Commissioner Harold Salisbury in January and threatened to release the report to the public . However , Salisbury had a reputation as a man of integrity , and controversy erupted regarding the inquiry and Dunstan 's actions , and whether he had already known about the true contents of the files for several years , as claimed by Ward . A Royal Commission under Justice Mitchell , set up at the instigation of the Liberals , investigated the matter . The inquiry cleared the Dunstan Government of any error , as it had not known about the Special Branch 's activities earlier . Dunstan sacked Salisbury for misleading Parliament about the existence of the " pink files " and many of the Special Branch files were burnt . Salisbury retired to the United Kingdom with a $ 160 @,@ 000 payout ; a book , The Salisbury Affair by Stewart Cockburn , was written about the debacle .
There were initially no other major controversies for Dunstan , although the economy remained poor and the Redcliff complex was still in limbo as an agreement with Dow was still to be finalised . The financial difficulties forced a freeze on public sector expansion and hospital developments , and there were claims of theft and mismanagement in the health system , but the Liberals were in a disorganised state and unpopular , so they were not able to pressure Dunstan effectively .
Towards the end of the year , political and media scrutiny began to grow on Dunstan , who began to grow uneasy in his dealings with the press . Soon after the Salisbury dismissal , he walked out of a stormy media conference after refusing to be drawn on the rumoured sacking of Seaman from the gubernatorial role . Increasing innuendo about Dunstan 's private life and allegations of corruption and economic mismanagement were worsened by Dunstan 's self @-@ righteous tendencies . The premier angrily denied claims that he was using government funds to build an opulent residence in Malaysia as well as claims about his sexual lifestyle . He pre @-@ emptively called a press conference on one occasion to denounce what he called " idiot rumours " and he further claimed that " reactionary forces " and " right wing journalists " were engaged in a witchhunt against his " decent and responsible government " .
Dunstan also faced difficulties on policy issues . Factional cracks began to appear in Labor and the discovery of uranium deposits near the northern outback town of Roxby Downs put the premier in a bind . The uranium was seen as a valuable economic boost in difficult times , but a government ban on its mining on safety grounds was still in force . Dunstan was opposed to uranium mining but he was seen as lacking in conviction by environmentalists , as well as being criticised by industrialists . By May , his approval rating had fallen to 57 % , down from 80 % just two years earlier , while unemployment increased . It was also widely anticipated that a book named It 's Grossly Improper would soon be released , containing embarrassing allegations about Dunstan 's private life .
Dunstan 's wife Adele was diagnosed with advanced lung cancer in May 1978 . She died in October after Dunstan had cared for her at her bedside for months ; her death seriously affected him and his own health began to suffer . Together with Mike Rann , his Press Secretary , speechwriter and eventually Premier , who had worked with him in 1978 on a series of speeches on Aboriginal Land Rights , industrial democracy and women 's rights , he made a uranium fact @-@ finding trip to Europe to study safe methods of nuclear power and waste disposal . By the summer that followed , Dunstan fell extremely ill . When Parliament resumed , he collapsed on the floor of the House and was forced to use a walking stick ; his doctor advised him that he required six months of rest to recover . The Liberal Opposition seized on the state of affairs and charged that the Labor Party was " as ailing as the man who led it " . In a stage @-@ managed press conference on 15 February 1979 , Dunstan announced his retirement as premier from his room in Calvary Hospital while shaking and wearing a dressing gown .
The political scientist Andrew Parkin said that one of Dunstan 's main achievements was to debunk the notion that state governments and parliaments lacked the ability to make significant reforms with profound impacts . He cited Dunstan 's sweeping social reforms and the fact that many other state governments followed South Australia 's lead as evidence of this .
= = Life after politics = =
After Dunstan 's resignation from parliament , deputy Des Corcoran took his place as party leader and Premier . At the subsequent Norwood by @-@ election , Dunstan 's seat was retained by Labor . Corcoran soon called the 1979 election . Corcoran 's lack of media savvy , the Advertiser 's bias towards the Liberals at this election , and the public 's widespread dissatisfaction with the economy and bus strikes , brought about an 8 @.@ 4 percent two @-@ party swing against Labor , leaving the party with only 19 seats against the Liberals on 25 seats . The Tonkin Liberal Government came to power and began reducing the size of the public service and abandoned the Monarto project . Dunstan took a trip to Europe after being released from hospital , staying in Perugia for five months and pursuing Italian studies . He subsequently returned home and lived quietly in Adelaide for three years without finding work that appealed to him , such as that related to the shaping of public policy .
During this time he became increasingly disillusioned with South Australian political affairs . A book by two Adelaide journalists , It 's Grossly Improper , was released in November and sold out within a week . It alleged inappropriate use of government funds and a homosexual affair with a restaurateur , John Ceruto , in return for political favours . There was initial fanfare and speculation as to the authenticity of its claims ; Dunstan dismissed the book as a " farrago of lies " in his 1981 memoirs , entitled Felicia .
From May 1980 to early 1981 he acted as editor for the magazine POL . In 1982 , he moved to the neighbouring state of Victoria , and was appointed the Director of Tourism . This sparked an outcry in South Australia due to the two states ' traditional rivalry . For his part , Dunstan said that he had yearned | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
succinates are covalently attached to the reactive amino groups in aminopropyl CPG , LCAA CPG , or aminomethyl MPPS . The remaining unreacted amino groups are capped with acetic anhydride . Typically , three conceptually different groups of solid supports are used .
Universal supports . In a more recent , more convenient , and more widely used method , the synthesis starts with the universal support where a non @-@ nucleosidic linker is attached to the solid support material ( compounds 1 and 2 ) . A phosphoramidite respective to the 3 ' -terminal nucleoside residue is coupled to the universal solid support in the first synthetic cycle of oligonucleotide chain assembly using the standard protocols . The chain assembly is then continued until the completion , after which the solid support @-@ bound oligonucleotide is deprotected . The characteristic feature of the universal solid supports is that the release of the oligonucleotides occurs by the hydrolytic cleavage of a P @-@ O bond that attaches the 3 ’ -O of the 3 ’ -terminal nucleotide residue to the universal linker as shown in Scheme 6 . The critical advantage of this approach is that the same solid support is used irrespectively of the sequence of the oligonucleotide to be synthesized . For the complete removal of the linker and the 3 ' -terminal phosphate from the assembled oligonucleotide , the solid support 1 and several similar solid supports require gaseous ammonia , aqueous ammonium hydroxide , aqueous methylamine , or their mixture and are commercially available . The solid support 2 requires a solution of ammonia in anhydrous methanol and is also commercially available .
Nucleosidic solid supports . In a historically first and still popular approach , the 3 ' -hydroxy group of the 3 ' -terminal nucleoside residue is attached to the solid support via , most often , 3 ’ -O @-@ succinyl arm as in compound 3 . The oligonucleotide chain assembly starts with the coupling of a phosphoramidite building block respective to the nucleotide residue second from the 3 ’ -terminus . The 3 ’ -terminal hydroxy group in oligonucleotides synthesized on nucleosidic solid supports is deprotected under the conditions somewhat milder than those applicable for universal solid supports . However , the fact that a nucleosidic solid support has to be selected in a sequence @-@ specific manner reduces the throughput of the entire synthetic process and increases the likelihood of human error .
Special solid supports are used for the attachment of desired functional or reporter groups at the 3 ’ -terminus of synthetic oligonucleotides . For example , the commercial solid support 4 allows the preparation of oligonucleotides bearing 3 ’ -terminal 3 @-@ aminopropyl linker . Similarly to non @-@ nucleosidic phosphoramidites , many other special solid supports designed for the attachment of reactive functional groups , non @-@ radioactive reporter groups , and terminal modifiers ( e.c. cholesterol or other hydrophobic tethers ) and suited for various applications are commercially available . A more detailed information on various solid supports for oligonucleotide synthesis can be found in a recent review .
= = = Oligonucleotide phosphorothioates and their synthesis = = =
Oligonucleotide phosphorothioates ( OPS ) are modified oligonucleotides where one of the oxygen atoms in the phosphate moiety is replaced by sulfur . Only the phosphorothioates having sulfur at a non @-@ bridging position as shown in figure are widely used and are available commercially . The replacement of the non @-@ bridging oxygen with sulfur creates a new center of chirality at phosphorus . In a simple case of a dinucleotide , this results in the formation of a diastereomeric pair of Sp- and Rp @-@ dinucleoside monophosphorothioates whose structures are shown in Figure . In an n @-@ mer oligonucleotide where all ( n – 1 ) internucleosidic linkages are phosphorothioate linkages , the number of diastereomers m is calculated as m = 2 ( n – 1 ) . Being non @-@ natural analogs of nucleic acids , OPS are substantially more stable towards hydrolysis by nucleases , the class of enzymes that destroy nucleic acids by breaking the bridging P @-@ O bond of the phosphodiester moiety . This property determines the use of OPS as antisense oligonucleotides in in vitro and in vivo applications where the extensive exposure to nucleases is inevitable . Similarly , to improve the stability of siRNA , at least one phosphorothioate linkage is often introduced at the 3 ' -terminus of both sense and antisense strands . In chirally pure OPS , all @-@ Sp diastereomers are more stable to enzymatic degradation than their all @-@ Rp analogs . However , the preparation of chirally pure OPS remains a synthetic challenge . In laboratory practice , mixtures of diastereomers of OPS are commonly used .
Synthesis of OPS is very similar to that of natural oligonucleotides . The difference is that the oxidation step is replaced by sulfur transfer reaction ( sulfurization ) and that the capping step is performed after the sulfurization . Of many reported reagents capable of the efficient sulfur transfer , only three are commercially available :
3- ( Dimethylaminomethylidene ) amino @-@ 3H @-@ 1 @,@ 2 @,@ 4 @-@ dithiazole @-@ 3 @-@ thione , DDTT ( 3 ) provides rapid kinetics of sulfurization and high stability in solution . The reagent is available from several sources .
3H @-@ 1 @,@ 2 @-@ benzodithiol @-@ 3 @-@ one 1 @,@ 1 @-@ dioxide ( 4 ) also known as Beaucage reagent displays a better solubility in acetonitrile and short reaction times . However , the reagent is of limited stability in solution and is less efficient in sulfurizing RNA linkages .
N , N , N 'N ' -Tetraethylthiuram disulfide ( TETD ) is soluble in acetonitrile and is commercially available . However , the sulfurization reaction of an internucleosidic DNA linkage with TETD requires 15 min , which is more than 10 times as slow as that with compounds 3 and 4 .
= = = Automation = = =
In the past , oligonucleotide synthesis was carried out manually in solution or on solid phase . The solid phase synthesis was implemented using , as containers for the solid phase , miniature glass columns similar in their shape to low @-@ pressure chromatography columns or syringes equipped with porous filters . Currently , solid @-@ phase oligonucleotide synthesis is carried out automatically using computer @-@ controlled instruments ( oligonucleotide synthesizers ) and is technically implemented in column , multi @-@ well plate , and array formats . The column format is best suited for research and large scale applications where a high @-@ throughput is not required . Multi @-@ well plate format is designed specifically for high @-@ throughput synthesis on small scale to satisfy the growing demand of industry and academia for synthetic oligonucleotides . A number of oligonucleotide synthesizers for small scale synthesis and medium to large scale synthesis are available commercially .
= = = First Commercially available Oligonucleotide Synthesizers = = =
In March of 1982 a practical course was hosted by the Department of Biochemistry , Technische Hochschule Darmstadt , Germany . M.H. Caruthers , M.J. Gait , H.G. Gassen , H.Koster , K. Itakura , and C. Birr among others attended . The program comprised practical work , lectures , and seminars on solid @-@ phase chemical synthesis of oligonucleotides . A select group of 15 students attended and had an unprecedented opportunity to be instructed by the esteemed teaching staff .
Along with manual exercises , several prominent automation companies attended the course . Biosearch of Novato , CA , Genetic Design of Watertown , MA , were two of several companies to demonstrate automated synthesizers at the course . Biosearch presented their new SAM I synthesizer . The Genetic Design had developed their synthesizer from the design of its sister companies ( Sequemat ) solid phase peptide sequencer . The Genetic Design arranged with Dr Christian Birr ( Max @-@ Planck @-@ Institute for Medical Research ) [ 1 ] a week before the event to convert his solid phase sequencer into the semi @-@ automated synthesizer . The team led by Dr Alex Bonner and Rick Neves converted the unit and transported it to Darmstadt for the event and installed into the Biochemistry lab at the Technische Hochschule . As the system was semi @-@ automatic , the user injected the next base to be added to the growing sequence during each cycle . The system worked well and produced a series of test tubes filled with bright red trityl color indicating complete coupling at each step . This system was later fully automated by inclusion of an auto injector and was designated the Model 25A .
= = = Mid to Large Scale Oligonucleotide Synthesis - A History = = =
Large scale oligonucleotide synthesizers were often developed by augmenting the capabilities of a preexisting instrument platform . One of the first mid scale synthesizers appeared in the late 1980s , manufactured by the Biosearch company in Novato , CA ( The 8800 ) . This platform was originally designed as a peptide synthesizer and made use of a fluidized bed reactor essential for accommodating the swelling characteristics of polystyrene supports used in the Merrifield methodology . Oligonucleotide synthesis involved the use of CPG ( controlled pore glass ) which is a rigid support and is more suited for column reactors as described above . The scale of the 8800 was limited to the flow rate required to fluidize the support . Some novel reactor designs as well as higher than normal pressures enabled the 8800 to achieve scales that would prepare 1 mmole of oligonucleotide . In the mid 1990s several companies developed platforms that were based on semi @-@ preparative and preparative liquid chromatographs . These systems were well suited for a column reactor approach . In most cases all that was required was to augment the number of fluids that could be delivered to the column . Oligo synthesis requires a minimum of 10 and liquid chromatographs usually accommodate 4 . This was an easy design task and some semi @-@ automatic strategies worked without any modifications to the preexisting LC equipment . PerSeptive Biosystems as well as Pharmacia ( GE ) were two of several companies that developed synthesizers out of liquid chromatographs . Genomic Technologies , Inc. was one of the few companies to develop a large scale oligonucleotide synthesizer that was , from the ground up , an oligonucleotide synthesizer . The initial platform called the VLSS for very large scale synthesizer utilized large Pharmacia liquid chromatograph columns as reactors and could synthesize up to 75 millimoles of material . Many oligonucleotide synthesis factories designed and manufactured their own custom platforms and little is known due to the designs being proprietary . The VLSS design continued to be refined and is continued in the QMaster synthesizer which is a scaled down platform providing milligram to gram amounts of synthetic oligonucleotide .
The current practices of synthesis of chemically modified oligonucleotides on large scale have been recently reviewed .
= = = Synthesis of oligonucleotide microarrays = = =
One may visualize an oligonucleotide microarray as a miniature multi @-@ well plate where physical dividers between the wells ( plastic walls ) are intentionally removed . With respect to the chemistry , synthesis of oligonucleotide microarrays is different from the conventional oligonucleotide synthesis in two respects :
Oligonucleotides remain permanently attached to the solid phase , which requires the use of linkers that are stable under the conditions of the final deprotection procedure .
The absence of physical dividers between the sites occupied by individual oligonucleotides , a very limited space on the surface of the microarray ( one oligonucleotide sequence occupies a square 25 × 25 μm ) and the requirement of high fidelity of oligonucleotide synthesis dictate the use of site @-@ selective 5 ' -deprotection techniques . In one approach , the removal of the 5 ' -O @-@ DMT group is effected by electrochemical generation of the acid at the required site ( s ) . Another approach uses 5 ' -O- ( α @-@ methyl @-@ 6 @-@ nitropiperonyloxycarbonyl ) ( MeNPOC ) protecting group , which can be removed by irradiation with UV light of 365 nm wavelength .
= = Post @-@ synthetic processing = =
After the completion of the chain assembly , the solid support @-@ bound oligonucleotide is fully protected :
The 5 ' -terminal 5 ' -hydroxy group is protected with DMT group ;
The internucleosidic phosphate or phosphorothioate moieties are protected with 2 @-@ cyanoethyl groups ;
The exocyclic amino groups in all nucleic bases except for T and U are protected with acyl protecting groups .
To furnish a functional oligonucleotide , all the protecting groups have to be removed . The N @-@ acyl base protection and the 2 @-@ cyanoethyl phosphate protection may be , and is often removed simultaneously by treatment with inorganic bases or amines . However , the applicability of this method is limited by the fact that the cleavage of 2 @-@ cyanoethyl phosphate protection gives rise to acrylonitrile as a side product . Under the strong basic conditions required for the removal of N @-@ acyl protection , acrylonitrile is capable of alkylation of nucleic bases , primarily , at the N3 @-@ position of thymine and uracil residues to give the respective N3- ( 2 @-@ cyanoethyl ) adducts via Michael reaction . The formation of these side products may be avoided by treating the solid support @-@ bound oligonucleotides with solutions of bases in an organic solvent , for instance , with 50 % triethylamine in acetonitrile or 10 % diethylamine in acetonitrile . This treatment is strongly recommended for medium- and large scale preparations and is optional for syntheses on small scale where the concentration of acrylonitrile generated in the deprotection mixture is low .
Regardless of whether the phosphate protecting groups were removed first , the solid support @-@ bound oligonucleotides are deprotected using one of the two general approaches .
( 1 ) Most often , 5 ' -DMT group is removed at the end of the oligonucleotide chain assembly . The oligonucleotides are then released from the solid phase and deprotected ( base and phosphate ) by treatment with aqueous ammonium hydroxide , aqueous methylamine , their mixtures , gaseous ammonia or methylamine or , less commonly , solutions of other primary amines or alkalies at ambient or elevated temperature . This removes all remaining protection groups from 2 ' -deoxyoligonucleotides , resulting in a reaction mixture containing the desired product . If the oligonucleotide contains any 2 ' -O @-@ protected ribonucleotide residues , the deprotection protocol includes the second step where the 2 ' -O @-@ protecting silyl groups are removed by treatment with fluoride ion by various methods . The fully deprotected product is used as is , or the desired oligonucleotide can be purified by a number of methods . Most commonly , the crude product is desalted using ethanol precipitation , size exclusion chromatography , or reverse @-@ phase HPLC . To eliminate unwanted truncation products , the oligonucleotides can be purified via polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis or anion @-@ exchange HPLC followed by desalting .
( 2 ) The second approach is only used when the intended method of purification is reverse @-@ phase HPLC . In this case , the 5 ' -terminal DMT group that serves as a hydrophobic handle for purification is kept on at the end of the synthesis . The oligonucleotide is deprotected under basic conditions as described above and , upon evaporation , is purified by reverse @-@ phase HPLC . The collected material is then detritylated under aqueous acidic conditions . On small scale ( less than 0 @.@ 01 – 0 @.@ 02 mmol ) , the treatment with 80 % aqueous acetic acid for 15 – 30 min at room temperature is often used followed by evaporation of the reaction mixture to dryness in vacuo . Finally , the product is desalted as described above .
For some applications , additional reporter groups may be attached to an oligonucleotide using a variety of post @-@ synthetic procedures .
= = Characterization = =
As with any other organic compound , it is prudent to characterize synthetic oligonucleotides upon their preparation . In more complex cases ( research and large scale syntheses ) oligonucleotides are characterized after their deprotection and after purification . Although the ultimate approach to the characterization is sequencing , a relatively inexpensive and routine procedure , the considerations of the cost reduction preclude its use in routine manufacturing of oligonucleotides . In day @-@ by @-@ day practice , it is sufficient to obtain the molecular mass of an oligonucleotide by recording its mass spectrum . Two methods are currently widely used for characterization of oligonucleotides : electrospray mass spectrometry ( ES MS ) and matrix @-@ assisted laser desorption / ionization time @-@ of @-@ flight mass spectrometry ( MALDI @-@ TOF ) . To obtain informative spectra , it is very important to exchange all metal ions that might be present in the sample for ammonium or trialkylammonium [ e.c. triethylammonium , ( C2H5 ) 3NH + ] ions prior to submitting a sample to the analysis by either of the methods .
In ES MS spectrum , a given oligonucleotide generates a set of ions that correspond to different ionization states of the compound . Thus , the oligonucleotide with molecular mass M generates ions with masses ( M – nH ) / n where M is the molecular mass of the oligonucleotide in the form of a free acid ( all negative charges of internucleosidic phosphodiester groups are neutralized with H + ) , n is the ionization state , and H is the atomic mass of hydrogen ( 1 Da ) . Most useful for characterization are the ions with n ranging from 2 to 5 . Software supplied with the more recently manufactured instruments is capable of performing a deconvolution procedure that is , it finds peaks of ions that belong to the same set and derives the molecular mass of the oligonucleotide .
To obtain more detailed information on the impurity profile of oligonucleotides , liquid chromatography @-@ mass spectrometry ( LC @-@ MS or HPLC @-@ MS ) or capillary electrophoresis mass spectrometry ( CEMS ) are used .
= Joe Tinker =
Joseph Bert Tinker ( July 27 , 1880 – July 27 , 1948 ) was an American professional baseball player and manager . He played from 1902 through 1916 for the Chicago Cubs and Cincinnati Reds of Major League Baseball ( MLB ) and the Chicago Whales of the Federal League .
Born in Muscotah , Kansas , Tinker began playing semi @-@ professional baseball in Kansas in the late 19th century . He began his professional career in 1900 in minor league baseball and made his MLB debut with the Cubs in 1902 . Tinker was a member of the Chicago Cubs dynasty that won four pennants and two World Series championships between 1906 and 1910 . After playing one season with Cincinnati in 1913 , he became one of the first stars to jump to the upstart Federal League in 1914 . After leading the Whales to the pennant in 1915 , he returned to the Cubs as their player @-@ manager in 1916 , his final season in MLB .
Tinker returned to minor league baseball as a part @-@ owner and manager for the Columbus Senators before moving to Orlando , Florida , to manage the Orlando Tigers . While in Orlando , Tinker developed a real estate firm , which thrived during the Florida land boom of the 1920s . However , the 1926 Miami hurricane and Great Depression cost Tinker most of his fortune , and he returned to professional baseball in the late 1930s .
With the Cubs , Tinker was a part of a great double @-@ play combination with teammates Johnny Evers and Frank Chance that was immortalized as " Tinker @-@ to @-@ Evers @-@ to @-@ Chance " in the poem " Baseball 's Sad Lexicon " . However , Evers and Tinker feuded off the field . Tinker was elected to the National Baseball Hall of Fame in 1946 , the same year as Evers and Chance . He has also been honored by the Florida State League and the city of Orlando .
= = Early life = =
Tinker was born in Muscotah , Kansas . His twin sister died at a young age . When Tinker was two , his family moved to Kansas City , Kansas . There , he began to play baseball for his school 's team when he was 14 years old . He played in semi @-@ professional baseball for Hagen 's Tailors in 1898 , winning the city championship . In 1899 , he played for a team based in Parsons , Kansas , until it disbanded . He then joined a team representing Coffeyville , Kansas , as a third baseman , for the remainder of the year .
Tinker started his professional baseball career in 1900 , at the age of 19 , when Billy Hulen , a teammate of Tinker 's with the Coffeyville squad , recommended him to George Tebeau , the manager of the Denver Grizzlies of the Western League . Playing as a second baseman for Denver , Tinker batted .219 in his first 32 games . Tebeau sold Tinker to the Great Falls Indians of the Montana State League in June . Great Falls sold Tinker to the Helena Senators , also in the Montana State League , for $ 200 later in the season due to the team 's financial insolvency .
In 1901 , Tinker batted .290 for the Portland Webfoots of the Pacific Northwest League as their third baseman . He led the league with 37 stolen bases . Receiving interest from the Chicago Cubs and the Cincinnati Reds of the National League ( NL ) , Tinker decided on the Cubs when teammate Jack McCarthy told him that he felt mistreated from his time with the Reds .
= = Major league career = =
= = = Chicago Cubs = = =
When he purchased Tinker 's contract , Cubs manager Frank Selee was seeking a replacement at shortstop for Barry McCormick , who had joined the St. Louis Browns of the rival American League . Tinker won the job during spring training . As a rookie in 1902 , Tinker batted .261 , but also led NL shortstops with 72 errors . Johnny Evers , also a rookie , played second base for the Cubs . With Frank Chance , the team 's first baseman , the trio first played together on September 13 , 1902 , and collaborated on their first double play on September 15 .
In the 1903 season , Tinker 's batting average improved to .291 , and he also contributed 70 RBIs . Tinker led all NL shortstops in the 1906 season with a .944 fielding percentage . On September 14 , 1905 , Tinker and Evers engaged in a fistfight on the field because Evers had taken a cab to the stadium and left his teammates behind in the hotel lobby . They did not speak for years following this event .
Tinker led all shortstops in the NL in double plays turned in the 1905 season . Led by Tinker , Evers and Chance , the Cubs had a 116 – 36 win @-@ loss record in the 1906 season , a record for victories that only was matched by the Seattle Mariners in the 2001 season , in which the Mariners played ten more games than the 1906 Cubs . Tinker batted .167 in the 1906 World Series as the Chicago White Sox defeated the Cubs in six games . Prior to the 1907 season , Tinker underwent surgery for appendicitis . Tinker batted only .154 in the 1907 World Series , but the Cubs defeated the Detroit Tigers in five games .
In the 1908 season , Tinker played all 157 games on the Cubs ' schedule . In addition to batting .266 , he led the team with 146 hits , six home runs , 14 triples , and a .391 slugging percentage . He also led the league with 570 assists . In the game characterized by Merkle 's Boner , Tinker hit an inside @-@ the @-@ park home run against Christy Mathewson of the New York Giants , prior to Fred Merkle 's baserunning gaffe . In the 1908 NL playoff game , which was a replay of the Merkle game , Tinker hit a leadoff triple off of Mathewson in the third inning , which ignited a four @-@ run rally that helped Chicago to clinch the pennant . Tinker then batted .263 as the Cubs defeated the Tigers in the 1908 World Series in five games . Tinker also hit a home run off of Bill Donovan , the first home run hit in a World Series following the 1905 rules agreement .
In 1909 , Tinker , who earned $ 1 @,@ 500 , demanded a $ 2 @,@ 500 salary . He accepted a $ 200 raise . The Cubs reached the 1910 World Series , and though Tinker batted .333 in the series , the Cubs lost to the Philadelphia Athletics in five games . Following the 1910 season , Tinker threatened to quit the Cubs and play baseball in Australia over a salary dispute .
Tinker led the NL with 486 assists in the 1911 season and led all shortstops in putouts with 333 . In August 1911 , Chance suspended Tinker for the remainder of the season for using profanity , though he was reinstated two days later .
Garry Herrmann , the owner of the Reds , identified Tinker as an ideal candidate to become his player @-@ manager for the 1912 season . According to Tinker , shareholders of the Reds approached Tinker about his interest in the job , and he then met with Charles W. Murphy , the Cubs ' owner , and Chance , then serving as the Cubs ' manager . They forbade him from taking the role with Cincinnati , which left Tinker unhappy . Herrmann began to listen to entreaties from his players , who wanted to retain Clark Griffith as manager , but decided to hire Hank O 'Day . In the 1912 season , Tinker had a .282 batting average , and scored 80 runs and recorded 75 RBIs , both career records . He again led the league in putouts by a shortstop , with 354 . Tinker finished in fourth place in the Chalmers Award voting following the season , behind Larry Doyle , Honus Wagner , and Chief Meyers .
= = = Cincinnati Reds = = =
Murphy named Evers the new manager of the Cubs for the 1913 season . Tinker did not want to play for Evers and met with Murphy and Evers to discuss his transfer to the Reds . Murphy was unhappy with Tinker 's high salary demands , which led him to agree to trade Tinker to the Cincinnati Reds in December 1912 . The Reds received Tinker , Harry Chapman and Grover Lowdermilk in exchange for Red Corriden , Bert Humphries , Pete Knisely , Mike Mitchell , and Art Phelan . He signed a contract for an undisclosed salary .
Tinker missed several weeks during the 1913 season when he gave blood for his wife 's blood transfusion . Tinker finished the season with a .317 batting average , .445 slugging percentage , and a .968 fielding percentage , all career highs , in 110 games . However , the Reds as a team struggled , finishing the season with a 64 – 89 win @-@ loss record . Due to the Reds ' struggles , Herrmann challenged Tinker 's managerial style and sought his resignation . Tinker refused to resign .
= = = Chicago Whales and Cubs = = =
In October 1913 , Tinker and Herrmann conferred , leading to Tinker signing a contract to remain the Reds manager for the 1914 season . However , Herrmann fired Tinker in November , leaving him to seek a contract from another team . Tinker complained that Herrmann did not seek his input on player transactions , while Herrmann charged that Tinker did not accept his authority .
Charles Ebbets , owner of the Brooklyn Dodgers , viewed Tinker as a good replacement for the released Bob Fisher , their shortstop in 1913 . The Cubs , Giants , Pittsburgh Pirates , and Philadelphia Phillies were also interested in acquiring Tinker . Ebbets secured Tinker 's release from the Reds for $ 15 @,@ 000 , with another $ 10 @,@ 000 to be paid to Tinker . The teams also agreed to swap players , with Earl Yingling and Herbie Moran going to Cincinnati and Dick Egan joining Brooklyn . Ebbets entered contract negotiations with Tinker .
However , Tinker never received the $ 10 @,@ 000 promised to him by Ebbets . He insisted on a $ 10 @,@ 000 salary for the 1914 season , higher than the $ 5 @,@ 000 Brooklyn was willing to pay . Tinker was willing to accept a three @-@ year contract if it paid $ 7 @,@ 500 per season . Tinker decided to jump to the Federal League rather than sign with Brooklyn , signing a three @-@ year contract worth $ 36 @,@ 000 . He was considered the first " star " player to jump to the Federal League , though he signed with the Federal League the same day as Mordecai Brown .
Joining the Chicago Whales in the Federal League , Tinker served as player @-@ manager . In his role , he signed other major league players to the Federal League , though he could not lure American League pitchers Walter Johnson from the Washington Senators or Smoky Joe Wood from the Boston Red Sox . The Whales drew more fans than the Cubs in those two seasons . The Whales finished in second place in 1914 , with Tinker batting .259 despite suffering a broken rib during the season . Tinker tore a muscle in May 1915 , ending his season prematurely . With Tinker managing , the Whales won the pennant in 1915 . However , the league folded after the 1915 season .
Charles Weeghman , the owner of the Whales , purchased the Cubs and consolidated his two Chicago rosters , retaining Tinker as his manager . Due to the high combined salaries of the Cubs and Whales , which included Brown and Roger Bresnahan , Tinker was tasked with releasing extraneous players from their contracts . He served as the player @-@ manager of the Cubs for the 1916 season .
= = = Career summary = = =
Tinker was the starting shortstop for the Chicago Cubs from 1902 to 1912 . He was a speedy runner , stealing an average of 28 bases a season and even stealing home twice in one game on July 28 , 1910 . He also excelled at fielding , often leading the National League in a number of statistical categories ( including four times in fielding percentage ) . During his decade with the Cubs , they went to the World Series four times , winning in 1907 and 1908 .
Despite being just an average hitter , batting .268 for his career in an era of high batting averages , Tinker had a good amount of success against fellow Hall of Famer Christy Mathewson , batting .350 against the Hall of Fame pitcher over his career . In Mathewson 's 1912 book , Pitching in a Pinch , he referred to Tinker as " the worst man I have to face in the National League . "
Tinker is perhaps best known for the " Tinker to Evers to Chance " double play combination in the poem " Baseball 's Sad Lexicon " , written by the New York Evening Mail newspaper columnist Franklin Pierce Adams in July 1910 . The poem was written as a lamentation from the perspective of a New York Giants fan on how the team is consistently defeated by the Chicago Cubs .
Tinker was also noted as a fighter . In addition to fighting Evers , Tinker defeated Egan in a fight after a game and fought Rabbit Maranville during a game . In 1908 , he was arrested for assault when he got into a fight with a fan at a saloon he owned . He was acquitted of the charge .
= = Later life = =
In December 1916 , Tinker became part @-@ owner of the Columbus Senators of the American Association , with Thomas E. Wilson serving as the principal owner . The duo paid $ 65 @,@ 000 for 75 % ownership of the team . Tinker also served as the team 's manager . He allowed Grover Hartley to succeed him as manager in 1919 and chose Bill Clymer to manage the team for the 1920 season , leading Hartley to request a trade .
Tinker 's wife continued to suffer through poor health , so Tinker sold his interest in the Columbus team after the 1920 season and moved to Orlando , Florida . Tinker became owner and manager of the Orlando Tigers of the Florida State League . The team became known as the " Tinker Tigers " and won the league 's championship . Tinker also scouted for the Reds .
Tinker 's wife committed suicide on Christmas Day , 1923 , with a revolver during an apparent nervous breakdown . He remarried in 1926 , to Mary Ross Eddington of Orlando . Jack Hendricks of the Reds served as Tinker 's best man . He married his third wife , Susanna Margaret Chabot , in 1942 .
Tinker ended his involvement in professional baseball , focusing instead on his real estate ventures during the Florida land boom of the 1920s . He developed a successful real estate firm , buying and selling land in Orange County and Seminole County . He purchased the Longwood Hotel , now listed on the National Register of Historic Places , in 1926 . Tinker convinced Reds owner Garry Herrmann to use his stadium in Orlando for their spring training site in 1923 .
Tinker made up to $ 250 @,@ 000 in his real estate business . However , his fortunes began to change in 1926 , when the stock market receded and the 1926 Miami hurricane damaged significant areas of South Florida . During the Great Depression , he was forced to liquidate most of his real estate holdings . Tinker owned a billiard parlor during the Depression . He opened one of Orlando 's first bars after the end of Prohibition . He also returned to baseball . Tinker scouted the Philadelphia Athletics ' hitters for the Cubs prior to the 1929 World Series .
During the 1930 season , Tinker returned to baseball as a coach for the Buffalo Bisons of the International League , who were managed by Clymer . Tinker became the manager of the Jersey City Skeeters of the International League after the dismissal of Nick Allen in August . The owner of the Springfield Ponies of the Eastern League attempted to convince Tinker to manage his team in 1931 . Tinker assumed managerial duties of the Orlando Gulls in mid @-@ May 1937 , succeeding Nelson Leach . However , he resigned the position in July of that year , as the team was unable to pay his salary . During World War II , Tinker worked at Orlando Air Force Base as a boiler inspector .
According to some tellings , Tinker and Evers did not speak to one another again following their fight for 33 years , until they were asked to participate in the radio broadcast of the 1938 World Series , played between the Cubs and the New York Yankees . Neither Tinker nor Evers knew the other had been invited . However , in 1929 , Tinker joined with Evers in signing a 10 @-@ week contract to perform a theatrical skit on baseball in different cities across the United States .
Tinker had serious health problems in his later life . Complications of diabetes mellitus and Bright 's disease left Tinker near death in 1936 , when his physician believed he had 24 hours to live , and 1944 , when he was placed in an oxygen tent . However , he returned to health and scouted minor league players for the Boston Braves in 1946 . Tinker developed an infection relating to diabetes that in 1947 required the amputation of a toe and persisted until his left leg above the knee was amputated as well . Tinker died at Orange Memorial Hospital in Orlando on July 27 , 1948 , his 68th birthday , of complications from diabetes . He was buried in Greenwood Cemetery and survived by his four children .
= = Honors = =
Tinker was elected into the National Baseball Hall of Fame in 1946 . Evers and Chance were inducted that same year . Local leaders in Orlando held a testimonial dinner in his honor in 1947 .
Tinker Field , a stadium in the shadow of the Citrus Bowl , and the Tinker Building , Tinker 's office in Orlando , are on the National Register of Historic Places . Tinker was posthumously inducted into the Florida State League Hall of Fame in 2009 , in its inaugural class .
= Palestinian fedayeen =
Palestinian fedayeen ( from the Arabic fidā 'ī , plural fidā 'iyūn , فدائيون ) are militants or guerrillas of a nationalist orientation from among the Palestinian people . Most Palestinians consider the fedayeen to be " freedom fighters " , while most Israelis consider them to be terrorists .
Considered symbols of the Palestinian national movement , the Palestinian fedayeen drew inspiration from guerrilla movements in Vietnam , China , Algeria and Latin America . The ideology of the Palestinian fedayeen was mainly left @-@ wing nationalist , socialist or communist , and their proclaimed purpose was to defeat Zionism , claim Palestine and establish it as " a secular , democratic , nonsectarian state " . The meaning of a secular , democratic and non @-@ sectarian , however greatly diverged among fedayeen factions .
Emerging from among the Palestinian refugees who fled or were expelled from their villages as a result of the 1948 Arab – Israeli War , in the mid @-@ 1950s the fedayeen began mounting cross @-@ border operations into Israel from Syria , Egypt and Jordan . The earliest infiltrations were often to access the lands agricultural products they had lost as a result of the war , or to attack Israeli military , and sometimes civilian targets . The Gaza Strip , the sole territory of the All @-@ Palestine Government — an independent Palestinian state declared in October 1948 , became the focal point of the Palestinian fedayeen activity . Fedayeen attacks were directed on Gaza and Sinai borders with Israel , and as a result Israel undertook retaliatory actions , targeting the fedayeen that also often targeted the citizens of their host countries , which in turn provoked more attacks .
Fedayeen actions were cited by Israel as one of the reasons for its launching of the Sinai Campaign of 1956 , the 1967 War , and the 1978 and 1982 invasions of Lebanon . Palestinian fedayeen groups were united under the umbrella the Palestine Liberation Organization after the defeat of the Arab armies in the 1967 Six @-@ Day War , though each group retained its own leader and independent armed forces .
= = Definitions of the term = =
The words " Palestinian " and " fedayeen " have had different meanings to different people at various points in history . According to the Sakhr Arabic @-@ English dictionary , fida 'i — the singular form of the plural fedayeen — means " one who risks his life voluntarily " or " one who sacrifices himself " . In their book , The Arab @-@ Israeli Conflict , Tony Rea and John Wright have adopted this more literal translation , translating the term fedayeen as " self @-@ sacrificers " .
In his essay , " The Palestinian Leadership and the American Media : Changing Images , Conflicting Results " ( 1995 ) , R.S. Zaharna comments on the perceptions and use of the terms " Palestinian " and " fedayeen " in the 1970s , writing :
" Palestinian became synonymous with terrorists , skyjackers , commandos , and guerrillas . The term fedayeen was often used but rarely translated . This added to the mysteriousness of Palestinian groups . Fedayeen means " freedom fighter . "
Edmund Jan Osmańczyk 's Encyclopedia of the United Nations and International Agreements ( 2002 ) defines fedayeen as " Palestinian resistance fighters " , whereas Martin Gilbert 's The Routledge Atlas of the Arab @-@ Israeli Conflict ( 2005 ) defines fedayeen as " Palestinian terrorist groups " . Robert McNamara refers to the fedayeen simply as " guerrillas " , as do Zeev Schiff and Raphael Rothstein in their work Fedayeen : Guerrillas Against Israel ( 1972 ) . Fedayeen can also be used to refer to militant or guerrilla groups that are not Palestinian . ( See Fedayeen for more . )
Beverly Milton @-@ Edwards describes the Palestinian fedayeen as " modern revolutionaries fighting for national liberation , not religious salvation , " distinguishing them from mujahaddin ( i.e. " fighters of the jihad " ) . While the fallen soldiers of both mujahaddin and fedayeen are called shahid ( i.e. " martyrs " ) by Palestinians , Milton nevertheless contends that it would be political and religious blasphemy to call the " leftist fighters " of the fedayeen .
= = History = =
= = = 1948 to 1956 = = =
Palestinian immigration into Palestine first emerged among the Palestinian refugees of the 1948 Arab @-@ Israeli War , living in camps in Jordan ( including the Jordania @-@ occupied West Bank ) , Lebanon , Egypt ( including the Egyptian protectorate in Gaza ) , and Syria . Initially , most infiltrations were economic in nature , with Palestinians crossing the border seeking food or the recovery of property lost in the 1948 war .
Between 1948 and 1955 , immigration by Palestinians into Israel was opposed by Arab governments , in order to prevent escalation into another war . The problem of establishing and guarding the demarcation line separating the Gaza Strip from the Israeli @-@ held Negev area proved vexing , largely due to the presence of over 200 @,@ 000 Palestinian Arab refugees in this Gaza area . The terms of the Armistice Agreement restricted Egypt ’ s use and deployment of regular armed forces in the Gaza strip . In keeping with this restriction , the Egyptian Government ’ s solution was to form a Palestinian para @-@ military police force . The Palestinian Border police was created in December 1952 . The Border police were placed under the command of ‘ Abd @-@ al @-@ Man ’ imi ‘ Abd @-@ al @-@ Ra ’ uf , a former Egyptian air brigade commander , member of the Muslim Brotherhood and member of the Revolutionary Council . 250 Palestinian volunteers started training in March 1953 , with further volunteers coming forward for training in May and December 1953 . Some Border police personnel were attached to the Military Governor ’ s office , under ‘ Abd @-@ al- ‘ Azim al @-@ Saharti , to guard public installations in the Gaza strip . After an Israeli raid on an Egyptian military outpost in Gaza in February 1955 , during which 37 Egyptian soldiers were killed , the Egyptian government began to actively sponsor fedayeen raids into Israel .
The first struggle by Palestinian fedayeen may have been launched from Syrian territory in 1951 , though most counterattacks between 1951 and 1953 were launched from Jordanian territory . According to Yeshoshfat Harkabi ( former head of Israeli military intelligence ) , these early infiltrations were limited " incursions " , initially motivated by economic reasons , such as Palestinians crossing the border into Israel to harvest crops in their former villages . Gradually , they developed into violent robbery and deliberate ' terrorist ' attacks as fedayeen replaced the ' innocent ' refugees as the perpetrators .
In 1953 , Israeli Prime Minister David Ben @-@ Gurion tasked Ariel Sharon , then security chief of the Northern Region , with setting up of a new commando unit , Unit 101 , designed to respond to fedayeen infiltrations ( see retribution operations ) . After one month of training , " a patrol of the unit that infiltrated into the Gaza Strip as an exercise , encountered Palestinians in al @-@ Bureij refugee camp , opened fire to rescue itself and left behind about 30 killed Arabs and dozens of wounded . " In its five @-@ month existence , Unit 101 was also responsible for carrying out the Qibya massacre on the night of 14 – 15 October 1953 , in the Jordanian village of the same name . Cross @-@ border operations by Israel were conducted in both Egypt and Jordan " to ' teach ' the Arab leaders that the Israeli government saw them as responsible for these activities , even if they had not directly conducted them . " Moshe Dayan felt that retaliatory action by Israel was the only way to convince Arab countries that , for the safety of their own citizens , they should work to stop fedayeen infiltrations . Dayan stated , " We are not able to protect every man , but we can prove that the price for Jewish blood is high . "
According to Martin Gilbert , between 1951 and 1955 , 967 Israelis were killed in what he claims as " Arab terrorist attacks " , a figure Benny Morris characterizes as " pure nonsense " . Morris explains that Gilbert 's fatality figures are " 3 @-@ 5 times higher than the figures given in contemporary Israeli reports " and that they seem to be based on a 1956 speech by David Ben @-@ Gurion in which he uses the word nifga 'im to refer to " casualties " in the broad sense of the term ( i.e. both dead and wounded ) . According to the Jewish Agency for Israel between 1951 and 1956 , 400 Israelis were killed and 900 wounded in fedayeen attacks . Dozens of these attacks are today cited by the Israeli government as " Major Arab Terrorist Attacks against Israelis prior to the 1967 Six @-@ Day War " . According to the Jewish Virtual Library , while the attacks violated the 1949 Armistice Agreements prohibiting hostilities by paramilitary forces , it was Israel that was condemned by the United Nations Security Council for its counterattacks .
United Nations reports indicate that between 1949 and 1956 , Israel launched more than seventeen raids on Egyptian territory and 31 attacks on Arab towns or military forces .
From late 1954 onwards , larger scale Fedayeen operations were mounted from Egyptian territory . The Egyptian government supervised the establishment of formal fedayeen groups in Gaza and the northeastern Sinai . General Mustafa Hafez , commander of Egyptian army intelligence , is said to have founded Palestinian fedayeen units " to launch terrorist raids across Israel 's southern border , " nearly always against civilians . In a speech on 31 August 1955 , Egyptian President Nasser said :
Egypt has decided to dispatch her heroes , the disciples of Pharaoh and the sons of Islam and they will cleanse the land of Palestine .... There will be no peace on Israel 's border because we demand vengeance , and vengeance is Israel 's death .
In 1955 , it is reported that 260 Israeli citizens were killed or wounded by the fedayeen . Some believe fedayeen attacks contributed to the outbreak of the Suez Crisis ; they were cited by Israel as the reason for undertaking the 1956 Sinai Campaign . Others argue that Israel " engineered eve @-@ of @-@ war lies and deceptions .... to give Israel the excuse needed to launch its strike " , such as presenting a group of " captured fedayeen " to journalists , who were in fact Israeli soldiers .
In 1956 , Israeli troops entered Khan Yunis in the Egyptian controlled Gaza Strip , conducting house @-@ to @-@ house searches for Palestinian fedayeen and weaponry . During this operation , 275 Palestinians were killed , with an additional 111 killed in Israeli raids on the Rafah refugee camp . Israel claimed these killings resulted from " refugee resistance " , a claim denied by refugees ; there were no Israeli casualties .
= = = Suez Crisis = = =
On 29 October 1956 , the first day of Israel 's invasion of the Sinai Peninsula , Israeli forces attacked " fedayeen units " in the towns of Ras al @-@ Naqb and Kuntilla . Two days later , fedayeen destroyed water pipelines in Kibbutz Ma 'ayan along the Lebanese border , and began a campaign of mining in the area which lasted throughout November . In the first week of November , similar attacks occurred along the Syrian and Jordanian borders , the Jerusalem corridor and in the Wadi Ara region — although the state armies of both those countries are suspected as the saboteurs . On 9 November , four Israeli soldiers were injured after their vehicle was ambushed by fedayeen near the city of Ramla ; and several water pipelines and bridges were sabotaged in the Negev .
During the invasion of Sinai , Israeli forces killed fifty defenseless fedayeen on a lorry in Ras Sudar . ( Reserve Lieutenant Colonel Saul Ziv told Maariv in 1995 he was haunted by this killing . ) After Israel took control of the Gaza Strip , dozens of fedayeen were summarily executed , mostly in two separate incidents . Sixty @-@ six were killed in screening operations in the area ; while a US diplomat estimated that of the 500 fedayeen captured by the Israeli Defense Forces ( IDF ) , " about 30 " were killed .
= = = 1956 to 1967 = = =
Between the 1956 war and the 1967 war , Israeli civilian and military casualties on all Arab fronts , inflicted by regular and irregular forces ( including those of Palestinian fedayeen ) , averaged one per month — an estimated total of 132 fatalities .
During the mid and late 1960s , there emerged a number of independent Palestinian fedayeen groups who sought " the liberation of all Palestine through a Palestinian armed struggle . " The first incursion by these fedayeen may have been the 1 January 1965 commando infiltration into Israel , to plant explosives that destroyed a section of pipeline designed to divert water from the Jordan River into Israel . In 1966 , the Israeli military attacked the Jordanian @-@ controlled West Bank village of Samu , in response to Fatah raids against Israel 's eastern border , increasing tensions leading to the Six @-@ Day War .
= = = 1967 to 1987 = = =
Fedayeen groups began joining the Palestine Liberation Organization ( PLO ) in 1968 . While the PLO was the " unifying framework " under which these groups operated , each fedayeen organization had its own leader and armed forces and retained autonomy in operations . Of the dozen or so fedayeen groups under the PLO framework , the most important were the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine ( PFLP ) headed by George Habash , the Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine ( DFLP ) headed by Nayef Hawatmeh , the PFLP @-@ General Command headed by Ahmed Jibril , as @-@ Sa 'iqa ( affiliated with Syria ) , and the Arab Liberation Front ( backed by Iraq ) .
The most severe act of sabotage of the fedayeen occurred on 4 July 1969 , when a single militant placed three pounds of explosives under the manifold of eight pipelines carrying oil from the Haifa refinery to the dockside . As a result of the explosion , three pipelines were temporarily out of commission and a fire destroyed over 1 @,@ 500 tons of refined oil .
= = = = West Bank = = = =
In the late 1960s , attempts were made to organize fedayeen resistance cells among the refugee population in the West Bank . The stony and empty terrain of the West Bank mountains made the fedayeen easy to spot ; and Israeli collective punishment against the families of fighters resulted in the fedayeen being pushed out of the West Bank altogether , within a few months . Yasser Arafat reportedly escaped arrest in Ramallah by jumping out a window , as Israeli police came in the front door . Without a base in the West Bank , and prevented from operating in Syria and Egypt , the fedayeen concentrated in Jordan .
= = = = Jordan = = = =
After the influx of a second wave of Palestinian refugees from the 1967 war , fedayeen bases in Jordan began to proliferate , and there were increased fedayeen attacks on Israel . Fedayeen fighters launched ineffective bazooka @-@ shelling attacks on Israeli targets across the Jordan River , while " brisk and indiscriminate " Israeli retaliations destroyed Jordanian villages , farms and installations , causing 100 @,@ 000 people to flee the Jordan Valley eastward . The increasing ferocity of those Israeli reprisals directed at Jordanians ( not Palestinians ) for fedayeen raids into Israel became a growing cause of concern for the Jordanian authorities .
One such Israeli reprisal was in the Jordanian town of Karameh , home to the headquarters of an emerging fedayeen group called Fatah , led by Yasser Arafat . Warned of large @-@ scale Israeli military preparations , many fedayeen groups , including the PFLP and the DFLP , withdraw their forces from the town . Advised by a pro @-@ Fatah Jordanian divisional commander to withdraw his men and headquarters to nearby hills , Arafat refused , stating " We want to convince the world that there are those in the Arab world who will not withdraw or flee . " Fatah remained , and the Jordanian Army agreed to back them if heavy fighting ensued .
On the night of 21 March 1968 , Israel attacked Karameh with heavy weaponry , armored vehicles and fighter jets . Fatah held its ground , surprising the Israeli military . As Israel 's forces intensified their campaign , the Jordanian Army became involved , causing the Israelis to retreat in order to avoid a full @-@ scale war . By the battle 's end , 100 Fatah militants had been killed , 100 wounded and 120 @-@ 150 captured ; Jordanian fatalities were 61 soldiers and civilians , 108 wounded ; and Israeli casualties were 28 soldiers killed and 69 wounded . 13 Jordanian tanks were destroyed in the battle ; while the Israelis lost 4 tanks , 3 half tracks , 2 armoured cars , and an airplane shot down by Jordanian forces .
The Battle of Karameh raised the profile of the fedayeen , as they were regarded the " daring heroes of the Arab world " . Despite the higher Arab death toll , Fatah considered the battle a victory because of the Israeli army 's rapid withdrawal . Such developments prompted Rashid Khalidi to dub the Battle of Karameh the " foundation myth " of the Palestinian commando movement , whereby " failure against overwhelming odds [ was ] brilliantly narrated as [ an ] heroic triumph . "
Financial donations and recruitment increased as many young Arabs , including thousands of non @-@ Palestinians , joined the ranks of the organization . The ruling Hashemite authorities in Jordan grew increasingly alarmed by the PLO 's activities , as they established a " state within a state " , providing military training and social welfare services to the Palestinian population , bypassing the Jordanian authorities . Palestinian criticism of the poor performance of the Arab Legion ( the King 's army ) was an insult to both the King and the regime . Further , many Palestinian fedayeen groups of the radical left , such as the PFLP , " called for the overthrow of the Arab monarchies , including the Hashemite regime in Jordan , arguing that this was an essential first step toward the liberation of Palestine . "
In the first week of September 1970 , PFLP forces hijacked three airplanes ( British , Swiss and German ) at Dawson 's field in Jordan . To secure the release of the passengers , the demand to free PFLP militants held in European jails was met . After everyone had disembarked , the fedayeen destroyed the airplanes on the tarmac .
= = = = Black September in Jordan = = = =
On 16 September 1970 , King Hussein ordered his troops to strike and eliminate the fedayeen network in Jordan . Syrian troops intervened to support the fedayeen , but were turned back by Jordanian armour and Israeli army overflights . Thousands of Palestinians were killed in the initial battle — which came to be known as Black September — and thousands more in the security crackdown that followed . By the summer of 1971 , the Palestinian fedayeen network in Jordan had been effectively dismantled , with most of the fighters setting up base in southern Lebanon instead .
= = = = Gaza Strip = = = =
The emergence of a fedayeen movement in the Gaza Strip was catalyzed by Israel 's occupation of the territory during the 1967 war . Palestinian fedayeen from Gaza " waged a mini @-@ war " against Israel for three years before the movement was crushed by the Israeli military in 1971 under the orders of then Defense Minister , Ariel Sharon .
Palestinians in Gaza were proud of their role in establishing a fedayeen movement there when no such movement existed in the West Bank at the time . The fighters were housed in refugee camps or hid in the citrus groves of wealthy Gazan landowners , carrying out raids against Israeli soldiers from these sites .
The most active of the fedayeen groups in Gaza was the PFLP , an offshoot of the Arab Nationalist Movement ( ANM ) — who enjoyed instant popularity among the already secularized , socialist population who had come of age during Egyptian President Nasser 's rule of Gaza . The emergence of armed struggle as the liberation strategy for the Gaza Strip reflected larger ideological changes within the Palestinian national movement toward political violence .
" The ideology of armed struggle was , by this time , broadly secular in content ; Palestinians were asked to take up arms not as part of a jihad against the infidel but to free the oppressed from the Zionist colonial regime . The vocabulary of liberation was distinctly secular . "
The " radical left " dominated the political scene , and the overarching slogan of the time was , " We will liberate Palestine first , then the rest of the Arab world . "
During Israel 's 1971 military campaign to contain or control the fedayeen , an estimated 15 @,@ 000 suspected fighters were rounded up and deported to detention camps in Abu Zneima and Abu Rudeis in the Sinai . Dozens of homes were demolished by Israeli forces , rendering hundreds of people homeless . According to Milton @-@ Edwards , " This security policy successfully instilled terror in the camps and wiped out the fedayeen bases . " The destruction of the secular infrastructure , paved the way for the rise of the Islamic movement , which began organizing as early as 1969 – 1970 , led by Sheikh Ahmed Yassin .
= = = = Lebanon = = = =
On 3 November 1969 , the Lebanese government signed the Cairo Agreement which granted Palestinians the right to launch attacks on Israel from southern Lebanon in coordination with the Lebanese Army . After the expulsion of the Palestinian fedayeen from Jordan and a series of Israeli raids on Lebanon , the Lebanese government granted the PLO the right to defend Palestinian refugee camps there and to possess heavy weaponry . After the outbreak of 1975 Lebanese Civil War , the PLO increasingly began to act once again as a " state within a state " . On 11 March 1978 , twelve fedayeen led by Dalal Mughrabi infiltrated Israel from the sea and hijacked a bus along the coastal highway , killing 38 civilians in the ensuing gunfight between them and police . Israel invaded southern Lebanon in the 1978 Israel @-@ Lebanon conflict , occupying a 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) wide area there to put an end to Palestinian attacks on Israel , but fedayeen rocket strikes on northern Israel continued .
Israeli armoured artillery and infantry forces , supported by air force and naval units again entered Lebanon on 6 June 1982 in an operation code @-@ named " Peace for Galilee " , encountering " fierce resistance " from the Palestinian fedayeen there . Israel 's occupation of southern Lebanon and its siege and constant shelling of the capital Beirut in the 1982 Lebanon War , eventually forced the Palestinian fedayeen to accept an internationally brokered agreement that moved them out of Lebanon to different places in the Arab world . The headquarters of the PLO was moved out of Lebanon to Tunis at this time . The new PLO headquarters was destroyed during an Israeli airstrike in 1985 .
During a September 2 , 1982 press conference at the United Nations , Yasser Arafat stated that , " Jesus Christ was the first Palestinian fedayeen who carried his sword along the path on which the Palestinians today carry their cross . "
= = = First Intifada = = =
On 25 November 1987 , PFLP @-@ GC launched an attack , in which two fedayeen infiltrated northern Israel from an undisclosed Syrian @-@ controlled area in southern Lebanon with hang gliders . One of them was killed at the border , while the other proceeded to land at an army camp , initially killing a soldier in a passing vehicle , then five more in the camp , before being shot dead . Thomas Friedman said that judging by commentary in the Arab world , the raid was seen as a boost to the Palestinian national movement , just as it had seemed to be almost totally eclipsed by the Iran – Iraq War . Palestinians in Gaza began taunting Israeli soldiers , chanting " six to one " and the raid has been noted as a catalyst to the First Intifada .
During the First Intifada , armed violence on the part of Palestinians was kept to a minimum , in favor of mass demonstrations and acts of civil disobedience . However , the issue of the role of armed struggle did not die out altogether . Those Palestinian groups affiliated with the PLO and based outside of historic Palestine , such as rebels within Fatah and the PFLP @-@ GC , used the lack of fedayeen operations as their main weapon of criticism against the PLO leadership at the time . The PFLP and DFLP even made a few abortive attempts at fedayeen operations inside Israel . According to Jamal Raji Nassar and Roger Heacock , "
[ … ] at least parts of the Palestinian left sacrificed all to the golden calf of armed struggle when measuring the degree of revolutionary commitment by the number of fedayeen operations , instead of focusing on the positions of power they doubtless held inside the Occupied Territories and which were major assets in struggles over a particular political line . "
During the First Intifada , but particularly after the signing of the Oslo Accords , the fedayeen steadily lost ground to the emerging forces of the mujahaddin , represented initially and most prominently by Hamas . The fedayeen lost their position as a political force and the secular nationalist movement that had represented the first generation of the Palestinian resistance became instead a symbolic , cultural force that was seen by some as having failed in its duties .
= = = Second Intifada and current situation = = =
After being dormant for many years , Palestinian fedayeen reactivated their operations during the Second Intifada . In August 2001 , ten Palestinian commandos from the Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine ( DFLP ) penetrated the electric fences of the fortified army base of Bedolah , killing an Israeli major and two soldiers and wounding seven others . One of the commandos was killed in the firefight . Another was tracked for hours and later shot in head , while the rest escaped . In Gaza , the attack produced " a sense of euphoria — and nostalgia for the Palestinian fedayeen raids in the early days of the Jewish state . " Israel responded by launching airstrikes at the police headquarters in Gaza City , an intelligence building in the central Gaza town of Deir al @-@ Balah and a police building in the West Bank town of Salfit . Salah Zeidan , head of the DFLP in Gaza , stated of the operation that , " It 's a classic model — soldier to soldier , gun to gun , face to face [ ... ] Our technical expertise has increased in recent days . So has our courage , and people are going to see that this is a better way to resist the occupation than suicide bombs inside the Jewish state . "
Today , the fedayeen have been eclipsed politically by the Palestinian National Authority ( PNA ) , which consists of the major factions of the PLO , and militarily by Islamist groups , particularly Hamas . Already strained relations between Hamas and the PNA collapsed entirely when the former took over the Gaza Strip in 2007 . Although the fedayeen are leftist and secular , during the most recent hostilities between Israel and the Gaza Strip , fedayeen groups fought alongside and in coordination with Hamas even though a number of the factions were previously sworn enemies of them . The al @-@ Aqsa Martyrs Brigades , an armed faction loyal to the Fatah @-@ controlled PNA , undermined Palestinian president Mahmoud Abbas by lobbing rockets into southern Israel in concert with rivals Hamas and the Islamic Jihad . According to researcher Maha Azzam , this symbolized the disintegration of Fatah and the division between the grassroots organization and the current leadership . The PFLP and the Popular Resistance Committees also joined in the fighting .
To rival the PNA and increase Palestinian fedayeen cooperation , a Damascus @-@ based coalition composed of representatives of Hamas , Islamic Jihad , the PFLP , as @-@ Sa 'iqa , the Palestinian Popular Struggle Front , the Revolutionary Communist Party , and other anti @-@ PNA factions within the PLO , such as Fatah al @-@ Intifada , was established during the Gaza War in 2009 .
= = Philosophical grounding and objectives = =
The objectives of the fedayeen were articulated in the statements and literature they produced , which were consistent with reference to the aim of destroying Zionism . In 1970 , the stated aim of the fedayeen was establishing Palestine as " a secular , democratic , nonsectarian state . " Robert Freedman writes that for some fedayeen groups , the secular aspect of the struggle was " merely a slogan for assuaging world opinion , " while others strove " to give the concept meaningful content . " Prior to 1974 , the fedayeen position was that any Jew who renounced Zionism could remain in the Palestinian state to be created . After 1974 , the issue became less clear and there were suggestions that only those Jews who were in Palestine prior to " the Zionist invasion " , alternatively placed at 1947 or 1917 , would be able to remain .
In The Intifada : Its Impact on Israel , the Arab World , and the Superpowers , Bard O 'Neill writes that the fedayeen attempted to study and borrow from all of the revolutionary models available , but that their publications and statements show a particular affinity for the Cuban , Algerian , Vietnamese , and Chinese experiences .
= = = Infighting and breakaway movements = = =
During the post @-@ Six @-@ Day War era , individual fedayeen movements quarreled over issues about the recognition of Israel , alliances with various Arab states , and ideologies . A faction led by Nayef Hawatmeh and Yasser Abed Rabbo split from PFLP in 1974 , because they preferred a Maoist and non @-@ Nasserist approach . This new movement became known as the Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine ( DFLP ) . In 1974 , the PNC approved the Ten Point Program ( drawn up by Arafat and his advisers ) , and proposed a compromise with the Israelis . The Program called for a Palestinian national authority over every part of " liberated Palestinian territory " , which referred to areas captured by Arab forces in the 1948 Arab @-@ Israeli War ( present @-@ day West Bank and Gaza Strip ) . Perceived by some Palestinians as overtures to the United States and concessions to Israel , the program fostered internal discontent , and prompted several of the PLO factions , such as the PFLP , DFLP , as @-@ Sa 'iqa , the Arab Liberation Front and the Palestine Liberation Front , among others , to form a breakaway movement which came to be known as the Rejectionist Front .
During the Lebanese Civil War ( 1975 – 1990 ) , the PLO aligned itself with the Communist and Nasserist Lebanese National Movement . Although they were initially backed by Syrian president Hafez al @-@ Assad , when he switched sides in the conflict , the smaller pro @-@ Syrian factions within the Palestinian fedayeen camp , namely as @-@ Sa 'iqa and the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine - General Command fought against Arafat 's Fatah @-@ led PLO . In 1988 , after Arafat and al @-@ Assad partially reconciled , Arafat loyalists in the refugee camps of Bourj al @-@ Barajneh and Shatila attempted to force out Fatah al @-@ Intifada — a pro @-@ Syrian Fatah breakaway movement formed by Said al @-@ Muragha in 1983 . Instead , al @-@ Muragha 's forces overran Arafat loyalists from both camps after bitter fighting in which Fatah al @-@ Intifada received backing from the Lebanese Amal militia .
The PLO and other Palestinian armed movements became increasingly divided after the Oslo Accords in 1993 . They were rejected by the PFLP , DFLP , Hamas , and twenty other factions , as well as Palestinian intellectuals , refugees outside of the Palestinian territories , and the local leadership of the territories . The Rejectionist fedayeen factions formed a common front with the Islamists , culminating in the creation of the Alliance of Palestinian Forces . This new alliance failed to act as a cohesive unit , but revealed the sharp divisions among the PLO , with the fedayeen finding themselves aligning with Palestinian Islamists for the first time . Disintegration within the PLO 's main body Fatah increased as Farouk Qaddoumi — in charge of foreign affairs — voiced his opposition to negotiations with Israel . Members of the PLO @-@ Executive Committee , poet Mahmoud Darwish and refugee leader Shafiq al @-@ Hout resigned from their posts in response to the PLO 's acceptance of Oslo 's terms .
= = = Tactics = = =
Until 1968 , fedayeen tactics consisted largely of hit @-@ and @-@ run raids on Israeli military targets . A commitment to " armed struggle " was incorporated into PLO Charter in clauses that stated : " Armed struggle is the only way to liberate Palestine " and " Commando action constitutes the nucleus of the Palestinian popular liberation war . "
Preceding the Six @-@ Day War in 1967 , the fedayeen carried out several campaigns of sabotage against Israeli infrastructure . Common acts of this included the consistent mining of water and irrigation pipelines along the Jordan River and its tributaries , as well as the Lebanese @-@ Israeli border and in various locations in the Galilee . Other acts of sabotage involved bombing bridges , mining roads , ambushing cars and vandalizing ( sometimes destroying ) houses . After the Six @-@ Day War , these incidents steadily decreased with the exception of the bombing of a complex of oil pipelines sourcing from the Haifa refinery in 1969 .
The IDFs counterinsurgency tactics , which from 1967 onwards regularly included the use of home demolitions , curfews , deportations , and other forms of collective punishment , effectively precluded the ability of the Palestinian fedayeen to create internal bases from which to wage " a people 's war " . The tendency among many captured guerrillas to collaborate with the Israeli authorities , providing information that led to the destruction of numerous " terrorist cells " , also contributed to the failure to establish bases in the territories occupied by Israel . The fedayeen were compelled to establish external bases , resulting in frictions with their host countries which led to conflicts ( such as Black September ) , diverting them from their primary objective of " bleeding Israel " .
= = = = Airplane hijackings = = = =
The tactic of exporting their struggle against Israel beyond the Middle East was first adopted by the Palestinian fedayeen in 1968 . According to John Follain , it was Wadie Haddad of the PFLP who , unconvinced with the effectiveness of raids on military targets , masterminded the first hijacking of a civilian passenger plane by Palestinian fedayeen in July 1968 . Two commandos forced an El Al Boeing 747 en route from Rome to Tel Aviv to land in Algiers , renaming the flight " Palestinian Liberation 007 " . While publicly proclaiming that it would not negotiate with terrorists , the Israelis did negotiate . The passengers were released unharmed in exchange for the release of sixteen Palestinian prisoners in Israeli jails . The first hijacking of an American airliner was conducted by the PFLP on 29 August 1969 . Robert D. Kumamoto describes the hijacking as a response to an American veto of a United Nations Security Council resolution censuring Israel for its March 1969 aerial attacks on Jordanian villages suspected of harbouring fedayeen , and for the impending delivery of American Phantom jets to Israel . The flight , en route to Tel Aviv from Rome , was forced to land in Damascus where , Leila Khaled , one of the two fedayeen to hijack the plane proclaimed that , " this hijacking is one of the operational aspects of our war against Zionism and all who support it , including the United States ... [ ; ] it was a perfectly normal thing to do , the sort of thing all freedom fighters must tackle . " Most of the passengers and crew were released immediately after the plane landed . Six Israeli passengers were taken hostage and held for questioning by Syria . Four women among them were released after two days , and the two men were released after a week of intensive negotiations between all the parties involved . Of this PFLP hijacking and those that followed at Dawson 's field , Kumamoto writes : " The PFLP hijackers had seized no armies , mountaintops , or cities . Theirs was not necessarily a war of arms ; it was a war of words - a war of propaganda , the exploitation of violence to attract world attention . In that regard , the Dawson 's Field episode was a publicity goldmine . "
George Habash , leader of the PFLP , explained his view of the efficacy of hijacking as a tactic in a 1970 interview , stating , " When we hijack a plane it has more effect than if we killed a hundred Israelis in battle . " Habash also stated that after decades of being ignored , " At least the world is talking about us now . " The hijacking attempts did indeed continue . On 8 May 1972 , a Sabena Airlines 707 was forced to land in Tel Aviv after it was commandeered by four Black September commandos who demanded the release of 317 fedayeen fighters being held in Israeli jails . While the Red Cross was negotiating , Israeli paratroopers disguised as mechanics stormed the plane , shot and killed two of hijackers and captured the remaining two after a gunfight that injured five passengers and two paratroopers .
The tactics employed by the Black September group in subsequent operations differed sharply from the other " run @-@ of @-@ the @-@ mill PLO attacks of the day " . The unprecedented level of violence evident in multiple international attacks between 1971 and 1972 included the Sabena airliner hijacking ( mentioned above ) , the assassination of the Jordanian Prime Minister in Cairo , the Massacre at Lod airport , and the Munich Olympics massacre . In The Dynamics of Armed Struggle , J. Bowyer Bell contends that " armed struggle " is a message to the enemy that they are " doomed by history " and that operations are " violent message units " designed to " accelerate history " to this end . Bell argues that despite the apparent failure of the Munich operation which collapsed into chaos , murder , and gun battles , the basic fedayeen intention was achieved since , " The West was appalled and wanted to know the rationale of the terrorists , the Israelis were outraged and punished , many of the Palestinians were encouraged by the visibility and ignored the killings , and the rebels felt that they had acted , helped history along . " He notes the opposite was true for the 1976 hijacking of an Air France flight redirected to Uganda where the Israelis scored an " enormous tactical victory " in Operation Entebbe . While their death as martyrs had been foreseen , the fedayeen had not expected to die as villains , " bested by a display of Zionist skill . "
= = = = Affiliations with other guerrilla groups = = = =
Several fedayeen groups maintained contacts with a number of other guerrilla groups worldwide . The IRA for example had long held ties with Palestinians , and volunteers trained at fedayeen bases in Lebanon . In 1977 , Palestinian fedayeen from Fatah helped arrange for the delivery of a sizable arms shipment to the Provos by way of Cyprus , but it was intercepted by the Belgian authorities .
The PFLP and the DFLP established connections with revolutionary groups such as the Red Army Faction of West Germany , the Action Directe of France , the Red Brigades of Italy , the Japanese Red Army and the Tupamaros of Uruguay . These groups , especially the Japanese Red Army participated in many of the PFLP 's operations including hijackings and the Lod Airport massacre . The Red Army Faction joined the PFLP in the hijackings of two airplanes that landed in Entebbe Airport .
= Devotions upon Emergent Occasions =
Devotions upon Emergent Occasions , or in full Devotions Upon Emergent Occasions , and severall steps in my Sicknes , is a prose work by the English metaphysical poet and cleric in the Church of England John Donne , published in 1624 . It covers death , rebirth and the Elizabethan concept of sickness as a visit from God , reflecting internal sinfulness . The Devotions were written in December 1623 as Donne recovered from a serious but unknown illness – believed to be relapsing fever or typhus . Having come close to death , he described the illness he had suffered from and his thoughts throughout his recovery with " near super @-@ human speed and concentration " . Registered by 9 January , and published soon after , the Devotions is one of only seven printed works attributed to Donne which were printed during his lifetime .
The Devotions is divided into 23 parts , each consisting of 3 sub @-@ sections , called the ' meditation ' , the " expostulation ' and a prayer . The 23 sections are chronologically ordered , each covering his thoughts and reflections on a single day of the illness . Famously , the 17th devotion , Meditation XVII , includes the phrases " No man is an Iland " ( often modernised as " No man is an island " ) and " ... for whom the bell tolls " . The work as a whole is considered similar to 17th @-@ century devotional writing generally , and particularly to Donne 's Holy Sonnets . Some academics have also identified political strands running through the work , from a polemic Arminian denunciation of Puritanism to advice to the young Prince Charles .
= = Background = =
Donne was born on 21 January 1572 to the elder John Donne , a wealthy ironmonger and one of the wardens of the Worshipful Company of Ironmongers , and his wife Elizabeth . After his father 's death when he was four , Donne was , instead of being prepared to enter a trade , trained as a gentleman scholar ; his family used the money his father had made from ironmongering to hire private tutors who taught him grammar , rhetoric , mathematics , history and foreign languages . Elizabeth soon remarried to a wealthy doctor , ensuring that the family remained comfortable ; as a result , despite being the son of an ironmonger and portraying himself in his early poetry as an outsider , Donne refused to accept that he was anything other than a gentleman . After study at Hart Hall , Oxford , Donne 's private education eventually saw him study at Lincoln 's Inn , one of the Inns of Court , where he occupied his time with history , poetry , theology and " Humane learning and languages " . It was at Lincoln 's Inn that Donne first began writing poetry , looking upon it as " a life @-@ sign or minor irritation " rather than something that defined him .
In November 1623 , Donne fell seriously ill . London was the scene of a ' spotted ' or relapsing fever , which hit its victims unexpectedly and left them conscious but physically helpless . What disease Donne suffered from is not known . Writers have suggested typhus as a likely culprit , but Donne 's writings on the subject reference multiple diseases . Clara Lander , writing in Studies in English Literature 1500 – 1900 , suggests that the typhus may have exacerbated the enteritis Donne had suffered from since childhood .
Donne was of the opinion – as were many others of the age – that illness reflected a state of internal sinfulness , and constituted a visit from God . Despite being ordered to rest , he insisted that a pen and paper be given to him , and he wrote down his impressions of the disease . After his recovery , in December , these became Devotions upon Emergent Occasions , one of his few published prose works , and also one of only seven printed works of which he acknowledged authorship . Written with " near super @-@ human speed and concentration " , the work was registered with the Stationers ' Company by 9 January 1624 . It was published that year , and again in 1634 and 1638 . The full , albeit rarely used , title is Devotions Upon Emergent Occasions , and severall steps in my Sicknes .
= = Contents = =
Structurally , Devotions consists of 23 chronologically ordered sections – representing the length , in days , of Donne 's illness . Each one contains a ' meditation ' , in which he describes a stage of his illness , an ' expostulation ' containing his reaction to that stage , and finally a prayer in which he makes peace with the disease . In the five editions published during the 17th century , the book opens with a Latin preface , titled " Stationes , sive Periodi in Morbo , ad quas referuntur Meditationes sequentes " . Also 23 sections long , each line of the preface is followed by what purports to be an English translation of the Latin . Joan Webber argues that these lines constitute a poem , in dactylic hexameter ; David Novarr disputes this , arguing that Stationes " has none of Donne 's customary wit , drama , and imagination " . Instead , it represents the Stations of the Cross , or supplicatio stativa . Mary Arshagouni , writing in Modern Philology , argues that the stationes indeed constitute a poem – or , at least , something more than a mere table of contents . The Latin lines play @-@ off the English translations , and contain nuanced meaning not found in the English that better represents the sections to which they refer .
Following the stationes , the 23 meditations begin . Each section , taken in an isolated way , follows the same pattern : Donne states some element of his illness or treatment , and then expands upon his statement to develop a theme that culminates with him becoming closer to God . Perhaps the most famous of the meditations is Meditation XVII , which begins with the statement :
Nunc lento sonitu dicunt , Morieris ( Now this Bell , tolling softly for another , saies to me , Thou must die ) .
This statement , or title , is then expanded on . Donne first concludes that he may not be aware that the bell is tolling , saying " hee for whom this Bell tolls may be so ill , as that he knowes not it tolls for him ; And perchance I may thinke my selfe so much better than I am , as that they who are about mee , and see my state , may have caused it to toll for mee , and I know not that " . This is then expanded with the realisation that , even if the bell is tolling for others , it is a matter of concern for Donne , as :
No man is an Iland , intire of it selfe ; every man is a peece of the Continent , a part of the maine ; if a Clod bee washed away by the Sea , Europe is the lesse , as well as if a Promontorie were , as well as if a Mannor of thy friends or of thine owne were ; any mans death diminishes me , because I am involved in Mankinde ; And therefore never send to know for whom the bell tolls ; It tolls for thee . [ Donne 's original spelling and punctuation ]
Donne then argues that if someone dies , anyone has the right to use their death as long as they do so valuably , considering it a treasure . He writes that :
If a man carry treasure in bullion , or in a wedge of gold , and have none coined into currant Monies , his treasure will not defray him as he travells . Tribulation is Treasure in the nature of it , but it is not currant money in the use of it , except wee get nearer and nearer our home , Heaven , by it . Another man may be sicke too , and sick to death , and this affliction may lie in his bowels , as gold in a Mine , and be of no use to him ; but this bell , that tells me of his affliction , digs out , and applies that gold to mee if by this consideration of anothers danger , I take mine owne into contemplation , and so secure my selfe , by making my recourse to my God , who is our onely securitie .
The death of an individual – signified by the tolling of the bell – is thus a treasure buried at the bottom of a mine : only of value if it is given to someone who makes good use of it . In this he refers to the work of Augustine of Hippo , specifically On Christian Doctrine , in which Augustine describes the knowledge of pagans as gold and silver : something that can be involved in Christian purposes if appropriated properly . Donne , twisting this idea , is arguing that the death of any individual is something others can learn from , should they understand it properly .
= = Style and meaning = =
Stylistically , the Devotions is an example of 17th @-@ century devotional writing , and has been compared by Roger Rollin , professor of literature at Clemson University , to the Holy Sonnets and considered , in effect , a sequel . In the context of 17th century devotional writing , Rollin uses the Devotions to demonstrate that , in his view , such writings were " more public than private , [ serving as ] vehicles for the diagnosis of spiritual malaise and as sources of remedies " . Lander argued that the full title signifies " growth of the spirit through physical ordeal " , and in doing so draws on the devotional works of Joseph Hall . Thomas F. Van Laan , writing in Studies in Philology , draws parallels between Donne 's style and the Ignatian exercises : a set of structured mental exercises designed to bring an individual closer to understanding God .
A number of literary theorists have approached the Devotions as politically themed . Richard Strier , in particular , identifies the Devotions as an " Arminian polemic " , arguing that it was highly atypical of Donne to actually publish works , rather than merely let them circulate amongst friends . Both before and after ordination , Donne actively resisted publication , normally only publishing works that had been the result of a commission , such as The Anniversaries or Pseudo @-@ Martyr . The Devotions , however , were " literally rushed " into print , with the volume being handed to the printers a month after he had recovered from his disease . Strier argues that Donne 's rationale for publishing the Devotions matches his rationale for publishing a sermon , the Encaenia , the same year , to assert the importance of " places , and of dayes , and of all outward meanes " , because he felt some sense of urgency about what he had to say . This is coupled with Devotion XVI , in which Donne explicitly comes out against Puritanism and is simultaneously " purposely militant " , deliberately frustrating the other extreme from Puritanism , where " the Arminianism and the polemical anti @-@ puritanism of the volume becomes explicit " .
Dave Gray and Jeanne Shami , writing in the Modern Language Quarterly , argue that it was not just a work of political rhetoric but a work of political advice , aimed at Prince Charles , to whom it was dedicated . The political situation at the time was complex , as King James was ill and Charles attempting to gain control of the government . Gray and Shami highlight the noted line " No man is an island " ; while most interpret it spiritually , they argue that it was a reminder to the prince and his advisors that " even private actions have public consequences " . The veiled nature of the political references was deliberate ; it allowed the work to be acceptable to the censors , but accessible to Charles and those close to him . In the event that they rejected the underlying message , it would also be accessible to other prominent and influential political figures .
Lander argues that the structure of the work is itself symbolic . As well as the division of the poem into 23 parts , each signifying and describing one day of Donne 's illness , each part is itself split in three – representing the Trinity . The use of three elements – Meditation , Expostulation , and Prayer – also matches the three services found in the Book of Common Prayer , a common influence on devotional writers of Donne 's era .
= = Critical response = =
The Devotions have received a mixed reaction from critics . Evelyn Simpson described it as " a curious little book " , and wrote that " [ a ] s a manual of devotion [ the Devotions ] compares unfavourably with the Devotions of Bishop Andrewes or the Holy Living of Jeremy Taylor . It is too introspective , too metaphysical , too much overloaded with learning of different kinds " . Helen C. White described it as the output of an " anxious and restless mind " .
Arshagouni , on the other hand , describes the Devotions as
Donne 's most mature , perhaps most complex work : a remarkable , sustained prose @-@ poem that not only expresses conflicting and powerful internal emotions but also consciously provides its readers with a touching model of the experiences of God 's elect in confronting the inexorable course of human sinfulness that characterizes life on earth .
Helen Wilcox writes that " the mixture of elaborate rhetoric , painstaking argument , and the frank details of his melancholic ' ridling distemper ' creates a particularly powerful impact " and draws particular attention to Meditation XVII , noting that despite the apparent self @-@ interest of the Devotions , that piece highlights Donne 's recognition of the ultimate interconnectedness of humanity . Meditation XVII was also the focus of Robert Jungman , who , writing in American Notes and Queries , noted it as the most forceful statement of Donne 's theme in what was ultimately a " powerful psychological analysis " .
In wider popular culture , several phrases from the Devotions , particularly Meditation XVII , have become commonly quoted , including " No man is an Iland " ( often modernised as " No man is an island " ) and " ... for whom the bell tolls " . Thomas Festa , writing in Notes and Queries , identifies similarities between Thomas Browne 's Christian Morals and Donne 's Meditation XIV .
= Gravesend Blockhouse =
Gravesend Blockhouse was an artillery fortification constructed as part of Henry VIII 's Device plan of 1539 , in response to fears of an imminent invasion of England by France and the Holy Roman Empire . It was built at Gravesend in Kent along a strategic point along the River Thames and was operational by 1540 . A two @-@ storey , D @-@ shaped building built from brick and stone , it had a circular bastion overlooking the river and gun platforms extending out to the east and west . It functioned in conjunction with Tilbury Fort on the other side of the river , and was repaired in 1588 to deal with the threat of Spanish invasion , and again in 1667 when the Dutch navy raided the Thames . A 1778 report recommended alterations to the blockhouse and its defences , leading to the remodelling of the gun platforms and the construction of the new , larger New Tavern Fort alongside it . In the 1830s the government decided to rely entirely on the newer fort and the old blockhouse was demolished in 1844 . Its remains were uncovered in archaeological excavations between 1975 and 1976 .
= = 16th century = =
= = = Background = = =
Gravesend Blockhouse was built as a consequence of international tensions between England , France and the Holy Roman Empire in the final years of the reign of King Henry VIII . Traditionally the Crown had left coastal defences to the local lords and communities , only taking a modest role in building and maintaining fortifications , and while France and the Empire remained in conflict with one another , maritime raids were common but an actual invasion of England seemed unlikely . Modest defences , based around simple blockhouses and towers , existed in the south @-@ west and along the Sussex coast , with a few more impressive works in the north of England , but in general the fortifications were very limited in scale .
In 1533 , Henry then broke with Pope Paul III in order to annul the long @-@ standing marriage to his wife , Catherine of Aragon and remarry . Catherine was the aunt of Charles V , the Holy Roman Emperor , and he took the annulment as a personal insult . This resulted in France and the Empire declaring an alliance against Henry in 1538 , and the Pope encouraging the two countries to attack England . An invasion of England now appeared certain .
= = = Device of 1539 = = =
Henry issued an order , called a " device " , in 1539 , giving instructions for the " defence of the realm in time of invasion " and the construction of forts along the English coastline . Under this programme of work the River Thames was protected with a mutually reinforcing network of blockhouses at Gravesend , Milton , and Higham on the south side of the river , and Tilbury and East Tilbury on the opposite bank .
The fortifications were strategically placed . London and the newly constructed royal dockyards of Deptford and Woolwich were vulnerable to seaborne attacks arriving up the Thames estuary , which was then a major maritime route , with 80 percent of England 's exports passing through it . The village of Milton and the adjacent town of Gravesend , only 500 metres ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) apart , formed a particularly important communications point along the river . They were the centre for the " Long Ferry " traffic of passengers into the capital , and for the " Cross Ferry " over the river to Tilbury , resulting in the local riverbank becoming lined with wharfs . This was also the first point that an invasion force would be able to easily disembark along the Thames , as before this point the mudflats along the sides of the estuary would have made landings difficult .
= = = Construction = = =
Gravesend Blockhouse was designed by the Clerk of the King 's Works , James Nedeham , and the Master of Ordnance , Christopher Morice , with Robert Lorde serving as the paymaster for the project and Lionel Martin , John Ganyn and Mr Travers acting as the local overseers . The Crown bought the land for the fort , along with the space for Gravesend Blockhouse , from William Burston for £ 66 ; it is uncertain how much the building work cost , but earlier estimates in 1539 had suggested that it would cost £ 211 to build such a blockhouse , including the 150 @,@ 000 bricks and quantities of stone , chalk , lime , timber and labour that would be needed . The work was quickly completed , and by 1540 the blockhouse was fully operational .
It was approximately 28 by 21 metres ( 92 by 69 ft ) in size , two storeys tall , forming a D @-@ shape , with a circular bastion at the front , extending into the Thames ; another circular bastion jutted out from the side of the fort . The bulk of the building was made of brick , faced with ashlar stone , with external walls 2 metres ( 6 ft 7 in ) thick . Two walls ran alongside either side of the blockhouse , parallel with the river , forming part of the adjacent platforms for mounting additional guns ; in 1600 , the east platform was described as being 100 feet ( 30 m ) long and 14 feet ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) wide . The rear of the blockhouse was overlooked by higher ground and would have been hard to defend .
The fort was initially commanded by Captain James Crane , with a garrison of ten men , including his second in command , a porter , six gunners and two soldiers . As time went on , not all of the gunners worked full @-@ time at the fort , some living and working in the town itself . It is uncertain how many artillery pieces the blockhouse was initially equipped with , although it is known that the five blockhouses along the Thames had 108 brass and iron guns in total between them in 1540 .
= = = Use = = =
In 1553 , orders were issued for the artillery pieces to be removed from Gravesend Blockhouse and taken to the Tower of London , although the historian Victor Smith casts doubt on whether this was actually carried out . In 1588 , however , there was a renewed threat of invasion , this time from Spain ; the Spanish Armada sailed from A Coruña , while a separate invasion force was prepared in Flanders , threatening London ; Rober Dudley , the Earl of Leicester was put in charge of the defences along the Thames .
When Dudley inspected the blockhouse , Gravesend was found to be in poor condition . The gun platforms were unable to bear the weight of cannons , and the defences needed additional artillery and gunpowder ; the permanent garrison by now only comprised five gunners . One estimate that summer suggested that 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) of structural timber , 300 iron spikes and 10 cartloads of smaller pieces of timber were needed for the repairs .
Plans were made to seal off the river with a chain or a boom stretching between the blockhouse and Tilbury Fort on the other bank , which was eventually accomplished at a cost of £ 305 . Further work was carried out on the defences , possibly including raising earthworks and establishing watch @-@ houses . Fears of an invasion persisted for many years afterwards and in 1598 Charles Howard , the Lord High Admiral , expressed his concerns about the effectiveness of the Gravesend Blockhouse in protecting the Thames .
= = 17th century = =
A 1600 survey showed 10 pieces of artillery to be ineffective , while the gun platforms on either side of the fort were in bad condition and 2 @,@ 828 feet ( 862 m ) of planking , 650 joists and over 19 cartloads of other timber was needed for the repairs . Little investment was forthcoming under James I or Charles I and by 1630 the garrison 's pay was in arrears , with the fort was in need of repairs estimated at £ 1 @,@ 248 . In 1631 the blockhouse was equipped with two brass demi @-@ culverins and sakers , and an iron culverin , six demi @-@ culverins , four sakers and one minion ; the brass guns , which were needed for naval units , were exchanged for iron weapons in 1635 .
In 1642 civil war broke out between the supporters of King Charles I and those of Parliament . Gravesend was controlled by Parliament , who placed it under the command of a military governor who oversaw both this fort and Tilbury , and was used to control traffic entering London and to search for spies . Charles II regained the throne in 1660 and was petitioned by several royalists who claimed that they should be restored to the command of the blockhouse ; William Leonard was ultimately successful . The defences were repaired and may have been occasionally used by the King as a banqueting hall .
The Dutch fleet raided up the Thames in June 1667 , but did not approach Gravesend Blockhouse due to the threat posed by its guns . The fort , under the command of Sir John Griffith , was in reality not well prepared for war . £ 400 was spent on upgrading the blockhouse , artillery was sent from the Tower of London to reinforce the local guns and four infantry companies were detached to guard the site . The risk of attack ended with the signing of the Peace of Breda that July , and the blockhouse did not see action . Shortly after the Dutch raids , Sir John was removed from his post for apparently demanding payments from ships passing by the blockhouse , a complaint which was repeated in later years under subsequent captains .
= = 18th – 19th centuries = =
By the start of the 18th century a complex of building had grown up around the original blockhouse , which now had a pier , a dock and two wharfs alongside it , and a large house built by the King 's brother , James the Duke of York , after his return to England , as well as the two lines of approximately 20 guns stretching on either side along the river ; it had a garrison of a sergeant , 20 soldiers and a gunner on loan from Tilbury Fort . The blockhouse itself was no longer used to mount guns but instead acted as the magazine for the wider fortification , being able to store 2 @,@ 500 barrels of gunpowder . Under the terms of the Peace of Utrecht in 1713 , the number of artillery pieces was reduced to ten , and a survey in 1766 reported that Gravesend was in good condition and equipped with ten 9 lb guns .
Amid rising concerns over the threat of a French invasion , Sir Thomas Page surveyed the blockhouse in 1778 and concluded that its guns were too closely packed together and that they could not easily fire down @-@ river , proposing that a larger fort be built along the Thames to the east to rectify this problem . New Tavern Fort was constructed shortly afterwards and the eastern Gravesend Blockhouse gun platform was redesigned and extended as part of the work . Two volunteer militia companies were established in 1794 and 1797 to support the blockhouse and in 1805 it was equipped with 19 32 lb guns .
Concerns continued to be raised that the blockhouse 's guns could not fire downriver and by the 1830s it had been decided to focus investment on the New Tavern and Tilbury forts . The blockhouse itself fell out of use as a magazine in 1834 , being briefly used as a government store , and the adjacent gun platforms were sold off in 1835 . The blockhouse building was subsequently demolished in 1844 .
= = 20th – 21st centuries = =
The site of the former Gravesend Blockhouse was excavated in 1975 and 1976 by the Kent Archaeological Society , uncovering parts of the original building . The site , which lies in the grounds of the Clarendon Royal Hotel , was protected under UK law as a scheduled monument in 1979 .
= Big Wapwallopen Creek =
Big Wapwallopen Creek ( also known as Wapwallopen Creek or Big Wap ) is a tributary of the Susquehanna River in Luzerne County , Pennsylvania , in the United States . It is approximately 23 miles ( 37 km ) long and flows through Bear Creek Township , Fairview Township , Rice Township , Wright Township , Dorrance Township , Hollenback Township , Nescopeck Township , and Conyngham Township . The watershed of the creek has an area of 53 @.@ 2 square miles ( 138 km2 ) . The creek has three named tributaries : Balliet Run , Watering Run , and Bow Creek . The creek is designated as a Coldwater Fishery and a Migratory Fishery and is also Class A Wild Trout Waters for part of its length . However , it is considered to be impaired by organic enrichment and / or low levels of dissolved oxygen and its pH ranges from moderately acidic to slightly alkaline .
Big Wapwallopen Creek has three large waterfalls , all of which are more than 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) high . The creek flows through the Wapwallopen Gorge in its lower reaches , where it descends 210 feet ( 64 m ) . It mainly flows through rock formations consisting of sandstone and shale . The creek has existed for several million years , but the portion of its course that flows through the Wapwallopen Gorge is less than 20 @,@ 000 years old . The creek 's watershed is mainly rural and most of it is forested . It is the main source of flooding in six townships .
Wapwallopen Creek is named after a Native American village that historically existed on the creek . The Delaware tribe inhabited the area by 1675 and the Shawnee tribe also historically inhabited the area . Numerous mills were built on the creek in the 1700s and 1800s , including two powder mills in the Wapwallopen Gorge . The second powder mill was built in 1859 by E.I. Du Pont de Nemours and Company and was one of the largest powder mills in the United States at the time . That powder mill operated until 1912 . Numerous bridges were built across the creek in the 1900s . The Wapwallopen Gorge is listed on the Luzerne County Natural Areas Inventory . It is possible to canoe on 10 @.@ 3 miles ( 16 @.@ 6 km ) of the creek , but there are some unrunnable points .
= = Course = =
Big Wapwallopen Creek begins in Crystal Lake in Bear Creek Township . It flows west for several tenths of a mile and enters Fairview Township . The creek turns west @-@ southwest for approximately a mile , passing Arbutus Peak to the south and crossing Pennsylvania Route 437 . It then turns west @-@ northwest for several tenths of a mile before turning southwest and then west , crossing Pennsylvania Route 309 . It passes through Pole Bridge Swamp and begins flowing along the border between Rice Township and Wright Township . Over the next couple of miles , the creek gradually turns south @-@ southwest , still following the township line . It then passes through Hickory Swale and receives Bow Creek , its first named tributary , from the left . It turns southwest for several tenths of a mile before turning south and then southwest . It then turns west for more than a mile before turning southwest for a few miles , receiving the tributary Watering Run from the left before entering Dorrance Township and crossing Interstate 81 . The creek then turns south for a few tenths of a mile before turning west and then southwest for a few miles , passing Feys Grove . It eventually turns west @-@ southwest and enters Hollenback Township . After a few miles , the creek turns south for a short distance and receives Balliet Run , its last named tributary , from the left . It then turns west @-@ northwest for more than a mile before turning south . At this point , the creek turns west again and enters a gorge . After several tenths of a mile , it turns north again , still flowing through the gorge and crossing the border between Hollenback Township and Nescopeck Township several times . The creek then turns west @-@ northwest and begins flowing along the border between Nescopeck Township and Conyngham Township . After approximately a mile , it leaves the gorge and crosses Pennsylvania Route 239 . It then reaches its confluence with the Susquehanna River just southwest of Wapwallopen .
Big Wapwallopen Creek joins the Susquehanna River 166 @.@ 64 miles ( 268 @.@ 18 km ) upriver of its mouth .
= = = Tributaries = = =
Big Wapwallopen Creek has three named tributaries : Balliet Run , Watering Run , and Bow Creek . The creek also has numerous unnamed tributaries . Balliet Run joins Big Wapwallopen Creek 5 @.@ 18 miles ( 8 @.@ 34 km ) upstream of its mouth . Its watershed has an area of 7 @.@ 23 square miles ( 18 @.@ 7 km2 ) . Watering Run joins Big Wapwallopen Creek 8 @.@ 46 miles ( 13 @.@ 62 km ) upstream of its mouth . Its watershed has an area of 3 @.@ 87 square miles ( 10 @.@ 0 km2 ) . Bow Creek joins Big Wapwallopen Creek 11 @.@ 90 miles ( 19 @.@ 15 km ) upstream of its mouth . Its watershed has an area of 4 @.@ 69 square miles ( 12 @.@ 1 km2 ) . Two unnamed tributaries of Big Wapwallopen Creek include " Big Wapwallopen Creek Tributary E " and " Big Wapwallopen Creek Tributary H " . Their watersheds have areas of 3 @.@ 61 square miles ( 9 @.@ 3 km2 ) and 3 @.@ 40 square miles ( 8 @.@ 8 km2 ) , respectively .
= = Hydrology = =
Big Wapwallopen Creek is considered to be impaired . The cause of the impairment is organic enrichment and / or low levels of dissolved oxygen . The likely source of the impairment is municipal point @-@ source pollution , such as sewage . The creek has a United States Geological Survey stream gage near Wapwallopen .
The concentration of dissolved oxygen in Big Wapwallopen Creek near its mouth in 1975 and 1976 ranged from 9 @.@ 4 to 13 @.@ 0 milligrams per liter ( 0 @.@ 0094 to 0 @.@ 0130 oz / cu ft ) . The concentration of hydrogen ions ranged from 0 @.@ 00003 to 0 @.@ 00127 milligrams per liter ( 3 @.@ 0 × 10 − 8 to 1 @.@ 269 × 10 − 6 oz / cu ft ) milligrams per liter in December 1975 and February to August 1976 and the concentration of carbon dioxide ranged from 0 @.@ 7 to 30 milligrams per liter ( 0 @.@ 00070 to 0 @.@ 02997 oz / cu ft ) during the same time period . Between December 1975 and August 1976 , the ammonia concentration ranged from 0 @.@ 026 to 0 @.@ 090 milligrams per liter ( 2 @.@ 6 × 10 − 5 to 9 @.@ 0 × 10 − 5 oz / cu ft ) .
In the mid 1970s , the concentration of nitrogen in the form of nitrates in Big Wapwallopen Creek near its mouth ranged from 0 @.@ 60 to 1 @.@ 96 milligrams per liter ( 3 @.@ 5 × 10 − 7 to 1 @.@ 13 × 10 − 6 oz / cu in ) . The concentration of nitrogen in the form of nitrites ranged from 0 @.@ 026 to 0 @.@ 076 milligrams per liter ( 2 @.@ 6 × 10 − 5 to 7 @.@ 6 × 10 − 5 oz / cu ft ) . The phosphorus concentration ranged from 0 @.@ 050 to 0 @.@ 500 milligrams per liter ( 5 @.@ 0 × 10 − 5 to 0 @.@ 000499 oz / cu ft ) , the sulfate concentration ranged from 10 @.@ 0 to 36 @.@ 0 milligrams per liter ( 0 @.@ 0100 to 0 @.@ 0360 oz / cu ft ) , and the chloride concentration ranged from 6 @.@ 0 to 13 @.@ 0 milligrams per liter ( 0 @.@ 0060 to 0 @.@ 0130 oz / cu ft ) .
In 1975 and 1976 , the calcium concentration in Big Wapwallopen Creek near its mouth ranged from 5 @.@ 60 to 9 @.@ 60 milligrams per liter ( 0 @.@ 00559 to 0 @.@ 00959 oz / cu ft ) . The magnesium concentration ranged between 0 @.@ 50 and 5 @.@ 50 milligrams per liter ( 0 @.@ 00050 and 0 @.@ 00549 oz / cu ft ) . The concentration of iron ranged from less than 10 to 3 @,@ 150 micrograms per liter ( 5 @.@ 8 × 10 − 9 to 1 @.@ 8208 × 10 − 6 oz / cu in ) .
The turbidity of Big Wapwallopen Creek near its mouth was measured several times in 1975 and 1976 . It ranged from less than one Jackson Turbidity Unit to 50 Jackson Turbidity Units . The specific conductance of the creek ranged from 70 to 100 micro @-@ siemens per centimeter at 25 ° C ( 77 ° F ) . The creek 's pH ranged from 5 @.@ 9 to 7 @.@ 5 in December 1975 and February to August 1976 . The concentration of water hardness in the creek between December 1975 and August 1976 ranged from 12 to 42 milligrams per liter ( 0 @.@ 012 to 0 @.@ 042 oz / cu ft ) .
Between 1920 and 2013 , the average annual discharge of Big Wapwallopen Creek at Wapwallopen was more than 100 cubic feet per second ( 2 @.@ 8 m3 / s ) five times : in 1928 , in 1978 , in 1994 , in 2004 , and in 2001 . The average annual discharges in these years were 105 @.@ 9 cubic feet per second ( 3 @.@ 00 m3 / s ) , 108 @.@ 3 cubic feet per second ( 3 @.@ 07 m3 / s ) , 105 @.@ 4 cubic feet per second ( 2 @.@ 98 m3 / s ) , 100 @.@ 2 cubic feet per second ( 2 @.@ 84 m3 / s ) , and 141 @.@ 1 cubic feet per second ( 4 @.@ 00 m3 / s ) , respectively . The average annual discharge of the creek has been less than 40 cubic feet per second ( 1 @.@ 1 m3 / s ) four times : in 1931 and 1932 , in 1965 , and in 2001 . The values in these years were 33 @.@ 2 cubic feet per second ( 0 @.@ 94 m3 / s ) , 36 @.@ 9 cubic feet per second ( 1 @.@ 04 m3 / s ) , 30 @.@ 9 cubic feet per second ( 0 @.@ 87 m3 / s ) and 39 @.@ 6 cubic feet per second ( 1 @.@ 12 m3 / s ) . The average annual discharge of the creek in 2013 was 52 @.@ 3 cubic feet per second ( 1 @.@ 48 m3 / s )
The peak annual discharge of Big Wapwallopen Creek at its mouth has a 10 percent chance of reaching 3350 cubic feet per second . It has a 2 percent chance of reaching 6550 cubic feet per second and a 1 percent chance of reaching 8400 cubic feet per second . The peak annual discharge has a 0 @.@ 2 percent chance of reaching 15 @,@ 000 cubic feet per second . The peak annual discharge of the creek at the confluence of Balliet Run has a 10 percent chance of reaching 1900 cubic feet per second . It has a 2 percent chance of reaching 3050 cubic feet per second and a 1 percent chance of reaching 3600 cubic feet per second . The peak annual discharge has a 0 @.@ 2 percent chance of reaching 5200 cubic feet per second .
The peak annual discharge of Big Wapwallopen Creek upstream of the tributary Watering Run has a 10 percent chance of reaching 1 @,@ 220 cubic feet per second ( 35 m3 / s ) , a 2 percent chance of reaching 2 @,@ 080 cubic feet per second ( 59 m3 / s ) , a 1 percent chance of reaching 2 @,@ 530 cubic feet per second ( 72 m3 / s ) , and a 0 @.@ 2 percent chance of reaching 3 @,@ 770 cubic feet per second ( 107 m3 / s ) . The peak annual discharge of the creek upstream of the tributary Bow Creek has a 10 percent chance of reaching 588 cubic feet per second ( 16 @.@ 7 m3 / s ) , a 2 percent chance of reaching 1 @,@ 025 cubic feet per second ( 29 @.@ 0 m3 / s ) , a 1 percent chance of reaching 1 @,@ 253 cubic feet per second ( 35 @.@ 5 m3 / s ) and a 0 @.@ 2 percent chance of reaching 1 @,@ 904 cubic feet per second ( 53 @.@ 9 m3 / s ) .
= = Geography , geology , and climate = =
The elevation near the mouth of Big Wapwallopen Creek is 495 feet ( 151 m ) above sea level . The elevation of the creek 's source is between 1 @,@ 920 and 1 @,@ 940 feet ( 590 and 590 m ) above sea level . The gradient of the creek for its first 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) is 257 @.@ 5 feet per mile ( 48 @.@ 77 m / km ) . For the next 14 miles ( 23 km ) it is only 42 @.@ 9 feet per mile ( 8 @.@ 13 m / km ) . From there to the creek 's mouth , the gradient is 69 @.@ 8 feet per mile ( 13 @.@ 22 m / km ) . The mean elevation of the creek 's watershed upstream of State Route 3012 / Hobbie Road is 1 @,@ 330 feet ( 410 m ) above sea level .
Big Wapwallopen Creek is in the ridge and valley physiographic province . It flows off the southwestern edge of the Pocono Plateau . Closer to its mouth , there are three large waterfalls on the creek . All of the waterfalls are more than 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) high with the highest being 45 feet ( 14 m ) high . The uppermost waterfall cuts through red sandstone . The falls are known as the Upper Falls , the Middle Falls , and the Lower Falls , respectively . Big Wapwallopen Creek has a long stretch of rapids formed from numerous small ledges and boulders . The creek flows through a gorge known as the Wapwallopen Gorge or ( locally ) as the Powder Hole . The gorge is in Conyngham Township , Hollenback Township , and Nescopeck Township . The creek drops a total of 210 feet ( 64 m ) in the gorge . Within the gorge , there are large floodplains that are relatively forested and flat . The gorge was likely created several million years ago by the precursor to Big Wapwallopen Creek . However , the creek 's original channel in this location was slightly to the west of its current one . It moved to its present channel 20 @,@ 000 years ago , during the last Ice Age , when glaciers covered the area for a thousand years . Along most of the creek 's length , it cut through glacial material to flow through its preglacial valley . However , at the site of the Wapwallopen Gorge it failed to do this and instead carved a new path through bedrock . The old glacial valley of Big Wapwallopen Creek was broad and gently sloping .
Big Wapwallopen Creek has been described as a small creek . The topography of the creek 's watershed mainly consists of broken hills , with a few swamps and lakes . Nescopeck Mountain is on the watershed 's southeastern border .
The channel of Big Wapwallopen Creek is sinuous and flows through rock formations consisting of sandstone and shale . The creek is surrounded by steep , high hills with a height of 200 to 300 feet ( 61 to 91 m ) for its last 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) . In the Wapwallopen Gorge , it cuts through a rib of gray siltstone belonging to the Trimmers Rock Formation . This rock formation dates to 380 million years ago ( the late Devonian ) and covers the northern three quarters of the gorge . It mainly consists of gray siltstone , shale , and sandstone . The southern quarter of the gorge has bedrock consisting of the Irish Valley Member of the Catskill Formation . This formation contains siltstone , sandstone , shale , and claystone . The Soil Infiltration Index near the creek at State Route 3012 / Hobbie Road is 3 @.@ 51 inches ( 8 @.@ 9 cm ) .
The Carbondale coal formation occurs near Big Wapwallopen Creek and also appears as far away as the Wyoming Valley . The coal formation is estimated to be 60 to 70 miles ( 97 to 113 km ) long , several miles wide , and 20 to 25 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 to 7 @.@ 6 m ) thick . It is lighter in color and burns more easily than the Mauch Chunk coal or the Lehigh Coal .
The annual rate of precipitation in the watershed of Big Wapwallopen Creek ranges from 35 to 45 inches ( 89 to 114 cm ) . The average rate of precipitation where the creek crosses State Route 3012 / Hobbie Road is 41 @.@ 60 inches ( 105 @.@ 7 cm ) per year and the average rate for the whole drainage basin is 44 inches ( 110 cm ) per year . A precipitation intensity of 2 @.@ 80 inches ( 7 @.@ 1 cm ) in 24 hours is expected to occur at this site once every two years . The water temperature of the creek was measured several times from late 1975 to 1976 . The values ranged from 0 @.@ 0 ° C ( 32 @.@ 0 ° F ) in January 1976 to 26 @.@ 0 ° C ( 78 @.@ 8 ° F ) in August 1976 . The rate of groundwater recharge in the creek 's watershed is 14 @.@ 2 inches ( 36 cm ) per year , or 32 percent of the annual precipitation rate . It ranges from 218 to 721 gallons per minute per square mile , with an average of 469 gallons per minute per square mile . The rate of evapotranspiration ranges from 16 @.@ 57 to 41 @.@ 85 inches ( 42 @.@ 1 to 106 @.@ 3 cm ) per year , with an average of 23 @.@ 73 inches ( 60 @.@ 3 cm ) per year .
= = Watershed = =
The watershed of Big Wapwallopen Creek has an area of 53 @.@ 2 square miles ( 138 km2 ) . At the confluence of the tributary Balliet Run , its watershed has an area of 32 @.@ 74 square miles ( 84 @.@ 8 km2 ) . Upstream of the tributary Watering Run , its watershed has an area of 14 @.@ 52 square miles ( 37 @.@ 6 km2 ) and upstream of the tributary Bow Creek , its watershed has an area of only 7 @.@ 30 square miles ( 18 @.@ 9 km2 ) . The mouth of the creek is in the United States Geological Survey quadrangle of Berwick . However , the source is in the quadrangle of Wilkes @-@ Barre East . The creek also passes through the quadrangles of Wilkes @-@ Barre West , Freeland , and Sybertsville . The creek is in the Lower North Branch Susquehanna drainage basin and its watershed is in the south @-@ central part of Luzerne County . It flows in a general southwesterly direction . A total of 84 percent of the upper 43 @.@ 8 square miles ( 113 km2 ) of the watershed is forested land . A total of 1 percent is storage land . The creek 's mouth is located approximately 17 miles ( 27 km ) to the southwest of the city of Wilkes @-@ Barre . The community of Mountain Top is located at the headwaters of the creek . The historical community of Glen Summit Springs was also at the headwaters of the creek .
Big Wapwallopen Creek flows through a rural valley with steep slopes . The uppermost 4 @.@ 7 miles ( 7 @.@ 6 km ) of Big Wapwallopen Creek are all on private land . A dammed reservoir with an area of 494 acres ( 200 ha ) is located on the creek at its headwaters . This reservoir is known as Crystal Lake and it is primarily used as a public water supply . However , it is capable of reducing peak discharges on the creek in Fairview Township .
Big Wapwallopen Creek is one of the main sources of flooding in Rice Township and Wright Township . It is also a primary flooding source in Conyngham Township , Dorrance Township , Fairview Township , Hollenback Township , and Nescopeck Township . However , in Conyngham Township , a 100 year flood of the creek would only inundate a small and undeveloped area .
A tract of land known as American Legion Post 781 is in the vicinity of Big Wapwallopen Creek in Wright Township . The tract is owned by the North Branch Land Trust and has an area of 254 @.@ 5 acres ( 103 @.@ 0 ha ) . The watershed of the creek is 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) away from the planned Bell Bend Nuclear Power Plant . The two sites are separated by the Susquehanna River .
The designated use of Big Wapwallopen Creek is use for aquatic life .
= = History = =
Big Wapwallopen Creek was entered into the Geographic Names Information System on August 2 , 1979 . Its identifier in the Geographic Names Information System is 1192144 . The creek is also known as Wapwallopen Creek or Big Wap.'
Big Wapwallopen Creek is named after a Native American village on the Susquehanna River near the creek . The Delaware and Shawnee tribes historically had camps and wigwams on the creek . The Delaware tribe was hunting and fishing in the vicinity of the creek 's watershed as early as 1675 .
The first land grant in Nescopeck Township was located to the west of Big Wapwallopen Creek . It was known as the Campania Tract and it was surveyed to Daniel Grant in 1769 . The tract was patented to George Campbell in 1773 . Prince Maximilian of Wied visited the area near the creek during his travels in North America .
Nathan Beach constructed a mill on Big Wapwallopen Creek in the Wapwallopen Gorge in 1795 . The mill eventually burned down by accident . Cornelius Garrison built a mill on the creek in southwestern Wright Township in 1833 . A mill owned by Samuel Heller was operational on the creek as late as the late 1800s . In 1856 , William Silver also built a powder mill in the Wapwallopen Gorge . He then sold partial ownership of the mill to G.P. Parrish . However , early in 1859 , a freshet and an explosion destroyed the mill and caused Silver 's and Parrish 's company went bankrupt . E.I. Du Pont de Nemours and Company bought the site in April 1859 and constructed the powder mills known as the Wapwallopen Mills there . At that time , the mills were one of the largest powder mills in the United States . While the mills were in operation , there were fatal explosions every eight years and the infrastructure was destroyed by flooding numerous times . However , by 1868 | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
this species , but most reptant decapods mate with the ventral surfaces together . Between July and August , females carry around 100 @,@ 000 eggs on their enlarged , feathery pleopods . The eggs develop from being a bright orange colour to a dark brown before being shed into the water after around 16 days of development . There is normally only one generation per year .
The larvae are much less well known than the adults . An initial 1 @.@ 3 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 05 in ) long naupliosoma stage , which swims using its antennae , moults into the first of eleven phyllosoma stages , which swim using their thoracic legs . The last phyllosoma stage may reach a size of 48 mm ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) and can be up to 11 months old ; most of the intermediate phyllosoma stages have not been observed . A single nisto ( juvenile has been recorded , having been caught off Reggio Calabria in 1900 , but only recognised as being a juvenile S. latus in 2009 . Young adults are also rare ; a museum specimen with a carapace length of 34 mm ( 1 @.@ 3 in ) is the smallest adult yet observed . Adults moult annually , and probably migrate to cooler waters with a temperature of 13 – 18 ° C ( 55 – 64 ° F ) to do so . The old exoskeleton softens over a period of 10 – 22 days before being shed , and the new , pale exoskeleton takes around three weeks to harden completely . Smaller individuals typically gain weight over the course of a moult , but this difference is less pronounced in larger animals .
= = Behaviour = =
Scyllarides latus is mostly nocturnal in the wild , since most of its predators are diurnal . While sheltering , S. latus tends to be gregarious , with several individuals sharing the same shelter . When confronted with a predator , S. latus has no claws or spines to repel the predator , and instead either clings to the substrate , or swims away with powerful flexion of the abdomen , or " tail @-@ flips " . Larger lobsters can exert a stronger grip than smaller ones , with a force of up to 150 newtons ( equivalent to a weight of 15 kilograms or 33 pounds ) required to dislodge the largest individuals .
Predator avoidance may also explain the frequent behaviour where S. latus will carry food items back to a shelter before consuming them . When two S. latus individuals compete for a food item , they may use the enlarged second antennae to flip their opponent over , by wedging the antennae underneath the opponent 's body and quickly raising them . An alternative strategy is to grip an opponent and begin the tail @-@ flipping movement , or to engage in a tug of war .
= = Taxonomy = =
Scyllarides latus was originally classified in the genus Scyllarus , along with the four other slipper lobsters known at the time ( Scyllarus arctus , Scyllarides aequinoctialis , Thenus orientalis and Arctides guineensis ) . Separate genera were first introduced by William Elford Leach in 1815 , namely Thenus and Ibacus . In 1849 , Wilhem de Haan divided the genus Scyllarus into two genera , Scyllarus and Arctus , but made the error of including the type species of Scyllarus in the genus Arctus . This was first recognised by the ichthyologist Theodore Gill in 1898 , who synonymised Arctus with Scyllarus , and erected a new genus Scyllarides to hold the species that De Haan had placed in Scyllarus . Scyllarides is placed in the subfamily Arctidinae , which is differentiated from other subfamilies by the presence of multiarticulated exopods on all three maxillipeds , and a three @-@ segmented palp on the mandible . The only other genus in the subfamily , Arctides , is distinguished by having a more highly sculptured carapace , with an extra spine behind each eye , and a transverse groove on the first segment of the abdomen .
The only other species of Scyllarides to occur in the Eastern Atlantic is Scyllarides herklotsii , which differs from S. latus mostly in the ornamentation on the carapace ; while in S. latus the tubercles ( lumps projecting from the surface ) are high and pronounced , they are lower and more rounded in S. herklotsii .
= = = Type specimen = = =
The type locality given by Pierre André Latreille in his original description of the species was simply " Mediterranée " ( Mediterranean Sea ) , without designating a type specimen . Lipke Holthuis later chose a lectotype for the species , which was the animal illustrated by Cornelius Sittardus , and published in Conrad Gesner 's Historiae animalium in 1558 ( book 4 , p . 1097 ) . This illustration , originally a watercolour but reproduced by Gesner in a woodcut , had been mentioned by Latreille in his description as being particularly fine , and is all that remains of the type specimen . Given that Sittardus was working in Rome at the time , it is likely that the type specimen was a fresh specimen from the Tyrrhenian Sea near Rome .
= = Human consumption = =
S. latus is edible , but it is a relatively rare species , and is therefore of little interest to fisheries . However , it is caught in small numbers throughout its distribution , mostly in trammel nets , by trawling and in lobster pots . An annual catch of 2 @,@ 000 – 3 @,@ 000 kg ( 4 @,@ 400 – 6 @,@ 600 lb ) has been reported for Israel . Catching by hand has become increasingly frequent , since the advent of SCUBA diving made the animal 's habitat more accessible to humans . This may have affected population sizes of S. latus in some areas .
= SMS Leipzig =
For other ships of this name , see SMS Leipzig ( 1875 ) and SMS Leipzig ( 1918 ) .
SMS Leipzig ( " His Majesty 's Ship Leipzig " ) was the sixth of seven Bremen @-@ class cruisers of the Imperial German Navy , named after the city of Leipzig . She was begun by AG Weser in Bremen in 1904 , launched in March 1905 and commissioned in April 1906 . Armed with a main battery of ten 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) guns and two 45 cm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes , Leipzig was capable of a top speed of 22 @.@ 5 knots ( 41 @.@ 7 km / h ; 25 @.@ 9 mph ) .
Leipzig spent her career on overseas stations ; at the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , she was cruising off the coast of Mexico . After rejoining with the East Asia Squadron , she proceeded to South American waters , where she participated in the Battle of Coronel , where the German squadron overpowered and sank a pair of British armored cruisers . A month later , she again saw action at the Battle of the Falkland Islands , which saw the destruction of the East Asia Squadron . Leipzig was chased down and sunk by the cruisers HMS Glasgow and HMS Kent ; the majority of her crew was killed in the battle , with only 18 survivors .
= = Construction = =
Leipzig was ordered under the contract name " N " and was laid down at the AG Weser shipyard in Bremen in 1904 and launched on 21 March 1905 , after which fitting @-@ out work commenced . She was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 20 April 1906 . The ship was 111 @.@ 1 meters ( 365 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 13 @.@ 3 m ( 44 ft ) and a draft of 5 @.@ 61 m ( 18 @.@ 4 ft ) forward . She displaced 3 @,@ 816 t ( 3 @,@ 756 long tons ; 4 @,@ 206 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two triple @-@ expansion engines , designed to give 10 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 7 @,@ 500 kW ) for a top speed of 22 knots ( 41 km / h ; 25 mph ) . The engines were powered by ten coal @-@ fired Marine @-@ type water @-@ tube boilers . Leipzig carried up to 860 tonnes ( 850 long tons ) of coal , which gave her a range of 4 @,@ 690 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 690 km ; 5 @,@ 400 mi ) at 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . She had a crew of 14 officers and 274 – 287 enlisted men .
The ship was armed with ten 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 40 guns in single mounts . Two were placed side by side forward on the forecastle , six were located amidships , three on either side , and two were placed side by side aft . The guns could engage targets out to 12 @,@ 200 m ( 40 @,@ 000 ft ) . They were supplied with 1 @,@ 500 rounds of ammunition , for 150 shells per gun . She was also equipped with two 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes with five torpedoes . They were submerged in the hull on the broadside . She was also fitted to carry fifty naval mines . The ship was protected by an armored deck that was up to 80 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) thick . The conning tower had 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides , and the guns were protected by 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick shields .
= = Service history = =
Franz von Hipper served as the ship 's first commanding officer , from her commissioning in April until September , when Leipzig was deployed overseas , and was assigned to the East Asia Squadron , along with the armored cruisers Scharnhorst and Gneisenau and the light cruisers Emden and Nürnberg . The ship was cruising off the west coast of Mexico at the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 to show the flag in the Americas . In addition , Leipzig had been tasked with safeguarding German nationals in Mexico during a period of unrest . She spent the first weeks of the conflict patrolling for British @-@ flagged merchantmen off San Francisco before stopping in the Galapagos Islands on 18 August , on her way to South America . A week later , Leipzig sank a British freighter carrying sugar and then proceeded to the Peruvian coast by the 28th . She stopped in Guaymas in neutral Mexico to take on a fresh load of coal on 8 September .
On 14 October , she joined the rest of Vice Admiral Maximilian von Spee 's East Asia Squadron at Easter Island ; she brought with her three colliers . On 18 October , the Squadron departed , bound for South America ; they stopped in the Juan Fernández Islands while en route , and by 26 October , they were approaching Mas a Fuera . They then steamed to Valparaiso , Chile , where they received intelligence that indicated that the British cruiser HMS Glasgow was anchored in Coronel . Von Spee decided to proceed to Coronel to ambush the British ship when it left port . Glasgow was in fact joined by the armored cruisers HMS Good Hope and HMS Monmouth .
= = = Battle of Coronel = = =
While patrolling off Coronel , Leipzig stopped a Chilean barque and searched her , but since she was a neutral vessel , and not carrying contraband , the Germans let her go . At 16 : 00 on 1 November , Leipzig spotted a column of smoke in the distance , followed by a second ship at 16 : 17 , and a third at 16 : 25 . The British spotted Leipzig at approximately the same time , and the two squadrons formed into lines of battle . Leipzig was the third ship in the German line , behind the two armored cruisers . At 18 : 07 , von Spee issued the order " Fire distribution from left " , meaning that each ship would engage its opposite number ; the Germans fired first , at 18 : 34 .
Scharnhorst and Gneisenau quickly wrecked their British counterparts , while Leipzig fired at Glasgow without success . At 18 : 49 , Glasgow hit Leipzig , but the shell was a dud and did not explode . Leipzig and Dresden hit Glasgow five times before von Spee ordered Leipzig to close with the stricken Good Hope and torpedo it . A rain squall obscured the ship , and by the time Leipzig reached Good Hope 's position , the latter had sunk . Unaware of the sinking of Good Hope , no rescue operations were mounted by Leipzig 's crew . By 20 : 00 , Leipzig encountered Dresden in the gathering darkness , and the two initially mistook each other for hostile warships , though they quickly established their identity . Leipzig emerged from the battle essentially unscathed , and with no wounded crewmen .
In the aftermath of the Battle of Coronel , von Spee decided to return to Valparaiso to receive further orders ; while Scharnhorst , Gneisenau , and Nürnberg went into the harbor , Leipzig and Dresden escorted the colliers to Mas a Fuera . The rest of the East Asia Squadron joined them there on 6 November ; the cruisers restocked their coal and other supplies . On 10 November , Leipzig and Dresden were sent to Valparaiso , arriving on the 13th . Five days later , they rejoined the Squadron approximately 250 nautical miles ( 460 km ; 290 mi ) west of Robinson Crusoe Island ; the unified Squadron then proceeded to the Gulf of Penas , arriving on 21 November . There , they coaled and prepared to make the long voyage around Cape Horn . The British , shocked by their defeat at Coronel , had meanwhile dispatched the powerful battlecruisers HMS Invincible and HMS Inflexible , under the command of Vice Admiral Doveton Sturdee , to hunt down and destroy von Spee 's ships . They departed Britain on 11 November and reached the Falkland Islands on 7 December , having been joined on the way by the armored cruisers Carnarvon , Kent , and Cornwall and the light cruisers Bristol and the battered Glasgow .
= = = Battle of the Falkland Islands = = =
On 26 November , the East Asia Squadron departed the Gulf of Penas , bound for Cape Horn and the Atlantic and reached the Cape on 2 December . While off the Cape , Leipzig took the Canadian sailing ship Drummuir as a prize ; the ship was carrying 2 @,@ 750 t ( 2 @,@ 710 long tons ; 3 @,@ 030 short tons ) of coal , which was transferred to the colliers Baden and Santa Isabel at Picton Island . On the night of 6 December , von Spee held a conference with the ship commanders to discuss his proposed attack on the Falklands ; Fregattenkapitän Haun , the commander of Leipzig , along with the commanders from Gneisenau and Dresden , opposed the plan and favored bypassing the Falklands to wage commerce war off La Plata . Nevertheless , von Spee made the decision to attack the Falklands on the morning of 8 December .
The Germans approached Port Stanley , the capital of the Falklands , early on the morning of 8 December ; the British quickly spotted them , and raised steam to go out and meet them . Von Spee initially thought the smoke clouds to be the British burning their coal stocks to prevent the Germans from seizing them . Upon realizing the presence of the powerful British squadron , he broke off the attack and turned to flee . The British quickly steamed out of the harbor in pursuit . By 12 : 55 , the battlecruisers had caught up to the retreating Germans , and opened fire on Leipzig , the last ship in the German line , though she was not hit . Von Spee ordered the light cruisers to detach and flee while Scharnhorst and Gneisenau turned on their pursuers , in the hope that he could cover their escape . In response , Sturdee sent his cruisers to chase down Nürnberg , Dresden , and Leipzig .
Glasgow pursued Leipzig , and quickly caught up , opening fire by 14 : 40 . After about twenty minutes of firing , Leipzig was hit ; she turned to port to open the range , before turning to starboard in order to bring her full broadside into action . In the ensuing action , both ships were hit several times , forcing Glasgow to break off and fall behind the more powerful armored cruisers . Leipzig was battered severely by Cornwall and Kent and set on fire ; she nevertheless remained in action and continued to fight . In the course of the engagement , Leipzig hit Cornwall eighteen times , causing a significant list to port . She fired three torpedoes at the British ships , but failed to score any hits with them . At 19 : 20 , Haun issued the order to scuttle his wrecked ship ; the British approached and opened fire on the stricken cruiser at close range , killing large numbers of the crew . The British also destroyed a cutter filled with survivors , killing all of them . Leipzig finally capsized and sank at 21 : 05 , with Haun going down with his ship . Only eighteen men were pulled from the freezing water .
= Red panda =
The red panda ( Ailurus fulgens ) , also called the lesser panda , the red bear @-@ cat , and the red cat @-@ bear , is a mammal native to the eastern Himalayas and southwestern China . It has reddish @-@ brown fur , a long , shaggy tail , and a waddling gait due to its shorter front legs , and is slightly larger than a domestic cat . It is arboreal , feeds mainly on bamboo , but also eats eggs , birds , and insects . It is a solitary animal , mainly active from dusk to dawn , and is largely sedentary during the day .
The red panda has been classified as Endangered by the IUCN because its wild population is estimated at less than 10 @,@ 000 mature individuals and continues to decline due to habitat loss and fragmentation , poaching , and inbreeding depression , although red pandas are protected by national laws in their range countries .
The red panda is the only living species of the genus Ailurus and the family Ailuridae . It has been previously placed in the raccoon and bear families , but the results of phylogenetic research provide strong support for its taxonomic classification in its own family Ailuridae , which along with the weasel , raccoon and skunk families is part of the superfamily Musteloidea . Two subspecies are recognized . It is not closely related to the giant panda .
= = Physical characteristics = =
The head and body length of a red panda measures 50 to 64 cm ( 20 to 25 in ) , and its tail is 28 to 59 cm ( 11 to 23 in ) . Males weigh 3 @.@ 7 to 6 @.@ 2 kg ( 8 @.@ 2 to 13 @.@ 7 lb ) and females 3 to 6 @.@ 0 kg ( 6 @.@ 6 to 13 @.@ 2 lb ) . They have long , soft , reddish @-@ brown fur on the upper parts , blackish fur on the lower parts , and a light face with tear markings and robust cranio dental features . The light face has white badges similar to those of a raccoon , but each individual can have distinctive markings . Their roundish heads have medium @-@ sized upright ears , black noses , and very dark eyes - almost pitch black . Their long bushy tails with six alternating yellowish red transverse ochre rings provide balance and excellent camouflage against their habitat of moss- and lichen @-@ covered trees . The legs are black and short with thick fur on the soles of the paws . This fur serves as thermal insulation on snow @-@ covered or icy surfaces and conceals scent glands which are also present on the anus .
The red panda is specialized as a bamboo feeder with strong , curved and sharp semi @-@ retractile claws standing inward for grasping narrow tree branches , leaves , and fruit . Like the giant panda , it has a “ false thumb ” which is an extension of the wrist bone . When descending a tree head @-@ first , the red panda rotates its ankle to control its descent , one of the few climbing species to do so .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The red panda is endemic to the temperate forests of the Himalayas , and ranges from the foothills of western Nepal to China in the east . Its easternmost limit is the Qinling Mountains of the Shaanxi Province in China . Its range includes southern Tibet , Sikkim and Assam in India , Bhutan , the northern mountains of Burma , and in south @-@ western China , in the Hengduan Mountains of Sichuan and the Gongshan Mountains in Yunnan . It may also live in south @-@ west Tibet and northern Arunachal Pradesh , but this has not been documented . Locations with the highest density of red pandas include an area in the Himalayas that has been proposed as having been a refuge for a variety of endemic species in the Pleistocene . The distribution range of the red panda should be considered disjunct , rather than continuous . A disjunct population inhabits the Meghalaya Plateau of north @-@ eastern India .
During a survey in the 1970s , signs of red pandas were found in Nepal 's Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve . Their presence was confirmed in spring 2007 when four red pandas were sighted at elevations ranging from 3 @,@ 220 to 3 @,@ 610 m ( 10 @,@ 560 to 11 @,@ 840 ft ) . The species ' westernmost limit is in Rara National Park located farther west of the Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve . Their presence was confirmed in 2008 .
The red panda lives between 2 @,@ 200 and 4 @,@ 800 m ( 7 @,@ 200 and 15 @,@ 700 ft ) altitude , inhabiting areas of moderate temperature between 10 and 25 ° C ( 50 and 77 ° F ) with little annual change . It prefers mountainous mixed deciduous and conifer forests , especially with old trees and dense understories of bamboo .
The red panda population in Sichuan Province is larger and more stable than the Yunnan population , suggesting a southward expansion from Sichuan into Yunnan in the Holocene .
The red panda has become extirpated from the Chinese provinces of Guizhou , Gansu , Shaanxi , and Qinghai .
= = = Distribution of subspecies = = =
Distribution of the red panda is disjointed , with two extant subspecies :
Western red panda A. f. fulgens ( Cuvier , 1825 ) lives in the western part of its range , in Nepal , Assam , Sikkim , and Bhutan .
Styan 's red panda A. f. styani lives in the east @-@ north @-@ eastern part of its range , in southern China and northern Burma .
A. f. styani has been described by Thomas in 1902 based on one skull from a specimen collected in Sichuan . Pocock distinguished A. f. styani from A. f. fulgens by its longer winter coat and more abundant blackness in the pelage , bigger skull , more strongly curved forehead , and more robust teeth . His description is based on skulls and skins collected in Sichuan , Myitkyina close to the border of Yunnan , and Upper Burma .
The Styan 's red panda is supposedly larger and darker in color than the Western member of the species , but with considerable variation in both subspecies , and some individuals may be brown or yellowish brown rather than red .
The Brahmaputra River is often considered the natural division between the two subspecies , where it makes a curve around the eastern end of the Himalayas , although some authors suggest A. f. fulgens extends farther eastward , into China .
= = Biology and behavior = =
= = = Behavior = = =
The red panda is territorial ; it is solitary except during mating season . The species is generally quiet except for some twittering , tweeting , and whistling communication sounds . It has been reported to be both nocturnal and crepuscular , sleeping on tree branches or in tree hollows during the day and increasing its activity in the late afternoon and early evening hours . It sleeps stretched out on a branch with legs dangling when it is hot , and curled up with its tail over the face when it is cold . This panda is very heat sensitive , with an optimal “ well @-@ being ” temperature between 17 and 25 ° C ( 63 and 77 ° F ) , and cannot tolerate temperatures over 25 ° C ( 77 ° F ) .
Shortly after waking , red pandas clean their fur like a cat , licking their front paws and then rubbing their backs , torsos , and sides . They also rub their backs and bellies along the sides of trees or rocks . Then they patrol their territories , marking with urine and a weak musk @-@ smelling secretion from their anal glands . They search for food running along the ground or through the trees . Red pandas may alternately use their fore paws to bring food to their mouths or place food directly into their mouths .
Predators of the red panda include the snow leopard , martens ( Mustelidae ) , and humans . If they feel threatened or sense danger , they may try to escape by climbing a rock column or tree . If they can no longer flee , they stand on their hind legs to make themselves appear larger and use the sharp claws on their front paws to defend themselves . The red panda Futa became a visitor attraction in Japan for his ability to stand upright for ten seconds at a time .
= = = Diet = = =
Red pandas are excellent climbers , and forage largely in trees . They eat mostly bamboo , and may eat small mammals , birds , eggs , flowers , and berries . In captivity , they were observed to eat birds , flowers , maple and mulberry leaves , and bark and fruits of maple , beech , and mulberry .
Like the giant panda , they cannot digest cellulose , so they must consume a large volume of bamboo to survive . Their diets consist of about two @-@ thirds bamboo , but they also eat mushrooms , roots , acorns , lichens , and grasses . Occasionally , they supplement their diets with fish and insects . They do little more than eat and sleep due to their low @-@ calorie diets .
Bamboo shoots are more easily digested than leaves , exhibiting the highest digestibility in summer and autumn , intermediate digestibility in the spring , and lowest digestibility in the winter . These variations correlate with the nutrient contents in the bamboo . Red pandas process bamboo poorly , especially the cellulose and cell wall components . This implies microbial digestion plays only a minor role in their digestive strategy . To survive on this poor @-@ quality diet , they have to eat the high @-@ quality sections of the bamboo plant , such as the tender leaves and shoots , in large quantities , over 1 @.@ 5 kg ( 3 @.@ 3 lb ) of fresh leaves and 4 kg ( 8 @.@ 8 lb ) of fresh shoots daily . This food passes through the digestive tract fairly rapidly ( about 2 – 4 hr ) so as to maximize nutrient intake . Red pandas can taste artificial sweeteners , such as aspartame , the only nonprimates known to do so .
= = = Reproduction = = =
Red pandas are able to reproduce around 18 months of age , and are fully mature at two to three years . Adults rarely interact in the wild except to mate . Both sexes may mate with more than one partner during the mating season from mid @-@ January to early March . A few days before birth , females begin to collect material , such as brushwood , grass , and leaves , to build a nest , which is normally located in a hollow tree or a rock crevice . After a gestation period of 112 to 158 days , the female gives birth in mid @-@ June to late July to one to four blind and deaf cubs weighing 110 to 130 g ( 3 @.@ 9 to 4 @.@ 6 oz ) each .
After birth , the mother cleans the cubs and can then recognize each by its smell . At first , she spends 60 % to 90 % of her time with the cubs . After the first week , the mother starts spending more time outside the nest , returning every few hours to nurse and groom the cubs . She moves the young frequently among several nests , all of which she keeps clean . The cubs start to open their eyes at about 18 days of age . By about 90 days , they have achieved full adult fur and coloring , and begin to venture out of the nest . They also start eating solid foods at this point , weaning at around six to eight months of age . The cubs stay with their mother until the next litter is born in the following summer . Males rarely help raise the young , and only if they live in pairs or in small groups .
Their average lifespan is between eight and 10 years , but individuals have been known to reach 15 years .
= = Threats = =
The primary threats to red pandas are direct harvest from the wild , live or dead , competition with domestic livestock resulting in habitat degradation , and deforestation resulting in habitat loss or fragmentation . The relative importance of these factors is different in each region , and is not well understood . For instance , in India , the biggest threat seems to be habitat loss followed by poaching , while in China , the biggest threat seems to be hunting and poaching . A 40 % decrease in red panda populations has been reported in China over the last 50 years , and populations in western Himalayan areas are considered to be lower .
Deforestation can inhibit the spread of red pandas and exacerbate the natural population subdivision by topography and ecology , leading to severe fragmentation of the remaining wild population . Fewer than 40 animals in four separate groups share resources with humans in Nepal 's Langtang National Park , where only 6 % of 1 @,@ 710 km2 ( 660 sq mi ) is preferred red panda habitat . Although direct competition for food with domestic livestock is not significant , livestock can depress bamboo growth by trampling .
Small groups of animals with little opportunity for exchange between them face the risk of inbreeding , decreased genetic diversity , and even extinction . In addition , clear @-@ cutting for firewood or agriculture , including hillside terracing , removes old trees that provide maternal dens and decreases the ability of some species of bamboo to regenerate .
In south @-@ west China , red pandas are hunted for their fur , especially for the highly valued bushy tails from which hats are produced . In these areas , the fur is often used for local cultural ceremonies . In weddings , the bridegroom traditionally carries the hide . The " good @-@ luck charm " red panda @-@ tail hats are also used by local newly @-@ weds . This practice may be quite old , as the red panda seems to be depicted in a 13th @-@ century Chinese pen @-@ and @-@ ink scroll showing a hunting scene . Little or no mention of the red panda is made in the culture and folklore of Nepal .
In the past , red pandas were captured and sold to zoos . Angela Glatston reported she had personally handled 350 red pandas in 17 years .
Due to CITES , this number has decreased substantially in recent years , but poaching continues , and red pandas are often sold to private collectors at exorbitant prices . In some parts of Nepal and India , red pandas are kept as pets .
The red panda has a naturally low birth rate ( usually single or twin births per year ) , and a high death rate in the wild .
= = Conservation = =
The red panda is listed in CITES Appendix I. The species has been classified as endangered in the IUCN Red List since 2008 because the global population is estimated at about 10 @,@ 000 individuals , with a decreasing population trend ; only about half of the total area of potential habitat of 142 @,@ 000 km2 ( 55 @,@ 000 sq mi ) is actually being used by the species . Due to their shy and secretive nature , and their largely nocturnal habits , observation of red pandas is difficult . Therefore , population figures in the wild are determined by population density estimates and not direct counts .
Worldwide population estimates range from fewer than 2 @,@ 500 to between 16 @,@ 000 and 20 @,@ 000 individuals . In 1999 , the total population in China was estimated at between 3 @,@ 000 and 7 @,@ 000 individuals . In 2001 , the wild population in India was estimated at between 5 @,@ 000 and 6 @,@ 000 individuals . Estimates for Nepal indicate only a few hundred individuals . No records from Bhutan or Burma exist .
Reliable population numbers are hard to find , partly because other animals have been mistaken for the red panda . For instance , one report from Burma stated that red pandas were still fairly common in some areas , and was accompanied by a photograph of a " red panda " as proof . The photograph in question depicted a species of civet .
The red panda is protected in all range countries , and hunting is illegal . Beyond this , conservation efforts are highly variable between countries :
China has 35 protected areas covering about 42 @.@ 4 % of red panda habitat .
India has 20 protected areas with known or possible red panda populations in Sikkim , Arunachal Pradesh , and West Bengal such as Khangchendzonga National Park , Namdapha National Park , and Singalila National Park , and a coordinated conservation policy for the red panda .
In Nepal , known populations occur in Langtang National Park , Sagarmatha National Park , Makalu Barun National Park , Rara National Park , Annapurna Conservation Area , Kanchenjunga Conservation Area , and in Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve .
Bhutan has five protected areas that support red panda populations .
Burma has 26 protected areas , of which at least one hosts red panda populations .
= = = In situ initiatives = = =
A community @-@ managed forest in Ilam District of eastern Nepal is home to 15 red pandas which generate household income through tourism activities , including home stays . Villagers in the high @-@ altitude areas of Arunachal Pradesh have formed the Pangchen Red Panda Conservation Alliance comprising five villages with a community @-@ conserved forest area of 200 km2 ( 77 sq mi ) at an altitude of 2 @,@ 500 m ( 8 @,@ 200 ft ) to over 4 @,@ 000 m ( 13 @,@ 000 ft ) .
= = = In captivity = = =
The red panda is quite adaptable to living in captivity , and is common in zoos worldwide . By 1992 , more than 300 births had occurred in captivity , and more than 300 individuals lived in 85 institutions worldwide . By 2001 , 182 individuals were in North American zoos alone . As of 2006 , the international studbook listed more than 800 individuals in zoos and parks around the world . Of these , 511 individuals of subspecies A. f. fulgens were kept in 173 institutions and 306 individuals of subspecies A. f. styani were kept in 81 institutions .
The international studbook is currently managed at the Rotterdam Zoo in the Netherlands . In cooperation with the International Red Panda Management Group , they coordinate the Species Survival Plan in North America , the European Endangered Species Programme in Europe , and other captive @-@ breeding programs in Australia , India , Japan , and China . In 2009 , Sarah Glass , curator of red pandas and special exhibits at the Knoxville Zoo in Knoxville , Tennessee , was appointed as coordinator for the North American Red Panda Species Survival Plan . The Knoxville Zoo has the largest number of captive red panda births in the Western Hemisphere ( 101 as of August 2011 ) . Only the Rotterdam Zoo has had more captive births worldwide .
The Padmaja Naidu Himalayan Zoological Park in Darjeeling , India , successfully released four captive @-@ bred red pandas to the wild in August and November 2003 .
Three red panda cubs were born in captivity at Hamilton Zoo in New Zealand in December 2012 , doubling the number held there .
= = As pets = =
The most often cited example of keeping red pandas as pets is by Indira Gandhi . Pandas were presented to Gandhi 's family as a gift and they were then housed in " a special tree house " .
= = Phylogenetics = =
The taxonomic classification of the red panda has been controversial since it was discovered . French zoologist Frédéric Cuvier initially described the red panda in 1825 , and classified it as a close relative of the raccoon ( Procyonidae ) , though he gave it the genus name Ailurus , ( from Ancient Greek αἴλουρος , " cat " ) , based on superficial similarities with domestic cats . The specific epithet is the Latin adjective fulgens , " shining " . At various times , it has been placed in the Procyonidae , Ursidae , with Ailuropoda in the Ailuropodinae ( until this family was moved into the Ursidae ) , and in its own family , the Ailuridae . This uncertainty comes from difficulty in determining whether certain characteristics of Ailurus are phylogenetically conservative or are derived and convergent with species of similar ecological habits .
Evidence based on the fossil record , serology , karyology , behavior , anatomy , and reproduction reflect closer affinities with Procyonidae than Ursidae . However , ecological and foraging specializations and distinct geographical distribution in relation to modern procyonids support classification in the separate family Ailuridae .
Recent molecular systematic DNA research also places the red panda into its own family , Ailuridae , a part of the broad superfamily Musteloidea that also includes the skunk , raccoon , and weasel families .
It is not a bear , nor closely related to the giant panda , nor a raccoon , nor a lineage of uncertain affinities . Rather it is a basal lineage of musteloid , with a long history of independence from its closest relatives ( skunks , raccoons , and otters / weasels / badgers ) .
The two subspecies are A. f. fulgens and A. f. styani . However , the name Ailurus fulgens refulgens is sometimes incorrectly used for A. f. styani . This stems from a lapsus made by Henri Milne @-@ Edwards in his 1874 paper " Recherches pour servir à l 'histoire naturelle des mammifères comprenant des considérations sur la classification de ces animaux " , making A. f. refulgens a nomen nudum . The most recent edition of Mammal Species of the World still shows the subspecies as A. f. refulgens . This has been corrected in more recent works , including A guide to the Mammals of China and Handbook of the Mammals of the World , Volume 1 : Carnivores .
= = = Evolutionary history = = =
The red panda is considered a living fossil and only distantly related to the giant panda ( Ailuropoda melanoleuca ) , as it is naturally more closely related to the other members of the superfamily Musteloidea to which it belongs . The common ancestor of both pandas ( which also was an ancestor for all living bears , pinnipeds -the walrus and seals- and musteloids -raccoons , skunks , weasels , otters ... ) can be traced back to the Early Tertiary period tens of millions of years ago , with a wide distribution across Eurasia .
Fossils of the extinct red panda Parailurus anglicus have been unearthed from China in the east to Britain in the west . In 1977 , a single tooth of Parailurus was discovered in the Pliocene Ringold Formation of Washington . This first North American record is almost identical to European specimens and indicates the immigration of this species from Asia . In 2004 , a tooth from a red panda species never before recorded in North America was discovered at the Gray Fossil Site in Tennessee . The tooth dates from 4 @.@ 5 – 7 million years ago . This species , described as Pristinailurus bristoli , indicates that a second , more primitive ailurine lineage inhabited North America during the Miocene . Cladistic analysis suggests that Parailurus and Ailurus are sister taxa . Additional fossils of Pristinailurus bristoli were discovered at the Gray Fossil Site in 2010 and in 2012 . The frequency with which panda fossils are being found at Gray Fossil Site suggests the species played a large role in the overall ecosystem of the area .
The discovery in Spain of the postcranial remains of Simocyon batalleri , a Miocene relative to the red panda , supports a sister @-@ group relationship between red pandas and bears . The discovery suggests the red panda 's " false thumb " was an adaptation to arboreal locomotion — independent of the giant panda 's adaptation to manipulate bamboo — one of the most dramatic cases of convergent evolution among vertebrates .
= = = Taxonomic history = = =
The first known written record of the red panda occurs in a 13th @-@ century Chinese scroll depicting a hunting scene between hunters and the red panda .
Major General Thomas Hardwicke ’ s 1821 presentation of an article titled " Description of a new Genus of the Class Mammalia , from the Himalaya Chain of Hills Between Nepaul and the Snowy Mountains " at the Linnean Society in London is usually regarded as the moment the red panda became a bona fide species in Western science . Hardwicke proposed the name " wha " and explained : " It is frequently discovered by its loud cry or call , resembling the word ‘ Wha ’ , often repeating the same : hence is derived one of the local names by which it is known . It is also called Chitwa . " Hardwicke 's paper was not published until 1827 , by which time Frédéric Cuvier had published his description and a figure . Hardwicke 's originally proposed taxonomic name was removed from the 1827 publication of his paper with his permission , and naming credit is now given to Cuvier .
Frédéric Cuvier had received the specimen he described from his brother 's stepson , Alfred Duvaucel , who had sent it " from the mountains north of India " . He was the first to use both the binomial name Ailurus fulgens and the vernacular name panda in his description of the species published in 1825 in Histoire naturelle des mammifères . Ailurus is adopted from the ancient Greek word αἴλουρος ( ailouros ) , meaning " cat " . The specific epithet fulgens is Latin for " shining , bright " . Panda is the French name for the Roman goddess of peace and travellers , who was called upon before starting a difficult journey . Whether this is the origin of the French vernacular name panda remains uncertain . Later publications claim the name was adopted from a Himalayan language .
In 1847 , Hodgson described a red panda under the name Ailurus ochraceus , of which Pocock concluded it represents the same type as Ailurus fulgens , since the description of the two agree very closely . He subordinated both types to the Himalayan red panda subspecies Ailurus fulgens fulgens .
= = Local names = =
The red panda 's local names differ from place to place . The Lepcha people call it sak nam . In Nepal , the species is called bhalu biralo ( bear @-@ cat ) and habre . The Sherpa people of Nepal and Sikkim call it ye niglva ponva and wah donka . The word wậː is Sunuwari meaning bear ; in Tamang language , a small , red bear is called tāwām . In the Kanchenjunga region of eastern Nepal , the Limbus know red pandas as kaala , which literally means dark because of their underside pelage ; villagers of Tibetan origin call them hoptongar .
Additionally , Pocock lists the vernacular names ye and nigálya ponya ( Nepal ) ; thokya and thongwa ( Limbu ) ; oakdonga or wakdonka and woker ( Bhotia ) ; saknam sunam ( Lepcha ) . Nigálya may originate from the Nepali word निङालो niṅālo or nĩgālo meaning a particular kind of small bamboo , namely Arundinaria intermedia , but also refers to a kind of small leopard , or cat @-@ bear . The word pónya may originate from the Nepali word पञ ् जा pajā meaning claw , or पौँजा paũjā meaning paw of an animal . Nigálya pónya may translate to bamboo claw or paw .
Nigálya pónya , nyala ponga , and poonya are said to mean eater of bamboo . The name panda could originate from panjā .
In modern Chinese , the red panda is called xiăoxióngmāo ( 小熊猫 / 小熊貓 , lesser or small panda ) , or 红熊猫 / 紅熊貓 ( hóngxióngmāo , red panda ) . In contrast , the giant panda is called dàxióngmāo ( 大熊猫 / 大熊貓 , giant or big panda ) , or simply xióngmāo ( 熊猫 / 熊貓 , panda , literally bear @-@ cat ) .
In English , the red panda is also called lesser panda , though " red " is generally preferred . Many other languages also use red or variations of shining / gold or lesser / small in their names for this species . For instance , червена панда in Bulgarian , panda roux in French , and panda rojo in Spanish all mean red panda . Since at least as far back as 1855 , one of its French names has been panda éclatant ( shining panda ) . In Finnish , it is called kultapanda ( gold panda ) . Variations of lesser panda occur in French petit panda ( small panda ) , Spanish panda menor ( lesser panda ) , Dutch kleine panda ( small panda ) , Russian малая панда ( malaya panda , " small panda " ) , Korean 애기판다 ( aeki panda , " baby panda " ) , and Japanese レッサーパンダ ( ressā panda , a transliteration of English " lesser panda " ) .
Other names attributed to this species include fire cat , bright panda , and common panda .
= = Cultural depictions = =
The red panda was recognized as the state animal of Sikkim in the early 1990s , and was the mascot of the Darjeeling Tea Festival .
In 2005 , Babu , a male red panda at Birmingham Nature Centre in Birmingham , England , escaped and briefly became a media celebrity , before being recaptured . He was subsequently voted " Brummie of the Year " , the first animal to receive this honor . Rusty , a male red panda at the National Zoo in Washington , DC , similarly attracted media attention when he briefly escaped in 2013 .
The name of the Firefox web browser is said to have been derived from a nickname of the red panda .
An anthropomorphic red panda was featured as Master Shifu , the Kung Fu teacher , in the 2008 film Kung Fu Panda , and its sequels Kung Fu Panda 2 in 2011 and Kung Fu Panda 3 in 2016 . Some comments on the original film showed a lack of awareness about the red panda in the U.S. at the time it was released . Although most of the reviewers got the species correct , some nevertheless mistook it for a tiny wolf , a rodent , and a lemur . In an interview , Dustin Hoffman also indicated he did not know much about the animal when he first agreed to voice the character . The red panda Futa inspired the character of Pabu , the so @-@ called " fire ferret " animal companion ( primarily of Bolin ) , in the U.S. animated TV series The Legend of Korra .
= The Judy Garland Show =
The Judy Garland Show was an American musical variety television series that aired on CBS on Sunday nights during the 1963 @-@ 1964 television season . Despite a sometimes stormy relationship with Judy Garland , CBS had found success with several television specials featuring the star . Garland , who for years had been reluctant to commit to a weekly series , saw the show as her best chance to pull herself out of severe financial difficulties .
Production difficulties beset the series almost from the beginning . The series had three different producers in the course of its 26 episodes and went through a number of other key personnel changes . With the change in producers also came changes to the show 's format , which started as comedy / variety but switched to an almost purely concert format .
While Garland herself was popular with critics , the initial variety format and her co @-@ star , Jerry Van Dyke , were not . The show competed with Bonanza , then the fourth most popular program on television , and consistently performed poorly in the ratings . Although fans rallied in an attempt to save the show , CBS cancelled it after a single season .
TV Guide included the series in their 2013 list of 60 shows that were " Cancelled Too Soon " .
= = Garland and CBS = =
Garland 's history with CBS prior to the series was a checkered one . She had previously headlined several specials for the network . The first was the inaugural episode of the Ford Star Jubilee which aired in 1955 . The special , the first full @-@ scale color telecast on CBS , was a ratings triumph , garnering a 34 @.@ 8 Nielsen rating . This success led to Garland 's signing a three @-@ year , $ 300 @,@ 000 contract with the network . Only a single special aired , a live General Electric Theater episode in 1956 , before the pact was terminated . The relationship between CBS and Garland and her then @-@ husband and manager , Sid Luft , dissolved in acrimony in 1957 after they and agent Freddie Fields were unable to come to terms with the network over the format of her next special . Garland filed a US $ 1 @.@ 4 million lawsuit against CBS for libel and breach of contract ( CBS filed a counterclaim ) that was not settled until 1961 , when Garland and CBS each agreed to drop their claims and negotiations began for a new round of Garland specials for the network .
The first of two specials under this new relationship aired in February 1962 and was entitled The Judy Garland Show . This special , guest starring Frank Sinatra and Dean Martin , was nominated for four Emmy awards . Garland signed the deal for the weekly series in December 1962 . Garland 's final special was the awkwardly @-@ titled Judy Garland and Her Guests Phil Silvers and Robert Goulet , presented in March 1963 . Alternately promoted as a preview and a pilot for Garland 's upcoming regular series , this special too was nominated for an Emmy .
= = Production = =
Judy Garland 's four @-@ year contract for the series called for 26 weekly shows , for which Garland 's corporation , Kingsrow Enterprises , would be paid $ 140 @,@ 000 per episode . Of that Garland was guaranteed between $ 25 @,@ 000 and $ 30 @,@ 000 per show . Kingsrow Enterprises would also retain ownership of the tapes , allowing Garland to sell the series into syndication . Although Garland had said as early as 1955 that she would never do a weekly television series , in the early 1960s she was in a financially precarious situation . Garland was several hundred thousand dollars in debt to the Internal Revenue Service , having failed to pay taxes in 1951 and 1952 , and the commercial disappointment of the film A Star is Born meant that her share of any profits from that film would be eaten up immediately . A successful run on television would secure Garland 's financial future .
= = = The George Schlatter episodes ( Episodes 1 @-@ 5 ) = = =
The Judy Garland Show was initially slated to be taped in New York City . The network initially offered the producer 's job to Bob Banner , who was at the time producing a series for Garry Moore . Although he was interested , he declined to relocate from the West Coast . Bob Finkel , whose credits included shows for Dinah Shore and Andy Williams , was next approached but similarly refused to relocate . Veteran producer and director Bill Hobin , then heading up Sing Along with Mitch , was approached to produce and direct the program . Already based in the East , Hobin eagerly accepted . Unbeknownst to Hobin , George Schlatter had been lobbying on the West Coast for the producer job and was signed to produce . Ultimately Hobin bowed out of the producer slot and Schlatter became the producer while Hobin was retained to direct .
With the producer question settled , Schlatter set about assembling the crew for the series . Mort Lindsey was hired to conduct the show 's orchestra . Gary Smith , who had designed the earlier Sinatra / Martin special , was signed as art director . Multiple Academy Award @-@ winner Edith Head was engaged to design Garland 's costumes while Ray Agyahan , who Schlatter knew from their work together with Dinah Shore , was hired to costume Garland 's guests . Mel Tormé was brought on as musical arranger and to write special musical material and would also appear as a guest on the program . Choreography duties were taken by Danny Daniels . Comedian Jerry Van Dyke was engaged as a series regular .
In addition to musical performances from Garland and the week 's guest stars , the series ' initial format included the recurring segments " Born in a Trunk " ( the name taken from a number in A Star is Born ) in which Garland would tell stories of her show business career and sing a related song , and " Tea for Two " which would feature her chatting with a surprise guest . Van Dyke would perform comedy sketches , sometimes with Garland or the guests . Garland would close each episode by singing the song " Maybe I 'll Come Back . " The obscure novelty song , selected by Garland and Schlatter over CBS 's objections ( the network wanted a few bars of Over the Rainbow ) , included the line " And President Coolidge is a cousin of mine . " Garland as a running gag would substitute a different name for Coolidge 's each week .
Although initially planned for an East Coast shoot , The Judy Garland Show was taped in Studio 43 at CBS Television City in Los Angeles . The network had gone to great expense to prepare the studio , including an estimated $ 100 @,@ 000 to raise the stage and install a separate revolving stage . Garland 's dressing room was a 110 ft × 40 ft trailer which had been decorated as a replica of her newly purchased Brentwood home . The corridor that led from her dressing room to the stage was painted to resemble the Yellow Brick Road from The Wizard of Oz .
The first taping commenced on June 24 , 1963 . Garland 's old friend and frequent MGM co @-@ star Mickey Rooney was , at Garland 's insistence , her first guest — although , because the network elected to air the series out of production order , this was actually the tenth episode to be broadcast .
= = = The Norman Jewison episodes ( Episodes 6 @-@ 13 ) = = =
On August 2 , after six weeks of taping and five completed shows , Schlatter was fired as producer by James Aubrey , Jr . , president of CBS . Production was suspended for five weeks . But according to Mel Tormé in his book The Other Side of the Rainbow , Garland was the one who fired Schlatter . Also fired were several of the writing staff and choreographer Danny Daniels . Replacing Schlatter as executive producer was Norman Jewison , who shared a vision for the series that was closer to that of Aubrey 's . That vision was that Garland was too glamorous for television and that she needed her series to present her in a more conventional light . Veteran musical variety show writers John Aylesworth and Frank Peppiatt were brought in as well . Jewison , who had agreed to serve as producer through the thirteenth episode , implemented changes designed to " make the sacred cow less sacred , " including Garland 's subjection to Van Dyke 's jokes that denigrated her issues with her weight , her reputation for unreliability and her career highs and lows . Jewison also introduced a new recurring feature , " Be My Guest , " with Tormé 's writing tailored material for the week 's guest to perform with Garland near the top of each show .
The Judy Garland Show premiered on September 29 , during Jewison 's run as producer . The episode chosen to be the premiere was Jewison 's second completed episode , the seventh produced episode overall . Reviews were generally favorable ( see below ) , though Jerry Van Dyke 's supporting role was heavily criticized ; Van Dyke was let go from the cast after the tenth produced episode . Jewison himself left after episode thirteen , as he had intended .
= = = The Bill Colleran episodes ( Episodes 14 @-@ 26 ) = = =
After Jewison , Bill Colleran joined the show as Garland 's selection for its third executive producer . Colleran revamped the format yet again , doing away with the insulting humor and focusing the show more on Garland and her singing , although there were still comedy elements in Colleran 's initial episodes with guests such as Bob Newhart and Shelley Berman . As well , Ken Murray was briefly featured as a regular , showing his home movies of Hollywood stars , but was dropped after four episodes .
Ratings continued to be poor , and CBS announced the cancellation of The Judy Garland Show on January 22 , 1964 . Officially , it was reported that it was Garland who exited the series , as explained in a letter released by CBS , supposedly from Garland to Aubrey advising him that she wanted to spend more time caring for her children .
Despite The Judy Garland Show 's announced cancellation , it was allowed to finish out the 1963 / 64 season , and continued to tape episodes for broadcast . The final seven episodes taped after the cancellation notice jettisoned any pretense of sustaining a comedy / variety element , and simply presented Judy Garland " In Concert " — sometimes solo for the entire episode , sometimes with musical guests such as Lena Horne , Diahann Carroll or Mel Tormé .
During these final episodes , following Show 22 specifically , Tormé was fired and was replaced by Bobby Cole , a musician Garland had met recently in New York . Tormé would later file suit for breach of contract and write a tell @-@ all book about the series , The Other Side of the Rainbow : With Judy Garland on the Dawn Patrol .
= = On the air = =
The first episode of The Judy Garland Show aired on September 29 , 1963 . The show , featuring guest star Donald O 'Connor , was the seventh one taped . Episodes would continue to be shown out of sequence throughout the series ' run . The show scored an 18 @.@ 7 rating and reviews were largely positive . Variety wrote " If Judy Garland ... is of a mind to work every week with the same dedication and zeal that characterized her premiere this week , Bill Paley and his associates should be in clover . ... Miss Garland was in fine fettle . " The San Francisco Chronicle characterized the show as " tasteful , elegant and exciting . " Not every review was as glowing , with the New York Herald Tribune noting " Miss Garland is fine , just fine . The rest of the show , however , needs help . " Other negative reviews were in a similar vein , focusing on Van Dyke in particular and the show 's format and writing in general .
CBS publicly responded to the critiques by issuing a statement through talent chief Michael Dann . " We have decided that [ Judy ] should never appear in sketches and never play any character but herself . And she 'll be singing more songs , more medleys , more standards . Songs are her babies . We told her what we think and she 's listening . She 's far too insecure about television to exercise her own judgment . She knows what 's good for her . "
Behind the scenes , however , the network continued to tinker with the show . In addition to the replacement of key production staff and constantly revising the format , Garland was also summoned to New York to receive such bits of information as she was touching her guests too much and was instructed to stop . As well , Van Dyke was let go almost immediately after the reviews came out , taping his last show on October 11 .
Nevertheless , numerous episodes featuring Van Dyke had already completed taping and would continue to air , meaning that the changes in the show 's format would not be apparent to viewers for several weeks . Accordingly , reviews about the show 's format ( as opposed to Garland 's singing ) continued to be negative , as the Garland @-@ deprecating humor continued to attract criticism rather than viewers . Saturday Evening Post reviewer Richard Warren Lewis wrote , " The absurd notion of debasing Judy 's reputation as a legendary figure and molding her show into an imitation of other prosaic variety shows has been a disaster where it hurts most , in the audience @-@ rating polls . " Indeed , Garland 's show was averaging an 18 rating , about half of the audience represented by Bonanza and its 35 rating .
After the departure of Jewison as producer and of Jerry Van Dyke ( whose exit from the show was lauded by one contemporary reviewer as " a marvelous idea but it came too late " ) the focus of the show changed yet again to emphasize Garland 's performances , singly and with guests . This format , including several " Judy Garland in Concert " solo episodes , would remain more or less intact for the remainder of the series . Despite continuing positive critical comment about Garland 's performances , the ratings remained flat . Fans of the show formed a " Save The Judy Garland Show committee " and organized an early letter @-@ writing campaign on behalf of the series but their efforts were not enough to spare the show from cancellation . The final Judy Garland Show , another concert episode , was broadcast on March 29 , 1964 .
= = Episode list = =
= Evergreen ( Echo & the Bunnymen album ) =
Evergreen is the seventh studio album by the English rock band Echo & the Bunnymen . It is their first album since reforming after they disbanded in 1993 . Vocalist Ian McCulloch and guitarist Will Sergeant had previously worked together as Electrafixion before they were rejoined by bassist Les Pattinson under the name Echo & the Bunnymen in early 1997 . The album was recorded at Doghouse Studios in Henley @-@ on @-@ Thames and was produced by McCulloch and the band 's manager Paul Toogood but was credited to the whole band .
Following a successful return to live performances and the release of the single " Nothing Lasts Forever " , the album was released in July 1997 . Two further singles – " I Want to Be There " and " Don 't Let It Get You Down " – followed the album 's release . The album received good reviews from the music press and was received well by the public , reaching number eight on the UK Albums Chart .
= = Background = =
After leaving Echo & the Bunnymen in 1988 to pursue a solo career , vocalist Ian McCulloch released two albums that were not commercial successes . Despite McCulloch 's departure and drummer Pete de Freitas 's death , guitarist Will Sergeant and bassist Les Pattinson decided to recruit three new members – Noel Burke ( vocals ) , Jake Brockman ( keyboards ) and Damon Reece ( drums ) – and continue with the same band name , which angered McCulloch . The Bunnymen released one further album , Reverberation ( 1990 ) , which critics and fans alike received poorly . WEA Records subsequently dropped the group , who went on to break @-@ up in early 1993 .
McCulloch met former Smiths guitarist Johnny Marr in 1993 and they wrote and recorded an album , tentatively titled Touch Down . The album was to be released in early 1994 ; however , despite McCulloch and Marr being happy with the album , Rob Dickins at WEA felt it was missing some element . Dickins suggested to McCulloch that Sergeant be brought in to do some work . McCulloch was initially sceptical because he had not spoken with Sergeant since de Freitas 's funeral ; however , he did give the idea some thought . Before McCulloch had chance to contact Sergeant , a mutual friend persuaded the pair to meet socially . While McCulloch and Sergeant were being reacquainted , the tapes from the McCulloch and Marr sessions disappeared . McCulloch was not upset about this as he and Sergeant had started working together as Electrafixion .
With McCulloch influenced by American alternative rock bands such as Nirvana and The Smashing Pumpkins , the group employed a heavier sound than Echo & the Bunnymen 's previous work . After successfully touring the United Kingdom and refusing to play any Echo & the Bunnymen material , Electrafixion released their only album , Burned , in September 1995 . Despite critics giving the album good reviews , sales of it and the follow @-@ up singles were disappointing . After embarking on a tour of the United States in 1996 , Electrafixion eventually gave in to fan pressure and began to introduce Echo & the Bunnymen material to their live set . Sergeant felt that as the band were playing Echo & the Bunnymen songs , they might as well reform Echo & the Bunnymen ; however , McCulloch was initially opposed to the idea . McCulloch changed his mind and , having persuaded Pattinson to come out of retirement , Echo & the Bunnymen was reformed in mid @-@ 1996 . McCulloch felt Echo & the Bunnymen could not reform without Pattinson and described the bassist 's involvement as " integral " . McCulloch went on to say it was important to " feel like the original group " . He has also said , " Right from the first demo [ of Evergreen ] we realised that we 'd still got that chemistry . "
= = Recording and packaging = =
The recording of Evergreen started at the beginning of 1997 when Echo & the Bunnymen entered Doghouse Studios in Henley @-@ on @-@ Thames . The production of the album was undertaken by McCulloch and Paul Toogood , the band 's new manager , although it was credited to the band in the liner notes to the album . With Oasis in the next studio , Liam Gallagher contributed backing vocals to the track " Nothing Lasts Forever " . McCulloch said , " We just hit it off right away , and after a few beers he ended up singing on the record . " McCulloch also said that Gallagher " insisted we put tambourine on [ ' Nothing Lasts Forever ' ] " which " took [ it ] to another level " . Adam Peters , who had previously worked on the band 's 1984 album Ocean Rain , was brought in to provide string arrangements for the album . Using musicians from the London Metropolitan Orchestra , Peters recorded string passages for seven tracks from the album at Abbey Road Studios in London . With Clif Norrell , who had previously worked with R.E.M. , finishing the mixing of the album , the recording was completed by the end of March 1997 .
The photograph used on the front cover of the album was shot by Norman Watson , who also directed the videos for two of the singles from the album – " Nothing Lasts Forever " , which was to become the lead single from the album , and " I Want to Be There " . The cover was shot in Marrakech in early May 1997 and echoes the cover of the band 's 1980 debut album Crocodiles . The cover picture shows the band against a backdrop of trees at night . However , in place of the band 's former drummer de Freitas , who died in a motorcycle accident , the photograph shows the remaining band members with a car .
= = Releases and reception = =
The live debut of " Nothing Lasts Forever " was at the Cream nightclub in Liverpool in early May 1997 at Echo & the Bunnymen 's first concert since reforming . This was followed by two sold @-@ out concerts at the Mercury Lounge in New York and a number of festival appearances in the US , UK and Europe before Evergreen was released on 14 July 1997 by London Records . A limited edition version containing a bonus disc titled History of the Peel Sessions 1979 – 1997 was released at the same time . The bonus disc contains tracks that were recorded live for John Peel 's show on BBC Radio 1 between 1979 and 1997 . Following the album , two more singles were released – " I Want to Be There ( When You Come ) " in September 1997 and " Don 't Let It Get You Down " in November 1979 . The album was reissued in 1999 with the addition of four live tracks .
Reviewing Evergreen for Allmusic , Ned Raggett described it as " an attractive piece of work " when it " shines at its best " . Although he noted , " Replacement drummer Michael Lee fills in [ for de Freitas ] adequately but not completely , rendering what was a special group something less so . " The reviewer for British music magazine Melody Maker , called the album a " triumph " for fans as well as acknowledging that the album was unlikely to impress people who were not familiar with their work . The album was described in Rolling Stone magazine as " a stunning comeback " . Jeremy Helligar for Entertainment Weekly was not as keen and described the reunion as having " the feel of a non @-@ event " .
Evergreen became Echo & the Bunnymen 's fifth album to make the Top 10 of the UK Albums Chart when it reached number eight during its first week of release and stayed on the chart for seven weeks . " Nothing Lasts Forever " reached number eight on the UK Singles Chart , although the follow @-@ up singles " I Want to Be There ( When You Come ) " and " Don 't Let It Get You Down " fared less well reaching numbers thirty and fifty respectively .
= = Track listing = =
All tracks written by Echo & the Bunnymen .
= = Personnel = =
Ian McCulloch – vocals , guitar , piano
Will Sergeant – guitar
Les Pattinson – bass
Adam Peters – keyboards , arrangement ( strings ) , conductor ( strings )
Michael Lee – drums
Ed Shearmur – piano on " Nothing Lasts Forever "
London Metropolitan Orchestra – strings
Echo & the Bunnymen – producer
Marak Phythian – engineer
Cenzo Townsend – engineer
Markus Butler – assistant engineer
Clif Norrell – mixing
Richard Woodcraft – mixing assistant
Don C. Tyler – digital editing
Stephen Marcussen – mastering
Guy Massey – recording ( strings )
Alex Scannell – recording assistant ( strings )
Norman Watson – photography
= Hull City A.F.C. =
Hull City Association Football Club ( / ˈhʌl ˈsɪti / ) is a professional association football club based in Hull , East Riding of Yorkshire , England . It was founded in 1904 . The club participates in the Premier League , the top tier of English football – and their greatest achievement in cup competitions came in 2014 , when the team reached the final of the FA Cup . In 2007 – 08 they achieved promotion to the top flight of English football for the first time in their history by winning the Championship play @-@ off final at Wembley Stadium . Their highest league finish was for the 2013 – 14 season , in which they finished 16th in the Premier League table .
Hull City play their home games at the KCOM Stadium . They previously played at Boothferry Park and moved to their current home in 2002 . Boothferry Park has been demolished and has been replaced by a housing development . They traditionally play in black and amber , often with a striped shirt design , hence their nickname The Tigers . The club 's mascots are Roary the Tiger and his sister Amber .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
Hull City Association Football Club was founded in June 1904 ; previous attempts to found a football club had proved difficult because of the dominance in the city of rugby league teams such as Hull F.C. and Hull Kingston Rovers . The club was unable to apply for membership of the Football League for the 1904 – 05 season and instead played only in friendlies , the first of which was a 2 – 2 draw with Notts County on 1 September 1904 with 6 @,@ 000 in attendance . These early matches were played at the Boulevard , the home of Hull F.C. The club 's first competitive football match was in the FA Cup preliminary round , drawing 3 – 3 with Stockton on 17 September , but they were eliminated after losing the replay 4 – 1 on 22 September . After disputes with landlords at the Boulevard , Hull City moved to Anlaby Road Cricket Ground . After having played 44 friendly fixtures the previous season , Hull City were finally admitted into the Football League Second Division for the 1905 – 06 season . Other teams competing in the league that season included the likes of Manchester United and Chelsea , as well as Yorkshire rivals Barnsley , Bradford City and Leeds City . Hull defeated Barnsley 4 – 1 at home in their first game and finished the season in fifth place .
Hull City and Grimsby Town were the only two professional teams which had official permission to play league football on Christmas Day because of the demands of the fish trade , but that tradition has now disappeared following the dramatic reduction of their trawler fleets in recent years . The following season a new ground was built for Hull City across the road from the cricket ground . Still under the managership of Ambrose Langley , Hull continued to finish consistently in the top half of the table . They came close to promotion in the 1909 – 10 season , recording what would be their highest finish until they matched it in 2008 . Hull finished third , level on points with second placed Oldham Athletic , missing promotion on goal average by 0 @.@ 29 of a goal . Hull regularly finished in the top half of the table before the First World War , but after the war the team finished in the bottom half in seven seasons out of eleven , culminating in relegation to the Third Division North in 1930 .
= = = Mid @-@ 20th century = = =
Hull 's greatest achievement in cup competitions until 2014 was in 1930 , when they reached the FA Cup semi @-@ finals . The cup run saw Hull knock out the eventual champions of the Second and Third Divisions ; Blackpool and Plymouth Argyle respectively . They then knocked out Manchester City , to meet Newcastle United in the quarter @-@ finals . The first game at St James ' Park finished as a 1 – 1 draw , but in the replay Hull beat Newcastle 1 – 0 . The semi @-@ final match against Arsenal took place at Elland Road in Leeds , the game ended 2 – 2 , and was taken to a replay in Birmingham . Arsenal knocked Hull out at Villa Park , the game ending 1 – 0 .
After the Second World War , the club moved to another new ground , Boothferry Park . In the 1948 – 49 season , managed by former England international Raich Carter , Hull won the Third Division North championship . " Yo @-@ yoing " between the second and third tiers of English football , Hull City had promotion seasons from the Third to the Second Division again in 1959 and 1966 , winning the Third Division in the latter season . Hull also became the first team in the world to go out of a cup competition on penalties , beaten by Manchester United in the semi @-@ final of the Watney Cup on 1 August 1970 . By the early 1980s , Hull City were in the Fourth Division , and financial collapse led to receivership .
Don Robinson took over as chairman and appointed Colin Appleton as the new manager . Both had previously held the equivalent roles with non @-@ league Scarborough . Promotion to Division Three followed in 1983 , with a young team featuring the likes of future England international Brian Marwood , future England manager Steve McClaren , centre @-@ forward Billy Whitehurst , and the prolific goal @-@ scorer Les Mutrie . When Hull City missed out on promotion by one goal the following season , Appleton left to manage Swansea City .
= = = Decline in the late 20th century = = =
Hull reached the Second Division in 1985 under player @-@ manager Brian Horton . They remained there for the next six years before finally going down in 1991 , by which time the club 's manager was Terry Dolan . Hull finished 14th in the Third Division in the 1991 – 92 season , meaning that they would be competing in the new Second Division the following season . In their first season in the rebranded division , Hull narrowly avoided another relegation , but the board kept faith in Dolan and over the next two seasons they achieved mid @-@ table finishes . Financial difficulties hampered City 's progress , as key players such as Alan Fettis and Dean Windass had to be sold to fend off winding @-@ up orders . In the 1995 – 96 season Hull were relegated to the Third Division .
In 1997 the club was purchased by former tennis player David Lloyd , who sacked Dolan as manager and replaced him with Mark Hateley after Hull could only finish in 17th place in the table . Hull 's league form was steadily deteriorating to the point that relegation to the Football Conference was looking a real possibility . Lloyd sold the club in November 1998 to a South Yorkshire @-@ based consortium , but retained ownership of Boothferry Park . Hateley departed in November 1998 , with the club at the foot of the table . He was replaced by 34 @-@ year @-@ old veteran player Warren Joyce , who steered the club to safety with games to spare . Hull City fans refer to this season as " The Great Escape " . Despite this feat , Joyce was replaced in April 2000 by the more experienced Brian Little .
Despite briefly being locked out of Boothferry Park by bailiffs and facing the possibility of liquidation , Hull qualified for the Third Division play @-@ offs in the 2000 – 01 season , losing in the semi @-@ finals to Leyton Orient . A boardroom takeover by former Leeds United commercial director Adam Pearson had eased the club 's precarious financial situation and all fears of closure were banished .
= = = 21st century resurgence = = =
The new chairman ploughed funds into the club , allowing Little to rebuild the team . Hull occupied the Third Division promotion and play @-@ off places for much of the 2001 – 02 season , but Little departed two months before the end of the season and Hull slipped to 11th place under his successor Jan Mølby .
Hull began the 2002 – 03 season with a number of defeats , which saw relegation look more likely than promotion , and Mølby was sacked in October as Hull languished fifth from bottom in the league . Peter Taylor was named as Hull 's new manager and in December 2002 , just two months after his appointment , Hull relocated to the new 25 @,@ 400 @-@ seater KC Stadium after 56 years at Boothferry Park . At the end of the season Hull finished 13th .
Hull were Third Division runners @-@ up in 2003 – 04 and League One runners @-@ up in 2004 – 05 ; these back @-@ to @-@ back promotions took them into the Championship , the second tier of English football . The 2005 – 06 season , the club 's first back in the second tier , saw Hull finish in 18th place , 10 points clear of relegation and their highest league finish for 16 years .
However , Taylor left the club to take up the manager 's job at Crystal Palace and Colchester United 's Phil Parkinson was confirmed as his replacement , but was sacked on 4 December 2006 with Hull in the relegation zone , despite having spent over £ 2 million on players during the summer . Phil Brown took over as caretaker manager , and took over permanently in January 2007 , having taken Hull out of the relegation zone . Brown brought veteran striker Dean Windass back to his hometown club on loan from Bradford City , and his eight goals helped secure Hull 's Championship status as they finished in 21st place .
Adam Pearson sold the club to a consortium led by Paul Duffen in June 2007 , stating that he " had taken the club as far as I could " , and would have to relinquish control in order to attract " really significant finance into the club " . Under Paul Duffen and manager Phil Brown , Hull City improved greatly on their relegation battle of 2006 – 07 and qualified for the play @-@ offs after finishing the season in third place . They beat Watford 6 – 1 on aggregate in the semi @-@ finals and played Bristol City in the Final on 24 May 2008 , which Hull won 1 – 0 at Wembley Stadium , with Hull native Dean Windass scoring the winning goal . Their ascent from the bottom division of the Football League to the top division of English football in just five seasons is the third @-@ fastest ever .
Despite being one of the favourites for relegation in the 2008 – 09 season , Hull began life in the Premier League by beating Fulham 2 – 1 on the opening day in their first ever top flight fixture . With only one defeat in their opening nine games , including away wins at Arsenal and Tottenham Hotspur , Hull City found themselves ( temporarily ) joint @-@ top of the Premier League table on points ( third on goal difference ) , following a 3 – 0 victory over West Bromwich Albion — ten years previously , they had been bottom of the fourth tier of English football . Hull 's form never replicated the highs of the early autumn , with the team winning only two more games over the remainder of the season , but secured their top @-@ flight status on the last day of the season due to other results .
On 29 October 2009 , chairman Paul Duffen resigned his position with the club , and was replaced by former chairman Adam Pearson on 2 November 2009 . On 15 March 2010 , manager Phil Brown was put on gardening leave after a run of four defeats left Hull in the relegation zone . Brown 's replacement was former Crystal Palace and Charlton boss Iain Dowie , and the appointment was met with some disbelief by supporters who were hoping for a " bigger name " replacement . Hull City 's relegation from the Premier League was confirmed on 3 May 2010 , after a 2 – 2 draw at Wigan Athletic . Both Brown and Dowie had their contracts terminated , and Leicester City 's Nigel Pearson was confirmed as the new manager .
A reported block on player transfers into the club , set in place by the Hull City board on 28 July 2010 until transfers out would substantially reduce the £ 39 million @-@ per @-@ year wage bill , at first cast doubt on the new manager 's efforts to build a squad capable of a quick return to the Premier League ; nevertheless , Pearson brought several transfers and loan signings into the club in his bid to strengthen the squad for the season 's campaign . The team set a new club record on 12 March 2011 with 14 away matches unbeaten , breaking a previous record held for over 50 years . This 17 @-@ match streak was finally broken by Bristol City on the last day of the 2010 – 11 season , Hull losing the match 3 – 0 .
On 15 November 2011 , Nigel Pearson left the club to return to Leicester . Nick Barmby was appointed as his successor , but was sacked in May 2012 after publicly criticising the club 's owners in an interview given to a local newspaper . In the same month , the club 's consultancy agreement with Adam Pearson was terminated . On 8 June 2012 , Steve Bruce was appointed manager of the club on a three @-@ year deal , and he guided Hull back to the Premier League by drawing with League champions Cardiff City on the final day of the season .
On 13 April 2014 , the club reached its first FA Cup Final after defeating Sheffield United 5 – 3 in the semi @-@ final at Wembley Stadium . Their place in the 2014 – 15 UEFA Europa League , regardless of whether they won the 2013 – 14 FA Cup , was confirmed on 3 May as Everton 's failure to win meant that Hull 's FA Cup Final opponents Arsenal would compete in the 2014 – 15 UEFA Champions League . Hull City will enter in the third qualifying round , in their first ever European campaign . The FA Cup final on 17 May saw Hull go 2 – 0 up within the first ten minutes , before losing 3 – 2 after extra time .
On 31 July 2014 , Hull made their debut in European competition , in the UEFA Europa League third qualifying round , with a 0 – 0 draw against Slovakian side FK AS Trenčín before winning the second leg 2 – 1 a week later . An error from keeper Allan McGregor gave them a 1 – 0 loss away to Belgian outfit Lokeren in the first leg of their play @-@ off tie on 21 August 2014 with the second leg in East Riding of Yorkshire ending in a 2 – 1 victory , but away goals marked the end of Hull 's first foray into European football .
In March 2015 Steve Bruce signed a further three @-@ year deal with the club . Hull were relegated from the Premier League after the 2014 – 15 season , finishing eighteenth with 35 points after a 0 – 0 draw against Manchester United , along with Newcastle United securing their Premier League Status after beating West Ham United 2 – 0 . In October 2015 Hull beat Leicester City in a penalty @-@ shootout to take them through to their first ever quarter @-@ final appearance in the Football League Cup .
= = Name change = =
= = = 2013 : Initial application = = =
In August 2013 , owner Assem Allam announced that the club has re @-@ registered as " Hull City Tigers Ltd , " and that the team would be marketed as " Hull City Tigers , " removing the " Association Football Club " that had been part of the name since the club 's formation in 1904 . Vice @-@ chairman Ehab Allam said " AFC " would remain on the club badge for the 2013 – 14 season , but removed thereafter .
In response , a Premier League spokesman said , " We have not been informed of a change in the name of the actual club . They will still be known as Hull City as far as the Premier League is concerned when results or fixtures are published . "
According to its Chairman , by 2014 , the club would be further renamed " Hull Tigers , " because , as he claimed , " in marketing , the shorter the name the more powerful [ it is ] , " while " Association Football Club " made the name too long . Allam stated he dislikes the word " City " , as it is too " common " and a " lousy identity " , since it is associated also with other clubs , such as Leicester City , Bristol City and Manchester City . He told David Conn of The Guardian that " in a few years many clubs will follow and change their names to something more interesting and I will have proved I am a leader , " adding that if he were the owner of Manchester City , he would change their name to " Manchester Hunter . "
Allam justified the intended name change as part of his plans to create " additional sources of revenue " for the club , after Hull City Council refused to sell him the stadium freehold so he could develop , as he had stated , " a sports park " on the site . The council has refused to sell in order , as they stated , " to preserve the annual Hull Fair held on the adjacent car park . " After the collapse of the negotiations , Allam stated : " I had in mind £ 30 million to spend on the infrastructure of the club , to increase the stadium by 10 @,@ 000 and to have commercial activities around the stadium — cafeterias , shops , supermarkets — to have all this to create income for the club so that in the future it can be self @-@ financing and not relying on me . " He asked rhetorically , " What if I dropped dead tomorrow ? "
Supporters ' groups expressed opposition to the name change . Bernard Noble , chairman of Hull City 's official supporters club said he was disappointed , although he agreed that Allam had saved the club from liquidation and that it was " his club " . Blogger Rick Skelton called the name change " a pointless exercise " and said , " Mr Allam 's assertion that the name ' Hull City ' is irrelevant and too common , is as disgusting a use of the English language as his new name for the club . " Before the first home match of the season on 24 August 2013 , a group of supporters marched in protest against the name change , and unfurled a banner that read , " Hull City AFC : a club not a brand " . Allam dismissed complaints by the fans , stating " nobody questions my decisions in my business . "
In a comment published on 1 December 2013 in The Independent in response to supporters ' chants and banners of " City Till ( sic ) We Die " , Allam said , " They can die as soon as they want , as long as they leave the club for the majority who just want to watch good football . " The supporters responded with chants of " We 're Hull City , we 'll die when we want " during that day 's home match against Liverpool . Manager Steve Bruce credited the controversy for creating " a fantastic atmosphere " but added , " I have got to have a conversation with him because I don 't think he quite understands what it means in terms of history and tradition . " However , Bruce also said that , because of the money Allam had invested in the club , " If he thinks Hull Tigers is his way forward then we have to respect it . "
On 11 December 2013 , a spokesman for Hull City announced that the club had formally applied to the Football Association to have its name changed to " Hull Tigers " from the 2014 – 15 season onwards . The FA Council , which has " absolute discretion " in deciding whether to approve the plan or not , stated the next day that it would follow a " consultation process " with stakeholders , " including the club 's supporter groups . "
= = = 2014 : Resistance and rejection = = =
Some brand and marketing experts have come out in support of the name change . Nigel Currie , director of sports marketing agency Brand Rapport , stated that " the whole process has been conducted badly with the supporters , but [ the name change ] is a pretty sound idea . " Simon Chadwick , professor of Sport Business Strategy and Marketing at the Coventry University Business School , opined that the objective of opening up lucrative new markets for shirt sales , merchandise and broadcast deals shows commercial vision and could bring benefits , but " this needs to be backed up by a proper marketing strategy and investment . " He said , " it 's no use thinking changing the name or the colour of the shirt will pay instant dividends . " David Stern , commissioner of the National Basketball Association in the United States , warned : " I would say a wise owner [ of a sports club ] would view his ownership as something of a public trust , in addition to the profit motive , and you really do want to allow the fans a little bit more input than I think is being allowed , with respect to Hull . "
On 17 March 2014 , the FA membership committee advised that the name change application be rejected at the FA Council meeting on 9 April . In response , the club published a statement saying the FA was " prejudiced " and criticised the committee 's consultation with the City Till We Die opposition group . The following week , the club opened a ballot of season ticket holders over the name change . Opponents of the name change criticised as " loaded " the questions , which asked respondents to choose between " Yes to Hull Tigers with the Allam family continuing to lead the club " , " No to Hull Tigers " and " I am not too concerned and will continue to support the club either way " , on the grounds that voters were not given the option to reject the name while keeping the Allam family as owners . Of 15 @,@ 033 season ticket holders , 5 @,@ 874 voted in all , with 2 @,@ 565 voting in favour of the change and 2 @,@ 517 against , while 792 chose the " not too concerned " option .
On 9 April 2014 , the FA Council announced its decision , carried by a 63 @.@ 5 % vote of its members , to reject the club 's application for a name change . The club responded by stating it will appeal the decision . However , since there is no appeal process with the FA and its Council , the decision is final . On 11 September 2014 , Allam confirmed an appeal has been submitted to the Court of Arbitration for Sport . He also held a news conference confirming the club had been put up for sale due to the English FA 's decision on 9 April 2014 .
In October 2014 , interviewed by the BBC , Allam confirmed that he would " not invest a penny more in the club " unless he is allowed to change the club 's name to Hull Tigers . In the same interview , Allam said , " I have never been a football fan . I am still not a football fan . I am a community fan . "
= = = 2015 : Re @-@ application = = =
In March 2015 , an independent panel appointed by the Court of Arbitration for Sport ruled that the decision of the Football Association Council to block the name change " cannot stand " on account of the process having been " flawed . "
In July 2015 , the Football Supporters Federation confirmed that a 70 / 30 decision was made in favour of Hull City A.F.C. not changing their name after an FA vote . Greg Dyke , chairman of the FA , reportedly voted yes to a change .
= = Colours and crest = =
For most of the club 's history , Hull have worn black and amber shirts with black shorts . These black and amber colours are where Hull 's nickname , The Tigers , originated from . However , in the club 's first match against Notts County in 1904 , white shirts were worn , with black shorts and black socks . During their first season in the League , Hull wore black and amber striped shirts and black shorts , which they continued to wear until the Second World War with the exception of the 1935 – 36 season , in which they wore sky blue shirts . Following the end of the Second World War , Hull spent another season wearing sky blue , but changed to plain amber shirts , which they wore until the early 1960s , when they swapped back to stripes .
During the mid @-@ 1970s and early 1980s , the strip was constantly changing between the two versions of plain shirts and stripes . During the late 1980s , red was added to the kits but its duration went no further than this . The early 1990s featured two " tiger skin " designs , which have since featured in several articles listing the " worst ever " football kits . The 1998 – 99 season introduced a kit with cross @-@ fading amber and white stripes , another experiment that proved unpopular . After the start of the 21st century , the club wore plain amber shirts until 2004 , when the club celebrated its centenary by wearing a kit similar to the design of the one worn 100 years ago .
In 1935 , Hull City 's first shirt badge mirrored the familiar three crowns civic emblem of Kingston @-@ upon @-@ Hull , which was displayed on the sky blue shirts worn in the 1935 – 36 season . Following that season , the team went without wearing a badge until 1947 , when the club crest depicted a tiger 's head in an orange @-@ shaded badge . This was worn up until 1957 , when it was changed to just the tiger 's head . This was worn for three years , when the shirt again featured no emblem . Then , in 1971 , the club returned to showing the tiger 's head on the shirt . This was used for four years , until the club 's initials of HCAFC were shown for four years . After this , a logo with the tiger 's head with the club 's name underneath was used from 1979 until 1998 . The next logo , which remains the club 's current logo , features the tiger 's head in an amber shield with the club 's name , along with the club 's nickname , The Tigers .
Hull changed their crest in June 2014 , becoming one of few English league teams without the club name on their crest .
= = = Kit manufacturers and sponsors = = =
= = Stadium = =
Between 1904 and 1905 , Hull City played their home games at The Boulevard . This ground was used by Hull on a contract which allowed them to use it when not used for Rugby League , at a cost of £ 100 per annum . Hull built their own ground , Anlaby Road , which was opened in 1906 . With the threat of the rerouting of the railway line through the Anlaby Road ground , the club was convinced it needed to secure its future by owning its own ground . They negotiated the deal for land between Boothferry Road and North Road in 1929 , which was financed by a £ 3 @,@ 000 loan from the FA . Due to the club 's financial difficulties , no work took place for three years , and development then stopped until 1939 . In that year a proposal to build a new multi @-@ purpose sports stadium on the site temporarily halted the club 's plans to relocate , but when this plan failed the club resolved to continue with the stalled development of the site , in anticipation of moving to the new stadium in 1940 . The outbreak of war , however , meant that the redevelopment again came to a halt , as the site was taken over by the Home Guard .
During the Second World War , Anlaby Road was damaged by enemy bombing , the repair cost of which was in the region of £ 1 @,@ 000 . The Cricket Club served notice to quit at the same time , and so in 1943 the tenancy was officially ended . Hull were forced to return to the Boulevard Ground from 1944 until 1945 because of the poor condition of the planned stadium at Boothferry Road . The new stadium was finally opened under the revised name of Boothferry Park on 31 August 1946 .
Hull City , along with one of the city 's rugby league sides , Hull F.C. , moved into the newly built KC Stadium in 2002 . The KC Stadium was named " Best Ground " at the 2006 Football League Awards .
= = Finances = =
In the club ’ s annual report for the 12 @-@ month period up to 31 July 2009 , auditors Deloitte stated that £ 4 @.@ 4 million had gone out of the club and stadium company to owner Russell Bartlett ’ s holding companies in loans , while at least £ 2 @.@ 9 million of it was used in the take @-@ over itself of the club . A further £ 560 @,@ 000 was paid , according to the audit , by the stadium company to Bartlett ’ s holding companies in " management fees , " while at least £ 1 million was owed to him personally as a " salary . " After the warning from Deloitte , Bartlett gave the club a £ 4 million loan , " which brought the money he had taken out and put in since taking over to about even . "
The corporate entity that owns the football club , " The Hull City Association Football Club ( Tigers ) Ltd , " is currently owned by Allamhouse Limited , a private , limited @-@ liability company with a share capital of £ 10 million ( as of October , 2012 ) , registered in Jersey . The beneficial owners of Allamhouse Limited , established in 2009 , are the Allam family .
On an " Opacity Score " of 100 , where zero indicates complete openness and 100 complete secrecy , the company which owns the club has been rated by Christian Aid at 87 .
Hull City 's corporate accounts , as of July 2013 , show a £ 25 @.@ 6 million loss , on revenues of £ 11 million , after player and management costs of " just under £ 23 million . " The club has " future tax losses " available of more than £ 45 million . Another Assam Allam company , Allam Marine , also wholly owned by Allamhouse Limited , revealed in its 2012 accounts that " utilisation of tax losses from group companies " reduced its tax liability by £ 3 @.@ 8 million over 2011 and 2012 .
As reported , HM Revenue and Customs are in the process of an inquiry at Hull City AFC , as part of the British tax authorities ' targeting of football clubs over " tax @-@ free payments to players under image rights ' deals and the provision of benefits in kind . For Hull City AFC , the provision for benefits in kind was reported at £ 682 @,@ 000 as of July 2011 , growing to £ 810 @,@ 000 by July 2012 .
= = Statistics and records = =
Andy Davidson holds the record for Hull City league appearances , having played 579 matches . Garreth Roberts comes second , having played 487 matches . Chris Chilton is the club 's top goalscorer with 222 goals in all competitions ; Chilton also holds the club record for goals scored in the League ( 193 ) , FA Cup ( 16 ) and League Cup ( 10 ) .
The club 's widest victory margin in the league was their 11 – 1 win against Carlisle United in the Third Division North on 14 January 1939 . Their biggest win in the top flight was achieved on 28 December 2013 , with a 6 – 0 victory over Fulham .
Their heaviest defeat in the league was 8 – 0 against Wolverhampton Wanderers in 1911 . Their heaviest top flight defeat was a 6 – 1 defeat to Liverpool on 26 September 2009 .
Hull City 's record home attendance is 55 @,@ 019 , for a match against Manchester United on 26 February 1949 at Boothferry Park , with their highest attendance at their current stadium , the KC Stadium , 25 @,@ 030 set on 9 May 2010 against Liverpool for the last match of the season .
The highest transfer fee received for a Hull City player is £ 12 @.@ 5 million from Southampton for Shane Long . The highest transfer fee paid for a player is for Abel Hernández from Italian side Palermo , for a fee reported to be approximately £ 9 @.@ 5 million .
= = = European record = = =
Notes
3Q : Third qualifying round
PO : Play @-@ off round
= = Players = =
As of 1 July 2016 .
= = = First team squad = = =
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = = Out on loan = = =
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = = Player of the Year = = =
= = Managers = =
As of 5 June 2016
Only professional , competitive matches are counted .
* Caretaker manager
† Temporary Football Management Consultant
= = Current backroom staff = =
As of 31 December 2014 .
= = Related teams = =
= = = Reserves and Juniors = = =
Hull City Reserves play in the Reserve League East Division . The team plays home fixtures at the Church Road Ground , home of North Ferriby United . Hull City Juniors play in the Football League Youth Alliance , playing their home fixtures at Winterton Rangers ' home stadium .
= = = Hull City Women = = =
Hull City Women play in the Northern Combination Women 's Football League . In the 2006 – 07 season , the team finished seventh in the table with 33 points .
= = Rivalries = =
According to a 2003 poll , Hull City fans consider their main rival to be Yorkshire neighbours Leeds United .
The club also has a traditional rivalry with Sheffield United . In 1984 , Sheffield United won promotion at Hull City 's expense with the teams level on points and goal difference and separated only by goals scored , with 33 of United 's goals scored by former Hull City striker Keith Edwards . City 's final game of the season against Burnley had been rescheduled due to bad weather and took place after their promotion rivals had finished their campaign ; Hull went into the game knowing that a three @-@ goal victory would mean promotion , but in front of a crowd which included a number of United fans could manage only a 2 – 0 win , ensuring that United went up instead .
Distant rivals include teams from across the Humber Estuary in Lincolnshire , Scunthorpe United and former league club Grimsby Town . With Scunthorpe 's promotion from League One , the 2007 – 08 Championship season saw the return of a " Humber Derby " . Additionally , non @-@ league Lincoln City and League Two club York City are said to consider Hull amongst their rivals .
The club 's main hooligan firm appears to be the Hull City Psychos , dating back to the 1960s .
= = Honours and achievements = =
Football League Championship and predecessors ( level 2 of the English football league system )
Runners @-@ up : 2012 – 13
Play @-@ off winners : 2007 – 08 , 2015 – 16
Football League One and predecessors ( level 3 of the English football league system )
Champions : 1965 – 66
Runners @-@ up : 1958 – 59 , 2004 – 05
Promoted : 1984 – 85
Football League Two and predecessors ( level 4 of the English football league system )
Runners @-@ up : 1982 – 83 , 2003 – 04
Football League Third Division North
Champions : 1932 – 33 , 1948 – 49
FA Cup
Runners @-@ up : 2014
Semi @-@ finalists : 1930
Football League Cup
Quarter @-@ finalists : 2015 – 16
Football League Trophy
Runners @-@ up : 1984
Watney Cup
Runners @-@ up : 1974
= Andrew Simpson ( sailor ) =
Andrew James Simpson , MBE ( 17 December 1976 – 9 May 2013 ) , nicknamed " Bart " , was an English sailor . He won a gold medal at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing , as crew for skipper Iain Percy in the Star class representing Great Britain . Simpson was killed in the capsize of the catamaran he was crewing on 9 May 2013 , while training for the America 's Cup in San Francisco Bay .
= = Career = =
Simpson started his competitive sailing career in the Laser class , before switching to the heavier Finn class . He claimed the bronze medal at the 2003 ISAF Sailing World Championships in Cadiz in the Finn class ; his training partner Ben Ainslie took the gold , with Great Britain topping the medal table .
Simpson then moved to the two @-@ man Star class , partnering lifelong friend Percy ; they won a bronze medal at the 2007 ISAF Sailing World Championships in Cascais to qualify for the 2008 Summer Olympics . The pair won the gold medal in Beijing in the Star class . After winning the Olympic gold , Percy and Simpson took a break from Star sailing and were in the TeamORIGIN afterguard for the 2010 America 's Cup . In 2010 , he and Percy won the Star World Championships in Rio de Janeiro .
Simpson and Percy made the podium in every meeting of the ISAF Sailing World Cup in 2012 , including gold at the Hyeres French World Cup regatta . They competed at the 2012 Olympic Games , again in the Star class , failing to defend their title despite being in the lead throughout the competition , but winning the silver medal . After the Star class was removed from the Olympic sailing disciplines , Simpson turned his attention to the America 's Cup , moving to San Francisco to train in March 2013 . He was known for his athleticism , and for his attention to detail in preparing the boat to obtain the best possible performance .
= = = Death = = =
Simpson was killed on 9 May 2013 , during training for the 34th America 's Cup , when the Swedish Artemis Racing team yacht he was aboard capsized near Treasure Island in San Francisco Bay . The yacht , a 72 @-@ foot catamaran with a rigid , wing @-@ like sail , was turning downwind and bearing away when it flipped over and broke into pieces . Simpson was trapped underneath its hulls for approximately ten minutes , and attempts to revive him by doctors afloat and subsequently ashore were unsuccessful . The cause of the accident is unknown . An investigation was initiated by the United States Coast Guard which involved San Francisco police and the America 's Cup management .
In the aftermath of the accident , safety concerns were raised over the new AC72 class of yachts which had been chosen to compete in the 2013 America 's Cup . This was the second accident involving the class ; in October 2012 an Oracle Team USA AC72 also capsized in San Francisco Bay during training , causing substantial damage but no serious injuries . Christopher Clarey , writing in The New York Times , described the class as " high @-@ speed and high @-@ risk . " Stephen Park , who heads the British Olympic sailing team , commented : " they 're very high powered and the loads on them are huge ... these boats are untrodden waters for sailing . A lot of the loads and a lot of the equipment is new and there are a lot of unknowns and things being tested . " Sailing journalist Stuart Alexander , writing in The Independent , stated that the AC72s are seen by some as " death traps . " Simpson is the third sailor to be killed during training for the America 's Cup . A steward was knocked overboard and drowned in 1935 , while Spanish sailor Martin Wizner died in 1999 , after being struck on the head by a piece of equipment that became detached . In early @-@ June 2013 , it was announced that the programme of events for the 2013 America 's Cup would be significantly reduced in response to Simpson 's death . Later that month , a review committee presented 37 proposed modifications to the event to an international jury which the committee deemed necessary to be fulfilled in order for the event to go ahead altogether .
John Derbyshire , performance director of the Royal Yachting Association , described Simpson as " a huge inspiration to others , both within the British Sailing Team and across the nation " . Other tributes were paid by fellow sailors Ainslie and Percy , Olympian sport shooter , Peter Wilson , British Olympic Association 's director of elite performance , Clive Woodward , and British Foreign Secretary , William Hague , amongst others . His funeral was held at Sherborne Abbey in his home town of Sherborne in Dorset .
= = Honours = =
Simpson was appointed Member of the Order of the British Empire ( MBE ) in the 2009 New Year Honours .
= = Personal life = =
Born in Windlesham , Surrey in 1976 , where he lived and moved to Sherbourne . He first learned to sail aged four or five , while visiting his grandparents at Christchurch , Dorset , and later sailed in a Seafly dinghy with his father , Keith . His talent brought him to the notice of Jim Saltonstall , who coached him in the Royal Yachting Association youth squad . Simpson attended Pangbourne College , a mixed boarding school in Berkshire , which originated as a nautical college , coaching students in sailing , seamanship and navigation . He studied at University College London , gaining a degree in economics . In addition to sailing , he was a keen footballer .
Affectionately known as " Bart " , after the character Bart Simpson , from the American animated series of the same surname . Simpson was described as having " steely determination and focus " but being " diplomatic , softly spoken " . He is survived by his wife Leah and their two sons , Freddie and Hamish .
= The Revenge ( Seinfeld ) =
" The Revenge " is the seventh episode of the second season of the NBC sitcom Seinfeld , and the show 's 12th episode overall . The story revolves around George Costanza 's ( Jason Alexander ) plot to exact revenge on his boss , with his friend Elaine Benes ' ( Julia Louis @-@ Dreyfus ) help , after he quits his job at Rick Barr Properties and is refused re @-@ employment . Meanwhile , Jerry ( Jerry Seinfeld ) and his neighbor Kramer ( Michael Richards ) get even with a laundromat owner — who they believe has stolen money from Jerry — by pouring cement into one of his washing machines .
Written by series co @-@ creator Larry David and directed by Tom Cherones , the episode premiered in the United States on NBC on April 18 , 1991 . Largely based on David 's own experiences , " The Revenge " was the first episode he wrote without Seinfeld 's collaboration . The episode also contained the first mention of Newman , as a suicidal man who lives in Jerry and Kramer 's apartment building , who would later become a popular recurring character . As the episode is the first in which Kramer does physical comedy , some cast and crew members consider it a turning point for the show . When first broadcast in the United States , the episode gained a Nielsen rating of 14 @.@ 4 / 24 and was met with positive response from critics .
= = Plot = =
The episode relates three parallel plots , in intertwining scenes . The first plot concerns George being banned from the executive toilet . Because of this he quits his job , but immediately regrets the decision . He discusses job opportunities with Jerry , but is unable to think of an occupation that would suit him . Jerry suggests that George could try to go back to work and pretend he never quit . George takes this advice , but his former boss , Rick Levitan ( Fred Applegate ) , refuses to let him stay and insults him . As revenge , George decides to slip a Mickey Finn into his drink during an office party , and enlists Elaine Benes to help him . At the party , Elaine distracts Levitan while George puts the mickey in his drink . When Levitan notices George , however , he decides he was unreasonable and tells George he can have his job back . George attempts to intercept the drink , but after Levitan welcomes him back with a toast sprinkled with insults at George 's expense , he changes his mind . In the following scene we see George once again brainstorming job opportunity ideas , the subtext being that his boss discovered the spiking of his drink , connected it to George , and has fired him once again .
The second plot of the episode revolves around Jerry ; when he prepares to go to the laundromat , Kramer asks him to take his laundry with him . Jerry agrees after some reluctance , insisting that their clothes remain segregated . After retrieving the laundry the following day and returning Kramer 's portion , Jerry remembers that he had hidden a large sum of money in his laundry bag , but is unable to find it . The owner of the laundromat ( John Capodice ) , tells him that he did not see the money , but also points out that he is not responsible for valuables . Kramer and Jerry both assume Vic stole the money and Kramer comes up with a plan to put cement mix in one of Vic 's washing machines as revenge . Once they have acted out the plan , Kramer discovers that he had the money all along ; and it turns out to be just enough to cover the damage to the washing machine .
In a subplot , Kramer tells Jerry about his suicidal friend Newman who repeatedly threatens to kill himself by jumping off the apartment building . When he does jump , he jumps from the second floor and survives , much to Kramer 's amusement . At the end of the episode , Newman threatens to jump again , Kramer asks Newman if he wants to go shoot some pool with him , but Newman declines , stating that he has plans to go to the movies .
= = Production = =
" The Revenge " was written by series co @-@ creator Larry David and directed by Tom Cherones . All prior Seinfeld episodes were co @-@ written by Seinfeld and David . The Revenge is the first episode written by David alone , though Seinfeld did proofread the script and would continue to do so for all scripts up to the eighth season . George 's storyline in the episode is based on David 's own experiences while a writer at Saturday Night Live . David had quit SNL halfway through the 1984 @-@ 1985 television season , but felt he had made a mistake once he reached his home . His neighbor Kenny Kramer , who later served as the main inspiration for Kramer , suggested David return to work the following day and act as if nothing had happened . Unlike George Costanza , the ploy succeeded for David , who remained with SNL 's writing staff until the end of that season . George 's reason for quitting was inspired by Seinfeld writer Larry Charles ' use of the private restroom in Seinfeld and David 's office instead of the public one . The Newman sub plot was inspired by one of David 's neighbors , who once jumped from the second floor of the apartment building in which they both lived . The unseen character Mr. Papanickolas , who is mentioned by Kramer , was named after Pete Papanickolas , a member of the production crew .
" The Revenge " was first read by the cast of the show on February 13 , 1991 and was filmed in front of a live audience on February 20 , 1991 . Filming of the episode had been delayed two days due to President 's Day . Both Alexander and Louis @-@ Dreyfus praised the scene in which Jerry and George discuss the types of employment George could apply for after he quit his job . Louis @-@ Dreyfus stated she was jealous that she was not in the scene . A number of scenes in the episode were removed prior to broadcast , such as one in which George and Kramer meet in the hallway and Kramer informs George that Jerry has gone to the laundromat . The writers decided that George could just say Kramer told him Jerry was at the laundromat and , upon that addition , the scene was cut . Initially , during Jerry and George 's conversation about jobs , George mentions Regis Philbin , when they discuss George being a talk show host . Additional dialogue between George and Jerry at the laundromat was also removed . Because the episode " The Stranded " did not air until mid season three , the few references " The Revenge " contained to the episode , were cut . The Newman subplot was significantly reduced ; the character initially appeared in one scene , but it was never filmed . In that scene , he would have explained to Jerry and Kramer that he jumped from the roof , but an awning broke his fall , though Jerry and Kramer would remain skeptical . The episode also involved the second appearance of Harold the building superintendent , who had previously appeared in " The Apartment " . Harold would inform the main characters that Newman made up the story about the awning breaking his fall , though , with the reduction of the Newman subplot , the scene was removed .
The cast considered the episode a turning point for the show . As a method actor , Richards insisted on dumping a real bag of cement into the washing machine used on set , so that the proper physical reactions to such a heavy object would be present . Richards stated that at that point , " rather than talking funny , I wanted to do funny " . During the first take of the scene , Richards fell through a door , and it had to be filmed again . " The Revenge " is also the first episode in which the George and Elaine characters collaborate . Louis @-@ Dreyfus later stated that she and Alexander immediately had " some sort of shorthand with one another comedically , and [ she ] really relished that . "
Although Newman 's appearance was ultimately cut from the episode , auditions were held for the role ; Tim Russ , who would go on to star in Star Trek : Voyager , auditioned , as did William Thomas , Jr . , known for his appearance on The Cosby Show , who was cast in the part . Newman does share a brief dialogue with Kramer at the end of the episode , David recorded the lines , though he was not credited . The show 's writing staff did not intend to have the character return in any later seasons , but because the idea of having actor Wayne Knight as a neighbor appealed to them , they re @-@ cast Knight in the role of Newman for the season 3 episode " The Suicide " . Afterwards , Knight re @-@ recorded Newman 's lines for the syndicated version of this episode to establish better continuity . Both Knight 's and David 's dialogue were included on the Seinfeld : Volume 1 DVD boxset . Additionally , Fred Applegate guest @-@ starred as George 's boss and John Capodice portrayed Vic , the laundromat owner . Deck McKenzie , who worked as Seinfeld 's stand @-@ in , portrayed George 's colleague Bill . Teri Austin portrayed Ava , a co @-@ worker of George 's ; she would appear again later in " The Stranded " , which was filmed as part of season two , but aired as part of season three . Patrika Darbo , who played George 's co @-@ worker Glenda , would reappear later in the season five episode " The Sniffing Accountant " as a woman Newman flirts with .
= = Reception = =
First broadcast in the United States on NBC on April 18 , 1991 , Nielsen Media Research estimated that the episode gained a Nielsen rating of 14 @.@ 4 and an audience share of 24 . This means that 14 @.@ 4 % of American households watched the episode , and that 24 % of all televisions in use at the time were tuned into it . Seinfeld was the 15th most @-@ watched program of the week it was broadcast in , and the sixth most @-@ watched program broadcast on NBC . Entertainment Weekly reviewers Mike Flaherty and Mary Kaye Schilling gave the episode a mixed review and graded it with a C , stating " Although neat for its parallel plotting and George 's hilariously clueless career chats with Jerry , ' The Revenge ' is not so sweet " . IGN critic Andy Patrizio considered " The Revenge " one of his personal favorites of season two . The scene in which Kramer struggles to put cement in one of the washing machines has gained positive responses from critics . Margery Eagan of The Boston Globe cited the scene as a perfect example of Kramer 's personality . Neal Justin of the Minneapolis Star @-@ Tribune also considers the scene to be one of the show 's " classic moments " . Daily News of Los Angeles critic Jody Leader also praised Seinfeld for how he distracted Vic in the scene .
= Iowa @-@ class battleship =
The Iowa @-@ class battleships were a class of fast battleships ordered by the United States Navy in 1939 and 1940 to escort the Fast Carrier Task Forces that would operate in the Pacific Theater of World War II . Four were completed ; two more were laid down but canceled at war 's end and scrapped . Like other third @-@ generation American battleships , the Iowa class followed the design pattern set forth in the preceding North Carolina @-@ class and South Dakota @-@ class battleships , which emphasized speed in addition to secondary and anti @-@ aircraft batteries .
Between the mid @-@ 1940s and the early 1990s , the Iowa @-@ class battleships fought in four major U.S. wars . In World War II , they defended aircraft carriers and shelled Japanese positions . During the Korean War , the battleships provided seaborne artillery support for United Nations forces fighting North Korea , and in 1968 , New Jersey shelled Viet Cong and Vietnam People 's Army forces in the Vietnam War . All four were reactivated and armed with missiles during the 1980s as part of the 600 @-@ ship Navy initiative ; during Operation Desert Storm in 1991 , Missouri and Wisconsin fired missiles and 16 @-@ inch ( 406 mm ) guns at Iraqi targets .
Costly to maintain , the battleships were decommissioned during the post @-@ Cold War draw down in the early 1990s . All four were initially removed from the Naval Vessel Register ; however , the United States Congress compelled the Navy to reinstate two of them on the grounds that existing naval gunfire support would be inadequate for amphibious operations . This resulted in a lengthy debate over whether battleships should have a role in the modern navy . Ultimately , all four ships were stricken from the Naval Vessel Register and released for donation to non @-@ profit organizations . With the transfer of Iowa in 2012 , all four are part of various non @-@ profit maritime museums across the U.S.
= = Background = =
Work on what would eventually become the Iowa @-@ class battleships began on the first study in early 1938 at the direction of Admiral Thomas C. Hart , head of the General Board . It was an expanded South Dakota , carrying either twelve 16 @-@ inch / 45 caliber Mark 6 guns or nine 18 @-@ inch ( 460 mm ) guns — the latter armament being dropped after the 31 March agreement — with more armor and a power plant large enough to drive the larger ship through the water at the same speed as the South Dakotas , 27 knots ( 50 km / h ; 31 mph ) . These studies had no further impact on the design of the Iowa class , but development of this design continued and eventually evolved into the design for the Montana class .
Another design , pursued by the Design Division section of the Bureau of Construction and Repair , was a " cruiser @-@ killer " . Beginning on 17 January 1938 under Captain A. J. Chantry , the group drew up plans for ships with twelve 16 @-@ inch and twenty 5 @-@ inch guns , Panamax capability but otherwise unlimited displacement , a top speed of 35 knots ( 65 km / h ; 40 mph ) and a range of 20 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 37 @,@ 000 km ; 23 @,@ 000 mi ) when traveling at the more economical speed of 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . Their plan fulfilled these requirements with a ship of 50 @,@ 940 long tons ( 51 @,@ 760 t ) , but Chantry believed that more could be done if the ship were to be this large ; with a displacement greater than that of most battleships , its armor would only have protected it against the 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) weapons carried by heavy cruisers .
Three improved plans — " A " , " B " , and " C " — were designed at the end of January . An increase in draft , vast additions to the armor , and the substitution of twelve 6 @-@ inch ( 150 mm ) guns in the secondary battery was common between the three designs . " A " was the largest , at 59 @,@ 060 long tons ( 60 @,@ 010 t ) , and was the only one to still carry the twelve 16 @-@ inch guns in four triple turrets ( 3 @-@ gun turrets according to U.S. Navy ) . It required 277 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( shp ) to make 32 @.@ 5 knots ( 60 @.@ 2 km / h ; 37 @.@ 4 mph ) . " B " was the smallest at 52 @,@ 707 long tons ( 53 @,@ 553 t ) ; like " A " it had a top speed of 32 @.@ 5 knots , but " B " only required 225 @,@ 000 shp to make this speed . It also carried only nine 16 @-@ inch guns , in three triple turrets . " C " was similar but it added 75 @,@ 000 shp ( for a total of 300 @,@ 000 shp ) , to make the original requirement of 35 knots . The weight required for this and a longer belt — 512 feet ( 156 m ) , compared with 496 feet ( 151 m ) for " B " — meant that the ship was 55 @,@ 771 long tons ( 56 @,@ 666 t ) .
In March 1938 , the General Board followed the recommendations of the Battleship Design Advisory Board , which was composed of the naval architect William Francis Gibbs , William Hovgaard ( then president of New York Shipbuilding ) , John Metten , Joseph W. Powell , and the long @-@ retired Admiral and former Chief of the Bureau of Ordnance Joseph Strauss . The board requested an entirely new design study , focusing on increasing the size of the 35 @,@ 000 ton South Dakota class . The first plans made for this indicated that 30 knots ( 35 mph ; 56 km / h ) was possible on a displacement of about 37 @,@ 600 long tons ( 38 @,@ 200 t ) . 33 knots ( 38 mph ; 61 km / h ) could be bought with 220 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower and a displacement of around 39 @,@ 230 long tons ( 39 @,@ 860 t ) , which was well below the Second London Naval Treaty 's maximum limit of 45 @,@ 000 long tons ( 46 @,@ 000 t ) .
These designs were able to convince the General Board that a reasonably well @-@ designed and balanced 33 @-@ knot ( 61 km / h ) battleship was possible within the terms of the " escalator clause " . However , further studies revealed major problems with the estimates . The speed of the ships meant that more freeboard would be needed both fore and amidships , the latter requiring an additional foot of armored freeboard . Along with this came the associated weight in supporting these new strains : the structure of the ship had to be reinforced and the power plant enlarged to avoid a drop in speed . In all , about 2 @,@ 400 long tons ( 2 @,@ 400 t ) had to be added , and the large margin the navy designers had previously thought they had — roughly 5 @,@ 000 long tons ( 5 @,@ 100 t ) — was suddenly vanishing .
With the additional displacement , the General Board was incredulous that a tonnage increase of 10 @,@ 000 long tons ( 10 @,@ 000 t ) would only allow the addition of 6 knots ( 11 km / h ; 6 @.@ 9 mph ) s over the South Dakotas . Rather than retaining the 16 " / 45 caliber Mark 6 gun used in the South Dakotas , they ordered that future studies would have to include the more powerful ( but heavier ) 16 " / 50 caliber Mark 2 guns left over from the canceled Lexington @-@ class battlecruisers and South Dakota @-@ class battleships of the early 1920s . It also allowed the draft of the ships to be increased , meaning that the ships could be shortened ( lowering weight ) and the power reduced ( since a narrower beam reduces drag ) .
The 50 @-@ caliber gun weighed some 400 long tons ( 410 t ) more than the 45 caliber did ; the barbette size also had to be increased so the total weight gain was about 2 @,@ 000 long tons ( 2 @,@ 000 t ) , putting the ship at a total of 46 @,@ 551 long tons ( 47 @,@ 298 t ) — well over the 45 @,@ 000 long ton limit . An apparent savior appeared in a Bureau of Ordnance preliminary design for a turret that could carry the 50 caliber guns in a smaller barbette . This breakthrough was shown to the General Board as part of a series of designs on 2 June 1938 .
However , the Bureau of Ordnance continued working on a larger barbette design , while the Bureau of Construction and Repair utilized the smaller barbettes in the final planning of the new battleships . As the bureaus were independent of one another , they did not realize that the two plans could not go together until November 1938 , when the design was in the final stages of refinement . By this time , the ships could not use the larger barbette , as it would require massive alterations to the design and would result in substantial weight penalties . The General Board was astounded ; one member asked the head of the Bureau of Ordnance if it had occurred to him that Construction and Repair would have wanted to know what turret his subordinates were working on " as a matter of common sense " . A complete scrapping of plans was only avoided when designers within the Bureau of Ordnance were able to design a new 50 @-@ caliber gun , the Mark 7 , that was both lighter and smaller in outside diameter ; this allowed it to be placed in a turret that would fit in the smaller barbette . The redesigned 3 @-@ gun turret , equipped as it was with the Mark 7 naval gun , provided an overall weight saving of nearly 850 long tons ( 860 t ) to the overall design of the Iowa class .
In May 1938 the United States Congress passed the Second Vinson Act which " mandated a 20 % increase in strength of the United States Navy " . The act was sponsored by Carl Vinson , a Democratic Congressman from Georgia who was Chairman of the House Naval Affairs and Armed Services Committee . The Second Vinson Act updated the provisions of the Vinson @-@ Trammell Act of 1934 and the Naval Act ( 1936 ) , which had " authorized the construction of the first American battleships in 17 years " , based on the provisions of the London Naval Treaty of 1930 ; this act provided the funding to build the Iowa class . Each ship cost approximately US $ 100 million .
As 1938 drew to a close the design of the Iowas was nearly complete , but it would continuously evolve as the battleships were under construction . These revisions included changing the design of the foremast , replacing the original 1 @.@ 1 " / 75 @-@ caliber guns that were to be used for anti @-@ aircraft work with 20 mm and 40 mm guns , and moving the combat information center into the armored hull . Additionally , in November 1939 the New York Navy Yard greatly modified the internal subdivision of the machinery rooms , as tests had shown the underwater protection in these rooms to be inadequate . The result of this was clearly beneficial : " The prospective effect of flooding was roughly halved and the number of uptakes and hence of openings in the third deck greatly reduced . " Although the changes meant extra weight and added 1 foot ( 0 @.@ 30 m ) to the beam , this was no longer a major issue ; the United Kingdom and France had renounced the Second London Naval Treaty soon after the beginning of the Second World War .
= = Design = =
= = = Armor = = =
Like all battleships , the Iowas carried heavy armor protection against shellfire and bombs with significant underwater protection against torpedoes . The Iowas ' armor scheme was modeled on that of the preceding South Dakota class , and designed to give a zone of immunity against fire from 16 @-@ inch / 45 @-@ caliber guns between 18 @,@ 000 and 30 @,@ 000 yards ( 16 @,@ 000 and 27 @,@ 000 m ) away . The magazines and engine rooms were protected by an armored belt 12 @.@ 2 inches ( 310 mm ) thick , which sloped to give an effective vertical thickness of 13 @.@ 5 inches ( 340 mm ) . Their armor was not sufficient to protect against guns equivalent to their own 16 @-@ inch / 50 @-@ caliber guns ; increasing the armor would have increased weight and reduced speed . Missouri and Wisconsin incorporated the most significant change in armor from the South Dakota class : the increase from 11 @.@ 3 inches ( 290 mm ) to 14 @.@ 5 inches ( 370 mm ) of the vertical armor on the forward armored bulkhead , the conning tower , and the turret barbettes . The extra armor provided protection from fire directly ahead , which was considered more likely given the high speed of the Iowa class . The installation of armor on the Iowa @-@ class battleships also differed from those of earlier battleships in that the armor was installed while the ships were still " on the way " rather than after the ships had been launched .
The Iowa @-@ class torpedo defense was virtually the same as the South Dakota 's . Each side of the ship was protected below the waterline by two tanks mounted outside the belt armor , and separated by a bulkhead . These tanks were initially planned to be empty , but in practice were filled with water or fuel oil . The armored belt tapered to a thickness of 4 inches ( 100 mm ) below the waterline . Behind the armored belt there was a void , and then another bulkhead . The outer hull was intended to detonate a torpedo , with the outer two compartments absorbing the shock and with any splinters or debris being stopped by the armored belt and the empty compartment behind it . In 1939 the Navy discovered that this system was considerably less effective than earlier torpedo defense systems , but by then it was too late to change the design . Based on hard @-@ learned lessons in the Pacific theater concerns were also raised over the ability of the armor on these battleships to withstand the effects of aerial bombing , but at the time these concerns surfaced nothing could be done to adequately address the problem .
= = = Armament = = =
The primary guns used on these battleships are the nine 16 @-@ inch ( 406 mm ) / 50 @-@ caliber Mark 7 naval guns , a compromise design developed to fit inside the barbettes . These guns fire explosive – and armor @-@ piercing shells , and can fire a 16 @-@ inch ( 406 mm ) shell approximately 23 @.@ 4 nautical miles ( 40 km ) . The guns are housed in three 3 @-@ gun turrets : two forward and one aft , in a configuration known as " 2 @-@ A @-@ 1 " . The guns are 66 feet ( 20 m ) long ( 50 times their | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
34 m ) wide Panama Canal . Drawing on a 1935 empirical formula for predicting a ship 's maximum speed based on scale @-@ model studies in flumes of various hull forms and propellers and a newly developed empirical theorem that related waterline length to maximum beam , the Navy drafted plans for a battleship class with a maximum beam of 108 ft ( 33 m ) which , when multiplied by 7 @.@ 96 , produced a waterline length of 860 ft ( 262 m ) — permitting a maximum speed of 34 @.@ 9 knots ( 64 @.@ 6 km / h ) . The Navy also called for the class to have a lengthened forecastle and amidship , which would increase speed , and a bulbous bow . The Iowas were to be outfitted with four screws : the outer pair consisting of two four @-@ bladed propellers roughly 18 feet ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) in diameter and the inboard screws that have five blades and are roughly 17 @.@ 5 feet ( 5 @.@ 3 m ) in diameter . The propeller designs were adopted after earlier testing had determined that propeller cavitation caused a drop in efficiency at speeds over 30 knots ( 56 km / h ) . The engineering plant on Iowa and Missouri consisted of four General Electric cross @-@ compound steam turbine engines , each driving a single shaft . The equivalent machinery on New Jersey and Wisconsin was provided by Westinghouse .
Four fire rooms contained eight Babcock & Wilcox M @-@ Type boilers operating at 600 pounds per square inch ( 4 @,@ 137 kPa ; 42 kgf / cm2 ) with a maximum superheater outlet temperature of 875 ° F ( 468 ° C ) . Steam was normally transmitted to four engine rooms numbered 1 to 4 . Each engine room was aft of its associated fire room . In normal steaming four boilers were operated ; this was sufficient to power the ships at speeds up to 27 knots ( 50 km / h ; 31 mph ) . For higher speeds , all eight boilers were lit .
Electricity drove many systems aboard ship , including rotating the turrets and elevating the guns . Each of the four engine rooms had a pair of Ship 's Service Turbine Generators ( SSTGs ) manufactured by Westinghouse . Each SSTG generated 1 @.@ 25 MW for a total of 10 MW of electricity . The SSTGs were powered by steam from the same boilers that fed the engines . To allow battle @-@ damaged electrical circuits to be repaired or bypassed , the lower decks of the ship had a Casualty Power System whose large three @-@ wire cables and wall outlets ( called " biscuits " ) could be used to re @-@ route power .
= = Aircraft ( 1943 – 1969 ) = =
When they were commissioned during World War II , the Iowa @-@ class battleships came equipped with two aircraft catapults designed to launch floatplanes . Initially , the Iowas carried the Vought OS2U Kingfisher and Curtiss SC Seahawk , both of which were employed to spot for the battleship 's main gun batteries — and , in a secondary capacity , perform search @-@ and @-@ rescue missions .
By the time of the Korean War , helicopters had replaced floatplanes and the Sikorsky HO3S @-@ 1 helicopter was employed . In time , the newer UH @-@ 1 Iroquois , SH @-@ 2 Seasprites , CH @-@ 46 Sea Knight , CH @-@ 53 Sea Stallion and the SH @-@ 60B Seahawk LAMPS III would serve aboard the battleships . In addition , New Jersey made use of the Gyrodyne QH @-@ 50 DASH drone for her Vietnam war deployment in 1968 – 1969 .
= = Conversion proposals = =
The Iowa class were the only battleships with the speed required for post @-@ war operations based around fast aircraft carrier task forces . There were a number of proposals in the early Cold War to convert the class to take into account changes in technology and doctrine . These included plans to equip the class with nuclear missiles , add aircraft capability and — in the case of Illinois and Kentucky — a proposal to rebuild both as aircraft carriers instead of battleships .
Initially , the Iowa class was to consist of only four battleships : Iowa , New Jersey , Missouri , and Wisconsin . However , changing priorities during World War II resulted in the battleships Montana and Ohio being reordered as Illinois and Kentucky respectively . At the time these two battleships were to be built a proposal was put forth to have them constructed as aircraft carriers rather than fast battleships . The plan called for the ships to be rebuilt to include a flight deck and an armament suite similar to that placed aboard the Essex @-@ class aircraft carriers that were at the time under construction in the United States . Ultimately , nothing came of the design proposal to rebuild these two ships as aircraft carriers and they were cleared for construction as fast battleships to conform to the Iowa @-@ class design , though they differed from the earlier four that were built . Eventually , the Cleveland @-@ class light cruisers were selected for the aircraft @-@ carrier conversion . Nine of these light cruisers would be rebuilt as Independence @-@ class light aircraft carriers .
After the surrender of the Empire of Japan , construction on Illinois and Kentucky stopped . Illinois was eventually scrapped , but Kentucky 's construction had advanced enough that several plans were proposed to complete Kentucky as a guided missile battleship ( BBG ) by removing the aft turret and installing a missile system . A similar conversion had already been performed on the battleship Mississippi ( BB @-@ 41 / AG @-@ 128 ) to test the RIM @-@ 2 Terrier missile after World War II . One such proposal came from Rear Admiral W. K. Mendenhall , Chairman of the Ship [ s ] Characteristics Board ( SCB ) ; Mendehall proposed a plan that called for $ 15 – $ 30 million to be spent to allow Kentucky to be completed as a guided @-@ missile battleship ( BBG ) carrying eight SSM @-@ N @-@ 8 Regulus II guided missiles with a range of 1 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 1 @,@ 900 km ; 1 @,@ 200 mi ) . He also suggested Terrier or RIM @-@ 8 Talos launchers to supplement the AA guns and proposed nuclear ( instead of conventional ) shells for the 16 @-@ inch guns . This never materialized , and Kentucky was ultimately sold for scrap in 1958 , although her bow was used to repair her sister Wisconsin after a collision .
In 1954 the Long Range Objectives Group of the United States Navy suggested converting the Iowa @-@ class ships to BBGs . In 1958 the Bureau of Ships offered a proposal based on this idea . This replaced the 5 @-@ inch and 16 @-@ inch gun batteries with " two Talos twin missile systems , two RIM @-@ 24 Tartar twin missile systems , an RUR @-@ 5 ASROC antisubmarine missile launcher , and a Regulus II installation with four missiles " , as well as flagship facilities , sonar , helicopters , and fire @-@ control systems for the Talos and Tartar missiles . In addition to these upgrades , 8 @,@ 600 additional [ long ] tons of fuel oil was also suggested to serve in part as ballast for the battleships and for use in refueling destroyers and cruisers . Due to the estimated cost of the overhaul ( $ 178 – $ 193 million ) this proposal was rejected as too expensive ; instead , the SCB suggested a design with one Talos , one Tartar , one ASROC and two Regulus launchers and changes to the superstructure , at a cost of up to $ 85 million . This design was later revised to accommodate the Polaris Fleet Ballistic Missile , which in turn resulted in a study of two schemes by the SCB . In the end , none of these proposed conversions for the battleships were ever authorized . Interest in converting the Iowa @-@ class battleships into guided @-@ missile battleships began to deteriorate in 1960 , because the hulls were considered too old and the conversion costs too high . Nonetheless , additional conversion proposals — including one to install the AN / SPY @-@ 1 Aegis Combat System radar on the battleships — were suggested in 1962 , 1974 and 1977 but as before , these proposals failed to gain the needed authorization . This was due , in part , to the fact that sensitive electronics within 200 ft of any 16 @-@ inch gun muzzle were likely to be damaged .
= = 1980s refit = =
In 1980 , Ronald Reagan was elected President , with a plan to rebuild the U.S. military as a counter to the increasing military power of the Soviet Union as one of his benchmark commitments . At the time , the Soviet Navy was in the process of commissioning a class of missile cruiser the like of which had not been seen for decades – the Kirov class was the largest type of surface warship ( other than aircraft carriers or amphibious assault vessels ) built since World War II , and the Americans had not envisioned building anything like it . As a consequence , as part of Reagan 's 600 @-@ ship Navy policy and to act as a counter to the Kirov class , the U.S. Navy began the process of reactivating the four Iowa @-@ class units and modernizing them for service in the 1980s .
During this reactivation , the Navy considered several concepts entailing removal of the aft 16 @-@ inch turret . Martin Marietta proposed to replace the turret with servicing facilities for 12 AV @-@ 8B Harrier STOVL jumpjets . Charles Myers proposed replacement of the turret with vertical launch systems for missiles and a flight deck for Marine helicopters . Naval Institute Proceedings proposed a canted flight deck ( complete with a steam catapult ) and arrestor wires to operate F / A @-@ 18 Hornet fighters . Plans for these conversions were dropped in 1984 , but each battleship was overhauled to burn navy distillate fuel and modernized to carry electronic warfare suites , close @-@ in weapon systems ( CIWS ) for self @-@ defense , and missiles . It was determined that the total cost of reactivating and modernising one battleship was roughly the same as the cost of building a new Oliver Hazard Perry @-@ class frigate .
After recommissioning , the modernized battleships operated as centerpieces of their own battle group ( termed as a Battleship Battle Group or Surface Action Group ) , consisting of one Ticonderoga @-@ class cruiser , one Kidd @-@ class destroyer or Arleigh Burke @-@ class destroyer , one Spruance @-@ class destroyer , three Oliver Hazard Perry @-@ class frigates and one support ship , such as a fleet oiler .
= = = Armament = = =
During their modernization in the 1980s each Iowa @-@ class battleship was equipped with four of the US Navy 's Phalanx CIWS mounts , two of which sat just behind the bridge and two which were next to the after ship 's funnel . Iowa , New Jersey , and Missouri were equipped with the Block 0 version of the Phalanx , while Wisconsin received the first operational Block 1 version in 1988 . The Phalanx system is intended to serve as a last line of defense against enemy missiles and aircraft , and when activated can engage a target with a 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) M61 Vulcan 6 @-@ barreled Gatling cannon at a distance of approximately 4 @,@ 000 yards ( 3 @.@ 7 km ) .
As part of their modernization in the 1980s , each of the Iowa @-@ class battleships received a complement of Armored Box Launchers and " shock hardened " Mk . 141 quad cell launchers . The former was used by the battleships to carry and fire the BGM @-@ 109 Tomahawk Land Attack Missiles ( TLAMs ) for use against enemy targets on land , while the latter system enabled the ships to carry a complement of RGM @-@ 84 Harpoon anti @-@ ship missiles for use against enemy ships . With an estimated range of 675 nautical miles ( 1 @,@ 250 km ; 777 mi ) to 1 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 800 km ; 1 @,@ 700 mi ) for the Tomahawk missile and 64 @.@ 5 nautical miles ( 119 @.@ 5 km ; 74 @.@ 2 mi ) to 85 @.@ 5 nautical miles ( 158 @.@ 3 km ; 98 @.@ 4 mi ) for the Harpoon missile system , these two missile systems displaced the sixteen @-@ inch guns and their maximum range of 42 @,@ 345 yards ( 38 @,@ 720 m ) ( 24 @.@ 06 mi ) to become the longest @-@ ranged weapons on the battleships during the 1980s . It has been alleged by members of the environmental group Greenpeace that the battleships carried the TLAM @-@ A ( also cited , incorrectly , as the TLAM @-@ N ) — a Tomahawk missile with a variable yield W80 nuclear warhead — during their 1980s service with the United States Navy , but owing to the United States Navy 's policy of refusing to confirm or deny the presence of nuclear weaponry aboard its ships , these claims can not be conclusively proved . Between 2010 and 2013 , the U.S. withdrew the BGM @-@ 109A , leaving only conventional munitions packages for its Tomahawk Missile inventory .
Owing to the original 1938 design of the battleships , the Tomahawk missiles could not be fitted to the Iowa class unless the battleships were rebuilt in such a way as to accommodate the missile mounts that would be needed to store and launch the Tomahawks . This realization prompted the removal of the anti @-@ aircraft guns previously installed on the Iowas and the removal of four of each of the battleships ' ten 5 " / 38 DP mounts . The mid and aft end of the battleships were then rebuilt to accommodate the missile magazines . At one point , the NATO Sea Sparrow was to be installed on the reactivated battleships ; however , it was determined that the system could not withstand the overpressure effects from firing the main battery . To supplement the anti @-@ aircraft capabilities of the Iowas , five FIM @-@ 92 Stinger surface @-@ to @-@ air missile firing positions were installed . These secured the shoulder @-@ launched weapons and their rounds for ready use by the crew .
= = = Electronics = = =
The earliest search radars installed were the SK air @-@ search radar and SG surface @-@ search radar during World War II . They were located on the mainmast and forward fire @-@ control tower of the battleships , respectively . As the war drew to a close , the United States introduced the SK @-@ 2 air @-@ search radar and SG surface @-@ search radar ; the Iowa class was updated to make use of these systems between 1945 and 1952 . At the same time , the ships ' radar systems were augmented with the installation of the SP height finder on the main mast . In 1952 , AN / SPS @-@ 10 surface @-@ search radar and AN / SPS @-@ 6 air @-@ search radar replaced the SK and SG radar systems , respectively . Two years later the SP height finder was replaced by the AN / SPS @-@ 8 height finder , which was installed on the main mast of the battleships . During their brief period of activity under the 600 @-@ ship Navy program , the battleships ' radar systems were again upgraded . The AN / SPS @-@ 6 air @-@ search radar system was replaced with the AN / SPS @-@ 49 radar set ( which also augmented the existing navigation capabilities on the battleships ) , and the AN / SPS @-@ 8 ground @-@ search radar set was replaced by the AN / SPS @-@ 67 search radar .
In addition to these search and navigational radars , the Iowa class were also outfitted with a variety of fire control systems for their gun systems , and later for their missile systems . Beginning with their commissioning , the battleships made use of a trio of Mk 38 gun fire control systems to direct the 16 @-@ inch guns and a quartet of Mk 37 gun fire control systems to direct the 5 in gun batteries . These systems were upgraded over time , but remained the cornerstones of the combat radar systems on the Iowa class during their careers . The range estimation of these gunfire control systems provided a significant accuracy advantage over earlier ships with optical rangefinders ; this was demonstrated off Truk Atoll on 16 February 1944 when Iowa engaged the Japanese destroyer Nowaki at a range of 35 @,@ 700 yards ( 32 @.@ 6 km ) and straddled her , setting the record for the longest @-@ ranged straddle in history .
Initially , the battleships made use of a mass collection of 20 mm and 40 mm guns for anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) operations ; these guns were respectively augmented with the Mk 14 range sight and Mk 51 fire control system to improve accuracy . By the Korean War , jet engines had replaced propellers on aircraft , which severely limited the ability of the AA batteries and their gun systems to track and shoot down enemy planes . Consequently , the AA guns and their associated fire @-@ control systems were removed when reactivated . New Jersey received this treatment in 1967 , and the others followed in their 1980s modernizations . In the 1980s , each ship also received a quartet of Phalanx Close in Weapon System ( CIWS ) mounts which made use of a radar system to locate incoming enemy projectiles and destroy them with a 20 mm Gatling gun before they could strike the ship .
With the added missile capacity of the battleships in the 1980s came additional fire @-@ support systems to launch and guide the ordnance . To fire the Harpoon anti @-@ ship missiles , the battleships were equipped with the SWG @-@ 1 fire @-@ control system , and to fire the Tomahawk missiles the battleships used either the SWG @-@ 2 or SWG @-@ 3 fire @-@ control system . In addition to these offensive @-@ weapon systems , the battleships were outfitted with the AN / SLQ @-@ 25 Nixie to be used as a lure against enemy torpedoes , an SLQ @-@ 32 electronic warfare system that can detect , jam , and deceive an opponent 's radar and a Mark 36 SRBOC system to fire chaff rockets intended to confuse enemy missiles .
Aside from the electronics added for weaponry control , all four battleships were outfitted with a communications suite used by both cruisers and guided missile cruisers in service at the time . This communication suite included the OE @-@ 82 antenna for satellite communications , but did not include the Naval Tactical Data System .
= = = Aircraft ( 1982 – 1992 ) = = =
During the 1980s these battleships made use of the RQ @-@ 2 Pioneer , an unmanned aerial vehicle employed in spotting for the guns . Launched from the fantail using a rocket @-@ assist booster that was discarded shortly after takeoff , the Pioneer carried a video camera in a pod under the belly of the aircraft which transmitted live video to the ship so operators could observe enemy actions or fall of shot during naval gunnery . To land the UAV a large net was deployed at the back of the ship ; the aircraft was flown into it . Missouri and Wisconsin both used the Pioneer UAVs successfully during Operation Desert Storm , and in one particularly memorable incident , a Pioneer UAV operated by Wisconsin received the surrender of Iraqi troops during combat operations . This particular Pioneer was later donated to the Smithsonian Institution , and is now on public display . During Operation Desert Storm these Pioneers were operated by detachments of VC @-@ 6 . In addition to the Pioneer UAVs , the recommissioned Iowas could support six types of helicopters : the Sikorsky HO3S @-@ 1 , UH @-@ 1 Iroquois , SH @-@ 2 Seasprites , CH @-@ 46 Sea Knight , CH @-@ 53 Sea Stallion and the LAMPS III SH @-@ 60B Seahawk .
= = Gunfire support role = =
Following the 1991 Gulf War and the subsequent dissolution of the Soviet Union , the United States Navy began to decommission and mothball many of the ships it had brought out of its reserve fleet in the drive to attain a 600 @-@ ship Navy . At the height of Navy Secretary John F. Lehman 's 600 @-@ ship Navy plan , nearly 600 ships of all types were active within the Navy . This included fifteen aircraft carriers , four battleships and over 100 submarines , along with various other types of ships the overall plan specified . When the Soviet Union collapsed in 1991 the Navy sought to return to its traditional , 313 @-@ ship composition . While reducing the fleet created under the 600 @-@ ship Navy program , the decision was made to deactivate the four recommissioned Iowa @-@ class battleships and return them to the reserve fleet .
In 1995 , the decommissioned battleships were removed from the Naval Vessel Register ( NVR ) after it was determined by ranking US Navy officials that there was no place for a battleship in the modern navy . In response to the striking of the battleships from the Naval Vessel Register a movement began to reinstate the battleships , on the grounds that these vessels had superior firepower over the then @-@ existing 5 in guns found on the Spruance @-@ class destroyers , Kidd @-@ class destroyers , Arleigh Burke @-@ class destroyers , and Ticonderoga @-@ class cruisers . Citing concern over the lack of available gunfire to support amphibious operations , Congress demanded that the United States Navy reinstate two battleships to the naval vessel register and maintain them with the mothball fleet , until the Navy could certify it had gunfire support within the current fleet that would meet or exceed the battleship 's capability .
The debate over battleships in the modern navy continued until 2006 , when the two reinstated battleships were stricken after naval officials submitted a two @-@ part plan that called for the near @-@ term goal of increasing the range of the guns currently in use on the Flight I Arleigh Burke @-@ class destroyers with specially designed ammunition intended to allow a five @-@ inch projectile fired from these guns to travel an estimated 40 nautical miles ( 70 km ) inland . The long @-@ term goal calls for the replacement of the two battleships with vessels of the Zumwalt class of guided @-@ missile destroyers . These ships are to be outfitted with an advanced gun system ( AGS ) that will fire specially developed 6 in Long Range Land Attack Projectiles for shore bombardment ; however , the long @-@ term goal for the Zumwalt class is to have the ships mount railguns or free @-@ electron lasers .
= = Cultural significance = =
The Iowa class has become culturally symbolic in the United States in many different ways , to the point where certain elements of the American public — such as the United States Naval Fire Support Association — are unwilling to part with the battleships despite their apparent obsolescence in the face of modern naval combat doctrine that places great emphasis on air supremacy and missile firepower . Although all have been officially stricken from the Naval Vessel Register they have been spared scrapping and were donated for use as museum ships .
Their service records have added to their fame , ranging from their work as carrier escorts in World War II to their shore bombardment duties in North Korea , North Vietnam , and the Middle East , as well as their service in the Cold War against the expanded Soviet Navy . Their reputation combined with the stories told concerning the firepower of these battleships ' 16 inch guns are such that when they were brought out of retirement in the 1980s in response to increased Soviet Naval activity — and in particular , in response to the commissioning of the Kirov @-@ class battlecruisers — the United States Navy was inundated with requests from former sailors pleading for a recall to active duty so they could serve aboard one of the battleships .
In part because of the service length and record of the class , members have made numerous appearances in television shows , video games , movies , and other media , including appearances in the anime series Neon Genesis Evangelion , the History Channel documentary series Battle 360 : USS Enterprise , the Discovery Channel documentary The Top 10 Fighting Ships ( where the Iowa class was rated Number 1 ) , the stealth action game Metal Gear Solid 4 : Guns of the Patriots , the Real Time Tactics game World in Conflict , the book turned movie A Glimpse of Hell , the 1989 song by Cher If I Could Turn Back Time , the 1992 film Under Siege , and the 2012 film Battleship , among other appearances . Japanese rock band Vamps performed the finale of their 2009 US tour on board the USS Missouri on 19 September 2009 .
= = Ships = =
When brought into service during the final years of World War II , the Iowa @-@ class battleships were assigned to operate in the Pacific Theatre of World War II . By this point in the war , aircraft carriers had displaced battleships as the primary striking arm of both the United States Navy and the Imperial Japanese Navy . As a result of this shift in tactics , U.S. fast battleships of all classes were relegated to the secondary role of carrier escorts and assigned to the Fast Carrier Task Force to provide anti @-@ aircraft screening for U.S. aircraft carriers and perform shore bombardment . Three were recalled to service in the 1950s with the outbreak of the Korean War , and provided naval artillery support for U.N. forces for the entire duration of the war before being returned to mothballs in 1955 after hostilities ceased . In 1968 , to help alleviate U.S. air losses over North Vietnam , New Jersey was summoned to Vietnam , but was decommissioned a year after arriving . All four returned in the 1980s during the drive for a 600 @-@ ship Navy to counter the new Soviet Kirov @-@ class battlecruisers , only to be retired after the collapse of the Soviet Union on the grounds that they were too expensive to maintain .
1 . ^ Kentucky was not officially launched ; her hull was moved from drydock to allow Missouri to be admitted for repairs following her grounding .
= = = Iowa = = =
Iowa was ordered 1 July 1939 , laid down 27 June 1940 , launched 27 August 1942 , and commissioned 22 February 1943 . She conducted a shakedown cruise in Chesapeake Bay before sailing to Naval Station Argentia , Newfoundland , to be ready in case the German battleship Tirpitz entered the Atlantic . Transferred to the Pacific Fleet in 1944 , Iowa made her combat debut in February and participated in the campaign for the Marshall Islands . The ship later escorted U.S. aircraft carriers conducting air raids in the Marianas campaign , and then was present at the Battle of Leyte Gulf . During the Korean War , Iowa bombarded enemy targets at Songjin , Hŭngnam , and Kojo , North Korea . Iowa returned to the U.S. for operational and training exercises before being decommissioned on 24 February 1958 . Reactivated in the early 1980s , Iowa operated in the Atlantic Fleet , cruising in North American and European waters for most of the decade and participating in joint military exercises with European ships . On 19 April 1989 , 47 sailors were killed following an explosion in her No. 2 turret . In 1990 , Iowa was decommissioned for the last time and placed in the mothball fleet . She was stricken from the Naval Vessel Register on 17 March 2006 . Iowa was anchored as part of the National Defense Reserve Fleet in Suisun Bay , California until October 2011 , when she was towed from her mooring to Richmond , California for renovation as a museum ship . She was towed from Richmond in the San Francisco Bay on 26 May 2012 , to San Pedro at the Los Angeles Waterfront to serve as a museum ship run by Pacific Battleship Center and opened to the public on 7 July 2012 .
= = = New Jersey = = =
New Jersey was ordered 4 July 1939 , laid down 16 September 1940 , launched 7 December 1942 , and commissioned 23 May 1943 . New Jersey completed fitting out and trained her initial crew in the Western Atlantic and Caribbean before transferring to the Pacific Theatre in advance of the planned assault on the Marshall Islands , where she screened the U.S. fleet of aircraft carriers from enemy air raids . At the Battle of Leyte Gulf , the ship protected carriers with her anti @-@ aircraft guns . New Jersey then bombarded Iwo Jima and Okinawa . During the Korean War , the ship pounded targets at Wonsan , Yangyang , and Kansong . Following the Armistice , New Jersey conducted training and operation cruises until she was decommissioned . Recalled to duty in 1968 , New Jersey reported to the gunline off the Vietnamese coast , and shelled North Vietnamese targets before departing the line in December 1968 . She was decommissioned the following year . Reactivated in 1982 under the 600 @-@ ship Navy program , New Jersey was sent to Lebanon to protect U.S. interests and U.S. Marines , firing her main guns at Druze and Syrian positions in the Beqaa Valley east of Beirut . Decommissioned for the last time 8 February 1991 , New Jersey was briefly retained on the Naval Vessel Register before being donated to the Home Port Alliance of Camden , New Jersey for use as a museum ship in October 2001 .
= = = Missouri = = =
The Missouri was the last of the four Iowa @-@ class battleships to be completed . She was ordered 12 June 1940 , laid down 6 January 1941 , launched 29 January 1944 , and commissioned 11 June 1944 . Missouri conducted her trials off New York with shakedown and battle practice in Chesapeake Bay before transferring to the Pacific Fleet , where she screened U.S. aircraft carriers involved in offensive operations against the Japanese before reporting to Okinawa to shell the island in advance of the planned landings . Following the bombardment of Okinawa , Missouri turned her attention to the Japanese homeland islands of Honshu and Hokkaido , performing shore bombardment and screening U.S. carriers involved in combat operations . She became a symbol of the U.S. Navy 's victory in the Pacific when representatives of the Empire of Japan boarded the battleship to sign the documents of unconditional surrender to the Allied powers in September 1945 . After World War II , Missouri conducted largely uneventful training and operational cruises until suffering a grounding accident . In 1950 she was dispatched to Korea in response to the outbreak of the Korean War . Missouri served two tours of duty in Korea providing shore bombardment . She was decommissioned in 1956 . She spent many years at Puget Sound Naval Shipyard in Bremerton , Washington . Reactivated in 1984 as part of the 600 @-@ ship Navy plan , Missouri was sent on operational cruises until being assigned to Operation Earnest Will in 1988 . In 1991 , Missouri participated in Operation Desert Storm , firing 28 Tomahawk Missiles and 759 sixteen @-@ inch ( 406 mm ) shells at Iraqi targets along the coast . Decommissioned for the last time in 1992 , Missouri was donated to the USS Missouri Memorial Association of Pearl Harbor , Hawaii , for use as a museum ship in 1999 .
= = = Wisconsin = = =
Wisconsin was ordered 12 June 1940 , laid down 25 January 1942 , launched 7 December 1943 , and commissioned 16 April 1944 . After trials and initial training in Chesapeake Bay , she transferred to the Pacific Fleet in 1944 and was assigned to protect the U.S. fleet of aircraft carriers involved in operations in the Philippines until summoned to Iwo Jima to bombard the island in advance of the Marine landings . Afterward , she proceeded to Okinawa , bombarding the island in advance of the allied amphibious assault . In mid @-@ 1945 Wisconsin turned her attention to bombarding the Japanese home islands until the surrender of Japan in August . Reactivated in 1950 for the Korean War , Wisconsin served two tours of duty , assisting South Korean and UN forces by providing call fire support and shelling targets . In 1956 , the bow of the uncompleted USS Kentucky was removed and grafted on Wisconsin , which had collided with the destroyer USS Eaton . Decommissioned in 1958 , Wisconsin was placed in the reserve fleet at the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard until reactivated in 1986 as part of the 600 @-@ ship Navy plan . In 1991 , Wisconsin participated in Operation Desert Storm , firing 24 Tomahawk Missiles at Iraqi targets , and expending 319 16 @-@ inch ( 406 mm ) shells at Iraqi troop formations along the coast . Decommissioned for the last time 30 September 1991 , Wisconsin was placed in the reserve fleet until stricken from the Naval Vessel Register on 17 March 2006 so she could be transferred for use as a museum ship . Wisconsin is currently berthed at the Nauticus maritime museum in Norfolk , Virginia .
= = = Illinois and Kentucky = = =
Hull numbers BB @-@ 65 and BB @-@ 66 were originally intended as the first and second ships of the Montana @-@ class of battleships ; however the passage of an emergency war building program on 19 July 1940 resulted in both hulls being reordered as Iowa @-@ class units to save time on construction . The war ended before either could be completed , and work was eventually stopped . Initially , proposals were made to convert the hulls into aircraft carriers similar to the Essex @-@ class , but the effort was dropped . Eventually both hulls were scrapped .
Illinois was ordered on 9 September 1940 and initially laid down on 6 December 1942 . However , work was suspended pending a decision on whether to convert the hull to an aircraft carrier . Upon determination the result would cost more and be less capable than building from scratch construction resumed , but was canceled for good approximately one @-@ quarter complete on 11 August 1945 . She was sold for scrap and broken up on the slipway in September 1958 .
Kentucky was ordered on 9 September 1940 and laid down on 7 March 1942 . Work on the ship was suspended in June 1942 , and the hull floated out to make room for the construction of LSTs . The interruption lasted for two and a half years while a parallel aircraft carrier debate played out as with the Illinois , reaching the same conclusion . Work resumed in December 1944 , with completion projected for mid @-@ 1946 . Further suggestions were made to convert Kentucky into a specialist anti @-@ aircraft ship , and work was again suspended . With the hull approximately three @-@ quarters completed she was floated on 20 January 1950 to clear a dry @-@ dock for repairs to Missouri , which had run aground . During this period , plans were proposed to convert Kentucky into a guided missile battleship , which saw her reclassified from BB @-@ 66 to BBG @-@ 1 . When these failed construction of any sort never resumed and the ship was used as a parts hulk ; in 1956 , her bow was removed and shipped in one piece across Hampton Roads and grafted onto Wisconsin , which had collided with the destroyer Eaton . In 1958 , the engines installed on Kentucky were salvaged and installed on the Sacramento @-@ class fast combat support ships Sacramento and Camden . Ultimately , what remained of the hulk was sold for scrap on 31 October 1958 .
= Oliver 's Battery ( Tresco ) =
Oliver 's Battery is a ruined artillery battery on the island of Tresco in the Isles of Scilly . It was built by the Parliamentarian admiral , Sir Robert Blake , after he invaded Tresco in April 1651 during the years of the interregnum . It was used to bombard the neighbouring island of St Mary 's , which was still held by an opposing Royalist army , and forced its surrender several weeks later . The battery comprised a triangle of ramparts , constructed using earth and rubble , which , combined with the natural stone features on the site , produced a substantial , if crude , fortification . It is now ruined , and owned by the Duchy of Cornwall .
= = History = =
= = = 17th century = = =
Oliver 's Battery was built in the interregnum following the English Civil War . The Isles of Scilly had supported Charles I during the conflict between 1642 to 1646 , and , after a short period in Parliamentary control , the islands rebelled in favour of Charles in 1648 . The islands became a base for Royalist privateers , and Parliament became concerned that the Dutch , then hostile to England , might counter the piracy by occupying the islands , gaining a foothold that they could then use against England . In 1651 Parliament sent Sir Robert Blake in charge of a naval task force to retake the islands .
Blake arrived in April 1651 and set about invading the island of Tresco . Taking the harbour of Old Grimsby in an amphibious assault on 18 April , he then bypassed the northern fortress of King Charles 's Castle and marched south , intending to use Tresco as a base for taking the neighbouring island of St Mary 's , approximately 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) away .
When Blake reached Carn Near on the south end of Tresco , he constructed an artillery position for a battery of three guns overlooking the channel between the island and St Mary 's , as well as the harbour of St Mary 's Pool , hoping to pressure the Royalists into surrender . The work was carried out rapidly between 19 April and 4 May , possibly reusing the site of a Bronze Age burial cairn . When the battery began firing on 4 May , one of the guns exploded causing two deaths , but the bombardment soon recommenced and St Mary 's agreed to surrender several weeks later on 23 May .
= = = 18th – 21st centuries = = =
The antiquarian William Borlase visited the site in 1752 , which he thought was a breastwork defence named after the Parliamentary leader Oliver Cromwell . He remarked on how its construction was " irregular and uneven " , and suspected that it was very old , pre @-@ dating the civil war . He also noted how its position would have allowed it to protect the location he believed the Parliamentary forces had used as their camp , and commented as to how the winds and tides would have forced Royalist ships entering or leaving St Mary 's harbour to sail into close range of its guns .
The blockhouse is owned by the Duchy of Cornwall and it is protected as a scheduled monument under UK law . The site was surveyed in 1990 by the Cornwall Archaeology Unit , and in 2009 by English Heritage .
= = Design = =
Oliver 's Battery is on a hill overlooking the island of St Mary 's to the south @-@ east . It is triangular in shape , the sides of which are roughly 25 metres by 30 metres by 30 metres ( 82 ft by 98 ft by 98 ft ) in length . The battery was entered from its north @-@ western side , and in the north @-@ east corner there was a small building , approximately 6 metres by 3 @.@ 5 metres ( 20 ft by 11 ft ) , which may have been a store or a temporary gun magazine . The artillery pieces were located in the south @-@ eastern corner of the battery , where a gun platform , 7 metres ( 23 ft ) in diameter , occupied the highest part of the fortification .
The battery is surrounded by an earth and rubble bank , incorporating natural outcrops of stone , between 4 @.@ 5 metres and 8 metres ( 15 ft and 26 ft ) wide , and 2 metres ( 6 ft 7 in ) high externally . On the west and south sides the ramparts are protected by a ditch , typically 4 @.@ 5 metres ( 15 ft ) m wide and 0 @.@ 6 metres ( 2 ft 0 in ) deep . The historian Mark Bowden considers the fortification to be " substantial but relatively crude " , probably a result of the speed with which the building work was carried out .
At the bottom of the hill beside the battery are two rectangular earthworks , 16 metres by 8 metres ( 52 ft and 26 ft ) , and 26 metres and 12 metres ( 85 ft and 39 ft ) . Traditionally these have been thought to be Royalist gun batteries pre @-@ dating the construction of Oliver 's Battery , but recent scholarship casts doubt on this , suggesting that they are instead the remains of hollow ways and sand pits .
= Hurricane Hernan ( 1996 ) =
Hurricane Hernan was fourth and final tropical cyclone to strike Mexico at hurricane intensity during the 1996 Pacific hurricane season . The thirteenth tropical cyclone , eighth named storm , and fifth hurricane of the season , Hernan developed as a tropical depression from a tropical wave to the south of Mexico on September 30 . The depression quickly strengthened , and became Tropical Storm Hernan later that day . Hernan curved north @-@ northwestward the following day , before eventually turning north @-@ northeastward . Still offshore of the Mexican coast on October 2 , Hernan intensified into a hurricane . Six hours later , Hernan attained its peak as an 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale ( SSHWS ) . After weakening somewhat , on 1000 UTC October 3 , Hurricane Hernan made landfall near Barra de Navidad , Jalisco , with winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . Only two hours after landfall , Hernan weakened to a tropical storm . By October 4 , Tropical Storm Hernan had weakened into a tropical depression , and dissipated over Nayarit on the following day .
The storm dropped heavy rainfall along the west coast of Mexico , with some areas experiencing over 20 in ( 510 mm ) of precipitation . As a result of the large amounts of rain , Hurricane Hernan caused moderate flooding . Despite impacting a relatively sparsely populated area of Mexico , no deaths were reported in the country , though one was reported missing . In all , flooding from the storm washed @-@ out highways , disrupted telephone service , caused power outages , and damaged at least 1 @,@ 000 homes . However , at least 100 injuries were recorded . In addition , the remnants caused flooding in southern Texas , and one person was presumed to have drowned .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical wave emerged off the west coast of Africa during mid @-@ September and moved westward across the Atlantic Ocean . Even though convection associated with the system increased on two separate occasions , the tropical wave did not develop further . After emerging into the Pacific Ocean , the system entered the Gulf of Tehuantepec on September 28 . Meanwhile , deep convection began to consolidate while the cloud pattern continued to improve . By late on September 29 , classifications began on the system via the Dvorak technique , a technique used to measure a tropical cyclones intensity . By 0600 UTC on September 30 , satellite imagery indicated that Tropical Depression Eleven @-@ E had developed while centered over 285 mi ( 460 km ) south @-@ southeast of Acapulco . Three hours later , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) initiated advisories on the depression , stating that it was over warm sea surface temperatures and outflow was becoming well @-@ established . Subsequently , it was predicted that the depression would intensify into a hurricane before October 3 .
Later on September 30 , satellite intensity classifications estimated wind speeds of at least 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) . Based on this , the NHC upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Hernan . By October 1 , the atmospheric circulation of Hernan became difficult to locate on infrared satellite imagery . As a result , the NHC reported that it no longer anticipated that Hernan would intensify into a hurricane . Later that day , Hernan strengthened slightly ; subsequently , visible satellite images indicated that the center of the storm redeveloped . Most of the computer models anticipated that Hernan would parallel the coast of Mexico , though the Global Dynamics Fluid Model ( GDFL ) noted that Tropical Storm Hernan would turn sharply northward and eventually make landfall in Mexico . Early on October 2 , deep convection began wrapping around the center , and meteorologists noted that an eye feature may have been forming . Subsequently , Hernan also developed very cold cloud tops while tracking slowly to the northwest .
At 0600 UTC on October 2 , it is estimated that Hernan had intensified into a hurricane . Operationally , however , Hernan was not upgraded to a hurricane until nine hours later . The storm strengthened a little more , and at 1200 UTC on October 2 , Hernan attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 980 mbar ( hPa ) ; 28 @.@ 94 inHg . By late on October 2 , radar imagery remarked that the northern eye wall was affecting portions of the west coast of Mexico . Shortly thereafter , the eye of Hernan became less distinct on satellite images . By 0900 UTC on October 3 , based on data from radars in Cuyutlán , Colima , the NHC reported that Hurricane Hernan had executed a cyclonic loop to the southwest of Manzanillo . About an hour later , Hernan made landfall near Barra de Navidad , with winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) .
Hernan rapidly weakened inland , and it was estimated that it had weakened to a tropical storm only two hours after landfall . By 0000 UTC on October 4 , Hernan weakened further , and was downgraded to a tropical depression . Shortly thereafter , Hernan re @-@ emerged into the Pacific Ocean , and the NHC noted that possibility for the depression to restrengthen into a tropical storm . Hernan weakened further as a large portion of its circulation remained on land , while the low @-@ level center became difficult to locate . By 2100 UTC October 4 , satellite images and surface reports indicated that Hernan had degenerated into a broad area of low pressure . Hernan finally dissipated at 0000 UTC the next day while centered over Nayarit .
= = Preparations and Impact = =
Thirty @-@ six hours after formation , on October 1 , a tropical storm warning was issued from Acapulco , to Manzanillo . Early on the following day , a hurricane watch was put into effect from Zihuatanejo , Guerrero , to Manzanillo , . Three hours later , the watch was upgraded to a hurricane warning . At 1500 UTC on that same day , a tropical storm warning was issued from Manzanillo , to San Blas , Nayarit . By 0300 UTC on October 3 , the hurricane warning was extended from Cabo Corrientes , Jalisco to San Blas ; the tropical storm warning was also extended , and included areas between Mazatlán and San Blas . As the storm rapidly weakened inland , all watches and warnings in effect were discontinued midday on October 3 . In addition to these warnings , several ports and harbors were closed in the states of Guerrero , Michoacan , Jalisco , and Colima , a span of some 680 mi ( 1 @,@ 095 km ) .
Much of Jalisco was drenched with rain for nearly 12 consecutive hours , resulting in flooding . Country @-@ wide ; however , the highest total was recorded in Petacalco and La Union , with 21 @.@ 8 in ( 550 mm ) being measured at both locations . The National Water Commission reported waves of up to 14 ft ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) . Along the coasts of Colima and Jalisco , waves caused by Hernan were not as large , reaching 13 ft ( 3 @.@ 9 m ) in height . High winds were also recorded .
Because the storm made landfall in a sparsely populated area , no deaths were reported by the NHC . However , one boy was swept away in the Uxpana River and was thus reported missing . Due to flooding caused by the storm , three rivers in Veracruz overflowed their banks . Flooding from the storm also washed @-@ out portions of two Mexico highways . Furthermore , telephone service was interrupted and power outages occurred . Around 1 @,@ 000 homes were damaged or destroyed and 100 people were injured . Overall , damage from the system was not widespread .
After dissipating , the remnants of Hernan , in combination with low pressure area that eventually became Tropical Storm Josephine , brought heavy downpours to southern Texas . Rainfall reached 5 @.@ 5 in ( 140 mm ) in Brownsville , which caused street flooding and forced several families to evacuate their homes . In addition , coastal flooding was reported in the town of South Padre Island . As a result of heavy rainfall , a flash flood watch and warning were issued for Cameron , Hidalgo , Kenedy , and Willacy Counties . One boy in Brownsville was classified as missing and later presumed to have drowned during the storm .
= From The Doctor to my son Thomas =
" From The Doctor to my son Thomas " is a viral video recorded by actor Peter Capaldi and sent to autistic nine @-@ year @-@ old Thomas Goodall to console the child over grief from the death of Goodall 's grandmother . Capaldi filmed the video in character as the 12th incarnation of the Doctor in the BBC science @-@ fiction series Doctor Who . Capaldi 's message had a positive effect on Thomas ; his father said the boy smiled for the first time since learning of his grandmother 's death and gained the courage to go to her funeral .
Thomas 's father Ross Goodall posted the video to YouTube on 6 November 2014 . He later explained to media that he wanted to make the video available to his family and had no idea it would become popular online . CNN reported that after its appearance on YouTube , the video was viewed over 200 @,@ 000 times in its first 48 @-@ hours online . This more than doubled the next day , and less than a week later it had over 900 @,@ 000 total views . BBC News observed that Capaldi 's message had become a viral video , and ITV News described response to the video as a global phenomenon .
The Guardian and The Daily Telegraph called the recording by Capaldi a touching video to a young child suffering from grief . CNN and MTV characterised the video similarly , as did Spanish and Dutch media . The Independent wrote that Capaldi displayed a kinder face of his personality by sending the message . BT commented it was Capaldi 's best contribution as the character of the Doctor to date .
The video had a positive impact on those with mental health problems . Autism Daily Newscast reported favourably on Capaldi 's actions . The Hollywood Reporter observed that as his character the Doctor , Capaldi was using his role to support mental health . Hollywood Life said their reporters were moved to tears after watching Capaldi 's video . Peter Harness , writer of the episode " Kill the Moon " , said Capaldi 's video was his favourite highlight from ten years of Doctor Who .
= = Background = =
The Scottish actor and film director Peter Capaldi was cast in 2013 as the 12th incarnation of the Doctor , in the BBC science @-@ fiction series Doctor Who . His casting was announced on 4 August 2013 in a special BBC programme hosted by Zoë Ball . Capaldi first appeared as the Doctor in a cameo in the 50th anniversary special , " The Day of the Doctor " , before appearing in the 2013 Christmas special , " The Time of the Doctor " . A lifelong fan of the series , Capaldi had played Lobus Caecilius in the 2008 episode " The Fires of Pompeii " and a civil servant , John Frobisher , in the 2009 spin @-@ off Torchwood : Children of Earth .
Before taking the role , Capaldi said that he had to seriously consider the increased visibility that would come with the part . He said in an interview with Entertainment Weekly that he had been invited to audition for the role of the Eighth Doctor in 1995 before the production of the 1996 TV film but did not go because he was unsure if he would get the part and did not wish to be part of a large group of actors turned down for the role .
= = Prior correspondence = =
Thomas Goodall had been a devoted fan of Doctor Who from North Baddesley in Hampshire since the age of two , and wrote a letter to Peter Capaldi saying he hoped the actor found success in his new role portraying the Doctor . The Goodall family were all fans of Doctor Who , describing themselves as Whovians . Thomas decorated his home with objects related to the television series . Capaldi wrote back to Thomas thanking him , and sent a note to the child 's father saying he intended to send a video message . Capaldi enclosed guidance to Ross Goodall on how to organise a tour of the production studios for Doctor Who .
Ross Goodall subsequently communicated with Capaldi through the actor 's agent , to inform him that Thomas 's grandmother had died . ( Helen , aged 72 , died in early October 2014 . ) He told Capaldi that his son was not dealing well with the grief from his grandmother 's death . The family received the subsequent video message to Thomas from Capaldi three weeks after the death of the child 's grandmother .
= = Video message = =
Capaldi appears in character as the Doctor and addresses Thomas directly , greeting him by name . He expresses his gratitude at receiving the child 's letter , saying it had pleased him .
He then speaks to Thomas about grief , mentioning the Doctor 's adventures with travelling companion Clara Oswald ( played by Jenna Coleman ) . He tells Thomas that negative events impact Clara and himself in their journeys through the universe and time travel , and that occasionally they feel depressed too . The Doctor tells Thomas he is glad the child is supporting him in his adventures .
Capaldi concludes the video message by wishing Thomas to experience joy , and encourages the youth to be well and remain positive . The video is 42 seconds long .
= = Goodall family response = =
The family received the video from Capaldi on 3 November 2014 . After viewing the video , Thomas felt encouraged to attend his grandmother 's funeral . In an interview with The Guardian , Ross Goodall explained that Capaldi 's mention of sadness resonated with the child due to his experience of grief over his grandmother 's death . He discussed the manner in which Thomas perceived emotions as a strict dichotomy between positive and negative without a middle ground . Thomas interpreted from the video that it was all right to feel happy while simultaneously acknowledging a sad event had occurred . Ross Goodall told The Guardian that before viewing the video from Capaldi his son did not want to attend his grandmother 's funeral .
The boy 's mother said that the video had helped him to deal with his depression . After watching Capaldi 's message , Ross Goodall stated that his son 's behaviour patterns changed markedly . This change included the ability to comfort his sister and step out of his day @-@ to @-@ day routine . Ross Goodall said after watching the video his son smiled for the first time since his grandmother died . The family framed the letter from Capaldi that came before the video message , and Ross Goodall said Thomas looked at it when he felt distressed .
= = Posted to YouTube = =
Ross Goodall uploaded the message from Capaldi to the video @-@ sharing website YouTube on 6 November 2014 . He commented at the video 's YouTube location that he was surprised at the online response , and that at the time of initial posting was unaware it would become viral . He later explained that he had uploaded it only to share it with family members on completion of the memorial services for Thomas 's grandmother . Thomas 's father wrote that the video greatly affected his son and enabled him to cope with grief and feel comforted . He praised Capaldi for his kind act and explained that the video improved his son 's mental well @-@ being throughout the ordeal .
By 10 November 2014 , total comments by viewers posted below the video on YouTube numbered in the hundreds . The majority of comments were supportive . Visitors to the site wrote favourably of Capaldi 's actions to record the video for the child . A few observed that Capaldi 's version of the Doctor character is sinister and serious , and contrasted this with the actor 's depiction of the character as warm and effusive in his recording .
= = Reception = =
CNN reported that after its appearance on YouTube , the video had over 200 @,@ 000 views in its first 48 hours of availability . BBC News noted that by the next day , it had received over 500 @,@ 000 views , and by 10 November 2014 it had over 750 @,@ 000 . The Washington Post noted that by the next day the view count was above 900 @,@ 000 . Multiple publications observed that Capaldi 's message had become a viral video . ITV News called online reaction to the video a global phenomenon .
The Guardian called the recording by Capaldi a touching video tribute . CNN characterised the video similarly , as did Digital Spy , ITV News , TV 3 , and publications in Spanish and Dutch . The Barcelona newspaper La Vanguardia wrote that Capaldi 's video was an example of bringing joy into someone 's life through a small act . The Washington Post called it a touching message . The Daily Dot described the video as inspirational . The Independent contrasted Capaldi 's portrayal of the 12th Doctor as one of the darker incarnations of the character with his kinder message as the same character in the video . MTV called Capaldi a most wonderful person for his act , and concluded the video was quite endearing .
The Daily Telegraph described the video as a moving inspiration to a child suffering from grief . The Huffington Post wrote that if they were able to engage in time travel themselves , they would be unable to encounter a kinder tale . Io9 appreciated that Capaldi was using his celebrity status to effect positive change through his portrayal of the character , and praised his use of the fictional role as a force for public good . The South Wales Evening Post noted Capaldi had appeared in a brief video as himself congratulating a bride on her wedding , and wrote that this video was more impressive than the previous appearance . Metro commented " Just when you thought Peter Capaldi couldn 't possibly get any cooler , he 's gone and outdone himself with this video . "
= = Impact = =
International Business Times reported that the video message had a significant impact on the child , in spite of its brevity , and noted in a follow @-@ up piece that Capaldi 's video was featured in headlines of multiple newspapers . Digital Spy followed up on its earlier favourable coverage of Capaldi 's video , and chose it as the number one entry out of " 7 awesome celebrity moments that will melt your heart " . Hollywood Life said their journalists were moved to tears after watching the video . Their review concluded that Capaldi 's message was both kind and strong , and that it was intelligent of the actor to compare the grief of Thomas to that encountered by his character on the television programme .
Capaldi 's actions received favourable coverage from the Autism Daily Newscast , an official Google News website reporting on current events and news of interest to those on the autism spectrum . Journalist on the site Jo Worgan noting the actor had devoted himself while on the set of Doctor Who to spending time with an autistic girl who was a fan of the show . The Hollywood Reporter noted that the Time Lord character took time to support the mental well @-@ being of a child in addition to his duties of protecting the universe from harm .
In a March 2015 interview with Radio Times , Peter Harness , writer of Doctor Who episode " Kill the Moon " , cited the video by Capaldi as his favourite highlight from the last ten years of the television programme . Harness explained his decision , saying that the video demonstrated Capaldi 's kind demeanour and illustrated that Doctor Who served to assist youngsters in learning about the travails of greater society . He said that , by extension , it reminded all viewers to act with more compassion towards one another .
= HMS Hurricane ( H06 ) =
HMS Hurricane was an H @-@ class destroyer that had originally been ordered by the Brazilian Navy in the late 1930s with the name Japura , but was bought by the Royal Navy after the beginning of World War II in September 1939 and later renamed . When completed in June 1940 , the ship was temporarily assigned to the Home Fleet before she began escorting convoys and conducting anti @-@ submarine patrols . She was badly damaged during a German air raid on Liverpool in May 1941 and her repairs were not completed until the beginning of 1942 . Hurricane was then assigned as the flotilla leader of Escort Group B1 assigned to the Mid @-@ Ocean Escort Force , escorting convoys in the North Atlantic for the next two years . The ship was torpedoed by a German submarine on Christmas Eve 1943 , and had to be scuttled the next day as she was unable to steam back to port .
= = Description = =
Hurricane displaced 1 @,@ 350 long tons ( 1 @,@ 370 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 883 long tons ( 1 @,@ 913 t ) at deep load . The ship had an overall length of 323 feet ( 98 @.@ 5 m ) , a beam of 33 feet ( 10 @.@ 1 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 5 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) . She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines , driving two shafts , which developed a total of 34 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 25 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) . Steam for the turbines was provided by three Admiralty 3 @-@ drum water @-@ tube boilers . Hurricane carried a maximum of 470 long tons ( 480 t ) of fuel oil , giving her a range of 5 @,@ 530 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 240 km ; 6 @,@ 360 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The ship 's complement was 152 officers and men .
The vessel was designed for four 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch Mk IX guns in single mounts , designated ' A ' , ' B ' , ' X ' , and ' Y ' from front to rear , but ' Y ' gun was removed to compensate for the additional depth charges added . For anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defence , Hurricane had two quadruple Mark I mounts for the 0 @.@ 5 inch Vickers Mark III machine gun . She was fitted with two above @-@ water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedoes . One depth charge rail and two throwers were originally fitted , but this was increased to three sets of rails and eight throwers while fitting @-@ out . The ship 's load of depth charges was increased from 20 to 110 as well . She was fitted with an ASDIC set to detect submarines by reflections from sound waves beamed into the water .
= = = Wartime modifications = = =
Little data on Hurricane 's modifications during the war has survived , although it is known that she had her rear torpedo tubes replaced by a 12 @-@ pounder AA gun by October 1940 . The ship 's short @-@ range AA armament may have been augmented by two Oerlikon 20 mm guns on the wings of the ship 's bridge and the .50 @-@ calibre machine gun mounts may have also been replaced by a pair of Oerlikons . The ship 's director @-@ control tower and rangefinder above the bridge may have been removed in exchange for a Type 271 target indication radar . A Type 286 short @-@ range surface search radar was probably also fitted mid @-@ way through the war . The ship probably also received a HF / DF radio direction finder mounted on a pole mainmast .
= = Service = =
Japura was ordered by Brazil on 6 December 1937 from Vickers @-@ Armstrongs , Barrow @-@ in @-@ Furness . The ship was laid down on 3 June 1938 and she was purchased by the British on 5 September 1939 after the beginning of World War II . Renamed HMS Hurricane , the ship was launched on 29 September and commissioned on 21 June 1940 . She was assigned to the 9th Destroyer Flotilla of the Home Fleet upon commissioning until new construction replaced the losses suffered over the previous few months . Hurricane then began escorting convoys and conducting anti @-@ submarine patrols until May 1941 . On 17 September , the ship rescued survivors of City of Benares , a small passenger ship evacuating 90 children from the United Kingdom to Canada , and the freighter Marina . She rescued 451 survivors from the passenger @-@ cargo liner City of Nagpur and landed them at Greenock , Scotland on 1 May 1941 .
Hurricane was bombed and sunk in a German air raid on Liverpool during the night of 7 / 8 May 1941 . She was struck by a bomb that passed through the hull and detonated underneath her . The explosion blew a large hole in her bottom and flooded her engine room and oil tanks . The ship 's structure was badly damaged enough that her stern began to sag downwards and Hurricane was moved to Bidston Dock lest she sink and block traffic in the harbour . No one was killed in the attack , although a few crewmen received minor injuries .
The ship was repaired and returned to service in January 1942 as flotilla leader of Escort Group B1 assigned to the Mid @-@ Ocean Escort Force . Hurricane remained as the leader for the next two years . Whilst escorting Convoy OS 62 / KMS 36 , the ship was hit by an acoustic T5 torpedo fired by the German submarine U @-@ 415 on the evening of 24 December 1943 . The torpedo homed in on the ship 's propeller noises and blew off 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) of her stern . The explosion killed three and wounded nine of her crew , and rendered her unable to move . The following morning , she was scuttled by the destroyer Watchman at 45 ° 10 ′ N 22 ° 05 ′ W.
= Sara Sidle =
Sara Sidle is a fictional character on the CBS crime drama CSI : Crime Scene Investigation , portrayed by actress Jorja Fox . Sidle is a forensic scientist and one of the core characters of the show , which revolves around a Crime Scene Investigation team in Clark County , Nevada , that investigates cases in and around Las Vegas . Fox appeared in both the first eight seasons , and the final five seasons , of the show as a series regular . She also recurred throughout the ninth and tenth seasons of the series , and headlined Immortality alongside Ted Danson .
= = Appearances = =
= = = Original Tenure = = =
Fox appeared in every episode of the series ' first seven seasons , with the exceptions of :
Season 01 : " Pilot "
Season 03 : " Random Acts of Violence "
Season 04 : " Jackpot "
Season 05 : " Formalities " , " Hollywood Brass "
Season 06 : " Spellbound "
Fox then appeared in the first seven episodes of the eighth season , before departing the main cast .
= = = Guest star = = =
During her brief absence from the main cast , Fox guest starred in the following episodes :
Season 09 : " For Warrick " , " The Happy Place " , " Leave Out All The Rest " , " One to Go "
Season 10 : " Family Affair " , " Ghost Town " , " Coup de Grace " , " Bloodsport " , " Lover 's Lane " , " Better Off Dead " , " Long Ball " , " Internal Combustion " , " Unshockable " , " Neverland " , " Irradator " , " World 's End " , " Take My Life , Please ! " , " Doctor Who " , " Meat Jekyll "
= = = Return = = =
Upon rejoining the regular cast in the series ' eleventh season , Fox once again appeared in every episode , with the exceptions of :
Season 11 : " Sqweegel " , " Cold Blooded " , " Fracked " , " Man Up " , " A Kiss Before Frying " , " The List " , " Father of the Bride "
Season 12 : " Maid Man " , " Genetic Disorder " , " Trends with Benefits " , " Altered Stakes "
Season 13 : " Play Dead " , " CSI on Fire " , " Dead of the Class " , " Skin in the Game "
Season 14 : " Last Supper "
Fox remained a series regular until CSI 's final episode , " Immortality " .
= = Fictional character biography = =
Sidle was born on September 16 , 1971 , in Tomales Bay , an hour and a half north of San Francisco . Her father was abusive , alcoholic until Sidle 's schizophrenic mother , Laura , killed him , in 1984 . When searching for records of the crime in the Season 5 episode " No Humans Involved , " she searches for records from Modesto . Afterward , she spent time in the foster care system , which didn 't keep her from graduating high school as valedictorian at age 16 . She attended Harvard on a scholarship , moving on to graduate school at the University of California , Berkeley . While at Berkeley , she started a work @-@ study position at the San Francisco Coroner ’ s Office , where she would also audit lectures to keep up with new developments ; it was at one of these that she met Gil Grissom .
Some time later , while she was working in San Francisco , Grissom called her because he was in need of someone outside the Las Vegas team . Sidle went to Las Vegas and helped resolve some Internal Affairs problems within the CSIs while also providing a replacement for Holly Gribbs , who had been shot . Some episodes later , she became a permanent member of the Night Shift as a CSI Level 3 at the LVPD Criminalistics Bureau , specialising in Materials and Element Analysis . In Season 8 , Sidle briefly changed from Nights to Swing . In the Season 10 premiere , it is revealed Sara is now married to Grissom . In Season 13 , Episode 15 , Sara revealed that Grissom had split up with her . However in series finale Immortality , Sara and Grissom are ultimately re @-@ united .
= = Character development = =
Perhaps because of her traumatic childhood , Sidle has demonstrated compassion and empathy for victims of domestic violence , and fury against their abusers . She also has a soft spot for animals , and became a vegetarian after she saw Grissom conduct an experiment on a dead pig . She has also shown a tendency to become very aggressive when under pressure or annoyed , especially in cases involving abused women - such as her arguments with Catherine and Ecklie , and engaging in a heated argument with a man suspected of murdering his wife . In recent years , perhaps because of her mother 's schizophrenia , Sara has been seen to work several cases with a mental health aspect . An example of this is when she was able to calm Agent Moore 's schizphrenic son in " 418 / 427 " , as well as her open attitude to the A Pharaoh 's Motorists team in " Dune And Gloom " .
In the early years of the show , Sidle is depicted as antisocial . Her hobbies are all work @-@ related ( listening to her police scanner and reading forensic journals ) ; and she claims to prefer working with corpses over live people . In a mid @-@ second season episode , she realizes how much she is missing out on and decides to " get a life " outside of work . During season three she dates a paramedic named Hank Pettigrew , but this relationship ends later in the season when she discovered that he had a longtime girlfriend . Later in the third season , she is injured in an explosion in the lab in search of Grissom , at the end of the episode she decides to ask Grissom to dinner though he turns her down , stating he doesn 't know what to do about " this . " .
During the fourth and fifth seasons , Sidle seems to be on a downward spiral as her memories of childhood resurface , with cases becoming more difficult for her emotionally . Also , the fact that Grissom decided to promote Nick Stokes instead of Sidle , did not help . Season Four concludes with Sidle being stopped by a traffic cop . Although she is driving under the influence , she is not charged , but Grissom , as her supervisor , is informed of her arrest . He arrives at the station to bring her home , and finally seems to notice her emotional state . Later , in season five , she loses her temper with a domestic abuse suspect and then argues with supervisors Catherine Willows and Conrad Ecklie , which results in her suspension . Following this incident , she admits to Grissom that she has a problem with authority , has chosen emotionally unavailable men ( like Grissom ) , and has a self @-@ destructive streak . Sidle then opens up to him and reveals her family story ; it is during this season that she apparently starts bonding with Grissom . During the subsequent seasons ( sixth and seventh ) , after it is revealed that they are in a relationship , she appears to be happier and on a more even keel .
In CSI 's eighth season , when Fox decided to leave the show , both she and the writers decided not to kill the character , so as to leave the door open for a possible comeback . Consequently , Sara Sidle is submerged into depression after she is abducted in the season seven finale ( she is rescued in the first episode of the new season ) , and , even though she accepts Grissom 's marriage proposal on the season 's fourth episode , she shows signs of burnout during the subsequent episodes , breaking down on the season 's seventh episode , leaving Las Vegas with only a goodbye letter for Grissom in which she tells him she loves him - also kissing him out of the blue in front of another colleague - and a good luck note for Ronnie Lake ( played by Jessica Lucas ) . In the letter she states that ever since her father 's death she has been living with " ghosts " and that she now needs to go away and deal with them before self @-@ destructing .
In the season eight episode " You Kill Me " , Grissom indicates he has talked with Sidle and that she is in San Francisco visiting her mother .
Promos for the season nine premiere announced that actress Jorja Fox would return as Sara , and showed her in three clips . However , Sidle left again after the second episode . She appeared again in the final scene of the tenth episode of season nine when she appears to be working on a research team in Costa Rica , where Grissom joins her after leaving CSI . Then they are married
During the tenth season , Fox returned to CSI on a recurring basis . This recurring role continued until the eleventh season of the show . Sara is brought back by Under @-@ Sheriff Ecklie to aid the lab , which has undergone staffing cuts as a result of Warrick 's death and the resignation of his replacement , Riley Adams . Adams was revealed to have resigned as a result of Catherine 's poor management and lack of teamwork ; when Catherine reveals this to Sara , Sara reminds Catherine that Grissom had her ( Catherine ) as a number two , prompting the promotion of Nick Stokes to Assistant Supervisor .
= = Relationships = =
Sara Sidle 's romantic relationships have been largely unsuccessful . In the first season she named a college boyfriend , Ken Fuller , with whom she had an unsatisfactory relationship , also saying that they had joined the Mile high club ( Unfriendly Skies ) . In season seven she mentioned a college boyfriend who cheated on her . It is unclear whether Fuller was also the boyfriend who cheated on her . In the third season she had a casual relationship with Hank Pettigrew , who was an emergency medical technician . He was involved in several of her cases , but they later broke up after she found out Hank had a longtime girlfriend .
During the first seasons , coroner David Phillips , laboratory technician Greg Sanders , and fellow CSI Nick Stokes occasionally flirted with her , but nothing more than friendship resulted from those flirtations .
= = = Gil Grissom = = =
Since CSI 's first season there were hints that both Sara Sidle and Gil Grissom were interested in each other romantically ; in fact , the show 's producers initially introduced Sara Sidle as a future love interest for Grissom . However , during the show 's first three seasons Grissom flirted with other female characters , and when she asked him out to dinner he rejected her , saying that he didn 't know what to do about what was going on between them .
In season four , Grissom 's true feelings were revealed in " Butterflied " , an episode that centers entirely around Grissom exploring his attraction to Sidle when confronted with a dead woman who bore a striking resemblance to her . In this episode , Grissom admitted that he was unable to risk his career to be with her . In this season Sara Sidle apparently developed a drinking problem , which Grissom acknowledged in the season finale . In the next season , Sidle was suspended for insubordination and told Grissom about her tormented childhood . He refused to fire her and had her working with him in almost every episode from season six and season seven .
It was not until the sixth season finale that it is revealed that Grissom and Sidle have worked through whatever issues they had and are , in fact , a couple . In season eight it was revealed they have been intimately involved for two years . This revelation caused mixed emotions from fans , some of whom see this relationship as CSI " jumping the shark , " an attempt to include more drama and romance to the show to compete with the medical drama Grey 's Anatomy , which airs in the U.S. at the same time . By resolving the sexual tension between the two characters , critics posited that the show might appeal to some of Grey 's younger audience . This has been denied by the writers . In one interview , producer Carol Mendelsohn said that she has never been able to see Grissom with any other character other than Sidle and that this episode was seen by the writers as the right time to reveal the relationship . Jorja Fox and William Petersen have also said that the relationship between their characters is not new .
Throughout season seven the audience saw Grissom and Sidle as a couple , but the relationship was kept secret from the others in the lab until Sidle 's abduction by The Miniature Killer in the season finale , during which Grissom reveals to the team that Sara is the only person he 's ever loved . In season eight , they become engaged to be married , but this storyline is left inconclusive when Sara leaves Grissom with a note three episodes later .
A Season 8 scene - cut from its intended episode due to time constraints - showed Catherine Willows visiting Grissom 's apartment to update him on a case . While he is in his bedroom , she snoops around and finds a woman 's dressing robe in his closet . She then notices a photograph of Gil and Sara together on the fridge . When Grissom emerges from his room , she asks him " How long have you and Sara been together ? " He tries to make a quick exit but not before she tells him she 'd always thought he was a lonely bachelor , to which his response is to laugh and leave .
In the tenth episode of season nine , " One to Go " , Grissom is seen walking through a rain forest holding a GPS System that places him in Costa Rica . He spots a bug on a leaf , but continues , eventually arriving at a camp where Sidle is seen taking a picture of a monkey in a tree . Sidle then sees Grissom , who removes his backpack and walks into Sidle 's arms and greets her with a passionate kiss .
In " Family Affair " , the first episode of Season 10 , Sidle returns to work in the laboratory on a temporary basis , revealing that she and Grissom are now married and have been living in Paris while Grissom conducts a seminar at the Sorbonne .
In " The Two Mrs. Grissoms " , Sara attends a party for a school for the deaf . She then gets a call from Grissom during a Taiko drum performance . It was revealed that Grissom was in Peru consulting for the government . She then meets Grissom 's mother , Betty , and two deaf professors , at which one of them ends up dead in a car explosion .
Grissom 's mother ends up criticising Sara for not spending much time with Grissom .
At the end of the episode , she is shown talking with Grissom on a webcam , eventually having his mother walk into the office . Grissom then said that he will return to Vegas to have dinner with Sara and his mother .
At the end of " Malice in Wonderland " Grissom sends Sara two plants with a note saying " From Grissom "
Hints of a troubled relationship appear in several episodes in Season 13 . In the episode " Forget Me Not " Sara finally reveals that she and Grissom had split up . In the end of the episode , she admitted to Nick and Greg that at the night of the murder she was expecting to see Grissom ; Nick even admits that he and everyone else that worked with Grissom liked having them both together to sort of hang on to but realized that if the relationship is over , it 's over .
After remaining separated for a number of years , Grissom and Sara are re @-@ united in the series finale Immortality , when a case involving a suicide bomber brings Grissom temporarily back to the Las Vegas crime lab . The series ends with the pair sailing away together into the sunset , their relationship apparently rekindled .
William Petersen has said that what Grissom loves about Sid | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
moderate financial success at both the box office and in home video sales . In 1998 it was followed by a direct @-@ to @-@ video sequel FernGully 2 : The Magical Rescue , though none of the original voice cast reprised their roles .
= = Plot = =
Crysta is a fairy with a curious nature living in FernGully , a pristine rainforest free from human intervention . The fairies of FernGully once lived in harmony with humans , but , believe them to have gone extinct after being driven away by a malevolent spirit named Hexxus . Crysta is the apprentice of Magi , a motherly @-@ figure fairy who imprisoned Hexxus in a tree . One day Crysta explores a new part of the forest and meets Batty , a bat who claims to have been experimented on by humans , giving him an unstable personality . She refuses to believe him until she encounters lumberjacks cutting down trees . She sees Zak , a young human whom Crysta accidentally shrinks when she tries to save him from being crushed by a falling tree , though does not know how to restore him to normal size .
The tree that Hexxus is imprisoned in is cut down by Tony and Ralph , Zak 's superiors . Hexxus quickly begins to regain his powers by feeding on pollution . He manipulates the humans to drive to FernGully . In FernGully , Zak meets Pips , a fairy male who is envious of Zak 's relationship with Crysta . Zak begins to fall in love with Crysta , but hides the true reason that the humans had returned . When the signs of Hexxus 's resurrection begin to manifest themselves in poisoned trees and rivers , he finally admits that humans are destroying the forest . The fairies mount an attempt to defend their homes , but knowing their fight is hopeless , Zak convinces Batty to aid him in stopping the machine before it destroys them . When Zak makes his presence known to his bosses , Hexxus takes over the machine and begins to wildly destroy the forest .
Magi sacrifices herself to give the fairies a chance , and she tells Crysta to remember everything she 's learned . Zak manages to stop the machine , seemingly killing Hexxus by stopping his power at the source , but he manifests himself within the oil in the machine and begins to ignite the forest ablaze . Crysta seemingly sacrifices herself by allowing herself to be devoured by Hexxus and all seems lost , until he begins to sprout limbs and leaves like a tree . Pips and the rest of the fairies rally to the powers they have been given , which causes the seed that Crysta fed him to start growing wildly . Hexxus is made dormant and turned into a twisted tree at the very border of FernGully . Crysta appears after the fight , having survived her ordeal and successfully succeeded Magi as a magical fairy . She gives Zak a seed , begging him to remember everything that has transpired and she sadly restores him to his human size . Remembering the seed in his hand , Zak promises to remember his adventure , and buries the seed in the soil before telling his superiors that things " gotta change " before leaving the forest with them . The seed sprouts new growth for Ferngully , as Crysta follows Pips with Batty behind her .
= = Cast = =
= = Themes = =
In the book Disney , Pixar , and the Hidden Messages of Children 's Films , M. Keith Booker states that FernGully " focuses on the theme of the destruction of the earth ’ s rainforests . In this case the rainforest is located near Mount Warning , on the eastern coast of Australia , but the theme is global and the specific location is not particularly emphasized " . Despite the environmental theme Booker stated the film was " somewhat vague in its explanation of the dire consequences of rainforest destruction and it addresses the economic impetus behind this destruction hardly at all " ; the fact that the rainforest was saved at the end of the film " diminishes the urgency of its environmentalist message " and that the character of Hexxus " displaces the real blame for environmental destruction from its real perpetrators onto nonexistent supernatural perpetrators , further diluting the political message . " The character of Batty was said to introduce " the secondary theme of animal experimentation , though with a light touch that presents this potentially horrifying motif as essentially humorous . "
In the book Eco @-@ Impacts and the Greening of Postmodernity , Tom Jagtenberg and David McKie comment that radical views of ecology flourished in the film , perhaps because it was " aimed at a younger generation ... and belong [ s ] to relatively discredited genres " . As Zak is shrunk to fairy size and integrated into the fairy world , more similarities rather than differences are implied with the nonhuman characters . Crysta is said to defeat the evil Hexxus " in the manner of classic western genre heroes " , though with the key difference that her weapon is a seed rather than a revolver , allowing the produce of nature to share the heroic role with her .
= = Production = =
Producer Wayne Young said his passion for the environment was his motivation for making the film , saying the film was " blatantly environmental , although we have gone to a lot of trouble to avoid preaching . We also want it to be viewed as entertainment . " The inspiration for FernGully came from stories written by his former wife , Diana Young . Diana first wrote the story of FernGully 15 years prior to the film 's release . Wayne said the couple planned a film adaptation for five years , then spent " seven years of dreaming and hustling , followed by another three years of production " . Wayne stated their dream was not possible until the success of the 1989 film The Little Mermaid , which brought popularity back to animation . Hand drawn scenes in the film were complimented by computer animation , which was used to create elements such as flocks of birds that would have taken much longer to animate traditionally . Kroyer states 40 @,@ 000 frames of computer animation were used in the film , and that the use of such animation halved the production time . Most of the film 's $ 24 million budget was spent on the animation and the soundtrack .
The film marked Robin Williams ' first animation role , with the character Batty Koda being created specifically for him . Williams provided 14 hours worth of improvised lines for the part which was originally only supposed to be an 8 @-@ minute role . Director Bill Kroyer was so impressed with the voice work he ended up tripling the screen time given to the character . Williams went on to provide the critically applauded voice of the Genie in Disney 's Aladdin later the same year . Williams accepted the role in FernGully because he agreed with the film 's message , as did the rest of the voice cast , who all worked for scale wages . The film marked the first time that both members of Cheech & Chong had worked together in six years , with the two voicing beetle brothers Stump and Root . Cheech Marin said " It was just like old times , but we only worked for two or three hours , had a pizza and split . "
= = = Soundtracks = = =
The soundtrack album was released by MCA Records . Peter Fawthrop from Allmusic gave the album three out of five stars , commenting that the songs were " lighter and more pop @-@ driven than Disney soundtracks from the ' 90s , but they are not childish . " The score of FernGully , which was composed by Alan Silvestri , was also released for sale . It consisted of 14 tracks and ran just under 44 minutes in length .
= = Release = =
FernGully was released in the United States on April 10 , 1992 and in Australia on September 17 . The film was shown at the United Nations General Assembly on Earth Day , April 22 , 1992 .
= = = Box office = = =
FernGully grossed US $ 32 @,@ 710 @,@ 894 worldwide , including $ 24 @,@ 650 @,@ 296 from the United States , and A $ 3 @.@ 4 million in Australia . The box office performance was described as a moderate success though it was considered to have done less well than expected , possibly due to its ecological message . Joseph Gelmis from Newsday , however , described FernGully 's box office performance as " dismal " , though noted it was the most successful recent non @-@ Disney animated film . Co @-@ executive producer Jaime Willett and Josh Baran who worked on the film 's marketing both spoke of the difficulties of getting attention to an animated film that was not produced by Disney , with Willett stating box office revenue would have at least doubled by simply having the headline " Walt Disney presents " on the film . An article in USA Today noted that the combined box office gross of FernGully and the five other non @-@ Disney animated films released in 1992 did not even equal a third of the gross for Disney 's 1991 film Beauty and the Beast .
= = = Critical response = = =
FernGully received generally positive reviews . The film holds an approval rating of 71 % at Rotten Tomatoes based on 14 reviews ( 10 positive , 4 negative ) . Film critic Roger Ebert gave it three out of four stars , saying the film was visually " very pleasing , " told a " useful lesson " , " and although the movie is not a masterpiece it 's pleasant to watch for its humor and sweetness . " Hollis Chacona from The Austin Chronicle added that the film was " funny , pretty , touching , scary , magical stuff . " Janet Maslin of The New York Times had an unfavourable impression of the film , describing it as " [ a ] n uncertain blend of sanctimonious principles and Saturday @-@ morning cartoon aesthetics " . According to Wayne Young , Jeffrey Katzenberg , then CEO of Walt Disney , called the producers of FernGully just to tell them that he loved the film .
= = = Legacy = = =
Wayne Young stated that portions of the film 's gross would be donated to Greenpeace , the Rainforest Foundation Fund , and the Sierra Club , as well as a special fund benefiting environmental projects worldwide that was administered by the Smithsonian Institution , though he did not disclose exact figures .
In 1998 the film was followed by a direct @-@ to @-@ video sequel , FernGully 2 : The Magical Rescue . None of the original voice cast reprised their roles , and the film was less critically successful than the original . Mike Boon from the Calgary Herald gave a negative review , lamenting the loss of Robin Williams and the originality of the first film . Some reviewers have commented that the 2009 James Cameron film Avatar plagiarised thematic and plot elements from FernGully , though others have been more sceptical of the comparison .
= = Home media = =
Four months after the theatrical release , 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment released FernGully on VHS and Laserdisc on August 26 , 1992 . Sales were strong , with approximately five million units sold by 1998 , including 125 @,@ 000 in Australia .
Fox re @-@ released the film on DVD in 2001 . Christopher Simons from DVD Talk gave the 2001 DVD three and a half stars out of five for both audio and video , though only one star for special features , noting that the only extras included were trailers for other films . A " Family Fun Edition " DVD was released in 2005 . Special features included commentary with director Bill Kroyer , art director Ralph Eggleston , and co @-@ ordinating art director Susan Kroyer , several featurettes including the original featurette from 1992 , the music video for If I 'm Gonna Eat Somebody ( It Might As Well Be You ) by Tone Lōc , as well as trailers and TV spots . Scott Weinberg from DVD Talk gave this version four stars out of five for both audio and video , and also four stars for special features .
FernGully was released on Blu @-@ ray Disc on March 6 , 2012 , containing the same special features as the " Family Fun Edition " . Aaron peck from High Def Digest gave it three out of five stars for video quality , four stars for audio and three and a half stars for extras . Brian Orndorf from Blu @-@ ray.com gave the release three out of five stars for video quality , three and a half stars for audio and four stars for special features .
= Craigiehall =
Craigiehall is a late @-@ 17th @-@ century country house , which until 2015 served as the Headquarters of the British Army in Scotland . It is located close to Cramond , around 9 km ( 5 @.@ 6 mi ) west of central Edinburgh , Scotland .
Craigiehall was designed by Sir William Bruce , with input from James Smith , and completed in 1699 for the Earl of Annandale , who had recently acquired the Craigie estate through marriage . It is a good surviving example of one of Bruce 's smaller houses , and set a pattern for such villas in the Edinburgh area for the 18th century .
It was later the home of Charles Hope @-@ Weir , who made several improvements to the estate policies . Craigiehall was extended several times , before being sold to the Earl of Rosebery , who leased out the property . It was briefly a hotel and country club , before being requisitioned by the Army at the outbreak of the Second World War . Craigiehall continues to be used as the Army 's Scottish Headquarters . The house has been protected as a category A listed building since 1971 , as a substantial 17th @-@ century classical house , worked on by several notable architects .
= = Early history = =
The estate of Craigie is recorded as belonging to one John de Craigie in the reign of David I ( 1124 – 1153 ) . In 1387 the estate passed by marriage to John Stewart , son of Sir Robert Stewart of Durisdeer . The Stewarts sold the estate , which by this time had a tower house , in 1643 to John Fairholm , treasurer to the City of Edinburgh . In 1682 John Fairholm 's granddaughter Sophia , aged only 14 , married William Johnstone , 2nd Earl of Annandale , and Craigiehall changed ownership again . Only two built features on the estate date from before this time ; the 17th century east sundial , and the ruined doocot , or pigeon house , dated 1672 . The east sundial is one of only 25 obelisk @-@ type sundials in Scotland , and was re @-@ erected to the east of the house in 1965 , after being found in a field to the south of the house .
= = The Bruce house = =
The couple set about planning a new house to replace the aging tower house , and in 1694 the Earl contacted Sir William Bruce , who promised to design " a convenient little house , gardings and courts " . The property was surveyed by John Adair , and the old tower house was taken down . The survey took the place of a site visit by Bruce , who was at this time under virtual house arrest , due to his political leanings , and suspected Jacobite sympathies . Design submissions were also obtained from James Smith and Robert Mylne . Smith 's scheme was judged too small and irregular by Bruce , who urged the Earl to agree to his own " modish and regullar designe " . However , the house as built by Bruce is partially based on Smith 's early design . Before work on the house commenced , a courtyard , 500 by 400 feet ( 150 by 120 m ) across , was laid out , establishing the formal arrangement in which the house would sit . On 16 February 1698 , a contract was signed between Lord Annandale and the mason Thomas Bauchop , for a house 64 by 46 feet ( 20 by 14 m ) , and 28 feet ( 8 @.@ 5 m ) high , all " according to the modell of wood and draught signed by Sir William Bruce of Kinross " .
Bruce 's new house was complete by 1699 , and was worked on by many of the same craftsmen who were engaged by Bruce at nearby Hopetoun House , which was under construction at the same time . Craftsmen included the plasterers John McKay and Thomas Albur , cabinet maker William Scott , plumber Joseph Foster , smith Alexander Gardener , and the wright Andrew Barclay . The staircase , with its wrought @-@ iron balustrade decorated with roses , thistles , tulips and oak leaves , bears many similarities to the one at Caroline Park , Granton , and was the work of the smiths James Storrie and James Horne .
The building comprises a compact , three @-@ storey house , in the Dutch @-@ classical style which was introduced into England by Sir Roger Pratt , and is typical of Bruce 's work . The six @-@ bay entrance front has a two @-@ bay projecting central section , surmounted by a pediment topped by three pineapples , of which one remains . The tympanum is carved with the coat of arms of the Earl and his wife , with their initials ( WEA and SCA for William , Earl of Annandale , and Sophia Countess of Annandale ) and the date 1699 . The roof behind was bell @-@ cast , with a cupola and four tall chimneys symmetrically placed , although this was replaced in the 1950s . The centrally placed entrance is reached by steps , and surmounted by carved decorations . The garden front is similar , and is also topped by a decorated pediment . Once the house was complete , two wings connected by curved passages were added . These incorporated additional accommodation and a library , but the passages and south wing were later demolished .
Inside , Bruce planned two apartments : a state apartment , comprising dining room , drawing room , bedroom and dressing room , with a second smaller apartment to the south . Bruce 's panelling survives in part of the south apartment , which was later turned into a single room . The chimneypiece and wood carving in the " Blue Room " is also 17th century . The centrally placed stairwell , lighted from above , would be developed more fully by Bruce in his design for Hopetoun House .
The walled garden to the north @-@ east was built in 1708 by Alexander McGill , to designs by the Earl of Mar , who also designed the gate piers and garden buildings , and supplied statuary . The garden may have been balanced by a similar walled garden to the south @-@ east of the house . No trace is now visible , but a second garden is shown on 18th century maps of the area , and would have been consistent with Bruce 's symmetrical layout .
= = Charles Hope @-@ Weir 's improvements = =
In 1741 , the 2nd Marquis of Annandale left Craigiehall to his nephew , Charles Hope @-@ Weir ( 1710 – 1791 ) , second son of Charles Hope , 1st Earl of Hopetoun . Hope @-@ Weir travelled to Europe on the grand tour in 1754 @-@ 55 , taking with him the young architect Robert Adam , and was inspired to improve the Craigiehall policies on his return . A walled forecourt and the formal gardens in front of the house were removed . He also planted numerous trees across the estate , laid out avenues , and had several garden buildings constructed . A lake was excavated , and a new bridge over the River Almond was constructed to link the neighbouring estate of Lennie , which Hope @-@ Weir had bought in 1750 .
= = = Bridge , grotto and bath house = = =
The rustic arched Grotto Bridge is dated 1757 . It bears Hope @-@ Weir 's initials , with the inscription UTILI DULCI , taken from Horace , and translatable as " the useful with the sweet " . It was built to a design by " J. Adam " , either John or James , Robert 's brothers . The bridge spans a particularly picturesque section of the Almond , with rapids flowing under the single span .
Upstream from the bridge is a grotto and bath house , built in a similar rustic style and presumably by the same architect . The bath house is a square vaulted chamber , with a plunge pool fed by river water . The upper chamber comprises a circular saloon with windows , although this is now roofless and in poor condition . The original roof was a conical thatched structure , and a niche on the exterior wall may have housed a statue .
= = = Craigiehall Temple = = =
An avenue of oak trees runs up Lennie Hill from the Grotto Bridge . At the summit , Hope @-@ Weir had an ornamental temple built in 1759 , commanding wide views of the expanded estate and beyond . Craigiehall Temple was a circular two @-@ storey structure , with a stair tower at the rear and a pedimented portico on the front . The segmental pediment bears the arms of the 1st Marquess of Annandale , and so predates the temple . In The Buildings of Scotland : Edinburgh , it is suggested that this portico may have formed part of a gate to the forecourt of the house . If so , it may have been made by Alexander McGill , to a design by John Erskine , Earl of Mar. It was incorporated into the temple , which was again to the design of one of the Adam brothers . A Latin inscription on the temple , again from Horace , can be translated as " live happy while you can among joyful things " . The structure was burned by vandals in the early 1970s , and in 1977 the upper storey was removed as a hazard to aviation , following the development of a new longer runway at nearby Edinburgh Airport . The remaining storey was renovated , and now forms part of a private house .
= = Extensions and additions = =
In 1818 Hope @-@ Weir 's grandson James Hope @-@ Vere ( 1785 – 1843 ) asked Thomas Brown to provide designs for an attic extension , although this was never carried out . Ten years later , William Burn was commissioned to design a new north wing , incorporating a dining room , with new kitchens below and bedrooms above . The front of this extension was topped by a pediment matching Bruce 's original , complete with pineapples , although this too was removed in the 1950s . The rear is bowed , with a curved stair led down to the garden at the rear . Plans for a matching wing to the south were never carried out . Burn also remodelled the interior , creating a large drawing room from the rooms of the south apartment .
James ' son William ( 1824 – 1916 ) commissioned David Bryce to design a further northern extension in 1853 , forming a servant 's range , and to remodel some of the interiors . William also rebuilt the 18th century stable court and clock tower between 1843 and 1872 . It was William 's son Colonel James Hope @-@ Vere ( 1858 – 1933 ) who sold the estate , upon his father 's death in 1916 , to the Earl of Rosebery for £ 85 @,@ 0000 .
= = Early 20th century = =
Lord Rosebery had purchased Craigiehall as a home for his second son Neil Primrose MP , who was killed in Gaza during the First World War . In 1926 Rosebery therefore decided to lease the house and policies , although the agricultural lands continue to be farmed as part of Lord Rosebery 's neighbouring Dalmeny estate . The lease was taken by Mr James Morton , an Edinburgh textile manufacturer , who commissioned Robert Lorimer to make various alterations , the property having stood empty for ten years . Lorimer added the oriel window on the south front , and modernised many of Bruce 's remaining interiors . A water turbine was constructed in the bath house to provide electricity .
In 1933 Craigiehall was re @-@ let to Ernest Thompson , who turned Craigiehall into the Riverside Hotel and Country Club . Thompson operated the 25 @-@ room hotel and golf course successfully until 1939 , when Craigiehall , like many other country houses , was requisitioned for the use of the armed forces .
= = Army Headquarters Scotland = =
Various regiments were stationed at Craigiehall Camp during the Second World War , including Royal Artillery , Royal Signals , and anti @-@ aircraft units . On 12 May 1945 , the surrender of German forces in Norway was negotiated and signed at Craigiehall . A rumour , related in Major Innes ' book , states that Rudolf Hess was brought to Craigiehall after he flew to Scotland in 1941 to contact the Duke of Hamilton . This rumour is based on a photograph of Hess supposedly once on display at Craigiehall , although the story is not corroborated .
After the war , Ernest Thompson exercised an option of his lease allowing him to buy Craigiehall from Lord Rosebery . However , the army had still not moved out , and in 1948 offered to purchase the property from Thompson , finally completing the sale in 1951 . Through the early 1950s the Army made alterations to Craigiehall . The original roof was replaced in 1953 due to woodworm , and extra rooms added in the attic . This resulted in the loss of Bruce 's chimneys , and Burn 's dining room pediment . Internally the house was redecorated , it being considered that there was too little of the original scheme remaining to allow restoration . Another extension was added , this time to the north @-@ west , to house the staff of the General Officer Commanding @-@ in @-@ Chief ( GOC ) in Scotland .
Elsewhere on the Camp , the Army began replacing the wartime Nissen huts with more permanent structures . New barracks opened in 1955 , and the Headquarters of the Army in Scotland arrived the same year from Edinburgh Castle . Further land was purchased from Lord Rosebery and married quarters were built close to the river . In 1966 , a purpose @-@ built office block , by architects Bowhill Gibson and Laing , was constructed within the walled garden , and named Annandale Block in honour of the builder of Craigiehall . Craigiehall Camp was also the site of a Cold War Anti @-@ Aircraft Operations Room , built in the 1950s .
Following restructuring , the army in Scotland became part of the 2nd Division , whose headquarters moved to Craigiehall Camp from York . Craigiehall itself was formerly the HQ of the Black Watch regiment , and now serves as the Officers ' Mess for the camp . As of 2007 , around 250 people , including civilian and military personnel , are employed at Craigiehall . In March 2007 , the Ministry of Defence announced plans for a new headquarters building at Craigiehall . Under the plans , the existing Annandale Block would be demolished , and the walled garden in which it stands would be restored . The new building was to be constructed elsewhere on the grounds , and was granted planning permission in September 2007 . On 14 December 2007 , defence ministers from eight NATO countries met at Craigiehall to discuss the role of NATO troops involved in Afghanistan . Among the ministers attending were Des Browne from the UK , Robert Gates from the US , and Joel Fitzgibbon from Australia . A protest march was organised , attracting around 30 demonstrators .
In July 2011 , following a Defence Basing Review carried out by the Ministry of Defence , it was announced that Craigiehall , along with Dreghorn Barracks and Redford Barracks also in Edinburgh , would be closing in 2014 – 2015 . The review proposed a single UK Support Command , based at Aldershot , to replace three existing divisional headquarters including HQ 2nd Division , based at Craigiehall , which would be disbanded in 2012 . Other units at Craigiehall would form part of a new multi @-@ role brigade to be based at Kirknewton . Craigiehall Camp would be earmarked for disposal . Although plans to develop Kirknewton as an Army barracks were scrapped in March 2013 , in early 2016 , the UK Government announced that the site was one of 12 that will be sold as part of the strategy for the MOD estate . No date for the sale was given . In 2014 Army Headquarters Scotland was merged with 51st Infantry Brigade at Forthside , Stirling .
= Postman 's Park =
Postman 's Park is a park in central London , a short distance north of St Paul 's Cathedral . Bordered by Little Britain , Aldersgate Street , St. Martin 's Le Grand , King Edward Street , and the site of the former headquarters of the General Post Office ( GPO ) , it is one of the largest parks in the City of London , the walled city which gives its name to modern London . Its name reflects its popularity amongst workers from the nearby GPO 's headquarters .
Postman 's Park opened in 1880 on the site of the former churchyard and burial ground of St Botolph 's Aldersgate church and expanded over the next 20 years to incorporate the adjacent burial grounds of Christ Church Greyfriars and St Leonard , Foster Lane , together with the site of housing demolished during the widening of Little Britain in 1880 ; the ownership of the last location became the subject of a lengthy dispute between the church authorities , the General Post Office , the Treasury , and the City Parochial Foundation . A shortage of space for burials in London meant that corpses were often laid on the ground and covered over with soil , thus elevating the park above the streets which surround it .
In 1900 , the park became the location for George Frederic Watts 's Memorial to Heroic Self Sacrifice , a memorial to ordinary people who died while saving the lives of others and who might otherwise be forgotten , in the form of a loggia and long wall housing ceramic memorial tablets . Only four of the planned 120 memorial tablets were in place at the time of its opening , with a further nine tablets added during Watts 's lifetime . Watts 's wife , Mary Watts , took over the management of the project after Watts 's death in 1904 and oversaw the installation of a further 35 memorial tablets in the following four years along with a small monument to Watts . Later she became disillusioned with the new tile manufacturer and , with her time and money increasingly occupied by the running of the Watts Gallery , she lost interest in the project , and only five further tablets were added during her lifetime .
In 1972 , key elements of the park , including the Memorial to Heroic Self Sacrifice , were grade II listed to preserve their character . Following the 2004 film Closer , based on the 1997 play Closer by Patrick Marber , Postman 's Park experienced a resurgence of interest ; key scenes of both were set in the park itself . In June 2009 , a city worker , Jane Shaka ( née Michele ) , via the Diocese of London added a new tablet to the Memorial , the first new addition for 78 years . In November 2013 a free mobile app , The Everyday Heroes of Postman ’ s Park , was launched which documents the lives and deaths of those commemorated on the memorial .
= = Historical background = =
The 13th @-@ century church of St Leonard , Foster Lane , about 200 yards ( 180 m ) north of St Paul 's Cathedral on Foster Lane , was badly damaged in the 1666 Great Fire of London , and was not considered to be worth the cost of repair . Instead its parish was united with that of the nearby Christ Church Greyfriars , which was rebuilt after the fire to a design by Sir Christopher Wren ; the incumbent from that time onwards has held the joint titles of Vicar of Christ Church Greyfriars and Rector of St Leonard , Foster Lane . Although destroyed in 1666 , the ruins of St Leonard , Foster Lane , were not cleared until the early 19th century .
Despite the unification of the parishes , they continued to operate separate burial grounds . That of Christ Church Greyfriars was a short distance north @-@ east of the church , on the eastern side of King Edward Street , while St Leonard , Foster Lane 's , was about 50 feet ( 15 m ) further east .
Immediately outside the London Wall at Aldersgate , a short distance north of St Leonard , Foster Lane on Little Britain , is the church of St Botolph 's Aldersgate ( sometimes referred to as " St Botolph Without Aldersgate " , a reference to its position immediately outside the historic city gate ) . Although the original church , first mentioned in 1493 , had survived the Great Fire , it was demolished between 1754 and 1757 and replaced in 1790 by the current building .
St Botolph 's Aldersgate was a wealthy parish , having been granted the assets of the nearby Cluniac priory and hospital during the 16th @-@ century Dissolution of the Monasteries . The parish was historically a significant place of worship , possibly best known as the site of the evangelical conversions of John Wesley and Charles Wesley .
To the immediate south @-@ west of the church building , St Botolph 's Aldersgate owned an irregularly shaped churchyard enclosed by Aldersgate Street to the east , the Christ Church Greyfriars burial ground to the west , housing and the burial ground of St Leonard , Foster Lane , to the south and housing along Little Britain to the north . The churchyard was used as a burial ground and as a public open space . As with other City churchyards , as the amount of available burial space in London failed to keep pace with the growing population it came to be used exclusively as a burial ground .
Postman 's Park has always been situated in the ward of Aldersgate . Its association with ( and location within ) that ward was reaffirmed in the most recent boundary review that took place in 2010 ; the ward boundary will be drawn around the southern edge of the park upon boundary changes effected in 2013 .
= = Closure of London 's burial grounds = =
The severe lack of burial space in London meant that graves would be frequently reused in London 's burial grounds , and the difficulty of digging without disturbing existing graves led to bodies often simply being stacked on top of each other to fit the available space and covered with a layer of earth . Differing numbers of parishioners in each parish led to burial grounds being used at different rates , and by the mid @-@ 19th century , the ground level of the St Botolph 's Aldersgate churchyard was 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) above that of the Christ Church Greyfriars burial ground , and 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) above that of the St Leonard , Foster Lane , burial ground .
In 1831 and 1848 , serious outbreaks of cholera had overwhelmed the crowded cemeteries of London , causing bodies to be stacked in heaps awaiting burial , and even relatively recent graves to be exhumed to make way for new burials . Public health policy at this time was generally shaped by the miasma theory , and the bad smells and risks of disease caused by piled bodies and exhumed rotting corpses caused great public concern .
A Royal Commission established in 1842 to investigate the problem concluded that London 's burial grounds were so overcrowded that it was impossible to dig a new grave without cutting through an existing one . Sir Edwin Chadwick testified that each year , 20 @,@ 000 adults and 30 @,@ 000 children were being buried in less than 218 acres ( 88 ha ) of already overcrowded burial grounds ; the Commission heard that one cemetery , Spa Fields in Clerkenwell , designed to hold 1 @,@ 000 bodies , contained 80 @,@ 000 graves , and that gravediggers throughout London were obliged to shred bodies in order to cram the remains into available grave space .
= = = The Burials Act 1851 = = =
In the wake of public concerns following the cholera epidemics and the findings of the Royal Commission , the Act to Amend the Laws Concerning the Burial of the Dead in the Metropolis ( Burials Act ) was passed in 1851 . Under the Burials Act , new burials were prohibited in what were then the built @-@ up areas of London . Seven large cemeteries had recently opened a short distance from London and temporarily became London 's main burial grounds , and in 1849 the 2 @,@ 200 @-@ acre ( 890 ha ) Brookwood Cemetery in Brookwood , Surrey , with space for 240 @,@ 000 graves , was opened by the London Necropolis Company . Connected to London by the London Necropolis Railway in 1854 , it was at the time the world 's largest cemetery . It was projected that , on the basis of one body per grave with each grave being reused after 10 years , Brookwood Cemetery would suffice to house the dead of London forever .
With London 's churchyards and burial grounds no longer used for new burials , in 1858 it was decided to convert the churchyard of St Botolph 's Aldersgate to a public park . On 30 November 1858 , the Churchwardens of St Botolph 's Aldersgate announced that :
The Churchwardens of the above parish hereby give notice that they intend to plant , pave , or cover over the churchyard and burial @-@ ground . Persons having relatives interred in the said churchyard or burial @-@ ground will be permitted ( under certain regulations ) to remove and inter the remains of such relatives in any burial @-@ ground or cemetery , without the city . Persons also , to the memory of whose relatives any tomb , monument , or inscription may have been erected therein , may ( under the like regulations ) cause such tomb or grave @-@ stones to be removed and taken away ; but such removal , in either case , must be at the expense of the persons causing the same to be done . Applications for either of the above purposes must be made , in writing , on or before Monday , the 20th day of December , 1858 .
= = Opening of the public park = =
Progress in clearing and covering the burial ground was slow , and it was not until 28 October 1880 that the churchyard was reopened as a public park . Laid out with flower beds and gravel paths , the park became a popular place for local workers to spend breaks .
In 1887 , the burial ground of Christ Church Greyfriars was given to the parish of St Botolph 's Aldersgate . The burial ground was cleared and the ground level raised by 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) to allow its incorporation into the new park . At this time , the burial ground of St Leonard , Foster Lane was also cleared and raised to integrate it with the new park , although it was not formally merged with the park until 1890 .
A short distance south of the three burial grounds , on St. Martin 's Le Grand , was the site of a collegiate church and sanctuary founded in 750 by Withu , King of Kent , expanded in 1056 by Ingebrian , Earl of Essex and issued with a Royal Charter in 1068 by William the Conqueror . The site of the church was cleared in 1818 in preparation for the construction of a new headquarters and central sorting office for the General Post Office ( GPO ) , which opened in 1829 . In 1873 and 1895 the GPO building was greatly expanded in size , with the 1895 extension bordering the southern edge of the park itself . The park became extremely popular with workers in the GPO building , and soon became known as " Postman 's Park " .
= = = The City Parochial Foundation and the north of the park = = =
Between the northern border of the former St Botolph 's Aldersgate churchyard and Little Britain was a small , roughly triangular 300 @-@ square @-@ yard ( 250 m2 ) piece of land . The site of housing owned by the parish of St Botolph 's Aldersgate and demolished during the widening of Little Britain in 1880 , it had been incorporated into the new park . However , being owned by the parish , in 1891 ownership was formally passed to the newly formed City Parochial Foundation ( CPF ) , which felt itself obliged under charity law to maximise its income from the land . In October 1896 , the CPF fenced off the land from the rest of the park , and announced that it intended to lease the land for building purposes , unless the authorities were willing to purchase the land for £ 12 @,@ 000 ( about £ 1 @.@ 3 million as of 2016 ) .
The City of London had few open spaces , and the proposal to build on the north of the park was extremely unpopular with local residents , workers and social reformers . Henry Fitzalan @-@ Howard , the Postmaster @-@ General , persuaded the Government to contribute £ 5 @,@ 000 towards the cost , and the clergy of St Botolph 's Aldersgate launched an appeal in The Times for the remaining funds .
Reginald Brabazon , 12th Earl of Meath , founder and Chairman of the Metropolitan Public Gardens Association ( MPGA ) , decided to put the weight of his organisation behind the campaign , and through a combination of public donations and donations from the London County Council , Corporation of London and Kyrle Society , raised the remaining £ 7 @,@ 000 in less than six months . At this point a dispute broke out over who would be responsible for the maintenance of the park . The £ 5 @,@ 000 offer from the Treasury was conditional upon the CPF reassigning to the Post Office the £ 200 annual maintenance grant that it currently gave to St Botolph 's Aldersgate ; the CPF maintained that it was happy to do so on condition that the Post Office maintain the park in place of St Botolph 's Aldersgate , but that the Post Office was unwilling to do so . With all parties unable to agree on responsibility for maintenance , on 19 February 1898 the Treasury withdrew its offer altogether , leaving the appeal £ 5 @,@ 000 short .
In the wake of the Treasury 's withdrawal of funding , in May 1898 the churchwardens of St Botolph 's Aldersgate brokered a compromise with the CPF . The disputed site was split into two parts , each priced at £ 6 @,@ 000 . The western section would be purchased immediately using £ 6 @,@ 000 of the £ 7 @,@ 000 already raised , with an option to purchase the eastern section if the remaining £ 5 @,@ 000 could be raised within two years , after which the CPF would go ahead with building plans if the money could not be raised .
As before , the MPGA supported and assisted the new fundraising campaign . However , although the campaign was initially boosted by a £ 1 @,@ 000 donation from Octavia Hill , fundraising was slow , and by October 1898 only £ 2 @,@ 000 had been raised . The churchwardens and the MPGA began to consider ideas for initiatives which would publicise the campaign and provide a reason to justify preserving the whole of the park .
= = George Frederic Watts 's memorial proposals = =
The painter and sculptor George Frederic Watts and his second wife Mary Fraser Tytler had long been advocates of the idea of art as a force for social change . Watts had painted a series of portraits of those figures he considered to be a positive social influence , the " Hall of Fame " , which was donated to the National Portrait Gallery . As the son of a piano maker , who reportedly despised the wealthy and powerful and twice refused a baronetcy , Watts had long considered a national monument to the bravery of ordinary people . In August 1866 , he suggested to his patron Charles Rickards that he " erect a great statue to Unknown Worth " , and proposed erecting a colossal bronze figure . Unable to secure funds , the memorial remained unrealised .
On 5 September 1887 , a letter was published in The Times from Watts , proposing a scheme to commemorate the Golden Jubilee of Queen Victoria . Entitled " Another Jubilee Suggestion " , Watts proposed to " collect a complete record of the stories of heroism in every @-@ day life " . Watts cited the case of Alice Ayres , a servant who , trapped in a burning house , gave up the chance to jump to safety , instead first throwing a mattress out of the window to cushion the fall , before running back into the house three times to fetch her employer 's children and throwing them out of a window onto the mattress to safety before herself being overcome by fumes and falling out of the window to her death .
Watts by this stage had abandoned the idea of a colossal bronze figure , and proposed " a kind of Campo Santo " , consisting of a covered way and marble wall inscribed with the names of everyday heroes , to be built in Hyde Park . Despite an offer of funding from John Passmore Edwards , Watts 's suggestion was not taken up , leading Watts to comment that " if I had proposed a race course round Hyde Park , there would have been plenty of sympathisers " . Watts continued to lobby for such a memorial , with both himself and Mary Watts redrafting their wills to leave the bulk of their estate to the purpose , and considered selling his home , New Little Holland House , to finance the project .
= = The Memorial to Heroic Self Sacrifice = =
In 1898 a friend of Watts suggested to Henry Gamble , Vicar of St Botolph 's Aldersgate , that should the church manage to purchase the land owned by the CPF it would make a suitable site for Watts 's memorial . Watts was approached , and agreed to the suggestion . On 13 October 1898 the appeal was relaunched , with the proposal that if the remaining £ 3 @,@ 000 were raised , Watts would design and build a covered way , which in due course would be lined with memorial tablets to commemorate the bravery of ordinary people . Watts planned to build a covered way around three sides of a quadrangle , with the roof supported on stone or timber columns .
The MPGA were not consulted about the proposal , and the following week Lord Meath wrote to The Times and the City Press to complain about the scheme . He argued that the MPGA had devoted large amounts of time and money to prevent the park from being built on , and that while Watts 's proposal was " worthy of all encouragement and support " , Postman 's Park , at less than one acre ( 0 @.@ 4 ha ) and surrounded by tall buildings , was an inappropriate site . The three @-@ sided design was abandoned , in favour of a 50 @-@ foot ( 15 m ) long and 9 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) tall wooden loggia with a tiled roof , designed by Ernest George . The supporting wall contained space for 120 memorial tablets . St Botolph 's Aldersgate secured the necessary funds to complete the purchase of the CPF land , and Watts agreed to pay the £ 700 ( about £ 71 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) construction costs himself .
Work began in 1899 , and on 30 July 1900 the newly reunified park and Watts 's Memorial to Heroic Self Sacrifice ( also known as the Wall of Heroes ) were unveiled by Alfred Newton , Lord Mayor of London , and Mandell Creighton , Bishop of London . A short service was held in St Botolph 's Aldersgate , after which a short speech was given by Creighton in which he observed that :
It was a good thing that the multitude who took their recreation in this open space should have some great thoughts on which to fix their hearts , some inscriptions before their eyes recalling to them the things which had been done by those who did their duty bravely , simply and straightforwardly in the place where God had placed them . Such were , indeed , the salt of the earth , and it was by producing characters such as theirs that a nation waxed strong .
Watts himself , by now 83 years old , was too ill to attend the ceremony , and was represented by Mary Watts .
= = = William De Morgan memorial tablets = = =
Although Watts 's plans for the memorial had envisaged names inscribed on the wall , in the event the memorial was designed to hold panels of hand @-@ painted and glazed ceramic tiles . Watts was an acquaintance of William De Morgan , at that time one of the world 's leading tile designers , and consequently found them easier and cheaper to obtain than engraved stone . The four initial memorial tablets , installed for the unveiling , each consisted of two large custom @-@ made tiles , with each tablet costing £ 3 5s ( about £ 330 as of 2016 ) to produce . Only four tablets were installed by the time of the unveiling ceremony , and Watts already had concerns about the potential costs of installing the 120 tablets envisaged in the memorial 's design .
Costs were allayed by using standard 6 @-@ inch ( 15 cm ) tiles for the next set of tablets , reducing the costs to a more manageable £ 2 per tablet . In 1902 , nine further tablets were installed , intermittently spaced along the central of the five rows , including the memorial to Alice Ayres for which Watts had lobbied .
The subjects of the 13 initial tiles had been personally selected by Watts , who had for many years maintained a list of newspaper reports of heroic actions potentially worthy of recognition . However , by this time he was in his eighties and in increasingly poor health , and in January 1904 the vicar and churchwardens of St Botolph 's Aldersgate formed the Humble Heroes Memorial Committee to oversee the completion of the project , agreeing to defer to Watts regarding additions to the memorial . Watts strenuously objected to the name , as " not being applicable to anything as splendid as heroic self @-@ sacrifice " , and the committee was renamed the " Heroic Self Sacrifice Memorial Committee " .
On 1 July 1904 George Frederic Watts died at New Little Holland House , aged 87 . He was hailed " The last great Victorian " , and a memorial service was held in St Paul 's Cathedral , 300 yards ( 270 m ) south of Postman 's Park , on 7 July 1904 .
On 11 July 1904 Mary Watts wrote to the Heroic Self Sacrifice Memorial Committee , stating that she intended to complete the memorial and offering to select 35 names from Watts 's list of names and to raise the £ 62 ( about £ 6 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) necessary to finance the completion of the first two rows of tablets . Mary Watts selected eleven names to complete the first row , and De Morgan provided the tiles in October 1905 . Unfortunately , five of the tiles were damaged during shipping and needed to be replaced .
Henry Gamble and Mary Watts also commissioned a memorial plaque from T. H. Wren , a student of the school of arts and crafts established by Watts in Compton . The relief plaque depicts Watts holding a scroll marked " Heroes " , and is captioned " The utmost for the highest " and " In memorial of George Frederic Watts , who desiring to honour heroic self @-@ sacrifice placed these records here " . Eventually , on 13 December 1905 , the eleven tiles and Wren 's memorial to Watts , placed in the centre of the monument , were unveiled by Arthur Winnington @-@ Ingram , Bishop of London , completing the first row of tiles .
With the first row of tablets complete , Mary Watts and the Heroic Self Sacrifice Memorial Committee decided to complete the next row as soon as possible . The Committee selected 24 names , 22 proposed by Watts before his death and two from press reports of 1905 , and De Morgan was duly commissioned to produce the new set of tablets .
= = = Royal Doulton = = =
William De Morgan was unwilling to compromise on quality or embrace the trend towards mass production , and by this time his work was significantly more expensive than similar works by other designers . Consequently , his ceramics business was becoming increasingly unviable financially . In 1906 his first novel , Joseph Vance , was published and became a great success , prompting De Morgan to close the ceramics business in 1907 to concentrate on writing . Mary Watts attempted to replicate De Morgan 's tile designs at Watts 's pottery in Compton but was unable to do so , and investigated other tile manufacturers .
It transpired that the only manufacturer able to supply suitable tiles was Royal Doulton , although they were unable or unwilling to replicate De Morgan 's designs , and they were duly commissioned to manufacture the 24 tiles , delivered in May 1908 . Mary Watts was unhappy with the design of the tiles , which were significantly different in colour and appearance from De Morgan 's original tiles , and they were installed without ceremony on 21 August 1908 , immediately below De Morgan 's original row of tiles .
In 1905 the Heroic Self Sacrifice Memorial Committee had suggested to Mary Watts that public funds be raised to complete the memorial , but she objected and promised to complete the 120 tablets at her own cost or provide funds in her will to do so . However , in 1910 she told the Committee that she was unable to fund the project , as she was devoting her time and money to the Watts Mortuary Chapel and the Watts Gallery in Compton . Work to fill the three empty rows of the memorial was abandoned .
= = = = Post @-@ First World War memorials to police officers = = = =
On 13 June 1917 , P.C. Alfred Smith , an officer of the Metropolitan Police , was patrolling Central Street in Finsbury , approximately 900 yards ( 820 m ) directly north of Postman 's Park . At about noon , fifteen German aircraft began a bombing raid , devastating the area . Around 150 women and girls working in the nearby Debenhams factory panicked in the explosions , and ran out into the street while the air raid was still in progress . PC Smith and the manager of the factory shepherded them back to safety in the building , but Smith was caught by the blast of one of the bombs and died .
Following Smith 's death J. Allen Baker , Member of Parliament for Finsbury East , launched a public fund to support Smith 's widow and young son and to provide a suitable memorial to him , raising a total of £ 471 14s 2d ( about £ 24 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) . On 13 June 1919 , two years to the day after Smith 's death , a memorial tablet to Smith made by Royal Doulton was unveiled at the start of the empty row directly above De Morgan 's original tiles .
After the addition of Smith 's memorial tablet , no further changes were made to the memorial in the years following the First World War . Although Mary Watts had always been opposed to the idea of a public subscription , in 1927 T. H. Ellis , Parish Clerk of St Botolph 's Aldersgate , approached her to propose public fundraising to complete the memorial . Mary Watts agreed and an appeal was launched in May 1929 , aiming to raise funds to repair and restore the by now run @-@ down loggia , and to install additional tablets . By this time Watts 's work was out of fashion , and the appeal was not as successful as was hoped , raising only £ 250 ( about £ 14 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) . Of this total £ 30 was spent on the restoration of the loggia , leaving £ 220 for placing future tablets .
Disliking Royal Doulton 's tiling designs , and with her time and money increasingly devoted to the maintenance of the Watts Gallery , Mary Watts by now was losing interest in the memorial and by 1930 had handed complete control to the Heroic Self Sacrifice Memorial Committee . Neither Mary Watts nor the Committee had added new names to the list originally proposed by Watts , and thus there were no proposed names more recent than 1904 , with the vast majority dating back to the 19th century . The Committee decided that rather than use these by now dated records , they would request suggestions from relevant public bodies . The British Medical Association was asked to suggest brave medical professionals , the Metropolitan Police Service to suggest brave police officers , and , in light of the park 's name , the General Post Office was asked to suggest heroic postal workers . The Metropolitan Police suggested the names of three officers who had died while rescuing others , and on 15 October 1930 tablets to the three officers , manufactured by Royal Doulton to a similar design to their previous tablets , were added to the second row and unveiled by Hastings Lees @-@ Smith , the Postmaster @-@ General , in a ceremony also commemorating the 50th anniversary of the opening of the park , attended by Mary Watts and many police officers and relatives of those being commemorated .
At this time , one of De Morgan 's 1902 tablets was removed . Commemorating four workers who had died in an accident at the East Ham Sewage Works in 1895 , Watts had mistakenly listed the incident as having taken place at the West Ham Sewage Works in 1885 . The De Morgan tablet was removed and replaced with a Royal Doulton tablet giving the correct location and date . As the Doulton tablets were in such a different style to De Morgan 's , the replacement tablet was installed in the second row next to the three new tablets to police officers , rather than in the space left by the original .
= = = Herbert Maconoghu = = =
Removing the original tablet to the victims of the East Ham Sewage Works accident had left an unsightly gap in the original row of tiles . In 1931 , Mary Watts tracked down Fred Passenger , a former employee of De Morgan who had , after the closure of the business , set up his own ceramics business using De Morgan designs . Passenger was by this time working for a pottery business in Bushey Heath established by artist Ida Perrin , but Mary Watts persuaded him to produce a single panel in the style of De Morgan to fit into the empty space . Herbert Maconoghu , a schoolboy who had died in 1882 attempting to rescue two friends from drowning , had been one of the names originally suggested by Watts , and Passenger produced a tablet to Maconoghu in the style of the original central row , which was installed in April 1931 . Maconoghu was actually Herbert Moore McConaghey , the son of Matthew and Martha McConaghey , and he was born in Mynpoorie in Indian where Matthew was working as a settlement officer for the Imperial Civil Service .
= = Postman 's Park after the death of Mary Watts = =
Mary Watts died in 1938 , and was buried alongside George Frederic Watts near the Watts Mortuary Chapel , which she had herself designed and built in Compton in 1901 . Following her death , and with both George and Mary Watts increasingly out of fashion , the memorial was abandoned half @-@ finished , with only 52 of the intended 120 spaces filled . In the years following Mary Watts 's death there were occasional proposals to add new names to complete the memorial , but the Watts Gallery was hostile to the plans , considering the monument in its unfinished state to be a symbol of the Watts 's values and beliefs , and that its status as a historic record of its time is what makes it of value in the present day .
The nave of Christ Church Greyfriars was destroyed by bombing on 29 December 1940 . By then the decline in the population of the City of London had reduced the congregation to less than 80 , and the parishes of St Leonard , Foster Lane and Christ Church Greyfriars were merged with nearby St Sepulchre @-@ without @-@ Newgate . Although parts of the ruins were cleared during a widening of King Edward Street after the Second World War , the remains of the nave of Christ Church Greyfriars became a public memorial in 1989 ; the tower is now office space .
St Botolph 's Aldersgate remains open as a functioning church . Unusually for an English church , because of its location in a now mainly commercial area with few local residents , services are held on Tuesdays instead of the more traditional Sundays . On 4 January 1950 , St Botolph 's Aldersgate and the surviving ruins of Christ Church Greyfriars were both designated Grade I listed buildings .
In 1934 , a statue of Sir Robert Peel erected in Cheapside in 1855 was declared an obstruction to traffic and removed . A proposal that it be installed in front of the Bank of England fell through , and in 1952 it was erected in Postman 's Park . In 1971 the Metropolitan Police requested that the statue be moved to the new Peel Centre police training complex , and the Corporation of London agreed . In place of Peel 's statue , a large bronze sculpture of the Minotaur by Michael Ayrton was unveiled in 1973 . Dominating the small park , in 1997 the Minotaur sculpture was moved to a new position on the raised walkway above London Wall .
On 5 June 1972 , the western entrance of Postman 's Park and the elaborate Gothic drinking fountain attached to the railings were Grade II listed , protecting them from further development . At this time , the Memorial to Heroic Self Sacrifice itself was also Grade II listed ; although considered of little architectural merit , the register notes that it is " listed as a curiosity " .
Postman 's Park came to increased public notice in 2004 with the release of the BAFTA- and Golden Globe @-@ winning film Closer , which stars Natalie Portman , Julia Roberts , Jude Law and Clive Owen , and is based on the 1997 play Closer by Patrick Marber . A key plot element in the film revolves around Postman 's Park , in which it is revealed that the character Alice Ayres ( played by Portman in the film ) has in fact fabricated her identity based on Ayres 's tablet on the Memorial to Heroic Self Sacrifice , which she had read at the time of her first meeting with Dan Woolf ( Jude Law ) at the start of the film .
= = = Leigh Pitt = = =
Leigh Pitt , a print technician from Surrey , had died on 7 June 2007 rescuing nine @-@ year @-@ old Harley Bagnall @-@ Taylor who was drowning in a canal in Thamesmead . His colleague , Jane Michele ( now Jane Shaka ) approached the Diocese of London to suggest that Pitt would make a suitable addition to the memorial , and despite previous opposition from the Watts Gallery to proposals to complete the memorial , on 11 June 2009 a memorial to Pitt was added to the Memorial to Heroic Self Sacrifice , the first new tablet added to the memorial since that of Herbert Maconoghu 78 years earlier . A spokesman for the Diocese of London said that the Diocese would now consider suitable names to be added to the memorial in future .
= = The Everyday Heroes of Postman ’ s Park mobile app = =
In November 2013 , a free mobile app entitled The Everyday Heroes of Postman ’ s Park was launched . The app provides detailed accounts of each of the fifty @-@ four incidents recorded on the Memorial and reveals the lives of the sixty @-@ two people commemorated . The app employs image recognition technology and the built @-@ in camera on the device to scan each tablet and then deliver the relevant information about the person . The app is the result of collaboration between Prossimo Ventures Ltd and Dr John Price of the University of Roehampton , supported by Creativeworks London , a Knowledge Exchange Hub for the Creative Economy funded by the Arts and Humanities Research Council ( AHRC ) . The app can be used on a range of devices including iPhone , iPad and Android devices .
= = The Friends of the Watts Memorial = =
The Friends of the Watts Memorial was established in 2015 with the primary aims of protecting , preserving and promoting the Watts Memorial to Heroic Self @-@ Sacrifice in Postman ’ s Park London and , ultimately , to work towards completing it in full as its creator , the artist George Frederic Watts originally intended .
The Friends is a not @-@ for @-@ profit organisation , run entirely by volunteers and governed by a constitution.The Friends work with various partners , including the Bishop of London ’ s Office , the City of London Corporation and the Watts Gallery , to ensure that the Watts Memorial is maintained and conserved . It promotes and publicises the memorial , through planning and staging events , so as to raise its profile and increase public engagement and knowledge about it . The Friends also support the work of those who wish to research the history of the memorial or to undertake events related to it and it undertakes fundraising to support the conservation of the memorial and to facilitate its completion .
= = Styles of tiling used on the Memorial to Heroic Self Sacrifice = =
The tablets are arranged on the second , third and fourth of the five rows , with 24 tablets to William De Morgan 's original design in the third , central , row , the 24 tablets added in 1908 directly below in the fourth row , and more recent additions above the original tiles in the second row . The first and fifth of the five rows remain empty . The first four tablets , designed and manufactured by De Morgan and installed in 1900 , were each made from two large custom @-@ made tiles . Nine further De Morgan tablets , installed in 1902 , were made using standard tiles to reduce costs , and were the last tiles whose installation was overseen by Watts . Eleven further De Morgan tablets , along with T. H. Wren 's memorial to Watts , were added in 1905 , completing the central row of tablets . All 24 tablets of the 4th row , designed and manufactured by Royal Doulton , were added as a single batch in August 1908 . A single Royal Doulton tablet to PC Alfred Smith was added in June 1919 , followed in October 1930 by similar Royal Doulton tablets to three further police officers , and a replacement tablet with the correct details of the East Ham Sewage Works incident of 1895 . A single tablet made by Fred Passenger in the original De Morgan style , honouring schoolboy Herbert Maconoghu , was added in April 1931 to fill the gap in the centre row left by the removal of the original , incorrect tablet to the victims of the East Ham Sewage Works incident . In 2009 a 54th tablet was added , in the style of the Royal Doulton tiles , to commemorate print technician Leigh Pitt , the first addition to the wall for 78 years .
= SM UB @-@ 11 =
SM UB @-@ 11 was a German Type UB I submarine or U @-@ boat in the German Imperial Navy ( German : Kaiserliche Marine ) during World War I. UB @-@ 11 was ordered in October 1914 and was laid down at the AG Weser shipyard in Bremen in November . UB @-@ 11 was a little under 28 metres ( 92 ft ) in length and displaced between 127 and 141 tonnes ( 125 and 139 long tons ) , depending on whether surfaced or submerged . She carried two torpedoes for her two bow torpedo tubes and was also armed with a deck @-@ mounted machine gun . She was launched and commissioned as SM UB @-@ 11 in March 1915 .
UB @-@ 11 's commanding officer at commissioning only remained in charge of the ship for a week . Sources do not report any more commanding officers assigned through the end of the war , so it 's not clear if the submarine remained in commission . UB @-@ 11 was reported in use as a training vessel at Kiel in September 1915 . The U @-@ boat made no war patrols and sank no ships during the war , which may indicate that the vessel remained in a training role . At the end of the war , UB @-@ 11 was deemed unseaworthy and unable to surrender at Harwich with the rest of Germany 's U @-@ boat fleet . She remained in Germany where she was broken up by Stinnes in February 1920 .
= = Design and construction = =
After the German Army 's rapid advance along the North Sea coast in the earliest stages of World War I , the German Imperial Navy found itself without suitable submarines that could be operated in the narrow and shallow seas off Flanders . Project 34 , a design effort begun in mid @-@ August 1914 , produced the Type UB I design : a small submarine that could be shipped by rail to a port of operations and quickly assembled . Constrained by railroad size limitations , the UB I design called for a boat about 28 metres ( 92 ft ) long and displacing about 125 tonnes ( 123 long tons ) with two torpedo tubes .
UB @-@ 11 was part of the initial allotment of seven submarines — numbered UB @-@ 9 to UB @-@ 15 — ordered on 15 October from AG Weser of Bremen , just shy of two months after planning for the class began . UB @-@ 11 was laid down by Weser in Bremen on 7 November . As built , UB @-@ 11 was 27 @.@ 88 metres ( 91 ft 6 in ) long , 3 @.@ 15 metres ( 10 ft 4 in ) abeam , and had a draft of 3 @.@ 03 metres ( 9 ft 11 in ) . She had a single 59 @-@ brake @-@ horsepower ( 44 kW ) Körting 4 @-@ cylinder diesel engine for surface travel , and a single 119 @-@ shaft @-@ horsepower ( 89 kW ) Siemens @-@ Schuckert electric motor for underwater travel , both attached to a single propeller shaft . Her top speeds were 7 @.@ 45 knots ( 13 @.@ 80 km / h ; 8 @.@ 57 mph ) , surfaced , and 6 @.@ 24 knots ( 11 @.@ 56 km / h ; 7 @.@ 18 mph ) , submerged . At more moderate speeds , she could sail up to 1 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 800 km ; 1 @,@ 700 mi ) on the surface before refueling , and up to 45 nautical miles ( 83 km ; 52 mi ) submerged before recharging her batteries . Like all boats of the class , UB @-@ 11 was rated to a diving depth of 50 metres ( 160 ft ) , and could completely submerge in 33 seconds .
UB @-@ 11 was armed with two 45 @-@ centimeter ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedoes in two bow torpedo tubes . She was also outfitted for a single 8 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 31 in ) machine gun on deck . UB @-@ 11 's standard complement consisted of one officer and thirteen enlisted men . After work on UB @-@ 11 was complete at the Weser yard , she was launched on 2 March .
= = Career = =
The submarine was commissioned into the German Imperial Navy as SM UB @-@ 11 on 4 March 1915 under the command of Kapitänleutnant ( Kapt . ) Ralph Wenninger , a 25 @-@ year @-@ old first @-@ time U @-@ boat commander . Wenninger was only in command of UB @-@ 11 for a week . Sources do not indicate who , if anyone , succeeded him as commander of UB @-@ 11 , or if UB @-@ 11 remained in commission .
According to authors R. H. Gibson and Maurice Prendergast , UB @-@ 11 had been assigned to the Kiel Periscope School by September 1915 . Uboat.net reports that UB @-@ 11 ' undertook no war patrols and had no successes against enemy ships , which may indicate that the vessel remained in use only as a training vessel .
At the end of the war , the Allies required all German U @-@ boats to be sailed to Harwich for surrender . UB @-@ 11 was one of eight U @-@ boats deemed unseaworthy and allowed to remain in Germany . UB @-@ 11 was broken up by Stinnes on 3 February 1920 .
= John de Vere , 7th Earl of Oxford =
John de Vere , 7th Earl of Oxford ( c . 12 March 1312 – 24 January 1360 ) was the nephew and heir of Robert de Vere , 6th Earl of Oxford who succeeded as Earl of Oxford in 1331 , after his uncle died without issue .
John de Vere was a trusted captain of Edward III in the king 's wars in Scotland and France , and took part in both the Battle of Crécy and the Battle of Poitiers . He died campaigning in France in 1360 . Throughout his career he was closely associated with William de Bohun , 1st Earl of Northampton , who was his brother @-@ in @-@ law .
= = Family background and marriage = =
John de Vere was the only son of Alphonse de Vere , and Jane , daughter of Sir Richard Foliot . Alphonse was a younger son of Robert de Vere , 5th Earl of Oxford and apparently died shortly before 20 December 1328 , when a writ was issued for inquisitions post mortem into the land that he held direct from the King . These hearings established that Alphonse 's next heir was his son John , then aged 15 years and more . The manors concerned were Aston Sandford , Buckinghamshire , Westwick by St Albans and Great Hormead , Hertfordshire , as well as property at Beaumont and Althorne in Essex .
Alphonse was a brother of Robert de Vere , 6th Earl of Oxford . When the 6th Earl 's son died without issue in 1329 , he obtained licence from the king to entail his estates on his nephew , John . It was in this way that John de Vere , when his uncle died 17 April 1331 , became Earl of Oxford . He had made homage and received livery by 17 May .
In 1336 John married Maud de Badlesmere , who was the second of the four daughters of Bartholomew de Badlesmere , 1st Baron Badlesmere , of Badlesmere in Kent and Margaret de Clare . Maud was a co @-@ heiress of her brother Giles de Badlesmere , 2nd Baron Badlesmere . When Giles died in 1338 , this brought a significant part of the Badlesmere inheritance into de Vere 's hands . The marriage also forged a strong bond with William Bohun , Earl of Northampton , who had married Badlesmere 's third daughter , Elizabeth de Badlesmere , and thus became Oxford 's brother @-@ in @-@ law . The two campaigned together , sat on the same commissions and died the same year .
= = Career = =
De Vere 's military career began with service on Edward III 's Scottish campaigns , in the 1330s Second War of Scottish Independence . He took part in the Roxburgh campaign of 1334 – 5 , and in the summer campaign of 1335 . Later in the decade , England 's military efforts turned towards France , with the beginning of the Hundred Years ' War . In March 1340 , de Vere served in Flanders , and was therefore out of the country during Edward 's disputes with Archbishop John de Stratford . Oxford was not forced to take sides in the conflict , and has been described as a " political neutral " .
After a period in England , de Vere returned to the Continent in 1342 , where he served with Northampton , who had been made lieutenant of Brittany . They both took part in the Battle of Morlaix that year . The next year the two earls were sent to Scotland to relieve Lochmaben Castle , and in 1345 they were again campaigning in Brittany . Tradition has it that , returning to England , their ships were forced ashore by bad weather , and the party was robbed of their possessions by the locals . In the summer of 1346 de Vere was campaigning with the king in Normandy , and took part in the Battle of Crécy . According to the chronicler Froissart , de Vere was fighting with the Black Prince , and was among the captains who sent a request to Edward III for reinforcements when the king famously answered ' Let the boy win his spurs ' . Oxford was also at the Siege of Calais , but reportedly fell ill in 1348 , and did not take part in any major campaigning until 1355 .
In 1355 he was again in the company of the Black Prince , and took part in the prince 's great raid in Languedoc . 19 September 1356 , at the Battle of Poitiers , Oxford was in command of the vanguard together with the earl of Warwick. de Vere 's attack on the flank of the French cavalry , with a group of archers , did much to secure the English victory . His last campaign was Edward III 's Rheims campaign in 1359 – 60 . Here he died , probably during the raid into Burgundy , on 23 or 24 January 1360 . He was buried in the de Vere family 's burial place Colne Priory in Essex .
= = Descendants and assessment = =
Maud de Vere died in 1366 . The couple had four sons and three daughters . The eldest son , John , married Elizabeth Courtenay , daughter of Hugh Courtenay , 10th Earl of Devon , but died before his father , in 1350 . ( After the death of her husband , Elizabeth married Sir Andrew Luttrell of Chilton ( in Thorverton ) , Devon . ) Another son , Robert , also died in his father 's lifetime . The eldest remaining son was then Thomas , born about 1336 or 1337 , who succeeded his father in 1360 . Thomas 's son Robert de Vere , 9th Earl of Oxford succeeded at his father 's death , but with Robert 's forfeiture in 1392 , the earldom was given to Robert 's uncle Aubrey – the seventh earl 's fourth son . The eldest daughter , Margaret , married three times , while of the second , Matilda , little is known . The third daughter , Elizabeth , married Sir Hugh Courtenay , eldest son and heir of Hugh de Courtenay , 10th Earl of Devon .
John de Vere , in the family tradition of the " fighting de Veres " , was active in almost all major military engagements in the years from 1340 to 1360 . On the Roxburgh campaign he brought a retinue of twenty @-@ eight men @-@ at @-@ arms and twelve mounted archers . In Brittany in 1342 , the retinue had grown to forty men @-@ at @-@ arms , one banneret , nine knights , twenty @-@ nine esquires , and thirty mounted archers . His retinue was of a diverse composition , and also included foreign mercenaries . At one point , in the Battle of Poitiers , John Hawkwood , who was later to make his fortune as a condottiero in Italy , also served with de Vere . Yet in spite of this , de Vere never distinguished himself particularly as a military commander . Neither did he receive a great amount of royal patronage , and was never made a member of the Order of the Garter . This was largely a consequence of the de Vere family 's relatively modest resources among the English peerage . As an example can be mentioned that in the late 1340 , £ 349 were owed to Oxford in arrears for his services , yet at the same time the king owed Northampton two debts of £ 782 and £ 1237 . This obstacle of resources and status John de Vere was unable to overcome either by marriage or warfare .
= = De Vere family tree = =
= The PTA Disbands =
" The PTA Disbands " is the 21st episode of The Simpsons ' sixth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on April 16 , 1995 . In the episode , Edna Krabappel calls an emergency strike on behalf of the Teachers ' Union of Springfield Elementary , to protest against Principal Skinner 's miserly school spending . Students react in their own manner to the strike : Lisa becomes obsessed with a desire to be graded , while Bart enjoys the extra time he has during the day . Bart arranges to keep the teachers union and Principal Skinner at an impasse , but becomes frustrated with substitute teacher arrangements and resolves to force negotiations forward . The situation is resolved when Krabappel and Skinner agree to rent space in classroom closets to the Springfield Prison .
The episode was written by Jennifer Crittenden and directed by Swinton O. Scott III , with David Mirkin as show @-@ runner . The episode includes cultural references to a number of books highlighted by Edna Krabappel as having been banned by other schools – including William Shatner 's TekWar , Steal This Book by Abbie Hoffman , and The Theory of Evolution by Charles Darwin . The episode received favorable mention in books on The Simpsons and media reviews , and was cited by academicians , who analyzed portions of the episode from physics and psychology perspectives . During a 2004 strike by voice actors for The Simpsons during salary negotiations , media sources cited an iconic quote from Homer to Lisa in the episode about the teachers ' strike .
= = Plot = =
After a failed attempt at a school field trip , which appears to have caused the apparent abandonment and brutal beating of the student Üter , Edna Krabappel calls an emergency strike on behalf of the Teachers ' Union of Springfield Elementary , to protest against Principal Skinner 's miserly spending on school supplies and activities .
As the teachers ' strike results in the closing of the school , the various student characters respond to the sudden turn of events in their own ways : Lisa becomes increasingly obsessive in her desire to be graded , Milhouse is forced by his parents to take private tutoring lessons ( which improve his education ) , Jimbo Jones finds himself immersed in the intricacies of daytime soap operas with his mother , Dolph and Kearney become easily bored with video games , and Bart revels in his newfound afternoon freedom and annoys many Springfield citizens by imitating other people to make them angry or hurt each other . In particular , Bart does what he can to keep the union and Principal Skinner at odds with each other . The two sides are at an impasse ; the union wanting a restoration of funding and Skinner maintaining that even with the spending reductions he has made , government budget cuts have squeezed the school dry .
After some prompting from an exasperated Marge Simpson , the parents of Springfield eventually decide to take matters into their own hands , and recruit volunteers from the community to take over as temporary teachers . This turns out to be even worse for the students than before the strike , especially as Marge becomes Bart 's new teacher after Skinner learns he has chased away previous substitutes including Moe and decided he needed use her to keep Bart in line . Jasper becomes Lisa 's new teacher and gets his beard stuck in a pencil sharpener , which makes her worried about not being able to get into her dream school Vassar College . Due to Marge 's excessive mothering of Bart , he grudgingly resolves to force the strike negotiations forward . Together with Milhouse , he tricks both Krabappel and Principal Skinner into entering Skinner 's office , which he then locks behind them . After spending several hours trapped together " like prisoners " in their own school , the two are mutually inspired with an idea to create extra revenue for more school spending . Things return to normal with the old teachers in charge , but with the school cloakrooms having been rented to the Springfield Prison . Each classroom now features several full prison cells at the back , which have the added benefit of keeping the more troublesome students in line . Snake Jailbird makes a deal with Bart to get him out of prison , promising him to " make it worth your while " , to which Bart responses shortly afterwards " I 'm listening " .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Jennifer Crittenden . She came in to the writers ' room and pitched the idea that there should be a teachers ' strike in an episode . Then @-@ show runner David Mirkin thought the episode had a lot of potential , and much of it is based on his experience as a child with schools running out of money . Despite the title of the episode , at no point does the PTA ( Parent @-@ Teacher Association ) actually disband . The title was suggested by Mirkin and was intended to poke fun at Crittenden , who thought the most exciting part of the teachers going on strike would be that the PTA might disband . In addition to this , Mirkin added a character to the episode who , on thinking the PTA has disbanded , jumps panicking out of a window . He jumps back in the same window when Flanders tells him the PTA has not disbanded .
The episode was directed by Swinton O. Scott III . In the opening shot of the episode , the bus that the children travel in to the field trip had to vibrate up and down to give the impression that it did not have bumpers and that it was falling apart . Scott said it was difficult to animate the scene because of the vibrating and the backgrounds panning . Milhouse 's tutor in the episode is based on the American actor Tony Randall .
= = Cultural references = =
During their field trip , the bus from Springfield Elementary arrives at the Fort Springfield civil war site and skids into a cannon , knocking one of its wheels off . The cannon then points at the tower leg of a lookout , giving the impression that it will fire at the lookout and destroy it , which is a reference to the opening sequence of the television sitcom F Troop . The lookout was also modeled after the lookout in the show . The scene in which Üter is left behind at the end of the field trip is based on a scene from the 1965 film Von Ryan 's Express .
Edna points at some school books and says : " The only books we have are ones that were banned by other schools . " Skinner says : " Well , the kids have to learn about TekWar sooner or later , " referencing William Shatner 's series of science fiction novels . Other books in the bookshelf include Sexus by Henry Miller , Hop on Pop by Dr. Seuss , The Satanic Verses ( " Junior Illustrated Edition " ) by Salman Rushdie , 40 Years of Playboy by Hugh Hefner , Steal This Book by Abbie Hoffman , and The Theory of Evolution by Charles Darwin .
Bart tells Skinner in the principal 's office that Edna told him that Skinner " folds faster than Superman on laundry day " , a reference to the comic book character Superman . That line is one of The Simpsons animator David Silverman 's favorite lines on the show . Gabe Kaplan is one of Bart 's victims on his substitute list , a reference to Kaplan and his character in the 1975 TV series Welcome Back , Kotter . The character at the bank who tells the angry crowd that their money 's in " Bill 's house , and Fred 's house " is based on James Stewart 's George Bailey character in the bank run scene from It 's a Wonderful Life .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " The PTA Disbands " finished 69th in ratings for the week of April 13 – 19 , 1995 , with a Nielsen rating of 7 @.@ 1 . It was the 8th highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week .
In their book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood describe " The PTA Disbands " as " Possibly the best of the school episodes . " In a review of the sixth season of The Simpsons , Colin Jacobson of DVD Movie Guide writes : " I especially like the contrasts between how Bart and Lisa accept the strike . The show doesn ’ t quite manage to soar consistently , but it has more than enough to make it positive . " In his review of the episode for TV Squad , Adam Finley comments : " I love how Bart and Lisa both handle the news differently . Bart is thrilled ... Lisa , on the other hand , can 't handle not being graded and evaluated every day , and slowly begins to lose her mind . "
In 2004 , when the voice actors for The Simpsons went on strike requesting additional income , The Scotsman cited a quote by Homer from the episode : " If you don 't like your job , you don 't strike . You just go in every day and do it really half @-@ assed . That 's the American Way . " The Scotsman asserted " Homer would not approve " of the strike by the voice actors . The voice actors were asking for an increase from US $ 125 @,@ 000 to $ 360 @,@ 000 per episode . The same quote by Homer to Lisa was cited by Michael Schneider in Daily Variety , who wrote : " ... insiders note that the actors work just six to seven hours to voice an episode --- which would mean $ 360 @,@ 000 for a day 's work , a figure that even Everybody Loves Raymond star Ray Romano doesn 't match . "
University of the Sciences in Philadelphia physics and mathematics professor Paul Halpern discusses the episode in his book What 's Science Ever Done for Us ? : What the Simpsons Can Teach Us About Physics , Robots , Life , and the Universe , and quotes Homer 's admonition to Lisa : " Lisa , in this house , we obey the laws of thermodynamics ! " at the beginning of Halpern 's section on " Mechanical Plots " . Halpern describes Lisa 's efforts to build a perpetual @-@ motion machine while bored during the teachers strike , and comments that though it is absurd in reality to order someone to obey the laws of thermodynamics , he acknowledges that " physicists sometimes don 't know the proper arena within which certain laws apply " . In the July 26 , 2007 issue of Nature , the scientific journal 's editorial staff listed " The PTA Disbands " among " The Top Ten science moments in The Simpsons " , writing : " Lisa gets so bored by a lack of schooling she builds a perpetual motion machine . Homer is not pleased : ' Lisa , in this house we OBEY the laws of thermodynamics . ' "
The episode is cited by Robert M. Arkin and Philip J. Mazzocco in their work " Self @-@ Esteem in Springfield " , in the compilation book The Psychology of The Simpsons . Arkin and Mazzocco note an exchange between Edna Krabappel and Seymour Skinner , where Skinner exclaims to Krabappel : " Oh come on Edna : We both know these kids have no future ! [ All the children stop and look at him ; he chuckles nervously ] Prove me wrong , kids . Prove me wrong . " Arkin and Mazzocco note that this example is seen as an exception , writing : " Generally , however , the Simpsons are right on target in their understanding of the importance of self @-@ esteem and the dynamics involved in the interplay between the social world and positive self @-@ regard . "
= Norton Internet Security =
Norton Internet Security , developed by Symantec Corporation , is a computer program that provides malware prevention and removal during a subscription period and uses signatures and heuristics to identify viruses . Other features included in the product are a personal firewall , email spam filtering , and phishing protection . With the release of the 2015 line in summer 2014 , Symantec officially retired Norton Internet Security after fourteen years as the chief Norton product . It is superseded by Norton Security , a rechristened adaptation of the Norton 360 security suite .
Symantec distributed the product as a download , a boxed Compact Disc ( CD ) copy , and as OEM software . Some retailers also distributed it on a USB flash drive . Norton Internet Security held a 61 % market share in the United States retail security suite category in the first half of 2007 . In this study , competitors , in terms of market share , included security suites from CA , Inc . , Trend Micro , and Kaspersky Lab .
= = Windows edition = =
In August 1990 Symantec acquired Peter Norton Computing from Peter Norton Norton and his company developed various applications for DOS , including an antivirus . Symantec continued the development of the acquired technologies , now marketed under the name of " Norton " , with the tagline " from Symantec " . Norton 's crossed @-@ arm pose , a registered U.S. trademark , was featured on Norton product packaging . However , his pose was later moved to the spine of the packaging , and later dropped altogether .
Existing users of the 2006 and newer versions can upgrade to the latest version of the Norton software without buying a new subscription . The upgraded product retains the same number of days left on a user 's subscription .
Releases are named by year but have internal version numbers as well . The internal version number was advanced to 15.x in the 2008 edition to match the Norton AntiVirus release of the same year . As of the 2013 ( 20.x ) release the product has dropped the year from its name , although it still is referenced in some places .
= = = Version 2000 ( 1 @.@ 0 , 2 @.@ 0 ) = = =
Norton Internet Security 2000 , released January 10 , 2000 , was Symantec 's first foray beyond virus protection and content control filters . Its release followed an alliance between Internet provider Excite @ Home and antivirus vendor McAfee.com to provide Internet subscribers with McAfee 's new firewall software , McAfee Personal Firewall . Version 2000s firewall , based on AtGuard from WRQ , filters traffic at the packet level . It can block ActiveX controls and Java applets . Other functionalities include cookie removal , and banner ad blocking . ZDNet found the ad blocker removed graphics that were not | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
out and all the projections removed to raise the stern slightly with pontoons , pivot into deeper water , then trim it down to elevate the bow off the bottom and pull it free . These preparations were very time @-@ consuming and it wasn 't until mid @-@ July 1956 that it could be pulled off the rocks into Sevastopol harbor where she was given more permanent repairs . She was then moved to the Naval Firing Range between Yevpatoria and Sevastopol where it was used as a target for seven P @-@ 1 or KSS anti @-@ ship missiles fired from the converted Sverdlov @-@ class cruiser Admiral Nakhimov in December 1956 . The missiles penetrated the upper and main decks and devastated the upper hull , but there was no appreciable change in the ship 's draught . Details are not known about other tests , although she reportedly served as a target for P @-@ 15 Termit ( SS @-@ N @-@ 2 Styx ) missiles and a wide variety of armor @-@ piercing munitions . By the early 1960s her usefulness had come to an end and she was scrapped , possibly in 1962 .
= July 2009 Ürümqi riots =
The July 2009 Ürümqi riots were a series of violent riots over several days that broke out on 5 July 2009 in Ürümqi , the capital city of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region ( XUAR ) , in northwestern People 's Republic of China ( PRC ) . The first day 's rioting , which involved at least 1 @,@ 000 Uyghurs , began as a protest but escalated into violent attacks that mainly targeted Han people . People 's Armed Police were deployed , and two days later hundreds of Han people clashed with both police and Uyghurs . PRC officials said that a total of 197 people died , among those killed most of them are Hans , with 1 @,@ 721 others injured and many vehicles and buildings destroyed ; however , Uyghur exile groups say the death toll is higher . Many men disappeared during wide @-@ scale police sweeps in the days following the riots ; Human Rights Watch ( HRW ) documented 43 cases and said figures for real disappearances were likely to be much higher .
Rioting began when the police confronted the march calling for a full investigation into the Shaoguan incident , a brawl in southern China several days earlier in which two Uyghurs had been killed . However , observers disagree on what caused the protests to become violent . The PRC central government alleged that the riots themselves were planned from abroad by the World Uyghur Congress ( WUC ) and its leader Rebiya Kadeer , while Kadeer denies fomenting the violence in her fight for Uyghur " self @-@ determination . " Uyghur exile groups claim that the escalation was caused by the police 's use of excessive force .
Chinese media coverage of the Ürümqi riots was extensive , and was compared favourably to that of the unrest in Tibet in 2008 . When the riots began , communications were immediately cut off . In the weeks that followed , official sources reported that over 1 @,@ 000 Uyghurs were arrested and detained ; Uyghur @-@ run mosques were temporarily closed . The communication limitations and armed police presence remained in place as of January 2010 . By November 2009 , over 400 individuals faced criminal charges for their actions during the riots . Nine were executed in November 2009 , and by February 2010 , at least 26 had received death sentences .
= = Background = =
Xinjiang is a large central @-@ Asian region within the People 's Republic of China comprising numerous minority groups : 45 % of its population are Uyghurs , and 40 % are Han . Its heavily industrialised capital , Ürümqi , has a population of more than 2 @.@ 3 million , about 75 % of whom are Han , 12 @.@ 8 % are Uyghur , and 10 % are from other ethnic groups .
In general , Uyghurs and the mostly Han government disagree on which group has greater historical claim to the Xinjiang region : Uyghurs believe their ancestors were indigenous to the area , whereas government policy considers present @-@ day Xinjiang to have belonged to China since around 200 BC . According to PRC policy , Uyghurs are classified as a National Minority rather than an indigenous group — in other words , they are considered to be no more indigenous to Xinjiang than the Han , and have no special rights to the land under the law . The People 's Republic has presided over the migration into Xinjiang of millions of Han , who dominate the region economically and politically .
Uyghur nationalists often incorrectly claim that 5 % of Xinjiang 's population in 1949 was Han , and that the other 95 % was Uyghur , erasing the presence of Kazakhs , Huis , Mongols , Xibes and others , and ignoring the fact that Hans were around one third of Xinjiang 's population in 1800 , during the time of the Qing Dynasty . Professor of Chinese and Central Asian History at Georgetown University , James A. Millward wrote that foreigners often mistakenly think that Urumqi was originally a Uyghur city and that the Chinese destroyed its Uyghur character and culture , however , Urumqi was founded as a Chinese city by Han and Hui ( Tungans ) , and it is the Uyghurs who are new to the city . While a few people try to give a misportrayal of the historical Qing situation in light of the contemporary situation in Xinjiang with Han migration , and claim that the Qing settlements and state farms were an anti @-@ Uyghur plot to replace them in their land , Professor James A. Millward pointed out that the Qing agricultural colonies in reality had nothing to do with Uyghur and their land , since the Qing banned settlement of Han in the Uyghur Tarim Basin and in fact directed the Han settlers instead to settle in the non @-@ Uyghur Dzungaria and the new city of Urumqi , so that the state farms which were settled with 155 @,@ 000 Han Chinese from 1760 @-@ 1830 were all in Dzungaria and Urumqi , where there was only an insignificant amount of Uyghurs , instead of the Tarim Basin oases .
At the start of the 19th century , 40 years after the Qing reconquest , there were around 155 @,@ 000 Han and Hui Chinese in northern Xinjiang and somewhat more than twice that number of Uyghurs in southern Xinjiang . A census of Xinjiang under Qing rule in the early 19th century tabulated ethnic shares of the population as 30 % Han and 60 % Turkic , while it dramatically shifted to 6 % Han and 75 % Uyghur in the 1953 census , however a situation similar to the Qing era @-@ demographics with a large number of Han has been restored as of 2000 with 40 @.@ 57 % Han and 45 @.@ 21 % Uyghur . Professor Stanley W. Toops noted that today 's demographic situation is similar to that of the early Qing period in Xinjiang . In northern Xinjiang , the Qing brought in Han , Hui , Uyghur , Xibe , and Kazakh colonists after they exterminated the Zunghar Oirat Mongols in the region , with one third of Xinjiang 's total population consisting of Hui and Han in the northern are , while around two thirds were Uyghurs in southern Xinjiang 's Tarim Basin .
Although current PRC minority policy , which is based on affirmative actions , has reinforced a Uyghur ethnic identity that is distinct from the Han population , some scholars argue that Beijing unofficially favours a monolingual , monocultural model that is based on the majority . The authorities also crack down on any activity that appears to constitute separatism . These policies , in addition to long @-@ standing cultural differences , have sometimes resulted in " resentments " between Uyghur and Han citizens . On one hand , as a result of Han immigration and government policies , Uyghurs ' freedoms of religion and of movement are curtailed , while most Uyghurs argue that the government deliberately downplays their history and traditional culture . On the other hand , some Han citizens view Uyghurs as benefiting from special treatment , such as preferential admission to universities and exemption from the one @-@ child policy , and as " harbouring separatist aspirations " .
Tensions between Uyghurs and Han have resulted in waves of protest in recent years . Xinjiang has been the location of several instances of violence and ethnic clashes , such as the Ghulja Incident of 1997 , the 2008 Kashgar attack , widespread unrest preceding the Olympic Games in Beijing , as well as numerous minor attacks .
= = = Immediate causes = = =
The riots took place several days after a violent incident in Shaoguan , Guangdong , where many migrant workers are employed as part of a programme to alleviate labour shortages . According to state media , a disgruntled former worker disseminated rumours in late June that two Han women had been raped by six Uyghur men . Official sources later said they found no evidence to support the rape allegation . Overnight on 25 – 26 June , tensions at the Guangdong factory led to a full @-@ blown ethnic brawl between Uyghurs and Hans , during which two Uyghur co @-@ workers were killed . Exiled Uyghur leaders alleged the death toll was much higher . While the official Xinhua News Agency reported that the person responsible for spreading the rumours had been arrested , Uyghurs alleged that the authorities had failed to protect the Uyghur workers , or to arrest any of the Han people involved in the killings . They organised a street protest in Ürümqi on 5 July to voice their discontent and to demand a full government investigation .
At some point the demonstration became violent . A government statement called the riots a " pre @-@ empted , organised violent crime [ ... ] instigated and directed from abroad , and carried out by outlaws . " Nur Bekri , chairman of the Xinjiang regional government , said on 6 July that overseas separatist forces had taken advantage of the Shaoguan incident " to instigate Sunday 's unrest and undermine the ethnic unity and social stability " . The government blamed the exiled independence group World Uyghur Congress ( WUC ) for coordinating and instigating the riots over the internet . Government sources blamed the WUC leader Rebiya Kadeer in particular , citing her public speeches after the Tibetan unrest and phone recordings in which she had allegedly said that something would happen in Ürümqi . Chinese authorities accused a man who they alleged to be a key WUC member of inciting ethnic tensions by circulating a violent video , and urging Uyghurs , in an online forum , to " fight back [ against Hans ] with violence " . Jirla Isamuddin , the mayor of Ürümqi , claimed that the protesters had organised online via such services as QQ Groups . China Daily asserted that the riots were organised to fuel separatism and to benefit Middle East terrorist organisations . Kadeer denied fomenting the violence , and argued that the Ürümqi protests and their descent into violence were triggered by heavy policing , discontent over Shaoguan and " years of Chinese repression " , rather than by the intervention of separatists or terrorists ; Uyghur exile groups claimed that violence erupted when police used excessive force to disperse the crowd .
All parties , then , agree that the protests were organised beforehand ; the main points of contention are whether the violence was planned or spontaneous , and whether the underlying tensions reflect separatist inclinations or a desire for social justice .
= = Events = =
= = = Initial demonstrations = = =
Demonstrations began on the evening of 5 July with a protest in the Grand Bazaar , a prominent tourist site , and crowd reportedly gathering at the People 's Square area . The demonstration began peacefully , and official and eyewitness accounts reported that it involved about 1 @,@ 000 Uyghurs ; the WUC said approximately 10 @,@ 000 protesters took part .
On 6 July , XUAR chairman Nur Bekri presented an official timeline of the previous day 's events , according to which more than 200 demonstrators gathered in People 's Square in Ürümqi at about 5 p.m. local time , and about 70 of their leaders were detained . Later , a crowd gathered in the mostly Uyghur areas of South Jiefang Road , Erdaoqiao , and Shanxi Alley ; by 7 : 30 p.m. , more than one thousand were gathered in front of a hospital in Shanxi Alley . At about 7 : 40 p.m. , more than 300 people blocked the roads in the Renmin Road and Nanmen area . According to Bekri , rioters began to smash buses at 8 : 18 p.m. , after police " controlled and dispersed " the crowd .
How the demonstrations became violent is unclear . Some say the police used excessive force against the protesters ; the World Uyghur Congress quickly issued press releases saying that the police had used deadly force and killed " scores " of protesters . Kadeer has alleged that there were agents provocateurs among the crowds . Others claim that the protesters initiated the violence ; for example , an Uyghur eyewitness cited by The New York Times said protesters began throwing rocks at the police . The government 's official line was that the violence was not only initiated by the protesters , but also had been premeditated and coordinated by Uyghur separatists abroad . The local public security bureau said it found evidence that many Uyghurs had travelled from other cities to gather for the riot , and that they had begun preparing weapons two or three days before the riot .
= = = Escalation and spread = = =
After the confrontation with police turned violent , rioters began hurling rocks , smashing vehicles , breaking into shops , and attacking Han civilians . At least 1 @,@ 000 Uyghurs were involved in the rioting when it began , and the number of rioters may have risen to as many as 3 @,@ 000 . Jane Macartney of The Times characterised the first day 's rioting as consisting mainly of " Han stabbed by marauding gangs of Uighurs " ; a report in The Australian several months later suggested that religiously moderate Uyghurs may also have been attacked by rioters . Although the majority of rioters were Uyghur , not all Uyghurs were violent during the riots ; there are accounts of Han and Uyghur civilians helping each other escape the violence and hide . About 1 @,@ 000 police officers were dispatched ; they used batons , live ammunition , tasers , tear gas and water hoses to disperse the rioters , and set up roadblocks and posted armoured vehicles throughout the city .
During a press conference , Mayor Jirla Isamuddin said that at about 8 : 15 p.m. , some protesters started to fight and loot , overturned guardrails and smashed three buses before being dispersed . At 8 : 30 p.m. , violence escalated around South Jiefang Road and Longquan Street area , with rioters torching police patrol cars and attacking passers @-@ by . Soon , between 700 and 800 people went from the People 's Square to Daximen and Xiaoximen area , " fighting , smashing , looting , torching and killing " along the way . At 9 : 30 p.m. , the government received reports that three people had been killed and 26 injured , 6 of whom were police officers . Police reinforcements were dispatched to hotspots of People 's Square , Nanmen , Tuanjie Road , Saimachang and South Xinhua Road . Police took control of the main roadways and commercial districts in the city at around 10 pm , but riots continued in side streets and alleyways , with Hans attacked and cars overturned or torched , according to the mayor . Police then formed small teams and " swept " the entire city for the next two days . A strict curfew was put in place ; authorities imposed " comprehensive traffic control " from 9 : 00 pm Tuesday to 8 : 00 am Wednesday " to avoid further chaos " .
The official news agency , Xinhua , reported that police believed agitators were trying to organise more unrest in other areas in Xinjiang , such as Aksu and the Yili Prefecture . Violent protests also sprang up in Kashgar , in southwestern Xinjiang , where the South China Morning Post reported many shops were closed , and the area around the mosque was sealed off by a People 's Liberation Army platoon after confrontations . Local Uyghurs blamed the security forces for using excessive force — they " attacked the protesters and arrested 50 people " . Another clash was reported near the mosque on Tuesday , 7 July , and an estimated 50 people were arrested . Up to 12 @,@ 000 students at the Kashgar Teaching Institute were confined to campus since Sunday 's riots , according to the Post . Many of the institute 's students had apparently travelled to Ürümqi for the demonstrations there .
= = = Casualties and damage = = =
During the first hours of the rioting , state media only reported that three people had been killed . The number rose sharply , though , after the first night 's rioting ; at midday on Monday , 6 July , Xinhua announced that 129 people had died . In the following days the death toll reported by various government sources ( including Xinhua and party officials ) gradually grew , with the last official update on 18 July placing the tally at 197 dead , 1 @,@ 721 injured . The World Uyghur Congress has claimed that the death toll was around 600 .
Xinhua did not immediately disclose the ethnic breakdown of the dead , but journalists from The Times and The Daily Telegraph reported that most of the victims appeared to have been Han . For instance , on 10 July Xinhua stated that 137 of the dead ( out of the total of 184 that was being reported at that time ) were Han , 46 Uyghur , and 1 Hui . There were casualties among the rioters as well ; for example , according to official accounts , a group of 12 rioters attacking civilians were shot by police . In the months following the riots , the government maintained that the majority of casualties were Han and hospitals said that two @-@ thirds of the injured were Han , although the World Uyghur Congress claims that many Uyghurs were killed as well . According to the official count released by the Chinese government in August 2009 , 134 of the 156 civilian victims were Han , 11 Hui , 10 Uyghur , and 1 Manchu . Uyghur advocates continue to question these figures , saying that the number of ethnic Uyghurs remains understated . Xinhua reported that 627 vehicles and 633 constructions were damaged .
The Ürümqi municipal government initially announced that it would pay ¥ 200 @,@ 000 as compensation , plus another ¥ 10 @,@ 000 as " funeral expense " for every " innocent death " caused by the riot . The compensation was later doubled to ¥ 420 @,@ 000 per death . Mayor Jirla Isamuddin estimated that the compensations will cost at least ¥ 100 million .
= = = After 5 July = = =
The city remained tense while journalists invited into the city witnessed confrontational scenes between Chinese troops and Uyghurs demanding the release of family members who they said had been " arbitrarily " arrested . Uyghur women told The Daily Telegraph reporter that police entered Uyghur districts in the night of 6 July , burst through doors , pulled men and boys from their beds , and rounded up 100 suspects . By 7 July , officials reported that 1 @,@ 434 suspected rioters had been arrested . A group of 200 to 300 Uyghur women assembled on 7 July to protest what they said was " indiscriminate " detention of Uyghur men ; the protest led to a tense but non @-@ violent confrontation with police forces . Rebiya Kadeer claimed that " nearly 10 @,@ 000 people " had gone missing overnight . Human Rights Watch ( HRW ) later documented 43 cases of Uyghur men who disappeared after being taken away by Chinese security forces in large @-@ scale sweeps of Uyghur neighbourhoods overnight on 6 – 7 July , and said that this was likely to be " just the tip of the iceberg " ; HRW allege that young men , mostly in their 20s , had been unlawfully arrested and have not been seen or heard from as of 20 October 2009
On 7 July , there were large @-@ scale armed demonstrations by ethnic Han in Ürümqi . Conflicting estimates of the Han demonstrators ' numbers were reported by the western media and varied from " hundreds " to as high as 10 @,@ 000 . The Times reported that smaller fights were frequently breaking out between Uyghurs and Hans , and that groups of Han citizens had organised to take revenge on " Uyghur mobs " . Police used tear gas and roadblocks in an attempt to disperse the demonstration , and urged Han citizens over loudspeakers to " calm down " and " let the police do their job " . Li Zhi , party chief of Ürümqi , stood on the roof of a police car with a megaphone appealing to the crowd to go home .
Mass protests had been quelled by 8 July , although sporadic violence was reported . In the days after the riots , " thousands " of people tried to leave the city , and the price for bus tickets rose as much as fivefold .
On 10 July , city authorities closed Ürümqi mosques " for public safety " , saying it was too dangerous to have large gatherings and that holding Jumu 'ah , traditional Friday prayers , could reignite tensions . Large crowds of Uyghurs gathered for prayer anyway , however , and police decided to let two mosques open to avoid having an " incident " . After prayers at the White Mosque , several hundred people demonstrated over people detained after the riot , but were dispersed by riot police , with five or six people arrested .
Over 300 more people were reported arrested in early August . According to the BBC , the total number of arrests in connection with the riots was over 1 @,@ 500 . The Financial Times estimated that the number was higher , citing an insider saying that some 4 @,@ 000 arrests had already taken place by mid July , and that Ürümqi 's prisons were so full that newly arrested people were being held in a People 's Liberation Army warehouse . According to the Uyghur American Association , several other Uyghur journalists and bloggers were also detained after the riots ; one of them , journalist Gheyret Niyaz , was later sentenced to 15 years in prison for having spoken to foreign media . In the most high @-@ profile case , Ilham Tohti , an ethnic Uyghur economist at Minzu University of China , was arrested two days after the riots over his criticisms of the Xinjiang government .
= = Reactions and response = =
= = = Domestic reaction = = =
= = = = Communications black @-@ out = = = =
Mobile phone service and internet access were limited both during and after the riots . China Mobile phone service was cut " to prevent the incident from spreading further " . Outbound international calls throughout Xinjiang were blocked , and Internet connections in the region had been locked down or non @-@ local websites blocked . Reporting from Ürümqi 's Hoi Tak Hotel on 9 July , Aljazeera reported that the foreign journalists ' hotel was the only place in the city with Internet access , although the journalist could not send text messages or place international phone calls . Many unauthorised postings on local sites and Google were removed by censors ; images and video footage of the demonstrations and rioting , however , were soon found posted on Twitter , YouTube , and Flickr . Many Xinjiang @-@ based websites became inaccessible worldwide , and internet access within Ürümqi remained restricted nearly a year following the riots ; it was not restored until 14 May 2010 .
= = = = Government = = = =
Chinese state @-@ controlled television broadcast graphic footage of cars being smashed and people being beaten . Officials reiterated the party line : XUAR chairman Nur Bekri delivered a lengthy address on the situation and on the Shaoguan incident , and claimed that the government of both Guangdong and Xinjiang had dealt with the deaths of the workers properly and with respect . Bekri further condemned the riots as " premeditated and planned " ; Eligen Imibakhi , chairman of the Standing Committee of the Xinjiang Regional People 's Congress , blamed 5 July riots on " extremism , separatism and terrorism " .
The Chinese media covered the rioting extensively . Hours after troops stopped the rioting , the state invited foreign journalists on an official fact @-@ finding trip to Ürümqi ; journalists from more than 100 media organisations were all corralled into the downtown Hoi Tak Hotel , sharing 30 internet connections . Journalists were given unprecedented access to troublespots and hospitals . The Financial Times referred to this handling as an improvement , compared to the " public @-@ relations disaster " of the Tibetan unrest in 2008 .
In an effort to soothe tensions immediately after the riots , state media began a mass publicity campaign throughout Xinjiang extolling ethnic harmony . Local television programmes united Uyghur and Han singers in a chorus of " We are all part of the same family " ; Uygurs who " acted heroically " during the riots were profiled ; loud @-@ hailer trucks blasted slogans in the streets . A common slogan warned against the " three forces " of terrorism , separatism and extremism .
President Hu Jintao curtailed his attendance of the G8 summit in Italy , convened an emergency meeting of the Politburo , and dispatched Standing Committee member Zhou Yongkang to Xinjiang to " guid [ e ] stability @-@ preservation work in Xinjiang " . South China Morning Post reported a government source saying Beijing would re @-@ evaluate the impact on arrangements for the country 's forthcoming 60th anniversary celebrations in October . Guangdong 's CPC Provincial Committee Secretary , Wang Yang , noted that the government policies towards ethnic minorities " definitely need adjustments " , otherwise " there will be some problems . " A security planner said the authorities planned to fly in more troops from other stations to raise the number of armed police presence to 130 @,@ 000 before the 60th anniversary celebrations in October .
After the riots , the Chinese government exercised diplomatic pressure on nations that Rebiya Kadeer was scheduled to visit . In late July , India declined Kadeer a visa " on the advice of Beijing " , and Beijing summoned the Japanese ambassador in protest of a trip Kadeer made to Japan . When Kadeer visited Australia in August to promote a film about her life , China officially complained to the Australian government and asked for the film to be withdrawn .
= = = = Internet response = = = =
The response to the riots on the Chinese blogosphere was markedly more varied than the official response . Despite blocks and censorship , Internet watchers monitored continued attempts by netizens to publish their own thoughts on the causes of the incident or vent their anger about the violence . While some bloggers were supportive of the government , others were more reflective of the event 's cause . On numerous forums and news sites , government workers quickly removed comments about the riots . Common themes were calls for punishment for those responsible ; some posts evoked the name of Wang Zhen , the general who is reviled and feared by many Uyghurs for repression after the communist takeover of Xinjiang in 1949 .
= = = International reactions = = =
= = = = International organisations = = = =
United Nations : Secretary @-@ General Ban Ki @-@ moon urged all sides to exercise restraint , and called on China to take measures to protect the civilian population as well as respect the freedoms of citizens , including freedom of speech , assembly and information . Human rights chief Navi Pillay said she was " alarmed " over the high death toll , noting this was an " extraordinarily high number of people to be killed and injured in less than a day of rioting . " She also said China must treat detainees humanely in a way that adheres to international norms .
Shanghai Cooperation Organisation : said it sympathised with the family members of those innocent people killed in the riot ; it said that its member states regard Xinjiang as an inalienable part of the People 's Republic of China and believe the situation in Xinjiang is purely China 's internal affairs . Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov condemned rioters for " Using separatist slogans and provoking ethnic intolerance . Officials from both neighbouring Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan said they were braced for " an influx of refugees " and tightened border controls . Despite the Kazakh government support , over 5 @,@ 000 Uyghurs protested on 19 July in former capital Almaty against Chinese police use of deadly force against the rioters .
Organisation of the Islamic Conference : decried the " disproportionate use of force " , calling on Beijing to " bring those responsible to justice swiftly " and urging China to find a solution to the unrest by examining why it had erupted .
European Union : leaders expressed concern , and urged the Chinese government to show restraint in dealing with the protests : German Chancellor Angela Merkel urged respect for the rights of minorities ; Italian President Giorgio Napolitano brought up human rights at a press conference with Hu Jintao , and said that " economic and social progress that is being achieved in China places new demands in terms of human rights . "
= = = = Countries = = = =
Turkey , which has a vocal Uyghur minority and is a majority @-@ Turkic nation , officially expressed " deep sadness " , and urged the Chinese authorities to bring the perpetrators to justice . Its Prime Minister , Recep Tayyip Erdoğan , said the incident was " like genocide " , while Trade and Industry Minister Nihat Ergün called for a boycott on Chinese goods . The violence against Uyghurs also caused lots of Turkish people to gather for protests against PRC , mostly targeting Chinese embassies and consulates in Turkey 's various cities . The Turkish stance sparked a significant outcry from Chinese media . Rebiya Kadeer claimed that Turkey is hampered from interfering with Uyghurs because it recognizes that its own Kurdish issue may get interfered with by China in retaliation . An appeal for Chinese products to be boycotted by Nihat Ergun failed .
Arab countries politically supported China in the OIC with especially Saudi Arabia and Egypt helping China squash any potential anti @-@ Chinese motion by the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation on the Uyghurs , Egypt viewed its own internal sectarian problems like China 's and Sudan was also concerned about external interference in its internal problems as well , while Indonesia had to deal with its own internal Islamists and emphasized that there was no religious conflict but instead ethnic based disturbances in Xinjiang to calm the situation down . Pakistan , Saudi Arabia , and Egypt helped China kill off a statement on the Xinjiang situation in the OIC . There has been no public reaction by the Arab League , Saudi Arabia and Iran on the situation and China has built stronger relations with Iran and Saudi Arabia due to their influence in the Islamic world .
Afghanistan , Cambodia , and Vietnam said they believed the Chinese government was " taking appropriate measures " , their statements backed " the territorial integrity and sovereignty of China " . Micronesian Vice President Alik Alik condemned the riot as a " terrorist act " .
Iran said it shared the concerns of Turkey and the OIC , and appealed to the Chinese government to respect the rights of the Muslim population in Xinjiang .
The Japanese government was monitoring the situation , with concern ; Singapore urged restraint and dialogue ; while the ROC government in Taiwan strongly condemned all those who instigated the violence . Premier Liu Chiao @-@ shiuan also urged restraint and expressed hope that the Chinese authorities will demonstrate the " greatest possible leniency and tolerance in dealing with the aftermath " and respect the rights of ethnic minorities . Taiwan denied a visa to Kadeer in September 2009 , alleging she had links to the East Turkestan Islamic Movement , classed as a terrorist organisation by the United Nations and United States .
Switzerland called for restraint , and sent condolences to the families of victims and urged China to respect freedom of expression and the press . Prime Minister Kevin Rudd of Australia urged restraint to bring about a " peaceful settlement to this difficulty . " Serbia stated that it opposed separatism and supports the " resolution of all disputes by peaceful means . " Belarus noted with regret the loss of life and damage in the region , and hoped that the situation would soon normalise .
There was violence in the Netherlands and in Norway : the Chinese embassy in the Netherlands was attacked by Uyghur activists who smashed windows with bricks , the Chinese flag was also burnt . There were 142 arrests , and China closed the embassy for the day . About 100 Uyghurs protested outside the Chinese embassy in the Norwegian capital . Eleven were detained , and later released without charge . Protesters from a coalition of Indonesian Islamist groups attacked guards at the Chinese embassy in Jakarta and called for a jihad against China . Pakistan said there were some " elements " out to harm Sino @-@ Pakistan ties would not damage or destabilise the interests of the two countries . Sri Lanka stressed the incident was an internal affair of China and was confident that efforts by the Chinese authorities would restore normalcy .
Canadian Foreign Affairs Minister Lawrence Cannon urged " dialogue and goodwill " to help resolve grievances and prevent further deterioration of the situation . The spokesman for the Obama administration said the United States regretted the loss of life in Xinjiang , was deeply concerned and called on all sides to exercise restraint . U.S. State Department spokesman Ian Kelly , said " it 's important that the Chinese authorities act to restore order and prevent further violence . " The United States Commission on International Religious Freedom expressed " grave concern " over repression in China , and called for an independent investigation on the riots and targeted sanctions against China .
= = = = Other organisations = = = =
Amnesty International : called for an " impartial and independent " inquiry into the incident , adding that those detained for " peacefully expressing their views and exercising their freedom of expression , association and assembly " must be released and others ensured to receive a fair trial .
Human Rights Watch : urged China to exercise restraint and to allow an independent inquiry into the events , which would include addressing Uyghur concerns about policies in the region . It also added that China should respect international norms when responding to the protests and only use force proportionately .
Al @-@ Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb ( AQIM ) : According to London @-@ based risk analysis firm Stirling Assynt , Algeria @-@ based AQIM issued a call to attack Chinese workers in North Africa .
= = = Media coverage = = =
Chen Shirong , China editor on the BBC World Service , remarked at the improvement in media management by Xinhua : " To be more credible , it released video footage a few hours after the event , not two weeks . " Peter Foster of the Daily Telegraph observed that " long @-@ standing China commentators have been astonished at the speed at which Beijing has moved to seize the news agenda on this event , " and attributed it to his belief that " China doesn 't have a great deal to hide " . A University of California , Berkeley academic agreed that the Chinese authorities had become more sophisticated . The New York Times and AFP recognised the Chinese learnt lessons from political protests around the world , such as the so @-@ called colour revolutions in Georgia and Ukraine , and the 2009 Iranian election protests , and concluded that Chinese experts had studied how modern electronic communications " helped protesters organize and reach the outside world , and for ways that governments sought to counter them . "
But Willy Lam , fellow of the Jamestown Foundation , sceptically said that the authorities were " just testing the reaction " . He believed that if the outcome of this openness was poor they would " put the brakes on " as they did after the 2008 Sichuan earthquake . There were instances of foreign journalists being taken into custody by the police , to be released shortly thereafter . On 10 July , officials ordered foreign media out of Kashgar , " for their own safety . " Xia Lin , a top official at Xinhua , later revealed that violence caused by both sides during and after the riots had been downplayed or wholly unreported in official news channels , for the fear that the ethnic violence would spread beyond Ürümqi .
A People 's Daily op @-@ ed rebuked certain western media outlets for their " double standards , biased coverage and comments " . It said that China failed to receive fair " repayment " from certain foreign political figures or media outlets for its openness and transparent attitude . The author said " a considerable number of media outlets still intentionally or inadvertently minimised the violent actions of the rioters , and attempted to focus on so @-@ called racial conflict . " However , D 'Arcy Doran from Agence France @-@ Presse welcomed the increased openness for foreign media , but contrasted their reporting to Chinese media , which closely followed the government line to focus mainly on injured Hans whilst ignoring the " Uyghur story " or reasons behind the incident .
Many early reports of the riots , starting with one from Reuters , used a picture purporting to show the previous day 's riots . The photo , showing large number of People 's Armed Police squares , was one taken of the 2009 Shishou riot and originally published on 26 June by Southern Metropolis Weekly . The same picture was mistakenly used by other agencies ; it was on the website of The Daily Telegraph , but was removed a day later . In an interview with Al Jazeera on 7 July , WUC leader Rebiya Kadeer used the same Shishou photograph to defend the Uyghurs in Ürümqi . A World Uyghur Congress representative later apologised , explaining that the photo was chosen out of hundreds for its image quality .
On 3 August , Xinhua reported that two of Rebiya Kadeer 's children had written letters blaming her for orchestrating the riots . A Germany @-@ based spokesman for the WUC rejected the letters as fakes . A Human Rights Watch researcher remarked their style was " suspiciously close " to the way the Chinese authorities had described rioting in Xinjiang and the aftermath . He added that " it 's highly irregular for [ her children ] to be placed on the platform of a government mouthpiece [ ... ] for wide dispersion . "
= = Aftermath and long @-@ term impact = =
= = = Arrests and trials = = =
In early August , the Ürümqi government announced that 83 individuals had been " officially " arrested in connection with the riots . China Daily reported in late August that over 200 people were being charged and that trials would begin by the end of August . Although this was denied both by a provincial and a local Party official , Xinjiang authorities later announced that arrest warrants had been issued to 196 suspects , of which 51 had already been prosecuted . Police also requested that the procuratorate approve the arrest of a further 239 people , and detention of 825 more , China Daily said . In early December , 94 " fugitives " were arrested .
The state first announced criminal charges against detainees in late September , when it charged 21 people with " murder , arson , robbery , and damaging property " . 14 @,@ 000 security personnel were deployed in Ürümqi from 11 October , and the next day a Xinjiang court sentenced six men to death , and one to life imprisonment , for their roles in the riots . All six men were Uyghurs , and were found guilty of murder , arson and robbery during the riots . Foreign media said the sentences appeared to be aimed at mollifying the anger of the Han majority ; the WUC denounced the verdict as " political " , and said there was no desire to see justice served . Human Rights Watch said that there were " serious violations of due process " at the trials of 21 defendants relating to July protests . It said the trials " did not meet minimum international standards of due process and fair trials " – specifically , it said that the trials were carried out in a single day without prior public notice , that the defendants ' choice of lawyers was restricted , and that the Party had given judges instructions on how to handle the cases . Xinhua , on the other hand , noted that the proceedings were conducted in both the Chinese and Uyghur languages , and that evidence had been carefully collected and verified before any decisions were made .
By February 2010 , the number of death sentences issued had increased to at least 26 , including at least one Han and one female Uyghur . Nine of the individuals sentenced were executed in November 2009 ; based on previous government statements , eight were Uyghur and one was Han .
= = = Later unrest and security measures = = =
Starting in mid @-@ August , there was a string of attacks in which as many as 476 individuals may have been stabbed with hypodermic needles . Officials believed that the attacks were targeting Han civilians and had been perpetrated by Uyghur separatists . In response to both concern over the attacks and dissatisfaction over the government 's slowness in prosecuting people involved with the July riots , thousands of Hans protested in the streets . On 3 September , five people died during the protests and 14 were injured , according to an official . The next day , the Communist Party Chief of Ürümqi , Li Zhi , was removed from his post , along with the police chief , Liu Yaohua ; the provincial Party secretary Wang Lequan was replaced in April 2010 .
While the city became calmer after these events , and the government made great efforts to show that life was returning to normal , an armed police presence did remain . As late as January 2010 , it was reported that police were making patrols five or six times a day , and that patrols were stepped up at night . Shortly before the first anniversary of the rioting , the authorities installed more than 40 @,@ 000 surveillance cameras around Ürümqi to " ensure security in key public places " .
= = = Legislation and investigation = = =
In late August , the central government passed a law outlining standards for the deployment of armed police during " rebellion , riots , large @-@ scale serious criminal violence , terror attacks and other social safety incidents . " After the protests in early September , the government issued an announcement banning all " unlicensed marches , demonstrations and mass protests " . The provincial government also passed legislation banning the use of the internet to incite ethnic separatism .
In November , the Chinese government dispatched some 400 officials to Xinjiang , including senior leaders such as State Council secretary general Ma Kai , Propaganda department head Liu Yunshan , and United Front chief Du Qinglin , to form an ad hoc " Team of Investigation and Research " on Xinjiang , ostensibly intended on studying the policy changes to be implemented in response to the violence . In April 2010 , hardliner party chief Wang Lequan was replaced by Zhang Chunxian , a more conciliatory figure . The government authorized transfer payments totalling some $ 15 billion from eastern provinces to Xinjiang to aid in the province 's economic development , and announced plans to establish a special economic zone in Kashgar .
China has installed a grassroots network of officials throughout Xinjiang , its predominantly Muslim north @-@ west frontier region , to address social risks and spot early signs of unrest : Hundreds of cadres have been transferred from southern Xinjiang , the region ’ s poorest area , into socially unstable neighbourhoods of Ürümqi ; a policy has been implemented where if all family members are unemployed , the government arranges for one person in the household to get a job , ; official announcements are calling upon university students to register for those payouts . The areas around slums are being redeveloped to reduce social risks , opening way to new apartment blocks . However , independent observers believe that fundamental inequalities need to be addressed , and the mindset must change for there to be any success ; Ilham Tohti warned that the new policy could attract more Han immigration , and further alienate the Uyghur population .
= = = Public services and Internet access = = =
It took until at least early August for public transport to be fully restored in the city . According to Xinhua , 267 buses had been damaged during the rioting ; most were back in operation by 12 August . The government paid bus companies a total of ¥ 5 @.@ 25 million in compensation . Despite the resumption of transportation services , and the government 's efforts to encourage visitors to the region , tourism fell sharply after the riots ; on the National Day holiday in October , Xinjiang had 25 % fewer tourists than it did in 2008 .
Ürümqi public schools opened on schedule in September for the fall semester , but with armed police guarding them . Many schools began first @-@ day classes by focusing on patriotism .
On the other hand , Internet and international telephone service in Ürümqi remained limited for nearly a year after the riots . As late as November , most of the Internet was still inaccessible to residents and international phone calls were impossible ; as late as December , most web content hosted outside the autonomous region remained off @-@ limits to all but a few journalists , and residents had to travel to Dunhuang 14 hours away to access the Internet normally . Within the city , only about 100 local sites , such as banks and regional government websites , could be accessed . Both incoming and outgoing international phone calls were disallowed , so Ürümqi residents could only communicate by calling intermediaries in other cities in China who would then place the international calls . The communications blackout generated controversy even within China : Yu Xiaofeng of Zhejiang University criticised the move , and many Ürümqi locals said it hurt businesses and delayed recovery , whereas David Gosset of the Euro @-@ China forum argued that the government had the right to shut down communications for the sake of social stability ; some locals believed that getting away from the Internet even improved their quality of life .
In late December , the government began restoring services gradually . The websites for Xinhua and the People 's Daily , two state @-@ controlled media outlets , were made accessible on 28 December , the web portals Sina.com and Sohu.com on 10 January 2010 , and 27 more websites on 6 February . But access to websites was only partial : for instance , users could browse forums and blogs but not post on them . China Daily reported that limited e @-@ mail services were also restored in Ürümqi on 8 February , although a BBC reporter writing at approximately the same time said e @-@ mail was not accessible yet . Text messaging on cell phones was restored on 17 January , although there was a limit to how many messages a user could send daily . Internet access was fully restored in May 2010 .
= Fish in a Drawer =
" Fish in a Drawer " is the seventeenth episode of the fifth season of Two and a Half Men and the 113th episode overall . The episode was written by Evan Dunsky , Sarah Goldfinger , Carol Mendelsohn and Naren Shankar , the writers of CSI : Crime Scene Investigation , who swapped shows with the writing staff of Two and a Half Men .
The episode revolves around Teddy Leopold ( Robert Wagner ) , who is found dead on Charlie ( Charlie Sheen ) ' s bed during his mother 's wedding reception . A crime scene investigation crew searches Charlie 's house , trying to find out who murdered Teddy . " Fish in a Drawer " aired May 5 , 2008 on CBS , and was watched by approximately 13 million viewers , making it the night 's third most watched show , behind CSI : Miami and Dancing with the Stars .
= = Plot = =
At the reception of Evelyn and Teddy 's wedding , Charlie still wants to marry Courtney , his new stepsister , and decides to go up to his room with her . When they lie down on the bed , in the dark , Courtney discovers that she is lying on something , when Charlie turns on the light he finds Teddy lying dead on his bed with his pants around his knees , and lipstick on his " Hoo Hoo " When Charlie tells Alan , they find out they have an even bigger problem : telling their mother . After pulling Evelyn away from the piano , they tell her and she then cashes in their honeymoon tickets for a trip for one to Fiji before calling the police .
After the police arrive and examine the crime scene , Charlie , Alan , Evelyn , Berta , Courtney , and Jake are brought to the station for separate questioning . Charlie ends up being more obsessed with his attractive interrogator ( Jamie Rose ) , Alan is afraid of going to jail and can not talk straight , Evelyn spends more time complaining about their coffee , Berta turns out to be a waste of time , and Jake talks about food . It gets clear pretty soon that Evelyn is an easy target , since almost all of her prior husbands had died . Evelyn mentions her first husband died from food poisoning , explaining she was a young bride and didn 't know you couldn 't " keep fish in a drawer " .
After the files of Teddy and his daughter Courtney come back , the crime team discovers that their real names are Nathan Krunk and Sylvia Fishman , and they are not even related . It turns out that Sylvia and Nathan actually were con artists . The crime team thought that Nathan was murdered , because of the bruise on the back of his head , but it was revealed that he died of a heart attack , while attempting to have sex with Sylvia . The bruise had occurred two days earlier , when he bumped his head while having sex with Sylvia . As the police lead Sylvia away , Charlie attempts to tell her off for conning him , but he can only manage to say " I 'll wait for you . "
= = Production = =
In 2007 , Chuck Lorre , the creator of Two and a Half Men , contacted Carol Mendelsohn , the show runner of CSI : Crime Scene Investigation , about a crossover . The first reactions to this were that it was a stupid idea . CSI writer and executive producer Naren Shankar commented that when Mendelsohn first told him about the idea he replied : " What a nut " . However , that same year , the idea resurfaced , when Lorre and Mendelsohn met at the World Television Festival in Banff . Upon hearing this , the cast of both shows were surprised and not interested , but they eventually jumped aboard . In an interview with The New York Post , before the idea was fully worked out , Mendelsohn described the possible crossover as " a great challenge " .
When Mendelsohn was giving a talk , she accidentally mentioned the crossover , as a result Variety was already inquiring about the crossover episodes that same day . Mendelsohn eventually revealed the crossover at the Banff event in Canada . After the episode was taped , Lorre stated : " The biggest challenge for us was doing a comedy with a murder in it . Generally our stories are a little lighter . Would our audience go with a dead body in it ? There was a moment where it could have gone either way . I think the results were spectacular . It turned out to be a really funny episode . " " Fish in a Drawer " was written by Carol Mendelsohn and Naren Shankar and directed by Jeff Melman . As an inside joke , George Eads , who plays crime scene investigator Nick Stokes on CSI made a cameo as a guest at the wedding reception . Three days after the initial airing of " Fish in a Drawer " , " Two And a Half Deaths " , the corresponding CSI episode , aired on CBS . However , in an early Zap2it interview , both Mendelsohn and Lorre stated that this might be the last time a crossover like this might occur .
= = Reception = =
" Fish in a Drawer " was broadcast on May 5 , 2008 on CBS , and was watched by 13 @.@ 61 million viewers , making it the night 's third most watched show , behind CSI : Miami and Dancing with the Stars . The episode was the fifth most watched program on CBS in the week of May 5 to May 11 , 2008 . Allison Waldman of AOL 's TV Squad , stated that she found the corresponding CSI : Crime Scene Investigation episode Emmy Award worthy , while she found " Fish in a Drawer " , " not rip @-@ roaring , but still good " . Andy Grieser of Zap2it , said that he was attracted to the episode due to the news about the crossover , he stated he found the Faux @-@ Catherine " brilliant " and that " the grainy flashbacks were the best parts " .
Conchata Ferrell submitted this episode for consideration for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series for the 60th Primetime Emmy Awards , but did not end up being nominated , being nominated the previous year . The director of this episode , Jeff Melman , also submitted this episode for consideration for Outstanding Directing for a Comedy Series , but was neither nominated as well .
= Cambodian Civil War =
The Cambodian Civil War was a conflict that pitted the forces of the Communist Party of Kampuchea ( known as the Khmer Rouge ) and their allies the Democratic Republic of Vietnam ( North Vietnam ) and the Viet Cong against the government forces of the Kingdom of Cambodia and , after October 1970 , the Khmer Republic , which were supported by the United States ( U.S. ) and the Republic of Vietnam ( South Vietnam ) .
The struggle was complicated by the influence and actions of the allies of the two warring sides . People 's Army of Vietnam ( North Vietnamese Army ) involvement was designed to protect its Base Areas and sanctuaries in eastern Cambodia , without which the prosecution of its military effort in South Vietnam would have been more difficult . The Cambodian coup of 18 March 1970 put a pro @-@ American , anti @-@ Vietnamese government in power and ended Cambodia 's neutrality in the Vietnam War . The North Vietnamese Army ( PAVN ) was now threatened by a newly unfriendly Cambodian government .
Between March and June 1970 , the North Vietnamese moved many of its military installations further inside Cambodia to protect them from U.S. incursions and bombing , capturing most of the northeastern third of the country in engagements with the Cambodian army . The North Vietnamese turned over some of their conquests and provided other assistance to the Khmer Rouge , thus empowering what was at the time a small guerilla movement . The Cambodian government hastened to expand its army to combat the North Vietnamese and the growing threat of the Khmer Rouge .
The U.S. was motivated by the desire to buy time for its withdrawal from Southeast Asia , to protect its ally in South Vietnam , and to prevent the spread of communism to Cambodia . American and both South and North Vietnamese forces directly participated ( at one time or another ) in the fighting . The U.S. assisted the central government with massive U.S. aerial bombing campaigns and direct material and financial aid .
After five years of savage fighting , the Republican government was defeated on 17 April 1975 when the victorious Khmer Rouge proclaimed the establishment of Democratic Kampuchea .
The conflict was part of the Second Indochina War ( 1959 – 1975 ) which also consumed the neighboring Kingdom of Laos , South Vietnam , and North Vietnam individually referred to as the Laotian Civil War and the Vietnam War respectively . The Cambodian civil war led to the Cambodian Genocide , one of the bloodiest in history .
= = Setting the stage ( 1965 – 1970 ) = =
= = = Background = = =
During the early @-@ to @-@ mid @-@ 1960s , Prince Norodom Sihanouk 's policies had protected his nation from the turmoil that engulfed Laos and South Vietnam . Neither the People 's Republic of China ( PRC ) nor North Vietnam disputed Sihanouk 's claim to represent " progressive " political policies and the leadership of the prince 's domestic leftist opposition , the Pracheachon Party , had been integrated into the government . On 3 May 1965 , Sihanouk broke diplomatic relations with the U.S. , ended the flow of American aid , and turned to the PRC and the Soviet Union for economic and military assistance .
By the late 1960s , Sihanouk 's delicate domestic and foreign policy balancing act was beginning to go awry . In 1966 , an agreement was struck between the prince and the Chinese , allowing the presence of large @-@ scale People 's Army of Vietnam ( PAVN ) and NLF troop deployments and logistical bases in the eastern border regions . He had also agreed to allow the use of the port of Sihanoukville by communist @-@ flagged vessels delivering supplies and material to support the PAVN / NLF military effort in Vietnam . These concessions made questionable Cambodia 's neutrality , which had been guaranteed by the Geneva Conference of 1954 .
Sihanouk was convinced that the PRC , not the U.S. , would eventually control the Indochinese Peninsula and that " our interests are best served by dealing with the camp that one day will dominate the whole of Asia – and coming to terms before its victory – in order to obtain the best terms possible . "
During the same year , however , he allowed his pro @-@ American minister of defense , General Lon Nol , to crack down on leftist activities , crushing the Pracheachon by accusing its members of subversion and subservience to Hanoi . Simultaneously , Sihanouk lost the support of Cambodia 's conservatives as a result of his failure to come to grips with the deteriorating economic situation ( exacerbated by the loss of rice exports , most of which went to the PAVN / NLF ) and with the growing communist military presence .
On 11 September , Cambodia held its first open election . Through manipulation and harassment ( and to Sihanouk 's surprise ) the conservatives won 75 percent of the seats in the National Assembly . Lon Nol was chosen by the right as prime minister and , as his deputy , they named Prince Sirik Matak ; an ultraconservative member of the Sisowath branch of the royal clan and long @-@ time enemy of Sihanouk . In addition to these developments and the clash of interests among Phnom Penh 's politicized elite , social tensions created a favorable environment for the growth of a domestic communist insurgency in the rural areas .
= = = Revolt in Battambang = = =
The prince then found himself in a political dilemma . To maintain the balance against the rising tide of the conservatives , he named the leaders of the very group he had been oppressing as members of a " counter @-@ government " that was meant to monitor and criticize Lon Nol 's administration . One of Lon Nol 's first priorities was to fix the ailing economy by halting the illegal sale of rice to the communists . Soldiers were dispatched to the rice @-@ growing areas to forcibly collect the harvests at gunpoint , and they paid only the low government price . There was widespread unrest , especially in rice @-@ rich Battambang Province , an area long @-@ noted for the presence of large landowners , great disparity in wealth , and where the communists still had some influence . On 11 March 1967 , while Sihanouk was out of the country in France , a rebellion broke out in the area around Samlaut in Battambang , when enraged villagers attacked a tax collection brigade . With the probable encouragement of local communist cadres , the insurrection quickly spread throughout the whole region . Lon Nol , acting in the prince 's absence ( but with his approval ) , responded by declaring martial law . Hundreds of peasants were killed and whole villages were laid waste during the repression . After returning home in March , Sihanouk abandoned his centrist position and personally ordered the arrest of Khieu Samphan , Hou Yuon , and Hu Nim , the leaders of the " counter government " , all of whom escaped into the northeast .
Simultaneously , Sihanouk ordered the arrest of Chinese middlemen involved in the illegal rice trade , thereby raising government revenues and placating the conservatives . Lon Nol was forced to resign , and , in a typical move , the prince named new leftists to the government to balance the conservatives . The immediate crisis had passed , but it engendered two tragic consequences . First , it drove thousands of new recruits into the arms of the hard @-@ line maquis of the Cambodian Communist Party ( which Sihanouk labelled the Khmers rouges ( " Red Khmers " ) ) . Second , for the peasantry , the name of Lon Nol became associated with ruthless repression throughout Cambodia .
= = = Communist regroupment = = =
While the 1967 insurgency had been unplanned , the Khmer Rouge tried , without much success , to organize a more serious revolt during the following year . The prince 's decimation of the Prachea Chon and the urban communists had , however , cleared the field of competition for Saloth Sar ( also known as Pol Pot ) , Ieng Sary , and Son Sen — the Maoist leadership of the maquisards . They led their followers into the highlands of the northeast and into the lands of the Khmer Loeu , a primitive people who were hostile to both the lowland Khmers and the central government . For the Khmer Rouge , who still lacked assistance from the North Vietnamese , it was a period of regroupment , organization , and training . Hanoi basically ignored its Chinese @-@ sponsored allies , and the indifference of their " fraternal comrades " to their insurgency between 1967 and 1969 would make an indelible impression on the Khmer Rouge leadership .
On 17 January 1968 , the Khmer Rouge launched their first offensive . It was aimed more at gathering weapons and spreading propaganda than in seizing territory since , at that time , the adherents of the insurgency numbered no more than 4 – 5 @,@ 000 . During the same month , the communists established the Revolutionary Army of Kampuchea as the military wing of the party . As early as the end of the Battambang revolt , Sihanouk had begun to reevaluate his relationship with the communists . His earlier agreement with the Chinese had availed him nothing . They had not only failed to restrain the North Vietnamese , but they had actually involved themselves ( through the Khmer Rouge ) in active subversion within his country . At the suggestion of Lon Nol ( who had returned to the cabinet as defense minister in November 1968 ) and other conservative politicians , on 11 May 1969 , the prince welcomed the restoration of normal diplomatic relations with the U.S. and created a new Government of National Salvation with Lon Nol as his prime minister . He did so " in order to play a new card , since the Asian communists are already attacking us before the end of the Vietnam War . " Besides , PAVN and the NLF would make very convenient scapegoats for Cambodia 's ills , much more so than the minuscule Khmer Rouge , and ridding Cambodia of their presence would solve many problems simultaneously . The Americans took advantage of this same opportunity to solve some of their own problems in Southeast Asia .
= = = Operation Menu and Operation Freedom Deal = = =
Although the U.S. had been aware of the PAVN / NLF sanctuaries in Cambodia since 1966 , President Lyndon B. Johnson had chosen not to attack them due to possible international repercussions and his belief that Sihanouk could be convinced to alter his policies . Johnson did , however , authorize the reconnaissance teams of the highly classified Military Assistance Command , Vietnam Studies and Observations Group ( SOG ) to enter Cambodia and gather intelligence on the Base Areas in 1967 . The election of Richard M. Nixon in 1968 and the introduction of his policies of gradual U.S. withdrawal from South Vietnam and the Vietnamization of the conflict there , changed everything . On 18 March 1969 , on secret orders from Nixon , the U.S. Air Force carried out the bombing of Base Area 353 ( in the Fishhook region opposite South Vietnam 's Tay Ninh Province ) by 59 B @-@ 52 Stratofortress bombers . This strike was the first in a series of attacks on the sanctuaries that lasted until May 1970 . During Operation Menu , the Air Force conducted 3 @,@ 875 sorties and dropped more than 108 @,@ 000 tons of ordnance on the eastern border areas . Only five high @-@ ranking Congressional officials were informed of the bombing .
Later it was claimed by Nixon and Kissinger that Sihanouk had given his tacit approval for the raids , but this is debatable . According to Kenton Clymer , Sihanouk 's public denunciations of Hanoi 's military presence in Cambodia and support for the Khmer Rouge are not evidence of tacit complicity : " Sihanouk was never asked to approve the B @-@ 52 bombings , and he never gave his approval . " Sihanouk privately sanctioned hot pursuit of North Vietnamese forces in under @-@ populated areas , but this was " not closely related " to the B @-@ 52 strikes . Sihanouk publicly condemned the bombing . Hanoi remained quiet about the bombing , not wishing to advertise the presence of its forces in " neutral " Cambodia .
Operation Freedom Deal followed Operation Menu . Under Freedom Deal , from 19 May 1970 to 15 August 1973 , U.S. bombing of Cambodia extended over the entire eastern one @-@ half of the country and was especially intense in the heavily populated southeastern one @-@ quarter of the country , including a wide ring surrounding the largest city of Phnom Penh . In large areas , according to maps of U.S. bombing sites , it appears that nearly every square mile of land was hit by bombs .
The effectiveness of the U.S. bombing on the Khmer Rouge and the death toll of Cambodian civilians is disputed . With limited data , the range of Cambodian deaths caused by U.S. bombing may be between 40 @,@ 000 and 150 @,@ 000 . Another impact of the U.S. bombing and the Cambodian civil war was to destroy the homes and livelihood of many people . This was a heavy contributor to the refugee crisis in Cambodia with two million people — more than 25 percent of the population — displaced from rural areas into the cities , especially Phnom Penh which grew from about 600 @,@ 000 in 1970 to an estimated population of nearly 2 million by 1975 . The Cambodian government estimated that more than 20 percent of the property in the country had been destroyed during the war .
It has been argued that the U.S. intervention in Cambodia contributed to the eventual seizure of power by the Khmer Rouge , that grew from 4 @,@ 000 in number in 1970 to 70 @,@ 000 in 1975 . This view has been disputed , with documents uncovered from the Soviet archives revealing that the North Vietnamese offensive in Cambodia in 1970 was launched at the explicit request of the Khmer Rouge following negotiations with Nuon Chea . It has also been argued that U.S. bombing was decisive in delaying a Khmer Rouge victory .
= = Overthrow of Sihanouk ( 1970 ) = =
= = = Lon Nol coup = = =
While Sihanouk was out of the country on a trip to France , anti @-@ Vietnamese rioting ( which was semi @-@ sponsored by the government ) took place in Phnom Penh , during which the North Vietnamese and NLF embassies were sacked . In the prince 's absence , Lon Nol did nothing to halt these activities . On 12th , the prime minister closed the port of Sihanoukville to the North Vietnamese and issued an impossible ultimatum to them . All PAVN / NLF forces were to withdraw from Cambodian soil within 72 hours ( on 15 March ) or face military action .
Sihanouk , hearing of the turmoil , headed for Moscow and Beijing in order to demand that the patrons of PAVN and the NLF exert more control over their clients . On 18 March 1970 , Lon Nol requested that the National Assembly vote on the future of the prince 's leadership of the nation . Sihanouk was ousted from power by a vote of 92 – 0 . Heng Cheng became president of the National Assembly , while Prime Minister Lon Nol was granted emergency powers . Sirik Matak retained his post as deputy prime minister . The new government emphasized that the transfer of power had been totally legal and constitutional , and it received the recognition of most foreign governments . There have been , and continue to be , accusations that the U.S. government played some role in the overthrow of Sihanouk , but conclusive evidence has never been found to support them .
The majority of middle @-@ class and educated Khmers had grown weary of the prince and welcomed the change of government . They were joined by the military , for whom the prospect of the return of American military and financial aid was a cause for celebration . Within days of his deposition , Sihanouk , now in Beijing , broadcast an appeal to the people to resist the usurpers . Demonstrations and riots occurred ( mainly in areas contiguous to PAVN / NLF controlled areas ) , but no nationwide groundswell threatened the government . In one incident at Kompong Cham on 29 March , however , an enraged crowd killed Lon Nol 's brother , Lon Nil , tore out his liver , and cooked and ate it . An estimated 40 @,@ 000 peasants then began to march on the capital to demand Sihanouk 's reinstatement . They were dispersed , with many casualties , by contingents of the armed forces .
= = = Massacre of the Vietnamese = = =
Most of the population , urban and rural , took out their anger and frustrations on the nation 's Vietnamese population . Lon Nol 's call for 10 @,@ 000 volunteers to boost the manpower of Cambodia 's poorly equipped , 30 @,@ 000 @-@ man army , managed to swamp the military with over 70 @,@ 000 recruits . Rumours abounded concerning a possible PAVN offensive aimed at Phnom Penh itself . Paranoia flourished and this set off a violent reaction against the nation 's 400 @,@ 000 ethnic Vietnamese .
Lon Nol hoped to use the Vietnamese as hostages against PAVN / NLF activities , and the military set about rounding them up into detention camps . That was when the killing began . In towns and villages all over Cambodia , soldiers and civilians sought out their Vietnamese neighbors in order to murder them . On 15 April , the bodies of 800 Vietnamese floated down the Mekong River and into South Vietnam .
The South Vietnamese , North Vietnamese , and the NLF harshly denounced these actions . Significantly , no Cambodians — including the Buddhist community — condemned the killings . In his apology to the Saigon government , Lon Nol stated that " it was difficult to distinguish between Vietnamese citizens who were Viet Cong and those who were not . So it is quite normal that the reaction of Cambodian troops , who feel themselves betrayed , is difficult to control . "
= = = FUNK and GRUNK = = =
From Beijing , Sihanouk proclaimed that the government in Phnom Penh was dissolved and his intention to create the Front uni national du Kampuchéa or FUNK ( National United Front of Kampuchea ) . Sihanouk later said " I had chosen not to be with either the Americans or the communists , because I considered that there were two dangers , American imperialism and Asian communism . It was Lon Nol who obliged me to choose between them . "
The North Vietnamese reacted to the political changes in Cambodia by sending Premier Phạm Văn Đồng to meet Sihanouk in China and recruit him into an alliance with the Khmer Rouge . Saloth was also contacted by the Vietnamese who now offered him whatever resources he wanted for his insurgency against the Cambodian government . Saloth and Sihanouk were actually in Beijing at the same time but the Vietnamese and Chinese leaders never informed Sihanouk of the presence of Saloth or allowed the two men to meet . Shortly after , Sihanouk issued an appeal by radio to the people of Cambodia to rise up against the government and support the Khmer Rouge . In doing so , Sihanouk lent his name and popularity in the rural areas of Cambodia to a movement over which he had little control . In May 1970 , Saloth finally returned to Cambodia and the pace of the insurgency greatly increased . After Sihanouk showed his support for the Khmer Rouge by visiting them in the field , their ranks swelled from 6 @,@ 000 to 50 @,@ 000 fighters .
The prince then allied himself with the Khmer Rouge , the North Vietnamese , the Laotian Pathet Lao , and the NLF , throwing his personal prestige behind the communists . On 5 May , the actual establishment of FUNK and of the Gouvernement royal d 'union nationale du Kampuchéa or GRUNK ( Royal Government of National Union of Kampuchea ) , was proclaimed . Sihanouk assumed the post of head of state , appointing Penn Nouth , one of his most loyal supporters , as prime minister .
Khieu Samphan was designated deputy prime minister , minister of defense , and commander in chief of the GRUNK armed forces ( though actual military operations were directed by Pol Pot ) . Hu Nim became minister of information , and Hou Yuon assumed multiple responsibilities as minister of the interior , communal reforms , and cooperatives . GRUNK claimed that it was not a government @-@ in @-@ exile since Khieu Samphan and the insurgents remained inside Cambodia . Sihanouk and his loyalists remained in China , although the prince did make a visit to the " liberated areas " of Cambodia , including Angkor Wat , in March 1973 . These visits were used mainly for propaganda purposes and had no real influence on political affairs .
For Sihanouk , this proved to be a marriage of convenience that was spurred on by his thirst for revenge against those who had betrayed him . For the Khmer Rouge , it was a means to greatly expand the appeal of their movement . Peasants , motivated by loyalty to the monarchy , gradually rallied to the GRUNK cause . The personal appeal of Sihanouk , and widespread US aerial bombardment helped recruitment . This task was made even easier for the communists after 9 October 1970 , when Lon Nol abolished the loosely federalist monarchy and proclaimed the establishment of a centralized Khmer Republic .
The GRUNK was soon caught between the competing Communist powers : North Vietnam , China , and the Soviet Union . During the visits which Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai and Sihanouk paid to North Korea in April and June 1970 , respectively , they called for the establishment of a " united front of the five revolutionary Asian countries " ( China , North Korea , North Vietnam , Laos , and Cambodia , the last being represented by the GRUNK ) . While the North Korean leaders enthusiastically welcomed the plan , it soon foundered on Hanoi ’ s opposition . Having realized that such a front would exclude the Soviet Union and implicitly challenge the hegemonic role that the DRV had arrogated to itself in Indochina , the North Vietnamese leaders declared that all communist states should join forces against " American imperialism . " Indeed , the issue of Vietnamese versus Chinese hegemony over Indochina greatly influenced the attitude Hanoi adopted towards Moscow in the early and mid @-@ 1970s . During the Cambodian civil war , the Soviet leaders , ready to acquiesce in Hanoi ’ s dominance over Laos and Cambodia , actually insisted on sending their aid shipments to the Khmer Rouge through the DRV , whereas China firmly rebuffed Hanoi 's proposal that Chinese aid to Cambodia be sent via North Vietnam . Facing Chinese competition and Soviet acquiescence , the North Vietnamese leaders found the Soviet option more advantageous to their interests , a calculation that played a major role in the gradual pro @-@ Soviet shift in Hanoi 's foreign policies .
= = Widening war ( 1970 – 1971 ) = =
= = = North Vietnamese offensive in Cambodia = = =
In the wake of the coup , Lon Nol did not immediately launch Cambodia into war . He appealed to the international community and to the United Nations in an attempt to gain support for the new government and condemned violations of Cambodia 's neutrality " by foreign forces , whatever camp they come from . " His hope for continued neutralism availed him no more than it had Sihanouk . On 29 March 1970 , the North Vietnamese had taken matters into their own hands and launched an offensive against the Cambodian army with documents uncovered from the Soviet archives revealing that the offensive was launched at the explicit request of the Khmer Rouge following negotiations with Nuon Chea . The North Vietnamese overran most of northeastern Cambodia by June 1970 .
On 29 April 1970 , South Vietnamese and U.S. units unleashed a limited , multi @-@ pronged Cambodian Campaign that Washington hoped would solve three problems : First , it would provide a shield for the American withdrawal from Vietnam ( by destroying the PAVN logistical system and killing enemy troops ) in Cambodia ; second , it would provide a test for the policy of Vietnamization ; third , it would serve as a signal to Hanoi that Nixon meant business . Despite Nixon 's appreciation of Lon Nol 's position , the Cambodian leader was not even informed in advance of the decision to send troops into his country . He learned about it only after it had begun from the head of the U.S. mission , who had himself learned about it from a radio broadcast .
Extensive logistical installations and large amounts of supplies were found and destroyed , but as reporting from the American command in Saigon disclosed , still larger amounts of military material had already been moved further from the border to shelter it from the incursion into Cambodia by the U.S. and South Vietnam .
On the day the incursion was launched , the North Vietnamese launched an offensive ( Campaign X ) of its own against FANK forces at the request of the Khmer Rouge and in order to protect and expand their Base Areas and logistical system . By June , three months after the removal of Sihanouk , they had swept government forces from the entire northeastern third of the country . After defeating those forces , the North Vietnamese turned the newly won territories over to the local insurgents . The Khmer Rouge also established " liberated " areas in the south and the southwestern parts of the country , where they operated independently of the North Vietnamese .
= = = Opposing sides = = =
As combat operations quickly revealed , the two sides were badly mismatched . Government troops , were now renamed the Forces Armees Nationales Khemeres or FANK ( Khmer National Armed Forces ) and thousands of young urban Cambodians flocked to join it in the months following the removal of Sihanouk . With the surge of recruits , however , FANK expanded well beyond its capacity to absorb the new men . Later , given the press of tactical operations and the need to replace combat casualties , there was insufficient time to impart needed skills to individuals or to units , and lack of training remained the bane of FANK 's existence until its collapse .
During the period 1974 – 1975 , FANK forces officially grew from 100 @,@ 000 to approximately 250 @,@ 000 men , but probably only numbered around 180 @,@ 000 due to payroll padding by their officers and due to desertions . U.S. military aid ( ammunition , supplies , and equipment ) was funneled to FANK through the Military Equipment Delivery Team , Cambodia ( MEDTC ) . Authorized a total of 113 officers and men , the team arrived in Phnom Penh in 1971 , under the overall command of CINCPAC Admiral John S. McCain , Jr . The attitude of the Nixon administration could be summed up by the advice given by Henry Kissinger to the first head of the liaison team , Colonel Jonathan Ladd : " Don 't think of victory ; just keep it alive . " Nevertheless , McCain constantly petitioned the Pentagon for more arms , equipment , and staff for what he proprietarily viewed as " my war " .
There were other problems . The officer corps of FANK was generally corrupt and greedy . The inclusion of " ghost " soldiers allowed massive payroll padding ; ration allowances were kept by the officers while their men starved ; and the sale of arms and ammunition on the black market ( or to the enemy ) was commonplace . Worse , the tactical ineptitude among FANK officers was as common as their greed . Lon Nol frequently bypassed the general staff and directed operations down to battalion @-@ level while also forbidding any real coordination between the army , navy , and air force .
The common soldiers fought bravely at first , but they were saddled with low pay ( with which they had to purchase their own food and medical care ) , ammunition shortages , and mixed equipment . Due to the pay system , there were no allotments for their families , who were , therefore , forced to follow their husbands / sons into the battle zones . These problems ( exacerbated by continuously declining morale ) only increased over time .
At the beginning of 1974 , the Cambodian army inventory included 241 @,@ 630 rifles , 7 @,@ 079 machine guns , 2 @,@ 726 mortars , 20 @,@ 481 grenade launchers , 304 recoilless rifles , 289 howitzers , 202 APCs , and 4 @,@ 316 trucks . The Khmer navy had 171 vessels ; the Khmer air force had 211 aircraft , including 64 North American T @-@ 28s , 14 Douglas AC @-@ 47 gunships and 44 helicopters . American embassy military personnel – who were only supposed to coordinate the arms aid program – sometimes found themselves involved in prohibited advisory and combat tasks .
When PAVN forces were supplanted , it was by the tough , rigidly indoctrinated peasant army of the Khmer Rouge with its core of seasoned leaders , who now received the full support of Hanoi . Khmer Rouge forces , which had been reorganized at an Indochinese summit held in Guangzhou , China in April 1970 , would grow from 12 – 15 @,@ 000 in 1970 to 35 – 40 @,@ 000 by 1972 , when the so @-@ called " Khmerization " of the conflict took place and combat operations against the Republic were handed over completely to the insurgents .
The development of these forces took place in three stages . 1970 to 1972 was a period of organization and recruitment , during which Khmer Rouge units served as auxiliaries to PAVN . From 1972 to mid @-@ 1974 , the insurgents formed units of battalion and regimental size . It was during this period that the Khmer Rouge began to break away from Sihanouk and his supporters and the collectivization of agriculture was begun in the liberated areas . Division @-@ sized units were being fielded by 1974 – 1975 , when the party was on its own and began the radical transformation of the country .
With the fall of Sihanouk , Hanoi became alarmed at the prospect of a pro @-@ Western regime that might allow the Americans to establish a military presence on their western flank . To prevent that from happening , they began transferring their military installations away from the border regions to locations deeper within Cambodian territory . A new command center was established at the city of Kratié and the timing of the move was propitious . President Nixon was of the opinion that :
" We need a bold move in Cambodia to show that we stand with Lon Nol ... something symbolic ... for the only Cambodian regime that had the guts to take a pro @-@ Western and pro @-@ American stand . "
= = = Chenla II = = =
During the night of 21 January 1971 , a force of 100 PAVN / NLF commandos attacked Pochentong airfield , the main base of the Republican Air Force . In this one action , the raiders destroyed almost the entire inventory of government aircraft , including all of its fighter planes . This may have been a blessing in disguise , however , since the air force was composed of old ( even obsolete ) Soviet aircraft . The Americans soon replaced the airplanes with more advanced models . The attack did , however , stall a proposed FANK offensive . Two weeks later , Lon Nol suffered a stroke and was evacuated to Hawaii for treatment . It had been a mild stroke , however , and the general recovered quickly , returning to Cambodia after only two months .
It was not until 20 August that FANK launched Operation Chenla II , its first offensive of the year . The objective of the campaign was to clear Route 6 of enemy forces and thereby reopen communications with Kompong Thom , the Republic 's second largest city , which had been isolated from the capital for more than a year . The operation was initially successful , and the city was relieved . The PAVN and Khmer Rouge counterattacked in November and December , annihilating government forces in the process . There was never an accurate count of the losses , but the estimate was " on the order of ten battalions of personnel and equipment lost plus the equipment of an additional ten battalions . " The strategic result of the failure of Chenla II was that the offensive initiative passed completely into the hands of PAVN and the Khmer Rouge .
= = Agony of the Khmer Republic ( 1972 – 1975 ) = =
= = = Struggling to survive = = =
From 1972 through 1974 , the war was conducted along FANK 's lines of communications north and south of the capital . Limited offensives were launched to maintain contact with the rice @-@ growing regions of the northwest and along the Mekong River and Route 5 , the Republic 's overland connections to South Vietnam . The strategy of the Khmer Rouge was to gradually cut those lines of communication and squeeze Phnom Penh . As a result , FANK forces became fragmented , isolated , and unable to lend one another mutual support .
The main U.S. contribution to the FANK effort came in the form of the bombers and tactical aircraft of the U.S. Air Force . When President Nixon launched the incursion in 1970 , American and South Vietnamese troops operated under an umbrella of air cover that was designated Operation Freedom Deal . When those troops were withdrawn , the air operation continued , ostensibly to interdict PAVN / NLF troop movements and logistics . In reality ( and unknown to the American Congress and public ) , they were utilized to provide tactical air support to FANK . As a former U.S. military officer in Phnom Penh reported , " the areas around the Mekong River were so full of bomb craters from B @-@ 52 strikes that , by 1973 , they looked like the valleys of the moon . "
On 10 March 1972 , just before the newly renamed Constituent Assembly was to approve a revised constitution , Lon Nol announced that he was suspending the deliberations . He then forced Cheng Heng , the chief of state since Sihanouk 's deposition , to surrender his authority to him . On the second anniversary of the coup , Lon Nol relinquished his authority as chief of state , but retained his position as prime minister and defense minister .
On 4 June , Lon Nol was elected as the first president of the Khmer Republic in a blatantly rigged election . As per the new constitution ( ratified on 30 April ) , political parties formed in the new nation , quickly becoming a source of political factionalism . General Sutsakhan stated : " the seeds of democratization , which had been thrown into the wind with such goodwill by the Khmer leaders , returned for the Khmer Republic nothing but a poor harvest . "
In January 1973 , hope was renewed when the Paris Peace Accord was signed , ending the conflict ( for the time being ) in South Vietnam and Laos . On 29 January , Lon Nol proclaimed a unilateral cease @-@ fire throughout the nation . All U.S. bombing operations were halted in hopes of securing a chance for peace . It was not to be . The Khmer Rouge simply ignored the proclamation and carried on fighting . By March , heavy casualties , desertions , and low recruitment had forced Lon Nol to introduce conscription and , in April , insurgent forces launched an offensive that pushed into the suburbs of the capital . The U.S. Air Force responded by launching an intense bombing operation that forced the communists back into the countryside after being decimated by the air strikes . The US Seventh Air Force argued that the bombing prevented the fall of Phnom Penh in 1973 by killing 16 @,@ 000 of 25 @,@ 500 Khmer Rouge fighters besieging the city .
By the last day of Operation Freedom Deal ( 15 August 1973 ) , 250 @,@ 000 tons of bombs had been dropped on the Khmer Republic , 82 @,@ 000 tons of which had been released in the last 45 days of the operation . Since the inception of Operation Menu in 1969 , the U.S. Air Force had dropped 539 @,@ 129 tons of ordnance on Cambodia / Khmer Republic .
= = = Shape of things to come = = =
As late as 1972 – 1973 , it was a commonly held belief , both within and outside Cambodia , that the war was essentially a foreign conflict that had not fundamentally altered the nature of the Khmer people . By late 1973 , there was a growing awareness among the government and population of the fanaticism , total lack of concern over casualties , and complete rejection of any offer of peace talks which " began to suggest that Khmer Rouge fanaticism and capacity for violence were deeper than anyone had suspected . " During the Civil War , although data is sparse , demographic evidence suggests that the Khmer Rouge caused several times more civilian casualties than the entire U.S. bombing of Cambodia .
Reports of the brutal policies of the organization soon made their way to Phnom Penh and into the population foretelling the violence that was about to consume the nation . There were tales of the forced relocations of entire villages , of the summary execution of any who disobeyed or even asked questions , the forbidding of religious practices , of monks who were defrocked or murdered , and where traditional sexual and marital habits were foresworn . War was one thing , the offhand manner in which the Khmer Rouge dealt out death , so contrary to the Khmer character , was quite another . Reports of these atrocities began to surface during the same period in which North Vietnamese troops were withdrawing from the Cambodian battlefields . This was no coincidence . The concentration of the PAVN effort on South Vietnam allowed the Khmer Rouge to apply their doctrine and policies without restraint for the first time .
The Khmer Rouge leadership was almost completely unknown by the public . They were referred to by their fellow countrymen as peap prey – the forest army . Previously , the very existence of the communist party as a component of GRUNK had been hidden . Within the " liberated zones " it was simply referred to as " Angka " – the organization . During 1973 , the communist party fell under the control of its most fanatical members , Pol Pot and Son Sen , who believed that " Cambodia was to go through a total social revolution and that everything that had preceded it was anathema and must be destroyed . "
Also hidden from scrutiny was the growing antagonism between the Khmer Rouge and their North Vietnamese allies . The radical leadership of the party could never escape the suspicion that Hanoi had designs on building an Indochinese federation with the North Vietnamese as its master . The Khmer Rouge were ideologically tied to the Chinese , while North Vietnam 's chief supporters , the Soviet Union , still recognized the Lon Nol government as legitimate . After the signing of the Paris Peace Accords , PAVN cut off the supply of arms to the Khmer Rouge , hoping to force them into a cease @-@ fire . When the Americans were freed by the signing of the accords to turn their air power completely on the Khmer Rouge , this too was blamed on Hanoi . During the year , these suspicions and attitudes led the party leadership to carry out purges within their ranks . Most of the Hanoi @-@ trained members were then executed on the orders of Pol Pot .
As time passed , the need of the Khmer Rouge for the support of Prince Sihanouk lessened . The organization demonstrated to the people of the ' liberated ' areas in no uncertain terms that open expressions of support for Sihanouk would result in their liquidation . Although the prince still enjoyed the protection of the Chinese , when he made public appearances overseas to publicize the GRUNK cause , he was treated with almost open contempt by Ministers Ieng Sary and Khieu Samphan . In June , the prince told Italian journalist Oriana Fallaci that when " they [ the Khmer Rouge ] have sucked me dry , they will spit me out like a cherry stone . "
By the end of 1973 , Sihanouk loyalists had been purged from all of GRUNK 's ministries and all of the prince 's supporters within the insurgent ranks were also eliminated . Shortly after Christmas , as the insurgents were gearing up for their final offensive , Sihanouk spoke with the French diplomat Etienne Manac 'h . He said that his hopes for a moderate socialism akin to Yugoslavia 's must now be totally dismissed . Stalinist Albania , he said , would be the model .
= = = Fall of Phnom Penh = = =
By the time the Khmer Rouge initiated their dry @-@ season offensive to capture the beleaguered Cambodian capital on 1 January 1975 , the Republic was in chaos . The economy had been gutted , the transportation network had been reduced to air and water systems , the rice harvest had been reduced by one @-@ quarter , and the supply of freshwater fish ( the chief source of protein ) had declined drastically . The cost of food was 20 times greater than pre @-@ war levels and unemployment was not even measured anymore . Phnom Penh , which had a pre @-@ war population of around 600 @,@ 000 , was overwhelmed by refugees ( who continued to flood in from the steadily collapsing defense perimeter ) , growing to a size of around two million . These helpless and desperate civilians had no jobs and little in the way of food , shelter , or medical care . Their condition ( and the government 's ) only worsened when Khmer Rouge forces gradually gained control of the banks of the Mekong . From the riverbanks , their mines and gunfire steadily reduced the river convoys bringing relief supplies of food , fuel , and ammunition to the slowly starving city ( 90 percent of the Republic 's supplies moved by means of the convoys ) from South Vietnam . After the river was effectively blocked in early February , the U.S. began an airlift of supplies . This became increasingly risky , however , due to communist rocket and artillery fire , which constantly rained down on the airfields and city . The Khmer Rouge cut off supplies to the city for more than a year before it fell on 17 April 1975 . Reports from journalists stated that the Khmer Rouge shelling " tortured the capital almost continuously , " inflicting " random death and mutilation " on millions of trapped civilians .
Desperate , yet determined , units of Republican soldiers , many of whom had run out of ammunition , dug in around the capital and fought until they were overrun as the Khmer Rouge advanced . By the last week of March 1975 , approximately 40 @,@ 000 communist troops had surrounded the capital and began preparing to deliver the coup de grace to about half as many Republican forces .
Lon Nol resigned and left the country on 1 April , hoping that a negotiated settlement might still be possible if he was absent from the political scene . Saukam Khoy became acting president of a government that had less than three weeks to live . Last @-@ minute efforts on the part of the U.S. to arrange a peace agreement involving Sihanouk ended in failure . When a vote in the U.S. Congress for a resumption of American air support failed , panic and a sense of doom pervaded the capital . The situation was best described by General Sak Sutsakhan ( now FANK chief of staff ) :
" The picture of the Khmer Republic which came to mind at that time was one of a sick man who survived only by outside means and that , in its condition , the administration of medication , however efficient it might be , was probably of no further value . "
On 12 April , concluding that all was lost , the U.S. evacuated its embassy personnel by helicopter during Operation Eagle Pull . The 276 evacuees included U.S. Ambassador John Gunther Dean , other American diplomatic personnel , Acting President Saukam Khoy , senior Khmer Republic government officials and their families , and members of the news media . In all , 82 U.S. , 159 Cambodian , and 35 third @-@ country nationals were evacuated . Although invited by Ambassador Dean to join the evacuation ( and much to the Americans ' surprise ) , Prince Sisowath Sirik Matak , Long Boret , Lon Non ( Lon Nol 's brother ) , and most members of Lon Nol 's cabinet declined the offer . All of them chose to share the fate of their people . Their names were not published on the death lists and many trusted the Khmer Rouge 's assertions that former government officials would not be murdered , but would be welcome in helping rebuild a new Cambodia . Later , they were all executed by the Khmer Rouge .
After the Americans ( and Saukam Khoy ) had departed , a seven @-@ member Supreme Committee , headed by General Sak Sutsakhan , assumed authority over the collapsing Republic . By 15 April , the last solid defenses of the city were overcome by the communists . In the early morning hours of 17 April , the committee decided to move the seat of government to Oddar Meanchay Province in the northwest . Around 10 : 00 , the voice of General Mey Si Chan of the FANK general staff broadcast on the radio , ordering all FANK forces to cease firing , since " negotiations were in progress " for the surrender of Phnom Penh . The war was over but the terrible dreams of the Khmer Rouge were about to come to fruition in the newly proclaimed Democratic Kampuchea . Khmer Rouge troops immediately began to forcibly empty the capital city , driving the population into the countryside and killing tens of thousands in the process . The Year Zero had begun .
= William Owsley =
William Owsley ( March 24 , 1782 – December 9 , 1862 ) was an associate justice on the Kentucky Court of Appeals and the 16th Governor of Kentucky . He also served in both houses of the Kentucky General Assembly and was Kentucky Secretary of State under Governor James Turner Morehead .
Owsley studied law under John Boyle . After briefly serving in the state legislature , he was appointed by Governor Charles Scott to serve alongside Boyle on the Kentucky Court of Appeals . During his service on the court , Owsley was involved in the Old Court @-@ New Court controversy . In 1824 , the state legislature , unhappy with the court 's rulings against debt relief legislation , attempted to abolish the court and replace it with a new court . For a time , both courts operated simultaneously , and both claimed to be the court of last resort in the state . Supporters of the old court won control of the legislature and abolished the new court in 1826 . Owsley resigned from the Court of Appeals two years later .
In 1831 , Owsley returned to the state legislature , where he served until Governor Morehead appointed him secretary of state in 1834 . He resumed his legal practice in 1836 and in 1843 , retired from that profession . The next year , he was nominated for governor on the Whig ticket and defeated William O. Butler in the general election . Through fiscally conservative policies , he was able to reduce the state 's debt . In spite of his opposition to the Mexican @-@ American War , large numbers of Kentucky 's citizens volunteered for military service . Owsley 's popularity declined sharply when he attempted to remove Benjamin Hardin as Secretary of State . Hardin successfully challenged his removal in court , then resigned in protest of Owsley 's actions and charged him with practicing nepotism in his appointments . After his term as governor , Owsley never again sought public office . He died December 9 , 1862 and was buried in Belleview Cemetery in Danville , Kentucky .
= = Early life = =
William Owsley was born March 24 , 1782 in Virginia . He was the third of thirteen children born to William and Catherine ( Bolin ) Owsley . Owsley was a first cousin to U.S. Representative Bryan Owsley , whose father Anthony was the elder William Owsley 's brother . In 1783 , his family relocated to Lincoln County , Kentucky , settling between the settlements of Crab Orchard and Stanford . He was of English ancestry . Owsley was dedicated to his studies in the public schools of the area , and obtained a better education than most of his peers . On March 30 , 1802 , he was appointed adjutant of the 26th Regiment of the Kentucky Militia .
For a time , Owsley taught at a country school , and in 1803 , he married Elizabeth Gill , one of his students . Gill was almost seventeen ; Owsley was twenty @-@ one . The couple had six children . During his time as a teacher , Owsley also studied surveying and eventually became a deputy surveyor . Later , he served as a deputy sheriff under his father , who was High Sheriff of Lincoln County . While in this capacity , he attracted the attention of John Boyle , who offered Owsley the use of his library . Owsley availed himself of this opportunity , and read law with Boyle . In 1809 , Owsley opened a legal practice in Garrard County .
= = Kentucky Court of Appeals = =
Owsley 's political career began in 1809 when he was elected to the Kentucky House of Representatives , serving one term . Governor Charles Scott appointed him to the Kentucky Court of Appeals in 1810 , where he served alongside his teacher , John Boyle . Soon after Owsley 's appointment , the legislature reduced the number of justices on the court , and Owsley resigned his seat . He was elected to the state House again in 1811 . When a vacancy on the Court of Appeals occurred in 1813 , Governor Isaac Shelby re @-@ appointed Owsley to the court .
One of the court 's most crucial decisions during Owsley 's tenure was in the case of Commonwealth of Kentucky v. James Morrison , which held that the Bank of the United States did not have the right to establish branches in Kentucky . The Supreme Court of the United States later overturned this ruling .
A second important decision in which Owsley was a participant was the case of Blair , etc. v. Williams , which invalidated the Kentucky Replevin Act of 1820 . This law granted debtors a two @-@ year grace period in repaying their debts unless their creditors would accept notes from the Bank of Kentucky . Owsley and his colleagues opined that this law was in violation of the Contract Clause of the U.S. Constitution . The decision was extremely unpopular with the Commonwealth 's citizens , but it was re @-@ affirmed by the court 's opinion in the related case of Lapsley v. Brashcars and Barr .
Following these decisions , the General Assembly attempted to remove all three justices from their positions , but lacked the two @-@ thirds majority required for impeachment . The Assembly then attempted to abolish the Court of Appeals and create a new one , beginning the Old Court @-@ New Court controversy . The members of the existing court – Owsley , John Boyle , and Benjamin Mills – continued functioning in that role , while a new court of four pro @-@ relief justices was organized by the legislature . For a time , both courts claimed to be the court of last resort in Kentucky , but by 1826 , supporters of the Old Court won control of the legislature and abolished the New Court .
Having seen the court through the Old Court @-@ New Court controversy , Chief Justice Boyle resigned in 1826 . In December 1828 , Mills and Owsley also resigned . Their resignations were an attempt to silence criticism from the defeated New Court faction that they held their seats in defiance of the will of the people . Old Court supporters hoped both men would be re @-@ nominated and re @-@ confirmed by the legislature , making the New Court 's charge less credible . Accordingly , newly elected governor Thomas Metcalfe submitted both men to the legislature for confirmation , but the nominations were defeated in the state senate . Thus ended Owsley 's tenure on the court . It was , at the time , the longest tenure of any Court of Appeals justice except John Boyle . Owsley returned to his legal practice , and his case load soon compelled him to move to Frankfort .
= = Governor of Kentucky = =
Owsley returned to the state House in 1831 , and served in the state senate from 1832 to 1834 . He also served as a presidential elector for Henry Clay in 1833 . When James Turner Morehead ascended to the governorship upon the death of John Breathitt , he appointed Owsley Secretary of State for his shortened term from 1834 to 1836 . In 1843 , Owsley retired from the practice of law and purchased a farm in Boyle County .
In 1844 , Owsley was elected governor on the Whig ticket , defeating Democrat William O. Butler by a vote of 59 @,@ 792 to 55 @,@ 089 . A fiscal conservative , Owsley reduced the state 's deficit slightly , and was reluctant to rebuild the state penitentiary , which was damaged by fire . Despite his reluctance to spend , he urged the General Assembly to increase funding for public education . " Nothing but money will do it , " proclaimed Owsley , " and it is left to the appropriate department – the legislature – to determine on the expediency or inexpediency of raising it . " In response , the Assembly passed only a small tax to benefit public education . Education made progress during Owsley 's tenure , largely due to his appointment of Robert J. Breckinridge as public school superintendent in 1847 . Breckinridge is credited as the architect of Kentucky 's antebellum educational system .
In 1845 , Secretary of War William L. Marcy requested that Kentucky provide militiamen to bolster Zachary Taylor 's forces in the new state of Texas . Owsley all but refused the request , but when word of Marcy 's request reached the citizens of the state , they volunteered in great numbers and rushed to reinforce Taylor . Owsley was similarly lethargic in responding to Marcy 's call for troops for service in the Mexican – American War . He joined fellow Kentucky Whigs John J. Crittenden and Henry Clay in deriding the conflict as " Mr. Polk 's War " . However , postal workers in the state opened Marcy 's letter before delivering it to Owsley and had spread the word that the federal government had once again requested troops . By the time Owsley made the formal call for volunteers on May 22 , 1846 , an entire regiment of Kentucky troops had already been organized . Despite his personal opposition to the war , Owsley boasted in his report to Marcy that the Commonwealth had raised 13 @,@ 700 volunteers , more than five times the number requested of him .
Later , Owsley 's tenure would be marred by a conflict with Benjamin Hardin , his Secretary of State . Hardin believed that by supporting Owsley in the gubernatorial election , he would obtain some influence in Owsley 's choices for other appointments . Tensions between Hardin and Owsley worsened as Hardin became increasingly frustrated with his lack of influence . On September 1 , 1846 , Owsley removed Hardin from his cabinet , charging that Hardin had abandoned his duties because he did not reside in Frankfort . Hardin challenged this premise for his removal , and when Owsley nominated George B. Kinkead to replace Hardin , the state senate voted 30 — 8 that no vacancy existed . The Kentucky Court of Appeals upheld this decision . Vindicated , Hardin then resigned , charging Owsley with practicing nepotism . In the Kentucky Constitution of 1850 , the governor was stripped of his power to remove the Secretary of State from office .
Following his term as governor , Owsley retired to his farm in Danville , Kentucky , where he lived until the death of his wife in 1858 . After this , he lived with his children until he died December 9 , 1862 . He is buried at Bellview Cemetery in Danville . Owsley County , Kentucky is named in his honor . Pleasant Retreat , his home in Garrard County during his early political career , is listed on the National Register of Historic Places .
= Bianca Ryan =
Bianca Taylor Ryan ( born September 1 , 1994 ) is an American singer , songwriter , musician and actress from Philadelphia , Pennsylvania . Ryan was the first winner of NBC 's America 's Got Talent at the age of eleven . She auditioned for Talent in 2006 and amazed the judges with her big voice . Singing two Broadway show tunes along the way , Ryan was announced as the winner of season one on August 17 . Her eponymous first album was released later in 2006 , followed by two Christmas albums . Two singles followed in 2007 and 2010 ; also in 2010 , she made an acting appearance in a music video by The Wrecking . The video for her first new release in four years , a cover of the John Legend song " All of Me " , was posted to her YouTube channel in March 2014 . Her original song " Alice " was self @-@ released in May 2015 .
In 2012 , Ryan joined the cast of the independent film We Are Kings , portraying one of two down @-@ on @-@ their @-@ luck teen musicians who are guided by an angel to save an elder bluesman from freezing to death . The film premiered in September 2014 , and the video for her single " Broken Down House " was released in October .
= = Early life = =
Bianca Ryan is the second of five children of Shawn and Janette Ryan , who moved from New Jersey to Philadelphia when Bianca was three years old . Her father , a fan of The Rolling Stones , named her after Mick Jagger 's ex @-@ wife . She has an older brother , Shawn , and three younger siblings , Isabella , Jagger and Evangelina . Ryan is " mostly " Irish and calls herself a mix of Japanese , Irish , Italian , German and Cherokee . " I 'm basically just America ... the melting pot . "
Ryan 's singing talent came as something of a surprise to her family , given that she was an award @-@ winning tap dancer as a child . Ryan said she did not even attempt to sing until she was eight years old and started enjoying LeAnn Rimes and country music . Shawn Ryan started sharing his record collection with his daughter , and Bianca " fell in love " with rhythm and blues and soul music . She convinced him to take her to an audition for Star Search , where her performance of " Think " impressed the judges and shocked her father . " I 'd never heard her sing like that . " During the Junior Singers competition , Bianca Ryan lost to Spensha Baker . Ryan later won Amateur Kids Night on Showtime at the Apollo .
Ryan has sung the Star @-@ Spangled Banner for several professional sports teams , including the Philadelphia Eagles , the New York Knicks and its Westchester affiliate , and the New York Mets .
= = America 's Got Talent = =
In 2006 , Ryan learned that American Idol judge Simon Cowell was serving as executive producer for an upcoming competition titled America 's Got Talent , and the tryouts in New York were happening on the same day as a family outing in the city . Ryan almost left without performing when she looked at the other contestants and saw a lady with a beard " probably about , like , two feet long , " juggling torches . She decided to stay when her father told her the grand prize was US $ 1 million . For her televised audition , she chose the Dreamgirls show tune " And I Am Telling You I 'm Not Going " , surprising the audience and the judges with her powerful voice . The video of her audition performance quickly became popular on YouTube .
For the semi @-@ finals of the show Ryan performed " Piece of My Heart " . The judges praised her performance , but they did not think the song was right for Ryan . She rebounded for her finals performance , singing " I Am Changing " ( also from Dreamgirls ) ; judge David Hasselhoff called her " the best " in the competition , while Piers Morgan predicted she would win . During the finale results aired on August 17 , 2006 , 11 @-@ year @-@ old Bianca Ryan was announced by emcee Regis Philbin as the winner of season one of America 's Got Talent .
Ryan made a brief appearance during the show 's season two finale in 2007 . In a video recorded during Live Nation 's Nextfest tour , she wished good luck to the top two finalists .
= = Career = =
= = = Music = = =
= = = = 2006 – 09 : Bianca Ryan and holiday albums = = = =
One week after her victory , Ryan announced on her website that she had flown to New York to meet with representatives from a record label and some of the recording industry 's top songwriters . The Northeast Times reported the same day that Ryan met with Grammy Award @-@ winning producer David Foster and was being managed by Peter Rudge .
Ryan signed a five @-@ album record deal with SYCOmusic as part of Columbia Records on September 18 , 2006 . She was the first U.S. artist to sign with SYCOmusic ; during the press conference , Simon Cowell called Ryan " potentially one of the best singers I have ever heard in my life . " The following month , Ryan was in Los Angeles to record her first CD . The self @-@ titled debut was released on November 14 , 2006 , featuring cover versions of " The Rose " and " I Believe I Can Fly " , and original songs like " I Wish That " and " Pray for a Better Day " . Eight days later , the album debuted at No. 57 on the Billboard album charts , showcasing " her gargantuan chops and sweet charm " . Matt Collar of AllMusic added that the arrangements were " grandiose " for someone of Ryan 's age , but they were " more than matched by her truly impressive vocal talent . " Los Angeles Daily News reviewer Sandra Barrera wrote that Ryan handled the songs " like the old pro that her big , powerful voice makes you think she is " .
One month later , the EP Christmas Everyday ! was released as a promotional giveaway . She then joined several artists in a televised 2006 Christmas performance for President George W. Bush and First Lady Laura Bush at the National Building Museum to benefit the Children 's National Medical Center .
Ryan 's first concert tour took her across the United States as the special guest artist for Nextfest in 2007 . That August , she released the single " That 's Not Me " .
In 2008 , Ryan left SYCOmusic / Columbia Records ; she released her second holiday @-@ themed EP , True Meaning of Christmas , on November 3 , 2009 , on the indie Music Forever label . This second collection , co @-@ written with Anthony Marinelli and Siedah Garrett , included updated versions of " The Christmas Song " and " Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas " ; the title track featured a duet with gospel pop singer Brent Jones .
= = = = 2010 – present : Singles , videos and upcoming EP = = = =
In 2010 , Bianca Ryan wrote and recorded a song inspired by Twilight : New Moon called " In My Head " . The single was released digitally on August 21 through the indie label Tuned In Music and Media , followed by performances at Trump Plaza in Atlantic City , New Jersey .
Ryan was asked in October 2012 about the differences between her debut album and her future projects . She said she didn 't get to choose what songs went on her first CD , and while the experience she gained by working with people like David Foster and Kara DioGuardi was amazing , " I didn 't feel like it was really me . ... You can relate to songs that you write . " Ryan spent much of her teen years out of the spotlight . She explained in 2014 that she had put her career on hold to go back to school even though , as it turned out , she hated high school — besides " a couple of stalkers " , she was mostly ignored by other students and didn 't make any friends until after school was over . Nevertheless , she " wanted to live a life , and have purpose and things to write about " due to her passion for writing music . Ryan told fanlala.com in February that she was working with industry veterans like Quincy Jones on a new EP featuring her own work , which she called more " mainstream " than anything she had written before . Ryan described her musical style as a blend of neo soul , R & B and pop .
She also went back to work on her YouTube channel in 2014 . Her cover of " All of Me " was uploaded in March .
In 2015 , Ryan created a music video for " Alice " , an original song she had written years earlier . The video was funded in part by a Kickstarter project and was self @-@ released in May 2015 . It features dancer Chloe Lukasiak , who called the video her favorite project since leaving Dance Moms . The single was released via Ryan 's own label through iTunes , Google Play and ReverbNation . Her cover of " God Bless the Child " was released on iTunes in July .
Ryan plans to go on tour in support of her upcoming EP . She was a featured performer at the Hollystock Music and Arts Festival in Mount Holly , New Jersey , in August 2015 . Performances in November included the Macy 's Christmas Window unveiling and the 6ABC / Dunkin ' Donuts Thanksgiving Parade , both in Philadelphia .
= = = Acting = = =
Ryan made several early attempts to be an actress , trying out unsuccessfully for such projects as Camp Rock and Hannah Montana . She made her acting debut in a walk @-@ off appearance in the 2005 film 12 and Holding ; her character is shown at a school function singing the final line of " Oh ! Susanna " , thanking the audience , and leaving the stage . She returned to acting five years later , playing the lead role in the music video for " About to Fall " by The Wrecking .
In 2012 , Ryan joined the cast of We Are Kings , an independent , crowdsourced feature film . She portrayed one of two homeless musicians who join up with a runaway rapper to help an elder bluesman raise the money he needs to save his comatose wife and their repossessed blues club . Ryan and her co @-@ stars wrote their own original songs for We Are Kings . Her first single from the film , " Broken Down House " , was released in November 2014 .
Upon the film 's release , LA Weekly called Ryan , Long and Pryce " so bursting with talent that it 's impossible to pick a favorite " while the Los Angeles Times looked past the " discordant " acting to praise the " palpable , soulful authenticity " of the music . " I could use an acting coach , " Ryan admitted , " but , see , I 'm honest . "
= = Discography = =
= = = Albums and EPs = = =
Bianca Ryan ( 2006 )
Christmas Everyday ! [ sic ] ( 2006 , 2007 )
True Meaning of Christmas ( 2009 )
= = Filmography = =
= Mary Wittenberg =
Mary Wittenberg ( née Robertson ) was the President and Chief Executive Officer of New York Road Runners ( NYRR ) through | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
May 18 , 2015 . Wittenberg oversaw the TCS New York City Marathon and several other races , events , and programs that draw over 300 @,@ 000 yearly participants .
Under Wittenberg 's leadership , NYRR helped develop new initiatives such as the World Marathon Majors Series and several community programs that have introduced running to underprivileged children . For her efforts related to the TCS New York City Marathon , an article in the New York Times stated that Wittenberg " has transformed the New York City Marathon from traditional to competitive to innovative . "
A former competitive runner , Wittenberg won the 1987 Marine Corps Marathon . She participates in many NYRR races .
= = Early life and career = =
Wittenberg was born in Buffalo , New York , and raised in a large and athletic Irish Catholic family . She was the oldest of seven children , and played softball , baseball and basketball — sports that her father coached . In high school , she focused on cheerleading , and also starred on a champion West Side Rowing Club team . Wittenberg went on to attend Canisius College , and was a coxswain for the men 's crew team that won a championship for small colleges .
During her senior year in College , Wittenberg took up running . She won a few local races and trained with Canisius ' men 's cross country team . Wittenberg also trained with the men 's cross country team while attending law school at University of Notre Dame . While training with this group , she finished 16th at the Chicago Marathon with a time of 2 : 46 .
After law school , Wittenberg moved to Richmond , Virginia to work for the Hunton & Williams law firm . She would spend busy days working in the office , marathon training with the University of Richmond cross country team , and studying to pass the bar . In 1987 , she won the Marine Corps Marathon in a time of 2 : 44 : 34 . Wittenberg used a late surge to overtake the leaders in the second half of the race .
Wittenberg 's strong performance at the Marine Corps Marathon qualified her for the 1988 Olympic marathon trials . However , she soon required surgery for a knee injury , and a back ailment forced her to drop out of the qualifying race . Wittenberg ran in only two more marathons due to injuries and a focus on her law career .
= = New York Road Runners = =
= = = CEO = = =
In the early 1990s , Wittenberg worked as an attorney who specialized in international trade deals for U.S. banks . In 1994 , her firm transferred her to New York City . It was there that she was made a partner for her law firm . However , in 1998 Wittenberg opted for a career change , as she wanted to devote time to start a family .
Despite taking a significant pay cut , Wittenberg began work for New York Road Runners as Vice President and Chief Operating Officer . Her initial responsibilities ranged from overseeing NYRR publications to administering membership and race scoring . She helped secure the deal that made ING a title sponsor for the race . In 2005 , Wittenberg was named President and Chief Executive of NYRR , and became the first female director of a major international marathon . NYRR administers the TCS New York City Marathon .
Under Wittenberg 's leadership , a significant change was made for women marathoners to receive more prize money than their male counterparts . NYRR 's budget has increased significantly , as has the viewership for the TCS New York City Marathon . NYRR and Wittenberg also administered the 2008 U.S. Men 's Marathon Olympic Trials . During this event , former collegiate star Ryan Shay suffered a heart attack and died while competing in the race . Wittenberg 's sensitive handling of the tragic news at the post @-@ race press conference was cited as an example of her " class and compassion " .
= = = Running = = =
While CEO of NYRR , Wittenberg spearheaded innovative programs to increase running 's popularity as a spectator sport . The NYRR has partnered with five other major marathons ( London , Boston , Berlin , Chicago and Tokyo ) to create the World Marathon Majors Series . Runners compete in these races to earn a cumulative standing , similar to NASCAR 's Sprint Cup .
NYRR also provides financial support for the USA Distance Project , which is composed of training groups throughout the country for post @-@ collegiate distance runners . As of November 2009 , the NYRR have donated $ 750 @,@ 000 to the Distance Project in a three @-@ year span . After Meb Keflezighi 's victory and five other American men finishing in the top ten of the 2009 New York Marathon , Wittenberg was very optimistic about the future of U.S. men 's distance running . She said " I think this is just the start of delivering on the day " and " this has been a long time coming . " Wittenberg and NYRR 's financial support efforts for U.S. distance running was also noted after Keflezighi 's victory . NYRR is also a prominent supporter of National Running Day , which is dedicated to celebrate and promote the sport .
= = = Community = = =
Wittenberg expanded NYRR 's presence in the community by providing running classes for various levels of runners , establishing running programs for children through the NYRR Foundation , and setting up an online coaching network . Wittenberg is also involved with programs to prevent childhood obesity , and was a guest of Michelle Obama 's at the White House for the President 's Task Force on Childhood Obesity . The New York Daily News wrote in an article , " Wittenberg is emphatic in her conviction that her job isn 't just to put on top pro races , but to cultivate healthy living and be a force for good in the community . " The many programs , events and races that the NYRR administers draws more than 300 @,@ 000 yearly participants .
= = = In the media = = =
NYRR has received some attention for the high entry and application fees for the New York City Marathon . In 2009 , the entry fee was raised , for both NYRR members and non @-@ members , making it most expensive premium marathon in the United States . Also , there have been complaints about a non @-@ refundable fee for those who merely apply to gain entry to the race . Wittenberg said that the application fee is necessary due to the weak economy and to ensure commitment from those applying .
After both the Men 's and Women 's 2012 Olympic Trials were awarded to Houston , Wittenberg expressed surprise and frustration with the USATF 's process of picking a host city .
= = = Reception = = =
Wittenberg has received notable praise for her work at NYRR . Deena Kastor , an American record holder and Olympic Bronze medalist in the Marathon , said of Wittenberg : " In a very short amount of time , she has made so many positive changes in this sport " . Shalane Flanagan , also an American record holder and an Olympic Bronze Medalist in the 10 @,@ 000 m , commented " What Phil Knight is to Nike , Mary is to distance running . " Olympic Sportswriter Philip Hersh was so impressed with Wittenberg 's work with NYRR , he suggested that she be named CEO of USA Track and Field .
= = Personal life = =
NYRR holds over fifty races yearly , and though no longer a marathoner , Wittenberg participates in several of these races . In 2006 she competed in 18 races , and in 2007 , she ran 20 . Despite her busy schedule , she often runs and cross @-@ trains in Central Park , and starts the day of the New York Marathon with a pre @-@ dawn run .
Wittenberg lives in the Upper East Side of New York City , and is married with two sons . Her family attends St. Ignatius Loyola .
= Saints Row IV =
Saints Row IV is an open world action @-@ adventure video game in the Saints Row series developed by Volition and published by Deep Silver . The player @-@ character is the leader of the 3rd Street Saints , a street gang that has become the world 's most powerful and popular organization , and must fend off an alien invasion after becoming President of the United States and receiving superpowers . The player is free to explore their environment while completing main and side missions at their leisure . The game incorporates elements from science fiction video games and films , and continues the series ' reputation for over @-@ the @-@ top parody . It was released on August 20 , 2013 , for Microsoft Windows , PlayStation 3 , and Xbox 360 , and was later ported to PlayStation 4 , Xbox One , and Linux in 2015 .
The game was Volition 's first after its sale to Koch Media in early 2013 . The supernatural and superpower concept for the game started in Enter the Dominatrix , a cancelled expansion planned for Saints Row : The Third , which the team expanded into Saints Row IV . Volition later released a " director 's cut " of Enter the Dominatrix as downloadable content for Saints Row IV alongside How the Saints Saved Christmas , other weapons , costumes , and vehicle packs , and a standalone expansion , Saints Row : Gat out of Hell ( which serves as the epilogue to the story ) . Saints Row IV received several limited and summative edition releases , and was briefly banned in Australia .
Reviewers praised Saints Row IV 's humor and character customization options , but criticized its lack of challenge . It sold over one million copies in its first week , though cumulative sales figures have not been released .
= = Gameplay = =
Similar to previous Saints Row series games , Saints Row IV is an open world action game with third @-@ person shooter elements wherein the player is free to explore the environment and , at their leisure , play story or side missions . As the leader of the Saints , a street gang that has become the world 's most " powerful and popular " organization , the player is elected President of the United States , receives superpowers , and fends off an alien invasion . Most often the player will engage in shooting and racing activities , though other activities vary from fighting crowds of zombies , shoot @-@ outs in tanks , side @-@ scrolling brawlers , fights against supersized , daikaiju energy drink cans , and using a dubstep gun to interrupt 1950s Americana . The player @-@ character receives elemental powers and superpowers that greatly increase their jump height and running speed , such that the player can hop over buildings and outrun vehicles . The elemental powers include abilities to shoot fire and ice projectiles , telekinetically toss things , and create shockwaves upon landing jumps . As the player progresses through the game , they can optionally upgrade their abilities and weapons skill tree by using collectible " data clusters " scattered around town . If the player becomes too rowdy , the alien race 's police analogue will intervene . As in previous games , the player @-@ character 's look and feel is entirely customizable via a robust character editor feature .
The game is set in a nearly identical simulation of Steelport , the fictional city setting from Saints Row : The Third , though individual story missions have new , custom @-@ designed levels . Saints Row IV 's story parodies science fiction video games , especially Mass Effect 2 , as well as films like The Matrix and Zero Dark Thirty , and other " nerd culture " . Some story missions are propelled by individual characters ' existential crises , as each Saint character is stuck in a personal simulation of their own hell , and must be rescued by the player . Other elements borrowed from video game culture include BioWare @-@ style character romances games and a Metal Gear @-@ style mission with an unhelpful partner .
City districts are " liberated " from alien occupation as the player completes side missions in occupied districts . Liberated districts increase the player 's hourly income , which can be spent on weapons , skills , and perks . Side missions include Insurance Fraud ( where the player jumps into traffic to collect insurance money ) , demolition derby @-@ style Mayhem , and superpowered foot races . Saints Row IV has a two @-@ player cooperative mode .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Plot = = =
Shortly after the events of Saints Row : The Third , The Boss , Shaundi and Pierce Washington are called upon to assist MI @-@ 6 agent Asha Odekar and her contact , reformed former Deckers leader Matt Miller , in infiltrating a Middle Eastern compound to assassinate former STAG leader Cyrus Temple and prevent a nuclear missile strike against Washington D.C. The Boss kills Cyrus , but is unable to stop him from launching the missile . Climbing aboard it , the Boss disarms the nuke before it reaches Washington , earning the adoration of America .
Five years later , The Boss has been elected President of the United States , with the other members of the Saints , Keith David and former Vice Kings leader Benjamin King acting as cabinet . While preparing for a press conference , the Boss is told that Asha and Matt have arrived at the White House to warn them of what they suspect is an impending alien invasion . Just as the Boss is informed , the invasion begins , spearheaded by the alien warlord Zinyak , who captures the Boss and all of the cabinet members .
The Boss wakes up in a 1950s sitcom set in the city of Steelport , devoid of violence and foul language . The Saints ' computer hacking specialist , Kinzie Kensington , contacts the Boss and informs them that they are trapped inside a simulation , with each of the Zin 's prisoners trapped inside personal simulations of their own fears in order to break their will . With Kinzie 's help , the Boss breaks free of the simulation and joins Kinzie and Keith in a stolen Zin ship .
While the trio attempt to contact reinforcements from Earth , Zinyak atomizes the planet , killing everyone not already captured by the Zin . Determined to get revenge for Earth , the Boss returns to the Steelport simulation to find their friends and reach Zinyak . After rescuing another prisoner of Zinyak , an artificial intelligence later named CID , and providing him with a physical body , the Boss , with his help , goes into the other Saint 's simulations and rescues them from their nightmares .
As the simulation begins to weaken under the Saints ' influence , Zinyak floods virtual Steelport with copies of gang members the Boss has faced in the past . Kinzie determines that the copies are being made from someone 's memory , leading the Boss to conclude Johnny Gat is still alive and trapped within the simulation . Despite protests from Kinzie and Matt that rescuing Johnny will reveal their location to Zinyak , the Boss rescues Johnny from his nightmare of Aisha 's death and gets him back to the ship . Johnny explains that during the fight in which he was presumed killed , he was actually abducted by Zinyak years in advance of their invasion , as Zinyak had concluded that Johnny could have single @-@ handedly stopped him if left on Earth .
The Saints rally inside the simulation in order to confront Zinyak , but are ambushed by an enormous Zin force . They escape , but Kinzie is captured by Zinyak and the Boss emerges from the simulation to find that Keith betrayed the Saints and fled . Returning to Steelport , the Boss finds Keith has been declared president of the simulation . When confronted , Keith claims that Zinyak has the means to restore Earth , and has agreed to do so in exchange for the Boss ' life . However , Keith is ultimately unable to bring himself to kill the Boss , and rejoins the Saints . The Boss , determined to find Kinzie , pursues Keith into his nightmare , and with help from Roddy Piper , beats Keith up until he barely manages to tell them where Kinzie has been taken to .
After the Boss rescues Kinzie from her nightmare , she devises a plan to crash the simulation , which will force the Zin to draw power from their ship to keep it running , thus weakening the ship itself and creating an opening for the Saints to enter . Working together , the remaining Saints manage to overload the simulation , shutting it down just as the Boss escapes . Assaulting Zinyak 's ship , the Boss finds power armor emulating the powers they had in the simulation , and confronts Zinyak in his throne room . While the entire Zin Empire watches , Zinyak and the Boss battle each other . With help from the Saints , the Boss kills Zinyak by tearing his head off and emerges victorious . Impressed , the Zin forces surrender to the Boss , who becomes the new head of the Zin Empire .
The Boss asks Zinjai , Zinyak 's main servant , for technology to bring Earth back . Zinjai says they cannot restore Earth , but can use time @-@ travel technology to return to Earth , explaining that Zinyak had used this technology to collect his favorite historical figures , keeping them in suspended animation . The Boss looks at the Saints and says , " Let 's go on a field trip . " In a post @-@ credits scene , the nineteenth century writer Jane Austen , whom the Boss is a fan of , is woken out of her stasis , revealing that she had been the narrator throughout the game .
If all of the loyalty missions have not been completed , an alternate ending out plays out , which sees the Saints make plans to take over more planets , unaware of their ability to use the technology .
= = = Characters = = =
A number of characters from earlier games in the franchise - both members of the Third Street Saints and former adversaries - make a return in Saints Row IV , many of whom take up the protagonist 's Presidential administration . Kinzie Kensington , the socially awkward FBI hacker from Saints Row : The Third becomes the White House 's press secretary , often tasked with clearing up the mess left behind by the President 's verbal missteps . Benjamin King , former leader of the Vice Kings gang from the original Saints Row , becomes the President 's Chief of Staff , while Pierce Washington has been appointed the Communications Director and Shaundi as the Director of the Secret Service .
Matt Miller , having abandoned the Deckers and , according to news broadcasts in Saints Row : The Third , announced an abstinence from the use of technology , presumably returned to the United Kingdom and became employed by MI @-@ 6 alongside new character Asha Odekar . Johnny Gat also returns after being thought dead in Saints Row : The Third . Stilwater , the location of the first two games , makes an appearance for one mission with most of the street gangs from the first three games making appearances as well .
= = Development = =
Saints Row : The Third Enter the Dominatrix was first announced as a 2012 April Fool 's joke , but went into development . The expansion pack 's basic concept included a superpowered player @-@ character trapped by alien commander Zinyak in a simulation of Steelport . THQ president Jason Rubin encouraged company subsidiary and Saints Row series developer Volition to grow elements from the expansion into a full game . The company announced this change in direction in June 2012 , and postponed Enter the Dominatrix into downloadable content for the full sequel , Saints Row IV . The company 's strategy was partly to avoid sales issues by releasing the game in August 2013 , prior to the circulation of rumors about next generation video game consoles . Volition was sold to Koch Media in early 2013 when its parent company , THQ , filed for bankruptcy . It became Koch 's first internal video game studio . The studio officially announced Saints Row IV two months later , which was published by Koch Media brand Deep Silver . Acquired without rights to their Red Faction series , Volition 's new goals were to make connected , open world games where " the player is an agent of mayhem " . The entire company worked on the one game .
Each of the Saints Row series games had a core intent , and while the first three games built on the first 's " outlandishness and irreverence " , the fourth focused on " the supernatural and superpowers " . Senior producer Jim Boone recalled reviewers that asked whether the company could be " more over @-@ the @-@ top " than Saints Row : The Third , which they took as a challenge . The team focused more on making the game " fun " than " for the sake of being over the top " , and felt that superpowers helped the game 's basic navigation and combat . They also chose to remove the previous game 's in @-@ game mobile phone @-@ based navigation , which hindered its narration , and replaced it with a " quest log structure " . The team chose not to devote as much time improving the game 's graphics , considering the impending release of next generation platforms . The game spent less time in development than prior series games .
In August 2014 , Volition announced that they would be releasing a development kit for the Windows version of the game , which lets players modify game assets and create new weapons .
The in @-@ game radio has seven pre @-@ programmed radio stations and 109 licensed tracks . The game 's original soundtrack is composed by Malcolm Kirby Jr . , who also composed the previous game 's soundtrack .
= = = Release and downloadable content = = =
Saints Row IV was released for Microsoft Windows , PlayStation 3 , and Xbox 360 in North America on August 20 , 2013 , and worldwide on three days later . Preorders included a patriot @-@ themed downloadable content pack that included flamethrower , dubstep , and rocket launcher weapons , a bald eagle jet , and an Uncle Sam outfit . A limited edition release of the game included a replica of the game 's dubstep gun , a doomsday button , and Johnny Gat statuette . Another limited edition release , the Game of the Generation Edition , included the previous items as well as a display case for the game . The game was originally refused ratings classification and effectively banned in Australia , but was later accepted when modified to remove an optional mission that involved an anal probe weapon and incentivized drug use . The country 's PlayStation 4 release was later recalled due to a classification error .
The game received multiple downloadable content packs . A Season Pass , which features two new mission packs and the aforementioned anal probe weapon , was announced prior to the game 's release . The first mission pack , Enter the Dominatrix , was released October 22 , 2013 . The pack was originally intended as a mission pack for Saints Row : The Third but evolved into the full sequel , Saints Row IV . The leftover content became the sequel 's first mission pack . It tells an alternative story about the Zin invasion wherein the Steelport simulation is hijacked by a rogue artificial intelligence called the Dominatrix . The pack 's storytelling frequently breaks the fourth wall and self @-@ referentially acknowledges its own plot holes and incongruence with the larger Saints Row story . Some scenes end in concept art or videos of Volition employees acting out the drama so as to give the game an unfinished feel . The pack also casts characters from Saints Row : The Third who did not return in the sequel . There are five missions in total , new weapons , vehicles , and computer @-@ controlled support characters ( " homies " ) . The second and final mission pack , How the Saints Save Christmas , features new weapons and vehicles and a plot to save Santa Claus from the Steelport simulation . It was released in December 2013 . Non @-@ mission downloadable content packs include new costumes , vehicles , and weapons , e.g. , face masks of United States Presidents George Washington , Abraham Lincoln , George W. Bush , and Barack Obama .
Saints Row IV was released in several summative editions . The Game of the Century edition included 20 downloadable content sets and was released May 9 , 2014 . The National Treasure Edition included 29 downloadable content sets and was released on July 8 , 2014 . High Voltage Software ported the game to PlayStation 4 and Xbox One with all of its downloadable content as Saints Row IV : Re @-@ Elected . It was announced in late August 2014 alongside Saints Row : Gat Out of Hell , a standalone Saints Row IV expansion developed by Volition in conjunction with High Voltage . Both were released in North America on January 20 , 2015 , and worldwide three days later , both separately and bundled together . The release included new features such as voice commands . A Linux port was presented in December 2015 .
= = Reception = =
The game received " generally positive " reviews , according to video game review aggregator Metacritic . Reviewers praised its over @-@ the @-@ top humor and character customization options , and criticized its lack of challenge . Several also commented on its " even @-@ handed treatment " of gender , particularly female characters , and spotlighted hacker and former FBI agent Kinzie Kensington 's character performance . Saints Row IV sold over one million copies in its first week , and as of 2013 , Volition has not released total sales figures .
Polygon 's Danielle Riendeau described Saints Row IV as " big , goofy , and self @-@ referential fun " and thought that the game accomplished what it set out to be : " an outrageous exercise in player power fantasy " . She also praised the game 's degree of freedom around character identity , its " dumb and lovable " narrative , and its transitions between varied sequences . Riendeau wrote that Volition " trimmed the fat " from previous games , and that their addition of superpowers " blew the constraints off a genre already known for player freedom " . She considered the story funny and " as obvious as can be " , but found its characters " well @-@ realized " . Riendeau particularly praised the game 's " treatment of gender " — bold female characters who could pursue same @-@ sex relationships or even switch their gender mid @-@ game , and were not treated differently for being female — but found the game 's continued association between women and sex workers " problematic " and a " vestige from the series ' roots as a juvenile crime drama " .
Reflecting on the series ' progression , Eurogamer 's Chris Schilling said that Saints Row IV successfully reinvented the series yet again , with superpowers replacing the usefulness of in @-@ game vehicles . He compared the game 's exploration mechanics to that of Crackdown , and its superpowers to the Infamous and Prototype series , and added that the game 's silliness fulfilled a specific niche in gaming . Schilling wrote that the need to restock at ammo shops was a " jarring holdover " from the previous games , but appreciated the recurrence of elements such as the GPS navigation system , side mission gameplay , and city district liberation . He regarded the game overall as artful but " gloriously dumb " , like " the Sistine Chapel ceiling of stupidity " . Schilling also commented on how he felt an urge to simply forgo the story to search for collectibles , though despite these options , the game became " wearying " over long play sessions .
Similarly , Dan Stapleton of IGN became bored when his superhero protagonist had little " to overcome " , and ultimately likened the game to " enabling god @-@ like cheat codes " in its predecessor . He wrote that it was very difficult to die , given the large amount of power @-@ ups dropped by enemies , and that the otherwise praiseworthy features from Saints Row : The Third felt " vestigial " when outmoded by superpowers . Stapleton said the player received the powers too early , which let the player play without caring about the city , and thus removed the " sense of place and character it had in the previous game " . He considered the game 's large number of collectibles an acknowledgement of this hole , which while originally rewarding , quickly becomes a " chore " . Stapleton praised the Red Faction @-@ style Disintegrator and Abductor guns , though considered the dubstep gun an " ineffective disappointment " . As a symbol , though , Polygon described the dubstep gun as " iconic " of Saints Row IV .
= Italian ironclad Palestro =
Palestro was an ironclad warship , the second and final member of the Principe Amedeo class , built for the Italian Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) in the 1860s and 1870s . She was armed with a battery of six 10 in ( 254 mm ) guns and one 11 in ( 279 mm ) gun . The last sail @-@ rigged ironclad of the Italian fleet , she had a single steam engine that was capable of propelling the ship at a speed of slightly over 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) .
Obsolescent before she entered service , Palestro had an uneventful career . She served primarily in Italy 's colonial empire and did not see action . In 1880 , she took part in an international naval demonstration off Ragusa to enforce the Treaty of Berlin . Palestro was employed in the defense of La Maddalena from 1889 to 1894 , and thereafter as a training ship . She was stricken from the naval register in 1900 and broken up for scrap in 1902 – 1904 .
= = Design = =
Palestro was 78 @.@ 82 meters ( 258 @.@ 6 ft ) long between perpendiculars ; she had a beam of 17 @.@ 3 m ( 57 ft ) and an average draft of 8 m ( 26 ft ) . She displaced 5 @,@ 761 metric tons ( 5 @,@ 670 long tons ; 6 @,@ 350 short tons ) normally and up to 6 @,@ 318 t ( 6 @,@ 218 long tons ; 6 @,@ 964 short tons ) at full load . Her propulsion system consisted of one single @-@ expansion steam engine that drove a single screw propeller , with steam supplied by six coal @-@ fired , cylindrical fire @-@ tube boilers . Her engine produced a top speed of 12 @.@ 85 knots ( 23 @.@ 80 km / h ; 14 @.@ 79 mph ) at 6 @,@ 117 indicated horsepower ( 4 @,@ 561 kW ) . She could steam for 1 @,@ 780 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 300 km ; 2 @,@ 050 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . The ship was barque @-@ rigged to supplement the steam engine ; Palestro and her sister were the last rigged ironclads to be built by Italy . She had a crew of 548 officers and men .
Palestro was armed with a main battery of six 10 in ( 254 mm ) guns , mounted in three armored casemates . The first was located forward , toward the bow , the second and third were placed close to the stern on each side of the ship . A 11 in ( 279 mm ) gun was mounted forward as a bow chaser . Palestro was protected by iron belt armor that was 8 @.@ 7 in ( 221 mm ) thick and extended for the entire length of the hull . The casemates were protected with 5 @.@ 5 in ( 140 mm ) of iron plating , and the small conning tower had 2 @.@ 4 in ( 61 mm ) thick iron plates .
= = Service history = =
The keel for Palestro was laid down at the Regio Cantiere di Castellammare di Stabia shipyard in August 1865 . The ship was named for the gunboat Palestro , which had been sunk at the Battle of Lissa in 1866 . The date of her launch is unknown , though surviving records indicate either 30 September or 2 October 1871 . The ship was completed on 11 July 1875 , after almost a decade of work . Obsolescent by the time she was completed , Palestro primarily served in the Italian colonial empire , which Italy had begun acquiring in the 1880s . She occasionally took part in training maneuvers with the main Italian fleet throughout her career .
In November 1880 , Palestro and the ironclad Roma took part in a naval demonstration off Ragusa in an attempt to force the Ottoman Empire to comply with the terms of the Treaty of Berlin and turn over the town of Ulcinj to Montenegro . Palestro was used as a headquarters ship for the ships defending La Maddalena from 1889 to 1894 . She was then used as a training ship for coxswains . The ship was stricken from the naval register on 14 April 1900 and broken up for scrap between 1902 and 1904 .
= Ohio State Route 605 =
State Route 605 ( SR 605 ) is a 9 @.@ 38 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 15 @.@ 10 km ) north – south state highway in central Ohio . The southern terminus of SR 605 is at a signalized intersection with U.S. Route 62 ( US 62 ) in the northeastern Columbus suburb of New Albany . Its northern terminus is also at SR 37 , a signalized intersection approximately 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) southeast of Sunbury . The route was designated in 1937 , and the northern terminus was moved in 1994 .
= = Route description = =
SR 605 runs through the northeastern corner of Franklin County and the southeastern portion of Delaware County . 5 @,@ 470 vehicles travel the road on average daily near the southern terminus , and 3 @,@ 840 near the northern terminus . It starts at a signalized intersection with US 62 in downtown New Albany . The route quickly leaves downtown New Albany and heads northward . SR 605 soon crosses over SR 161 using a bridge , and intersects Walton Parkway . Here , houses slowly transition to farmland . The road then intersects Bevelheimer Road and crosses into Delaware County , in the middle of large fields . A few miles into Delaware County , SR 605 crosses Center Village Road in the unincorporated village of Center Village . Soon after , SR 605 ends at the signalized intersection of SR 37 and continues as County Road 605 .
= = History = =
A road from New Albany to north of Center Village first appeared on maps in 1924 . In 1929 , the road was extended to connect to Condit . SR 605 was designated in 1937 , following the alignment from US 62 , to a junction with the US 36 / SR 3 concurrency in Condit . By 1994 , jurisdiction of the portion of SR 605 between SR 37 and the US 36 / SR 3 concurrency was transferred from the Ohio Department of Transportation ( ODOT ) to Delaware County , who renamed the road to County Road 605 . As a result of this move , SR 605 took on the routing that it does today .
= = Major intersections = =
= Beatty , Nevada =
Beatty ( pronounced BAY @-@ dee ) is an unincorporated community and a census @-@ designated place ( CDP ) along the Amargosa River in Nye County in the U.S. state of Nevada . U.S. Route 95 runs through the CDP , which lies between Tonopah , about 90 miles ( 140 km ) to the north , and Las Vegas , about 120 miles ( 190 km ) to the southeast . State Route 374 connects Beatty to Death Valley National Park , about 8 miles ( 13 km ) to the west .
Before the arrival of non @-@ indigenous people in the 19th century , the region was home to groups of Western Shoshone . Established in 1905 , the community was named after Montillus ( Montillion ) Murray " Old Man " Beatty , who settled on a ranch in the Oasis Valley in 1896 and became Beatty 's first postmaster . With the arrival of the Las Vegas and Tonopah Railroad in 1905 , the CDP became a railway center for the Bullfrog Mining District , including mining towns such as nearby Rhyolite . Starting in the 1940s , Nellis Air Force Base and other federal installations contributed to the town 's economy as did tourism related to Death Valley National Park and the rise of Las Vegas as an entertainment center .
Beatty is home to the Beatty Museum and Historical Society and to businesses catering to tourist travel . The ghost town of Rhyolite and the Goldwell Open Air Museum ( a sculpture park ) , are both about 4 miles ( 6 km ) to the west , and Yucca Mountain and the Nevada Test Site are about 18 miles ( 29 km ) to the east .
= = History = =
Before the arrival of non @-@ indigenous explorers , prospectors , and settlers , Western Shoshone in the Beatty area hunted game and gathered wild plants in the region . It is estimated that the 19th @-@ century population density of the Indians near Beatty was one person per 44 square miles ( 110 km2 ) . By the middle of the century , European diseases had greatly reduced the Indian population , and incursions by newcomers had disrupted the native traditions . In about 1875 , the Shoshone had six camps , with a total population of 29 , along the Amargosa River near Beatty . Some of the survivors and their descendants continued to live in or near Beatty , while others moved to reservations at Walker Lake , Reese River , Duckwater , or elsewhere .
Beatty is named after " Old Man " Montillus ( Montillion ) Murray Beatty , a Civil War veteran and miner who bought a ranch along the Amargosa River just north of the future community and became its first postmaster in 1905 . The community was laid out in 1904 or 1905 after Ernest Alexander " Bob " Montgomery , owner of the Montgomery Shoshone Mine near Rhyolite , decided to build the Montgomery Hotel in Beatty . Montgomery was drawn to the area , known as the Bullfrog Mining District , because of a gold rush that began in 1904 in the Bullfrog Hills west of Beatty .
During Beatty 's first year , wagons pulled by teams of horses or mules hauled freight between the Bullfrog district ( that included the towns of Rhyolite , Bullfrog , Gold Center , Transvaal , and Springdale ) and the nearest railroad , in Las Vegas , and by the middle of 1905 , about 1 @,@ 500 horses were engaged in this business . In October 1906 , the Las Vegas and Tonopah Railroad ( LV & T ) began regular service to Beatty ; in April 1907 , the Bullfrog Goldfield Railroad ( BG ) reached the community , and the Tonopah and Tidewater ( T & T ) line added a third railroad in October 1907 . The LV & T ceased operations in 1918 , the BG in 1928 , and the T & T in 1940 . Until the railroads abandoned their lines , Beatty served as the railhead for many mines in the area , including a fluorspar mine on Bare Mountain , to the east .
Beatty 's first newspaper was the Beatty Bullfrog Miner , which began publishing in 1905 and went out of business in 1909 . The Rhyolite Herald was the region 's most important paper , starting in 1905 and reaching a circulation of 10 @,@ 000 by 1909 . It ceased publication in 1912 , and the Beatty area had no newspaper from then until 1947 . The Beatty Bulletin , a supplement to the Goldfield News , was published from then through 1956 .
Beatty 's population grew slowly in the first half of the 20th century , rising from 169 in 1929 to 485 in 1950 . The first reliable electric company in the community , Amargosa Power Company , began supplying electricity in about 1940 . Phone service arrived during World War II , and the CDP installed a community @-@ wide sewer system in the 1970s . When a new mine opened west of Beatty in 1988 , the population briefly surged from about 1 @,@ 000 to between 1 @,@ 500 and 2 @,@ 000 by the end of 1990 . Since the mine 's closing in 1998 , the population has fallen again to near its former level .
= = Geography and climate = =
Beatty lies along U.S. Route 95 between Tonopah , about 90 miles ( 140 km ) to the north , and Las Vegas , about 120 miles ( 190 km ) to the southeast . State Route 374 connects Beatty to Death Valley National Park , about 8 miles ( 13 km ) to the west . Yucca Mountain and the Nevada Test Site are about 18 miles ( 29 km ) to the east . The most densely populated part of the CDP is at 36 ° 54 ′ 34 ″ N 116 ° 45 ′ 16 ″ W ( 36 @.@ 909337 , − 116 @.@ 754531 ) , although the CDP extends well beyond this urban center . According to the United States Census Bureau , the CDP has a total area of 175 @.@ 6 square miles ( 455 km2 ) , all land . The most populated area lies at 3 @,@ 307 feet ( 1 @,@ 008 m ) above sea level between Beatty Mountain and Bare Mountain to the east and the Bullfrog Hills to the west . The Amargosa River , an intermittent river that ends in Death Valley , flows on the surface through part of the CDP but has not been counted as water in the Census Bureau statistics .
Nevada 's main climatic features are bright sunshine , low annual precipitation , heavy snowfall in the higher mountains , clean , dry air , and large daily temperature ranges . Strong surface heating occurs by day and rapid cooling by night , and usually even the hottest days have cool nights . The average percentage of possible sunshine in southern Nevada is more than 80 percent . Sunshine and low humidity in this region account for an average evaporation , as measured in evaporation pans , of more than 100 inches ( 2 @,@ 500 mm ) of water a year .
Beatty receives only 5 @.@ 71 inches ( 145 mm ) of precipitation a year . Precipitation of at least .01 inches ( 0 @.@ 25 mm ) falls on an average of 21 days annually . The wettest year was 1941 with 11 @.@ 89 in ( 302 mm ) and driest year was 1953 with 0 @.@ 69 in ( 18 mm ) . The monthly daily average temperature ranges from 41 @.@ 1 ° F ( 5 @.@ 1 ° C ) in December to 80 @.@ 2 ° F ( 26 @.@ 8 ° C ) in July . On average , there are 26 days of 100 ° F ( 38 ° C ) + highs , 97 days of 90 ° F ( 32 ° C ) + , and 38 days where the high remains at or below 50 ° F ( 10 ° C ) ; the average window for freezing temperatures is November 2 to April 6 . Snow is uncommon and measurable ( ≥ 0 @.@ 1 in or 0 @.@ 25 cm ) amounts occur in less than 60 % of seasons . The highest recorded temperature was 115 ° F ( 46 ° C ) on June 11 , 1961 , and the lowest was 1 ° F ( − 17 ° C ) on February 2 , 1933 .
= = Demographics = =
As of the census of 2000 , there were 1 @,@ 154 people , 535 households , and 270 families residing in the CDP . The population density was 6 @.@ 6 people per square mile ( 2 @.@ 5 / km2 ) . There were 740 housing units at an average density of 4 @.@ 2 per square mile ( 1 @.@ 6 / km2 ) . The racial makeup of the CDP was 90 @.@ 9 % White , 0 @.@ 1 % African American , 1 @.@ 5 % Native American , 1 @.@ 2 % Asian , 3 @.@ 1 % from other races , and 3 @.@ 2 % from two or more races . Hispanic or Latino of any race were 8 @.@ 9 % of the population . There were 535 households out of which 26 @.@ 9 % had children under the age of 18 living with them , 39 @.@ 8 % were married couples living together , 6 @.@ 9 % had a female householder with no husband present , and 49 @.@ 5 % were non @-@ families . 43 @.@ 4 % of all households were made up of individuals and 15 @.@ 0 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 2 @.@ 16 and the average family size was 3 @.@ 04 . In the CDP the population was spread out with 26 @.@ 1 % under the age of 18 , 5 @.@ 6 % from 18 to 24 , 24 @.@ 7 % from 25 to 44 , 29 @.@ 5 % from 45 to 64 , and 14 @.@ 0 % who were 65 years of age or older . The median age was 40 years . For every 100 females there were 119 @.@ 4 males . For every 100 females age 18 and over , there were 121 @.@ 6 males . The median income for a household in the CDP was $ 41 @,@ 250 , and the median income for a family was $ 52 @,@ 639 . Males had a median income of $ 44 @,@ 438 versus $ 25 @,@ 962 for females . The per capita income for the CDP was $ 16 @,@ 971 . About 10 @.@ 4 % of families and 13 @.@ 4 % of the population were below the poverty line , including 7 @.@ 1 % of those under age 18 and 19 @.@ 6 % of those age 65 or over . As of the 2010 census , 1 @,@ 010 people lived in Beatty .
= = Government = =
Under the terms of the Unincorporated Town Government Law of Nevada , Beatty is governed by the Nye County Commission assisted by a local board acting as a liaison between the citizens of Beatty and the commissioners . The Beatty Town Advisory Board consists of five elected members who meet twice a month at the Beatty Community Center . The Beatty General Improvement District manages the community 's parks , swimming pool , putting course , and other recreational grounds .
Andrew Borasky , Lorinda Wichman , Frank Carbone , Donna Cox , and Dan Schinhofen are the county commissioners in 2015 . Among the many county departments are administration , works and roads , building and code compliance , sheriff , animal control , planning , property assessment , the Fifth Judicial District Court , health and human services , senior centers including the Beatty Senior Center , and lower courts including the Beatty Justice Court . The Nye County Sheriff 's Office has a substation in Beatty . Among other things , the office handles dispatch for the Beatty Volunteer Fire Department , which provides firefighting and ambulance services .
James Oscarson , a Republican , represents Beatty and the rest of District 36 in the Nevada Assembly . In the Nevada Senate , Beatty , as part of District 19 , is represented by Pete Goicoechea , a Republican .
Mark Amodei , a Republican , represents Beatty and the rest of Nevada 's Second Congressional District in the United States House of Representatives . His term runs through January 2015 . Harry Reid , a Democrat , and Dean Heller , a Republican , represent Nevada in the United States Senate . Reid 's term runs through January 2017 and Heller 's through January 2019 .
= = Economy = =
Early businesses in Beatty included the Montgomery Hotel , built by a mine owner in 1905 , and freight businesses first centered on horse @-@ drawn wagons and later on railroads serving the mining towns in the Bullfrog district . Beatty became the economic center for a large sparsely populated region . Aside from mining , other activities sustaining the community during the 1920s and 1930s included retail sales , gas and oil distribution , construction of Scotty 's Castle , and the production and sale of illegal alcohol during Prohibition .
Nevada 's legalization of gambling in 1931 , the establishment of Death Valley National Monument in 1933 , and the rise of Las Vegas as an entertainment center , brought visitors to Beatty , which became increasingly tourist @-@ oriented .
As underground mining declined in the region , federal defense spending , starting with the Nellis Air Force Range in 1940 and the Nevada Test Site in 1950 , also contributed to the local economy . However , in 1988 , an open @-@ pit mine and mill began operations about 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) west of Beatty along State Route 374 . Barrick Gold acquired the mine in 1994 and continued to extract and process ore at what became known as the Barrick Bullfrog Mine . At its peak , the mine employed 540 workers , many of whom lived in Beatty . The mine closed in 1998 .
In 2004 , the federal Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) named the closed Barrick Bullfrog mine site as one of six slated for pilot reclamation projects under the national Brownfields Mine @-@ Scarred Land Initiative . A local group , the Beatty Economic Development Corporation ( BEDC ) , in discussions with the EPA , suggested solar @-@ power generation as a potential use for the site . Barrick Gold later transferred 81 acres ( 33 ha ) of its land to Beatty . In February 2009 , the New York Times published a Greenwire article suggesting that part of the economic stimulus money from the $ 787 billion American Recovery and Reinvestment Act might finance the Beatty project . " Studies show that the Beatty area has some of the best solar energy potential in the United States , as well as a high potential for wind @-@ power generation , " the Greenwire story said .
The Beatty Chamber of Commerce web site describes the community as the Gateway to Death Valley , a small rural locality that has " everything the desert visitor needs " including motels and recreational vehicle ( RV ) sites . Aside from tourism , businesses contributing to the local economy include mining , retail trade , public administration and gambling .
= = World Championship Wild Burro Race = =
From 1961 until 1972 the local Lions Club held annual burro races that were quite successful . Competitors came from all over the United States , Canada , and as far away as Iran . National attention was brought to the race when Reg Potterton wrote a feature article about the 1971 race for Playboy magazine . The story appeared in the May 1972 issue , and featured stories about the town , the contestants , and the tourists who attended . Eventually the races were discontinued after organizers decided that the visitors they attracted were not good for Beatty 's image .
= = Infrastructure and culture = =
The community is home to the Beatty Museum and Historical Society . The ghost town of Rhyolite and the Goldwell Open Air Museum , a sculpture park , are about 4 miles ( 6 km ) to the west . Bailey 's Hot Springs and bathhouses are about 5 miles ( 8 km ) north of Beatty in the Oasis Valley . In addition to highways , Beatty has a general aviation airfield , Beatty Airport , about 3 miles ( 5 km ) south of downtown . Beatty Medical Center , which opened in 1977 , provides family medicine and other services . The Beatty Library , a member of the Cooperative Libraries Automated Network , has a searchable online catalog . Beatty 's combined elementary and middle schools , serving kindergarten through eighth grade , and Beatty High School , grades 9 – 12 , are part of the Nye County School District . The Beatty Water and Sanitation District supplies drinking water from three wells to the CDP residents and treats the community 's wastewater .
= You 're Not Sorry =
" You 're Not Sorry " is a country rock song performed by American singer @-@ songwriter Taylor Swift . The song was solely written by Swift and produced by Nathan Chapman with Swift 's aid . It was released on October 28 , 2008 by Big Machine Records as a promotional single from Swift 's second studio album , Fearless on iTunes , though it is no longer available . A remix version for the television episode of CSI : Crime Scene Investigation in which Swift made an appearance was later released . Swift wrote " You 're Not Sorry " , inspired by an ex @-@ boyfriend who was revealed to be opposite of what he appeared to be . The song is a power ballad with country and rock music influences .
Contemporary critics gave " You 're Not Sorry " average to favorable reviews . In North America , the song achieved commercial success . It peaked at number 11 on Canadian Hot 100 . In the United States , " You 're Not Sorry " also peaked at number 11 on the Billboard Hot 100 and was certified platinum by the RIAA . Swift performed the song in several venues , including on her first headlining tour , the 2009 and 2010 Fearless Tour . During the tour , Swift performed a mashup of a cover version of Justin Timberlake 's " What Goes Around ... / ... Comes Around " and " You 're Not Sorry " .
= = Background = =
" You 're Not Sorry " was written by Swift and produced by Nathan Chapman alongside Swift . It was inspired by an ex @-@ boyfriend who was later revealed to be opposite of what Swift had originally thought . Swift recalled that , at first , " He came across as prince charming . " As the relationship continued , Swift was informed of numerous secrets about her boyfriend she was not aware of . " And one by one , I would figure them out . I would find out who he really was , " she said . She wrote " You 're Not Sorry " in an emotional state , which she described as " the breaking point " , where she thought to herself , " ' You know what ? Don ’ t even think that you can keep on hurting me . ' " The circumstances reached a point where she felt she had to walk away . " You 're Not Sorry " was first released as a promotional single from Fearless on October 28 , 2008 as part of Countdown to Fearless , an exclusive campaign by the iTunes Store . The song was reissued on March 5 , 2009 , as remix , the same day she made her guest appearance on the television series CSI : Crime Scene Investigation in the episode " Turn , Turn , Turn " . The remix was featured in the episode .
= = Composition = =
" You 're Not Sorry " is a country rock song with a length lasting four minutes and 21 seconds . Todd Martens of The Los Angeles Times felt the track was an old @-@ fashioned power ballad , rather than country . Jordan Levin of The Miami Herald agreed and described its genre as a " rebellious rock tune . " The song is set in common time and has a slow tempo of 67 @.@ 5 beats per minute . It is written in the key of E ♭ minor and Swift 's vocals span two octaves , from G ♭ 3 to C ♭ 4 . The musical arrangement contains a prominent hook during its chorus , according to Jonathan Keefe of Slant Magazine . " You 're Not Sorry " commences with piano and , mid @-@ song , progresses toward backing electric guitars , which eventually reach a solo . Martens believed Swift 's vocals were not the strongest because the existence of the electric guitar solo was meant to prevent too many high notes . It follows the chord progression E ♭ m – C ♭ – G ♭ – D ♭ . Rob Sheffield of Blender magazine noted the lyrics to " You 're Not Sorry " had many " tingling pheromones " .
= = Critical reception = =
" You 're Not Sorry " received moderately positive reviews from critics . Rob Sheffield of Blender magazine received " You 're Not Sorry " negatively and used the word " drippy " to describe it . Sheffield added that , in the song , by comparison , " she reminds you what a smart job she normally does of keeping the tempo jumping . " Jonathan Keefe of Slant Magazine believed " You 're Not Sorry " was one of the songs on Fearless that expanded on the success of Swift 's eponymous debut album , Taylor Swift ( 2006 ) , because of how prominently its hook stands out . Craig Rosen of The Hollywood Reporter said " You 're Not Sorry " was ostentatious in regards to Swift 's crossover potential . Nick Catucci of New York magazine read an article posted in The New York Times , which stated Swift " quickly established herself as the most remarkable country music breakthrough artist of the decade " , and opted his own opinion , based on the song . Catucci said , " And indeed , we think we got a little fairy dust in our eyes listening to ' You 're Not Sorry ' [ ... It ] isn 't the stuff of redneck women but earnest suburban princesses , " despite that he had listened to better songs in the past decade . Scott Mervis of The Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette compared " You 're Not Sorry " to a " chanteuse a la Tori Amos " .
= = Chart performance = =
As it was not released as a double @-@ single , " You 're Not Sorry " did not receive airplay , thus its chart appearances consisted mainly of digital downloads . The song entered Billboard 's Hot Digital Songs Chart at number two , which led to an appearance on the Billboard Hot 100 on the week ending November 15 , 2008 . " You 're Not Sorry " debuted and peaked at number 11 on the Billboard Hot 100 , becoming the week 's top debut and narrowly missing Swift 's top ten debut of 2008 . In the succeeding week , the song descended to number 35 and then fell off the chart . Upon the release of the CSI remix , it re @-@ entered the Billboard Hot 100 at number 67 . " You 're Not Sorry " is one of 13 songs from Fearless charted within the top 40 of the Billboard Hot 100 , breaking the record for the most top 40 entries from a single album . " You 're Not Sorry " spent a total of five weeks on the Billboard Hot 100 . Also in the United States , " You 're Not Sorry " peaked at number 21 on the now @-@ defunct Pop 100 Chart . It was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for the shipment of 500 @,@ 000 units . The song debuted and peaked at number 11 on the Canadian Hot 100 . As of December 2011 , " You 're Not Sorry " has sold 653 @,@ 000 copies in the USA .
= = Live performances = =
Swift performed " You 're Not Sorry " on all venues of her first headlining concert tour , the Fearless Tour , which extended from April 2009 to June 2010 . During each performance , Swift donned a black cocktail dress with sparkly ornaments along the stomach . She begun the performance by sitting on a bench , playing black grand piano . Midway through " You 're Not Sorry " , Swift ceases playing the piano and commences to sing a cover version of Justin Timberlake 's " What Goes Around ... / ... Comes Around " while whipping her hair , maintaining on the bench . Throughout the remainder of the performance , she intermingled between the two songs as smoke swirled and lightning was projected on the stage . Jon Pareles of The New York Times referred to the performance as one of the night 's highlights at the August 27 , 2009 , concert at Madison Square Garden in New York City . Reed Fischer of Miami New Times attended the March 7 , 2010 , concert at BankAtlantic Center in Sunrise , Florida and , of the cover of " What Goes Around ... / ... Comes Around " , said , " That , and some extended beating on an oil drum sculpture , made for the only unsavory moments of the night . " Alice Fisher of the United Kingdom magazine The Observer believed the performance at the May 7 , 2009 , concert at Shepherd 's Bush Empire in London , England " was undermined by the way Swift writhed on her stool and awkwardly thumped the piano lid in one of the most unconvincing displays of passion I 've seen since Footballers ' Wives finished . " Swift also performed the song at an exclusive performance , hosted by 95 @.@ 8 Capital FM , the 2009 Academy of Country Music Awards , and the 2009 CMA Music Festival . During her Speak Now World Tour , she used elements of " You 're Not Sorry " and " Apologize " while performing " Back To December " . She also performed the song twice on the Red Tour .
= = Track listings = =
Remix Digital Download
" You 're Not Sorry " ( CSI Remix ) – 4 : 22
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= In the Dark ( Dev song ) =
" In the Dark " is a song performed by American recording artist Dev . It was written by Dev alongside The Cataracs , who produced it for Dev 's debut studio album , The Night the Sun Came Up ( 2011 ) . The song was released as the album 's second single on April 25 , 2011 , through Universal Republic . " In the Dark " came about when Dev wanted to make a sexy song to show that she is a grown woman . She collaborated with American rapper Flo Rida on an official remix as she believed she would enjoy the remix when hearing it on the radio . " In the Dark " is a dance @-@ pop song with a saxophone hook and influences of Eurodance , Latin and jazz music . The lyrics emphasize sex drives and letting the sensation of touch fully take over from sight .
The song received generally positive reviews from music critics , who highlighted its production and the saxophone line . However , critics were divided regarding the song 's lyrical content ; some referred it to as sexy , while others dismissed its metaphors . " In the Dark " enjoyed commercial success in the United States , peaking at number 11 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart and the summit of Hot Dance Club Songs . The song achieved its highest national peak in Slovakia , where it reached number one . Elsewhere , the song peaked in the top forty in Canada , Australia , Denmark , Ireland , Scotland and the United Kingdom . The song 's music video features shots of black @-@ painted hands that touch Dev while she is standing naked . According to Dev , the inspiration behind the video was to reflect the sexy and dark aspects of the song , and the initial idea was to create a Tim Burton @-@ inspired feel .
= = Background = =
" In the Dark " was written by Dev alongside The Cataracs , a group that consists of Niles Hollowell @-@ Dhar and David Singer @-@ Vine , who also produced the track . Dev described the song as " very flavorful " and " hot " . In an interview with music blog Idolator , she talked in @-@ depth about the conception of the song , stating , " The idea behind ' In The Dark ' was for me to make a sexy song . I 'm a grown woman now . I 've been working with The Cataracs for the past three years and I met them when I was kind of young and from a small town . I was like , dammit , I 'm gonna make a sexy song ! So that 's what I did . " She explained that she wanted the song to be " tasteful , yet sexual " and described it as " very sexy , but very musical at the same time " . She said , " The songs I had before , even though they were explicit to an extent , they were just fun . It was time when we just wanted to make that sort of record , and we did . It 's probably one of the sexier songs on the record , but I think it needed that ! " " In the Dark " was recorded during a session in January 2011 ; it was one of the first songs to be recorded for Dev 's debut album and it was eventually also recorded by Demi Lovato . It was later mixed by Manny Marroquin at Larrabee Studios in Los Angeles , California and mastered by Tom Coyne at Sterling Sound in New York City .
The song was released on April 25 , 2011 via digital download as the second single from Dev 's debut studio album , The Night the Sun Came Up . It was later sent for rhythmic airplay in the United States on May 24 , 2011 , followed by an add on mainstream radio stations on June 21 , 2011 . In the United Kingdom , " In the Dark " was released in a digital extended play ( EP ) alongside three remixes of the track as well as its music video . Rapper Flo Rida is featured on an official remix of the song , and Dev stated that she wanted to make a remix as it would be refreshing and " great for radio " . She explained that a rapper would suit the song well and that she would enjoy the remix when hearing it on the radio . She elaborated on choosing Flo Rida , saying : " We went in thinking about who would be cool on the radio and who would fit the fact that it 's kind of a flavorful song and not really a hood rap song . Flo Rida fit , and he completely killed it . " 50 Cent is featured on another remix of the track , which he recorded at Sonic Vista Studios Ibiza ( Spain ) in August 2011 , while Kanye West appears on an unofficial remix , of which Dev said : " That was just kind of something that floated onto the Internet and the airwaves , which I don 't mind at all because it sounds absolutely amazing and it 's one of my favorite remixes too . "
= = Composition = =
" In the Dark " is a dance @-@ pop song that features a house rhythm and a prominent saxophone riff that serves as the song 's instrumentation . Critics compared the riff to " Mr. Saxobeat " ( 2011 ) by Romanian singer Alexandra Stan . " In the Dark " opens with Dev 's sing @-@ talk vocal style as she sings " On my waist , through my hair / Think about it when you touch me there / Close my eyes , here you are dance @-@ dance @-@ dancing in the dark . " According to Nadine Cheung of AOL Radio , the line borrows the melody from Reel 2 Real 's " I Like to Move It " ( 1994 ) . " In the Dark " sees Dev using her singing voice more than her distinctive sing @-@ talk style . Lyrically , the song speaks of sex drives and letting sensation of touch fully taking over from sight , as Dev repeats the line , " I got a sex drive that 's push to start " . According to sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Hal Leonard Corporation , " In the Dark " is written in the time signature of common time and set in a moderately fast tempo of 120 beats per minute . It is written in the key of C minor and Dev 's vocals span from the note of A ♭ 4 to the note of B5 . It has a basic sequence of Cm – E ♭ 6 – A ♭ 5 – G5 as its chord progression .
= = Critical reception = =
" In the Dark " received generally positive reviews from music critics . Lewis Corner of British music website Digital Spy rated it four stars out of five , particularly praising the saxophone hook . Corner commented , " [ Dev ] purrs in her sensual and sultry tones , accompanied by that saxophone hook spicier than an extra @-@ hot peri peri chicken from Nandos – and , we should add , just as lip @-@ lickingly addictive . " Garyn Ganz of Rolling Stone graded the song three stars out of five and briefly commented : " Dev speak @-@ sings about her sex drive over a Nineties Latin house beat like a top @-@ shelf version of Kesha – seductive , not sleazy . "
While reviewing The Night the Sun Came Up , Slant Magazine critic Sal Cinquemani named the song the album 's best track . He pointed out that , unlike the rest of the album , " In the Dark " avoids " too @-@ aggressive beats and chintzy synths " and instead relies on Dev 's " ooh la la " hook and the " sleek " saxophone line . Cinquemani concluded by writing that the song is " almost enough to forgive [ The Cataracs ] for ' Like a G6 ' . " Tris McCall of The Star @-@ Ledger named " In the Dark " the " Song of the Week " and compared its saxophone line to Alexandra Stan 's " Mr. Saxobeat " , and said that while the latter is " total Euroschlock " , " In the Dark " preserves " some of the mechanized detachment " of Dev 's song " Booty Bounce " ( 2010 ) . McCall was mixed regarding " In the Dark " ' s lyrical content and called the line " do your work on me / Open up my body and do some surgery " the " grossest pillow talk " since The Black Eyed Peas ' " My Humps " . Writing for the Dallas Observer , Shahryar Rizvi was negative in his review of the song and criticized the " cheesy " saxophone sound , saying that it " serves well to show just how mediocre this song is " . LA Weekly writer Shea Serrano regarded the song as " predictable " and dismissed the metaphors , labeling them " confusing " .
= = = Recognition = = =
Music magazine Spin included " In the Dark " at number 15 on its " Favorite Pop Tracks of 2011 " list , naming it " radio gold " . The Hollywood Reporter 's music editor Shirley Halperin put it at number four on her " Top 10 Singles of 2011 " list and called it " irresistible " . Halperin went on to comment : " Spotlighting the sexiest sax solo this side of Duran Duran 's ' Rio ' and a sultry , almost Latin @-@ flavored vibe , it may or may not be an ode to masturbation , but it definitely satisfies in all the right places . "
= = Chart performance = =
In the United States , " In the Dark " made its debut at number 92 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart in the issue dated August 20 , 2011 , almost three months after the song 's release in April . The song steadily ascended on the chart for eight weeks before reaching its peak position of number 11 in the issue dated October 22 , 2011 . The song proved to be a bigger commercial success than Dev 's debut single , " Bass Down Low " ( 2010 ) , which reached number 61 . Additionally , " In the Dark " reached number one on two of Billboard 's component charts , Heatseekers Songs and Hot Dance Club Songs . The song also peaked at number eight on both Pop Songs and Radio Songs . On March 8 , 2012 , the single was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for sales of over one million units .
In Canada , " In the Dark " debuted at number 83 on the Canadian Hot 100 chart in the issue dated September 17 , 2011 and peaked at number 15 six weeks later on October 22 , 2011 . In Australia , the song debuted at number 64 on the singles chart , and eventually peaked at number 41 . Across Europe , " In the Dark " made its first appearance on the Tracklisten chart in Denmark on July 29 , 2011 , entering at number 36 . The following week , the song reached its peak of number 22 and was listed on the chart for five weeks before falling off . In Slovakia , " In the Dark " debuted at number 30 and peaked at the top position seven weeks later . In the United Kingdom , the song debuted and peaked at number 37 on the UK Singles Chart in the issue dated August 27 , 2011 . Although failing to match " Bass Down Low " ' s peak of number ten , it did give Dev her second top 40 single in the UK . In Ireland , " In the Dark " fared similarly to the UK on the Irish Singles Chart , entering and peaking at number 33 .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " In the Dark " was directed by Ethan Lader . Dev enlisted Lader to make the video as he regularly makes videos for her and The Cataracs . Lader originally contacted her with ideas for the clip , and she soon replied with what she would want in the video . She said , " So we did that back and forth , which he always does with me until I get my point across . ... and then we met up and we got both of our ideas and feelings across . I wanted to be sexy and dark like the song is , in a really interesting way , and we pulled it off , I think . " The video was filmed in Los Angeles , California in late @-@ April 2011 , just before Dev joined Usher as the opening act for his OMG Tour . Dev took more control over the " In the Dark " video than previous video shoots as she used to let the director " take a little bit of control " when she was inexperienced in the process . In an interview with Idolator , Dev elaborated on the video 's concept , stating that she wanted a dark feel similar to Tim Burton 's Alice in Wonderland : " I wanted the video to be sexy as well . I wanted it to reflect all the dark aspects of the song , and initially we went in thinking that we 'd have an Alice in Wonderland / Tim Burton type of feel . "
In the video , Dev is seen in a club scene with intense dancing . The main focus is black @-@ painted hands and arms , which are prominent in several shots of Dev as she is standing naked while the hands are touching her body . Some of the hands were digitally added , but the majority of them were real , including the ones touching Dev . She explained , " The extras were amazing , they let me paint their hands and bodies , and they stacked on top of each other and did that for hours . For takes and takes and takes . " The video also includes shots of an albino ball python and a tarantula . Cory Lamz of Westword wrote a positive review of the video : " Watching ' In the Dark ' is like dancing under a strobe light on ecstasy . In a sea of hands , literally , Dev manages to tease you , seduce you and entice you . She makes you want to touch her , just like every other hand in the video . " Contessa Gayles of AOL Music referred the video to as " freaky " and " funky " , writing " Forget ' dancing in the dark , ' Dev works it in a sea of dismembered , black @-@ painted hands and arms in this freaky , funky new vid . " In contrast , Becky Bain of Idolator called it " somewhat unsettling " .
In September 2015 the video reached 60 million views on YouTube .
= = Track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Recorded at The Indie @-@ Pop Sweat Shop
Personnel
Songwriting – Devin Tailes , Niles Hollowell @-@ Dhar , David Singer @-@ Vine
Production – Niles Hollowell @-@ Dhar
Recording – The Cataracs
Mixing – Manny Marroquin
Mastering – Tom Coyne
Credits adapted from The Night the Sun Came Up liner notes .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Radio add dates and release history = =
= Arizona State Route 97 =
State Route 97 ( SR 97 ) is a 10 @.@ 91 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 17 @.@ 56 km ) state highway in the U.S. state of Arizona . It runs from U.S. Route 93 ( US 93 ) northwest of Congress northeast to SR 96 southeast of Bagdad . The road was built by the late 1930s and improved during the late 1940s . Established as a state route in 1962 , SR 97 was paved in the early 1970s . In 2000 , the highway was officially added to the State Highway system .
= = Route description = =
The route begins at an intersection with US 93 northwest of Congress and southeast of Nothing . Beginning at US 93 southbound , SR 97 crosses US 93 northbound after several feet . It crosses through a desert region in a northeasterly direction , meeting a dirt road that connects back to US 93 . SR 97 curves northward before heading eastward at an intersection with Burro Creek Road . Again turning northeastward , the roadway meets various local roads , most of them dirt . The highway meets its northern terminus at SR 96 , which continues northwestward toward Bagdad .
The highway is maintained by the Arizona Department of Transportation ( ADOT ) who is responsible for constructing and maintaining highways in the state . As part of this role , ADOT surveys volumes of traffic on their highways . These surveys are most often presented in the form of annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) , which is the number of vehicles that travel a road during an average day during the year . In 2009 , ADOT calculated that an average of only 550 vehicles used the road daily . No part of the highway has been listed in the National Highway System , a system of roads in the United States important to the nation 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
The section of the SR 97 northeast of Burro Creek Road had been built by 1939 . Between 1946 and 1951 , the section north of Burro Creek Road was improved and the section south built as a graded road . The road was logged as a state route in 1962 along its current routing , connecting SR 96 to the rest of the state highway system . The highway was then paved throughout its entirety in 1973 . In 2000 , the route was slightly realigned because of a widening project on US 93 from a two @-@ lane highway to a four @-@ lane divided highway . That same year , SR 97 officially became a State Highway .
= = Junction list = =
The entire route is in Yavapai County .
= Russula emetica =
Russula emetica , commonly known as the sickener , emetic russula , or vomiting russula , is a basidiomycete mushroom , and the type species of the genus Russula . It has a red , convex to flat cap up to 8 @.@ 5 cm ( 3 @.@ 3 in ) in diameter , with a cuticle that can be peeled off almost to the centre . The gills are white to pale cream , and closely spaced . A smooth white stem measures up to 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) long and 2 @.@ 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 9 in ) thick . First described in 1774 , the mushroom has a wide distribution in the Northern Hemisphere , where it grows on the ground in damp woodlands in a mycorrhizal association with conifers , especially pine .
The mushroom 's common names refer to the gastrointestinal distress they cause when consumed raw . The flesh is extremely peppery , but this offensive taste , along with its toxicity , can be removed by parboiling or pickling . Although it used to be widely eaten in Russia and eastern European countries , it is generally not recommended for consumption . There are many similar Russula species that have a red cap with white stem and gills , some of which can be reliably distinguished from R. emetica only by microscopic characteristics .
= = Taxonomy = =
Russula emetica was first officially described as Agaricus emeticus by Jacob Christian Schaeffer in 1774 , in his series on fungi of Bavaria and the Palatinate , Fungorum qui in Bavaria et Palatinatu circa Ratisbonam nascuntur icones . Christian Hendrik Persoon placed it in its current genus Russula in 1796 , where it remains . According to the nomenclatural database MycoBank , Agaricus russula is a synonym of R. emetica that was published by Giovanni Antonio Scopoli in 1772 , two years earlier than Schaeffer 's description . However , this name is unavailable as Persoon 's name is sanctioned . Additional synonyms include Jean @-@ Baptiste Lamarck 's Amanita rubra ( 1783 ) , and Augustin Pyramus de Candolle 's subsequent new combination Agaricus ruber ( 1805 ) . The specific epithet is derived from the Ancient Greek emetikos / εμετικος ' emetic ' or ' vomit @-@ inducing ' . Similarly , its common names of sickener , emetic russula , and vomiting russula also refer to this attribute .
Russula emetica is the type species of the genus Russula . According to Rolf Singer 's infrageneric classification of Russula , it is also the type of the section Russula . In an alternative classification proposed by Henri Romagnesi , it is the type species of subsection Emeticinae . A molecular analysis of European Russula species determined that R. emetica groups in a clade with R. raoultii , R. betularum , and R. nana ; a later analysis confirmed the close phylogenetic relationship between R. emetica and the latter two Russulas .
= = Description = =
The sticky cap of R. emetica is 2 @.@ 5 – 8 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 0 – 3 @.@ 3 in ) wide , with a shape ranging from convex ( in young specimens ) to flattened , sometimes with a central depression , and sometimes with a shallow umbo . It is a bright scarlet or cherry red , and in maturity , the margins have fine radial grooves extending 2 – 7 mm ( 0 @.@ 08 – 0 @.@ 3 in ) towards the center of the cap . The cuticle can be readily peeled from the cap almost to the centre . The brittle flesh is white ( or tinged with red directly under the cap cuticle ) , measures 4 – 9 mm ( 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 4 in ) thick , and has a very sharp and peppery taste . Gills are closely spaced , white to creamy @-@ white , and have an attachment to the stem ranging from adnate to adnexed or completely free . They are intervenose ( containing cross @-@ veins in the spaces between the gills ) and occasionally forked near the cap margin . Fruit bodies have a slightly fruity or spicy smell .
The white stem measures 4 @.@ 5 – 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 8 – 4 @.@ 1 in ) long by 0 @.@ 7 – 2 @.@ 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 3 – 0 @.@ 9 in ) thick , and is roughly the same width throughout its length , although it can be a bit thicker near the base . Its surface is dry and smooth , sometimes marked by faint longitudinal grooves . It is either stuffed ( filled with a cottony pith ) or partially hollow , and lacks a ring or partial veil .
Russula emetica produces a white to yellowish @-@ white spore print . Spores are roughly elliptical to egg @-@ shaped , with a strongly warted and partially reticulate ( web @-@ like ) surface . They have dimensions of 8 @.@ 8 – 11 @.@ 0 by 6 @.@ 6 – 8 μm , and are amyloid , meaning that they will stain blue , bluish @-@ grey , to blackish in Melzer 's reagent . Basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are club @-@ shaped , four @-@ spored , hyaline ( translucent ) , and measure 32 @.@ 9 – 50 by 9 @.@ 0 – 11 @.@ 6 μm . Cystidia located on the gill face ( pleurocystidia ) are somewhat cylindrical to club @-@ shaped or somewhat spindle @-@ shaped , and measure 35 – 88 by 7 @.@ 3 – 12 @.@ 4 μm . They are yellowish , and contain granular contents . Cheilocystidia ( found on the edges of the gills ) , which are similar in shape to the pleurocystidia , are thin @-@ walled , hyaline , and measure 14 – 24 by 4 @.@ 4 – 7 @.@ 3 μm . Clamp connections are absent from the hyphae .
The red pigments of this and other russulas are water @-@ soluble to some degree , and fruit bodies will often bleach or fade with rain or sunlight ; the cap colour of older specimens may fade to pink or orange , or develop white blotches . The main pigment responsible for the red colour of the fruit bodies is called russularhodin , but little is known of its chemical composition .
= = Toxicity = =
As its name implies , the sickener is inedible , though not as dangerous as sometimes described in older mushroom guides . The symptoms are mainly gastrointestinal in nature : nausea , diarrhoea , vomiting , and colicky abdominal cramps . These symptoms typically begin half an hour to three hours after ingestion of the mushroom , and usually subside spontaneously , or shortly after the ingested material has been expelled from the intestinal tract . The active agents have not been identified but are thought to be sesquiterpenes , which have been isolated from the related genus Lactarius and from Russula sardonia . Sesquiterpenoids that have been identified from R. emetica include the previously known compounds lactarorufin A , furandiol , methoxyfuranalcohol , and an unnamed compound unique to this species .
The bitter taste does disappear on cooking and it is said to then be edible , though consumption is not recommended . The mushroom used to be widely eaten in eastern European countries and Russia after parboiling ( which removes the toxins ) , and then salting or pickling . In some regions of Hungary and Slovakia , the cap cuticle is removed and used as a spice for goulash . Both the red squirrel ( Sciurus vulgaris ) and the American red squirrel ( Tamiasciurus hudsonicus ) are known to forage for , store and eat R. emetica . Other creatures that have been documented consuming the mushroom include the snail Mesodon thyroidus , several species of slugs ( including Arion ater , A. subfuscus , A. intermedius , Limax maximus , L. cinereoniger , and Deroceras reticulatum ) , the fruit flies Drosophila falleni and D. quinaria , and the fungus gnat Allodia bipexa .
= = Similar species = =
Russula emetica is one of over 100 red @-@ capped Russula species known worldwide . The related beechwood sickener ( R. nobilis ) is found under beech in Europe . Many , such as the bloody brittlegill ( R. sanguinaria ) , are inedible ; this species can be distinguished from R. emetica by the reddish flush in its stem . R. aurea , however , is edible . It has a yellow stem , gills and flesh under its red cap . The edible R. rugulosa — common in mixed woods in the eastern and northern United States — has a wrinkled and pimpled cap cuticle , cream spores , and mild taste . Another inedible species , R. fragilis , has notched gills , and its stem stains blue with naphthol . The uncommon European subspecies R. emetica longipes is distinguished by its longer stem and ochre gills . The paler European mushroom R. betularum , found in coniferous forests and moorland , is sometimes considered a subspecies of R. emetica . R. nana is restricted in distribution to arctic and subarctic highland meadows where dwarf willow ( Salix herbacea ) or alpine bearberry ( Arctostaphylos alpina ) are abundant .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Like all species of Russula , R. emetica is mycorrhizal , and forms mutually beneficial partnerships with roots of trees and certain herbaceous plants . Preferred host plants are conifers , especially pines . Fruit bodies grow singly , scattered , or in groups in sphagnum moss near bogs , and in coniferous and mixed forests . The fungus occasionally fruits on humus or on very rotten wood . The mushroom is known from North Africa , Asia , Europe , and North America , and can be locally very common . There is some doubt over the extent of its range in North America , as some sightings refer to the related R. silvicola ; initially the name " Russula emetica " was often applied to any red @-@ capped white Russula . Sightings in Australia are now referred to the similarly coloured R. persanguinea .
A multi @-@ year field study of the growth of R. emetica production in a scots pine plantation in Scotland found that total productivity was 0 @.@ 24 – 0 @.@ 49 million mushrooms per hectare per year ( roughly 0 @.@ 1 – 0 @.@ 2 million mushrooms / acre / year ) , corresponding to a fresh weight of 265 – 460 kg per hectare per year ( 49 – 85 lb / acre / year ) . Productivity was highest from August to October . The longevity of the mushrooms was estimated to be 4 – 7 days . In a study of the fungal diversity of ectomycorrhizal species in a Sitka spruce forest , R. emetica was one of the top five dominant fungi . Comparing the frequency of fruit body production between 10- , 20- , 30- , or 40 @-@ year @-@ old forest stands , R. emetica was most prolific in the latter .
= Hey Jude =
" Hey Jude " is a song by the English rock band the Beatles , written by Paul McCartney and credited to Lennon – McCartney . The ballad evolved from " Hey Jules " , a song McCartney wrote to comfort John Lennon 's son , Julian , during his parents ' divorce . " Hey Jude " begins with a verse @-@ bridge structure incorporating McCartney 's vocal performance and piano accompaniment ; further instrumentation is added as the song progresses . After the fourth verse , the song shifts to a fade @-@ out coda that lasts for more than four minutes .
" Hey Jude " was released in August 1968 as the first single from the Beatles ' record label Apple Records . More than seven minutes in length , it was at the time the longest single ever to top the British charts . It also spent nine weeks at number one in the United States , the longest for any Beatles single . " Hey Jude " tied the " all @-@ time " record , at the time , for the longest run at the top of the US charts . The single has sold approximately eight million copies and is frequently included on professional critics ' lists of the greatest songs of all time . In 2013 , Billboard named it the 10th biggest song of all time .
= = Inspiration and writing = =
In May 1968 , John Lennon and his wife Cynthia Lennon separated because of John 's affair with Yoko Ono . The following month , Paul McCartney drove out to visit Cynthia and John 's son , Julian , at Kenwood , the family 's home in Weybridge . Cynthia had been part of the Beatles ' social circle since before the band 's rise to fame in 1963 ; McCartney later said he found it " a bit much for them suddenly to be personae non gratae and out of my life " . Cynthia Lennon recalled of McCartney 's surprise visit : " I was touched by his obvious concern for our welfare ... On the journey down he composed ' Hey Jude ' in the car . I will never forget Paul 's gesture of care and concern in coming to see us . "
The song 's original title was " Hey Jules " , and it was intended to comfort Julian Lennon from the stress of his parents ' separation . McCartney later said , " I knew it was not going to be easy for him " , and that he changed the name to " Jude " " because I thought that sounded a bit better " .
According to music journalist Chris Hunt , in the weeks after writing the song , McCartney " test [ ed ] his latest composition on anyone too polite to refuse . And that meant everyone . " On 30 June , after recording the Black Dyke Mills Band 's rendition of his instrumental " Thingumybob " , in Yorkshire , McCartney stopped at a village in Bedfordshire and performed " Hey Jude " at a local pub . He also regaled members of the Bonzo Dog Band with the song while producing their single " I 'm the Urban Spaceman " , in London , and interrupted a recording session by the Barron Knights to do the same . Ron Griffith of the group the Iveys – soon to be known as Badfinger and , like the Black Dyke Mills Band , an early signing to the Beatles ' new record label Apple Records – later recalled that on their first day in the studio , McCartney " gave us a full concert rendition of ' Hey Jude ' " .
When introducing the composition to Lennon , McCartney assured him that he would " fix " the line " the movement you need is on your shoulder " , reasoning that " it 's a stupid expression ; it sounds like a parrot . " Lennon replied : " You won 't , you know . That 's the best line in the song . " McCartney retained the phrase ; he later said of his subsequent live performances of the song : " that 's the line when I think of John , and sometimes I get a little emotional during that moment . "
Although McCartney originally wrote " Hey Jude " for Julian , John Lennon thought it had actually been written for him . In a 1980 interview , Lennon stated that he " always heard it as a song to me " and contended that , on one level , McCartney was giving his blessing to Lennon and Ono 's relationship , while , on another , he was disappointed to be usurped as Lennon 's friend and songwriting partner .
Other people believed McCartney wrote the song about them , including Judith Simons , a journalist with the Daily Express . Still others , including Lennon , have speculated that in the lyrics to " Hey Jude " , McCartney 's failing long @-@ term relationship with Jane Asher provided an unconscious " message to himself " . McCartney and Asher had announced their engagement on 25 December 1967 , yet he began an affair with Linda Eastman in June 1968 ; that same month , Francie Schwartz , an American who was in London to discuss a film proposal with Apple , began living with McCartney at his St John 's Wood home . When Lennon mentioned that he thought the song was about him and Ono , McCartney denied it and told Lennon he had written the song about himself .
Author Mark Hertsgaard has commented that " many of the song 's lyrics do seem directed more at a grown man on the verge of a powerful new love , especially the lines ' you have found her now go and get her ' and ' you 're waiting for someone to perform with . ' " Music critic and author Tim Riley writes : " If the song is about self @-@ worth and self @-@ consolation in the face of hardship , the vocal performance itself conveys much of the journey . He begins by singing to comfort someone else , finds himself weighing his own feelings in the process , and finally , in the repeated refrains that nurture his own approbation , he comes to believe in himself . "
= = Production = =
= = = Abbey Road rehearsals = = =
Having earmarked the song for release as a single , the Beatles recorded " Hey Jude " during the sessions for their self @-@ titled double album , commonly known as " the White Album " . The sessions were marked by an element of discord within the group for the first time , partly as a result of Ono 's constant presence at Lennon 's side , and also reflective of the four band members ' divergence following their communal trip to Rishikesh in the spring of 1968 to study Transcendental Meditation . Author Peter Doggett describes the completed version of " Hey Jude " as a song that " glowed with optimism after a summer that had burned with anxiety and rage within the group " .
The Beatles first taped 25 takes of the song at EMI 's Abbey Road Studios in London over two nights , 29 and 30 July 1968 , with George Martin as their producer . These dates served as rehearsals , however , since they planned to record the master track at Trident Studios to utilise their eight @-@ track recording machine ( Abbey Road was still limited to four @-@ tracks ) . A take from 29 July , which author and critic Kenneth Womack describes as a " jovial " session , was issued on the Anthology 3 compilation in 1996 .
The 30 July rehearsals were filmed for a short documentary titled Music ! The film shows only three of the Beatles performing " Hey Jude " , however , since George Harrison remained in the studio control room , with Martin and EMI recording engineer Ken Scott . Author Simon Leng views this as indicative of how Harrison was increasingly allowed little room to develop ideas on McCartney compositions , whereas he was free to create empathetic guitar parts for Lennon 's songs of the period .
During the rehearsals that day , Harrison and McCartney had a heated disagreement over the lead guitar part for the song . Harrison 's idea was to play a guitar phrase as a response to each line of the vocal , which did not fit with McCartney 's conception of the song 's arrangement , and he vetoed it . In a 1994 interview , McCartney said , " looking back on it , I think , Okay . Well , it was bossy , but it was ballsy of me , because I could have bowed to the pressure . " Ron Richards , a record producer who worked for Martin at both Parlophone and AIR Studios , said McCartney was " oblivious to anyone else 's feelings in the studio " , and that he was driven to making the best possible record , at almost any cost .
= = = Trident Studios recording = = =
The master track for " Hey Jude " was recorded at Trident Studios on 31 July . Trident 's founder , Norman Sheffield , recalled that Mal Evans , the Beatles ' aide and former roadie , insisted that some pot plants he had brought be placed in the studio to make the place " soft " , consistent with the band 's wishes . Sheffield served as recording engineer for the session . The line @-@ up on the basic track was McCartney on piano and lead vocal , Lennon on acoustic guitar , Harrison on electric guitar , and Ringo Starr on drums .
The Beatles recorded four takes of " Hey Jude " , the first of which was selected as the master . With drums absent for the first 50 seconds of the song , McCartney began this take unaware that Starr had just left for a toilet break . Starr soon returned – " tiptoeing past my back rather quickly " , in McCartney 's recollection – and performed his cue perfectly . McCartney added : " his timing was absolutely impeccable . "
On 1 August , the group carried out overdubs on the basic track , again at Trident . These additions included McCartney 's lead vocal and bass guitar ; backing vocals from Lennon , McCartney and Harrison ; and tambourine , played by Starr . They then added a 36 @-@ piece orchestra over the long coda , scored by Martin . The orchestra consisted of ten violins , three violas , three cellos , two flutes , one contra bassoon , one bassoon , two clarinets , one contra bass clarinet , four trumpets , four trombones , two horns , percussion and two string basses . With the introduction of what musicologist Walter Everett terms the " bottom @-@ heavy " orchestral instruments , particularly the string basses , McCartney 's bass part was cut from the start of the coda onwards .
According to Sheffield , there was dissension initially among the orchestral musicians , some of whom " were looking down their noses at the Beatles , I think " . Sheffield recalls that McCartney ensured their cooperation by demanding : " Do you guys want to get fucking paid or not ? " During the first few takes , McCartney was unhappy about the lack of energy and passion in the orchestra 's performance , so he stood up on the grand piano and started conducting the musicians from there .
The Beatles then asked the orchestra members if they would clap their hands and sing along to the refrain in the coda . All but one of the musicians complied ( for a double fee ) , with the abstainer reportedly saying , " I 'm not going to clap my hands and sing Paul McCartney 's bloody song ! " Apple Records assistant Chris O 'Dell says she joined the cast of backing singers on the song ; one of the label 's first signings , Jackie Lomax , also recalled participating .
Trident was paid £ 25 per hour by EMI for the " Hey Jude " sessions . Sheffield said that the studio earned about £ 1000 in total at the time , but by having the Beatles record there , and in turn raving about the facility , the value was incalculable . The band carried out further work at Trident during 1968 , and Apple artists such as Lomax , Mary Hopkin , Billy Preston and the Iveys all recorded there over the next year .
= = = Mixing = = =
Scott , Martin and the Beatles mixed the finished recording at Abbey Road . The transfer of the Trident master tape to acetate proved problematic due to the recording sounding murky when played back on EMI 's equipment . The issue was resolved with the help of Geoff Emerick , whom Scott had recently replaced as the Beatles ' principal recording engineer . Emerick happened to be visiting Abbey Road , having recently refused to work with the Beatles any longer , due to the tension and abuse that had become commonplace at their recording sessions . A stereo mix of " Hey Jude " was then completed on 2 August and the mono version on 8 August .
Everett writes that the song 's " most commented @-@ on feature " is its considerable length , at 7 : 11 . The precedent for issuing such a long track on a single had recently been set by Richard Harris ' hit recording of " MacArthur Park " , the composer of which , Jimmy Webb , was a visitor to the studio around this time . According to Webb , Martin admitted to him that " Hey Jude " was only allowed to run over seven minutes because of the success of " MacArthur Park " .
In the song 's final bridge section , at 2 : 58 , the spoken phrase " Fucking hell ! " appears . Scott admits that although he was told about it , he could not hear the words originally . Lennon attributed the expletive to McCartney , according to Emerick , who reports Lennon 's comment in his autobiography : " ' Paul hit a clunker on the piano and said a naughty word , ' Lennon gleefully crowed , ' but I insisted we leave it in [ at Trident ] , buried just low enough so that it can barely be heard . Most people won 't ever spot it ... but we 'll know it 's there . ' " Womack considers that the expletive was actually uttered by Lennon . Malcolm Toft , the mix engineer on the Trident recording , also attributes it to Lennon . In Toft 's recollection , Lennon was overdubbing his harmony vocal when , in reaction to the volume being too loud in his headphones , he first called out " Whoa ! " then , two seconds later , swore as he pulled the headphones off .
= = Composition and structure = =
" Hey Jude " begins with McCartney singing lead vocals and playing the piano . The patterns he plays are based on three chords : F , C , and B ♭ ( I , V and IV ) . The main chord progression is " flipped on its head " , in Hertsgaard 's words , for the coda , since the C chord is replaced by E ♭ . Everett comments that McCartney 's melody over the verses borrows in part from John Ireland 's 1907 liturgical piece Te Deum , as well as ( with the first change to a B ♭ chord ) suggesting the influence of the Drifters ' 1960 hit " Save the Last Dance for Me " .
The second verse of the song adds accompaniment from acoustic guitar and tambourine . Tim Riley writes that , with the " restrained tom @-@ tom and cymbal fill " that introduces the drum part , " the piano shifts downward to add a flat seventh to the tonic chord , making the downbeat of the bridge the point of arrival ( ' And any time you feel the pain ' ) . " At the end of each bridge , McCartney sings a brief phrase ( " Na @-@ na @-@ na na … " ) , supported by an electric guitar fill , before playing a piano fill that leads to the next verse . According to Riley , this vocal phrase serves to " reorient the harmony for the verse as the piano figure turns upside down into a vocal aside " . Additional musical details , such as tambourine on the third verse and subtle harmonies accompanying the lead vocal , are added to sustain interest throughout the four @-@ verse , two @-@ bridge song .
The verse @-@ bridge structure persists for approximately three minutes , after which the band leads into a four @-@ minute @-@ long coda , consisting of nineteen rounds of the song 's double plagal cadence . During this coda , the rest of the band , backed by an orchestra that also provides backing vocals , repeats the phrase " Na @-@ na @-@ na na " followed by the words " hey Jude " until the song gradually fades out . In his analysis of the composition , musicologist Alan Pollack comments on the unusual structure of " Hey Jude " , in that it uses a " binary form that combines a fully developed , hymn @-@ like song together with an extended , mantra @-@ like jam on a simple chord progression " .
Riley considers that the coda 's repeated chord sequence ( I- ♭ VII @-@ IV @-@ I ) " answers all the musical questions raised at the beginnings and ends of bridges " , since " The flat seventh that posed dominant turns into bridges now has an entire chord built on it . " This three @-@ chord refrain allows McCartney " a bedding ... to leap about on vocally " , so he ad @-@ libs his vocal performance for the rest of the song . In Riley 's estimation , the song " becomes a tour of Paul 's vocal range : from the graceful inviting tones of the opening verse , through the mounting excitement of the song itself , to the surging raves of the coda " .
= = Release = =
" Hey Jude " was released on 26 August 1968 in the United States and 30 August in the United Kingdom , backed with " Revolution " on the B @-@ side of a 7 " single . It was one of four singles issued simultaneously to launch Apple Records – the others being Mary Hopkin 's " Those Were the Days " , Jackie Lomax 's " Sour Milk Sea " , and the Black Dyke Mills Band 's " Thingumybob " . In advance of the release date , Apple declared 11 – 18 August to be " National Apple Week " in the UK , and sent gift @-@ wrapped boxes of the records , marked " Our First Four " , to Queen Elizabeth II and other members of the royal family , and to the British prime minister . The release was promoted by Derek Taylor , who , in Doggett 's description , " hyped the first Apple records with typical elan " . " Hey Jude " was the first of the four singles , since it was still designated as an EMI / Parlophone release in the UK and a Capitol release in the US , but with the Apple Records logo now added . In the US , " Hey Jude " was the first Beatles single to be issued in a company sleeve rather than a picture sleeve .
Lennon wanted " Revolution " to be the A @-@ side of the single , but the other Beatles did not agree . In his 1970 interview with Rolling Stone , he said " Hey Jude " was worthy of an A @-@ side , " but we could have had both . " In 1980 , he told Playboy he still disagreed with the decision .
The single was a highly successful debut for Apple Records , and contrasted with the public embarrassment the band faced after the recent closure of their short @-@ lived retail venture , Apple Boutique . " Hey Jude " began its sixteen @-@ week run on Britain 's official singles chart on 7 September 1968 , claiming the top spot a week later . It lasted two weeks on top before being replaced by Hopkin 's " Those Were the Days " , which was produced by McCartney . " Hey Jude " was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on 13 September ; that same week , NME reported that two million copies of the single had been sold . The song entered the Billboard Hot 100 in the US on 14 September , beginning a nineteen @-@ week chart run there . It reached number one on 28 September and held that position for nine weeks , for three of which , " Those Were the Days " held the number @-@ two spot . This was the longest time spent by a Beatles single at number one , as well as being the longest @-@ playing single to reach number one . The song was the 16th number @-@ one hit for the band in America , tying Elvis Presley 's record at the time for most number @-@ one songs there . Billboard ranked it as the number @-@ one song for 1968 .
In the UK , where " MacArthur Park " had failed to top the chart , " Hey Jude " remained the longest number @-@ one hit for nearly a quarter of a century . It was surpassed in 1993 by Meat Loaf 's " I 'd Do Anything for Love ( But I Won 't Do That ) " , which ran to 7 : 52 as a single .
On 30 November 1968 , NME reported that sales had reached nearly six million copies worldwide . " Hey Jude " became the biggest @-@ selling debut release for a record label ever , selling an estimated eight million copies worldwide and topping the charts in eleven countries . In 1999 , it was certified 4x platinum by the RIAA , representing four million units shipped in the US .
= = Promotion = =
A failed early promotional attempt for the single took place after the Beatles ' all @-@ night recording session on 7 – 8 August 1968 . With Apple Boutique having closed a week before , McCartney and his girlfriend , Francie Schwartz , painted Hey Jude / Revolution across its large , whitewashed shop windows . The words were mistaken for anti @-@ Semitic graffiti ( since Jude means " Jew " in German ) , leading to complaints from the local Jewish community , and the windows being smashed by passers @-@ by . Discussing the episode in The Beatles Anthology , McCartney explained that he had been motivated by the location – " Great opportunity . Baker Street , millions of buses going around … " – and added : " I had no idea it meant ' Jew ' , but if you look at footage of Nazi Germany , ' Juden Raus ' was written in whitewashed windows with a Star of David . I swear it never occurred to me . " According to Barry Miles , McCartney caused further controversy in his comments to Alan Smith of the NME that month when he said : " Starvation in India doesn 't worry me one bit , not one iota … And it doesn 't worry you , if you 're honest . You just pose . "
The Beatles hired Michael Lindsay @-@ Hogg to shoot a promotional film for " Hey Jude " , after he had previously directed a clip for " Paperback Writer " in 1966 . They settled on the idea of filming with a live , albeit controlled audience . In the film , the Beatles are first seen by themselves , performing the initial chorus and verses , and then are joined by the audience who appear as the last chorus concludes and coda begins ; the audience sings and claps along with the Beatles through the song 's conclusion . Hogg shot the film at Twickenham Film Studios on 4 September 1968 , with McCartney himself designing the set . Tony Bramwell , a friend of the Beatles , later described the set as " the piano , there ; drums , there ; and orchestra in two tiers at the back . " The event marked Starr 's return to the group , after McCartney 's criticism of his drumming had led to him walking out during a session for the White Album track " Back in the U.S.S.R. " During his two @-@ week absence , Starr announced that he had left the band .
The final film was a combination of several different takes and included filmed " introductions " to the song by David Frost ( who introduced the Beatles as " the greatest tea @-@ room orchestra in the world " ) , and Cliff Richard , for their respective , eponymous TV programmes . As filming wore on , Lennon repeatedly asked Lindsay @-@ Hogg if he had the footage he needed . After twelve takes , McCartney said , " I think that 's enough " , and filming concluded . It was first aired in the UK on Frost on Sunday on 8 September 1968 , and the film was later broadcast for the United States on The Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour on 6 October . According to Riley , the showing on Frost on Sunday " kicked ' Hey Jude ' into the stratosphere " in terms of popularity . Hertsgaard pairs it with the release of the animated film Yellow Submarine as two events that created " a state of nirvana " for Beatles fans , in contrast with the problems besetting the band regarding Ono 's influence and Apple .
The 4 September 1968 promo film is included in the Beatles ' 2015 video compilation 1 , while the three @-@ disc versions of that compilation , titled 1 + , also include an alternate video , with a different introduction and vocal , from the same date .
= = Critical reception = =
Upon the single 's release , Derek Johnson of the NME wrote : " The intriguing features of ' Hey Jude ' are its extreme length and the 40 @-@ piece orchestral accompaniment – and personally I would have preferred it without either ! " While he viewed the track overall as " a beautiful , compelling song " , and the first three minutes as " absolutely sensational " , Johnson rued the long coda 's " vocal improvisations on the basically repetitive four @-@ bar chorus " . Time magazine described the coda as " a fadeout that engagingly spoofs the fadeout as a gimmick for ending pop records " . The same reviewer contrasted " Hey Jude " with its B @-@ side , " Revolution " , saying that " The other side of the new disk urges activism of a different sort " , due to McCartney " liltingly exhort [ ing ] a friend to overcome his fears and commit himself in love " . Rolling Stone also attributed the song 's meaning as a message from McCartney to Lennon to end his negative relationships with women : " to break the old pattern ; to really go through with love " . Other commentators interpreted " Hey Jude " as being directed at Bob Dylan , then semi @-@ retired in Woodstock .
Writing in 1971 , Robert Christgau of The Village Voice called it " one of [ McCartney 's ] truest and most forthright love songs " and was critical of its omission from the album The Beatles . In their 1975 book The Beatles : An Illustrated Record , critics Roy Carr and Tony Tyler wrote that " Hey Jude " " promised great things " for the ill @-@ conceived Apple enterprise and described the song as " the last great Beatles single recorded specifically for the 45s market " . They noted also that " the epic proportions of the piece " encouraged many imitators , yet these other artists " [ failed ] to capture the gentleness and sympathy of the Beatles ' communal feel " .
Among more recent commentators , Alan Pollack admires " Hey Jude " as " such a good illustration of two compositional lessons – how to fill a large canvas with simple means , and how to use diverse elements such as harmony , bassline , and orchestration to articulate form and contrast . " Pollack considers that the song 's long coda provides " an astonishingly transcendental effect " , while AllMusic 's Richie Unterberger similarly opines : " What could have very easily been boring is instead hypnotic because McCartney varies the vocal with some of the greatest nonsense scatting ever heard in rock … " In | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
was back full @-@ time . West averaged 27 @.@ 8 points , 7 @.@ 0 rebounds and 5 @.@ 6 assists and was again NBA All @-@ Star and All @-@ NBA First @-@ Team ; however , he played in only 55 regular season games , missing the last seven weeks due to a hamstring injury . Again , the Lakers reached the finals , and again , they battled the Celtics . With West not yet in shape , Baylor and the Lakers fell back 3 – 2 ; then they succumbed in Game 6 in front of their home crowd with a 112 – 109 loss . As the game ended , veteran Celtics playmaker Bob Cousy threw the ball high into the rafters of the L.A. Sports Arena .
In the following 1963 – 64 NBA season , West for the first time became the Lakers ' scoring leader , his 28 @.@ 7 points per game eclipsing the 25 @.@ 4 by Baylor , who stated that he suffered from knee problems . The Lakers struggled during the entire season , winning only 42 games , and were beaten in the first round of the 1964 NBA Playoffs by the Hawks in five games .
= = = Leader of the Lakers = = =
In the following 1964 – 65 NBA season , West averaged 31 @.@ 0 points ( at the time , a career @-@ high ) , only surpassed by perennial scoring champion Wilt Chamberlain . After ending the regular season with 49 wins , L.A. played the Baltimore Bullets in the first round of the 1965 NBA Playoffs , but then team captain Baylor suffered a career @-@ threatening knee injury . West spectacularly took over Baylor 's leader role , as he scored 49 points and willed the shocked Lakers to the win . In Game 2 , Baltimore was unable to stop the Lakers guard , who scored 52 points , nearly half of L.A. ' s total , in the 118 – 115 win . The Bullets took their two home games , despite West scoring 44 and 48 points respectively , but in the decisive Game 5 in L.A. , the guard helped beat the Bullets with 42 points in a close 117 – 115 win . West averaged 46 @.@ 3 points per game , a figure that is still an NBA record . However , in the 1965 NBA Finals , the Celtics easily beat the short @-@ handed Lakers , 4 – 1 . In Game 1 , which Boston easily won , defensive Celtics guard K. C. Jones kept West to only 26 points , and in Game 2 , West scored 45 points , but Boston still won 129 – 123 . In Game 3 , West scored 49 points , and L.A. finally won a game , but in Games 4 and 5 , the Lakers were beaten by double digits ; in the last quarter of Game 5 , West missed 14 of 15 shots and could not prevent yet another Celtics win . Still , the Lakers guard finished the playoffs with 40 @.@ 6 points per game .
In the 1965 – 66 NBA season , West averaged a career @-@ best 31 @.@ 3 points , along with 7 @.@ 1 rebounds and 6 @.@ 1 assists per game . He made an NBA record 840 free throws , and earned yet another pair of All @-@ Star Team and All @-@ NBA First Team nominations . Winning 45 games , the Lakers beat the St. Louis Hawks in a close seven @-@ game series , and yet again met the Boston Celtics in the 1966 NBA Finals . West was assisted by Baylor , who was a self @-@ estimated " 75 percent " of his pre @-@ injury self , The two long @-@ standing rivals split the first six games , with West 's usual scoring dominance countered by Celtics forward John Havlicek , whose size and speed created serious mismatch problems for the Lakers . In Game 7 , West and Baylor shot a combined three of 18 in the first half , and the Lakers fell far behind ; L.A. willed themselves back to a close 95 – 93 with four seconds left , but the Celtics ran the clock out and the Lakers were denied yet again .
The following 1966 – 67 NBA season saw West playing only 66 regular @-@ season games due to injury ; his averages fell slightly to 28 @.@ 0 points , 5 @.@ 9 rebounds and 6 @.@ 8 assists per game . The Lakers had a disappointing season , winning only 36 games and getting swept by the San Francisco Warriors in the first round of the 1967 NBA Playoffs . Veteran coach Fred Schaus retired , and Butch Van Breda Kolff took over ; under his reign , the Lakers won 52 games in the 1967 – 68 NBA season in their first year in The Forum . The 52 wins were accumulated despite West playing only 51 regular season games due to injury and scoring 26 @.@ 3 points , the lowest average since his rookie year : after being a First @-@ Teamer for six times en bloc , he only made the All @-@ NBA Second Team .
In the 1968 NBA Playoffs , the Lakers beat the Chicago Bulls and the Warriors to set up yet another Lakers @-@ Celtics NBA Finals ; it was considered a match of size versus speed , as the Lakers had nobody to counter Celtics coach / center Bill Russell or forward John Havlicek close to the basket , but the Celtics in return had difficulties guarding prolific L.A. outside shooters Baylor , West and fellow guard Gail Goodrich . In Game 1 , West only hit seven of 24 shots , and the Lakers lost 107 – 101 , but L.A. evened out the series at two games each . But West , who had scored 38 points in a Game 4 win , had sprained his ankle and did not play at full strength the rest of the series . In Game 5 , an injured West scored 35 points , but Boston won by three points . In Game 6 , Havlicek shredded the Lakers with 40 points , and after yet another Celtics loss , West commented that the Lakers lost two games they should have won : " We gave them the first game , and we gave them the fifth . But I take nothing from them … They 're all that way on the Celtics , and you can 't teach it . "
= = = Arrival of Wilt Chamberlain = = =
On July 9 , 1968 , the Lakers made a trade which brought reigning NBA Most Valuable Player Wilt Chamberlain of the Philadelphia 76ers to Los Angeles at the beginning of the 1968 – 69 NBA season . To get the center , the Lakers traded West 's backcourt partner Archie Clark , starting center Darrall Imhoff and backup forward Jerry Chambers to Philadelphia . Coach Van Breda Kolff was concerned about the drain at the guard positions after losing Clark , and especially after losing Goodrich due to the expansion draft of the Phoenix Suns . He only had diminutive , defensively weak Johnny Egan left next to West . While West himself got on well with the new recruit , Chamberlain often argued with team captain Elgin Baylor and had a poor relationship with Van Breda Kolff . Van Breda Kolff pejoratively called Chamberlain " The Load " , and later complained that Chamberlain was egotistical , never respected him , too often slacked off in practice and focused too much on his own statistics . In return , the center blasted Van Breda Kolff as " the dumbest and worst coach ever " . There was an altercation in which Chamberlain was about to punch Van Breda Kolff before Baylor had intervened . West was clearly disturbed by locker room tension ; used to playing in teams with good chemistry , his quality of play became erratic , and he posted a career @-@ low 25 @.@ 9 points . However , he made the Second Team of the inaugural All @-@ Defensive Team .
In the 1969 NBA Playoffs , the 55 @-@ win Lakers defeated the Atlanta Hawks and the San Francisco Warriors , setting up the sixth finals series versus Boston in eight years . Prior to Game 1 , West privately complained to Bill Russell of exhaustion , but then the Lakers guard scored 53 points on Boston in a close two @-@ point win . L.A. also took Game 2 , with West scoring 41 points . In Game 3 , Russell opted to double @-@ team West , and the guard 's exhaustion began to show : West twice asked to be subbed for longer periods , and both times the Lakers fell back by double digits and finally lost by six points . Game 4 saw Celtics guard Sam Jones hit an off @-@ balance buzzer beater to tie the series , but in Game 5 , the Lakers struck back and won by 13 points ; however , they suffered a major blow when West – who scored 39 points and by far led all players in scoring during the entire series – lunged for a meaningless late @-@ game ball and seriously pulled his hamstring : it was immediately visible that the injury would not heal until the end of the series . A limping West scored 26 points in Game 6 , but the Celtics won 99 – 90 with a strong Bill Russell , who held Chamberlain to only eight points in the entire game . In Game 7 , Lakers owner Jack Kent Cooke had put up thousands of balloons in the rafters of the Forum in Los Angeles . This display of arrogance motivated the Celtics and angered West . The Lakers trailed the entire game and were behind 91 @-@ 76 after 3 quarters , but powered by a limping West , the Lakers closed the gap to 103 @-@ 102 with two minutes to go and had the ball . But West committed costly turnovers and L.A. lost the game 108 – 106 despite a triple @-@ double 42 points , 13 rebounds and 12 assists from West , who became the only winner of the Bill Russell NBA Finals Most Valuable Player Award from the losing team . After the loss , West was seen as the ultimate tragic hero : after the game , Bill Russell held his hand , and John Havlicek said : " I love you , Jerry " .
In the 1969 – 70 NBA season under new coach Joe Mullaney , the Lakers ' season began with a shock when Wilt Chamberlain seriously injured his knee and missed practically the whole regular season . As after Baylor 's injury years before , West stepped into the void , leading the NBA in scoring average with 31 @.@ 2 points per game , and averaging 4 @.@ 6 rebounds and 7 @.@ 5 assists per game , earning him his first of four All @-@ Defensive First Team vote and another All @-@ NBA First Team berth after two Second Team years . The Lakers won 46 games , and in the 1970 NBA Playoffs , they narrowly beat the Phoenix Suns in seven games and swept the Hawks in four , setting up the first NBA Finals between the Lakers and the rugged New York Knicks , led by Hall @-@ of @-@ Famers , such as Willis Reed , Dave DeBusschere , Bill Bradley , and Walt Frazier . L.A. and N.Y. split the first two games , with both games respectively decided by centers Reed and the still @-@ hobbling Chamberlain . In Game 3 , DeBusschere hit a mid @-@ range jump shot with three seconds left to put the Knicks ahead 102 – 100 , and the Lakers had no time @-@ outs left . Chamberlain inbounded the ball to West , who raced past Walt Frazier and threw up a 60 @-@ foot shot . Frazier later commented : " The man 's crazy . He looks determined . He thinks it 's really going in ! " West incredibly connected , and this basket was later called one of the greatest moments ever by the NBA . As the three @-@ point line had not been introduced yet , the shot just tied the game . In overtime , West however sprained his left hand and missed all five of his shots , and the Knicks won 111 @-@ 108 . In Game 4 , the guard scored 37 points and 18 assists , and the Lakers won . However , more frustration awaited West in Game 5 , when Reed pulled his thigh muscle and seemed out for the series ; instead of capitalising on a double @-@ digit lead and reeling off an easy win , the Lakers committed 19 second half turnovers , and the two main scorers Chamberlain and West shot the ball only three and two times , respectively , in the entire second half and lost 107 @-@ 100 in what was called one of the greatest comebacks in NBA Finals history . After Chamberlain scored 45 points and West 31 points plus 13 assists in a series @-@ equalising 135 @-@ 113 Lakers win , the Lakers seemed favorites prior to Game 7 . However , West had also injured his right hand and received several manual injections , and Reed famously hobbled up court prior to Game 7 : the Knicks center scored the first four points , and inspired his team to one of the most famous playoff upsets of all time . With his injured hands , West still hit nine of his 19 shots , but was outplayed by Walt Frazier , who scored 36 points and 19 assists and was credited with several crucial steals on Lakers guard Dick Garrett .
In the 1970 – 71 NBA season , the Lakers resigned Gail Goodrich , who came back from the Phoenix Suns after playing for L.A. until 1968 . At age 32 , West averaged 27 @.@ 9 points , 4 @.@ 6 rebounds and 9 @.@ 5 assists , and helped the Lakers win 46 games and make the 1971 NBA Playoffs . After losing Elgin Baylor to an Achilles tendon rupture that effectively ended his career , West himself injured his knee and was out for the season ; the short @-@ handed Lakers lost the Western Conference Finals in five games to the championship @-@ bound Milwaukee Bucks . The Milwaukee Bucks featured freshly crowned Most Valuable Player Lew Alcindor ( later known as Kareem Abdul @-@ Jabbar ) and veteran Hall @-@ of @-@ Fame guard Oscar Robertson .
= = = Late success and twilight years = = =
Prior to the 1971 – 72 NBA season , West was smarting from his frequent injuries and losses and considered retirement . The Lakers hired former Celtics star guard and future Hall @-@ of @-@ Fame coach Bill Sharman as head coach . Although injured captain Elgin Baylor ended his career , the Lakers had a season for the ages : powered by Sharman 's emphasis on tough defense and fast break offense , L.A. embarked on an unprecedented 33 game win streak , en route to a then @-@ record 69 wins in the regular season . West himself contributed with 25 @.@ 8 points and leading the league with a career @-@ high 9 @.@ 7 assists per game , was named All @-@ Star , All @-@ NBA and All @-@ Defense First Teamer and voted 1972 All @-@ Star Game MVP .
In the post @-@ season , the Lakers defeated the Chicago Bulls in a four @-@ game sweep , then went on to face the Milwaukee Bucks , and defeated them in six games . In the 1972 NBA Finals , the Lakers again met the New York Knicks . Although West suffered a terrible shooting slump during Games 1 and 2 , the Lakers tied the series at one win each , and in Game 3 , he scored 21 points and helped L.A. win Game 3 . In this game , he now had scored 4 @,@ 002 playoff points , which set an all @-@ time NBA record . After winning Game 4 due to a superb outing from Wilt Chamberlain , West scored 23 points in Game 5 , and he won the game and their first @-@ ever NBA title . West conceded that he had played a terrible series , and credited the team for the success . Years later he said " I played terrible basketball in the Finals , and we won … It was particularly frustrating because I was playing so poorly that the team overcame me . Maybe that 's what a team is all about . "
Now having vanquished this long @-@ time bane , West entered his 13th NBA year . In the 1972 – 73 NBA season , the main scoring role was taken by Goodrich , and West was now a playmaker instead of a scorer . However , West averaged 22 @.@ 8 points , but also averaged 8 @.@ 8 assists per game , and again was a First Teamer in the All @-@ Star , All @-@ NBA , and All @-@ Defense Teams . The Lakers won 60 games and reached the 1973 NBA Finals against the New York Knicks . In Game 1 West scored 24 points before fouling out with three minutes left and L.A. won Game 1 with 115 – 112 . However , the Knicks took Games 2 and 3 , and West strained both of his hamstrings : in Game 4 , the shorthanded Lakers were no match for New York , and in Game 5 , the valiant , but injured West and Hairston had miserable games , and despite Chamberlain scoring 23 points and grabbing 21 rebounds , the Lakers lost 102 – 93 and the series .
The following 1973 – 74 NBA season was to be West 's last . Now 36 years old , the veteran guard averaged 20 @.@ 3 points , 3 @.@ 7 rebounds and 6 @.@ 6 assists per game . In two newly introduced statistics , steals and blocks , he was credited with 2 @.@ 6 steals and 0 @.@ 7 blocks per game . Despite playing only 31 games due to a strained groin , West was still regarded as an elite guard , earning another callup into his final All @-@ Star Game . Without Chamberlain , who had ended his NBA career , the Lakers won 47 games and lost in five games to the Milwaukee Bucks . After this loss , West retired due to contract disagreements with Cooke , and filed a suit for unpaid back wages . West wanted to re @-@ negotiate his contract and keep playing , however he said Cooke " basically told my agent to go to hell . I felt I was deceived . When you feel that you ’ re deceived you don ’ t want any part of the organization that deceived you . I could ’ ve played another very good year . Every athlete says that . But I could ’ ve , and I knew I could ’ ve . But I could never have played for the Lakers again , and I wasn ’ t going to play for anybody else . " At the time of his departure , West had scored more points than any Laker in NBA history .
= = = Coaching and managing career = = =
Lakers owner Jack Kent Cooke was known for having a keen eye identifying leadership and teaching qualities ( he also gave Hall of Famers Sparky Anderson and Joe Gibbs their first managerial / head coaching positions ) , and asked West to coach and participate in player personnel decisions . In the 1976 – 77 season , West became coach of the Los Angeles Lakers . In three years , he led the Lakers and star center Kareem Abdul @-@ Jabbar to a 145 – 101 record , making the playoffs in all 3 seasons and reaching the Western Conference Finals once in 1977 . After his coaching stint , he worked as a scout for three years before becoming general manager of the Lakers prior to the 1982 – 83 season . NBA.com credits West in creating the great 1980s Lakers dynasty , which brought five championship rings ( 1980 , 1982 , 1985 , 1987 and 1988 ) to Los Angeles . After a slump in the early 1990s , West rebuilt the team of coach Del Harris around center Vlade Divac , forward Cedric Ceballos , and guard Nick Van Exel , which won 48 games , and went to the Western Conference Semifinals ; for turning the team around , West received his first Executive of the Year Award . By trading Vlade Divac for Kobe Bryant , signing free agent center Shaquille O 'Neal , and signing six @-@ time NBA champion Phil Jackson as a coach , West laid down the fundaments of the Lakers three @-@ peat which saw L.A. win three NBA titles from 2000 to 2002 .
In 2002 , West became general manager of the Memphis Grizzlies . He explained his decision with the desire for exploring something new : " After being a part of the Lakers success for so many years , I have always wondered how it would be to build a winning franchise that has not experienced much success . I want to help make a difference . " West 's Memphis stint was not as spectacular as his Los Angeles stint , but he turned a franchise which was about to be sold into a reliable playoffs team , practically making no trades but getting the maximum from the players he had available ( e.g. Pau Gasol , James Posey and Jason Williams ) and signing coach Hubie Brown , who became Coach of the Year in 2004 . West himself won his second NBA Executive of the Year Award in the same year . At age 69 , West retired as a Grizzlies general manager in 2007 and turned over managing duties to Chris Wallace , from Buckhannon , West Virginia .
On May 19 , 2011 , West joined the Golden State Warriors as an executive board member , reporting directly to new owners Joe Lacob and Peter Guber . This role also came with an undisclosed minority ownership stake in the team .
= = Legacy = =
West ended his playing career with 14 All @-@ Star , 12 All @-@ NBA Team and five All @-@ Defensive Team selections , and scored 25 @,@ 192 points , 6 @,@ 238 assists and 5 @,@ 366 rebounds in 932 games , translating to an average of 27 @.@ 0 points , 6 @.@ 7 assists and 5 @.@ 8 rebounds per game . Among retired players , only Michael Jordan , Elgin Baylor and Wilt Chamberlain surpass his 27 @.@ 0 points per game average . He led the Lakers in scoring in seven seasons , only Jordan had a higher career scoring average in the playoffs ( 33 @.@ 5 versus 29 @.@ 1 ) . In 1979 , West was elected into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame , and the Lakers retired his No. 44 jersey in 1983 . In March 2008 , ESPN voted West the third greatest shooting guard of all time . As a coach , West led the Lakers into three consecutive playoff campaigns , and then went on to win seven NBA championships as a general manager , building the 1980s Lakers dynasty under coach Pat Riley and players Magic Johnson , Kareem @-@ Abdul @-@ Jabbar and James Worthy and the 2000s under coach Phil Jackson and players Shaquille O 'Neal and Kobe Bryant .
In the summer of 2000 , the city of Morgantown , West Virginia , and West Virginia Governor Cecil Underwood , dedicated the road outside of the West Virginia University Coliseum , " Jerry West Boulevard " . The same road is shared on the south end of Morgantown with Don Knotts Boulevard , in honor of another WVU alumnus . Also , on November 26 , 2005 , his number 44 became the first basketball number to be retired by West Virginia University and on February 17 , 2007 , a bronze statue of him was honored outside of the WVU Coliseum . On February 17 , 2011 , a Jerry West statue was unveiled outside Staples Center at the Star Plaza in Los Angeles , California . Finally , the NBA logo itself is modelled after West 's silhouette .
= = Player profile = =
West was an all @-@ around combo guard who could take the playmaking roles of a point guard and score like a shooting guard , while being equally strong on offense and on defense . He had a jump shot with a release the NBA lauded as " lightning quick " , and was known for making baskets late in the game , earning him the nickname " Mr. Clutch " . Having played forward early in his career , West was also a capable rebounder , and gifted with long arms , quick hands and strong defensive instincts , West was also once described as one of the best ball hawks , man @-@ to @-@ man defenders and shot blockers among NBA guards : when the All @-@ Defensive Teams were introduced in 1969 , West made every one of them until his career ended in 1974 . " He stole more than anybody , although they didn 't keep records on it then , " said Sharman . However , contemporaries were most impressed by West 's work ethic , obsessively practicing and shooting and rarely being satisfied with himself .
West 's all @-@ round game and attitude is maybe best expressed in his statistically most spectacular game : he once was credited with 44 points ( 16 of 17 shots from the field , 12 of 12 free throw attempts ) with 12 rebounds , 12 assists and ( unofficially counted ) 10 blocked shots , thus scoring a non @-@ official ultra @-@ rare quadruple double . Instead of being proud , West merely commented : " Defensively , from a team standpoint , I didn 't feel I played very well . Very rarely was I satisfied with how I played . "
= = Personal life = =
West married his college sweetheart Martha Jane Kane in April 1960 in Morgantown ; they divorced in 1976 . They have three sons , David , Mark and Michael . Jerry married his current wife Karen in 1978 . They have two sons , Ryan and Jonnie . Jonnie played guard for West 's old team , the West Virginia Mountaineers .
As a person , West was often described as an introverted and nervous character , but who also drew highest praise for his uncompromising work ethic . Regarding his shyness , WVU room mate Jody Gardner testified that West never dated in his entire freshman year , and Lakers coach Fred Schaus once recalled a two @-@ week period when his guard never said a word . Apart from being shy , West was always restless : Schaus described him as a " bundle of nerves " , Celtics contemporary Bob Cousy as " always on the move " , and fellow Laker and Mountaineer Rod Hundley testified that during bar visits , West would quickly squirm and demand to go elsewhere before everybody else had settled . His first wife Martha Kane recalled that her husband often had difficulties opening up to her . After a big loss , the Wests would drive home and she would try to console him , but West would say " get out " at the home porch and drive away — an experience that " killed " her as a wife .
Early in his career , West 's West Virginian roots made him target for some mild jeering . He spoke with a high pitched voice that became even shriller when he became excited , so that Lakers captain Elgin Baylor dubbed West " Tweety Bird " . His Appalachian accent was so thick that one coach interrupted him and asked him to speak English . Baylor once commented : " Rumors are safe with you , Tweety Bird . You pass them on , but nobody can understand you . "
West was also regarded for his extreme mental toughness and his exemplary work ethic . The NBA described West as " obsessive perfectionism , unabashed confidence , and an uncompromising will to win … a level of intensity so high it could melt lead " . Lakers broadcaster Chick Hearn once said : " He took a loss harder than any player I 've ever known . He would sit by himself and stare into space . A loss just ripped his guts out . " Even before his sole championship in 1972 , the Lakers held a " Jerry West Night " , and eleven @-@ time NBA champion and perennial rival Bill Russell appeared and said : " Jerry , you are , in every sense of the word , truly a champion … If I could have one wish granted , it would be that you would always be happy . "
In 2011 , West wrote , along with bestselling author Jonathan Coleman , a memoir entitled West by West : My Charmed , Tormented Life , and revealed during an interview on HBO 's Real Sports with Bryant Gumbel , that he was the victim of physical abuse from his father as a child , and has suffered from depression ever since . The book has had tremendous critical acclaim and became an instant New York Times bestseller .
= Anasazi ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Anasazi " is the twenty @-@ fifth episode and season finale of the second season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on May 19 , 1995 . It was written by series creator Chris Carter based on a story he developed with lead actor David Duchovny . The episode was directed by R. W. Goodwin , and featured guest appearances by Peter Donat , Nicholas Lea , Mitch Pileggi and Floyd Red Crow Westerman . The episode helped explore the overarching mythology , or fictional history of The X @-@ Files . " Anasazi " earned a Nielsen household rating of 10 @.@ 1 , being watched by 9 @.@ 6 million households in its initial broadcast ; and received positive reviews from critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In this episode , Mulder and Scully come into possession of a tape containing classified government files , and attempt to decipher its contents . Meanwhile , Mulder 's mental health begins to deteriorate , and a mysterious corpse is discovered on a New Mexico reservation . " Anasazi " is part of a three @-@ episode storyline , with the plot carrying on in the third season episodes " The Blessing Way " and " Paper Clip " .
Series creator Chris Carter worked closely with series star David Duchovny , who shares a story credit with Carter for the episode . Because the series was filmed in Vancouver , the producers painted a disused quarry in Vancouver with 1 @,@ 600 gallons of red paint and also composited in images shot in New Mexico and a blue sky in order to make the New Mexico rock quarry featured in the episode .
= = Plot = =
In the desert near a Navajo Indian reservation in Two Grey Hills , New Mexico , a teenage boy comes across a boxcar buried in the ground . He retrieves the corpse of an alien @-@ like figure from the boxcar , which he takes back to the reservation and presents it to the residents , including Navajo elder Albert Hosteen .
Shortly afterward , Kenneth Soona , a computer hacker known as " The Thinker " , breaks into the Defense Department database and downloads secret files related to extraterrestrial life , putting them onto a digital tape . When the Syndicate learns of the breach , the Smoking Man tells them that he has already resolved the matter . The Lone Gunmen meet with Mulder , and tell him that Soona requests to meet with him . While Mulder is leaving his apartment building , he finds that one of his neighbors has shot her husband .
Soona gives the digital cassette to Mulder at a discreet meeting in a park . An excited Mulder returns to FBI headquarters , only to find that the cassette is encrypted . Scully believes the encryption is based on the Navajo language and takes the tape in order to investigate . When Skinner calls Mulder to his office to question him about the tape , Mulder physically attacks him . Scully is brought before an FBI panel led by Skinner and is questioned about Mulder 's actions . Scully is told that Mulder faces dismissal from the FBI , and that she will suffer a similar punishment if she has lied to them .
On Martha 's Vineyard , the Smoking Man visits Mulder 's father , Bill , and informs him of his son 's likely possession of the tape . Scully meets with a Navajo translator , who refers her to a code talker . Mulder is called away to see Bill ; when Scully arrives at his apartment , she is grazed by a bullet shot through his window . When Mulder arrives at Bill 's residence , his father prepares to reveal the truth about everything . However , Bill is shot and mortally wounded by Alex Krycek . When Mulder contacts Scully , she tells him to flee the scene . After Mulder arrives at her apartment , Scully takes his gun from him while he sleeps .
Scully brings the gun to the FBI for comparison against the bullet that killed Bill . When Mulder awakens , he becomes angry and suspicious towards Scully . Later returning to his building , Scully finds his water being contaminated . When Mulder arrives home , he finds Krycek there and prepares to kill him . However , Scully shoots him to prevent him from doing so , allowing Krycek to escape . Scully brings an unconscious Mulder to New Mexico and , when he awakens , reveals that his behavior was caused by a drug placed into his water supply . She introduces him to Hosteen , who has been translating the files on the digital tape .
Scully reveals that the tape contains information on both her and Duane Barry . Hosteen introduces Mulder to his grandson , who drives him to the buried boxcar . Just before he heads in , he is called by the Smoking Man , who is able to trace Mulder 's location through the call . Mulder heads inside the boxcar , finding a pile of the dead creatures , each with smallpox vaccination scars on their arms . The Smoking Man arrives by helicopter with eight armed commandos and , not finding Mulder inside , orders the boxcar to be burned .
= = Production = =
Series creator Chris Carter noted that the episode 's creation " was the culmination of a lot of ideas . Generally , when we pitch stories to the staff everyone comments on them , and Darin Morgan called this the kitchen sink episode , because it had so much in it , he didn 't know how we would pull it off . But I 'm very proud of the script . David Duchovny and I worked quite closely on the story and he had a lot of input , and then I sat down and wrote the script " . He felt that the episode ended the season in the best manner possible , asking more questions than it answered . The episode tried to make similar cliffhangers as the previous season finale , with revelations such as Mulder 's father being part of the conspiracy and later killed to " prove anything could happen in The X @-@ Files " .
To create the New Mexico rock quarry in this episode , the producers painted a disused quarry in Vancouver with 1 @,@ 600 gallons of red paint , and also composited images shot in New Mexico and a blue sky to make it look more authentic . The painting of the quarry was achieved with a series of cranes , and required the permission of local environmental groups . To create the impression of a buried train carriage , a depression had to be blown into the ground and thirty @-@ two dump trucks worth of debris removed . Series creator Chris Carter makes a cameo appearance in this episode as one of the senior FBI agents questioning Scully . The tagline for this episode is Éí ' Aaníígóó ' Áhoot 'é , which means " The Truth is Out There " in Navajo .
= = Reception = =
" Anasazi " premiered on the Fox network on May 19 , 1995 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC Two on February 27 , 1996 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 1 , with an 18 share , meaning that roughly 10 @.@ 1 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 18 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 9 @.@ 6 million households .
In a retrospective of the second season in Entertainment Weekly , " Anasazi " was rated an A , being described as " mind @-@ blowing if frustrating " , with it being noted that the episode " made fans want to fast @-@ forward through summer . " Writing the A.V. Club , Zack Handlen rated the episode an A- , noting that the episode " has a lot of really strong moments " and praising Duchovny 's acting . However , he felt that the episode marked the point at which the series ' overarching mythology would begin to lose focus , explaining that " it 's troubling that instead of answering any big issues here ... the show only gives us new directions " . Chris Carter said of the episode , " I 'm proud of the way it came together , what it did for the series , and the overwhelmingly positive response it has gotten . I 'm very pleased beginning season three with where this episode put us — which is that it posed more questions than it answered . " He later said in 2005 that the episode brought a lot of interest to the show due to the apparent death of agent Mulder . The episode , along with both other parts of the story arc , were listed concurrently as the second @-@ best episode of the series by Den of Geek 's Nina Sordi . Sordi noted that the plotline " laid the groundwork for the mythology arc for the rest of the series " , adding that it " brought much more significance to what is to come " .
= Manhattan =
Manhattan ( / mænˈhætən / , / mənˈhætən / ) is the most densely populated borough of New York City , its economic and administrative center , and the city 's historical birthplace . The borough is coterminous with New York County , founded on November 1 , 1683 as one of the original counties of the U.S. state of New York . The borough consists mostly of Manhattan Island , bounded by the East , Hudson , and Harlem Rivers , and also includes several small adjacent islands and Marble Hill , a small neighborhood on the U.S. mainland .
Manhattan is often described as the cultural and financial capital of the world and hosts the United Nations Headquarters . Anchored by Wall Street in the Financial District of Lower Manhattan , New York City has been called both the most economically powerful city and the leading financial center of the world , and Manhattan is home to the world 's two largest stock exchanges by total market capitalization : the New York Stock Exchange and NASDAQ . Many multinational media conglomerates are based in the borough . Historically documented to have been purchased by Dutch colonists from Native Americans in 1626 , for 60 guilders or about $ 24 in 1626 and US $ 1050 today . Manhattan real estate has since become among the most expensive in the world , with the value of Manhattan Island , including real estate , estimated to exceed US $ 3 trillion in 2013 ; residential property sale prices in Manhattan typically exceeded US $ 1 @,@ 400 per square foot ( $ 15 @,@ 000 / m2 ) as of 2016 .
Although New York County is the United States ' second @-@ smallest county by land area ( larger only than Kalawao County , Hawaii ) , it is also the most densely populated U.S. county . It is also one of the most densely populated areas in the world , with a census @-@ estimated 2015 population of 1 @,@ 644 @,@ 518 living in a land area of 22 @.@ 83 square miles ( 59 @.@ 13 km2 ) , or 72 @,@ 033 residents per square mile ( 27 @,@ 812 / km2 ) , higher than the density of any individual American city . On business days , the influx of commuters increases that number to over 3 @.@ 9 million , or more than 170 @,@ 000 people per square mile ( 65 @,@ 600 / km2 ) . Manhattan has the third @-@ largest population of New York City 's five boroughs , after Brooklyn and Queens , and is the smallest borough in terms of land area .
Many districts and landmarks in Manhattan have become well known , as New York City received a record of nearly 60 million tourists in 2015 , and Manhattan hosts three of the world 's 10 most @-@ visited tourist attractions in 2013 : Times Square , Central Park , and Grand Central Terminal . The borough hosts many world @-@ renowned bridges , such as the Brooklyn Bridge ; skyscrapers such as the Empire State Building , one of the tallest skyscrapers in the world ; and parks , such as Central Park . There are many historically significant places in Manhattan : Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere , and the Stonewall Inn in Greenwich Village is considered the birthplace of the modern gay rights movement . The City of New York was founded at the southern tip of Manhattan , and the borough houses New York City Hall , the seat of the City 's Government . Numerous colleges and universities are located in Manhattan , including Columbia University , New York University , and Rockefeller University , which have been ranked among the top 35 in the world .
= = Etymology = =
The name " Manhattan " derives from the word Manna @-@ hata , as written in the 1609 logbook of Robert Juet , an officer on Henry Hudson 's yacht Halve Maen ( Half Moon ) . A 1610 map depicts the name as Manna @-@ hata , twice , on both the west and east sides of the Mauritius River ( later named the Hudson River ) . The word " Manhattan " has been translated as " island of many hills " from the Lenape language . The United States Postal Service prefers that mail addressed to Manhattan use " New York , NY " rather than " Manhattan , NY " .
= = History = =
= = = Colonial era = = =
The area that is now Manhattan was long inhabited by the Lenape Native Americans . In 1524 , Florentine explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano – sailing in service of King Francis I of France – was the first European to visit the area that would become New York City . He entered the tidal strait now known as The Narrows aboard his ship La Dauphine and named the land around Upper New York Harbor " New Angoulême " , in reference to the family name of King Francis I that was derived from Angoulême in France ; he sailed far enough into the harbor to sight the Hudson River , which he referred to in his report to the French king as a " very big river " ; and he named the Bay of Santa Margarita – what is now Upper New York Bay – after Marguerite de Navarre , the elder sister of the king .
It was not until the voyage of Henry Hudson , an Englishman who worked for the Dutch East India Company , that the area was mapped . Hudson came across Manhattan Island and the native people living there in 1609 , and continued up the river that would later bear his name , the Hudson River , until he arrived at the site of present day Albany .
A permanent European presence in New Netherland began in 1624 with the founding of a Dutch fur trading settlement on Governors Island . In 1625 , construction was started on the citadel of Fort Amsterdam on Manhattan Island , later called New Amsterdam ( Nieuw Amsterdam ) , in what is now Lower Manhattan . The 1625 establishment of Fort Amsterdam at the southern tip of Manhattan Island is recognized as the birth of New York City . According to a letter by Pieter Janszoon Schagen , Peter Minuit and Dutch colonists acquired Manhattan on May 24 , 1626 from unnamed Native American people , which are believed to have been Canarsee Indians of the Lenape , in exchange for trade goods worth 60 guilders , often said to be worth US $ 24 , although accounting for inflation , it actually amounts to around US $ 1 @,@ 050 in 2014 . According to the writer Nathaniel Benchley , Minuit conducted the transaction with Seyseys , chief of the Canarsees , who were only too happy to accept valuable merchandise in exchange for the island that was actually mostly controlled by the Weckquaesgeeks .
In 1647 , Peter Stuyvesant was appointed as the last Dutch Director General of the colony . New Amsterdam was formally incorporated as a city on February 2 , 1653 . In 1664 , the English conquered New Netherland and renamed it " New York " after the English Duke of York and Albany , the future King James II . The Dutch , under Director General Stuyvesant , successfully negotiated with the English to produce 24 articles of provisional transfer , which sought to retain for the extant citizens of New Netherland their previously attained liberties ( including freedom of religion ) under new colonial English rulers .
The Dutch Republic regained it in August 1673 with a fleet of 21 ships , renaming the city " New Orange " . New Netherland was ceded permanently to the English in November 1674 through the Treaty of Westminster , in exchange for Run Island which was the long @-@ coveted last link in the Dutch nutmeg trading monopoly in Indonesia .
= = = American Revolution and the early United States = = =
Manhattan was at the heart of the New York Campaign , a series of major battles in the early American Revolutionary War . The Continental Army was forced to abandon Manhattan after the Battle of Fort Washington on November 16 , 1776 . The city became the British political and military center of operations in North America for the remainder of the war . Manhattan was greatly damaged by the Great Fire of New York during the British military rule that followed . British occupation lasted until November 25 , 1783 , when George Washington returned to Manhattan , as the last British forces left the city .
From January 11 , 1785 , to the fall of 1788 , New York City was the fifth of five capitals of the United States under the Articles of Confederation , with the Continental Congress meeting at New York City Hall ( then at Fraunces Tavern ) . New York was the first capital under the newly enacted Constitution of the United States , from March 4 , 1789 , to August 12 , 1790 , at Federal Hall . Federal Hall was also the site of where the United States Supreme Court met for the first time , the United States Bill of Rights were drafted and ratified , and where the Northwest Ordinance was adopted , establishing measures for adding new states to the Union .
= = = 19th century = = =
New York grew as an economic center , first as a result of Alexander Hamilton 's policies and practices as the first Secretary of the Treasury and , later , with the opening of the Erie Canal in 1825 , which connected the Atlantic port to the vast agricultural markets of the Midwestern United States and Canada . By 1810 New York City , then confined to Manhattan , had surpassed Philadelphia as the largest city in the United States .
Tammany Hall , a Democratic Party political machine , began to grow in influence with the support of many of the immigrant Irish , culminating in the election of the first Tammany mayor , Fernando Wood , in 1854 . Tammany Hall dominated local politics for decades . Central Park , which opened to the public in 1858 , became the first landscaped public park in an American city .
New York City played a complex role in the American Civil War . The city 's strong commercial ties to the American South , its growing immigrant population ( prior to then largely from Germany and Ireland ; beginning in the late 1850s waves of Italian ; and Central , and Eastern European Jews began flowing in en @-@ masse ) , anger about conscription sizzled and resentment at those who could afford to pay $ 300 to avoid service , led to resentment against Lincoln 's war policies , plus the racial element , fomented paranoia about free Blacks taking the poor immigrants ' jobs , culminated in the three @-@ day @-@ long New York Draft Riots of July 1863 . These intense war @-@ time riots are counted among the worst incidents of civil disorder in American history , with an estimated 119 participants and passersby massacred .
The rate of immigration from Europe grew steeply after the Civil War , and New York became the first stop for millions seeking a new life in the United States , a role acknowledged by the dedication of the Statue of Liberty on October 28 , 1886 , a gift from the people of France . The new European immigration brought further social upheaval . In a city of tenements packed with poorly paid laborers from dozens of nations , the city was a hotbed of revolution ( including anarchists and communists among others ) , syndicalism , racketeering , and unionization .
In 1883 , the opening of the Brooklyn Bridge established a road connection to Brooklyn , across the East River . In 1874 , the western portion of the present Bronx County was transferred to New York County from Westchester County , and in 1895 the remainder of the present Bronx County was annexed . In 1898 , when New York City consolidated with three neighboring counties to form " the City of Greater New York " , Manhattan and the Bronx , though still one county , were established as two separate boroughs . On January 1 , 1914 , the New York state legislature created Bronx County , and New York County was reduced to its present boundaries .
= = = 20th century = = =
The construction of the New York City Subway , which opened in 1904 , helped bind the new city together , as did additional bridges to Brooklyn . In the 1920s , Manhattan experienced large arrivals of African @-@ Americans as part of the Great Migration from the southern United States , and the Harlem Renaissance , part of a larger boom time in the Prohibition era that included new skyscrapers competing for the skyline . New York City became the most populous city in the world in 1925 , overtaking London , which had reigned for a century . Manhattan 's majority white ethnic group declined from 98 @.@ 7 % in 1900 to 58 @.@ 3 % by 1990 .
On March 25 , 1911 , the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire in Greenwich Village killed 146 garment workers . The disaster eventually led to overhauls of the city 's fire department , building codes , and workplace regulations .
The period between the World Wars saw the election of reformist mayor Fiorello La Guardia and the fall of Tammany Hall after 80 years of political dominance . As the city 's demographics stabilized , labor unionization brought new protections and affluence to the working class , the city 's government and infrastructure underwent a dramatic overhaul under La Guardia . Despite the Great Depression , some of the world 's tallest skyscrapers were completed in Manhattan during the 1930s , including numerous Art Deco masterpieces that are still part of the city 's skyline today , most notably the Empire State Building , the Chrysler Building , and the GE Building .
Returning World War II veterans created a postwar economic boom , which led to the development of huge housing developments targeted at returning veterans , the largest being Peter Cooper Village @-@ Stuyvesant Town , which opened in 1947 . In 1952 , the UN relocated from its first headquarters near Queens , to the East Side of Manhattan .
The Stonewall riots were a series of spontaneous , violent demonstrations by members of the gay community against a police raid that took place in the early morning hours of June 28 , 1969 , at the Stonewall Inn in the Greenwich Village neighborhood of Lower Manhattan . They are widely considered to constitute the single most important event leading to the gay liberation movement and the modern fight for LGBT rights in the United States .
In the 1970s , job losses due to industrial restructuring caused New York City , including Manhattan , to suffer from economic problems and rising crime rates . While a resurgence in the financial industry greatly improved the city 's economic health in the 1980s , New York 's crime rate continued to increase through the decade and into the beginning of the 1990s .
The 1980s saw a rebirth of Wall Street , and Manhattan reclaimed its role at the center of the worldwide financial industry . The 1980s also saw Manhattan at the heart of the AIDS crisis , with Greenwich Village at its epicenter . The organizations Gay Men 's Health Crisis ( GMHC ) and AIDS Coalition to Unleash Power ( ACT UP ) were founded to advocate on behalf of those stricken with the disease .
By the 1990s , crime rates started to drop dramatically due to revised police strategies , improving economic opportunities , gentrification , and new residents , both American transplants and new immigrants from Asia and Latin America . Murder rates that had reached 2 @,@ 245 in 1990 plummeted to 537 by 2008 , and the crack epidemic and its associated drug @-@ related violence came under greater control . The outflow of population turned around , as the city once again became the destination of immigrants from around the world , joining with low interest rates and Wall Street bonuses to fuel the growth of the real estate market . Important new sectors , such as Silicon Alley , emerged in Manhattan 's economy .
= = = 21st century = = =
On September 11 , 2001 , two of four hijacked planes were flown into the Twin Towers of the original World Trade Center , and the towers subsequently collapsed . 7 World Trade Center collapsed due to fires and structural damage caused by heavy debris falling from the collapse of the Twin Towers . The other buildings within the World Trade Center complex were damaged beyond repair and soon after demolished . The collapse of the Twin Towers caused extensive damage to other surrounding buildings and skyscrapers in Lower Manhattan , and resulted in the deaths of 2 @,@ 606 people , in addition to those on the planes . Since 2001 , most of Lower Manhattan has been restored , but there has been controversy surrounding the rebuilding . However , many rescue workers and residents of the area developed several life @-@ threatening illnesses that have led to some of their subsequent deaths . A memorial at the site was opened to the public on September 11 , 2011 , and the museum opened in 2014 . In 2014 , the new One World Trade Center , at 1 @,@ 776 feet ( 541 m ) and formerly known as the Freedom Tower , became the tallest building in the Western Hemisphere , while other skyscrapers were under construction at the site .
The Occupy Wall Street protests in Zuccotti Park in the Financial District of Lower Manhattan began on September 17 , 2011 , receiving global attention and spawning the Occupy movement against social and economic inequality worldwide .
On October 29 and 30 , 2012 , Hurricane Sandy caused extensive destruction in the borough , ravaging portions of Lower Manhattan with record @-@ high storm surge from New York Harbor , severe flooding , and high winds , causing power outages for hundreds of thousands of city residents and leading to gasoline shortages and disruption of mass transit systems . The storm and its profound impacts have prompted the discussion of constructing seawalls and other coastal barriers around the shorelines of the borough and the metropolitan area to minimize the risk of destructive consequences from another such event in the future .
= = Geography = =
= = = Components = = =
The borough consists of Manhattan Island , Marble Hill , and several small islands , including Randalls Island and Wards Island , and Roosevelt Island in the East River , and Governors Island and Liberty Island to the south in New York Harbor .
According to the U.S. Census Bureau , New York County has a total area of 33 @.@ 6 square miles ( 87 km2 ) , of which 22 @.@ 8 square miles ( 59 km2 ) is land and 10 @.@ 8 square miles ( 28 km2 ) ( 32 % ) is water . The northern segment of Upper Manhattan represents a geographic panhandle . Manhattan Island is 22 @.@ 7 square miles ( 59 km2 ) in area , 13 @.@ 4 miles ( 21 @.@ 6 km ) long and 2 @.@ 3 miles ( 3 @.@ 7 km ) wide , at its widest ( near 14th Street ) .
= = = = Manhattan Island = = = =
Manhattan Island is loosely divided into Downtown ( Lower Manhattan ) , Midtown ( Midtown Manhattan ) , and Uptown ( Upper Manhattan ) , with Fifth Avenue dividing Manhattan 's east and west sides . Manhattan Island is bounded by the Hudson River to the west and the East River to the east . To the north , the Harlem River divides Manhattan Island from the Bronx and the mainland United States .
Early in the 19th century , landfill was used to expand Lower Manhattan from the natural Hudson shoreline at Greenwich Street to West Street . When building the World Trade Center in 1968 , 1 @.@ 2 million cubic yards ( 917 @,@ 000 m ³ ) of material was excavated from the site . Rather than dumping the spoil at sea or in landfills , the fill material was used to expand the Manhattan shoreline across West Street , creating Battery Park City . The result was a 700 @-@ foot ( 210 @-@ m ) extension into the river , running six blocks or 1 @,@ 484 feet ( 452 m ) , covering 92 acres ( 37 ha ) , providing a 1 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 9 km ) riverfront esplanade and over 30 acres ( 12 ha ) of parks .
= = = = Marble Hill = = = =
One neighborhood of New York County is contiguous with the mainland . Marble Hill at one time was part of Manhattan Island , but the Harlem River Ship Canal , dug in 1895 to improve navigation on the Harlem River , separated it from the remainder of Manhattan as an island between the Bronx and the remainder of Manhattan . Before World War I , the section of the original Harlem River channel separating Marble Hill from The Bronx was filled in , and Marble Hill became part of the mainland .
Marble Hill is one example of how Manhattan 's land has been considerably altered by human intervention . The borough has seen substantial land reclamation along its waterfronts since Dutch colonial times , and much of the natural variation in its topography has been evened out .
= = = = Smaller islands = = = =
In New York Harbor there are three smaller islands :
Ellis Island , shared with New Jersey
Governors Island
Liberty Island
Other smaller islands , in the East River , include ( from north to south ) :
Randalls and Wards Islands , joined by landfill
Mill Rock
Roosevelt Island
U Thant Island ( legally Belmont Island )
= = = Geology = = =
= = = = Bedrock = = = =
The bedrock underlying much of Manhattan is a mica schist known as Manhattan schist . It is a strong , competent metamorphic rock created when Pangaea formed . It is well suited for the foundations of tall buildings . In Central Park , outcrops of Manhattan Schist occur and Rat Rock is one rather large example .
Geologically , a predominant feature of the substrata of Manhattan is that the underlying bedrock base of the island rises considerably closer to the surface near Midtown Manhattan , dips down lower between 29th Street and Canal Street , then rises toward the surface again in Lower Manhattan . It has been widely believed that the depth to bedrock was the primary underlying reason for the clustering of skyscrapers in the Midtown and Financial District areas , and their absence over the intervening territory between these two areas . However , research has shown that economic factors played a bigger part in the locations of these skyscrapers .
= = = = Updated seismic analysis = = = =
According to the United States Geological Survey , an updated analysis of seismic hazard in July 2014 revealed a " slightly lower hazard for tall buildings " in Manhattan than previously assessed . Scientists estimated this lessened risk based upon a lower likelihood than previously thought of slow shaking near New York City , which would be more likely to cause damage to taller structures from an earthquake in the vicinity of the city .
= = = Locations = = =
= = = = Adjacent counties = = = =
Bergen County , New Jersey — west and northwest
Hudson County , New Jersey — west and southwest
The Bronx — north and northeast
Queens — east
Kings County ( Brooklyn ) — south and southeast
Richmond County ( Staten Island ) — southwest
= = = = National protected areas = = = =
African Burial Ground National Monument
Castle Clinton National Monument
Federal Hall National Memorial
General Grant National Memorial
Governors Island National Monument
Hamilton Grange National Memorial
Lower East Side Tenement National Historic Site
Statue of Liberty National Monument ( part )
Theodore Roosevelt Birthplace National Historic Site
= = = = Neighborhoods = = = =
Manhattan 's many neighborhoods are not named according to any particular convention . Some are geographical ( the Upper East Side ) , or ethnically descriptive ( Little Italy ) . Others are acronyms , such as TriBeCa ( for " TRIangle BElow CAnal Street " ) or SoHo ( " SOuth of HOuston " ) , or the far more recent vintages NoLIta ( " NOrth of Little ITAly " ) . and NoMad ( " NOrth of MADison Square Park " ) . Harlem is a name from the Dutch colonial era after Haarlem , a city in the Netherlands . Alphabet City comprises Avenues A , B , C , and D , to which its name refers . Some have simple folkloric names , such as Hell 's Kitchen , alongside their more official but lesser used title ( in this case , Clinton ) .
Some neighborhoods , such as SoHo , are commercial and known for upscale shopping . Others , such as Greenwich Village , the Lower East Side , Alphabet City and the East Village , have long been associated with the Bohemian subculture . Chelsea is a neighborhood with a large gay population , and recently a center of New York 's art industry and nightlife . Washington Heights is a vibrant neighborhood of immigrants from the Dominican Republic . Chinatown has a dense population of people of Chinese descent . Koreatown is roughly bounded by 5th and 6th Avenues , between 31st and 36th Streets . Rose Hill features a growing number of Indian restaurants and spice shops along a stretch of Lexington Avenue between 25th and 30th Streets which has become known as Curry Hill .
In Manhattan , uptown means north ( more precisely north @-@ northeast , which is the direction the island and its street grid system is oriented ) and downtown means south ( south @-@ southwest ) . This usage differs from that of most American cities , where downtown refers to the central business district . Manhattan has two central business districts , the Financial District at the southern tip of the island , and Midtown Manhattan . The term uptown also refers to the northern part of Manhattan above 72nd Street and downtown to the southern portion below 14th Street , with Midtown covering the area in between , though definitions can be rather fluid depending on the situation .
Fifth Avenue roughly bisects Manhattan Island and acts as the demarcation line for east / west designations ( e.g. , East 27th Street , West 42nd Street ) ; street addresses start at Fifth Avenue and increase heading away from Fifth Avenue , at a rate of 100 per block on most streets . South of Waverly Place , Fifth Avenue terminates and Broadway becomes the east / west demarcation line . Though the grid does start with 1st Street , just north of Houston Street ( the southernmost street divided in west and east portions ; pronounced HOW @-@ stin ) , the grid does not fully take hold until north of 14th Street , where nearly all east @-@ west streets are numerically identified , which increase from south to north to 220th Street , the highest numbered street on the island . Streets in Midtown are usually one way with a few exceptions ( 14th , 23rd , 34th , and 42nd for example ) . The rule of thumb is that odd @-@ numbered streets run west , while even @-@ numbered streets run east .
= = = Climate = = =
Under the Köppen climate classification , using the 0 ° C ( 32 ° F ) coldest month ( January ) isotherm , New York City including Manhattan itself experiences a humid subtropical climate ( Cfa ) , and located at around 40 ° N latitude , is the northernmost major city on the North American continent with this categorization . Winters are cold and damp , and prevailing wind patterns that blow offshore minimize the moderating effects of the Atlantic Ocean ; yet the Atlantic and the partial shielding from colder air by the Appalachians keep the city warmer in the winter than inland North American cities at similar or lesser latitudes , such as Pittsburgh , Cincinnati , and Indianapolis , helping to moderate the amount of snow , which averages 25 inches ( 64 cm ) each year . Spring and fall in New York City are mild , while summer is very warm and humid , with temperatures of 90 ° F ( 32 ° C ) or higher recorded from 18 to 25 days on average during the season . The city 's long @-@ term climate patterns are affected by the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation , a 70 @-@ year @-@ long warming and cooling cycle in the Atlantic that influences the frequency and severity of hurricanes and coastal storms in the region . Central Park is the location of record for the borough 's climatic data .
Temperature records have been set as high as 106 ° F ( 41 ° C ) on July 9 , 1936 , and as low as − 15 ° F ( − 26 ° C ) on February 9 , 1934 .
Summer evening temperatures are elevated by the urban heat island effect , which causes heat absorbed during the day to be radiated back at night , raising temperatures by as much as 7 ° F ( 4 ° C ) when winds are slow .
= = = Boroughscapes = = =
= = Demographics = =
At the 2010 Census , there were 1 @,@ 585 @,@ 873 people living in Manhattan , an increase of 3 @.@ 2 % since 2000 . Since 2010 , Manhattan 's population was estimated by the Census Bureau to have increased 3 @.@ 7 % to 1 @,@ 644 @,@ 518 as of 2015 , representing 19 @.@ 3 % of New York City 's population and 8 @.@ 3 % of New York State 's population . As of the 2000 Census , the population density of New York County was 66 @,@ 940 per square mile ( 25 @,@ 846 / km ² ) , the highest population density of any county in the United States . If 2012 census estimates were accurate , the population density then approximated 70 @,@ 518 people per square mile ( 27 @,@ 227 / km ² ) . In 1910 , at the height of European immigration to New York , Manhattan 's population density reached a peak of 101 @,@ 548 people per square mile ( 39 @,@ 208 / km ² ) .
According to 2012 Census estimates , 65 @.@ 2 % of the population was White , 18 @.@ 4 % Black or African American , 1 @.@ 2 % American Indian and Alaska Native , 12 @.@ 0 % Asian , and 3 @.@ 1 % of two or more races . 25 @.@ 8 % of Manhattan 's population was of Hispanic or Latino origin , of any race . Manhattan has the second highest percentage of non @-@ Hispanic Whites ( 48 % ) of New York City 's boroughs , after Staten Island ( where non @-@ Hispanic Whites make up 64 % of residents ) .
The New York City Department of City Planning projects that Manhattan 's population will increase by 289 @,@ 000 people between 2000 and 2030 , an increase of 18 @.@ 8 % over the period , second only to Staten Island , while the rest of the city is projected to grow by 12 @.@ 7 % over the same period . The school @-@ age population is expected to grow 4 @.@ 4 % by 2030 , in contrast to a small decline in the city as a whole . The elderly population is forecast to grow by 57 @.@ 9 % , with the borough adding 108 @,@ 000 persons ages 65 and over , compared to 44 @.@ 2 % growth citywide .
According to the 2009 American Community Survey , the average household size was 2 @.@ 11 , and the average family size was 3 @.@ 21 . Approximately 59 @.@ 4 % of the population over the age of 25 have a bachelor 's degree or higher . Approximately 27 @.@ 0 % of the population is foreign @-@ born , and 61 @.@ 7 % of the population over the age of 5 speak only English at home . People of Irish ancestry make up 7 @.@ 8 % of the population , while Italian Americans make up 6 @.@ 8 % of the population . German Americans and Russian Americans make up 7 @.@ 2 % and 6 @.@ 2 % of the population respectively .
In 2000 , 56 @.@ 4 % of people living in Manhattan were White , 17 @.@ 39 % were Black , 14 @.@ 14 % were from other races , 9 @.@ 40 % were Asian , 0 @.@ 5 % were Native American , and 0 @.@ 07 % were Pacific Islander . 4 @.@ 14 % were from two or more races . 27 @.@ 18 % were Hispanic of any race .
There were 738 @,@ 644 households . 25 @.@ 2 % were married couples living together , 12 @.@ 6 % had a female householder with no husband present , and 59 @.@ 1 % were non @-@ families . 17 @.@ 1 % had children under the age of 18 living with them . 48 % of all households were made up of individuals and 10 @.@ 9 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was two and the average family size was 2 @.@ 99 .
Manhattan 's population was spread out with 16 @.@ 8 % under the age of 18 , 10 @.@ 2 % from 18 to 24 , 38 @.@ 3 % from 25 to 44 , 22 @.@ 6 % from 45 to 64 , and 12 @.@ 2 % who were 65 years of age or older . The median age was 36 years . For every 100 females , there were 90 @.@ 3 males . For every 100 females age 18 and over , there were 87 @.@ 9 males .
Manhattan is one of the highest @-@ income places in the United States with a population greater than one million . As of 2012 , Manhattan 's cost of living was the highest in the United States , but the borough also contained the country 's most profound level of income inequality . Manhattan is also the United States county with the highest per capita income , being the sole county whose per capita income exceeded $ 100 @,@ 000 in 2010 . In 2012 , The New York Times reported that " the income gap in Manhattan , already wider than almost anywhere else in the country , rivaled disparities in sub @-@ Saharan Africa . ... The wealthiest fifth of Manhattanites made more than 40 times what the lowest fifth reported , a widening gap ( it was 38 times , the year before ) surpassed by only a few developing countries " .
Lower Manhattan has been experiencing a baby boom , well above the overall birth rate in Manhattan , with the area south of Canal Street witnessing 1 @,@ 086 births in 2010 , 12 % greater than 2009 and over twice the number born in 2001 . The Financial District alone has witnessed growth in its population to approximately 43 @,@ 000 as of 2014 , nearly double the 23 @,@ 000 recorded at the 2000 Census .
= = = Religion = = =
Manhattan is religiously diverse . The largest religious affiliation is the Catholic Church , whose adherents constitute 564 @,@ 505 persons ( more than 36 % of the population ) and maintain 110 congregations . Jews comprise the second largest religious group , with 314 @,@ 500 persons ( 20 @.@ 5 % ) in 102 congregations . They are followed by Protestants , with 139 @,@ 732 adherents ( 9 @.@ 1 % ) and Muslims , with 37 @,@ 078 ( 2 @.@ 4 % ) .
= = = Languages = = =
As of 2010 , 59 @.@ 98 % ( 902 @,@ 267 ) of Manhattan residents , ages five and older , spoke only English at home , while 23 @.@ 07 % ( 347 @,@ 033 ) spoke Spanish , 5 @.@ 33 % ( 80 @,@ 240 ) Chinese , 2 @.@ 03 % ( 30 @,@ 567 ) French , 0 @.@ 78 % ( 11 @,@ 776 ) Japanese , 0 @.@ 77 % ( 11 @,@ 517 ) Russian , 0 @.@ 72 % ( 10 @,@ 788 ) Korean , 0 @.@ 70 % ( 10 @,@ 496 ) German , 0 @.@ 66 % ( 9 @,@ 868 ) Italian , 0 @.@ 64 % ( 9 @,@ 555 ) Hebrew , and 0 @.@ 48 % ( 7 @,@ 158 ) African languages as a main language . In total , 40 @.@ 02 % ( 602 @,@ 058 ) of Manhattan 's population , ages 5 and older , spoke a language other than English at home .
= = Landmarks and architecture = =
The Theater District around Broadway at Times Square , New York University , Columbia University , Flatiron Building , the Financial District around Wall Street , Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts , Little Italy , Harlem , the American Museum of Natural History , Chinatown , and Central Park are all located on this densely populated island . Manhattan has many energy @-@ efficient green office buildings , such as the Hearst Tower , the rebuilt 7 World Trade Center , and the Bank of America Tower — the first skyscraper designed to attain a Platinum LEED Certification .
= = = Architectural history = = =
The skyscraper , which has shaped Manhattan 's distinctive skyline , has been closely associated with New York City 's identity since the end of the 19th century . From 1890 to 1973 , the world 's tallest building was in Manhattan ( with a gap between 1901 and 1908 , when the title was held by Philadelphia City Hall ) , with nine different buildings holding the title . The New York World Building on Park Row , was the first to take the title in 1890 , standing 309 feet ( 94 m ) until 1955 , when it was demolished to construct a new ramp to the Brooklyn Bridge . The nearby Park Row Building , with its 29 stories standing 391 feet ( 119 m ) high took the title in 1899 . The 41 @-@ story Singer Building , constructed in 1908 as the headquarters of the eponymous sewing machine manufacturer , stood 612 feet ( 187 m ) high until 1967 , when it became the tallest building ever demolished . The Metropolitan Life Insurance Company Tower , standing 700 feet ( 210 m ) at the foot of Madison Avenue , wrested the title in 1909 , with a tower reminiscent of St Mark 's Campanile in Venice . The Woolworth Building , and its distinctive Gothic architecture , took the title in 1913 , topping off at 792 feet ( 241 m ) .
The Roaring Twenties saw a race to the sky , with three separate buildings pursuing the world 's tallest title in the span of a year . As the stock market soared in the days before the Wall Street Crash of 1929 , two developers publicly competed for the crown . At 927 feet ( 283 m ) , 40 Wall Street , completed in May 1930 in an astonishing eleven months as the headquarters of the Bank of Manhattan , seemed to have secured the title . At Lexington Avenue and 42nd Street , auto executive Walter Chrysler and his architect William Van Alen developed plans to build the structure 's trademark 185 @-@ foot ( 56 m ) high spire in secret , pushing the Chrysler Building to 1 @,@ 046 feet ( 319 m ) and making it the tallest in the world when it was completed in 1929 . Both buildings were soon surpassed , with the May 1931 completion of the 102 @-@ story Empire State Building with its Art Deco tower soaring 1 @,@ 250 feet ( 380 m ) to the top of the building . The 203 @-@ foot ( 62 m ) high pinnacle was later added bringing the total height of the building to 1 @,@ 453 ft ( 443 m ) .
The former Twin Towers of the World Trade Center were located in Lower Manhattan . At 1 @,@ 368 and 1 @,@ 362 feet ( 417 and 415 m ) , the 110 @-@ story buildings were the world 's tallest from 1972 , until they were surpassed by the construction of the Willis Tower in 1974 ( formerly known as the Sears Tower , located in Chicago ) . One World Trade Center , a replacement for the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center , is currently the tallest building in the Western Hemisphere .
In 1961 , the Pennsylvania Railroad unveiled plans to tear down the old Penn Station and replace it with a new Madison Square Garden and office building complex . Organized protests were aimed at preserving the McKim , Mead & White @-@ designed structure completed in 1910 , widely considered a masterpiece of the Beaux @-@ Arts style and one of the architectural jewels of New York City . Despite these efforts , demolition of the structure began in October 1963 . The loss of Penn Station — called " an act of irresponsible public vandalism " by historian Lewis Mumford — led directly to the enactment in 1965 of a local law establishing the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission , which is responsible for preserving the " city 's historic , aesthetic , and cultural heritage " . The historic preservation movement triggered by Penn Station 's demise has been credited with the retention of some one million structures nationwide , including nearly 1 @,@ 000 in New York City .
= = = Parkland = = =
17 @.@ 8 % of the borough , a total of 2 @,@ 686 acres ( 10 @.@ 87 km2 ) , is devoted to parkland . Almost 70 % of Manhattan 's space devoted to parks is located outside of Central Park , including 204 playgrounds , 251 Greenstreets , 371 basketball courts and many other amenities .
Central Park is bordered on the north by West 110th Street , on the west by Eighth Avenue , on the south by West 59th Street , and on the east by Fifth Avenue . Along the park 's borders , these streets are usually referred to as Central Park North , Central Park West , and Central Park South , respectively ( Fifth Avenue retains its name along the eastern border ) . The park was designed by Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux . The 843 @-@ acre ( 3 @.@ 41 km2 ) park offers extensive walking tracks , two ice @-@ skating rinks , a wildlife sanctuary , and grassy areas used for various sporting pursuits , as well as playgrounds for children . The park is a popular oasis for migrating birds , and thus is popular with bird watchers . The 6 @-@ mile ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) road circling the park is popular with joggers , bicyclists and inline skaters , especially on weekends and in the evenings after 7 : 00 pm , when automobile traffic is banned . While much of the park looks natural , it is almost entirely landscaped and contains several artificial lakes . The construction of Central Park in the 1850s was one of the era 's most massive public works projects . Some 20 @,@ 000 workers crafted the topography to create the English @-@ style pastoral landscape Olmsted and Vaux sought to create . Workers moved nearly 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 2 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 m3 ) of soil and planted more than 270 @,@ 000 trees and shrubs .
The African Burial Ground National Monument at Duane Street preserves a site containing the remains of over 400 Africans buried during the 17th and 18th centuries . The remains were found in 1991 during the construction of the Foley Square Federal Office Building .
= = Economy = =
Manhattan is the economic engine of New York City , with its 2 @.@ 3 million workers in 2007 drawn from the entire New York metropolitan area accounting for almost two @-@ thirds of all jobs in New York City . In the first quarter of 2014 , the average weekly wage in Manhattan ( New York County ) was $ 2 @,@ 749 , representing the highest total among large counties in the United States . Manhattan 's workforce is overwhelmingly focused on white collar professions , with manufacturing nearly extinct . Manhattan also has the highest per capita income of any county in the United States .
In 2010 , Manhattan 's daytime population was swelling to 3 @.@ 94 million , with commuters adding a net 1 @.@ 48 million people to the population , along with visitors , tourists , and commuting students . The commuter influx of 1 @.@ 61 million workers coming into Manhattan was the largest of any county or city in the country , and was more than triple the 480 @,@ 000 commuters who headed into second @-@ ranked Washington , D.C.
= = = Financial sector = = =
Manhattan 's most important economic sector lies in its role as the headquarters for the U.S. financial industry , metonymously known as Wall Street . The borough 's securities industry , enumerating 163 @,@ 400 jobs in August 2013 , continues to form the largest segment of the city 's financial sector and an important economic engine for Manhattan , accounting in 2012 for 5 percent of private sector jobs in New York City , 8 @.@ 5 percent ( US $ 3 @.@ 8 billion ) of the city 's tax revenue , and 22 percent of the city 's total wages , including an average salary of US $ 360 @,@ 700 . Wall Street investment banking fees in 2012 totaled approximately US $ 40 billion , while in 2013 , senior New York City bank officers who manage risk and compliance functions earned as much as US $ 324 @,@ 000 annually .
Lower Manhattan is home to the New York Stock Exchange ( NYSE ) , on Wall Street , and the NASDAQ , at 165 Broadway , representing the world 's largest and second largest stock exchanges , respectively , when measured both by overall share trading value and by total market capitalization of their listed companies in 2013 . The NYSE MKT ( formerly the American Stock Exchange , AMEX ) , New York Board of Trade , and the New York Mercantile Exchange ( NYMEX ) are also located downtown . In July 2013 , NYSE Euronext , the operator of the New York Stock Exchange , took over the administration of the London interbank offered rate from the British Bankers Association .
= = = Corporate sector = = =
New York City is home to the most corporate headquarters of any city in the nation , the overwhelming majority based in Manhattan . Manhattan contained over 500 million square feet ( 46 @.@ 5 million m2 ) of office space in 2015 , making it the largest office market in the United States , while Midtown Manhattan , with nearly 400 million square feet ( 37 @.@ 2 million m2 ) in 2015 , is the largest central business district in the world .
As of 2013 , the global advertising agencies of Omnicom Group and Interpublic Group , both based in Manhattan , had combined annual revenues of approximately US $ 21 billion , reflecting New York City 's role as the top global center for the advertising industry , which is metonymously referred to as " Madison Avenue " .
= = = Technology sectors = = =
Silicon Alley , centered in Manhattan , has evolved into a metonym for the sphere encompassing the New York City metropolitan region 's high tech industries including , the Internet , new media , telecommunications , digital media , software development , biotechnology , game design , financial technology ( fintech ) , and other fields within information technology that are supported by the area 's entrepreneurship ecosystem and venture capital investments . As of 2014 , New York City hosted 300 @,@ 000 employees in the tech sector . In 2015 , Silicon Alley generated over US $ 7 @.@ 3 billion in venture capital investment , most based in Manhattan , as well as in Brooklyn , Queens , and elsewhere in the region . High technology startup companies and employment are growing in Manhattan and across New York City , bolstered by the city 's emergence as a global node of creativity and entrepreneurship , social tolerance , and environmental sustainability , as well as New York 's position as the leading Internet hub and telecommunications center in North America , including its vicinity to several transatlantic fiber optic trunk lines , the city 's intellectual capital , and its extensive outdoor wireless connectivity . Verizon Communications , headquartered at 140 West Street in Lower Manhattan , was at the final stages in 2014 of completing a US $ 3 billion fiberoptic telecommunications upgrade throughout New York City . As of October 2014 , New York City hosted 300 @,@ 000 employees in the tech sector , with a significant proportion in Manhattan .
The biotechnology sector is also growing in Manhattan based upon the city 's strength in academic scientific research and public and commercial financial support . By mid @-@ 2014 , Accelerator , a biotech investment firm , had raised more than US $ 30 million from investors , including Eli Lilly and Company , Pfizer , and Johnson & Johnson , for initial funding to create biotechnology startups at the Alexandria Center for Life Science , which encompasses more than 700 @,@ 000 square feet ( 65 @,@ 000 m2 ) on East 29th Street and promotes collaboration among scientists and entrepreneurs at the center and with nearby academic , medical , and research institutions . The New York City Economic Development Corporation 's Early Stage Life Sciences Funding Initiative and venture capital partners , including Celgene , General Electric Ventures , and Eli Lilly , committed a minimum of US $ 100 million to help launch 15 to 20 ventures in life sciences and biotechnology . In 2011 , Mayor Michael R. Bloomberg had announced his choice of Cornell University and Technion @-@ Israel Institute of Technology to build a US $ 2 billion graduate school of applied sciences on Roosevelt Island , Manhattan , with the goal of transforming New York City into the world 's premier technology capital .
= = = Tourism = = =
Tourism is vital to Manhattan 's economy , and the landmarks of Manhattan are the focus of New York City 's tourists , enumerating nearly 60 million visitors in 2015 . According to The Broadway League , shows on Broadway sold approximately US $ 1 @.@ 27 billion worth of tickets in the 2013 – 2014 season , an increase of 11 @.@ 4 % from US $ 1 @.@ 139 billion in the 2012 – 2013 season ; attendance in 2013 – 2014 stood at 12 @.@ 21 million , representing a 5 @.@ 5 % increase from the 2012 – 2013 season 's 11 @.@ 57 million . Manhattan was on track to have an estimated 90 @,@ 000 hotel rooms at the end of 2014 , a 10 % increase from 2013 .
= = = Real estate = = =
Real estate is a major force in Manhattan 's economy , and indeed the city 's , as the total value of all New York City property was assessed at US $ 914 @.@ 8 billion for the 2015 fiscal year . Manhattan has perennially been home to some of the nation 's , as well as the world 's , most valuable real estate , including the Time Warner Center , which had the highest @-@ listed market value in the city in 2006 at US $ 1 @.@ 1 billion , to be subsequently surpassed in October 2014 by the Waldorf Astoria New York , which became the most expensive hotel ever sold after being purchased by the Anbang Insurance Group , based in China , for US $ 1 @.@ 95 billion . When 450 Park Avenue was sold on July 2 , 2007 for US $ 510 million , about US $ 1 @,@ 589 per square foot ( US $ 17 @,@ 104 / m ² ) , it broke the barely month @-@ old record for an American office building of US $ 1 @,@ 476 per square foot ( US $ 15 @,@ 887 / m ² ) based on the sale of 660 Madison Avenue . In 2014 , Manhattan was home to six of the top ten zip codes in the United States by median housing price .
Manhattan had approximately 520 million square feet ( 48 @.@ 1 million m ² ) of office space in 2013 , making it the largest office market in the United States . Midtown Manhattan is the largest central business district in the nation based on office space , while Lower Manhattan is the third @-@ largest ( after Chicago 's Loop ) .
= = = Media = = =
= = = = News = = = =
Manhattan is served by the major New York City dailies , including The New York Times , New York Daily News , and New York Post , which are all headquartered in the borough . The nation 's largest newspaper by circulation , The Wall Street Journal , is also based there . Other daily newspapers include AM New York and The Villager . The New York Amsterdam News , based in Harlem , is one of the leading African American weekly newspapers in the United States . The Village Voice is a leading alternative weekly based in the borough .
= = = = Television , radio , film = = = =
The television industry developed in New York and is a significant employer in the city 's economy . The four major American broadcast networks , ABC , NBC , CBS , and Fox , as well as Univision , are all headquartered in Manhattan , as are many cable channels , including MSNBC , MTV , Fox News , HBO and Comedy Central . In 1971 , WLIB became New York 's first black @-@ owned radio station and the crown jewel of Inner City Broadcasting Corporation . A co @-@ founder of Inner City was Percy Sutton , a former Manhattan borough president and long one of the city 's most powerful black leaders . WLIB began broadcasts for the African @-@ American community in 1949 and regularly interviewed civil rights leaders like Malcolm X and aired live broadcasts from conferences of the NAACP . Influential WQHT , also known as Hot 9 | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
7 , claims to be the premier hip @-@ hop station in the United States . WNYC , comprising an AM and FM signal , has the largest public radio audience in the nation and is the most @-@ listened to commercial or non @-@ commercial radio station in Manhattan . WBAI , with news and information programming , is one of the few socialist radio stations operating in the United States .
The oldest public @-@ access television cable TV channel in the United States is the Manhattan Neighborhood Network , founded in 1971 , offers eclectic local programming that ranges from a jazz hour to discussion of labor issues to foreign language and religious programming . NY1 , Time Warner Cable 's local news channel , is known for its beat coverage of City Hall and state politics .
= = Education and scholarly activity = =
Education in Manhattan is provided by a vast number of public and private institutions . Public schools in the borough are operated by the New York City Department of Education , the largest public school system in the United States . Charter schools include Success Academy Harlem 1 through 5 , Success Academy Upper West , and Public Prep .
Some of the best @-@ known New York City public high schools , such as Beacon High School , Stuyvesant High School , Fiorello H. LaGuardia High School , High School of Fashion Industries , Eleanor Roosevelt High School , NYC Lab School , Manhattan Center for Science and Mathematics , Hunter College High School and High School for Math , Science and Engineering at City College are located in Manhattan . Bard High School Early College , a hybrid school created by Bard College , serves students from around the city .
Many prestigious private prep schools are located in Manhattan , including the Upper East Side 's Brearley School , Dalton School , Browning School , Spence School , Chapin School , Nightingale @-@ Bamford School , Convent of the Sacred Heart , Hewitt School , Saint David 's School , and Loyola School , along with the Upper West Side 's Collegiate School and Trinity School . The prestigious Regis High School , on the Upper East Side , is the only all @-@ scholarship Catholic high school for boys in the country . The borough is also home to two private schools that are known as the most diverse in the nation , Manhattan Country School and United Nations International School . Manhattan has the only official Italian American school in the U.S. , La Scuola d 'Italia .
As of 2003 , 52 @.@ 3 % of Manhattan residents over age 25 have a bachelor 's degree , the fifth highest of all counties in the country . By 2005 , about 60 % of residents were college graduates and some 25 % had earned advanced degrees , giving Manhattan one of the nation 's densest concentrations of highly educated people .
Manhattan has various colleges and universities , including Columbia University ( and its affiliate Barnard College ) , Cooper Union , Marymount Manhattan College , New York Institute of Technology , New York University ( NYU ) , The Juilliard School , Pace University , Berkeley College , The New School , Yeshiva University , and a campus of Fordham University . Other schools include Bank Street College of Education , Boricua College , Jewish Theological Seminary of America , Manhattan School of Music , Metropolitan College of New York , School of Visual Arts , Touro College and Union Theological Seminary . Several other private institutions maintain a Manhattan presence , among them St. John 's University , The College of New Rochelle and Pratt Institute .
The City University of New York ( CUNY ) , the municipal college system of New York City , is the largest urban university system in the United States , serving more than 226 @,@ 000 degree students and a roughly equal number of adult , continuing and professional education students . A third of college graduates in New York City graduate from CUNY , with the institution enrolling about half of all college students in New York City . CUNY senior colleges located in Manhattan include : Baruch College , City College of New York , Hunter College , John Jay College of Criminal Justice , and the CUNY Graduate Center ( graduate studies and doctoral granting institution ) . The only CUNY community college located in Manhattan is the Borough of Manhattan Community College .
The State University of New York is represented by the Fashion Institute of Technology , State University of New York State College of Optometry and Stony Brook University – Manhattan .
Manhattan is a world center for training and education in medicine and the life sciences . The city as a whole receives the second @-@ highest amount of annual funding from the National Institutes of Health among all U.S. cities , the bulk of which goes to Manhattan 's research institutions , including Memorial Sloan @-@ Kettering Cancer Center , Rockefeller University , Mount Sinai School of Medicine , Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons , Weill Cornell Medical College and New York University School of Medicine .
Manhattan is served by the New York Public Library , which has the largest collection of any public library system in the country . The five units of the Central Library — Mid @-@ Manhattan Library , Donnell Library Center , The New York Public Library for the Performing Arts , Andrew Heiskell Braille and Talking Book Library and the Science , Industry and Business Library — are all located in Manhattan . More than 35 other branch libraries are located in the borough .
= = Culture and contemporary life = =
Manhattan has been the scene of many important American cultural movements . In 1912 , about 20 @,@ 000 workers , a quarter of them women , marched upon Washington Square Park to commemorate the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire , which killed 146 workers on March 25 , 1911 . Many of the women wore fitted tucked @-@ front blouses like those manufactured by the Triangle Shirtwaist Company , a clothing style that became the working woman 's uniform and a symbol of women 's liberation , reflecting the alliance of labor and suffrage movements .
The Harlem Renaissance in the 1920s established the African @-@ American literary canon in the United States . Manhattan 's vibrant visual art scene in the 1950s and 1960s was a center of the American pop art movement , which gave birth to such giants as Jasper Johns and Roy Lichtenstein . Perhaps no other artist is as associated with the downtown pop art movement of the late 1970s as Andy Warhol , who socialized at clubs like Serendipity 3 and Studio 54 .
Broadway theatre is often considered the highest professional form of theatre in the United States . Plays and musicals are staged in one of the 39 larger professional theatres with at least 500 seats , almost all in and around Times Square . Off @-@ Broadway theatres feature productions in venues with 100 – 500 seats . Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts , anchoring Lincoln Square on the Upper West Side of Manhattan , is home to 12 influential arts organizations , including the Metropolitan Opera , New York City Opera , New York Philharmonic , and New York City Ballet , as well as the Vivian Beaumont Theater , the Juilliard School , Jazz at Lincoln Center , and Alice Tully Hall .
Manhattan is also home to some of the most extensive art collections in the world , both contemporary and historical , including the Metropolitan Museum of Art , the Museum of Modern Art ( MoMA ) , the Frick Collection , the Whitney Museum of American Art , and the Frank Lloyd Wright @-@ designed Guggenheim Museum . The Upper East Side has many art galleries , and the downtown neighborhood of Chelsea is known for its more than 200 art galleries that are home to modern art from both upcoming and established artists .
Manhattan is the borough most closely associated with New York City by non @-@ residents ; even some natives of New York City 's boroughs outside Manhattan will describe a trip to Manhattan as " going to the city " .
The borough has a place in several American idioms . The phrase a New York minute is meant to convey a very short time , sometimes in hyperbolic form , as in " perhaps faster than you would believe is possible " . It refers to the rapid pace of life in Manhattan . The term " melting pot " was first popularly coined to describe the densely populated immigrant neighborhoods on the Lower East Side in Israel Zangwill 's play The Melting Pot , which was an adaptation of William Shakespeare 's Romeo and Juliet set by Zangwill in New York City in 1908 . The iconic Flatiron Building is said to have been the source of the phrase " 23 skidoo " or scram , from what cops would shout at men who tried to get glimpses of women 's dresses being blown up by the winds created by the triangular building . The " Big Apple " dates back to the 1920s , when a reporter heard the term used by New Orleans stablehands to refer to New York City 's racetracks and named his racing column " Around The Big Apple . " Jazz musicians adopted the term to refer to the city as the world 's jazz capital , and a 1970s ad campaign by the New York Convention and Visitors Bureau helped popularize the term .
= = Sports = =
Manhattan is home to the NBA 's New York Knicks , the NHL 's New York Rangers , and the WNBA 's New York Liberty , who all play their home games at Madison Square Garden , the only major professional sports arena in the borough . The New York Jets proposed a West Side Stadium for their home field , but the proposal was eventually defeated in June 2005 , leaving them at MetLife Stadium in East Rutherford , New Jersey .
Today , Manhattan is the only borough in New York City that does not have a professional baseball franchise . The Bronx has the Yankees ( American League ) and Queens has the Mets ( National League ) of Major League Baseball . The Minor League Baseball Brooklyn Cyclones play in Brooklyn , while the Staten Island Yankees play in Staten Island . Yet three of the four major league teams to play in New York City played in Manhattan . The New York Giants played in the various incarnations of the Polo Grounds at 155th Street and Eighth Avenue from their inception in 1883 — except for 1889 , when they split their time between Jersey City and Staten Island , and when they played in Hilltop Park in 1911 — until they headed west with the Brooklyn Dodgers after the 1957 season . The New York Yankees began their franchise as the Highlanders , named for Hilltop Park , where they played from their creation in 1903 until 1912 . The team moved to the Polo Grounds with the 1913 season , where they were officially christened the New York Yankees , remaining there until they moved across the Harlem River in 1923 to Yankee Stadium . The New York Mets played in the Polo Grounds in 1962 and 1963 , their first two seasons , before Shea Stadium was completed in 1964 . After the Mets departed , the Polo Grounds was demolished in April 1964 , replaced by public housing .
The first national college @-@ level basketball championship , the National Invitation Tournament , was held in New York in 1938 and remains in the city . The New York Knicks started play in 1946 as one of the National Basketball Association 's original teams , playing their first home games at the 69th Regiment Armory , before making Madison Square Garden their permanent home . The New York Liberty of the WNBA have shared the Garden with the Knicks since their creation in 1997 as one of the league 's original eight teams . Rucker Park in Harlem is a playground court , famed for its streetball style of play , where many NBA athletes have played in the summer league .
Though both of New York City 's football teams play today across the Hudson River in MetLife Stadium in East Rutherford , New Jersey , both teams started out playing in the Polo Grounds . The New York Giants played side @-@ by @-@ side with their baseball namesakes from the time they entered the National Football League in 1925 , until crossing over to Yankee Stadium in 1956 . The New York Jets , originally known as the Titans , started out in 1960 at the Polo Grounds , staying there for four seasons before joining the Mets in Queens in 1964 .
The New York Rangers of the National Hockey League have played in the various locations of Madison Square Garden since their founding in the 1926 – 1927 season . The Rangers were predated by the New York Americans , who started play in the Garden the previous season , lasting until the team folded after the 1941 – 1942 NHL season , a season it played in the Garden as the Brooklyn Americans .
The New York Cosmos of the North American Soccer League played their home games at Downing Stadium for two seasons , starting in 1974 . In 1975 , the team signed Pelé , officially recorded by FIFA as the world 's greatest soccer player , to a $ 4 @.@ 5 million contract , drawing a capacity crowd of 22 @,@ 500 to watch him lead the team to a 2 – 0 victory . The playing pitch and facilities at Downing Stadium were in dreadful condition though and as the team 's popularity grew they too left for Yankee Stadium , and then Giants Stadium . The stadium was demolished in 2002 to make way for the $ 45 million , 4 @,@ 754 @-@ seat Icahn Stadium , which includes an Olympic @-@ standard 400 @-@ meter running track and , as part of Pele 's and the Cosmos ' legacy , includes a FIFA @-@ approved floodlit soccer stadium that hosts matches between the 48 youth teams of a Manhattan soccer club .
= = Government = =
Since New York City 's consolidation in 1898 , Manhattan has been governed by the New York City Charter , which has provided for a strong mayor @-@ council system since its revision in 1989 . The centralized New York City government is responsible for public education , correctional institutions , libraries , public safety , recreational facilities , sanitation , water supply , and welfare services in Manhattan .
The office of Borough President was created in the consolidation of 1898 to balance centralization with local authority . Each borough president had a powerful administrative role derived from having a vote on the New York City Board of Estimate , which was responsible for creating and approving the city 's budget and proposals for land use . In 1989 the Supreme Court of the United States declared the Board of Estimate unconstitutional because Brooklyn , the most populous borough , had no greater effective representation on the Board than Staten Island , the least populous borough , a violation of the Fourteenth Amendment 's Equal Protection Clause pursuant to the high court 's 1964 " one man , one vote " decision .
Since 1990 , the largely powerless Borough President has acted as an advocate for the borough at the mayoral agencies , the City Council , the New York state government , and corporations . Manhattan 's current Borough President is Gale Brewer , elected as a Democrat in November 2013 with 82 @.@ 9 % of the vote . Brewer replaced Scott Stringer , who went on to become New York City Comptroller .
Cyrus Vance , a Democrat , has been the District Attorney of New York County since 2010 . Manhattan has ten City Council members , the third largest contingent among the five boroughs . It also has twelve administrative districts , each served by a local Community Board . Community Boards are representative bodies that field complaints and serve as advocates for local residents . As the host of the UN , the borough is home to the world 's largest international consular corps , comprising 105 consulates , consulates general and honorary consulates . It is also the home of New York City Hall , the seat of New York City government housing the Mayor of New York City and the New York City Council . The mayor 's staff and thirteen municipal agencies are located in the nearby Manhattan Municipal Building , completed in 1916 , one of the largest governmental buildings in the world .
= = = Politics = = =
The Democratic Party holds most public offices . Registered Republicans are a minority in the borough , only constituting approximately 12 % of the electorate . Registered Republicans are more than 20 % of the electorate only in the neighborhoods of the Upper East Side and the Financial District . The Democrats hold 66 @.@ 1 % of those registered in a party . 21 @.@ 9 % of the voters were unaffiliated ( independents ) .
Manhattan is divided between three congressional districts , all of which are represented by Democrats .
Jerrold Nadler represents the 8th district , based on the West Side , which covers most of the Upper West Side , Hell 's Kitchen , Chelsea , Greenwich Village , Chinatown , Tribeca and Battery Park City , as well as some sections of Southwest Brooklyn .
Carolyn B. Maloney represents the 14th district , the so @-@ called " Silk Stocking " district that was the political base for Teddy Roosevelt and John Lindsay . It covers most of the Upper East Side , Yorkville , Gramercy Park , Roosevelt Island and most of the Lower East Side and the East Village , as well as portions of western Queens .
Nydia Velázquez of the Brooklyn / Queens @-@ based 12th district , represents a few heavily Puerto Rican sections of the Lower East Side , including Avenues C and D of Alphabet City .
No Republican has won the presidential election in Manhattan since 1924 , when Calvin Coolidge won a plurality of the New York County vote over Democrat John W. Davis , 41 @.@ 20 % – 39 @.@ 55 % . Warren G. Harding was the most recent Republican presidential candidate to win a majority of the Manhattan vote , with 59 @.@ 22 % of the 1920 vote . In the 2004 presidential election , Democrat John Kerry received 82 @.@ 1 % of the vote in Manhattan and Republican George W. Bush received 16 @.@ 7 % . The borough is the most important source of funding for presidential campaigns in the United States ; in 2004 , it was home to six of the top seven ZIP codes in the nation for political contributions . The top ZIP code , 10021 on the Upper East Side , generated the most money for the United States presidential election for all presidential candidates , including both Kerry and Bush during the 2004 election .
= = = Federal offices = = =
The United States Postal Service operates post offices in Manhattan . The James Farley Post Office in Midtown Manhattan is New York City 's main post office . It is located at 421 Eighth Avenue , between 31st Street and 33rd Street . The post office stopped 24 @-@ hour service on May 9 , 2009 , due to decreasing mail traffic .
Both the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York and United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit are located in lower Manhattan 's Foley Square , and the U.S. Attorney and other federal offices and agencies maintain locations in that area .
= = = Crime and public safety = = =
Starting in the mid @-@ 19th century , the United States became a magnet for immigrants seeking to escape poverty in their home countries . After arriving in New York , many new arrivals ended up living in squalor in the slums of the Five Points neighborhood , an area between Broadway and the Bowery , northeast of New York City Hall . By the 1820s , the area was home to many gambling dens and brothels , and was known as a dangerous place to go . In 1842 , Charles Dickens visited the area and was appalled at the horrendous living conditions he had seen . The area was so notorious that it even caught the attention of Abraham Lincoln , who visited the area before his Cooper Union speech in 1860 . The predominantly Irish Five Points Gang was one of the country 's first major organized crime entities .
As Italian immigration grew in the early 20th century many joined ethnic gangs , including Al Capone , who got his start in crime with the Five Points Gang . The Mafia ( also known as Cosa Nostra ) first developed in the mid @-@ 19th century in Sicily and spread to the East Coast of the United States during the late 19th century following waves of Sicilian and Southern Italian emigration . Lucky Luciano established Cosa Nostra in Manhattan , forming alliances with other criminal enterprises , including the Jewish mob , led by Meyer Lansky , the leading Jewish gangster of that period . From 1920 – 1933 , Prohibition helped create a thriving black market in liquor , upon which the Mafia was quick to capitalize .
As in the whole of New York City , Manhattan experienced a sharp increase in crime during the 1960s and 1970s . Since 1990 , crime in Manhattan has plummeted in all categories tracked by the CompStat profile . A borough that saw 503 murders in 1990 has seen a drop of nearly 88 % to 62 in 2008 . Robbery and burglary are down by more than 80 % during the period , and auto theft has been reduced by more than 93 % . In the seven major crime categories tracked by the system , overall crime has declined by more than 75 % since 1990 , and year @-@ to @-@ date statistics through May 2009 show continuing declines . Based on 2005 data , New York City has the lowest crime rate among the ten largest cities in the United States .
= = Housing = =
During Manhattan 's early history , wood construction and poor access to water supplies left the city vulnerable to fires . In 1776 , shortly after the Continental Army evacuated Manhattan and left it to the British , a massive fire broke out destroying one @-@ third of the city and some 500 houses .
The rise of immigration near the turn of the 20th century left major portions of Manhattan , especially the Lower East Side , densely packed with recent arrivals , crammed into unhealthy and unsanitary housing . Tenements were usually five @-@ stories high , constructed on the then @-@ typical 25x100 lots , with " cockroach landlords " exploiting the new immigrants . By 1929 , stricter fire codes and the increased use of elevators in residential buildings , were the impetus behind a new housing code that effectively ended the tenement as a form of new construction , though many tenement buildings survive today on the East Side of the borough .
Manhattan offers a wide array of public and private housing options . There were 852 @,@ 575 housing units in 2013 at an average density of 37 @,@ 345 per square mile ( 14 @,@ 419 / km ² ) . As of 2003 , only 20 @.@ 3 % of Manhattan residents lived in owner @-@ occupied housing , the second @-@ lowest rate of all counties in the nation , behind the Bronx . Although the city of New York has the highest average cost for rent in the United States , it simultaneously hosts a higher average of income per capita . Because of this , rent is a lower percentage of annual income than in several other American cities .
As of 2012 , Manhattan 's real estate market for luxury housing was among the most expensive in the world .
= = Infrastructure = =
= = = Transportation = = =
= = = = Public transportation = = = =
Manhattan is unique in the U.S. for intense use of public transportation and lack of private car ownership . While 88 % of Americans nationwide drive to their jobs , with only 5 % using public transport , mass transit is the dominant form of travel for residents of Manhattan , with 72 % of borough residents using public transport to get to work , while only 18 % drove . According to the 2000 United States Census , 77 @.@ 5 % of Manhattan households do not own a car .
In 2008 , Mayor Bloomberg proposed a congestion pricing system to regulate entering Manhattan south of 60th Street . The state legislature rejected the proposal in June 2008 .
The New York City Subway , the largest subway system in the world by number of stations , is the primary means of travel within the city , linking every borough except Staten Island . There are 148 subway stations in Manhattan and four under construction , out of the 469 stations . A second subway , the Port Authority Trans @-@ Hudson ( PATH ) system , connects six stations in Manhattan to northern New Jersey . Passengers pay fares with pay @-@ per @-@ ride MetroCards , which are valid on all city buses and subways , as well as on PATH trains . There are 7 @-@ day and 30 @-@ day MetroCards that allow unlimited trips on all subways ( except PATH ) and MTA bus routes ( except for express buses ) . The PATH QuickCard is being phased out , having been replaced by the SmartLink . The MTA is testing " smart card " payment systems to replace the MetroCard . Commuter rail services operating to and from Manhattan are the Long Island Rail Road ( which connects Manhattan and other New York City boroughs to Long Island ) , the Metro @-@ North Railroad ( which connects Manhattan to Upstate New York and Southwestern Connecticut ) and NJ Transit trains to various points in New Jersey . Multibillion @-@ dollar heavy @-@ rail transit projects under construction in Manhattan include the Second Avenue Subway , the East Side Access project , and the World Trade Center Transportation Hub . Two multi @-@ billion @-@ dollar projects were completed in the mid @-@ 2010s , with the $ 1 @.@ 4 billion Fulton Center having been completed in November 2014 and the $ 2 @.@ 4 billion 7 Subway Extension having been completed in September 2015 .
MTA New York City Transit offers a wide variety of local buses within Manhattan under the brand New York City Bus . An extensive network of express bus routes serves commuters and other travelers heading into Manhattan . The bus system served 784 million passengers citywide in 2011 , placing the bus system 's ridership as the highest in the nation , and more than double the ridership of the second @-@ place Los Angeles system .
The Roosevelt Island Tramway , one of two commuter cable car systems in North America , whisks commuters between Roosevelt Island and Manhattan in less than five minutes , and has been serving the island since 1978 . ( The other system in North America is the Portland Aerial Tram . ) The Staten Island Ferry , which runs 24 hours a day , 365 days a year , annually carries over 21 million passengers on the 5 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 8 @.@ 4 km ) run between Manhattan and Staten Island . Each weekday , five vessels transport about 65 @,@ 000 passengers on 109 boat trips . The ferry has been fare @-@ free since 1997 , when the then @-@ 50 @-@ cent fare was eliminated .
The metro region 's commuter rail lines converge at Penn Station and Grand Central Terminal , on the west and east sides of Midtown Manhattan , respectively . They are the two busiest rail stations in the United States . About one @-@ third of users of mass transit and two @-@ thirds of railway passengers in the country live in New York and its suburbs . Amtrak provides inter @-@ city passenger rail service from Penn Station to Boston , Philadelphia , Baltimore , and Washington , D.C. ; Upstate New York and New England ; cross @-@ Canadian border service to Toronto and Montreal ; and destinations in the Southern and Midwestern United States .
= = = = Taxis = = = =
New York 's iconic yellow taxicabs , which number 13 @,@ 087 city @-@ wide and must have the requisite medallion authorizing the pick up of street hails , are ubiquitous in the borough . Various private transportation network companies compete in Manhattan with each other and with the city 's taxicabs .
= = = = Bikes = = = =
Manhattan also has tens of thousands of bicycle commuters .
= = = = Streets and roads = = = =
The Commissioners ' Plan of 1811 called for twelve numbered avenues running north and south roughly parallel to the shore of the Hudson River , each 100 feet ( 30 m ) wide , with First Avenue on the east side and Twelfth Avenue on the west side . There are several intermittent avenues east of First Avenue , including four additional lettered avenues running from Avenue A eastward to Avenue D in an area now known as Alphabet City in Manhattan 's East Village . The numbered streets in Manhattan run east @-@ west , and are generally 60 feet ( 18 m ) wide , with about 200 feet ( 61 m ) between each pair of streets . With each combined street and block adding up to about 260 feet ( 79 m ) , there are almost exactly 20 blocks per mile . The typical block in Manhattan is 250 by 600 feet ( 76 by 183 m ) .
According to the original Commissioner 's Plan , there were 155 numbered crosstown streets , but later the grid was extended up to the northernmost corner of Manhattan , where the last numbered street is 220th Street ( Manhattan ) . Moreover , the numbering system continues even in The Bronx , north of Manhattan , despite the fact that the grid plan is not so regular there , and the last numbered street is 263rd Street . Fifteen crosstown streets were designated as 100 feet ( 30 m ) wide , including 34th , 42nd , 57th and 125th Streets , which became some of the borough 's most significant transportation and shopping venues . Broadway is the most notable of many exceptions to the grid , starting at Bowling Green in Lower Manhattan and continuing north into the Bronx at Manhattan 's northern tip . In much of Midtown Manhattan , Broadway runs at a diagonal to the grid , creating major named intersections at Union Square ( Park Avenue South / Fourth Avenue and 14th Street ) , Madison Square ( Fifth Avenue and 23rd Street ) , Herald Square ( Sixth Avenue and 34th Street ) , Times Square ( Seventh Avenue and 42nd Street ) , and Columbus Circle ( Eighth Avenue / Central Park West and 59th Street ) .
" Crosstown traffic " refers primarily to vehicular traffic between Manhattan 's East Side and Manhattan 's West Side . The trip is notoriously frustrating for drivers because of heavy congestion on narrow local streets laid out by the Commissioners ' Plan of 1811 , absence of express roads other than the Trans @-@ Manhattan Expressway at the far north end of Manhattan Island , and only 4 crosstown roads for travel through Central Park , which is between 59th Street and 110th Street . Proposals in the mid @-@ 1900s to build express roads through the city 's densest neighborhoods , namely the Mid @-@ Manhattan Expressway and Lower Manhattan Expressway , did not go forward . The congestion makes Manhattan 's crosstown buses the perennial " winners " of the " Pokey Awards " for slowest service in New York City .
Another consequence of the strict grid plan of most of Manhattan , and the grid 's skew of approximately 28 @.@ 9 degrees , is a phenomenon sometimes referred to as Manhattanhenge ( by analogy with Stonehenge ) . On separate occasions in late May and early July , the sunset is aligned with the street grid lines , with the result that the sun is visible at or near the western horizon from street level . A similar phenomenon occurs with the sunrise in January and December .
The FDR Drive and Harlem River Drive , both designed by controversial New York master planner Robert Moses , comprise a single , long limited @-@ access parkway skirting the east side of Manhattan along the East River and Harlem River south of Dyckman Street . The Henry Hudson Parkway is the corresponding parkway on the West Side north of 57th Street .
= = = = River crossings = = = =
Being primarily an island , Manhattan is linked to New York City 's outer boroughs by numerous bridges , of various sizes . Manhattan has fixed highway connections with New Jersey to its west by way of the George Washington Bridge , the Holland Tunnel , and the Lincoln Tunnel , and to three of the four other New York City boroughs — the Bronx to the northeast , and Brooklyn and Queens ( both on Long Island ) to the east and south . Its only direct connection with the fifth New York City borough , Staten Island , is the Staten Island Ferry across New York Harbor , which is free of charge . The ferry terminal is located near Battery Park at Manhattan 's southern tip . It is also possible to travel on land to Staten Island by way of Brooklyn , via the Verrazano @-@ Narrows Bridge .
The George Washington Bridge , the world 's busiest motor vehicle bridge , connects Washington Heights , in Upper Manhattan , to Bergen County , in New Jersey . There are numerous bridges to the Bronx across the Harlem River , and five of those ( listed north to south ) — the Triborough ( known officially as the Robert F. Kennedy Bridge ) , Ed Koch Queensboro ( also known as the 59th Street Bridge ) , Williamsburg , Manhattan , and Brooklyn Bridges — connect Manhattan to Long Island .
Several tunnels also link Manhattan Island to New York City 's outer boroughs and New Jersey . The Lincoln Tunnel , which carries 120 @,@ 000 vehicles a day under the Hudson River between New Jersey and Midtown Manhattan , is the busiest vehicular tunnel in the world . The tunnel was built instead of a bridge to allow unfettered passage of large passenger and cargo ships that sail through New York Harbor and up the Hudson River to Manhattan 's piers . The Holland Tunnel , connecting Lower Manhattan to Jersey City , New Jersey , was the world 's first mechanically ventilated vehicular tunnel . The Queens @-@ Midtown Tunnel , built to relieve congestion on the bridges connecting Manhattan with Queens and Brooklyn , was the largest non @-@ federal project in its time when it was completed in 1940 ; President Franklin D. Roosevelt was the first person to drive through it . The Brooklyn – Battery Tunnel runs underneath Battery Park and connects the Financial District at the southern tip of Manhattan to Red Hook in Brooklyn .
= = = = Heliports = = = =
Manhattan has three public heliports : the East 34th Street Heliport ( also known as the Atlantic Metroport ) at East 34th Street , owned by New York City and run by the New York City Economic Development Corporation ( " NYCEDC " ) ) ; the Port Authority Downtown Manhattan / Wall Street Heliport , owned by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey and run by the NYCEDC ; and the West 30th Street Heliport , a privately owned heliport that is owned by the Hudson River Park Trust . US Helicopter offered regularly scheduled helicopter service connecting the Downtown Manhattan Heliport with John F. Kennedy International Airport in Queens and Newark Liberty International Airport in New Jersey , before going out of business in 2009 .
= = = Utilities = = =
Gas and electric service is provided by Consolidated Edison to all of Manhattan . Con Edison 's electric business traces its roots back to Thomas Edison 's Edison Electric Illuminating Company , the first investor @-@ owned electric utility . The company started service on September 4 , 1882 , using one generator to provide 110 volts direct current ( DC ) to 59 customers with 800 light bulbs , in a one @-@ square @-@ mile area of Lower Manhattan from his Pearl Street Station . Con Edison operates the world 's largest district steam system , which consists of 105 miles ( 169 km ) of steam pipes , providing steam for heating , hot water , and air conditioning by some 1 @,@ 800 Manhattan customers . Cable service is provided by Time Warner Cable and telephone service is provided by Verizon Communications , although AT & T is available as well .
Manhattan , surrounded by two brackish rivers , had a limited supply of fresh water . To satisfy the growing population , the city of New York acquired land in Westchester County and constructed the old Croton Aqueduct system , which went into service in 1842 and was superseded by the new Croton Aqueduct , which opened in 1890 , but this was interrupted in 2008 for the construction since underway of a US $ 3 @.@ 2 billion water purification plant that can supply an estimated 290 million gallons daily when completed , representing almost a 20 % addition to the city 's availability of water , with this addition going to Manhattan and the Bronx . Water comes to Manhattan through New York City Water Tunnel No. 1 , Tunnel No. 2 , and Tunnel No. 3 , completed in 1917 , 1936 , and ( Manhattan 's supply ) 2013 , respectively .
Manhattan witnessed the doubling of the natural gas supply delivered to the borough when a new gas pipeline opened on November 1 , 2013 .
The New York City Department of Sanitation is responsible for garbage removal . The bulk of the city 's trash ultimately is disposed at mega @-@ dumps in Pennsylvania , Virginia , South Carolina and Ohio ( via transfer stations in New Jersey , Brooklyn and Queens ) since the 2001 closure of the Fresh Kills Landfill on Staten Island . A small amount of trash processed at transfer sites in New Jersey is sometimes incinerated at waste @-@ to @-@ energy facilities . Like New York City , New Jersey and much of Greater New York relies on exporting its trash to far @-@ flung areas .
New York City has the largest clean @-@ air diesel @-@ hybrid and compressed natural gas bus fleet , which also operates in Manhattan , in the country . It also has some of the first hybrid taxis , most of which operate in Manhattan .
= = = Address algorithm = = =
The address algorithm of Manhattan is commonly used to find an address on a major street in Manhattan . It is commonly found in telephone directories , New York City guide books , and MTA Manhattan bus maps .
= Institutions of the European Union =
The institutions of the European Union are the seven principal decision making bodies of the European Union . They are , as listed in Article 13 of the Treaty on European Union : the European Parliament , the European Council , the Council of the European Union , the European Commission , the Court of Justice of the European Union , the European Central Bank and the Court of Auditors . Institutions are different from agencies of the European Union .
= = History = =
Most EU institutions were created with the establishment of the European Community in 1958 . Much change since then has been in the context the shifting of the power balance away from the Council and towards the Parliament . The role of the Commission has often been to mediate between the two or tip the balance . However the Commission is becoming more accountable to the Parliament : in 1999 it forced the resignation of the Santer Commission and forced a reshuffle of the proposed Barroso Commission in 2004 . The development of the institutions , with incremental changes from treaties and agreements , is testament to the evolution of the Union 's structures without one clear " master plan " . Some such as Tom Reid of the Washington Post said of the institutions that " nobody would have deliberately designed a government as complex and as redundant as the EU " .
= = = Under the Treaty of Paris = = =
The first institutions were created at the start of the 1950s with the creation of the ECSC , based on the Schuman declaration , between six states . The ECSC was designed to bring the markets of coal and steel , the materials needed to wage war , under the control of a supranational authority with the aim of encouraging peace and economic development . It established the first institutions . At its core was an independent executive called the " High Authority " with supranational powers over the Community . The laws made by the Authority would be observed by a Court of Justice in order to ensure they were upheld and to arbitrate .
During the negotiations , two supervisory institutions were put forward to counterbalance the power of the High Authority . The " Common Assembly " proposed by Jean Monnet to act as a monitor , counterweight and to add democratic legitimacy was composed of 78 national parliamentarians . The second was the Council of Ministers , pushed by the smaller states also to add an intergovernmental element and harmonise national polices with those of the authority .
= = = Establishment and changes = = =
In 1957 the Treaties of Rome established two , similar , communities creating a common market ( European Economic Community ) and promoting atomic energy co @-@ operation ( Euratom ) . The three institutions shared the Court of Justice and the Parliament , however they had a separate Council and High Authority , which was called the Commission in these Communities . The reason for this is the different relationship between the Commission and Council . At the time the French government was suspicious of the supranationalism and wanted to limit the powers of the High Authority in the new Communities , giving the Council a greater role in checking the executive .
The three communities were later merged in 1967 , by the Merger Treaty , into the European Communities . The institutions were carried over from the European Economic Community ( making the Commission of that community the direct ancestor of the current Commission ) . Under the Treaties of Rome , the Common Assembly ( which renamed itself the Parliamentary Assembly , and then the European Parliament ) was supposed to become elected . However this was delayed by the Council until 1979 . Since then it gained more powers via successive treaties . The Maastricht Treaty also gave further powers to the Council by giving it a key role in the two new pillars of the EU which were based on intergovernmental principles .
The 2009 Lisbon Treaty brought nearly all policy areas ( including the budget ) under the codecision procedure ( renamed " ordinary legislative procedure " ) , hence increasing the power of the Parliament . The rules for the distribution of seats in the parliament were also changed to a formula system . The High Representative merged with the European Commissioner for External Relations and joined the Commission . The appointment of the Commission President became dependent upon the last EU elections . The Council of Ministers adopted more qualified majority voting and the European Council was made a distinct institution with a permanent president . The Court of Justice had some minor renaming and adjustments . In addition , the central bank became a full institution .
= = Overview = =
= = List = =
There are three political institutions which hold the executive and legislative power of the Union . The Council of the European Union represents governments , the Parliament represents citizens and the Commission represents the European interest . Essentially , the Council of the European Union , Parliament or another party place a request for legislation to the Commission . The Commission then drafts this and presents it to the Parliament and the Council of the European Union , where in most cases both must give their assent . Although the exact nature of this depends upon the legislative procedure in use , once it is approved and signed by both bodies it becomes law . The Commission 's duty is to ensure it is implemented by dealing with the day @-@ to @-@ day running of the Union and taking others to Court if they fail to comply . According to the 2014 edition of The Official Directory of the European Union , women account for 33 % of higher @-@ ranking officials .
= = = European Parliament = = =
The European Parliament ( EP ) shares the legislative and budgetary authority of the Union with the Council of the European Union ( not to be confused with the European Council ) . Its 751 members are elected every five years by universal suffrage and sit according to political allegiance . They represent nearly 500 million citizens ( the world 's second largest democratic electorate ) and form the only directly elected body in the Union . Despite forming one of the two legislative chambers of the Union , it has weaker powers than the Council in some sensitive areas , and does not have legislative initiative . It does , however , have powers over the Commission which the Council does not . It has been said that its democratic nature and growing powers have made it one of the most powerful legislatures in the world .
The Parliament 's President ( its speaker ) is Martin Schulz ( S & D / PES ) , who was elected from the Parliament 's members in 2012 .
= = = European Council = = =
The European Council is the group of heads of state or government of the EU member states . It meets four times a year to define the Union 's policy agenda and give impetus to integration . The President of the European Council is the person responsible for chairing and driving forward the work of the institution , which has been described as the highest political body of the European Union .
The current president is Donald Tusk .
= = = Council = = =
The Council of the European Union ( informally known as the Council of Ministers or just the Council ) is a body holding legislative and some limited executive powers and is thus the main decision making body of the Union . Its Presidency rotates between the states every six months , but every three Presidencies now cooperate on a common programme . This body is separate from the European Council , which is a similar body , but is composed of national leaders .
The Council is composed of twenty @-@ eight national ministers ( one per state ) . However the Council meets in various forms depending upon the topic . For example , if agriculture is being discussed , the Council will be composed of each national minister for agriculture . They represent their governments and are accountable to their national political systems . Votes are taken either by majority or unanimity with votes allocated according to population . In these various forms they share the legislative and budgetary power of the Parliament , and also lead the Common Foreign and Security Policy .
The presidency has been held by Slovenia since July 1st , 2016 .
= = = Commission = = =
The European Commission ( EC ) is the executive arm of the Union . It is a body composed of one appointee from each state , currently twenty @-@ eight , but is designed to be independent of national interests . The body is responsible for drafting all law of the European Union and has a near monopoly on proposing new laws ( bills ) . It also deals with the day @-@ to @-@ day running of the Union and has the duty of upholding the law and treaties ( in this role it is known as the " Guardian of the Treaties " ) .
The Commission is led by a President who is nominated by the Council ( in practice the European Council ) and approved by Parliament . The remaining 27 Commissioners are nominated by member @-@ states , in consultation with the President , and have their portfolios assigned by the President . The Council then adopts this list of nominee @-@ Commissioners . The Council ’ s adoption of the Commission is not an area which requires the decision to be unanimous , their acceptance is arrived at according to the rules for qualified majority voting . The European Parliament then interviews and casts its vote upon the Commissioners . The interviews of individual nominees are conducted separately , in contrast to Parliament ’ s vote of approval which must be cast on the Commission as a whole without the ability to accept or reject individual Commissioners . Once approval has been obtained from the Parliament the Commissioners can take office . The current President is Jean @-@ Claude Juncker ( EPP ) ; his commission was elected in 2014 .
= = = Court of Justice of the European Union = = =
The Court of Justice of the European Union ( CJEU ) is the EU 's judicial branch . It is responsible for interpreting EU law and treaties . It comprises the main chamber : Court of Justice , the General Court and the Civil Service Tribunal .
The CJEU is located in Luxembourg .
= = = European Central Bank = = =
The European Central Bank ( ECB ) is the central bank for the eurozone ( the states which have adopted the euro ) and thus controls monetary policy in that area with an agenda to maintain price stability .
It is at the centre of the European System of Central Banks which comprises all EU national banks . The bank is governed by a board of national bank governors and a President .
The ECB is located in Frankfurt .
The current president is Mario Draghi .
= = = Court of Auditors = = =
The European Court of Auditors , despite its name , has no judicial powers . It ensures that taxpayer funds from the budget of the European Union have been correctly spent . The court provides an audit report for each financial year to the Council and Parliament . The Parliament uses this to decide whether to approve the Commission 's handling of the budget . The Court also gives opinions and proposals on financial legislation and anti @-@ fraud actions .
The Court of Auditors was set up in 1975 . It was created as an independent institution due to the sensitivity of the issue of fraud in the Union ( the anti @-@ fraud agency , OLAF , is also built on its independence ) . It is composed of one member from each state appointed by the Council every six years . Every three years one of them is elected as the president of the court , who is currently Vítor Manuel da Silva Caldeira .
= = Acts and procedures = =
There are a number of types of legislation which can be passed . The strongest is a regulation , an act or law which is directly applicable in its entirety . Then there are directives which bind members to certain goals which they must achieve . They do this through their own laws and hence have room to manoeuvre in deciding upon them . A decision is an instrument which is focused at a particular person / group and is directly applicable . Institutions may also issue recommendations and opinions which are merely non @-@ binding declarations .
The ordinary legislative procedure is used in nearly all policy areas and provides an equal footing between the two bodies . Under the procedure , the Commission presents a proposal to Parliament and the Council . They then send amendments to the Council which can either adopt the text with those amendments or send back a " common position " . That proposal may either be approved or further amendments may be tabled by the Parliament . If the Council does not approve those , then a " Conciliation Committee " is formed . The Committee is composed of the Council members plus an equal number of MEPs who seek to agree a common position . Once a position is agreed , it has to be approved by Parliament again by an absolute majority . There are other special procedures used in sensitive areas which reduce the power of Parliament .
= = Comparisons = =
While the EU 's system of governance is largely unique , elements can be compared to other models . One general observation on the nature of the distribution of powers would be that the EU resembles the federalism of Germany . There , powers are predominantly shared ( states can exercise federal powers where the federation has not already exercised them ) between the levels of government , and the states participate strongly with decision making at the federal level . This is in contrast with other federations , for example the United States , where powers are clearly divided between the levels of government , and the states have little say in federal decision making .
The EU 's institutional set up is also somewhat similar to the government of Switzerland ( which , although in Europe , is not an EU member state ) . The Swiss consensus @-@ driven system is seen as successfully uniting a state divided by language and religion , although the EU was not directly modelled on the Swiss system despite bearing a number of similarities . The European Commission has similarities to the Swiss Federal Council in that both have all @-@ party representation and are appointed on the basis of nationality rather than popularity . The President of the Federal Council rotates between its members each year , in a fashion similar to that of the EU 's Council Presidency . Due to this system of presidency Swiss leaders , like those of the EU , are relatively unknown with national politics viewed as somewhat technocratic resulting in low voter turnout , in a similar fashion to that of the European Parliament . Other parallels include the jealously guarded powers of states , the considerable level of translation and the choice of a lesser city as the capital .
Furthermore , executive power in the EU isn 't concentrated in a single institution . It becomes clearer under the Lisbon Treaty with the division of the European Council as a distinct institution with a fixed President . This arrangement has been compared to the dual executive system found in the French republic where there is a President ( the Council President ) and Prime Minister ( the Commission President ) . However , unlike the French model , the Council President does not hold formal powers such as the ability to directly appoint and sack the other , or the ability to dissolve Parliament . Hence while the Council President may have prestige , it would lack power and while the Commission President would have power , it would lack the prestige of the former .
The nature of the European Parliament is better compared with the United States House of Representatives than with the national parliaments of the European Union . This is notable in terms of the committees being of greater size and power , political parties being very decentralised and it being separated from the executive branch ( most national governments operate under a parliamentary system ) . A difference from all other parliaments is the absence of a Parliamentary legislative initiative . However , given that in most national parliaments initiatives not backed by the executive rarely succeed the value of this difference is in question . Equally , its independence and power means that the European Parliament has an unusually high success rate for its amendments in comparison to national parliaments ; 80 % average and 30 % for controversial proposals .
The composition of the council can only be compared with the quite unique and unusual composition of the German upper house , the Bundesrat . Membership of the Bundesrat is limited to members of the governments of the states of Germany and can be recalled by those governments in the same manner as the EU 's Council . They retain their state role while sitting in the Bundesrat and if their term ends when they are recalled by their state governments ( who are solely responsible for their appointment ) or they cease to sit in their state government . Hence they also are not elected at the same time and the body as a whole cannot be dissolved like most parliaments . As government representatives , members do not vote as individual members but in state blocks , rather than political alignment , to their state governments ' agreed line . Each state has unequal voting powers based on population , with an absolute majority required for decisions . Likewise , the presidency rotates equally between members , though each year rather than every six months like in the EU Council . However , unlike the EU 's Council , the Bundesrat does not vary its composition depending on the topic being discussed . They both bear similar criticisms , because of the interference , of executives in the legislative process .
= = Locations = =
The institutions are not concentrated in a single capital city : instead , their headquarters are spread across four cities , Brussels , Luxembourg , Strasbourg and Frankfurt . The current arrangement was approved in 1992 and attached to the Treaty of Amsterdam . The treaty states that the Commission and Council would be based in Brussels , the Courts in Luxembourg and the Parliament in Strasbourg . However some departments of the Commission and meetings of the Council take place in Luxembourg , while the Parliament has its committees and some sessions in Brussels and its secretariat in Luxembourg . Of the new institutions , the Central Bank is based in Frankfurt while the European Council is based in Brussels ( but has some extraordinary meetings elsewhere ) .
Brussels ' hosting of institutions has made it a major centre for the EU . Together with NATO it has attracted more journalists and ambassadors than Washington D.C. However the three @-@ city agreement has been criticised , notably concerning the Parliament due to the large number of people that move between the cities . The European Green Party estimated that the arrangement costs 200 million euro and 20 @,@ 268 tonnes of carbon dioxide . Brussels is preferred by some due to the presence of other institutions and other groups whereas Strasbourg is supported due to its historical importance to European unity .
= People v. Aguilar =
People v. Aguilar , 2 N.E.3d 321 ( Ill . 2013 ) , was an Illinois Supreme Court case in which the Court held that the Aggravated Unlawful Use of a Weapon ( AUUF ) statute violated the right to keep and bear arms as guaranteed by the Second Amendment . The Court stated that this was because the statute amounted to a wholesale statutory ban on the exercise of a personal right that was specifically named in and guaranteed by the United States Constitution , as construed by the United States Supreme Court . A conviction for Unlawful Possession of a Firearm ( UPF ) was proper because the possession of handguns by minors was conduct that fell outside the scope of the Second Amendment 's protection .
In 2008 , Alberto Aguilar , then 17 , was arrested and charged with AUUF and UPF . After being convicted and sentenced to probation by the trial court , he appealed , arguing that both statutes were unconstitutional infringements of his Second Amendment rights . The Illinois Court of Appeals affirmed his conviction , and he appealed that ruling to the Illinois Supreme Court . While Aguilar 's appeal was pending , the Federal Seventh Circuit Court of Appeals had ruled that the AUUF statute was unconstitutional .
When the matter was decided by the Illinois Supreme Court , they agreed with the Seventh Circuit and declared the AUUF law unconstitutional , but upheld the constitutionality of the UPF law .
= = Background = =
= = = Legal background = = =
Illinois was the last state in the nation to allow concealed carry of a handgun . Prior to 2013 , Illinois prohibited the carry of a firearm in a loaded condition , other than at one 's own property . If the firearm was loaded and not in a locked case , or if it was otherwise available for immediate use , it was a felony offense called Aggravated Unlawful Use of a Weapon ( AUUF ) . Illinois courts had uniformly upheld the constitutionally of the statute prior to 2008 . The state also had a law called Unlawful Possession of a Firearm ( UPF ) , which prohibited anyone under the age of 18 from possessing a firearm . Additionally , the City of Chicago had enacted strict gun control laws prohibiting the possession of any handgun that had not been registered prior to 1982 , when the law took effect .
On June 26 , 2008 , exactly two weeks after Aguilar 's arrest , the U.S. Supreme Court decided District of Columbia v. Heller . In Heller , the Court ruled that a law of the District of Columbia which had the effect of banning handguns in the city violated the Second Amendment and was unconstitutional . The Court said that the fundamental right protected by the Second Amendment was the right to self @-@ defense ; however since the District of Columbia was a federal jurisdiction , it was not clear that this applied to the individual states .
= = = Factual background = = =
On June 12 , 2008 , Chicago Police Officer Thomas Harris was in a surveillance position in the Little Village neighborhood of Chicago and observed a group of male teenagers creating a disturbance and throwing bottles at cars . Harris observed one of the teenagers , later identified as Alberto Aguilar , holding the right side of his waist , and Harris notified other officers . The other officers made contact with the teens and Officer John Dolan saw Aguilar drop a gun onto the ground . Aguilar , then 17 , was arrested . The officers noted that the handgun had three rounds loaded in it and that the serial number was filed off .
= = = Lower courts = = =
= = = = Circuit Court = = = =
Aguilar was tried for AUUF and UPF at the Circuit Court for Cook County . The officers testified that Aguilar had the gun and had dropped it , while Aguilar claimed that he never had a gun , but was waiting for his mother to pick him up when officers came running into the back yard and tackled him . Aguilar 's testimony was corroborated by Romero Diaz , who stated that Aguilar did not have a gun . Judge Charles P. Burns determined that the officers were more credible and found Aguilar guilty on both counts , sentencing him to 24 months probation on the AUUF charge ; he did not pass sentence on the UPF charge .
= = = = Illinois Court of Appeals = = = =
Aguilar then appealed his conviction , arguing that the AUUF statute violated the Second Amendment and was unconstitutional . The Court of Appeals , evaluating Heller , found that Heller only protected the right to possess a handgun in the home . The court also evaluated McDonald and found that while it applied the Second Amendment to the states , it also only applied to handguns possessed in the home . The court , using an intermediate scrutiny test , determined that the Illinois statute was substantially related to an important governmental objective to protect the public from gun violence . The court affirmed the conviction .
= = = Other relevant events = = =
= = = = McDonald v. City of Chicago = = = =
In 2008 , shortly after the Heller decision , three lawsuits were filed in Illinois , challenging the constitutionally of handgun bans in Chicago and Oak Park . All three cases were consolidated and heard in the United States District Court for the Northern District of Illinois , and were dismissed based on earlier U.S. Supreme Court rulings that the Second Amendment did not apply to the states . The cases were appealed to the Seventh Circuit , which affirmed based on the same reasoning . The U.S. Supreme Court reversed that decision , holding that the Second Amendment was applicable to the states through the Fourteenth Amendment , and clarified that " self @-@ defense was ' the central component of the right itself . ' "
= = = = Moore v. Madigan = = = =
In 2011 , two federal lawsuits were filed in the Southern District of Illinois and the Central District of Illinois . In both cases , the plaintiffs claimed that AUUF statute violated the Second Amendment in that it did not allow any method for a citizen to bear arms outside the home . Mary Shepard argued that the statutes were facially unconstitutional , while Michael Moore argued that the statutes were unconstitutional as applied . In both cases , the judges granted the state 's motion to dismiss for failure to state a claim , holding that the Second Amendment only protected the right to possess arms in the home . Both Moore and Shepard appealed their cases to the Seventh Circuit , where the cases were consolidated .
The Seventh Circuit found that Illinois law did violate the Constitution in that there was no method for a person to carry a weapon for self @-@ defense outside of the home . The court stated that the district courts had read Heller and McDonald too narrowly — that the right protected was self @-@ defense , and there was as great if not greater need outside the home . The court rejected the state 's argument that strict gun regulation lowered crime , noting that the evidence did not support that . The decisions of the district courts were reversed and the cases remanded to those courts with instructions to declare the Illinois law unconstitutional , issuing a permanent injunction against the law 's enforcement . The court then stayed the order for 180 days to give the Illinois legislature an opportunity to amend the law to make it constitutional .
= = = = Legislative actions = = = =
In January 2013 the Illinois Legislature began to look at enacting legislation to address the Moore decision . Lt. Governor Sheila Simon formed a working group of thirteen Democrats and two Republicans to look into the issue . During hearings on the matter , debate centered on concealed carry permits , with gun rights groups preferring shall @-@ issue permits while gun control groups favored may @-@ issue permits . On May 31 , 2013 , the state house passed a shall @-@ issue bill by a vote of 89 – 28 , after state senate passed it by a vote of 45 – 12 . Both had veto @-@ proof margins . On July 9 , 2013 , the Illinois legislature overrode Governor Pat Quinn 's veto , and concealed carry was authorized for the state once the Illinois State Police issued permits .
= = Supreme Court of Illinois = =
= = = Arguments = = =
On appeal , Aguilar again argued that the AUUF statute was unconstitutional on its face . Aguilar also made the argument that the UPF statute was unconstitutional , since at the time the Second Amendment was adopted , 16- and 17 @-@ year @-@ olds could lawfully bear arms .
The state argued that Aguilar lacked standing to contest the constitutionality of the statute . The state claimed that since Aguilar denied having committing the act that the statute prohibited , he could not contest the constitutionality of it .
= = = Opinion of the court = = =
Justice Robert R. Thomas delivered the opinion of a unanimous court . Thomas first disposed of the standing argument by the state , noting that Aguilar was not challenging the statute as applied , but was arguing that the statute was facially unconstitutional since it did not provide for any person to legally bear arms . Since anyone could challenge the constitutionality of a statute when they were charged with violating it , even without admitting the underlying conduct , the state 's argument was without merit .
Thomas then evaluated the constitutionality of the AUUF statute , noting that the Heller court had " concluded that the second amendment ' guarantee [ s ] the individual right to possess and carry weapons in case of confrontation . . . . ' " He noted that McDonald reiterated that self @-@ defense was at the core of the right . He analyzed what other courts in Illinois had done , noting that they had all focused on the ruling in Heller that the right existed in the home , and that they had held the AUUF statute constitutional since it affected conduct outside of the home . Thomas then compared this to the ruling by the Seventh Circuit in Moore and concluded that their ruling was correct , that the AUUF statute did in fact infringe on the rights guaranteed by the Second Amendment . Since the statute was unconstitutional , Aguilar 's conviction must be reversed .
Thomas rejected the argument on the unconstitutionality of the UPF statute , noting that all courts that had addressed this issue had found that persons under 21 could be barred from possessing firearms . The conviction for UPF was affirmed , and the case was remanded .
= = Subsequent developments = =
Following the decision , Cook County prosecutors stated that they would drop charges against some of the pending cases for AUUF , but that only those with valid Illinois Firearms Owner Identification cards would have the charges dropped . By September 16 , 2013 , the first case had been dismissed in Cook County . A number of law enforcement agences , such as the Springfield Police and the Sangamon Sheriff 's Office , made a plea to the public to not immediately begin to carry concealed handguns . Some prosecutors have already announced that they do not intend to prosecute these cases .
= Optical properties of carbon nanotubes =
Within materials science , the optical properties of carbon nanotubes refer specifically to the absorption , photoluminescence ( fluorescence ) , and Raman spectroscopy of carbon nanotubes . Spectroscopic methods offer the possibility of quick and non @-@ destructive characterization of relatively large amounts of carbon nanotubes . There is a strong demand for such characterization from the industrial point of view : numerous parameters of the nanotube synthesis can be changed , intentionally or unintentionally , to alter the nanotube quality . As shown below , optical absorption , photoluminescence and Raman spectroscopies allow quick and reliable characterization of this " nanotube quality " in terms of non @-@ tubular carbon content , structure ( chirality ) of the produced nanotubes , and structural defects . Those features determine nearly any other properties such as optical , mechanical , and electrical properties .
Carbon nanotubes are unique " one @-@ dimensional systems " which can be envisioned as rolled single sheets of graphite ( or more precisely graphene ) . This rolling can be done at different angles and curvatures resulting in different nanotube properties . The diameter typically varies in the range 0 @.@ 4 – 40 nm ( i.e. " only " ~ 100 times ) , but the length can vary ~ 10 @,@ 000 times , reaching 55 @.@ 5 cm . The nanotube aspect ratio , or the length @-@ to @-@ diameter ratio , can be as high as 132 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 : 1 , which is unequalled by any other material . Consequently , all the properties of the carbon nanotubes relative to those of typical semiconductors are extremely anisotropic ( directionally dependent ) and tunable .
Whereas mechanical , electrical and electrochemical ( supercapacitor ) properties of the carbon nanotubes are well established and have immediate applications , the practical use of optical properties is yet unclear . The aforementioned tunability of properties is potentially useful in optics and photonics . In particular , light @-@ emitting diodes ( LEDs ) and photo @-@ detectors based on a single nanotube have been produced in the lab . Their unique feature is not the efficiency , which is yet relatively low , but the narrow selectivity in the wavelength of emission and detection of light and the possibility of its fine tuning through the nanotube structure . In addition , bolometer and optoelectronic memory devices have been realised on ensembles of single @-@ walled carbon nanotubes .
= = Terminology = =
This article uses the following abbreviations :
Carbon nanotube ( CNT )
Single wall carbon nanotube ( SWCNT )
Multiwall carbon nanotube ( MWCNT )
However , C is often omitted in scientific literature , so NT , SWNT and MWNT are more commonly used . Also , " wall " is often exchanged with " walled " .
= = Electronic structure of carbon nanotube = =
A single @-@ wall carbon nanotube can be imagined as graphene sheet rolled at a certain " chiral " angle with respect to a plane perpendicular to the tube 's long axis . Consequently , SWCNT can be defined by its diameter and chiral angle . The chiral angle can range from 0 to 30 degrees .
However , more conveniently , a pair of indices ( n , m ) is used instead . The indices refer to equally long unit vectors at 60 ° angles to each other across a single 6 @-@ member carbon ring . Taking the origin as carbon number 1 , the a1 unit vector may be considered the line drawn from carbon 1 to carbon 3 , and the a2 unit vector is then the line drawn from carbon 1 to carbon 5 . ( See the upper right corner of the diagram at right . ) To visualize a CNT with indices ( n , m ) , draw n a1 unit vectors across the graphene sheet , then draw m a2 unit vectors at a 60 ° angle to the a1 vectors , then add the vectors together . The line representing the sum of the vectors will define the circumference of the CNT along the plane perpendicular to its long axis , connecting one end to the other . In the diagram at right , Ch is a ( 4 , 2 ) vector : the sum of 4 unit vectors from the origin directly to the right , then 2 unit vectors at a 60 ° angle down and to the right .
Tubes having n
= m ( chiral angle =
30 ° ) are called " armchair " and those with m
= 0 ( chiral angle =
0 ° ) " zigzag " . Those indices uniquely determine whether CNT is a metal , semimetal or semiconductor , as well as its band gap : when | m – n |
= 3k ( k is integer ) , the tube is metallic ; but if | m – n | =
3k ± 1 , the tube is semiconducting . The nanotube diameter d is related to m and n as
<formula>
In this equation , a = 0 @.@ 246 nm is the magnitude of either unit vector a1 or a2 .
The situation in multi @-@ wall CNTs is complicated as their properties are determined by contribution of all individual shells ; those shells have different structures , and , because of the synthesis , are usually more defective than SWCNTs . Therefore , optical properties of MWCNTs will not be considered here .
= = Van Hove singularities = =
Optical properties of carbon nanotubes derive from electronic transitions within one @-@ dimensional density of states ( DOS ) . A typical feature of one @-@ dimensional crystals is that their DOS is not a continuous function of energy , but it descends gradually and then increases in a discontinuous spike . In contrast , three @-@ dimensional materials have continuous DOS . The sharp peaks found in one @-@ dimensional materials are called Van Hove singularities .
Van Hove singularities result in the following remarkable optical properties of carbon nanotubes :
Optical transitions occur between the v1 − c1 , v2 − c2 , etc . , states of semiconducting or metallic nanotubes and are traditionally labeled as S11 , S22 , M11 , etc . , or , if the " conductivity " of the tube is unknown or unimportant , as E11 , E22 , etc . Crossover transitions c1 − v2 , c2 − v1 , etc . , are dipole @-@ forbidden and thus are extremely weak , but they were possibly observed using cross @-@ polarized optical geometry .
The energies between the Van Hove singularities depend on the nanotube structure . Thus by varying this structure , one can tune the optoelectronic properties of carbon nanotube . Such fine tuning has been experimentally demonstrated using UV illumination of polymer @-@ dispersed CNTs .
Optical transitions are rather sharp ( ~ 10 meV ) and strong . Consequently , it is relatively easy to selectively excite nanotubes having certain ( n , m ) indices , as well as to detect optical signals from individual nanotubes .
= = Kataura plot = =
The band structure of carbon nanotubes having certain ( n , m ) indexes can be easily calculated . A theoretical graph based on this calculations was designed in 1999 by Hiromichi Kataura to rationalize experimental findings . A Kataura plot relates the nanotube diameter and its bandgap energies for all nanotubes in a diameter range . The oscillating shape of every branch of the Kataura plot reflects the intrinsic strong dependence of the SWCNT properties on the ( n , m ) index rather than on its diameter . For example , ( 10 , 1 ) and ( 8 , 3 ) tubes have almost the same diameter , but very different properties : the former is a metal , but the latter is a semiconductor .
= = Optical absorption = =
Optical absorption in carbon nanotubes differs from absorption in conventional 3D materials by presence of sharp peaks ( 1D nanotubes ) instead of an absorption threshold followed by an absorption increase ( most 3D solids ) . Absorption in nanotubes originates from electronic transitions from the v2 to c2 ( energy E22 ) or v1 to c1 ( E11 ) levels , etc . The transitions are relatively sharp and can be used to identify nanotube types . Note that the sharpness deteriorates with increasing energy , and that many nanotubes have very similar E22 or E11 energies , and thus significant overlap occurs in absorption spectra . This overlap is avoided in photoluminescence mapping measurements ( see below ) , which instead of a combination of overlapped transitions identifies individual ( E22 , E11 ) pairs .
Interactions between nanotubes , such as bundling , broaden optical lines . While bundling strongly affects photoluminescence , it has much weaker effect on optical absorption and Raman scattering . Consequently , sample preparation for the latter two techniques is relatively simple .
Optical absorption is routinely used to quantify quality of the carbon nanotube powders .
The spectrum is analyzed in terms of intensities of nanotube @-@ related peaks , background and pi @-@ carbon peak ; the latter two mostly originate from non @-@ nanotube carbon in contaminated samples . However , it has been recently shown that by aggregating nearly single chirality semiconducting nanotubes into closely packed Van der Waals bundles the absorption background can be attributed to free carrier transition originating from intertube charge transfer .
= = = Carbon nanotubes as a black body = = =
An ideal black body should have emissivity or absorbance of 1 @.@ 0 , which is difficult to attain in practice , especially in a wide spectral range . Vertically aligned " forests " of single @-@ wall carbon nanotubes can have absorbances of 0 @.@ 98 – 0 @.@ 99 from the far @-@ ultraviolet ( 200 nm ) to far @-@ infrared ( 200 μm ) wavelengths .
These SWNT forests ( buckypaper ) were grown by the super @-@ growth CVD method to about 10 μm height . Two factors could contribute to strong light absorption by these structures : ( i ) a distribution of CNT chiralities resulted in various bandgaps for individual CNTs . Thus a compound material was formed with broadband absorption . ( ii ) Light might be trapped in those forests due to multiple reflections .
= = Luminescence = =
= = = Photoluminescence ( Fluorescence ) = = =
Semiconducting single @-@ walled carbon nanotubes emit near @-@ infrared light upon photoexcitation , described interchangeably as fluorescence or photoluminescence ( PL ) . The excitation of PL usually occurs as follows : an electron in a nanotube absorbs excitation light via S22 transition , creating an electron @-@ hole pair ( exciton ) . Both electron and hole rapidly relax ( via phonon @-@ assisted processes ) from c2 to c1 and from v2 to v1 states , respectively . Then they recombine through a c1 − v1 transition resulting in light emission .
No excitonic luminescence can be produced in metallic tubes . Their electrons can be excited , thus resulting in optical absorption , but the holes are immediately filled by other electrons out of the many available in the metal . Therefore , no excitons are produced .
= = = Salient properties = = =
Photoluminescence from SWCNT , as well as optical absorption and Raman scattering , is linearly polarized along the tube axis . This allows monitoring of the SWCNTs orientation without direct microscopic observation .
PL is quick : relaxation typically occurs within 100 picoseconds .
PL efficiency was first found to be low ( ~ 0 @.@ 01 % ) , but later studies measured much higher quantum yields . By improving the structural quality and isolation of nanotubes , emission efficiency increased . A quantum yield of 1 % was reported in nanotubes sorted by diameter and length through gradient centrifugation , and it was further increased to 20 % by optimizing the procedure of isolating individual nanotubes in solution .
The spectral range of PL is rather wide . Emission wavelength can vary between 0 @.@ 8 and 2 @.@ 1 micrometers depending on the nanotube structure .
Excitons are apparently delocalized over several nanotubes in single chirality bundles as the photoluminescence spectrum displays a splitting consistent with intertube exciton tunneling .
Interaction between nanotubes or between a nanotube and another material may quench or increase PL . No PL is observed in multi @-@ walled carbon nanotubes . PL from double @-@ wall carbon nanotubes strongly depends on the preparation method : CVD grown DWCNTs show emission both from inner and outer shells . However , DWCNTs produced by encapsulating fullerenes into SWCNTs and annealing show PL only from the outer shells . Isolated SWCNTs lying on the substrate show extremely weak PL which has been detected in few studies only . Detachment of the tubes from the substrate drastically increases PL .
Position of the ( S22 , S11 ) PL peaks depends slightly ( within 2 % ) on the nanotube environment ( air , dispersant , etc . ) . However , the shift depends on the ( n , m ) index , and thus the whole PL map not only shifts , but also warps upon changing the CNT medium .
= = = Applications = = =
Photoluminescence is used for characterization purposes to measure the quantities of semiconducting nanotube species in a sample . Nanotubes are isolated ( dispersed ) using an appropriate chemical agent ( " dispersant " ) to reduce the intertube quenching . Then PL is measured , scanning both the excitation and emission energies and thereby producing a PL map . The ovals in the map define ( S22 , S11 ) pairs , which unique identify ( n , m ) index of a tube . The data of Weisman and Bachilo are conventionally used for the identification .
Nanotube fluorescence has been investigated for the purposes of imaging and sensing in biomedical applications .
= = = Sensitization = = =
Optical properties , including the PL efficiency , can be modified by encapsulating organic dyes ( carotene , lycopene , etc . ) inside the tubes . Efficient energy transfer occurs between the encapsulated dye and nanotube — light is efficiently absorbed by the dye and without significant loss is transferred to the SWCNT . Thus potentially , optical properties of a carbon nanotube can be controlled by encapsulating certain molecule inside it . Besides , encapsulation allows isolation and characterization of organic molecules which are unstable under ambient conditions . For example , Raman spectra are extremely difficult to measure from dyes because of their strong PL ( efficiency close to 100 % ) . However , encapsulation of dye molecules inside SWCNTs completely quenches dye PL , thus allowing measurement and analysis of their Raman spectra .
= = = Cathodoluminescence = = =
Cathodoluminescence ( CL ) — light emission excited by electron beam — is a process commonly observed in TV screens . An electron beam can be finely focused and scanned across the studied material . This technique is widely used to study defects in semiconductors and nanostructures with nanometer @-@ scale spatial resolution . It would be beneficial to apply this technique to carbon nanotubes . However , no reliable CL , i.e. sharp peaks assignable to certain ( n , m ) indices , has been detected from carbon nanotubes yet .
= = = Electroluminescence = = =
If appropriate electrical contacts are attached to a nanotube , electron @-@ hole pairs ( excitons ) can be generated by injecting electrons and holes from the contacts . Subsequent exciton recombination results in electroluminescence ( EL ) . Electroluminescent devices have been produced from single nanotubes and their macroscopic assemblies . Recombination appears to proceed via triplet @-@ triplet annihilation giving distinct peaks corresponding to E11 and E22 transitions .
= = Raman scattering = =
Raman spectroscopy has good spatial resolution ( ~ 0 @.@ 5 micrometers ) and sensitivity ( single nanotubes ) ; it requires only minimal sample preparation and is rather informative . Consequently , Raman spectroscopy is probably the most popular technique of carbon nanotube characterization . Raman scattering in SWCNTs is resonant , i.e. , only those tubes are probed which have one of the bandgaps equal to the exciting laser energy . Several scattering modes dominate the SWCNT spectrum , as discussed below .
Similar to photoluminescence mapping , the energy of the excitation light can be scanned in Raman measurements , thus producing Raman maps . Those maps also contain oval @-@ shaped features uniquely identifying ( n , m ) indices . Contrary to PL , Raman mapping detects not only semiconducting but also metallic tubes , and it is less sensitive to nanotube bundling than PL . However , requirement of a tunable laser and a dedicated spectrometer is a strong technical impediment .
= = = Radial breathing mode = = =
Radial breathing mode ( RBM ) corresponds to radial expansion @-@ contraction of the nanotube . Therefore , its frequency νRBM ( in cm − 1 ) depends on the nanotube diameter d as , νRBM = A / d + B ( where A and B are constants dependent on the environment in which the nanotube is present . For example , B = 0 for individual nanotubes . ) ( in nanometers ) and can be estimated as νRBM
= 234 / d + 10 for SWNT or νRBM =
248 / d for DWNT , which is very useful in deducing the CNT diameter from the RBM position . Typical RBM range is 100 – 350 cm − 1 . If RBM intensity is particularly strong , its weak second overtone can be observed at double frequency .
= = = Bundling mode = = =
The bundling mode is a special form of RBM supposedly originating from collective vibration in a bundle of SWCNTs .
= = = G mode = = =
Another very important mode is the G mode ( G from graphite ) . This mode corresponds to planar vibrations of carbon atoms and is present in most graphite @-@ like materials . G band in SWCNT is shifted to lower frequencies relative to graphite ( 1580 cm − 1 ) and is split into several peaks . The splitting pattern and intensity depend on the tube structure and excitation energy ; they can be used , though with much lower accuracy compared to RBM mode , to estimate the tube diameter and whether the tube is metallic or semiconducting .
= = = D mode = = =
D mode is present in all graphite @-@ like carbons and originates from structural defects . Therefore , the ratio of the G / D modes is conventionally used to quantify the structural quality of carbon nanotubes . High @-@ quality nanotubes have this ratio significantly higher than 100 . At a lower functionalisation of the nanotube , the G / D ratio remains almost unchanged . This ratio gives an idea of the functionalisation of a nanotube .
= = = G ' mode = = =
The name of this mode is misleading : it is given because in graphite , this mode is usually the second strongest after the G mode . However , it is actually the second overtone of the defect @-@ induced D mode ( and thus should logically be named D ' ) . Its intensity is stronger than that of the D mode due to different selection rules . In particular , D mode is forbidden in the ideal nanotube and requires a structural defect , providing a phonon of certain angular momentum , to be induced . In contrast , G ' mode involves a " self @-@ annihilating " pair of phonons and thus does not require defects . The spectral position of G ' mode depends on diameter , so it can be used roughly to estimate the SWCNT diameter . In particular , G ' mode is a doublet in double @-@ wall carbon nanotubes , but the doublet is often unresolved due to line broadening .
Other overtones , such as a combination of RBM + G mode at ~ 1750 cm − 1 , are frequently seen in CNT Raman spectra . However , they are less important and are not considered here .
= = = Anti @-@ Stokes scattering = = =
All the above Raman modes can be observed both as Stokes and anti @-@ Stokes scattering . As mentioned above , Raman scattering from CNTs is resonant in nature , i.e. only tubes whose band gap energy is similar to the laser energy are excited . The difference between those two energies , and thus the band gap of individual tubes , can be estimated from the intensity ratio of the Stokes / anti @-@ Stokes lines . This estimate however relies on the temperature factor ( Boltzmann factor ) , which is often miscalculated – a focused laser beam is used in the measurement , which can locally heat the nanotubes without changing the overall temperature of the studied sample .
= = Rayleigh scattering = =
Carbon nanotubes have very large aspect ratio , i.e. , their length is much larger than their diameter . Consequently , as expected from the classical electromagnetic theory , elastic light scattering ( or Rayleigh scattering ) by straight CNTs has anisotropic angular dependence , and from its spectrum , the band gaps of individual nanotubes can be deduced .
Another manifestation of Rayleigh scattering is the " antenna effect " , an array of nanotubes standing on a substrate has specific angular and spectral distributions of reflected light , and both those distributions depend on the nanotube length .
= St Dona 's Church , Llanddona =
St Dona 's Church , Llanddona is a small 19th @-@ century parish church in the village of Llanddona , in Anglesey , north Wales . The first church on this site was built in 610 . The present building on the site dates from 1873 , and was designed by the rector at the time . It reuses earlier material including a decorated 15th @-@ century doorway and a 17th @-@ century bell .
The church is still used for worship by the Church in Wales , and is one of seven churches in a combined parish . It is a Grade II listed building , a national designation given to " buildings of special interest , which warrant every effort being made to preserve them " , in particular because it is regarded as " a simple late 19th @-@ century essay in Gothic revival " .
= = History and location = =
St Dona 's Church is on a steep hill near the coast on the eastern side of Anglesey , about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) from the village of Llanddona itself . The village takes its name from its parish church : the Welsh word llan originally meant " enclosure " and then " church " , and " – ddona " is a modified form of the saint 's name . St Dona 's is surrounded by a churchyard , entered through a lychgate dated 1906 which bears a memorial to Henry Stanley , 3rd Baron Stanley of Alderley , " Patron and Benefactor of this church " .
According to the 19th @-@ century Anglesey historian Angharad Llwyd , a church was built here in 610 , dedicated to St Dona , who lived on the sea shore nearby . The presence of a church here was recorded in the Norwich Taxation of 1254 . Repairs were carried out in the 1840s : one 19th @-@ century writer , Samuel Lewis , recorded that the internal state of St Dona 's was " wretched in the extreme " until the rural dean at the time put it " into a state of creditable repair " . In 1873 , the rector ( Peter Jones ) had the church entirely rebuilt to his own design .
St Dona 's is still in use for worship and belongs to the Church in Wales . It is one of seven churches in the combined benefice of Beaumaris with Llanddona and Llaniestyn . It is within the deanery of Tindaethwy and Menai , the archdeaconry of Bangor and the Diocese of Bangor . As of 2012 , the rector is the Reverend Neil Fairlamb .
= = Architecture and fittings = =
St Dona 's is built of rubble masonry , dressed with freestone . The roof is made from slate , and has a bellcote made from stone at the west end . There is a stone cross finial at the east end of the roof . The church is entered through a porch on the south side which leads to a doorway dating from the 15th century . The rounded doorway is decorated with figures of a bird , a dog and a human face on the left , and a cherub on the right . Inside , the nave is separated from the chancel by a step , and the sanctuary is itself raised one step above the chancel . The roof timbers can be seen from inside . The window at the east end has three lights ( vertical sections separated by mullions ) topped with ogee curves , and is set within a pointed arch with an external hoodmould . It contains stained glass added in 1963 , depicting Christ with sea in the background ( centre ) , St Curig ( left ) and St Dona ( right ) ; above them are images of a lion , dove , lamb and eagle . A stone bearing the date 1566 has been set upside down into the wall above the east window . The other windows are plain and smaller , with one or two lights . The glass in the other windows has been described as " unusual opaque leaded glass " .
The fittings are from the late 19th century , although the octagonal font ( made of gritstone ) is of uncertain date , possibly 14th century . The bell is dated 1647 . A survey in 1937 by the Royal Commission on Ancient and Historical Monuments in Wales and Monmouthshire recorded the presence of an 18th @-@ century communion table , an Elizabethan cover @-@ paten dated 1574 , and a silver cup dated 1769 – 1772 .
= = Churchyard = =
The churchyard contains two Commonwealth war graves , of a Royal Welsh Fusiliers soldier of World War I and a RNVR officer of World War II .
= = Assessment = =
St Dona 's has national recognition and statutory protection from alteration as it has been designated as a Grade II listed building – the lowest of the three grades of listing , designating " buildings of special interest , which warrant every effort being made to preserve them " . It was given this status on 30 January 1968 , and has been listed because it is " a simple late 19th @-@ century essay in Gothic revival " . Cadw ( the Welsh Government body responsible for the built heritage of Wales and the inclusion of Welsh buildings on the statutory lists ) also notes that " its simple character " is " appropriate to its scale and site " . A 2009 guide to the buildings of the region described St Dona 's as " drably rebuilt " .
= Gerald Ratner Athletics Center =
The Gerald Ratner Athletics Center is a $ 51 million athletics facility within the University of Chicago campus in the Hyde Park community area on the South Side of Chicago , Illinois in the United States . The building was named after University of Chicago alumnus , Gerald Ratner . The architect of this suspension structure that is supported by masts , cables and counterweights was César Pelli , who is best known as the architect of the Petronas Towers .
The Ratner Athletics Center was approved for use in September 2003 . The facility includes , among other things : a competition gymnasium , a multilevel fitness facility , an Olympic @-@ sized swimming pool , a multipurpose dance studio , meeting room space , and athletic department offices . It serves as home to several of the university 's athletic teams and has hosted numerous National Collegiate Athletic Association Division III regional and University Athletic Association conference championship events .
Located at the southwest corner of Ellis Avenue and 55th Street , the Ratner Center has an award @-@ winning design that substitutes a complex external mast and counterweight system for interior support devices to allow for large open @-@ space areas inside the building . Cesar Pelli & Associates Inc. was credited as the design architect and OWP / P was the architect of record .
= = History = =
A ceremonial groundbreaking was held for the Ratner Center on October 28 , 2000 . The Ratner Center opened to the public on September 29 , 2003 , although it was not officially dedicated until homecoming weekend on October 11 . The building , which represented a collaboration between Cesar Pelli & Associates and Chicago 's OWP / P , was the first new athletic facility on the University of Chicago campus in 68 years . It was a part of a $ 500 million University @-@ wide capital improvement plan that occurred between 1999 and 2005 . Part of the plan included the Pelli @-@ designed parking structure across the street from the Athletics Center . The parking structure is named the Gerald Ratner | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
arnation " album , titled Never More , was released in Japan on October 26 , 2011 , featuring full length cuts of the game 's vocal tracks and extended mixes of some of the instrumental tracks . Never More made it to the top of both the Oricon Weekly Album Charts and Billboard 's Japan Top Albums chart for the week of its release , selling nearly 27 @,@ 000 copies .
= = Remake and spinoffs = =
= = = Persona 4 Golden = = =
Persona 4 Golden , released in Japan as Persona 4 : The Golden ( ペルソナ4 ザ ・ ゴールデン , Perusona Fō Za Gōruden ) , was announced in August 2011 as an enhanced remake of Persona 4 for the portable PlayStation Vita . It was originally planned by Atlus to be a PlayStation Portable title , similar to Persona 3 Portable , which would have required removing some of the features of the PlayStation 2 game . However , the Vita provided sufficient resources that allowed Atlus to expand the game . It is an expanded version of the PlayStation 2 title , adding new features and story elements to the game . A new character named Marie was added to the story . Additional Personas , character outfits , and expanded spoken lines and anime cutscenes are included as well as two new Social Links for Marie and Tohru Adachi . The game supports the wireless networking features of the Vita , allowing a player to call in help from other players to help in dungeon battles . Another new feature is a garden that produces items the player can use in the various dungeons . The game was released in Japan on June 14 , 2012 . Persona 4 : The Golden is also the first Persona game to be released in traditional Chinese .
The release of Persona 4 : The Golden resulted in the surge of sales of PlayStation Vitas . During its debut week , the game sold 137 @,@ 076 units in Japan . Media Create stated that the game 's outstanding sales that surpassed the debuts of other titles from Persona series may be due to the exposure the Persona 4 game has had in other forms of media . As of mid @-@ July 2012 , the game had sold 193 @,@ 412 units in Japan . The game was the eighth most purchased digital Vita game on the Japanese PlayStation Network in 2013 . As of April 2014 , the game shipped 350 @,@ 000 copies in Japan , and over 700 @,@ 000 copies were shipped worldwide as of December 2013 .
A soundtrack was released in Japan on June 27 , 2012 , consisting of a single disc of 15 new tracks composed and arranged by Shoji Meguro and Atsushi Kitajoh .
In an interview with RPGamer at E3 2012 , Atlus USA revealed that in terms of bonus content in the special " TV Channel " feature , the US release will have 99 @.@ 9 % of the content the Japanese version has , with only one or two commercials missing . It was released for the PlayStation Vita on November 20 , 2012 . A special 10 @,@ 000 copies were also released on November 20 , 2012 , as the " Solid Gold Premium Edition " . NIS America released the game in Europe on February 22 , 2013 .
= = = Persona 4 Arena = = =
A fighting game sequel , Persona 4 Arena , known in Japan as Persona 4 : The Ultimate in Mayonaka Arena , was developed by Arc System Works , the company known for creating the Guilty Gear and BlazBlue series , and released in 2012 for arcades , PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 . As with the anime , the protagonist is named Yu Narukami . Aigis , Mitsuru , Elizabeth , and Akihiko from Persona 3 are also featured in the game . Set two months following the True Ending of the original game , the members of the Investigation Team are pulled back into the television and forced into a fighting tournament called the " P @-@ 1 Grand Prix " hosted by Teddie .
A sequel , Persona 4 Arena Ultimax , was released in Japanese arcades in November 2013 , and for PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 in late 2014 . Taking place a day after the events of Arena , the Investigation Team must defeat their Shadows in a new tournament , the " P @-@ 1 Climax " , in order to rescue the captive Shadow Operatives and stop the spread of a mysterious red fog engulfing Inaba . The game adds seven playable characters from Persona 3 and Persona 4 Golden , as well as a new playable antagonist , Sho Minazuki .
= = = Persona Q : Shadow of the Labyrinth = = =
Persona Q : Shadow of the Labyrinth is a dungeon @-@ crawler RPG developed for the Nintendo 3DS , which features characters from both Persona 3 and Persona 4 , as well as gameplay elements from the Etrian Odyssey series . Set midway through the events of Persona 4 , the Investigation Team is pulled into an alternate version of Yasogami High and must work with the members of SEES to find a means of escape . The game was released in Japan on June 5 , 2014 , North America on November 25 , 2014 and Europe on November 28 , 2014 .
= = = Persona 4 : Dancing All Night = = =
Persona 4 : Dancing All Night is a rhythm game developed by Atlus for the PlayStation Vita , featuring music from the Persona series . The game takes place half a year following the events of Persona 4 , as the Investigation Team look into a mysterious " Midnight Stage " , which is abducting girls from Rise 's idol group . The game was released in Japan on 25 June 2015 .
= = Other media = =
= = = Merchandise = = =
With the release of Persona 4 , Atlus has also produced a line of merchandise , including action figures , published materials , toys and clothes . Atlus collaborated with the Japanese publishing company Enterbrain to publish the game 's two strategy guides , an artbook detailing character and setting designs , as well a fan book called Persona Club P4 which included official artwork , fan art , as well as interviews with the design staff . Most items were only released in Japan , while other Japanese third @-@ party manufacturers also produced figurines and toys . The action figures include a 1 / 8 scale PVC figurine of Yukiko Amagi as well as Teddie and Rise Kujikawa , produced by Alter . Licensed Atlus merchandise sold by Cospa includes Persona 4 t @-@ shirts , tote bags , and the jacket and other accessories worn by the character Chie .
Udon recently announced that they will release an English edition of Enterbrain 's Persona 4 : Official Design Works artbook to be released May 8 , 2012 .
= = = Manga = = =
Persona 4 was also given a manga adaptation . It is written by Shūji Sogabe , the artist for Persona 3 's manga , and started serialization in ASCII Media Works ' Dengeki Black Maoh Volume 5 in September 2008 . The first tankōbon volume was released on September 26 , 2009 , and six volumes have been released as of February 27 , 2012 .
Shiichi Kukura also authored Persona 4 The Magician ( ペルソナ4 The Magician ) , a manga that focuses on Yosuke Hanamura 's life in Inaba before the game 's start . Its only volume was released on August 27 , 2012 . A manga adaptation of the light novel Persona × Detective Naoto , illustrated by Satoshi Shiki , began serialization in Dengeki Maoh magazine from November 27 , 2012 .
= = = Light novel = = =
Mamiya Natsuki wrote a light novel titled Persona × Detective Naoto ( ペルソナ × 探偵NAOTO , Perusona × Tantei Naoto ) that focuses on the character of Naoto Shirogane a year after the events of Persona 4 . She is hired to investigate the disappearance of a childhood friend in Yagakoro City where she is partnered with Sousei Kurogami , a mechanized detective . With illustrations by Shigenori Soejima and Shuji Sogabe , the light novel was released by Dengeki Bunko on June 8 , 2012 in Japan .
= = = Anime = = =
A 25 @-@ episode television anime adaptation of the game , produced by AIC A.S.T.A. and directed by Seiji Kishi , aired on MBS between October 6 , 2011 and March 29 , 2012 . An additional 26th episode , featuring the story 's true ending , was released in the 10th volume of Persona 4 on August 22 , 2013 . The series features most of the returning cast from the video game , whilst voice recordings for Igor were taken from the game as his actor , Isamu Tanonaka , died in January 2010 . Aniplex released the series on DVD and Blu @-@ ray Disc between November 23 , 2011 and August 22 , 2012 , with the first volume containing a director 's cut of the first episode and a bonus CD single . Sentai Filmworks licensed the series in North America , simulcasting it on Anime Network as it aired and releasing the series on DVD and Blu @-@ ray in two collective volumes on September 18 , 2012 and January 15 , 2013 respectively . Like the Japanese version , the English dub retains many of the original voice actors from the English version of the game , although the Blu @-@ ray Disc release omits the Japanese audio option . Kazé and Manga Entertainment released the series in the United Kingdom in three BD / DVD combi boxsets released between December 24 , 2012 and July 22 , 2013 . A film recap of the series , titled Persona 4 The Animation -The Factor of Hope- , was released in Japanese theaters on June 9 , 2012 , featuring a condensed version of the story and new scenes of animation . A second anime adaptation based on Persona 4 Golden , titled Persona 4 : The Golden Animation , is being produced by A @-@ 1 Pictures and began airing on MBS ' Animeism block in July 2014 .
= = = Stage production = = =
A live stage production titled VisuaLive : Persona 4 ( VISUALIVE 『 ペルソナ4 』 , VisuaLive : Perusona Fo ) took place from March 15 – 20 , 2012 . Actors starring in the stage production include Toru Baba as the audience @-@ named protagonist , Takahisa Maeyama as Yosuke Hanamura , Minami Tsukui as Chie Satonaka , Risa Yoshiki as Yukiko Amagi , Jyōji Saotome as Daisuke Nagase , Motohiro Ota as Kou Ichijo , and Masashi Taniguchi as Ryotaro Dojima , and Masami Ito as Tohru Adachi . Kappei Yamaguchi reprised his role as Teddie in voice . Following the announcement , Youichiro Omi was cast as Kanji Tatsumi on December 1 , 2011 . VisuaLive : Persona 4 chronicled the events of the game up until Kanji 's inclusion into the party . A second stage production , titled VisuaLive : Persona 4 : The Evolution ( VISUALIVE 『 ペルソナ4 The Evolution 』 , VisuaLive : Perusona Fo The Evolution ) , chronicled the second half of the events of the story and took place from October 3 – 9 , 2012 . Additions to the cast include Yuriya Suzuki as Rise Kujikawa , Juria Kawakami as Naoto Shirogane , Yasuhiro Roppongi as Tarou Namatame , Shotaro Mamiya as Izanami and Arisa Nakajima as Margaret . Yumi Sugimoto replaced Yoshiki as Yukiko Amagi .
= = Release and reception = =
Persona 4 was highly acclaimed by critics within and outside Japan , and remained on top of sales charts on its initial release . In Japan , the game sold 193 @,@ 000 copies within a week of its release , while in North America , Persona 4 was the highest @-@ selling PlayStation 2 game on Amazon.com for two consecutive weeks . A soundtrack disc was included in the North American and European releases of Persona 4 , containing a selection of tracks from the full soundtrack released in Japan . Amazon.com exclusively sold the Persona 4 " Social Link Expansion Pack " , which included an additional soundtrack disc , a t @-@ shirt , a 2009 calendar , and a plush doll of the character Teddie .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Persona 4 received critical acclaim from game critics upon release . Jeff Gerstmann of Giant Bomb described it as " one of the best times I 've had with video games , whether I was playing by myself or watching someone else play it . " Famitsu pointed out that while " there isn 't much new from the last game " , it favored the changes over the battle system , where the pacing " is quick so it doesn 't get to be a pain " , and the ability to control party members " makes play that much easier " . IGN on the other hand noted that " the pacing can be somewhat off " , and " some things feel repurposed or unaffected from previous games " , while praising the game as an " evolution of the RPG series , and an instant classic " . It also noted that the soundtrack can be " a bit repetitive " . RPGFan 's Ryan Mattich recommended Persona 4 as " one of the best RPG experiences of the year " , noting that " among the cookie @-@ cutter sequels and half @-@ hearted remakes " , the game is " a near flawless example of the perfect balance between ' falling back on what works ' and ' pushing the genre forward ' . " 1UP.com 's Andrew Fitch summarized Persona 4 as " some of this decade 's finest RPG epics " , although the reviewer criticized its " slight loading issues " and the time spent " waiting for the plot to advance " . GameTrailers gave the game a score of 9 @.@ 3 , stating it 's an exception to the rule of the Japanese role @-@ playing genre , and that it stands out of any other JRPG , including its predecessor , Persona 3 . Wired pointed out that while the graphics are not up to par with those of the Xbox 360 or PlayStation 3 , " the clever art style makes up for that " . It also praised the game 's soundtrack as " excellent , especially the battle music " .
The game 's setting garnered mixed reactions . IGN labeled Persona 4 as " a murder mystery set against the backdrop of familiar Persona 3 elements " , and while this element adds " an interesting twist " to the dungeon crawl and social simulation gameplay , it also causes the plot to " slow down or suffer " . Hyper 's Tim Henderson commended the game for " willfully embellish [ ing ] absurd urban legends and other ideas with such assured consistency that the resulting whole is unshakabl [ y ] coherent " . However , he criticized it for the narrative 's sluggish pace and for how he felt the game is " lacking in elaborate set @-@ pieces " . 1UP.com called Persona 4 a " stylish murder mystery " , the comparison given being a " small @-@ town Scooby @-@ Doo " adventure .
The game is also noted for its " significant portion of the story revolving around sexual themes " , as quoted from RPGFan 's Ryan Mattich . One of the playable characters given attention by reviewers is Kanji , who is considered to be one of the first characters in a mainstream video game to struggle with their sexual orientation , and Atlus has been commended for the inclusion of that character . Atlus USA has stated that they left Kanji 's sexual preferences ambiguous and up to the player ; however , there has been no word from developer Atlus Japan concerning the matter . According to Dr. Antonia Levi , author of Samurai from Outer Space : Understanding Japanese Animation , the questioning of Kanji 's sexuality in the script is a " comment on homosexuality in a greater Japanese social context " , in which " the notion of ' coming out ' is seen as undesirable ... as it necessarily involves adopting a confrontational stance against mainstream lifestyles and values " . Brenda Brathwaite , author of Sex in Video Games , thought it " would have been amazing if they would have made a concrete statement that [ Kanji ] is gay " , but was otherwise " thrilled " with the treatment of the character and the game 's representation of his " inner struggles and interactions with friends " .
= = = Awards = = =
Persona 4 was awarded the " PlayStation 2 Game Prize " in the Famitsu Awards 2008 , voted by readers of Famitsu . It was also recognized by the Computer Entertainment Supplier 's Association as one of the recipients for the " Games of the Year Award of Excellence " in the Japan Game Awards 2009 . The game was given the award for its " high quality of work " , " excellent story , automatically generated dungeons and impressive background music " . In 2013 , GamesRadar ranked it fifth " best videogame stories ever " , saying its " greatest strength comes from pacing " . In 2015 , GamesRadar named Persona 4 Golden the 53rd best game ever on its " The 100 best games ever " list . In that same year , USgamer placed the game fifth on its " The 15 Best Games Since 2000 " list .
= Devika Rani =
Devika Rani Chaudhuri , usually known as Devika Rani ( 30 March 1908 – 9 March 1994 ) , was an actress in Indian films who was active during the 1930s and 1940s . Widely acknowledged as the first lady of Indian cinema , Devika Rani had a successful film career that spanned 10 years .
Devika Rani 's early years were mostly spent in London where she studied architecture , and started her career as a textile engineer . In 1928 , she met Himanshu Rai , an Indian film @-@ producer , who persuaded her to join his production crew . She assisted in costumes design and art direction for Rai 's film A Throw of Dice ( 1929 ) . The two married in 1929 , and went to Germany where Devika Rani learned different aspects of film @-@ making in the UFA Studios in Berlin . Rai then cast her in the 1933 talkie Karma in which her performance received critical acclaim . Returning to India , the couple established their production studio Bombay Talkies in 1934 . They produced many women @-@ centric films throughout the decade , with Devika Rani portraying lead roles in most of them . Her on @-@ screen pairing with Ashok Kumar became popular in India .
Following Rai 's death in 1940 , Devika Rani took over the control of the studio and produced several films . At the peak of her career she retired from films , and in 1945 she married Russian painter Svetoslav Roerich , leading thereafter life of a recluse . Her persona and roles in films were often considered socially unconventional . Her awards include the Padmashri ( 1958 ) , Dadasaheb Phalke Award ( 1970 ) and the Soviet Land Nehru Award ( 1990 ) .
= = Family and background = =
Devika Rani was born into a Bengali family in Waltair near Visakhapatnam in present @-@ day Andhra Pradesh . Her father , Col. Manmatha Nath Chaudhuri , was the first Indian Surgeon @-@ General of Madras Presidency . Her paternal uncles were Ashutosh Chaudhuri , Chief Justice of Calcutta High Court , the prominent Kolkata @-@ based barrister Jogesh Chandra Chaudhuri and the Bengali writer Pramatha Chaudhuri .
Devika Rani was related through both her parents to the poet and Nobel Laureate Rabindranath Tagore.Devika 's mother , Leela Devi Chaudhuri , was the daughter of Indumati Devi Chattopadhyay , whose mother Saudamini Devi Gangopadhyay was the eldest sister of the Nobel laureate . In other words , Devika 's paternal and maternal grandmothers were first cousins to each other , being the daughters of two sisters of Rabindranath Tagore .
Devika Rani 's childhood was mostly spent in England ; at the age of nine she moved to the country where she was enrolled in a boarding school . After completing her schooling in the early 1920s , she got an admission from the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art ( RADA ) and the Royal Academy of Music in London to study acting and music . She followed that with a course in architecture , textile and decor design , and apprenticed under Elizabeth Arden . Upon completion , Devika Rani started her career as textile engineer .
= = Himanshu Rai = =
In 1928 Devika Rani first met her future husband , Himanshu Rai . Rai , an Indian barrister @-@ turned @-@ film maker , was in London preparing to shoot his forthcoming film A Throw of Dice . Rai was impressed with Devika 's " exceptional skills " and invited her to join the production team of the film , although not as an actress . She readily agreed , and traveled to India with Himanshu Rai for this assignment , assisting him in areas such as costume designing and art direction . The two also traveled to Germany for the post @-@ production work , where she had occasion to observe the film @-@ making techniques of the German film industry , specifically of G. W. Pabst and Fritz Lang . Inspired by their methods of film @-@ making , she enrolled for a film @-@ making course at Universum Film AG studio in Berlin . Devika Rani learnt various aspects of film @-@ making and additionally also took a special course in film acting .
In 1929 , shortly after the release of A Throw of Dice , Devika Rani and Himanshu Rai were married . Around this time , they both acted in a play together , for which they received many accolades in Switzerland and the Scandinavian countries . During this time she was also trained in the production unit of Max Reinhardt , an Austrian theatre director .
= = = Film debut = = =
Devika and Himanshu Rai returned to India , where Himanshu produced a film titled Karma ( 1933 ) . The film was his first talkie , and like his previous films , it was a joint production between people from India , Germany and the United Kingdom . Rai , who played the lead role , decided to cast Devika Rani as the female lead , thus marking her acting debut . Karma is credited as having been the first English language talkie made by an Indian . It was one of the earliest Indian films to feature a kissing scene . The kissing scene , involving Himanshu Rai and Devika Rani , lasted for about four minutes , and eighty years later , this stands as the record for duration of a kissing scene in Indian cinema as of 2014 . Devika Rani also sang a song in the film , a bi @-@ lingual song in English and Hindi . This song is said to be Bollywood 's first English song .
Made simultaneously in both English and Hindi , Karma premiered in London in May 1933 . Alongside a special screening for the Royal family at Windsor , the film was well received throughout Europe . Devika Rani 's performance was internationally acclaimed as she won " rave reviews " in the London media . A critic from The Daily Telegraph noted Devika Rani for her " beauty " and " charm " while also crediting her to be a " potential star of the first magnitude " . Following the release of the film , she was invited by the B.B.C. to enact a role in their first ever television broadcast in Britain in 1933 . She also inaugurated the company 's first short wave radio transmission to India . In spite of its success in England , Karma did not interest Indian audiences and turned out be a failure in India when it was released in Hindi as Nagin Ki Ragini in early 1934 . However , the film received good critical response and helped Devika Rani establish herself as a leading actress in Indian cinema . Indian independence activist and poet Sarojini Naidu called her a " lovely and gifted little lady " .
= = = Bombay Talkies = = =
After the critical success of Karma , the couple returned to India in 1934 . Although the Hindi version of the film , released in India in 1934 , flopped without a trace , Himanshu Rai had established the required networks in Europe , and was able to start a film studio named Bombay Talkies , partnering with Niranjan Pal , a Bengali playwright and screenwriter who he had met previously in London , and Franz Osten , who directed several of Rai 's films .
Upon inception , Bombay Talkies was one of the " best @-@ equipped " film studios in the country . The studio would serve as a launch pad for future actors including Ashok Kumar , Leela Chitnis , Dilip Kumar , Raj Kapoor , Madhubala and Mumtaz . The studio 's first film Jawani Ki Hawa ( 1935 ) , a crime thriller , starring Devika Rani and Najm @-@ ul @-@ Hassan , was shot fully on a train .
= = = Elopement = = =
Najm @-@ ul @-@ Hassan was also Devika 's co @-@ star in the studio 's next venture , Jeevan Naiya . The two co @-@ stars developed a romantic relationship , and during the shooting schedule of Jeevan Naiya , Devika , a married Hindu woman , eloped with Hassan , a married Muslim man . Himanshu was both enraged and distraught . Since the leading pair were absent , production was stalled . A significant portion of the movie had been shot and a large sum of money , which had been taken as credit from financers , had been spent . The studio therefore suffered severe financial losses and a loss of credit among bankers in the city while the runaway couple made merry .
Sashadhar Mukherjee , an assistant sound @-@ engineer at the studio , had a brotherly bond with Devika Rani because both of them were Bengalis and spoke that language with each other . He established contact with the runaway couple and managed to convince Devika Rani to return to her husband . In the India of that era , divorce was legally almost impossible and women who eloped were regarded as no better than whores and were shunned by their own families . In her heart of hearts , Devika Rani knew that she could not secure a divorce or marry Hassan under any circumstances . She negotiated with her husband through the auspices of Sashadhar Mukherjee , seeking the separation of her finances from those of her husband as a condition for her return . Henceforth , she would be paid separately for working in his films , but he would be required to single @-@ handedly pay the household expenses for the home in which both of them would live . Himanshu agreed to this , in order to save face in society and to prevent his studio from going bankrupt . Devika Rani returned to her marital home . However , things would never be the same between husband and wife again , and it is said that thenceforth , their relationship was largely confined to work and little or no intimacy transpired between them after this episode .
Despite the additional expense involved in re @-@ shooting many portions of the film , Himanshu Rai replaced Najm @-@ ul @-@ Hassan with Ashok Kumar , who was the brother of Sashadhar Mukherjee 's wife , as the hero of Jeevan Naiya . This marked the debut , improbable as it may seem , of Ashok Kumar 's five @-@ decade @-@ long career in Hindi films . Najm @-@ ul @-@ Hassan was dismissed from his job at Bombay Talkies ( this was the period in which actors and actresses were paid regular monthly salaries by one specific film studio and could not work in any other studio ) . His reputation as a dangerous cad established , he could not find work in any other studio . His career was ruined and he sank into obscurity .
= = = Golden era of Bombay Talkies = = =
Achhut Kanya ( 1936 ) , the studio 's next production was a tragedy drama that had Devika Rani and Ashok Kumar portraying the roles of an untouchable girl and a Brahmin boy who fall in love . The film is considered a " landmark " in Indian cinema as it challenged the caste system in the country . The casting of Devika Rani was considered a mismatch as her looks did not match the role of a poor untouchable girl by virtue of her " upper @-@ class upbringing " . However , her pairing with Ashok Kumar became popular and they went on to star in as many as ten films together with most of them being Bombay Talkies productions .
In the 1930s , Bombay Talkies produced several women @-@ centric films with Devika Rani playing the lead role in all of them . In majority of the films produced by the studio , she was paired opposite Ashok Kumar , who was " overshadowed " by her . Jeevan Prabhat , released in 1937 , saw a role @-@ reversal between Devika Rani and Ashok Kumar — she played a higher @-@ caste Brahmin woman who is mistaken by society of having an extra @-@ marital affair with an untouchable man . Her next release Izzat ( 1937 ) , based on Romeo and Juliet , was set in the medieval period and depicted two lovers belonging to enemy clans of a Maratha empire . Nirmala , released in the following year , dealt with the plight of a child @-@ less woman who is told by an astrologer to abandon her husband to ensure successful pregnancy . In Vachan , her second release of the year , she played a Rajput princess . Durga , her only release in 1939 , was a romantic drama that told the story of an orphaned girl and a village doctor , played by Ashok Kumar .
= = = Widowhood and studio decline = = =
Following the death of Rai in 1940 , there was a rift between two parties of the Bombay Talkies led by Mukherjee and Amiya Chakravarty . Devika Rani assumed principal responsibility and took over the studio along with Mukherjee . In 1941 , she produced and acted in Anjaan co @-@ starring Ashok Kumar . In the subsequent years , she produced two successful films under the studio — Basant and Kismet — both starring Ashok Kumar . Kismet ( 1943 ) contained anti @-@ British messages ( India was under British rule at that time ) and turned out to be a " record @-@ breaking " film . Devika Rani made her last film appearance in Hamari Baat ( 1943 ) , which had Raj Kapoor playing a small role . She handpicked newcomer Dilip Kumar for a role in Jwar Bhata ( 1944 ) , produced by her on behalf of the studio . An internal politics that arose in the studio led prominent personalities including Mukherjee and Ashok Kumar to part ways with her and set up a new studio called Filmistan . Due to lack of support and interest , Devika Rani decided to quit the film industry . In an interview to journalist Raju Bharatan , she mentioned that her idea of not willing to compromise on " artistic values " of film @-@ making as one of the major reasons for her quitting the industry .
= = Roerich and retirement = =
Following her retirement from films , Devika Rani married Russian painter Svetoslav Roerich , son of Russian artist Nicholas Roerich , in 1945 . After marriage , the couple moved to Manali , Himachal Pradesh where they got acquainted with the Nehru family . During her stay in Manali , Devika Rani made a few documentaries on wildlife . After staying in Manali for some years , they moved to Bangalore , Karnataka , and settled there managing an export company . The couple bought a 450 acres ( 1 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 m2 ) estate on the outskirts of the city and led a solitary life for the rest of their lives . She died of bronchitis on 9 March 1994 — a year after Roerich died — in Bangalore . At her funeral , Devika Rani was given full state honors . Following her death , the estate was on litigation for many years as the couple had no legal claimants ; Devika Rani remained childless throughout her life . In August 2011 , the Government of Karnataka acquired the estate after the Supreme Court of India passed the verdict in favour of them .
= = Persona and legacy = =
Devika Rani was called the first lady of Indian cinema . She is credited for being one of the earliest personalities who took the position of Indian cinema to global standards . Her films were mostly tragic romantic dramas that contained social themes . The roles played by her in films of Bombay Talkies usually involved in romantic relationship with men who were unusual for the social norms prevailing in the society at that time , mainly for their caste background or community identity . Devika Rani was highly influenced by the German cinema by virtue of her training at the UFA Studios ; Although she was influenced by German actress Marlene Dietrich , her acting style was compared to Greta Garbo , thus leading to Devika Rani being named the " Indian Garbo " . Devika Rani 's attire , both in films and sometimes in real life , were considered " risque " at that time . In his book Bless You Bollywood ! : A tribute to Hindi Cinema on completing 100 years , Tilak Rishi mentions that Devika Rani was known as the " Dragon Lady " for her " smoking , drinking , cursing and hot temper " .
In 1958 , the Government of India honoured Devika Rani with a Padma Shri , the country 's fourth highest civilian honour . She became the first ever recipient of the Dadasaheb Phalke Award , the country 's highest award for films , when it was instituted in 1969 . In 1990 , Soviet Russia honoured her with the " Soviet Land Nehru Award " . A postage stamp commemorating her was released by the Ministry of Communications and Information Technology in February 2011 .
= = Filmography = =
= Dark shyshark =
The dark shyshark or pretty Happy ( Haploblepharus pictus ) is a species of catshark , belonging to the family Scyliorhinidae , endemic to the temperate waters off southern Namibia and western South Africa . It is benthic in nature and inhabits shallow , inshore waters and favors rocky reefs and kelp forests . Growing to 60 cm ( 24 in ) long , this small , stocky shark has a wide , flattened head with a rounded snout and a large flap of skin extending from before the nostrils to the mouth . Its dorsal coloration is extremely variable and may feature black @-@ edged orange to blackish saddles and / or white spots on a light brown to nearly black background .
When threatened , the dark shyshark curls into a ring with its tail covering its eyes , hence the name " shyshark " . It preys mainly on small crustaceans , bony fishes , and molluscs . Reproduction is oviparous and proceeds throughout the year . Females lay two egg cases at a time , which hatch after 6 – 10 months . This harmless species is of little commercial significance due to its small size . It is frequently caught by recreational fishers and persecuted as a pest . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has listed the dark shyshark under Least Concern , as it is common and does not appear to be substantially threatened by fishing or habitat degradation .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
German physicians and biologists Johannes Peter Müller and Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle originally described the dark shyshark in their 1838 – 41 Systematische Beschreibung der Plagiostomen , based on five specimens caught off the Cape of Good Hope and deposited in the Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Historie in Leiden , The Netherlands . Because of the shark 's ornate coloration , they gave it the specific epithet pictum from the Latin for " painted " . Originally placed in the now @-@ obsolete genus Scyllium , subsequent authors moved this species to the genus Haploblepharus , coined by American zoologist Samuel Garman in 1913 .
The dark shyshark was often regarded to be the same as the puffadder shyshark ( H. edwardsii ) until 1975 , with the publication of A.J. Bass , Jeanette D 'Aubrey , and Nat Kistnasamy 's review of southern African sharks . It continues to be confused for the other three shyshark species because of its extremely variable coloration . The common name " pretty Happy " ( " Happy " refers to the genus name Haploblepharus ) was recently introduced to the public as an easily remembered alternative to the colloquial names " shyshark " and " doughnut " , which can apply to several species and have confounded research efforts . Brett Human 's 2006 phylogenetic analysis , based on three mitochondrial DNA genes , found that the dark shyshark and the brown shyshark ( H. fuscus ) are sister species , and that the two make up the more derived clade within the genus .
= = Description = =
Reaching no more than 60 cm ( 24 in ) long , the dark shyshark differs from other shysharks in that it is slender @-@ bodied when juvenile and stocky @-@ bodied when adult . Its head is short , wide , and flattened , with a bluntly rounded snout and very large nostrils . The anterior rims of the nostrils bear greatly enlarged lobes of skin , which are fused into a single flap that reaches the mouth ; the flap conceals the nasal excurrent openings and a pair of grooves that run between them and the mouth . The large , horizontally oval eyes are equipped with rudimentary nictitating membranes ( protective third eyelids ) , and have strong ridges beneath . The mouth is short but wide and bears furrows at the corners extending onto both jaws . There are 45 – 83 upper and 47 – 75 lower tooth rows ; each tooth has a long central cusp flanked by a pair of smaller cusplets . The five pairs of gill slits are located fairly high on the body .
The two dorsal fins are of nearly equal size and placed far back on the body , with the first originating over the latter third of the pelvic fin bases and the second over the latter half of the anal fin base . The pectoral and pelvic fins are broad and rounded ; the males have stout claspers . The pelvic and anal fins are about as large as the dorsal fins . The broad caudal fin comprises about a fifth of the total body length and has a strong notch near the tip of the upper lobe and an indistinct lower lobe . The skin is thick and covered by well @-@ calcified arrowhead @-@ shaped dermal denticles . The coloration of the dark shyshark is highly variable , and particular individuals can resemble any of the other shyshark species . The background color ranges from light brown to reddish to grayish to almost black above , transitioning abruptly to white or cream below , sometimes with dark blotches beneath the paired fins . There may be 6 – 8 orange , brown , or blackish variably shaped saddles along the back and tail , edged more or less obviously in black . There may also be white spots within or within and between the saddles .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The range of the dark shyshark is restricted to the coastal waters of southern Africa , from north of Lüderitz in southern Namibia to east of the Storms River mouth in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa . It is abundant , particularly west of Cape Agulhas . This species is a bottom @-@ dweller found close inshore , from the intertidal zone to a depth of 35 m ( 115 ft ) . It prefers rocky reefs and kelp forests , but also presumably traverses sandy flats in between patches of more suitable habitat . As this shark is not known to travel long distances , there is likely subpopulation differentiation across parts of its range .
= = Biology and ecology = =
The dark shyshark is a generalist predator whose main food sources are , in descending order of importance , small benthic crustaceans , bony fishes , and molluscs . Larger sharks consume proportionately more crustaceans . Polychaete worms and echinoderms are also taken on occasion , and algae may be swallowed incidentally . This species is preyed upon by the broadnose sevengill shark ( Notorynchus cepedianus ) , and potentially also other large fishes and marine mammals . When threatened , it adopts a characteristic defense posture in which it curls into a ring with its tail over its eyes ; this behavior likely makes the shark harder to swallow and is the origin of the common names " shyshark " and " doughnut " . In captivity , the whelks Burnupena papyracea and B. lagenaria have been documented piercing the egg cases of this species and extracting the yolk . A known parasite of the dark shyshark is the trypanosome Trypanosoma haploblephari , which infests the blood .
Like other members of its genus , the dark shyshark is oviparous ; adult females have a single functional ovary and two functional oviducts . There appears to be no distinct breeding season and reproduction occurs year @-@ round . Females produce mature eggs two at a time , one per oviduct . The eggs are enclosed in purse @-@ shaped capsules measuring 5 @.@ 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) long and 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) across ; each capsule is plain amber to dark brown in color and bears thin , coiled tendrils at the four corners . In one observation of an egg that hatched after 104 days , the developing embryo had external gill filaments until it was 50 days old , and completely absorbed its yolk sac shortly before hatching . Eggs in nature typically hatch in 6 – 10 months , with the newly hatched shark measuring 10 – 12 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 – 4 @.@ 7 in ) long . Both sexes grow at approximately the same rate , reaching sexual maturity at around 15 years of age . Mature males and females range from 40 – 57 cm ( 16 – 22 in ) and 36 – 60 cm ( 14 – 24 in ) long respectively . The maximum lifespan is 25 years .
= = Human interactions = =
The dark shyshark poses no danger to humans and is too small to be of commercial importance . Many are hooked by sport fishers casting from the shore , who regard the shark as a pest and often kill it . It may also be caught by subsistence fishers and in lobster traps and bottom trawls , though not in substantial quantities . This shark occasionally finds its way into the aquarium trade , though there is no direct fishing for this purpose . As the dark shyshark remains common and does not seem heavily threatened by human activity , it has been assessed as Least Concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) . Its small range does raise concerns that an increase in regional fishing pressure or habitat degradation could impact the entire population .
= Battle of Apamea =
The Battle of Apamea was fought on 19 July 998 between the forces of the Byzantine Empire and the Fatimid Caliphate . The battle was part of a series of military confrontations between the two powers over control of northern Syria and the Hamdanid emirate of Aleppo . The Byzantine regional commander , Damian Dalassenos , had been besieging Apamea , until the arrival of the Fatimid relief army from Damascus , under Jaysh ibn Samsama . In the subsequent battle , the Byzantines were initially victorious , but a lone Kurdish rider managed to kill Dalassenos , throwing the Byzantine army into panic . The fleeing Byzantines were then pursued , with much loss of life , by the Fatimid troops . This defeat forced the Byzantine emperor Basil II to personally campaign in the region the next year , and was followed in 1001 by the conclusion of a ten @-@ year truce between the two states .
= = Background = =
In September 994 Michael Bourtzes , the Byzantine military governor ( doux ) of Antioch and northern Syria , suffered a heavy defeat at the Battle of the Orontes at the hands of the Fatimid general Manjutakin . This Fatimid victory shook the Byzantine position in Syria , and posed a grave threat to its Arab vassal , the Hamdanid Emirate of Aleppo . To prevent its fall , Emperor Basil II himself intervened in the region in 995 , forcing Manjutakin to retire to Damascus . After capturing Shayzar , Hims and Rafaniya , and building a new fortress at Antartus , the emperor withdrew , leaving Damian Dalassenos as the new doux of Antioch .
Dalassenos maintained an aggressive stance . In 996 his forces raided the environs of Tripoli and Arqa , while Manjutakin , again without success , laid siege to Aleppo and Antartus , but was forced to withdraw when Dalassenos with his army came to relieve the fortress . The next year , Dalassenos repeated his raids against Tripoli , Rafaniya , Awgh , and al @-@ Lakma , capturing the latter . At the same time , the inhabitants of Tyre , under the leadership of a sailor named Allaqa , rose up in revolt against the Fatimids and requested Byzantine assistance ; further south , in Palestine , the Bedouin leader Mufarrij ibn Daghfal ibn al @-@ Jarrah attacked Ramlah .
= = Siege of Apamea and the Fatimid relief expedition = =
In early summer 998 , Dalassenos learned that a catastrophic fire had broken out in Apamea and destroyed most of its provisions , so he marched towards the city . The Aleppines too endeavoured to seize Apamea and arrived there first , but withdrew at the approach of Dalassenos , who could not permit a vassal to grow too strong and intended to capture the town for the emperor . Although ostensibly allies with the Byzantines , the Aleppines left the provisions they had brought with them to be collected by the inhabitants of Apamea , aiding them in their resistance . Subsequent events are presented by several authors , including the brief narrative of John Skylitzes and the more extensive accounts of the Christian Arab Yahya of Antioch and the Armenian Stephen of Taron . Arab accounts also survive , all apparently drawing upon the work of the 11th @-@ century historian Hilal al @-@ Sabi ; the most detailed version is preserved by Ibn al @-@ Qalanisi .
The governor of Apamea , al @-@ Mala 'iti , called for aid upon the Fatimids . According to Ibn al @-@ Qalanisi , the eunuch regent Barjawan appointed Jaysh ibn Samsama to command the relief army , naming him governor of Damascus and giving him a thousand men . Before confronting the Byzantines , the Fatimids had to deal with the revolt of Tyre and the rebellion of Ibn al @-@ Jarrah . The Byzantines attempted to aid the besieged at Tyre by sending a fleet , but it was beaten off by the Fatimids , and the city captured in June 998 . Ibn al @-@ Jarrah 's revolt was also suppressed , and Jaysh ibn Samsama returned to Damascus , where he stayed for three days to gather his forces for the relief of Apamea . There he was joined by the troops and volunteers from Tripoli , assembling a force numbering 10 @,@ 000 men and 1 @,@ 000 Bedouin riders of the Banu Kilab tribe . According to Skylitzes , the Fatimid army comprised the forces of Tripoli , Beirut , Tyre , and Damascus . Meanwhile , Dalassenos was vigorously pursuing the siege , and the inhabitants of Apamea had been reduced to famine , being forced to eat cadavers and dogs , which they bought for the price of 25 silver dirhams ( according to Abu 'l @-@ Faraj , two gold dinars ) a piece .
= = Battle = =
The two armies met on the large plain of al @-@ Mudiq ( cf . Qalaat al @-@ Madiq ) , surrounded by mountains and located near the Lake of Apamea , on 19 July 998 . According to Ibn al @-@ Qalanisi , the Fatimid army 's left wing was commanded by Maysur the Slav , governor of Tripoli ; the centre , where the Daylamite infantry and the army baggage train were located , was under the command of Badr al @-@ Attar ; the right was commanded by Jaysh ibn Samsama and Wahid al @-@ Hilali . According to all accounts , the Byzantines charged the Fatimid army and drove it to flight , killing some 2 @,@ 000 and capturing the baggage train . Only 500 ghilman under Bishara the Ikhshidid remained steadfast and held firm against the assault , while the Banu Kilab simply abandoned the fight and began looting the battlefield . At that point , a Kurdish rider , named Abu 'l @-@ Hajar Ahmad ibn al @-@ Dahhak al @-@ Salil by Ibn al @-@ Athir and Ibn al @-@ Qalanisi and Bar Kefa by the Byzantine sources and Abu 'l @-@ Faraj , rode towards Dalassenos , who was near his battle standard on top of a height and was accompanied only by two of his sons and ten men of his retinue . Believing the battle won and that the Kurd wanted to surrender , Dalassenos took no precautions . As he approached the Byzantine general , Ibn al @-@ Dahhak suddenly charged . Dalassenos lifted his arm to shield himself , but the Kurd launched his spear at him . The general wore no cuirass , and the blow killed him .
Dalassenos ' death changed the tide of the battle : the Fatimids took heart and , shouting " the enemy of God is dead ! " , turned on the Byzantines , who fell into panic and fled . The garrison of Apamea too sallied forth , completing the Byzantine debacle . The sources give various numbers for the Byzantine dead : Maqrizi mentions 5 @,@ 000 , Yahya of Antioch 6 @,@ 000 , and Ibn al @-@ Qalanisi as many as 10 @,@ 000 dead . Most of the remaining Byzantines ( 2 @,@ 000 according to Ibn al @-@ Qalanisi ) were taken prisoner by the Fatimids . These included several senior officers , including the famed Georgian patrikios Tchortovanel , a nephew of Tornike Eristavi , as well as the two sons of Dalassenos , Constantine and Theophylact , who were bought by Jaysh ibn Samsama for 6 @,@ 000 dinars and spent the next ten years as captives in Cairo . Stephen of Taron gives a slightly different account of the battle , whereby the victorious Byzantines were surprised by an attack by the regrouped Fatimids on their camp and that one of Dalassenos 's brothers and one of his sons were killed , as well as the general himself . This version is commonly rejected by modern scholars .
= = Aftermath = =
Dalassenos ' defeat forced Basil II to personally lead yet another campaign in Syria the following year . Arriving in Syria in mid @-@ September , the emperor 's army buried their fallen in the field of Apamea and then captured Shayzar , sacked Hisn Masyat and Rafaniya , torched Arqa , and raided the environs of Baalbek , Beirut , Tripoli and Jubayl . In mid @-@ December , Basil returned to Antioch , where he installed Nikephoros Ouranos as doux , although according to his self @-@ description as the " ruler of the East " , his role seems to have been more extensive , with plenipotentiary military and civilian authority over the entire eastern frontier . In 1001 , Basil II concluded a ten @-@ year truce with the Fatimid Caliph al @-@ Hakim .
= LS3 / 5A =
The LS3 / 5A ( each element pronounced separately , without the stroke ) is a small studio monitor loudspeaker originated by the BBC for use by outside broadcast vans to ensure quality of their broadcasts . The speaker concept set out transparent and natural sound as the goal , and the achievement of the end result is widely acknowledged .
The BBC granted licences to a small number of British firms , who first manufactured the product in 1975 . The product underwent a change in 1987 due to consistency issues in manufacturing , and again in around 2003 when original parts from KEF ran out . Upwards of 60 @,@ 000 pairs of the speaker have been sold . Reviewers have recognised its enormous importance as a bookshelf design .
= = History = =
The LS3 / 5A is a commercially produced loudspeaker driven by the need of the BBC to monitor and assess broadcast programme quality . It was derived from the LS3 / 5 , which was conceived and developed by the BBC Engineering Department in the early 1970s , when it was under the stewardship of Dudley Harwood . Having found no commercially produced small loudspeaker that met the requirement for naturalness and sonic neutrality , the BBC specifically set out to design a speaker to achieve natural overall sound quality and good dynamic range for monitoring broadcasts in tightly confined spaces .
As the BBC broadcasting unit was about to order another batch of the monitor , it was found that the supplier had modified the drive units , meaning the LS3 / 5 design had to be fundamentally revised . The BBC 's Designs Department was called upon to adapt the product in light of the supply changes . Modifications were made to adapt to the new drive units and deal with the altered resonance pattern , and the LS3 / 5 became the LS3 / 5A .
The BBC then licensed the product to a small number of private sector companies . Production began in 1975 . In 1987 , as a result of reassessment of the product due to consistency issues in the manufacture of the mid – bass driver , the drivers were modified and the crossover changed . The overall impedance of the crossover fell to 11 ohms from the original 15 ohms .
The various official versions of the LS3 / 5A from various licensees sold in significant numbers in its life of over a quarter of a century . Sales estimates range from 60 @,@ 000 to 100 @,@ 000 pairs .
In the tail end of the 1990s , due to the parts being discontinued , the 3 / 5 had technically reached the end of the road . Some licensees continued to make small numbers of speakers , for a while , using re @-@ manufactured parts . However , Stirling Broadcast , one of the last batch of licensees , completely redesigned the product based on the audio signature of the original , and launched the LS3 / 5A v2 with the full endorsement of the broadcaster in early 2006 .
In 2014 , production of the 15 ohm version of the LS3 / 5a with a full BBC Licence was re @-@ commenced by Falcon Acoustics [ 25 ] using re @-@ engineered versions of the original drive units and the original design BBC crossover [ 4 ] all produced in @-@ house .
= = Speaker = =
= = = Name = = =
The product name is derived from BBC naming convention : the " LS3 " designation meant it was a loudspeaker intended for outside broadcasting , as opposed to the " LS5 " loudspeaker , intended for studio monitoring . The number after the stroke is the model number , the LS3 / 5 is " number 5 " outside @-@ broadcasting loudspeaker . The letter that follows denotes alterations to the original specification , of which there was only one in this instance after the LS3 / 5 , thus the " A " .
= = = Design = = =
For its outside broadcasting monitoring , the BBC required a small studio monitor suitable for near @-@ field monitoring of the frequency range from 400 Hz to about 20 kHz . The principal constraints were space and situations where using headphones is unsatisfactory , such as in mobile broadcasting vans . There were no commercial constraints . The BBC Research Department , then situated at Kingswood Warren , were responsible for development work , and commenced scaling tests in 1968 . They were able to answer a request for a prototype in under a week because it resembled an experimental loudspeaker that the department had already developed for some preliminary acoustic scaling tests . The speaker had to be voiced by ear an octave at a time , because scale test results were inapplicable to a model of this size . Engineers took measurements ; comparisons were performed against the LS5 / 8 – a large " Grade I monitor " already in use at the time – and with live sources . In 1970 engineers came up with the LS3 / 5 , built using the KEF B110 ( A6362 ) and the KEF T27 ( A6340 ) drive units , and a 9 @-@ ohm crossover filter . Estimated development costs of the order of £ 100 @,@ 000 were said to have been incurred at the time . Approximately 20 units of the LS3 / 5 were produced in @-@ house .
The BBC had initiated tendering to have the LS3 / 5 made under license . As the broadcasting unit was about to order another batch of the monitor , it was found that KEF had discontinued the B110 ( A6362 ) and the T27 ( A6340 ) in favour of the B110 ( SP1003 ) and T27 ( SP1032 ) specification , and was already using them in the Coda , one of their own @-@ brand commercial loudspeakers . Thus the design had to be revised because these new units had different impedances , technical characteristics and altered resonance patterns . [ 2 ] [ 4 ] The tweeter was considered potentially fragile because it now had an exposed dome , so a suitable protection grille was found to cover and protect the dome . The tweeter was also surrounded by a thick felt rectangle to prevent interference pattern effects being created by the edge of the cabinet . The crossover also had to undergo change , and the LS3 / 5 became the LS3 / 5A in the early summer of 1974 .
The KEF B110 SP1003 is a 110mm speaker with a doped Bextrene ( a proprietary type of polystyrene copolymer ) cone and a neoprene surround . The KEF T27 SP1032 has a 19mm mylar dome fitted and is with a perforated protection grille . The loudspeaker has an internal volume of approximately 5 litres . The speaker cabinet ( loudspeaker enclosure ) measuring 31 by 19 by 16 centimetres ( 12 @.@ 2 in × 7 @.@ 5 in × 6 @.@ 3 in ) , is made using 12 mm ( 0 @.@ 47 in ) birch plywood strengthened at every joint with beech braces , and heavily damped . Although there was no specification for the wood of the original LS3 / 5 cabinets , the BBC closely specified wood types in defining the LS3 / 5A due to concerns that other hard woods – specifically Parana pine , with which the BBC conducted tests – would cause noticeable colouration ( i.e. detract from sonic neutrality ) due to interaction with a resonance of the bass drivers .
Martin Colloms notes in Hi @-@ Fi Critic that : " Hardly any component in either enclosure or driver may be substituted without the blend suffering audible disturbance . This is because the 3 / 5A sets such a high standard for tonal balance that errors which would pass unnoticed in an ordinary speaker are readily exposed " . The BBC then licensed the product to a small number of private sector companies .
In a review in Stereophile , John Atkinson remarked on how it was " virtually unknown for a speaker to be still available , virtually unchanged , 14 years after [ its introduction ] " .
= = = Construction = = =
J. Gordon Holt indicates in Stereophile that most of the cost lay inside the case , having been spent on a complex equaliser and phase @-@ corrected crossover . However , Holt 's colleague , John Atkinson , notes that the cabinet alone " costs the manufacturer the same as the retail price of a typical massmarket [ sic ] speaker " . Only specific speaker drivers manufactured to strict tolerances may be used . There were other measures to control diffraction and ensure tonal neutrality .
The circuitry provides equalisation in both high and low frequency sections . The 13 @-@ element crossover includes an inductor for the treble section with seven positions that allows adjustment to match level of mid to treble sensitivities . The design also specifies high quality screened air @-@ gap inductors and film capacitors . David Prakel in Hi @-@ Fi Answers suggests it was a costlier speaker to build than imagined because tight specifications meant a high failure rate in production – the BBC had specified " the finest , most expensive ingredients and representing an investment of hours of skilled labour " .
= = = Signature sound = = =
Typical of sealed @-@ box speakers of similar size , the 3 / 5A has little or no low bass , but the design reinforced its lower register by a boost at around 160 Hz , giving the subjective impression that the speaker is more bass @-@ rich . It has a gently rising frequency response above 5kHz , leading reviewers to notice the sound being a little bright at the treble registers , or that the speakers " reproduce the high @-@ end roughness of solid @-@ state amplifiers mercilessly " thus suggested partnering with valve amplification would be advantageous . A slight nasal quality in the midrange has also been noted in the earlier versions . The accuracy and stability of its stereo imaging and its clean midrange reproduction are also appreciated qualities . J. Gordon Holt suggests that the quality was " comparable to that from Quad Electrostatics , at far lower cost and with added bonuses of slightly smoother high end , better stereo imaging , a broader listening area " . John Atkinson suggests in Stereophile that the LS3 / 5A is ideally suited to the reproduction of program having a limited dynamic @-@ range requirement , for example chamber music ; he said that the LS3 / 5A " has never boogied and never will ; it 's just too polite ever to cut the mustard on rock , or even straightahead jazz " .
= = = Constructors = = =
A total of 11 companies were ever granted licenses by the BBC to manufacture the model , a maximum of 3 at any given time . The product proved highly challenging to manufacture , if for no other reason than tight specifications and consistency of parts , and many of these companies would have a chequered corporate history . Audible differences could result from the mounting screws , grille fabric , or the origin of the wool .
Rogers Audio was the earliest licensee , but went out of business before producing a single unit . The Rogers name was bought by Swisstone , who started manufacturing the 3 / 5A under licence in 1975 . Rogers ' production accounted for the majority , of around 43 @,@ 000 pairs by 1988 , and 50 @,@ 000 pairs in total . Of the other main manufacturers , Spendor produced about 22 @,@ 000 pairs , and Audiomaster 10 @,@ 000 . Dudley Harwood , the BBC engineer instrumental in the creation of the 3 / 5A , started Harbeth and obtained a license in 1977 , but the company produced no LS3 / 5As for a decade . Eventually , Harbeth accounted for 7 @,@ 000 pairs . KEF , who obtained its licence in 1993 , claims approximately 4 @,@ 000 pairs made . Other licensees included Chartwell , RAM , Goodmans and Stirling Broadcast.A current licence for the 15 ohm LS3 / 5a is held by Falcon Acoustics
= = = Reception = = =
Despite not being a " commercial product " at the outset , the LS3 / 5A was commercially successful in its twenty @-@ something @-@ year life , from 1975 until approximately 2000 , when the availability of KEF drive units came to an end . The speaker has amassed an " enthusiastic , focused , and loyal [ ... ] following , and none so large or vocal " , according to Paul Seydor in The Absolute Sound .
Estimates of their sales differ , possibly due to scope and cut @-@ off : when it ceased production in 1998 , " some 100 @,@ 000 pairs were in circulation , with 3000 pairs sold in its last year alone " , according to Seydor ; in 2001 , Ken Kessler similarly estimated in Hi @-@ fi News that 100 @,@ 000 pairs had been produced . In 2007 , Martin Colloms reported " more than 60 @,@ 000 pairs of the original LS3 / 5As were made " . John Atkinson noted that it had sold in excess of 60 @,@ 000 up to 1988 , of which Rogers represented two @-@ thirds .
Atkinson notes in 2007 that the sound of the speaker had not dated whilst many other speakers of the 1960s and 70s had . He guessed that LS3 / 5A remained competitive due to the exhaustive considerations and top engineering talent that went into its design ; maybe some luck was involved . Art Dudley commented in Stereophile on the LS3 / 5A 's " towering significance " as a bookshelf design .
= = Product revisions = =
= = = 1987 – 1990 = = =
It had become apparent in around 1987 that a number of units already in the field were not up to specification . In particular , it was becoming increasingly difficult to obtain KEF drivers of acceptable tolerances , particular the woofer . Measurements of the 1 – 1 @.@ 5 kHz peak of some units produced at the time were up to 6dB higher . KEF underwent a program to improve consistency of both drive @-@ unit and the associated crossover , taking care not to alter frequency characteristics or tonal balances . KEF specially redesigned the B110 , creating the B110 SP1228 where the surround changed from neoprene to a vinyl compound . KEF also designed a new crossover , designated SP2128 . The crossover , also redesigned to accommodate the changes , saw its overall impedance fall to 11 ohms from the original 15 ohms . KEF also manufactured and supplied the crossover with the drive units in kits where the pairs have been electrically matched by computer to ensure balanced performance . Martin Colloms had implied in Hi @-@ fi News in August 1988 that the BBC had taken a pragmatic decision to a revise the design , to ensure that targeted production levels could be maintained .
In 1990 , the BBC authorised licensees to manufacture models capable of being bi @-@ wired , but stipulated that the performance in single @-@ wired mode must meet the original specification . KEF started making the bi @-@ wire crossover , designated SP2195 , available in 1991 .
= = = 2005 – birth of LS3 / 5A " V2 " = = =
Upon obtaining a BBC licence to produce legacy 11 @-@ ohm LS3 / 5A , Stirling Broadcast commissioned KEF to produce new T27 and B110 drive units . Stirling had to rethink the product when KEF finally ceased manufacturing the drive units in about 2000 . Working with drivers from SEAS and Scanspeak , Derek Hughes developed for Stirling a new crossover that enabled the new proprietary drivers to mimic the response of the original KEF drivers they replaced . Specifically , the T27 was replaced by a 19mm doped fabric dome tweeter . The mid – bass unit is a formed polypropylene co @-@ polymer cone to which a damping coating has been applied and given a synthetic rubber roll surround . The crossover has three settings of relative high frequency level , in steps of 0.5dB. Each crossover is tuned to the specific pairs of drive units . While Stirling 's revision deviates technically from the specification , the company took steps to research and test to ensure the LS3 / 5A sound was preserved , " warts and all " . Stirling added a " V2 " to the designation when the product was launched in 2005 in an act of transparency , even though the broadcaster has endorsed it .
= = = 2014 – 15 ohm LS3 / 5A back in production = = =
Falcon Acoustics was granted a licence by the BBC for the 15 ohm version of the LS3 / 5a in 2013 and commenced production in 2014 using drive units produced in @-@ house by Falcon Acoustics . The Falcon F B110 bass unit is a re @-@ engineered version using the same components of the original KEF B110 SP1003 with a doped Bextrene cone and a neoprene surround . The Falcon F T27 tweeter again uses the same components as the original KEF T27 SP1032 and has a 19mm mylar dome fitted . Both Falcon units were designed by Malcolm Jones who while employed at KEF between 1962 and 1974 was responsible for the design of the KEF B110 and T27 units originally used in the LS3 / 5 and LS3 / 5a . Both units are graded / selected to meet the BBC specification . Crossovers are close tolerance pair matched versions of the original BBC LS3 / 5a crossover design [ 4 ] using tapped transformers for high frequency adjustments . [ 25 ]
= = Contemporary clones = =
= = = Linn = = =
In 1979 , Linn Products created the Kan – a non @-@ BBC specification bookshelf speaker that used a LS3 / 5A @-@ sized cabinet and the same B110 driver from KEF . Linn acquired a hundred pairs of cabinets from the supplier of the bankrupt Chartwell , and used them for the very first Kans . The Kan , however , used a re @-@ badged OEM D20 @-@ LP @-@ 1 tweeter from Hiquphon . Linn installed a very simple crossover into the box that transformed it into " one of the fastest and most involving wall mount miniatures ever " , according to Martin Colloms .
= = = J R Loudspeakers = = =
Jim Rogers , who set up J R Loudspeakers Ltd after the collapse of Rogers Audio , released the JR149 in 1977 using the same drive units as the LS3 / 5A in a cylindrical aluminium cabinet . A review of the JR149 in the May 1977 Hi @-@ Fi News and Record Review found that the " general quality was very comparable " to the LS3 / 5A .
= = = KEF = = =
Preceding the 3 / 5A , KEF 's Cresta ( 1967 ) , KEFKIT4 ( 1969 ) , Cresta II ( 1970 ) , Coda ( 1971 ) were all 2 @-@ way loudspeakers that used the B110 / T27 combination . KEF released its CS1 constructor kit ( 1981 ) to tap the home @-@ build market . According to the product brochure , the kit includes " the same KEF drive units originally specified for the LS3 / 5A with a somewhat simplified dividing network giving a similar overall frequency response characteristic " .
In 1979 , KEF released the Reference 101 , a speaker that used the T27 ( SP1032 ) with the B110B ( SP1057 ) in a 6 @.@ 7 @-@ litre cabinet " with a crossover of similar complexity to the LS3 / 5A " . Martin Colloms said it possessed an almost perfectly flat frequency response , but that " it neither sounded as lifelike , nor did it really better the musical performance of the standard 3 / 5a " .
= Bournemouth =
Bournemouth / ˈbɔːrnməθ / is a large coastal resort town on the south coast of England directly to the east of the Jurassic Coast , a 96 @-@ mile ( 155 km ) World Heritage Site . According to the 2011 census , the town has a population of 183 @,@ 491 making it the largest settlement in Dorset . With Poole to the west and Christchurch in the east , Bournemouth forms the South East Dorset conurbation , which has a total population of over 465 @,@ 000 .
Before it was founded in 1810 by Lewis Tregonwell , the area was a deserted heathland occasionally visited by fishermen and smugglers . Initially marketed as a health resort , the town received a boost when it appeared in Dr Granville 's book , The Spas of England . Bournemouth 's growth really accelerated with the arrival of the railway and it became a recognised town in 1870 . Historically part of Hampshire , it joined Dorset with the reorganisation of local government in 1974 . Since 1997 , the town has been administered by a unitary authority , giving it autonomy from Dorset County Council although it remains part of the ceremonial county . The local council is Bournemouth Borough Council .
The town centre has notable Victorian architecture and the 202 @-@ foot ( 62 m ) spire of St Peter 's Church , one of three Grade I listed churches in the borough , is a local landmark . Bournemouth 's location has made it a popular destination for tourists , attracting over five million visitors annually with its beaches and popular nightlife . The town is also a regional centre of business , home of the Bournemouth International Centre or BIC , and a financial sector that is worth more than £ 1 @,@ 000 million in Gross Value Added .
= = Toponymy = =
The first mention of Bournemouth comes in the Christchurch cartulary of 1406 , where a monk describes how a large fish ( " uni magno piscis " ) , 18 ft. long , was washed up at " La Bournemowthe " in October of that year and taken to the Manor of Wick ; six days later , a portion of the fish was collected by a canon from Christchurch Priory and taken away as tithe . " La Bournemowthe " , however , was purely a geographic reference to the uninhabited area around the mouth of the small river which , in turn , drained the heathland between the towns of Poole and Christchurch . The word bourne , meaning a small stream , is a derivative of burna , old English for a brook . From the latter half of the 16th century " Bourne Mouth " seems to be preferred , being recorded as such in surveys and reports of the period , but this appears to have been shortened to " Bourne " after the area had started to develop . A travel guide published in 1831 calls the place " Bourne Cliffe " or " Tregonwell 's Bourne " after its founder . The Spas of England , published ten years later , calls it simply " Bourne " as does an 1838 edition of the Hampshire Advertiser . In the late 19th century " Bournemouth " became predominant , although its two @-@ word form appears to have remained in use up until at least the early 20th century , turning up on a 1909 ordnance map .
= = History = =
In the 12th century the region around the mouth of the River Bourne was part of the Hundred of Holdenhurst . The hundred later became the Liberty of Westover when it was also extended to include the settlements of North Ashley , Muscliff , Muccleshell , Throop , Iford , Pokesdown , Tuckton and Wick , and incorporated into the Manor of Christchurch . Although the Dorset and Hampshire region surrounding it had been the site of human settlement for thousands of years , Westover was largely a remote and barren heathland before 1800 . In 1574 the Earl of Southampton noted that the area was " Devoid of all habitation " , and as late as 1795 the Duke of Rutland recorded that " ... on this barren and uncultivated heath there was not a human to direct us " .
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries the Borough of Bournemouth would grow to encompass a number of ancient settlements along the River Stour , including Longham where a skull thought to be 5 @,@ 500 years old was found in 1932 . Bronze Age burials near Moordown , and the discovery of Iron Age pottery on the East Cliff in 1969 , suggest there may have been settlements there during that period . Hengistbury Head , added to the borough in 1932 , was the site of a much older Palaeolithic encampment . During the latter half of the 16th century James Blount , 6th Baron Mountjoy , began mining for alum in the area , and at one time part of the heath was used for hunting , although by the late 18th century little evidence of either event remained . No @-@ one lived at the mouth of the Bourne river and the only regular visitors to the area before the 19th century were a few fishermen , turf cutters and gangs of smugglers .
Prior to the Christchurch Inclosures Act 1802 , more than 70 % of the Westover area was common land . The act , together with the Inclosure Commissioners ' Award of 1805 , transferred five thousand acres into the hands of five private owners , including James Harris , 1st Earl of Malmesbury , and Sir George Ivison Tapps . In 1809 the Tapps Arms public house appeared on the heath . A few years later , in 1812 , the first official residents , retired army officer Lewis Tregonwell and his wife , moved into their new home built on land purchased from Tapps . The area was well known to Tregonwell who , during the Napoleonic wars , spent much of his time searching the heath and coastline for French invaders and smugglers .
Anticipating that people would come to the area to indulge in the newly fashionable pastime of sea @-@ bathing , an activity with perceived health benefits , Tregonwell built a series of villas on his land between 1816 and 1822 , which he hoped to let out . The common belief that pine @-@ scented air was good for lung conditions , and in particular tuberculosis , prompted Tregonwell and Tapps to plant hundreds of pine trees . These early attempts to promote the town as a health resort meant that by the time Tregonwell had died in 1832 , Bournemouth had grown into a small community with a scattering of houses , villas and cottages . The town would ultimately grow up around the scattered pines and tree @-@ lined walk to the beach , later to become known as the Invalids ' Walk .
After the death of Tapps in 1835 , his son Sir George William Tapps @-@ Gervis inherited his father 's estate . He hired the young local architect Benjamin Ferrey to develop the coastal area on the east side of the stream . Bournemouth 's first hotel , later to become part of the Royal Bath Hotel , opened in 1838 and is one of the few buildings designed by Ferrey still standing . Bournemouth started to grow at a faster rate as Tapps @-@ Gervis began developing the area similarly to the south coast resorts of Weymouth and Brighton . Despite enormous investment , the town 's share of the market remained modest . In 1841 Tapps @-@ Gervis invited the physician and writer Augustus Granville to stay . Granville was the author of The Spas of England , which described health resorts around the country , and as a result of his visit he included a chapter on Bournemouth in the second edition of his book . The publication of the book , and the increase in visitors seeking the medicinal use of seawater and the pine @-@ scented air , helped the town to grow and establish itself as an early tourist destination .
In the 1840s Benjamin Ferrey was replaced by Decimus Burton , whose plans for Bournemouth included the construction of a garden alongside the Bourne stream , an idea first mooted by Granville . The fields south of the road crossing ( later Bournemouth Square ) were drained and laid out with shrubberies and walks . Many of these paths , including the Invalids ' Walk , remain in the town today . A second suggestion of Granville 's , a sanatorium , was completed in 1855 and greatly raised Bournemouth 's profile as a place for recuperation .
At a time when the most convenient way to arrive in the town was by sea , a pier was considered to be a necessity . Holdenhurst Parish Council were reluctant to find the money , and an attempt to raise the money privately in 1847 had only succeeded in financing a small 100 feet ( 30 m ) jetty . The Bournemouth Improvement Act of 1856 granted greater financial autonomy to the town and a pier was approved that year . A number of wooden structures were built before an 838 feet ( 255 m ) cast iron design by Eugenius Birch was completed in 1880 . Under the Act , a board of 13 Commissioners was established to build and organise the expanding infrastructure of the town , such as paving , sewers , drainage , street lighting and street cleaning .
The arrival of the railways in 1870 precipitated a massive growth in seaside and summer visitors to the town , especially from the Midlands and London . In 1880 the town had a population of 17 @,@ 000 , but by 1900 , when railway connections to Bournemouth were at their most developed , the town 's population had risen to 60 @,@ 000 and it had become a favourite location for visiting artists and writers . The town was improved greatly during this period through the efforts of Sir Merton Russell @-@ Cotes , the town 's mayor and a local philanthropist , who helped to establish the town 's first library and museum . The Russell @-@ Cotes Art Gallery & Museum was housed in his mansion , and after his death it was given to the town . Bournemouth became a municipal borough in 1890 and a county borough in 1900 .
As Bournemouth 's growth increased in the early 20th century , the town centre spawned theatres , cafés , two art deco cinemas and more hotels . Other new buildings included the war memorial in 1921 and the Bournemouth Pavilion , the town 's concert hall and grand theatre , finished in 1925 .
The town escaped heavy bombing during the Second World War , but the sea front incurred great damage when it was fortified against invasion . The cast iron lampposts and benches along the front were removed and melted down for munitions , as was much of the superstructure from both Bournemouth and Boscombe piers before they were breached to prevent their use by enemy ships . The large amounts of barbed wire and anti @-@ tank obstacles along the beach , and the mines at the foot of the chines , took two years to remove when peace was finally achieved .
The Royal National Lifeboat Institution stationed an inshore lifeboat at Bournemouth between 1965 and 1972 . Coverage for the area has otherwise been provided from Poole Lifeboat Station . The Bournemouth International Centre ( BIC ) , a large conference and exhibition centre , was constructed near the seafront in 1984 , and in the following year Bournemouth became the first town in the United Kingdom to introduce and use CCTV cameras for public street @-@ based surveillance .
The Waterfront complex , which was intended to hold an IMAX cinema , was constructed on the seafront in 1998 . The 19 m ( 62 ft ) -high concrete and smoked glass building featured a wavy roof design , but was despised by residents and visitors alike because it blocked views of the bay and the Isle of Purbeck . In 2005 it was voted the most hated building in England in a 10 @,@ 000 @-@ person poll conducted by the Channel 4 programme Demolition , and was pulled down in spring 2013 . The site is to be used as an outdoor event arena . The council still plan a larger redevelopment of the site and adjoining council land in the long term .
In 2012 Bournemouth was unsuccessful in its bid for city status , losing out to Chelmsford in competition with 26 other towns to commemorate Queen Elizabeth II 's Diamond Jubilee .
= = Governance = =
Historically Bournemouth was part of Hampshire , with neighbouring Poole , just to the west of the border , in Dorset . At the time of the 1974 local government re @-@ organisation , it was considered desirable that the whole of the Poole / Bournemouth urban area should be part of the same county . Bournemouth therefore became part of the non @-@ metropolitan county of Dorset on 1 April 1974 . On 1 April 1997 , Bournemouth became a unitary authority , independent from Dorset County Council . For the purposes of the Lieutenancy it remains part of the ceremonial county of Dorset .
For local elections the district is divided into 18 wards , and the Bournemouth Borough Council is elected every four years . In the 2011 local elections the Conservatives held overall control , winning 45 of the available 51 seats . The Council elects a Mayor and Deputy Mayor annually . For 2014 – 15 the mayor is Chris Mayne .
Bournemouth is represented by two parliamentary constituencies in the House of Commons ; Bournemouth East and Bournemouth West . In the 2010 general election , the former was held for the Conservatives by Tobias Elwood with 48 @.@ 4 % of the vote , while the latter was also held for the Conservatives by Connor Burns with 45 @.@ 1 % .
= = Geography = =
Bournemouth is about 94 miles ( 151 km ) southwest of London at 50 ° 43 ′ 12 ″ N 1 ° 52 ′ 48 ″ W. The borough borders the neighbouring boroughs of Poole and Christchurch to the west and east respectively and the East Dorset District to the north . Poole Bay lies to the South . The River Stour forms a natural boundary to the north and east , terminating at Christchurch Harbour ; while the River Bourne rises in Poole and flows through the middle of Bournemouth town centre , into the English Channel . The towns of Poole , Bournemouth and Christchurch form the South East Dorset conurbation with a combined population of over 400 @,@ 000 . Bournemouth is both a retail and commercial centre . Areas within Bournemouth include : Boscombe , Kinson , Southbourne , Springbourne , Throop , Westbourne and Winton .
The area 's geology has little variety , comprising almost entirely of Eocene clays which , prior to urbanisation , supported a heathland environment . Patches of the original heath still remain , notably Turbary Common , a 36 @-@ hectare ( 89 @-@ acre ) site , much of which is designated a Site of Special Scientific Interest . This heathland habitat is home to all six species of native reptile , the Dartford warbler and some important flora such as sundew and bog asphodel . Small populations of Exmoor pony and Shetland cattle help to maintain the area . Bournemouth is directly north of Old Harry Rocks , the easternmost end of the Jurassic Coast , 96 miles ( 155 km ) of coastline designated a World Heritage Site in 2001 . Bournemouth 's own coastline stretches from Sandbanks to Christchurch Harbour and comprises mainly sandy beaches backed by gravel and sandy clay cliffs . These cliffs are cut by a number of chines which provide natural access to the shore . At the easternmost point lies Hengistbury Head , a narrow peninsula that forms the southern shore of Christchurch Harbour . It is a local nature reserve and the site of a Bronze Age settlement .
= = = Climate = = =
Like all of the UK , Bournemouth has a temperate oceanic climate with moderate variation in annual and daily temperatures , cool summers , and frequent overcast skies . From 1981 to 2010 the annual mean temperature was 10 to 11 ° C ( 50 to 52 ° F ) . The warmest months are July and August , which have an average temperature range of 12 to 22 ° C ( 54 to 72 ° F ) , while the coolest months are January and February , which have an average temperature range of 1 to 8 ° C ( 34 to 46 ° F ) . Average rainfall in Bournemouth is around 800 mm ( 31 in ) annually , well below the national average of 1 @,@ 126 millimetres . Since 1960 , temperature extremes as measured at Bournemouth Hurn Airport have ranged from 34 @.@ 1 ° C ( 93 @.@ 4 ° F ) in August 1990 , down to − 13 @.@ 4 ° C ( 7 @.@ 9 ° F ) in January 1963 . The lowest temperature recorded in recent years was − 10 @.@ 4 ° C ( 13 @.@ 3 ° F ) in December 2010 .
= = Demography = =
The 2011 census records the population of Bournemouth as 183 @,@ 491 , comprising 91 @,@ 386 males and 92 @,@ 105 females , which equates to 49 @.@ 8 % and 50 @.@ 2 % of the population respectively . The mean average age of all persons is 40 years . With 4 @,@ 000 residents per square kilometre , Bournemouth has the highest population density of any authority in the South @-@ West region , and is the eighth most populated .
Much of the population , 83 @.@ 8 % , describe their ethnicity as ' white British ' while other white groups account for a further 8 @.@ 1 % . Asian groups ; Indian , Pakistani , Bangladeshi , Chinese and other Asian , make up 3 @.@ 9 % . Black British , black African , black Caribbean and other black groups form 1 @.@ 0 % of the population , Those of a mixed race make up 2 @.@ 3 % of the population , and 0 @.@ 9 % are from other ethnic groups .
Christians made up 57 @.@ 1 % of the population but 30 % of residents said they had no religion and 7 @.@ 8 % refused to say whether they were religious or not . Muslims were 1 @.@ 8 % , Buddhists , Hindus and Jews each had a 0 @.@ 7 % share , Sikhs were 0 @.@ 1 % . and other religions made up 0 @.@ 7 % .
Of all Bournemouth residents aged 16 or over , 19 @.@ 1 % had no qualifications at all , although 35 % said they had between one and four O @-@ levels , CSEs , GCSEs or equivalent , and 36 @.@ 5 % have more than five O @-@ level equivalents ( grade C and above ) , an A @-@ level or two to three AS @-@ levels . Those with an NVQ level 1 comprise 8 @.@ 0 % of the population while 15 @.@ 2 % have a level 2 NVQ , a City and Guilds craft certificate , BTEC or general diploma . Just over 20 % of residents had two or more A @-@ levels , four or more AS @-@ Levels or an advanced diploma while 15 @.@ 8 % possessed a degree , such as a BA or BSc or a higher degree such as an MA or PhD . An NVQ level 4 or 5 , HNC , HND , higher BTEC or higher diploma , is held by 4 @.@ 2 % and a professional qualification is held by 13 @.@ 9 % of residents . An apprenticeship has been completed by 6 @.@ 3 % of the population while 16 @.@ 9 % have some other work related or vocational qualification and 8 @.@ 3 % hold a foreign qualification .
Historically Bournemouth has suffered from negative rates of natural increase and has relied on immigration to maintain population growth . In 2007 however , births exceeded deaths for the first time , and this trend has continued through to 2011 . This , coupled with a substantial increase in people moving into the area , has led to a sharp rise in the resident population since 2001 . Of the total population , 3 @.@ 3 % are 85 or over , compared to 2 @.@ 2 % nationally ; however the largest group of people moving into the area are students in the 16 @-@ 24 @-@ year age group , and 9 % of the current population are between 20 and 24 . In England this age group accounts for only 7 % .
= = Economy = =
Similarly to the rest of Dorset , Bournemouth 's economy is primarily in the service sector , which employed 95 % of the workforce in 2010 . This was 10 % higher than the average employment in the service sector for Great Britain and 11 % higher than the South West . Of particular importance are the financial and public service sectors which through 2011 continued to show sustained growth . Compared to the rest of the country , Bournemouth performed well in these two areas but under performed in transport and communications .
The smallest geographical region for which Gross Value Added information is available is the NUTS3 area , Bournemouth and Poole . The latest figures , as of 2012 , are for the year 2009 which showed that the Bournemouth and Poole area enjoyed the strongest annualised growth in the South @-@ West region . In 2009 the South West Regional Accounts showed that the Financial Services sector in Bournemouth was worth £ 1 @,@ 031 @.@ 8 million in Gross Value Added . Important employers in this sector include : JPMorgan , Nationwide Building Society , and the Liverpool Victoria , Tata Consultancy Services ( formerly Unisys ) , and RIAS insurance companies . The manufacturing sector is predominantly based in neighbouring Poole , but still employed 2 % of the workforce in 2010 and 2 @.@ 6 % in 2011 .
Tourism is also important to the local economy . In 2011 , domestic and overseas visitors made more than 5 @.@ 6 million trips to the town and spent over £ 460 million between them . The equivalent of 8 @,@ 531 full @-@ time jobs exist as a result which accounts for 15 % of all employment in the town . Bournemouth seafront is one of the UK 's biggest attractions with 4 @.@ 5 million visitors in 2011 . RNLI lifeguards provide seasonal coverage of Bournemouth 's beaches .
With a third of all town centre businesses in the leisure industry , Bournemouth has a booming nightlife economy and is a popular destination for stag and hen parties . These party @-@ goers contribute £ 125 million a year to the economy and support 4 @,@ 000 jobs . In 2010 the town was awarded a Purple Flag for providing a wide variety of night @-@ time activities while maintaining the safety of both residents and visitors . An independent report published in 2012 indicates there has been a rise in antisocial behaviour which it attributes to the increase in nightlife .
Those of working age make up approximately 65 % of Bournemouth 's population and of these , 74 @.@ 6 % are economically active although not necessarily employed within the Bournemouth area . Industry in Bournemouth employed more than 76 @,@ 400 people in 2011 but not all of these were Bournemouth residents . Of those employed in Bournemouth based industries , 29 @.@ 32 % were employed in the public administration , education and health sector . This compares favourably with Dorset , the South @-@ West region , and the country as a whole , as do the other large sectors ; distribution , hotels & restaurants ( 29 @.@ 06 % ) , and banking , finance and insurance ( 24 @.@ 48 % ) . 37 @.@ 2 % of Bournemouth 's resident population are employed full @-@ time while 13 @.@ 3 % are employed part @-@ time . An additional 7 @.@ 1 % full @-@ time workers are self @-@ employed , 3 @.@ 1 % are self @-@ employed part @-@ time . Full @-@ time students with jobs account for 5 @.@ 3 % and 3 @.@ 8 % are unemployed .
The shopping streets are mostly pedestrianised with modern shopping malls , Victorian arcades and a large selection of bars , clubs and cafés . North of the centre there is an out @-@ of @-@ town shopping complex called Castlepoint . The 41 acre site has 40 units and was the largest shopping centre in the UK when it opened it 2003 . Other major shopping areas are situated in the districts of Westbourne and Boscombe .
= = Culture = =
Bournemouth is a tourist and regional centre for leisure , entertainment , culture and recreation . Local author and former mayor , Keith Rawlings , suggests that Bournemouth has a thriving youth culture due to its large university population and many language school students . In recent years , Bournemouth has become a popular nightlife destination with UK visitors and many clubs , bars and restaurants are located within the town centre . In a 2007 survey by First Direct , Bournemouth was found to be the happiest place in the UK , with 82 % of people questioned saying they were happy with their lives .
Major venues for concerts include BIC , Pavilion Theatre and O2 Academy . Built in 1984 , the BIC is also a popular place for party political conferences and has been used by all three major political parties . Its four auditoria make it the largest venue on the south coast . The O2 and Pavilion are older and are both Grade II listed buildings . The O2 , which opened in 1895 as the Grand Pavilion Theatre , was initially used as a circus and later for music hall theatre . The Pavilion opened in 1929 as concert hall and tea room while also providing a venue for the municipal orchestra . It continues to provide traditional entertainment today , presenting West End stage shows , ballet and operas . Bournemouth has more than 200 listed buildings , mainly from the Victorian and Edwardian eras , including three grade I churches ; St Peter 's , St Clement 's and St Stephen 's .
The Russell @-@ Cotes Museum is a Grade II * listed , villa completed in 1901 . It houses artefacts and paintings collected by the Victorian philanthropist Merton Russell @-@ Cotes and his wife during their extensive travels around the world . The four art galleries display paintings by William Powell Frith , Edwin Landseer , Edwin Long , William Orchardson , Arthur Hughes , Albert Moore and Dante Gabriel Rossetti . It was Russell @-@ Cotes who successfully campaigned to have a promenade built ; it runs continuously along the Bournemouth and Poole shoreline .
The Lower , Central and Upper Gardens are Grade II * public parks , leading for several miles down the valley of the River Bourne through the centre of the town to the sea . Bournemouth has a further 425 acres ( 172 ha ) of parkland . Initially serving to compensate for the loss of common rights after common land was enclosed in 1802 , it was held in trust until 1889 when ownership passed to Bournemouth Corporation and the land became five public parks : King 's Park , Queen 's Park , Meyrick Park , Seafield Gardens and Redhill Common .
The detailed Land Use Survey by the Office for National Statistics in 2005 noted that the local authority area of Bournemouth had the third highest proportion of land taken up by domestic gardens , 34 @.@ 6 % , of the 326 districts in England ; narrowly less than the London Boroughs of Harrow and Sutton at the time with 34 @.@ 7 % and 35 @.@ 1 % .
One of Bournemouth 's most noted cultural institutions is Bournemouth Symphony Orchestra which was formed in 1893 under Dan Godfrey . It became the first municipal orchestra in the country when in 1896 , Bournemouth Borough Council took control and Godfrey was appointed musical director and head of the town 's entertainments . Originally playing three concerts a day during the summer season , in the great glass palm house known as the Winter Gardens ; the orchestra is now based in Poole and performs around 130 concerts a year across Southern England .
Bournemouth is currently host to a number of festivals . Bournemouth Food and Drink Festival is a ten @-@ day event which combines a market with live cookery demonstrations . The Arts by the Sea Festival is a mix of dance , film , theatre , literature , and music which was launched in 2012 by the local university , the Arts University Bournemouth , and is set to become an annual event . The Bourne Free carnival is held in the town each year during the summer . Initially a gay pride festival , it has become a celebration of diversity and inclusion . Since 2008 , Bournemouth has held its own air festival over four days in August . This has featured displays from the Red Arrows as well as appearances from the Yakovlevs , Blades , Team Guinot Wing @-@ Walkers , Battle of Britain Memorial Flight including Lancaster , Hurricane , Spitfire and also the last flying Vulcan . The festival has also seen appearances from modern aircraft such as the Eurofighter Typhoon . The air festival attracts up to a million people over the four @-@ day event .
The town was especially rich in literary associations during the late 19th century and earlier years of the 20th century . P. C. Wren author of Beau Geste , Frederick E. Smith , writer of the 633 Squadron books , and Beatrice Webb , later Potter , all lived in the town . Paul Verlaine taught at Bournemouth a preparatory school and the writer J. R. R. Tolkien , spent 30 years taking holidays in Bournemouth , staying in the same room at the Hotel Miramar . He eventually retired to the area in the 1960s with his wife Edith , where they lived close to Branksome Chine . Tolkien died in September 1973 at his home in Bournemouth but was buried in Oxfordshire . The house was demolished in 2008 .
Percy Florence Shelley lived at Boscombe Manor ; a house he had built for his mother , Mary Shelley , the writer and author of the Gothic horror novel , Frankenstein . Mary died before the house was completed but she was buried in Bournemouth , in accordance with her wishes . The family plot in St Peter 's churchyard also contains her parents William Godwin and Mary Wollstonecraft , and the heart of her husband , Percy Bysshe Shelley . Robert Louis Stevenson wrote The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde and most of his novel Kidnapped from his house " Skerryvore " on the west cliff , Westbourne . Vladimir Chertkov established a Tolstoyan publishing house with other Russian exiles at Tuckton , and under the ' Free Age Press ' imprint , published the first edition of several works by Leo Tolstoy . Author Bill Bryson worked for a time with the Bournemouth Echo newspaper and wrote about the town in his 1995 work Notes from a Small Island .
= = Landmarks = =
Bournemouth has three Grade I listed churches , St Peter 's and St Stephen 's in the town centre and St Clement 's in Boscombe . St Peter 's was the town 's first church , completed in 1879 and designed by George Edmund Street . In his book , England 's Thousand Best Churches , Simon Jenkins describes the chancel as " one of the richest Gothic Revival interiors in England " , while the 202 feet ( 62 m ) spire dominates the surrounding skyline . When the architect , John Loughborough Pearson , designed St Stephen 's his aim was to , " bring people to their knees " . It has a high stone groined roof , twin aisles and a triforium gallery , although the tower lacks a spire .
The borough has two piers : Bournemouth Pier , close to the town centre , and the shorter but architecturally more important Boscombe Pier . Designed by the architect Archibald Smith , Boscombe Pier opened in 1889 as a 600 feet ( 180 m ) structure which was extended to 750 feet ( 230 m ) in 1927 when a new head was constructed . Added in 1958 , the boomerang @-@ shaped entrance kiosk and overhanging concrete roof is now a Grade II listed building . In 1961 a theatre was added but this was demolished in 2008 when the rest of the pier was renovated . In 2009 , fashion designer Wayne Hemingway described Boscombe Pier as " Britain 's coolest pier " . It was also voted Pier of the Year 2010 by the National Piers Society .
In 1856 , Bournemouth Pier was a simple , wooden jetty . This was replaced by a longer , wooden pier five years later , and a cast iron structure in 1880 . Two extensions to the pier in 1894 and 1905 , brought the total length to 305 metres ( 1000 feet ) . After World War II , the structure was strengthened to allow for the addition of a Pier Theatre , finally constructed in 1960 . Between 1979 and 1981 , a £ 1 @.@ 7 million redevelopment programme , saw a great deal of reconstruction work , and the addition of a large two @-@ storey , octagonal @-@ shaped entrance building .
Built as the Mont Dore Hotel in 1881 , Bournemouth Town Hall was designated a Grade II listed building in 2001 . Designed by Alfred Bedborough in the French , Italian and neo @-@ classical styles , the foundation stone was laid by King Oscar II of Sweden and Norway and the hotel opened in 1885 . The buff brick exterior features Bath stone dressings and terracotta friezes . The main entrance is sited within a projected façade that reaches to the eaves and is topped with a pediment , while above sits a belvedere with turrets and a pavilion roof . During the First World War the hotel was used as a hospital for British and Indian soldiers and after as a convalescent home . It never opened as a hotel again and was purchased by Bournemouth Borough Council in 1919 .
Built in the Art Deco style in 1929 , situated close to the seafront , the Pavilion Theatre was at the time considered to be the greatest ever municipal enterprise for the benefit of entertainment . Built from brick and stone , the frontage features square Corinthian columns . Still a popular venue , it is today a Grade II listed building .
The Bournemouth Eye is a helium @-@ filled balloon attached to a steel cable in the town 's lower gardens . The spherical balloon is 69 m ( 226 ft ) in circumference and carries an enclosed , steel gondola . Rising to a height of 150 m ( 492 ft ) , it provides a panoramic view of the surrounding area for up to 28 passengers .
= = Sport = =
The town has a professional football club , AFC Bournemouth , known as the Cherries , which was promoted to the Championship in 2013 and Premier League in 2015 . AFC Bournemouth play at Dean Court near Boscombe in Kings ' Park , 2 miles ( 3 km ) east of the town centre .
Bournemouth Rugby Club , which competes in the National League Division Two South , has its home at the Bournemouth Sports Club , next to Bournemouth Airport , where it hosts an annual Rugby sevens tournament and festival . Bournemouth Cricket Club also plays at Bournemouth Sports Club and is reported to be one of the biggest cricket clubs in the country . Its first team plays in the Southern Premier League . Dean Park is a former county cricket ground , once home to Hampshire County Cricket Club and later Dorset County Cricket Club . Today it is a venue for university cricket .
The BIC has become a venue for a round of the Premier League Darts Championship organised by the Professional Darts Corporation .
The Westover and Bournemouth Rowing Club , is the town 's coastal rowing club . Established in 1865 , it is reported to be the oldest sporting association in the county . The club regularly competes in regattas organised by the Hants and Dorset Amateur Rowing Association which take place on the South Coast of England between May and September .
Other watersports popular in Poole Bay include sailing and surfing , and there are a number of local schools for the beginner to learn either sport . Bournemouth has the third largest community of surfers in the UK and in 2009 an artificial surf reef , one of only four in the world , was constructed there . The reef failed to deliver the promised grade 5 wave , suffered a series of delays and ran over budget , finally costing £ 3 @.@ 2 million .
= = Transport = =
= = = Road = = =
The principal route to the town centre is the A338 spur road , a dual carriageway that connects to the A31 close to the Hampshire border . The A31 joins the M27 at Southampton and from there the M3 to London and the A34 to the Midlands and the North can be accessed . The main road west is the A35 to Honiton in Devon which runs through the South East Dorset Conurbation and continues east as far as Southampton , albeit as a non @-@ primary route . The A350 in the neighbouring borough of Poole provides the only northern route out of the conurbation . National Express coaches serve Bournemouth Travel Interchange & Bournemouth University . There are frequent departures to London Victoria Coach Station and Heathrow Airport and Gatwick Airports . Local buses are provided mainly by two companies , More Bus , the former National Bus Company subsidiary and now owned by the Go @-@ Ahead group , and Yellow Buses , the former Bournemouth Council @-@ owned company and successors to Bournemouth Corporation Transport , which began operating trams in 1902 . Other operators serving the town include Damory Coaches and the Shaftesbury & District bus company .
= = = Rail = = =
There are two stations in the town , Bournemouth railway station and Pokesdown railway station to the east . Parts of western Bournemouth can also be reached from Branksome station . All three stations lie on the South Western Main Line from Weymouth to London Waterloo . South West Trains operates a comprehensive service along this line , which also serves Southampton Central , Winchester and Basingstoke to the east , and Poole , Wareham , and Dorchester South to the west . Before its closure in 1966 , Bournemouth was also served by the Somerset and Dorset Joint Railway which provided direct access to Somerset and the Midlands .
= = = Air = = =
Originally an RAF airfield , Bournemouth Airport was transferred to the Civil Aviation Authority in 1944 and was the UK 's only intercontinental airport before the opening of Heathrow in 1946 . Acquired by the Manchester Airports Group in 2001 , the airport underwent a £ 45 million phased expansion programme between 2007 and 2011 . Situated in the village of Hurn on the periphery of Bournemouth , the airport is 7 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) from the town centre and serves around 600 @,@ 000 passengers annually . There are direct flights to 23 international destinations in nine countries : Cyprus , Finland , Greece ( 3 destinations ) , Italy ( 4 ) , Malta , Portugal , Spain ( 10 ) , Switzerland and Turkey .
= = Education = =
The Bournemouth local education authority was first set up in 1903 and remained in existence until local government was reorganised in 1974 when Bournemouth lost its County Borough status and became part of the county of Dorset . Under the later reforms of 1997 , Bournemouth became a unitary authority and the Bournemouth local education authority was re @-@ established .
The local council operates a two @-@ tier comprehensive system whereby pupils attend one of the 26 primary schools in the borough before completing their education at secondary school . Bournemouth is one of the minority of local authorities in England still to maintain selective education , with two grammar schools ( one for boys , one for girls ) and ten secondary modern / comprehensive schools . There are also a small number of independent schools in the town , and a further education college . Bournemouth has two universities : Bournemouth University and Arts University Bournemouth , both of which are located across the boundary in neighbouring Poole .
In 2012 , 60 @.@ 7 % of the borough 's school leavers gained 5 GCSEs of grade C or above . This was slightly better than the national average of 59 @.@ 4 % and above the average for the rest of Dorset , with 58 @.@ 8 % of pupils from the local authority of Poole , and 54 @.@ 1 % from the remainder of the county , managing to do likewise .
= = Religion = =
The 2011 census revealed that 57 @.@ 1 % of the borough 's population are Christian . With all other religions combined only totalling 4 @.@ 7 % , Christianity is by far the largest religious group . 40 % of the borough falls within the Church of England Diocese of Salisbury . The remainder , to the east , belongs to the Diocese of Winchester . The Roman Catholic Diocese of Portsmouth incorporates most of Bournemouth with the exception of two small parishes to the west which are covered by the Diocese of Plymouth .
The borough has several notable examples of Victorian church architecture including the previously mentioned St. Peter 's , the churchyard of which contains the grave of the author Mary Shelley ; St Stephen 's Church , completed in 1898 for services under the influence of the Oxford Movement and St Clement 's , one of the first churches to be designed by John Dando Sedding , built in Boscombe in 1871 . To serve a rapidly expanding population a third church was built in the town centre in 1891 . St Augustin 's church was commissioned by Henry Twells who was ' priest @-@ in @-@ charge ' there until 1900 . The largest church in the town is the Richmond Hill St Andrew 's Church , part of the United Reformed Church . Built in 1865 and enlarged in 1891 , it has a seating capacity of 1 @,@ 100 and is unusually ornate for a non @-@ conformist church .
Few purpose @-@ built places of worship exist in borough for faiths other than Christianity although with a higher proportion of Jewish residents than the national average , there are three synagogues . Chabad @-@ Lubavitch of Bournemouth is a branch of the worldwide movement . The Bournemouth Reform Synagogue , formerly known as Bournemouth New Synagogue , is a Reform Jewish synagogue with over 700 members . There is also the architecturally notable Bournemouth Hebrew Congregation synagogue built in 1911 with an Art Nouveau take on the Moorish Revival style .
The Bournemouth Islamic Centre provides information , support and a place of worship for the Islamic community . There is also a separate mosque in the town .
Those who are not religious , over 30 % of the population , are welcomed by the Dorset Humanists who hold bi @-@ monthly meetings in the borough and are affiliated to the British Humanist Association .
= = Naming conventions = =
The word ' Bournemouth ' is often used loosely to describe the South East Dorset conurbation , which also contains the neighbouring towns of Poole , Christchurch , Wimborne Minster , and Verwood . As a result , " Bournemouth " is used in the following terms :
Although it has a significant presence in Bournemouth town centre , Bournemouth University 's main campus is located in Poole , on the boundary with Bournemouth .
Bournemouth Airport is located near Hurn in the borough of Christchurch , and was originally named RAF Hurn .
" Bournemouth Bay " is sometimes used for Poole Bay
The Bournemouth Symphony Orchestra is now based in Poole .
= = Twin towns = =
Bournemouth is twinned with :
Netanya , Israel
Lucerne , Switzerland
= Hurricane Alma ( 1966 ) =
Hurricane Alma was a rare June major hurricane in the 1966 Atlantic hurricane season . It was the earliest Atlantic hurricane in the calendar year in fifteen years , as well as the earliest continental U.S. hurricane strike since 1825 . Alma developed on June 4 over Central America , and while moving through Honduras , it dropped heavy rainfall that killed at least 73 people in the city of San Rafael . Offshore northern Honduras , the system produced heavy rainfall in Swan Island . Alma moved northeastward and intensified into a hurricane on June 6 . It crossed western Cuba , causing heavy crop damage and water shortages . Alma destroyed over 1 @,@ 000 houses , and damage was estimated around $ 200 million ( 1966 USD ) . The storm killed 12 people in the country .
After crossing Cuba , Alma intensified further to reach winds of 125 mph ( 201 km / h ) in the Gulf of Mexico . The hurricane passed west of Key West , Florida , causing a power outage and flooding . Alma dropped heavy rainfall and produced winds across most of Florida , which damaged crops and caused scattered power outages . The hurricane weakened before moving ashore near Apalachee Bay . Damage in Florida was estimated at $ 10 million , and there were six deaths in the state . Alma crossed southeastern Georgia as a tropical storm , damaging a few houses and causing light damage . The storm re @-@ intensified into a hurricane over the western Atlantic Ocean , and its outer rainbands dropped heavy rainfall in Wilmington , North Carolina . Alma encountered colder water temperatures and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on June 13 . Its remnants dissipated a day later over Massachusetts .
= = Meteorological history = =
During June 1966 , low atmospheric pressure stretched across the western Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico — a pattern that is conducive for tropical cyclogenesis . During the first few days of the month , a dissipating trough extended from the southeastern United States into the western Caribbean . A mid @-@ level circulation developed along the trough near Cabo Gracias a Dios on June 3 . By the next day , the circulation had reached the surface , which marked the development of a tropical depression over eastern Nicaragua . On June 5 , the depression crossed Honduras and emerged into the western Caribbean , moving north @-@ northeastward through an area of warm sea surface temperatures . It had a good cyclonic circulation , convection , and moisture content , but most significantly , a passing trough to the north provided the depression with favorable outflow . On June 6 , the depression rapidly intensified into Tropical Storm and later Hurricane Alma . This made it the earliest hurricane in the basin since Hurricane Able in 1951 .
After attaining hurricane status , Alma continued moving slowly to the north @-@ northeast , although its intensification rate slowed . While over the western Caribbean , Alma was a large hurricane with gale force winds covering about 200 @,@ 000 sq mi ( 520 @,@ 000 km2 ) . The hurricane accelerated on June 8 , quickly moving across Isla de la Juventud and later mainland Cuba with winds of around 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) . Alma did not weaken over land and entered the Gulf of Mexico , where it turned northwestward and passed between Key West and the Dry Tortugas . Late on June 8 , a station in the Dry Tortugas reported winds of 125 mph ( 201 km / h ) ; this would be Alma 's peak intensity . The hurricane began weakening as it paralleled the west coast of Florida , at which point a developing upper @-@ level low over the northern Gulf of Mexico began to influence its motion . While the hurricane moved northward through the Gulf of Mexico , it had a large , ragged eye that reached 75 mi ( 121 km ) in diameter . Initially , forecasters anticipated Alma would cross central Florida , although the hurricane turned to the north @-@ northwest . Cool water temperatures contributed to weakening , and Alma made landfall near Apalachee Bay with winds of 90 mph ( 140 km / h ) on June 9 . This marked the earliest United States hurricane landfall since a hurricane in May and June of 1825 .
While turning northeastward over northern Florida , Alma quickly weakened to a tropical storm . It moved across Georgia and emerged into the Atlantic near Savannah late on June 10 . Its circulation remained near the coast , although by late on June 11 , Alma had moved far enough offshore that it was able to re @-@ intensify into a hurricane . It developed a large eye and maintained hurricane intensity for about 18 hours . Afterward , Alma turned to the north into an area of drier air and colder waters , and again weakened to a tropical storm on June 12 . The next day , Alma transitioned into an extratropical cyclone to the east of Maryland . The remnants continued to the northeast and dissipated on June 14 over Massachusetts .
= = Preparations = =
In Cuba , evacuations were ordered for Nueva Gerona on Isla de la Juventud , and for 113 @,@ 754 people on the mainland . Cattle were moved to a safe location for the storm 's passage . President Fidel Castro declared a state of emergency in four western provinces due to the threat to the local sugar industry .
Before Alma struck Florida , officials issued hurricane warnings from the Florida Keys through Apalachicola . A hurricane watch and gale warning were issued for the state 's eastern coastline , extending to Savannah , Georgia . In Key West , residents boarded up houses , and about 1 @,@ 000 people fled to the region 's 11 shelters . The MIM @-@ 23 Hawk antiaircraft missiles in the city were moved to higher ground , having been in place since the 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis . Further north , officials ordered the evacuation of Captiva Island and Sanibel Island . The causeways to Sanibel Island were closed , isolating residents who had not evacuated . Ten emergency shelters were opened in Fort Myers and two in Naples . Overall , about 100 @,@ 000 people were advised to seek shelter , though many of them chose to stay in their homes . All Phantom jet fighters at MacDill Air Force Base in Tampa were transported to Columbus Air Force Base in Mississippi , while aircraft were also evacuated from Homestead Air Reserve Base . Because Alma was initially forecast to cross the central portion of the state , residents along the Florida panhandle were not adequately prepared for the hurricane . Just hours before the storm moved ashore , officials ordered evacuations for residents in low @-@ lying areas around Apalachicola .
One week before a scheduled hurricane preparedness drill at Kennedy Space Center , Alma presented the facility with an actual storm threat . A full @-@ scale version of a Saturn V rocket was rolled back to the Vehicle Assembly Building on June 8 in less than 11 hours , which was within the anticipated time for such a move and before the expected arrival of 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) wind gusts . Two other rockets were also removed from their pads .
= = Impact = =
During its formative stages , Alma produced heavy rainfall for several days across Central America , primarily in Nicaragua and Honduras . Overnight on June 5 , the city of San Rafael , Honduras recorded about 30 in ( 760 mm ) of precipitation , possibly in relation to a localized cloudburst . The extreme rainfall flooded the entire city and left most of it covered with about 3 ft ( 1 m ) of mud . Most of San Rafael was destroyed , and there were at 73 deaths in the city ; one news report indicated that 75 people died in the city . Many rivers in Honduras became swollen at the height of the storm . On Swan Island , offshore northern Honduras , the storm dropped 14 @.@ 28 in ( 363 mm ) of rain . There was little damage on the island .
Before affecting Cuba , Alma spawned a tornado in Cayman Brac that destroyed a few houses and power lines . On Isla de la Juventud , the combination of high winds and rains destroyed dairy facilities , chicken farms , and large areas of fruit crops . The storm also destroyed a large radio tower on the island . When Alma struck Cuba , it produced high tides in southern La Habana Province that destroyed many fishing boats and wharves . Several towns along the coastline were flooded during the storm . The hurricane crossed western Cuba while strengthening . The Havana Institute of Meteorology recorded winds of 110 mph ( 180 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 980 mbar ( 29 inHg ) . The strong winds knocked down trees and power lines , including in the capital city of Havana where hundreds of trees fell . The city had power outages and damage to its water systems . More than 1 @,@ 000 houses were damaged in Havana . Many of them were poorly constructed due to lack of government funding to repair the gradually deteriorating structures in the tropical climate . High winds sank a boat in Pinar del Río Province ; one of the occupants drowned , and the other two swam to shore .
Alma caused significant crop damage in western Cuba ; it destroyed 13 @,@ 400 acres ( 5 @,@ 400 hectares ) of bananas and 18 @,@ 090 acres ( 7 @,@ 320 hectares ) of corn fields . There were also heavy losses to fruit trees and to the sugar industry , after the storm destroyed sugar mills and the rail lines that carried the cane to the mills . The storm destroyed over 100 tobacco drying barns , including their contents . The destruction of the tobacco represented a $ 30 million loss for the country . High winds also destroyed 96 tobacco storage facilities , although the tobacco was removed beforehand . In Güines near Havana , Alma destroyed food crops , which further exacerbated Cuba 's existing food shortages . Alma 's passage also resulted in water shortages , prompting the government to urge residents to use less water . There was heavy structural damage across western Cuba , including in Havana , Matanzas , Camagüey , Pinar del Río , and Las Villas . The hurricane destroyed 1 @,@ 083 houses , and overall damage was estimated at $ 200 million . Alma killed 12 people in the country and injured 78 others . In the storm 's aftermath , Cuban officials sent about 100 @,@ 000 people from Havana to the cities around the capital to repair storm damage . Such forced labor was a complaint about the rule of Fidel Castro , after the food and supply shortages .
Hurricane Alma affected the entire state of Florida with strong winds and rainfall . While the hurricane passed east of the Dry Tortugas , a station recorded winds of 125 mph ( 201 km / h ) , which were the highest winds on land . The station also recorded a pressure of 970 mbar ( 29 inHg ) , which was the lowest pressure recorded on land . Wind gusts reached 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) in Key West , causing a power outage . Rising tides flooded streets in the city , including A1A which sustained damage to an adjacent seawall . Damage in the lower Florida Keys was estimated at around $ 300 @,@ 000 . In southwestern Florida , the hurricane heavily damaged the mango crop . High rainfall totals occurred across the state , peaking at 9 @.@ 94 in ( 252 mm ) in Dania Beach near Miami . There were eight tornadoes or funnel clouds in the state , including one in Dade County that damaged a home . Along the west coast of Pinellas County , the storm damaged the grapefruit crop . High winds , including a gust of 93 mph ( 150 km / h ) , caused power outages in the Tampa Bay Area . A wind gust knocked a car off of a bridge between Tampa and St. Petersburg , although the occupants were able to escape safely . As it paralleled the coastline , Alma produced a storm tide of 10 ft ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) in New Port Richey . The high tides caused significant flooding in Cedar Key . In northern Florida where Alma moved ashore , wind gusts reached 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) in Crawfordville ; the high winds damaged the local tobacco crop . There were six deaths , of which two were electrocutions , two were drownings , and two were from heart attacks related to the storm . One of the deaths was a man who had a heart attack while preparing to evacuate . Damage throughout Florida was estimated at around $ 10 million . This was less than other storms of similar intensity , due to the sparse population of the affected area .
Further north , Alma produced 44 mph ( 71 km / h ) wind gusts and 2 | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
two operators ; the same operation had previously taken an hour for a crew of 20 men .
In the early 1920s , Howe turned down several requests that he stand for alderman in Port Arthur . He did agree to seek election to the school board in 1921 , and headed the polls at his first attempt . He served two 2 @-@ year terms on the board , spending the final year as its chairman . Early in their marriage , Clarence and Alice Howe had decided to separate their roles , with Alice Howe having full responsibility for their domestic lives . Howe took no interest in his home life ; as an often @-@ absent father he had only a small role in the upbringing of his five children . In the same manner he did not involve his wife in his business ( or , later public ) life . During his ministerial career , he replied in response to an opposition question hinting at nepotism , " I don 't like to discuss my family in public . Members may have noticed that my wife never appears on political platforms . "
In October 1929 , the firm completed a huge grain elevator , with capacity of 7 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 bushels ( 246 @,@ 670 cubic meters ) , at Port Arthur . The Depression , however , devastated the grain industry , with falling prices and little demand for exported grain . There was no demand for more grain elevators , as the existing elevators contained unsold grain , further driving prices down . Howe 's company managed to survive on pre @-@ existing government contracts , but these eventually expired and the staff of 175 had decreased to five by 1933 . On the first business day of 1934 , Howe 's sole remaining partner resigned from the firm . Although Howe remained a wealthy man , his business prospects were few , and he decided to seek another line of work .
= = Politics = =
= = = Election and prewar = = =
As early as 1933 , the Liberal Party had considered Howe as a potential candidate for the House of Commons . The Liberals were then in opposition . The public was angry over the inability of Prime Minister R. B. Bennett and his Conservative ( or Tory ) government to deal with the Depression , and the Liberals were considered likely to return to office at the next election , due by 1935 . Howe , feeling political activism was bad for business , had not publicly expressed political views . Norman Platt Lambert , a Liberal Party official and friend of Howe , brought him to a meeting with Liberal Party leader and former Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King on 20 January 1934 . The two men were impressed with each other , but each felt the other should make the next move . According to Lambert in his diary , Howe wanted a guaranteed Cabinet position were he to run in the new riding of Port Arthur .
Howe was also interested in an offer to build a huge new grain shipment complex in Argentina . While considering this proposition , and still waiting to hear from Mackenzie King , in late 1934 Howe agreed to be the Liberal candidate in Port Arthur . He finally received a promise of a Cabinet position , should he and the Liberals be elected ; Howe would not have stood without such an undertaking . On 14 October 1935 , Howe was comfortably elected to the Commons from Port Arthur , amassing a majority of 3 @,@ 784 . Across the country the Liberals won a landslide victory , with 173 seats in the House of Commons to the Conservatives 's 40 .
Mackenzie King appointed Howe to two portfolios , as Minister of Railways and Canals and the first Minister of Marine . Howe was the only engineer in Cabinet , which was dominated by lawyers , and was the first engineer to serve in a Liberal government . As there was at that moment no governor general , on 23 October 1935 , Howe and his Cabinet colleagues were sworn in by Sir Lyman Duff , Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Canada , serving as Administrator .
After Parliament assembled in early 1936 , Howe sought to have it pass legislation to reform local port authorities . Individual ports were run by Boards of Harbour Commissioners , appointments to which were often politically influenced . A Royal Commission in 1932 had recommended the positions be abolished , and Howe 's bill was to establish a National Harbours Board . The debate in the House went smoothly until Howe angered the opposition by declaring that , during Bennett 's government , the Conservatives had been corrupt . Despite what became a much more bitter debate , Howe 's bill carried . According to Leslie Roberts in his biography of Howe , " This was the Howe the country would soon come to know much better , the Howe on the rampage , the Howe who is impatient of criticism and deplores the debates and delays inherent in the parliamentary system . "
Howe worked to place the government @-@ dominated Canadian National Railways ( CNR ) on a sound financial basis . He introduced legislation to form the CNR into a crown corporation . Although the opposition complained that Howe was becoming power mad , they had little quarrel with the proposed reorganization itself , and it was passed into law . In June 1936 , Howe brought in legislation to establish another crown corporation , the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation , which passed into law with little debate or opposition .
In 1936 , Canada had almost no airline coverage ; many Canadians wishing to fly long distances by air would journey through the United States . The Liberals proposed legislation to establish a government @-@ financed corporation , with half the stock to be owned by the CNR and half by the privately owned Canadian Pacific Railway ( CPR ) . The CPR balked at the deal , and the remaining stock was taken up by the CNR . In May 1937 , Trans @-@ Canada Air Lines was founded with its inaugural flight , a perilous transcontinental proving flight on 30 July 1937 . Howe , along with other dignitaries , was on board , urging the pilots on , even through dangerous weather conditions . For the rest of his political career , Howe kept Trans @-@ Canada Air Lines in his ministerial portfolio , considering it his " progeny and generally promoted its interests . "
= = = Second World War = = =
With almost four years gone in his government 's five @-@ year term , in mid @-@ 1939 Mackenzie King considered an election and asked British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain in early August if he thought anything was likely to happen on the international scene . Chamberlain warned of unsettled conditions on the German — Polish border ; Britain had promised to assist Polish independence in the event of war . Mackenzie King decided to wait to hold an election . On 1 September , Germany invaded Poland . Mackenzie King recalled Parliament into session beginning 7 September , and Canada declared war on Germany . Before adjourning on 13 September , Parliament passed legislation creating a Department of Munitions and Supply .
It was some months before the department was established ; in the meantime Howe supervised the War Purchasing Board . Howe worked to persuade many of his business contacts to work for him , or for other government departments . Roberts suggests that no " political minister " could have done that , as many of Howe 's recruits were Conservatives . According to historian and author Michael Bliss , " [ f ] or Howe and other entrepreneurial spirits interested in the creative uses of government power , the war was a kind of ultimate megaproject , a great development job . Money didn 't matter , production did . "
Mackenzie King had promised the Leader of the Opposition Robert Manion , that he would not call an election without reconvening Parliament . On 25 January 1940 , Mackenzie King convened Parliament and promptly announced that it would immediately be prorogued , much to Manion 's anger . In the ensuing election , Howe had little trouble being re @-@ elected , and 184 Liberals were returned to Ottawa , the greatest total by any party to that point . Manion , however , lost his seat . Two weeks after the election , Germany invaded Norway and Denmark . Mackenzie King , in his diaries , noted his relief that the invasion had not taken place during the campaign , and appointed Howe as Minister of Munitions and Supply . Liking his job at Transport , Howe was reluctant to move , but the Prime Minister persuaded him . The function of the new department was the complete mobilization of all Canadian resources to support the war effort . Howe initially retained the Transport portfolio as well ; on 8 July 1940 , he turned over responsibility for that portfolio to Arthur Cardin , although Howe retained control of the CBC and Trans @-@ Canada Air Lines .
Howe 's department , in which he was assisted by his " dollar @-@ a @-@ year men " , top managers in Canadian business , loaned to the government by their companies for a token payment of one dollar a year — their firms maintained them on their payrolls . Even before the department was formally established , Howe 's representatives were surveying the country for essential war needs , with the department soon accumulating huge reserves of strategic materials . During the Second World War , Howe established 28 Crown Corporations , which did everything from managing secret projects to manufacturing the machine tools the rest of Canadian industry needed to keep going . These corporations were not responsible to Parliament , but to Howe himself . Parliament received no word of their activities unless Howe mentioned them .
With Canadian industry reorganized to supply the British war effort , Howe decided he needed to journey to Britain to discuss matters with the customers . He embarked on the S.S. Western Prince in December 1940 . This was an intensely dangerous trip ; Germany was attempting to blockade Britain and there were many German submarines in the North Atlantic . One of those submarines sank the Western Prince on 14 December . Howe survived the sinking and eight hours in a lifeboat . Gordon Scott , his aide , was killed trying to climb from the lifeboat to the rescuing ship . Howe professed coolness in the incident , but later told the Manchester Guardian that he considered every hour that he lived from that day onwards to be borrowed time .
While on tour of British industrial plants , Howe was shown the Avro Lancaster four @-@ engined heavy bomber , which he subsequently championed for Canadian production . On his return , Howe expropriated the troubled National Steel Car Ltd. plant which was beset with management problems , setting up Victory Aircraft Limited as a Crown Corporation , removing the executives and installing J.P. Bickell , one of Howe 's " dollar @-@ a @-@ year club " as the new president and chairman of the board . Victory Aircraft recovered its momentum and went on to become one of Howe 's greatest industrial successes , producing Avro aircraft under licence , including the Lancaster , and developing the passenger variant , the Avro Lancastrian . After the war the company was sold and became the nucleus of Avro Canada .
In mid @-@ 1943 the District Engineer of the Manhattan Engineer District , Lt @-@ Col Kenneth Nichols had several queries from Canada relating to contracts Canadian firms Eldorado Gold Mines and Consolidated Mining and Smelting ( CMS of Cominco ) had for the secret atomic bomb project ; CMS was building a heavy water plant and Eldorado was mining and processing uranium ore . He phoned a C. D. Howe in Ottawa and arranged to travel on the overnight train to Ottawa and see Howe the next day ( June 14 ) . On arriving at the address given Nichols was surprised to find that Howe was the minister of munitions and supply , and found him most friendly . Howe was told about the Manhattan Project , and Nichols was told that Eldorado was now a Crown company .
According to Roberts , " What Howe started in 1940 was an Industrial Revolution , so widespread that most Canadians were unaware of its extent or of its penetration into the country 's economy . " Although there had been increases in production throughout the first three years of the war , the minister 's efforts truly bore fruit in 1943 , in which Canada had the fourth @-@ highest industrial production among the Allies , trailing only the US , USSR , and Britain . By 1944 , Canada had produced over 600 ships for the war effort , 1 @,@ 100 aircraft , and over half a million cars and trucks , of which 31 @,@ 000 were armoured . According to Roberts , Howe 's actions swung Canada 's economy from agriculture @-@ based to industrial , a change which would prove permanent . Howe stated in 1943 , " Never again will there be any doubt that Canada can manufacture anything that can be manufactured elsewhere . "
= = = = " What 's a million ? " = = = =
During the debate on Howe 's war spending estimates in 1945 ( which totalled $ 1 @.@ 365 billion ) , Howe answered an Opposition question on whether such a large sum could be reduced : " I dare say my honourable friend could cut a million dollars from that amount , but a million dollars from the War Appropriations Bill would not be a very important matter . " Saskatchewan Tory MP John Diefenbaker spoke the following day , and alleged that Howe had said , " We may save a million dollars , but what of it ? " Howe angrily denied the quote , accusing Diefenbaker of being " a past master of distortion " — language he was forced to withdraw as unparliamentary . Diefenbaker sharpened the anecdote over time , and it emerged in its final form as Howe saying , " What 's a million ? " Even Liberals who knew that Howe had made no such statement agreed that it was just the sort of thing he could have said . In the years to come , " What 's a million ? " would be a mocking Tory attack on the Liberals , most often directed at Howe .
In 1942 Canada requested and was given a place on the Combined Production and Resources Board alongside the U.S. and Britain . Howe served as the Chief Executive Officer for Canada .
= = = Postwar = = =
= = = = Mackenzie King years = = = =
In October 1944 , Mackenzie King appointed Howe Minister of Reconstruction . Howe had an excellent reputation , even in the Soviet Union , for his successful overhaul of the Canadian economy , and Mackenzie King feared he would return to the private sector to make another fortune in business . Among those who urged Howe to remain was the Minister of Justice , Louis St. Laurent , with whom Howe forged a strong relationship . The Prime Minister obtained a dissolution of Parliament in April 1945 . In the ensuing election , the Liberals obtained a bare majority over the Conservatives ( renamed the Progressive Conservatives ) and the other parties . Howe was intensively involved in Liberal fundraising , and campaigned nationally for its candidates . He was easily returned in Port Arthur , taking just over half of all votes cast , with the Co @-@ operative Commonwealth Federation ( the predecessor of today 's New Democratic Party ) a distant second . Mackenzie King himself was defeated in his Saskatchewan riding but was returned in an Ontario by @-@ election within months . The Prime Minister was now past 70 years of age and tired .
Howe favoured as quick a transition to a peacetime economy as possible . Most industries in which there were not shortages were released from government controls in late 1945 . Labour leaders , fearing unemployment , wanted to keep wartime government plants in production ; Howe opposed such proposals . When union members who were laid off from the Research Enterprises Limited ( R.E.L. ) confronted Howe on a golf course , the minister stated , " R.E.L. was a war @-@ time plant . The war is through , the plant is through , and your union ... what happens to your union is up to you . Get the hell off of the course . " In disposing of redundant government property , Howe found that saddles and harnesses had been stored since the end of the Boer War and men had been employed to safeguard and polish them for over 40 years . He strove to eliminate such anachronisms . However , Howe was slower to release economic controls . According to Roberts , " although he worked to return the country 's economic power to private hands , he often seemed as loath to surrender his own dictatorial powers over it as he was to submit to Parliament " . In November 1945 , Howe 's wartime portfolio was merged into his new responsibility to form the Department of Reconstruction and Supply .
Howe was determined to support technologically advanced industries , and saw no reason why Canada should not continue to produce aircraft after the war . His Director @-@ General for Aircraft Production , Ralph Bell , disagreed with him , noting that Canada had no aircraft engine manufacturer , and that despite the presence of manufacturing plants and skilled workers , there was no guarantee that they could sell their products . Nevertheless , Howe took steps to keep aircraft manufacturers in business , allowing the British Hawker Siddeley Group to take over Victory Aircraft as A.V. Roe Canada ( Avro Canada ) , while Canadair was sold to the US @-@ based Electric Boat Company ( later General Dynamics ) .
After the war , Mackenzie King was asked by the British Government which prominent Canadians should be appointed to the Imperial Privy Council , entitling them to proceed their names with " The Right Honourable " . Mackenzie King recommended two Cabinet members , but not Howe . After the honours were announced on New Year 's Day 1946 , Howe demanded a meeting with Mackenzie King , told the Prime Minister that he felt his war service was being slighted and threatened his resignation . Mackenzie King calmed Howe down , and arranged for Howe to receive the honour in June . This created additional ill feeling among other members of the Cabinet ; two more were elevated in the 1947 New Year 's Honours , after which the Prime Minister refused to consider any more .
In February 1947 , Mackenzie King fell ill with pneumonia and , after recovering , spent a month on vacation in the United States , with St. Laurent ( by then Secretary of State for External Affairs ) as Acting Prime Minister . In July , Minister of National Defence Brooke Claxton warned Mackenzie King that the issue of the Prime Minister 's age and the uncertainty of the succession was causing political difficulties for the Liberals . Mackenzie King consulted Howe , who bluntly stated that it was best that Mackenzie King go out while still retaining his full faculties and before a crisis erupted . After the talk , the Prime Minister decided that he should retire within a year , and that St. Laurent , who had recently threatened to leave Cabinet and return home to Quebec , should be the successor . Howe was among those who persuaded St. Laurent not to resign . He also helped persuade St. Laurent to stand for the leadership , offering to remain in Cabinet to assist the Quebecer .
= = = = St. Laurent government = = = =
On 20 January 1948 , Mackenzie King announced his intent to resign . He also announced a Cabinet reshuffle ; both St. Laurent and Howe had urged the Prime Minister to move Howe , who had not enjoyed his work at the Ministry of Reconstruction and Supply . Mackenzie King finally yielded , moving James Angus MacKinnon , the Minister of Trade and Commerce to open his place for Howe ( the Albertan became Minister of Fisheries ) . Howe publicly announced that he was " not available " to stand for the leadership , and that he was supporting St. Laurent . The Quebecer was elected Leader of the Liberal Party in August , and Mackenzie King finally resigned on 15 November . At age 66 , St. Laurent was only seven years younger than Mackenzie King , but was nevertheless seen as a breath of fresh air — except at Cabinet meetings , where he reversed Mackenzie King 's smoking ban .
In October 1948 , the Progressive Conservatives also elected a new leader , Ontario Premier George A. Drew . Drew had won three consecutive provincial elections , taking even francophone ridings , and the Tories , perennially weak in Quebec , hoped that Drew could repeat his success on a national scale . Drew defeated Diefenbaker for the leadership . St. Laurent called an election for June 1949 , and Howe again was successful in fundraising from corporate backers . Major corporations from the CPR to Eaton 's contributed to the well financed Liberal campaign . The Liberals won a huge victory , taking 190 seats to 40 for the Tories , and Howe again won Port Arthur easily . Drew had used Howe 's record as an election issue , accusing him of being power mad and of selling off Crown Corporations for bargain prices , but the allegations got little traction . According to Howe , the only result of Drew 's attacks " was to give me a record majority in Port Arthur ! "
In early 1950 , St. Laurent considered recommending the appointment of Howe as governor general . The governor general had always been a British peer ; many nationalists wanted a Canadian to hold the post , and St. Laurent agreed with them . The governor general , The Viscount Alexander , was due to retire by 1953 , by which time Howe would be 68 . St. Laurent saw this as a way of allowing his friend and colleague to step away from politics for a quieter life . The minister was willing to take the post , but the position unexpectedly opened early when Alexander was appointed to the British Cabinet . Howe decided he still had work to do as a minister . He was also reluctant to exchange real power for the nominal power of the governor generalship . St. Laurent recommended the appointment of Canadian @-@ born Vincent Massey , who was duly appointed by King George VI .
Mackenzie King died in 1950 , by which time Canada was again going to war , this time in Korea ; on the train returning from the former prime minister 's funeral , St. Laurent and his External Relations minister , Lester Pearson , began planning troop movements . Howe saw it as the wrong war in the wrong place , and thought that Canadian troops should not be sent . Nevertheless , he spent the summer of 1950 at his desk , making plans to implement government controls on the booming economy . In September 1950 , Howe tabled a bill allowing him to reallocate scarce materials such as steel from the civilian sector to military use . The bill passed , but not before the Opposition had charged that Howe had " an enormous appetite for power " . Late in the year , the Government decided on a massive rearmament program . As the Canadian Commercial Corporation , the Crown Corporation which handled government purchases , was felt to be inadequate for the task , the Cabinet decided on a new department to handle procurement . St. Laurent introduced a bill in February 1951 creating a Department of Defence Production , and announced that on passage , Howe would add that responsibility to his portfolio . The opposition parties objected to the Defence Production Act , stating that there was no emergency justifying the powers Howe wanted . According to Roberts , Howe sought to implement rearmament by getting " full power for himself and running rights over everyone and everything to get an urgent job done " . Backed by the overwhelming Liberal majority , the bill passed and the Department was established on 1 April 1951 .
The early 1950s saw an era of prosperity in Canada ; in most years there was a government surplus . In 1951 , the Government introduced an old age pension for Canadians to receive from the age of 70 . With little unemployment and thus a surplus in the unemployment insurance fund , coverage was extended to seasonal workers , such as fishermen . St. Laurent 's supervision of his ministers was minimal at the start of his tenure , and decreased as the years passed . With the Opposition few in numbers , ministers did as they wanted , and when Howe was accused by British Columbia Tory MP Howard Green in 1951 of being willing to end tariffs if the people would let him , Howe replied , " Who would stop us ? Don 't take yourself too seriously . If we wanted to get away with it , who would stop us ? "
Despite Avro Canada 's success in producing the CF @-@ 100 , Canada 's first jet fighter for the Royal Canadian Air Force ( RCAF ) , aircraft development had proven to be a time @-@ consuming and expensive process . The projected next generation aircraft , Canada 's first supersonic jet interceptor , the CF @-@ 105 Arrow , was a more daunting project in terms of financial commitment and a leap in technological prowess . Howe wrote in a letter to Defence Minister Claxton in 1952 that " I am frightened for the first time in my defence production experience . "
The government spent much of early 1953 in enacting the remainder of its legislative program . St. Laurent did not wish to call an election until after Queen Elizabeth 's Coronation on 2 June and eventually scheduled it for 10 August . Drew made large numbers of promises to the voters , and attempted to exploit a Defence Ministry scandal which had broken earlier in the year ( at the Petawawa , Ontario army base , an investigation had found frauds which included placing horses on the payroll ) , but the Liberals were not seriously challenged . The Liberals lost 20 seats from their 1949 high @-@ water mark , but still constituted almost two @-@ thirds of the House of Commons , and no minister was defeated . Howe was again easily elected for Port Arthur .
= = = = Pipeline debate = = = =
Beginning in 1954 , Howe planned for pipelines to take Alberta 's natural gas to market . There were US @-@ backed proposals to build pipelines directly to the United States ; Howe wanted a route passing north of the Great Lakes which could supply Toronto and Montreal . Two rival groups contended for the approval which Howe had the power to grant ; Howe forced the groups to work together on the route he wanted .
In March 1955 , St. Laurent tabled legislation to make the Department of Defence Production permanent . This would also extend the extraordinary powers of the Minister . Fearful of another damaging confrontation between Howe and the Opposition , the Cabinet agreed that St. Laurent would guide the bill through , but after the first day of debate St. Laurent , who was prone to depression , absented himself . Tory frontbencher Donald Fleming contended that the extension could make the minister " the virtual dictator of the economy " . With St. Laurent absent ( or when present , silent ) , Howe took charge of the bill , and according to his biographers , Robert Bothwell and William Kilbourn , " utterly failed to perceive that the bill and his manner of defending it were a godsend to the opposition " . When Howe alluded to the Avro Arrow project and that he " was out on a limb for $ 30 million " , which gave him " the shudders " , the Opposition met the statement with jeers and cries of " What 's a million ? " The Tories were supported by the Social Credit MPs , while the Government gained the support of the CCF on this issue . Interrupted by a lengthy governmental trip by Howe to Australia and New Zealand , the debate stretched on until midyear . In early July , Howe left town for a long weekend , after asking St. Laurent and Minister of Finance Walter Harris to maintain his stand while he was gone , although he gave Harris the authority to do as he saw fit . Without informing Howe , St. Laurent contacted Drew , and the two men agreed that the minister 's powers would expire in 1959 unless sooner renewed . The amended bill passed the Commons in Howe 's absence , and when he returned , he furiously accused Harris of making a deal behind his back . However , when Howe was told that it had been the Prime Minister 's decision , he accepted it . Howe had earlier turned down an Opposition offer to agree to a three @-@ year extension of his ministerial powers , saying " That would mean coming back to Parliament in three years , and I 've more to do with my time than amusing Parliament . " The extension was allowed to expire in 1959 , although by then , Howe had left office .
The pipeline project was wracked with financing difficulties . The pipeline company wanted the Government to guarantee the loans needed to build what would become known as the Trans @-@ Canada Pipeline , but Cabinet refused , fearful of the political implications of giving a large sum of government money to a US @-@ dominated corporation . Howe was embittered by this decision , and grumbled that he was now part of " a government which has fallen into the hands of children " . A solution was proposed by Howe 's deputy minister , Mitchell Sharp : the Government and the province of Ontario would themselves build the most expensive part of the route , in Northern Ontario , to be reimbursed by Trans @-@ Canada once the pipeline was open for business . This was approved by both governments . By 1956 , however , further difficulties had arisen : until the US government granted formal approval for a part of the route which connected to US pipelines , Trans @-@ Canada could not raise enough money to build its portion . The approval was a matter of routine , but the delay would mean that construction on the pipeline could not begin until the spring of 1957 .
Howe was determined that the pipeline not be delayed , and proposed that the government advance money to the pipeline company to ensure construction in 1956 . He emotionally pleaded with his Cabinet colleagues , who agreed both to the proposal and to the use of rarely used closure to limit the debate . Closure had not been applied in the House since 1932 . The issue was attractive to the Tories and CCF with an election due within two years ; it would allow them to portray Howe as an arrogant dictator , and play to those citizens who disliked the American involvement in the pipeline project . If the bill did not receive Royal Assent by 7 June 1956 , options that Trans @-@ Canada held for steel pipe would expire .
Bothwell and Kilbourn describe Howe 's speech opening the Pipeline Debate as " probably the best of his career " . He told the Commons that waiting a year would be imprudent , given the worldwide shortage of steel pipe , and unfair to those who owned natural gas wells in western Canada , which were presently capped . Howe told the House he believed this to be a great project , " of truly national scope , which we must either launch now or see languish for years to come . " He completed his address by giving notice that the following day , the Government intended to invoke closure . Social Credit , with many members from Alberta , supported the bill , while the Tories and CCF engaged in weeks of bitter debate and parliamentary wrangling . This culminated on 1 June , dubbed by the Tories " Black Friday " , when Speaker René Beaudoin reversed a ruling he had made the previous evening which would have allowed the Opposition to continue the debate past the deadline . The Opposition accused the Speaker of yielding to Government pressure . The bill passed within the deadline , and construction on the pipeline began immediately . Howe wrote , " I should not like to face a general election at this moment . Fortunately we do not have to . "
In mid @-@ 1956 , Drew fell ill and soon resigned as Tory party leader . The leadership convention 's choice of Diefenbaker as Drew 's replacement prompted delight in some Liberal circles . Diefenbaker had long been a maverick even within his party , was little known in eastern Canada , and many deemed him unelectable . Although Defence Minister Claxton and the RCAF remained firm supporters of the Arrow program as costs continued to rise , in 1957 the Cabinet 's defence committee proposed elimination of the Arrow , a decision that was to be reviewed after the forthcoming election and which was supported by Howe .
= = = = 1957 election = = = =
After the election was called in April 1957 for 10 June , Howe raised sufficient money to enable the Liberals to heavily outspend their opponents . As there were few Liberal ministers from western Canada , Howe was called upon to make appearances throughout the region . He found that the Manitoba Farmers Union was organizing opposition to the Liberals ; at some meetings Howe had difficulty getting heard at all . At other meetings , Howe engaged in well publicised conflicts with audience members . On 19 May in Morris , Manitoba , Howe told one man demanding to speak that when his own party held a meeting , he could ask all the questions he wanted . The man , Bruce Mackenzie , proved to be the head of a local Liberal association . As Howe left , another man asked why he had not answered his question , posed earlier . Howe replied , " Look here , my good man , when the election comes , why don 't you go away and vote for the party you support ? In fact , why don 't you just go away ? " At another meeting a few days later , Howe was asked why he did not care about the farmers 's economic plight . " Looks like you 've been eating pretty well under a Liberal government " , Howe replied , poking the questioner in the midsection .
Diefenbaker used the Pipeline Debate as a major theme in the campaign , one which he mentioned more than any other issue . In Vancouver , he told the largest political crowd in the province since 1935 , " I give this assurance to Canadians — that the government shall be the servant and not the master of the people ... The road of the Liberal party , unless it is stopped — and Howe has said , ' Who 's going to stop us ? ' — will lead to the virtual extinction of parliamentary government . You will have the form , but the substance will be gone . "
Howe was opposed in his riding by CCF candidate Doug Fisher , a local high school teacher . Fisher 's campaign was well financed , with support from his party , the unions , and a number of corporate enemies Howe had made over the years . Fisher was able to buy up the key time on the local television station — Howe initially scheduled no television appearances . The voters of Port Arthur saw Fisher on television every night , explaining why the Liberals had gone wrong in his view , and what his party proposed to do to correct matters . Called back to his riding after the remainder of his disastrous Prairie tour was canceled , Howe found that Fisher 's appeals had caused defections among Liberals . Howe managed to get TV time just before the election and according to Bothwell and Kilbourn " treated his viewers to the sight of a tired , harsh old man , telling them that the nice young fellow that they had been seeing on television for the last couple of months was , if not a communist himself , then associated with the communists . No one believed him . " Fisher defeated Howe by over a thousand votes . Howe was gracious in defeat , shaking Fisher 's hand at the television station , and assuring the member @-@ elect 's mother , long a Howe admirer , that there were many things for him to do . Howe 's defeat came as the Liberals still led narrowly in the reported returns . The Tories forged ahead , and took the greater number of seats , 112 to 105 . St. Laurent could have remained in office until Diefenbaker and the Tories defeated him in the House , but chose not to — a course with which Howe agreed . The Liberals left office on 21 June 1957 , with Howe the only remaining minister of those sworn in with Mackenzie King in 1935 .
= = Later life , death , and legacy = =
Howe returned to Ottawa after his defeat , cleared his office , and soon sold his house there , moving to Montreal . He said of the new Diefenbaker government , " I don 't trust this new bunch very much . " Howe determined to leave politics entirely , but St. Laurent asked for his continued help , and Howe replied that he would help the party any way he could . After St. Laurent announced his retirement in September , Howe wrote to the former Prime Minister , " The young men of the party must take on the job of reorganising and rebuilding , and perhaps the sooner they get at it the better . "
While publicly taking no position , Howe privately supported former External Affairs Minister Pearson for the Liberal leadership , and Pearson won the contest in January 1958 . Howe advised Pearson not to take any action that might provoke an election . Pearson did not heed Howe and challenged Diefenbaker as soon as Parliament met . The election on 31 March returned the Progressive Conservatives in a record landslide , which left the Liberals with 48 seats . Howe , who took no part in the campaign , had already left for Europe with his wife , Alice , on an extended holiday . On his return , he did what he could to help rebuild the Liberal Party after the disaster , assisting with fundraising and seeking to unite factions within the party .
After some hesitancy that was likely caused by fears the newly empowered Tories would resent any approach to their longtime enemy , major corporations began to approach Howe and ask for him to serve on their boards of directors . Although outspoken against the Tory Government , Howe refused to join the criticism when Diefenbaker 's Cabinet cancelled the Avro Arrow in February 1959 .
In 1958 , Howe was made chancellor of Dalhousie University . On investigating the university 's finances , he found that a professor 's salary in 1958 had less buying power than when he had worked there . Howe urged increased salaries and building improvements to attract first @-@ rate scholars to the university . He also accepted a number of honorary degrees from other universities .
Howe had a longtime heart condition , and friends urged him to give up all boards that did not meet in Montreal . Before he could act on this suggestion , Howe suffered a heart attack and died at his home on 31 December 1960 .
Prime Minister Diefenbaker said after Howe died , " We often had strong differences but our personal relations remained most friendly at all times .... He gave his great ability , indomitable courage and energy to his country in a manner that has earned for him and will assure him of a large place in the history of Canada 's war effort . "
Opposition Leader Pearson stated , " He was a man who shirked no duty , faltered in no task , was daunted by no obstacle . He got things done , and they were good things for the country he served so well and so long . "
At his memorial service , enemies and friend alike gathered . Among the eulogies delivered by friends and colleagues at Christ Church Cathedral in Montreal , it was remarked that Howe often stated proudly that he was " an American by birth but Canadian by choice " .
After Howe 's death , the C. D. Howe Memorial Foundation was created in his memory ; the C. D. Howe Institute , a Canadian economic policy think tank was at one time associated with the Memorial Foundation . The Canadian Aeronautics and Space Institute ( CASI ) introduced the C. D. Howe Award for achievements in the fields of planning and policy making , and overall leadership in the field . In 1976 , Howe was inducted into Canada 's Aviation Hall of Fame , in honour of his contribution to creating a national airline and efforts to create and sustain a viable aviation industry . The C. D. Howe Building , located at Bank and Sparks Street in Ottawa , is the home of Industry Canada and is named for the former minister .
= Sexual Healing ( South Park ) =
" Sexual Healing " is the fourteenth season premiere of the American animated television series South Park , and the 196th overall episode of the series . It originally aired on Comedy Central in the United States on March 17 , 2010 , and on Comedy Central UK on March 19 , 2010 . The title of the episode is derived from the song of the same name by soul singer Marvin Gaye . In the episode , the sex scandal of golf pro Tiger Woods has the media and public frantic to determine why rich and successful men would suddenly crave sex with multiple partners . Meanwhile , schools are screened for the condition and Kyle , Kenny and Butters are diagnosed with sexual addiction .
The episode was written and directed by series co @-@ creator Trey Parker , and was rated TV @-@ MA L in the United States . " Sexual Healing " parodies several elements of the Woods scandal , including alleged fights with his wife Elin Nordegren , which are portrayed as part of a new Tiger Woods PGA Tour video game played by Cartman , Stan , and Kenny . In addition to mocking Woods himself , the script parodied the large amount of media attention surrounding the scandal , and suggested because it is natural for men to crave sex , Woods 's actions can be understood , although not condoned .
Cartoon parodies of several celebrities who have experienced real @-@ life sexual scandals were featured in the episode , including Bill Clinton , David Letterman , Charlie Sheen , David Duchovny and Ben Roethlisberger . The treatment these celebrities received is portrayed as ineffective and ridiculous , suggesting celebrities should not have to undergo insincere acts of public apology for their sexual transgressions . " Sexual Healing " received generally mixed reviews from critics .
According to Nielsen Media Research , " Sexual Healing " was seen by 3 @.@ 7 million households , making it the most watched South Park premiere since " Rainforest Shmainforest " in 1999 , and helping make March 17 the most @-@ watched night of the year for Comedy Central to that point . Shortly after the episode aired , Internet rumors spread that EA Sports planned to sue South Park creators Parker and Matt Stone over their portrayal in the episode . EA Sports specifically denied the claims .
= = Plot = =
The new edition of the Tiger Woods PGA Tour series of video games incorporates elements of the alleged physical altercations Woods had with his wife regarding his extramarital affairs , and resembles a fighting game more than a golf simulation . Cartman , Stan , Kyle and Kenny become big fans of the game . Meanwhile , scientists at the Center for Disease Control determine that sex addiction is a disease reaching epidemic proportions . They decide to screen schoolchildren for the disease , and Kenny , Kyle , and Butters are diagnosed as sex addicts . Kenny is killed after attempting autoerotic asphyxiation while in a Batman suit , while Kyle and Butters are sent to attend a therapy session for sex addicts consisting of Michael Douglas , Michael Jordan , Ben Roethlisberger , David Duchovny , Charlie Sheen , David Letterman , Bill Clinton , Billy Bob Thornton , Kobe Bryant , Eliot Spitzer , and Tiger Woods .
When performing an experiment on chimpanzees , the CDC determines that money is somehow responsible for infecting males with sexual addiction . Because an image of Independence Hall appears on the back of a $ 100 bill , they believe the origins of the disorder can somehow be traced there . They submit their findings to President Barack Obama , who believes that a virus for sex addiction had previously been brought to Earth by extraterrestrials . He accompanies a SWAT team on their raid on Independence Hall in search of the " wizard alien " that is responsible for the sex addiction epidemic . When one member of the team suggests that the mission is irrational and that sex addiction is simply an inherent part of the male ego , he is ordered by Obama to be hauled away .
Because Kyle also feels sex addiction is not a disease , but rather a natural male desire that can be kept under control with the proper discipline , others suggest he is somehow immune from the " spell " of the wizard alien . He is brought to Independence Hall along with Butters and both are given rifles by the SWAT team . The hauled @-@ off SWAT member , gagged and bound in an alien wizard costume , stumbles into the room . On orders from the SWAT team , Kyle and Butters shoot the costumed officer dead and the " spell " is suddenly lifted . Woods announces he is cured of his sex addiction , and the next incarnation of his video game once again focuses on golf . Cartman and Stan reject the new game , with Stan proclaiming that " golf is stupid again . "
= = Production and themes = =
" Sexual Healing " , the South Park fourteenth season premiere , was written and directed by series co @-@ founder Trey Parker , and was rated TV @-@ MA L in the United States . It originally aired on Comedy Central in the United States on March 17 , 2010 , and in the United Kingdom on March 19 . A teaser clip of the episode called " All the Temptations " featuring a parody of Woods 's February 2010 televised public apology was featured on the official South Park website , South Park Studios , and drew 62 @,@ 000 viewers on the first day . Before the episode aired , several news outlets incorrectly reported the episode 's title was " All the Temptations " due to the clip .
The episode satirized the sex scandal surrounding golf pro Tiger Woods , who had admitted to cheating on his wife Elin Nordegren with multiple partners . The Woods scandal had been one of the biggest media stories in the months since South Park 's thirteenth season ended in November 2009 . Series co @-@ creator Matt Stone said the scandal provided so much material for satire that an entire season could have been dedicated to it , and the media storm surrounding Woods meant they had even less to worry about the delicacy of their parody . Stone said he was simultaneously fascinated and disgusted by Woods 's public apology , so the writers were sure to include it in the episode . The script to " Sexual Healing " was not finished until after March 12 , five days before the episode aired . This was in keeping with a continued practice from previous South Park seasons , in which Parker and Stone write and produce their episodes within the week before their broadcast dates in order to harness energy for the final product and keep the material fresh . In an early image of the episode released to the press , Woods is seen at his apology press conference , with Cartman standing beside him . During the production of the episode , the writers decided to incorporate the Tiger Woods scenes as part of the video game that the boys , including Cartman , are playing .
" Sexual Healing " parodied several real @-@ life elements of the scandal , including Nordegren 's discovery of Woods 's infidelity by reading text messages on his cellular phone , and Woods 's loss of commercial endorsements as a result of his infidelity . The episode also parodies the alleged fight that was reported between Woods and Nordegren on Thanksgiving in which Nordegren attacked Woods 's car with a golf club and caused him to crash into a fire hydrant . " Sexual Healing " also included a version of the public apology Woods delivered on February 2010 , which was closely covered and examined by the mainstream media . The episode aired only a few days after Woods publicly announced he would return to golf at the 2010 Masters Tournament in April .
The shock and confusion with which the male characters in " Sexual Healing " react to the Woods scandal , and the extreme measures they undertake to learn why rich and successful men crave sex , served as a parody to the wide media attention and analysis the scandal received . The episode puts forward a pragmatic explanation that it is natural for men to crave sex , so although Woods 's actions cannot be condoned , they can at least be understood for what they are . This point of view particularly conveyed in the speech of one SWAT team member near the end of the episode , who is ostracized , imprisoned and unknowingly shot to death by Kyle and Butters after expressing his common sense views . The episode suggests men of normal financial means would likely be tempted by infidelity and sexual affairs if they had enough fame and money to obtain them easily .
" Sexual Healing " suggests celebrities involved in sexual scandals should not be forced to undergo rehabilitation and public acts of contrition . The scene in which the celebrities start shaking and dancing , proclaiming " Look , the sex addiction is leaving my body ! " , demonstrates the insincerity and ridiculousness of these public steps . The episode also mocked the measures used to diagnose and treat sexual addiction in the United States . This is particularly prevalent when Kenny , Kyle and Butters are misdiagnosed with sexual addiction based on an inaccurate test of simply presenting an image of a naked woman to them and testing whether they could identify a handkerchief in the woman 's hand and specify its color . The rehabilitation courses themselves are also mocked as ineffective and unnecessary , particularly because the most important lesson taught in them is how to avoid getting caught .
= = Current affairs references = =
Several celebrities who had experienced well publicized sexual scandals or affairs were featured in a sexual addiction rehabilitation class " Sexual Healing " . Among them were former U.S. President Bill Clinton , night talk show host David Letterman , NFL quarterback Ben Roethlisberger , former New York governor Eliot Spitzer , basketball players Michael Jordan and Kobe Bryant , and actors Charlie Sheen , David Duchovny , Michael Douglas and Billy Bob Thornton . While discussing how to avoid getting caught , Roethlisberger says , " Don 't screw girls in the public bathrooms " , a reference to his March 2010 sex scandal in Milledgeville , Georgia . Clinton suggests not putting cigars into any woman 's vagina , a reference to his alleged sexual act with former White House intern Monica Lewinsky during the Lewinsky scandal . David Letterman says , " When they ask you for money , pay them " , a reference to the October 2009 scandal in which CBS producer Joe Halderman attempted to blackmail Letterman with information about his sexual affairs .
When a doctor explains auto @-@ erotic asphyxiation to Kenny , Kyle and Butters , he refers to the deaths of actor David Carradine and INXS singer Michael Hutchence . Michael Hutchence is referred to a second time later in the episode at Kenny 's funeral where Butters exclaims " There ! It was like that " , a reference to serial pest Peter Hore 's interrupting of Hutchence 's funeral . After it is explained to Kenny that auto @-@ erotic asphyxiation often involves wearing a costume of some type , he dons a costume of Batman , the DC Comics fictional superhero , and subsequently dies in the outfit . The title of the episode is derived from the song of the same name by soul singer Marvin Gaye . A version of the song , sung by series co @-@ creator Trey Parker , is featured at the end of the episode , when the celebrities claim the sexual addiction has left their bodies . The angry and violent confrontations between Woods and Nordegren are portrayed not as reality within the episode , but as simulated elements of the newest Tiger Woods PGA Tour video game installment by EA Sports . Scientists from the Center for Disease Control , a federal agency under the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services , conduct experiments on chimpanzees in " Sexual Healing " to discover why celebrities crave sex with multiple women . The ending where President Obama is addressing a crowd at the United States Capitol is a reference to the ending of Deep Impact .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast on March 17 , 2010 , " Sexual Healing " was watched by 3 @.@ 7 million viewers , according to the Nielsen Media Research , making it the most watched South Park debut since the third season premiere " Rainforest Shmainforest " in 1999 . The day it aired , " Sexual Healing " was the highest @-@ rated show in all of television among men between ages 18 and 34 , and was the highest rated cable show among adults between ages 18 and 49 . March 17 ranked as the most @-@ watched night of the year for Comedy Central . " Sexual Healing " drew a 2 @.@ 6 overall rating , a 2 @.@ 4 rating among adults between ages 18 and 49 , a 5 @.@ 2 rating among men between ages 18 and 34 , and a 6 @.@ 9 rating among men between ages 18 and 24 . " Sexual Healing " aired before the series premiere of the animated comedy series Ugly Americans , which drew 2 @.@ 1 million viewers . The network was also the highest @-@ rated and most @-@ watched overall television network among men between ages 18 and 24 , and the highest @-@ rated and most @-@ watched cable network among adults between ages 18 and 49 and men between ages 18 and 34 .
" Sexual Healing " received generally mixed reviews . Bill Harris of the Toronto Sun praised the timeliness of the episode , which he said has kept South Park relevant throughout its 14 seasons . Harris complimented the episode for addressing the larger issue of how sexual acts among celebrities are dissected and analyzed by the media and public . MTV News praised the Woods parody , which they said was particularly timely because of the golf pro 's recent announcement to return to golf . It said , " It was on @-@ the @-@ nose while still being clever , which is a balance that the makers of " South Park " have mastered brilliantly . " Bill Brownstein , from the Canwest News Service , called it " an absolutely blistering and timely satire " on Woods and sexual addiction . A CNN review called the Woods satire " brilliant " and a strong improvement over the previous season 's " Dead Celebrities " , which also included several cameos of celebrity parodies . The review also found the ending of the episode , with Stan and Cartman growing bored with their video game once it focused on golf rather than sex scandals and fighting , to be a " pretty hilarious gag " . Ryan Waxon , of The Cowl , said " Sexual Healing " stood out from other Woods jokes and proved Parker and Stone " can do satire like nobody else " . He particularly praised the Woods video game and the subplot with Butters trying to learn about women 's pubic hair , claiming , " Butters ’ low intelligence and complete innocence make for some the greatest moments that the show has to offer . "
Entertainment Weekly television reviewer Ken Tucker said the episode was " rather short on laugh @-@ out @-@ loud funniness " , but included several clever ideas , including the Tiger Woods video game , the satire of the media attention to the Woods scandal , and " one of the best Kenny death scenes ever " . Newsweek writer Joshua Alston said the Woods parody " didn 't manage to be terribly funny or insightful " , and suggested the speed at which South Park writers can produce a topical episode just days before its broadcast is actually a detriment to the show . Alston said , " Whereas once the show 's creators swiftly turned around topical episodes because they could , now the South Park team is expected to seize on the news . " Ramsey Isler of IGN found much of the episode 's humor mediocre , in particular the rehabilitation of the celebrities and the CDC studies of the chimpanzees . Isler said he enjoyed Kenny 's death and Butters ' obsession with " bush " , but felt the theme of the episode was too obvious and less clever than previous South Park episodes . The A.V. Club writer Zack Handlen appreciated the timeliness and relevancy of the subject matter , but felt " the satirical target here wasn 't meaty enough to warrant a full episode , and the developing plot just felt too half @-@ assed " . Handlen said some individual jokes were funny , but the episode as a whole was too one @-@ note and redundant . Carlos Delgado of iF Magazine said the Woods scandal was several months old , so the episode felt stale and old news . Delgado felt the alien infection theory was too random and lazy , and the idea that men would cheat on their wives if they had more money and opportunity was offensive , but not entirely untrue .
Within days of the episode 's original broadcast , rumors began to spread throughout the Internet that EA Sports planned to sue Parker and Stone over their portrayal of the Tiger Woods PGA Tour video game in " Sexual Healing " . The rumor began with a March 21 post on the blog Daily Informer , which quoted an unnamed EA Sports source who said the episode had " a few copyright infringements in there that I ’ m sure will be dealt with accordingly " . The claims quickly spread to other blogs and websites , but EA Sports specifically denied the rumor , claiming , " The reports that EA Sports is planning to sue the creators of ' South Park ' are completely false . "
= = Home release = =
" Sexual Healing " , along with the thirteen other episodes from South Park 's fourteenth season , were released on a three @-@ disc DVD set and two @-@ disc Blu @-@ ray set in the United States on April 26 , 2011 .
= Siege of Vicksburg =
The Siege of Vicksburg ( May 18 – July 4 , 1863 ) was the final major military action in the Vicksburg Campaign of the American Civil War . In a series of maneuvers , Union Maj. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant and his Army of the Tennessee crossed the Mississippi River and drove the Confederate Army of Mississippi led by Lt. Gen. John C. Pemberton into the defensive lines surrounding the fortress city of Vicksburg , Mississippi .
Vicksburg was the last major Confederate stronghold on the Mississippi River ; therefore , capturing it completed the second part of the Northern strategy , the Anaconda Plan . When two major assaults ( May 19 and 22 , 1863 ) against the Confederate fortifications were repulsed with heavy casualties , Grant decided to besiege the city beginning on May 25 . With no reinforcement , supplies nearly gone , and after holding out for more than forty days , the garrison finally surrendered on July 4 .
The successful ending of the Vicksburg Campaign significantly degraded the ability of the Confederacy to maintain its war effort , as described in the Aftermath section of the campaign article . Some historians — e.g. , Ballard , p . 308 — suggest that the decisive battle in the campaign was actually the Battle of Champion Hill , which , once won by Grant , made victory in the subsequent siege a foregone conclusion . This action ( combined with the surrender of Port Hudson to Maj. Gen. Nathaniel P. Banks on July 9 ) yielded command of the Mississippi River to the Union forces , who would hold it for the rest of the conflict .
The Confederate surrender on July 4 , 1863 , following the siege at Vicksburg , is sometimes considered , when combined with Gen. Robert E. Lee 's defeat at Gettysburg by Maj. Gen. George G. Meade and retreat beginning the same day , the turning point of the war . It cut off the states of Arkansas , Louisiana , and Texas from the rest of the Confederacy , as well as communication with Confederate forces in the Trans @-@ Mississippi Department for the remainder of the war .
= = Background = =
= = = Military situation = = =
After crossing the Mississippi River south of Vicksburg at Bruinsburg and driving northeast , Grant won battles at Port Gibson and Raymond and captured Jackson , the Mississippi state capital on May 14 , 1863 , forcing Pemberton to withdraw westward . Attempts to stop the Union advance at Champion Hill and Big Black River Bridge were unsuccessful . Pemberton knew that the corps under Maj. Gen. William T. Sherman was preparing to flank him from the north ; he had no choice but to withdraw or be outflanked . Pemberton burned the bridges over the Big Black River and took everything edible in his path , both animal and plant , as he retreated to the well @-@ fortified city of Vicksburg .
The Confederates evacuated Hayne 's Bluff , which was occupied by Sherman 's cavalry on May 19 , and Union steamboats no longer had to run the guns of Vicksburg , now being able to dock by the dozens up the Yazoo River . Grant could now receive supplies more directly than by the previous route , which ran through Louisiana , over the river crossing at Grand Gulf and Bruinsburg , then back up north .
Over three quarters of Pemberton 's army had been lost in the two preceding battles and many in Vicksburg expected General Joseph E. Johnston , in command of the Confederate Department of the West , to relieve the city — which he never did . Large masses of Union troops were on the march to invest the city , repairing the burnt bridges over the Big Black River ; which Grant 's forces crossed on May 18 . Johnston sent a note to his general , Pemberton , asking him to sacrifice the city and save his troops , something Pemberton would not do . ( Pemberton , a Northerner by birth , was probably influenced by his fear of public condemnation if he abandoned Vicksburg . )
Pemberton , trying to please Jefferson Davis , who insisted that Vicksburg and Port Hudson must be held , and to please Johnston , who thought both places worthless militarily , had been caught in the middle , a victim of a convoluted command system and his own indecisiveness . Too dispirited to think clearly , he chose to back his bedraggled army into Vicksburg rather than evacuate the city and head north where he might have escaped to campaign again . When he chose to take his army into Vicksburg , Pemberton sealed the fate of his troops and the city he had been determined to defend .
= = Opposing forces = =
= = = Union = = =
Maj. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant 's Union Army of the Tennessee brought five corps to the siege :
IX Corps , under Maj. Gen. John Parke ;
XIII Corps , under Maj. Gen. John A. McClernand ;
XV Corps , under Maj. Gen. William T. Sherman ;
XVI Corps ( detachment ) , under Maj. Gen. Cadwallader C. Washburn ;
XVII Corps , under Maj. Gen. James B. McPherson .
= = = Confederate = = =
Lt. Gen. John C. Pemberton 's Confederate Army of Mississippi inside the Vicksburg line consisted of four divisions , under Maj. Gens . :
Carter L. Stevenson ;
John H. Forney ;
Martin L. Smith ;
John S. Bowen ;
= = The defenses of Vicksburg = =
As the Confederate forces approached Vicksburg , Pemberton could put only 18 @,@ 500 troops in his lines . Grant had over 35 @,@ 000 , with more on the way . However , Pemberton had the advantage of terrain and fortifications that made his defense nearly impregnable . The defensive line around Vicksburg ran approximately 6 @.@ 5 miles , based on terrain of varying elevations that included hills and knobs with steep angles for an attacker to ascend under fire . The perimeter included many gun pits , forts , trenches , redoubts , and lunettes . The major fortifications of the line included Fort Hill , on a high bluff north of the city ; the Stockade Redan , dominating the approach to the city on Graveyard Road from the northeast ; the 3rd Louisiana Redan ; the Great Redoubt ; the Railroad Redoubt , protecting the gap for the railroad line entering the city ; the Square Fort ( Fort Garrott ) ; a salient along the Hall 's Ferry Road ; and the South Fort .
= = Assaults = =
Grant wanted to overwhelm the Confederates before they could fully organize their defenses and ordered an immediate assault against Stockade Redan for May 19 . Troops from Sherman 's corps had a difficult time approaching the position under rifle and artillery fire from the 36th Mississippi Infantry , Brig. Gen. Louis Hébert 's brigade — they had to negotiate a steep ravine protected by abatis and cross a 6 @-@ foot @-@ deep ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) , 8 @-@ foot @-@ wide ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) ditch before attacking the 17 @-@ foot @-@ high ( 5 @.@ 2 m ) walls of the redan . This first attempt was easily repulsed . Grant ordered an artillery bombardment to soften the defenses and at about 2 p.m. , Sherman 's division under Maj. Gen. Francis P. Blair tried again , but only a small number of men were able to advance even as far as the ditch below the redan . The assault collapsed in a melee of rifle fire and hand grenades lobbing back and forth .
The failed Federal assaults of May 19 damaged Union morale , deflating the confidence the soldiers felt after their string of victories across Mississippi . They were also costly , with casualties of 157 killed , 777 wounded , and 8 missing , versus Confederate casualties of 8 killed and 62 wounded . The Confederates , assumed to be demoralized , had regained their fighting edge .
Grant planned another assault for May 22 , but this time with greater care ; they would first reconnoiter thoroughly and soften up the defenses with artillery and naval gunfire . The lead units were supplied with ladders to ascend the fortification walls . Grant did not want a long siege , and this attack was to be by the entire army across a wide front .
Despite their bloody repulse on May 19 , Union troops were in high spirits , now well @-@ fed with provisions they had foraged . On seeing Grant pass by , a soldier commented , " Hardtack " . Soon all Union troops in the vicinity were yelling , " Hardtack ! Hardtack ! " The Union served hardtack , beans , and coffee the night of May 21 . Everyone expected that Vicksburg would fall the next day .
Union forces bombarded the city all night , from 220 artillery pieces and naval gunfire from Rear Adm. David D. Porter 's fleet in the river , and while causing little property damage , they damaged Confederate civilian morale . On the morning of May 22 , the defenders were bombarded again for four hours before the Union attacked once more along a three @-@ mile front at 10 a.m.
Sherman attacked once again down the Graveyard Road , with 150 volunteers ( nicknamed the Forlorn Hope detachment ) leading the way with ladders and planks , followed by the divisions of Blair and Brig. Gen. James M. Tuttle , arranged in a long column of regiments , hoping to achieve a breakthrough by concentrating their mass on a narrow front . They were driven back in the face of heavy rifle fire . Blair 's brigades under Cols . Giles A. Smith and T. Kilby Smith made it as far as a ridge 100 yards from Green 's Redan , the southern edge of the Stockade Redan , from where they poured heavy fire into the Confederate position , but to no avail . Tuttle 's division , waiting its turn to advance , did not have an opportunity to move forward . On Sherman 's far right , the division of Brig. Gen. Frederick Steele spent the morning attempting to get into position through a ravine of the Mint Spring Bayou .
McPherson 's corps was assigned to attack the center along the Jackson Road . On their right flank , the brigade of Brig. Gen. Thomas E. G. Ransom advanced to within 100 yards of the Confederate line , but halted to avoid dangerous flanking fire from Green 's Redan . On McPherson 's left flank , the division of Maj. Gen. John A. Logan was assigned to assault the 3rd Louisiana Redan and the Great Redoubt . The brigade of Brig. Gen. John E. Smith made it as far as the slope of the redan , but huddled there , dodging grenades until dark before they were recalled . Brig. Gen. John D. Stevenson 's brigade advanced well in two columns against the redoubt , but their attack also failed when they found their ladders were too short to scale the fortification . Brig. Gen. Isaac F. Quinby 's division advanced a few hundred yards , but halted for hours while its generals engaged in confused discussions .
On the Union left , McClernand 's corps moved along the Baldwin Ferry Road and astride the Southern Railroad of Mississippi . The division of Brig. Gen. Eugene A. Carr was assigned to capture the Railroad Redoubt and the 2nd Texas Lunette ; the division of Brig. Gen. Peter J. Osterhaus was assigned the Square Fort . Carr 's men achieved a small breakthrough at the 2nd Texas Lunette and requested reinforcements .
By 11 a.m. , it was clear that a breakthrough was not forthcoming and the advances by Sherman and McPherson were failures . Just then , Grant received a message from McClernand , which stated that he was heavily engaged , the Confederates were being reinforced , and he requested a diversion on his right from McPherson 's corps . Grant initially refused the request , telling McClernand to use his own reserve forces for assistance ; Grant was mistakenly under the impression that McClernand had been lightly engaged and McPherson heavily , although the reverse was true . McClernand followed up with a message that was partially misleading , implying that he had captured two forts — " The Stars and Stripes are flying over them . " — and that another push along the line would achieve victory for the Union Army . Although Grant once again demurred , he showed the dispatch to Sherman , who ordered his own corps to advance again . Grant , reconsidering , then ordered McPherson to send Quinby 's division to aid McClernand .
Sherman ordered two more assaults . At 2 : 15 p.m. , Giles Smith and Ransom moved out and were repulsed immediately . At 3 p.m. , Tuttle 's division suffered so many casualties in their aborted advance that Sherman told Tuttle , " This is murder ; order those troops back . " By this time , Steele 's division had finally maneuvered into position on Sherman 's right , and at 4 p.m. , Steele gave the order to charge against the 26th Louisiana Redoubt . They had no more success than any of Sherman 's other assaults .
In McPherson 's sector , Logan 's division made another thrust down the Jackson Road at about 2 p.m. , but met with heavy losses and the attack was called off . McClernand attacked again , reinforced by Quinby 's division , but with no success . Union casualties were 502 killed , 2 @,@ 550 wounded , and 147 missing , about evenly divided across the three corps . Confederate casualties were not reported directly , but are estimated to be under 500 . Grant blamed McClernand 's misleading dispatches for part of the poor results of the day , storing up another grievance against the political general who had caused him so many aggravations during the campaign .
= = Siege = =
Historian Shelby Foote wrote that Grant " did not regret having made the assaults ; he only regretted that they had failed . " Grant reluctantly settled into a siege . On May 25 , Lt. Col. John A. Rawlins issued Special Orders No. 140 for Grant : " Corps Commanders will immediately commence the work of reducing the enemy by regular approaches . It is desirable that no more loss of life shall be sustained in the reduction of Vicksburg , and the capture of the Garrison . Every advantage will be taken of the natural inequalities of the ground to gain positions from which to start mines , trenches , or advance batteries . ... " Grant wrote in his memoirs , " I now determined upon a regular siege — to ' out @-@ camp the enemy , ' as it were , and to incur no more losses . "
Federal troops began to dig in , constructing elaborate entrenchments ( the soldiers of the time referred to them as " ditches " ) that surrounded the city and moved closer and closer to the Confederate fortifications . With their backs against the Mississippi and Union gunboats firing from the river , Confederate soldiers and citizens alike were trapped . Pemberton was determined to hold his few miles of the Mississippi as long as possible , hoping for relief from Johnston or elsewhere .
A new problem confronted the Confederates . The dead and wounded of Grant 's army lay in the heat of Mississippi summer , the odor of the deceased men and horses fouling the air , the wounded crying for medical help and water . Grant first refused a request of truce , thinking it a show of weakness . Finally he relented , and the Confederates held their fire while the Union recovered the wounded and dead , soldiers from both sides mingling and trading as if no hostilities existed for the moment .
After this truce , Grant 's army began to fill the 12 @-@ mile ring around Vicksburg . In short time it became clear that even 50 @,@ 000 Union soldiers would not be able to effect a complete encirclement of the Confederate defenses . Pemberton 's outlook on escape was pessimistic , but there were still roads leading south out of Vicksburg unguarded by Federal troops . Grant found help from Maj. Gen. Henry W. Halleck , the Union general @-@ in @-@ chief . Halleck quickly began to shift Union troops in the West to meet Grant 's needs . The first of these reinforcements to arrive along the siege lines was a 5 @,@ 000 man division from the Department of the Missouri under Maj. Gen. Francis J. Herron on June 11 . Herron 's troops , remnants of the Army of the Frontier , were attached to McPherson 's corps and took up position on the far south . Next came a three division detachment from the XVI Corps led by Brig. Gen. Cadwallader C. Washburn on June 12 , assembled from troops at nearby posts of Corinth , Memphis , and LaGrange . The final significant group of reinforcements to join was the 8 @,@ 000 man strong IX Corps from the Department of the Ohio , led by Maj. Gen. John G. Parke , arriving on June 14 . With the arrival of Parke , Grant had 77 @,@ 000 men around Vicksburg .
In an effort to cut Grant 's supply line , Confederates in Louisiana under Major General John G. Walker attacked Milliken 's Bend up the Mississippi on June 7 . This was mainly defended by untrained colored troops , who fought bravely with inferior weaponry and finally fought off the rebels with help from gunboats , although at horrible cost ; the defenders lost 652 to the Confederate 185 . The loss at Milliken 's Bend left the Confederates with no hope for relief but from the cautious Johnston .
Pemberton was boxed in with lots of inedible munitions and little food . The poor diet was showing on the Confederate soldiers . By the end of June , half were out sick or hospitalized . Scurvy , malaria , dysentery , diarrhea , and other diseases cut their ranks . At least one city resident had to stay up at night to keep starving soldiers out of his vegetable garden . The constant shelling did not bother him as much as the loss of his food . As the siege wore on , fewer and fewer horses , mules , and dogs were seen wandering about Vicksburg . Shoe leather became a last resort of sustenance for many adults .
During the siege , Union gunboats lobbed over 22 @,@ 000 shells into the town and army artillery fire was even heavier . As the barrages continued , suitable housing in Vicksburg was reduced to a minimum . A ridge , located between the main town and the rebel defense line , provided a diverse citizenry with lodging for the duration . Over 500 caves , known locally as " bombproofs , " were dug into the yellow clay hills of Vicksburg . Whether houses were structurally sound or not , it was deemed safer to occupy these dugouts . People did their best to make them comfortable , with rugs , furniture , and pictures . They tried to time their movements and foraging with the rhythm of the cannonade , sometimes unsuccessfully . Because of the citizens ' burrowing , the Union soldiers gave the town the nickname of " Prairie Dog Village . " Despite the ferocity of the Union fire against the town , fewer than a dozen civilians were known to have been killed during the entire siege .
= = = Command changes = = =
One of Grant 's actions during the siege was to settle a lingering rivalry . On May 30 , General McClernand wrote a self @-@ adulatory note to his troops , claiming much of the credit for the soon @-@ to @-@ be victory . Grant had been waiting six months for him to slip , ever since they clashed early in the campaign , around the Battle of Arkansas Post . He had received permission to relieve McClernand in January 1863 but waited for an unequivocal provocation . Grant finally relieved McClernand on June 18 . He so diligently prepared his action that McClernand was left without recourse . McClernand 's XIII Corps was turned over to Maj. Gen. Edward Ord , recovered from a wound sustained at Hatchie 's Bridge . In May 1864 , McClernand was restored to a command in remote Texas .
Another command change occurred on June 22 . In addition to Pemberton at his front , Grant had to be concerned with Confederate forces in his rear under the command of Joseph E. Johnston . He stationed one division in the vicinity of the Big Black River Bridge and another reconnoitered as far north as Mechanicsburg , both to act as a covering force . By June 10 , the IX Corps , under Maj. Gen. John G. Parke , was transferred to Grant 's command . This corps became the nucleus of a special task force whose mission was to prevent Johnston , gathering his forces at Canton , from interfering with the siege . Sherman was given command of this task force and Brig. Gen. Frederick Steele replaced him at the XV Corps . Johnston eventually began moving to relieve Pemberton and reached the Big Black River on July 1 , but he delayed a potentially difficult encounter with Sherman until it was too late for the Vicksburg garrison , and then fell back to Jackson . Sherman would eventually pursue Johnston and ( re ) capture Jackson on July 17 .
= = = Louisiana operations = = =
Throughout the siege Union and Confederate forces kept busy in a supporting role on the Louisiana side of the Mississippi River . Lt. Gen. Edmund Kirby Smith , commander of the Trans @-@ Mississippi Department , received a telegraph from Pemberton on May 9 requesting a movement against Grant 's communication lines along the Mississippi River . Grant had established important supply depots at Milliken 's Bend , Young 's Point , and Lake Providence within Smith 's jurisdiction , but Smith failed to recognize the importance of Pemberton 's situation . It was not until June when Smith finally decided to take action on Pemberton 's request , directing Maj. Gen. Richard Taylor to " do something " in favor of the Vicksburg garrison . Taylor commanded the District of Western Louisiana and developed a three @-@ pronged campaign against Grant 's three supply depots . All three of Taylor 's assaults were defeated ( see Battle of Milliken 's Bend , Battle of Young 's Point and Battle of Lake Providence ) .
In response to the growing Confederate activity in the area , Grant decided to dispatch troops from the Vicksburg trenches across the river . The presence of Maj. Gen. John G. Walker 's Confederate division on the Louisiana side was of particular concern ; its presence could possibly aid a Confederate escape from Vicksburg . Therefore , Brig. Gen. Alfred W. Ellet 's Mississippi Marine Brigade and Joseph A. Mower 's brigade from Sherman 's corps were ordered to the vicinity of Milliken 's Bend . Mower and Ellet were to cooperate against Walker 's division , which was stationed in the vicinity of Richmond , Louisiana . Richmond also happened to be an important supply line providing Vicksburg with food from Louisiana . On June 15 , Ellet and Mower defeated Walker and destroyed Richmond , Louisiana .
Ellet 's men returned to De Soto Point and constructed an artillery battery targeting an iron foundry recasting spent Union artillery shells . Construction was begun on June 19 , which placed a 10 @-@ pounder Parrott rifle in a casemate of railroad iron . The targeted foundry was destroyed on June 25 and the next day a second Parrott gun was added to the battery , which continued to harass the defenders until the garrison 's surrender .
Additional Confederate activity in Louisiana occurred on June 29 at Goodrich 's Landing . Confederates attacked a plantation and army training center run by former slaves . The Confederates destroyed the plantations and captured over a hundred former slaves before disengaging in the face of Ellet 's Marines . Confederate raids such as these were disruptive and caused damage , but they were only minor setbacks and showed the Confederates could cause only momentary disturbances in the area .
= = = Crater at the 3rd Louisiana Redan = = =
Late in the siege , Union troops tunneled under the 3rd Louisiana Redan and packed the mine with 2 @,@ 200 pounds of gunpowder . The explosion blew apart the Confederate lines on June 25 , while an infantry attack made by troops from Logan 's XVII Corps division , followed the blast . The 45th Illinois Regiment ( known as the " Lead Mine Regiment " ) , under Col. Jasper A. Maltby , charged into the 40 @-@ foot ( 12 m ) diameter , 12 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) deep crater with ease , but were stopped by recovering Confederate infantry . The Union soldiers became pinned down while the defenders also rolled artillery shells with short fuses into the pit with deadly results . Union engineers worked to set up a casemate in the crater in order to extricate the infantry , and soon the soldiers fell back to a new defensive line . From the crater left by the explosion on June 25 , Union miners worked to dig a new mine to the south . On July 1 , this mine was detonated but no infantry attack followed . Pioneers worked throughout July 2 and 3 to widen the initial crater large enough for an infantry column of four to pass through for future anticipated assaults . However , events the following day negated the need for any further assaults .
= = Surrender and aftermath = =
On July 3 , Pemberton sent a note to Grant , who , as at Fort Donelson , first demanded unconditional surrender . But Grant reconsidered , not wanting to feed 30 @,@ 000 hungry Confederates in Union prison camps , and offered to parole all prisoners . Considering their destitute state , dejected and starving , he never expected them to fight again ; he hoped they would carry home the stigma of defeat to the rest of the Confederacy . In any event , it would have occupied his army and taken months to ship that many prisoners north . Most of the men who were paroled on July 6 were exchanged and received back into the Confederate Army on August 4 , 1863 , at Mobile Harbor , Alabama . They were back in Chattanooga , Tennessee , by September and some fought in the Battles for Chattanooga in November and against Sherman 's invasion of Georgia in May 1864 . The Confederate government protested the validity of the paroles on technical grounds and the issue was referred to Grant who , in April 1864 , was general in chief of the Army . The dispute effectively ended all further prisoner exchanges during the war except for hardship cases .
Surrender was formalized by an old oak tree , " made historical by the event . " In his Personal Memoirs , Grant described the fate of this luckless tree :
It was but a short time before the last vestige of its body , root and limb had disappeared , the fragments taken as trophies . Since then the same tree has furnished as many cords of wood , in the shape of trophies , as the ' True Cross ' .
The surrender was finalized on July 4 , Independence Day , a day Pemberton had hoped would bring more sympathetic terms from the United States . Although the Vicksburg Campaign continued with some minor actions , the fortress city had fallen and , with the surrender of Port Hudson on July 9 , the Mississippi River was firmly in Union hands and the Confederacy split in two . President Lincoln famously announced , " The Father of Waters again goes unvexed to the sea . "
Union casualties for the battle and siege of Vicksburg were 4 @,@ 835 ; Confederate were 32 @,@ 697 ( 29 @,@ 495 surrendered ) . The full campaign , since March 29 , claimed 10 @,@ 142 Union and 9 @,@ 091 Confederate killed and wounded . In addition to his surrendered men , Pemberton turned over to Grant 172 cannons and 50 @,@ 000 rifles .
= = Legacy = =
Folk tradition holds that the Fourth of July ( Independence Day ) holiday was not celebrated by Vicksburg until World War II . This claim is false , for large Independence Day celebrations were held as early as 1907 .
= = Battlefield preservation = =
The works around Vicksburg are now maintained by the National Park Service as part of Vicksburg National Military Park . The park , located in Vicksburg , Mississippi , and Delta , Louisiana ( flanking the Mississippi River ) , also commemorates the greater Vicksburg Campaign which led up to the battle . Reconstructed forts and trenches evoke memories of the 47 @-@ day siege that ended in the surrender of the city . Victory here and at Port Hudson , farther south in Louisiana , gave the Union control of the Mississippi River . The park includes 1 @,@ 325 historic monuments and markers , 20 miles ( 32 km ) of historic trenches and earthworks , a 16 @-@ mile ( 26 km ) tour road , a 12 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 20 @.@ 1 km ) walking trail , two antebellum | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
submitted tenders . David McLean 's tender did not comply with the tender requirements , so the Assembly Government negotiated a fixed @-@ price contract with Taylor Woodrow for £ 48.2M. The contract was signed between Taylor Woodrow and the First Minister on 1 July 2003 and construction began for a second time on 4 August 2003 .
The topping out ceremony took place on 25 November 2004 by the Presiding Officer , Dafydd Elis @-@ Thomas , Privy Counsellor ( PC ) , AM , which included the lifting into place of the world 's largest free rotating wind driven cowl , which was the tallest point of the building . The cowl sits 6 metres ( 20 ft ) above the roof line and rotates when the wind changes direction to ventilate the debating chamber . Construction of the Senedd ended on 7 February 2006 when the National Assembly took control of the building . The project was six months late , due to the National Assembly not producing a detailed specification on time . The 10 @-@ year ICT contract , known as Merlin , was between the National Assembly and Siemens Business Services Ltd , now known as Siemens IT Solutions and Services . Other subcontractors on the project included Arup ( structural engineers ) , BDSP Partnership and MJN Colston ( services engineers ) , and BCL Timber Projects ( timber ceiling ) .
The 5 @,@ 308 m2 ( 57 @,@ 130 sq ft ) Senedd building was opened by Queen Elizabeth II , the Duke of Edinburgh , the Prince of Wales and the Duchess of Cornwall on 1 March 2006 ( St. David 's Day ) . After an address by the Queen , the Parliament of New South Wales presented a ceremonial mace to the National Assembly to recognise the links between Wales and New South Wales . Addresses were later given by John Price MP , the Deputy Speaker of the New South Wales Legislative Assembly , Morgan and Elis @-@ Thomas . A set of commemorative envelopes and postmarks were issued by the Royal Mail to mark the opening of the Senedd , in the form of a souvenir sheet .
Two years after the opening ceremony in 2008 , Taylor Woodrow Construction were fined £ 200 @,@ 000 and ordered to pay costs of £ 71 @,@ 400 , after being prosecuted by the Health and Safety Executive for breaching the Health and Safety at Work etc . Act 1974 at Cardiff Crown Court . The breach contributed to the death of John Walsh , a foreman working for Ferson Construction Services Ltd , a subcontractor of Taylor Woodrow . The accident occurred on 14 March 2004 and was due to a cavity wall that Mr Walsh was filling , collapsing on him , even though Taylor Woodrow Construction had recognised the risks before the contract had begun . Judge Neil Bidder QC said " No @-@ one seriously disputes it was an unsafe construction and Ferson ( Construction Services ) must share blame for that construction . "
= = Timeline of cost increases and time delays = =
The cost of the Senedd increased from £ 12M in 1997 to £ 69.6M in 2006 , an increase of 580 % . In a report published in March 2008 by the Wales Audit Office , the reason for the difference between the two costs were that the original estimate of £ 12M was not based on any detailed design of the final requirements of the building . Extra costs of the building were due to unforeseen security measures after the 11 September attacks in the United States .
After the project was stopped in 2001 , the contract for the construction of the second phase of the building used a fixed @-@ price design and build contract , which meant that the National Assembly had a much tighter control of costs than they had in the first phase .
In 2008 , two years after the Senedd was opened , the cost of repairs to the building had reached £ 97 @,@ 709 . Repairs have been for windows , doors , plumbing and electrics . A spokesman for the National Assembly said , " The repair figures are not excessive for a public building that has hundreds of thousands of visitors each year . The costs are within estimated levels and covered by existing budgets . "
= = National Assembly estate in Cardiff Bay = =
The Senedd is part of the National Assembly estate in Cardiff Bay , along with Tŷ Hywel ( Howell House ) and the Grade 1 listed Pierhead Building in Cardiff Bay . Tŷ Hywel houses staff of the Assembly Commission , AMs , the First Minister and other ministers . Tŷ Hywel is named after Hywel Dda ( Howell the Good ) , King of Deheubarth in South West Wales . On 26 June 2008 , the Prince of Wales officially opened Siambr Hywel , the National Assembly 's youth debating chamber and education centre . It is based in the debating chamber that was used by the National Assembly between 1999 and 2006 , while the Senedd was being constructed . Two covered link bridges connect the Senedd to Tŷ Hywel . Construction of the link bridges began in September 2004 and they were completed by December 2005 .
The Pierhead Building was opened in 1897 and designed by William Frame . It was originally the headquarters of the Bute Dock Company and by 1947 it was the administrative office for the Port of Cardiff . The building was reopened in May 2001 as ' The Assembly at the Pierhead ' , which was a visitor and education centre for the National Assembly . The exhibition provided visitors with information on the National Assembly . On 1 March 2010 , the building was again reopened to the public as a Welsh history museum and exhibition . In 2008 , Elis @-@ Thomas announced that the Pierhead Building would display the history of the black community in Butetown , Cardiff Docks and Welsh devolution .
= = Nominations and awards = =
Nominated for the 2006 Stirling Prize awarded by the Royal Institute of British Architects . The award was won by Terminal 4 , Barajas Airport , Madrid , also an RRP design .
Nominated for the 2006 Prime Minister 's Better Public Building Award .
Listed as Architects ' Journal 's top 50 favourite buildings .
Awarded " Excellent " certification by BREEAM , the highest ever awarded in Wales .
Awarded Major Project of the Year in the 2006 Building Services Awards , organised by Building Sustainable Design and Electrical and Mechanical Contractor magazines .
Awarded the 2006 Gold Medal winner from the National Eisteddfod of Wales .
Awarded the Slate Award in the 2006 Natural Stone Awards .
Awarded the 2006 Structural Steel Design Award .
Awarded the 2006 Excellence on the Waterfront from the Waterfront Center , in the category Commercial and Mixed Use .
Civic Trust Award winner in 2008 .
Awarded a Chicago Athenaeum 2007 International Architecture Awards .
= Mikoyan @-@ Gurevich DIS =
The Mikoyan @-@ Gurevich DIS ( Russian : Дальний истребитель сопровождения / Dalnij Istrebitel ' Soprovozhdenya - " long @-@ range escort fighter " ) was a prototype Soviet fighter aircraft of World War II . The service designation MiG @-@ 5 was reserved for the production version of the aircraft . It was also intended to develop reconnaissance and bomber versions , but these plans were disrupted by the German invasion in June 1941 . The project was stymied by the failure of its intended inline engine , the Mikulin AM @-@ 37 , and its performance was disappointing when a second prototype was built later with M @-@ 82 radial engines . It was cancelled in 1943 after at least two prototypes were built .
= = Design and development = =
The NKAP ( Narodnyy komissariat aviatsionnoy promyshlennosti — People 's Ministry of the Aircraft Industry ) requested on 7 October 1940 that the OKO ( opytno @-@ konstrooktorskiy otdel — Experimental Design Department ) of Factory ( Zavod ) No. 1 , which would later become the Mikoyan @-@ Gurevich design bureau ( OKB ) begin work on a twin @-@ engined long @-@ range , single @-@ seat escort fighter intended to use the AM @-@ 37 engine , then under development by Mikulin . It also requested that specifications , along with a model , be ready to be discussed on 12 November of that year . Three days later Mikoyan and Gurevich were ordered to produce three prototypes to undergo State acceptance trials on 1 August , 1 September and 1 November 1941 . After the meeting the NKAP broadened its roles to include bombing , torpedo attack , reconnaissance and interdiction .
The DIS was a low @-@ wing , twin @-@ engined , twin @-@ tailed monoplane of mixed construction . The front section was built from duralumin , the middle section was a wooden monocoque and the rear section was steel tubes covered with a duralumin skin . The twin tails were wooden and had an electrically operated variable @-@ incidence horizontal stabilizer . The elevators had duralumin frames , but were covered by fabric . The two @-@ spar wing was made in a three pieces . The center section was metal , but the outer panels were wooden with fabric @-@ covered ailerons and veneer @-@ covered Schrenk flaps . The wing had leading edge slats along two @-@ thirds of its length . The main undercarriage retracted rearwards into the rear of the engine nacelles and the tailwheel retracted into the rear fuselage . The Mikulin AM @-@ 37 inline engines were slung underneath the wings with the engine oil coolers mounted in the outer wing panels . The air intakes for the engine superchargers was located in the wing leading edge . The pilot was provided with a glass panel on the underside of the nose to improve his downward visibility , and he was protected by armor up to 9 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 35 in ) thick at the front , rear , sides and underside of his seat . The fuel capacity was 1 @,@ 920 litres ( 422 imp gal ; 507 US gal ) in two protected tanks behind the pilot and another four in the wings .
The DIS was intended to be armed with a 23 mm ( 0 @.@ 91 in ) VYa cannon with 200 rounds in a pod beneath the nose , but the VVS preferred the Taubin MP @-@ 6 . The DIS was to carry two of them with 120 rounds per gun , but they proved to be a failure and the aircraft reverted to the original VYa cannon . Each wing root was to have a synchronized 12 @.@ 7 mm ( 0 @.@ 50 in ) Berezin UBS machine gun with 300 rounds mounted below a pair of 7 @.@ 62 mm ( 0 @.@ 300 in ) ShKAS machine guns with 1000 rounds per gun . The gun pod could be removed and bombs up to 1 @,@ 000 kg ( 2 @,@ 200 lb ) or a torpedo could be carried instead .
= = = Flight testing = = =
The first prototype , with the internal designation of T , made its first flight on 11 June 1941 . Its initial flight tests , conducted by the manufacturer between 1 July and 5 October , were a disappointment as it could only reach a speed of 560 km / h ( 348 mph ) at 7 @,@ 500 metres ( 24 @,@ 606 ft ) , 104 km / h ( 65 mph ) slower than estimated . The three @-@ bladed 3 @.@ 1 @-@ metre ( 10 ft ) AV @-@ 5L @-@ 114 propellers were exchanged for four @-@ bladed 3 @.@ 1 @-@ metre ( 10 ft ) AV @-@ 9B @-@ L @-@ 149 propellers and the engine installation was redesigned after wind tunnel tests by TsAGI ( Central Aero and Hydrodynamics Institute ) revealed that the poorly designed engine accessories were the major cause of the excess drag . After modifications the aircraft reached 610 km / h ( 380 mph ) at an altitude of 6 @,@ 800 metres ( 22 @,@ 310 ft ) . Its time to 5 @,@ 000 metres ( 16 @,@ 404 ft ) was 5 @.@ 5 minutes . Even with the improvements the LII ( Lyotno @-@ Issledovatel 'skiy Institoot — Flight Research Institute ) did not recommend production , but recommended that development and testing should continue . The German advance on Moscow in October 1941 forced the Institute and the DIS to evacuate to Kazan while the OKO and its factory went to Kuibyshev . The failure of the AM @-@ 37 to enter production doomed the project , albeit temporarily .
The OKO , along with all other aircraft designers , had been directed to use the Shvetsov ASh @-@ 82 radial engine as a backup engine for their products in May 1941 , but the evacuation disrupted the production of this version , known internally as the IT and it was not built until the autumn of 1942 . Aside from the engines it differed from the T in small respects . Its tailcone was split vertically to use as an air brake and the armament was revised to consist of two VYa cannon in the undernose pod with 150 rounds each and four Berezin UBK machine guns mounted in the wing roots . It made its first flight on 28 January 1943 and demonstrated a top speed of 604 km / h ( 375 mph ) and a time to 5 @,@ 000 meters of 6 @.@ 3 minutes . Flight testing was stopped on 10 February when the floatless carburetors had to be sent to TsIAM ( Tsentrahl 'nyy Institoot Aviatsionnovo Motorostroyeniya — Central Institute of Aviation Motors ) for adjustment . There were continuous problems with these and they delayed the entire project until it was cancelled in October 1943 .
The service designation MiG @-@ 5 was reserved for the production version of this aircraft , as demonstrated in the NKAP order of 2 October 1941 that instructed Zavod No. 1 to begin manufacture of the MiG @-@ 5 after the completion of its State acceptance tests . Other known designations for the aircraft include the DIS @-@ 200 and Idzeliye 71 , its factory designation . The bomber version , if it had entered production , might have been known as the MiG @-@ 2 .
Two prototypes are known to have been built , but some records suggest that others were built as well . The original order called for three aircraft and was amended later for two additional aircraft with M @-@ 82 engines . Some sources quote dates for the latter version 's first flight of January 1942 and 15 October 1941 , which could be an indication that two of the latter version were completed , or they could simply be clerical errors .
= = Specifications ( T ) = =
Data from Gordon and Komissarov , OKB Mikoyan : A History of the Design Bureau and its Aircraft
General characteristics
Crew : 1
Length : 11 @.@ 2 m ( 36 ft 9 in )
Wingspan : 15 @.@ 3 m ( 50 ft 2 in )
Height : 3 @.@ 4 m ( 11 ft 2 in )
Wing area : 38 @.@ 9 m2 ( 419 sq ft )
Airfoil : Clark YH
Gross weight : 8 @,@ 060 kg ( 17 @,@ 769 lb )
Fuel capacity : 1 @,@ 920 kg ( 4 @,@ 230 lb )
Powerplant : 2 × Mikulin AM @-@ 37 supercharged , liquid @-@ cooled , V12 engines , 1 @,@ 044 kW ( 1 @,@ 400 hp ) each
Propellers : 4 @-@ bladed AV @-@ 9B @-@ L @-@ 149 , 3 m ( 9 ft 10 in ) diameter
Performance
Maximum speed : 610 km / h ( 379 mph ; 329 kn ) at 6 @,@ 800 m ( 22 @,@ 310 ft )
Range : 2 @,@ 280 km ( 1 @,@ 417 mi ; 1 @,@ 231 nmi )
Service ceiling : 10 @,@ 900 m ( 35 @,@ 761 ft )
Time to altitude : 5 @.@ 5 minutes to 5 @,@ 000 m ( 16 @,@ 404 ft )
Wing loading : 207 @.@ 2 kg / m2 ( 42 @.@ 4 lb / sq ft )
Armament
Guns : 1 × 23 mm VYa cannon
2 × 12 @.@ 7 mm BS machine guns
4 × 7 @.@ 62 mm ShKAS machine guns
= = Comparable aircraft = =
de Havilland Mosquito
Tupolev Tu @-@ 2
Petlyakov Pe @-@ 2
Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 187
Lockheed P @-@ 38 Lightning
Messerschmitt Bf 110
Nakajima J5N
Westland Whirlwind
= History of the Constitution of the Roman Republic =
The history of the Constitution of the Roman Republic is a study of the ancient Roman Republic that traces the progression of Roman political development from the founding of the Roman Republic in 509 BC until the founding of the Roman Empire in 27 BC . The constitutional history of the Roman Republic can be divided into five phases . The first phase began with the revolution which overthrew the Roman Kingdom in 510 BC , and the final phase ended with the revolution which overthrew the Roman Republic , and thus created the Roman Empire , in 27 BC . Throughout the history of the republic , the constitutional evolution was driven by the struggle between the aristocracy and the ordinary citizens .
The Roman aristocracy was composed of a class of citizens called Patricians ( Latin : patricii ) , while all other citizens were called Plebeians ( Latin : plebs ) . During the first phase of political development , the Patrician aristocracy dominated the state , and the Plebeians began seeking political rights . During the second phase , the Plebeians completely overthrew the Patrician aristocracy , and since the aristocracy was overthrown simply through alterations to the Roman law , this revolution was not violent . The third phase saw the emergence of a joint Patricio @-@ Plebeian aristocracy , along with a dangerous military situation that helped to maintain internal stability within the republic . The fourth phase began shortly after Rome 's wars of expansion had ended , because without these wars , the factor that had ensured internal stability was removed . While the Plebeians sought to address their economic misfortune through the enactment of laws , the underlying problems were ultimately caused by the organization of society . The final phase began when Julius Caesar crossed the Rubicon river , and ended with the complete overthrow of the republic . This final revolution triggered a wholesale reorganization of the constitution , and with it , the emergence of the Roman Empire .
= = The Patrician era ( 509 – 367 BC ) = =
According to legend , the Roman Kingdom was founded in 753 BC , and was ruled by a succession of seven kings . The last king , Lucius Tarquinius Superbus , ruled in a tyrannical manner and , in 510 BC , his son Sextus Tarquinius raped a noblewoman named Lucretia . Lucretia , the wife of a senator named Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus , committed suicide because of the rape , and this led to a conspiracy which drove Tarquin from the city . With Tarquin 's expulsion , the Roman Republic was founded , and the chief conspirators , Collatinus and the senator Lucius Junius Brutus , were elected as the first Roman Consul ( chief @-@ executive ) . While this story may be nothing more than a legend which later Romans created in order to explain their past , it is likely that Rome had been ruled by a series of kings , who probably were , as the legends suggest , overthrown quickly .
= = = The executive magistrates = = =
The constitutional changes which occurred immediately after the revolution were probably not as extensive as the legends suggest , as the most important constitutional change probably concerned the chief executive . Before the revolution , a king ( rex ) was elected by the senators ( patres or " fathers " ) for a life term , but now two Praetores ( " leaders " ) were elected by the citizens for an annual term . These magistrates were eventually called " Consuls " ( Latin for those who walk together ) , and each Consul checked his colleague , while their limited term in office opened them up to prosecution if they abused the powers of their office . The chief executive was still vested with the same grade of imperium ( " command " ) powers as was the old king , and the powers of each of the two Consuls , when exercised together , were no different than were those of the old king . In the immediate aftermath of the revolution , the Roman Senate and the Roman assemblies were nearly as powerless as they had been under the monarchy .
During the years of the monarchy , only Patricians ( patres or " fathers " ) were admitted to the Roman Senate . The revolution of 510 BC so depleted the ranks of the senate , however , that a group of Plebeians were drafted ( conscripti ) to fill the vacancies . The old senate of Patricians ( patres ) transitioned into a senate of patres et conscripti ( " fathers and conscripted men " ) . These new Plebeian senators , however , could neither vote on an auctoritas patrum ( " authority of the fathers " or " authority of the Patrician senators " ) , nor be elected interrex . In the year 494 BC , the city was at war , but the Plebeian soldiers refused to march against the enemy , and instead seceded to the Aventine Hill . The Patricians quickly became desperate to end what was , in effect , a labor strike , and thus they quickly agreed to the demands of the Plebeians , that they be given the right to elect their own officials . The Plebeians named these new officials Plebeian Tribunes ( tribuni plebis ) , and gave them two assistants , the Plebeian Aediles ( aediles plebi ) .
During the early years of the republic , the Plebeians were not allowed to hold ordinary political office . In 445 BC , the Plebeians demanded the right to stand for election to the Consulship , but the senate refused to grant them this right . After a long resistance to the new demands , the Senate ( 454 ) sent a commission of three patricians to Greece to study and report on the legislation of Solon and other lawmakers . When they returned , the Assembly ( 451 ) chose ten men -decemviri- formulate a new code , and gave them supreme governmental power in Rome for two years . This commission , under the presidency of a resolute reactionary , Appius Claudius , transformed the old customary law of Rome into the famous Twelve Tables , submitted them to the Assembly ( which passed them with some changes ) , and displayed them in the Forum for all who would and could to read . The Twelve Tables recognised certain rights and gave the plebs their own representatives , the tribunes . However the Consulship remained closed to the Plebeians , Consular command authority ( imperium ) was granted to a select number of Military Tribunes . These individuals , the so @-@ called Consular Tribunes were elected by the Centuriate Assembly , and the senate had the power to veto any such election . This was the first of many attempts by the Plebeians to achieve political equality with the Patricians . Starting around the year 400 BC , a series of wars were fought , and while the Patrician aristocracy enjoyed the fruits of the resulting conquests , the Plebeians in the army became exhausted and bitter . They demanded real concessions , and so in 367 BC a law was passed ( the " Licinio @-@ Sextian law " ) which dealt with the economic plight of the Plebeians . However , the law also required the election of at least one Plebeian Consul each year . The opening of the Consulship to the Plebeians was probably the cause behind the concession of 366 BC , in which the Praetorship and Curule Aedileship were both created , but opened only to Patricians .
= = = The senate and legislative assemblies = = =
Shortly after the founding of the republic , the Centuriate Assembly became the principle Roman assembly in which magistrates were elected , laws were passed , and trials occurred . During his Consulship in 509 BC , Publius Valerius Publicola enacted a law ( the lex Valeria ) which guaranteed due process rights to every Roman citizen . Any condemned citizen could evoke his right of Provocatio , which appealed any condemnation to the Centuriate Assembly , and which was a precursor to habeas corpus . Also around this time , the Plebeians assembled into an informal Plebeian Curiate Assembly , which was the original Plebeian Council . Since they were organized on the basis of the Curia ( and thus by clan ) , they remained dependent on their Patrician patrons . In 471 BC , a law was passed due to the efforts of the Tribune Volero Publilius , which allowed the Plebeians to organize by Tribe , rather than by Curia . Thus , the Plebeian Curiate Assembly became the Plebeian Tribal Assembly , and the Plebeians became politically independent .
During the regal period , the king nominated two Quaestors to serve as his assistants , and after the overthrow of the monarchy , the Consuls retained this authority . However , in 447 BC , Cicero recorded that the Quaestors began to be elected by a tribal assembly that was presided over by a magistrate . It seems as though this was the first instance of a joint Patricio @-@ Plebeian Tribal Assembly , and thus was probably an enormous gain for the Plebeians . While Patricians were able to vote in a joint assembly , there were never very many Patricians in Rome . Thus , most of the electors were Plebeians , and yet any magistrate elected by a joint assembly had jurisdiction over both Plebeians and Patricians . Therefore , for the first time , the Plebeians seemed to have indirectly acquired authority over Patricians . During the 4th century BC , a series of reforms were passed ( the leges Valeriae Horatiae ) , which ultimately required that any law passed by the Plebeian Council have the full force of law over both Plebeians and Patricians . This gave the Plebeian Tribunes , who presided over the Plebeian Council , a positive character for the first time . Before these laws were passed , Tribunes could only interpose the sacrosanctity of their person ( intercessio ) to veto acts of the senate , assemblies , or magistrates . It was a modification to the Valerian law in 449 BC which first allowed acts of the Plebeian Council to have the full force of law , but eventually the final law in the series was passed ( the " Hortensian Law " ) , which removed the last check that the Patricians in the senate had over this power .
= = The Conflict of the Orders ( 367 – 287 BC ) = =
In the decades following the passage of the Licinio @-@ Sextian law of 367 BC , which required the election of at least one Plebeian Consul each year , a series of laws were passed which ultimately granted Plebeians political equality with Patricians . The Patrician era came to a complete end in 287 BC , with the passage of the Hortensian law . This era was also marked with significant external developments . Up until 295 BC , the Samnites and the Kelts had been Rome 's chief rivals , but that year , at the Battle of Sentinum , the Romans defeated the combined armies of the Samnites and the Kelts . This battle was followed by the complete submission of both the Samnites and the Kelts to the Romans , and the emergence of Rome as the unchallenged mistress of Italy .
= = = The Plebeians and the magistrates = = =
When the Curule Aedileship had been created , it had only been opened to Patricians . Eventually , however , Plebeians won full admission to the Curule Aedileship . In addition , after the Consulship had been opened to the Plebeians , the Plebeians acquired a de facto right to hold both the Roman Dictatorship and the Roman Censorship ( which had been created in 443 BC ) since only former Consuls could hold either office . 356 BC saw the appointment of the first Plebeian Dictator , and in 339 BC the Plebeians facilitated the passage of a law ( the lex Publilia ) , which required the election of at least one Plebeian Censor for each five @-@ year term . In 337 BC , the first Plebeian Praetor was elected .
In 342 BC , two significant laws were passed . One of these two laws made it illegal to hold more than one office at any given point in time , and the other law required an interval of ten years to pass before any magistrate could seek reelection to any office . As a result of these two laws , the military situation quickly became unmanageable . During this time period , Rome was expanding within Italy and beginning to take steps beyond Italy , and thus it became necessary for military commanders to hold office for several years at a time . This problem was resolved with the creation of the pro @-@ magisterial offices , so that when an individual 's term in office ended , his command might be prorogued ( prorogatio imperii ) . In effect , when a magistrate 's term ended , his imperium was extended , and he usually held the title of either Proconsul or Propraetor . This constitutional device was not in harmony with the underlying genius of the Roman constitution , and its frequent usage eventually paved the way for the empire . In addition , during these years , the Plebeian Tribunes and the senators grew increasingly close . The senate realized the need to use Plebeian officials to accomplish desired goals , and so to win over the Tribunes , the senators gave the Tribunes a great deal of power , and unsurprisingly , the Tribunes began to feel obligated to the senate . As the Tribunes and the senators grew closer , Plebeian senators were often able to secure the Tribunate for members of their own families . In time , the Tribunate became a stepping stone to higher office .
= = = The Ovinian law and the new aristocracy = = =
During the era of the kingdom , the Roman King appointed new senators , but after the overthrow of the kingdom , the Consuls acquired this power . Around the middle of the 4th century BC , however , the Plebeian Council enacted the " Ovinian Plebiscite " ( plebiscitum Ovinium ) , which gave the power to appoint new senators to the Roman Censors . It also codified a commonplace practice , which all but required the Censor to appoint any newly elected magistrate to the senate . By this point , Plebeians were already holding a significant number of magisterial offices , and so the number of Plebeian senators probably increased quickly . It was , in all likelihood , simply a matter of time before the Plebeians came to dominate the senate .
Under the new system , newly elected magistrates were awarded with automatic membership in the senate , although it remained difficult for a Plebeian from an unknown family to enter the senate . Several factors made it difficult for individuals from unknown families to be elected to high office , in particular the very presence of a long @-@ standing nobility , as this appealed to the deeply rooted Roman respect for the past . Ultimately , a new Patricio @-@ Plebeian aristocracy emerged , which replaced the old Patrician nobility . It was the dominance of the long @-@ standing Patrician nobility which ultimately forced the Plebeians to wage their long struggle for political power . The new nobility , however , was fundamentally different from the old nobility . The old nobility existed through the force of law , because only Patricians were allowed to stand for high office , and it was ultimately overthrown after those laws were changed . Now , however , the new nobility existed due to the organization of society , and as such , it could only be overthrown through a revolution .
= = = The failure of the Conflict of the Orders = = =
The Conflict of the Orders was finally coming to an end , since the Plebeians had achieved political equality with the Patricians . A small number of Plebeian families had achieved the same standing that the old aristocratic Patrician families had always had , but these new Plebeian aristocrats were as uninterested in the plight of the average Plebeian as the old Patrician aristocrats had always been . During this time period , the Plebeian plight had been mitigated due to the constant state of war that Rome was in . These wars provided employment , income , and glory for the average Plebeian , and the sense of patriotism that resulted from these wars also eliminated any real threat of Plebeian unrest . The lex Publilia , which had required the election of at least one Plebeian Censor every five years , contained another provision . Before this time , any bill passed by an assembly ( either by the Plebeian Council , the Tribal Assembly , or the Centuriate Assembly ) could only become a law after the Patrician senators gave their approval . This approval came in the form of an auctoritas patrum ( " authority of the fathers " or " authority of the Patrician senators " ) . The lex Publilia modified this process , requiring the auctoritas patrum to be passed before a law could be voted on by one of the assemblies , rather than after the law had already been voted on . It is not known why , but this modification seems to have made the auctoritas patrum irrelevant .
By 287 BC , the economic condition of the average Plebeian had become poor , and the result was the final Plebeian secession . The Plebeians seceded to the Janiculum hill , and to end the secession , a Dictator named Quintus Hortensius was appointed . Hortensius , a Plebeian , passed a law called the " Hortensian Law " ( Lex Hortensia ) , which ended the requirement that an auctoritas patrum be passed before any bill could be considered by either the Plebeian Council or the Tribal Assembly . The requirement was not changed for the Centuriate Assembly . The importance of the Hortensian Law was in that it removed from the senate its final check over the Plebeian Council ( the principal popular assembly ) . It should therefore not be viewed as the final triumph of democracy over aristocracy , since , through the Tribunes , the senate could still control the Plebeian Council . Thus , the ultimate significance of this law was in the fact that it robbed the Patricians of their final weapon over the Plebeians . The result was that the ultimate control over the state fell , not onto the shoulders of democracy , but onto the shoulders of the new Patricio @-@ Plebeian aristocracy .
= = The supremacy of the new nobility ( 287 – 133 BC ) = =
The great accomplishment of the Hortensian Law was in that it deprived the Patricians of their final weapon over the Plebeians . Therefore , the new Patricio @-@ Plebeian aristocracy replaced the old Patrician aristocracy , and the last great political question of the earlier era had been resolved . As such , no important political changes occurred between 287 BC and 133 BC . This entire era was dominated by foreign wars , which eliminated the need to address the flaws in the current political system , since the patriotism of the Plebeians suppressed their desire for further reforms . However , this era created new problems , which began to be realized near the end of the 2nd century BC . For example , the nature of Rome 's military commanders changed . Roman soldiers of earlier eras fought short wars , and then returned to their farms . Since their generals did the same thing , the soldiers came to view their generals as being nothing more than fellow citizen @-@ soldiers . Now , however , wars were becoming longer and of a larger scale . Thus , this period saw a growing affinity between the average citizen and his general , while the generals acquired more power than they had ever held before .
= = = The Senate = = =
When the lex Hortensia was enacted into law , Rome theoretically became a democracy ( insofar as the landowners were concerned , anyway ) . In reality , however , Rome remained an oligarchy , since the critical laws were still enacted by the Roman Senate . In effect , democracy was satisfied with the possession of power , but did not care to actually use it . The senate was supreme during this era because the era was dominated by foreign policy . While upwards of 300 @,@ 000 citizens were eligible to vote , many of these individuals lived a great distance from Rome , and so calling them all together in a short period of time was impossible . The foreign affairs questions often required quick answers , and three @-@ hundred senators were more capable of quick action than were thousands of electors . The questions were also more complex than were the questions of the earlier era , and the average citizen was not adequately informed as to these issues . The senators , in contrast , were usually quite experienced , and the fact that they had income sources that were independent of their political roles made it easier for them to involve themselves in policy questions over extended periods of time .
Since most senators were former magistrates , the senate became bound together by a strong sense of collegiality . At any given point in time , many of the senate 's most senior members were ex @-@ Consuls , which facilitated the creation of a bond between the presiding Consul and those senior members . In addition , the Consul was always chosen from senate , and as such he usually held similar ideals as did his fellow senators . When his annual term ended , he returned to their ranks , and so he was unlikely to stand against his fellow senators . Before the enactment of the Ovinian Law , Consuls appointed new senators , but after the enactment of this law , Censors appointed new senators , which caused the senate to become even more independent of the presiding Consul . In addition , the Ovinian Law all but required that ex @-@ magistrates be appointed to the senate , and as such , the process by which Censors appointed new members to the senate became quite objective . This further enhanced the competence , and thus the prestige , of the senate .
= = = The Plebeians and the aristocracy = = =
The final decades of this era saw a worsening economic situation for many Plebeians . The long military campaigns had forced citizens to leave their farms , which often caused those farms to fall into a state of disrepair . This situation was made worse during the Second Punic War , when Hannibal fought the Romans throughout Italy , and the Romans adopted a strategy of attrition and guerrilla warfare in response . When the soldiers returned from the battlefield , they often had to sell their farms to pay their debts , and the landed aristocracy quickly bought these farms at discounted prices . The wars had also brought to Rome a great surplus of inexpensive slave labor , which the landed aristocrats used to staff their new farms . Soon the masses of unemployed Plebeians began to flood into Rome , and into the ranks of the legislative assemblies .
At the same time , the aristocracy was becoming extremely rich . Several Italian towns had sided with Hannibal during the Second Punic War , and these towns were ultimately punished for their disloyalty , which opened up even more cheap farmland for the aristocrats . With the destruction of Rome 's great commercial rival of Carthage , even more opportunities for profit became available . With so many new territories , tax collection ( which had always been outsourced to private individuals ) also became extremely profitable . While the aristocrats spent their time exploiting new opportunities for profit , Rome was conquering new civilizations in the east . These civilizations were often highly developed , and as such they opened up a world of luxury to the Romans . Up until this point , most Romans had only known a simple life , but as both wealth and eastern luxuries became available at the same time , an era of ruinous decadence followed . The sums that were spent on these luxuries had no precedent in prior Roman history . Several laws were enacted to stem this tide of decadence , but these laws had no effect , and attempts by the Censors to mitigate this decadence were equally futile .
By the end of this era , Rome had become full of unemployed Plebeians . They then began filling the ranks of the assemblies , and the fact that they were no longer away from Rome made it easier for them to vote . In the principle legislative assembly , the Plebeian Council , any individual voted in the Tribe that his ancestors had belonged to . Thus , most of these newly unemployed Plebeians belonged to one of the thirty @-@ one rural Tribes , rather than one of the four urban Tribes , and the unemployed Plebeians soon acquired so much political power that the Plebeian Council became highly populist . These Plebeians were often angry with the aristocracy , which further exacerbated the class tensions . Their economic state usually led them to vote for the candidate who offered the most for them , or at least for the candidate whose games or whose bribes were the most magnificent . The fact that they were usually uninformed as to the issues before them didn 't matter , because they usually sold their votes to the highest bidder anyway . Bribery became such a problem that major reforms were ultimately passed , in particular the requirement that all votes be by secret ballot . A new culture of dependency was emerging , which would look to any populist leader for relief .
= = From the Gracchi to Caesar ( 133 – 49 BC ) = =
The prior era saw great military successes , and great economic failures , while the patriotism of the Plebeians had kept them from seeking any new reforms . Now , however , the military situation had stabilized , and fewer soldiers were needed . This , in conjunction with the new slaves that were being imported from abroad , inflamed the unemployment situation further . The flood of unemployed citizens to Rome had made the assemblies quite populist , and thus had created an increasingly aggressive democracy . This new era began with the Tribunate of Gaius Gracchus , and ended when Julius Caesar crossed the Rubicon river .
= = = Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus = = =
Tiberius Gracchus was elected Plebeian Tribune in 133 BC , and as Tribune , he attempted to enact a law that would have distributed land amongst Rome 's landless citizens . The aristocrats , who stood to lose an enormous amount of money , were bitterly opposed to this proposal . Tiberius submitted this law to the Plebeian Council , but the law was vetoed by a Tribune named Marcus Octavius , and so Tiberius used the Plebeian Council to impeach Octavius . The theory , that a representative of the people ceases to be one when he acts against the wishes of the people , was repugnant to the genius of Roman constitutional theory . If carried to its logical end , this theory removed all constitutional restraints on the popular will , and put the state under the absolute control of a temporary popular majority . This theory ultimately found its logical end under the future democratic empire of the military populist Julius Caesar . The law was enacted , but Tiberius was murdered when he stood for reelection to the Tribunate . The ten years that followed his death were politically inactive . The only important development was in the growing strength of the democratic opposition to the aristocracy .
Tiberius ' brother Gaius was elected Plebeian Tribune in 123 BC . Gaius Gracchus ' ultimate goal was to weaken the senate and to strengthen the democratic forces , so he first enacted a law which put the knights ( equites , or upper @-@ middle class citizens ) on the jury courts instead of the senators . He then passed a grain law which greatly disadvantaged the provincial governors , most of whom were senators . The knights , on the other hand , stood to profit greatly from these grain reforms , and so the result was that Gaius managed to turn the most powerful class of non @-@ senators against the senate . In the past , the senate eliminated political rivals either by establishing special judicial commissions or by passing a senatus consultum ultimum ( " ultimate decree of the senate ) . Both devices allowed the senate to bypass the ordinary due process rights that all citizens had . Gaius outlawed the judicial commissions , and declared the senatus consultum ultimum to be unconstitutional . Gaius then proposed a law which granted citizenship rights to Rome 's Italian allies , but the selfish democracy in Rome , which jealously guarded its privileged status , deserted him over this proposal . He stood for reelection to a third term in 121 BC , but was defeated and then murdered . The democracy , however , had finally realized how weak the senate had become .
= = = Sulla 's Constitutional Reforms = = =
Several years later , a new power had emerged in Asia . In 88 BC , a Roman army was sent to put down that power , king Mithridates VI of Pontus , but was defeated . Over the objections of the former Consul Gaius Marius , the Consul for the year , Lucius Cornelius Sulla was ordered by the senate to assume command of the war against Mithridates . Marius , a member of the democratic ( " populare " ) party , had a Tribune revoke Sulla 's command of the war against Mithridates , so Sulla , a member of the aristocratic ( " optimate " ) party , brought his army back to Italy and marched on Rome . Marius fled , and his supporters either fled or were murdered by Sulla . Sulla had become so angry at Marius ' Tribune that he passed a law that was intended to permanently weaken the Tribunate . He then returned to his war against Mithridates , and with Sulla gone , the populares under Marius and Lucius Cornelius Cinna soon took control of the city . The populare record was not one to be proud of , as they had reelected Marius Consul several times without observing the required ten @-@ year interval . They also transgressed democracy by advancing un @-@ elected individuals to magisterial office , and by substituting magisterial edicts for popular legislation . Sulla soon made peace with Mithridates , and in 83 BC , he returned to Rome , overcame all resistance , and captured the city again . Sulla and his supporters then slaughtered most of Marius ' supporters , although one such supporter , a 17 @-@ year @-@ old populare ( and the son @-@ in @-@ law of Cinna ) named Julius Caesar , was ultimately spared .
Sulla , who had observed the violent results of radical populare reforms ( in particular those under Marius and Cinna ) , was naturally conservative , and so his conservatism was more reactionary than it was visionary . As such , he sought to strengthen the aristocracy , and thus the senate . After being appointed Roman Dictator in 82 BC , he enacted a series of constitutional reforms . He resigned the Dictatorship in 80 BC , retired in 79 BC , and died a year later . While he thought that he had firmly established aristocratic rule , his own career had illustrated the fatal weaknesses in the constitution . Ultimately , it was the army , and not the senate , which dictated the fortunes of the state .
In 77 BC , the senate sent one of Sulla 's former lieutenants , Gnaeus Pompey Magnus , to put down an uprising in Spain . By 71 BC , Pompey returned to Rome after having completed his mission , and around the same time , another of Sulla 's former lieutenants , Marcus Licinius Crassus , had just put down a slave revolt in Italy . Upon their return , Pompey and Crassus found the populare party fiercely attacking Sulla 's constitution , and so they attempted to forge an agreement with the populare party . If both Pompey and Crassus were elected Consul in 70 BC , they would dismantle the more obnoxious components of Sulla 's constitution . The promise of both Pompey and Crassus , aided by the presence of both of their armies outside of the gates of Rome , helped to ' persuade ' the populares to elect the two to the Consulship . As soon as they were elected , they dismantled most of Sulla 's constitution .
= = = The First Triumvirate = = =
In 62 BC , Pompey returned victorious from Asia , but the senate refused to ratify the arrangements that he had made with his soldiers . Pompey , in effect , became powerless , and thus when Julius Caesar returned from his governorship in Spain in 61 BC , he found it easy to make an arrangement with Pompey . Caesar and Pompey , along with Crassus , established a private agreement , known as the First Triumvirate . Under the agreement , Pompey 's arrangements in Asia were to be ratified , and his soldiers were to be given land . Caesar was to be elected Consul in 59 BC , and then serve as governor of Gaul for five years . Crassus was to be promised a future Consulship .
Caesar became Consul in 59 BC , but his colleague , Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus , was an extreme aristocrat . Caesar submitted the laws that he had promised Pompey to the Roman Senate , but the senate rejected these laws , and so he then submitted them to the assemblies . Bibulus attempted to obstruct the enactment of these laws , and so Caesar used violent ( and thus illegal ) means to ensure their passage . Caesar was then given command of four legions , and promised the governorship of three provinces ( Cisalpine Gaul , Transalpine Gaul , and Illyricum ) . This appointment was to begin on March 1 , 59 BC , while he was still Consul . Caesar did not wish to leave the senate in the hands of such unskillful politicians as Pompey and Crassus before he had crushed the spirit of the senate and deprived it of its two most dangerous leaders , Cato and Cicero . Therefore , he sent Cato on a mission to Cyprus , which was likely to ruin his reputation , and then facilitated the election of the former Patrician Clodius to the Tribunate for 58 BC . Clodius , a dangerous demagogue , secured the passage of several laws for his coming attack on Cicero . One law banned the use of omens ( auspices ) as an obstructive device in the Plebeian Council , while the second law made certain " clubs " of a " semi @-@ political nature " ( i.e. armed gangs ) lawful . Clodius then passed two laws which banished Cicero , on the grounds that he had deprived several of Catiline 's conspirators of their due process ( provocatio ) rights when he had them executed upon a mere decree of the senate .
Pompey and Crassus proved themselves to be as incompetent as Caesar had hoped . Clodius terrorized the city with his armed gangs , and agitated Pompey to such a degree that Pompey was able to secure the passage of a law in 57 BC which recalled Cicero from his exile . This was more of a triumph for the senate than it was for Pompey , however , since Pompey was allied with Caesar . Pompey was so inept that the senate decided to override him , and rescind the land laws that Caesar had passed in 59 BC for Pompey 's veterans . This forced a renewal of the triumvirate : Pompey and Crassus were promised the Consulship in 55 BC and Caesar 's term as governor was extended for five years . Caesar 's daughter , and Pompey 's wife , Julia , soon died in childbirth , and a year later , Crassus was killed during his invasion of the Parthian Empire . These two events severed the last remaining bond between Pompey and Caesar .
Beginning in the summer of 54 BC , a wave of political corruption and violence swept Rome . This chaos reached a climax in January 52 BC , when Clodius was murdered in a gang war . In addition , the civil unrest had caused the calendar to become neglected . The calendar required annual adjustments to prevent its drift relative to any Spring Equinox , and so to correct the misalignment of the calendar , an intercalary month was inserted at the end of February 52 BC , and Pompey was elected sole Consul for that month . This elevation to extraordinary power was the last straw for Caesar , and with Crassus dead , Pompey was looking for any excuse with which to crush Caesar , and establish himself as the master of the state . On January 1 of 49 BC , an agent of Caesar named Gaius Scribonius Curio presented an ultimatum to the senate , but the ultimatum was rejected , and the senate then passed a resolution which declared that if Caesar did not lay down his arms by July of that year , that he would be acting adversus rem publicam ( in effect , declaring him to be an enemy of the republic ) . On January 7 of 49 BC ) , the senate passed a senatus consultum ultimum , which suspended civil government and declared something analogous to martial law . Pompey , in effect , was vested with Dictatorial powers , but his army was composed largely of untested conscripts . Caesar then crossed the Rubicon river with his veteran army , and marched towards Rome . Caesar 's rapid advance forced Pompey , the Consuls and the senate to abandon Rome for Greece , and Caesar entered the city unopposed .
= = The period of transition ( 49 – 27 BC ) = =
The era that began when Julius Caesar crossed the Rubicon in 49 BC , and ended when Octavian returned to Rome after the Battle of Actium in 29 BC , can be divided into two distinct units . The dividing line between these two units is the assassination of Caesar in March 44 BC , although from a constitutional standpoint , there was no clear dividing line between these two periods . The forces which had supported Pompey during the early part of the first period were allied against Mark Antony and Octavian in 43 BC and 42 BC , and the constitutional means through which Caesar had held power before his assassination were used by Antony and Octavian to hold power after Caesar 's assassination . From a constitutional standpoint , it makes no difference whether an autocrat holds the title of Roman Dictator , as Caesar had done , or of Triumvir , as Antony and Octavian had done . From a constitutional perspective , these twenty years formed a single unit , through which the constitutional evolution of the prior century accelerated at a rapid pace . By 27 BC , Rome had completed its transition from being a city @-@ state with a network of dependencies , to being the capital of a world empire .
= = = Julius Caesar 's constitutional reforms = = =
During his early career , Caesar had seen how chaotic and dysfunctional the Roman Republic had become . The republican machinery had broken down under the weight of imperialism , the central government had become powerless , the provinces had been transformed into independent principalities under the absolute control of their governors , and the army had replaced the constitution as the means of accomplishing political goals . Between his crossing of the Rubicon river in 49 BC , and his assassination in 44 BC , Caesar established a new constitution , which was intended to accomplish three separate goals . First , he wanted to suppress all armed resistance out in the provinces , and thus bring order back to the empire . Second , he wanted to create a strong central government in Rome . And finally , he wanted to knit together the entire empire into a single cohesive unit .
Caesar held both the Dictatorship and the Plebeian Tribunate , but alternated between the Consulship and the Proconsulship . His powers within the state seem to have rested upon these magistracies . The Dictatorship of Caesar was fundamentally different from the Dictatorship of the early and middle republic , as he held the office for life , rather than for six months , and he also held certain judicial powers which the ordinary Dictators had not held . In 48 BC , Caesar was given permanent tribunician powers , which made his person sacrosanct , allowed him to veto the Roman Senate , and allowed him to dominate the Plebeian Council . Since Tribunes were always elected by the Plebeian Council , Caesar had hoped to prevent the election of Tribunes who might oppose him . In 46 BC , Caesar gave himself the title of " Prefect of the Morals " ( praefectura morum ) , which was an office that was new only in name , as its powers were identical to those of the Censors . Thus , he could hold Censorial powers , while technically not subjecting himself to the same checks that the ordinary Censors were subject to , and he used these powers to fill the senate with his own partisans . He also set the precedent , which his imperial successors followed , of requiring the senate to bestow various titles and honors upon him . Coins bore his likeness , and he was given the right to speak first during senate meetings .
Caesar then increased the number of magistrates who were elected each year , which created a large pool of experienced magistrates , and allowed Caesar to reward his supporters . Caesar even took steps to transform Italy into a province , and to more tightly link the other provinces of the empire into a single , cohesive unit . This process , of ossifying the entire Roman Empire into a single unit , rather than maintaining it as a network of unequal principalities , would ultimately be completed by Caesar 's successor , the emperor Augustus . When Caesar returned to Rome in 47 BC , he raised the senate 's membership to 900 . While the Roman assemblies continued to meet , Caesar submitted all candidates to the assemblies for election , and all bills to the assemblies for enactment , which caused the assemblies to become powerless and unable to oppose him . To minimize the risk that another general might attempt to challenge him , Caesar passed a law which subjected governors to term limits . Near the end of his life , Caesar began to prepare for a war against the Parthian Empire . Since his absence from Rome might limit his ability to install his own Consuls , he passed a law which allowed him to appoint all magistrates in 43 BC , and all Consuls and Tribunes in 42 BC . This , in effect , transformed the magistrates from being representatives of the people to being representatives of the Dictator , and robbed the popular assemblies of much of their remaining influence .
= = = Caesar 's assassination and the Second Triumvirate = = =
Caesar was assassinated in March 44 BC . The motives of the conspirators were both personal , as well as political . Many of Caesar 's ultimate assassins were envious of him , and dissatisfied with the recognition that they had received from him . Most of the conspirators were senators , and many of them were angry about the fact that he had deprived the senate of much of its power and prestige . They were also angry that , while they had received few honors , Caesar had been given many honors . There were also rumors that he was going to make himself king , and transfer the seat of government to Alexandria . The grievances that they held against him were vague , and as such , their plan against him was vague . The fact that their motives were vague , and that they had no idea of what to do after his assassination , both were plainly obvious by the subsequent course of events .
After Caesar 's assassination , Mark Antony , who had been Caesar 's Master of the Horse , formed an alliance with Caesar 's adopted son and great @-@ nephew , Gaius Octavian . Along with Marcus Aemilius Lepidus , they formed an alliance known as the Second Triumvirate . They held powers that were nearly identical to the powers that Caesar had held under his constitution , and as such , the senate and assemblies remained powerless . The conspirators were defeated at the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC . Lepidus became powerless , and Antony went to Egypt to seek glory in the east , while Octavian remained in Rome . Eventually , however , Antony and Octavian fought against each other in one last battle . Antony was defeated in the naval Battle of Actium in 31 BC , and committed suicide in 30 BC . In 29 BC , Octavian returned to Rome , as the unchallenged master of the state . In 27 BC , Octavian offered to give up the Dictatorial powers which he had held since 42 BC , but the senate refused , and thus ratified his status as master of the state . He became the first Roman Emperor , Augustus , and the transition from Roman Republic to Roman Empire was complete .
= Claudia Cardinale =
Claudia Cardinale ( born 15 April 1938 ) is a Tunisian @-@ born Italian film actress . She appeared in some of the most acclaimed European films of the 1960s and 1970s , mainly Italian or French , but also in several English films .
Born and raised in La Goulette , Tunis , Tunisia , Cardinale won the " Most Beautiful Italian Girl in Tunisia " competition in 1957 , the prize being a trip to Italy which quickly led to film contracts , thanks above all to the involvement of Franco Cristaldi , who acted as her mentor for a number of years and later married her . After making her debut in a minor role with Omar Sharif in Goha ( 1958 ) , Cardinale became one of the best known actresses in Italy after roles in films such as Rocco and His Brothers ( 1960 ) , Girl with a Suitcase ( 1961 ) , The Leopard ( 1963 ) , Cartouche ( 1963 ) and Federico Fellini 's 8 ½ ( 1963 ) . From 1963 , Cardinale became known in the United States and Britain following her role in The Pink Panther opposite David Niven . For several years she appeared in Hollywood films such as Blindfold ( 1965 ) opposite Rock Hudson , Lost Command ( 1966 ) , The Professionals ( 1966 ) , The Hell with Heroes ( 1968 ) and the Sergio Leone epic western Once Upon a Time in the West ( 1968 ) , a joint US @-@ Italian production , in which she was praised for her role as a former prostitute opposite Jason Robards , Charles Bronson and Henry Fonda .
Jaded with the Hollywood film industry and not wanting to become a cliché , Cardinale returned to Italian and French cinema , and garnered the David di Donatello for Best Actress award for her roles in Il giorno della civetta ( 1968 ) and as a prostitute alongside Alberto Sordi in A Girl in Australia ( 1971 ) . In 1974 , Cardinale met director Pasquale Squitieri , who would become her husband , and she frequently featured in his films , including I guappi ( 1974 ) , Corleone ( 1978 ) and Claretta ( 1984 ) , the latter of which won her the Nastro d 'Argento Award for Best Actress . In 1982 she played the love interest of Klaus Kinski in Werner Herzog 's Fitzcarraldo , who raises the funds to buy a steamship in South America . In 2010 , Cardinale received the Actress Award at the 47th Antalya " Golden Orange " International Film Festival for her performance as an elderly Italian woman who takes in a young Turkish exchange student in Signora Enrica .
Outspoken on women 's rights causes over the years , Cardinale has been a UNESCO goodwill ambassador for the Defense of Women 's Rights since March 2000 . In February 2011 the Los Angeles Times Magazine named Cardinale among the 50 most beautiful women in film history .
= = Early life = =
Claudia Cardinale was born Claude Joséphine Rose Cardinale in La Goulette , a neighborhood of Tunis , French protectorate of Tunisia on 15 April 1938 . Her mother , Yolande Greco , was born in Tunisia to Sicilian emigrants from Trapani . Her maternal grandparents had a small shipbuilding firm in Trapani but later settled in La Goulette , where there was a large Italian community . Her father , Francesco Cardinale , was a railway worker , born in Gela . Her native languages were French , Tunisian Arabic , and the Sicilian language of her parents . She did not learn to speak Italian until she had already begun to be cast for Italian films .
Cardinale was educated at the Saint @-@ Joseph @-@ de @-@ l 'Apparition school of Carthage which she attended along with her younger sister Blanche . She then studied at the Paul Cambon School , where she graduated with the intention of becoming a teacher . As a teenager she was described as " silent , weird , and wild " , and like other girls of her generation was fascinated by Brigitte Bardot who came to prominence in the 1956 film And God Created Woman , directed by Roger Vadim .
= = Career = =
= = = 1950s = = =
Cardinale 's first film work was participating , along with classmates , in a short film by French director René Vautier , Anneaux d 'or , successfully presented at the Berlin Film Festival . The film made her a minor local celebrity , and led to her being spotted by Jacques Baratier who offered her a minor role in Goha . She accepted it reluctantly after Baratier explained he wanted a Tunisian actress rather than an Italian to star in the main role opposite the Egyptian actor Omar Sharif . The appearance nonetheless marked her feature film debut . The turning point came in 1957 during the Italian Cinema Week in Tunis when she won a competition for the " Most Beautiful Italian Girl in Tunisia " , with a trip to the Venice Film Festival as first prize . After being spotted by several film producers at the event , she was invited to study at the Experimental Cinematography Center in Rome under Tina Lattanzi . She attended briefly as , despite her extremely photogenic looks , she had trouble with her acting assignments ( partly owing to her difficulties with the Italian language ) . She left at the end of her first term and decided to return home , earning herself a cover story in the popular weekly Epoca triggered by her unexpected decision to turn her back on a career as a film star .
Back in Tunis , however , Cardinale discovered unexpectedly that she was pregnant , the result of what she later described as a " terrible " relationship with a Frenchman , some ten years her senior , which began when she was only 17 and lasted for about a year . On this discovery , he wanted her to have an abortion but she decided to keep the child . She solved her problems by signing a seven @-@ year exclusive contract with Franco Cristaldi 's production company Vides . Cristaldi largely managed her early career , and she was married to him from 1966 until 1975 .
Under the new contract , in 1958 Cardinale was given a minor role with leading Italian actors Vittorio Gassman , Totò , Marcello Mastroianni and Renato Salvatori in Mario Monicelli 's internationally successful criminal comedy Big Deal on Madonna Street ( I soliti ignoti ) . She portrayed Carmelita , a Sicilian girl virtually imprisoned in her home by her overpowering brother . The comedy was a huge success , making Cardinale instantly recognizable . Some newspapers were already referring to her as " la fidanzata d 'Italia " ( Italy 's sweetheart ) . Later that year she had a leading role opposite Yvonne Monlaur in Claudio Gora 's romantic comedy Three Strangers in Rome .
Although she worked well into her seventh month , Cardinale 's pregnancy was kept a tight secret . Tormented by thoughts of suicide , she fell into a state of depression . When she thought she could no longer hide her condition , she asked Cristaldi to terminate her contract . Understanding her predicament , he sent her to London for the birth , far away from the press . He simply explained that she had gone to England to learn English for a film . Cristaldi told Cardinale not to reveal her condition as she would be betraying the public and it would put an end to her career . So as to maintain the secret , he drew up a detailed American @-@ style contract covering every little detail of her life , depriving her of any possibility of acting on her own behalf . Cardinale explained : " I was no longer master of my own body or thoughts . Even talking with a friend about anything that could make me look different from my public image was risky , as if it had been publicized , I would have been in trouble . Everything was in the hands of Vides " . For seven years Cardinale kept her secret , not only from the public but also from her own son , Patrick , who grew up in the family with her parents and sister more or less as a brother until the day Enzo Biagi , a journalist , discovered the truth . After Cardinale decided to tell him everything , he published her story in Oggi and L 'Europeo .
In 1959 she appeared opposite Salvatori in the mafia film Vento del sud , and played the wife of Maurizio Arena in Luigi Zampa 's Il magistrato . Cardinale also starred opposite Pietro Germi in his crime film Un maledetto imbroglio , an important assignment for her in mastering the craft of acting while learning to feel at ease in front of the camera . Cardinale considered it to have been her first real test as an actress . She then played the role of Maria in Ralph Thomas 's British film Upstairs and Downstairs , which starred Michael Craig and Anne Heywood . In her early roles she was usually dubbed , as producers considered her voice too hoarse .
= = = 1960s = = =
In 1960 Cardinale starred opposite Marcello Mastroianni in Mauro Bolognini 's Golden Leopard @-@ winning drama film Il bell 'Antonio . The film marked the start of a fruitful partnership between the two . Cardinale stated that her films with Bolognini were among the most joyful of her career , considering him to be " a great director , a man of rare professional capability , great taste and culture . Beyond that , for me personally , a sensitive and sincere friend . " In Bolognini 's films , thanks to her aesthetic femininity , Cardinale took roles of manipulative women who lead men to perdition . During the filming of Il bell 'Antonio , her co @-@ star Marcello Mastroianni fell in love with her , but she rejected him as she did not take his love seriously , considering him to be one of those actors who cannot help but fall in love with their co @-@ stars . Mastroianni insisted that his feelings were genuine , even after many years . The genuine empathy between the two actors proved to be ideal for reproducing the tension between the characters in the film . Cardinale next portrayed Pauline Bonaparte in Abel Gance 's French film Napoleone ad Austerlitz , and after appearing opposite Gassman and Salvatori in the sequel to Big Deal on Madonna Street , Audace colpo dei soliti ignoti , she portrayed Ginetta , the fiancée of Spiros Focás , alongside Salvatori and Alain Delon in Luchino Visconti 's critically acclaimed Rocco and His Brothers . However , it was her leading performance in Francesco Maselli 's Silver Spoon Set which gained her most attention during this period . Francesco Freda felt the film paved her way " to great success " , noting the " sweetness of her smile " which struck a chord with the public .
In 1961 , Cardinale portrayed a sultry nightclub singer and young mother in Valerio Zurlini 's Girl with a Suitcase . As a result of her own experience of early motherhood , Cardinale naturally conveyed the concerns of a teenage mother , identifying fully with the character of Aida . Such was her psychological involvement that she needed several months to overcome her apprehensions and prepare for the part . Zurlini chose her for such a difficult role against everyone 's advice , as she was not yet considered a " real " actress , nor was she ( yet ) one of the most celebrated Italian beauties . However , he was very close and supportive of Cardinale during the production , and a true friendship developed between the two , based on a deep mutual understanding . Cardinale remarked : " Zurlini was one of those who really love women : he had an almost feminine sensitivity . He could understand me at a glance . He taught me everything , without ever making demands on me . ... He was really very fond of me . " Cardinale was warmly praised by the critics for her performance in Girl with a Suitcase , Dennis Schwartz considering her to have been at her " charming best " . Later in 1961 , Cardinale starred as a brothel owner opposite Jean @-@ Paul Belmondo in Bolognini 's La Viaccia . Both Girl with a Suitcase and La Viaccia were presented at the 1961 Cannes Film Festival . At the time , Cardinale was not considered comparable to the two divas of Italian cinema , Sophia Loren and Gina Lollobrigida , but several newspapers and magazines including Paris Match began to consider her to be a credible young rival to Brigitte Bardot . Cardinale 's 1961 appearances also included Henri Verneuil 's French comedy Les Lions sont lâchés , and Auguste in which she had a cameo role .
The following year , Cardinale starred opposite Jean @-@ Paul Belmondo as Vénus in the 18th @-@ century set adventure Cartouche , which made her a major star in France . She also played Angiolina , the romantic interest of Anthony Franciosa in Bolognini 's Senilità , a character which film writer Jacek Klinowski describes as " a spirited and strikingly beautiful twenty @-@ year @-@ old " . In 1962 , Cardinale was interviewed by the writer Alberto Moravia , who focused exclusively on her sexuality and body image in film , treating her as an object . Cardinale remarked to him : " I used my body as a mask , as a representation of myself " . The interview was published in Esquire under the title The Next Goddess of Love . Cardinale was amused to discover that the interview had inspired the writer to publish La dea dell 'amore ( Goddess of Love ) the following year , in which one of the characters , with her fine physical appearance and natural curves , closely resembled Cardinale . Just a few years later she would play a similar character in a film based on another novel by Moravia , Time of Indifference .
The finest and most prolific year of her career was 1963 , when she appeared in a number of leading productions . She starred alongside Burt Lancaster in Visconti 's The Leopard ( Il Gattopardo ) , portraying a village girl who married a progressive young aristocrat ( Alain Delon ) , and played a film actress cast by a director ( Marcello Mastroianni ) in Federico Fellini 's 8 ½ . Both films were critically acclaimed and are often cited by critics and scholars as among the greatest films ever made . She participated in the two films during exactly the same period , frequently moving from one to the other and experiencing the strictly planned approach of Visconti which contrasted strongly with Fellini 's much more relaxed style and his almost total reliance on improvisation . Cardinale remembered Visconti 's set as having an almost religious atmosphere , everything focused on the film , far removed the outside world . Visconti needed silence for his work while Fellini preferred noise and confusion .
Until now , Cardinale 's own voice had not been used in her Italian films as it was considered too hoarse and , owing to her French accent , insufficiently Italian . Not until 8 ½ was she allowed to use her own voice . Cardinale explained : " When I arrived for my first movie , I couldn 't speak a word . I thought I was on the moon . I couldn 't understand what they were talking about . And I was speaking in French ; in fact I was dubbed . And Federico Fellini was the first one who used my voice . I think I had a very strange voice . " With her portrayal of Angelica in The Leopard and her brief appearance as herself in 8 ½ , Cardinale achieved the definitive status of a top @-@ ranking star .
The same year , Cardinale portrayed a prostitute in La ragazza di Bube or Bebo 's Girl , in which she also used her own voice . For her performance in the film , she received her first Nastro d 'Argento for Best Actress in 1965 . Cardinale acted in her first American film ( although it was produced in Italy ) when she played Princess Dala , a wealthy aristocratic woman who is the love and jewellery interest of David Niven in the Cortina d 'Ampezzo @-@ set The Pink Panther . Cardinale 's voice in the film was dubbed by Gale Garnett who went uncredited . Niven raved about working with the actress , telling her , " After spaghetti , you 're Italy 's happiest invention . "
In 1964 , Cardinale starred alongside Rod Steiger and Shelley Winters in Francesco Maselli 's Italian @-@ made Gli indifferenti . Thereafter , she spent three years in the United States where starred in several Hollywood films . She told of how she benefited from the arrangement , explaining it was an American initiative at a time when they invited all the successful European actresses to perform in their pictures , hoping to create a monopoly . Many suffered from the experience but she was able to hold her own : " I took care of my own interests , blankly refusing to sign an exclusive contract with Universal Studios . I only signed for individual films . In the end , everything worked out fine for me .
She first starred in the Henry Hathaway 's Hollywood picture Circus World ( 1964 ) opposite John Wayne and Rita Hayworth , playing the daughter of Hayworth who performs with her as a mother @-@ daughter circus act . By the end of the decade , she had returned to making films primarily in Italy , accepting a pay cut , turning her back on Hollywood stardom . Cardinale has further said , " I don 't like the star system . I 'm a normal person . I like to live in Europe . I mean , I 've been going to Hollywood many , many times , but I didn 't want to sign a contract . " Film writer David Simpson notes that as a result " Cardinale never achieved the same level of fame as Loren and Gina Lollobrigida " , although she appeared in a higher number of decent films .
In 1964 , she also played the lead role in The Magnificent Cuckold , based on the Belgian play Le Cocu magnifique . She was at the height of her sensuality at the time but later the film only brought back unpleasant memories for her as she experienced little empathy with the producer Antonio Pietrangeli while the male star Ugo Tognazzi tried to seduce her . In 1965 Cardinale appeared in Visconti 's Vaghe stelle dell 'Orsa , known as Sandra ( Of a Thousand Delights ) in the USA and Of These Thousand Pleasures in the UK , playing a Holocaust survivor who may have had an incestuous relationship with her brother . Later that year she starred opposite Rock Hudson in Universal Pictures 's Blindfold , the last film to be directed by Philip Dunne . Filming began on 22 February 1965 on location in Ocala , Florida . Diane Bond doubled for Cardinale in the film . Cardinale became good friends with Hudson , who proved to be very protective of her , knowing her discomfort outside of Italy . While in Hollywood , Cardinale also became friends with Barbra Streisand , Elliott Gould and Steve McQueen but she never managed to feel at home there .
By 1966 , Cardinale was being cited as the most popular film star in Italy , even more than Mastroianni and Loren . Life stated that " the Cardinale appeal is a blend of solid simplicity and radiant sensuality . It moves men all over the world to imagine her both as an exciting mistress and wife . " However , following her success in Hollywood , she began to express concerns about the direction of her career . In a July 1966 interview with Life , she confessed her fear of being over @-@ glamourized and exploited , like Sophia Loren , and although she had several further U.S. films lined up , stated : " If I have to give up the money , I give it up . I do not want to become a cliché . "
In 1966 a photograph of Cardinale was featured in the original gatefold artwork to Bob Dylan 's album Blonde on Blonde ( 1966 ) , but it was used without Cardinale 's permission and removed from later pressings . That year she starred in Mark Robson 's war picture Lost Command for Columbia Pictures opposite Anthony Quinn , Alain Delon and George Segal . Quinn expressed his love of working with Cardinale , stating that although he adored Cardinale and Loren equally , " I relate easier to Claudia , Sophia creates an impression of something larger than life , something unobtainable . But Claudia – she 's not easy , still she 's within reach " . She also played a Mexican marquessa in Richard Brooks ' western The Professionals , uniting her on screen once again with Burt Lancaster in what she considered to be her best American film . The following year she appeared in Una rosa per tutti ( A Rose for Everyone ) and in Alexander Mackendrick 's sex farce Don 't Make Waves opposite Tony Curtis . Although occasional funny moments were noted , Don 't Make Waves was generally panned by the critics and the lack of chemistry with co @-@ star Curtis was highlighted . Leonard Maltin , on the other hand , described the film as " a gem " .
At the beginning of 1967 , Cristaldi joined her in the United States . While the two were staying in Atlanta , he surprised her by taking her to their wedding ceremony which he had arranged without her knowledge . She went ahead with the ceremony but was concerned about sacrificing the rights she had to her child Patrick . She also realized she was increasingly unable to make decisions about her own life . The marriage was never officialized in Italy .
In 1968 , Cardinale featured opposite Franco Nero in Il giorno della civetta , in a David di Donatello for Best Actress @-@ winning performance . She reunited with Rock Hudson in the Italian @-@ made criminal comedy Ruba al prossimo tuo under director Francesco Maselli . She also appeared alongside Rod Taylor in The Hell with Heroes and starred in one of her best known roles as former prostitute Jill McBain in Sergio Leone 's epic western Once Upon a Time in the West . Such was the power of her performance as the whore that Leone 's biographer Robert C. Cumbow described her as " permanently engraved in cinematic history " and noted how suited to the role she was : " Her sex @-@ goddess appearance combines with her more mystical iconographic associations to ease the progress of Jill from tart to town builder , from harlot to earth mother , from sinner to symbol of America — the apotheosis of the harlot with a heart of gold " . In 1969 Cardinale starred opposite Nino Manfredi in Luigi Magni 's Nell 'anno del Signore , based on the actual story of the capital execution of two Carbonari in papal Rome . This was followed by a role as a telephone operator in Certo certissimo ... anzi probabile , and as a nurse opposite Sean Connery and Peter Finch in Mikhail Kalatozov 's The Red Tent , based on the story of the mission to rescue Umberto Nobile and the other survivors of the crash of the Airship Italia .
= = = 1970s = = =
In 1970 , Cardinale starred opposite Peter McEnery and Eli Wallach in Jerzy Skolimowski 's comedy film The Adventures of Gerard , based on The Exploits of Brigadier Gerard by Arthur Conan Doyle . In 1971 , she formed a duo with Brigitte Bardot in the French western @-@ comedy The Legend of Frenchie King , and appeared as a prostitute opposite Alberto Sordi in Luigi Zampa 's comedy A Girl in Australia . The film , shot on location in February and March 1971 , earned Cardinale a Best Actress award at the David di Donatello Awards the following year . In 1972 , Cardinale appeared in Marco Ferreri 's L 'udienza , which was screened at the 22nd Berlin International Film Festival . She also featured in La Scoumoune with Jean @-@ Paul Belmondo and Michel Constantin . After a role as a Russian aristocrat opposite Oliver Reed in One Russian Summer ( 1973 ) , set in pre revolutionary Russia , Cardinale starred opposite Franco Nero in I guappi ( 1974 ) , a historical drama film with " poliziotteschi " and " noir " elements . Cardinale and the director Pasquale Squitieri met for the first time on set , and he would soon become her husband .
In 1975 , Cardinale played the daughter of a political exile ( Adolfo Celi ) in Mauro Bolognini Libera , My Love , a character who becomes " increasingly incensed by the fascist government of Italy and makes a number of bold and very personal gestures against it " . Later that year she appeared in the comedies The Immortal Bachelor with Vittorio Gassman and Qui comincia l 'avventura with Monica Vitti . Vitti 's biographer noted how Cardinale and Vitti stood out as the female duo in a predominantly masculine cast .
In 1976 , Cardinale appeared in the sex comedy Il comune senso del pudore , which was directed and written by Alberto Sordi , who also co @-@ starred . The following year , she had a biblical role as the Adulteress in the Jesus of Nazareth miniseries , which featured Robert Powell as Jesus , Anne Bancroft as Mary Magdalene , and Ernest Borgnine as Cornelius the Centurion . Cardinale starred in her husband 's Il prefetto di ferro , which tells the story of Cesare Mori ( Giuliano Gemma ) , an Italian prefect that before and during the Fascist period was best known as " the Iron Prefect " . The film shared the 1978 David di Donatello for Best Film with In nome del Papa Re . In 1978 , Cardinale appeared in Damiano Damiani 's political thriller , Goodbye & Amen – L 'uomo della CIA , and again featured alongside Gemma in her husband 's gangster picture , Corleone , set in 1950s Sicily . After a role in another Squitieri film in 1978 , L 'arma , Cardinale portrayed Eleana , a Greek " gutsy brothel madame " and the girlfriend of Telly Savalas in George P. Cosmatos 's adventure war film , Escape to Athena ( 1979 ) . The film , shot on location in Rhodes , was poorly received ; it holds a 32 % " rotten " rating on Rotten Tomatoes as of July 2015 .
= = = 1980s = = =
After a role in Si salvi chi vuole ( 1980 ) , and a smaller part in Peter Zinner 's The Salamander opposite Franco Nero , Anthony Quinn and Christopher Lee , Cardinale played the love interest of Marcello Mastroianni in Liliana Cavani 's war picture The Skin , a film which also reunited her with Burt Lancaster . The Skin was entered into the 1981 Cannes Film Festival . In 1982 , Cardinale appeared in Werner Herzog 's Fitzcarraldo , playing a successful brothel owner who funds Klaus Kinski 's purchase of an old steamship in South America . The film , inspired by the story of Peruvian rubber baron Carlos Fermín Fitzcarrald was shot on location in Brazil and Peru . The film was critically acclaimed , with Vincent Canby of The New York Times calling it " a fine , quirky , fascinating movie " and a " stunning spectacle " , comparing the dynamic between Kinski and Cardinale to Katharine Hepburn and Humphrey Bogart in John Huston 's The African Queen . He pointed out that although Cardinale 's screen time in the film was unfortunately not substantial , she set its comic tone ; he praised the way she managed to turn Kinski , renowned for his volatile temperament and portrayals of megalomaniacs and criminals into a " genuinely charming screen presence " , adding a new dimension to his acting career . Later that year , Cardinale played opposite Pierre Mondy in the sex farce Le Cadeau , a role which biographers Lancia and Minelli claim was played with a " mature charm and expressiveness " .
In 1983 , Cardinale had a role in the Waris Hussein miniseries Princess Daisy , and featured alongside Lino Ventura and Bernard Giraudeau in the French @-@ Canadian film Le Ruffian . In 1984 , she played the love interest of Marcello Mastroianni in a Marco Bellocchio production of Henry IV , based on the Luigi Pirandello play of the same name . It was entered into the 1984 Cannes Film Festival . Squitieri 's Claretta ( 1984 ) , featuring Cardinale and Gemma , was entered into the competition at the 41st Venice International Film Festival . Cardinale 's powerful performance as Claretta Petacci garnered her the Nastro d 'Argento for Best Actress . In 1985 , Cardinale starred opposite Ben Gazzara and Lina Sastri in Alberto Bevilacqua 's La | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
donna delle meraviglie . It entered the competition at the 1985 Venice International Film Festival .
In 1986 , Cardinale was involved in the making of two films for television . In Comencini 's La storia ( from Elsa Morante 's novel ) , Cardinale portrayed a widow raising a son during World War II . In her husband 's Naso di Cane , a miniseries , Enrico Lancia and Roberto Poppi praised her for her " light comic touch " . In 1987 , Cardinale starred opposite Peter Coyote , Greta Scacchi and Jamie Lee Curtis in Diane Kurys 's film A Man in Love ( Un homme amoureux ) , Kurys 's first English language feature . It was entered into the 1987 Cannes Film Festival . Cardinale 's performance as Scacchi 's cancer @-@ stricken mother was praised by critics , with Desson Howe of The Washington Post highlighting the " warm and radiant " elements that she brought to the role , and Hal Hinson , also of The Post , comparing Scacchi to having " the same kind of sensuality that Cardinale brought to her earlier roles " . After a role in the comedy , Blu elettrico ( 1988 ) , in 1989 Cardinale portrayed Yolande de Polastron , a favourite of Marie Antionette 's , in the two @-@ part film La Révolution française . Made to celebrate the bicentennial anniversary of the French Revolution , the 360 @-@ minute Robert Enrico and Richard T. Heffron film was an international production boasting a cast which included Klaus Maria Brandauer , Jane Seymour and Peter Ustinov .
= = = 1990s = = =
In 1990 , Cardinale starred opposite Bruno Cremer in her husband 's Atto di dolore , and appeared in the Morocco @-@ set Soviet @-@ Italian production , La battaglia dei tre tamburi di fuoco . In 1991 , Cardinale featured alongside Richard Berry and Omar Sharif in Henri Verneuil 's Mayrig ( meaning " mother " ) , a film about the struggles of an Armenian family that emigrates to Marseilles in France from Turkey after the Armenian Genocide of 1915 . Such was the success of the film that Verneuil made a sequel the following year , 588 , rue Paradis , also featuring the cast . Cardinale was praised by critics for her role as the mother ; the Armenian General Benevolent Union of America noted the " flawless performance of these intrepid actors , especially of Claudia Cardinale " . In 1993 , Cardinale won the Leone d 'oro alla carriera award at the Venice Film Festival , in which she was honoured along with Roman Polanski , Robert De Niro , and Steven Spielberg . Cardinale agreed to reunite with Blake Edwards , Herbert Lom and Burt Kwouk to celebrate the 30th anniversary of The Pink Panther by making Son of the Pink Panther . It was Edward 's last film , but was a critical and commercial failure , with critics despairing at the " painfully unfunny script " and the performance of Roberto Benigni as Clouseau , which earned him the Razzie Award for Worst New Star . As of July 2015 it has a rating of just 6 % on Rotten Tomatoes based on 34 reviews . In 1994 , Cardinale had a role in Charlotte Dubreuil 's Elles ne pensent qu 'à ça ... , and the following year appeared in the French TV serial 10 @-@ 07 : L 'affaire Zeus .
In 1997 , Cardinale featured in the British @-@ Italian television drama miniseries Nostromo , directed by Alastair Reid and produced by Fernando Ghia of Pixit Productions , a co @-@ production with Radiotelevisione Italiana , Televisión Española , and WGBH Boston . It is described as " an adaptation of Joseph Conrad 's epic story Nostromo of political upheaval , greed and romance in turn @-@ of @-@ the @-@ 20th @-@ century South America . " Cardinale and the cast were nominated for an ALMA Award for Outstanding Latino / a Cast in a Made @-@ for @-@ Television Movie or Mini @-@ Series . Later in 1997 , Cardinale appeared in the films Sous les pieds des femmes and her husband 's Stupor Mundi , in which she portrayed Constance of Aragon . In 1998 , Cardinale portrayed the mother of Lola Naymark in the French picture Riches , belles , etc . , a wealthy baroness who leaves her hotel to her daughter to care for during her absence . The following year , Cardinale played the peasant mother of two children who are members of Carmine Crocco 's ( Enrico Lo Verso 's ) army during the Garibaldi era , in her husband 's historical film Li chiamarono ... briganti ! . Poorly received , the film was boycotted , and the producers have since refused to assign the broadcasting rights .
= = = 2000 – present = = =
In 2000 , Cardinale embarked on her stage career , starring in Maurizio Scaparro 's stage production of La Venexiana , adapted by René de Ceccatty , at the Théâtre du Rond @-@ Point in Paris . She also appeared in her husband 's television film , Élisabeth - Ils sont tous nos enfants . Two years later , Cardinale went on a theatrical tour of Italy , performing in Luigi Pirandello 's Come tu mi vuoi , which Squitieri directed . She appeared as what Roger Ebert described as a " faded countess " opposite Jeremy Irons in Claude Lelouch 's thriller film And Now ... Ladies and Gentlemen , portraying a character who spends her time in Fez , Morocco with handsome gigolos . The film was screened out of competition at the 2002 Cannes Film Festival . And Now ... Ladies and Gentlemen received mixed reviews ; A. O. Scott of The New York Times dismissed it as " sublimely silly " , but praised the " impeccable CinemaScope compositions " and the " lush , suave score " by Michel Legrand .
In 2005 , Cardinale appeared in a Philippe Adrien stage production of Tennessee Williams 's Sweet Bird of Youth , and in the 2006 / 2007 season also featured in another Williams play , The Glass Menagerie , directed by Andrea Liberovici , in which she played the character of Amanda . In 2007 , Cardinale appeared in the Aline Issermann comedy film Cherche fiancé tous frais payés , opposite Alexandra Lamy and Bruno Salomone , in a role which Patrick Besson described as " atrocious " . After a role in the TV movie Hold @-@ up à l 'italienne ( 2008 ) , the following year Cardinale starred in the critically acclaimed The String , playing a Tunisian mother who has a tempestuous relationship with her French @-@ educated gay son . Michael D. Klemm of cinemaqueer.com reflected on how the film broke many of the taboos with interracial sexuality and homosexuality . He praised Cardinale 's " terrific " acting and portrayal of the " overbearing " mother , likening one scene , where she " brings home a nice girl for Malik ( Antonin Stahly ) to meet " , to Harold and Maude ( 1971 ) . In 2010 , Cardinale received the Golden Orange Best Actress Award at the 47th Antalya " Golden Orange " International Film Festival for her performance as an elderly Italian woman who takes in a young Turkish exchange student in Signora Enrica . The Turkish @-@ Italian co @-@ production was shot in location in Istanbul and Rimini .
In 2012 , Cardinale featured opposite Jeanne Moreau and Michael Lonsdale in the final feature film to be directed by Portuguese director Manoel de Oliveira , Gebo and the Shadow . Critically acclaimed , it has a rare 100 % rating on Rotten Tomatoes , and was shown at the 69th Venice International Film Festival . The Hollywood Reporter described it as the " ensemble of superb older performers who comprise the remainder of the dramatis personae " . In 2013 , Cardinale starred alongside supporting actresses Patricia Black and Chloé Cunha in Nadia Szold 's Joy de V. , and had a role in Ernst Gossner 's war drama The Silent Mountain , a love story set in the Dolomite Mountains at the outbreak of World War I between Italy and Austria @-@ Hungary in 1915 . Gossner described her as " a terrific spirit on the set " , and noted that Cardinale told the production team " legendary stories " about Marcello Mastroianni . In 2014 , Cardinale portrayed a " sympathetic Italian chaperone " viscountess in the British period drama film Effie Gray , which was penned by Emma Thompson and featured Dakota Fanning in the lead role . While promoting Effie Gray , in an interview Cardinale said : " I still continue to work , it 's 142 movies now . Usually when you are old you don 't work any more , but I still work , which is good .... I 've been very lucky because I 've had many fantastic directors with me , Fellini , Visconti , Blake Edwards , lots and lots ... " .
= = Personal life = =
Claudia Cardinale met Italian film producer Franco Cristaldi in 1958 . She married him in Atlanta in 1966 but they divorced in 1975 . The couple had become increasingly detached and he wanted to remarry without any ties . Although Cardinale did not believe the Atlanta marriage had any status in Italy , she consented to his request . As a result , Cristaldi married Zeudi Araya and had no further contractual relationships with Cardinale .
Cardinale has lived with Pasquale Squitieri , an Italian film director , since 1975 . She has two children : Patrick , who was born illegitimately when she was 19 and later adopted by Cristaldi , and Claudia , whom she had with Squitieri . She is fluent in Sicilian , Arabic , French , Italian , English , and Spanish . Her niece Francesca is also an actress .
Cardinale is a political liberal who has supported feminist causes over the years . She has frequently stated her pride in her Tunisian background and has great roots in Arabic culture – as evidenced by her book Ma Tunisie and her appearance as herself in the Tunisian film Un été à La Goulette ( " A Summer in La Goulette " ) . She has been a UNESCO goodwill ambassador for the Defense of Women 's Rights since March 2000 , and was a goodwill ambassador for the UNESCO World Water Day for 2006 .
Cardinale published an autobiography , with Anne Mori , Io Claudia , Tu Claudia in 1995 . She has been a regular attendee of the Academy Awards . Her awards have included an honorary Golden Lion at the 1993 Venice Film Festival , and an honorary Golden Bear at the 2002 Berlin Film Festival . The Los Angeles Times Magazine , in a February 2011 online feature , named Cardinale among the 50 most beautiful women in film history . Cardinale said of her acting , " I never felt scandal and confession were necessary to be an actress . I 've never revealed my self or even my body in films . Mystery is very important . " In a 2014 interview , she revealed her secret of success : " If you want to practise this craft , you have to have inner strength . Otherwise , you ’ ll lose your idea of who you are . Every film I make entails becoming a different woman . And in front of a camera , no less ! But when I ’ m finished , I ’ m me again . "
= Typhoon Angela ( 1989 ) =
Super Typhoon Angela , known in the Philippines as Typhoon Rubing , was an intense tropical cyclone that formed in late September 1989 . The storm developed from a tropical disturbance in the monsoon trough and moved generally westward throughout its duration . The storm ultimately peaked in intensity as a super typhoon and struck northern Luzon in the Philippines . After weakening and traversing the South China Sea , Angela bypassed Hainan to the south and struck Vietnam before dissipating . The storm caused severe damage and 119 fatalities in the Philippines . Thousands of houses were damaged , and hundreds of thousands of residents were impacted by the typhoon . Monetary damage is placed at $ 8 million .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Typhoon Angela trace back to a tropical disturbance in the monsoon trough that became very active after a lull in convection . The disturbance developed over the western Caroline Islands , and persisted for two days until it was noted in a Significant Tropical Weather Advisory issued by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) . It rapidly matured , and prompted a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert shortly thereafter . Enhanced upper @-@ level outflow assisted the storm 's intensification . At 0600 UTC on September 28 , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) recognized the storm as a tropical depression . The JTWC issued their first advisory on the depression , designated 34W , at 0600 UTC on September 29 . However , at the same time , the JMA upgraded it to a tropical storm .
At 1800 UTC on September 29 , the JTWC classified the depression as Tropical Storm Angela . The system initially tracking northwestward , Angela turned westward along the southern periphery of a subtropical ridge to the north . The tropical storm began to rapidly intensify , and the JMA upgraded it to a severe tropical storm at 1800 UTC on September 30 , while the JTWC estimated that it had attained typhoon intensity . The JMA then upgraded Angela to a typhoon shortly thereafter , and assessed it as having reached peak intensity on October 2 , with 10 @-@ minute maximum sustained winds of 175 km / h ( 110 mph ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 925 millibars . Continuing westward , the typhoon attained super typhoon status four days later , and the JWTC reported that Angela peaked in strength on October 5 . Between October 5 and October 6 , Angela crossed the northern coast of Luzon in the Philippines .
The storm weakened after interacting with land , and the JTWC downgraded it to a typhoon on October 6 as it emerged into the South China Sea . An area of high pressure built over China , pushing Angela towards the southwest . Wind shear over the area weakened somewhat , and the typhoon re @-@ intensified . However , as it passed south of Hainan , the cyclone again weakened due to the interaction with land . At 0600 UTC on October 10 , Angela struck the coast of Vietnam and moved ashore . The JTWC issued their final advisory on the system at 1200 UTC , at which time the JMA downgraded it to a severe tropical storm , to a tropical storm six hours later , and to a tropical depression early on October 11 .
= = Preparations and impact = =
On October 6 , Angela prompted the issuance of the Stand By Signal No. 1 in Hong Kong . It was replaced by a Strong Wind Signal No. 3 the next day , and after the typhoon 's closest approach to the region on October 8 , a Strong Monsoon Signal was hoisted . One @-@ hour sustained winds reached 39 mph ( 63 km / h ) , out of the east , at Waglan Island . Gusts at Tate 's Cairn peaked at 51 mph ( 82 km / h ) from the north @-@ northeast .
Angela caused severe damage in the Philippines . It is estimated that 119 people perished , and 192 more were injured . Additionally , 28 remained missing following the storm . In total , 219 @,@ 178 people , or 39 @,@ 095 families , were affected by the cyclone . About 33 @,@ 309 homes sustained some degree of damage . The typhoon 's intense winds and heavy rainfall triggered flooding and damaged crops . The hardest @-@ hit areas were in the Cagayan province . Overall , the storm left approximately $ 8 million ( 1989 USD ) in damage across the region . The same area was impacted by Typhoon Sarah in September . Angela forced thousands of residents to seek shelter in evacuation centers .
The JTWC issued 46 warnings on the storm over the course of 12 days , the longest of any storm during the season . Angela was among the five storms to attain super typhoon status in 1989 , and was deemed the most severe typhoon of the year , at the time , in the Philippines .
= The Chronicles of Riddick : Escape from Butcher Bay =
The Chronicles of Riddick : Escape from Butcher Bay is a first @-@ person action and stealth video game developed by Starbreeze Studios and published by Vivendi Games . Released for the Xbox and Windows in 2004 , the game is a tie @-@ in prequel to the futuristic science fiction film The Chronicles of Riddick . Actor Vin Diesel — who was involved in the game 's development — reprises his role as that film 's protagonist , Richard B. Riddick .
The game follows Riddick , the anti @-@ hero of the two films Pitch Black and The Chronicles of Riddick , as he attempts to escape from a maximum @-@ security prison called Butcher Bay . Escape from Butcher Bay 's designers focused on exploring Riddick 's character in a prison break setting to differentiate the game from the film . The game 's influences include the film Escape from Alcatraz , and video games such as Half @-@ Life and Tom Clancy 's Splinter Cell .
Escape from Butcher Bay was praised by critics , who lauded its graphics and its implementation of stealth , action and adventure elements . However , they commonly lamented its brevity and lack of multiplayer components . The game went on to win several accolades , including the Golden Joystick Award for Unsung Hero Game of the Year and the Spike Video Game Award for Best Game Based on a Movie . An enhanced remake of the game , included in The Chronicles of Riddick : Assault on Dark Athena , was released in 2009 .
= = Gameplay = =
In Escape from Butcher Bay , the player takes the role of Richard B. Riddick and attempts to break out of Butcher Bay prison . The game incorporates elements from video game genres such as first @-@ person shooter , adventure and stealth , and is played primarily from a first @-@ person perspective , though the camera switches to a third @-@ person perspective during certain scenes . Unlike many first @-@ person shooters , the game contains no head @-@ up display ; on @-@ screen cues are limited to flashes when a new weapon is selected , and small , white boxes that display the player character 's health when damage is taken . Health can be replenished in designated areas throughout the game . By finding cigarette packs hidden in levels , the player can unlock concept art and video files .
The player may interact with and receive quests from the prison 's residents , and earns information , tools and other rewards by completing quests . Violent conflict often occurs between the player , inmates and prison guards . The player attacks with Riddick 's bare hands , or with improvised weapons such as shivs and clubs . Combos are created by stringing together punches . A DNA @-@ scanning security system initially prevents Riddick from using firearms , but a limited arsenal later becomes available .
A " stealth mode " is activated when the player character crouches , allowing the player to move silently and tinting the edges of the screen blue when the player is hidden . While in stealth mode , the player can drag bodies out of sight and hide from enemies . The mode grants attacks that quickly kill enemies ; the player may drop on enemies from above , or execute them from behind . During the game , Riddick acquires eyeshine , allowing him to see in the dark but temporarily blinding him if used in brightly lit areas .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting and characters = = =
Escape from Butcher Bay is set in the futuristic science fiction universe of the Chronicles of Riddick franchise , and is a prequel to the film Pitch Black . The game takes place inside Butcher Bay , a maximum @-@ security prison from which no prisoner has escaped . The facility — constructed on a barren planet — contains three increasingly secure holding areas , and a subterranean mining operation .
The game 's protagonist is Richard B. Riddick ( reprised by Vin Diesel ) , a murderer recently confined in Butcher Bay . Riddick is resourceful , and seeks to break out of the prison by any means necessary . His capturer is the bounty hunter William J. Johns ( Cole Hauser ) ; the two have had previous encounters . Butcher Bay 's warden is a man named Hoxie ( Dwight Schultz ) , while Abbott ( Xzibit ) is a prison guard disliked by the inmates . The inmate Pope Joe ( Willis Burks II ) is an insane old man , who lives in the sewer tunnels beneath the prison .
= = = Story = = =
The opening cinematic shows Riddick in hiding , having grown out his hair and beard , before the opening scene of the Chronicles of Riddick movie . He hunts an animal and after killing it , a disembodied voice starts talking to him asking him where he got his eyes . He states that he received them from a " slam preacher " and this causes him to remember his time at Butcher Bay . The game takes place in a flashback .
Another opening cinematic takes place in which Riddick is being transported for collection on the bounty . He and Johns have a brief conversation in which Riddick tells Johns that there is no way he is going to get the price he wants . Riddick wakes up as they land and stands out front of Butcher Bay waiting for the warden . He sneaks up behind Johns and breaks his neck and proceeds to escape . After getting his hands on a gun , he goes through the ventilation ducts and seemingly escapes into the desert . Everything fades to white as Riddick hears Johns saying " Rise and shine , Riddick . " It turns out this escape was simply a dream .
Riddick wakes up and Johns escorts him off the ship . Johns meets with Hoxie to negotiate his pay , while Abbott escorts Riddick to his cell in the " single @-@ max " security area . After making enemies with and killing a gang leader named Rust , Riddick familiarizes himself with the facility , and soon instigates a riot ; during the confusion , he escapes into the prison 's sewer system . Armed with a shotgun and a dying flashlight , Riddick discovers he is not alone in the sewers . Fighting through the sewers against mutant " dwellers " , Riddick eventually meets Pope Joe , for whom he retrieves a lost radio , which Joe calls a blessed voicebox . A woman named Shirah ( Kristin Lehman ) tells Riddick that he " has been blind too long " , and he gains his trademark " eyeshine " night vision . Afterwards , he accuses Pope Joe of tampering with his eyes ; Joe says that he merely treated Riddick 's injured arm . Riddick then continues his escape , while using the eyeshine to his advantage .
After emerging from a manhole in the showers of the guard living quarters , Riddick uses a guard uniform to blend in as he makes his way to the space port and his chance at escape . Realizing he requires a guard to get through the retinal scanner that locks the doors to the space port , Riddick decides to go after Abbott and take his eyes . He gains access to Abbott 's apartment by telling him there is a delivery for him . A fire fight ensues and after that , as Abbott bleeds out on the floor , Riddick moves in for the kill but is stopped by Johns .
Riddick is captured and transferred to the " double @-@ max " security area . Gaining the trust of the inmates by participating in fighting matches , Riddick eventually kills the champion of the fighting matches , a guard named Bam . This leads him to be taken to a room where no surveillance is seen and several guards await to kill Riddick . Abbott walks into the room , fully healed , holding a baseball bat . Shirah returns to him and tells him that the fury of all of his kind is within him , and he can release it if he chooses . A blast of energy called the ' Rage of Furya ' kills all the guards around him except Abbott , who hides and then panics and attacks Riddick . Riddick kills Abbott and proceeds to find another way to escape . Using a secret entrance to an elevator , he infiltrates a mining facility . He meets an inmate of great influence in the area named Jagger Valance ( Ron Perlman ) , who wishes to escape with him . He makes a bomb and plants it in a mining site with a massive gas leak . However , Riddick is discovered and caught by the guards . During his transfer to another section , the prison is disrupted by an outbreak of creatures called " Xeno " , due to the bomb Riddick planted , in order to create the confusion necessary for his escape , and Riddick attempts to escape with Valance . His plans are foiled again by Johns . After a fist fight , Riddick and Johns are both shot by Valance ( who only meant to hit Johns ) and Valance is killed by the guards . After meeting again with the warden , and telling him that he is just getting started , Riddick is placed in the " triple @-@ max " area , where inmates are kept in cryonic sleep . They are awakened daily for two minutes of exercise ; during this time , Riddick discovers a flaw in the system and escapes . He then hijacks a large robot and fights his way through Butcher Bay to reach Hoxie .
Tired of dealing with the prison officials , Johns helps Riddick to elude the guards . Riddick knocks Johns out and flies the ship into the warden 's office . The warden calls in two robot guards with cloaking abilities and Riddick defeats them . After Hoxie surrenders , Riddick receives the codes to Hoxie 's ship and Riddick and Johns escape disguised as a guard and prisoner . Two guards enter Hoxie 's room , where Hoxie is bound and covered in Riddick 's former attire . They mistake him for Riddick and kill him . Riddick and Johns take off in Hoxie 's ship , ending the game .
= = Development = =
Escape from Butcher Bay was developed by Swedish company Starbreeze Studios , and published by Vivendi Games and the Vin Diesel @-@ founded Tigon Studios . Universal Studios Consumer Products Group granted the The Chronicles of Riddick license to Vivendi Games ; both companies were owned by Vivendi Universal . The game was announced in March 2004 as an Xbox title . Tigon Studios ' Cos Lazouras said , " [ The game ] features an original storyline that provides insight into how Riddick evolved into such a complex character " .
In contrast to other film tie @-@ in games , which often closely follow the events of their source material , the development team of Escape from Butcher Bay focused on differentiating the game from The Chronicles of Riddick . They sought to explore Riddick 's character in a prison break setting , and took inspiration from films such as Escape from Alcatraz . Starbreeze was also inspired by video games such as GoldenEye 007 and the Tom Clancy 's Splinter Cell series . The opening sequence , in which Riddick is escorted into Butcher Bay , is a tribute to Half @-@ Life , and the game 's hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat was inspired by Punch @-@ Out ! ! . Starbreeze focused solely on developing the game 's single @-@ player mode , and did not include multiplayer ; the company believed that such a mode would require a design team twice as large and another year of development .
Vin Diesel , the lead actor of The Chronicles of Riddick , provided his voice and likeness for Riddick . He and director David Twohy also contributed to the game 's plot and character design ; the game 's story was developed in conjunction with the film 's . Per the filmmakers ' instructions , the designers made the origin of Riddick 's " eyeshine " vague . Diesel offered guidance to the game 's lead writer during voice recording sessions ; this included dialogue rewrites to reduce Riddick 's lines , as Diesel believed the character spoke too often .
Starbreeze intended for Escape from Butcher Bay to feature more complex role @-@ playing game systems , but feedback from Diesel and game testers dissuaded them . Starbreeze senior producer Peter Wanat said , " We tried to limit the number of really hard or really intricate RPG elements , and that was a choice because we wanted the game to be playable . " Other removed features include an electric bullwhip for the guard Abbott , and a 25 @-@ minute final boss fight . A PlayStation 2 version that was in development was cancelled so the company could focus on the Xbox version .
The game uses normal mapping , which allows detailed textures to be drawn on models with lower polygon counts ; this increases visual fidelity , without sacrificing higher frame rates . It also featured dynamic lighting with per @-@ pixel stencil shadowing and self @-@ shadowing
Escape from Butcher Bay was completed in 18 months . Vin Diesel promoted the game and the accompanying movie at the May 2004 Electronic Entertainment Expo ( E3 ) video game convention . The game was released in North America on June 1 , 2004 , shortly before The Chronicles of Riddick . North American pre @-@ orders of the game included a DVD of promotional content , such as a partial interactive walkthrough and footage from the film . The game 's soundtrack , composed by Gustaf Grefberg , was released by Vivendi as a free download on June 24 , 2004 .
Following rumors , Vivendi confirmed in July 2004 that a Windows port of Escape from Butcher Bay was in development , entitled " The Chronicles of Riddick : Escape from Butcher Bay Director 's Cut " . The game features a higher display resolution , additional cigarette packs , and new scenes where Riddick steals mechanized riot armor . It includes developer commentary which details the game 's creation and design decisions . The game was released on December 8 in North America .
= = = Expanded remake = = =
In May 2007 , Vivendi announced that Escape From Butcher Bay was being remade by Starbreeze Studios for PC , Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 . Entitled The Chronicles of Riddick : Assault on Dark Athena , the game was referred to by Vivendi as a " reinvention " of Escape from Butcher Bay ; it would include a multiplayer mode and new single @-@ player content . It was planned that Vivendi @-@ subsidiary Sierra Entertainment would publish the game in late 2007 .
In December 2007 , Activision and Vivendi Games merged to become Activision Blizzard ; the new company announced the dismissal of Assault on Dark Athena , Brütal Legend , Ghostbusters : The Video Game and others from its roster in July 2008 . The titles were put up for sale to other publishers . In September 2008 , Starbreeze Studios confirmed that the game was still in development , and that it was nearing completion . The following month , Atari reportedly paid a flat fee for the publishing rights to Assault on Dark Athena and Ghostbusters : The Video Game ; Atari later confirmed that it had picked up both titles . The company also stated that it had struck a deal with Universal Studios to develop more Chronicles of Riddick games . Assault on Dark Athena was released in April 2009 in North America , Europe , and Australia .
= = Reception = =
Escape From Butcher Bay received critical acclaim . Certain reviewers preferred the game over its film counterpart , and considered it an exception to the general mediocrity of film tie @-@ in games . The Xbox version of the game sold 159 @,@ 000 copies in August 2004 , and was among the best @-@ selling games on any platform during June 2004 ; it was later re @-@ released as a Platinum Hits title . Conversely , the PC version sold 32 @,@ 500 after six months on shelves .
Escape from Butcher Bay 's gameplay was compared to first @-@ person shooters like Far Cry and Half @-@ Life , and to stealth game series like Splinter Cell , Metal Gear , and Thief . Reviewers enjoyed the variety of gameplay elements : Game Informer 's Jeremy Zoss noted that " every aspect of play is expertly implemented " , and GameSpot 's Greg Kasavin believed that the game " effectively and innovatively combines excellent shooting , hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat , stealth , and adventure elements " . While the game 's stealth mechanics were praised , certain critics received its first @-@ person shooter elements with less enthusiasm . Reviewers applauded the control scheme , such as the Xbox version 's analog stick @-@ based hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat . The implementation of Riddick 's eyeshine ability was also generally praised , but Computer and Video Games believed that it was no different from night vision goggles in other first @-@ person shooters , and said that it " could 've been developed into so much more . "
The game 's visuals — particularly the Xbox version 's — were acclaimed , and compared to those of Doom 3 and Half @-@ Life 2 . GameZone 's Michael Lafferty said that the game 's graphics " [ take ] the genre to the next level " . The textures and lighting were cited as high points , particularly because of the gameplay role of shadows . Character models and facial animations were considered highly realistic ; much praise was given to those of Riddick . GameSpot appreciated the developers ' attention to graphical detail ; they noted that recent bullet @-@ holes glow red and smoke , but gradually cool and darken . Certain reviewers complained about graphical glitches , such as " seams " and " clipping " , and gave as an example the visibility of bullet tracers through walls . The portrayal of Butcher Bay was considered convincing , and 1UP 's Shawn Elliott compared it to the settings of the Alien franchise .
" You can almost smell the thick stink of Butcher Bay and its inhabitants from the grime on the walls , dirty clothes of the inmates , and environmental textures . This place oozes with style and creates sense of reality in which it 's easy to become immersed . "
The audio of Escape from Butcher Bay was generally well received , and critics praised its voice acting ; the performances of Vin Diesel and Cole Hauser were given special commendation . In regard to the music , FiringSquad 's Jakub Wojnarowicz stated , " It 's not good enough to sweep you away [ , ] but it 's also not bad enough to stick out like a sore thumb " . IGN said , " The music isn 't memorable , but it 's not bad " . The Sunday Herald Sun called the voice acting " Surprisingly good " . The game 's length was commonly criticized . Reviewers noted that it could be completed in eight to fifteen hours , and IGN said , " If you consider around 12 hours of gameplay short , then Riddick is just that . " Several reviewers were displeased by the game 's lack of multiplayer components ; Computer and Video Games referred to it as a " missed opportunity " . Game Informer said , " Since the main quest is short [ ... ] and there is no multiplayer , it ’ s not a ton of game for your money . "
Professor James Paul Gee , a researcher of video games , has used Escape from Butcher Bay in his studies . He discussed the relation of Garrett from Thief and the nameless soldier from Full Spectrum Warrior with the character of Riddick , saying that the games " allow players to take a projective stance to the ( virtual ) world , but a stance that is rooted in the knowledge , values , and ways of seeing and being in the world of an authentic professional , an ' expert ' . "
= = = Awards and accolades = = =
Both versions of the game were given editor ’ s choice awards from IGN , GameSpot , and GameSpy . The PC version was IGN 's PC Game of the Month for December 2004 . IGN later ranked it 12th on its list of the 25 greatest Xbox games of all time . Game Informer placed Escape from Butcher Bay as the 8th best on their list of 25 greatest Xbox games of all time . Escape from Butcher Bay was nominated for GameSpot 's Game of the Year award for 2004 , but it lost to World of Warcraft . Computer and Video Games called the PC version the 98th best PC game of all time . Billboard 's Digital Entertainment Conference nominated Riddick as its Best Character in a Game and a Golden Joystick Award for " Unsung Hero Game of the Year " . GamesRadar placed Escape from Butcher Bay in their " Top 7 movie games that don 't suck " list , and said that " Escape from Butcher Bay was a triumph on almost every level . " In 2013 , IGN ranked Escape from Butcher Bay as the 27th greatest first @-@ person shooter of all time .
= At Fillmore East =
At Fillmore East is the first live album by American rock band the Allman Brothers Band , and their third release overall . Produced by Tom Dowd , the album was released in July 1971 in the United States by Capricorn Records . As the title indicates , the recording took place at the New York City music venue Fillmore East , which was run by concert promoter Bill Graham . It was recorded over the course of three nights in March 1971 and features the band performing extended jam versions of songs such as " Whipping Post " and " In Memory of Elizabeth Reed . " When first commercially released , it was issued as a double LP with just seven songs comprising four vinyl sides .
At Fillmore East was the band 's artistic and commercial breakthrough , and has been considered by some critics to be one of the greatest live albums in rock music . It has also been ranked among the best overall albums by artists and continues to be a top seller in the band 's catalog , becoming their first album to go platinum . In 2004 , the album was selected for preservation in the Library of Congress , deemed to be " culturally , historically , or aesthetically important " by the National Recording Registry .
= = Background = =
Shortly after completing recording of their second album , Idlewild South ( 1970 ) , band leader Duane Allman was contacted by guitarist Eric Clapton to contribute to his new project , Derek and the Dominos . Allman was a huge fan of his work with Cream , and Clapton had been blown away by Allman 's session work on Wilson Pickett 's " Hey Jude " some years prior . They met after a show one night in Miami and jammed together until the next afternoon , with the two guitarists regarding one another as " instant soulmates . " Clapton invited Duane to join Derek and the Dominos , and according to band biographer Alan Paul he considered it ; in the end , he declined and rejoined the Allman Brothers Band , returning after missing a string of several shows . The sessions were collected on Layla and Other Assorted Love Songs , issued that November .
In the interim , Idlewild South had yet to achieve strong commercial success , but the band 's popularity and reputation began to increase due to their live performances . The band played continuously in 1970 , performing over 300 dates on the road traveling in a Ford Econoline van and later , a Winnebago , nicknamed the Wind Bag . During this time , the group began struggling with drug addictions . All in the group , with the exception of the brothers , were struggling also to make a living ( Gregg received more money from royalty payments and Duane more from session work ) . In one incident , tour manager Twiggs Lyndon stabbed and killed a promoter for not paying the band ; he later claimed temporary insanity . Their fortunes began to change over the course of 1971 , where the band 's average earnings doubled . Duane eventually died in the fall of 1971 due to injuries from a motorcycle accident .
The Allman Brothers Band had first played Fillmore East in December 1969 , opening for Blood , Sweat & Tears for three nights . Promoter Bill Graham enjoyed the band and promised to have them back soon . In January 1970 , the band opened for Buddy Guy and B.B. King at San Francisco 's Fillmore West , and one month later at Fillmore East supporting the Grateful Dead . According to biographer Alan Paul , " these shows were crucial in establishing the band and exposing them to a wider , sympathetic audience on both coasts . " Drummer Butch Trucks considered their performances at the Fillmore East to be the launching pad for their success . In 1970 , Duane Allman told disc jockey Ed Shane , " You know , we get kind of frustrated doing the [ studio ] records , and I think , consequently , our next album will be ... a live recording , to get some of that natural fire on it . " " We were not intentionally trying to buck the system , but keeping each song down to 3 : 14 just didn 't work for us , " remembered vocalist Gregg Allman . " And we realized that the audience was a big part of what we did , which couldn 't be duplicated in a studio . A lightbulb finally went off ; we needed to make a live album . "
= = Recording and production = =
At Fillmore East was recorded over two nights — March 12 and 13 , 1971 — for which the band was paid $ 1250 each show . The shows were typical performances for the band , and regarded as slightly above average by drummer Jai Johanny Johanson . Ads for the shows read : " Bill Graham Presents in New York — Johnny Winter And , Elvin Bishop Group , Extra Added Attraction : Allman Brothers . " While Winter was billed as headliner , by the third night the Allman Brothers were closing the show .
Tom Dowd produced At Fillmore East ; he had previously worked on their second studio album , Idlewild South . He had recently returned from Africa from working on Soul to Soul , and stayed in New York several days to oversee the live recording . " It was a good truck , with a 16 @-@ track machine and a great , tough @-@ as @-@ nails staff who took care of business , " recalled Dowd . He gave the staff suggestions and noted the band had two lead guitarists and two drummers , " which was unusual , and it took some foresight to properly capture the dynamics . " Things went smoothly until the band unexpectedly brought out saxophonist Rudolph " Juicy " Carter , an unknown horn player , and Thom Doucette on harmonica . " I was just hoping we could isolate them , so we could wipe them and use the songs , but they started playing and the horns were leaking all over everything , rendering the songs unusable , " said Dowd . He rushed to Duane during the break to tell him to cut the horn players ; while Duane loved the players , he put up no fight with Dowd . The final show was delayed because of a bomb scare , and did not end until 6 am .
Each night following the shows , the musicians and Dowd would " grab some beers and sandwiches " and head to Manhattan 's Atlantic Studios to go over the performances . Set lists for following shows were crafted by listening to the recordings and going over what they could keep and what they would need to capture once more . " We wanted to give ourselves plenty of times to do it because we didn 't want to go back and overdub anything , because then it wouldn 't have been a real live album , " said Gregg Allman , and in the end , the band only edited out Doucette 's harmonica when it didn 't fit . " That was our pinnacle , " said Dickey Betts later . " The Fillmore days are definitely the most cherished memories that I have . If you asked everybody in the band , they would probably say that . "
On June 27 , the Fillmore East closed , and the band were invited to play a final , invitation @-@ only concert , along with Edgar Winter , the Beach Boys and Country Joe McDonald . The Beach Boys initially refused to perform unless they headlined the event , but Graham refused , telling them that the Allman Brothers would be closing the show , and they were free to leave if they disagreed . The Allman Brothers ' performance was used for additional tracks when an expanded version of At Fillmore East , The Fillmore Concerts , was reissued on CD .
= = Composition = =
At Fillmore East showcases the band 's eclectic mixture of blues , Rock , country , and jazz . " Fusion is a term that came later , but if you wanted to look at a fusion album , it would be Fillmore East . Here was a rock ' n ' roll band playing blues in the jazz vernacular . And they tore the place up , " said Dowd .
Announcer Michael Ahern opens At Fillmore East with a simple introduction : " Okay , the Allman Brothers Band . " Duane Allman biographer Randy Poe describes it as " the only low @-@ key moment over the course of the [ show ] . " The cover of Blind Willie McTell 's " Statesboro Blues " which opens the set showcases Duane Allman 's slide guitar work in open E tuning . " Statesboro Blues " bears close resemblance to Taj Mahal 's 1968 rendition , which had inspired Duane to pick up slide guitar playing . " Done Somebody Wrong " follows , and is introduced by Duane as " an old Elmore James song ... This is an old true story ... " Thom Doucette takes a solo on blues harp , and by the end of the song , the band breaks out of the shuffle and " builds up to a dual @-@ lead guitar , triplet @-@ based crescendo . "
" Stormy Monday " echoes the band 's blues roots , and many guitar parts come from the version cut by Bobby " Blue " Bland in the early 1960s . Allman and Betts trade solos , as does Gregg Allman on the organ as the tempo shifts into a " swinging " beat . " You Don 't Love Me " kicks off the first of the jazz @-@ inspired jams and features a solo from Duane Allman in which the entire group stops , leaving it just him and his guitar . The song 's conclusion also contains elements of " Joy to the World . " " Hot ' Lanta " is an instrumental , which has elements in common with jazz rock and progressive rock , and is a showcase for Berry Oakley 's bass @-@ playing . " In Memory of Elizabeth Reed " , with its harmonized melody , Latin feel , and burning drive invited comparisons with jazz saxophonist John Coltrane ( especially Duane 's solo @-@ ending pull @-@ offs , a direct nod to the musician ) . The performance begins with a " long , laconic intro " by Betts employing volume swells , reminiscent of the " dreamy trumpet " used to open songs on Miles Davis ' Kind of Blue ( 1959 ) .
" Whipping Post " ( opening in 11 / 4 time , unusual territory for a rock band ) by this point had become one of the longest jams in the band 's set ; the original album version runs five minutes , while the At Fillmore East version exceeds 23 . Aside from the opening bassline and lyrics , the two versions are completely unalike . Again , Betts and Allman trade long guitar solos , with one of Betts ' solos quoting what would later become the main theme for the song " Les Brers in A Minor , " as featured on the band 's 1972 album Eat a Peach . The song closes with " long , sustained notes " from Allman opposite Trucks ' kettledrum . Applause concludes the album and the song fades out . During the fadeout , Trucks begins playing the tympani intro to " Mountain Jam " which would not be released in its entirety until its inclusion on Eat a Peach .
= = Artwork = =
The band devised the cover idea for At Fillmore East rather than leaving it in the hands of Atlantic executives ( Allman was particularly disgusted with the artwork for Sam & Dave 's Hold On , I 'm Comin ' album ) . Initially , the album cover was to be shots of the band taken in front of the Fillmore East with their names on the marquee above them , but no one was satisfied with the results . The band 's main purpose for the cover was that it be as " meat and potatoes " as the band 's ethos and performing , and someone suggested the band make it a photograph of the band in an alley waiting with their gear to go onstage .
The image was shot by photographer Jim Marshall one morning in the band 's home of Macon , Georgia . The group were not very happy about being woken up early to shoot ( " we figured it didn 't make a damn bit of difference what the cover was or what time we took it , " said guitarist Dickey Betts ) . Normally the band hated being photographed ; the cover of later retrospective release The Fillmore Concerts shows them displaying terminal boredom . However , during the session , Duane spotted a dealer friend , raced over and grabbed a bag of contraband , then returned to his seat , discreetly clutching the stash in his lap . This made the whole band laugh , resulting in a memorable image . Marshall stenciled the album title on one of the road cases , which were stacked in front of the wall .
The back cover shows their road crew gathered in the same spot with 16 oz cans of Pabst Blue Ribbon beer provided by the photographer as a reward to the roadies for lugging out and stacking the band 's heavy equipment for the shoot . Among the crew on the back cover are Joseph " Red Dog " Campbell , Kim Payne , Mike Callahan , Joe Dan Petty and Willie Perkins ( the last two the newest additions to the crew at the time ) . The idea to have the crew on the back cover was Duane Allman 's idea , as all involved viewed them the " unsung heroes " in the operation . A photo of Lyndon , then in jail awaiting his trial , was superimposed to the wall behind the crew .
= = Release and critical reception = =
At Fillmore East was released in July 1971 by Capricorn Records as a double album , but reduced to the cost of a single LP . Atlantic and Atco initially rejected the idea of issuing a double album , with Jerry Wexler feeling it " ridiculous to preserve all these jams . " Manager Phil Walden explained to executives that the band were less of a studio band and that live performances were most important to them . In all , the album featured seven songs spread over four vinyl sides . The album received strong initial sales . While previous albums by the band had taken months to hit the charts ( often near the bottom of the top 200 ) , the record started to climb the charts after a matter of days . At Fillmore East peaked at number thirteen on Billboard 's Top Pop Albums chart , and was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America that October . The album was later certified platinum on August 25 , 1992 .
In a contemporary review , George Kimball of Rolling Stone magazine said that " The Allman Brothers had many fine moments at the Fillmores , and this live double album ( recorded March 12th and 13th of this year ) must surely epitomize all of them . " Kimball cited the band as " the best damn rock and roll band this country has produced in the past five years " and said of comparisons to the Grateful Dead at the time , " The range of their material and the more tenuous fact that they also use two drummers have led to what I suppose are inevitable comparisons to the Dead in its better days . " In a less enthusiastic review for The Village Voice , Robert Christgau gave At Fillmore East a " B – " grade and said the songs " sure do boogie " , but ultimately found it musically aimless : " even if Duane Allman plus Dickey Betts does equal Jerry Garcia , the Dead know roads are for getting somewhere . That is , Garcia ( not to bring in John Coltrane ) always takes you someplace unexpected on a long solo . I guess the appeal here is the inevitability of it all . "
In a retrospective review , AllMusic editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine gave the album five out of five stars and stated , " [ it ] remains the pinnacle of the Allmans and Southern rock at its most elastic , bluesy , and jazzy " . Mark Kemp of Rolling Stone gave it five stars in a 2002 review and commented that " these shows [ ... ] remain the finest live rock performance ever committed to vinyl " , and the album " captures America 's best blues @-@ rock band at its peak " .
At Fillmore East was one of 50 recordings chosen in 2004 by the Library of Congress to be added to the National Recording Registry . Rolling Stone included at number 49 in their 2003 list of The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time , describing it as " rock 's greatest live double LP . " The album was also included in the books 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die ( 2005 ) and 1 @,@ 000 Recordings To Hear Before You Die ( 2008 ) . In the latter , author Tom Moon noted that , nearly forty years after its release , " [ the album ] remains one of the best live albums in rock history . Ornery and loud , it 's perfect driving music for the road that goes on forever . "
= = Track listing = =
= = Expanded editions = =
Over the years several expanded editions of At Fillmore East have been released .
= = = The Fillmore Concerts = = =
On October 10 , 1992 , The Fillmore Concerts , an expanded version of At Fillmore East , was released as a two @-@ disc CD . It includes all the songs from the original album , plus the live songs from Eat a Peach — " One Way Out " , " Trouble No More " , and " Mountain Jam " — which were recorded at the same concerts , and two additional tracks , " Don 't Keep Me Wonderin ' " and " Drunken Hearted Boy " . All the music was remixed from the concert recordings , and a few of the songs are alternate takes , so the same songs sound somewhat different than on the original album .
Disc one
" Statesboro Blues " ( Willie McTell ) ( March 13 First show ) – 4 : 15
" Trouble No More " ( McKinley Morganfield aka Muddy Waters ) ( March 12 second show ) – 3 : 46
" Don 't Keep Me Wonderin ' " ( Gregg Allman ) ( March 13 first show ) – 3 : 20
" In Memory of Elizabeth Reed " ( Dickey Betts ) ( March 13 first show ) – 12 : 59
" One Way Out " ( Elmore James , Marshall Sehorn , Sonny Boy Williamson ) ( June 27 ) – 4 : 55
" Done Somebody Wrong " ( Elmore James , Clarence Lewis , Bobby Robinson ) ( March 12 second show ) – 4 : 11
" Stormy Monday " ( T @-@ Bone Walker ) ( March 13 second show ) – 10 : 19
" You Don 't Love Me " ( Willie Cobbs ) ( March 13 first show / March 12 second show ) – 19 : 24
Disc two
" Hot ' Lanta " ( Duane Allman , Gregg Allman , Dickey Betts , Berry Oakley , Butch Trucks , Jai Johanny Johanson ) ( March 12 second show ) – 5 : 11
" Whipping Post " ( Gregg Allman ) ( March 13 second show ) – 22 : 37
" Mountain Jam " ( Donovan Leitch , Duane Allman , Gregg Allman , Dickey Betts , Berry Oakley , Butch Trucks , Jai Johnny Johanson ) ( March 13 second show ) – 33 : 41
" Drunken Hearted Boy " ( with Elvin Bishop ) ( Elvin Bishop ) ( March 13 second show ) – 7 : 33
= = = At Fillmore East Deluxe Edition = = =
The Deluxe Edition was released as a two @-@ disc CD on September 23 , 2003 . It contains the same songs , in a slightly different order , as The Fillmore Concerts , and one additional track , " Midnight Rider " . The Deluxe Edition is based on the master recordings for At Fillmore East and Eat a Peach , and so it sounds more similar to those albums than The Fillmore Concerts does .
Disc one
" Statesboro Blues " ( Blind Willie McTell ) – 4 : 17
" Trouble No More " ( McKinley Morganfield aka Muddy Waters ) – 3 : 43
" Don 't Keep Me Wonderin ' " ( Gregg Allman ) – 3 : 27
" Done Somebody Wrong " ( Elmore James , Clarence Lewis , Bobby Robinson ) – 4 : 33
" Stormy Monday " ( T @-@ Bone Walker ) – 8 : 48
" One Way Out " ( Elmore James , Marshall Sehorn , Sonny Boy Williamson II ) ( June 27 ) – 4 : 56
" In Memory of Elizabeth Reed " ( Dickey Betts ) – 13 : 04
" You Don 't Love Me " ( Willie Cobbs ) – 19 : 24
" Midnight Rider " ( Gregg Allman , Robert Payne ) ( June 27 ) – 2 : 55
Disc two
" Hot ' Lanta " ( Duane Allman , Gregg Allman , Dickey Betts , Berry Oakley , Butch Trucks , Jai Johanny Johanson ) – 5 : 20
" Whipping Post " ( Gregg Allman ) – 22 : 53
" Mountain Jam " ( Donovan Leitch , Duane Allman , Gregg Allman , Dickey Betts , Berry Oakley , Butch Trucks , Jai Johnny Johnson ) - 33 : 41
" Drunken Hearted Boy " ( with Elvin Bishop ) ( Elvin Bishop ) - 6 : 54
= = = The 1971 Fillmore East Recordings = = =
The 1971 Fillmore East Recordings was released on July 29 , 2014 . This six @-@ CD boxed set contains the four complete concerts — the early and late shows from March 12 and March 13 , 1971 — from which the songs included on At Fillmore East were selected , plus the Allman Brothers ' performance at the Fillmore East closing show on June 27 , 1971 . A three Blu @-@ ray edition was also released which contains a multi @-@ channel mix .
Disc one
March 12 , 1971 - first show
" Statesboro Blues " ( Blind Willie McTell ) – 4 : 08 *
" Trouble No More " ( McKinley Morganfield aka Muddy Waters ) – 3 : 48 *
" Don 't Keep Me Wonderin ' " ( Gregg Allman ) – 3 : 19 *
" Done Somebody Wrong " ( Elmore James , Clarence Lewis , Bobby Robinson ) – 4 : 01 *
" In Memory of Elizabeth Reed " ( Dickey Betts ) – 17 : 05 *
" You Don 't Love Me " ( Willie Cobbs ) - 14 : 58 *
Disc two
March 12 , 1971 – second show
" Statesboro Blues " ( Blind Willie McTell ) – 4 : 12 *
" Trouble No More " ( McKinley Morganfield aka Muddy Waters ) – 3 : 50
" Don 't Keep Me Wonderin ' " ( Gregg Allman ) – 3 : 28 *
" Done Somebody Wrong " ( Elmore James , Clarence Lewis , Bobby Robinson ) – 4 : 30
" In Memory of Elizabeth Reed " ( Dickey Betts ) – 19 : 50 *
" You Don 't Love Me " ( Willie Cobbs ) – 19 : 10
" Whipping Post " ( Gregg Allman ) – 20 : 00 *
" Hot ' Lanta " ( Duane Allman , Gregg Allman , Dickey Betts , Berry Oakley , Butch Trucks , Jai Johanny Johanson ) – 5 : 09
Disc three
March 13 , 1971 – first show
" Statesboro Blues " ( Blind Willie McTell ) – 4 : 20
" Trouble No More " ( McKinley Morganfield aka Muddy Waters ) – 3 : 48
" Don 't Keep Me Wonderin ' " ( Gregg Allman ) – 3 : 47
" Done Somebody Wrong " ( Elmore James , Clarence Lewis , Bobby Robinson ) – 3 : 55 *
" In Memory of Elizabeth Reed " ( Dickey Betts ) – 13 : 00
" You Don 't Love Me " ( Willie Cobbs ) – 19 : 10
" Whipping Post " ( Gregg Allman ) – 17 : 15 *
Disc four
March 13 , 1971 – second show - part 1
" Statesboro Blues " ( Blind Willie McTell ) – 4 : 19 *
" One Way Out " ( Elmore James , Marshall Sehorn , Sonny Boy Williamson II ) – 4 : 30 *
" Stormy Monday " ( T @-@ Bone Walker ) – 10 : 14
" Hot ' Lanta " ( Duane Allman , Gregg Allman , Dickey Betts , Berry Oakley , Butch Trucks , Jai Johnny Johanson ) – 5 : 00
" Whipping Post " ( Gregg Allman ) – 22 : 00
Disc five
March 13 , 1971 – second show - part 2
" Mountain Jam " ( Donovan Leitch , Duane Allman , Gregg Allman , Dickey Betts , Berry Oakley , Butch Trucks , Jai Johnny Johanson ) – 33 : 00
" Drunken Hearted Boy " ( with Elvin Bishop ) ( Elvin Bishop ) – 7 : 30
Disc six
June 27 , 1971 – Fillmore East closing show
Introduction by Bill Graham * / " Statesboro Blues " ( Blind Willie McTell ) – 5 : 52
" Don 't Keep Me Wonderin ' " ( Gregg Allman ) – 3 : 34
" Done Somebody Wrong " ( Elmore James , Clarence Lewis , Bobby Robinson ) – 3 : 37
" One Way Out " ( Elmore James , Marshall Sehorn , Sonny Boy Williamson II ) – 5 : 01
" In Memory of Elizabeth Reed " ( Dickey Betts ) – 12 : 44
" Midnight Rider " ( Gregg Allman , Robert Payne ) – 3 : 01
" Hot ' Lanta " ( Duane Allman , Gregg Allman , Dickey Betts , Berry Oakley , Butch Trucks , Jai Johnny Johanson ) – 5 : 41
" Whipping Post " ( Gregg Allman ) – 19 : 17
" You Don 't Love Me " ( Willie Cobbs ) – 17 : 56
* Previously unreleased track
= = Other Fillmore East recordings = =
Eat a Peach – contains " Trouble No More " from March 13 , 1971 ( Show 1 ) and " Mountain Jam " from March 13 , 1971 ( Show 2 ) and " One Way Out " from June 27 , 1971
Duane Allman : An Anthology contains " Don 't Keep Me Wonderin ' " from March 13 , 1971 ( Show 1 )
Duane Allman Anthology , Vol . 2 contains " Midnight Rider " from June 27 , 1971
Dreams contains " Drunken Hearted Boy " from March 13 , 1971 ( Show 2 )
Eat a Peach , Deluxe Edition – second CD ( the final Fillmore East concert ) also contains " Statesboro Blues " , " Don 't Keep Me Wonderin ' " , " Done Somebody Wrong " , " One Way Out " , " In Memory of Elizabeth Reed " , " Midnight Rider " , " Hot ' Lanta " , " Whipping Post " , and " You Don 't Love Me " from June 27 , 1971
The Road Goes On Forever contains " Statesboro Blues " from March 12 , 1971 ( Disc 1 ) .
= = Credits = =
The Allman Brothers Band
Duane Allman – lead guitar , slide guitar
Gregg Allman – organ , piano , vocals
Dickey Betts – lead guitar
Berry Oakley – bass guitar
Jai Johanny Johanson – drums , congas , timbales
Butch Trucks – drums , tympani
Guest musicians
Thom Doucette – Harmonica on " Don 't Keep Me Wonderin ' " , " Done Somebody Wrong " , " Stormy Monday " and " You Don 't Love Me "
Jim Santi – Tambourine
Guest musicians ( The Fillmore Concerts and The 1971 Fillmore East Recordings )
Bobby Caldwell – Percussion on " Drunken Hearted Boy " and on March 12 shows starting with " In Memory of Elizabeth Reed "
Rudolph ( Juicy ) Carter – Soprano saxophone on ( only ) both March 12 shows , starting with " In Memory of Elizabeth Reed "
Elvin Bishop – Vocals on " Drunken Hearted Boy "
Steve Miller – Piano on " Drunken Hearted Boy "
Production ( At Fillmore East )
Tom Dowd – Producer , Liner Notes
Bruce Malamut – Assistant Producer
Aaron Baron – Engineer
Larry Dahlstrom – Assistant Engineer
Dennis M. Drake – Mastering
Jim Marshall – Photography
Production ( The Fillmore Concerts )
Tom Dowd – Producer
Jay Mark – Mixer
Dan Kincaid – Digital Mastering
Bill Levenson – Executive Producer
Kirk West – Associate Producer
Terri Tierney – Project Coordination
Richard Bauer – Art Direction
Jim Marshall – Graphic Concept
Jimmy Guterman – Liner Notes
John Perkins – Best Boy
= Hurricane Flora =
Hurricane Flora is among the deadliest Atlantic hurricanes in recorded history , with a death total of over 7 @,@ 000 . The seventh tropical storm and sixth hurricane of the 1963 Atlantic hurricane season , Flora developed from a disturbance in the Intertropical Convergence Zone on September 26 while located 755 miles ( 1 @,@ 215 km ) southwest of the Cape Verde islands . After remaining a weak depression for several days , it rapidly organized on September 29 to attain tropical storm status . Flora continued to quickly strengthen to reach Category 3 hurricane status before moving through the Windward Islands and passing over Tobago , and it reached maximum sustained winds of 145 miles per hour ( 233 km / h ) in the Caribbean .
The storm struck southwestern Haiti near peak intensity , turned to the west , and drifted over Cuba for four days before turning to the northeast . Flora passed over the Bahamas and accelerated northeastward , becoming an extratropical cyclone on October 12 . Due to its slow movement across Cuba , Flora is the wettest known tropical cyclone for Cuba , Haiti , and the Dominican Republic . The significant casualties caused by Flora were the most for a tropical cyclone in the Atlantic Basin since the 1900 Galveston Hurricane .
= = Meteorological history = =
A disturbance in the Intertropical Convergence Zone organized into a tropical depression on September 26 while located about 755 miles ( 1 @,@ 215 km ) southwest of the island of Fogo in the Cape Verde Islands . Upon forming , the depression had a poorly organized circulation with banding features to its north and east . The depression moved west @-@ northwestward , and the system failed to organize significantly by a day after developing . On September 27 , the banding features dissipated , though the area of convection around the center increased . Satellite imagery was unavailable until September 30 , during which there were not sufficient ship reports to indicate the presence of a low @-@ level circulation . The depression continued west @-@ northwestward , and it is estimated it intensified into Tropical Storm Flora on September 29 while located about 560 miles ( 900 km ) east @-@ southeast of Trinidad , or about 350 miles ( 560 km ) north of Cayenne , French Guiana . Operationally , advisories were not initiated until a day later .
Flora quickly intensified after it became a tropical storm , and early on September 30 it attained hurricane status . Later that day , Reconnaissance Aircraft confirmed the existence of the hurricane , with the flight reporting a well @-@ defined , circular 8 @-@ mile ( 13 km ) wide eye . One observer noted Flora to be the best organized tropical cyclone over the previous two years . After attaining major hurricane status , Flora passed directly over the island of Tobago late on the 30th with winds of 120 mph ( 190 km / h ) . The hurricane continued west @-@ northwestward as it entered the Caribbean , and early on October 2 its winds reached 140 miles per hour ( 230 km / h ) . Thirty hours later , Flora intensified slightly further and attained peak winds of 145 mph ( 233 km / h ) while located about 105 miles ( 169 km ) south of the border of Haiti and the Dominican Republic .
After turning to the northwest , Hurricane Flora maintained its peak strength , and made landfall in the Sud Department of Haiti late on October 3 as a 145 mph ( 233 km / h ) Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Scale with gusts from 180 to 200 miles per hour ( 290 to 320 km / h ) . The calm of the eye lasted for up to 70 minutes in one location . After quickly weakening to a 120 mph ( 190 km / h ) hurricane , Flora turned more to the west in the Windward Passage , and restrengthened slightly to strike southeastern Cuba about 30 miles ( 48 km ) east of Guantanamo Bay with winds of 125 mph ( 201 km / h ) . A high pressure system to its north turned the motion of the hurricane to a westward drift , causing it to weaken quickly over land . Flora neared the north coast of Cuba on October 4 before turning to the south . It executed a cyclonic loop and entered the coastal waters off Granma Province . An anticyclone to the west of Flora turned the hurricane to the north , bringing it ashore near Santa Cruz del Sur on October 7 with winds of around 90 mph ( 140 km / h ) . Flora initially turned southeastward over central Cuba , and late on October 8 a short @-@ wave trough turned the hurricane northeastward , bringing it into the coastal waters of the Holguín Province . Flora remained a hurricane while drifting over land due to abundant moisture and a favorable upper level environment .
After passing over the southeastern Bahamas early on October 9 , Flora began to restrengthen , and on October 10 it again reached major hurricane status while located 290 miles ( 470 km ) south of Bermuda . The hurricane gradually weakened as it continued northeastward , and weakened to a Category 1 hurricane on October 11 . Flora gradually lost its convection over the north Atlantic Ocean , and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on October 12 while located 270 miles ( 430 km ) east @-@ southeast of Cape Race , Newfoundland . The extratropical remnant dissipated the next day .
= = Preparations = =
The Weather Bureau in San Juan , Puerto Rico issued a hurricane warning for Trinidad , Tobago , and the Grenadines south of Saint Vincent in the cyclone 's first advisory on Hurricane Flora . Gale warnings were later issued for islands off northern Venezuela and from Saint Vincent northward to Martinique . Advisories on Flora emphasized the danger of the hurricane and advised preparations to be rushed to completion . The advisories also recommended small craft throughout the Windward Islands to remain at harbor and for shipping in the path of the hurricane to advise extreme caution . People in low @-@ lying areas and near beaches were advised to evacuate to higher grounds , as well . Lead time was short , especially in Tobago which received news of the approaching hurricane just two hours before it struck .
On October 2 , two days before it made landfall on southwestern Hispaniola , the San Juan Weather Bureau issued a gale warning from Barahona in the Dominican Republic to the Sud @-@ Est Department of Haiti . Advisories recommended small craft in the southern portions of the countries to remain at port . Later that day , the gale warning was upgraded to a hurricane warning in southwestern Haiti . On the day of when Flora made landfall , advisories recommended all citizens on beaches and in low @-@ lying areas west of Santo Domingo to evacuate . Carmelo Di Franco , the provisional Director of Civic Defense for the Dominican Republic , organized safety procedures and the dissemination of tropical cyclone bulletins from the San Juan Weather Bureau . Di Franco also organized for the transmission of hurricane emergency information to citizens , believed to reduce the loss of life . On the afternoon before the hurricane struck , the head of the Haitian Red Cross prohibited radio broadcasts of tropical cyclone advisories for fear of panic among citizens . As a result , many thought the hurricane would miss the country .
Officials at the Cuban National Observatory issued radio bulletins on the hurricane , which included the position of Flora , its intensity , direction of motion , and necessary warnings . By the time the hurricane left the island , more than 40 @,@ 000 had been evacuated to safer areas .
The Weather Bureau predicted Flora to turn to the northwest after entering the Windward Passage and affect the Bahamas . Forecasters advised those in The Bahamas to quickly complete preparations , though the eye of the hurricane did not pass over the archipelago until four days later . When Flora turned to the northeast out to sea , forecasters again advised Bahamian citizens to prepare for the hurricane , and on October 9 , weather advisories advised the southeastern Bahamas to prepare for gale @-@ force winds and strong tides . One advisory considered there to be less than a 50 % chance of the hurricane reaching southeastern Florida , though weather bulletins advised Florida citizens to monitor the hurricane . At its closest approach to Florida , the hurricane remained 330 miles ( 530 km ) away , though gale warnings were issued from Stuart to Key West due to the hurricane 's large size .
= = Impact = =
Throughout its path , Hurricane Flora resulted in more than 7 @,@ 000 deaths and over $ 525 million in damage ( 1963 USD , $ 4 @.@ 06 billion 2016 USD ) . It is estimated that , if a hurricane like Flora had struck in 1998 , it would have caused over 12 @,@ 000 casualties .
= = = East Caribbean = = =
Hurricane Flora passed Barbados a few days after Hurricane Edith moved through the area . The two hurricanes resulted in about $ 65 @,@ 000 in damage ( 1963 USD ) , primarily to fishing interests .
About four hours before the eye of Hurricane Flora moved over Tobago , the large hurricane began producing heavy rainfall throughout the island . Two hours later , strong winds began affecting the island , and while moving across the island Flora produced winds of up to 100 miles per hour ( 160 km / h ) . While moving past Tobago , the hurricane produced rough surf and tides 5 to 7 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 to 2 @.@ 1 m ) above normal . The hurricane sunk six ships between 4 and 9 tons in Scarborough harbour . One crew member drowned while attempting to save his vessel . Heavy rainfall caused a large mudslide from Mount Dillon onto a road leading to Castara . This was considered the most well @-@ known mudslide on the island . The strong winds caused severe damage to coconut , banana , and cocoa plantations , with 50 % of the coconut trees being destroyed and another 11 % being severely damaged . 75 % of forest trees fell , and most of the remaining were greatly damaged . The passage of Hurricane Flora destroyed 2 @,@ 750 of Tobago 's 7 @,@ 500 houses , and damaged 3 @,@ 500 others . The hurricane killed 18 on the island and resulted in $ 30 million in crop and property damage ( 1963 USD ) .
Winds on Trinidad reached 55 mph ( 89 km / h ) with much higher gusts of over 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) . Heavy rainfall and strong winds in the northern mountainous region lowered the visibility to zero . Due to the mountain range on its northern coast , damage on the island was minimal , totaling to $ 100 @,@ 000 ( 1963 USD ) . Two people on the island died due to drowning . When Flora passed the island and the winds turned to the southwest , many small boats in the westward facing harbor were sunk . Near Chaguaramas , nine boats were destroyed and eight were damaged . Additionally , several large vessels sustained damage and resulted in them being intentionally sunk . Damage in Grenada was minor , around $ 25 @,@ 000 ( 1963 USD ) , though six people died due to drowning . Rough seas and higher than normal tides were reported along the south coast of Puerto Rico , though no damage or deaths were reported there .
= = = Dominican Republic and Haiti = = =
Flora produced heavy rainfall and moderately strong winds in the Dominican Republic . The highest rainfall amount reported was 39 @.@ 43 inches ( 1 @,@ 002 mm ) at Polo Barahona . Flooding from the hurricane , considered to be the most extensive on record , greatly damaged bridges and roads , with many roads left unpassable for several months after the hurricane struck . Over 3 @,@ 800 sq. miles ( 10 @,@ 000 km ² ) in the western portion of the country were flooded . The hurricane caused about $ 60 million in damage ( 1963 USD ) and over 400 deaths .
While moving across southwestern Haiti , Hurricane Flora produced winds of up to 120 mph ( 190 km / h ) near Derez , while the capital city of Port @-@ au @-@ Prince reported peak winds of 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) . Intense rainbands dropped torrential precipitation estimated at over 75 inches ( 1 @,@ 900 mm ) in Miragoâne , with one location recording over 57 inches ( 1 @,@ 400 mm ) in three days . One location in the southwestern peninsula recorded 16 inches ( 410 mm ) of precipitation in 12 hours . The storm surge on the southern coast is unknown , but estimated to exceed 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) . Flash floods from the hurricane washed out large sections of several towns , while mudslides buried some entire towns , resulting in many deaths . Heavy rainfall led to river flooding along the Grisse River , which crested at 14 feet ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) above normal . The flood waters created new channels and washed away entire banana plantations .
In most areas , crops were entirely destroyed . The coffee crop was harvested prior to the arrival of the hurricane , though heavy rainfall and severe flooding ruined the crop for later years . Additionally , strong winds downed shading trees for the coffee crop on the southern peninsula . One official estimated it would require three years for the coffee crop to be replanted and regrown .
Strong winds in southwestern Haiti from the hurricane damaged or destroyed hundreds of trees . The path of Flora over the area was best determined by the trajectory of fallen trees across the peninsula . The strong winds left entire villages roofless , with many buildings entirely destroyed . The combination of rough waves and strong winds destroyed three entire communities . Many of those who died in southwestern Haiti suffered from intense burns from strong winds .
About 3 @,@ 500 people were confirmed dead , with several thousands missing at one report five months after the hurricane . It is estimated the passage of Hurricane Flora killed around 5 @,@ 000 people and caused between $ 125 million and $ 180 million in damage in Haiti ( 1963 USD ) .
= = = Cuba , Jamaica , the Bahamas , and Florida = = =
Strong northerly winds from Flora eroded the northern beaches in the Cuban province of Camagüey by up to 1 kilometre ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) . Santa Cruz del Sur reported strong southerly winds and rough seas . Winds in Cuba reached 125 miles per hour ( 201 km / h ) . Nearly all crops in southeastern Cuba were affected by strong winds and flooding . Many citizens were left stranded at the tops of their houses . Several entire houses were swept away by the flooding , and many roads and bridges were destroyed , resulting in major disruptions to communications . Isolated locations in Cuba received over 80 inches ( 2 @,@ 000 mm ) of rain , with Santiago de Cuba recording 100 @.@ 39 inches ( 2 @,@ 550 mm ) , which is the highest rainfall total measured on Cuba from any rainfall event on record .
Heavy rainfall fell across the island of Jamaica due to southwest flow into the mountains on Flora 's southern periphery over several days . The maximum amount recorded was 60 inches ( 1 @,@ 500 mm ) at Spring Hill persistent , which led to numerous landslides across the eastern portion of the island . Damage to the island totaled $ 11 @.@ 9 million ( 1963 dollars ) . Rough seas from Flora affected the Bahamas and the southeastern Florida coast on October 5 as the hurricane stalled over Cuba , keeping small craft in port , and hurricane @-@ force winds affected Ragged Island later that day . Rainfall amounts peaked at 17 @.@ 19 inches ( 437 mm ) at Duncan Town , in the Bahamas . Damage to the island archipelago reached $ 1 @.@ 5 million ( 1963 dollars ) .
= = Aftermath = =
In Tobago , the great agricultural damage from Flora caused the crop plantations to be abandoned . As a result , the economy of the island changed towards tourism . The destruction of the Tobagonian rainforests resulted in a continual decline of agriculture on the island due to animals previously in the forest eating the crops for food . The passage of the hurricane reduced the height of the rainforest canopy above 800 feet ( 240 m ) by half . Twenty @-@ five years passed before the canopy reached its previous height .
In the Dominican Republic , damage reports were largely unknown by a month after the hurricane passed the island , primarily in the western provinces . There , roads were still impassable , large areas remained without electricity , and helicopters could not land in remote areas due to mud , silt , and up to 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) of water in all landing fields . One official estimated several months would pass before survey teams could obtain information on loss of life and overall damages .
Due to its impact on the Caribbean nations , the name Flora was retired after this year and was replaced by Fern .
= Quneitra =
Quneitra ( also Al Qunaytirah , Qunaitira , or Kuneitra ; Arabic : القنيطرة al @-@ Qunayṭrah ) is the largely destroyed and abandoned capital of the Quneitra Governorate in south @-@ western Syria . It is situated in a high valley in the Golan Heights at an elevation of 1 @,@ 010 metres ( 3 @,@ 313 feet ) above sea level . Its name is Arabic for " the little bridge " .
Quneitra was founded in the Ottoman era as a way station on the caravan route to Damascus and subsequently became a garrison town of some 20 @,@ 000 people . In 1946 , it became part of the independent Syrian Republic within the Riff Dimashq Governorate and in 1964 became the capital of the split Quneitra Governorate . On 10 June 1967 , the last day of the Six @-@ Day War , Quneitra came under Israeli control . It was briefly recaptured by Syria during the 1973 Yom Kippur War , but Israel regained control in its subsequent counter @-@ offensive . The city was almost completely destroyed before the Israeli withdrawal in June 1974 . Syria had refused to rebuild the city and actively discouraged resettlement in the area . Israel was heavily criticized by the United Nations for the city 's destruction , while Israel has also criticized Syria for not rebuilding Quneitra . During the Syrian civil war , Quneitra became a clash point between rebel forces and Syrian Arab Army . As of 2014 , it became controlled by the Syrian opposition .
In 2004 , its population was estimated at 153 persons , with some 4 @,@ 000 more living in the surrounding areas of the former city . Quneitra now lies in the formerly demilitarized United Nations Disengagement Observer Force Zone ( between Syrian territory and the Israeli @-@ occupied Golan Heights ) , de @-@ facto controlled by the Syrian opposition , a short distance from the Quneitra border crossing , and is populated by only a handful of families .
= = Political status = =
Quneitra is the capital of the Quneitra Governorate , a district of southwestern Syria that incorporates the whole of the Golan Heights . The city of Quneitra is within the portion of the Golan Heights controlled by Syria . Madinat al @-@ Baath ( Baath City ) , also known as New Quneitra , replaced Quneitra as the administrative centre of Quneitra Governorate .
= = Geography and demographics = =
Quneitra is situated in a high valley in the Golan Heights at an altitude of 942 m ( 3 @,@ 091 ft ) above sea level . It is overshadowed to the west by the Israeli @-@ held portion of the Golan Heights and the peak of Har Bental . The surrounding area is dominated by ancient volcanic lava flows interspersed by a number of dormant volcanic cones which rise some 150 – 200 m ( 500 – 700 ft ) above the surrounding plain . The volcanic hills of the region have played a key role as observation points and natural firing positions in the conflicts over the region , most notably in the Yom Kippur War . In more peaceful times , the fertile volcanic soil has supported agricultural activities such as wheat growing and pastoralism .
Writing during the inter @-@ war period , the American traveller Harriet @-@ Louise H. Patterson recorded that Quneitra was
charmingly set in a grove of eucalyptus trees . Its chief claim to charm or the few moments of a traveller 's time beyond passport formalities is the beautiful vista which it offers of Jordan as it flows down from Hermon through banks of tangled bush and flowering pink and white oleanders . Kuneitra is pleasant as a stopping @-@ place for lunch . It is cool under the spreading trees , usually quiet and restful .
The city 's position on an important trade route gave it a varied population for much of its history . By the start of the 20th century it was dominated by Muslim Circassians from the Caucasus , accompanied by Turkmen and Arabs . Its population grew to some 21 @,@ 000 people , mostly Arabs , following Syrian independence from France in 1946 . After its abandonment in 1967 and subsequent destruction , its population was dispersed to other parts of Syria . The city remains abandoned apart from a residual Syrian security presence . Due to frequent and large population movements within Syria and across borders caused by war , there are no reliable population estimates available post @-@ 2011 . The impact of the crisis has led to massive displacements and a gradual deterioration of access to basic services . Quneitra has also been the destination for many internally displaced persons ( IDPs ) from neighbouring Daraa and Rif Dimashq governorates . In August 2013 , many of the estimated 75 @,@ 000 IDPs from Nawa and Al @-@ Harra in Daraa Governorate reportedly fled to Quneitra . There are also people resident in Quneitra being displaced by conflict . Approximately 21 @,@ 000 Israelis also live in dozens of state @-@ subsidised settlements dotted throughout the mountainous terrain .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
The surrounding area has been inhabited for millennia . Palaeolithic hunter @-@ gatherers are thought to have lived there , as evidenced by the discovery of Levallois and Mousterian flint tools in the vicinity . A settlement was established at least as early as the late Hellenistic period , and continued through the Roman and Byzantine times ; it was known by the name " Sarisai " . The settlement served as a stop on the road from Damascus to western Palestine . Saint Paul is said to have passed through the settlement on his way from Jerusalem to Damascus . The site of the Conversion of Paul was traditionally identified with the small village of Kokab , north @-@ east of Quneitra , on the road to Damascus .
For much of the 18th and 19th centuries Quneitra was abandoned . In 1868 a travel handbook reported that the site was a " ruined village of about 80 or 100 houses " and that a large caravanserai also stood in ruins . Semi @-@ nomadic pastoral groups such as the Arab Al Fadl and Banu Nu 'aym tribes and several Turkmen tribes grazed their flocks in Quneitra 's rocky lands .
In 1873 , a group of Circassians from Sivas in Anatolia settled in Quneitra . This initial group did not cultivate the area for a number of years . A second wave of Circassians , numbering about 2 @,@ 000 , arrived in the Golan in 1878 via Acre after fleeing Bulgaria due to the Russo @-@ Turkish War . Along with Quneitra , they settled or built number of other villages in the vicinity . The Circassians began farming the area and each family was given title to 70 to 130 dunams of land by the government depending on the family 's size . The Ottomans encouraged Circassian settlement in the Golan as a means to drive a wedge between the frequently rebellious Druze villages of Mount Hermon and those in Jabal Hauran . The Circassians of Quneitra engaged in sustained conflicts with the Druze and the Al Fadl through the remainder of the 19th century .
Modern Quneitra grew around the nucleus of the old Ottoman caravanserai , which had been built using the stones of a ruined ancient settlement . By the mid @-@ 1880s , Quneitra had become the main city and seat of government of the Golan . Gottlieb Schumacher wrote in 1888 that it " consists of 260 buildings , which are mostly well and carefully constructed of basalt stones , and contains , excluding the soldiers and officials , 1 @,@ 300 inhabitants , principally Circassians . "
During World War I , the Australian Mounted Division and 5th Cavalry Division defeated the Ottoman Turks at Quneitra on 29 September 1918 , before they took Damascus ( see also Battle of Megiddo ( 1918 ) ) . Quneitra saw several battles during the Syria @-@ Lebanon Campaign of the Second World War , including the Battle of Damascus and Battle of Kissoué .
= = = Arab @-@ Israeli conflict = = =
When the modern states of Syria and Israel gained their independence from France and Britain respectively after the Second World War , Quneitra gained a new strategic significance as a key road junction some 24 kilometres ( 15 mi ) from the border . It became a prosperous market town and military garrison , with its population tripling to over 20 @,@ 000 people , predominately Arabs .
= = = = Six @-@ Day War = = = =
Quneitra was the Syrian headquarters for the Golan Heights . The Israeli capture of the city occurred in chaotic circumstances on 10 June 1967 , the last day of the Six @-@ Day War . Israeli forces advancing towards Quneitra from the north @-@ west prompted Syrian troops to deploy north of the city , under heavy bombardment , to defend the road to Damascus . At 8 : 45 a.m. , Syrian radio broadcast an announcement that the city had fallen , though it actually had not . Alarmed , the Syrian Army 's redeployment turned into a chaotic retreat along the Damascus road .
According to 8th Brigade Commander Ibrahim Isma 'il Khahya :
We received orders to block the roads leading to Quneitra . But then the fall of the city was announced and that caused many of my soldiers to leave the front and run back to Syria while the roads were still open . They piled onto vehicles . It further crushed our morale . I retreated before I ever saw an enemy soldier .
Although a correction was broadcast two hours later , the Israelis took advantage of the confusion to seize Quneitra . An armoured brigade under Colonel Albert Mandler entered Quneitra at 2 : 30 p.m. and found the city deserted and strewn with abandoned military equipment . One of the Israeli commanders later commented :
We arrived almost without hindrance to the gates of Quneitra ... All around us there were huge quantities of booty . Everything was in working order . Tanks with their engines still running , communication equipment still in operation had been abandoned . We captured Quneitra without a fight .
Time magazine reported : " In an effort to pressure the United Nations into enforcing a ceasefire , Damascus Radio undercut its own army by broadcasting the fall of the city of El Quneitra three hours before it actually capitulated . That premature report of the surrender of their headquarters destroyed the morale of the Syrian troops left in the Golan area . "
A ceasefire was agreed later in the afternoon , leaving Quneitra under Israeli control . In June 1967 , Time magazine wrote that : " The city of El Quneitra was a ghost town , its shops shuttered , its deserted streets patrolled by Israelis on house @-@ to @-@ house searches for caches of arms and ammunition . The hills echoed with explosions as Israeli sappers systematically destroyed the miniature Maginot line from which the Syrians had shelled kibbutzim across the Sea of Galilee . "
The United Nations Special Representative , Nils @-@ Göran Gussing , visited it in July and reported that " nearly every shop and every house seemed to have been broken into and looted " and that some buildings had been set on fire after they had been stripped . Although Israeli spokesmen told Gussing that Quneitra had actually been looted by the withdrawing Syrians , the UN representative viewed this as unlikely given the extremely short space of time between the erroneous radio announcement and the fall of the city a few hours later . He concluded that " responsibility for this extensive looting of the town of Quneitra lay to a great extent with the Israeli forces . "
= = = = Israeli occupation = = = =
The deserted city remained in Israeli hands for the next six years . However , Israel and Syria remained in a state of war throughout this period ( and , indeed , to the present day ) . The town gained a fresh symbolic value ; it was seen by the Syrians as " the badge of Syria 's defeat , an emblem of hatred between Syria and Israel and a cross [ Syrian President Hafez al @-@ Assad ] had to bear . " Syria shelled the city several times during the early 1970s ; in June 1970 a Syrian armored unit launched an attack , and in November 1972 , Damascus radio announced that Syrian artillery had again shelled Quneitra .
= = = = Yom Kippur War = = = =
During the first few days of the Yom Kippur War in 1973 , Quneitra was briefly recaptured by the Syrian Army before it was repulsed in an Israeli counter @-@ offensive . In the middle of October 1973 the Israeli counter @-@ offensive started . The Syrians had massed nearly 1 @,@ 000 tanks along a 100 km ( 60 mi ) front . With a massive concentration of tanks , the Israelis lashed into the Syrian forces . The Syrians at first fell back , but then managed to counterattack and drive back into occupied territory . Quneitra changed hands several times . Finally , Israeli armored units , closely supported by Phantoms and Skyhawks performing close air support with napalm strikes against the forward Syrian units , halted the Syrian drive and turned the Syrian Army back .
= = = = Destruction of Quneitra and return to Syrian control = = = =
Israel continued to control the city until early June 1974 , when it was returned to Syrian civilian control following the signature of a United States @-@ brokered disengagement agreement signed on 31 May 1974 . The surrender of Quneitra was controversial , with Israeli settlers and the Likud and National Religious Party opposing it . According to Michael Mandelbaum , the agreement provided that the city was to be repopulated to serve as evidence of peaceful Syrian intentions , by doing so it would encourage the Israelis to pull back further .
In an attempt to block the withdrawal , a group of settlers from Merom Golan – a settlement established in 1967 – took over an abandoned bunker in Quneitra and declared it to be a new settlement called Keshet ( Quneitra in Hebrew ) . The settlers also set about razing the existing town to the ground . The leader of Merom Golan , Yehuda Harel , and another Merom Golan member , Shimshon Wollner , initiated the destruction of Quneitra , which was carried out by the Land Development Administration of the Jewish National Fund . Harel later described what happened :
Shimshon and I walked around Quneitra all day and tried decide what to do . And then these two strange ideas came up . One was to establish a settlement in Quneitra and the second was to destroy Quneitra .
Wollner and Harel asked the Jewish National Fund to carry out the work , ostensibly to prepare an area for agricultural cultivation , but were refused as they did not have permission from the Israeli army . They then approached the Assistant to the Head of Northern Command and asked him to mark on a map which buildings the army needed . According to Harel ,
So he took a felt pen and marked the hospital and a few other places – he wrote " not for destruction " and on other places he wrote " for destruction " and he signed . He thought he was signing about what not to destroy but he was actually writing to destroy . . . The tractors of the Jewish National Fund did the destroying . They weren 't our tractors . . . I can tell you that even the tractor drivers were Arabs .
The buildings were systematically stripped , with anything movable being removed and sold to Israeli contractors , before they were pulled apart with tractors and bulldozers .
The disengagement went into force on 6 June . On 26 June , the Syrian president Hafez al @-@ Assad travelled to Quneitra where he pledged to return the rest of the occupied territories to Syrian control . Western reporters accompanied Syrian refugees returning to the city in early July 1974 and described what they saw on the ground . Time magazine 's correspondent reported that " Most of its buildings are knocked flat , as though by dynamite , or pockmarked by shellfire . " Le Monde 's Syria correspondent , in a report for The Times , gave a detailed eyewitness description of the destruction :
Today the city is unrecognisable . The houses with their roofs lying on the ground look like gravestones . Parts of the rubble are covered with fresh earth furrowed by bulldozer tracks . Everywhere there are fragments of furniture , discarded kitchen utensils , Hebrew newspapers dating from the first week of June ; here a ripped @-@ up mattress , there the springs of an old sofa . On the few sections of wall still standing , Hebrew inscriptions proclaim : " There 'll be another round " ; " You want Quneitra , you 'll have it destroyed . "
Israel asserted that most of the damage had been caused in the two wars and during the artillery duels in between . Several reports from before the withdrawal did refer to the city as " ruined " and " shell @-@ scarred " . The Times ' correspondent saw the city for himself on 6 May , a month before the Israeli withdrawal , and described it as being " in ruins and deserted after seven years of war and dereliction . It looks like a wild west city struck by an earthquake and if the Syrians get it back they will face a major feat of reconstruction . Nearly every building is heavily damaged and scores have collapsed . "
Direct evidence of the city 's condition was provided when it was filmed on 12 May 1974 by a British television news team which included the veteran journalist Peter Snow , who was reporting for Independent Television News on the disengagement negotiations . His report was broadcast on ITN 's News at Ten programme . According to The Times ' correspondent Edward Mortimer , " viewers were thus afforded a panoramic view of the city , which had stood almost completely empty since the Syrian army evacuated it in 1967 . It could be seen that many of the buildings were damaged , but most of them were still standing . " After it was handed over , " very few buildings were left standing . Most of those destroyed did not present the jagged outline and random heaps of rubble usually produced by artillery or aerial bombardment . The roofs lay flat on the ground , ' pancaked ' in a manner which I am told can only be achieved by systematic dynamiting of the support walls inside . " Mortimer concluded that the footage " establishes beyond reasonable doubt that much of the destruction took place after 12 May — at a time when there was no fighting anywhere near Kuneitra . "
The United Nations established a Special Committee to Investigate Israeli Practices Affecting the Human Rights of the Population of the Occupied Territories , which concluded that Israeli forces had deliberately destroyed the city prior to their withdrawal . The report 's conclusions were subsequently adopted by the United Nations General Assembly . It passed a resolution on 29 November 1974 describing the destruction of Quneitra as " a grave breach of the [ Fourth ] Geneva Convention " and " condemn [ ing ] Israel for such acts , " by a margin of 93 votes to 8 , with 74 abstentions . The United Nations Commission on Human Rights also voted to condemn the " deliberate destruction and devastation " of Quneitra in a resolution of 22 February 1975 , by a margin of 22 votes to one ( the United States ) with nine abstentions .
The U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants , a non @-@ governmental organization , has reported that : " Before leaving , however , the Israelis leveled the city with bulldozers and dynamite . "
= = = = As a city ruin = = = =
The city remains in a destroyed condition . Syria has left the ruins in place and built a museum to memorialize its destruction . It maintains billboards at the ruins of many buildings and effectively preserves it in the condition that the Israeli army left it in . The former residents of the town have not returned and Syria discourages the re @-@ population of the area . However , in the 2004 census by the Central Bureau of Statistics , a small population of 153 people living in 28 households was recorded , all living in the neighborhood of Rasm al @-@ Rawabi . The Rough Guide to Syria describes the current appearance of the city : " The first sight of the flattened houses on Quneitra 's outskirts is the most dramatic ; many of the unscathed roofs simply lie on top of a mass of rubble , leaving the impression of a building that has imploded . "
The city has often been used as a stop for foreign VIPs , ranging from the Soviet foreign minister Alexei Kosygin in June 1976 to Pope John Paul II in May 2001 . Only a handful of families now live in the town , making a living by providing services for the United Nations troops patrolling the demilitarized zone . According to The Times , " the carefully preserved ruined city has become a pilgrimage site for a generation of Syrians . "
The city can be visited by tourists , but a permit from the Syrian Ministry of the Interior is required , and sight @-@ seeing is supervised by a military guide . The principal sights on the standard tour are the remains of Quneitra 's hospital , mosque and Greek Orthodox church . A " Liberated Quneitra Museum " , displaying artifacts from the city 's ancient and medieval past , is housed in the former Ottoman caravanserai in the city centre . The western edge of the city marks the start of " no @-@ man 's land " beyond which lies Israeli @-@ controlled territory . Because the border is closed , it is not possible to visit Quneitra from Israel .
= = = Syrian Civil War = = =
On 13 November 2012 , during the ongoing Syrian Civil War that began in March 2011 , President Bashar al @-@ Assad issued a decree to establish a branch of the University of Damascus in Quneitra . On 6 June 2013 , the nearby Quneitra border crossing was attacked by Opposition forces and temporarily occupied , with Syrian army later retaking the crossing ; Opposition forces again captured the crossing in August 2014 . A Filipino peacekeeper of the UNDOF was wounded during the fighting . As a result the Austrian government announced the withdrawal of its troops from the UN mission . In July 2013 , Opposition forces attacked a military checkpoint in Quneitra , and by the next day were attacking several Syrian Arab Army positions in Quneitra .
= Cockatoo =
A cockatoo is a parrot that is any of the 21 species belonging to the bird family Cacatuidae , the only family in the superfamily Cacatuoidea . Along with the Psittacoidea ( true parrots ) and the Strigopoidea ( large New Zealand parrots ) , they make up the order Psittaciformes ( parrots ) . The family has a mainly Australasian distribution , ranging from the Philippines and the eastern Indonesian islands of Wallacea to New Guinea , the Solomon Islands and Australia .
Cockatoos are recognisable by the showy crests and curved bills . Their plumage is generally less colourful than that of other parrots , being mainly white , grey or black and often with coloured features in the crest , cheeks or tail . On average they are larger than other parrots ; however , the cockatiel , the smallest cockatoo species , is a small bird . The phylogenetic position of the cockatiel remains unresolved , other than that it is one of the earliest offshoots of the cockatoo lineage . The remaining species are in two main clades . The five large black coloured cockatoos of the genus Calyptorhynchus form one branch . The second and larger branch is formed by the genus Cacatua , comprising 11 species of white @-@ plumaged cockatoos and four monotypic genera that branched off earlier ; namely the pink and white Major Mitchell 's cockatoo , the pink and grey galah , the mainly grey gang @-@ gang cockatoo and the large black @-@ plumaged palm cockatoo .
Cockatoos prefer to eat seeds , tubers , corms , fruit , flowers and insects . They often feed in large flocks , particularly when ground @-@ feeding . Cockatoos are monogamous and nest in tree hollows . Some cockatoo species have been adversely affected by habitat loss , particularly from a shortage of suitable nesting hollows after large mature trees are cleared ; conversely , some species have adapted well to human changes and are considered agricultural pests .
Cockatoos are popular birds in aviculture , but their needs are difficult to meet . The cockatiel is the easiest cockatoo species to maintain and is by far the most frequently kept in captivity . White cockatoos are more commonly found in captivity than black cockatoos . Illegal trade in wild @-@ caught birds contributes to the decline of some cockatoo species in the wild .
= = Etymology = =
The word cockatoo dates from the 17th century and is a derivation from the Indonesian name for these birds , " kakak tua " ( meaning " older sibling " ) or from the call of the white cockatoo itself . Seventeenth @-@ century variants include cacato , cockatoon and crockadore , and cokato , cocatore and cocatoo were used in the eighteenth century . The derivation has also been used for the family and generic names Cacatuidae and Cacatua respectively .
In Australian slang or vernacular speech , a person who is assigned to keep watch while others undertake clandestine or illegal activities , particularly gambling , may be referred to as a " cockatoo " . Proprietors of small agricultural undertakings are often jocularly or slightly disparagingly referred to as " cocky farmers . "
= = Taxonomy = =
The cockatoos were first defined as a subfamily Cacatuinae within the parrot family Psittacidae by the English naturalist George Robert Gray in 1840 , with Cacatua the first listed and type genus . This group has alternately been considered as either a full or subfamily by different authorities . The American ornithologist James Lee Peters in his 1937 Check @-@ list of Birds of the World , Sibley and Monroe in 1990 maintained it as a subfamily , while parrot expert Joseph Forshaw classified it as a family in 1973 . Subsequent molecular studies indicate that the earliest offshoot from the original parrot ancestors were the New Zealand parrots of the superfamily Strigopoidea , and following this the cockatoos , now a well @-@ defined group or clade , split off from the remaining parrots , which then radiated across the Southern Hemisphere and diversified into the many species of parrots , parakeets , macaws , lories , lorikeets , lovebirds and other true parrots of the superfamily Psittacoidea .
The relationships among various cockatoo genera are largely resolved , although the placement of the cockatiel ( Nymphicus hollandicus ) at the base of the cockatoos remains uncertain . The cockatiel is alternatively placed basal to all other cockatoo species , as the sister taxon to the black cockatoo species of the genus Calyptorhynchus or as the sister taxon to a clade consisting of the white and pink cockatoo genera as well as the palm cockatoo . The remaining species are within two main clades , one consisting of the black species of the genus Calyptorhynchus while the other contains the remaining species . According to most authorities , the second clade includes the black palm cockatoo ( Probosciger ) , the gray and reddish galah ( Eolophus ) , the gang @-@ gang cockatoo ( Callocephalon ) and the pinkish Major Mitchell 's cockatoo ( Lophochroa ) , although Probosciger is sometimes placed basal to all other species . The remaining species are mainly white or slightly pinkish and all belong to the genus Cacatua . The genera Eolophus , Lophochroa and Cacatua are hypomelanistic . The genus Cacatua is further subdivided into the subgenera Licmetis , commonly known as corellas , and Cacatua , referred to as white cockatoos . Confusingly , the term " white cockatoo " has also been applied to the whole genus . The five cockatoo species of the genus Calyptorhynchus are commonly known as black cockatoos , and are divided into two subgenera — Calyptorhynchus and Zanda . The former group are sexually dichromatic , with the females having prominently barred plumage . The two are also distinguished by differences in the food begging calls of juveniles .
The fossil record of cockatoos is even more limited than that of parrots in general , with only one truly ancient cockatoo fossil known : a species of Cacatua , most probably subgenus Licmetis , found in Early Miocene ( 16 – 23 million years ago ) deposits of Riversleigh , Australia . Although fragmentary , the remains are similar to the western corella and the galah . In Melanesia , subfossil bones of Cacatua species which apparently did not survive early human settlement have been found on New Caledonia and New Ireland . The bearing of these fossils on cockatoo evolution and phylogeny is fairly limited , although the Riversleigh fossil does allow tentative dating of the divergence of subfamilies .
= = = Genera and species = = =
There are about 44 different birds in the cockatoo family Cacatuidae including recognized subspecies . The current subdivision of this family is as follows :
Subfamily Nymphicinae
Genus Nymphicus
Cockatiel , Nymphicus hollandicus ( Kerr , 1792 )
Subfamily Calyptorhynchinae : The black cockatoos
Genus Calyptorhynchus ( 5 species )
Subgenus Calyptorhynchus – black @-@ and @-@ red cockatoos
Red @-@ tailed black cockatoo , Calyptorhynchus banksii ( Latham , 1790 ) ( 5 subspecies )
Glossy black cockatoo , Calyptorhynchus lathami ( Temminck , 1807 ) ( 3 subspecies )
Subgenus Zanda – black @-@ and @-@ yellow / white cockatoos
Yellow @-@ tailed black cockatoo , Calyptorhynchus funereus ( Shaw , 1794 ) ( 2 – 3 subspecies )
Carnaby 's black cockatoo , Calyptorhynchus latirostris Carnaby , 1948
Baudin 's black cockatoo , Calyptorhynchus baudinii Lear , 1832
Subfamily Cacatuinae
Tribe Microglossini : One genus with one species , the black palm cockatoo .
Genus Probosciger
Palm cockatoo , Probosciger aterrimus ( Gmelin , 1788 ) ( 4 subspecies )
Tribe Cacatuini : Four genera of white , pink and grey species .
Genus Callocephalon
Gang @-@ gang cockatoo , Callocephalon fimbriatum ( Grant , 1803 )
Genus Eolophus
Galah , Eolophus roseicapilla ( Vieillot , 1817 ) ( 3 subspecies )
Genus Lophochroa
Major Mitchell 's cockatoo ( also Leadbeater 's cockatoo ) , Lophochroa leadbeateri ( Vigors , 1831 ) ( 2 subspecies )
Genus Cacatua ( 11 species )
Subgenus Cacatua – true white cockatoos
Yellow @-@ crested cockatoo ( also lesser sulphur @-@ crested cockatoo ) , Cacatua sulphurea ( Gmelin , 1788 ) ( 4 subspecies )
Sulphur @-@ crested cockatoo , Cacatua galerita ( Latham , 1790 ) ( 4 subspecies )
Blue @-@ eyed cockatoo , Cacatua ophthalmica Sclater , 1864
White cockatoo , Cacatua alba ( Müller , 1776 )
Salmon @-@ crested cockatoo , Cacatua moluccensis ( Gmelin , 1788 )
Subgenus Licmetis – corellas
Long @-@ billed corella , Cacatua tenuirostris ( Kuhl , 1820 )
Western corella , Cacatua pastinator ( Gould , 1841 ) ( 2 subspecies )
Little corella ( also bare @-@ eyed cockatoo ) , Cacatua sanguinea Gould , 1843 ( 4 subspecies )
Tanimbar corella ( also Goffin 's cockatoo ) , Cacatua goffiniana Roselaar and Michels , 2004
Solomons cockatoo , Cacatua ducorpsii Pucheran , 1853
Red @-@ vented cockatoo , Cacatua haematuropygia ( Müller , 1776 )
= = Morphology = =
The cockatoos are generally medium to large parrots of stocky build , which range from 30 – 60 cm ( 12 – 24 in ) in length and 300 – 1 @,@ 200 g ( 0 @.@ 66 – 2 @.@ 65 lb ) in weight ; however , one species , the cockatiel , is considerably smaller and slimmer than the other species , being 32 cm ( 13 in ) long ( including its long pointed tail feathers ) and 80 – 100 g ( 2 @.@ 8 – 3 @.@ 5 oz ) in weight . The movable headcrest , which is present in all cockatoos , is spectacular in many species ; it is raised when the bird lands from flying or when it is aroused . Cockatoos share many features with other parrots , including the characteristic curved beak shape and a zygodactyl foot , with the two middle toes forward and the two outer toes backward . They differ in the presence of an erectile crest and their lack of the Dyck texture feather composition which causes the bright blues and greens seen in true parrots .
Like other parrots , cockatoos have short legs , strong claws , a waddling gait and often use their strong bill as a third limb when climbing through branches . They generally have long broad wings used in rapid flight , with speeds up to 70 km / h ( 43 mph ) being recorded for galahs . The members of the genus Calyptorhynchus and larger white cockatoos , such as the sulphur @-@ crested cockatoo and Major Mitchell 's cockatoo , have shorter , rounder wings and a more leisurely flight .
Cockatoos have a large bill , which is kept sharp by rasping the two mandibles together when resting . The bill is complemented by a large muscular tongue which helps manipulate seeds inside the bill so that they can be de @-@ husked before eating . During the de @-@ husking , the lower mandible applies the pressure , the tongue holds the seed in place and the upper mandible acts as an anvil . The eye region of the skull is reinforced to support muscles which move the mandibles sideways . The bills of male cockatoos are generally slightly larger than those of their female counterparts , but this size difference is quite marked in the palm cockatoo .
The plumage of the cockatoos is less brightly coloured than that of the other parrots , with species generally being either black , grey or white . Many species have smaller areas of colour on their plumage , often yellow , pink and red , usually on the crest or tail . The galah and Major Mitchell 's cockatoo are more broadly coloured in pink tones . Several species have a brightly coloured bare area around the eye and face known as a periophthalmic ring ; the large red patch of bare skin of the palm cockatoo is the most extensive and covers some of the face , while it is more restricted in some other species of white cockatoo , notably the corellas and blue @-@ eyed cockatoo . The plumage of males and females is similar in most species . The plumage of the female cockatiel is duller than the male , but the most marked sexual dimorphism occurs in the gang @-@ gang cockatoo and the two species of black cockatoos in the subgenus Calyptorhynchus , namely the red @-@ tailed and glossy black cockatoos . The iris colour differs in a few species , being pink or red in the female galah and Major Mitchell 's cockatoo and red @-@ brown in some other female white cockatoo species . The males all have dark brown irises .
Cockatoos maintain their plumage with frequent preening throughout the day . They remove dirt and oil and realign feather barbs by nibbling their feathers . They also preen other birds ' feathers that are otherwise hard to get at . Cockatoos produce preen @-@ oil from a gland on their lower back and apply it by wiping their plumage with their heads or already oiled feathers . Powder @-@ down is produced by specialised feathers in the lumbar region and distributed by the preening cockatoo all over the plumage .
Moulting is very slow and complex . Black cockatoos appear to replace their flight feathers one at a time , their moult taking two years to complete . This process is much shorter in other species , such as the galah and long @-@ billed corella , which each take around six months to replace all their flight feathers .
= = = Voice = = =
The vocalisations of cockatoos are loud and harsh . They serve a number of functions , including allowing individuals to recognize one another , alerting others of predators , indicating individual moods , maintaining the cohesion of a flock and as warnings when defending nests . The use of calls and number of specific calls varies by species ; the Carnaby 's black cockatoo has as many as 15 different calls , whereas others , such as Major Mitchell 's cockatoo , have fewer . Some , like the gang @-@ gang cockatoo , are comparatively quiet but do have softer growling calls when feeding . In addition to vocalisations , palm cockatoos communicate over large distances by drumming on a dead branch with a stick . Cockatoo species also make a characteristic hissing sound when threatened .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Cockatoos have a much more restricted range than the true parrots , occurring naturally only in Australasia , Indonesia and the Phillippines . Eleven of the 21 species exist in the wild only in Australia , while seven species occur only in the islands of the Philippines , Indonesia , Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands . Interestingly , no cockatoo species are found in Borneo ( despite their presence on nearby Palawan and Sulawesi ) or many Pacific islands , although fossil remains have been recorded from New Caledonia .
Three species occur in both New Guinea and Australia . Some species have widespread distributions , with the galah , for example , occurring over most of Australia , whereas other species have tiny distributions , confined to a small part of the continent , such as the Baudin 's black cockatoo of Western Australia or to a small island group , such as the Tanimbar corella , which is restricted to the Tanimbar Islands of Indonesia . Some cockatoos have been introduced accidentally to areas outside their natural range such as New Zealand , Singapore , and Palau , while two Australian corella species have been introduced to parts of the continent where they are not native .
Cockatoos occupy a wide range of habitats from forests in subalpine regions to mangroves . However , no species is found in all types of habitat . The most widespread species , such as the galah and cockatiel , are open @-@ country specialists that feed on grass seeds . They are often highly mobile fast flyers and are nomadic . Flocks of birds move across large areas of the inland , locating and feeding on seed and other food sources . Drought may force flocks from more arid areas to move further into farming areas . Other cockatoo species , such as the glossy black cockatoo , inhabit woodlands , rainforests , shrublands and even alpine forests . The red @-@ vented cockatoo inhabits mangroves and its absence from northern Luzon may be related to the lack of mangrove forests there . Forest @-@ dwelling cockatoos are generally sedentary , as the food supply is more stable and predictable . Several species have adapted well to human modified habitats and are found in agricultural areas and even busy cities .
= = Behaviour = =
Cockatoos are diurnal and require daylight to find their food . They are not early risers , instead waiting until the sun has warmed their roosting sites before feeding . All species are generally highly social and roost , forage and travel in colourful and noisy flocks . These vary in size depending on availability of food ; in times of plenty , flocks are small and number a hundred birds or less , while in droughts or other | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
, Villa and Morientes netted 43 goals in all competitions . That year also saw Villa debut in the UEFA Champions League ; his first match was a qualifying match , coming on as a late substitute in a 1 – 0 first leg loss against Red Bull Salzburg . He went on to start the second leg and scored in a 3 – 0 win which saw Valencia qualify for the Champions League group stages . Crucial goals against Roma and Shakhtar Donetsk helped Valencia qualify for the knockout stages , where they faced Inter Milan . Villa scored a free @-@ kick goal in the first leg away from home , while one of Inter 's defenders complained that Villa had " made us look like idiots , all on his own " . Valencia went through to the quarter @-@ finals , where they faced Chelsea . Villa featured in both games but failed to make the score sheet as Valencia were knocked out by the London team 3 – 2 on aggregate . In October 2006 , he was included among the 50 nominees for the Ballon d 'Or ( often referred to as the European Footballer of the Year Award ) .
A crucial goal against Espanyol and a brace against Sevilla helped him reach 16 goals that season and would see him come sixth in La Liga 's top scorer list that season ( scoring the same amount of goals as fellow international Raúl Tamudo ) while he created more assists than anyone .
= = = = 2007 – 08 season = = = =
The 2007 – 08 season was not easy for Villa nor for his teammates . Early in the season , their manager , Quique Sánchez Flores , was fired and replaced by Ronald Koeman , who ended up being fired on 22 April , after a run of poor results , even though he managed to win a trophy with Valencia after the team defeated Getafe in the Copa del Rey @-@ final . Koeman was replaced by highly rated Almería coach Unai Emery at the end of the season . Under Koeman , Villa managed to see the back of the net 18 times in his 26 appearances . He also won the first professional trophy of his Valencia spell , winning the Copa del Rey for the second time in his career , beating Barcelona 3 – 2 in the semi @-@ finals and then Getafe 3 – 1 in the final. ensuring the team 's place for the following season 's UEFA Cup . By the end of the season , he signed a new six @-@ year contract with Valencia , committing his future to the club until 2014 .
That season , Villa once again saw himself playing Champions League football . He scored the only goal in a 1 – 0 win against Schalke 04 and went on to put Valencia 1 – 0 up against Chelsea , although goals from Joe Cole and Didier Drogba saw Valencia lose 2 – 1 . Valencia finished bottom of the group and were knocked out . On his 100th league appearance for Valencia , Villa scored a hat @-@ trick against Levante ; his 54th , 55th and 56th league goals for the club . Another two goals on the final day of the season against Atlético Madrid completed his tally of 18 goals that season .
= = = = 2008 – 09 season = = = =
After finishing as the top scorer at Euro 2008 , Villa continued his form into the 2008 – 09 season , where he scored the first goal in a 3 – 0 win against Mallorca in what was the opening game of the season . After failing to sign the player , Real Madrid 's manager at the time , Bernd Schuster , accused Villa of having " no ambition " , whereupon Villa responded by saying , " Footballing ambition is not about your mouth , it is about your feet . You can accuse me of lots of things – of having a bad day , of missing chances , of many things – but I have always had ambition and always will have . I think I have proved that on the pitch with Zaragoza , Sporting , UD Langreo , and the national team . " In October 2008 , Kaká praised Villa : speaking to Canal + , he claimed that Villa is " the best Spanish footballer " adding that , " The player with whom I would most like to play is David Villa of Valencia . " On 2 December 2008 , Villa came seventh in the Ballon d 'Or 2008 rankings and on 12 January 2009 , he was announced as the joint ninth @-@ best player of 2008 alongside international teammate Andrés Iniesta of Barcelona , according to the 2008 FIFA World Player of the Year awards .
Valencia finished second in their UEFA Cup group , although Villa was not featured heavily and was often an unused or late @-@ match subtitute . He scored a late winner against Marítimo and was used in the Round of 32 against Dynamo Kyiv , though he did not make the score sheet . The two legs finished in a 3 – 3 aggregate score , with Dynamo progressing through the away goals rule .
Hitting a consistent goalscoring form during mid @-@ season , Villa scored against Deportivo La Coruña , although he was sent off during the match after his second yellow card , received due to a foul on Daniel Aranzubia ; as a result , he missed Valencia 's next match against Real Valladolid , a game Valencia lost 2 – 1 at home . Ready to return from suspension , Villa suffered from an inflammation in the joint in his left knee due to a partial dislocation and would be ruled out for the next 15 days , missing games against Numancia , Recreativo de Huelva and Racing de Santander . When he finally returned from injury on 5 April 2009 , he had no trouble recovering form , netting a brace in a match against Getafe which Valencia won 4 – 1 . On 12 April , Villa was set to return to El Molinón , the home ground of Sporting de Gijón where he started his career . He admitted that the encounter would be very emotional for him but went on to score the second Valencia goal in a 3 – 2 win and kept a pre @-@ match promise by not celebrating the goal . His goal against Villarreal brought his tally to 26 , and he then scored another two against Athletic Bilbao , finishing with 28 goals after the last game of the season , thus equalling records set by the Argentinian Mario Kempes and the Montenegrin Predrag Mijatović , who also scored 28 goals in a Valencia shirt in 1978 and 1996 , respectively . Kempes reached his tally of 28 goals in 34 games while Mijatović achieved it in 40 , ultimately seeing Villa beat their percentages , as he achieved the 28 goals in 33 games , recording a goal ratio of 0 @.@ 84 goals per game . That season saw Villa 's best goal @-@ scoring season at Valencia .
With the season over , Villa had marked his fourth year at Valencia , with only Barcelona 's Samuel Eto 'o scoring more goals than him in that period , with just six more . British columnist Sid Lowe , however , pointed out that Eto 'o achieved this " in a team that racked up 129 [ goals ] more than Villa 's side " , and noted that " most of that time he [ Villa ] has taken Valencia 's corners and free @-@ kicks – and however good a player is he can 't head in his own crosses " . Villa also ended the season as the third top scorer in La Liga with 28 goals , just behind Eto 'o ( 30 ) and Diego Forlán ( 32 ) . After recording the best goal tally for a Valencia player in 60 years back in the 2005 – 06 season , he went three better in the 2008 – 09 season . The 28 league goals , in addition to three more in other competitions that season , accumulated a total of 101 goals in 180 official games with the Valencian outfit .
= = = = 2009 – 10 season = = = =
After the shock exit from the Confederations Cup with Spain , Villa returned from his holidays on 27 July amidst much media speculation linking him with top clubs such as Real Madrid , Barcelona , Liverpool , Chelsea , and Manchester United . Villa quelled such rumours after announcing his desire to remain at the Mestalla to fulfil his contract , underlining that he " could not spend all summer refuting things , so I wanted to be quiet ... I was told I should leave Valencia for the good of the club , soon after that everything changed and from that moment on I never saw myself out of here – before the Euros , the club told me what my asking price was , and I thought they were going to sell me , but when I returned from my vacations , Vicente Soriano said that he did not want me to leave Valencia . That removed all doubt for me . There is no train missed because all that I have achieved is because of Valencia and the Spanish national team . " When questioned on whether or not he should apologise to Valencia fans , he simply replied , " I did not kill anyone , I do not think I have to ask for forgiveness . "
On 20 August 2009 , Villa scored in his first official match of the season , a 3 – 0 Europa League qualifier against Stabæk . He followed this up with two goals against Real Valladolid on 13 September , Villa 's first league goals of the 2009 – 10 season . He scored twice more a week later against former club Sporting Gijón in a 2 – 2 draw at the Mestalla , where he also performed duties as the team 's captain . After the match , Villa hinted towards being unhappy with Unai Emery 's managerial decisions , stating , " The approach for the second half was not right . We relaxed and ended up with the same result as last year . What has happened , has happened , but their goalkeeper was good , unlike our approach , which was not good , " however a day later he denied being critical of Emery , pointing out that , " When I talked about the approach , I was referring to the whole team , I spoke in the heat of the moment , I was annoyed at the way we lost two points and I said what I thought , but I have clarified everything that needed to be cleared up . "
In 2009 , Villa scored more goals than any other footballer , tallying 43 goals in 54 games across all competitions for both Spain and Valencia . The IFFHS listed him fourth in the " World 's Top Goal Scorer 2009 " rankings .
On 18 October , Villa was nominated for the Ballon d 'Or , while nearly two weeks later , on 30 October , he was nominated for the FIFA World Player of the Year . After going three league games without scoring , Villa contributed two goals towards Valencia 's 4 – 1 victory against Villarreal on 17 January 2010 , the first of his two goals became his 100th league goal with Valencia . Another brace came against Getafe on 22 February 2010 , the second goal being " a superb chip " ( as described by ESPN ) over Jordi Codina . On 18 March , Valencia went to the Weserstadion to play Werder Bremen in the Europa League . Villa scored a hat @-@ trick , his third goal being of note , which was fired in from eight yards out . The match ended 4 – 4 while Valencia proceeded to the next round on away goals . On 4 May 2010 , Valencia played Xerez ; Villa did not start but came on as a substitute 62 minutes into the match , which ended 3 – 1 . Valencia still had two more games to play in the league , although Villa did not feature , making the game against Xerez the last time he played for Valencia .
= = = Barcelona = = =
= = = = 2010 – 11 season = = = =
On 19 May 2010 , Barcelona reached an agreement with Valencia for the acquisition of Villa for a € 40 million transfer fee . Villa signed a four @-@ year contract with Barça with the option for a fifth , worth a reported € 7 million per season , thus following in the footsteps of his heroes Luis Enrique and Quini , both of whom , like Villa , started out at Sporting Gijón and ended up at Barcelona . On 21 May 2010 , over 35 @,@ 000 Barcelona supporters packed into Camp Nou to see Villa 's presentation , where he revealed the kit Barcelona would use during the 2010 – 11 season . He was given his favourite number 7 , a number which had been free at the club since Eiður Guðjohnsen left in 2009 . He made his first appearance for the club in the second leg of the Supercopa de España , during the second half as a substitute for fellow Spanish international Pedro . His debut appearance would also see him win his first piece of silver @-@ ware with the Catalonian side , as Barcelona won 4 – 0 and 5 – 3 on aggregate due to a hat @-@ trick by teammate Lionel Messi . His first goal came during the Joan Gamper Trophy ( an annual friendly competition ) against Milan ; Barcelona won 3 – 1 on penalties after the match had ended 1 – 1 during normal time .
On 29 August 2010 , Villa made his La Liga debut with Barcelona against Racing de Santander , where he scored the third goal of the match to help seal a 3 – 0 victory . On 14 September 2010 , he scored on his Champions League debut with Barcelona in a 5 – 1 victory over Panathinaikos
Against Sevilla , on 31 October 2010 , Barcelona won 5 – 0 against the Andalusian side , while Villa netted a brace . His first goal that match was voted " The Best Goal of the Week ( October 25 – 31 ) " by the readers of Goal.com. Villa 's first El Clásico against Real Madrid came on 29 November 2010 , where he scored two goals as Barcelona won 5 – 0 at the Camp Nou . Talking about the match , he commented that , " It 's been a very important win . We looked for the victory and we got it . And the result and the manner in which we achieved it , you cannot ask for more . " He then scored a goal against Real Sociedad , a match Barcelona won 5 – 0 . He followed with a brace against Espanyol , helping Barcelona to a 5 – 1 win .
On 27 December 2010 , Villa was named " Male Athlete of the Year " by the United States Sports Academy , as he edged fellow Spaniard Rafael Nadal and previous winner Manny Pacquiao for the title .
On 28 May 2011 , Villa scored the third goal – curling the ball into the net from 25 @-@ yards out – in Barcelona 's 3 – 1 victory over Manchester United in the 2010 – 11 UEFA Champions League final . After the victory , Villa said that he would like to dedicate the victory " to all my family , my daughters and also Pepe Reina 's , who are like my nieces " .
= = = = 2011 – 12 season = = = =
Villa started the season with goals against Mexican clubs Guadalajara and América in pre @-@ season friendly matches . His first official match of the season was against Real Madrid in the first leg of the 2011 Supercopa de España , where Villa scored a " world @-@ class " goal to help Barça seal a 2 – 2 tie at the Santiago Bernabéu , while on 17 August 2011 , Villa was sent off in the dying moments of the second leg ( which Barcelona won 3 – 2 ) after an altercation with Mesut Özil . Against Osasuna on 17 September 2011 , Villa contributed two goals and forced Rovérsio into scoring an own goal in Barcelona 's 8 – 0 win over the team from Pamplona . He then broke his tibia in a Club World Cup match in Yokohama against Al Sadd . Doctors said he was to be out of action for up to six months , but this eventually led to him missing the entire 2011 – 12 season with both Barcelona and the Spanish football team at Euro 2012 .
= = = = 2012 – 13 season = = = =
After spending eight months without being able to play any football , Villa finally returned from his injury in the 73rd minute of Barcelona 's 2 – 0 win over Dinamo Bucharest on 11 August 2012 . Eight days later , he played his first competitive football match since December 2011 in Barcelona 's first La Liga game of the season where he received a standing ovation while coming on as a substitute for Pedro . It only took seven minutes before Villa found himself on the score @-@ sheet while sealing a 5 – 1 victory for his team against Real Sociedad . On 28 November , Villa scored two goals in a 3 – 1 over Deportivo Alavés , which included his 300th career goal .
Against Milan in the second leg of round of 16 of the Champions League , Villa scored the decisive third goal in Barcelona 's 4 – 0 victory , helping his team overturn a two @-@ goal first @-@ leg deficit . In the next round , Villa assisted Pedro 's equalising goal against Paris Saint @-@ Germain which took Barcelona through to the semi @-@ final , where they were eventually knocked out by Bayern Munich .
David Villa ended the season with a large amount of his appearances coming from the bench , partly due to the recovery time of his previous injury . Despite this , he was still able to amass 16 goals in 39 appearances while his performances earned him a spot in Spain 's 2013 Confederations Cup squad .
= = = Atlético Madrid = = =
On 8 July 2013 , Barcelona announced that they had reached an agreement for the transfer of Villa to Atlético Madrid for a cut @-@ price deal of € 5 @.@ 1 million . On 21 August 2013 , he scored in the 2013 Supercopa de España first leg on his debut for Atlético against his former club Barcelona with a right @-@ footed volley .
Villa scored his first goal of the league season on 1 September , also assisting Koke as Atlético won 2 – 1 away at Real Sociedad . On 27 October , he scored his first Atlético brace as the side defeated Real Betis 5 – 0 at the Vicente Calderón Stadium . He added two further braces during the season : on 23 November in a 7 – 0 win over Getafe and the other in the space of 90 seconds in a 2 – 0 away win against Celta de Vigo on 8 March 2014 . He finished his only season at the club with 13 league goals from 36 appearances , contributing to Atlético 's first league title since 1996 .
= = = New York City FC = = =
On 1 June 2014 , Villa announced that he would leave Atlético . While he called the club he was joining " an irresistible project " , he did not reveal the identity of the club . The following day , he was announced as the first player for the newly formed New York City FC , who would start playing in the 2015 season of Major League Soccer ( MLS ) . He was handed the number 7 shirt on arrival , and stated , " I want to try to help MLS continue to grow and try to make New York City become the best team in the league . "
= = = = Melbourne City ( loan ) = = = =
Parallel to his joining New York City FC , Villa was announced to have joined the Australian A @-@ League with Melbourne City , following the team 's association with Manchester City . Villa was on a guest stint , allowing him to make up to ten appearances for Melbourne City during the 2014 – 15 season , taking advantage of the scheduling of the A @-@ League and MLS to maintain match fitness ahead of his debut with New York City . After only joining Melbourne City for pre @-@ season training just over a week before their first game , Villa was brought on in the 48th minute of the first game of the season against Sydney FC , and scored a debut goal a quarter of an hour into his appearance . On 19 October 2014 , in his second match , Villa scored an 87th @-@ minute equaliser against the Newcastle Jets for a 1 – 1 draw .
Despite signing for ten matches , Villa was recalled by New York after just four matches , none of which were won by Melbourne City ; the last was a 1 – 2 home defeat to Adelaide United . It was estimated that he tripled the club 's attendance , and manager John van ' t Schip credited Villa with bringing attention to the club .
= = = = Return to New York City = = = =
Villa was named NYCFC 's first ever team captain on 1 February 2015 , as well as a Designated Player . Nine days later , in a friendly against Scottish club St Mirren , he scored the team 's first ever goal . On 8 March , he started in the team 's first MLS game , away to fellow newcomers Orlando City . In a 1 – 1 draw , he set up Mix Diskerud for the first goal and was fouled by Aurélien Collin , who was sent off for the challenge . A week later , in their first home match at Yankee Stadium , Villa opened the scoring in a 2 – 0 win over the New England Revolution for the team 's first competitive victory .
On 12 July , Villa netted twice in a 4 – 4 home draw against Toronto FC , despite missing a penalty in the first half . He was selected to take part in the 2015 MLS All @-@ Star Game on 29 July , at the Dick 's Sporting Goods Park in Commerce City , Colorado ; he scored the match @-@ winning goal from a Kaká assist as the MLS All @-@ Stars defeated Tottenham Hotspur 2 – 1 . Despite Villa 's prolific performances , which saw him score 18 goals during the 2015 MLS regular season , New York City FC did not qualify for the MLS Cup Playoffs in their inaugural campaign .
In July 2016 , Villa was included in the roster for the 2016 MLS All @-@ Star Game .
= = International career = =
= = = 2006 World Cup = = =
An occasional member of the Under @-@ 21 team , Villa marked his international début under Luis Aragonés on 9 February 2005 in a 2006 World Cup qualifier where Spain beat San Marino 5 – 0 at the Estadio del Mediterráneo while his first international goal came in the form of a late equaliser during a World Cup qualifier against Slovakia on 16 November .
A successful season with Valencia saw him get called up as part of the 23 @-@ man squad to represent Spain at the 2006 FIFA World Cup . Spain 's first match at the tournament and Villa 's World Cup debut resulted in a 4 – 0 win against Ukraine where Villa netted a brace , and also put his nation 1 – 0 up against France in the Round of 16 , although Spain went on to lose the match 3 – 1 . He and Fernando Torres finished as Spain 's top scorers with three goals each .
= = = Euro 2008 = = =
By the end of 2006 , Villa had become an integral part of Luis Aragonés ' plans and ousted Raúl from the team . Proving vital in Spain 's qualification for Euro 2008 , he scored six goals , including a bicycle kick against Liechtenstein . He was subsequently called up for the tournament where he formed a striking relationship with Torres , with whom he would often celebrate his goals . He scored a hat @-@ trick in Spain 's 4 – 1 win over Russia , making him the first player to do so at a UEFA European Championship since Patrick Kluivert in 2000 , and only the seventh overall . After the third goal , he went out of his way to meet Torres , who was on the bench at the time , to celebrate with him : " I had just scored a hat @-@ trick and I knew people would be talking about me , but I wanted them to see that I had benefited from Torres 's work , just as he sometimes benefits from mine . " In the next match , he secured a 2 – 1 win against Sweden with a goal in the 92nd minute . Rested for the next match against Greece , he started once again in the quarter @-@ finals , where Spain beat Italy 4 – 2 on penalties ; Villa took the first penalty and scored .
Reaching their first semi @-@ final in 24 years , Spain went on to face Russia for the second time during the tournament , though during the early stages of the match , Villa sustained a thigh injury after taking a free kick and was replaced by Cesc Fàbregas . The injury meant that he could not participate in the final where Spain beat Germany 1 – 0 to claim their second win at the European Football Championships . Despite missing the final and the majority of the semi @-@ final , Villa 's four goals in the four games he played were enough for him to be top scorer of the tournament and was awarded the Golden Boot . He also made the UEFA Euro 2008 Team of the Tournament alongside striking partner Torres .
= = = 2009 Confederations Cup = = =
Spain 's first match during qualification for the 2010 World Cup was against Bosnia and Herzegovina where Villa scored the only goal of the game . He would go on to score four goals in Spain 's next three games , including a last minute winner against Belgium . Another goal during a friendly match against Chile saw him end the year with 12 goals , breaking Raúl 's record of 10 goals held since 1999 . Villa began 2009 with a goal against England in a 2 – 0 friendly , with this goal , he broke another record and became the first Spanish international to have scored in six consecutive games , seeing off records set by Telmo Zarra and László Kubala . Speaking of the goal , he said , " I am very happy with the goal . Truth is , I really want to see it on TV . The record is very nice . I would never have imagined in years that I would be able to obtain it . I am very proud and I hope I can continue breaking records . "
On 1 June 2009 , Vicente del Bosque named Villa in his 23 @-@ man squad for the 2009 FIFA Confederations Cup . In a friendly match before the tournament , Villa scored his second international hat @-@ trick against Azerbaijan , nearly exactly a year after his hat @-@ trick against Russia at Euro 2008 . He debuted at the Confederations Cup with a goal , the last of the five goals in Spain 's 5 – 0 victory over New Zealand , while in the next game he scored the decisive goal against a defensive Iraqi team . Against South Africa , he missed a penalty , but within a minute made up for the miss by putting Spain ahead , helping them equal the records of most consecutive wins and most consecutive matches undefeated before making way for Pablo Hernández . The goal was his last of the tournament but was enough to see him win the 2009 FIFA Confederations Cup Bronze Shoe , he would also go on to make the team of the tournament .
Villa earned his 50th cap during a friendly against the Republic of Macedonia in a match where Spain won 3 – 2 .
= = = 2010 World Cup = = =
On 5 September 2009 , Villa added two more goals to his goal tally for Spain , while assisting twice during the World Cup qualifier against Belgium , in A Coruña . The match ended 5 – 0 to Spain , where Villa also had a first @-@ half penalty saved by Belgian goalkeeper Jean @-@ François Gillet . Villa finished the year with his sixth international brace against Austria in the Ernst @-@ Happel @-@ Stadion , the setting where Spain were crowned European champions the previous year . With these two goals , Villa equalled the record he set last year of most goals scored in one calendar year by a Spanish international . Spain 's first match in 2010 came on 3 March , against France at the Stade de France ; Villa scored the opening goal in a game which Spain went on to win 2 – 0 .
In 2010 , Villa came first in the IFFHS " 2010 's World Top Goalscorer at International Level " rankings , he was subsequently selected as a part of Vicente del Bosque 's 23 @-@ man squad for the 2010 FIFA World Cup . In a friendly against Saudi Arabia on 29 May 2010 , Villa scored the first of Spain 's goals as they won 3 – 2 at the Tivoli Neu – the stadium where he scored his hat @-@ trick against Russia during Euro 2008 . Failing to score in Spain 's next match against South Korea , he opened the score sheet in Spain 's next match against Poland , in which Spain won 6 – 0 , recording Poland 's their worst defeat in 50 years .
In Spain 's first 2010 World Cup match , Villa was chosen as a lone striker , but could do nothing to prevent their shock defeat at the hands of Switzerland . Five days later , Spain defeated Honduras 2 – 0 , where Villa scored both goals , but wasted his chance to complete a hat @-@ trick when he was awarded a penalty kick – side @-@ footing the ball just wide of the post . It was the first time in 14 attempts Spain ever missed a penalty in a World Cup during the run of play . In the same game , Villa was shown to slap Emilio Izaguirre in the face after the Honduran player trod on him . Villa said he was " not proud " of the heat of the moment incident , but he escaped a ban . Villa helped secure Spain 's place in the round of 16 after scoring the first goal in a 2 – 1 win over Chile , with a long @-@ range shot into an empty net after Chilean goalkeeper Claudio Bravo ran out of his area to prevent Fernando Torres from scoring . The goal would become his sixth goal in FIFA World Cup matches , becoming Spain 's all @-@ time top scorer at the World Cup finals , ahead of Emilio Butragueño , Fernando Hierro , Fernando Morientes and Raúl , all of whom have five .
Spain were up against Portugal in the round of 16 , and Villa would prove to be vital once again , as Xavi backheeled an Andrés Iniesta pass to the on @-@ rushing Villa , who hit the back of the net on the rebound after having his first shot saved by Eduardo , proving enough to give Spain a place in the quarter @-@ finals against Paraguay , where Villa scored a goal from a rebound after Pedro hit the post . Once again , Villa 's goal proved to be the difference as the match finished 1 – 0 , while Spain booked a game with Germany in the semi @-@ finals , where Spain recorded yet another 1 – 0 victory with the only goal coming from Carles Puyol .
Villa started in the final against the Netherlands , where he had an opportunity to score from close range , but was impeded by John Heitinga who managed to block his shot . Villa was replaced by Fernando Torres in the 106th minute and Spain won the championship 1 – 0 on Iniesta 's goal in the 116th minute . Villa , who scored five of Spain 's eight goals in the World Cup Finals , was awarded the Silver Shoe ; he had the same number of goals as Thomas Müller , the Gold Shoe winner , but fewer assists . Villa was named in the FIFA World Cup All @-@ Star Team .
= = = Euro 2012 qualifying and missing out on Euro 2012 = = =
Spain 's first match of UEFA Euro 2012 qualifying was against Liechtenstein on 3 September 2010 , Villa scored the second goal of the match which eventually ended 4 – 0 . It was believed that this goal meant that he had equalled Raúl 's record 44 @-@ goal tally , however after many debates about whether he or Dariusz Dudka scored the first goal in Spain 's 6 – 0 win over Poland , FIFA eventually decided that the goal was indeed an own goal by Dudka , meaning Villa 's goal tally would remain at 43 . On 12 October 2010 , he finally equalled Raúl 's record , scoring a penalty against Scotland and helping Spain see off the Scots in a 3 – 2 victory at Hampden Park .
On 25 March 2011 , Villa scored two goals against the Czech Republic in a Euro 2012 qualifier , which ultimately handed Spain a 2 – 1 victory , while at the same time he managed to eclipse Raúl as Spain 's all @-@ time leading goalscorer . Speaking of the achievement , he stated that , " The goals are dedicated to all the team @-@ mates , all the coaches , all partners and friends I had during my career ... But long ago I promised José , who is a friend of mine , that the goal which overtook Raúl would be for him . "
On 7 September 2011 , Villa helped secure Spain 's qualification for UEFA Euro 2012 by scoring two goals in Spain 's 6 – 0 victory over Liechtenstein . In Spain 's last Euro 2012 qualifying match , Villa scored his 50th international goal against Scotland in a 3 – 1 victory for Spain . That same match was also the first time Villa was able to wear the captain 's armband while playing for the Spanish national team .
Villa finished as top scorer of Group I with seven goals , however , after fracturing his tibia in December 2011 , he was left out of Spain 's final squad for Euro 2012 after telling Vicente del Bosque that he would not be fit for the tournament . He tweeted , " I 've tried , but I can 't be 100 % to play the Eurocup . I called Del Bosque . It 's the honest thing . " Del Bosque was hoping to include Villa in the squad and promised to give Villa as long as possible to return to fitness .
= = = 2013 Confederations Cup and 2014 World Cup = = =
After Spain had won Euro 2012 , Villa had returned to fitness and was subsequently called up to the Spain team again . He made his return in the 53rd minute during a friendly against Saudi Arabia and found himself on the score sheet just ten minutes later .
On 3 June 2013 , Vicente del Bosque included Villa in his 23 @-@ man squad for the 2013 Confederations Cup where he scored three goals , all of which were against Tahiti in a 10 – 0 victory for Spain .
Villa was named in Spain 's squad for the 2014 World Cup . Prior to the World Cup , he confirmed that he would retire from international football after the tournament . With Spain 's elimination already confirmed , Villa was selected to start in Spain 's final group match against Australia . He scored his 59th goal for La Furia Roja , and ninth in World Cup finals , in his final international appearance , a 3 – 0 win on 23 June 2014 .
In December 2015 , Villa revealed that he was considering reversing his international retirement .
= = = Succeeding Raúl as Spain 's number 7 = = =
The Spanish media has often compared Villa with Raúl , to the point where Villa was accused of taking the number 7 jersey away from the then @-@ Real Madrid player . In March 2009 , Villa spoke out , saying , " I have not taken anything away from anybody , I was simply playing well for my club and the national coach gave me an opportunity . Too much has been said about the number issue . I ’ m not looking to cause any controversy . In fact , Raúl and I were in the national squad together in the past . I haven ’ t forced anybody out . " When questioned on whether the whole uproar created over Raúl 's omission was affecting him personally , he said , " I 've never liked it because I think it has been damaging for the both of us . We 've always got on well together whenever we 've met up for international duty , so I 'm not concerned . I just work hard for myself . All I want is to be in the squad for every game , to have the Spain badge on my chest and to score as many goals as I can . "
In February 2010 , Bernd Schuster was asked if Raúl did not favour Villa moving to Real Madrid , to which he responded , " I have a cough , " which caused many to believe that he was implying the rumour to be true . Villa firmly ridiculed that idea by saying , " It is impossible that a player with as much class on and off the pitch as Raúl would speak poorly of me . I have always had a good relationship with Raúl , even though we have hardly met on international duty . " Speaking about Raúl 's record with the Spanish national team as the nation 's leading top scorer , Villa said , " I 've got 25 goals but he 's got 44 and is still playing . I 'd be delighted to reach that tally as I 'd help the national team achieve great victories and , in many years ' time , I could see my name on a [ scorers ' list ] that another young lad was trying to beat . That would be great . " On 25 March 2011 , two years after making that remark , Villa surpassed Raúl as Spain 's all @-@ time top scorer .
= = Style of play = =
A prolific goalscorer , Villa is regarded by pundits as one of the best forwards of his generation , and one of the best Spanish strikers of all @-@ time . An opportunistic , versatile and well @-@ rounded player , Villa is naturally right @-@ footed , but an accurate and powerful finisher with either foot , due to his ambidexterity , both inside and outside the area , despite his lack of height or physicality ; he is also a set piece and penalty kick specialist . Villa is a quick , agile , and mobile team player , with excellent technique and dribbling skills , who is also known for his work @-@ rate and intelligent offensive movement , as well as his ability to either create space for teammates or make attacking runs into the area . Due to his vision and passing ability , he is also capable of dropping deep to link up play with midfielders , and of creating chances and providing assists for teammates , which has allowed him to be deployed as a supporting forward , as an attacking midfielder or as a winger throughout his career , in addition to his more common role as a centre @-@ forward .
= = Personal life = =
In 2003 , Villa married his childhood sweetheart Patricia González , who had also been a footballer in her teenage years . Together they have three children : Zaida , Olaya — named after the wife of Fernando Torres , who is a close friend of Patricia — and Luca . The names of his children are engraved on his personalised Adidas F50 boots ; while one boot bears the Spanish flag , the other has the flag of Asturias .
His footballing idols are fellow Asturians Luis Enrique and Quini , both of whom also played for Sporting de Gijón and Barcelona .
Villa frequently attends charity events . He is actively involved with the campaigns of the UNICEF charity .
Beginning in July 2008 , a David Villa Camp is held annually , where children receive training from professional footballers . Villa also participates in a training session with the children .
Villa features in EA Sports ' FIFA video game series ; he was on the cover of the Spanish edition of the video game FIFA 07 , and he also appeared on the cover of the MLS custom edition of FIFA 16 .
In 2010 , Villa sang alongside Grammy Award @-@ nominated Spanish singer Ana Torroja on the song " Insurrection " by El Último de la Fila . The recording was made for the beneficiary project Voces X1FIN to help raise money to build an art and education school in Mali . Villa commented that footballers " are an example for society and we have to be ready to get involved in these projects , where we can help people who need it " .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Club = = =
As of match played 17 July 2016
= = = International = = =
= = = = International statistics = = = =
As of 23 June 2014 .
Note : Each season is September – August
= = Honours = =
= = = Club = = =
Real Zaragoza
Copa del Rey ( 1 ) : 2003 – 04
Supercopa de España ( 1 ) : 2004
Valencia
Copa del Rey ( 1 ) : 2007 – 08
Barcelona
La Liga ( 2 ) : 2010 – 11 , 2012 – 13
Copa del Rey ( 1 ) : 2011 – 12
Supercopa de España ( 2 ) : 2010 , 2011
UEFA Champions League ( 1 ) : 2010 – 11
UEFA Super Cup ( 1 ) : 2011
FIFA Club World Cup ( 1 ) : 2011
Atlético Madrid
La Liga ( 1 ) : 2013 – 14
UEFA Champions League Runner @-@ up ( 1 ) : 2013 – 14
New York City
MLS All @-@ Star : 2015
= = = Country = = =
Spain
FIFA World Cup ( 1 ) : 2010
UEFA European Championship ( 1 ) : 2008
= = = Individual = = =
Awards
Spanish Player of the Year : 2005 – 06
Zarra Trophy : 2005 – 06 , 2006 – 07 , 2008 – 09 , 2009 – 10
UEFA Euro 2008 Golden Boot
UEFA Euro 2008 Team of the Tournament
UEFA Euro 2008 Man of the Match Spain vs Russia , Spain vs Sweden
2009 FIFA Confederations Cup Bronze Shoe
2009 FIFA Confederations Cup Team of the Tournament .
2010 FIFA World Cup Silver Shoe
2010 FIFA World Cup Bronze Ball
2010 FIFA World Cup Dream Team
2010 FIFA World Cup Man of the Match Spain vs Honduras
USSA Male Athlete of the Year : 2010
FIFA / FIFPro World XI : 2010
UEFA Team of the Year : 2010
MLS Player of the Week 2015 : Week 2
MLS Player of the Week 2015 : Week 15
MLS All @-@ Star : 2015
NYCFC Etihad Player of the month : July 2015
Ride of Fame : September 2015
NYCFC Most Valuable Player : 2015
NYCFC Goal of the Year : 2015
NYCFC Etihad Player of the month : April 2016
Achievements
Valencia Top Scorer : 2005 – 06 , 2006 – 07 , 2007 – 08 , 2008 – 09 , 2009 – 10
La Liga 's Top Assisting Player : 2006 – 07
Spain all @-@ time top scorer : 59 goals
Spain 's all @-@ time top scorer in FIFA World Cup matches
Most goals scored in one World Cup ( by a Spanish international ) : 5
Most goals scored in one calendar year ( by a Spanish international ) : 12 ( 2008 , 2009 )
Largest streak of games having scored ( by a Spanish international ) : 6
= = = Decorations = = =
Prince of Asturias Awards : 2010
Gold Medal of the Royal Order of Sporting Merit : 2011
= Courageous ( song ) =
" Courageous " is a song by contemporary Christian music band Casting Crowns , released by Beach Street Records , Reunion Records , and Provident Label Group . Written by Mark Hall and Matthew West and produced by Mark A. Miller , it was released on July 19 , 2011 as the first single from the band 's 2011 album Come to the Well . Hall has said the inspiration for the song was at the National Day of Prayer breakfast in 2008 . A rock , pop rock and soft rock song , it calls fathers to be better spiritual leaders .
" Courageous " was received positively by critics , many of whom praised the song as one of the best off of Come to the Well . It peaked at number one on the Billboard Hot Christian Songs and Christian AC Indicator charts and also peaked inside the top five on the Hot Christian Songs , Christian CHR , and Soft AC / Inspirational charts . It peaked at number four on the Billboard Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart , which measures the top twenty @-@ five singles that have not entered the Billboard Hot 100 , and number sixteen on the Heatseekers Songs chart .
= = Background and recording = =
According to lead vocalist Mark Hall , the inspiration for " Courageous " came at the National Day of Prayer breakfast in 2008 . Casting Crowns was performing at the event and Hall met with Alex Kendrick , who was also a part of the event . The two started talking about various topics until Hall told Kendrick about his church 's Bible study program for fathers . Hall said that " our hearts just sort of joined on this passion to see men rise up and be the godly men of the house that God has called us to be " . Kendrick mentioned that he wanted a song to be at the end credits of a movie and that " lit [ Hall ] up " .
" Courageous " was written by Mark Hall and Matthew West and produced by Mark A. Miller . It was recorded and mixed by Sam Hewitt at Zoo Studio in Franklin , Tennessee , with additional vocals recorded at Eagle 's Landing Studio in McDonough , Georgia . The song was mastered by Andrew Mendelson .
= = Composition = =
" Courageous " is a song with a length of three minutes and fifty @-@ nine seconds . According to the sheet music published by Musicnotes.com , it is set common time in the key of F ♯ minor and has a tempo of 82 beats per minute . Mark Hall 's vocal range in the song spans from the low note of A3 to the high note of F ♯ 5 . A rock , pop rock , and soft rock song , " Courageous " features " jangling " guitars and a " muscular " guitar riff . Lyrically , it calls fathers to be better spiritual leaders ; the song 's bridge quotes the Book of Micah , calling the listener to " live justly and love mercy and walk humbly with your God " .
= = Critical reception = =
" Courageous " was received positively by music critics . James Christopher Monger of Allmusic selected it as a ' Track pick ' and felt it contributed to a strong opening for Come to the Well . Grace S. Aspinwall of CCM Magazine felt " Courageous " was one of the best tracks on the album . Tom Lennie of Cross Rhythms was less positive , calling the song " one of the least melodic tunes on offer on [ Come to the Well ] . Lindsay Williams of Gospel Music Channel felt the song demonstrated how Matthew West 's songwriting on Come to the Well made the album better . Alex " Tincan " Caldwell of Jesus Freak Hideout felt the song was an " apt challenge to men of God in this world who maintain spectator lifestyles and live vicariously through television shows and sports teams " and said the bridge made the song " thought @-@ provoking " .
= = Release and chart performance = =
" Courageous " was released as a digital download on July 19 , 2011 and to Christian AC , Christian CHR , and Soft AC / Inspirational radio on August 13 , 2011 . It debuted at number thirty @-@ eight on the Billboard Hot Christian Songs chart for the chart week of August 27 , 2011 . It advanced to number eighteen in its second chart week and to number fifteen in its sixth week . In its eight chart week , it jumped from number eleven to number four . In its eleventh chart week , " Courageous " advanced to the number one position , which it held for a total of four consecutive weeks . It dropped to the number two position in its fifteenth chart week but returned to the number one position the following week . In total , " Courageous " spent twenty @-@ seven weeks on the Hot Christian Songs chart .
It also peaked at number one on the Christian AC Indicator chart , number two on the Hot Christian AC chart , number three on the Soft AC / Inspirational and Christian CHR charts . It peaked at number four on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart , which ranks the top twenty @-@ five songs that have not reached the Billboard Hot 100 , and at number sixteen on the Heatseekers Songs chart , which measures the top songs by artists who have never reached the top fifty on the Billboard Hot 100 . " Courageous " was the twenty @-@ ninth best @-@ selling Christian song of 2011 , also ranking on the 2011 year @-@ end Hot Christian Songs and Hot Christian AC charts at number thirty @-@ one and thirty @-@ three , respectively .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits lifted from the digital booklet for Come to the Well .
= = Chart positions = =
= = Release and radio history = =
= Willow ( film ) =
Willow is a 1988 American @-@ British high fantasy film directed by Ron Howard , produced and with a story by George Lucas , and starring Warwick Davis , Val Kilmer , Joanne Whalley , Jean Marsh , and Billy Barty . Davis plays the eponymous lead character and hero : a reluctant farmer who plays a critical role in protecting a special baby from a tyrannical queen who vows to destroy her and take over the world in a high fantasy setting .
Lucas conceived the idea for the film in 1972 , approaching Howard to direct during the post @-@ production phase of Cocoon in 1985 . Bob Dolman was brought in to write the screenplay , coming up with seven drafts before finishing in late 1986 . It was then set up at Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer and principal photography began in April 1987 , finishing the following October .
The majority of filming took place at Elstree Studios in Hertfordshire , England , as well as Wales and New Zealand . Industrial Light & Magic created the visual effects sequences , which led to a revolutionary breakthrough with digital morphing technology . The film was released in 1988 to mixed reviews from critics , but was a modest financial success , received two Academy Award nominations , and has developed a cult following amongst fantasy fans .
= = Plot = =
A prophecy states that a female child with a special birthmark will herald the downfall of the evil sorceress Queen Bavmorda . Bavmorda imprisons all pregnant women in her realm to prevent fulfilment of the prophecy . When the prophesied child is born , the mother begs the midwife to take her to safety . The midwife reluctantly accepts and leaves Nockmaar castle unnoticed . The mother is executed and the midwife is eventually found . Knowing she cannot escape , she sets the baby on a makeshift raft of grass and sends her down the river hoping for fate to run its course . The midwife is then killed by Nockmaar hounds . Bavmorda sends her daughter Sorsha and General Kael to find the baby .
The baby drifts downriver to a Nelwyn village . She comes into the care of Willow Ufgood , a kind farmer and conjurer who hopes to become a sorcerer ; his wife Kiaya and his children fall in love with the baby immediately , and Willow too soon grows to love her as one of his own . During a town festival the village is attacked by a Nockmaar hound which is quickly killed by the village warriors . The High Aldwin , the village sorcerer , learns about the baby and selects Willow , due to his devotion to the child , to accompany a party of volunteers returning the baby to the Daikini ( human ) people . At a crossroads , they find a human warrior named Madmartigan trapped in a crow 's cage . The rest of the party want to give the baby to Madmartigan and go home immediately , but Willow and his friend Meegosh refuse , so the others leave . After spending the night at the crossroads , and meeting an army led by Airk Thaughbaer , an old friend of Madmartigan 's , marching against Bavmorda , Willow reluctantly decides to free Madmartigan so that he can take care of the baby for them .
Later on , the baby is stolen by a group of brownies . While chasing them , Willow and Meegosh are trapped , but rescued by Cherlindrea , a Fairy Queen , who identifies the baby as Elora Danan , the future princess of Tir Asleen and Bavmorda 's bane , and assigns Willow the task of helping the baby fulfil her destiny . Willow sends Meegosh home , and two of the brownies , Franjean and Rool , are instructed to guide Willow to the sorceress Fin Raziel . The three of them later encounter Madmartigan at a tavern , where he is disguised as a woman to hide from Lug , a cuckolded husband , who then flirts with the disguised Madmartigan . Sorsha arrives and reveals his identity , and in the ensuing brawl started by the furious Lug upon realisation that Madmartigan is not a woman , Willow , Madmartigan and the brownies escape . Madmartigan guides them to a lake where Raziel lives , but departs again as they cross it .
Raziel has been transformed into a possum by Bavmorda , and Willow and his party return with her to shore . They are captured by Sorsha , who already has Madmartigan in custody , and are taken to a snowbound mountain camp of the Nockmaar army . Willow tries to restore Raziel , but turns her into a rook instead . Madmartigan is dosed with love dust by the brownies and declares his undying love for Sorsha . The prisoners escape and reach a village at the foot of a mountain , where they again encounter Airk and the remains of his army , recently defeated by Bavmorda 's forces . Madmartigan proclaims his loyalty to the Nelwyn and promises to protect Willow and Elora .
With Sorsha as their temporary hostage , they escape to the castle of Tir Asleen , but discover that its inhabitants have all been frozen by Bavmorda and the castle is overrun by trolls . The castle is surrounded by Kael 's army . During Kael 's assault on the castle , Sorsha realizes she also loves Madmartigan and decides to join him and Willow in opposing her mother 's army . Willow accidentally turns a troll into a massive , fire @-@ breathing , two @-@ headed monster that turns the tide of the battle , and Airk arrives with his army to assist . However , Kael captures Elora and returns to Nockmaar , where he reports Sorsha 's betrayal to Bavmorda .
Airk 's army , Willow , and the others arrive at Nockmaar to lay siege , but Bavmorda turns the soldiers into pigs . Instructed by Raziel , Willow protects himself with a spell and avoids transformation . He succeeds in turning Raziel into a human again , and she restores the others to their original forms . Willow 's group tricks their way into the castle and start a battle . Airk is killed by Kael , who is in turn slain by Madmartigan after a lengthy sword duel . Sorsha leads Willow and Raziel to the ritual chamber where they interrupt Elora 's sacrifice . Bavmorda and Raziel have a magical duel , during the course of which Raziel is incapacitated . Willow uses a " disappearing pig trick " he had performed as a conjurer to fool Bavmorda into thinking that Elora was sent out of her reach . Lunging at Willow , Bavmorda accidentally triggers the ritual 's final part to send Elora 's soul to oblivion and banishes her own soul instead .
Willow is rewarded with a magic book to aid him in becoming a sorcerer , and Sorsha and Madmartigan remain in Tir Asleen to raise Elora together . Willow returns home to a hero 's welcome and is happily reunited with his family .
= = Cast = =
Warwick Davis as Willow Ufgood , a Nelwyn dwarf and aspiring sorcerer who plays a critical role in protecting infant Elora Danan from the evil queen Bavmorda .
Val Kilmer as Madmartigan , a boastful mercenary swordsman who helps Willow on his quest . In the film ( further explained in the film 's novelization ) it is partly revealed that he is a disgraced knight from the kingdom of Galladoorn .
Kate and Ruth Greenfield / Rebecca Bearman as Elora Danan , an infant princess that prophecy says will bring about Queen Bavmorda 's downfall .
Joanne Whalley as Sorsha , Bavmorda 's warrior daughter who falls in love with Madmartigan . In the film 's novelization , her father is revealed as the king of Tir Asleen , which becomes a further factor for Sorsha to turn against her mother .
Jean Marsh as Queen Bavmorda , the villainous ruler of Nockmaar , a powerful black sorceress and mother of Sorsha .
Patricia Hayes as Fin Raziel , the aging sorceress who is turned into a possum due to a curse by Bavmorda .
Billy Barty as The High Aldwin , the Nelwyn wizard who commissions Willow to go on his journey , realizing the potential that Willow possesses in magic .
Pat Roach as General Kael , the villainous associate to Queen Bavmorda and high commander of her army .
Gavan O 'Herlihy as Airk Thaughbaer , the military commander of the destroyed kingdom of Galladoorn who shares a mixed friendship with Madmartigan .
Maria Holvöe as Cherlindrea , the fairy queen who resides in the forest and updates Willow on the importance of his quest .
Kevin Pollak and Rick Overton as Rool and Franjean , a brownie duo who also serve as comic relief in Willow 's journey .
David J. Steinberg as Meegosh , Willow 's closest friend who accompanies Willow partway on his journey .
Mark Northover as Burglekutt , the leader of the Nelwyn village council who maintains a running enmity with Willow .
Phil Fondacaro as Vohnkar , a Nelwyn warrior who also accompanies Willow partway on his journey . In the film 's novelization , Vohnkar is portrayed as far @-@ travelled and worldly .
Julie Peters as Kaiya Ufgood , Willow 's wife ; a loving mother and enthusiastic in caring for Elora .
Tony Cox as a Nelwyn warrior .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
George Lucas conceived the idea for the film ( originally titled Munchkins ) in 1972 . Similar in intent to Star Wars , he created " a number of well @-@ known mythological situations for a young audience " . During the production of Return of the Jedi in 1982 , Lucas approached Warwick Davis , who was portraying Wicket the Ewok , about playing Willow Ufgood . Five years passed before he was actually cast in the role . Lucas " thought it would be great to use a little person in a lead role . A lot of my movies are about a little guy against the system , and this was just a more literal interpretation of that idea . "
Lucas explained that he had to wait until the mid @-@ 1980s to make the film because visual effects technology was finally advanced enough to execute his vision . Meanwhile , actor @-@ turned @-@ director Ron Howard was looking to do a fantasy film . He was at Industrial Light & Magic during the post @-@ production phase of Cocoon , when he was first approached by Lucas to direct Willow . He had previously starred in Lucas ' American Graffiti , and Lucas felt that he and Howard shared a symbiotic relationship similar to the one he enjoyed with Steven Spielberg . Howard nominated Bob Dolman to write the screenplay based on Lucas ' story . Dolman had worked with him on a 1983 television pilot called Little Shots that had not resulted in a series , and Lucas admired Dolman 's work on the sitcom WKRP in Cincinnati .
Dolman joined Howard and Lucas at Skywalker Ranch for a series of lengthy story conferences , and wrote seven drafts of his script between the spring and fall of 1986 . Pre @-@ production began in late 1986 . Various major film studios turned down the chance to distribute and co @-@ finance it with Lucasfilm because they believed the fantasy genre was unsuccessful . This was largely due to films such as Krull , Legend , Dragonslayer , and Labyrinth . Lucas took it to Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer ( MGM ) , which was headed by Alan Ladd , Jr . Ladd and Lucas shared a relationship as far back as the mid @-@ 1970s , when Ladd , running 20th Century Fox , greenlighted Lucas ' idea for Star Wars . However , in 1986 , MGM was facing financial troubles , and major investment in a fantasy film was perceived as a risk . Ladd advanced half the $ 35 million budget for it in return for theatrical and television rights , leaving Lucasfilm with home video and pay television rights to offer in exchange for the other half .
Lucas based the character of General Kael ( Pat Roach ) on the film critic Pauline Kael , a fact that was not lost on Kael in her printed review of the film . She referred to General Kael as an " homage a moi " . Similarly , the two @-@ headed dragon was named " Sispert " ( " Eborsisk " in the novelization ) after film critics Roger Ebert and Gene Siskel .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography began on April 2 , 1987 and ended that following October . Interior footage took place at Elstree Studios in Hertfordshire , England , while location shooting took place in Wales and New Zealand . Lucas initially visualized shooting the film similar to Return of the Jedi , with studio scenes at Elstree and locations in Northern California , but the idea eventually faded . However , some exteriors were done around Skywalker Ranch and on location at Burney Falls , near Mount Shasta . The Chinese government refused Lucas the chance for a brief location shoot . He then sent a group of photographers to South China to photograph specific scenery , which was then used for background blue screen footage . Tongariro National Park in New Zealand was chosen to house Bavmorda 's castle .
= = = Visual effects = = =
Lucasfilm 's Industrial Light & Magic ( ILM ) created the visual effects sequences . The script called for Willow to restore Fin Raziel ( Patricia Hayes ) from a goat to her human form . Willow recites what he thinks is the appropriate spell , but turns the goat into an ostrich , a peacock , a tortoise , and finally a tiger , before returning her to normal . ILM supervisor Dennis Muren considered using stop motion animation for the scene . He also explained that another traditional and practical way in the late @-@ 1980s to execute this sequence would have been through the use of an optical dissolve with cutaways at various stages .
Muren found both stop motion and optical effects to be too technically challenging and decided that the transformation scene would be a perfect opportunity for ILM to create advances with digital morphing technology . He proposed filming each animal , and the actress doubling for Hayes , and then feeding the images into a computer program developed by Doug Smythe . The program would then create a smooth transition from one stage to another before outputting the result back onto film . Smythe began development of the necessary software in September 1987 . By March 1988 , the impressive result Muren and fellow designer David Allen achieved what would represent a breakthrough for computer @-@ generated imagery ( CGI ) . The head of ILM 's animation department , Wes Takahashi , supervised the film 's animation sequences .
= = Soundtrack = =
The film score was written by James Horner and performed by the London Symphony Orchestra .
" I am a musicologist , a doctor of music . Therefore I listened to , studied and analysed a lot of music . I also enjoy metaphors , the art of quoting and of cycles . The harmonic draft of the Willow score , and most particularly its spiritual side , came from such a cycle , from such mythology and music history that I was taught , and that I myself convey with my own emotions and compositions . "
Eclectic influences on the score include Leos Janacek 's " Glagolitic Mass " , Mozart 's " Requiem " , " The Nine Splendid Stags " from Béla Bartók , Edvard Grieg 's " Arabian Dance " for the theater play Peer Gynt , and compositions by Sergei Prokofiev .
" Willow 's Theme " purposefully ( see Horner 's quote above ) contains a reworking / alteration of part of the theme of the first movement ( " Lebhaft " ) of Robert Schumann 's Symphony No 3 referencing it , while " Elora Danan 's Theme " shows a reference to the Bulgarian folk song " Mir Stanke Le " ( Мир Станке ле ) , also known as the " Harvest Song from Thrace " .
Track listing
" Elora Danan " – 9 : 45
" Escape from the Tavern " – 5 : 04
" Willow 's Journey Begins " – 5 : 26
" Canyon of Mazes " – 7 : 52
" Tir Asleen " – 10 : 47
" Willow 's Theme " – 3 : 54
" Bavmorda 's Spell is Cast " – 18 : 11
" Willow the Sorcerer " – 11 : 55
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
The film was shown and promoted at the 1988 Cannes Film Festival . It was released on May 20 , 1988 in 1 @,@ 209 theaters , earning $ 8 @,@ 300 @,@ 169 in its opening weekend , placing number one at the weekend box office . Lucas had hoped it would earn as much money as E.T. the Extra @-@ Terrestrial , but the film faced early competition with Crocodile Dundee II , Big and Rambo III . Making over $ 57 million at the North American box office , it was not the blockbuster hit insiders had anticipated . It was not , however , a financial flop either , as it made a profit because of strong international , home video , and television sales .
= = = Critical response = = =
The film was released to mixed reviews from critics . Based on 29 reviews collected by Rotten Tomatoes , 48 % of the critics gave the film a positive review with an average score of 5 @.@ 6 / 10 .
Janet Maslin from The New York Times praised Lucas ' storytelling , but was critical of Ron Howard 's direction . " Howard appears to have had his hands full in simply harnessing the special effects , " Maslin said .
Desson Thomson writing in The Washington Post , explained " Rob Reiner 's similar fairytale adventure The Princess Bride ( which the cinematographer Adrian Biddle also shot ) managed to evoke volumes more without razzle @-@ dazzle . It 's a sad thing to be faulting Lucas , maker of the Star Wars trilogy and Raiders of the Lost Ark , for forgetting the tricks of entertainment . " Mike Clark in USA Today wrote that " the rainstorm wrap @-@ up , in which Good edges Evil is like Led Zeppelin Meets The Wild Bunch . The film is probably too much for young children and possibly too much of the same for cynics . But any 6 – 13 @-@ year @-@ old who sees this may be bitten by the " movie bug " for life . "
= = = Accolades = = =
At the Academy Awards , the film was nominated for Sound Editing and Visual Effects , but lost both to Who Framed Roger Rabbit , which was similarly done by Industrial Light & Magic . It won Best Costume Design at the Saturn Awards , where it was also nominated for Warwick Davis for Best Performance by a Younger Actor ( lost to Fred Savage for Vice Versa ) and Jean Marsh for Best Supporting Actress ( lost to Sylvia Sidney for Beetlejuice ) . It also lost Best Fantasy Film and the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation to Who Framed Roger Rabbit . It was also nominated for two Golden Raspberry Awards including Worst Screenplay , which lost to Cocktail and Worst Supporting Actor for Billy Barty , who lost to Dan Aykroyd for Caddyshack II .
= = = Home media = = =
The film was released on DVD as a " special edition " in November 2001 by 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment . The release included an audio commentary by Warwick Davis and two " making of " featurettes . In the commentary , Davis confirms that there were a number of " lost scenes " previously rumored to have been deleted from it including a battle in the valley , Willow battling a boy who transforms into a shark in a lake while retrieving Fin Raziel , and an extended sorceress duel at the climax . ( Though removed from the theatrical version , the battle with the lake monster was retained for both Marvel Comics ' adaptation and Wayland Drew 's novelization of the film . ) 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment released the film on Blu @-@ ray Disc on March 12 , 2013 , with an all @-@ new transfer supervised by George Lucas .
= = Other media = =
= = = Board game = = =
In 1988 , Tor Books released The Willow Game , a two to six player adventure board game based on the film designed by Greg Costikyan .
= = = Video games = = =
Three video games based on the film were released . Mindscape published an action game in 1988 for Amiga , Atari ST , Commodore 64 , and DOS . Capcom published two different games in 1989 , a platform game for the arcades and a role @-@ playing game for the Nintendo Entertainment System .
= = = Novels = = =
Wayland Drew adapted Lucas ' story into a film novel , providing additional background information to several major characters and various additional scenes , including an encounter with a lake monster near Razel 's island which was filmed , but ultimately not used in the movie . A segment of that scene 's filmed material can be found in the DVD 's " Making of Willow " documentary .
Lucas outlined the Chronicles of the Shadow War trilogy to follow the film and hired comic book writer / novelist Chris Claremont to adapt them into a series of books . They take place about fifteen years after the original film and feature the now teenage Elora Danan as a central character .
Shadow Moon ( 1995 ) ISBN 0 @-@ 553 @-@ 57285 @-@ 7
Shadow Dawn ( 1996 ) ISBN 0 @-@ 553 @-@ 57289 @-@ X
Shadow Star ( 2000 ) ISBN 0 @-@ 553 @-@ 57288 @-@ 1
= = Sequel = =
In April 2005 , Lucas and Davis commented that a television series acting as a sequel was under consideration . In June 2008 , Davis reiterated his hopes to return for a theatrically @-@ released second installment of the film . On February 15 , 2013 Val Kilmer posted a photo via Twitter implying that it was " Right around the corner ! " . However , this coincided with a Life 's Too Short mockumentary featuring Davis and Kilmer , and is likely to have been a hoax . In March 2013 , Davis indicated an interest in seeing a sequel ( perhaps as a TV series ) , but gave no indication that any development was ongoing .
= Madlax =
Madlax ( マドラックス , Madorakkusu ) is a 26 @-@ episode Japanese anime television series produced in 2004 by the Bee Train animation studio . Kōichi Mashimo directed Madlax and the soundtrack was composed by Yuki Kajiura . The DVD version was released by ADV Films in North America and the United Kingdom and by Madman Entertainment in Australia and New Zealand .
The story revolves around two young women who seemingly have little in common and do not know of the other 's existence at the beginning . The eponymous Madlax is a legendary mercenary and assassin in the fictional civil war @-@ torn country of Gazth @-@ Sonika , who cannot remember her past or indeed her real name before twelve years ago , when the war started . The other main character is Margaret Burton , the sole heir of a wealthy aristocratic family in the peaceful European country Nafrece . Twelve years before the story begins , an airliner Margaret and her mother were on crashed over Gazth @-@ Sonika , and its passengers , as well as Margaret 's father who led the rescuers , have been missing ever since . Margaret , however , mysteriously traveled back to Nafrece on her own , losing her memories prior to her return ; the only thing she recalls is a single word , " Madlax " . With this thread linking the two girls , they both independently start investigating the powerful crime syndicate Enfant after its enigmatic mastermind shows interest in both of them .
Madlax was produced as a spiritual successor to the studio 's earlier project , Noir , and together with El Cazador de la Bruja , these series constitute a trilogy exploring the " girls @-@ with @-@ guns " genre . The production of Madlax began in 2002 but it wasn 't until Yōsuke Kuroda joined the project that the series took its final form . While the critics noted the resulting similarities between Noir and Madlax , they also acknowledged the differences , such as the latter 's less episodic and more plot @-@ driven style and , in particular contrast to the predominantly realistic Noir , incorporation of many supernatural elements , which the audience must often interpret without further explanation .
= = Plot = =
The first half of the series alternates between the two leads . Madlax is one of the most efficient special ops agents for hire in the war @-@ torn Gazth @-@ Sonika , while Margaret Burton is a sleepy , clumsy amnesiac living in Nafrece , a country styled after France . When a " picture book " , presumably given to Margaret by her late father , attracts the attention of international criminal network Enfant , she discovers that the origins of the book lie in Gazth @-@ Sonika . Enfant 's top operative , Carrossea Doon , tracks Margaret down but tips off his superiors in the wrong direction , towards Madlax , who has been causing Enfant trouble for some time . Meanwhile , Vanessa Rene , Margaret 's former tutor whose parents died because of Gazth @-@ Sonikan war , discovers that her current employer , Bookwald Industries , covertly supports the war by supplying both sides with firearms and starts investigating its true cause . Her investigation brings her to Gazth @-@ Sonika , where Madlax is hired as her bodyguard , and together , they uncover data that proves that Enfant orchestrated the entire conflict . Enfant eventually intercepts them and they are forced into hiding . Back in Nafrece , Margaret decides to help Vanessa and travels to Gazth @-@ Sonika , accompanied by her devoted and sometimes overprotective maid Elenore Baker and Carrossea Doon .
Eventually , Madlax and Margaret meet and embark on a search for Quanzitta Marison , a Gazth @-@ Sonikan mystic who supposedly knows about Margaret 's book , Enfant 's involvement with it , and Enfant itself . Lady Quanzitta does indeed tell them about Enfant and its plans to plunge the entire world into a total war , starting with Gazth @-@ Sonika . She reveals that Enfant 's leader Friday Monday possesses supernatural powers connected to the three ancient books , one of which belongs to Margaret . Margaret uses her own supernatural abilities and that of her book to return her lost memories . Carrossea , who has been aiding Margaret , requests that his memories be restored as well despite warnings not to do so ; he discovers that he , in fact , died 12 years ago and held on to life only by sheer force of will to protect Margaret . Carrossea disappears , and Margaret is captured by Monday who intends to use her abilities to advance his own plans .
While Margaret and Carrossea perform the ritual , Madlax is attacked by Limelda Jorg , a Gazth @-@ Sonikan sniper who holds a grudge against Madlax ever since she failed to stop an assassination by Madlax earlier in the show . Limelda kills Vanessa while targeting Madlax , sending the latter into clinical depression . Elenore and Lady Quanzitta 's servant Nakhl manage to restore Madlax 's will to live and persuade her to save Margaret , and the three storm Enfant 's headquarters together . During the assault , Elenore is killed and Margaret , now under Monday 's control , shoots Madlax . Believing her to be dead , Monday commences a ritual to unleash people 's inhibitions and trigger worldwide anarchy ; but Margaret 's memories return and she snaps out of his mind control . Only now does the audience learn the back @-@ story : back in 1999 , Monday drove Margaret 's father insane with his powers and she was forced to kill her own father . To escape the horrible truth of her patricide , Margaret split herself into three personae : the " memory keeper " Laetitia , the sinful Madlax , and the innocent Margaret herself . Margaret then fuses her three personae back together to undo the ritual she previously performed with Monday , saving the world from insanity . Madlax , who should no longer exist after the fusion , appears and guns down Monday . It becomes apparent that Margaret has once again split herself into three , judging that after twelve years , she no longer has the right to make decisions for her other personae .
= = Themes = =
Madlax is set against the backdrop of Gazth @-@ Sonikan war and the first episodes contrast the tranquil Nafrece with the war @-@ torn Gazth @-@ Sonika ; later , the story moves completely to the combat zone , focusing on the central characters , such as Limelda Jorg , and their suffering . In an interview , the director Mashimo stated that " [ t ] he story is about portraying inner struggles of people , while showing what life is like in this place of madness and this other place of peace " . Accordingly , the series ' title is a portmanteau of two English words , " mad " and " relaxed " , mirroring the authors ' intention to portray the two extremes of human being .
Madlax also plays as the story of Margaret Burton 's search for her psychological identity . Based on the Mashimo Menu theme titles available to her , Yuki Kajiura has suggested an interpretation that while searching for her memories , Margaret meets the other characters ( " Gatekeepers " ) one after another and learns about the lifestyles ( " Gates " ) they represent . In the end , she finds her own " Gate " , which is the new identity that finally replaces the one she lost twelve years ago .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
According to the director Kōichi Mashimo , he envisioned Noir and Madlax as part of a trilogy exploring the girls @-@ with @-@ guns genre , and soon after the release of the latter , he confirmed having plans to produce the third installment , which would later become El Cazador de la Bruja . In late 2002 , Mashimo invited Shigeru Kitayama , the producer of Noir who once came up with its original idea , to discuss a new series entitled Madlax . Kitayama greatly expanded Mashimo 's original screenplay plan , but it was not until Yōsuke Kuroda was put in charge of the script that the series took its final appearance . It took Kuroda around one year to finish the screenplays for all 26 episodes , during which he was constantly encouraged by Mashimo to add his own original ideas to their initial plan . Kuroda has admitted that at the time he received Mashimo 's invitation , he felt frustrated after his first project has been canceled by the publisher , so he decided to make Madlax " really extravagant " , blending as many genres at once as he could . Kōichi Mashimo , furthermore , admitted that the most unusual plot twists , like Margaret and Madlax 's connection to each other , were invented by Kuroda and him while drunk .
= = = Character design = = =
By comparison with Noir , Madlax features a much larger primary cast , including multiple recurring male characters , an element nearly absent in the former . It was not so in the original screenplay draft written by Mashimo and Kitayama : for example , " Madlax " was Margaret 's own nickname and Charlie ( Vanessa 's colleague at Bookwald Industries ) had one of the central roles similar to Speedy 's in Avenger . Only the " draft " characters ' names remained of them when Kuroda has rewritten the script . A total of three character designers collaborated on Madlax cast : Satoshi Ohsawa ( who also worked on Noir cast ) created the central heroines Margaret and Madlax ; Minako Shiba drew Friday Monday and Carrossea Doon ; and Satoko Miyachi was entrusted with the " mysterious " characters , Laetitia and Poupee .
= = = Music = = =
As with many of studio Bee Train 's other works , the entire Madlax soundtrack was composed by the acclaimed Yuki Kajiura , making it her and Kōichi Mashimo 's fifth project together . In an interview Kajiura recalls having written the score in a hotel high @-@ rise to save studio costs , and that this change in location helped her to explore different styles of music .
Kajiura and Yuuka Nanri 's duo FictionJunction Yuuka recorded the series ' opening and ending themes , " Fragments of an Eye " ( 瞳の欠片 , Hitomi no Kakera ) and " Inside Your Heart " , respectively , as well as two insert songs : " nowhere " and " I 'm here " . Aside from the opening sequence , " Fragments of an Eye " is featured in the series itself : at the end of episode 18 and in the episode 24 , when Margaret is humming its tune to herself in the flower field .
In the insert song " nowhere " , there is a frequently repeated background refrain " Yanmaani " ( ヤンマーニ , Yanmāni ) . It doesn 't have any particular meaning but since the song usually plays when Madlax is fighting , " Yanmaani " has become something of a joke to Japanese fans , claiming that it apparently gives her superpowers .
= = Media = =
= = = Television series = = =
Originally , Madlax was broadcast in Japan by TV Tokyo from 5 April to 27 September 2004 , from 1 : 30 to 2 : 00 a.m. every Tuesday ( formally , Monday night ) . Shortly before the series finished airing , it has been licensed in North America and Europe by ADV Films , which has previously acquired distribution rights for Noir and has long had plans to license its successor , as well . The official English dub has been released in the United States under the trademark MADLAX on a total of seven DVDs from 12 April 2005 to 28 March 2006 . A complete collection was released by ADV on 17 July 2007 . Madlax has become the first series on which ADV Films ' director and producer David Williams tested the technology of distributing promotional materials via P2P network BitTorrent . As of September 1 , 2009 , all of the titles from ADV 's catalog , including Madlax , were transferred to AEsir Holdings , with distribution from Section23 Films .
The North @-@ American DVD release contains extras available in English only , such the controversial self @-@ parody Conversations with SSS and Sock Puppet Theater , an Easter egg live action about Madlax going after Chris Patton , Badgis ' voice actor and an annoying womanizer .
On 7 February 2006 , the first episode of Madlax aired on Anime Network ( which was , like ADV Films , a subsidiary of A.D. Vision at the time ) . On 4 April , shortly after the last DVD volume has been released , the consequent broadcast was put on halt and until 27 June , only the first 8 episodes were repeated . Since then , the series has been relaunched multiple times . Madman Entertainment , who previously licensed Noir in its region , has acquired rights for distribution of Madlax in Australia and New Zealand and released it on seven DVD volumes between 20 July 2005 and 26 July 2006 . A complete collection was released on 4 April 2007 .
= = = Soundtrack = = =
The series ' original soundtrack was released on two albums on 21 July and 22 September 2004 by Victor Entertainment . Two singles , Hitomi no Kakera and Inside Your Heart , were published in the same year by FictionJunction Yuuka , each containing an opening / ending theme and one insert song , as well as their respective karaoke versions .
= = = Artbook = = =
MADLAX the Bible is a 95 @-@ page artbook that was published in Japan on 21 May 2005 by Hobby Japan . Aside from illustrations and artworks for the series , it contains interviews with its authors and voice actors , as well as diverse additional information about the show in Japanese . The artbook has never been published outside Japan . Since the word " Bible " is derived from Ancient Greek : τὰ βιβλία τὰ ἅγια , meaning " holy books " , it is likely that the artbook 's title is a reference to the Holy Books that play an important role in the series ' plot .
= = = Merchandise = = =
A resin model kit known as " Madlax with Guns " has been produced , featuring a figurine of Madlax dual wielding her signature SIG P210s . A polystone figurine entitled simply " Madlax " , was launched in August 2007 . In Japan , a T @-@ shirt with Madlax logo has been added to the limited edition of the first DVD volume , and the " first press " of the OST albums came with logotype mousepads .
= = Reception = =
Madlax was often accused of being secondary and reusing Noir 's stylistic solutions , such as the story premise , the two heroines ' appearance , and the musical style . Nevertheless , some sources praised the story for being more monolithic and consequent than its predecessor 's , owing to all its episodes and subplots being tightly intertwined and held together by the primary plot .
The majority of reviewers perceived the early episodes of Madlax as boring and too slow @-@ paced , but some of the same critics later remarked that the prolonged exposition is crucial to the unusual finale of the series , which fully establishes the series ' own identity and sets it apart from other works . According to them , after the initial volume , the story gets better and better with every new episode , though some have been dissatisfied with its " pseudo @-@ existentialistic " ending . Erica Friedman , the president of Yuricon , highly praised Kuroda 's script , naming it " the best writing that Bee Train has done " . Professional reviewers welcomed the increased number of sympathetic characters , especially the distinguishable male ones ( Friday , Carrossea , Colonel Burton ) , as opposed to stormtrooper @-@ like operatives of Soldats in Noir , but the female character designs were still said to be much more detailed ( to the point of fanservice in the case of Madlax ) than the more generic male characters .
The high quality of the animation in Madlax was generally acknowledged . On the negative side , the episodes that involve computer use and hacking received criticism for their lack of realism . In terms of soundtrack , Madlax has not become as innovative as Noir , with critics suggesting its OST to be a blend of Noir and .hack / / Sign styles . Nevertheless , the reviewers acknowledged its superiority over the majority of contemporary works . The English translation released by ADV Films was praised for preserving most of the series ' original stylistic aspects and inviting veteran voice actors for the dub . Reviewers went as far as to suggest that several English voices ( especially Mike Kleinhenz 's ) match the characters better than the Japanese ones . Others , however , criticized the dub , e.g. Carl Kimlinger of Anime News Network in his 2009 review of the series rated the performance as " wildly uneven , ranging from good ... to plain amateurish " , citing " delivery issues " as main problem of the dub .
The initial slow pacing , especially compared to the first episodes of Noir , became a main reason why the audience often dropped watching Madlax before it could present its later story turns which eventually resulted in the moderate success of the series . Among other suggested reasons behind the mediocre popularity of the show were : the market saturation , which resulted from other anime series attempting to repeat the success of Noir since 2001 ; the expectable disinterest against a " Noir remake " , found among the fans of the first series ; the over @-@ the @-@ top action scenes that some felt to be ridiculous ; and its unconventional genre , which straddled Madlax uncomfortably between fans of mystical science fiction and those who prefer Noir 's strict realism .
= The Rescue ( Doctor Who ) =
The Rescue is the third serial of the second season of the British science fiction television series Doctor Who , which was first broadcast in two weekly parts on 2 January and 9 January 1965 on BBC1 . It was written by outgoing story editor David Whitaker and directed by Christopher Barry .
The Rescue was produced in a six @-@ episode block with The Romans and was the first story produced in Doctor Who 's second production block . Rehearsals and recording took place from 30 November to 11 December 1964 , entirely in @-@ studio . The two episodes were watched by 12 and 13 million viewers in the UK respectively and have received generally positive reviews from critics , who praise the character @-@ based storytelling , although plot holes were noted . Both episodes of The Rescue have been retained in the BBC archives , and the story has been novelised and released on VHS and DVD . The serial is notable as the first appearance of Maureen O 'Brien as companion Vicki .
= = Plot = =
The Doctor , Ian , and Barbara are still missing the Doctor 's granddaughter Susan when the TARDIS lands on a planet the Doctor eventually recognises as Dido , a world he has visited before . The trio soon encounter two survivors of a space crash , Vicki and Bennett , who are awaiting a rescue ship that is due to arrive in three days time . Vicki and Bennett live in fear of Koquillion , a bipedal inhabitant of Dido , who is stalking the area . Koquillion encounters the time travellers and attacks , pushing Barbara over a cliff and temporarily trapping Ian and the Doctor . Vicki finds Barbara injured and rescues her from Koquillion , and they share reminiscences . Vicki 's father was amongst those who died when the survivors of the crash , save Bennett and Vicki , were lured to their deaths by the natives of Dido . She is evidently very lonely , having befriended an indigenous Sand Beast for company . However , when Ian and the Doctor reach the ship , tempers are fraught because Barbara mistook the Sand Beast for a threat and killed it .
The Doctor enters Bennett 's room , and finds things are not as they seem . The supposedly crippled Bennett is missing , and a tape recorder hides his absence . He finds a trap door in the floor of the cabin and follows it to a temple carved from rock where he unmasks Koquillion as Bennett . Bennett reveals he killed a crewmember on board the ship and was arrested , but the ship crashed before the crime could be radioed to Earth . It was he who killed the crash survivors and the natives of Dido to cover his crime . He has been using the Koquillion alias so that Vicki would back up his story , and had hoped the planet would be destroyed when his version of events was given . Just as Bennett is about to kill the Doctor , two surviving native Didonians arrive and force Bennett to his death over a ledge . They then stop the signal to prevent the Rescue Ship reaching their planet . With no living family and nothing left for her on Dido , Vicki is welcomed aboard the TARDIS .
= = Production = =
The Rescue was written as a short vehicle to introduce Vicki as the new companion , replacing Carole Ann Ford ( Susan ) when Ford decided she wanted to leave the series , and is thus more character @-@ driven than anything that had preceded it . Vicki was a replacement for the Doctor 's granddaughter , Susan ( Carole Ann Ford ) , who was the first companion to leave Doctor Who ; Ford was displeased with the lack of her character 's development . In contrast to Susan , Vicki is an Earth orphan from the future ; the production team considered many names from here , some of them odd like " Lukki " and " Tanni " . Doctor Who creator Sydney Newman told actress Maureen O 'Brien that they were considering having her cut her hair and dye it black . O 'Brien refused , saying , " Why don 't you just get Carole Ann Ford back ? "
The Rescue is the first story under Dennis Spooner as script editor , though he is not listed in the credits because he had little to do since much of the job was given to his predecessor David Whitaker and thus he is not credited . The story was commissioned on 1 November 1964 , the day after his contract with the BBC for his position as script editor had expired . The scripts were due on 10 November . In Whitaker 's original draft , entitled Doctor Who and Tanni after one of Vicki 's original names , there are a few differences from the broadcast version . Bennett was more unkind to Vicki . Notably , Koquillion had a " torch " device , which he used to paralyse Ian upon meeting and interrogating him and Barbara in the first episode . He hypnotised Ian and Barbara and tried to get them to encourage the Doctor to come out of the TARDIS , but the Doctor could see this on the TARDIS ' scanner and demands the teachers be released . In a scuffle Ian 's trance was broken when he was shoved against the TARDIS and Barbara 's was broken when she was thrown to the ground . The beginning of the first episode also had Ian confide to Barbara that he was afraid of a time where the Doctor would close the TARDIS on them and leave like he did with Susan , to which the Doctor , overhearing , replied that there would be warning if they were to part .
O 'Brien had just come out of drama school when she was cast as Vicki ; it was her first television acting job . Director Christopher Barry originally wanted Bernard Archard for the role of Bennett / Koquillion , but was not able to get him . Barry would later cast Archard in The Power of the Daleks ( 1966 ) . The role went to Australian actor Ray Barrett , whom Barry had seen on TV and marked in his book of actors he wanted to remember , and so he " dug him out of the book " when the time came . Barrett played Bennett as a " normal , straight human being " so as not to give the ending away . To preserve the mystery , Koquillion was credited in the first episode as being played by " Sydney Wilson " — a name made up by the production team in tribute to two of the creators of Doctor Who , Sydney Newman and Donald Wilson . This was the first instance of an alias being used in the credits in order to conceal a plot twist in Doctor Who ; the practice would be employed later on to conceal the appearance of villains Davros and the Master . Tom Sheridan provided the voice of the space captain and also played the Sand Beast . He was originally scheduled to play one of the Didonians at the end , but for unknown reasons they were played by two uncredited extras , John Stuart and Colin Hughes .
The Rescue was the first in a new production block of Doctor Who ; the first production block lasted for 52 weeks with one episode filmed per week , though the final two stories , Planet of Giants and The Dalek Invasion of Earth , were held back and the first season ended early . As such , there was a six @-@ week break for the regular cast before work on The Rescue began.The Rescue used the same production team as the following story , The Romans , and the two were combined to form a single six @-@ episode production block . Model filming took place in Ealing studios on 16 November 1965 . The models were made by an outside modelmaker called Shawcraft . As they were not designers , Doctor Who designer Raymond Cusick drew what he wanted the spacecraft to look like in more detail than he normally would have . He drew the spacecraft in flight as well as it wrecked so they could visualise it from the two . Cusick had found a cheap material he called " reeded hardboard " , which was spray @-@ painted silver and used for the outside of the craft prop . The design of Koquillion was based on a close @-@ up of a fly .
Rehearsals for the first episode took place from 30 November 1964 to 3 December , with the episode recorded on 4 December . Ford visited during rehearsals to meet O 'Brien and wish her luck . Rehearsals for the second episode took place from 7 − 10 December 1964 , with the episode recorded on 11 December . Recording of the first episode overran its schedule by fifteen minutes . The Dido temple was a large set that was lit in such a way to create a dark atmosphere ; dark drapes and smoke were also used . When shooting Vicki 's Sand Beast , Jacqueline Hill underestimated the gun 's power and fired too soon ; she was not seriously injured , though suffered shock and a sore face because it blew back in her face . The sound the Sand Beast makes while dying was modelled after the " horrible noise " a dying Dalek made in The Daleks . To save money , the score is reused from The Daleks , which Barry had partially directed . He selected pieces from episodes one and four through seven of that serial .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
The Rescue was broadcast on BBC1 in two weekly parts ; the first episode aired on 2 January 1965 , with the second on 9 January . The first episode , " The Powerful Enemy " , was watched by 12 million viewers and was the eleventh most @-@ watched programme of the week . The second episode , " Desperate Measures " , was watched by 13 million viewers and was the eighth most @-@ watched programme of the week . This figure was higher than the preceding story , The Dalek Invasion of Earth , which was an event story . Audience Appreciation Indexes were taken for both episodes and garnered 57 and 59 per cent respectively .
On 13 December 1966 , a retention order was issued that included both episodes of The Rescue to be retained by the BBC . However , both episodes were wiped , the first on 17 August 1967 and the second on 31 January 1969 . Fortunately , BBC Enterprises had retained both episodes and returned them to the BBC in 1978 .
Paul Cornell , Martin Day , and Keith Topping wrote of the serial in The Discontinuity Guide ( 1995 ) , " As a vehicle to introduce a companion , The Rescue just about works , but it 's too inconsequential to sustain any real interest . " In The Television Companion ( 1998 ) , David J. Howe and Stephen James Walker described the story as " one of the best examples of character @-@ driven drama from this period of the series ' history " . While they noted there were some unexplained parts of the plot , they felt that it was generally believable and said that " Vicki actually steals the show here " . In 2008 , Patrick Mulkern of Radio Times described The Rescue as a " neglected gem " with a strong debut for Vicki and many production improvements . Despite this , he wondered " how convincing Bennett 's masquerade as Koquillion was in 1965 " as in the present day it seems " a tad obvious " . DVD Talk 's Stuart Galbraith felt that the story was " quite strong " with a " smart , if somewhat predictable climax and resolution " that worked due to the dialogue . Den of Geek wrote that the serial was only let down by its " weak and convenient resolution " and provided good material for the main cast . Dreamwatch gave The Rescue a score of 7 out of 10 , calling it a " solid enough adventure " with a slight plot but brisk pacing that allowed Ian and Barbara to be more heroic .
= = Commercial releases = =
= = = In print = = =
A novelisation of this serial written by Ian Marter was published by Target Books in August 1987 . Marter died soon after completing the manuscript . It was subsequently edited and published , with some new material added , by Nigel Robinson , editor of the Target Books line . An unabridged audio reading of the novelisation , read by O 'Brien , was released by AudioGo on 1 April 2013 .
= = = Home media = = =
The Rescue was released on 5 September 1994 on VHS with The Romans . It was released on DVD on 23 February 2009 , again with The Romans . The Region 1 release followed on 7 July 2009 .
= Phil Simms =
Phillip Martin Simms ( born November 3 , 1954 ) is a former American football quarterback who spent his entire 14 @-@ year professional career playing for the New York Giants of the National Football League ( NFL ) . He is currently a television sportscaster for the CBS network . After playing college football at Morehead State University , Simms was drafted in the first round by the New York Giants of the National Football League ( NFL ) with the number seven selection overall in the 1979 NFL Draft . Simms was named Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) of Super Bowl XXI , after he led the Giants to a 39 – 20 victory over the Denver Broncos and set the record for highest completion percentage in a Super Bowl , going 22 for 25 ( 88 % ) . He also was named to the Pro Bowl for his performances in the 1985 and 1993 seasons .
He finished his career with 33 @,@ 462 passing yards and has since gone on to be a career broadcaster of NFL games — first as an analyst for ESPN , then as a in @-@ game color commentator with NBC , and currently with CBS . He is the father of former NFL quarterback , New England Patriots assistant coach , and current FOX Sports College Football analyst Chris Simms , as well as Atlanta Falcons quarterback Matt Simms .
= = Early life and rookie season = =
Simms was born in Springfield , Kentucky on his grandfather 's farm , a place now called Maple Hill Manor in Washington County , Kentucky where he attended St. Dominic 's Elementary . While an elementary school student his family moved and Simms grew up in Louisville , Kentucky . He went to St. Rita catholic grade school also . He attended Southern High School in Louisville and was quarterback of the Southern Trojans , graduating in 1974 . Simms chose to attend Morehead State University in nearby Morehead , Kentucky , and joined Tau Kappa Epsilon there . The team featured a ball control offense , and Simms ' numbers at Morehead State were unspectacular — in his senior season he completed 92 of 173 passes for a 53 @.@ 2 % completion percentage and had six touchdown passes , 11 interceptions , and 1 @,@ 229 yards . The team also finished with a 2 – 6 – 1 record in his senior season and failed to make a bowl game during Simms ' four years . Simms finished his career at Morehead State with 409 completions in 835 attempts for a 48 @.@ 9 % completion percentage . He also totalled 32 touchdowns , 45 interceptions , and a school @-@ record 5 @,@ 545 yards .
Before the 1979 NFL Draft , Bill Walsh , who was the new coach of the San Francisco 49ers , flew to Morehead State with assistant coach Sam Wyche to work out Simms . Walsh was so impressed with Simms that he planned to draft him in the third round , preferring him over another young quarterback they scouted and ultimately drafted , Joe Montana . But the New York Giants decided to make Simms their first round pick to the surprise of many . As Simms acknowledged , " most people have never heard of me . " When Simms 's name was announced by Commissioner Pete Rozelle in front of the audience at the draft ( which was held in New York ) , his selection was booed loudly by the Giants fans in attendance . Simms was not happy being a Giant either , " All I was thinking was which teams I would rather play for — the Green Bay Packers , the Kansas City Chiefs , San Diego , San Francisco ... " Nonetheless , he became popular with his teammates who jokingly dubbed him " Prince Valiant " in his rookie training camp .
Simms won his first five starts of his rookie year . He led the team to a 6 – 4 record as a starter , throwing for 1 @,@ 743 yards and 13 touchdown passes and was named to the NFL All Rookie Team . He was runner @-@ up in 1979 for Rookie of the Year , losing out to future teammate , Ottis Anderson .
= = Early career : 1980 – 1986 = =
Simms ' next four years were marred by injuries and inconsistent play . He finished the 1980 season with 15 touchdowns and 19 interceptions , while completing a subpar 48 @.@ 0 % of his passes for 2 @,@ 321 yards . In 1981 , Simms threw for 2 @,@ 031 yards , 11 touchdowns , and 9 interceptions on 54 @.@ 4 % completion percentage before suffering a separated shoulder in a November 15 loss to the Washington Redskins . With Simms out , the Giants went on a run led by Scott Brunner and advanced to the second round of the playoffs . Simms suffered a torn knee ligament in a preseason game against the New York Jets , preventing him from playing the entire 1982 season . Following the season , Ray Perkins resigned as head coach to take over the same position at the University of Alabama , and was replaced by the team 's defensive coordinator Bill Parcells . In the coming years this change would prove crucial to the Giants and Simms .
One of Parcells first decisions as coach was to replace Simms as the starting quarterback with Brunner . Simms asked to be traded after the benching , but his request was ignored . During the sixth game of the Giants ' 1983 Season , Simms came in to replace the struggling Brunner against the Philadelphia Eagles . On his second drive , Simms suffered a season @-@ ending injury when the thumb on his throwing hand hit a player 's helmet on his follow @-@ through . The injury was reported as a dislocation , but according to the book , Simms to McConkey , written by Phil McConkey , Simms , and Dick Schaap , the injury was much more severe , with the thumb literally hanging off after impact , and the bone sticking out through the skin .
During his first few years on the team , Giants fans were merciless in their treatment of Simms , who they felt was a disappointment . He commented that his wife " had to sit up in the stands and listen to them cuss me . " However , in 1984 , after many seasons plagued by injuries and up @-@ and @-@ down play , Simms finally emerged as a team offensive leader . During his 1983 injury , offensive coordinator Ron Erhardt talked Simms into watching more game film , something he had not regularly done in college or the pros . He gained a better understanding of NFL defenses , his team 's formations , and pass protection schemes , and improved his ability to audible at the line of scrimmage . He also changed his strength training regimen in an attempt to make his body more resistant to injury . He passed for 4 @,@ 044 yards ( second most in the National Football Conference ( NFC ) ) , 22 touchdown passes , and led the Giants to a playoff berth .
He was voted to the Pro Bowl and named Pro Bowl MVP as he led the NFC to a comeback win over the American Football Conference ( AFC ) by throwing three touchdowns . In 1985 , he passed for 3 @,@ 829 yards , 22 touchdowns , and led the Giants to 10 victories , the most for a Giants team since 1963 . In a game against the Cincinnati Bengals during the 1985 season , Simms passed for 513 yards — the fifth most passing yards in a single game in NFL history . In 1986 , he passed for 3 @,@ 487 yards and 21 touchdown passes during a season in which the Giants won 14 games . In week 11 , he completed a desperate fourth @-@ and @-@ 17 pass to Bobby Johnson late in the game to set up Raul Allegre 's game @-@ winning field goal , which gave the Giants a 22 – 20 victory over the Minnesota Vikings . Simms later commented :
It 's my favorite game in my career , because it 's everything I always wanted to be as a player . I wanted to be tough , making big throws , immune to pressure , not worried about outcomes . It was truly like standing on the tee box in golf and there 's trees on each side and water and you just go ' Man , I 'm gonna rip it down the middle . ' And no other thought crosses your mind .
= = = Super Bowl XXI = = =
On January 25 , 1987 , the Giants met the Denver Broncos in Super Bowl XXI . In the biggest game of his life , Simms had one of the finest performances in Super Bowl history . He completed 22 of 25 passes ( with 2 of his 3 incompletions being drops by receivers ) for 268 yards , setting Super Bowl records for consecutive completions ( 10 ) , accuracy ( 88 % ) , and passer rating ( 150 @.@ 9 ) . In addition , he threw 3 touchdown passes and his passer rating set an NFL postseason record . " This might be the best game a quarterback has ever played " , Giants coach Bill Parcells later said . Two of the most famous plays from the game were the flea flicker to McConkey , and the touchdown pass caught by McConkey off of the fingertips of Giants tight end , Mark Bavaro . The Giants defeated the Broncos 39 @-@ 20 , and Simms was named MVP of Super Bowl XXI . He is credited for being the first to use the phrase " I 'm going to Disney World ! " following a championship victory .
= = Later career : 1987 – 1993 = =
Simms performed well in the strike @-@ shortened 1987 NFL season , finishing with the second highest quarterback rating in the NFC . He threw for 2 @,@ 230 yards , 17 touchdowns , and 9 interceptions . He passed for 3 @,@ 359 yard , 21 touchdowns , and 11 interceptions while completing 54 @.@ 9 % of his passes in the 1988 season . The Giants rebounded from a 6 – 9 record in 1987 to finish 10 – 6 but fell just short of the playoffs due to the NFL tie @-@ breaker system . In 1989 , the Giants started 8 – 1 and finished 12 – 4 , Simms passed for 3 @,@ 061 yards , 14 touchdowns , and 14 interceptions on 56 @.@ 3 % completion percentage . He performed consistently most of | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
the season except for a two @-@ game stretch against the Eagles and 49ers where he produced seven turnovers , six of which resulted in points for the opposition . He also struggled in the Giants playoff game against the Los Angeles Rams , and the Giants lost 19 – 13 . In 1990 , Simms was having one of his finest seasons , leading the NFC with the highest quarterback rating ( 92 @.@ 7 ) and the Giants to an 11 – 3 record . But his season was cut short due to a broken foot suffered in the fourteenth game against the Giants ' eventual Super Bowl XXV opponent , the Buffalo Bills . The Giants went on to defeat the Bills 20 – 19 in the Super Bowl with Jeff Hostetler filling in at quarterback .
After the Giants Super Bowl victory , Parcells resigned and was replaced by the team 's running backs coach Ray Handley . One of Handley 's first decisions was to select Jeff Hostetler as the team 's starting quarterback following his performance in Super Bowl XXV . Simms saw only spot action in two games prior to Week 13 , when Hostetler broke his back in a game against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers . Simms finished the game and reclaimed the starting job , but won only once in his remaining four starts as the Giants failed to return to the playoffs at 8 @-@ 8 . Simms was named starter for the 1992 season after beating out Hostetler , whom Handley still thought high of as a quarterback in the preseason . However , Simms suffered a severe arm injury in a Week 4 loss to the Los Angeles Raiders and missed the remainder of the season . In those two seasons Simms amassed only a combined 1 @,@ 905 yards , 13 touchdowns , and 7 interceptions while completing 59 @.@ 3 % of his passes . The Giants finished the 1992 season at 6 @-@ 10 , which led to the termination of the unpopular Handley and the hiring of former Denver Broncos coach Dan Reeves . As part of an overall house cleaning , Reeves released Hostetler and named Simms his starting quarterback . He started all 16 games in 1993 , being one of only seven quarterbacks to do so , and led the Giants to a resurgent 11 – 5 season including a victory over the Minnesota Vikings in the playoffs . However , Simms underwent shoulder surgery after the 1993 NFL Season to repair a torn labrum . The surgery was successful , and team doctor Russell F. Warren 's prognosis for recovery was excellent , and Simms was expected to be ready in time for training camp . However , later during that offseason , Simms was released by the Giants , and subsequently decided to retire . Upon his release , co @-@ owner Wellington Mara called it " a day of overwhelming sadness . " . Phil Simms considered playing for the Browns in 1995 , but eventually decided to stay retired .
In his 14 seasons with the Giants , Simms completed 2 @,@ 576 out of 4 @,@ 647 passes for 33 @,@ 462 yards and 199 touchdowns . His career passing yardage total ranks him twenty first in NFL history . He added 349 carries for 1 @,@ 252 rushing yards and 6 touchdowns on the ground . He set team records for most passes completed and attempted in one game ( 40 and 62 , respectively ) , season ( 286 , 533 ) and career ( 2 @,@ 576 , 4 @,@ 647 ) , most career touchdown passes ( 199 ) and most 300 @-@ yard games in a career ( 21 ) . Simms still owns some of the New York Giants passing records , although Eli Manning , who is in his tenth year with the Giants as of the 2013 season , has started to surpass some of them : season passes ( 359 completed , 589 attempted ) , career completed passes ( 2 @,@ 679 ) , career touchdowns ( 216 ) , career 300 @-@ yard games ( 26 ) . Sports Illustrated considered Simms to be the " Most Underrated Quarterback " in NFL history in their August 27 , 2001 issue entitled , " The Most Overrated and Underrated " .
= = After retirement from the NFL = =
On September 4 , 1995 , Simms ' jersey was retired in a halftime ceremony of a game versus the Dallas Cowboys . During an emotional speech , Simms stated that he wanted to don his jersey one final time , and throw " one more pass " to teammate Lawrence Taylor . Simms later commented , " [ a ] ll of a sudden it kind of hit me , I 've put Lawrence in a really tough spot ; national TV , he 's got dress shoes and a sports jacket on , and he 's had a few beers and he 's going to run down the field and I 'm going to throw him a pass . " Simms then motioned for Taylor to run a longer pattern , and after 30 – 40 yards , threw him the pass . Taylor later stated that the situation made him more nervous than any play of his career , " I 'm saying to myself ( as the pass is being thrown ) , ' If I drop this pass , I got to run my black ass all the way to Upper Saddle River because there ain 't no way I 'm going to be able to stay in that stadium ' . " Taylor caught the pass however , and the capacity crowd in attendance cheered in approval . Since he has been retired for more than five years , Simms is eligible for selection into the Pro Football Hall of Fame ; he has yet to be inducted , however .
After his retirement as a player in 1994 , Simms first joined ESPN then went on to join NBC 's lead broadcast crew , teaming with Dick Enberg and Paul Maguire on that network 's coverage of Super Bowl XXX and Super Bowl XXXII . Simms also announced Weightlifting at the 1996 Summer Olympics and served as a sideline reporter on the NBA on NBC for NBC Sports . In 1998 , he moved to CBS with the AFC package , teaming first with Greg Gumbel ( through the end of the 2003 season ) and currently with Jim Nantz on the CBS 's lead broadcast team . He also worked with Armen Keteyian , Bonnie Bernstein and Lesley Visser . He hosts Inside the NFL on Showtime ( another CBS holding ) with James Brown and Cris Collinsworth . He has appeared on CBS Daytime since joining CBS , with a 2007 appearance as himself on the CBS soap opera As the World Turns , and in February 2010 an appearance on The Price Is Right ( with Nantz ) to present a Super Bowl XLIV showcase . Simms is part of the commentary team , along with his broadcast partner Jim Nantz , in the Madden NFL 16 video game .
As of the 2014 – 15 NFL season , Simms has been a commentator for the CBS and NFL Network broadcasts of Thursday Night Football .
On November 13 , 2014 , Simms appeared uncredited on the " Just a Regular Irregular " episode of the CBS TV series Elementary . Simms ' cameo was as a character named " Phillip " who had , like Simms himself , spent 15 years as a professional football player , but was a consultant to Sherlock Holmes in the art of knife throwing .
= = Personal life = =
Simms and his wife , Diana , live in Franklin Lakes , New Jersey . They have three children : Chris , Deirdre and Matthew ( currently backup quarterback for the Atlanta Falcons ) . Simms is fond of New Jersey , remarking in 1987 ; " I wasn 't overjoyed about coming to New York . When I thought of New York I thought of New York City . But out here , it 's just like anywhere else . "
Simms is a relative of former Vanderbilt quarterback Oliver " Doc " Kuhn and former Kentucky quarterback John Simms " Shipwreck " Kelly .
In 2011 , Simms was inducted into the Kentucky Pro Football Hall of Fame .
= = NFL passing statistics = =
Key to abbreviations
GP
= Games played
Att =
Passes attempted
Com
= Passes completed
Pct =
Completion percentage
Yds
= Yards
TD =
Touchdowns
In
= Interceptions
Rate =
Passer rating
= Vanya and Sonia and Masha and Spike =
Vanya and Sonia and Masha and Spike is a comedy play written by Christopher Durang . The story revolves around the relationships of three middle @-@ aged single siblings , two of whom live together , and takes place during a visit by the third , Masha , who supports them . They discuss their lives and loves , argue , and Masha threatens to sell the house . Some of the show 's elements were derived from works of Anton Chekhov , including several character names , the play 's setting in a cherry orchard , and the theme of the possible loss of an ancestral home .
The play premiered at McCarter Theatre in Princeton , New Jersey in 2012 , followed by an Off @-@ Broadway production later the same year . It transferred to Broadway in 2013 . The original McCarter , Off @-@ Broadway , and Broadway casts included David Hyde Pierce , Kristine Nielsen , Sigourney Weaver and Billy Magnussen . Subsequently , the play has been produced in Tennessee , California , Indiana , Minnesota , Arizona , Washington , Massachusetts , Missouri , Wyoming , Georgia , South Carolina and the District of Columbia .
Critics praised Vanya and Sonia and Masha and Spike as a humorous adaptation of Chekhov themes that doesn 't require familiarity with Chekhov . The original Broadway production proved to be a commercial success , recouping its $ 2 @.@ 75 million investment in under four months . In 2013 , it won the Tony Award for Best Play and the Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Play , among other awards .
= = Plot = =
Middle @-@ aged siblings Vanya and Sonia live in the family home in Bucks County , Pennsylvania . Named after Chekhov 's characters by their theater @-@ enthusiast professor parents , Vanya and Sonia have not had to grow up . After spending their adulthood looking after their now @-@ dead parents , neither has a job , and money is provided by their movie star sister Masha , who owns the house and pays the bills . Vanya ( who is gay ) and Sonia ( who is forever reminding everyone that she was adopted ) spend their days reflecting on their lost chances , debating whether the grove of nine cherry trees on their property constitutes an orchard , and bemoaning their rather Chekhovian lot in life . The only other resident of the house is their cleaning woman Cassandra , who , like her namesake , is prone to making dire prophecies that no one believes .
This static environment is disrupted when Masha returns home , bringing with her a flurry of drama , an endless litany of insecurity , and a much younger , gorgeous , dimwitted lover named Spike . Sonia 's resentments and Masha 's competitive nature begin to spark arguments , and while Vanya tries to keep the peace , he is repeatedly distracted by the preening Spike , who takes every opportunity possible to strip down and show off his muscular body . Masha 's fifth marriage has recently ended and her career is starting to stall . Spike 's career has never started , and his biggest claim to fame is nearly landing a part in the sequel to Entourage , Entourage 2 . Another interloper arrives , the neighbor 's pretty niece Nina , an aspiring actress who provokes envy in Masha , lust in Spike , and sympathy in Vanya .
Masha has returned home to attend a costume party at an influential neighbor 's house and insists that her friends and family dress as characters from Disney 's animated Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs , choosing to dress as Snow White . When told she will be going as one of the dwarfs , Sonia rebels and dresses up as the Evil Queen , imagining her as portrayed by Maggie Smith on her way to the Oscars . As they prepare for the party , Masha tells them she intends to sell the house , leaving Vanya and Sonia devastated .
Things come to a head the day after the party . As Cassandra uses a voodoo doll on Masha , trying to dissuade thoughts of selling the house , Sonia receives a phone call from a man she met at the party , requesting a date . Hesitantly , she accepts . Vanya , who is secretly writing a play inspired by Konstantin 's imagined symbolist drama in The Seagull , is convinced by Nina to let her read it in front of the others . During the reading ( which stars Nina as a molecule and takes place after the destruction of the earth ) , Spike rudely answers a text on his phone , and dismisses Vanya 's suggestion of a handwritten response . Vanya reacts by launching into an impassioned rant , criticizing America 's cultural regression in communication and media , while fondly and wistfully recalling the surroundings and memories of his childhood . Concluding that the intent of such progress seems to make people like him feel lost and forgotten , he retreats into the kitchen in tears .
Masha realizes that the person Spike is texting is her personal assistant , with whom he has been having an affair . She ends her relationship with him and kicks him out of the house , announcing she no longer intends to sell it . As the play ends , the three siblings , optimistic for the first time in a very long time , sit quietly together and listen to The Beatles ' song " Here Comes the Sun " .
= = Characters = =
According to Durang , " My play is not a Chekhov parody ... I take Chekhov scenes and characters and put them into a blender . " Although the characters in the play , named by university professors , share names with Chekhov characters , they are not the same characters . They share some elements but are fully imagined . Durang mentioned that Masha is more like Madame Arkadina in The Seagull than any of Chekhov 's characters named Masha . Rather than mimic Three Sisters , his play has a sister , brother and adopted sister , with the latter two being the most Chekhovian of the title characters . Durang has described Nina as most like a Chekhov character , and related to the character of the same name in The Seagull . After five marriages to her contemporaries , Masha has taken up with Spike in a May – December relationship . Durang says that " Cassandra , who 's a cleaning woman and soothsayer , is like the Greek @-@ tragedy Cassandra . In some ways , she 's like the nanny in Vanya , but she doesn 't reflect Chekhov as much . "
= = = Principal roles and original cast = = =
= = Production history = =
Vanya and Sonia and Masha and Spike was commissioned by the McCarter Theatre , Princeton , New Jersey , in association with the Lincoln Center Theater . The play , which was originally a one @-@ act play , ran at the McCarter Theatre from September 7 , 2012 , to October 14 , 2012 .
The play opened Off @-@ Broadway at Lincoln Center 's Mitzi E. Newhouse Theater on November 12 , 2012 , after previews from October 25 , and ran until January 20 , 2013 . The show 's run at Lincoln Center was sold out . On January 29 , it was announced that the show would transfer to Broadway for 17 weeks beginning March 5 with its original cast under the production of Joey Parnes , Larry Hirschhorn , and John O 'Boyle , in association with McCarter Theatre and Lincoln Center Theater .
It opened on Broadway on March 14 , 2013 , at the John Golden Theatre , after previews beginning March 5 . The Broadway engagement , originally announced to close on June 30 , was extended to July 28 , 2013 and again to August 25 . On July 1 , the show recouped its $ 2 @.@ 75 million investment . The play closed on August 25 , 2013 , after 201 performances on Broadway . " The house expanded with each of the play 's moves , first from McCarter Theatre 's proscenium stage to Newhouse Theater 's thrust stage , then to the Golden Theatre 's proscenium stage . The actors had to make adjustments to compensate for the changes . Nielsen and Pierce both said that the proscenium accentuated their comedic performances .
The original Off @-@ Broadway and Broadway casts featured Pierce as Vanya , Weaver as Masha , Magnussen as Spike , Nielsen as Sonia , Angelson as Nina , and Grant as Cassandra . The play was directed by Nicholas Martin with the set designed by David Korins and costumes by Emily Rebholz . On July 28 , Weaver left the cast and was replaced by Julie White as Masha . Magnussen departed the cast on August 4 and was replaced by understudy Creed Garnick as Spike .
Following its Broadway run , the show ran at Berkeley , California 's Berkeley Repertory Theatre in September and October 2013 with Anthony Fusco as Vanya , Sharon Lockwood as Sonia , Lorri Holt as Masha , and Mark Junek as Spike . Hyde Pierce reunited with the show to direct the January 29 – March 9 , 2014 , production at Los Angeles ' Mark Taper Forum by Center Theatre Group . The cast was Mark Blum , Christine Ebersole , Grant , David Hull , Nielsen and Liesel Allen Yaeger .
In September / October 2013 , a separate production ran in the Phoenix Theatre , Indianapolis , produced by Bryan Fonseca . In 2014 , the show ran at the Guthrie Theater in Minneapolis , and in Tucson and Phoenix , Arizona . The show was produced in Seattle at the ACT Theatre from October 17 – November 16 , 2014 .
= = Themes = =
Although Vanya and Sonia and Masha and Spike is a comedy , it has some darker elements that pervade its themes . Ben Brantley of The New York Times described the play as a " sunny new play about gloomy people " . Patrick Healy of The New York Times described it as a " black comedy about unhappy siblings " .
According to Robin Pogrebin of The New York Times , " The play sets characters and themes from Chekhov in present day Bucks County , PA . " The characters Vanya , Sonia and Masha are middle @-@ aged siblings named after Chekhov characters . Their deceased parents were " college professors who dabbled in community theater " . The character names are borrowed from Chekhov plays . Vanya is the protagonist in Uncle Vanya and Sonia is his niece . Meanwhile , Masha comes from Chekhov 's Three Sisters . Other characters also embody the themes and characters from Chekhov works , such as Nina from The Seagull . The play depicts a home of siblings who have quarreled their entire lives .
According to Charles Isherwood of The New York Times , not only are the character names derived from Chekhov , but also " The country @-@ house setting is also borrowed from the work of that Russian master , as are the self @-@ delusions and self @-@ pity that plague the central characters , all of whom have reached the difficult age when life ’ s path has narrowed uncomfortably , and there is little point in turning around and looking to take another , more rewarding course . "
= = Critical review = =
Knowledge of Chekhov will increase the enjoyment of this work 's in @-@ jokes , but not as much as an understanding of Durang 's absurdism , according to Theatermania.com 's Brian Scott Lipton . Brantley noted that the work was suitable for any audience : " Even if you ’ ve never read a word of Chekhov , you ’ re likely to find plenty to make you laugh : Mr. Hyde Pierce ’ s skillfully low @-@ key comic discomfort ; Ms. Nielsen ’ s segues from manic eruption into glazed smiling stupor ; Ms. Weaver ’ s game sendup of every self @-@ loving , self @-@ doubting movie queen there ever was . " He noted the play does not compare with some of Durang 's most absurd work , calling it " blander and thinner " . Brantley said there was comfort in an evening of deliverance of Chekhov 's " lost souls " , by Durang .
Isherwood noted that as Nielsen demonstrated her ability to lighten the play 's stream of Chekhovian themes , " broad comic acting [ was ] raised to the level of high art . " He also noted that in Durang 's plays , " heartache is generally fodder for belly laughs " and that Vanya and Sonia and Masha and Spike had plenty . Lipton noted that the show was quite funny , but also belabored and " scattershot " . Several reviewers agreed that the show was " a bit of a patchwork " .
According to the New York Post critic , Elisabeth Vincentelli , the show improved with its transfer from Off @-@ Broadway to Broadway , especially Weaver 's performance , which Vincentelli deemed the weakest . Weaver portrayed a movie star who was " overindulgent , self @-@ centered and unaware she ’ s on the decline . " Mark Kennedy of The Washington Post suggested Durang , with whom Weaver graduated from the Yale School of Drama in 1974 , may have written the role for her . Both Hyde Pierce and Nielsen exhibited mastery of their monologues , according to Vincentelli : " Hyde Pierce is a master of the slow burn , while Nielsen ’ s wild @-@ eyed Sonia often looks as if her train of thought has a loose caboose . " Vincentelli also noted that Weaver 's character had " turned her life into a performance . "
= = Awards and nominations = =
The play received six Tony Award nominations for the 67th Tony Awards , winning the Tony Award for Best Play . Magnussen earned his first Tony nomination for his role . Grant also earned her first Tony nomination . The play won the 58th Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Play and the 2013 New York Drama Critics ' Circle Award for Best Play . Grant received a Theatre World Award for Best Debut Performance . Emily Rebholz earned a 2013 Lucille Lortel Award nomination for Outstanding Costume Design of the Off @-@ Broadway production .
The Off @-@ Broadway and Original Broadway productions were jointly recognized with Drama League Award nominations for Outstanding Production of a Broadway or Off @-@ Broadway Play and with Distinguished Performance Award nominations for both Nielsen and Pierce ; the play won for Outstanding Production of a Broadway or Off @-@ Broadway Play . The production received four Outer Critics Circle Award nominations : Outstanding New Broadway Play , Outstanding Director of a Play ( Martin ) , Outstanding Actor in a Play ( Pierce ) , and Outstanding Featured Actress in a Play ( Nielsen ) , and won the awards for Outstanding New Broadway Play and Outstanding Featured Actress in a Play . The production won the 2013 Off @-@ Broadway Alliance Award for Best New Play . The show received an Artios Award from The Casting Society of America for Outstanding Achievement in Casting , New York Broadway Theatre – Comedy .
= = = Original Broadway / Off @-@ Broadway productions = = =
= Early life of Keith Miller =
This article chronicles the life of Keith Miller , an Australian Test cricketer and Australian rules footballer , from his birth on 28 November 1919 until 20 August 1940 , when he left civilian life and joined the Militia ( army reserve ) during World War II . Born in the town of Sunshine on the outskirts of Melbourne , Miller made sport the focal point of his early life . The youngest of four children of Scottish descent , Miller joined his siblings in being inculcated with a love of sport by their father , playing football in winter and cricket in summer . Miller 's father — an engineer and sportslover — emphasised the importance of technique over power ; Miller benefited as he was of small stature during his childhood and could not rely on brute strength . Miller yearned to be a horse racing jockey , as he felt that he would not have the physique to succeed in cricket or football .
Miller received his secondary education at the academically selective Melbourne High School , where his mathematics teacher was the incumbent Australian cricket captain Bill Woodfull . He was an academically poor student who neglected his studies but excelled at sports . He made the school 's first @-@ choice cricket team at the age of 14 and gained attention for his technical and defensive ability , which was compared to that of Woodfull . Miller was rejected by the St Kilda Cricket Club so he joined South Melbourne in district competition , making his first @-@ grade debut at the start of the 1935 – 36 season , still only 162 cm ( 5 ft 4 in ) tall . In one match , he scored 61 runs to orchestrate a lower @-@ order fightback in a low @-@ scoring match against Woodfull 's Carlton team , prompting his teacher to award him a silver eggcup during maths class . It remained one of his most treasured possessions .
In the following year , Miller grew 28 cm ( 11 in ) and began to play cricket and football with more power . Leaving school at the end of year 10 , having just turned 17 , Miller played cricket for the Victorian Colts for two seasons , before breaking through to be selected for his first @-@ class debut late in the 1937 – 38 season . He played sporadically until making his Sheffield Shield debut during the 1939 – 40 season and scoring his maiden century . During this time , Miller played exclusively as a batsman ; he was yet to become a fast bowler . Miller 's football career also took off . Starting in 1937 , Miller played for the Brighton Football Club in the Victorian Football Association for three years , mainly as a defender . At the start of his fourth season , he restricted Bob Pratt , regarded as the best forward of the time , to one goal for the match and was named best on ground . He was promptly signed by the St Kilda Football Club to play in the leading Victorian Football League in 1940 , where his team came second to last .
= = Birth = =
Born in the western Melbourne suburb of Sunshine on 28 November 1919 , Keith Ross Miller was the youngest of Leslie ( Les Sr ) and Edith ( Edie ) Miller 's four children . He had two older brothers and a sister . Sister Gladys was 12 when Miller was born , while Les Jr and Ray were nine and seven respectively . Miller was named after the Australian pioneer aviator brothers Keith and Ross Smith , who were half @-@ way through their historic flight from England to Australia at the time of his birth . Miller 's two Christian names reflected his Scottish heritage ; his father 's family originated from the dock area of Edinburgh and Dundee , and his paternal grandfather arrived in Australia in April 1849 . The family lived in a one @-@ level terrace house in Sunshine , which at the time was a separate town of 900 people , 11 km ( 6 @.@ 8 mi ) west of Melbourne 's city centre . The area was and remains a working @-@ class area . The town 's lifeblood was the farm machinery maker H. V. McKay , which employed a large proportion of the population . Miller 's father started as a teacher in Warracknabeal in rural Victoria , before working as an engineer for McKay in Ballarat until a transfer brought him to Sunshine .
= = Early schooling = =
Sunshine offered open fields , and the three Miller boys quickly took a liking to sport during their childhood , playing Australian rules football in winter and cricket in summer . Their father had played cricket for Warracknabeal , winning a premiership in the local league in 1900 . Les taught the boys to play with a side @-@ on stance and underlined the importance of orthodox batting technique , reminding his sons to maintain a high leading elbow when hitting the ball . They were taught to rely on a solid defence , concentration , and self @-@ control in the mould of the leading Victorian and Australian Test batsman of the era , Bill Ponsford . Miller began his schooling in Sunshine , where he quickly became known for his diminutive height ; he was one of the smallest children in the school . At the age of seven , Miller moved to the inner @-@ eastern middle @-@ class Melbourne suburb of Elsternwick , where his parents had purchased a two @-@ storey house with a spacious garden that allowed the children to play sport . By this time , his elder brothers had given him the derisive nickname Weedy . Miller 's small size and age deficit meant that he conceded a strength advantage to his brothers in backyard cricket matches . This forced him to develop his technique rather than rely on power , which held him in good stead for his future career . Whenever Miller managed to dismiss his brothers and earn himself some batting time , he typically played with a straight bat in a watchful manner , as it was difficult for him to remove his brothers , meaning that his opportunities with the bat were rare . Miller and his friends would loiter outside Ponsford 's home , just 400 m ( 440 yd ) away , in the hope of catching a glimpse of their hero . Like Miller in his backyard , Ponsford was known for his powers of concentration and was the first person to score two quadruple centuries in first @-@ class cricket . Miller often practised for hours by himself ; he put a tennis ball inside a stocking , before suspending it from a clothes line and hitting it back and forth . Indoors , Miller developed a lifelong love of classical music through a cousin who liked to play Mozart . He played flute in the Elsternwick school band but could not read music .
As a small child , Miller 's major sporting aspiration was to be a jockey , but he continued to play cricket and Australian football . At the age of 12 , he played for an under @-@ 15 Victorian schoolboys cricket team that toured Queensland under the captaincy of future Test batsman Merv Harvey . At the time , Miller stood only 150 cm ( 4 ft 11 in ) and wielded a sawn @-@ off bat . His shots did not travel far , but he impressed observers with the manner in which he moved his feet and stroked the ball . Miller 's small stature in a contact sport such as football forced him to rely on physical courage , something for which he became famed . However , his lack of height prompted him to turn to horseracing . Miller saw his first Melbourne Cup in 1926 at the age of seven and had been fascinated ever since . Caulfield Racecourse was only a short distance from the family home , and Miller spent many early mornings watching the trainers and jockeys go through their routines . He eventually persuaded his father to let him take horseriding lessons . Aside from being attracted to the racing culture , Miller felt that as he appeared destined to be a small person , he was more likely to have a successful career as a jockey than in cricket or football .
= = Melbourne High School = =
Miller went to the local state school before transferring to Melbourne High School — a selective government institution that accepted students through an academic exam — at the start of 1934 . The school 's emphasis on scholastic and sporting excellence and its culture was more in line with that of a private school than a standard government school . Australian Test captain Bill Woodfull was on the teaching staff as Miller 's mathematics teacher . Because he did little study and focused his energy on sport , Miller was a mediocre student . In addition to cricket and football , Miller played baseball and competed in swimming . This disappointed Woodfull , a disciplined man who invoked the school 's motto Honour the Work in exhorting his students to work hard as Australia was attempting to emerge from the depths of the Great Depression . Despite being Australia 's captain , Woodfull refused to involve himself in the coaching of the school 's cricket teams , feeling that it would intrude on the responsibilities of the sports teachers . Despite this , Woodfull watched the students at cricket training and quickly noticed Miller 's skills . Aged 14 and still under 153 cm ( 5 ft 0 in ) , Miller was selected in the school 's First XI . With his pads flapping against his stomach and sporting a sawn @-@ down bat , Miller batted at No. 6 and scored 44 on his senior debut . Although his lack of power was obvious , Miller 's control and solidity prompted the spectators to call him the Unbowlable , the same nickname that was accorded to Woodfull , who had a similarly strong defensive style . Melbourne went on to win the match , and Miller impressed his captain Keith Truscott , who fought for his selection and took him under his wing . Truscott later became an ace fighter pilot in the Royal Australian Air Force , and Miller would follow in his footsteps . Truscott 's social influence compounded the distractions from Miller 's study . Miller failed all eight of his subjects at the end of 1934 , and with an average mark of 25 % , was the class dunce . He scored zero in his final exam for Woodfull 's geometry class , and was forced to repeat year 9 .
= = Club cricket = =
At the start of the 1934 – 35 season , Truscott took Miller to a try out with St Kilda Cricket Club , but his protege could not find a place in any of the club 's five teams . Joining the local sub @-@ district cricket club Elsternwick , Miller did not get to bat or bowl on debut , and was then dropped to the Second XI after his first match for poor fielding . Nevertheless , the former Victorian state player Hughie Carroll spotted Miller 's talent and lured him to the rival South Melbourne club . However , Elsternwick used the competition rules to prevent Miller from playing for Souths , so he continued to play in the former 's second @-@ choice team . In the meantime , Miller continued to play for his school with steady results , scoring 30 and 25 in two matches against Melbourne 's main rival , University High School . A loosening of the zoning rules allowed Miller to start competing for South Melbourne in the following season . However , the rules required South Melbourne to play Miller in their First XI , else St Kilda could reclaim him , so he made his district cricket debut for South at the start of the 1935 – 36 season after a trial in the nets . At this stage , Miller was just 162 cm ( 5 ft 4 in ) tall — the Test batsman Keith Rigg recalled his first encounter with the diminutive youngster in a district match :
He was so small he came in to bat with pads flapping around up near his waist . Hans Ebeling was bowling and Keith hit him through the covers for four . I thought , ' Crikey , who 's this kid ? '
It was at South Melbourne that Miller met Ian Johnson and Lindsay Hassett , his future Australia team @-@ mates and captains . On debut against St Kilda , Miller scored only 11 not out after batting for 62 minutes at No. 7 , but observers felt the young batsman would succeed if he physically grew . Miller passed his exams at the end of 1935 and continued his development on the field . He began to develop a leg break and googly and represented his school against a visiting schoolboy team from Ceylon . Miller scored an unbeaten 28 to prevent a loss and later cited the experience as helping to broaden his horizons towards other cultures . Assisted by cross @-@ training in baseball , his improved fielding skills saw him placed in the slips and he was named as Melbourne High School 's cricket sports champion for 1936 . Miller averaged 86 with the bat and took 13 wickets at an average of 9 @.@ 23 , including innings figures of seven wickets for 29 runs against St Kevin 's and 3 / 5 against University High . These performances prompted Woodfull to write in the school magazine that " Miller has Test possibilities " . In March , Miller played for South Melbourne against Carlton , who were captained by Woodfull . South Melbourne batted first and collapsed to 5 / 6 . The sixth wicket fell at 32 , bringing Miller to the crease . He guided his team to 141 , and was the last man out for 61 after putting on a stand of 65 in 95 minutes with the No. 11 . Miller struck four boundaries in a 147 @-@ minute innings . The crowd of 14 @,@ 000 — the largest of the season — gave Miller a standing ovation , and newspapers compared him to Ponsford and Alan Kippax . Carlton went on to win the game , and when it was obvious that this would be the case , Miller 's captain let him bowl for the first time . The small batsman took his first wicket in district cricket when Test paceman Laurie Nash took a high @-@ leaping catch . Miller 's performance prompted Carlton to donate a silver eggcup as a memento " for sterling performance " . Woodfull presented Miller with the trophy during algebra class . It was one of the few sports trophies that Miller kept in later life .
During 1936 , Miller underwent a sudden growth spurt , including a three @-@ month period during which he added 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) to his height . He began to play football with more physical aggression and developed the ability to leap high and take airborne marks . The increase in size allowed Miller to become the longest kicker in the school team . Having grown 28 cm ( 11 in ) in a year , Miller was unrecognisable to Hassett upon his return to South Melbourne the following season . Eventually , Miller reached 185 cm ( 6 ft 1 in ) in height , thwarting his ambition to be a jockey , although he never lost his love for the racetrack .
= = Representative beginnings = =
At the start of the 1936 – 37 season , Miller was selected for the Colts , a state under @-@ 21 team that played at district level . At the end of the 1936 school year , Miller completed year 10 by passing five of his eight subjects . Disinclined towards university studies , he left school without finishing his leaving year and began working as a clerk for a car business . Miller felt confident that he could make a career out of sport and therefore felt that further education was unnecessary .
Miller spent the 1937 – 38 season with the Colts and won the team 's batting trophy for having the best average ; he made 340 runs at 42 @.@ 50 . Across the entire competition , Miller had the eighth highest average . He scored three half @-@ centuries and a 102 against Northcote . At this stage , Miller was a solid , slow and steady batsman , who accumulated his runs gradually , but The Age predicted that his physical growth would open his horizons , opining " Once he fills out — he is rather tall for his weight — Miller should become a brilliant , aggressive batsman " . In early February 1938 , late in the summer , he made his first @-@ class debut for Victoria as an 18 @-@ year @-@ old and hit 181 in 289 minutes against Tasmania at the Melbourne Cricket Ground . With his increased power , Miller began to loft the ball over the infield and struck five fours . During the 1938 – 39 season , he rejoined South Melbourne and played four first @-@ class matches for Victoria , scoring 125 runs at an average of 25 @.@ 00 . However , Miller was yet to play in the Sheffield Shield competition , only taking to the field in one @-@ off matches against other teams . In the two matches against Tasmania in December 1938 , Miller took his first catch , but managed only four , seven not out and three , and he spent a period of time outside the team . Miller was recalled in March 1939 — late in the season — for two matches against Western Australia in Perth , scoring 111 runs at 37 @.@ 00 , notching his first first @-@ class fifty of the season in the second innings of the first match .
Miller achieved more success as a footballer . In 1937 , he followed his brothers Les and Ray and joined the Brighton Football Club in the Victorian Football Association ( VFA ) . The VFA was the second tier of Australian rules football below the Victorian Football League ( VFL ) . A defender , Miller played his first two seasons on the flanks ; he was yet to reach his physical peak and lacked the power required to play in central defensive positions until his third season , in 1939 . At this stage , he was unable to hip and shoulder his opponents and relied on his running ability and accurate kicking .
During the 1939 – 40 season , Miller was selected to make his Sheffield Shield debut in a match against South Australia at Adelaide Oval . Batting at No. 4 , Miller came to the crease at 2 / 9 after a top @-@ order collapse , but managed only four runs before being caught by Richard Whitington — with whom he later wrote cricket books — from the bowling of Harold Cotton . When Victoria fielded , Miller ran out his future Invincibles captain Don Bradman ; it was the first time that Bradman had been caught short of his ground in first @-@ class cricket . Miller also took his first catch at Shield level , that of Mervyn Waite . In the second innings , he managed seven before being bowled by leg spinner Clarrie Grimmett , one of the leading bowlers in the world in the 1930s . One of Miller 's teammates was Percy Beames , who also happened to be his manager at Vacuum Oil , where he had moved from his first job . Miller made 41 and 47 not out in his second match against Queensland , top @-@ scoring in the second innings as his team completed a seven @-@ wicket victory . Miller retained his place for the match against New South Wales , but was out for 14 in both innings . He had difficulties against leg spin , falling to Bill O 'Reilly and Cec Pepper . In the return match against South Australia , Miller decided to take the initiative against Grimmett , charging down the wicket to drive the leg spinner . He featured in a 165 @-@ run partnership with Hassett , and at times bluffed Grimmett by moving forward before leaning back after the bowler had adjusted his length . Miller reached 108 to complete his first century in Shield competition . He was given out caught by Bradman from Garth Burton , after an appeal for a disputed catch ; Miller asked the umpires if Bradman had caught a bump ball . Nevertheless , Bradman praised Miller 's innings , and Clem Hill predicted a bright future for the Victorian . Apart from the century , Miller had an average season , making 37 , 1 and 24 in his remaining innings to end the campaign with 298 runs at 29 @.@ 80 . He did not bowl during the season .
= = = Breakthrough into the VFL = = =
In 1940 , Miller started his fourth season in the VFA . In a match against Coburg , regarded as one of the strongest teams in the competition , he was assigned to man Bob Pratt , who was regarded as the greatest forward of the era . Pratt had scored 678 goals in ten seasons for South Melbourne in the Victorian Football League ( VFL ) , the top tier of football , and had scored more than 100 goals in each of his last three seasons . Miller restricted Pratt to one goal for the match and was named as the best on ground . In the third quarter , Miller restricted Pratt to two marks , and in the fourth quarter , he prevented the forward from getting a single kick . Scouts from the VFL club St Kilda signed Miller on the spot . Reacting to Miller 's signing , The Age opined that he " is one of the most promising players ever to enter league ranks , and can be played anywhere in defence . It was he who kept Bob Pratt to one goal in last week 's Association match . "
At the time , World War II had broken out and by mid @-@ 1940 , France , Belgium and the Netherlands had fallen to Nazi Germany . Australia had declared war on Germany and Miller wanted to join the military , but St Kilda told him that if he was deployed outside Victoria , his career would be in jeopardy . As a result , Miller postponed his enlistment until the end of the season .
Playing as a defender , Miller debuted for St Kilda in their fifth round home game against Carlton , at the Junction Oval on 25 May , playing on the half @-@ back flank . At the start of the game , Miller 's opponent Ron Cooper king hit and concussed him . Miller said of the experience , " I learnt more in a second or two than I would have in a year " . When St Kilda met Carlton in the return match at Princes Park , Miller shoulder bumped Cooper in the first minute of the match , forcing his opponent to leave the field . In a match against Richmond , Miller was physically targeted by renowned enforcer Jack Dyer , known as Captain Blood . However , Dyer slipped and missed Miller . In one game , Miller was reported for showing dissent to a goal umpire , but was let off without punishment . St Kilda came second to last , so they did not make the finals .
= E.T. the Extra @-@ Terrestrial ( album ) =
E.T. the Extra @-@ Terrestrial is an audiobook and soundtrack album for the 1982 blockbuster film of the same name directed by Steven Spielberg . Narrated by American recording artist Michael Jackson , the album was produced by composer Quincy Jones and distributed by MCA Records . The production of the audiobook brought Jackson together with several former collaborators , such as Rod Temperton , Freddy DeMann , and Bruce Swedien .
The E.T. the Extra @-@ Terrestrial audiobook was released by MCA on November 7 , 1982 — the same month as Jackson 's acclaimed sixth studio album Thriller despite conditions given by Epic Records , Jackson 's record label , that it should not be released until after Thriller . As a result , Epic took legal action against MCA which forced the album 's withdrawal . During its curtailed release , E.T. the Extra @-@ Terrestrial reached number 82 on the UK Albums Chart . It was well @-@ received critically and won Jackson a Grammy Award for Best Recording for Children .
= = Content = =
The E.T. the Extra @-@ Terrestrial album package contains a storybook , which allows listeners to read along with Jackson as he narrates the tale of E.T. and the alien 's visit to planet Earth . The book contains a photograph of E.T. placing hands on Jackson 's shoulders , while one of the extraterrestrial 's fingers glows . This picture is included in the album package as a 22 inches ( 56 cm ) × 22 inches ( 56 cm ) full @-@ color poster . The 20 @-@ page storybook include stills from the movie and the lyrics to the song " Someone in the Dark " ( written by Alan and Marilyn Bergman ) , which Jackson sings on the audiobook . The recording , on a 12 @-@ inch vinyl LP , features original music by John Williams , integrated sound effects from the movie , as well as the voice of E.T. in the background .
= = Background = =
Prior to the recording of the E.T. the Extra @-@ Terrestrial album , Jackson released four solo studio albums with Motown Records ( Got to Be There , Ben , Music & Me and Forever , Michael ) , and several with his brothers as part of The Jackson 5 . In 1975 , he moved to Epic Records and in 1979 released Off the Wall , to critical and commercial success .
In June 1982 , the Steven Spielberg – directed science fiction film E.T. the Extra @-@ Terrestrial was released . Created by Spielberg 's Amblin Entertainment and distributed by Universal Pictures ( then a subsidiary of MCA Inc . ) , it starred Henry Thomas , Dee Wallace , Robert MacNaughton , Drew Barrymore and Peter Coyote . The film tells the story of Elliott , a boy who befriends a good @-@ natured extraterrestrial called E.T. , who is stranded on Earth . Upon its release , the film became a blockbuster and surpassed Star Wars to become the highest @-@ grossing film released to that point . Critics lauded it as a timeless story of friendship , and the American Film Institute ranks it as the third greatest science fiction film ever produced in the United States .
= = Production = =
Jackson began work on the audiobook of E.T. the Extra @-@ Terrestrial in June 1982 — around the same time he began recording his sixth studio album Thriller . Quincy Jones served as the producer for both projects , in addition to working as the narrative writer for the audiobook . During the recording of the narration , Jackson became so upset when E.T. died that he wept . Jones and Spielberg both felt that trying to record the part again would not change the pop star 's emotional reaction , and decided to leave Jackson 's crying in the finished recording . Jackson biographer Lisa D. Campbell wrote that Jones had learned this during the recording of " She 's Out of My Life " ( from the Off the Wall album ) , where the singer also broke down in tears .
Several of the contributors to the E.T. the Extra @-@ Terrestrial storybook album had worked with Jackson on his solo projects in the past . Rod Temperton , who had written several songs featured on Off the Wall and Thriller , wrote the music for " Someone in the Dark " . Freddy DeMann and Ron Weisner , former managers of The Jacksons , served as the production coordinators for the album . Bruce Swedien engineered E.T. the Extra @-@ Terrestrial , a task he had performed on Off the Wall and Thriller and would go on to perform for the albums Bad ( 1987 ) and Dangerous ( 1991 ) . Dick Zimmerman photographed Jackson for the Thriller album cover , before again capturing the singer for the accompanying poster to the E.T. the Extra @-@ Terrestrial album .
Once the recording and engineering aspects of production had been completed , MCA Records ( the distributor of the album ) pressed more than 1 million copies of the audiobook . In 1982 , a journalist for Billboard wrote that it was one of the " most ambitious " projects that MCA Records had taken on to date .
= = Jackson 's empathy with the E.T. character = =
According to the biography Michael Jackson : The Magic and the Madness , written by journalist J. Randy Taraborrelli , the pop singer had shown an early attachment to the story of E.T. After a publicity photo shoot for the soundtrack album in which an animatronic robot of the extraterrestrial character hugged Jackson , the singer stated with wonderment , " He was so real that I was talking to him . I kissed him before I left . The next day , I missed him . " Jackson later revealed in the December 1982 issue of Ebony magazine — in which both he and E.T. appear on the cover — that he felt he actually was the creature during the album recording and shared his thoughts on why he had such a strong connection to the character :
" He 's in a strange place and wants to be accepted — which is a situation that I have found myself in many times when travelling from city to city all over the world . He 's most comfortable with children , and I have a great love for kids . He gives love and wants love in return , which is me . And he has that super power which lets him lift off and fly whenever he wants to get away from things on Earth , and I In can identify with that . He and I are alike in many ways "
= = Release and legal issues = =
Epic Records allowed Jackson to record the album on two conditions :
MCA Records was not to release E.T. the Extra @-@ Terrestrial until after Christmas 1982 . ( This was to avoid the audiobook competing with Jackson 's new album , Thriller . )
The song " Someone In the Dark " was not to be released as a single .
MCA Records breached both conditions , releasing the storybook in November 1982 and giving 7 @-@ inch promo copies of " Someone In the Dark " to radio stations . After Epic lodged a $ 2 million lawsuit , MCA Records was forced to withdraw the album and prohibited from releasing " Someone In the Dark " as a single . Epic executives had felt that MCA was misleading members of the public into believing that the then @-@ recently released single " The Girl Is Mine " was featured on the storybook album . The plaintiffs further requested that MCA Records be banned from working with Jackson in the future and that any other media owned by MCA featuring the singer be prohibited from release .
As a result of the legal restrictions that prohibited the public release of " Someone In the Dark " as a single , the promo copies which were made have since become one of the singer 's rarest and most sought @-@ after records ; some have been sold for over £ 1000 ( $ 1587 ) . The song was later included as a bonus track on the 2001 special edition of Thriller , as well as the box set Michael Jackson : The Ultimate Collection .
= = Reception = =
E.T. the Extra @-@ Terrestrial was a commercial success ; it reached number 82 on the UK Albums Chart , which was considered high for a storybook album . The audiobook won Jackson a Grammy Award in 1984 for Best Recording for Children . Upon collecting the award and taking home a record eight Grammys from an unprecedented twelve nominations , the singer stated that of all the awards had received that night , he was " most proud of this one " .
E.T. the Extra @-@ Terrestrial was also well @-@ received critically . Charles L Sanders of Ebony magazine described it as an " extraordinary album " . Mark Bego of the Toledo Blade asserted that the song " Someone in the Dark " was " one of the most beautiful ballads " that Jackson had ever recorded . He further commented that the amalgamation of Jones ' production , dialogue from the film , Jackson 's " effective and emotional " reading of the narrative and the audiobook 's " grand soaring orchestration " made the E.T. the Extra @-@ Terrestrial album " [ elicit ] as many tears as the movie does " . A writer for Billboard described the audiobook as being " lavishly packaged , lovingly produced " and worth its high asking price . A journalist for the Lexington Herald @-@ Leader concluded that it was a " delightful " storybook album .
= = Track listing = =
= = Charts = =
= = Personnel = =
= Eva Cassidy =
Eva Marie Cassidy ( February 2 , 1963 – November 2 , 1996 ) was an American vocalist and guitarist known for her interpretations of jazz , blues , folk , gospel , country , rock and pop classics . In 1992 , she released her first album , The Other Side , a set of duets with go @-@ go musician Chuck Brown , followed by the 1996 live solo album titled Live at Blues Alley . Although she had been honored by the Washington Area Music Association , she was virtually unknown outside her native Washington , D.C .. She died of melanoma in 1996 .
Two years later , Cassidy 's music was brought to the attention of British audiences when her versions of " Fields of Gold " and " Over the Rainbow " were played by Mike Harding and Terry Wogan on BBC Radio 2 . Following the overwhelming response , a camcorder recording of " Over the Rainbow " , taken at Blues Alley in Washington by her friend Bryan McCulley , was shown on BBC Two 's Top of the Pops 2 . Shortly afterwards , the compilation album Songbird climbed to the top of the UK Albums Charts , almost three years after its initial release . The chart success in the United Kingdom and Ireland led to increased recognition worldwide ; her posthumously released recordings , including three UK number 1 records , have sold more than ten million copies . Her music has also charted top 10 positions in Australia , Germany , Sweden , Norway and Switzerland .
= = Early life = =
Born on February 2 , 1963 , at the Washington Hospital Center , Cassidy grew up in Oxon Hill and later Bowie , Maryland , suburbs of Washington , DC . She was the third of four children . Her father Hugh Cassidy , a retired teacher , sculptor , musician , former army medic and world champion powerlifter , is of Scottish and Irish descent , while her mother , Barbara ( Kratzer ) , was a horticulturist and originally German , born in Bad Kreuznach . From an early age , Cassidy displayed interest in art and music . When she was nine , her father began teaching her to play the guitar , and she began to play and sing at family gatherings .
At age 11 , Cassidy began singing and playing guitar in a Washington @-@ area band called Easy Street . This band performed in a variety of styles at weddings , corporate parties , and pubs . Due to her shyness , she struggled with performing in front of strangers . While a student at Bowie High School , she sang with a local band called Stonehenge . During the summer of 1983 , Cassidy sang and played guitar six days a week at the theme park Wild World . Her younger brother Dan , a fiddler , was also a member of this working band . She enrolled in art classes at Prince George 's Community College but dropped out after finding them unhelpful .
Throughout the 1980s , Cassidy worked with several other bands , including the techno @-@ pop band Characters Without Names . During this period , Cassidy also worked as a propagator at a plant nursery and as a furniture painter . In her free time , she explored other artistic expressions including painting , sculpting , and jewelry design . Despite holding a belief in God , Cassidy was not part of any organized religion .
= = Music career = =
In 1986 , Cassidy was asked by Stonehenge guitarist and high school friend , David Lourim , to lend her voice to his music project , Method Actor . This brought her to Black Pond Studios , where she met recording engineer and bassist Chris Biondo . Biondo helped her find work as a session singer and later introduced her to Al Dale , who would become her manager . She sang back @-@ ups for various acts , from go @-@ go rhythm and blues band Experience Unlimited to rapper E @-@ 40 . Biondo and Cassidy , who were in a romantic relationship for a time , formed the five @-@ piece " Eva Cassidy Band " with Lenny Williams , Keith Grimes and Raice McLeod in 1990 . They began to perform frequently in the Washington area .
In 1992 , Biondo played a tape of Cassidy 's voice for Chuck Brown , the " Godfather of go @-@ go " . It resulted in the duet album The Other Side featuring performances of classic songs such as " Fever " , " God Bless the Child , " and what would later become Cassidy 's signature song , " Over the Rainbow " . The album was released and distributed in 1992 by Liaison Records , the label that also released Brown 's Go @-@ go albums . Brown originally intended to record an additional duet with Cassidy for his next solo album , but this was postponed due to ongoing negotiations between Dale and other labels for a solo deal . Cassidy 's unwillingness to narrow her stylistic focus to one genre hindered her chances of securing a deal . After talks broke down , the two decided to record their own duet album . As a duo , they performed at the Columbia Arts Festival and opened for acts like Al Green and The Neville Brothers .
In 1993 , Cassidy was honored by the Washington Area Music Association with a Wammie award for the Vocalist Jazz / Traditional category . The next year she was invited to perform at the event and chose to sing " Over the Rainbow " . A Washington Times review of the event called her performance " a show @-@ stopper " . She took home two Wammies that night , again for Vocalist Jazz / Traditional and also for Roots Rock / Traditional R & B. For a brief period that year , Cassidy signed a deal with Blue Note Records to pair up with pop @-@ jazz band Pieces of a Dream to release an album and tour the country . She sang two tracks in a mainly instrumental album . It was a musically unsatisfying experience for her .
After having a potential contract with Apollo Records collapse when the label went bankrupt , Biondo and Dale decided that she should release her own live album . In January 1996 , the material for Live at Blues Alley was recorded over a two @-@ day period at Blues Alley in Washington , DC . Due to a technical glitch on the first night of recording , only the second night 's recording was usable . Unhappy with the way she sounded due to a cold , she was reluctant to release the album . She eventually relented , on the condition that the studio track " Oh , Had I a Golden Thread " , Cassidy 's favorite song , would be included in the release , and that they start working on a follow @-@ up studio album . Her apprehension appeared unfounded as local reviewers and the public responded positively . The Washington Post commented that " she could sing anything — folk , blues , pop , jazz , R & B , gospel — and make it sound like it was the only music that mattered . " The subsequent studio album she worked on was released posthumously as Eva by Heart in 1997 . In the liner notes of Eva by Heart , critic Joel E. Siegel described Cassidy as " one of the greatest voices of her generation . "
= = Death = =
In 1993 , Cassidy had a malignant mole removed from her back . Three years later , during a promotional event for the Live at Blues Alley album in July 1996 , Cassidy noticed an ache in her hips , which she attributed to stiffness from painting murals while perched atop a stepladder . The pain persisted and a few weeks later , X @-@ rays revealed that the melanoma had spread to her lungs and bones . Her doctors estimated she had three to five months to live . Cassidy opted for aggressive treatment , but her health deteriorated rapidly . In the early fall , at a benefit concert for her at the Bayou , she made her final public appearance , closing the set with " What a Wonderful World " in front of an audience of family , friends , and fans . Additional chemotherapy was ineffective and Cassidy died on November 2 , 1996 at her family 's home in Bowie , Maryland . In accordance with her wishes , her body was cremated and the ashes were scattered on the lake shores of St. Mary 's River Watershed Park , a nature reserve near Callaway , Maryland .
= = Posthumous recognition = =
After Cassidy 's death , local folk singer Grace Griffith introduced the Blues Alley recording to Bill Straw from her label , Blix Street Records . Straw approached the Cassidy family to put together a new album . In 1998 , a compilation of tracks from Cassidy 's three released recordings was assembled into the CD Songbird . This CD lingered in relative obscurity for two years until being given airplay by Terry Wogan on his wide @-@ reaching BBC Radio 2 show Wake Up to Wogan , following recommendation by his producer Paul Walters . The album sold more than 100 @,@ 000 copies in the following months . The New York Times spoke of her " silken soprano voice with a wide and seemingly effortless range , unerring pitch and a gift for phrasing that at times was heart @-@ stoppingly eloquent . "
Before Christmas of 2000 , Top Of The Pops 2 aired a video of Cassidy performing " Over the Rainbow " , which resulted in Songbird climbing steadily up the UK charts over the next few weeks . Just as ITV 's Tonight with Trevor McDonald aired a feature on Cassidy , the album topped the chart . Shot at Blues Alley by a friend with a camcorder the same night the album was recorded , the video became the most requested video ever shown on Top Of The Pops 2 . " There 's an undeniable emotional appeal in hearing an artist who you know died in obscurity singing a song about hope and a mystical world beyond everyday life " , wrote The Guardian .
Paul McCartney and Eric Clapton were among her new @-@ found fans . Jazz critic Ted Gioia writes , " you might be tempted to write off the ' Cassidy sensation ' [ ... ] as a response to the sad story of the singer 's abbreviated life rather than as a measure of her artistry . But don 't be mistaken , Cassidy was a huge talent , whose obscurity during her lifetime was almost as much a tragedy as her early death . " Songbird has since achieved significant chart success throughout Europe and six times platinum status in the UK . Although still relatively unknown in the United States at that time , the album would eventually be certified gold in the United States as well .
In May 2001 , ABC 's Nightline in the United States broadcast a well @-@ received short documentary about Cassidy , a labor of love from Nightline correspondent Dave Marash who was a fan of her music . Over the weekend , all five of Cassidy 's albums occupied Amazon.com 's best sellers list top spots . The Nightline episode has since been rebroadcast three times due to popular demand . Producer Leroy Sievers has said that it is " probably the most popular Nightline ever " . In December , a nine @-@ minute segment on NPR resulted in a similar sales surge , with five of the top seven spots going to Cassidy . A rebroadcast of the Tonight with Trevor McDonald feature on Cassidy in Britain also bumped up sales .
Since Songbird , several other CDs with original material have been released : Time After Time ( 2000 ) , Imagine ( 2002 ) and American Tune ( 2003 ) . 2008 saw the release of another new album titled Somewhere . Unlike previous albums , which consisted solely of cover songs , this release contains two original songs co @-@ written by Cassidy . An acoustic album titled Simply Eva was released in January 2011 .
Together with word of mouth and internet fansites , online commerce has played a big role in Cassidy 's success . This point was further affirmed when in 2005 , Amazon.com released a list of its top 25 best @-@ selling musicians , which placed Cassidy in fifth position , behind The Beatles , U2 , Norah Jones and Diana Krall .
In 2004 , during the gala opening of the Bowie Center for the Performing Arts , the Bowie Regional Arts Vision Association , Inc . ( BRAVA ) dedicated the Star 's Dressing Room to Eva . Following a moving tribute to Eva , Chuck Brown took the stage and performed his duet " with " Eva as her photos and video appeared in the background .
= = Unofficial releases = =
A collection of previously unreleased studio recordings from 1987 to 1991 , was released in 2000 as No Boundaries . This release was not endorsed by the Cassidy family and was released under a different label . An AllMusic review of the album stated that even " a gifted vocalist like Eva Cassidy can only do so much with bad material " .
In 2002 , the self @-@ titled 1988 album by the band Method Actor , which featured Cassidy , was re @-@ released by the band 's guitarist and producer David Lourim with Cassidy 's name displayed prominently on the cover . The Cassidy family and Blix Street Records filed a lawsuit against Lourim , claiming that Cassidy 's name was used in a misleading fashion and that Blix Street has exclusive rights to her recordings . Lourim had Cassidy 's written permission to release the album and eventually the cover was changed to look like the original LP album while already released copies were affixed with a sticker indicating that they are not solo Eva Cassidy albums .
A bootleg recording that has been in circulation is called Live at Pearl 's . It was recorded at Pearl 's Restaurant in Annapolis , Maryland in 1994 . Copies of the recording were circulated among friends and family after her death . Some of the songs on the recording are also on Imagine and American Tune . Another recording from the early ' 90s , featuring Mick Fleetwood on drums and recorded at his restaurant ( named Fleetwood 's ) in Alexandria , Virginia , was in the possession of writer / musician Niki Lee , the former wife of pianist Lenny Williams , 1988 @-@ 1996 . Lee discovered it in her garage and attempted to sell it on eBay in 2008 . She asserts that she converted the dollars to pounds incorrectly and was lambasted by Cassidy fans for her mistake . On September 19 , 2013 , Lee donated Cassidy 's lost recording , Eva Cassidy Live at Fleetwoods , to the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in Cleveland , Ohio . The recording will remain in the museum 's archives . Two other lost cassettes of Cassidy 's recordings are being remastered for entrance .
= = In popular culture = =
In 2001 , a book titled Songbird : Eva Cassidy : Her Story By Those Who Knew Her , on the life and work of Cassidy based on interviews with close family and associates was released in the UK . The hardcover edition has since sold in excess of 100 @,@ 000 copies . A US edition published by Gotham Books was released in late 2003 and includes two additional chapters on her influences and success in the US . Her life story has also been adapted into a musical and also a Broadway piece for cancer benefit .
At the 2002 Winter Olympics gala , and later on tour , figure skater Michelle Kwan brought Cassidy 's music to a new audience when she skated to a recording of Cassidy 's version of Sting 's " Fields of Gold " . Kwan 's part in exposing the music of Cassidy to the international and American public led Cassidy 's label to present her a gold record from the certification of Songbird . Subsequently , other figure skaters such as Kristi Yamaguchi , Sarah Hughes and Kimmie Meissner have used Cassidy 's music in their routines .
Anglo @-@ Georgian singer Katie Melua is a keen fan of Cassidy . Her debut album Call Off the Search contained the song " Faraway Voice " , written in Cassidy 's memory . Melua has also performed Cassidy 's arrangement of " Anniversary Song " in concert . On Christmas Eve 2006 , she performed alongside video footage of Cassidy singing Over The Rainbow on BBC One 's " Duet Impossible " . One year later , Cassidy 's " What a Wonderful World " was spliced together with new vocals by Melua and released as a single exclusively at the British retail chain Tesco . It debuted at # 1 on the UK Singles chart on December 16 . All profits from the single went to the British Red Cross . Irish singer Chris de Burgh has stated that his song " Songbird " from his album The Road to Freedom was written in honour of Cassidy . Singer Mary Chapin Carpenter made reference to Cassidy in the song " My Heaven " on the album Between Here and Gone : " More memories than my heart can hold , when Eva 's singing ' Fields of Gold ' . " In 2008 , her rendition of " Fields Of Gold " was also featured in the final set of scenes on the season finale of " Army Wives " on Lifetime television .
In 2008 , Cassidy 's recording of " Autumn Leaves " was used by the Canadian National Professional Latin Champions , Andre and Natalie Paramonov , when they competed in America 's Ballroom Challenge as finalists in the International Latin Competition .
The first film to feature an Eva Cassidy recording was Flight of Fancy starring Dean Cain . Since then her music has appeared in various film and TV series including the Dawson 's Creek season four episode titled " The Graduate , " Judging Amy , Joe Somebody , Love Actually , Maid in Manhattan , The Man from Elysian Fields , Alpha Dog and Smallville . Cassidy 's arrangement of " Over the Rainbow " is a popular cover choice by singing competition contestants , with American Idol season 5 runner @-@ up Katharine McPhee and The X Factor season 3 winner Leona Lewis among the singers . Her interpretation of " Imagine " has been performed by American Idol season 7 runner @-@ up David Archuleta .
In March 2012 , Sweden 's Caroline Larsson and Bengt Magnusson released an album titled A Tribute to Eva Cassidy . The Eva Cassidy biography Behind the Rainbow by Johan Bakker won The People 's Book Prize 2011 / 2012 in London on May 30 , 2012 .
= = Possibility of feature film = =
A number of filmmakers have proposed films based on Cassidy 's life , and have worked with her family to greater or lesser degrees , but to date these projects have not progressed past the early development stages . In late 2007 , AIR Productions acquired the rights to produce a film based on Cassidy 's life . It is being produced by Amy Redford ( daughter of Robert Redford ) , Irwin Shapiro and Rick Singer . In an interview a year earlier , Cassidy 's parents suggested Kirsten Dunst or Emily Watson as possible actresses who could play their daughter .
= = New Album = =
To mark the 20th anniversary of the Blues Alley concert , Blix Street Records will release Nightbird , a 32 track double CD album , in November 2015 . Nightbird comprises the complete Blues Alley concert recordings , including 8 previously unreleased songs , from the night of January 3 , 1996 . The European version of the CD package will also include a DVD comprising 12 video performances from the Blues Alley concert . Nightbird will also be released as a 4LP vinyl package worldwide .
= = Discography = =
= = = Albums = = =
= = = Singles = = =
= = = Unauthorized releases = = =
= = Videography = =
= = = Books = = =
Rob Burley ; Jonathan Maitland ; Elana Rhodes Byrd ( 2003 ) . Eva Cassidy : Songbird : Her Story by Those Who Knew Her . Gotham Books . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 59240 @-@ 035 @-@ 5 .
Johan Bakker ; Behind the Rainbow , the tragic life of Eva Cassidy ( 2012 ) Omnibus Press , 207 pages , ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 78038 @-@ 231 @-@ 9 ( Winner of The People 's Book Prize 2011 / 2012 )
= Homer the Smithers =
" Homer the Smithers " is the 17th episode of The Simpsons ' seventh season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on February 25 , 1996 . In the episode , Mr. Smithers takes a vacation and hires Homer to take over as Mr. Burns ' assistant .
The episode was written by John Swartzwelder and directed by Steven Dean Moore . The story came from another writer on the show , Mike Scully . The episode features cultural references to The Little Rascals , a series of comedy short films from the 1930s , and the 1971 film A Clockwork Orange . Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from fans and television critics . It acquired a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 8 , and was the fifth highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network the week it aired .
= = Plot = =
After a company night out to the Springfield drag races , Smithers fails to protect Mr. Burns from being harassed by a drunken Lenny . Though he tries to make amends the next day , Smithers again bungles his duties and attempts to drown himself in the water cooler out of guilt , so Burns suggests he take a vacation . Seeking a replacement who will not outshine him , Smithers purposely selects Homer for the job . He then proceeds to go on vacation to what appears to be a gay male resort . However , Burns soon proves to be ridiculously demanding for someone who has not devoted his life to him like Smithers had . After putting up with Mr. Burns 's constant abuse for several days , Homer finally snaps and punches Burns in anger . Fearing he has killed the old man , Homer runs away in panic , and hides at home .
Homer returns to apologize but is turned away by a fearful Burns . With no one around , Burns learns to do things himself , such as making coffee and operating the telephone . Burns soon becomes completely self @-@ reliant and thanks Homer for making him learn that he can fend for himself . Burns then fires Smithers when he returns from his vacation . Smithers tries to find other employment but eventually decides he can only be happy working for Mr. Burns . He enlists Homer in a scheme to get his job back by handling a call from Burns ' mother ( the one task that Burns still cannot do ) , but it backfires when Homer accidentally hangs up the phone and then attempts to impersonate Burns ' mother . Smithers and Homer engage in a fight within Burns ' office which ends when Burns accidentally falls out the window . Burns is seriously injured and becomes reliant on Smithers once again . In gratitude , Smithers sends Homer a fruit basket .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by John Swartzwelder , who got the story from another member of the writing staff , Mike Scully . When the show runners of this season , Bill Oakley and Josh Weinstein , took over the job from David Mirkin , they wanted to " take the show back " to the Simpson family . Their goal was to have at least 15 episodes per season that revolved around the family or a member of the family , but they still wanted to do the annual Halloween episode , a Sideshow Bob episode , an Itchy and Scratchy episode , and a " format bending " episode , which in this season was " 22 Short Films About Springfield " . They wanted the family episodes to be realistic , and Oakley thought " Homer the Smithers " was a good example . When Scully pitched the idea to the writers , Oakley was surprised that it had not been done earlier on the show . He thought the story sounded like something that would have been done by the third season because it was " simple " and " organic " .
Weinstein said that this episode was an opportunity for him , Oakley , and Swartzwelder to " go nuts " with the " Burns @-@ ism " . He said that they enjoy to write for characters such as Burns and Abe Simpson because of their " out @-@ datedness " , and because they get to use thesauruses for looking up " old time slang " . Burns answers the phone by saying " Ahoy , hoy ! " , for example , which was suggested by Alexander Graham Bell to be used as the proper telephone answer when the telephone was first invented . Burns ' kitchen is full of " crazy old @-@ time " devices and contraptions . For inspiration , Weinstein brought in " a bunch " of old books with designs of old kitchen devices . Oakley commented that the stuffed polar bear had always been in Burns ' office , and they were excited to " finally " have a use for it .
Matt Groening has noted the challenges of sound mixing with this episode , the results of which influenced future episodes of the show and Groening 's other series Futurama . When the animation for the episode returned , the production staff found the scene of Homer fighting Smithers " horrifying " , as the sounds of character exertion made it seem too violent . After experimenting with the sound , they were eventually able to make the scene humorous by only leaving in sounds of the characters ' agony .
= = Cultural references = =
When Homer gets up early to make Mr. Burns breakfast , he wakes up Marge in bed . She says : " Homie , it 's 4 : 30 in the morning . Little Rascals isn 't until 6 " , referencing The Little Rascals , a series of comedy short films from the 1930s and a 1994 comedy film of the same name . Smithers uses a Macintosh computer with the Mac OS operating system to search for his replacement . Burns tells Homer to make him Postum for breakfast , a hot drink designed to rival tea and coffee . At the end of the episode , Burns is lying in bed in a body cast , chewing loudly and pausing his speech for Smithers to spoon @-@ feed him , as in A Clockwork Orange when a bedridden Alex is spoonfed steak . The manner in which Burns becomes injured is also similar to Alex : they both take a potentially life @-@ threatening fall from a top story window .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Homer the Smithers " finished 60th in the ratings for the week of February 19 to February 25 , 1996 , with a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 8 . The episode was the fifth highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following The X @-@ Files , Beverly Hills , 90210 , Melrose Place and Married ... With Children .
Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . Dave Foster of DVD Times said that in " Homer the Smithers " we see " just how dependent upon Smithers Mr. Burns is " . He added that the staging and animation of the scene in which Homer tries to apologize to Burns " will remain engraved in your memory in the same way as some of the series finest dialogue can . " DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson enjoyed the episode and commented that " any doubts about Smithers ' sexuality will not last long when we see his vacation . " Jacobson would have liked to see more scenes from Smithers ' vacation , but he still thought the episode offered " nice exposition " for the character . He added : " It ’ s fun to see more about his pampering of Burns , and it ’ s amusing to watch Homer take over for him . " Jennifer Malkowski of DVD Verdict considered the best part of the episode to be the scenes of Smithers on vacation . She concluded her review by giving the episode a grade of A − . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , called it a " very good episode , and an unusually straightforward one for this surreal season . "
= Shashthi =
Shashthi or Shashti ( Sanskrit : षष ् ठी , Ṣaṣṭhī , literally " sixth " ) is a Hindu folk goddess , venerated as the benefactor and protector of children ( especially , as the giver of male child ) . She is also the deity of vegetation and reproduction and is believed to bestow children and assist during childbirth . She is often pictured as a motherly figure , riding a cat and nursing one or more infants . She is symbolically represented in a variety of forms , including an earthenware pitcher , a banyan tree or part of it or a red stone beneath such a tree ; outdoor spaces termed shashthitala are also consecrated for her worship . The worship of Shashthi is proscribed to occur on the sixth day of each lunar month of the Hindu calendar as well as on the sixth day after a child 's birth . Barren women desiring to conceive and mothers seeking to ensure the protection of their children will worship Shashthi and request her blessings and aid . She is especially venerated in eastern India .
Most scholars believe that Shashthi 's roots can be traced to Hindu folk traditions . References to this goddess appear in Hindu scriptures as early as 8th and 9th century BCE , in which she is associated with children as well as the Hindu war @-@ god Skanda . Early references consider her a foster @-@ mother of Skanda , but in later texts she is identified with Skanda 's consort , Devasena . In some early texts where Shashthi appears as an attendant of Skanda , she is said to cause diseases in the mother and child , and thus needed to be propitiated on the sixth day after childbirth . However , over time , this malignant goddess became seen as the benevolent saviour and bestower of children .
= = Iconography = =
Shashthi is portrayed as a motherly figure , often nursing or carrying as many as eight infants in her arms . Her complexion is usually depicted as yellow or golden . A Dhyana @-@ mantra – a hymn describing the iconography of a deity , upon which a devotee of Shashthi should meditate – describes her as a fair young woman with a pleasant appearance , bedecked in divine garments and jewellery with an auspicious twig laying in her lap . A cat ( mārjāra ) is the vahana ( mount ) upon which she rides . Older depictions of Shashthi may show her as cat @-@ faced , while another reference describes her as bird @-@ faced .
In Kushan era representations between the first and third centuries CE , she is depicted as two @-@ armed and six @-@ headed like Skanda . A significant number of Kushan and Yaudheya coins , sculptures and inscriptions produced from 500 BCE to 1200 CE picture the six @-@ headed Shashthi , often on the reverse of the coin , with the six @-@ headed Skanda on the observe . Shashthi is also pictured in a Kushan @-@ era Vrishni triad from the Mathura region , surrounded by Skanda and Vishakha . In Yaudheya images , she is shown to have two arms and six heads that are arranged in two tiers of three heads each , while in Kushan images , the central head is surrounded by five female heads , sometimes attached to female torsos . Terracotta Gupta era ( 320 – 550 CE ) figures from Ahichchhatra show the goddess with three heads on the front and three on the back .
The folk worship representation of Shashthi is a red @-@ coloured stone about the size of a human head , typically placed beneath a banyan tree such as those usually found on the outskirts of villages . The banyan may be decorated with flowers or strewn with rice and other offerings . Shashthi is also commonly represented by planting a banyan tree or a small branch in the soil of a family 's home garden . Other common representations of the goddess include a Shaligrama stone , an earthen water pitcher , or a Purna Ghata – a water vase with an arrangement of coconut and mango leaves – generally set beneath a banyan tree .
= = Evolution and textual references = =
The general consensus among scholars of Hinduism traces the origins of Shashthi , like Skanda , back to ancient folk traditions . Over the course of the early centuries BCE , the Vedic fertility goddess of the new moon , Sinivali @-@ Kuhu , and Shri @-@ Lakshmi , the Vedic antecedent of Lakshmi , were gradually fused with the folk @-@ deity Shashthi . This merger created a " new " Shashthi that was associated in various ways with Skanda ( also known as Kartikeya or Murugan ) . From her origins as a folk goddess , Shashthi was gradually assimilated into the Brahmanical Hindu pantheon , and ultimately , came to be known in Hinduism as the Primordial Being and Great Mother of all . The fifth century text Vayu Purana includes Shashthi in a list of 49 goddesses , while a Puranic text calls her " the worthiest of worship among mother goddesses . " However , the long @-@ standing universality of her worship has led scholar David Gordon White to challenge the classification of Shashthi as a folk goddess , observing that Shashthi has been worshipped on the sixth day after childbirth by " all Hindus : rural as well as urban people , since the Kushan era . "
In textual references , Shashthi is often depicted as closely connected to Skanda . An early textual reference dating to 8th – 9th century BCE relates Shashthi to the six Krittikas who nurtured and nursed Skanda . Sometimes regarded as an aspect of the goddess Durga ( identified with Parvati – the mother of Skanda ) , she is also called Skandamata ( " Skanda 's mother " ) . The 3rd to 5th century text Yajnavalkya Smriti describes Shashthi as the foster @-@ mother and protector of Skanda . However , later texts identified her as Devasena , the consort of Skanda , including the epic Mahabharata wherein Shashthi ( as Devasena ) -the daughter of Prajapati- is betrothed by the god @-@ king Indra to Skanda . She is also identified with goddesses Shri , Lakshmi , Sinivali , and Kuhu in this text . The scripture Padma Purana also describes Shashthi as the wife of Skanda . In the 7th century text Kadambari , the images of Skanda and Shashthi are also said to have painted together on the wall of a palace lying @-@ in chamber of the queen .
Scriptures and folk traditions also connect Shashthi and Skanda in numerous indirect ways . The Mahabharata , finalised around the 4th century CE , describes a relationship between the infant Skanda and the Matrikas ( " Mothers " ) , a group of female deities who embody the perils that afflict children until the age of sixteen . The Encyclopaedia of Hinduism identifies this textual account as a source of the modern @-@ day practice of mothers worshipping Shashthi until their child reaches the age of sixteen . In the Mahabharata , Shashthi is described as an attendant of Skanda who behaves malevolently by causing disease . Skanda is furthermore said to have 18 malevolent spirit @-@ followers collectively known as the skanda graha , one of whom – Revati – is given the epithet " Shashthi . " This association of Revati with Shashthi is reiterated in the 5th century text Kashyapa Samhita , wherein Shashthi is also identified as the sixth form of Skanda and a sister of the five Skanda deities . Like Skanda , Shashthi is occasionally depicted with six heads , in which form she is also known by the epithet Shanmukhi ( " six @-@ headed " ) .
Shashthi is historically associated with a variety of other deities . The second century BCE composition Manava Grhya Sutra identifies Shashthi with Lakshmi , the goddess of wealth and beauty . It also describes the Shashthi @-@ kalpa rite was performed on the sixth lunar day of every fortnight invoking Shashthi to provide sons , cattle , treasures , corn , and the fulfilment of wishes . The scripture Padma Purana , composed between the 8th and 11th centuries , describes Shashthi as the daughter of Indra . Texts written over the last 500 years , such as the Brahma Vaivarta Purana and the Devi Bhagavata Purana describe Shashthi as the daughter of the creator @-@ god Brahma . In addition , she is associated with Mula @-@ Prakriti , the universal female energy said to be composed of six aspects : one of these , typically the sixth aspect , is said to be Shashthi .
Over time , the characterisation of Shashthi underwent a gradual evolution . Aforementioned folk traditions originating between the 10th and 5th centuries BCE associated the goddess with both positive and negative elements of fertility , birth , motherhood and childhood . However , between the 4th century BCE and the 5th century CE , a shift occurred in which Shashthi was increasingly depicted as a malevolent deity associated with the sufferings of mothers and children . The fifth century text Kashyapa Samhita calls Shashthi by the epithet Jataharini ( " one who steals the born " ) and provides a list of the malevolent activities in which Shashthi is believed to engage , including her practice of stealing foetuses from the womb and devouring children on the sixth day following birth . For this reason , the text recommends that she be propitiated through worship in her honour on this day in the lying @-@ in room and on the sixth day of every fortnight thereafter .
Eventually , Shashthi came to represent all goddesses and forces responsible for causing diseases in children and their mothers , who needed to be propitiated on the sixth day after childbirth to prevent these illnesses . Consequently , Shashthi came to personify the sixth day of a child 's life . The sixth day of the lunar fortnight is itself called Shashti , a name derived from the name of the goddess . The Yajnavalkya Smriti , composed during Gupta rule between the 3rd and 5th centuries CE , describes the rites of Shashthi Puja in which Shashthi is worshipped on the sixth day after childbirth to ensure the protection of the newborn baby . According to one explanation for the worship of Shashthi on this day , folk belief associates this critical time in an infant 's life with great susceptibility to diseases related to childbirth , such as puerperal fever and tetanus , and that worship of Shashthi is performed to help ward off these diseases .
Over the past 1500 years , the characterisation of Shashthi gradually shifted toward that of a benevolent and protective figure . In Banabhatta 's 7th century work Harshacharita , Shashthi is called Jatamatr ( " mother of the born one " ) , while the Kadambari by the same author calls her Bahuputrika , meaning " having many children " . Shashthi 's evolution mirrors that of the demoness Jara of the Mahabharata and a similar Buddhist goddess , Hariti : all of them are characterised in early texts as malevolent goddesses , but over the course of time these deities transform from devourers of children into their saviours and protectors .
= = Legends = =
A chapter entitled Shashthidevyupakhyanam , appended to the texts Brahma Vaivarta Purana and Devi Bhagavata Purana , narrates the tale of Shashthi . King Priyavrata – the son of Svayambhuva Manu ( the progenitor of mankind ) – and his wife Malini performed the putrakamesti yajna ( a fire @-@ sacrifice ritual to gain a son ) in an effort to conceive , but after twelve years of pregnancy , a still @-@ born son was delivered to Malini . Priyavrata set off to the cremation grounds with the corpse of his son . On his way , he saw a celestial woman dressed in white silk and jewels , riding in a heavenly chariot . She declared to Priyavrata that she was Devasena , the daughter of Brahma and wife of Skanda . She further said that she was Shashthi , foremost of the Matrikas ( " Mothers " ) of Skanda , and had the power to grant children to devotees . She held the child in her hand and resurrected the infant , then began to leave for her heavenly abode , taking the child with her . Priyavrata stopped the goddess , praising her and pleading that she return his son to him . The goddess agreed on the condition that Priyavrata would initiate and propagate her worship in all three worlds : heaven , earth and the netherworld . She returned the child to the king , naming him Suvrata and declaring that he should become famous as a great , virtuous , and learned ruler . Priyavrata decreed that Shashthi should be worshipped on the sixth day of every month , as well as the sixth and twenty @-@ first days after childbirth , and on all occasions auspicious to a child . She would be worshipped in the form of a Shaligrama stone , a Purna Ghata under a banyan tree , or an image of her on a wall .
A Bengali folk @-@ tale about Shashthi tells of the youngest of seven daughters @-@ in @-@ law in a prosperous household who was a glutton that used to secretly steal food and then blame a black cat , which was thrashed as punishment . The black cat happened to be the vahana ( mount ) of Shashthi and complained about the mistreatment to the goddess , who pledged to avenge it . When the youngest daughter @-@ in @-@ law gave birth to a son , the cat stole the child in the night and gave it to the goddess , and did the same for her next six sons . The neighbours accused the young mother of carelessness and began to believe she might be a witch who ate her own children . Finally , when a daughter was born , the young mother decided to remain awake the whole night to resolve the mystery . She managed to catch the cat in the act of robbery and wounded it with her bracelet , but the cat escaped with the child , leaving a trail of blood . The mother followed this trail to the abode of Shashthi . There she saw her sons playing around Shashthi as the goddess held the mother 's infant daughter in her arms . Shashthi explained the reason for the mother 's ordeal and told her to ask pardon of the cat . The mother asked the cat 's pardon , which was granted , and then she promised the goddess that she would offer worship in a ritual dedicated to her , which would come to be known as the Jamai @-@ Shasthi Vrata . The mother returned home with her children and spread the worship of the goddess , who blessed her family with children , wealth and happiness .
A different version of this tale narrates that when the youngest daughter @-@ in @-@ law was pregnant , she secretly ate the food @-@ offerings ritually dedicated to Shashthi and then blamed the theft on the black cat . Angered by the dishonour of its mistress and the unjust accusation of theft , the cat pledged to teach the young mother a lesson . In this version of the tale , the cat not only stole her six children , but also ate them . But when the seventh child was born , the mother caught the cat fleeing with her child and followed it but tripped in middle of the chase and fainted . The cat took the infant to Shashthi 's abode , where she told the goddess the whole tale of her insult . The benign goddess , however , was annoyed with the cat and rushed to the aid of the mother . The goddess explained the reason of her suffering , and after the mother had begged the cat for forgiveness and had sworn to worship Shashthi on anointed days , all seven of her children were returned to her .
Shashthi 's Bengali legends appear in the Mangal @-@ Kavya texts , especially in the Shashthi @-@ mangal section of this work . The Mangal @-@ Kavya and Bengali folk tales describe Shashthi as closely related to Manasa , the serpent goddess . Shashthi furthermore appears as an ally of Manasa in a famous Bengali folk @-@ tale describing Shashthi 's activities during the Nag Panchami festival of Manasa .
= = Worship = =
Among Hindus , Shashthi is widely regarded the benefactor and protector of children and tutelary deity of every household . She is also worshipped as a bestower of children to the childless , and regarded as the foremost goddess for blessing children . One of the earliest scriptural sources to describe a ritual in her honour is the second century BCE composition Manava Grhya Sutra , appended to the Yajurveda ( written between the 14th and 10th centuries BCE ) , which describes a ritual called Shashthi @-@ kalpa . In the Shashthi @-@ kalpa rite , which was described as performed on the sixth lunar day of every fortnight , Shashthi was invoked to provide sons , cattle , treasures , corn , and the fulfilment of wishes . Today , Shashthi continues to be worshipped on the sixth day of each of the twelve lunar months of the Hindu calendar , as well as on the sixth day after childbirth in the lying @-@ in chamber where the birth has taken place . Shashthi is worshipped in a different form in each of these lunar months as the deities Chandan , Aranya , Kardama , Lunthana , Chapeti , Durga , Nadi , Mulaka , Anna , Sitala , Gorupini or Ashoka .
In North India , Shashthi is worshipped at childbirth and puberty , and during marriage rites . When the pregnant woman is isolated during childbirth in the lying @-@ in chamber , a cow @-@ dung figure of the goddess is traditionally kept in the room . The birth of a living child is considered the blessing of Shashthi , while the birth of a stillborn infant or the early death of a child are considered manifestations of her wrath . Before childbirth , Shashthi is worshipped to protect the welfare of the expecting mother . She is also invoked after childbirth on the sixth day of each month until the child reaches puberty , especially when the child is sick .
In Bengal and South India , Shashthi is worshipped on the sixth day after childbirth and on Aranya @-@ Shashthi ( also called Jamai @-@ Shashthi ) , the sixth day of the bright fortnight of the Hindu month of Jyeshtha . Her worship can be performed in the house , where she is symbolised as an earthenware pitcher ; she may also be worshipped outdoors in a natural , open space consecrated to her , termed a shashthitala . In honour of Shashthi , women tie a stone in a small rag to the branch of a tree in the shasthitala : a mother does this to ask for long life for her child , while a barren woman does so to entreat the goddess to aid her in conceiving . The vrata ( ritual ) performed on the day of Jamai @-@ Shashthi is also prescribed to be performed by pregnant women at least once on any Monday , Tuesday , Friday or Saturday in the month of Jyestha . Dough images of Shashthi and her black cat are prepared and worshipped , along with a water pitcher with a banyan tree branch near it . Betel nuts and leaves , fruits , sweets and kheer are offered to her in units of six . In North India , Shashthi is worshipped in the form of the banyan tree , which is sacred to her .
In Bengal , on the night of the sixth day after childbirth , a number of items may be placed in the lying @-@ in chamber in deference to Shashthi , such as an earthen pitcher of water covered with a napkin , offerings of husked rice , cooked rice , bananas and sweets , bangles , and pieces of gold and silver . A pen and paper are also kept in the room , because it is believed that Shashthi ( or , according to some traditions , Chitragupta or Brahma ) comes into the home after everyone is asleep and writes the child 's fortune on the paper with invisible ink . In Bihar , the sixth day ceremony is called Chathi or Chati ( " sixth " ) and Shashthi is known by the epithet Chati Mata ( " Mother Chati " ) . A lump of cow dung dressed in red cloth or paper and covered with vermilion , symbolising the goddess , is kept in the lying @-@ in room . Here , the new @-@ born baby is oiled and dressed in new clothes and rings and then named ; a feast follows this ceremony . Childless people may perform a vrata ( ritual ) in worship of Shashthi , called either Chati Mata or Shashthi Vrata , in an effort to conceive .
In Orissa , the goddess is worshipped in the lying @-@ in room on the sixth day after childbirth , on the 21st day after childbirth and on every subsequent birthday of the child until he or she reaches the age of sixteen . Shashthi is also prescribed to be worshipped the sixth day of each of the two lunar fortnights occurring each month ; as part of the vrata rites , the worship occurring on the bright fortnight of the month of Bhadrapada is the most important of these and holds the same status in Orissa as the Aranva @-@ Shashthi ritual in Bengal . By these rites , it is believed a childless woman may gain offspring , while a mother may secure the longevity and welfare of her child by the grace of the goddess .
In North India , women worship Shashthi on Ashoka Shashthi , the sixth lunar day of the month of Chaitra . In this region , women will drink water from six flower @-@ buds of the Ashoka tree to secure the well @-@ being of their children . Women observe Khas Shashthi in the month of Pausha by fasting to ensure the longevity of their children .
= Sir Francis Bernard , 1st Baronet =
Sir Francis Bernard , 1st Baronet ( bapt . 12 July 1712 – 16 June 1779 ) was a British colonial administrator who served as governor of the provinces of New Jersey and Massachusetts Bay . His uncompromising policies and harsh tactics in Massachusetts angered the colonists and were instrumental in the building of broad @-@ based opposition within the province to the rule of Parliament in the events leading to the American Revolution .
Appointed governor of New Jersey in 1758 , he oversaw the province 's participation in the later years of the French and Indian War , and had a generally positive relationship with its legislature . In 1760 he was given the governorship of Massachusetts , where he had a stormy relationship with the assembly . Early actions turned the colony 's populists against him , and his responses to protests against Parliament 's attempts to tax the colonies deepened divisions . After protests against the Townshend Acts in 1768 , Bernard sought British Army troops be stationed in Boston to overawe the colonists . He was recalled after the publication of letters in which he was critical of the colony .
After returning to England , he continued to advise the British government on colonial matters , calling for hardline responses to ongoing difficulties in Massachusetts that culminated in the 1773 Boston Tea Party . He suffered a stroke in 1771 and died in 1779 , leaving a large family .
= = Early life = =
Francis was born in Brightwell @-@ cum @-@ Sotwell , ( then in Berkshire , but part of Oxfordshire since 1974 ) , England to the Rev. Francis and Margery ( Winslowe ) Bernard and was christened on 12 July 1712 . His father died three years later . His mother remarried , but died herself of smallpox in 1718 . He was thereafter probably raised by an aunt for several years , since his stepfather was forced by a failed courtship to flee to Holland . His stepfather , Anthony Alsop , returned to Berkshire a few years later , and continued to play a role in the boy 's upbringing . Bernard 's formal education began at Westminster in 1725 , and he then spent seven years at Oxford , where Christ Church granted him a master of arts in 1736 . He read law at the Middle Temple and was called to the bar in 1737 , after only four years ( instead of the typical seven ) of study . He settled in Lincoln , where he practiced law and took on a variety of municipal posts . Among his neighbors in Lincoln were the Pownalls , who had one son ( John ) serving in the Colonial Office , and another , Thomas , who went to the North American colonies in 1753 and was appointed governor of the Province of Massachusetts Bay in 1757 .
Bernard married Amelia Offley , daughter of the sheriff of Derbyshire , in December 1741 , and the couple raised a large family : by 1757 the couple had eight living children . Because his prospects for further income to support this large family were unlikely in Lincoln , he apparently decided to seek a posting in the colonies . John Adams later described Bernard as " avaricious to a most infamous degree ; needy at the same time , having a numerous family to provide for . "
= = Governor of New Jersey = =
Bernard 's wife was cousin to Lord Barrington , who became a Privy Councillor in 1755 . Probably through his connections to Barrington and the Pownalls , he secured an appointment as governor of the Province of New Jersey on 27 January 1758 , a post that became available upon the death of Jonathan Belcher . Leaving some of his children with relatives , the couple sailed for North America with four of their children , arriving at Perth Amboy on 14 June .
The colonies were in the middle of the French and Indian War at the time of Bernard 's arrival . He established a good working relationship with New Jersey 's assembly , and was able to convince the province to raise troops and funds for the ongoing war effort . He signed the Treaty of Easton , an agreement between New Jersey and Pennsylvania on one side , and a group of Indian tribes ( the Lenape being of principal concern to New Jersey ) fixing boundaries between colonial and Indian lands . This effort was important , for it reduced raiding on the frontiers and made possible the reallocation of provincial military strength to the war with New France . It and other agreements negotiated by Bernard extinguished all of the remaining Indian titles to New Jersey . Negotiations with the Lenape also resulted in the establishment of the first formal Indian reservation , Brotherton , near present @-@ day Indian Mills . This reservation was only sparsely populated , and was abandoned in 1801 when its remaining inhabitants joined the Stockbridge Indians in upstate New York .
= = Governor of Massachusetts = =
Through the influence of his connections in the Colonial Office , Bernard was appointed governor of the Province of Massachusetts Bay in late 1759 . Delays in communications and slow travel were such that Bernard did not arrive in Boston until 2 August 1760 . Although initially warmly welcomed , his tenure in Massachusetts was difficult . Bernard sought to vigorously enforce the Navigation Acts , in part because crown officials ( including the governor and the customs officials ) received shares of the proceeds from the seizure of ships that were caught violating the acts . The legal actions involving these seizures were heard in a jury @-@ less admiralty court before a Crown @-@ appointed judge , and were extremely unpopular . Bernard also made an early opponent of James Otis , Jr. by appointing Lieutenant Governor Thomas Hutchinson to be chief justice of the province 's highest court , a post that had been promised by several previous governors to Otis ' father . Upset over the snub the younger Otis resigned his post as advocate general ( i.e. the Crown 's representative , equivalent to a government prosecutor ) before the admiralty court , and devoted himself instead to arguing ( sometimes pro bono ) on behalf of the merchants in defense of their ships . These early actions during Bernard 's tenure drew a clear dividing line between the " popular party " ( exemplified by the Otises ) opposed to British colonial policy and the " court party " ( exemplified by Hutchinson ) who supported it .
Bernard 's difficulties were compounded when , after the death in late 1760 of King George II , it became necessary to reissue writs of assistance to customs tax collectors . These writs , which were essentially open @-@ ended search warrants , were judicially controversial and so unpopular that their issuance was later explicitly disallowed by the United States Constitution . Hutchinson , who approved the writs in one of his first acts as chief justice , saw his popularity fall , and Otis , who argued the writs violated the Rights of Englishmen , gained in popularity . He was elected to the provincial legislature in May 1761 , where he was well placed to continue his attacks on Bernard 's policies . In the 1761 session of the assembly Otis engineered the gift of Mount Desert Island to Bernard , a partially successful stratagem to divert Bernard 's attention from ongoing customs seizures .
Bernard 's unpopularity continued through other tax measures , including the Sugar Act ( 1763 ) and the Stamp Act ( 1765 ) . While the passage of both acts occasioned protest , the response to the Stamp Act included rioting in the streets , and united many factions in the province against the governor . In 1767 the passage by Parliament of the Townshend Acts again raised a storm of protest in the colonies . In Massachusetts the provincial assembly issued a circular letter , calling on the other colonies to join it in a boycott of the goods subject to the Townshend taxes . Bernard was ordered in April 1768 by Lord Hillsborough , who had recently been appointed to the newly created office of Colonial Secretary , to dissolve the assembly if it failed to retract the letter . The assembly refused , and Bernard prorogued it in July .
Maier says that his letters to London greatly influenced officials there , but they " distorted " reality . " His misguided conviction that the ' faction ' had espoused violence as its primary method of opposition , for example , kept him from recognizing the radicals ' peace @-@ keeping efforts .... Equally dangerous , Bernard 's elaborate accounts were sometimes built on insubstantial evidence . " Warden argues that Bernard was careful not to explicitly ask London for troops , but his exaggerated accounts strongly suggested they were needed . In the fall of 1767 he warned about a possible insurrection in Boston any day , and his exaggerated report of one disturbance in 1768 , " certainly had given Lord Hillsboro the impression that troops were the only way to enforce obedience in the town . " Warden notes that other key British officials in Boston wrote London with the " same strain of hysteria . " Four thousand British Army troops arrived in Boston in October 1768 , further heightening tensions . Bernard was vilified in the local press , and accused of writing letters to the ministry that mischaracterized the situation . Although he was challenged to release those letters he refused . Opposition agents in London were eventually able to acquire some of his letters , which reached members of the Sons of Liberty in April 1769 . They were promptly published by the radical Boston Gazette , along with deliberations of the governor 's council . One letter in particular , in which Bernard called for changes to the Massachusetts charter to increase the governor 's power by increasing the council 's dependence on him , was the subject of particularly harsh treatment , and prompted the assembly to formally request that " he might be forever removed from the Government of the Province . " He was recalled to England , and Lieutenant Governor Hutchinson became acting governor . When Bernard left Boston on 1 August , the town held an impromptu celebration , decorated the Liberty Tree , and rang church bells .
His accomplishments in Massachusetts included the design of Harvard Hall at Harvard University and the construction of a summer estate on Pond Street in Jamaica Plain .
= = Return to England = =
Upon his return to England , he asked for and received a hearing concerning the colonial petition against his rule . The Privy Council in February 1770 considered the petition , and after deliberation dismissed all of the charges as " groundless , vexatious , and scandalous . " Despite this vindication , Bernard resigned as governor in 1771 . He was confirmed in the ownership of Mount Desert Island , a recognition he had been seeking since it was awarded to him in 1761 . Although he had been promised a baronetcy and a pension of £ 1 @,@ 000 for his service , he learned after his return that the pension had been reduced to £ 500 ( the baronetcy , of Nettleham , was awarded at crown expense ) . His appeals on the matter were at first rejected , but when Lord North became Prime Minister in 1770 , the pension was raised , but shortly after replaced by an appointment as commissioner on the Board of Revenue for Ireland , which paid the same amount .
Bernard became an advisor to the North administration on matters concerning the colonies . He generally took a harder line than his predecessor Thomas Pownall , who advocated for colonial interests in Parliament . Proposals he made in 1771 included ideas central to the 1774 Massachusetts Government Act , which severely constrained colonial political power , including a council appointed by the governor rather than one elected by the assembly . Bernard may also have played a role in the difficulties Benjamin Franklin had in being recognized as a colonial agent ; after Franklin 's credentials were refused by the colonial secretary , he encountered Bernard in an antechamber . Biographer Colin Nicolson observes that Bernard 's presence as an advisor to the ministry " cast a shadow over virtually ever American measure regarding Massachusetts " that the ministry considered , because of Bernard 's role in breaking trust between the colonists and the London government and the subsequent radicalization of Massachusetts politics .
In 1774 , when the North government was considering how to respond to the Boston Tea Party , Bernard published Select Letters on Trade and Government , containing proposals on how to deal with the ongoing difficulties in the colonies . He proposed to reconcile the constitutional grievances of the British and radical Americans by the possible introduction of American representatives into the Parliament of Great Britain . In the Select Letters , which included the essay Principles of Law and Polity which he drafted in 1764 , he laid out a point @-@ by @-@ point exposition of his viewpoints concerning imperial governance . Some of his ideas were enacted , notably those enshrined in the Massachusetts Government Act ; the outrage in London even sparked the sympathetic colonial advocate Thomas Pownall to propose the closure of Boston 's port , which was enacted in the Boston Port Act .
= = Decline and death = =
In late 1771 Bernard was bequeathed the manor at Nether Winchendon upon the death of a cousin to whom he had been close since childhood . Combined with other uncertainties about where various family members would reside after he received the Irish appointment , the stress of the situation led Bernard to suffer a stroke . His mobility was impaired , but he took the waters at Bath , which appear to have helped his recovery . He applied for permission to resign the Irish post , and settled first at the Nether Winchendon manor ; in 1774 his resignation was accepted and his pension restored . He was well enough in 1772 to travel to Oxford , where he received an honorary Doctor of Civil Law from his alma mater , Christ Church . Because of his health he moved later in 1772 to a smaller house in nearby Aylesbury . He died on 16 June 1779 , after an epileptic seizure , at Nether Winchendon .
= = Legacy = =
Bernard never believed the difficulties he had in Massachusetts were personal : instead of accepting some responsibility , he blamed his problems on the policies emanating from London that he was instructed to implement . John Adams wrote that Bernard 's " antagonistic reports " of matters in Massachusetts were instrumental in turning British government policymakers against colonial interests . Bernard 's name headed a list drawn up in Massachusetts after the American Revolutionary War broke out of " notorious conspirators against the government " , and most of his property there was confiscated . Mount Desert Island was not entirely taken ; Bernard 's son John , who resided in Maine during the war and sided with the victorious Americans , was able to receive Massachusetts title to half of the island .
Upon the election of James Bowdoin to be Governor of Massachusetts in 1786 , Reverend William Gordon in his sermon warned Bowdoin that he ignored the state 's legislature at his peril , as Bernard had .
Vealtown , New Jersey , a town first settled around 1715 and located in Bernards Township , was renamed Bernardsville in Bernard 's honour in 1840 . Bernardston , Massachusetts was incorporated during his Massachusetts administration and is named for him . Bernard also named Berkshire County , Massachusetts ( after his county of birth ) and Pittsfield , Massachusetts ( after British Prime Minister William Pitt ) .
= The Slip ( album ) =
The Slip is the seventh studio album by American industrial rock band Nine Inch Nails , released on July 22 , 2008 . It was the fourth consecutive Nine Inch Nails release to be produced by frontman Trent Reznor with collaborators Atticus Ross and Alan Moulder . The album was released for free under a Creative Commons ( BY @-@ NC @-@ SA ) license , with the message from Reznor , " this one 's on me " . The Slip was initially released digitally via the Nine Inch Nails official website without any prior advertisement or promotion . A limited @-@ edition , physical version followed two months later , though this iteration of the album was not free .
The Slip was originally intended to be an EP , but eventually grew to be a full @-@ length album . It was recorded and released in three weeks ; Reznor released the album 's single , " Discipline " , to radio stations himself , less than 24 hours after it was mastered by Moulder . Critical reception of the album has been generally favorable , and its unorthodox method of release attracted significant media attention . The album peaked at number 13 on the Billboard 200 .
= = Background and recording = =
Nine Inch Nails frontman Trent Reznor announced in 2007 that the band had completed its contractual obligations to its record label Interscope Records , and would no longer be working with the company . Reznor also revealed that Nine Inch Nails would likely distribute any future material independently . Following the announcement , Nine Inch Nails released the 36 @-@ track instrumental album Ghosts I – IV in March , 2008 on Reznor 's independent label The Null Corporation .
Reznor returned to writing soon after the release of Ghosts , and after a month of work , The Slip was recorded in three weeks of studio time at Trent Reznor 's in @-@ home studio . The album was engineered by Atticus Ross and mixed by Alan Moulder , both of whom co @-@ produced it with Reznor . Originally intended as an EP , in Reznor 's own words " it just kept growing legs until it [ became ] what it is " . Some instrumental performances were contributed by NIN live band members Josh Freese , Robin Finck and Alessandro Cortini , though they did not participate in the songwriting process ; their contributions were limited to small parts rather than complete song recordings . During recording sessions , Reznor sent the album 's first and only single , " Discipline " , to radio stations before the remainder of the album was completed , and less than 24 hours after the track had been mastered . According to Reznor , the track listing and lyrics were finished on a Wednesday , the final mix and album sequencing on Thursday , the mastering on Friday , artwork on Saturday and the album was released on Sunday , May 5 . Reznor reflected on the quick turnaround by saying " that was fun [ ... ] you never could have done that before " , referring to the slow and bureaucratic pace of record production , promotion and release he experienced with major record labels .
= = Music and lyrics = =
Many critics noted how tracks on The Slip echoed musical stylings from the band 's past , and that the record contained musical allusions to older Nine Inch Nails records . Anastasia Pantsios of the Cleveland Free Times said that " The Slip more or less sums up the terrain Reznor 's covered in his nearly two @-@ decade career " , and went on to compare the album sound with the " edgy but irresistible beats " of Pretty Hate Machine and The Downward Spiral , and " the elusive atmospherics " of The Fragile . Jon Pareles of The New York Times wrote that " the music revives Nine Inch Nails ' past , from stomping hard rock to dance @-@ club beats to piano ballad to inexorably building instrumentals . " The album 's final track , " Demon Seed " , directly incorporates instrumental elements from the final track of the band 's previous all @-@ instrumental album Ghosts I – IV .
Ed Thompson of IGN commented that the tracks " Discipline " and " Echoplex " channeled " bits and pieces of Depeche Mode , Bauhaus and even some Siouxsie and the Banshees " . Richard Cromelin of the Los Angeles Times called The Slip " murkier and less catchy than the last couple of regular NIN albums " , and added that " Reznor blends the jarring sounds of the industrial rock genre [ ... ] with a terse , punk @-@ like attack , bringing an insistent , sometimes claustrophobic feel to his scenarios of alienation " .
Lyrically , Eric Harvey of Pitchfork compared " Discipline " to one of Nine Inch Nails 's first singles , " Head Like a Hole " , saying " [ ' Discipline ' ] comes from a long @-@ established and now label @-@ free artist trying to reflexively reassert his position in the pop landscape , on his own terms . [ ... ] ' Discipline ' evinces Reznor 's desire for some sort of framework [ ... ] In relative terms , ' I need your discipline / I need your help ' is sure a long way from the nearly 20 @-@ year @-@ old ' Head Like a Hole ' refrain ' I 'd rather die / Than give you control ' . " Tom Breihan of The Village Voice reached a similar interpretation of the album 's lyrical content , writing " The Slip seems to deal with Reznor 's break from the corporate machine , or at least from the numbing conformity @-@ minded forces it represents . "
In commenting on the album , Reznor has said that it derived from " a weird sense of being outside [ himself ] in isolation and watching [ himself ] getting older . " He also described it as " a quickly assembled album " , and as " more of a sketch than a painting . " Reznor compared the quick assembly of The Slip to the much longer process of creating his 1999 double album The Fragile , saying that the creation of The Slip relied more on " reflexes " and that his next project would be given more " editorial time " .
= = Artwork = =
Rob Sheridan , in collaboration with Reznor , was the album 's art director , as he had been for the previous three Nine Inch Nails studio albums , Ghosts I – IV ( 2008 ) , Year Zero ( 2007 ) , and With Teeth ( 2005 ) . The downloadable version of The Slip comes with a PDF containing liner notes and album art . Like Ghosts I @-@ IV , each track from the album is accompanied by its own graphic image , each of which consists chiefly of geometric patterns against a grey background .
= = Release = =
Trent Reznor posted on the official Nine Inch Nails website on April 21 a message saying " 2 weeks ! " Reznor employed a similar tactic to tease the release of the band 's previous album ( Ghosts I – IV ) earlier the same year . The following day , Reznor released the single , " Discipline " , by email to radio stations and as a free download on the official Nine Inch Nails site . The song failed to conquer the pole position of the Billboard Alternative Songs chart as expected , and charted below the Top 5 . Another song , " Echoplex " , was released as a free download from iLike later . The ID3 tags of these MP3 files also pointed to the date May 5 , just as Reznor 's post had . On May 5 , a free direct download link to the album in MP3 format was posted on the official Nine Inch Nails website , with a message from Reznor that said : " Thank you for your continued and loyal support over the years - this one 's on me . " The digital download is available in a variety of DRM @-@ free audio , in both CD standard and higher resolution formats . The lyrics for each track are embedded using ID3 tags , for viewing in supported media players .
Like the previous Nine Inch Nails studio album Ghosts I – IV , The Slip was released under a Creative Commons attribution @-@ noncommercial share @-@ alike license , in effect allowing anyone to use or rework the material for any non @-@ profit purpose , as long as credit is provided and the resulting work is released under a similar license . The website further expands this by saying " we encourage you to remix it , share it with your friends , post it on your blog , play it on your podcast , give it to strangers , etc . " As with Ghosts I – IV and Year Zero , multi @-@ track audio source files of the album were also made available at the official Nine Inch Nails remix site . Reznor also plans on giving away the online software and digital infrastructure through which both The Slip and Ghosts were released .
The Slip was released on CD in the United States and Canada on July 22 ; unlike the digital release , however , the physical version of the album was not free . The physical package was released as a six @-@ panel digipack which contained the album itself , a 24 @-@ page booklet , a sticker pack , and a DVD with live rehearsals of " 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 " , " Letting You " , " Discipline " , " Echoplex " , and " Head Down " . Three of these videos were featured on Pitchfork Media prior to the CD / DVD release . The physical release of the album was limited to 250 @,@ 000 numbered units worldwide and as of December 2011 is still available . An unlimited 180 @-@ gram gatefold vinyl was released in the US and Canada on August 12 , and in the United Kingdom August 18 .
= = = Lights in the Sky tour = = =
Since the release of Ghosts I – IV , a 25 @-@ date tour was announced in several North American cities . Cortini and Freese returned as members from the previous tour , while Finck rejoined the live band . The lineup was initially to include Rich Fownes , but before any scheduled performances it was revealed that Justin Meldal @-@ Johnsen would instead be contributing on bass guitar .
Supporting acts for the tour include Deerhunter , Crystal Castles , Does It Offend You , Yeah ? , Ghostland Observatory , A Place to Bury Strangers , and White Williams . In early June , a tour EP was released for free on the Nine Inch Nails website featuring four songs from the supporting artists and one from Nine Inch Nails . The files are DRM @-@ free MP3s that are fully tagged , and included with the download are desktop wallpapers and a printable tour poster .
The band headlined the 2008 Lollapalooza festival , the 2008 Virgin Festival , and the first Pemberton Festival . In May 2008 , Nine Inch Nails announced that premium seating for all the upcoming 2008 tour shows would be offered in a pre @-@ sale for fans who registered at the official Nine Inch Nails website . In an effort to combat ticket scalpers , each concert ticket will list the purchaser 's legal name . The ticketing process was previously used for smaller pre @-@ sales and was available exclusively to fan club members . On July 26 , Reznor introduced an " unplugged " portion into the live show in which the band steps to the front of the stage about an hour into the show , with Reznor on vibraphone and bassist Meldal @-@ Johnsen playing an upright bass . The 20 @-@ minute jazzy , acoustic set is taken mostly from Ghosts I - IV . The stage show also featured mesh LED curtains that projected various visuals , ranging from falling rain to static to a ruined city , and made the band appear to be playing on " a stage that appeared to be constructed entirely out of lights . " Nine Inch Nails later confirmed that the tour was to extend to South America and it was thought this would be the last Americas set of dates but soon after Reznor announced yet more North American dates including two dates in tourist capital Florida .
Initially , Reznor had been trying to set up a 3 @-@ D concert film intended for theatrical release to be overseen by director James Cameron . However a dispute with the bands then @-@ label Interscope Records led to the project being cancelled altogether ; much to the disappointment of fans . By December , a frustrated Reznor enabled a relaxed camera policy at the three remaining Lights in the Sky performances , eventually culminating in a 3 @-@ disc tour documentary created " by fans for fans " and sanctioned by the band , entitled Another Version of the Truth which was eventually released on DVD , Blu @-@ ray , and BitTorrent formats .
= = Reception = =
= = = Sales and public reception = = =
A month and a half after its online release , The Slip had been downloaded 1 @.@ 4 million times from the official Nine Inch Nails website . By the time the physical version was released two months later , that number had grown beyond 2 million . The physical release of the album has sold more than 98 @,@ 000 copies , peaked at number 13 on the Billboard 200 and the Top Internet Albums charts , based on weekly retail sales . The album also charted internationally , including number 12 on the Canadian Albums Chart , number 2 on the Australian Albums Chart , and number 25 on the UK Albums Chart . The album 's only single , " Discipline " reached number 6 and number 24 on Billboard 's Alternative Songs and Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks charts , respectively , based on weekly radio airplay .
Following the release of The Slip and the similarly unorthodox release of Ghosts I – IV , Reznor confessed in retrospect that " It doesn 't feel like an overwhelming success to me . "
= = = Critical reception = = =
Critical response to The Slip has been generally favorable , with an average rating of 78 / 100 based on eleven reviews on Metacritic . IGN gave the album an 8 @.@ 8 out of 10 , stating " Simply put , The Slip is an amazing record . " The Toronto Star said " [ The Slip ] is hardly a throwaway , this seems a sincere gift to fans . " Eric Harvey of Pitchfork Media gave the album a 7 @.@ 5 out of 10 and wrote " Reznor 's unique capacity to commingle raging industrial bangers with ballads and ambient instrumental passages appears in its best form since The Downward Spiral , and here gains much of the focus and restraint that many remember used to be his calling card . " Daphne Carr of LA Weekly said " Musically , it ’ s his most adventurous work since The Fragile , and his business model is inspired — if unsustainable . " Mikael Wood of Spin complained that " a few tracks , such as ' The Four of Us Are Dying , ' go on for far too long " , but then said " Reznor recovers with a barn burner like ' Demon Seed ' " .
As with Ghosts I – IV , The Slip 's unorthodox distribution methods also garnered the attention of various news agencies . An ABC News op ed questioned if consumers would " ever pay for an album again " stating " with NIN now in the game , its [ sic ] hard to argue that this is anything but a harbinger of the future . " Commenting on the distribution of the album , Dave LaGesse of U.S. News & World Report said " The move seems an even purer play than what Radiohead did with its most recent album , In Rainbows . " Jody Rosen of Rolling Stone magazine called giving away The Slip for free Reznor 's " most radical stunt yet " , and added that " [ it 's ] an impressively democratic , fourth @-@ wall @-@ shattering gesture coming from one of music 's biggest control @-@ freak auteurs . " Eric Harvey of Pitchfork Media compared the release strategy of The Slip favorably to that of Ghosts I – IV and Year Zero , writing " Unlike its most immediate predecessors , The Slip comes packaged with a crucial difference : the music itself is more satisfying than the sui generis marketing scheme . "
Rolling Stone named The Slip in their " Best of 2008 " list , ranking the album at number 37 , and named Reznor number 46 in its " 100 People Who Are Changing America " list , concluding that he has " been more creative than anyone in embracing the post @-@ CD era " . Following the release of the online @-@ releases of The Slip and Ghosts I – IV , Reznor was awarded the " Webby Artist of the Year Award " at the annual Webby Awards in 2009 .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Trent Reznor .
= = = Limited Edition Bonus DVD = = =
Live From Rehearsals June 2008 :
" 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 " ( Live )
" Letting You " ( Live )
" Discipline " ( Live )
" Echoplex " ( Live )
" Head Down " ( Live )
= = Chart positions = =
= = Personnel = =
= = = Video content ( CD / DVD version ) = = =
= Broad @-@ billed parrot =
The broad @-@ billed parrot or raven parrot ( Lophopsittacus mauritianus ) is a large extinct parrot in the family Psittaculidae . It was endemic to the Mascarene island of Mauritius in the Indian Ocean east of Madagascar . It is unclear what other species it is most closely related to , but it has been classified as a member of the tribe Psittaculini , along with other Mascarene parrots . It had similarities with the Rodrigues parrot ( Necropsittacus rodricanus ) , and may have been closely related .
The broad @-@ billed parrot 's head was large in proportion to its body , and there was a distinct crest of feathers on the front of the head . The bird had a very large beak , comparable in size to that of the hyacinth macaw , which would have enabled it to crack hard seeds . Subfossil bones indicate that the species exhibited greater sexual dimorphism in overall size and head size than any living parrot . The exact colouration is unknown , but a contemporary description indicates that it had multiple colours , including a blue head , and perhaps a red body and beak . It is believed to have been a weak flier , but not flightless .
The broad @-@ billed parrot was first referred to as the " Indian raven " in Dutch ships ' journals from 1598 onwards . Only a few brief contemporary descriptions and three depictions are known . It was first scientifically described from a subfossil mandible in 1866 , but this was not linked to the old accounts until the rediscovery of a detailed 1601 sketch that matched old descriptions . The bird became extinct in the 17th century owing to a combination of deforestation , predation by introduced invasive species , and probably hunting as well .
= = Taxonomy = =
The earliest known descriptions of the broad @-@ billed parrot were provided by Dutch travellers during the Second Dutch Expedition to Indonesia , led by Admiral Jacob Cornelis van Neck in 1598 . They appear in reports published in 1601 , which also contain the first illustration of the bird , along with the first of a dodo . The Dutch sailors who visited Mauritius categorised the broad @-@ billed parrots separately from parrots , and referred to them as " Indische ravens " ( translated as either " Indian ravens " or " Indian crows " ) without accompanying useful descriptions , which caused confusion when their journals were studied .
The English naturalist Hugh Edwin Strickland assigned the " Indian ravens " to the hornbill genus Buceros , because he interpreted the projection on the forehead in a crude illustration as a horn . The Dutch and the French also referred to South American macaws as " Indian ravens " during the 17th century , and the name was used for hornbills by Dutch , French , and English speakers in the East Indies . Sir Thomas Herbert referred to the broad @-@ billed parrot as " Cacatoes " ( cockatoo ) in 1634 , with the description " birds like Parrats [ sic ] , fierce and indomitable " , but naturalists did not realise that he was referring to the same bird . Even after subfossils of a parrot matching the descriptions were found , French zoologist Emile Oustalet argued that the " Indian raven " was a hornbill whose remains awaited discovery . France Staub was in favour of this idea as late as 1993 . No remains of hornbills have ever been found on the island , and apart from an extinct species from New Caledonia , hornbills are not found on any oceanic islands .
The first known physical remain of the broad @-@ billed parrot was a subfossil mandible collected along with the first batch of dodo bones found in the Mare aux Songes swamp . Richard Owen described the mandible in 1866 and identified it as belonging to a large parrot species , to which he gave the binomial name Psittacus mauritianus and the common name " broad @-@ billed parrot " . This holotype specimen is now lost . In 1868 , shortly after the 1601 journal of the Dutch East India Company ship Gelderland had been rediscovered , Hermann Schlegel examined an unlabelled pen @-@ and @-@ ink sketch in it . Realising that the drawing , which is attributed to the artist Joris Joostensz Laerle , depicted the parrot described by Owen , Schlegel made the connection with the old journal descriptions . In 1875 , because its bones and crest are significantly different from those of Psittacus species , Alfred Newton assigned it to its own genus , which he called Lophopsittacus . Lophos is the Ancient Greek word for crest , referring here to the bird 's frontal crest , and psittakos is Ancient Greek for parrot .
In 1973 , based on remains collected by Louis Etienne Thirioux in the early 20th century , D. T. Holyoak placed a small subfossil Mauritian parrot in the same genus as the broad @-@ billed parrot and named it Lophopsittacus bensoni . In 2007 , on the basis of a comparison of subfossils together with 17th and 18th century descriptions , | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
however , pointed out that the four genera Holyoak used as examples of " strong jawed " parrots based on radiographs , Cyanorhamphus , Melopsittacus , Neophema and Psephotus , actually have weak jaws in life , and that the morphologies cited by Holyoak do not indicate strength . Hume has since pointed out that the mandible morphology of the broad @-@ billed parrot is comparable to that of the largest living parrot , the hyacinth macaw , which cracks open palm nuts with ease . It is therefore probable that the broad @-@ billed parrot fed in the same manner .
= = Extinction = =
Though Mauritius had previously been visited by Arab vessels in the Middle Ages and Portuguese ships between 1507 and 1513 , they did not settle on the island . The Dutch Empire acquired the island in 1598 , renaming it after Maurice of Nassau , and it was used from then on for the provisioning of trade vessels of the Dutch East India Company . To the Dutch sailors who visited Mauritius from 1598 and onwards , the fauna was mainly interesting from a culinary standpoint . Of the eight or so parrot species endemic to the Mascarenes , only the echo parakeet ( Psittacula echo ) of Mauritius has survived . The others were likely all made extinct by a combination of excessive hunting and deforestation .
Because of its poor flying ability , large size and possible island tameness , the broad @-@ billed parrot was easy prey for sailors who visited Mauritius , and their nests would have been extremely vulnerable to predation by introduced crab @-@ eating macaques and rats . Various sources indicate the bird was aggressive , which may explain why it held out so long against introduced animals after all . The bird is believed to have become extinct by the 1680s , when the palms it may have sustained itself on were harvested on a large scale . Unlike other parrot species , which were often taken as pets by sailors , there are no records of broad @-@ billed parrots being transported from Mauritius either live or dead , perhaps because of the stigma associated with ravens . The birds would not in any case have survived such a journey if they refused to eat anything but seeds .
= Pluto =
Pluto ( minor @-@ planet designation : 134340 Pluto ) is a dwarf planet in the Kuiper belt , a ring of bodies beyond Neptune . It was the first Kuiper belt object to be discovered . It is the largest and second @-@ most @-@ massive known dwarf planet in the Solar System and the ninth @-@ largest and tenth @-@ most @-@ massive known object directly orbiting the Sun . It is the largest known trans @-@ Neptunian object by volume but is less massive than Eris , a dwarf planet in the scattered disc . Like other Kuiper belt objects , Pluto is primarily made of ice and rock and is relatively small — about one @-@ sixth the mass of the Moon and one @-@ third its volume . It has a moderately eccentric and inclined orbit during which it ranges from 30 to 49 astronomical units or AU ( 4 @.@ 4 – 7 @.@ 4 billion km ) from the Sun . This means that Pluto periodically comes closer to the Sun than Neptune , but a stable orbital resonance with Neptune prevents them from colliding . Light from the Sun takes about 5 @.@ 5 hours to reach Pluto at its average distance ( 39 @.@ 5 AU ) .
Pluto was discovered by Clyde Tombaugh in 1930 , and was originally considered the ninth planet from the Sun . After 1992 , its planethood was questioned following the discovery of several objects of similar size in the Kuiper belt . In 2005 , Eris , which is 27 % more massive than Pluto , was discovered , which led the International Astronomical Union ( IAU ) to define the term " planet " formally for the first time the following year . This definition excluded Pluto and reclassified it as a member of the new " dwarf planet " category .
Pluto has five known moons : Charon ( the largest , with a diameter just over half that of Pluto ) , Styx , Nix , Kerberos , and Hydra . Pluto and Charon are sometimes considered a binary system because the barycenter of their orbits does not lie within either body . The IAU has not formalized a definition for binary dwarf planets , and Charon is officially classified as a moon of Pluto .
On July 14 , 2015 , the New Horizons spacecraft became the first spacecraft to fly by Pluto . During its brief flyby , New Horizons made detailed measurements and observations of Pluto and its moons .
= = History = =
= = = Discovery = = =
In the 1840s , Urbain Le Verrier used Newtonian mechanics to predict the position of the then @-@ undiscovered planet Neptune after analysing perturbations in the orbit of Uranus . Subsequent observations of Neptune in the late 19th century led astronomers to speculate that Uranus 's orbit was being disturbed by another planet besides Neptune .
In 1906 , Percival Lowell — a wealthy Bostonian who had founded the Lowell Observatory in Flagstaff , Arizona , in 1894 — started an extensive project in search of a possible ninth planet , which he termed " Planet X " . By 1909 , Lowell and William H. Pickering had suggested several possible celestial coordinates for such a planet . Lowell and his observatory conducted his search until his death in 1916 , but to no avail . Unknown to Lowell , his surveys had captured two faint images of Pluto on March 19 and April 7 , 1915 , but they were not recognized for what they were . There are fourteen other known prediscovery observations , with the oldest made by the Yerkes Observatory on August 20 , 1909 .
Percival 's widow , Constance Lowell , entered into a ten @-@ year legal battle with the Lowell Observatory over her late husband 's legacy , and the search for Planet X did not resume until 1929 . Vesto Melvin Slipher , the observatory director , summarily handed the job of locating Planet X to 23 @-@ year @-@ old Clyde Tombaugh , who had just arrived at the Lowell Observatory after Slipher had been impressed by a sample of his astronomical drawings .
Tombaugh 's task was to systematically image the night sky in pairs of photographs , then examine each pair and determine whether any objects had shifted position . Using a blink comparator , he rapidly shifted back and forth between views of each of the plates to create the illusion of movement of any objects that had changed position or appearance between photographs . On February 18 , 1930 , after nearly a year of searching , Tombaugh discovered a possible moving object on photographic plates taken on January 23 and 29 of that year . A lesser @-@ quality photograph taken on January 21 helped confirm the movement . After the observatory obtained further confirmatory photographs , news of the discovery was telegraphed to the Harvard College Observatory on March 13 , 1930 .
= = = Name = = =
The discovery made headlines around the globe . The Lowell Observatory , which had the right to name the new object , received more than 1 @,@ 000 suggestions from all over the world , ranging from Atlas to Zymal . Tombaugh urged Slipher to suggest a name for the new object quickly before someone else did . Constance Lowell proposed Zeus , then Percival and finally Constance . These suggestions were disregarded .
The name Pluto , after the god of the underworld , was proposed by Venetia Burney ( 1918 – 2009 ) , a then eleven @-@ year @-@ old schoolgirl in Oxford , England , who was interested in classical mythology . She suggested it in a conversation with her grandfather Falconer Madan , a former librarian at the University of Oxford 's Bodleian Library , who passed the name to astronomy professor Herbert Hall Turner , who cabled it to colleagues in the United States .
The object was officially named on May 25 , 1930 . Each member of the Lowell Observatory was allowed to vote on a short @-@ list of three : Minerva ( which was already the name for an asteroid ) , Cronus ( which had lost reputation through being proposed by the unpopular astronomer Thomas Jefferson Jackson See ) , and Pluto . Pluto received every vote . The name was announced on May 1 , 1930 . Upon the announcement , Madan gave Venetia £ 5 ( equivalent to 300 GBP , or 450 USD in 2014 ) as a reward .
The final choice of name was helped in part by the fact that the first two letters of Pluto are the initials of Percival Lowell . Pluto 's astronomical symbol ( , Unicode U + 2647 , ♇ ) was then created as a monogram constructed from the letters " PL " . Pluto 's astrological symbol resembles that of Neptune ( ) , but has a circle in place of the middle prong of the trident ( ) .
The name was soon embraced by wider culture . In 1930 , Walt Disney was apparently inspired by it when he introduced for Mickey Mouse a canine companion named Pluto , although Disney animator Ben Sharpsteen could not confirm why the name was given . In 1941 , Glenn T. Seaborg named the newly created element plutonium after Pluto , in keeping with the tradition of naming elements after newly discovered planets , following uranium , which was named after Uranus , and neptunium , which was named after Neptune .
Most languages use the name " Pluto " in various transliterations . In Japanese , Houei Nojiri suggested the translation Meiōsei ( 冥王星 ? , " Star of the King ( God ) of the Underworld " ) , and this was borrowed into Chinese , Korean , and Vietnamese . Some Indian languages use the name Pluto , but others , such as Hindi , use the name of Yama , the Guardian of Hell in Hindu and Buddhist mythology . Polynesian languages also tend to use the indigenous god of the underworld , as in Maori Whiro .
= = = Planet X disproved = = =
Once found , Pluto 's faintness and lack of a resolvable disc cast doubt on the idea that it was Lowell 's Planet X. Estimates of Pluto 's mass were revised downward throughout the 20th century .
Astronomers initially calculated its mass based on its presumed effect on Neptune and Uranus . In 1931 , Pluto was calculated to be roughly the mass of Earth , with further calculations in 1948 bringing the mass down to roughly that of Mars . In 1976 , Dale Cruikshank , Carl Pilcher and David Morrison of the University of Hawaii calculated Pluto 's albedo for the first time , finding that it matched that for methane ice ; this meant Pluto had to be exceptionally luminous for its size and therefore could not be more than 1 percent the mass of Earth . ( Pluto 's albedo is 1 @.@ 4 – 1 @.@ 9 times greater than that of Earth . )
In 1978 , the discovery of Pluto 's moon Charon allowed the measurement of Pluto 's mass for the first time : roughly 0 @.@ 2 % that of Earth , and far too small to account for the discrepancies in the orbit of Uranus . Subsequent searches for an alternative Planet X , notably by Robert Sutton Harrington , failed . In 1992 , Myles Standish used data from Voyager 2 's flyby of Neptune in 1989 , which had revised the estimates of Neptune 's mass downward by 0 @.@ 5 % — an amount comparable to the mass of Mars — to recalculate its gravitational effect on Uranus . With the new figures added in , the discrepancies , and with them the need for a Planet X , vanished . Today , the majority of scientists agree that Planet X , as Lowell defined it , does not exist . Lowell had made a prediction of Planet X 's orbit and position in 1915 that was fairly close to Pluto 's actual orbit and its position at that time ; Ernest W. Brown concluded soon after Pluto 's discovery that this was a coincidence , a view still held today .
= = = Classification = = =
From 1992 onward , many bodies were discovered orbiting in the same area as Pluto , showing that Pluto is part of a population of objects called the Kuiper belt . This made its official status as a planet controversial , with many questioning whether Pluto should be considered together with or separately from its surrounding population . Museum and planetarium directors occasionally created controversy by omitting Pluto from planetary models of the Solar System . The Hayden Planetarium reopened — in February 2000 , after renovation — with a model of only eight planets , which made headlines almost a year later .
As objects increasingly closer in size to Pluto were discovered in the region , it was argued that Pluto should be reclassified as one of the Kuiper belt objects , just as Ceres , Pallas , Juno and Vesta eventually lost their planet status after the discovery of many other asteroids . On July 29 , 2005 , astronomers at Caltech announced the discovery of a new trans @-@ Neptunian object , Eris , which was substantially more massive than Pluto and the most massive object discovered in the Solar System since Triton in 1846 . Its discoverers and the press initially called it the tenth planet , although there was no official consensus at the time on whether to call it a planet . Others in the astronomical community considered the discovery the strongest argument for reclassifying Pluto as a minor planet .
= = = = IAU classification = = = =
The debate came to a head on August 24 , 2006 with an IAU resolution that created an official definition for the term " planet " . According to this resolution , there are three main conditions for an object in the Solar System to be considered a planet :
The object must be in orbit around the Sun .
The object must be massive enough to be rounded by its own gravity . More specifically , its own gravity should pull it into a shape of hydrostatic equilibrium .
It must have cleared the neighborhood around its orbit .
Pluto fails to meet the third condition , because its mass is only 0 @.@ 07 times that of the mass of the other objects in its orbit ( Earth 's mass , by contrast , is 1 @.@ 7 million times the remaining mass in its own orbit ) . The IAU further decided that bodies that , like Pluto , meet criteria 1 and 2 but do not meet criterion 3 would be called dwarf planets . On September 13 , 2006 , the IAU included Pluto , and Eris and its moon Dysnomia , in their Minor Planet Catalogue , giving them the official minor planet designations " ( 134340 ) Pluto " , " ( 136199 ) Eris " , and " ( 136199 ) Eris I Dysnomia " . Had Pluto been included upon its discovery in 1930 , it would have likely been designated 1164 , following 1163 Saga , which was discovered a month earlier .
There has been some resistance within the astronomical community toward the reclassification . Alan Stern , principal investigator with NASA 's New Horizons mission to Pluto , publicly derided the IAU resolution , stating that " the definition stinks , for technical reasons " . Stern 's contention was that , by the terms of the new definition , Earth , Mars , Jupiter , and Neptune , all of which share their orbits with asteroids , would be excluded . He argued that all big spherical moons , including the Moon , should likewise be considered planets . His other claim was that because less than five percent of astronomers voted for it , the decision was not representative of the entire astronomical community . Marc W. Buie , then at Lowell Observatory , voiced his opinion on the new definition on his website and petitioned against the definition . Others have supported the IAU . Mike Brown , the astronomer who discovered Eris , said " through this whole crazy circus @-@ like procedure , somehow the right answer was stumbled on . It 's been a long time coming . Science is self @-@ correcting eventually , even when strong emotions are involved . "
Public reception to the IAU decision was mixed . Although many accepted the reclassification , some sought to overturn the decision with online petitions urging the IAU to consider reinstatement . A resolution introduced by some members of the California State Assembly facetiously called the IAU decision a " scientific heresy " . The New Mexico House of Representatives passed a resolution in honor of Tombaugh , a longtime resident of that state , that declared that Pluto will always be considered a planet while in New Mexican skies and that March 13 , 2007 , was Pluto Planet Day . The Illinois Senate passed a similar resolution in 2009 , on the basis that Clyde Tombaugh , the discoverer of Pluto , was born in Illinois . The resolution asserted that Pluto was " unfairly downgraded to a ' dwarf ' planet " by the IAU . Some members of the public have also rejected the change , citing the disagreement within the scientific community on the issue , or for sentimental reasons , maintaining that they have always known Pluto as a planet and will continue to do so regardless of the IAU decision .
In 2006 , in its 17th annual words of the year vote , the American Dialect Society voted plutoed as the word of the year . To " pluto " is to " demote or devalue someone or something " .
Researchers on both sides of the debate gathered on August 14 – 16 , 2008 , at the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory for a conference that included back @-@ to @-@ back talks on the current IAU definition of a planet . Entitled " The Great Planet Debate " , the conference published a post @-@ conference press release indicating that scientists could not come to a consensus about the definition of planet . Just before the conference , on June 11 , 2008 , the IAU announced in a press release that the term " plutoid " would henceforth be used to refer to Pluto and other objects that have an orbital semi @-@ major axis greater than that of Neptune and enough mass to be of near @-@ spherical shape .
= = Orbit = =
Pluto 's orbital period is 248 years . Its orbital characteristics are substantially different from those of the planets , which follow nearly circular orbits around the Sun close to a flat reference plane called the ecliptic . In contrast , Pluto 's orbit is moderately inclined relative to the ecliptic ( over 17 ° ) and moderately eccentric ( elliptical ) . This eccentricity means a small region of Pluto 's orbit lies nearer the Sun than Neptune 's . The Pluto – Charon barycenter came to perihelion on September 5 , 1989 , and was last closer to the Sun than Neptune between February 7 , 1979 , and February 11 , 1999 .
In the long term , Pluto 's orbit is chaotic . Although computer simulations can be used to predict its position for several million years ( both forward and backward in time ) , after intervals longer than the Lyapunov time of 10 – 20 million years , calculations become speculative : Pluto is sensitive to immeasurably small details of the Solar System , hard @-@ to @-@ predict factors that will gradually change Pluto 's position in its orbit .
= = = Relationship with Neptune = = =
Despite Pluto 's orbit appearing to cross that of Neptune when viewed from directly above , the two objects ' orbits are aligned so that they can never collide or even approach closely . There are several reasons why .
At the simplest level , one can examine the two orbits and see that they do not intersect . When Pluto is closest to the Sun , and hence closest to Neptune 's orbit as viewed from above , it is also the farthest above Neptune 's path . Pluto 's orbit passes about 8 AU above that of Neptune , preventing a collision . Pluto 's ascending and descending nodes , the points at which its orbit crosses the ecliptic , are currently separated from Neptune 's by over 21 ° .
This alone is not enough to protect Pluto ; perturbations from the planets ( especially Neptune ) could alter aspects of Pluto 's orbit ( such as its orbital precession ) over millions of years so that a collision could be possible . Some other mechanism or mechanisms must therefore be at work . The most significant of these is that Pluto lies in the 2 : 3 mean @-@ motion resonance with Neptune : for every two orbits that Pluto makes around the Sun , Neptune makes three . The two objects then return to their initial positions and the cycle repeats , each cycle lasting about 500 years . This pattern is such that , in each 500 @-@ year cycle , the first time Pluto is near perihelion , Neptune is over 50 ° behind Pluto . By Pluto 's second perihelion , Neptune will have completed a further one and a half of its own orbits , and so will be a similar distance ahead of Pluto . Pluto and Neptune 's minimum separation is over 17 AU , which is greater than Pluto 's minimum separation from Uranus ( 11 AU ) .
The 2 : 3 resonance between the two bodies is highly stable , and is preserved over millions of years . This prevents their orbits from changing relative to one another ; the cycle always repeats in the same way , and so the two bodies can never pass near each other . Thus , even if Pluto 's orbit were not inclined , the two bodies could never collide .
= = = = Other factors = = = =
Numerical studies have shown that over periods of millions of years , the general nature of the alignment between the orbits of Pluto and Neptune does not change . There are several other resonances and interactions that govern the details of their relative motion , and enhance Pluto 's stability . These arise principally from two additional mechanisms ( besides the 2 : 3 mean @-@ motion resonance ) .
First , Pluto 's argument of perihelion , the angle between the point where it crosses the ecliptic and the point where it is closest to the Sun , librates around 90 ° . This means that when Pluto is closest to the Sun , it is at its farthest above the plane of the Solar System , preventing encounters with Neptune . This is a direct consequence of the Kozai mechanism , which relates the eccentricity of an orbit to its inclination to a larger perturbing body — in this case Neptune . Relative to Neptune , the amplitude of libration is 38 ° , and so the angular separation of Pluto 's perihelion to the orbit of Neptune is always greater than 52 ° ( 90 ° – 38 ° ) . The closest such angular separation occurs every 10 @,@ 000 years .
Second , the longitudes of ascending nodes of the two bodies — the points where they cross the ecliptic — are in near @-@ resonance with the above libration . When the two longitudes are the same — that is , when one could draw a straight line through both nodes and the Sun — Pluto 's perihelion lies exactly at 90 ° , and hence it comes closest to the Sun when it is highest above Neptune 's orbit . This is known as the 1 : 1 superresonance . All the Jovian planets , particularly Jupiter , play a role in the creation of the superresonance .
To understand the nature of the libration , imagine a polar point of view , looking down on the ecliptic from a distant vantage point where the planets orbit counterclockwise . After passing the ascending node , Pluto is interior to Neptune 's orbit and moving faster , approaching Neptune from behind . The strong gravitational pull between the two causes angular momentum to be transferred to Pluto , at Neptune 's expense . This moves Pluto into a slightly larger orbit , where it travels slightly more slowly , according to Kepler 's third law . As its orbit changes , this has the gradual effect of changing the perihelion and longitude of Pluto 's orbit ( and , to a lesser degree , of Neptune ) . After many such repetitions , Pluto is sufficiently slowed , and Neptune sufficiently speeded up , that Neptune begins to catch up with Pluto at the opposite side of its orbit ( near the opposing node to where we began ) . The process is then reversed , and Pluto loses angular momentum to Neptune , until Pluto is sufficiently speeded up that it begins to catch Neptune again at the original node . The whole process takes about 20 @,@ 000 years to complete .
= = = Quasi @-@ satellite = = =
In 2012 , it was hypothesized that ( 15810 ) 1994 JR1 could be a quasi @-@ satellite of Pluto , a specific type of co @-@ orbital configuration . According to the hypothesis , the object would be a quasi @-@ satellite of Pluto for about 350 @,@ 000 years out of every two @-@ million @-@ year period . This hypothesis was disproven in 2016 , when more @-@ accurate observations of the position of 1994 JR1 were made by New Horizons .
= = Rotation = =
Pluto 's rotation period , its day , is equal to 6 @.@ 39 Earth days . Like Uranus , Pluto rotates on its " side " on its orbital plane , with an axial tilt of 120 ° , and so its seasonal variation is extreme ; at its solstices , one @-@ fourth of its surface is in continuous daylight , whereas another fourth is in continuous darkness .
The amount of light from the Sun on Pluto is weak , analogous to twilight on Earth . NASA has posted a " Pluto Time " calculator that determines when the light on Earth is equivalent to that on Pluto on a clear day . For example , on July 13 , 2015 , at the coordinates of the Applied Physics Laboratory where the probe was constructed , the Pluto Time was 8 : 38 p.m. , four minutes later than the apparent sunset of 8 : 34 p.m. reported for that location by NOAA .
= = Geology = =
Due to Pluto 's distance from Earth , in @-@ depth study from Earth is difficult . On July 14 , 2015 , NASA 's New Horizons space probe flew through the Pluto system , and the information it gathered will be transmitted to Earth until late 2016 .
= = = Surface = = =
Pluto 's surface is composed of more than 98 percent nitrogen ice , with traces of methane and carbon monoxide . Nitrogen and carbon monoxide are most abundant on the anti @-@ Charon face of Pluto ( around 180 ° longitude , where Tombaugh Regio 's western lobe , Sputnik Planum , is located ) , whereas methane is most abundant near 300 ° east . Pluto 's surface is quite varied , with large differences in both brightness and color . Pluto is one of the most contrastive bodies in the Solar System , with as much contrast as Saturn 's moon Iapetus . The color varies between charcoal black , dark orange and white . Pluto 's color is more similar to that of Io with slightly more orange , significantly less red than Mars . Notable geographical features include Tombaugh Regio , or the " Heart " ( a large bright area on the side opposite Charon ) , Cthulhu Regio , or the " Whale " ( a large dark area on the trailing hemisphere ) , and the " Brass Knuckles " ( a series of equatorial dark areas on the leading hemisphere ) . Sputnik Planum , the western lobe of the " Heart " , is a 1000 @-@ km @-@ wide plain of frozen nitrogen and carbon monoxide ices , divided into polygonal cells which are interpreted as convection cells that carry floating blocks of water ice crust and sublimation pits towards their margins ; there are obvious signs of glacial flows both into and out of the plain . It has no craters that were visible to New Horizons , indicating that its surface is less than 10 million years old . The New Horizons science team summarized initial findings as " Pluto displays a surprisingly wide variety of geological landforms , including those resulting from glaciological and surface – atmosphere interactions as well as impact , tectonic , possible cryovolcanic , and mass @-@ wasting processes . "
= = = Internal structure = = =
Pluto 's density is 1 @.@ 860 ± 0 @.@ 013 g / cm3 . Because the decay of radioactive elements would eventually heat the ices enough for the rock to separate from them , scientists expect that Pluto 's internal structure is differentiated , with the rocky material having settled into a dense core surrounded by a mantle of water ice . The diameter of the core is hypothesized to be approximately 1700 km , 70 % of Pluto 's diameter . It is possible that such heating continues today , creating a subsurface ocean of liquid water some 100 to 180 km thick at the core – mantle boundary .
= = Mass and size = =
Pluto 's diameter is 2374 ± 8 km and its mass is ( 1 @.@ 303 ± 0 @.@ 003 ) × 1022 kg , 17 @.@ 7 % that of the Moon ( 0 @.@ 22 % that of Earth ) . Its surface area is 1 @.@ 665 × 107 km2 , or roughly the same surface area as Russia . Its surface gravity is 0 @.@ 063 g ( compared to 1 g for Earth ) .
The discovery of Pluto 's satellite Charon in 1978 enabled a determination of the mass of the Pluto – Charon system by application of Newton 's formulation of Kepler 's third law . Observations of Pluto in occultation with Charon allowed scientists to establish Pluto 's diameter more accurately , whereas the invention of adaptive optics allowed them to determine its shape more accurately .
With less than 0 @.@ 2 lunar masses , Pluto is much less massive than the terrestrial planets , and also less massive than seven moons : Ganymede , Titan , Callisto , Io , the Moon , Europa , and Triton . The mass is much less than thought before Charon was discovered .
Pluto is more than twice the diameter and a dozen times the mass of the dwarf planet Ceres , the largest object in the asteroid belt . It is less massive than the dwarf planet Eris , a trans @-@ Neptunian object discovered in 2005 , though Pluto has a larger diameter of 2374 km compared to Eris 's approximate diameter of 2326 km .
Determinations of Pluto 's size had been complicated by its atmosphere , and hydrocarbon haze . In March 2014 , Lellouch , de Bergh et al. published findings regarding methane mixing ratios in Pluto 's atmosphere consistent with a Plutonian diameter greater than 2360 km , with a " best guess " of 2368 km . On July 13 , 2015 , images from NASA 's New Horizons mission Long Range Reconnaissance Imager ( LORRI ) , along with data from the other instruments , determined Pluto 's diameter to be 2 @,@ 370 km ( 1 @,@ 470 mi ) , which was later revised to be 2 @,@ 372 km ( 1 @,@ 474 mi ) on July 24 , and later to 2374 ± 8 km .
= = Atmosphere = =
Pluto has a tenuous atmosphere consisting of nitrogen ( N2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , and carbon monoxide ( CO ) , which are in equilibrium with their ices on Pluto 's surface . According to the measurements by New Horizons , the surface pressure is about 1 Pa ( 10 μbar ) , roughly one million to 100 @,@ 000 times less than Earth 's atmospheric pressure . It was initially thought that , as Pluto moves away from the Sun , its atmosphere should gradually freeze onto the surface ; however , studies of New Horizons data and ground @-@ based occultations show that Pluto 's atmospheric density actually increases , and that it likely remains gaseous throughout Pluto 's orbit . New Horizons observations showed that atmospheric escape of nitrogen to be 10 @,@ 000 times less than expected . Alan Stern has contended that even a small increase in Pluto 's surface temperature can lead to exponential increases in Pluto 's atmospheric density ; from 18 to as much as 280 millibars ( three times that of Mars to a quarter that of the Earth ) . At such densities , nitrogen could flow across the surface as liquid . Just like sweat cools the body as it evaporates from the skin , the sublimation of Pluto 's atmosphere cools its surface . The presence of atmospheric gases was traced up to 1670 kilometers high , although the atmosphere does not have a sharp upper boundary .
The presence of methane , a powerful greenhouse gas , in Pluto 's atmosphere creates a temperature inversion , with the average temperature of its atmosphere tens of degrees warmer than its surface , though observations by New Horizons have revealed Pluto 's upper atmosphere to be far colder than expected ( 70 K , as opposed to about 100 K ) . Pluto 's atmosphere is divided into roughly 20 regularly spaced haze layers up to 150 km high , thought to be the result of pressure waves created by airflow across Pluto 's mountains .
= = Satellites = =
Pluto has five known natural satellites : Charon , first identified in 1978 by astronomer James Christy ; Nix and Hydra , both discovered in 2005 ; Kerberos , discovered in 2011 ; and Styx , discovered in 2012 . The satellites ' orbits are circular ( eccentricity < 0 @.@ 006 ) and coplanar with Pluto 's equator ( inclination < 1 ° ) , and therefore tilted approximately 120 ° relative to Pluto 's orbit . The Plutonian system is highly compact : the five known satellites orbit within the inner 3 % of the region where prograde orbits would be stable . Closest to Pluto is Charon , which is large enough to be in hydrostatic equilibrium and to cause the barycenter of the Pluto – Charon system to be outside Pluto . Beyond Charon there are four much smaller circumbinary moons , Styx , Nix , Kerberos , and Hydra .
The orbital periods of all Pluto 's moons are linked in a system of orbital resonances and near resonances . When precession is accounted for , the orbital periods of Styx , Nix , and Hydra are in an exact 18 : 22 : 33 ratio . There is a sequence of approximate ratios , 3 : 4 : 5 : 6 , between the periods of Styx , Nix , Kerberos , and Hydra with that of Charon ; the ratios become closer to being exact the further out the moons are .
The Pluto – Charon system is one of the few in the Solar System whose barycenter lies outside the primary body ; 617 Patroclus is a smaller example , and the Sun – Jupiter system is the only larger one . The similar sizes of Charon and Pluto has prompted some astronomers to call it a double dwarf planet . The system is also unusual among planetary systems in that each is tidally locked to the other , which means that Pluto and Charon always have the same hemisphere facing each other . From any position on either body , the other is always at the same position in the sky , or always obscured . This also means that the rotation period of each is equal to the time it takes the entire system to rotate around its barycenter .
In 2007 , observations by the Gemini Observatory of patches of ammonia hydrates and water crystals on the surface of Charon suggested the presence of active cryo @-@ geysers .
Pluto 's moons are hypothesized to have been formed by a collision between Pluto and a similar @-@ sized body , early in the history of the Solar System . The collision released material that consolidated into the moons around Pluto . However , Kerberos has a much lower albedo than the other moons of Pluto , which is difficult to explain with a giant collision .
= = Origin = =
Pluto 's origin and identity had long puzzled astronomers . One early hypothesis was that Pluto was an escaped moon of Neptune , knocked out of orbit by its largest current moon , Triton . This idea was eventually rejected after dynamical studies showed it to be impossible because Pluto never approaches Neptune in its orbit .
Pluto 's true place in the Solar System began to reveal itself only in 1992 , when astronomers began to find small icy objects beyond Neptune that were similar to Pluto not only in orbit but also in size and composition . This trans @-@ Neptunian population is thought to be the source of many short @-@ period comets . Pluto is now known to be the largest member of the Kuiper belt , a stable belt of objects located between 30 and 50 AU from the Sun . As of 2011 , surveys of the Kuiper belt to magnitude 21 were nearly complete and any remaining Pluto @-@ sized objects are expected to be beyond 100 AU from the Sun . Like other Kuiper @-@ belt objects ( KBOs ) , Pluto shares features with comets ; for example , the solar wind is gradually blowing Pluto 's surface into space . It has been claimed that if Pluto were placed as near to the Sun as Earth , it would develop a tail , as comets do . This claim has been disputed with the argument that Pluto 's escape velocity is too high for this to happen .
Though Pluto is the largest Kuiper belt object discovered , Neptune 's moon Triton , which is slightly larger than Pluto , is similar to it both geologically and atmospherically , and is thought to be a captured Kuiper belt object . Eris ( see above ) is about the same size as Pluto ( though more massive ) but is not strictly considered a member of the Kuiper belt population . Rather , it is considered a member of a linked population called the scattered disc .
A large number of Kuiper belt objects , like Pluto , are in a 2 : 3 orbital resonance with Neptune . KBOs with this orbital resonance are called " plutinos " , after Pluto .
Like other members of the Kuiper belt , Pluto is thought to be a residual planetesimal ; a component of the original protoplanetary disc around the Sun that failed to fully coalesce into a full @-@ fledged planet . Most astronomers agree that Pluto owes its current position to a sudden migration undergone by Neptune early in the Solar System 's formation . As Neptune migrated outward , it approached the objects in the proto @-@ Kuiper belt , setting one in orbit around itself ( Triton ) , locking others into resonances , and knocking others into chaotic orbits . The objects in the scattered disc , a dynamically unstable region overlapping the Kuiper belt , are thought to have been placed in their current positions by interactions with Neptune 's migrating resonances . A computer model created in 2004 by Alessandro Morbidelli of the Observatoire de la Côte d 'Azur in Nice suggested that the migration of Neptune into the Kuiper belt may have been triggered by the formation of a 1 : 2 resonance between Jupiter and Saturn , which created a gravitational push that propelled both Uranus and Neptune into higher orbits and caused them to switch places , ultimately doubling Neptune 's distance from the Sun . The resultant expulsion of objects from the proto @-@ Kuiper belt could also explain the Late Heavy Bombardment 600 million years after the Solar System 's formation and the origin of the Jupiter trojans . It is possible that Pluto had a near @-@ circular orbit about 33 AU from the Sun before Neptune 's migration perturbed it into a resonant capture . The Nice model requires that there were about a thousand Pluto @-@ sized bodies in the original planetesimal disk , which included Triton and Eris .
= = Observation and exploration = =
Pluto 's distance from Earth makes its in @-@ depth study and exploration difficult . On July 14 , 2015 , NASA 's New Horizons space probe flew through the Pluto system , providing much information about it .
= = = Observation = = =
Pluto 's visual apparent magnitude averages 15 @.@ 1 , brightening to 13 @.@ 65 at perihelion . To see it , a telescope is required ; around 30 cm ( 12 in ) aperture being desirable . It looks star @-@ like and without a visible disk even in large telescopes , because its angular diameter is only 0 @.@ 11 " .
The earliest maps of Pluto , made in the late 1980s , were brightness maps created from close observations of eclipses by its largest moon , Charon . Observations were made of the change in the total average brightness of the Pluto – Charon system during the eclipses . For example , eclipsing a bright spot on Pluto makes a bigger total brightness change than eclipsing a dark spot . Computer processing of many such observations can be used to create a brightness map . This method can also track changes in brightness over time .
Better maps were produced from images taken by the Hubble Space Telescope ( HST ) , which offered higher resolution , and showed considerably more detail , resolving variations several hundred kilometers across , including polar regions and large bright spots . These maps were produced by complex computer processing , which finds the best @-@ fit projected maps for the few pixels of the Hubble images . These remained the most detailed maps of Pluto until the flyby of New Horizons in July 2015 , because the two cameras on the HST used for these maps were no longer in service .
= = = Exploration = = =
The New Horizons spacecraft , which flew by Pluto in July 2015 , is the first and so far only attempt to explore Pluto directly . Launched in 2006 , it captured its first ( distant ) images of Pluto in late September 2006 during a test of the Long Range Reconnaissance Imager . The images , taken from a distance of approximately 4 @.@ 2 billion kilometers , confirmed the spacecraft 's ability to track distant targets , critical for maneuvering toward Pluto and other Kuiper belt objects . In early 2007 the craft made use of a gravity assist from Jupiter .
New Horizons made its closest approach to Pluto on July 14 , 2015 after a 3 @,@ 462 @-@ day journey across the Solar System . Scientific observations of Pluto began five months before the closest approach and continued for at least a month after the encounter . Observations were conducted using a remote sensing package that included imaging instruments and a radio science investigation tool , as well as spectroscopic and other experiments . The scientific goals of New Horizons were to characterize the global geology and morphology of Pluto and its moon Charon , map their surface composition , and analyze Pluto 's neutral atmosphere and its escape rate .
= = Gallery = =
= = = Videos = = =
= Tim Donaghy =
Tim Donaghy ( / ˈdɒnəɡi / ; born January 7 , 1967 ) is a former professional basketball referee who worked in the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) for 13 seasons , from 1994 to 2007 . During his career in the NBA , Donaghy officiated in 772 regular season games and 20 playoff games .
Donaghy resigned from the league on July 9 , 2007 before reports of an investigation by the Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) for allegations that he bet on games that he officiated during his last two seasons and that he made calls affecting the point spread in those games . On August 15 , 2007 , Donaghy pleaded guilty to two federal charges related to the investigation . However , he could face more charges at the state level if it is determined that he deliberately miscalled individual games . Donaghy was sentenced to 15 months in federal prison on July 29 , 2008 . He served 11 months in a federal prison camp in Pensacola , Florida to spend the remainder of his sentence in a halfway house , but was sent back to prison in August for violating his release terms . He was released on November 4 , 2009 after serving out his sentence .
= = Personal = =
Born in the Philadelphia suburb Havertown , Pennsylvania , Donaghy attended Cardinal O 'Hara High School in Springfield , Pennsylvania along with three other NBA referees : Joe Crawford , Mike Callahan , and Ed Malloy . In 1989 , Donaghy graduated from Villanova University with a degree in sales and marketing . While at Villanova , he played on the school 's baseball team . According to the National Basketball Referee 's Association , Donaghy participated and earned All @-@ Catholic and All @-@ Delaware County honors in baseball and All @-@ Delaware County honors in basketball during high school , but then – Villanova baseball coach George Bennett contends that Donaghy did not play on the varsity team and that no records indicate that he was selected to the All @-@ Catholic team in baseball or named to the All @-@ Delaware County basketball team . Donaghy and his wife Kimberly had four daughters before terminating their 12 @-@ year marriage in 2007 .
= = Officiating career = =
Before officiating in the NBA , Donaghy spent five years working Pennsylvania high school games and seven seasons in the Continental Basketball Association ( CBA ) , and he was the head official for the 1993 CBA All @-@ Star Game . The following year , he joined the NBA , where he worked for 13 years , officiating in 772 regular @-@ season games and 20 playoff games . Donaghy was a participant in the NBA 's Read to Achieve program , for which he participated in an event at the Universal Charter school during the 2002 NBA Finals . His uniform number was 21 .
Donaghy was one of three referees who worked the Pacers – Pistons brawl at The Palace of Auburn Hills on November 19 , 2004 , which ended in a fight between Pacers players and Pistons fans .
Donaghy was involved in another controversial incident in 2003 , when he called a technical foul on Rasheed Wallace , then playing with the Portland Trail Blazers , for allegedly throwing a ball at another official during a game played at the Rose Garden Arena in Portland , Oregon . While Donaghy was leaving the arena , Wallace confronted him at the arena 's loading dock , where he screamed obscenities at Donaghy . Donaghy claimed that Wallace threatened him , and after an investigation by the NBA , Wallace was suspended for seven games ; this was the longest suspension issued by the league for an incident not involving violence or drugs .
= = Betting scandal = =
On July 20 , 2007 , columnist Murray Weiss of the New York Post reported an investigation by the FBI into allegations of an NBA referee betting on games to control the point spread . It was revealed that Donaghy , who has a gambling problem , placed tens of thousands of dollars in bets on games during the 2005 – 06 and 2006 – 07 season and had been approached by low @-@ level mob associates to work on a gambling scheme . Mike Missanelli of The Stephen A. Smith Show suggested that Donaghy had gotten himself into debt and tried to make it up by betting on games .
The report sent shock waves through the NBA . While the league devotes significant resources to monitor officials ' performance , it only found out about the affair when the FBI stumbled upon Donaghy in the midst of a broader organized crime investigation . NBA Commissioner David Stern said in a statement , " We would like to assure our fans that no amount of effort , time or personnel is being spared to assist in this investigation , to bring to justice an individual who has betrayed the most sacred trust in professional sports , and to take the necessary steps to protect against this ever happening again . " He called the scandal a " wakeup call that says you can 't be complacent " .
Sports gambling expert R. J. Bell , president of sports betting information site Pregame.com , tracked every game Donaghy worked from 2003 to 2007 . He discovered that during the two seasons investigated by the NBA , the teams involved scored more points than expected by the Las Vegas sports books 57 % of the time . In the previous two seasons , this only happened 44 % of the time . According to Bell , the odds of such a discrepancy are 1 in 1 @,@ 000 , and there was " a 99 @.@ 9 % chance that these results would not have happened without an outside factor " . He also found 10 straight games in 2007 in which Donaghy worked the game that the point spread moved 1 @.@ 5 points or more before the tip — an indication that big money had been wagered on the game . The big money won every time — another indication that " something ( was ) going on " . However , Bell suggested that there was no way anyone who wasn 't in on the fix could have known that something was amiss about Donaghy 's actions during a game ; he said it would have been another year at the earliest before anyone could have caught on .
Handicapper Brandon Lang told ESPN that it is fairly easy for a crooked sports official to fix a game , despite Stern 's insistence that Donaghy was a " rogue official " . According to Lang , an official can directly influence the outcome of a game 75 % of the time if he has money on the game . Lang also believed that a bookie connected to the mob turned Donaghy in to the FBI .
On July 27 , U.S. Congressman Bobby Rush of Illinois , chairman of the Energy and Commerce Commerce , Trade and Consumer Protection Subcommittee , asked to meet with Stern regarding the Donaghy matter . In a letter to Stern , Rush indicated that he might call a hearing " should the facts warrant public scrutiny . " He also said that the affair could potentially be " one of the most damaging scandals in the history of American sports " .
Earlier in the day , federal sources told the New York Daily News that Donaghy would surrender to the FBI and pleaded guilty to gambling charges . The Daily News also learned that the bookies in the scandal were two high school classmates of Donaghy 's who embellished their mob ties . The Daily News reported that at his friends ' request , Donaghy passed word about the crews working the games they planned to bet on . The Associated Press identified one of the men as James Battista , former owner of a sports bar in Havertown , Pennsylvania ; a Philadelphia suburb . Battista 's lawyer told the AP that his client expected to be indicted .
At his home in Bradenton , Donaghy did not initially comment on his situation . He reportedly claimed to be " the butler " to visiting reporters and turned his sprinklers on a freelance photographer for the New York Times when he got too close . His wife ( at the time ) , Kimberly , passed a note to reporters telling them not to bother asking them any questions .
On August 15 , Donaghy appeared in a Brooklyn federal court and pleaded guilty to conspiracy to engage in wire fraud and transmitting wagering information through interstate commerce . Donaghy told U.S. District Judge Carol Bagley Amon that he used coded language to tip Battista about players ' physical condition and player / referee relations . In doing so , Donaghy disclosed classified information that he obtained as an NBA referee . Donaghy initially received $ 2 @,@ 000 per correct pick , but his calls were so accurate that Battista increased his take to $ 5 @,@ 000 . In total , he received $ 30 @,@ 000 to pass inside information to the bookies . Another high school friend of Donaghy 's , Thomas Martino , acted as the middle man . Donaghy also admitted that he had a severe gambling addiction , for which he was taking antidepressants .
Donaghy specifically admitted to passing information about two games during the 2006 – 07 season . Prosecutors also said that Donaghy bet on games himself . Donaghy was fined $ 500 @,@ 000 , and will also have to pay at least $ 30 @,@ 000 in restitution . ESPN legal analyst Lester Munson believes that Battista is one of the FBI 's prime targets , based on the large amounts of money he bet .
Donaghy was released on a $ 250 @,@ 000 bond and awaited sentencing on January 25 , 2008 . On June 19 , 2008 , the NBA filed a demand that Donaghy reimburse the league for the costs of his airfare and meals , complimentary game tickets , and other expenses , including $ 750 in shoes . Donaghy 's lawyer said that this was the league trying to retaliate against Donaghy for his misconduct . A judge delayed sentencing to allow for more time to decide how much restitution Donaghy and two co @-@ conspirators should pay the NBA for their roles in the betting scandal . The NBA has claimed Donaghy owes it $ 1 @.@ 4 million , including $ 577 @,@ 000 of his pay and benefits over four seasons , plus hefty legal fees and other expenses related to an internal investigation . His lawyer has argued that the punishment should apply to only one season — a position supported by the government in court papers .
According to the Associated Press , Andrew Thomas , the former county attorney for Maricopa County , Arizona , asked the NBA and FBI if Donaghy intentionally miscalled two Phoenix Suns road playoff games . The games in question occurred on April 29 , 2007 versus the Los Angeles Lakers and May 12 , 2007 versus the San Antonio Spurs . In a letter to Stern and FBI director Robert Mueller , Thomas said that Donaghy 's conduct may have violated Arizona criminal law , and could face charges there . Per the United States Supreme Court 's decision in Ponzi v. Fessenden , federal plea bargains have no standing regarding state charges .
= = = Allegations against the NBA = = =
On June 10 , 2008 , Donaghy 's attorney filed a court document alleging , among other things , that Game 6 of the 2002 Western Conference Finals between the Los Angeles Lakers and Sacramento Kings was fixed by two referees . The letter states that Donaghy " learned from Referee A that Referees A and F wanted to extend the series to seven games . Tim knew Referees A and F to be ' company men ' , always acting in the interest of the NBA , and that night , it was in the NBA 's interest to add another game to the series . " The Lakers won Game 6 , attempting 18 more free throws than the Kings in the fourth quarter , and went on to win the 2002 NBA Finals . The teams were not named , but the Western Conference Finals was the only seven @-@ game series that year . The document claimed that Donaghy told federal agents that to increase television ratings and ticket sales , " top executives of the NBA sought to manipulate games using referees " . It also said that NBA officials would tell referees to not call technical fouls on certain players , and states that a referee was privately reprimanded by the league for ejecting a star player in the first quarter of a January 2000 game . Stern denied the accusations , calling Donaghy a " singing , cooperating witness " .
= = = Sentencing = = =
On July 29 , 2008 , Donaghy was sentenced in the United States District Court for the Eastern District of New York to 15 months in prison for his participation in the gambling scandal . Donaghy could have faced up to 33 months , but Judge Carol Amon reduced his sentence to 15 months ( two 15 @-@ month terms served concurrently , followed by 3 years of supervised release ) in exchange for his cooperation . His lawyer , John Lauro , asked for probation , but the request was denied . Donaghy apologized in court , saying " I brought shame on myself , my family and the profession . " Battista and Martino were sentenced earlier that month , earning sentences of 15 months and 366 days , respectively .
= = = Effect on the NBA = = =
As a result of the betting scandal , Stern revised the guidelines on the behavior of NBA referees during the Board of Governors ' meeting in 2007 . Despite the labor agreement for referees , which restricted them from participating in almost all forms of gambling , it was revealed that about half of the NBA 's officials had made bets in casinos , albeit not with sportsbooks . In addition , all referees had admitted to engaging in some form of gambling . Stern stated that " [ the ] ban on gambling is absolute , and in my view it is too absolute , too harsh and was not particularly well @-@ enforced over the years " . The gambling rules were revised to allow referees to engage in several forms of betting — though not on sports . There were several other referee @-@ related rule changes made : the announcement of referees of a game was moved from 90 minutes before tip @-@ off to the morning of the game , to reduce the value of the information to gamblers ; referees received more in @-@ season training and counseling on gambling ; more thorough background checks were carried out ; the league declared its intention to analyze the statistical relationship between NBA games and referees ' gambling patterns for those games ; and the interactions between referees and NBA teams were made easier and more formal .
= = Post @-@ sentencing = =
In the federal prison camp in Pensacola , Florida , Donaghy started to write his memoir , Blowing the Whistle : The Culture of Fraud in the NBA . The book was to have covered his NBA career , described his dealings with the " underworld " during the betting scandal , and explained how he would determine the winning team in the games he refereed . Donaghy also promised to " discuss the relationship that players , coaches and referees have with each other " . The book was due to be published in October 2009 . However , Donaghy 's publisher , Triumph Books , canceled it because of liability concerns . Pat Berdan , Donaghy 's liaison with Triumph , said the book was canceled after the NBA threatened legal action — which the NBA denies . Donaghy found a new publisher , VTi @-@ Group , willing to release the book , which was renamed Personal Foul : A First @-@ Person Account of the Scandal That Rocked the NBA . The book was released in December 2009 .
During his imprisonment , Donaghy was attacked and threatened . In November 2007 , a man claiming to be an associate of the New York Mafia struck Donaghy with a paint roller extension bar , resulting in injuries to his knee and leg which required surgery .
Donaghy was released from prison after serving 11 months and was due to finish his sentence in a recovery house near Tampa , Florida , where he will be treated for his gambling addiction as mandated by the court . He was arrested and put in the county jail in late August after being caught at a health club without permission , when he should have been at work . His lawyer and his ex @-@ wife both insisted that Donaghy should not have been taken into custody , as he was allowed to visit the center to rehabilitate his injured knee .
On November 4 , 2009 , Donaghy was released from prison in Hernando County after serving out the remainder of his sentence .
Donaghy sued VTi @-@ Group , the publisher of his memoir , for not paying him . In June 2012 , a jury found VTi liable for breach of contract . Donaghy was awarded $ 1 @.@ 3 million .
On April 22 , 2014 , Donaghy claimed that the league office was going to push referees to fix playoffs games to have Brooklyn Nets beat the Toronto Raptors , so they could advance to the second round and face the Miami Heat because it would be good for ratings , which it was . On May 4 , 2014 , the Nets eliminated the Raptors after winning game seven of the series by a point .
= Hugh Nonant =
Hugh Nonant ( sometimes Hugh de Nonant ; died 27 March 1198 ) was a medieval Bishop of Coventry in England . A great @-@ nephew and nephew of two Bishops of Lisieux , he held the office of archdeacon in that diocese before serving successively Thomas Becket , the Archbishop of Canterbury and King Henry II of England . Diplomatic successes earned him the nomination to Coventry , but diplomatic missions after his elevation led to a long delay before he was consecrated . After King Henry 's death , Nonant served Henry 's son , King Richard I , who rewarded him with the office of sheriff in three counties . Nonant replaced his monastic cathedral chapter with secular clergy , and attempted to persuade his fellow bishops to do the same , but was unsuccessful . When King Richard was captured and held for ransom , Nonant supported Prince John 's efforts to seize power in England , but had to purchase Richard 's favour when the king returned .
= = Early life = =
Nonant was a great @-@ nephew of John , Bishop of Lisieux , who had been the chief deputy in Normandy of King Henry I of England , and he was also a nephew of Arnulf of Lisieux , another bishop of Lisieux . Nonant had a brother Sylvester , who was treasurer of Lisieux . Hugh Nonant was a canon in his uncle Arnulf 's cathedral chapter before serving as an archdeacon of the diocese of Lisieux from 1167 until 1184 . Nonant served in the household of Thomas Becket while Becket was Archbishop of Canterbury , and went into exile with Becket , although he left Becket 's service while the archbishop was in exile . While in Becket 's service , Nonant may have authored a letter dated to 1165 that is attributed to Becket . Nonant had been reconciled to King Henry II of England by 1170 . Along with Richard Barre , Nonant was named in January 1184 as a papal judge @-@ delegate in a case between two Norman monasteries . In 1184 , Nonant was sent by the king to the papal curia to petition Pope Lucius III on behalf of Henry the Lion , Duke of Saxony and Henry II 's son @-@ in @-@ law . Nonant 's success on this mission probably was the reason he was elevated to the episcopate in 1185 .
= = Bishop of Coventry = =
Nonant was elected bishop in 1185 , probably in January , and consecrated on 31 January 1188 . The long delay between his election and his consecration was due to Nonant 's continued diplomatic efforts on behalf of Henry II . In 1186 , he was sent to Rome to secure papal permission for the crowning of Prince John as King of Ireland . The bishop @-@ elect was briefly in England from December of 1186 until February 1187 , but then went with King Henry to the continent and did not return to England until January 1188 . However , when Henry returned to France in July 1188 , Hugh accompanied the king and did not return until shortly before the coronation of King Richard I of England . Nonant also purchased the offices of Sheriff of Warwickshire , Leicestershire , and Staffordshire . Holding these offices was against canon law , and the bishop 's tenure in these offices may have been the cause of his quarrel with Baldwin of Forde .
It was after the coronation of Richard that Nonant had a dispute with the monks of his cathedral chapter which led to Nonant replacing the monks with secular clergy . He was said to have commented that " I call my clerks gods and the monks demons . " Nonant was very shrewd and eloquent , but he was also violent in his attempts to reform or expel his monastic clergy from Coventry . In October 1189 he attempted to persuade his fellow bishops who had monastic cathedral chapters to expel the monks and replace them with secular clergy . He also attempted to get all the bishops to prosecute a joint case at Rome to expel the monastic cathedral chapters , but gave up that idea after the Archbishop of Canterbury , Baldwin of Exeter declined to go along . Nonant did , however , receive papal sanction for the replacement of monks at Coventry . By 1197 , however , Pope Celestine III issued instructions to Hubert Walter , the new Archbishop of Canterbury , Hugh of Lincoln , the Bishop of Lincoln and Samson of Tottington , the Abbot of Bury St Edmunds , to restore the monks to the cathedral .
After King Richard went to the Holy Land on the Third Crusade , Nonant supported the efforts of Prince John , King Richard 's brother , to seize power in England . Nonant joined with John in trying to wrest control of the castles of Tickhill and Nottingham from William Longchamp , the Bishop of Ely , who had been named justiciar and chancellor during Richard 's absence . It was probably Nonant that was responsible for the meeting at Loddon Bridge on 5 October 1191 that ended in the deposition of Longchamp from office . Nonant supported John 's side throughout the time that Richard was on Crusade and in captivity , and was tried with John after Richard 's return to England in 1194 . Nonant was only restored to royal favour in 1195 after the payment of a fine of 5000 marks . The bishop lost his three sheriffdoms , and retired to Normandy .
= = Death and legacy = =
Nonant died on 27 March 1198 . Before his death he was clothed in the habit of a Benedictine monk by the monks of Bec Abbey and he died at Bec . On his deathbed , he confessed a long record of sins , which deterred any priest from absolving him . The historian A. L. Poole described Hugh as a " dexterous and unprincipled politician who had inherited the diplomatic gifts of his uncle . " Another historian , John Gillingham , stated that Nonant was King " John 's chief propagandist and , in his spare time , bishop of Coventry " . Hugh 's brother was Robert Brito , who was captured by King Richard in 1194 and starved to death because Robert had earlier refused to be a hostage for the payment of Richard 's ransom .
The constitutions of the cathedral chapter at Lichfield are often stated to have been Nonant 's work , but this has been disproven . The chronicler Roger of Howden inserted a letter supposedly by Nonant in his Chronica . This letter was also preserved in other manuscripts , including a section of a manuscript now in the Bodleian Library as manuscript ( MS ) Additional A.44. This letter has now been published as part of the English Episcopal Acta series in the volume on the diocese of Lichfield and Coventry .
= Italian cruiser Carlo Alberto =
The Italian cruiser Carlo Alberto was the second of two Vettor Pisani @-@ class armored cruisers built for the Royal Italian Navy ( Regia Marina ) in the 1890s . She was deployed overseas several times during her career , notably to the Far East and South America . The ship was used as a royal yacht by King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy in 1902 , during which time she was used for radio experiments by Guglielmo Marconi . Carlo Alberto served as a training ship before the start of the Italo @-@ Turkish War of 1911 – 12 . During the war she supported Italian operations in Libya . The ship was virtually inactive during World War I and was converted into a troop transport in 1917 – 18 . Carlo Alberto was stricken from the Navy List in 1920 and subsequently broken up for scrap .
= = Design and description = =
Carlo Alberto had a length between perpendiculars of 99 meters ( 324 ft 10 in ) and an overall length of 105 @.@ 7 meters ( 346 ft 9 in ) . She had a beam of 18 @.@ 04 meters ( 59 ft 2 in ) and a draft of 7 @.@ 2 meters ( 23 ft 7 in ) . The ship displaced 6 @,@ 397 metric tons ( 6 @,@ 296 long tons ) at normal load , and 7 @,@ 057 metric tons ( 6 @,@ 946 long tons ) at deep load . The Vettor Pisani @-@ class ships had a complement of 28 officers and 472 to 476 enlisted men .
The ship was powered by two vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving one propeller shaft . Steam for the engines was supplied by eight Scotch marine boilers . Designed for a maximum output of 13 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 9 @,@ 700 kW ) and a speed of 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) , Carlo Alberto barely exceeded her designed speed when she reached 19 @.@ 1 knots ( 35 @.@ 4 km / h ; 22 @.@ 0 mph ) during her sea trials from 13 @,@ 219 ihp ( 9 @,@ 857 kW ) . She had a cruising radius of about 5 @,@ 400 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 000 km ; 6 @,@ 200 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
The main armament of the Vettor Pisani @-@ class ships consisted of twelve quick @-@ firing ( QF ) Cannone da 152 / 40 A Modello 1891 guns in single mounts . All of these guns were mounted on the broadside , eight on the upper deck and four at the corners of the central citadel in armored casemates . Single QF Cannone da 120 / 40 A Modello 1891 guns were mounted in the bow and stern and the remaining two 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) guns were positioned on the main deck between the 152 mm ( 6 @.@ 0 in ) guns . For defense against torpedo boats , the ship carried fourteen QF 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) Hotchkiss guns and eight QF 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Hotchkiss guns . The ship was also equipped with four 450 mm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes .
Carlo Alberto was protected by an armored belt that was 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) thick amidships and reduced to 11 cm ( 4 @.@ 3 in ) at the bow and stern . The upper strake of armor was also 15 cm thick and protected just the middle of the ship , up to the height of the upper deck . The curved armored deck was 3 @.@ 7 cm thick . The conning tower armor was also 15 cm thick and each 15 @.@ 2 cm gun was protected by a 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) gun shield .
= = Construction and career = =
Carlo Alberto , named after King Charles Albert of Sardinia , was laid down on 1 February 1892 at the Arsenale di La Spezia in La Spezia . The ship was launched on 23 September 1896 and completed on 1 May 1898 . She was deployed to South America later that year and returned to Italy on 28 February 1899 . Later that year Carlo Alberto was sent to the Far East and returned on 1 June 1900 . After her return the ship was assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet .
Carlo Alberto served as the royal yacht for Victor Emmanuel III when he attended the Coronation of King Edward VII and Queen Alexandra of the United Kingdom in 1902 . Victor Emmanuel invited Guglielmo Marconi to accompany him and conduct radio experiments en route . Originally scheduled for 26 June , the coronation was delayed by Edward 's illness and rescheduled for 9 August . In the meantime , the ship took Victor Emmanuel to meetings with Tsar Nicholas II of Russia in Kronstadt . She returned to England before the coronation ceremony and then participated in the fleet review at Spithead on 16 August . On the return voyage Marconi conducted more long @-@ range experiments with his site in Poldhu , Cornwall . The King then loaned Carlo Alberto to Marconi in September for more testing . She then ferried Marconi across the Atlantic to Glace Bay , Nova Scotia for further experiments transmitting radio messages across the ocean . After 15 December , when Marconi successfully transmitted messages from Glace Bay to Poldhu , Carlo Alberto was sent to Venezuelan waters during the Venezuelan crisis of 1902 – 03 , when an international force of British , German , and Italian warships blockaded Venezuela over the country 's refusal to pay foreign debts . She returned in early 1903 and was briefly deployed in Salonica later that year . From 1907 to 1910 she served as a gunnery and torpedo training ship .
When the Italo @-@ Turkish War of 1911 – 12 began on 29 September , Carlo Alberto was assigned to the Training Division . She bombarded the fortifications defending Tripoli and provided gunfire support to Italian forces at Zanzur , Zuara and elsewhere in Tripolitania . She fired enough ammunition during these missions that her guns had to be replaced in early 1912 . After the war the ship was transferred to the Aegean Sea where she remained until March 1913 .
Obsolescent by the beginning of World War I , Carlo Alberto was not very active during the war . She spent almost the entire war based in Venice . The ship began conversion into a troop transport there in 1917 . This required the removal of her armor , the addition of a new deck and internal modifications to suit her new role . The work was finished in Taranto early the next year ; she was recommissioned with the new name of Zenson on 4 April 1918 . The ship was discarded on 12 June 1920 and subsequently scrapped .
= New York State Route 31A =
New York State Route 31A ( NY 31A ) is an east – west state highway located in the western part of New York in the United States . It serves as a southerly alternate route of NY 31 from the western part of Orleans County to the far western part of Monroe County . It diverges from NY 31 south of the village of Medina and parallels NY 31 eastward until it reconnects to its parent route southwest of the village of Brockport . While NY 31 passes through the villages of Medina , Albion , and Holley , NY 31A bypasses all three , serving sparsely populated areas to their south instead . The route intersects NY 98 south of Albion and NY 237 in Clarendon .
The origins of NY 31A date back to the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York when the section of modern NY 31 between Middleport and Medina was designated as NY 3A . It was renumbered to NY 3B c . 1932 and extended northeastward to Knowlesville via Millville by 1932 before becoming NY 31A c . 1935 . NY 31A was cut back to its current western terminus in 1949 and extended eastward to NY 19 and NY 31 in Brockport c . 1963 , replacing New York State Route 31D , a spur route linking NY 31 to the Monroe – Orleans county line . The route was truncated to its current eastern terminus in the early 1980s after NY 31 was altered to bypass Brockport to the southwest .
= = Route description = =
NY 31A begins at a four @-@ way intersection in the southern portion of the village of Medina . At this junction , NY 31 travels to the west and to the north ( eastbound ) , NY 63 travels to the north and to the south , and NY 31A travels to the east as Maple Ridge Road . It leaves the village shortly afterward , entering a rural area of Orleans County dominated by open fields . The route heads due east to Millville , a small hamlet situated at the junction of NY 31A and East Shelby Road in northeastern Shelby . At the eastern edge of the community , NY 31A meets West County House Road , the former routing of NY 31A toward Knowlesville .
Past Millville , NY 31A becomes West Lee Road and heads southeastward through farmland to the Barre town line , at which point the route turns back to the east and follows a slightly northeasterly alignment for 5 miles ( 8 km ) into the town of Albion . Here , NY 31A passes the Benjamin Franklin Gates House , situated on the north side of the route near a junction with Mix Road . Not far to the east , the highway meets NY 98 at a rural junction 3 miles ( 5 km ) south of the village of Albion and 50 yards ( 46 m ) north of the Albion town line . NY 31A , now East Lee Road , continues on a northeasterly line for another 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) before curving southward for 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) to avoid a marshy area near the eastern town line . The route briefly reenters Barre along this stretch , heading south and east across the town 's northeastern corner on its way into the town of Clarendon .
The highway retains an east – west alignment for 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) to the outskirts of the hamlet of Clarendon , the largest community on the route since Medina . At this point , NY 31A turns southeast to serve Clarendon , where NY 31A intersects NY 237 in the center of the hamlet . Upon crossing NY 237 , NY 31A changes names for the final time , becoming Fourth Section Road . The rural surroundings return outside of Clarendon hamlet as a mix of woodlands and fields , which NY 31A progresses generally northeasterly through to the hamlet of Bennetts Corners . Here , the amount of development along the route begins to increase , a change ushered in by a pair of large housing tracts in the eastern part of the community .
East of Bennetts Corners , the route takes on a more easterly alignment as it crosses into Monroe County , which contains just 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) of the 23 @-@ mile ( 37 km ) NY 31A . In Monroe County , the highway passes through a slightly more populated area on its way to a junction with NY 31 and NY 19 Truck southwest of the village of Brockport . Both NY 19 Truck and NY 31 enter the intersection from the north on Redman Road and turn east at Fourth Section Road , following the right @-@ of @-@ way of NY 31A eastward toward Brockport 's business district . The junction completes the alternate loop of NY 31 , which follows a parallel but more northerly routing between Medina and Brockport that takes it through the villages of Medina , Albion , and Holley . Along the way , NY 31 passes the campus of SUNY Brockport , situated 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) northeast of NY 31A 's eastern terminus .
= = History = =
Most of modern NY 31 west of Rochester — including the section between Gasport and the outskirts of Brockport — was originally designated as part of NY 3 when the first set of posted routes in New York were assigned in 1924 . In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , NY 3 was realigned between Middleport and Medina to follow what is now NY 31E . NY 3 's former routing between the two villages was designated as NY 3A . NY 3A was redesignated as NY 3B c . 1932 as part of a renumbering of NY 3 's suffixed routes . NY 3B was also extended eastward along Maple Ridge , County House , and Taylor Hill Roads to meet NY 31 at Knowlesville Station ( a hamlet in the town of Ridgeway ) by this time . The route was renumbered again c . 1935 , becoming NY 31A after NY 3 was replaced with a realigned NY 31 west of Rochester .
Farther east , the segment of modern NY 31A from Clarendon to Brockport and what is now NY 31 from NY 31A to NY 19 became NY 3B in the 1930 renumbering . Like NY 3A , NY 3B was renumbered to NY 3C c . 1932 ; however , it was also truncated to consist solely of the Monroe County portion of its routing at this time . The route now began at the Monroe – Orleans county line , where state maintenance of Fourth Section Road began , and ended at the junction of NY 63 ( now NY 19 ) and NY 3 ( NY 31 ) south of Brockport . NY 3C was redesignated as NY 31D c . 1935 following NY 31 's supplantation of NY 3 west of Rochester .
On January 1 , 1949 , NY 31 was rerouted between Middleport and Medina to use NY 31A between the two locations . NY 31A was truncated to its current western terminus in Medina as a result . It was substantially extended c . 1963 , however , to a new eastern terminus in Brockport . The highway was rerouted east of Millville to follow a series of previously unnumbered roads through Barre and Clarendon to Monroe County , where it supplanted NY 31D from the county line eastward . NY 31A was truncated slightly to its current eastern terminus in the early 1980s after NY 31 was rerouted to bypass Brockport to the west and south on NY 31A and Redman Road .
= = Major intersections = =
= Grand Street Bridge ( Connecticut ) =
The Grand Street Bridge was a double @-@ leaf deck @-@ girder bascule bridge in Bridgeport , Connecticut , United States , that spanned the Pequonnock River and connected Grand Street and Artic Street . It was one of three movable bridges planned by the City of Bridgeport in 1916 at the request of the War Department during World War I. Construction was completed in 1919 , but the delays surrounding the construction went to the Connecticut Supreme Court in case of Edward DeV . Tompkins , Inc. vs. City of Bridgeport , Connecticut . The court ruled in favor of Tompkins and awarded damages equal to the contract . In 1936 , the bridge had excessive settling and required the replacement of its southeast pier . As part of the repairs , a new floor and electrical system were installed . In 1965 , the floor was replaced with a steel grate on I @-@ beam floor . In 1984 , the eastern approach span was replaced and the northwest trunnion post was reconstructed . The bridge was closed in the 1990s and dismantled in 1999 .
= = Construction = =
Requests for bids for the Grand Street Bridge were announced in the trade publication Contractor , for the " substructure , superstructure and approaches " . Originally the deadline was set for April 6 , 1916 , but it was later extended to May 6 , 1916 . The June 1916 issue of Contractor announced that Edward DeVoe Tompkins , Inc . , obtained the contract with the lowest bid of $ 187 @,@ 000 . The contract , signed on May 16 , 1916 , stipulated that work on the bridge was to begin within 15 days and the project 's original deadline would be September 1 , 1917 .
The engineering firm which provided the design was the Strauss Bascule Bridge Company , and the fabricator of the steel was the Penn Bridge Company . The moving bridge had two bascule leaves , each 48 feet ( 15 m ) long that were connected by a 69 feet ( 21 m ) long deck @-@ girder approach , for a total overall length of 372 feet ( 113 m ) . The girders were 40 feet ( 12 m ) in width ; which were wider than the 37 @.@ 5 feet ( 11 @.@ 4 m ) bascules . The angle @-@ iron outriggers added another 7 @.@ 5 feet ( 2 @.@ 3 m ) on each side , making the bridge 's total width 55 feet ( 17 m ) . The original floor was made of wooden blocks atop wooden planks .
The contract called for the complete construction of the bridge , including the approaches on each side of the river and four piers with each consisting of two cylindrical columns of reinforced concrete . Construction of the bridge was complicated by the contract which stipulated that concrete had to be pumped dry , the concrete of each cylinder had to be poured in " one continuous operation " and that the wooden piles for the pier must project at least six feet into the concrete base . These stipulations required the use of a cofferdam to deposit the concrete , but boring in the river showed that it did not have a suitable bottom upon which to build . Tompkins would have to construct a 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) thick artificial bottom in order to proceed . To deposit in accordance with the contract , a tremie would be needed . A tremie is a pipe that concrete is passed through so it doesn 't contact the water and disintegrate .
The plans were stipulated to be presented by May 26 , but it first submitted on June 2 with the sketches of the design following on June 14 , 1916 . The project was delayed due to the consulting engineer 's proposals being denied by the Bridgeport bridge commission and the " ambiguous and contradictory requirements " advanced and by the position of the consulting engineer . The project was delayed for months because due to the consulting engineer 's discussions , via mail , between Bridgeport and Chicago . Construction of the concrete wing @-@ piles and slabs began around August 1 , 1916 and the substructure was nearly completed by January 31 , 1917 , the original deadline for that part of the project , but the issue with the construction of the piers had already greatly delayed the construction .
In early 1917 , Tompkins submitted a plan to attempt a pumping out of the constructed cofferdam , which it noted as dangerous to the crew . This plan was denied because there was no artificial seal in place . The commission did not want Tompkins to proceed until the commission consulted an advisory engineer . In April 1917 , William Burr was made the advisory engineer and made many changes to the original Strauss designs , most importantly the requirement that piers project into the concrete cylinders was stricken . Burr 's alterations called for an open caisson for the central piers which made impossible the projection of piles into the concrete and required dredging that was unnecessary under the initial Strauss plan . The seal for the end piers was thickened to 14 feet ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) and would be deposited through a tremie , as previously suggested by Tompkins . The Bridgeport bridge commission terminated the contract on August 20 , 1917 and notified Tompkins that it would complete the project . The commission had Tompkin 's crew forcibly ejected from the site on September 3 , 1917 and took possession of its equipment until October 19 , 1917 . While the contract allowed the equipment to be taken , it also stipulated that delays that were the fault of the city would result in an equal extension to the time lost and Tompkins would sue the City of Bridgeport . The City of Bridgeport hired another contractor to complete the bridge .
The cylindrical piers of the bridge were 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) in diameter and finished with an ashlar of cut granite . The completed bridge had its bascule leaves pivot on trunnions located 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) from the end of the girders . The bridge 's reinforced @-@ concrete counterweights , measuring 5 @.@ 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 7 m ) high by 11 @.@ 5 feet ( 3 @.@ 5 m ) wide , was supported by pivots at the ends of the girders . The trunnions were supported by box @-@ girder posts on the sides of the bascule leaves and each set of inside trunnion posts were braced by a girder ran both between them and to the operating mechanism . Earle Gear and Machine Company provided the operating mechanism for the bridge . The bascule leaves were raised by a motor that used reduction gears and engaged a pinion to move the rack quadrant to raise the bridge . A manual @-@ operation shaft was originally present so that it could be operated from the surface of the roadway , but it was later paved over . The operator 's house was located on the south side of the western approach , it originally housed the operator 's house and public bathrooms , but it was removed in 1936 . The plans originally dictated for a second station on the opposite end , but 1930s photos shows it was apparently never constructed .
= = Court case = =
Edward DeVoe Tompkins , Inc. suffered numerous delays in the construction of the bridge and sued the City of Bridgeport . The case went to the Connecticut Supreme Court in Edward DeV . Tompkins v. City of Bridgeport , Connecticut . Tompkins sued the City of Bridgeport for breach of contract on the grounds that City of Bridgeport was unresponsive , and did not clear the site as scheduled . Tompkins also cited other concerns relating to the design and construction of the bridge including the design engineers from the Strauss Bascule Bridge Company being located in Chicago . The City of Bridgeport alleged that Tompkins was incompetent and uncooperative , but the Connecticut Supreme Court disagreed and ruled in favor of Tompkins . The Court awarded Tompkins the full contract as damages .
= = Service Life = =
The Grand Street Bridge opened for traffic in 1919 , but had to be closed in 1932 after the southeast pier was excessively settled . The Connecticut Highway Department and federal government provided the funds required to remove the bascule leaves and replace the pier in 1936 . As a part of the renovations , a new floor and electrical system were installed . In 1965 , the bridge floor was replaced with steel grating atop 14 @-@ inch ( 36 @-@ cm ) I @-@ beam stringers . In 1984 , the eastern approach span and northwest trunnion post , the point where the bridge pivots , were reconstructed as part of what would be the bridge 's last major renovations . Other minor repairs to the bridge 's steel and masonry were done during the project . The bridge was closed in the 1990s and it was dismantled in 1999 . In 2010 , the United States Coast Guard struck the rule pertaining to the operation of the bridge due to its removal . Previously , the rule stated that the bridge need not open for the passage of vessels .
= Cricket ( insect ) =
Crickets ( also known as " true crickets " ) , of the family Gryllidae , are insects related to bush crickets , and , more distantly , to grasshoppers . The Gryllidae have mainly cylindrical bodies , round heads , and long antennae . Behind the head is a smooth , robust pronotum . The abdomen ends in a pair of long cerci ( spikes ) ; females have a long , cylindrical ovipositor . The hind legs have enlarged femora ( thighs ) , providing power for jumping . The front wings are adapted as tough , leathery elytra ( wing covers ) , and some crickets chirp by rubbing parts of these together . The hind wings are membranous and folded when not in use for flight ; many species , however , are flightless . The largest members of the family are the bull crickets , Brachytrupes , which are up to 5 cm ( 2 in ) long .
More than 900 species of crickets are described ; the Gryllidae are distributed all around the world except at latitudes 55 ° or higher , with the greatest diversity being in the tropics . They occur in varied habitats from grassland , bushes , and forests to marshes , beaches , and caves . Crickets are mainly nocturnal , and are best known for the loud , persistent , chirping song of males trying to attract females , although some species are mute . The singing species have good hearing , via the tympani ( eardrums ) on the tibiae of the front legs .
Crickets often appear as characters in literature . The Talking Cricket features in Carlo Collodi 's 1883 children 's book , The Adventures of Pinocchio , and in films based on the book . The eponymous insect is central to Charles Dickens 's 1845 The Cricket on the Hearth , as is the chirping insect in George Selden 's 1960 The Cricket in Times Square . Crickets are celebrated in poems by William Wordsworth , John Keats , and Du Fu . They are kept as pets in countries from China to Europe , sometimes for cricket fighting . Crickets are efficient at converting their food into body mass , making them a candidate for food production . They are used as food in Southeast Asia , where they are sold deep @-@ fried in markets as snacks . They are also used to feed carnivorous pets and zoo animals . In Brazilian folklore , crickets feature as omens of various events .
= = Description = =
Crickets are small to medium @-@ sized insects with mostly cylindrical , somewhat vertically flattened bodies . The head is spherical with long slender antennae arising from cone @-@ shaped scapes ( first segments ) and just behind these are two large compound eyes . On the forehead are three ocelli ( simple eyes ) . The pronotum ( first thoracic segment ) is trapezoidal in shape , robust , and well @-@ sclerotinized . It is smooth and has neither dorsal or lateral keels ( ridges ) .
At the tip of the abdomen is a pair of long cerci ( paired appendages on rearmost segment ) , and in females , the ovipositor is cylindrical , long and narrow , smooth and shiny . The femora ( third segments ) of the back pair of legs are greatly enlarged for jumping . The tibiae ( fourth segments ) of the hind legs are armed with a number of moveable spurs , the arrangement of which is characteristic of each species . The tibiae of the front legs bear one or more tympani which are used for the reception of sound .
The wings lie flat on the body and are very variable in size between species , being reduced in size in some crickets and missing in others . The fore wings are elytra made of tough chitin , acting as a protective shield for the soft parts of the body and in males , bear the stridulatory organs for the production of sound . The hind pair is membranous , folding fan @-@ wise under the fore wings . In many species , the wings are not adapted for flight .
The largest members of the family are the 5 cm ( 2 in ) -long bull crickets ( Brachytrupes ) which excavate burrows a metre or more deep . The tree crickets ( Oecanthinae ) are delicate white or pale green insects with transparent fore wings , while the field crickets ( Gryllinae ) are robust brown or black insects .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Crickets have a cosmopolitan distribution , being found in all parts of the world with the exception of cold regions at latitudes higher than about 55 ° North and South . They have colonised many large and small islands , sometimes flying over the sea to reach these locations , or perhaps conveyed on floating timber or by human activity . The greatest diversity occurs in tropical locations , such as in Malaysia , where 88 species were heard chirping from a single location near Kuala Lumpur . A greater number than this could have been present because some species are mute .
Crickets are found in many habitats . Members of several subfamilies are found in the upper tree canopy , in bushes , and among grasses and herbs . They also occur on the ground and in caves , and some are subterranean , excavating shallow or deep burrows . Some make galleries in rotting wood , and certain beach @-@ dwelling species can run and jump over the surface of pools .
= = Biology = =
= = = Defence = = =
Crickets are relatively defenceless , soft @-@ bodied insects . Most species are nocturnal and spend the day hidden in cracks , under bark , inside curling leaves , under stones or fallen logs , in leaf litter , or in the cracks in the ground that develop in dry weather . Some excavate their own shallow holes in rotting wood or underground and fold in their antennae to conceal their presence . Some of these burrows are temporary shelters , used for a single day , but others serve as more permanent residences and places for mating and laying eggs . Crickets burrow by loosening the soil with the mandibles and then carrying it with the limbs , flicking it backwards with the hind legs or pushing it with the head .
Other defensive strategies are the use of camouflage , fleeing , and aggression . Some species have adopted colourings , shapes , and patterns that make it difficult for predators that hunt by sight to detect them . They tend to be dull shades of brown , grey , and green that blend into their background , and desert species tend to be pale . Some species can fly , but the mode of flight tends to be clumsy , so the most usual response to danger is to scuttle away to find a hiding place .
= = = Chirping = = =
Most male crickets make a loud chirping sound by stridulation . The stridulatory organ is located on the tegmen , or fore wing , which is leathery in texture . A large vein runs along the centre of each tegmen , with comb @-@ like serrations on its edge forming a file @-@ like structure , and at the rear edge of the tegmen is a scraper . The tegmina are held at an angle to the body and rhythmically raised and lowered which causes the scraper on one wing to rasp on the file on the other . The central part of the tegmen contains the " harp " , an area of thick , sclerotinized membrane which resonates and amplifies the volume of sound , as does the pocket of air between the tegmina and the body wall . Most female crickets lack the necessary adaptations to stridulate , so make no sound .
Several types of cricket songs are in the repertoire of some species . The calling song attracts females and repels other males , and is fairly loud . The courting song is used when a female cricket is near and encourages her to mate with the caller . A triumphal song is produced for a brief period after a successful mating , and may reinforce the mating bond to encourage the female to lay some eggs rather than find another male . An aggressive song is triggered by contact chemoreceptors on the antennae that detect the presence of another male cricket .
Crickets chirp at different rates depending on their species and the temperature of their environment . Most species chirp at higher rates the higher the temperature is ( about 62 chirps a minute at 13 ° C in one common species ; each species has its own rate ) . The relationship between temperature and the rate of chirping is known as Dolbear 's law . According to this law , counting the number of chirps produced in 14 seconds by the snowy tree cricket , common in the United States , and adding 40 will approximate the temperature in degrees Fahrenheit .
In 1975 , Dr. William H. Cade discovered that the parasitic tachinid fly Ormia ochracea is attracted to the song of the cricket , and uses it to locate the male to deposit her larvae on him . It was the first known example of a natural enemy that locates its host or prey using the mating signal . Since then , many species of crickets have been found to be carrying the same parasitic fly , or related species . In response to this selective pressure , a mutation leaving males unable to chirp was observed amongst a population of field crickets on the Hawaiian island of Kauai , enabling these crickets to elude their parasitoid predators .
= = = Flight = = =
Some species , such as the ground crickets ( Nemobiinae ) , are wingless ; others have small fore wings and no hind wings ( Copholandrevus ) , others lack hind wings and have shortened fore wings in females only , while others are macropterous , with the hind wings longer than the fore wings . In Teleogryllus , the proportion of macropterous individuals varies from very low to 100 % . Probably , most species with hind wings longer than fore wings engage in flight .
Some species , such as Gryllus assimilis , take off , fly , and land efficiently and well , while other species are clumsy fliers . In some species , the hind wings are shed , leaving wing stumps , usually after dispersal of the insect by flight . In other species , they may be pulled off and consumed by the cricket itself or by another individual , probably providing a nutritional boost .
Gryllus firmus exhibits wing polymorphism ; some individuals have fully functional , long hind wings and others have short wings and cannot fly . The short @-@ winged females have smaller flight muscles , greater ovarian development , and produce more eggs , so the polymorphism adapts the cricket for either dispersal or reproduction . In some long @-@ winged individuals , the flight muscles deteriorate during adulthood and the insect 's reproductive capabilities improve .
= = = Diet = = =
Captive crickets are omnivorous ; when deprived of their natural diet , they accept a wide range of organic foodstuffs . Some species are completely herbivorous , feeding on flowers , fruit , and leaves , with ground @-@ based species consuming seedlings , grasses , pieces of leaf , and the shoots of young | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
plants . Others are more predatory and include in their diet invertebrate eggs , larvae , pupae , moulting insects , scale insects , and aphids . Many are scavengers and consume various organic remains , decaying plants , seedlings , and fungi . In captivity , many species have been successfully reared on a diet of ground , commercial dry dog food , supplemented with lettuce and aphids .
Crickets have relatively powerful jaws , and several species have been known to bite humans .
= = = Reproduction and lifecycle = = =
Male crickets establish their dominance over each other by aggression . They start by lashing each other with their antennae and flaring their mandibles . Unless one retreats at this stage , they resort to grappling , at the same time each emitting calls that are quite unlike those uttered in other circumstances . When one achieves dominance , it sings loudly , while the loser remains silent .
Females are generally attracted to males by their calls , though in nonstridulatory species , some other mechanism must be involved . After the pair has made antennal contact , a courtship period may occur during which the character of the call changes . The female mounts the male and a single spermatophore is transferred to the external genitalia of the female . Sperm flows from this into the female 's oviduct over a period of a few minutes or up to an hour , depending on species . After copulation , the female may remove or eat the spermatophore ; males may attempt to prevent this with various ritualised behaviours . The female may mate on several occasions with different males .
Most crickets lay their eggs in the soil or inside the stems of plants , and to do this , female crickets have a long , needle @-@ like or sabre @-@ like egg @-@ laying organ called an ovipositor . Some ground @-@ dwelling species have dispensed with this , either depositing their eggs in an underground chamber or pushing them into the wall of a burrow . The short @-@ tailed cricket ( Anurogryllus ) excavates a burrow with chambers and a defecating area , lays its eggs in a pile on a chamber floor , and after the eggs have hatched , feeds the juveniles for about a month .
Crickets are hemimetabolic insects , whose lifecycle consists of an egg stage , a larval or nymph stage that increasingly resembles the adult form as the nymph grows , and an adult stage . The egg hatches into a nymph about the size of a fruit fly . This passes through about 10 larval stages , and with each successive moult , it become more like an adult . After the final moult , the genitalia and wings are fully developed , but a period of maturation is needed before the cricket is ready to breed .
The species Gryllus bimaculatus exhibits the reproductive pattern of polyandry . This sexual selective pattern increases the overall fitness of the species and promotes genetic variation . The females select and mate with multiple viable sperm donors and exhibit a distinct preference to novel mates .
= = = Inbreeding avoidance = = =
Female Teleogryllus oceanicus crickets from natural populations mate polyandrously and store sperm from multiple males . Female crickets exert a postcopulatory fertilization bias in favour of unrelated males to avoid the genetic consequences of inbreeding . Fertilization bias depends on the control of sperm transport to the sperm storage organs . The inhibition of sperm storage by female crickets can act as a form of cryptic female choice to avoid the severe negative effects of inbreeding .
In controlled @-@ breeding experiments with the cricket Gryllus firmus , seven inbred lines were tested , and during 14 generations of brother – sister matings , nymphal weight and early fecundity declined substantially . This observed inbreeding depression appeared to be due to an increased frequency of homozygous combinations of deleterious recessive alleles generated by the inbreeding ( thereby decreasing fitness ) . These results support the general idea that the principal benefit of outcrossing is the masking of deleterious recessive alleles by wild @-@ type alleles .
= = = Predators , parasites , and pathogens = = =
Crickets have many natural enemies and are subject to various pathogens and parasites . They are eaten by large numbers of vertebrate and invertebrate predators and their hard parts are often found when the contents of animal 's guts are examined . Mediterranean house geckos ( Hemidactylus turcicus ) have learned that although a calling decorated cricket ( Gryllodes supplicans ) may be safely positioned in an out @-@ of @-@ reach burrow , female crickets attracted to the call can be intercepted and eaten .
The entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae attacks and kills crickets and has been used as the basis of control in pest populations . The insects are also affected by the cricket paralysis virus , which has caused high levels of fatalities in cricket @-@ rearing facilities . Other fatal diseases that have been identified in mass @-@ rearing establishments include Rickettsia and three further viruses . The diseases may spread more rapidly if the crickets become cannibalistic and eat the corpses .
Red parasitic mites sometimes attach themselves to the dorsal region of crickets and may greatly affect them . The horsehair worm Paragordius varius is an internal parasite and can control the behaviour of its cricket host and cause it to enter water , where the parasite continues its lifecycle and the cricket likely drowns . The larvae of the sarcophagid fly Sarcophaga kellyi develop inside the body cavity of field crickets . Female parasitic wasps of Rhopalosoma lay their eggs on crickets , and their developing larvae gradually devour their hosts . Other wasps in the family Scelionidae are egg parasitoids , seeking out batches of eggs laid by crickets in plant tissues in which to insert their eggs .
The fly Ormia ochracea has very acute hearing and targets calling male crickets . It locates its prey by ear and then lays its eggs nearby . The developing larvae burrow inside any crickets with which they come in contact and in the course of a week or so , devour what remains of the host before pupating . In Florida , the parasitic flies were only present in the autumn , and at that time of year , the males sang less but for longer periods . A trade @-@ off exists for the male between attracting females and being parasitized .
= = Phylogeny and taxonomy = =
The phylogenetic relationships of the Gryllidae , summarized by Darryl Gwynne in 1995 from his own work ( using mainly anatomical characteristics ) and that of earlier authors , are shown in the following cladogram , with the Orthoptera divided into two main groups , Ensifera ( crickets sensu lato ) and Caelifera ( grasshoppers ) . Fossil Ensifera are found from the late Carboniferous period ( 300 Mya ) onwards , and the true crickets , Gryllidae , from the Triassic period ( 250 to 200 Mya ) .
Cladogram after Gwynne , 1995 :
A phylogenetic study by Jost & Shaw in 2006 using sequences from 18S , 28S , and 16S rRNA supported the monophyly of Ensifera . Most ensiferan families were also found to be monophyletic , and the superfamily Gryllacridoidea was found to include Stenopelmatidae , Anostostomatidae , Gryllacrididae and Lezina . Schizodactylidae and Grylloidea were shown to be sister taxa , and Rhaphidophoridae and Tettigoniidae were found to be more closely related to Grylloidea than had previously been thought . The authors stated that " a high degree of conflict exists between the molecular and morphological data , possibly indicating that much homoplasy is present in Ensifera , particularly in acoustic structures . " They considered that tegmen stridulation and tibial tympanae are ancestral to Ensifera and have been lost on multiple occasions , especially within the Gryllidae .
More than 900 species of Gryllidae ( true crickets ) are known . The family is divided into these subfamily groups , subfamilies , and extinct genera ( not placed within the subfamilies ) :
= = In human culture = =
= = = Folklore and myth = = =
The folklore and mythology surrounding crickets is extensive . The singing of crickets in the folklore of Brazil and elsewhere is sometimes taken to be a sign of impending rain , or of a financial windfall . In Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca 's chronicles of the Spanish conquest of the Americas , the sudden chirping of a cricket heralded the sighting of land for his crew , just as their water supply had run out . In Caraguatatuba , Brazil , a black cricket in a room is said to portend illness ; a gray one , money ; and a green one , hope . In Alagoas state , northeast Brazil , a cricket announces death , thus it is killed if it chirps in a house . In Barbados , a loud cricket means money is coming in ; hence , a cricket must not be killed or evicted if it chirps inside a house . However , another type of cricket that is less noisy forebodes illness or death .
= = = In literature = = =
Crickets feature as major characters in novels and children 's books . Charles Dickens 's 1845 novella The Cricket on the Hearth , divided into sections called " Chirps " , tells the story of a cricket which chirps on the hearth and acts as a guardian angel to a family . Carlo Collodi 's 1883 children 's book " Le avventure di Pinocchio " ( The Adventures of Pinocchio ) featured " Il Grillo Parlante " ( The Talking Cricket ) as one of its characters . George Selden 's 1960 children 's book The Cricket in Times Square tells the story of Chester the cricket from Connecticut who joins a family and their other animals , and is taken to see Times Square in New York . The story , which won the Newbery Honor , came to Selden on hearing a real cricket chirp in Times Square .
The French entomologist Jean @-@ Henri Fabre 's popular Souvenirs Entomoloqiques devotes a whole chapter to the cricket , discussing its construction of a burrow and its song @-@ making . The account is mainly of the field cricket , but also mentions the Italian cricket .
Crickets have from time to time appeared in poetry . William Wordsworth 's 1805 poem The Cottager to Her Infant includes the couplet " The kitten sleeps upon the hearth , The crickets long have ceased their mirth " . John Keats 's 1819 poem Ode to Autumn includes the lines " Hedge @-@ crickets sing ; and now with treble soft / The redbreast whistles from a garden @-@ croft " . The Chinese Tang dynasty poet Du Fu ( 712 – 770 ) wrote a poem that in the translation by J. P. Seaton begins " House cricket ... Trifling thing . And yet how his mournful song moves us . Out in the grass his cry was a tremble , But now , he trills beneath our bed , to share his sorrow . "
= = = As pets and fighting animals = = =
Crickets are kept as pets and are considered good luck in some countries ; in China , they are sometimes kept in cages or in hollowed @-@ out gourds specially created in novel shapes . The practice was common in Japan for thousands of years ; it peaked in the 19th century , though crickets are still sold at pet shops . It is also common to have them as caged pets in some European countries , particularly in the Iberian Peninsula . Cricket fighting is a traditional Chinese pastime that dates back to the Tang dynasty ( 618 – 907 ) . Originally an indulgence of emperors , cricket fighting later became popular among commoners . The dominance and fighting ability of males does not depend on strength alone ; it has been found that they become more aggressive after certain pre @-@ fight experiences such as isolation , or when defending a refuge . Crickets forced to fly for a short while will afterwards fight for two to three times longer than they otherwise would .
= = = As food = = =
In the southern part of Asia including Cambodia , Laos , Thailand and Vietnam , crickets are commonly eaten as a snack , prepared by deep frying the soaked and cleaned insects . In Thailand , there are 20 @,@ 000 farmers rearing crickets , with an estimated production of 7 @,@ 500 tons per year and United Nation 's FAO has implemented a project in Laos to improve cricket farming and consequently food security .
The food conversion efficiency of house crickets ( Acheta domesticus ) is 1 @.@ 7 , some five times higher than that for beef cattle , and if their fecundity is taken into account , 15 to 20 times higher .
More and more small companies in western countries are processing crickets to convert them in powder ( often referred to as flour ) to produce processed food products like protein bars , cricket pasta , and cookies . This innovation is part of a general diffusion of edible insects as food . Crickets are reared on a large scale as food for carnivorous zoo and laboratory animals ; they may be " gut loaded " with additional minerals , such as calcium , to provide a balanced diet for predators such as tree frogs ( Hylidae ) .
= = = In popular culture = = =
Cricket characters feature in the Walt Disney animated movies Pinocchio ( 1940 ) , where Jiminy Cricket becomes the title character 's conscience , and in Mulan ( 1998 ) , where Cri @-@ kee is carried in a cage as a symbol of luck , in the Asian manner . The Crickets was the name of Buddy Holly 's rock and roll band ; Holly 's home town baseball team in the 1990s was called the Lubbock Crickets . Cricket is the name of a US children 's literary magazine founded in 1973 ; it uses a cast of insect characters . The sound of crickets is often used in media to emphasize silence , often for comic effect after an awkward joke , in a similar manner to tumbleweed .
= Smartsheet =
Smartsheet is a software as a service ( SaaS ) application for collaboration and work management that is developed and marketed by Smartsheet.com , Inc . It is used to assign tasks , track project progress , manage calendars , share documents and manage other work . It has a spreadsheet @-@ like user interface . As of November 2014 , Smartsheet is used by 5 million people at 55 @,@ 000 organizations . It was initially unpopular until a redesign in 2010 , which was followed by an increase in adoption and larger funding rounds .
= = Smartsheet service = =
Smartsheet is used to collaborate on project timelines , documents , calendars , tasks and other work . It combines some of the functionality of Microsoft Excel , Project , Access and Sharepoint . It competes with Microsoft Project . As of November 2014 , there are 5 million users of Smartsheet at 55 @,@ 000 organizations .
= = = Features = = =
According to Forbes , Smartsheet has " a relatively simple " user interface . The interface centers on " smartsheets , " which are similar to spreadsheets typically found in Microsoft Excel . Each smartsheet can have its rows expanded or collapsed to see individual tasks or large @-@ scale project progress respectively . Tasks can be sorted by deadline , priority or the person assigned to it . If a spreadsheet contains dates , Smartsheet will create a calendar view .
Each row in a smartsheet may have files attached to it , emails stored within it , and a discussion board associated with it . When a new smartsheet is created , notifications are pushed out to staff to populate its rows and columns . As information is updated , other smartsheets tracking the same task , project or data @-@ point are updated automatically . The service also has alerts for when a task deadline is coming up , and keeps track of document versions .
Smartsheet can import data from Microsoft Office or Google applications . The software integrates with services like Salesforce.com , Dropbox and Amazon Web Services . There is also a Smartsheet mobile app for Android and iPhone operating systems . Smartsheet is sold on a subscription basis with no free version .
= = = History = = =
Smartsheet was first introduced in 2006 . According to the company 's co @-@ founder , Brent Frei , initial adoption was slow because the software was too difficult to use . At the end of its first year , it had only 10 @,@ 000 users . The company began making changes to the software in 2008 , eventually cutting 60 percent of its features for the purpose of making it more user @-@ friendly . Following the 2010 launch of the redesign , adoption grew to 1 million users at 20 @,@ 000 organizations by 2012 .
Integration with Microsoft Office 365 and Microsoft Azure were added in 2014 . That October the Account Map tool was introduced , which uses an algorithm to visualize the flow of work across groups of employees . In August 2014 , version 2 @.@ 0 of the Smartsheet iOS app was introduced . It made a spreadsheet @-@ like user interface the focus of the app 's user interface , whereas previously the mobile interface was different than the spreadsheet @-@ oriented desktop version .
In 2015 , Smartsheet started introducing closer integrations with Microsoft Office products , in part thanks to changes Microsoft was making in their products to work better with third @-@ party software . In January 2015 , Smartsheet added support for Microsoft 's identity management software Azure Active Directory , which allowed users to log in to products like Excel and Smartsheet with the same login . Users can also now make changes to smartsheets directly from Microsoft Outlook .
= = Smartsheet.com , Inc . = =
Smartsheet.com , Inc. is a private company that develops and markets the Smartsheet application . As of April 2015 , it has about 200 employees and is headquartered in Bellevue , Washington . It operates data centers in Texas , Virginia and Illinois .
The company was founded in the summer of 2006 , shortly after co @-@ founder Brent Frei sold his prior company , Onyx Software . Initially it was funded mostly by Frei . About a year after its founding , Smartsheet had raised $ 4 million in funding and had just nine employees . By early 2012 it had raised $ 8 @.@ 2 million in funding over three rounds and hired its first salesperson .
After the Smartsheet software was redesigned in 2010 , the company 's revenues grew by more than 100 percent each year , for four consecutive years . It raised $ 26 million in funding in December 2012 and another $ 35 million in May 2015 .
= The Dorchester =
The Dorchester is a five @-@ star luxury hotel on Park Lane and Deanery Street , London , to the east of Hyde Park . It is one of the world 's most prestigious and expensive hotels . The Dorchester opened on 18 April 1931 , and still retains its 1930s furnishings and ambiance despite being modernised .
Throughout its history the hotel has been closely associated with the rich and famous . During the 1930s it became known as a haunt of numerous writers and artists such as poet Cecil Day @-@ Lewis , novelist Somerset Maugham , and the painter Sir Alfred Munnings . It held prestigious literary gatherings , notably the " Foyles Literary Luncheons " , an event the hotel still hosts today . During the Second World War , the strength of its construction gave the hotel the reputation of being one of London 's safest buildings , and a host of political and military luminaries chose it as their London residence . Queen Elizabeth II attended the Dorchester when she was a princess on the day prior to the announcement of her engagement to the Prince Philip , Duke of Edinburgh on 10 July 1947 . The hotel has since become particularly popular with film actors , models and rock stars , and Elizabeth Taylor and Richard Burton frequently stayed at the hotel throughout the 1960s and 1970s . The hotel became a Grade II Listed Building in January 1981 , and was subsequently purchased by the Sultan of Brunei in 1985 . It belongs to the Dorchester Collection , which in turn is owned by the Brunei Investment Agency ( BIA ) , an arm of the Ministry of Finance of Brunei .
In the 1950s , theatrical designer Oliver Messel made a number of notable changes to the interior of the hotel , incorporating aspects of theatrical design into the hotel interior . He designed the lavish apartments on the 7th and 8th floors ; the Oliver Messel Suite is named after him , designed in the Georgian country house style . Between 1988 and 1990 , the hotel was completely renovated by Bob Lush of the Richmond Design Group at a cost of US $ 100 million .
Today The Dorchester has five restaurants : The Grill , Alain Ducasse , The Spatisserie , The Promenade , and China Tang . Alain Ducasse 's restaurant is one of the UK 's four 3 @-@ Michelin @-@ starred restaurants . Afternoon tea , a tradition which has taken place at the hotel since its opening in 1931 , is served every day of the week at five in the afternoon in The Promenade and the Spatisserie . Harry Craddock , one of the world 's most famous barmen of the 1930s , invented the " Dorchester of London " cocktail here at the Dorchester Bar . A well @-@ lit plane tree stands at the edge of the hotel in the front garden , and was named one of the " Great Trees of London " by the London Tree Forum and Countryside Commission in 1997 .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
The site was originally part of the Manor of Hyde , which was given to William the Conqueror by Geoffrey de Mandeville . Joseph Damer acquired it in the 18th century and a large building was constructed in 1751 . It was named Dorchester House in 1792 after Damer became the Earl of Dorchester . In the early 19th century it became the Hertford House after it was purchased by Francis Seymour @-@ Conway , the 3rd Marquess of Hertford , and alterations were made to it , inspired by the Villa Farnese of Rome . Following the death of Hertford , it was converted into a mansion by Captain Robert Stayner Holford .
The background to the development of the Dorchester Hotel is complicated . Sir Malcolm McAlpine , a partner in the building company , Sir Robert McAlpine & Sons , and Sir Frances Towle , the managing director of Gordon Hotels Ltd . , shared a vision of creating the ‘ perfect hotel ’ : ultramodern and ultra @-@ efficient , with all the conveniences modern technology could supply . The two companies purchased Hertford House in 1929 and quickly demolished it . The British Broadcasting Corporation ( BBC ) had also shown an interest in purchasing it and had almost done so prior to the McAlpine acquisition , but instead they turned their attention to Foley House . The purchase and destruction of Hertford House was part of significant redevelopment which took place on Park Lane during this period ; it followed the gutting of Grosvenor House and the building of the Grosvenor Hotel , which was completed in 1929 .
= = = Construction = = =
Sir Owen Williams was commissioned to design the new hotel , using reinforced concrete to allow the creation of large internal spaces without support pillars , but he abandoned the project in February 1930 and was replaced with William Curtis Green . James Maude Richards , hired by Williams , served as an architectural assistant within the all @-@ engineer staff . Percy Morley Horder , consulting architect to Gordon 's Hotels , had not been consulted during the design process and , after seeing the plan , resigned from the project , remarking to The Observer that the design was ill @-@ suited for the location , assuming the concrete was to be left unpainted and that the insulation would be minimal . Some 40 @,@ 000 tonnes of earth were excavated to make room for the hotel 's extensive basement which is one @-@ third of the size of the hotel above the surface . The upper eight floors were erected in just 10 weeks , supported on a massive 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) thick reinforced concrete deck that forms the roof of the first floor . With the development of the Dorchester , concerns were raised that Park Lane would soon become New York City 's Fifth Avenue .
= = = 1931 – 1945 = = =
The new Dorchester Hotel was feted with a grand opening on 18 April ( 21 April also cited ) 1931 by Lady Violet Astor . The Dorchester quickly gained reputation as a luxury hotel . During the 1930s it became known as a haunt of numerous writers and artists such as poet Cecil Day @-@ Lewis , novelist Somerset Maugham , and the painter Sir Alfred Munnings . There were prestigious literary gatherings , including " Foyles Literary Luncheons " , an event the hotel still hosts . Shortly after the opening , Sir Percival David , a leading admirer of Chinese porcelain , moved his growing collection from the Mayfair Hotel to the Dorchester , where he kept it in his suites for many years . Danny Kaye began appearing in cabaret at the hotel in the 1930s , initially earning £ 50 a week . Many blues and jazz artists appeared at the hotel , including Alberta Hunter and the Jack Jackson Orchestra . In 1934 , Hunter and her orchestra recorded Noël Coward 's " I Travel Alone " and Cole Porter 's " Miss Ortis Regrets " at the hotel ; both Coward and Porter were fans . It also became a rendezvous for many businessmen ; it was at the Dorchester that British Petroleum formed a joint Collaborate Committee with ICI in 1943 .
During the Second World War , the strength of its construction gave the hotel the reputation of being one of London 's safest buildings . On its opening , Sir Malcolm McAlpine declared it to be " bomb @-@ proof , earthquake @-@ proof and fireproof , " and the only damage inflicted on the building by the Luftwaffe during the war was several broken windows . Some felt the communal air @-@ raid shelter in the basement to be insufficiently exclusive and retreated to the hotel 's underground gymnasium and Turkish baths , which had been converted into a shelter by Victor Cazalet . Its wartime clientele included such political and military luminaries as Lord Halifax ( Foreign Minister ) , Oliver Stanley ( Minister for War ) , Air Chief Marshal Sir Charles Portal ( Chief of the Air Staff ) , Duff Cooper ( with his wife Lady Diana Cooper ) , Oliver Lyttleton ( President of the Board of Trade ) and Duncan Sandys ( Financial Secretary to the War Office ) . Halifax and his wife took eight rooms as well as a chapel in the hotel , and when possible he enjoyed trysts with his mistress , Alexandra " Baba " Metcalfe , who was also staying in the hotel and concurrently having an affair with Dino Grandi , Mussolini 's representative in London . General Dwight D. Eisenhower took a suite on the first floor ( now the Eisenhower Suite ) in 1942 after having previously stayed at Claridge 's and in 1944 made it his headquarters ; Kay Summersby , his chauffeur and purported mistress , and Roosevelt ’ s representative Averell Harriman also stayed there thanks to its reputation as a safe haven . During a dinner party which Harriman attended in the Dorchester , the bombing was so intense that guests came down to join him there as it was safer than in the upper @-@ floor rooms . Bostonian Sherry Mangan of Time was one of several American correspondents who stayed at the hotel during the war , meeting the Trotskyist Sam Gordon in 1944 who asked if the Dorchester was safe from air raids , to which Mangan assured him that " every fifth columnist in London is staying here " . Other of the hotel 's guests reflected the directors ' wide @-@ ranging political beliefs : it was at once the base for the Zionist movement 's leaders , including Chaim Weizmann , as well as a group of upper @-@ class British anti @-@ Semites , including Margaret Greville . According to Cecil Beaton the clientele was a " mixed brew " ; to its wartime chronicler , it was " a building in which the respectable and the dubious mixed by the thousand , knocking back cocktails and indulging in careless talk " . In March 1945 , Ernest Hemingway and Time correspondent and lover Mary Welsh stayed at the Dorchester , where they were entertained by Emerald , Lady Cunard , who had a three @-@ room suite on the seventh floor .
= = = Post @-@ war = = =
In 1949 , the 150th anniversary of Alexander Pushkin 's birth was organized at the hotel by the Society of Cultural Relations with the USSR , attended by the Soviet chargé d 'affaires , the Polish ambassador , the Romanian minister , and Cecil Day @-@ Lewis , raising Mi5 's suspicions that he still had communist sympathies , a contention he later denounced . In the post @-@ war period , the Dorchester became one of the most popular hotels in London for actors and entertainers , and the banqueting rooms and suites became known for their press conferences and parties . Diners at the Dorchester included Cyril Connolly , T. S. Eliot , Harold Nicolson , and Edith Sitwell , with a clientele of luminaries such as Ralph Richardson , Elizabeth Taylor , Alfred Hitchcock , and Barbra Streisand . Queen Elizabeth II attended the Dorchester when she was a princess on the day prior to the announcement of her engagement to the Prince Philip , Duke of Edinburgh on 10 July 1947 . Prince Philip also held his stag night party at the hotel , which has been documented in a plaque .
When Said bin Taimur of Oman was ousted in a coup in July 1970 and replaced with his son Qaboos bin Said , he was sent in exile and lived at the Dorchester until his death in 1972 . The McAlpine family owned the hotel until 1977 when they sold it to a consortium of businessmen from the Middle East headed by the Sultan of Brunei . On 3 June 1982 , Shlomo Argov , the Israeli ambassador to the United Kingdom was shot and seriously injured in an assassination attempt as he left the Dorchester . The attack was the immediate cause for the 1982 Lebanon War .
In 1985 , the hotel was purchased by the Sultan of Brunei . The hotel is currently owned by the Dorchester Collection , which in turn is owned by the Brunei Investment Agency ( BIA ) , an arm of the Ministry of Finance of Brunei . The Dorchester Collection owns luxury hotels in the United Kingdom , the United States , France , Switzerland and Italy . In 1988 , the hotel closed for two years for a major refurbishment .
In June 1998 the brother of the Sultan of Brunei , Prince Jefri Bolkiah , was sued by his former business partners in a case that was settled out of court . During the case the Manoukians claimed that Prince Jefri kept 40 prostitutes at a time at the Dorchester . In 1999 , the hotel hosted the first ever Pride of Britain Awards . In March 2002 , a robbery took place in the lobby of the hotel when thieves wearing ski masks smashed the jewelry cabinets with a sledgehammer and took off with jewels . The Dorchester celebrated its 80th anniversary in 2011 . To mark the event , the charity ‘ Trees for Cities ’ planted eighty ‘ future great trees ’ around the capital .
= = Architecture = =
= = = Exterior = = =
The architectural style adopted by William Curtis Green , largely based on Owen William 's design , was a departure from the Neoclassical with its reinforced concrete covered over with terrazzo slabs . British Modernists were disappointed with the result , describing Green 's adaptation as , " a genteel period piece which looks the compromise it is " . In comparison to some of the other hotels in London such as the Lanesborough , the building 's exterior is unremarkable . It is eight storeys high aside from the ground floor , with the central bay containing three windows on each floor . Christopher Matthew has stated that he thinks of the Dorchester as a " rather American hotel " , not only because of the strong association with American actors such as Elizabeth Taylor , but because the sweeping 1930s facade reminded him of many of those which appeared in American film musicals . However , he notes that the hotel still remains " very much an English hotel " . The hotel became a Grade II Listed Building in January 1981 .
= = = Interior = = =
The interior displays a " subtle amalgam of styles " , testament to the number of different designers involved over the years , including William Curtis Green , Oliver Ford , Alberto Pinto and Oliver Messel . Green designed the original interior which is still retained in part . Kim Einhorn believes that this fusion of style was achieved tastefully and has remarked that the Dorchester Hotel is " a good example of somewhere it may be better to add decor rather than completely re @-@ invent " . DK Eyewitness describes the Dorchester as " the epitome of the glamorous luxury hotel , with an outrageously lavish lobby and a star @-@ studded history " . Rooms include the Grill Room , the Ballroom , the Gold Room , the Crush Hall , the ( former ) Oriental Restaurant , and the Dorchester Bar . The Ballroom was built to accommodate some 1 @,@ 000 guests . Thomas Prebensen Steen , in his book Remarkable hotels of Europe , describes the doors of the hotel , " Effectively set off by the ivory walls between the pilasters behind the row of Corinthian columns , the doorways are easily recognised as decorative masterpieces in their own right : dominated by stuccoed , classic pediments decorated with friezes and gilded details , these impressive portals , with either double or single , richly panelled Georgian mahogany doors , make a regal link between the Promenade and Dorchester 's renowned , stunning banqueting rooms . " Gold leaf and marble remain distinct features of the public rooms of the hotel , including the restaurants , with features more reminiscent of an English country house than a hotel . Considerable efforts to make the rooms soundproof at the Dorchester were made from the outset ; the exterior walls were faced with cork , and the floors and ceilings of the bedrooms and suites were lined with compressed seaweed . Following renovation , the hotel was fitted with double glazing , and triple glazing on the Park Lane side to further improve soundproofing .
In the 1950s , theatrical designer Oliver Messel made a number of notable changes to the interior of the hotel . He incorporated aspects of theatrical design into the hotel interior , and designed the lavish apartments on the 7th and 8th floors . As Country Life documented , Messel 's rooms at the hotel " represents a rare glimpse into the world of mid @-@ 20th @-@ century interior design " , in which he drew upon his skills as a theatre designer to fill his rooms with " tricks of space and light , colour and period reference " . Today one of the suites is named after him , the Oliver Messel Suite . This suite displays a remarkable Georgian country house ambiance . Messel made the changes on the Deanery Side of the building in 1952 / 3 . Oliver Frederick Ford served as consultant designer from 1962 , decorating both the Stanhope Suite and the Orchid Room , a corner of which was completely re @-@ built and decorated in the English rococo style . He also remodelled the white , gold , and green entrance hall . The current dark green staff uniform of The Dorchester was designed in 1980 and is also attributed to Ford .
Between 1988 and 1990 , the hotel was completely renovated by Bob Lush of the Richmond Design Group at a cost of $ 100 million . The Promenade , Grill Room , and the Oliver Messel Suite were restored during the renovation . The Dorchester Spa is also designed in an Art Deco style , featuring , as Steen puts it , " elegant statues , engraved panels after René Lalique , blond maple woodwork , and a decorative pond with a group of small bronze foundations formed as water lilies producing gentle sounds of waterfall " . Liberace 's piano sits in the lobby .
As of 2012 , the Dorchester has 250 rooms and 49 suites . In the rooms , specially @-@ made Irish linen sheets cover the four poster beds , with cherry wood furnishings . The bath tubs , cited as " probably the deepest in London " , are made of Italian marble in the Art Deco style . All rooms in the hotel either provide views of Hyde Park or of its landscaped terraces . During the major renovation of 2002 , all rooms and suites were fitted with modern telecommunication systems . The hotel has its own floristry team , led by designer florist Philip Hammond , who are responsible for regularly updating the flowers on display in the hotel and providing their services for weddings and special occasions .
= = = Restaurants = = =
The Dorchester has five restaurants : The Grill , Alain Ducasse , The Spatisserie , The Promenade , and China Tang , and three bars , two of which are in the last two restaurants . Employing 90 full @-@ time chefs , the hotel has long had a reputation for its cuisine , and chefs such as Jean Baptiste Virlogeux , Eugene Kaufeler , Willi Elsener and Anton Mosimann have all run restaurants there . Mosimann ran the Maitre Chef des Cuisines at the Dorchester for 13 years . Virlogeux , head chef during the Second World War , had to succumb to rationing and a national maximum @-@ price restriction of five shillings for a three @-@ course meal .
Alain Ducasse 's restaurant , Alain Ducasse at the Dorchester , holds three Michelin stars . When refurbished along with other parts of the hotel in 2007 , the redesign purposefully retained its 1940s influence . The restaurant serves contemporary French cuisine using seasonal French and British ingredients . The restaurant features a special table for up to six diners called the " Table Lumière " , lit by 4500 fibre optic lights . It is surrounded by a thin white curtain which allows diners at the table to view out into the restaurant but prevents other diners from viewing in .
The Grill restaurant , which serves British cuisine , is decorated in a Moorish theme , attributed to King Alfonso 's influence during his time in London in exile in the 1930s . The cream @-@ painted walls feature gilded gratings and mirrored arches and display a Flemish tapestry . The ceilings are ornate , featuring gold leaves and brass chandeliers , and the room also features deep red riveted leather chairs and deep red curtains , with a Middle Eastern @-@ looking exotic carpet . According to restaurant critic Jay Rayner , " when you drill down on the menu it ’ s what the faded gentry used to call high tea . It ’ s nursery food at stupid prices . "
The Promenade was refurbished in 1990 by Leslie Wright with a gilded ceiling and reliefs and brass lanterns , and was altered again in 2005 by Thierry Despont , who fitted it with an oval leather bar ; it forms the grand entrance and has a length which is equal to that of Nelson 's Column . Piano music is played throughout much of the day , with live jazz from 19 : 30 . Afternoon tea , a tradition which has taken place at the hotel since its opening in 1931 , is served every day of the week at five in the afternoon in the large Promenade and the Spatisserie , with guests seated in decorative upholstered sofas with low tables placed in front of them . The tables are set with elegant silver cutlery and crockery , with Corinthian columns made of marble , glittering chandeliers , French tapestries and potted plants in the background . Tea is served by waiters dressed in English @-@ style long coats . Hollywood actor Charlton Heston , a frequent guest at the hotel , once commented on the aspect of service at the hotel : “ The cooks and bakers , the clerks and porters , the maids and the flower ladies , the bell men are the hotel ” .
The choice of tea offered to the guests is diverse , and includes the hotel 's own Dorchester Blend . The service includes a first course consisting of finger sandwiches with sliced cucumber , cream cheese , and smoked salmon , all served in silver trays , a second course consisting of scones with clotted cream and jam , followed by a pastry tray with a selection of freshly @-@ made patisseries .
China Tang is owned by the businessman David Tang and was opened in 2005 . The restaurant is luxuriously designed , with an art deco lounge bar reminiscent of 1930s Shanghai . The Spatisserie is an informal restaurant , which specialises in light snacks and afternoon tea , serving cakes , biscuits and pastries .
The Dorchester Bar was initially rebuilt in 1938 and was run by Harry Craddock , one of the world 's most famous barmen of the period , known for his Martini , Manhattan and White Lady cocktails . Craddock invented the " Dorchester of London " cocktail here in the 1930s . The bar was refurbished in 1979 . It was designed by Alberto Pinto with bleached wood , Provençale blue and white ceramic picture panels , and a mirrored ceiling . As of 2012 , the bar is curved and is furnished with rich " blacks , browns and aubergine – combined with lacquered mahogany , mirrored glass and velvet " . In the evenings , jazz is played in the bar . As of 2002 , the Dorchester had 460 different wines in stock .
= = = Grounds = = =
A plane tree , with its monumental root system , stands at the edge of the hotel in the well @-@ tended front garden . The branches of the tree are fitted with numerous bulbs which makes the night scene of the hotel evocative . Named one of the " Great Trees of London " by the London Tree Forum and Countryside Commission in 1997 , it featured in a BBC programme Meetings with Remarkable Trees in 2000 .
= = Entertainment = =
The hotel has continued to be associated with actors , rock stars and people in entertainment . Numerous film actors and people have auditioned , been interviewed or have stayed at the Dorchester over the years , and it is strongly associated with cinema , particularly American film . From the 1940s onwards the Dorchester was a common rendezvous for film producers , actors and casting agents . In 1940 , Gabriel Pascal and David Lean used Pascal 's hotel suite as the casting location for the movie Major Barbara ; Deborah Kerr , who auditioned for the film , said of it : " How bizarre it was . This room full of chaps smoking enormous cigars and drinking martinis and this young girl reciting the Lords ' Prayer . " In the 1940s , producer Earl St. John was found drunk at the hotel ; writer and co @-@ producer Eric Ambler promptly sent him back to John Davis in a taxi with a board around his neck with the words " Return to John Davis with compliments " . Ray Bradbury stayed at the hotel during the filming of Moby Dick ( 1956 ) . In 1964 , John Lennon was invited to attend one of the Foyle Literary Luncheons after he received acclaim for his book In His Own Write . John and Cynthia had not realised the notability of the event and attended with a hangover , with Lennon disappointing the crowd which had gathered at the Dorchester who were expecting a speech , simply muttering " Thank you very much , it 's been a pleasure " . Richard Burton and Elizabeth Taylor were regulars at the hotel throughout the 1960s and 1970s and spent their honeymoon in the Oliver Messel suite in March 1964 . Burton was interviewed in his suite while promoting The Wild Geese in 1978 .
The hotel has also hosted many footballers attending the F.A. Cup Finals over the years , and in 1961 Leicester City players checked in before playing Tottenham Hotspur . Taylor and Burton were staying there at the time . In 1972 , Raquel Welch visited Stamford Bridge and invited the Chelsea Football Club team back to a cocktail party at the Dorchester , which was also attended by the Rolling Stones . In 2003 , Ken Bates agreed to sell Chelsea Football Club to Roman Abramovich after they met for 20 minutes at the hotel . On 28 August 2007 , an honorary dinner for Nelson Mandela was held at the Dorchester on the eve of the unveiling of his statue on Parliament Square . It was also at a Dorchester suite that actor Christian Bale was alleged to have assaulted his mother and sister shortly before The Dark Knight premiere in July 2008 and was subsequently arrested . In 2014 numerous celebrities started boycotting the hotel due to its links to the introduction of Sharia Law in Brunei , which most famously includes the death penalty for homosexuality .
= Balu Mahendra =
Balanathan Benjamin Mahendran ( 20 May 1939 – 13 February 2014 ) , commonly known as Balu Mahendra , was a Sri Lankan cinematographer , director , screenwriter and film editor , who worked in various Indian film industries , primarily in Tamil cinema . Born into a Sri Lankan Tamil household , Mahendra developed a passion towards photography and literature at a young age . He was drawn towards film @-@ making after witnessing the shoot of David Lean 's The Bridge on the River Kwai ( 1957 ) in Sri Lanka . A graduate of the London University , he started his career as a draughtsman before gaining an admission to the Film and Television Institute of India ( FTII ) to pursue a course in cinematography . Mahendra entered films as a cinematographer in the early 1970s and gradually rose to becoming a film @-@ maker by the end of the decade .
Making his directorial debut through the Kannada film Kokila ( 1977 ) , Mahendra made over 20 films in all South Indian languages and two in Hindi . He was one of the earliest film @-@ makers in Tamil cinema to introduce realism and helped revitalise the industry . At the tail end of his career , he established a film school in Chennai which offers courses in cinematography , direction and acting . Following a brief phase of poor health , Mahendra died of cardiac arrest in February 2014 .
Widely regarded as an auteur , Mahendra wrote the script for his films , handled the camera and edited the film himself apart from directing . He was the recipient of six National Film Awards — including two for Best Cinematography , three Filmfare Awards South , and several state awards from the governments of Kerala , Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh .
= = Early life = =
Mahendra was born in 1939 into a Sri Lankan Tamil family in the village Amirthakali near Batticaloa , Sri Lanka . Born to a professor father , he did his schooling at Methodist Central College and St. Michael 's College , Batticaloa . As a teenager , he was drawn towards films by his class teacher . It was during this time he happened to see Bicycle Thieves ( 1948 ) and Battleship Potemkin ( 1925 ) . When he was at the sixth grade , he got an opportunity to witness the making of David Lean 's The Bridge on the River Kwai ( shot in Sri Lanka ) during a school field trip . Inspired by Lean 's personality , Mahendra determined to become a film @-@ maker .
Right from his childhood , Mahendra was interested in fine arts and literature . Upon completion of school , he joined the London University and graduated with a bachelor 's degree ( honours ) in science . After his graduation , he returned to Sri Lanka and worked in Colombo as a draughtsman in the survey department for a brief period during which he edited a Tamil literary magazine titled Thyen Aruvi . In Colombo , he worked as an amateur drama artist with Radio Ceylon and got acquainted with the Sinhala theatre groups .
Mahendra 's passion for cinema prompted him to leave for India and join the Film and Television Institute of India , Pune in 1966 . He had to take up cinematography as he could not gain admissions to other disciplines . At the institute he was exposed to world cinema as he got an opportunity to watch films made by François Truffaut and Jean @-@ Luc Godard , both associated with the French New Wave movement . In 1969 , Mahendra graduated from the institute with a gold medal .
= = Film career = =
= = = Debut as cinematographer = = =
As a fresh graduate from the FTII , Mahendra 's early attempts to enter Tamil cinema were unsuccessful . He got his first break as a cinematographer in 1971 in the Malayalam film Nellu . Ramu Kariat , the director of Nellu , was impressed by A View from the Fortress , Mahendra 's diploma film at the FTII . Though the filming of Nellu began in 1971 , production delays postponed its release for three years . Meanwhile , Kariat signed up Mahendra for another film titled Maaya which released in 1972 . However , P. N. Menon 's Panimudakku ( 1972 ) got released before Maaya , thus becoming Mahendra 's first release . He continued to work in Malayalam films such as Sasthram Jayichu Manushyan Thottu ( 1973 ) , Kaliyugam ( 1973 ) and Chattakari ( 1974 ) .
Nellu , shot in colour , won the Kerala State Film Award for Best Cinematography after it was released in 1974 . Mahendra had continued successes with films such as Prayanam ( 1975 ) and Chuvanna Sandhyakkal ( 1975 ) , both fetching the state award for best photography to him for the second consecutive time . Between 1971 and 1976 , he worked in about 20 films — mostly in Malayalam — as a cinematographer . The following year he made his directorial debut with Kokila . Made in Kannada , the film was a " triangular love story " . In addition to a Best Screenplay award from the Karnataka government , Mahendra won his first National Film Award for Best Cinematography for the film . The film was both critically acclaimed and commercially successful . It was equally successful in the neighbouring state of Tamil Nadu and has the distinction of being the only Kannada film to complete 150 days in Madras ( now Chennai ) as of 2014 .
= = = Entry into Tamil films = = =
Despite being a Tamil , it was not until 1978 he worked in a Tamil film when he signed up as the cinematographer for J. Mahendran 's directorial debut Mullum Malarum ( 1978 ) . Apart from handling the cinematography , Mahendra involved himself in other aspects such as screenwriting , casting , editing and direction in the film . After completing Mullum Malarum , Mahendra decided to work on his second directorial venture , this time in Tamil . He named the film Azhiyadha Kolangal ( 1979 ) , which according to him was " partly autobiographical " . Inspired from the 1971 American film Summer of ' 42 , Azhiyadha Kolangal was a coming @-@ of @-@ age film that dealt with the story of three adolescent boys who are in the awakening of sexuality . Although it was controversial for its theme , it was a box @-@ office success . During this time he did the cinematography of K. Vishwanath 's Telugu film Sankarabharanam ( 1979 ) which turned out to be a major critical and commercial success .
Mahendra 's third film as director Moodu Pani ( 1980 ) was loosely based on Alfred Hitchcock 's 1960 film Psycho . Moodu Pani saw Mahendra collaborating with Ilaiyaraaja for the first time ; Ilaiyaraaja was Mahendra 's regular composer since then . In 1982 , Mahendra made Moondram Pirai which had Kamal Haasan and Sridevi in the lead . The film told the story of a school teacher who looks after a girl suffering from amnesia . It had a 300 @-@ day run in the theatres and was labelled a " blockbuster " . The film fetched two National Film Awards including an award for cinematography for Mahendra . The same year he made Olangal ( 1982 ) which marked his directorial debut in Malayalam . Inspired from Erich Segal 's novel Man , Woman and Child , the film was a critical success . At the end of the year , Mahendra won two Filmfare trophies for directing Olangal and Moondram Pirai .
In 1983 , Mahendra entered Hindi cinema with Sadma , a remake of Moondram Pirai , with Kamal Hasan and Sridevi reprising their roles . Mahendra received a Filmfare nomination for Best Story and became a well @-@ known director with the Hindi audience with the film . The same year , he worked as the cinematographer of the Kannada film Pallavi Anu Pallavi , Mani Ratnam 's debut film . During this time , he made his second film in Malayalam titled Oomakkuyil . Unlike Olangal , Oomakkuyil failed to create an impact among the audience .
= = = Mainstream cinema and tryst with art film genre = = =
During the mid 1980s , Mahendra concentrated on mainstream films . The first of which Neengal Kettavai ( 1984 ) was labelled an outright commercial picture . Later Mahendra noted that he made the film with a sole intention to prove critics that he could make commercial films . The following year , he collaborated with Rajinikanth to make Un Kannil Neer Vazhindal which turned out to be a commercial failure . He then worked on the Malayalam film Yathra ( 1985 ) with Mammooty in the lead role as a forest officer . Made with " artistic values " the film earned ₹ 1 @.@ 9 million ( equivalent to ₹ 20 million or US $ 290 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) and was the highest @-@ grossing Malayalam film that year . By this time , he declined an offer to direct the Kannada film Malaya Marutha ( 1986 ) . As a director who is known for making intense films , critics were surprised when he made Rettai Vaal Kuruvi ( 1987 ) , a full @-@ length comedy film . Closely based on the 1984 American film Micki and Maude , the film is regarded as one of the best comedies ever made in Tamil cinema during the decade . The film would serve as a base for his future films Marupadiyum ( 1993 ) and Sathi Leelavathi ( 1995 ) which explored similar themes .
Towards the end of the decade , Mahendra made two low @-@ budgeted films — Veedu ( 1988 ) and Sandhya Raagam ( 1989 ) . While Veedu focused on the life of a lower middle @-@ class urban woman and her struggle to build a house , Sandhya Raagam dealt with " old age " . At the 35th , Veedu won two National Film Awards — including one for Best Regional Film — and Sandhya Raagam won the Best Film on Family Welfare two years later . According to Mahendra , both the films were a tribute to his mother and father respectively . He named these two films as his best works as they were made with fewest mistakes and compromises .
In 1992 , Mahendra made Vanna Vanna Pookkal which was produced by S. Dhanu . The film had a 100 @-@ day run and won the award for the " Best Regional Film " at the 39th National Film Awards . During this time M. Night Shyamalan , then a newcomer , approached Mahendra to be the cinematographer for his directorial debut Praying with Anger to which he refused . The next year , he remade Mahesh Bhatt 's Arth in Tamil as Marupadiyum . Mahendra made the film as he felt it was close to his personal life . He then came up with a full @-@ length comedy Sathi Leelavathi in 1995 which was produced by Kamal Haasan . The following year , he made a comeback in Bollywood through Aur Ek Prem Kahani , a remake of his Kannada film Kokila . He then made Raman Abdullah ( 1997 ) — a remake of the Malayalam film Malappuram Haji Mahanaya Joji ( 1994 ) — which deals with a friendship between two friends belonging to different religions . The film 's shoot became the epicentre of a dispute that arose between the Tamil Film Producers Council and Film Employees Federation of South India ( FEFSI ) . It was reported that members of FEFSI had stopped the filming of Raman Abdullah as Mahendra was engaging outside cast members in the film . This led FEFSI to go for an indefinite strike which affected to the delaying of several Tamil films . The film received negative reviews and failed at the box @-@ office .
After Raman Abdullah , Mahendra took a break from films during which he made Kathai Neram , a television series based on different short stories , mostly by Sujatha . It was aired in Sun TV during the early 2000s .
= = = Final years = = =
Following a five @-@ year sabbatical , he returned with Julie Ganapathi ( 2003 ) . The film was based on the psychological thriller novel Misery by Stephen King . According to Mahendra , Julie Ganapathi was made on the lines of his previous films Moondram Pirai ( 1982 ) and Moodu Pani ( 1980 ) . A review from Rediff.com stated , " Balu Mahendra has kept the flag of sensible cinema within the commercial format once again in his latest offering Julie Ganapathy " and rated the film as one of the best thrillers ever made . In spite of being a critical success , the film turned out to be a commercial failure . For his next film Adhu Oru Kana Kaalam ( 2005 ) , he decided to cast Dhanush in the lead role . Initially he stated that the film to be an extension of his 1979 film Azhiyatha Kolangal . However , he ended up making a different film . The film was loosely based on his own Malayalam film Yathra released in 1985 . When asked about the difference between the two films , he said " Yat [ h ] ra was the love story of two adults , this is the love story of two adolescents . " Shobha Warrier of Rediff.com wrote that the film was " extremely disappointing " .
In 2007 , he started a film school named " Cinema Pattarai " in Chennai . The institute offers courses in disciplines such as cinematography , direction and acting . After a brief hiatus from films , he made a comeback through Thalaimuraigal ( 2013 ) , which marked his acting debut . Apart from acting , he also scripted , directed , edited and served as the cinematographer of the film . The film was about the relationship between an ageing man and his grandson . The film received positive response with Mahendra 's acting being well acclaimed . Malathi Rangarajan of The Hindu stated , " If Mahendra 's aim was to make a film that can compete on a global level , Thalaimuraigal is a concrete step in that direction . " Despite being critically acclaimed , the film was a commercial failure . At the 61st National Film Awards , it won the Nargis Dutt Award for Best Feature Film on National Integration .
= = Personal life = =
Mahendra was married thrice . He was first married to Akhileshwari with whom he had a son . His relationship with actress Shoba ended in 1980 after she committed suicide following their marriage . Upon Shoba 's death , the media speculated that it was not a suicide and further added that Mahendra was responsible for her death . In 1985 , a case was filed against him and Akhileshwari as they were " illegally " staying in India ; both suffered four months of imprisonment for illegal immigration . However , the court after a few months dismissed the plea saying that his stay had " enriched " the Tamil culture as he had made significant contributions to Tamil cinema . Following that , Mahendra wrote a series of " sentimental musings " in the Tamil magazine Kumudam under the title Shobavum Naanum ( Shoba and me ) . Their relationship was later explored in the 1983 Malayalam film Lekhayude Maranam Oru Flashback by its director K. G. George . However , when the film was released , Mahendra in an interview said that he has nothing to do with the film and has not discussed about it with George . In 1998 , he married another actress Mounika and declared their marriage publicly in 2004 .
Following a heart attack on 13 February 2014 , Mahendra was admitted to Vijaya Hospital in Chennai where he was declared dead after six hours of cardiac arrest . Shortly after the news of his death , members of the Indian film industry posted their condolences in Twitter and Facebook . The Tamil film fraternity mourned the death and paid homage to him at his " film school " in Saligramam , Chennai , and decided not to work on the following day as a sign of respect . The last rites of Mahendra were performed at Porur crematorium on the same day .
= = Style and legacy = =
As a photographer , Mahendra was inspired by the works of French New Wave cinematographers such as Néstor Almendros and Michael Chapman . Among his contemporaries , he admired the works of Ashok Kumar . Mahendra believed a " well @-@ photographed movie is that which is very close to the script " . As a film @-@ maker , he claims himself as belonging to the realistic way of story @-@ telling devised by Satyajit Ray and Vittorio De Sica . Mahendra was drawn towards realistic cinema after watching Ray 's Pather Panchali ( 1955 ) . He is credited as being one among the earliest filmmakers to bring " naturalism " in Tamil cinema in the 1970s . He usually photographed , scripted and edited all his films . His films were characterised by strong " visual appeal " and minimal number of characters . A majority of his films centre on the complexity of human relationships and are known to portray women as strong characters . Although influenced by realism , his films Moodu Pani , Rettai Vaal Kuruvi and Julie Ganapathi heavily borrowed from American cinema .
Mahendra was equally praised for his cinematography and directorial finesse . Described by the media as " one of the finest cinematographers of Indian cinema " , he was among the first to pioneer innovative colour in South India . Subrata Mitra , the cinematographer of Ray , presented a viewfinder to Mahendra acknowledging his talent . Fellow cinematographer Madhu Ambat described that it was Mahendra who gave " fame " to those cameramen who came out of the FTII , and further noted that he was one of the few film @-@ makers who effectively used romantic realism . Lauded for usage of " natural lighting " , Mahendra was considered as " one of the few filmmakers in Tamil who believes in telling a story visually " . Kamal Haasan described that he was one of the few directors who balanced between art and popular cinema . As a film @-@ maker , he inspired contemporary actors and film @-@ makers such as Mani Ratnam , Kamal Haasan and Sripriya , He has mentored next generation film @-@ makers including Bala , Ameer , Vetrimaaran , Ram and Seenu Ramasamy . Cinematographers like Santosh Sivan , Ravi K. Chandran , Natarajan Subramaniam and K. V. Anand have taken inspirations from him . The negatives of his acclaimed films — Moodu Pani , Veedu , Sandhya Raagam , Marupadiyum and Sathi Leelavathi — are lost .
= = Awards and nominations = =
= = Filmography = =
= = = As director = = =
= = = As cinematographer only = = =
= = = Television = = =
Kathai Neram ( 2000 )
= Birmingham =
Birmingham ( / ˈbɜːrmɪŋəm / ) is a major city and metropolitan borough in the West Midlands of England . It is the largest and most populous British city outside London , with a population in 2014 of 1 @,@ 101 @,@ 360 . The city is in the West Midlands Built @-@ up Area , the third most populous urban area in the United Kingdom , with a population of 2 @,@ 440 @,@ 986 at the 2011 census . Birmingham is the second most populous metropolitan area in the UK with a population of 3 @.@ 8 million . This also makes Birmingham the 9th most populous metropolitan area in Europe .
A medium @-@ sized market town in the medieval period , Birmingham grew to international prominence in the 18th century at the heart of the Midlands Enlightenment and subsequent Industrial Revolution , which saw the town at the forefront of worldwide advances in science , technology and economic development , producing a series of innovations that laid many of the foundations of modern industrial society . By 1791 it was being hailed as " the first manufacturing town in the world " . Birmingham 's distinctive economic profile , with thousands of small workshops practising a wide variety of specialised and highly skilled trades , encouraged exceptional levels of creativity and innovation and provided a diverse and resilient economic base for industrial prosperity that was to last into the final quarter of the 20th century . Perhaps the most important invention in British history , the industrial steam engine , was invented in Birmingham . Its resulting high level of social mobility also fostered a culture of broad @-@ based political radicalism , that under leaders from Thomas Attwood to Joseph Chamberlain was to give it a political influence unparalleled in Britain outside London , and a pivotal role in the development of British democracy . From the summer of 1940 to the spring of 1943 , Birmingham was bombed heavily by the German Luftwaffe in what is known as the Birmingham Blitz . The damage done to the city 's infrastructure , in addition to a deliberate policy of demolition and new building by planners , led to extensive demolition and redevelopment in subsequent decades .
Today Birmingham 's economy is dominated by the service sector . The city is a major international commercial centre , ranked as a beta − world city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network ; and an important transport , retail , events and conference hub . Its metropolitan economy is the second largest in the United Kingdom with a GDP of $ 121.1bn ( 2014 ) , and its six universities make it the largest centre of higher education in the country outside London . Birmingham 's major cultural institutions – including the City of Birmingham Symphony Orchestra , the Birmingham Royal Ballet , the Birmingham Repertory Theatre , the Library of Birmingham and the Barber Institute of Fine Arts – enjoy international reputations , and the city has vibrant and influential grassroots art , music , literary and culinary scenes . Birmingham is the fourth @-@ most visited city in the UK by foreign visitors .
Birmingham 's sporting heritage can be felt worldwide , with the concept of the Football League and lawn tennis both originating from the city . Its most successful football club Aston Villa has won seven league titles and one European Cup with the other professional club being Birmingham City .
People from Birmingham are called Brummies , a term derived from the city 's nickname of Brum . This originates from the city 's dialect name , Brummagem , which may in turn have been derived from one of the city 's earlier names , Bromwicham . There is a distinctive Brummie accent and dialect .
= = History = =
= = = Pre @-@ history and medieval = = =
Birmingham 's early history is that of a remote and marginal area . The main centres of population , power and wealth in the pre @-@ industrial English Midlands lay in the fertile and accessible river valleys of the Trent , the Severn and the Avon . The area of modern Birmingham lay in between , on the upland Birmingham Plateau and within the densely wooded and sparsely populated Forest of Arden .
There is evidence of early human activity in the Birmingham area dating back 10 @,@ 000 years , with stone age artefacts suggesting seasonal settlements , overnight hunting parties and woodland activities such as tree felling . The many burnt mounds that can still be seen around the city indicate that modern humans first intensively settled and cultivated the area during the bronze age , when a substantial but short @-@ lived influx of population occurred between 1700 BC and 1000 BC , possibly caused by conflict or immigration in the surrounding area . During the 1st @-@ century Roman conquest of Britain , the forested country of the Birmingham Plateau formed a barrier to the advancing Roman legions , who built the large Metchley Fort in the area of modern @-@ day Edgbaston in AD 48 , and made it the focus of a network of Roman roads .
Birmingham as a settlement dates from the Anglo @-@ Saxon era . The city 's name comes from the Old English Beormingahām , meaning the home or settlement of the Beormingas – indicating that Birmingham was established in the 6th or early 7th century as the primary settlement of an Anglian tribal grouping and regio of that name . Despite this early importance , by the time of the Domesday Book of 1086 the manor of Birmingham was one of the poorest and least populated in Warwickshire , valued at only 20 shillings , with the area of the modern city divided between the counties of Warwickshire , Staffordshire and Worcestershire .
The development of Birmingham into a significant urban and commercial centre began in 1166 , when the Lord of the Manor Peter de Bermingham obtained a charter to hold a market at his castle , and followed this with the creation of a planned market town and seigneurial borough within his demesne or manorial estate , around the site that became the Bull Ring . This established Birmingham as the primary commercial centre for the Birmingham Plateau at a time when the area 's economy was expanding rapidly , with population growth nationally leading to the clearance , cultivation and settlement of previously marginal land . Within a century of the charter Birmingham had grown into a prosperous urban centre of merchants and craftsmen . By 1327 it was the third @-@ largest town in Warwickshire , a position it would retain for the next 200 years .
= = = Early modern = = =
The principal governing institutions of medieval Birmingham – including the Guild of the Holy Cross and the lordship of the de Birmingham family – collapsed between 1536 and 1547 , leaving the town with an unusually high degree of social and economic freedom and initiating a period of transition and growth . By 1700 Birmingham 's population had increased fifteenfold and the town was the fifth @-@ largest in England and Wales .
The importance of the manufacture of iron goods to Birmingham 's economy was recognised as early as 1538 , and grew rapidly as the century progressed . Equally significant was the town 's emerging role as a centre for the iron merchants who organised finance , supplied raw materials and traded and marketed the industry 's products . By the 1600s Birmingham formed the commercial hub of a network of forges and furnaces stretching from South Wales to Cheshire and its merchants were selling finished manufactured goods as far afield as the West Indies . These trading links gave Birmingham 's metalworkers access to much wider markets , allowing them to diversify away from lower @-@ skilled trades producing basic goods for local sale , towards a broader range of specialist , higher @-@ skilled and more lucrative activities .
By the time of the English Civil War Birmingham 's booming economy , its expanding population , and its resulting high levels of social mobility and cultural pluralism , had seen it develop new social structures very different from those of more established areas . Relationships were built around pragmatic commercial linkages rather than the rigid paternalism and deference of feudal society , and loyalties to the traditional hierarchies of the established church and aristocracy were weak . The town 's reputation for political radicalism and its strongly Parliamentarian sympathies saw it attacked by Royalist forces in the Battle of Birmingham in 1643 , and it developed into a centre of Puritanism in the 1630s and as a haven for Nonconformists from the 1660s .
The 18th century saw this tradition of free @-@ thinking and collaboration blossom into the cultural phenomenon now known as the Midlands Enlightenment . The town developed into a notable centre of literary , musical , artistic and theatrical activity ; and its leading citizens – particularly the members of the Lunar Society of Birmingham – became influential participants in the circulation of philosophical and scientific ideas among Europe 's intellectual elite . The close relationship between Enlightenment Birmingham 's leading thinkers and its major manufacturers – in men like Matthew Boulton and James Keir they were often in fact the same people – made it particularly important for the exchange of knowledge between pure science and the practical world of manufacturing and technology . This created a " chain reaction of innovation " , forming a pivotal link between the earlier Scientific Revolution and the Industrial Revolution that would follow .
= = = Industrial Revolution = = =
Birmingham 's explosive industrial expansion started earlier than that of the textile @-@ manufacturing towns of the North of England , and was driven by different factors . Instead of the economies of scale of a low @-@ paid , unskilled workforce producing a single bulk commodity such as cotton or wool in large , mechanised units of production , Birmingham 's industrial development was built on the adaptability and creativity of a highly paid workforce with a strong division of labour , practising a broad variety of skilled specialist trades and producing a constantly diversifying range of products , in a highly entrepreneurial economy of small , often self @-@ owned workshops . This led to exceptional levels of inventiveness : between 1760 and 1850 – the core years of the Industrial Revolution – Birmingham residents registered over three times as many patents as those of any other British town or city .
The demand for capital to feed rapid economic expansion also saw Birmingham grow into a major financial centre with extensive international connections . Lloyds Bank was founded in the town in 1765 , and Ketley 's Building Society , the world 's first building society , in 1775 . By 1800 the West Midlands had more banking offices per head than any other region in Britain , including London .
Innovation in 18th @-@ century Birmingham often took the form of incremental series of small @-@ scale improvements to existing products or processes , but also included major developments that lay at the heart of the emergence of industrial society . In 1709 the Birmingham @-@ trained Abraham Darby I moved to Coalbrookdale in Shropshire and built the first blast furnace to successfully smelt iron ore with coke , transforming the quality , volume and scale on which it was possible to produce cast iron . In 1732 Lewis Paul and John Wyatt invented roller spinning , the " one novel idea of the first importance " in the development of the mechanised cotton industry . In 1741 they opened the world 's first cotton mill in Birmingham 's Upper Priory . In 1746 John Roebuck invented the lead chamber process , enabling the large @-@ scale manufacture of sulphuric acid , and in 1780 James Keir developed a process for the bulk manufacture of alkali , together marking the birth of the modern chemical industry . In 1765 Matthew Boulton opened the Soho Manufactory , pioneering the combination and mechanisation under one roof of previously separate manufacturing activities through a system known as " rational manufacture " . As the largest manufacturing unit in Europe this come to symbolise the emergence of the factory system .
Most significant , however , was the development in 1776 of the industrial steam engine by James Watt and Matthew Boulton . Freeing for the first time the manufacturing capacity of human society from the limited availability of hand , water and animal power , this was arguably the pivotal moment of the entire industrial revolution and a key factor in the worldwide increases in productivity that would follow over the following century .
= = = Regency and Victorian = = =
Birmingham rose to national political prominence in the campaign for political reform in the early 19th century , with Thomas Attwood and the Birmingham Political Union bringing the country to the brink of civil war during the Days of May that preceded the passing of the Great Reform Act in 1832 . The Union 's meetings on Newhall Hill in 1831 and 1832 were the largest political assemblies Britain had ever seen . Lord Durham , who drafted the Act , wrote that " the country owed Reform to Birmingham , and its salvation from revolution " . This reputation for having " shaken the fabric of privilege to its base " in 1832 led John Bright to make Birmingham the platform for his successful campaign for the Second Reform Act of 1867 , which extended voting rights to the urban working class .
Birmingham 's tradition of innovation continued into the 19th century . Birmingham was the terminus for both of the world 's first two long @-@ distance railway lines : the 82 mile Grand Junction Railway of 1837 and the 112 mile London and Birmingham Railway of 1838 . Birmingham schoolteacher Rowland Hill invented the postage stamp and created the first modern universal postal system in 1839 . Alexander Parkes invented the first man @-@ made plastic in the Jewellery Quarter in 1855 .
By the 1820s , an extensive canal system had been constructed , giving greater access to natural resources and fuel for industries . During the Victorian era , the population of Birmingham grew rapidly to well over half a million and Birmingham became the second largest population centre in England . Birmingham was granted city status in 1889 by Queen Victoria . Joseph Chamberlain , mayor of Birmingham and later an MP , and his son Neville Chamberlain , who was Lord Mayor of Birmingham and later the British Prime Minister , are two of the most well @-@ known political figures who have lived in Birmingham . The city established its own university in 1900 .
= = = 20th century and contemporary = = =
Birmingham suffered heavy bomb damage during World War II 's " Birmingham Blitz " . The city was also the scene of two scientific discoveries that were to prove critical to the outcome of the war . Otto Frisch and Rudolf Peierls first described how a practical nuclear weapon could be constructed in the Frisch – Peierls memorandum of 1940 , the same year that the cavity magnetron , the key component of radar and later of microwave ovens , was invented by John Randall and Henry Boot . Details of these two discoveries , together with an outline of the first jet engine invented by Frank Whittle in nearby Rugby , were taken to the United States by the Tizard Mission in September 1940 , in a single black box later described by an official American historian as " the most valuable cargo ever brought to our shores " .
The city was extensively redeveloped during the 1950s and 1960s . This included the construction of large tower block estates , such as Castle Vale . The Bull Ring was reconstructed and New Street station was redeveloped . In the decades following World War II , the ethnic makeup of Birmingham changed significantly , as it received waves of immigration from the Commonwealth of Nations and beyond . The city 's population peaked in 1951 at 1 @,@ 113 @,@ 000 residents .
Birmingham remained by far Britain 's most prosperous provincial city as late as the 1970s , with household incomes exceeding even those of London and the South East , but its economic diversity and capacity for regeneration declined in the decades that followed World War II as Central Government sought to restrict the city 's growth and disperse industry and population to the stagnating areas of Scotland , Wales and Northern England . These measures hindered " the natural self @-@ regeneration of businesses in Birmingham , leaving it top @-@ heavy with the old and infirm " , and the city became increasingly dependent on the motor industry . The recession of the early 1980s saw Birmingham 's economy collapse , with unprecedented levels of unemployment and outbreaks of social unrest in inner @-@ city districts .
In recent years , many parts of Birmingham has been transformed , with the redevelopment of the Bullring Shopping Centre and regeneration of old industrial areas such as Brindleyplace , The Mailbox and the International Convention Centre . Old streets , buildings and canals have been restored , the pedestrian subways have been removed and the Inner Ring Road has been rationalised . In 1998 Birmingham hosted the 24th G8 summit .
= = Government = =
Birmingham City Council is the largest local authority in Europe with 120 councillors representing 40 wards . Its headquarters are at the Council House in Victoria Square . As of 2014 , the council has a Labour Party majority and is led by Sir Albert Bore , replacing the previous Conservative / Liberal Democrat coalition at the May 2012 elections . The honour and dignity of a Lord Mayoralty was conferred on Birmingham by Letters Patent on 3 June 1896 .
Birmingham 's ten parliamentary constituencies are represented in the House of Commons as of 2015 by one Conservative and nine Labour MPs . In the European Parliament the city forms part of the West Midlands European Parliament constituency , which elects six Members of the European Parliament .
Birmingham was originally part of Warwickshire , but expanded in the late 19th and early 20th centuries , absorbing parts of Worcestershire to the south and Staffordshire to the north and west . The city absorbed Sutton Coldfield in 1974 and became a metropolitan borough in the new West Midlands county . Until 1986 , the West Midlands County Council was based in Birmingham City Centre .
Since 2011 , Birmingham has formed part of the Greater Birmingham & Solihull Local Enterprise Partnership along with neighbouring authorities Bromsgrove , Cannock Chase , East Staffordshire , Lichfield , Redditch , Solihull , Tamworth , Wyre Forest .
A top @-@ level government body , the West Midlands Combined Authority , will be formed in April 2016 . The WMCA will gain devolved powers in transport , development planning , and economic growth . The authority will be governed by a directly @-@ elected Mayor , similar to the Mayor of London .
= = Geography = =
Birmingham is located in the centre of the West Midlands region of England on the Birmingham Plateau – an area of relatively high ground , ranging between 500 and 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 150 – 300 m ) above sea level and crossed by Britain 's main north @-@ south watershed between the basins of the Rivers Severn and Trent . To the south west of the city lie the Lickey Hills , Clent Hills and Walton Hill , which reach 1 @,@ 033 feet ( 315 m ) and have extensive views over the city . Birmingham is drained only by minor rivers and brooks , primarily the River Tame and its tributaries the Cole and the Rea .
The City of Birmingham forms a conurbation with the largely residential borough of Solihull to the south east , and with the city of Wolverhampton and the industrial towns of the Black Country to the north west , which form the West Midlands Built @-@ up Area covering 59 @,@ 972 ha ( 600 km2 ; 232 sq mi ) . Surrounding this is Birmingham 's metropolitan area – the area to which it is closely economically tied through commuting – which includes the former Mercian capital of Tamworth and the cathedral city of Lichfield in Staffordshire to the north ; the industrial city of Coventry and the Warwickshire towns of Nuneaton , Warwick and Leamington Spa to the east ; and the Worcestershire towns of Redditch and Bromsgrove to the south west .
Much of the area now occupied by the city was originally a northern reach of the ancient Forest of Arden , whose former presence can still be felt in the city 's dense oak tree @-@ cover and in the large number of districts such as Moseley , Saltley , Yardley , Stirchley and Hockley with names ending in " -ley " : the Old English -lēah meaning " woodland clearing " .
= = = Geology = = =
Geologically , Birmingham is dominated by the Birmingham Fault which runs diagonally through the city from the Lickey Hills in the south west , passing through Edgbaston and the Bull Ring , to Erdington and Sutton Coldfield in the north east . To the south and east of the fault the ground is largely softer Mercia Mudstone , interspersed with beds of Bunter pebbles and crossed by the valleys of the Rivers Tame , Rea and Cole and their tributaries . To the north and west of the fault , between 150 and 600 feet ( 45 – 180 m ) higher than the surrounding area and underlying much of the city centre , lies a long ridge of harder Keuper Sandstone . The bedrock underlying Birmingham was mostly laid down during the Permian and Triassic periods .
= = = Climate = = =
Birmingham has a temperate maritime climate , like much of the British Isles , with average maximum temperatures in summer ( July ) being around 21 @.@ 3 ° C ( 70 @.@ 3 ° F ) ; and in winter ( January ) around 6 @.@ 7 ° C ( 44 @.@ 1 ° F ) . Between 1971 and 2000 the warmest day of the year on average was 28 @.@ 8 ° C ( 83 @.@ 8 ° F ) and the coldest night typically fell to − 9 @.@ 0 ° C ( 15 @.@ 8 ° F ) . Some 11 @.@ 2 days each year rose to a temperature of 25 @.@ 1 ° C ( 77 @.@ 2 ° F ) or above and 51 @.@ 6 nights reported an air frost . The highest recorded temperature , set during August 1990 , was 34 @.@ 9 ° C ( 94 @.@ 8 ° F ) .
Like most other large cities , Birmingham has a considerable urban heat island effect . During the coldest night recorded , 14 January 1982 , the temperature fell to − 20 @.@ 8 ° C ( − 5 @.@ 4 ° F ) at Birmingham Airport on the city 's eastern edge , but just − 12 @.@ 9 ° C ( 8 @.@ 8 ° F ) at Edgbaston , near the city centre .
Birmingham is a snowy city relative to other large UK conurbations , due to its inland location and comparatively high elevation . Between 1961 and 1990 Birmingham Airport averaged 13 @.@ 0 days of snow lying annually , compared to 5 @.@ 33 at London Heathrow . Snow showers often pass through the city via the Cheshire gap on north westerly airstreams , but can also come off the North Sea from north easterly airstreams .
Extreme weather is rare but the city has been known to experience tornados – the most recent being in July 2005 in the south of the city , damaging homes and businesses in the area .
= = = Environment = = =
There are 571 parks within Birmingham – more than any other European city – totalling over 3 @,@ 500 hectares ( 14 sq mi ) of public open space . The city has over six million trees , and 250 miles of urban brooks and streams . Sutton Park , which covers 2 @,@ 400 acres ( 971 ha ) in the north of the city , is the largest urban park in Europe and a National Nature Reserve . Birmingham Botanical Gardens , located close to the city centre , retains the regency landscape of its original design by J. C. Loudon in 1829 , while the Winterbourne Botanic Garden in Edgbaston reflects the more informal Arts and Crafts tastes of its Edwardian origins .
Birmingham has many areas of wildlife that lie in both informal settings such as the Project Kingfisher and Woodgate Valley Country Park and in a selection of parks such as Lickey Hills Country Park , Handsworth Park , Kings Heath Park , and Cannon Hill Park ; the latter also housing the Birmingham Nature Centre .
= = Demography = =
The 2012 mid @-@ year estimate for the population of Birmingham was 1 @,@ 085 @,@ 400 . This was an increase of 11 @,@ 200 , or 1 @.@ 0 % , since the same time in 2011 . Since 2001 , the population has grown by 99 @,@ 500 , or 10 @.@ 1 % . Birmingham is the largest local Authority area and city outside London . The population density is 10 @,@ 391 inhabitants per square mile ( 4 @,@ 102 / km ² ) compared to the 976 @.@ 9 inhabitants per square mile ( 377 @.@ 2 / km ² ) for England . Based on the 2011 census , Birmingham 's population is projected to reach 1 @,@ 160 @,@ 100 by 2021 , an increase of 8 @.@ 0 % . This compares with an estimated rate of 9 @.@ 1 % for the previous decade .
The West Midlands conurbation had a population of 2 @,@ 441 @,@ 00 ( 2011 est . , ) , and 2 @,@ 762 @,@ 700 people live in the West Midlands ( county ) ( 2012 est . , ) .
According to figures from the 2011 census , 57 @.@ 9 % of the population was White ( 53 @.@ 1 % White British , 2 @.@ 1 % White Irish , 2 @.@ 7 % Other White ) , 4 @.@ 4 % of mixed race ( 2 @.@ 3 % White and Black Caribbean , 0 @.@ 3 % White and Black African , 1 @.@ 0 % White and Asian , 0 @.@ 8 % Other Mixed ) , 26 @.@ 6 % Asian ( 13 @.@ 5 % Pakistani , 6 @.@ 0 % Indian , 3 @.@ 0 % Bangladeshi , 1 @.@ 2 % Chinese , 2 @.@ 9 % Other Asian ) , 8 @.@ 9 % Black ( 2 @.@ 8 % African , 4 @.@ 4 % Caribbean , 1 @.@ 7 % Other Black ) , 1 @.@ 0 % Arab and 1 @.@ 0 % of other ethnic heritage . 57 % of primary and 52 % of secondary pupils are from non @-@ white British families .
238 @,@ 313 Birmingham residents were born overseas , of these , 44 % ( 103 @,@ 682 ) have been resident in the UK for less than 10 years . Countries new to the twenty most reported countries of birth for Birmingham residents since 2001 include , Iran , Zimbabwe , Philippines and Nigeria . Established migrants outnumbered newer migrants in all wards except for , Edgbaston , Ladywood , Nechells and Selly Oak .
In Birmingham 60 @.@ 4 % of the population was aged between 16 and 74 , compared to 66 @.@ 7 % in England as a whole . There are generally more females than males in each single year of age , except for the youngest ages ( 0 @-@ 18 ) and late 30 's and late 50 's . Females represented 51 @.@ 6 % of the population whilst men represented 48 @.@ 4 % . The differences are most marked in the oldest age group reflecting greater female longevity , where more women were 70 or over . The bulge around the early 20 's is due largely to students coming to the city 's Universities . Children around age 10 are a relatively small group , reflecting the decline in birth rates around the turn of the century . There is a large group of children under the age of five which reflecting high numbers of births in recent years . Births are up 20 % since 2001 , increasing from 14 @,@ 427 to 17 @,@ 423 in 2011 .
In 2011 of all households in Birmingham , 0 @.@ 12 % were same @-@ sex civil partnership households , compared to the English national average of 0 @.@ 16 % .
25 @.@ 9 % of all households owned their accommodation outright , another 29 @.@ 3 % owned their accommodation with a mortgage or loan . These figures were below the national average .
45 @.@ 5 % of people said they were in very good health which was below the national average . Another 33 @.@ 9 % said they were in good health , which was also below the national average . 9 @.@ 1 % of people said their day @-@ to @-@ day activities were limited a lot by their health which was higher than the national average .
The Birmingham Larger Urban Zone , a Eurostat measure of the functional city @-@ region approximated to local government districts , has a population of 2 @,@ 357 @,@ 100 in 2004 . In addition to Birmingham itself , the LUZ includes the Metropolitan Boroughs of Dudley , Sandwell , Solihull and Walsall , along with the districts of Lichfield , Tamworth , North Warwickshire and Bromsgrove .
= = Religion = =
Christianity is the largest religion within Birmingham , with 46 @.@ 1 % of residents identifying as Christians in the 2011 Census . The city 's religious profile is highly diverse , however : outside London , Birmingham has the United Kingdom 's largest Muslim , Sikh and Buddhist communities ; its second largest Hindu community ; and its seventh largest Jewish community . Between the 2001 and 2011 censuses , the proportion of Christians in Birmingham decreased from 59 @.@ 1 % to 46 @.@ 1 % , while the proportion of Muslims increased from 14 @.@ 3 % to 21 @.@ 8 % and the proportion of people with no religious affiliation increased from 12 @.@ 4 % to 19 @.@ 3 % . All other religions remained proportionately similar .
St Philip 's Cathedral was upgraded from church status when the Anglican Diocese of Birmingham was created in 1905 . There are two other cathedrals : St Chad 's , seat of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Birmingham and the Greek Orthodox Cathedral of the Dormition of the Mother of God and St Andrew . The Coptic Orthodox Diocese of the Midlands is also based at Birmingham , with a cathedral under construction . The original parish church of Birmingham , St Martin in the Bull Ring , is Grade II * listed . A short distance from Five Ways the Birmingham Oratory was completed in 1910 on the site of Cardinal Newman 's original foundation .
The oldest surviving synagogue in Birmingham is the 1825 Greek Revival Severn Street Synagogue , now a Freemasons ' Lodge hall . It was replaced in 1856 by the Grade II * listed Singers Hill Synagogue . Birmingham Central Mosque , one of the largest in Europe , was constructed in the 1960s . During the late 1990s Ghamkol Shariff Masjid was built in Small Heath . The Guru Nanak Nishkam Sewak Jatha Sikh Gurdwara was built on Soho Road in Handsworth in the late 1970s and the Buddhist Dhammatalaka Peace Pagoda near Edgbaston Reservoir in the 1990s . Winners ' Chapel also maintains physical presence in Digbeth .
= = Economy = =
Birmingham grew to prominence as a manufacturing and engineering centre , but its economy today is dominated by the service sector , which in 2012 accounted for 88 % of the city 's employment . Birmingham is the largest centre in Great Britain for employment in public administration , education and health ; and after Leeds the second largest centre outside London for employment in financial and other business services . It is ranked as a beta- world city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network , the third highest ranking in the country after London and Manchester , and its wider metropolitan economy is the second @-@ largest in the United Kingdom with a GDP of $ 121.1bn ( 2014 est . , PPP ) . Two FTSE100 companies ( Severn Trent and IMI plc , which is currently a FTSE250 company ) have their corporate headquarters within Birmingham , with two more based in the wider metropolitan area , together forming the largest concentration outside London and the South East . With major facilities such as the National Exhibition Centre and International Convention Centre Birmingham attracts 42 % of the UK 's total conference and exhibition trade .
Manufacturing accounted for 8 % of employment within Birmingham in 2012 , a figure beneath the average for the UK as a whole . Major industrial plants within the city include Jaguar Land Rover in Castle Bromwich and Cadbury in Bournville , with large local producers also supporting a supply chain of precision @-@ based small manufacturers and craft industries . More traditional industries also remain : 40 % of the jewellery made in the UK is still produced by the 300 independent manufacturers of the city 's Jewellery Quarter , continuing a trade first recorded in Birmingham in 1308 .
Birmingham 's GVA was £ 24.1bn ( 2013 est . , ) , and the economy grew relatively slowly between 2002 and 2012 , where growth was 30 % below the national average . The value of manufacturing output in the city declined by 21 % in real terms between 1997 and 2010 , but the value of financial and insurance activities more than doubled . With 16 @,@ 281 start @-@ ups registered during 2013 Birmingham has the highest level of entrepreneurial activity outside London , while the number of registered businesses in the city grew by 1 @.@ 6 % during 2012 . Birmingham was behind only London and Edinburgh for private sector job creation between 2010 and 2013 .
Economic inequality within Birmingham is greater than in any other major English city , and is exceeded only by Glasgow in the United Kingdom . Levels of unemployment are among the highest in the country , with 14 @.@ 4 % of the economically active population unemployed ( Dec 2013 ) . In the inner @-@ city wards of Aston and Washwood Heath , the figure is higher than 30 % . Two @-@ fifths of Birmingham 's population live in areas classified as in the 10 % most deprived parts of England , and overall Birmingham is the most deprived local authority in England in terms of income and employment deprivation . The city 's infant mortality rate is high , around 60 % worse than the national average . Meanwhile , just 49 % of women have jobs , compared to 65 % nationally , and only 28 % of the working @-@ age population in Birmingham have degree level qualifications in contrast to the average of 34 % across other Core Cities .
According to the 2014 Mercer Quality of Living Survey , Birmingham was placed 51st in the world in , which was the second highest rating in the UK . This is an improvement on the city 's 56th place in 2008 . The Big City Plan aims to move the city into the index 's top 20 by 2026 . An area of the city has been designated an enterprise zone , with tax relief and simplified planning to lure investment .
= = Culture = =
= = = Music = = =
The internationally renowned City of Birmingham Symphony Orchestra 's home venue is Symphony Hall . Other notable professional orchestras based in the city include the Birmingham Contemporary Music Group , the Royal Ballet Sinfonia and Ex Cathedra , a Baroque chamber choir and period instrument orchestra . The Orchestra of the Swan is the resident chamber orchestra at Birmingham Town Hall , where weekly recitals have also been given by the City Organist since 1834 .
The Birmingham Triennial Music Festivals took place from 1784 to 1912 . Music was specially composed , conducted or performed by Mendelssohn , Gounod , Sullivan , Dvořák , Bantock and Edward Elgar , who wrote four of his most famous choral pieces for Birmingham . Elgar 's The Dream of Gerontius had its début performance there in 1900 . Composers born in the city include Albert William Ketèlbey and Andrew Glover .
Jazz has been popular in the city since the 1920s , and there are many regular festivals such as the Harmonic Festival , the Mostly Jazz Festival and the annual International Jazz Festival .
Birmingham 's other city @-@ centre music venues include The National Indoor Arena , which was opened in 1991 , O2 Academy on Bristol Street , which opened in September 2009 replacing the O2 Academy in Dale End , The CBSO Centre , opened in 1997 , HMV Institute in Digbeth and the Adrian Boult Hall at the Birmingham Conservatoire .
During the 1960s Birmingham was the home of a music scene comparable to that of Liverpool . Although it produced no single band as big as The Beatles it was " a seething cauldron of musical activity " , and the international success of groups such as The Move , The Spencer Davis Group , The Moody Blues , Traffic and the Electric Light Orchestra had a collective influence that stretched into the 1970s and beyond . The city was the birthplace of heavy metal music , with pioneering metal bands from the late 1960s and 1970s such as Black Sabbath , Judas Priest , and half of Led Zeppelin having come from Birmingham . The next decade saw the influential metal bands Napalm Death and Godflesh arise from the city . Birmingham was the birthplace of modern bhangra in the 1960s , and by the 1980s had established itself as the global centre of bhangra culture , which has grown into a global phenomenon embraced by members of the Indian diaspora worldwide from Los Angeles to Singapore . The 1970s also saw the rise of reggae and ska in the city with such bands as Steel Pulse , UB40 , Musical Youth , The Beat and Beshara , expounding racial unity with politically leftist lyrics and multiracial line @-@ ups , mirroring social currents in Birmingham at that time .
Other popular bands from Birmingham include Duran Duran , Fine Young Cannibals , Ocean Colour Scene , The Streets , The Twang , Deluka and Dexys Midnight Runners . Musicians Jeff Lynne , Ozzy Osbourne , Tony Iommi , Bill Ward , Geezer Butler , John Lodge , Roy Wood , Joan Armatrading , Toyah Willcox , Denny Laine , Sukshinder Shinda , Apache Indian , Steve Winwood , Jamelia , Fyfe Dangerfield and Laura Mvula all grew up in the city .
Since 2012 the Digbeth @-@ based B @-@ Town indie music scene has attracted widespread attention , led by bands such as Peace and Swim Deep , with the NME comparing Digbeth to London 's Shoreditch , and The Independent writing that " Birmingham is fast becoming the best place in the UK to look to for the most exciting new music " .
= = = Theatre and performing arts = = =
Birmingham Repertory Theatre is Britain 's longest @-@ established producing theatre , presenting a wide variety of work in its three auditoria on Centenary Square and touring nationally and internationally . Other producing theatres in the city include the Blue Orange Theatre in the Jewellery Quarter ; the Old Rep , home stage of the Birmingham Stage Company ; and @ A. E. Harris , the base of the experimental Stan 's Cafe theatre company , located within a working metal fabricators ' factory . Touring theatre companies include the politically radical Banner Theatre , the Maverick Theatre Company and Kindle Theatre . The Alexandra Theatre and the Birmingham Hippodrome host large @-@ scale touring productions , while professional drama is performed on a wide range of stages across the city , including the Crescent Theatre , the Custard Factory , the Old Joint Stock Theatre , the Drum in Aston and the mac in Cannon Hill Park .
The Birmingham Royal Ballet is one of the United Kingdom 's five major ballet companies and one of three based outside London . It is resident at the Birmingham Hippodrome and tours extensively nationally and internationally . The company 's associated ballet school – Elmhurst School for Dance in Edgbaston – is the oldest vocational dance school in the country .
The Birmingham Opera Company under artistic director Graham Vick has developed an international reputation for its avant @-@ garde productions , which often take place in factories , abandoned buildings and other found spaces around the city . In 2010 it was described by The Guardian as " far and away the most powerful example that I 've experienced in this country of how and why opera can still matter . " More conventional seasons by Welsh National Opera and other visiting opera companies take place regularly at the Birmingham Hippodrome .
= = = Literature = = =
Literary figures associated with Birmingham include Samuel Johnson who stayed in Birmingham for a short period and was born in nearby Lichfield . Arthur Conan Doyle worked in the Aston area of Birmingham whilst poet Louis MacNeice lived in Birmingham for six years . It was whilst staying in Birmingham that American author Washington Irving produced several of his most famous literary works , such as Bracebridge Hall and The Humorists , A Medley which are based on Aston Hall .
The poet W. H. Auden grew up in the Harborne area of the city and during the 1930s formed the core of the Auden Group with Birmingham University lecturer Louis MacNeice . Other influential poets associated with Birmingham include Roi Kwabena , who was the city 's sixth poet laureate , and Benjamin Zephaniah , who was born in the city .
The author J. R. R. Tolkien was brought up in Birmingham , with many locations in the city such as Moseley bog , Sarehole Mill and Perrott 's Folly supposedly being the inspiration for various scenes in The Lord of the Rings . The award winning political playwright David Edgar was born in Birmingham , and the science fiction author John Wyndham spent his early childhood in the Edgbaston area of the city , as did Dame Barbara Cartland .
Birmingham has a vibrant contemporary literary scene , with local authors including David Lodge , Jim Crace , Jonathan Coe , Joel Lane and Judith Cutler . The city 's leading contemporary literary publisher is the Tindal Street Press , whose authors include prize @-@ winning novelists Catherine O 'Flynn , Clare Morrall and Austin Clarke .
Birmingham is the home of the UK 's longest @-@ established local science fiction group , launched in 1971 ( although there were earlier incarnations in the 1940s and 1960s ) and which organises the annual science fiction event Novacon .
= = = Art and design = = =
The Birmingham School of landscape artists emerged with Daniel Bond in the 1760s and was to last into the mid 19th century . Its most important figure was David Cox , whose later works make him an important precursor of impressionism . The influence of the Royal Birmingham Society of Artists and the Birmingham School of Art made Birmingham an important centre of Victorian art , particularly within the Pre @-@ Raphaelite and Arts and Crafts movements . Major figures included the Pre @-@ Raphaelite and symbolist Edward Burne @-@ Jones ; Walter Langley , the first of the Newlyn School painters ; and Joseph Southall , leader of the group of artists and craftsmen known as the Birmingham Group .
The Birmingham Surrealists were among the " harbingers of surrealism " in Britain in the 1930s and the movement 's most active members in the 1940s , while more abstract artists associated with the city included Lee Bank @-@ born David Bomberg and CoBrA member William Gear . Birmingham artists were prominent in several post @-@ war developments in art : Peter Phillips was among the central figures in the birth of Pop Art ; John Salt was the only major European figure among the pioneers of photo @-@ realism ; and the BLK Art Group used painting , collage and multimedia to examine the politics and culture of Black British identity . Contemporary artists from the city include the Turner Prize winner Gillian Wearing and the Turner Prize shortlisted Richard Billingham , John Walker and Roger Hiorns .
Birmingham 's role as a manufacturing and printing centre has supported strong local traditions of graphic design and product design . Iconic works by Birmingham designers include the Baskerville font , Ruskin Pottery , the Acme Thunderer whistle , the Art Deco branding of the Odeon Cinemas and the Mini .
= = = Museums and galleries = = =
Birmingham has two major public art collections . Birmingham Museum & Art Gallery is best known for its works by the Pre @-@ Raphaelites , a collection " of outstanding importance " . It also holds a significant selection of old masters – including major works by Bellini , Rubens , Canaletto and Claude – and particularly strong collections of 17th @-@ century Italian Baroque painting and English watercolours . Its design holdings include Europe 's pre @-@ eminent collections of ceramics and fine metalwork . The Barber Institute of Fine Arts in Edgbaston is one of the finest small art galleries in the world , with a collection of exceptional quality representing Western art from the 13th century to the present day .
Birmingham Museums Trust runs other museums in the city including Aston Hall , Blakesley Hall , the Museum of the Jewellery Quarter , Soho House and Sarehole Mill . The Birmingham Back to Backs are the last surviving court of back @-@ to @-@ back houses in the city . Cadbury World is a museum showing visitors the stages and steps of chocolate production and the history of chocolate and the company . The Ikon Gallery hosts displays of contemporary art , as does Eastside Projects .
Thinktank is Birmingham 's main science museum , with a giant screen cinema , a planetarium and a collection that includes the Smethwick Engine , the world 's oldest working steam engine . Other science @-@ based museums include the National Sea Life Centre in Brindleyplace , the Lapworth Museum of Geology at the University of Birmingham and the Centre of the Earth environmental education centre in Winson Green .
= = = Nightlife and festivals = = =
Nightlife in Birmingham is mainly concentrated along Broad Street and into Brindleyplace . Although in more recent years Broad St has lost its popularity due to the closing of several clubs , the Arcadian now has more popularity in terms of nightlife . Outside the Broad Street area are many stylish and underground venues . The Medicine Bar in the Custard Factory , hmv Institute , Rainbow Pub and Air are large clubs and bars in Digbeth . Around the Chinese Quarter are areas such as the Arcadian and Hurst Street Gay Village , that abound with bars and clubs . Summer Row , The Mailbox , O2 Academy in Bristol Street , Snobs Nightclub , St Philips / Colmore Row , St Paul 's Square and the Jewellery Quarter all have a vibrant night life . There are a number of late night pubs in the Irish Quarter . Outside the city centre is Star City entertainment complex on the former site of Nechells Power Station .
Birmingham is home to many national , religious and spiritual festivals including a St. George 's Day party . The Birmingham Tattoo is a long @-@ standing military show held annually at the National Indoor Arena . The Caribbean @-@ style Birmingham International Carnival takes place in odd numbered years . Birmingham Pride takes place in the gay village and attracts up to 100 @,@ 000 visitors each year . From 1997 until December 2006 , the city hosted an annual arts festival ArtsFest , the largest free arts festival in the UK at the time . The city 's largest single @-@ day event is its St. Patrick 's Day parade ( Europe 's second largest , after Dublin ) . Other multicultural events include the Bangla Mela and the Vaisakhi Mela . The Birmingham Heritage Festival is a Mardi Gras style event in August . Caribbean and African culture are celebrated with parades and street performances by buskers .
Other festivals in the city include the Birmingham International Jazz Festival , " Party in the Park " was originally a festival hosted by local and regional radio stations which died down in 2007 and has now been brought back to life as an unsigned festival for regional unsigned acts to showcase themselves in a one @-@ day music festival for the whole family . Birmingham Comedy Festival ( since 2001 ; 10 days in October ) , which has been headlined by such acts as Peter Kay , The Fast Show , Jimmy Carr , Lee Evans and Lenny Henry , and the Off The Cuff Festival established in 2009 . The biennial International Dance Festival Birmingham started in 2008 , organised by DanceXchange and involving indoor and outdoor venues across the city . Since 2001 , Birmingham has also been host to the Frankfurt Christmas Market . Modelled on its German counterpart , it has grown to become the UK 's largest outdoor Christmas market and is the largest German market outside of Germany and Austria , attracting over 3 @.@ 1 million visitors in 2010 and over 5 million visitors in 2011 .
= = = Entertainment and Leisure = = =
Birmingham is home to many entainment and leisure venues . It is home to Europe 's largest leisure and entertainment complex Star City as well as Europe 's first out @-@ of @-@ city @-@ centre entertainment and leisure complex Resorts World Birmingham owned by the Genting Group . The Mailbox which caters for more affluent clients is based within the city .
= = Architecture = =
Birmingham is chiefly a product of the 18th , 19th and 20th centuries ; its growth began during the Industrial Revolution . Consequently , relatively few buildings survive from its earlier history and those that do are protected . There are 1 @,@ 946 listed buildings in Birmingham and thirteen scheduled ancient monuments . Birmingham City Council also operate a locally listing scheme for buildings that do not fully meet the criteria for statutorily listed status .
Traces of medieval Birmingham can be seen in the oldest churches , notably the original parish church , St Martin in the Bull Ring . A few other buildings from the medieval and Tudor periods survive , among them the Lad in the Lane and The Old Crown , the 15th century Saracen 's Head public house and Old Grammar School in Kings Norton and Blakesley Hall .
A number of Georgian buildings survive , including St Philip 's Cathedral , Soho House , Perrott 's Folly , the Town Hall and much of St Paul 's Square . The Victorian era saw extensive building across the city . Major civic buildings such as the Victoria Law Courts ( in characteristic red brick and terracotta ) , the Council House and the Museum & Art Gallery were constructed . St Chad 's Cathedral was the first Roman Catholic cathedral to be built in the UK since the Reformation . Across the city , the need to house the industrial workers gave rise to miles of redbrick streets and terraces , many of back @-@ to @-@ back houses , some of which were later to become inner @-@ city slums .
Postwar redevelopment and anti @-@ Victorianism resulted in the loss of dozens of Victorian buildings like Birmingham New Street Station and the old Central Library , often replaced by brutalist architecture . Sir Herbert Manzoni , City Engineer and Surveyor of Birmingham from 1935 until 1963 , believed conservation of old buildings was sentimental and that the city did not have any of worth anyway . In inner @-@ city areas too , much Victorian housing was demolished and redeveloped . Existing communities were relocated to tower block estates like Castle Vale .
In a partial reaction against the Manzoni years , Birmingham City Council is demolishing some of the brutalist buildings like the Central Library and has an extensive tower block demolition and renovation programme . There has been much redevelopment in the city centre in recent years , including the award @-@ winning Future Systems ' Selfridges building in the Bullring Shopping Centre , the Brindleyplace regeneration project , the Millennium Point science and technology centre , and the refurbishment of the iconic Rotunda building . Funding for many of these projects has come from the European Union ; the Town Hall for example received £ 3 million in funding from the European Regional Development Fund .
Highrise development has slowed since the 1970s and mainly in recent years because of enforcements imposed by the Civil Aviation Authority on the heights of buildings as they could affect aircraft from the Airport ( e.g. Beetham Tower ) .
= = Transport = =
Partly because of its central location , Birmingham is a major transport hub on the motorway , rail and canal networks . The city is served by the M5 , M6 , M40 , and M42 motorways , and probably the best known motorway junction in the UK : Spaghetti Junction . The M6 passes through the city on the Bromford Viaduct , which at 3 @.@ 5 miles ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) is the longest bridge in the United Kingdom .
Birmingham Airport , located 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) east of the city centre in the neighbouring borough of Solihull , is the seventh busiest by passenger traffic in the United Kingdom and the third busiest outside the London area after Manchester and Edinburgh . It is the largest base for Flybe , Europe 's largest regional airline , and a major base for Ryanair , Monarch Airlines and Thomson Airways . Airline services exist to many destinations in Europe , North America , the Caribbean , Africa , the Middle East and Asia .
Birmingham New Street is the busiest railway station in the United Kingdom outside London , both for passenger entries and exits and for passenger interchanges . It is the national hub for CrossCountry , the most extensive long @-@ distance train network in Britain , and a major destination for Virgin Trains services from London Euston , Glasgow Central and Edinburgh Waverley . Birmingham Moor Street and Birmingham Snow Hill form the northern termini for Chiltern Railways express trains running from London Marylebone . Local and regional services are operated from all of Birmingham 's stations by London Midland . Curzon Street railway station is planned to be the northern terminus for phase 1 of the High Speed 2 rail link from London , due to open in 2026 .
The National Express Group headquarters are located in Digbeth , in offices above Birmingham Coach Station , which forms the national hub of the company 's coach network .
Local public transport in Birmingham is co @-@ ordinated by Transport for West Midlands . TfWM 's network includes the busiest urban rail system in the UK outside London , with 122 million passenger entries and exits per annum ; the busiest urban bus system outside London , with 300 @.@ 2 million passenger journeys per annum ; and the Midland Metro , a light rail system which operates between New Street Station and Wolverhampton via Bilston , Wednesbury and West Bromwich , . Bus routes are mainly operated by National Express West Midlands , which accounts for over 80 % of all bus journeys in Birmingham , though there are around 50 other , smaller registered bus companies . The number 11 outer circle bus routes are the longest urban bus routes in Europe , being 26 miles ( 42 km ) long with 272 bus stops .
An extensive canal system remains from the Industrial Revolution , with the city having more miles of canal than Venice , although because Birmingham is much larger than Venice the canals are less of a prominent feature than they are in Venice . Nowadays the canals are mainly used for leisure purposes , and canalside regeneration schemes such as Brindleyplace have turned the canals into tourist attractions .
= = Education = =
= = = Further and higher education = = =
Birmingham is home to five universities : Aston University , University of Birmingham , Birmingham City University , University College Birmingham and Newman University . The city also hosts major campuses of the University of Law and BPP University , as well as the Open University 's West Midlands regional base . In 2011 Birmingham had 78 @,@ 259 full @-@ time students aged 18 – 74 resident in the city during term time , more than any other city in the United Kingdom outside London . Birmingham has 32 @,@ 690 research students , also the highest number of any major city outside London .
The Birmingham Business School , established by Sir William Ashley in 1902 , is the oldest graduate @-@ level business school in the United Kingdom . Another top business school in the city includes Aston Business School , one of fewer than 1 % of business schools globally to be granted triple accreditation , and Birmingham City Business School . The Birmingham Conservatoire , Birmingham School of Acting and Birmingham Institute of Art and Design , all now part of Birmingham City University , offer higher education in specific arts subjects .
Birmingham is an important centre for religious education . St Mary 's College , Oscott is one of the three seminaries of the Catholic Church in England and Wales ; Woodbrooke is the only Quaker study centre in Europe ; and Queen 's College , Edgbaston is an ecumenical theological college serving the Church of England , the Methodist Church and the United Reformed Church .
Birmingham Metropolitan College is one of the largest further education colleges in the country , with fourteen campuses spread across Birmingham and into the Black Country and Worcestershire . South & City College Birmingham has nine campuses spread throughout the city . Bournville College is based in a £ 66 million , 4 @.@ 2 acre campus in Longbridge that opened in 2011 . Fircroft College is a residential college based in a former Edwardian mansion in Selly Oak , founded in 1909 around a strong commitment to social justice , with many courses aimed at students with few prior formal qualifications . Queen Alexandra College is a specialist college based in Harborne offering further education to visually impaired or disabled students from all over the United Kingdom .
= = = Primary and secondary education = = =
Birmingham City Council is England 's largest local education authority , directly or indirectly responsible for 25 nursery schools , 328 primary schools , 77 secondary schools and 29 special schools. and providing around 3 @,@ 500 adult education courses throughout the year . Most of Birmingham 's state schools are community schools run directly by Birmingham City Council in its role as local education authority ( LEA ) . However , there are a large number of voluntary aided schools within the state system . Since the 1970s , most secondary schools in Birmingham have been 11 @-@ 16 / 18 comprehensive schools , while post GCSE students have the choice of continuing their education in either a school 's sixth form or at a further education college . Birmingham has always operated a primary school system of 4 – 7 infant and 7 – 11 junior schools .
King Edward 's School , Birmingham , founded in 1552 by King Edward VI , is the one of the oldest and the most prestigious schools in the city , constantly setting high academic standards in GCSE and IB and having many notable alumni pass through its doors , such as J.R.R Tolkien , author of the Lord of the Rings books and the Hobbit . Notable independent schools in the city include the Birmingham Blue Coat School , King Edward VI High School for Girls and Edgbaston High School for Girls . The seven schools of The King Edward VI Foundation are known nationally for setting very high academic standards and all the schools consistently achieve top positions in national league tables .
= = Public services = =
In Birmingham libraries , leisure centres , parks , play areas , transport , street cleaning and waste collection face cuts among other services . Albert Bore , leader of Birmingham City Council called on the government to change radically how local services are funded and provided . It is claimed government cuts to local authorities have hit Birmingham disproportionately . Child protection services within Birmingham were rated " inadequate " by OFSTED for four years running between 2009 and 2013 , with 20 child deaths since 2007 being investigated . In March 2014 the government announced that independent commissioner would be appointed to oversee improvements to children 's services within the city .
= = = Library services = = =
The former Birmingham Central Library , opened in 1972 , was considered to be the largest municipal library in Europe . Six of its collections were designated by the Arts Council England as being " pre @-@ eminent collections of national and international importance " , out of only eight collections to be so recognised in local authority libraries nationwide . A new Library of Birmingham in Centenary Square , replacing Central Library , was opened on 3 September 2013 . It was designed by the Dutch architects Mecanoo and has been described as " a kind of public forum ... a memorial , a shrine , to the book and to literature " . This library faces cuts , due to reduced funding from Central government .
There are 41 local libraries in Birmingham , plus a regular mobile library service . The library service has 4 million visitors annually . Due to budget cuts , four of the branch libraries risk closure whilst services may be reduced elsewhere .
= = = Emergency services = = =
Law enforcement in Birmingham is carried out by West Midlands Police , whose headquarters are at Lloyd House in Birmingham City Centre . With 87 @.@ 92 recorded offences per 1000 population in 2009 – 10 , Birmingham 's crime rate is above the average for England and Wales , but lower than any of England 's other major core cities and lower than many smaller cities such as Oxford , Cambridge or Brighton . Fire and rescue services in Birmingham are provided by West Midlands Fire Service and emergency medical care by West Midlands Ambulance Service .
= = = Healthcare = = =
There are several major National Health Service hospitals in Birmingham . The Queen Elizabeth Hospital , adjacent to the Birmingham Medical School in Edgbaston , houses the largest critical care unit in Europe , and is also the home of the Royal Centre for Defence Medicine , treating military personnel injured in conflict zones . Other general hospitals in the city include Heartlands Hospital , Good Hope Hospital in Sutton Coldfield and City Hospital in Winson Green . There are also many specialist hospitals , such as Birmingham Children 's Hospital , Birmingham Women 's Hospital , Birmingham Dental Hospital , and the Royal Orthopaedic Hospital .
Birmingham saw the first ever use of radiography in an operation , and the UK 's first ever hole @-@ in @-@ the @-@ heart operation was performed at Birmingham Children 's Hospital .
See also Healthcare in West Midlands .
= = = Water supply = = =
The Birmingham Corporation Water Department was set up in 1876 to supply water to Birmingham , up until 1974 when its responsibilities were transferred to Severn Trent Water . Most of Birminghams water is supplied by the Elan aqueduct , opened in 1904 ; water is fed by gravity to Frankley Reservoir , Frankley , and Bartley Reservoir , Bartley Green , from reservoirs in the Elan Valley , Wales .
= = = Energy from waste = = =
Within Birmingham the Tyseley Energy from Waste Plant , a large incineration plant built in 1996 for Veolia , burns some 366 @,@ 414 tonnes of household waste annually and produces 166 @,@ 230 MWh of electricity for the National Grid along with 282 @,@ 013 tonnes of carbon dioxide . Birmingham Friends of the Earth have strongly opposed the facility for contributing to climate change , causing air pollution and reducing recycling rates in the city .
Another energy @-@ from @-@ waste centre using pyrolysis technology has been granted planning permission at Washwood Heath .
= = Sport = =
Birmingham has played an important part in the history of modern sport . The Football League – the world 's first league football competition – was founded by Birmingham resident and Aston Villa director William McGregor , who wrote to fellow club directors in 1888 proposing " that ten or twelve of the most prominent clubs in England combine to arrange home @-@ and @-@ away fixtures each season " . The modern game of tennis was developed between 1859 and 1865 by Harry Gem and his friend Augurio Perera at Perera 's house in Edgbaston , with the Edgbaston Archery and Lawn Tennis Society remaining the oldest tennis club in the world . The Birmingham and District Cricket League is the oldest cricket league in the world , and Birmingham was the host for the first ever Cricket World Cup , a Women 's Cricket World Cup in 1973 . Birmingham was the first city to be named National City of Sport by the Sports Council . Birmingham was selected ahead of London and Manchester to bid for the 1992 Summer Olympics , but was unsuccessful in the final selection process , which was won by Barcelona .
Today , the city is home of two of the country 's oldest professional football teams : Aston Villa F.C. , which was founded in 1874 and plays at Villa Park ; and Birmingham City F.C. , which was founded in 1875 and plays at St Andrew 's . Rivalry between the clubs is fierce and the fixture between the two is called the Second City derby . Aston Villa are 7 @-@ time Premier League champions and the 1982 European Champions , but currently play in the Championship following their relegation from the Premier League in the 2015 – 16 season . Birmingham City also currently play in the Championship .
Seven times County Championship winners Warwickshire County Cricket Club play at Edgbaston Cricket Ground , which also hosts test cricket and one day internationals and is the largest cricket ground in the United Kingdom after Lord 's . Edgbaston was the scene of the highest ever score by a batsman in first @-@ class cricket , when Brian Lara scored 501 not out for Warwickshire in 1994 .
Birmingham has a professional Rugby Union club , Moseley R.F.C. , who play at Billesley Common ; with a second professional club , Birmingham & Solihull R.F.C. , playing at Damson Park in the neighbouring borough of Solihull . The city also has a rugby league club , the Birmingham Bulldogs , who compete in the Co @-@ operative RLC Midlands Premier League ( RLC ) . The city is also home to one of the oldest American Football teams in the BAFA National Leagues , the Birmingham Bulls .
Two major championship golf courses lie on the city 's outskirts . The Belfry near | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
Italian film Nefertiti , Queen of the Nile ( 1961 ) Nefertiti is in love with the young sculptor Tumos ( Thutmose ) , played by Edmund Purdom , who is a friend of prince Amenophis ( Akhenaten ) . Tumos loses Nefertiti to Akhenaten , but preserves his love for her in the famous sculpture . The American Society for Aesthetic Plastic Surgery uses the bust of Nefertiti as its official emblem .
= Andalusian horse =
The Andalusian , also known as the Pure Spanish Horse or PRE ( Pura Raza Española ) , is a horse breed from the Iberian Peninsula , where its ancestors have lived for thousands of years . The Andalusian has been recognized as an individual breed since the 15th century , and its conformation has changed very little over the centuries . Throughout its history , it has been known for its prowess as a war horse , and was prized by the nobility . The breed was used as a tool of diplomacy by the Spanish government , and kings across Europe rode and owned Spanish horses . During the 19th century , warfare , disease and crossbreeding reduced herd numbers dramatically , and despite some recovery in the late 19th century , the trend continued into the early 20th century . Exports of Andalusians from Spain were restricted until the 1960s , but the breed has since spread throughout the world , despite their low population . In 2010 , there were more than 185 @,@ 000 registered Andalusians worldwide .
Strongly built , and compact yet elegant , Andalusians have long , thick manes and tails . Their most common coat color is gray , although they can be found in many other colors . They are known for their intelligence , sensitivity and docility . A sub @-@ strain within the breed known as the Carthusian , is considered by breeders to be the purest strain of Andalusian , though there is no genetic evidence for this claim . The strain is still considered separate from the main breed however , and is preferred by breeders because buyers pay more for horses of Carthusian bloodlines . There are several competing registries keeping records of horses designated as Andalusian or PRE , but they differ on their definition of the Andalusian and PRE , the purity of various strains of the breed , and the legalities of stud book ownership . At least one lawsuit is in progress as of 2011 , to determine the ownership of the Spanish PRE stud book .
The Andalusian is closely related to the Lusitano of Portugal , and has been used to develop many other breeds , especially in Europe and the Americas . Breeds with Andalusian ancestry include many of the warmbloods in Europe as well as western hemisphere breeds such as the Azteca . Over its centuries of development , the Andalusian breed has been selected for athleticism and stamina . The horses were originally used for classical dressage , driving , bullfighting , and as stock horses . Modern Andalusians are used for many equestrian activities , including dressage , show jumping and driving . The breed is also used extensively in movies , especially historical pictures and fantasy epics .
= = Characteristics = =
Andalusians stallions and geldings average 15 @.@ 1 1 ⁄ 2 hands ( 61 @.@ 5 inches , 156 cm ) at the withers and 512 kilograms ( 1 @,@ 129 lb ) in weight ; mares average 15 1 ⁄ 2 hands ( 60 @.@ 5 inches , 154 cm ) and 412 kilograms ( 908 lb ) . The Spanish government has set the minimum height for registration in Spain at 15 @.@ 0 hands ( 60 inches , 152 cm ) for males and 14 @.@ 3 hands ( 59 inches , 150 cm ) for mares - this standard is followed by the Association of Purebred Spanish Horse Breeders of Spain ( Asociación Nacional de Criadores de Caballo de Pura Raza Española or ANCCE ) and the Andalusian Horse Association of Australasia . The Spanish legislation also requires that in order for animals to be approved as either " qualified " or " élite " breeding stock , stallions must stand at least 15 @.@ 1 hands ( 61 inches , 155 cm ) and mares at least 15 1 ⁄ 4 hands ( 60 @.@ 25 inches , 153 cm ) .
Andalusian horses are elegant and strongly built . Members of the breed have heads of medium length , with a straight or slightly convex profile . Ultra convex and concave profiles are discouraged in the breed , and are penalized in breed shows . Necks are long and broad , running to well @-@ defined withers and a massive chest . They have a short back and broad , strong hindquarters with a well @-@ rounded croup . The breed tends to have clean legs , with no propensity for blemishes or injuries , and energetic gaits . The mane and tail are thick and long , but the legs do not have excess feathering . Andalusians tend to be docile , while remaining intelligent and sensitive . When treated with respect they are quick to learn , responsive , and cooperative .
There are two additional characteristics unique to the Carthusian strain , believed to trace back to the strain 's foundation stallion Esclavo . The first is warts under the tail , a trait which Esclavo passed to his offspring , and a trait which some breeders felt was necessary to prove that a horse was a member of the Esclavo bloodline . The second characteristic is the occasional presence of " horns " , which are frontal bosses , possibly inherited from Asian ancestors . The physical descriptions of the bosses vary , ranging from calcium @-@ like deposits at the temple to small horn @-@ like protuberances near or behind the ear . However , these " horns " are not considered proof of Esclavo descent , unlike the tail warts .
In the past , most coat colors were found , including spotted patterns . Today most Andalusians are gray or bay ; in the US , around 80 percent of all Andalusians are gray . Of the remaining horses , approximately 15 percent are bay and 5 percent are black , dun or palomino or chestnut . Other colors , such as buckskin , pearl , and cremello , are rare , but are recognized as allowed colors by registries for the breed .
In the early history of the breed , certain white markings and whorls were considered to be indicators of character and good or bad luck . Horses with white socks on their feet were considered to have good or bad luck , depending on the leg or legs marked . A horse with no white markings at all was considered to be ill @-@ tempered and vice @-@ ridden , while certain facial markings were considered representative of honesty , loyalty and endurance . Similarly , hair whorls in various places were considered to show good or bad luck , with the most unlucky being in places where the horse could not see them – for example the temples , cheek , shoulder or heart . Two whorls near the root of the tail were considered a sign of courage and good luck .
The movement of Andalusian horses is extended , elevated , cadenced and harmonious , with a balance of roundness and forward movement . Poor elevation , irregular tempo , and excessive winging ( sideways movement of the legs from the knee down ) are discouraged by breed registry standards . Andalusians are known for their agility and their ability to learn difficult moves quickly , such as advanced collection and turns on the haunches . A 2001 study compared the kinematic characteristics of Andalusian , Arabian and Anglo @-@ Arabian horses while moving at the trot . Andalusians were found to overtrack less ( the degree to which the hind foot lands ahead of the front hoof print ) but also exhibit greater flexing of both fore and hind joints , movement consistent with the more elevated way of going typically found in this breed . The authors of the study theorized that these characteristics of the breed 's trot may contribute to their success as a riding and dressage horse .
A 2008 study found that Andalusians experience ischaemic ( reduced blood flow ) diseases of the small intestine at a rate significantly higher than other breeds ; and stallions had higher numbers of inguinal hernias , with risk for occurrence 30 times greater than other breeds . At the same time , they also showed a lower incidence of large intestinal obstruction . In the course of the study , Andalusians also showed the highest risk of laminitis as a medical complication related to the intestinal issues .
= = History = =
= = = Early development = = =
The Andalusian horse is descended from the Iberian horses of Spain and Portugal , and derives its name from its place of origin , the Spanish region of Andalusia . Cave paintings show that horses have been present on the Iberian Peninsula as far back as 20 @,@ 000 to 30 @,@ 000 BCE . Although Portuguese historian Ruy d 'Andrade hypothesized that the ancient Sorraia breed was an ancestor of the Southern Iberian breeds , including the Andalusian , genetic studies using mitochondrial DNA show that the Sorraia is part of a genetic cluster that is largely separated from most Iberian breeds .
Throughout history , the Iberian breeds have been influenced by many different peoples and cultures who occupied Spain , including the Celts , the Carthaginians , the Romans , various Germanic tribes and the Moors . The Iberian horse was identified as a talented war horse as early as 450 BCE . Mitochondrial DNA studies of the modern Andalusian horse of the Iberian peninsula and Barb horse of North Africa present convincing evidence that both breeds crossed the Strait of Gibraltar and were used for breeding with each other , influencing one another 's bloodlines . Thus , the Andalusian may have been the first European " warmblood " , a mixture of heavy European and lighter Oriental horses . Some of the earliest written pedigrees in recorded European history were kept by Carthusian monks , beginning in the 13th century . Because they could read and write , and were thus able to maintain careful records , monastics were given the responsibility for horse breeding by certain members of the nobility , particularly in Spain . Andalusian stud farms for breeding were formed in the late 15th century in Carthusian monasteries in Jerez , Seville and Cazalla .
The Carthusians bred powerful , weight @-@ bearing horses in Andalusia for the Crown of Castile , using the finest Spanish Jennets as foundation bloodstock . These horses were a blend of Jennet and warmblood breeding , taller and more powerfully built than the original Jennet . By the 15th century , the Andalusian had become a distinct breed , and was being used to influence the development of other breeds . They were also noted for their use as cavalry horses . Even though in the 16th and 17th centuries Spanish horses had not reached the final form of the modern Andalusian , by 1667 William Cavendish , the Duke of Newcastle , called the Spanish horse of Andalusia the " princes " of the horse world , and reported that they were " unnervingly intelligent " . The Iberian horse became known as the " royal horse of Europe " and was seen at many royal courts and riding academies , including those in Austria , Italy , France and Germany . By the 16th century , during the reigns of Charles V ( 1500 – 1558 ) and Phillip II ( 1556 – 1581 ) , Spanish horses were considered the finest in the world . Even in Spain , quality horses were owned mainly by the wealthy . During the 16th century , inflation and an increased demand for harness and cavalry horses drove the price of horses extremely high . The always expensive Andalusian became even more so , and it was often impossible to find a member of the breed to purchase at any price .
= = = Dissemination = = =
Spanish horses also were spread widely as a tool of diplomacy by the government of Spain , which granted both horses and export rights to favored citizens and to other royalty . As early as the 15th century , the Spanish horse was widely distributed throughout the Mediterranean , and was known in northern European countries , despite being less common and more expensive there . As time went on , kings from across Europe , including every French monarch from Francis I to Louis XVI , had equestrian portraits created showing themselves riding Spanish @-@ type horses . The kings of France , including Louis XIII and Louis XIV , especially preferred the Spanish horse ; the head groom to Henri IV , Salomon de la Broue , said in 1600 , " Comparing the best horses , I give the Spanish horse first place for its perfection , because it is the most beautiful , noble , graceful and courageous " . War horses from Spain and Portugal began to be introduced to England in the 12th century , and importation continued through the 15th century . In the 16th century , Henry VIII received gifts of Spanish horses from Charles V , Ferdinand II of Aragon and the Duke of Savoy and others when he wed Katherine of Aragon . He also purchased additional war and riding horses through agents in Spain . By 1576 , Spanish horses made up one third of British royal studs at Malmesbury and Tutbury . The Spanish horse peaked in popularity in Great Britain during the 17th century , when horses were freely imported from Spain and exchanged as gifts between royal families . With the introduction of the Thoroughbred , interest in the Spanish horse faded after the mid @-@ 18th century , although they remained popular through the early 19th century . The Conquistadors of the 16th century rode Spanish horses , particularly animals from Andalusia , and the modern Andalusian descended from similar bloodstock . By 1500 , Spanish horses were established in studs on Santo Domingo , and Spanish horses made their way into the ancestry of many breeds founded in North and South America . Many Spanish explorers from the 16th century on brought Spanish horses with them for use as war horses and later as breeding stock . By 1642 , the Spanish horse had spread to Moldovia , to the stables of Transylvanian prince George Rakoczi .
= = = 19th century to present = = =
Despite their ancient history , all living Andalusians trace to a small number of horses bred by religious orders in the 18th and 19th centuries . An influx of heavy horse blood beginning in the 16th century , resulted in the dilution of many of the bloodlines ; only those protected by selective breeding remained intact to become the modern Andalusian . During the 19th century , the Andalusian breed was threatened because many horses were stolen or requisitioned in wartime , including the War of the Oranges , the Peninsular War and the three Carlist Wars . Napoleon 's invading army also stole many horses . One herd of Andalusians was hidden from the invaders however , and subsequently used to renew the breed . In 1822 , breeders began to add Norman blood into Spanish bloodlines , as well as further infusions of Arabian blood . This was partially because increasing mechanization and changing needs within the military called for horses with more speed in cavalry charges as well as horses with more bulk for pulling gun carriages . In 1832 , an epidemic seriously affected Spain 's horse population , from which only one small herd survived in a stud at the monastery in Cartuja . During the 19th and early 20th centuries , European breeders , especially the Germans , changed from an emphasis on Andalusian and Neapolitan horses ( an emphasis that had been in place since the decline of chivalry ) , to an emphasis on the breeding of Thoroughbreds and warmbloods , further depleting the stock of Andalusians . Despite this change in focus , Andalusian breeding slowly recovered , and in 1869 , the Seville Horse Fair ( originally begun by the Romans ) , played host to between ten and twelve thousand Spanish horses . In the early 20th century , Spanish horse breeding began to focus on other breeds , particularly draft breeds , Arabians , Thoroughbreds and crosses between these breeds , as well as crosses between these breeds and the Andalusian . The purebred Andalusian was not viewed favorably by breeders or the military , and their numbers decreased significantly .
Andalusians only began to be exported from Spain in 1962 . The first Andalusians were imported into Australia in 1971 , and in 1973 the Andalusian Horse Association of Australasia was formed for the registration of these Andalusians and their offspring . Strict quarantine guidelines prohibited the importation of new Andalusian blood to Australia for many years , but since 1999 , regulations have been relaxed and more than half a dozen new horses have been imported . Bloodines in the United States also rely on imported stock , and all American Andalusians can be traced directly to the stud books in Portugal and Spain . There are around 8 @,@ 500 animals in the United States , where the International Andalusian and Lusitano Horse Association ( IALHA ) registers around 700 new purebred foals every year . These numbers indicate that the Andalusian is a relatively rare breed in the United States . In 2003 , there were 75 @,@ 389 horses registered in the stud book , and they constituted almost 66 percent of the horses in Spain . Breed numbers have been increasing during the 21st century . At the end of 2010 , a total of 185 @,@ 926 Pura Raza Española horses were recorded in the database of the Spanish Ministerio de Medio Ambiente , y Medio Rural y Marino . Of these , 28 @,@ 801 or about 15 % were in other countries of the world ; of those in Spain , 65 @,@ 371 or about 42 % were in Andalusia .
= = = Strains and sub @-@ types = = =
The Carthusian Andalusian or Cartujano is generally considered the purest Andalusian strain , and has one of the oldest recorded pedigree lines in the world . The pure sub @-@ type is rare , as only around 12 percent of the Andalusian horses registered between the founding of the stud book in the 19th century and 1998 were considered Carthusians . They made up only 3 @.@ 6 percent of the overall breeding stock , but 14 @.@ 2 percent of the stallions used for breeding . In the past , Carthusians were given preference in breeding , leading to a large proportion of the Andalusian population claiming ancestry from a small number of horses and possibly limiting the breed 's genetic variability . A 2005 study compared the genetic distance between Carthusian and non @-@ Carthusian horses . They calculated a Fixation index ( FST ) based on genealogical information and concluded that the distinction between the two is not supported by genetic evidence . However , there are slight physical differences ; Carthusians have more " oriental " or concave head shapes and are more often gray in color , while non @-@ Carthusians tend toward convex profiles and more often exhibit other coat colors such as bay .
The Carthusian line was established in the early 18th century when two Spanish brothers , Andrés and Diego Zamora , purchased a stallion named El Soldado and bred him to two mares . The mares were descended from mares purchased by the Spanish king and placed at Aranjuez , one of the oldest horse breeding farms in Spain . One of the offspring of El Soldado , a dark gray colt named Esclavo , became the foundation sire of the Carthusian line . One group of mares sired by Esclavo in about 1736 were given to a group of Carthusian monks to settle a debt . Other animals of these bloodlines were absorbed into the main Andalusian breed ; the stock given to the monks was bred into a special line , known as Zamoranos . Throughout the following centuries , the Zamoranos bloodlines were guarded by the Carthusian monks , to the point of defying royal orders to introduce outside blood from the Neapolitan horse and central European breeds . They did , however , introduce Arabian and Barb blood to improve the strain . The original stock of Carthusians was greatly depleted during the Peninsular Wars , and the strain might have become extinct if not for the efforts of the Zapata family . Today , the Carthusian strain is raised in state @-@ owned stud farms around Jerez de la Frontera , Badajoz and Cordoba , and also by several private families . Carthusian horses continue to be in demand in Spain , and buyers pay high prices for members of the strain .
= = = Influence on other breeds = = =
Spain 's worldwide military activities between the 14th and 17th centuries called for large numbers of horses , more than could be supplied by native Spanish mares . Spanish custom also called for mounted troops to ride stallions , never mares or geldings . Due to these factors , Spanish stallions were crossed with local mares in many countries , adding Spanish bloodlines wherever they went , especially to other European breeds .
Because of the influence of the later Habsburg families , who ruled in both Spain and other nations of Europe , the Andalusian was crossbred with horses of Central Europe and the Low Countries and thus was closely related to many breeds that developed , including the Neapolitan horse , Groningen , Lipizzaner and Kladruber . Spanish horses have been used extensively in classical dressage in Germany since the 16th century . They thus influenced many German breeds , including the Hanoverian , Holstein , East Friesian and Oldenburg . Dutch breeds such as the Friesian and Gelderland also contain significant Spanish blood , as do Danish breeds such as the Fredericksborg and Knabstrupper .
Andalusians were a significant influence on the creation of the Alter Real , a strain of the Lusitano , and the Azteca , a Mexican breed created by crossing the Andalusian with American Quarter Horse and Criollo bloodlines . The Spanish jennet ancestors of the Andalusian also developed the Colonial Spanish Horse in America , which became the foundation bloodstock for many North and South American breeds . The Andalusian has also been used to create breeds more recently , with breed associations for both the Warlander ( an Andalusian / Friesian cross ) and the Spanish @-@ Norman ( an Andalusian / Percheron cross ) being established in the 1990s .
= = Naming and registration = =
Until modern times , horse breeds throughout Europe were known primarily by the name of the region where they were bred . Thus the original term " Andalusian " simply described the horses of distinct quality that came from Andalusia in Spain . Similarly , the Lusitano , a Portuguese horse very similar to the Andalusian , takes its name from Lusitania , an ancient Roman name for Portugal .
The Andalusian horse has been known historically as the Iberian Saddle Horse , Iberian War Horse , Spanish Horse , Portuguese , Peninsular , Extremeño , Villanos , Zapata , Zamoranos , Castilian , and Jennet . The Portuguese name refers to what is now the Lusitano , while the Peninsular , Iberian Saddle Horse and Iberian War Horse names refer to horses from the Iberian Peninsula as a whole . The Extremeño name refers to Spanish horses from the Extremadura province of Spain and the Zapata or Zapatero name to horses that come from the Zapata family stud . The Villano name has occasionally been applied to modern Andalusians , but originally referred to heavy , crossbred horses from the mountains north of Jaen . The Carthusian horse , also known as the Carthusian @-@ Andalusian and the Cartujano , is a sub @-@ type of the Andalusian , rather than a distinct breed in itself . A common nickname for the Andalusian is the " Horse of Kings " . Some sources state that the Andalusian and the Lusitano are genetically the same , differing only in the country of origin of individual horses .
In many areas today , the breeding , showing , and registration of the Andalusian and Lusitano are controlled by the same registries . One example of this is the International Andalusian and Lusitano Horse Association ( IALHA ) , claimed to have the largest membership of any Andalusian registering organization . Other organizations , such as The Association of Purebred Spanish Horse Breeders of Spain ( Asociación Nacional de Criadores de Caballo de Pura Raza Española or ANCCE ) , use the term " Pura Raza Española " or PRE to describe the true Spanish horse , and claim sole authority to officially register and issue documentation for PRE Horses , both in Spain and anywhere else in the world . In most of the world the terms " Andalusian " and " PRE " are considered one and the same breed , but the public position of the ANCCE is that terms such as " Andalusian " and " Iberian horse " refer only to crossbreds , which the ANCCE considers to be horses that lack quality and purity , without official documentation or registration from official Spanish Stud Book .
In Australasia , the Australasia Andalusian Association registers Andalusians ( which the registry considers an interchangeable term for PRE ) , Australian Andalusians , and partbred Andalusians . They share responsibility for the Purebred Iberian Horse ( an Andalusian / Lusitano cross ) with the Lusitano Association of Australasia . In the Australian registry , there are various levels of crossbred horses . A first cross Andalusian is a crossbreed that is 50 percent Andalusian , while a second cross Andalusian is the result of crossing a purebred Andalusian with a first cross – resulting in a horse of 75 percent Andalusian blood . A third cross , also known by the registry as an Australian Andalusian , is when a second cross individual is mated with a foundation Andalusian mare . This sequence is known as a " breeding up " program by the registry .
= = = Pure Spanish Horse = = =
The name Pura Raza Española ( PRE ) , translated as " Pure Spanish Horse , " is the term used by the ANCCE , a private organization , and the Ministry of Agriculture of Spain . The ANCCE uses neither the term " Andalusian " nor " Iberian horse " , and only registers horses that have certain recognized bloodlines . In addition , all breeding stock must undergo an evaluation process . The ANCCE was founded in 1972 . Spain 's Ministry of Agriculture recognizes the ANCCE as the representing entity for PRE breeders and owners across the globe , as well as the administrator of the breed stud book . ANCCE functions as the international parent association for all breeders worldwide who record their horses as PRE . For example , the United States PRE association is affiliated with ANCCE , follows ANCCE rules , and has a wholly separate governance system from the IALHA .
A second group , the Foundation for the Pure Spanish Horse or PRE Mundial , has begun another PRE registry as an alternative to the ANCCE . This new registry claims that all of their registered horses trace back to the original stud book maintained by the Cria Caballar , which was a branch of the Spanish Ministry of Defense , for 100 years . Thus , the PRE Mundial registry asserts that their registry is the most authentic , purest PRE registry functioning today .
As of August 2011 , there is a lawsuit in progress to determine the legal holder of the PRE stud book . The Unión de Criadores de Caballos Españoles ( UCCE or Union of Spanish Horse Breeders ) has brought a case to the highest European Union courts in Brussels , charging that the Ministry of Spain 's transfer of the original PRE Libro de Origen ( the official stud book ) from the Cria Caballar to ANCCE was illegal . In early 2009 , the courts decided on behalf of UCCE , explaining that the Cria Caballar formed the Libro de Origin . Because it was formed by a government entity , it is against European Union law for the stud book to be transferred to a private entity , a law that was broken by the transfer of the book to ANCCE , which is a non @-@ governmental organization . The court found that by giving ANCCE sole control of the stud book , Spain 's Ministry of Defense was acting in a discriminatory manner . The court held that Spain must give permission to maintain a breed stud book ( called a Libro Genealógico ) to any international association or Spanish national association which requests it . Based on the Brussels court decision , an application has been made by the Foundation for the Pure Spanish Horse to maintain the United States stud book for the PRE . As of March 2011 , Spain has not revoked ANCCE 's right to be the sole holder of the PRE stud book , and has instead reaffirmed the organization 's status .
= = Uses = =
The Andalusian breed has over the centuries been consistently selected for athleticism . In the 17th century , referring to multi @-@ kilometer races , Cavendish said , " They were so much faster than all other horses known at that time that none was ever seen to come close to them , even in the many remarkable races that were run . " In 1831 , horses at five years old were expected to be able to gallop , without changing pace , four or five leagues , about 12 to 15 miles ( 19 to 24 km ) . By 1925 , the Portuguese military expected horses to " cover 40 km over uneven terrain at a minimum speed of 10 km / h , and to gallop a flat course of 8 km at a mimimum speed of 800 metres per minute carrying a weight of at least 70 kg " , and the Spanish military had similar standards .
From the very beginning of their history , Andalusians have been used for both riding and driving . Among the first horses used for classical dressage , they are still making a mark in international competition in dressage today . At the 2002 World Equestrian Games , two Andalusians were on the bronze @-@ medal winning Spanish dressage team , a team that went on to take the silver medal at the 2004 Summer Olympics . Today , the breed is increasingly being selectively bred for increased aptitude in classical dressage . Historically , however , they were also used as stock horses , especially suited to working with Iberian bulls , known for their aggressive temperaments . They were , and still are , known for their use in mounted bull fighting . Mares were traditionally used for la trilla , the Spanish process of threshing grain practiced until the 1960s . Mares , some pregnant or with foals at their side , spent full days trotting over the grain . As well as being a traditional farming practice , it also served as a test of endurance , hardiness and willingness for the maternal Andalusian lines .
Andalusians today are used for show jumping , western pleasure and many other classes at horse shows . The current Traveler , the mascot of the University of Southern California , is an Andalusian . The dramatic appearance of the Andalusian horse , with its arched neck , muscular build and energetic gaits , has made it a popular breed to use in film , particularly in historical and fantasy epics . Andalusians have been present in films ranging from Gladiator to Interview with a Vampire , and Lara Croft Tomb Raider : The Cradle of Life to Braveheart . The horses have also been seen in such fantasy epics as The Lord of the Rings film trilogy , King Arthur , and The Chronicles of Narnia : The Lion , the Witch and the Wardrobe . In 2006 , a rearing Andalusian stallion , ridden by Spanish conquistador Don Juan de Oñate , was recreated as the largest bronze equine in the world . Measuring 36 feet ( 11 m ) high , the statue currently stands in El Paso , Texas .
= Eyes of the Insane =
" Eyes of the Insane " is a 2006 single by the American thrash metal band Slayer , taken from their 2006 album Christ Illusion . The lyrics explore an American soldier 's mental anguish following his return home from the second Gulf War , and are based on an article entitled " Casualty of War " in Texas Monthly magazine . " Eyes of the Insane " was written by vocalist Tom Araya during pre @-@ production for the album . The song was generally well received by critics , and also peaked # 15 on the Danish singles charts .
The accompanying music video by the Iranian director Tony Petrossian was recorded in the Los Angeles area in August 2006 . The film is presented as a close @-@ up of the soldier 's pupil and iris , which reflect disconcerting images of war @-@ themed horrors , flashbacks of his home , wife and children , and ultimately images of his death . " Eyes of the Insane " was used on the soundtrack to Saw III , and won an award for the Best Metal Performance at the 49th Grammy Awards .
= = Origins = =
While walking through an airport , vocalist Tom Araya picked up a March 2006 issue of Texas Monthly with a soldier 's helmet on the front cover . Seeing the article " Casualty of War " , he was interested enough to purchase a copy . The issue explored the involvement of military personnel from Texas in the Iraq War , and included a list of Texan soldiers who had died in the conflict . The feature was accompanied by photographs of some of the dead , while a further article dealt with the anguish of surviving soldiers on their return home . Araya later said that the article " blew his mind " .
Araya read the article during his flight back to Los Angeles . Pre @-@ production for Slayer 's ninth studio album Christ Illusion had just begun , and the band was about to undertake a three @-@ day rehearsal with producer Josh Abraham . Araya left his baggage at the hotel to attend the rehearsals , then returned to re @-@ read the article . Finding it to be " very profound " , he woke up in the middle of the night and wrote down the lyrics . He said that his treatment of the topic is " sincere " , and that he believes it to be " one that the military doesn 't want you to know . They sweep it under the rug , but it 's a story that needs to be told . " The band 's guitarist , Kerry King , has said that " these new songs [ from the Christ Illusion album ] aren 't political at all : ' Jihad ' , ' Eyes of the Insane ' — it 's what 's spewing out at us from the TV . "
= = Musical structure = =
" Eyes of the Insane " is 3 minutes 23 seconds long . A slow drum pattern played by Dave Lombardo opens the track , over which Hanneman and King play angular and descending scales on guitar . These guitar riffs evolve from verse to verse , and have been described by Allmusic as " intensely harrowing " . The song gradually builds over the course of the verses , refrain and bridge , before resolving with a " towering " chorus .
Some reviewers paid particular attention to Araya 's vocal contribution . Zach Hothorn of Prefix magazine said the song " allows Araya to show his vocal range , deepening to build up tension and creating a wonderfully chilling 3 and a half minutes " , while Ian Robinson of musicOMH.com felt the track " is a distinct but welcome change of pace , Dave Lombardo 's machine @-@ gun rhythms forming the backbone for Tom Araya 's impressively intact scream . "
= = Music video = =
By the time Slayer decided that a music video should be filmed , touring commitments prevented their involvement in the actual shoot . Instead , others were contacted to produce the film . Director Tony Petrossian presented Slayer with the first draft , and the group made a few suggestions for improvement . Never having met him , King recalled Petrossian " had a treatment , and we all dug the treatment so we just turned him loose . " " Eyes of the Insane " ' s war @-@ themed music video was filmed on August 13 , 2006 , in the Los Angeles area . Casting company Tolley Casparis Casting sought a male Caucasian between the ages of 18 and 26 to appear in the clip , with auditions held on August 10 , 2006 . The official project notes deemed that " This guy must be a serious actor , capable of emoting everything through his eyes . He was innocent a few months ago , now he is scarred by seeing so much fighting . Strong eyebrows that do not overpower the face . Scars or large veins actually a plus . "
The video was shot as a " first @-@ person narrative about the horrors leading up to the final moments of a soldier at war " , and was described as " a single , long and tight close @-@ up of the soldier 's eye with images clearly reflected within his pupil and iris and perfectly choreographed with the rhythm of the music . Reflected are disconcerting images of para trooping into enemy territory , gunfire , helicopters and tanks , explosions , poignant flashbacks of his wife and child and home , and the images of his death . " Two endings were shot ; one in which the soldier is killed as the result of sustained combat wounds , and another in which the soldier commits suicide by hanging - the latter one was used . Jeff Hanneman confirmed that the band " loved " the eye concept , and personally felt that the video was " pretty amazing " when he first viewed it . King admitted that the film is " pretty cool — I thought it was neat idea — very different , especially for us , because we usually do performance based videos . " The video was exclusively posted on mp3.com late in October 2006 . In April 2007 , it was announced that the video had earned a Metal Hammer Golden Gods Awards nomination for Best Video with the winner to be revealed on June 11 , 2007 , at the Koko Club in London , England .
= = Critical reception = =
Critics were generally positive when reviewing " Eyes of the Insane " . Stylus magazine 's Cosmo Lee described the track as " a dark , midpaced exploration of a soldier 's psyche " , and remarked that " it 's memorable and would be a good breather between the usual barnburners " . Peter Atkinson of KNAC.com felt that " ' Eyes of the Insane ' offers a post @-@ traumatic sequel to ' Mandatory Suicide ' , again with a soundtrack that recalls the original , but boasting a couple truly mammoth hooks that do shake things up . " Don Kaye of Blabbermouth made a comparison to a different Slayer track than Atkinson , and commented that " ' Eyes of the Insane ' and ' Catatonic ' both have that slow , grinding feeling of doom that the band has done so well before on classics like ' Dead Skin Mask ' . "
= = Awards = =
The song was nominated for Best Metal Performance at the 49th annual Grammy Awards . When asked for his thoughts on the nomination , King revealed that he did not " even care " , and noted that Slayer fans " don 't give a shit and that 's the most important thing to me " . The interviewer expressed his surprise at the nomination given Slayer 's " inflammatory " lyrics , to which King replied , " That would be the coolest thing , you know ? To win with the shit we write about . " The ceremony was held on February 11 , 2007 , at the Staples Center in Los Angeles , with Slayer competing against Mastodon , Lamb of God , Ministry and Stone Sour . Slayer won the Best Metal Performance Grammy award , although the band was unable to attend because of a conflicting North American headlining tour . Araya commented about the win from a hotel room in Columbus , Ohio : " Jeff [ Hanneman ] and I put a lot into ' Eyes of the Insane ' so we 're thrilled that the Grammy voters took the time to listen to it , and then vote for it . We 're out here on the road and we 're all really , really happy . " King disagreed , deeming the song " one of the poorest representations of us [ Slayer ] on the record [ Christ Illusion ] " . He further said that , if given the decision , he would have chosen the controversial track " Jihad " to represent Slayer from their ninth album Christ Illusion . Critical of the Recording Academy , King said , " Realistically , I think people on the academy who vote pick the household name ... And that 's what we are . "
= = Other media = =
The soundtrack to the 2006 horror film Saw III included " Eyes of the Insane " , and was released on October 24 , 2006 , by Warcon Enterprises . The track was one of six songs performed by Slayer during their first US network television appearance on ABC @-@ TV 's Jimmy Kimmel Live ! ( January 19 , 2007 ) , and was the only song broadcast in its entirety . However , King dislikes playing " Eyes of the Insane " live , commenting , " It 's just dull to play , good song just dull to play on guitar . "
= = Track listing = =
= = Charts = =
= Wicklow Way =
The Wicklow Way ( Irish : Slí Cualann Nua , meaning " New Cuala Way " ) is a 131 @-@ kilometre ( 81 @-@ mile ) long @-@ distance trail that crosses the Wicklow Mountains in Ireland . It runs from Marlay Park in the southern suburbs of Dublin through County Wicklow and ends in the village of Clonegal in County Carlow . It is designated as a National Waymarked Trail by the Irish Sports Council and is waymarked by posts with a yellow " walking man " symbol and a directional arrow . Typically completed in 5 – 7 days , it is one of the busiest of Ireland 's National Waymarked Trails , with up to 24 @,@ 000 people a year walking the most popular sections . The Way is also used regularly by a number of mountain running competitions .
The trail follows forest tracks , mountain paths , boreens and quiet country roads . Mountains , upland lakes and steep @-@ sided glacial valleys make up the terrain of the initial northern sections of the Way before giving way to gentler rolling foothills in the latter southern sections . Much of the route follows the contact point between the igneous granite of the western side of Wicklow and the metamorphic schists and slates of the eastern side . The principal habitat of the upland sections is a mixture of broadleaf and coniferous woodland , heath and blanket bog while in the lowland sections the hedgerows marking the boundaries between fields support a variety of wildlife . The Way also passes the Monastic City at Glendalough , founded in the 6th century by Saint Kevin .
The Wicklow Way was originally proposed by J. B. Malone in a series of newspaper articles in 1966 . In 1977 , Malone was appointed to the Long Distance Walking Routes Committee of Cospoir , the National Sports Council and set about making the concept a reality . Malone ’ s original proposal for a circular route around Wicklow was dropped in favour of the linear route that exists today because the Government wanted the Wicklow Way to form part of a network of walking routes around the country . The first section opened in 1980 and the trail was fully completed in 1982 . It became the first of many National Waymarked Trails to be developed in Ireland : there are now over forty such trails , covering a distance of over 4 @,@ 000 kilometres ( 2 @,@ 500 miles ) . The Way forms part of European walking route E8 which stretches from the Atlantic coast of County Cork to Istanbul in Turkey . A memorial to J. B. Malone , who died in 1989 , was erected on the Wicklow Way , near Lough Tay , in honour of his contribution .
The provision of and access to the routes through the countryside used by the Wicklow Way is dependent on agreement with local authorities and landowners . Accordingly the route has been criticised for excessive use of routes through forestry plantations and roads . Proposals to address these issues were put forward in a review of the National Waymarked Trails published in 2010 .
= = History = =
The concept of a long @-@ distance trail through County Wicklow was first published by J. B. Malone ( 1914 – 1989 ) in a series of newspaper articles in 1966 . Malone had a regular column on walking in Wicklow in the Evening Herald newspaper and had published two books – The Open Road ( 1950 ) and Walking in Wicklow ( 1964 ) – on the subject as well as contributing to the RTÉ television series Mountain and Meadow ( 1962 ) . He proposed a circular route , dubbed " The Twelve Days of Wicklow " , which he considered to be " a journey comparable to that along the celebrated " Pennine Way " but I would say more varied than its north British counterpart " . The route consisted of twelve stages , beginning at Bohernabreena , near Tallaght , Dublin 24 and ending at Stepaside , County Dublin as follows : Bohernabreena to Baltyboys ( near Valleymount ) , via Athdown ; Baltyboys to Ballinclea ( near Donard ) , via Hollywood ; Ballinclea to Aghavannagh , via Lugnaquilla summit ; a rest day at Aghavannagh ; Aghavannagh to Tinahely ; a circular day route beginning and ending in Tinahely , via Shillelagh ; Tinahely to Avoca ; Avoca to Glenmalure , via Greenan ; Glenmalure to Glendalough ; a rest day at Glendalough ; Glendalough to Knockree ; and Knockree to Stepaside .
In 1977 Malone was appointed , by John Bruton , T. D. , then Parliamentary Secretary to the Minister for Education , to a committee to develop rural pathways in Ireland . This evolved into the Long Distance Walking Routes Committee ( LDWRC ) of Cospóir , the National Sports Council , where Malone , acting as Field Officer , set about developing a scheme for a " Wicklow Way " along the lines of what he had proposed twelve years earlier . The Government 's decision to develop a series of walking routes was prompted in response to the development of the Ulster Way in Northern Ireland . Malone 's original concept of a circular route returning to Dublin via West Wicklow was dropped in favour of the linear path between Marlay Park and Clonegal that exists today , mainly because the Government wanted the Wicklow Way to form part of national network of trails to cover Ireland . Issues regarding access were another reason . Nevertheless , the route remains substantially as planned in 1966 . In developing the route , the LDWRC made use of many existing paths , tracks and forest roads but , having no compulsory powers to include any of these , the provision of and access to such routes was , and continues to be , achieved by agreement with local authorities and landowners .
The first section of the Way – from Marlay Park to Luggala – was opened by Jim Tunney , T. D. , Minister of State for Education on 15 August 1980 . The second section – from Luggala to Moyne – was opened by Michael Keating , T. D. , Minister of State for Education on 27 September 1981 . The final stretch as far as Clonegal was completed in 1982 . The Irish name of the Wicklow Way – Slí Cualann Nua – is not a literal translation but means " New Cuala Way " , a reference to the Slí Cualann , one of five ancient routes that radiated from the Hill of Tara that ran through the land of Cuala ( modern @-@ day Wicklow ) .
The route of the Wicklow Way has been altered on a number of occasions since opening in 1980 , generally as a result of problems with erosion or difficulties with rights of way . For instance , concerns about erosion led to the Way being diverted away from Fairy Castle , the summit of Two Rock mountain . Similarly , the Way was also diverted away from the summit of Mullacor , which at 657 metres ( 2 @,@ 156 feet ) was the highest point on the Way before the trail was rerouted . In 1999 , the Way was diverted away from the village of Laragh on foot of an objection by a local landowner , to the chagrin of businesses in the village dependent on the custom of walking tourists . A number of information boards and stone landmarks were erected in 2006 to mark the 25th anniversary of the opening of the Way . The state @-@ owned forestry company Coillte has in recent years worked with a number of tourism and voluntary bodies to upgrade sections of the Way that run through its lands . Today , the Wicklow Way is managed by the Wicklow Outdoor Recreation Committee .
The Wicklow Way was the first waymarked way to be opened in Ireland . The LDWRC ( now the National Trails Advisory Committee of the Irish Sports Council ) went on to develop many more long distance walking routes , the intention at the time being to develop a walking route around Ireland . There are now more than forty National Waymarked Trails , comprising over 4 @,@ 000 kilometres ( 2 @,@ 500 miles ) of trails in Ireland .
= = Usage and criticism = =
On account of being the first to be developed in Ireland and also on account of its proximity to Dublin , the Wicklow Way is one of the most popular of Ireland 's National Waymarked Trails . It has , however , been subject to some criticisms . Since access to lands along the Way is on a permissive basis , much of the walk ( 41 km ( 25 mi ) ) is on tarred country roads , is highly dependent on access provided by the state , ( 57 km ( 35 mi ) is on land owned by Coillte and 16 km ( 10 mi ) is on land owned by the Wicklow Mountains National Park ) and covers a relatively small amount of private land ( 13 km ( 8 mi ) ) . Most of the road walking is confined to the southernmost section of the Way , between Tinahely and Clonegal , where some 63 % of the route is on roads . Research by the Wicklow Uplands Council showed that while up to 24 @,@ 000 people a year walk along the busiest sections , this number falls to under 2 @,@ 500 a year on the stretches south of Glenmalure .
The extensive use of forest roads through conifer plantations has been another criticism : the authors of the Lonely Planet guidebook , Walking in Ireland , found , " The Way 's one shortcoming is the character of the walking [ … ] you 'll become all too familiar with forest tracks and roads through conifer plantations [ … ] where they 're surrounded by tall , dense forest they 're not particularly interesting " . Similarly , Paul Gosling , who walked the Way for The Independent , found that , " While the long distance path is , on occasion , very attractive , it is not so much hazardous as unadventurous . [ … ] Over the next four and a half days , we lost our enthusiasm for conifers [ … ] The views were restricted and there was little sign of wildlife " . In The Irish Times John G. O 'Dwyer described them as " gloomy trails through invading armies of monoculture [ … ] as memorable as a motorway median " .
A review of the National Waymarked Trails in Ireland by the National Trails Office in 2010 acknowledged these shortcomings and recommended that the Wicklow Way be selected as one of fourteen trails to be upgraded to a National Long Distance Trail . This is a proposed new standard of trail in Ireland , intended to meet international standards for outstanding trails . It would require sections on unsuitable roads to comprise less than 10 % of the total trail and for appropriate support services – accommodation , meals , transport , luggage transfer etc . – to be available . The review also recommended the development of shorter looped walks off the Wicklow Way and improving parking facilities .
= = Route = =
The Wicklow Way is waymarked in both directions and can be started at Marlay Park or Clonegal . The trail is marked with square black posts with an image , in yellow , of a walking man and a directional arrow . This image , copied from the symbol used for waymarking the Ulster Way , has become the traditional waymarking symbol for all of the National Waymarked Trails in Ireland . Brown fingerposts are used on sections that follow roads . The Way is typically completed in five to seven days .
= = = Marlay Park to Knockree = = =
If travelling in a North @-@ South direction , the Wicklow Way begins in Marlay Park , a historic demesne on the outskirts of Dublin 's suburbs laid out in the late 18th century by the La Touches , a family of Huguenot merchants and bankers , and later developed as a public park . The trailhead comprises a map board , beside which is a low wall with a stone stile through which walkers pass in order to make their first step on the trail . The Way traverses the park , following a wooded shelterbelt along the Little Dargle River , before emerging on the southern side of the park onto College Road . Passing under the M50 motorway , it ascends Kilmashogue Lane and enters the forest recreation area on Kilmashogue mountain . This is the first of many forest plantations , owned by Coillte , that the Wicklow Way passes through . The tree species in this area comprise Sitka spruce , Scots pine and beech . Much of this initial section of the Way is underlain by granite . The trail circles the mountain , emerging onto open moorland near Fairy Castle . This upland heath and bog habitat is dominated by heather , purple moor grass and bog cotton and supports many bird species , including red grouse , meadow pipit and skylark . The Way crosses a saddle between Two Rock mountain and Kilmashogue before descending from a broad ridge between Two Rock and Tibradden Mountain into the valley of Glencullen where it follows the R116 road to the hamlet of Boranaraltry . The road is flanked by hedgerow @-@ bordered farmland . Ascending from Boranaraltry , the trail crests the shoulder of Prince William ’ s Seat , at which point the Way leaves County Dublin and enters County Wicklow . The habitat here alternates between blanket bog and upland heath . The trail descends to the floor of the Glencree valley via Curtlestown Wood where it then enters Lackan Wood and crosses the shoulder of Knockree Hill .
= = = Knockree to Oldbridge = = =
From Knockree on to Clonegal , much of the Way follows the contact point between the granite of the western part of the Wicklow Mountains and the schists and slates of the east . The trail follows the Glencree River through Seskin Wood , a semi @-@ natural oak and hazel woodland and a habitat for jays . Crossing the river at a footbridge , the trail then passes into Crone Woods and ascends to Ride Rock , which overlooks Powerscourt Deerpark and the Powerscourt Waterfall , the tallest in Ireland at 121 metres ( 397 feet ) . Deer – hybrids of imported Japanese Sika and native Red deer – are common in the forests and mountains along the Wicklow Way and all deer in the Wicklow Mountains originated with the Powerscourt herd . The next valley to be crossed is Glensoulan which , although uninhabited today , before the Great Famine of the 1840s was home to a small population of cottiers and faint traces of their farms can still be seen in the wintertime when the bracken is low . Crossing the River Dargle , the trail ascends the eastern shoulder of Djouce mountain . Here , the heathland gives way to wetter blanket bog . Bogland shares a number of plant and animal species with heathland but is also a habitat for species of bog cotton as well as bog asphodel , sedges ( which contribute to the formation of peat ) and bog moss . The wet bogland is also a habitat for frogs , pondskaters and diving beetles . Near the summit of Djouce , the Way joins a wooden tóchar or bog bridge , constructed to protect the bog from erosion , which crosses White Hill , the highest point on the Way at 630 metres ( 2 @,@ 067 feet ) . The trail descends White Hill towards Luggala along a ridge , known as the Barr , where a memorial stone to J. B. Malone , carved by sculptor Billy Gannon and erected in 1990 , may be found overlooking Lough Tay . From Luggala , the trail passes through a coniferous plantation of spruce and pine on the eastern flanks of Sleamaine and Ballinafunshoge Hills to reach Oldbridge , which crosses the River Avonmore near Lough Dan .
= = = Oldbridge to Glendalough = = =
Leaving Oldbridge , the Way follows the road for approximately 4 kilometres ( 2 miles ) before turning onto a boreen . To the left of the boreen is Wart Stone Field , so called on account of a bullaun stone that lies in the field , water from which is said to cure warts . The boreen ends at Brusher Gap , reputed to be a place where locals left food and supplies for Michael Dwyer and his followers when they went on the run after the 1798 Rebellion . The Way enters Drummin forest , a sitka spruce plantation , where it passes an Adirondack shelter , constructed by Mountain Meitheal , a volunteer group dedicated to trail preservation that has upgraded various sections of the Wicklow Way over the years . The trail climbs Paddock Hill before descending into a plantation of larch trees . The forest floor here is a habitat for spurges , heath bedstraw and fly agaric toadstools . The trail crosses the Military Road , near Laragh , and then a wooden footbridge across the Glenmacnass River . A dense spread of granite boulders litters the riverbed , glacial erratics deposited by melting glaciers at the end of the last ice age . This stretch of the trail follows an old mass path through a woodland of many native Irish tree species , including oak , rowan , silver birch and willow , carpeted with a forest floor of bilberry , bluebell and hard fern . The Way continues along forest tracks over the shoulder of Brockagh Mountain . At the highest point there is a vista over the Vale of Glendalough with the two lakes nestled in the shelter of Camaderry and Derrybawn Mountains . Exiting the forest , the Way reaches the R756 road and the Glendalough visitor centre . Crossing the Glendasan River , it passes the remains of the Monastic City , founded in the 6th century by Saint Kevin .
= = = Glendalough to Iron Bridge = = =
Most of this stretch of the trail is on forest roads . From the Monastic City at Glendalough , the Way follows the Green Road towards the Upper Lake . It passes through an area of native woodland made up of oak , holly , birch , and rowan . Ascending from the Upper Lake , the trail reaches Poulanass Waterfall which , over millennia , has cut a narrow gorge through the slate rock and borne millions of tonnes of rock , sand and mud into Glendalough , dividing what was originally one lake into the two seen today . The trail continues its ascent through forest before emerging onto the saddle between Mullacor and Lugduff mountains at Borenacrow . The Borenacrow route between Glendalough and Glenmalure dates back to ancient times and there is a local tradition that Saint Kevin travelled this way to celebrate Mass in Glenmalure . The view ahead looks across the Glenmalure valley at Fraughan Rock Glen and Lugnaquilla , Wicklow 's highest mountain at 925 metres ( 3 @,@ 035 feet ) . The Way then begins a long descent into Glenmalure , the longest glacial valley in Ireland and Great Britain . Along the way the trail passes another Adirondack shelter , constructed in 2006 by Mountain Meitheal . Reaching the floor of the valley , the Way joins the Military Road to reach Drumgoff Crossroads . Crossing the River Avonbeg , the route passes the remains of an old military barracks , built around 1800 , and enters Drumgoff Wood . At the forest entrance is a granite pillar marking the official halfway point of the Wicklow Way . The trail follows a forest road along the flanks of Slieve Maan before briefly re @-@ joining the Military Road and then following a forest road around Carrickashane Mountain before reaching the road at Iron Bridge where the Way crosses the Ow River . Another Adirondack shelter , again constructed by Mountain Meitheal volunteers with assistance from the Glenwalk Hillwalking Club , can be found at Mucklagh , on the slopes of Carrickashane Mountain .
= = = Iron Bridge to Derry River = = =
After Iron Bridge , the character of the Way changes with the steeper hills of the earlier sections giving way to a gentler gradient that meanders between low hills . These latter sections also contain a great deal of road walking as the Way crosses farmland via minor roads and boreens .
Hedgerows of hawthorn and blackthorn , which form the boundaries between the fields , are the principal habitat in these cultivated areas . They support many species of wild flowers , insects and birds , including dog rose , purple foxglove and wild violet as well as wrens , blackbirds and song thrushes .
The Way ascends through a gap between Ballygobban and Shielstown Hills , yielding views stretching from Lugnaquilla to Keadeen Mountain and beyond to Eagle Hill and the Castlecomer Plateau . The hills ahead mark the edge of the granite backbone of the Wicklow Mountains ; in the distance they gradually merge with the Blackstairs Mountains , which can be seen on the skyline . The trail follows the road passing close to the village of Moyne before joining a boreen . Along this boreen are the remains of a holy well dedicated to Saint Colmcille . The trail contours around Ballycumber Hill and then continues along the eastern slopes of Garryhoe Hill , passing the remains of a ringfort , approximately 15 metres ( 49 feet ) in diameter . Further along is a memorial to a Dr James McNamara who was killed in a shooting accident in 1916 . Passing through a series of gates along the way , the trail follows Coolafunshoge Lane , an old droving path with extensive views of south Wicklow . The lane emerges onto the road , crossing a bridge over the River Derry to reach the R747 road close to Tinahely .
= = = Derry River to Clonegal = = =
The trail follows an ancient cattle droving path around Muskeagh Hill before joining a series of country roads . 63 % of this final stretch is on roads . These pass through the village of Mullinacuff whose neo @-@ Gothic church and cottages are built from local granite . At Stranakelly Crossroads , the Way passes Tallon 's pub , better known as the " Dying Cow " from a story that , when visited by police late one night , the landlady argued that she wasn 't serving drink after hours but providing refreshments to neighbours who helped her with a dying cow . Circling Cronlea Hill , which is topped with a windfarm , and passing near the village of Kilquiggan , the Way crosses the R725 road near Shillelagh . The trail enters forestry at Raheenakit before joining an old drovers ' road , once used to herd sheep to market in Shillelagh . The Blackstairs Mountains , whose main peak , Mount Leinster , is distinguished by the television mast on its summit , begin to dominate the horizon . The trail meanders along forestry tracks around Moylisha and Urelands Hills . Urelands Hill is littered with hornblende @-@ rich schist , a legacy of a chain of long @-@ extinct volcanic islands that existed 450 – 500 million years ago when this part of Ireland lay under the primeval Iapetus Ocean . Joining the road for the final stretch into Clonegal , the Way leaves County Wicklow and enters County Carlow at Wicklow Bridge , about 3 kilometres ( 2 miles ) from the end . The Wicklow Way ends in the village green of Clonegal where a stone bench and a map board , displaying the entire route from Marlay Park , may be found .
= = Intersecting and connecting paths = =
The Wicklow Way forms part of European walking route E8 which runs from Dursey Island in County Cork to Istanbul in Turkey . The Irish section incorporates the Wicklow Way , the South Leinster Way , the East Munster Way , the Blackwater Way and parts of the Kerry Way and the Beara Way . There is an unmarked link route from Dublin Port ( where the E8 connects to Liverpool by ferry ) which follows the River Dodder to Rathfarnham and on to the Wicklow Way trailhead at Marlay Park via Saint Enda 's Park . Similarly , an unmarked road walk connects Clonegal with the trailhead of the South Leinster Way in Kildavin , County Carlow .
The Wicklow Way also shares part of its route with the Dublin Mountains Way along a section of the ridge between Two Rock and Tibradden . The Saint Kevin 's Way Pilgrim Path starts at either Hollywood or Valleymount , County Wicklow and ends at Glendalough where it connects with the Wicklow Way .
Sections of the Wicklow Way are also used by several National Looped Walks : the Maulin Mountain Loop and the Ballycumber , Kyle , and Mangan 's Loops near Tinahely .
= = Sporting events = =
A number of mountain running events are held along the route of the Way . The Wicklow Way Relay is a 127 @-@ kilometre ( 79 @-@ mile ) event run between Kilmashogue and Shillelagh for teams of 2 to 8 runners . The Wicklow Way Ultra is a 51 @-@ kilometre ( 32 @-@ mile ) individual event run between Glencullen and Ballinastoe Woods . The record for running the entire distance of the Wicklow Way from Marlay Park to Clonegal is held by Eoin Keith who completed the route in a time of 12h25 : 07 on 25 May 2013 .
= = Public transport = =
The trailhead at Marlay Park is served by a number of Dublin Bus routes . There is no public transport available to or from the trailhead in Clonegal , with the closest bus routes serving the nearby villages of Kildavin and Bunclody , County Carlow . Some places on or near the route are also served by bus . The St. Kevins ( sic ) Bus Service stops at Roundwood , Laragh and Glendalough . The Wicklow Way Bus provides services to Laragh , Glendalough , Glenmalure , Iron Bridge and Tinahely .
= Robert Bathurst =
Robert Guy Bathurst ( born 22 February 1957 ) is an English actor . Bathurst was born in the Gold Coast in 1957 , where his father was working as a management consultant . His family moved to Dublin , Ireland , in 1959 and Bathurst was enrolled at an Anglican boarding school . In 1966 , the family moved to England , and Bathurst transferred to Worth School in Sussex , where he took up amateur dramatics . At the age of 18 , he read law at the University of Cambridge and joined the Cambridge Footlights group . After graduating , he took up acting full @-@ time .
He made his professional stage debut in 1983 , playing Tim Allgood in Michael Frayn 's Noises Off , which ran for a year at the Savoy Theatre . To broaden his knowledge of working on stage , he joined the National Theatre . He supplemented his stage roles in the 1980s with television roles , appearing in comedies such as the aborted pilot episode of Blackadder , Chelmsford 123 , The Lenny Henry Show , and the first episode of Red Dwarf . In 1991 , he won his first major television role playing Mark Taylor in Steven Moffat 's semi @-@ autobiographical BBC sitcom Joking Apart . Although only thirteen episodes were made between 1991 and 1995 , the role remains Bathurst 's favourite of his whole career . After Joking Apart concluded , he was cast as pompous management consultant David Marsden in the ITV comedy drama Cold Feet , which ran for five series from 1998 to 2003 .
Since 2003 , Bathurst has played a fictional prime minister in the BBC sitcom My Dad 's the Prime Minister , Mark Thatcher in the fact @-@ based drama Coup ! , and a man whose daughter goes missing in the ITV thriller The Stepfather . He also made a return to theatre roles , playing Vershinin in The Three Sisters ( 2003 ) , Adrien in the two @-@ hander Members Only ( 2006 ) , government whip Alistair in Whipping it Up ( 2006 – 07 ) , and Alex in Alex ( 2007 , 2008 ) . In the following years he starred in the television dramas The Pillars of the Earth ( 2010 ) , Downton Abbey ( 2010 ) , Hattie ( 2011 ) and joined the cast of Wild at Heart ( 2012 ) . Bathurst appeared in his first Noël Coward play , Present Laughter , in 2010 and followed it with a role in Blithe Spirit in 2010 and 2011 . He is married and has four children .
= = Early life = =
Robert Guy Bathurst was born in Accra , Gold Coast ( modern @-@ day Ghana ) , on 22 February 1957 to Philip Bathurst and Gillian Bathurst ( née Debenham ) . His father was a major in the Royal Engineers during the Second World War and was working in West Africa as a management consultant , and his mother was a physiotherapist . They had two other children ; Nicholas and Charlotte . The family lived in Ghana until 1959 , when they moved to Ballybrack , Dublin , Ireland . Bathurst and his brother attended two schools in Dublin — the Holy Child School in Killiney and a school in Ballsbridge — before being sent to a preparatory school in Kells , County Meath . He compared the time he and his brother , Catholics , spent at the Anglican boarding school to Lord of the Flies ; " we were incarcerated in a huge , stinking , Georgian house , where we were treated very brutally . "
In 1966 , the family moved to England . Bathurst transferred to the Worth Abbey boarding school in Sussex , which he much preferred to the school in Kells . At the age of 13 , he began acting in minor skits and revues and read old copies of Plays and Players magazine , " studying floor plans of theatres and reading about new theatres being built " . He had first become interested in acting when his family saw a pantomime at the Gaiety Theatre in Dublin , and he watched actors waiting for their cues in the wings .
He left Worth at the age of 18 to read law at Pembroke College , Cambridge . Describing himself as " hopeless at anything academic " , he spent much of his time at university performing in the Cambridge Footlights alongside Hugh Laurie , Rory McGrath and Emma Thompson . From 1977 to 1978 , he was the secretary of the group , and from 1978 to 1979 the president . Among the Footlights Revues he participated in were Stage Fright in 1978 , which he also co @-@ wrote , and Nightcap in 1979 . He also directed and appeared in the Footlights pantomime Aladdin as Widow Twankey during the 1978 – 79 season . He took the Bar Vocational Course at the University of Law , in London , which allowed him to go on to become a practising barrister , but stuck to acting instead .
= = Acting career = =
= = = Early career = = =
After graduating from Cambridge , Bathurst spent a year touring Australia in the Footlights Revue Botham , The Musical , which he described as " a bunch of callow youths flying round doing press conferences and chat shows " . Although he enjoyed his work with Footlights , he did not continue performing with the troupe , worrying that he would be " washed up at 35 having coat @-@ tailed on their success through the early part of [ his ] career " . After leaving , he found that he was considered a dilettante , which resulted in it taking him longer than expected to be accepted as a serious actor . His first professional role out of university was in the BBC Radio 4 series Injury Time , alongside fellow Footlights performers Rory McGrath and Emma Thompson . His first role for television came in 1982 when he appeared as Prince Henry in the unaired pilot episode of Blackadder . He had already appeared in a training video by director Geoff Posner and got the role of Henry by way of thanks . The character was recast and downgraded when the series was commissioned as The Black Adder .
Bathurst 's professional stage debut came the next year when he joined the second cast of Michael Frayn 's Noises Off at the Savoy Theatre . He replaced Roger Lloyd @-@ Pack as Tim Allgood and stayed at the Savoy for a year . Between roles , he worked as a television presenter for BBC East . After declining an offer to be a presenter of That 's Life ! he joined the National Theatre in 1984 , where he appeared as a background actor in Saint Joan . He regards it as " the most demoralising " job he has ever had but was grateful for the theatre experience it gave him . The following year , he appeared at The Man In The Moon , a pub theatre in Chelsea , in Judgement , a two @-@ hour monologue on cannibalism . The opening night audience was made up of three people but after good reviews in the national press the audience grew to an average of fifteen .
A casting director for the James Bond film The Living Daylights persuaded Bathurst to audition for Bond . Bathurst believes that his " ludicrous audition " was only " an arm @-@ twisting exercise " because the producers wanted to pressure Timothy Dalton to take the role by telling him they were still auditioning other actors . Bathurst noted " I could never have done it - Bond actors are always very different to me " .
He continued to make minor appearances in television throughout the 1980s ; in 1987 , he auditioned for the role of Dave Lister in the BBC North science fiction sitcom Red Dwarf . The part eventually went to Craig Charles but Bathurst was given a role in the first episode of the series as Frank Todhunter , second officer on the ship , who is killed in the first ten minutes . Ten years later , Bathurst was invited to reprise the role when a storyline in the series allowed former characters to return , but filming commitments prevented him from appearing . In 1989 , he appeared in Malcolm Bradbury 's Anything More Would Be Greedy for Anglia Television , playing Dennis Medlam , MP . The programme was broadcast in 1990 to little fanfare . In 1990 , he performed on Up Yer News , a live topical programme broadcast on BSB .
= = = Joking Apart = = =
While working on Up Yer News , Bathurst auditioned for a one @-@ off television comedy called Joking Apart . Earlier in the day , he noticed a fellow Up Yer News performer reading the script to prepare for his own audition . As Bathurst went into the audition room , his colleague was leaving , and told Bathurst he would " break his legs " if he got the part , a threat that seemed not to be " entirely jocular " . Bathurst got the part , and the pilot of Joking Apart was broadcast as an installment of the BBC 2 Comic Asides strand . It returned for two series in 1993 and 1995 . Bathurst appeared as sitcom writer Mark Taylor in the series . After the first series was broadcast , a critic called Bathurst the " Best Comedy Newcomer of 1993 " .
The show was punctuated by fantasy sequences in which his character performed his thoughts as a stand @-@ up routine in a small club . In the commentary and the interview on the DVD , Bathurst says that he was told that they would be reshot after filming everything else , an idea abandoned because of the expense . He has an idea of refilming the sequences ' now ' , as his older self , to give them a more retrospective feeling . He has also said that he believes Mark was too " designery " and wishes that he had " roughened him up a bit " . The role is his favourite of his whole career ; he has described it as " the most enjoyable job I will ever do " and considers several episodes of the series to be " timeless , beautifully constructed farces which will endure " . Bathurst is often recognised for his appearance in this series , mentioning that " Drunks stop me on public transport and tell me details of the plot of their favourite episode " . As punishment for arriving late for the series one press launch at the Café Royal in Regent Street , London , writer Steven Moffat pledged to write an episode in which Mark is naked throughout . To a large extent , this vow is realised in the second series .
Between 1991 and 1995 , Bathurst also appeared on television in No Job for a Lady , The House of Eliott and The Detectives , and on stage in The Choice , George Bernard Shaw 's Getting Married at Chichester with Dorothy Tutin and Gogol 's The Nose adapted by Alastair Beaton , which played in Nottingham and Bucharest . He also filmed a role in The Wind in the Willows ( Terry Jones , 1996 ) as St John Weasel .
= = = Wider recognition = = =
In 1996 , while appearing in The Rover at the Salisbury Playhouse , Bathurst got an audition for the Granada Television comedy pilot Cold Feet . He arrived for the audition " bearded and shaggy " , on account of his role in the play , and did not expect to win the role of upper @-@ middle class management consultant David Marsden . The role in the pilot was only minor , and created at the last minute to support characters played by James Nesbitt and Helen Baxendale ; the only character note in the script about David related to his high salary . Bathurst identified the character as merely a " post @-@ Thatcherite whipping boy " .
Bathurst reprised the role in the Cold Feet series , which ran for five years from 1998 to 2003 . He described the character of David as an " emotional cripple " , originally with little depth . The third series features an affair between David and a political activist played by Yasmin Bannerman . Bathurst appreciated the opportunity to bring some depth a previously one @-@ dimensional character but was more impressed with the storylines that came out of the affair , rather than the affair itself : " It was the deception , the guilt and the recrimination rather than the actual affair , which was neither interesting nor remarkable " . Like other cast members , Bathurst was able to suggest storylines as the series went on ; one episode features David celebrating his fortieth birthday and Bathurst suggested the character could get a Harley @-@ Davidson motorbike . Granada paid for him to take motorbike lessons and a test . On the day before his test , the filming of a scene where David takes off on his new bike was scheduled . Bathurst " wobbled , missed the camera and crashed into the pavement " leading director Simon Delaney to exclaim it was the funniest thing he had ever seen . In another episode , David buys a racehorse — ostensibly as a birthday present for his wife — in a plot borne out of Bathurst 's own love of horseracing . The role made him more widely recognisable and he often received prospective scripts that were " obvious rewrites of the character " . He turned them down , preferring to play a " good person " , which would be more interesting from a dramatic point of view .
Between 1998 and 2003 , he made television appearances in Goodbye , Mr Steadman ( 2001 ) , starring opposite Caroline Quentin as a headmaster who has been declared dead after one of his pupils erases all computer records relating to him , and the adaptation of White Teeth ( 2002 ) . On stage he appeared in Michael Frayn 's Alarms and Excursions in 1998 and in Hedda Gabler in 1999 , his last theatre role for several years . In the Daily Telegraph , Charles Spencer described his role as Tesman as a " weird casting choice " but called his acting " a brave stab " . In 2001 , Bathurst appeared in the music video for Westlife 's Comic Relief single " Uptown Girl " .
In 2002 , straight after finishing Cold Feet , Bathurst went straight into filming My Dad 's the Prime Minister , a series in which he portrays fictional British prime minister Michael Philips . The first series was broadcast in a Sunday afternoon CBBC slot in 2003 . He watched debates in the House of Commons to prepare for the role but did not base his portrayal on Tony Blair . In 2003 , he returned to theatre for the first time in four years to play Vershinin in The Three Sisters , opposite Kristin Scott Thomas and Eric Sykes . He had not seen The Three Sisters before starring in it . Director Michael Blakemore advised him to turn this to his advantage , as he would not feel he had to live up to previous portrayals . After its run concluded , a special edition of The Three Sisters was filmed with the same cast for television broadcast on BBC Four . In 2005 , the second series of My Dad 's the Prime Minister was broadcast , now moved to a Friday night timeslot to take advantage of the adult humour . The same year , he starred in the ITV thriller The Stepfather playing Christopher Veazey , a man whose daughter goes missing . Bathurst was pleased that this white @-@ collar worker had an emotional side , in comparison to David Marsden , whom he used as a yardstick when accepting those sorts of roles . Also in 2005 , he played Mr Sesseman in an adaptation of Heidi and Dottore Massimo in The Thief Lord .
= = = 2006 – present = = =
In 2006 , he played Mark Thatcher in Coup ! , a dramatisation of the attempted coup in Equatorial Guinea . He also starred as Adrien opposite Nicholas Tennant in the UK premiere of Members Only at the Trafalgar Studios . He accepted the part because it was " funny , plausible , plausibly absurd , and cruel " and he liked that it was a translation from an original French play . He enjoyed working on it , telling What 's on Stage , " Nick is a really good actor and really good to work with in that you can have completely frank discussions about tiny issues and it 's totally ego @-@ free . We 're all just discussing the point and not playing games with each other . It does make the working practice easier . If there 's only two of you in a play , you are equally responsible — there 's nobody else to blame if it goes wrong . So its a greater risk and there 's no hiding . " At the end of the year , he appeared opposite Richard Wilson in Whipping it Up , a play about whips in a fictional David Cameron government . To research his role , he watched more Commons debates .
After a season at the Bush Theatre at the end of 2006 , Whipping it Up transferred to the New Ambassadors Theatre from March to June 2007 , The tour coincided with his appearance as the titular character in Alex , based on the comic in The Daily Telegraph . The play ran at the Arts Theatre between October and November 2007 and featured Bathurst interacting with other characters that are projected onto a screen behind him . He was attracted to the role because of the " duplicity and guile " Alex uses to get himself out of tight situations . The role won him a nomination for Best Solo Performance at the What 's on Stage Awards . He reprised the role in an international tour from September to November 2008 , playing in Melbourne , Sydney , Hong Kong , Singapore and Dubai . As Alex he presented a ten @-@ part series on Classic FM , which won a Gold Award at the Sony Radio Academy Awards in 2012 . He now performs Alex as a corporate after dinner entertainment . 2007 also saw Bathurst perform as linguistician Charles in the first series of the BBC Radio 4 sitcom Hut 33 . He reprised the role for two more series in 2008 and 2009 .
In 2009 , he made his third and final appearance as art dealer James Garrett in My Family . He also played the role of Mr Weston in the BBC costume drama Emma , which was broadcast on BBC One through October 2009 . He previously played Weston in a two @-@ part adaptation of Emma for BBC Radio 4 in 2000 . Between January and April 2010 , Bathurst starred as Garry Essendine in a national touring revival of Noël Coward 's Present Laughter . He had not seen Present Laughter before , though had seen several Coward plays in his 20s , and did not imitate Coward 's speech patterns while performing . Present Laughter was the first time Bathurst had appeared in a Coward play , and he was cast in another , Blithe Spirit , later in the year . He plays Charles Condomine opposite Alison Steadman and his Cold Feet co @-@ star Hermione Norris . The played toured theatres around southern England in 2010 and early 2011 before beginning a three @-@ month run at the Apollo Theatre in London .
On television in 2010 , Bathurst starred as Percy Hamleigh in the German @-@ Canadian miniseries The Pillars of the Earth and had a recurring role as widower Sir Anthony Strallan in the period drama Downton Abbey . In 2011 he starred as John Le Mesurier in the Hattie Jacques biopic Hattie , and joined the cast of the long @-@ running ITV drama Wild at Heart .
He also has a recurring role in the sitcom Toast of London .
Bathurst is to star as Andy in the upcoming Sky1 television film television film adaptation of the M. C. Beaton novel Agatha Raisin and the Quiche of Death .
= = Personal life = =
Bathurst met artist Victoria Threlfall through mutual friends and they married in 1985 . They have four daughters : Matilda , Clemency , Oriel and Honor .
= = Filmography and bibliography = =
Written works
Bathurst , Robert ( 4 December 2001 ) . " Yes , Cold Feet beat Trollope , but at what cost ? " . The Daily Telegraph : p . 17 .
Bathurst , Robert ( 25 October 2008 ) . " Alex tour : Getting Brezhnev to smile would have been easier " . The Daily Telegraph : p . 26 ( Review section )
= = Written works = =
Cheltenham Festival : http : / / www.independent.co.uk / sport / racing / its @-@ their @-@ loss @-@ but @-@ our @-@ pain @-@ 1639179.html ? printService = print
= 2015 NBL Canada Finals brawl =
The 2015 NBL Canada Finals brawl was an altercation that occurred prior to Game 7 of the year 's National Basketball League of Canada ( NBL ) Finals , between the Windsor Express and Halifax Rainmen on April 30 , 2015 . It led to the Rainmen 's forfeit of the deciding game and allowed the Express to win the championship by default . Windsor 's guard Tony Bennett , who participated in the brawl , said , " It 's a black eye not just for the league , but for basketball . "
After the Rainmen reached the site of the game hours early and began warming up , they were discovered by Express assistant coach Gerry Brumpton . Windsor head coach Bill Jones later entered the room to retrieve a ball and violence erupted between him and Halifax center Liam McMorrow . This sparked a brawl between both the teams as a whole , causing police to arrive . The Rainmen eventually left the stadium and chose to not compete in Game 7 because of safety concerns .
The incident resulted in mass fines and several suspensions , most notably the lifetime ban of Rainmen coaches Josep Clarós and Pedro Monteiro from coaching in the NBL Canada . The league also fined the entire Halifax Rainmen organization , with charges totaling to $ 90 @,@ 000 . Tony Bennett was the sole Express player to be fined and suspended . Many players , including Bennett , were reinstated into the league in the following season .
= = Background = =
Both teams had previously appeared in the NBL Canada Finals , with the Windsor Express being named the champions in the prior season by topping the Island Storm in seven games . The Halifax Rainmen appeared in the 2012 Finals , which was played in a best @-@ of @-@ five format , but dropped three games and lost to the London Lightning . Halifax finished the 2014 – 15 regular season as the Atlantic Division champions and had the second @-@ best record in the league , behind only the Central Division winners , the Express . In the 2015 NBL Canada Playoffs , the Rainmen were coming off wins over the Moncton Miracles and Island Storm , 3 – 1 and 4 – 1 respectively . Windsor , on the other hand , had beaten the Mississauga Power 3 – 1 and the Brampton A 's 4 – 3 .
= = Series = =
The Rainmen entered the Finals series without playing a single game in 16 days and were defeated by Windsor in Game 1 , 104 – 113 . Chris Commons led the Express with 33 points and 8 rebounds and Tony Bennett added 25 points . Halifax struggled with fouls in the first quarter , and point guard Cliff Clinkscales most notably committed three fouls in the first 12 minutes of the game . He would finish the contest with six penalties . By the end of the game , seven Rainmen players had committed over three personal fouls and the team totaled for 48 , allowing Windsor to get 55 free throw attempts . The Express , on the other hand , finished with 32 personal fouls . In the fourth quarter , Halifax 's Liam McMorrow took a hard fall to his shoulder and was taken off the court with a stretcher . He would undergo a CT scan and MRI after feeling tingling in the injured area .
Halifax rallied in Game 2 , winning a road game at the WFCU Centre in Windsor . The Rainmen committed 37 personal fouls in the entire game , but their opponents allowed them to attempt 44 free throws despite committing only 31 .
The Rainmen followed up by ousting the Express in Game 3 at the Scotiabank Centre , their home arena . They were strongly benefited by their accurate free throw shooting , going 28 of 33 from the line ; previously , Halifax shot at about .600 on free throws .
However , Windsor tied the series back up with a 109 – 105 road win in a foul @-@ filled Game 4 . A total of 71 fouls were called throughout the contest , and Seiya Ando , Kevin Young , and Liam McMorrow were fouled out for the Rainmen in the final quarter . In turn , both teams often exchanged trash @-@ talk and officials were forced to separate members of the opposing sides on multiple occasions .
Halifax started off Game 5 at home on a low note , with Liam McMorrow committing four personal fouls in the first three minutes . Nevertheless , Halifax pulled away with the 125 – 91 victory , putting them one win away from the title . Rainmen forward Forrest Fisher complained about Windsor , " They 're playing very physical , and at times a little bit dirty with sucker punches , and we started playing into their game ( Friday ) and that 's not us . A couple of us can play like that , myself included , and we came out tonight and I told them ' hey , let me take the hits , I 'm used to that . You guys play your normal game . ' We play the way we play , and it doesn 't matter how they play . " According to The Chronicle Herald , " the game featured several incidents that threatened to escalate into a full @-@ scale brawl . " The teams ' coaches would frequently have to break up skirmishes and confront officials for what they felt were bad calls .
In Game 6 of the series , the Express led by four points by the end of the first quarter , but the Rainmen responded with a 21 – 9 run and led by 12 points at halftime . Windsor , however , entered the fourth quarter with a score of 85 – 85 after dominating the third . In the third quarter , they shot 21 free throws . The Express kept it close in the final minutes of the game and held Halifax off to win the contest , 119 – 112 , forcing a decisive Game 7 . Quinnel Brown led the way for Windsor with 30 points , 16 of them off free throws . After the game , Rainmen head coach Josep Clarós expressed his unhappiness with the calls made by the referees against his team . Clarós said that rather than protesting to the league , he would " send film to FIBA . " He commented on the officiating , " It 's ridiculous for a final of a professional league in Canada . " An anonymous referee later denounced the league 's policy regarding player fines and suspensions . He said , " So you could have a guy punch a guy in the face in Game 1 , get kicked out , and be playing in Game 2 . "
= = Incident = =
= = = Altercation = = =
The deciding Game 7 of the 2015 Finals was scheduled to be played at 7 : 00 PM on April 30 , 2015 at the WFCU Centre in Windsor , Ontario . The Express shootaround was set to take place before that of the Rainmen . The road team was supposed to arrive for warm @-@ ups at approximately 1 : 00 PM , but entered the stadium approximately two hours earlier . Express assistant coach Gerry Brumpton recounted , " They snuck in here before they even had the light on . We were here in the dark , I opened up the curtain and I looked in and there they were . They were still here working out . So they had been here for a while . " The Express told their opponents to leave the arena , but they refused , with one Rainmen player dunking a basketball instead . Windsor 's Bill Jones then attempted to take a ball from Halifax center Liam McMorrow , but the player " flinched , " pretending to throw a punch . According to Rainmen player Forrest Fisher , Jones tackled McMorrow to the ground and Express guard Tony Bennett followed up by hitting McMorrow with a chair . Referring to the Rainmen , Jones said , " A couple of them kicked me and tried to take swings at me . And my players were there and they came to my rescue to be able to get me up . " Soon the violence escalated , with staff members and players from both teams involved . At around 10 : 40 AM , Windsor police received a phone call " that between 15 to 20 men were involved in an altercation . " By the time they arrived at the WFCU Centre , however , the fighting was over and the Rainmen players had already reached their team bus .
= = = Forfeit = = =
After leaving the stadium , the Rainmen drove to the airport . But midway , they crossed paths with Vito Frijia , London Lightning owner and a member of the NBL Canada executive committee , who stopped the bus in the middle of the highway . Despite Frijia spending a good hour attempting to convince the Rainmen 's coaches to return to the WFCU Centre and play the game , they refused . According to Frijia :
The start time of Game 7 of the series was postponed from 8 : 00 to 8 : 30 PM AST , but it was cancelled once the Express were informed that the Rainmen had left the city . By the end of the night , Windsor were declared the NBL Canada champions . Shortly before the scheduled start time , the Rainmen said in an official statement , " Due to a physical altercation between the Halifax Rainmen and the Windsor Express , the game has been cancelled citing safety concerns . " At around 9 : 00 PM , the Express were awarded the championship trophy and conducted their post @-@ game celebrations .
= = Reaction = =
In the weeks after the forfeit , Rainmen guard Joey Haywood recounted that the team had been approached by an unknown man at their hotel following the brawl . Haywood said , " He was pacing around the lobby on his phone eyeing us . He then went to the ATM but didn 't actually do anything . He went and sat in a parked car out front . We thought something was going to go down , like he was scouting us out . " The Rainmen promptly left on the team bus , but the incident would be ignored by owner Andre Levingston . However , it was considered a motive for forfeiting the game . On the morning of May 2 , two days after the brawl , Rainmen guard Forrest Fisher wrote on Twitter that he had been kicked out of his apartment without warning | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
. He said , " We were in Toronto Friday morning , and I get a message from the landlord at the apartment I stay at , telling me that my bags have been packed and all of my stuff has been moved to storage . " The players also claimed that they had not been paid in more than two weeks .
Members from the Rainmen profusely criticized the brutality of the Express throughout the series as well . Kevin Young was notified by players on Windsor saying that their coach had told them to " take out " him , Liam McMorrow and Forrest Fisher . Cliff Clinkscales said , " There 's a difference between playing physical and dirty and hurting people . " Halifax entered Game 7 with two players out with concussions they suffered in the series itself . Clinkscales also played with injured ribs . Despite this , the players had supposedly been " forced " by team owner Andre Levingston to partake in the game . Levingston attempted to convince the players to play without their coaches , who favored forfeiting it . He also offered the Rainmen new coaches , a raised salary , and $ 1 @,@ 000 , but to no avail . Haywood said , " How could we play without coach , bringing another coach in ? And do what ? Coach us ? He doesn 't even know us . " Levingston , on the other hand , slammed Clarós , saying that " instead of leading our team to the championship , he led a group of talented players to broken contracts and a lifetime of controversy . " The owner claimed that he felt cheated and that the players were misled by their coaches . He took full responsibility for leading the Rainmen into the WFCU Centre ahead of schedule but believed that the two teams could have negotiated to avoid conflict .
Eric Crookshank , who had his jersey retired while playing for Halifax , said that the prospect of having the organization fold was " sad . " He also said , " If what these players are saying is true it ’ s very hurtful to me . It sickening to my stomach that the players say they didn 't get paid or they got kicked out of their living arrangements . " Joey Haywood criticized the league for not having a players ' union or commissioner , with " owners acting like commissioners . " He also condemned Levingston for not standing up for his players . On May 7 , Clarós issued an open letter to the City of Halifax and the fans of the Rainmen . In a paragraph about the forfeit , he wrote , " At this time , we don 't know what the future holds . But there is one thing we know for sure . That when a group of good people unite to take a stand in the name of safety , good values , people ’ s rights and strong principles , that this will rise above any rules or even winning . "
= = Investigation and charges = =
In the day after the forfeit , the NBL Canada announced , " The league takes this incident very seriously and we are working to address the matter to ensure it never happens in the future , and so that those who were responsible are held accountable . " On May 5 , 2015 , Dave Magley , head coach and general manager of the Brampton A 's during the season , was appointed by the league 's Board of Governors to lead the investigation . He had already conducted interviews and spoken to representatives from both teams involved in the brawl . Magley also said that he would consider assuming the position of commissioner if he was approached , succeeding Paul Riley , who was fired in January 2015 . Vito Frijia would be named league spokesman during the investigation .
On May 1 , 2015 , the league 's Board unanimously approved of several charges for players and coaches from the Rainmen . The organization as a whole was fined $ 20 @,@ 000 per league rules , head coach Josep Clarós was fined $ 10 @,@ 000 and assistant coach Pedro Monteiro was fined $ 5 @,@ 000 . Both coaches received lifetime bans from the NBL Canada as well . A $ 5 @,@ 000 fine was imposed on every player on the team 's roster , excluding Douglas Appiah , Jr. who was injured at the time of the brawl . They were also suspended indefinitely during the investigation . Later on , the league allowed the Rainmen 's players to apply for reinstatement into the league , although the coaches would remain banned for life . Halifax 's total fines totaled up to $ 90 @,@ 000 . The Rainmen were not notified of their fines and suspensions through e @-@ mail or a phone call . Instead they learned of it through Twitter . Clarós officially received his termination letter on May 5 , after his contract had already been renewed for one more month . In an effort to give the players and coaches their final paychecks , he contacted the Canadian labour board . After one month , Clarós won the decision , but Levingston declared bankruptcy on July 6 , the following day . According to bankruptcy documents , the Rainmen were about $ 700 @,@ 000 in debt .
Later in the investigation , an additional $ 4 @,@ 000 fine was imposed on Monteiro . The coach had a salary of only about $ 1 @,@ 500 per month during the eight months he spent with the Rainmen . Despite this , he was unable to contact team owner Andre Levingston , who did not assist or help him . Monteiro responded to the charges by claiming that they were unfair . In a statement on May 11 , he said , " I am looking for help to fight these unjust sanctions and fines so I can continue to work and be able to support my family . The investigation was not full . The truth of what happened is being ignored . I have not been contacted by any league representative . "
For the Express , head coach Bill Jones faced a one @-@ year suspension that would bar him from directing his team in the 2015 – 16 season . He also received a $ 4 @,@ 000 fine with Monteiro . The coach accepted responsibility for his role in the incident . Windsor guard Tony Bennett faced an indefinite suspension from the league during the investigation . Frijia said , " It was a very , very big decision to suspend Jones for a year . " However , Express owner Dartis Willis claimed that the investigation was " botched , " because Magley was an NBL Canada coach that had faced Jones in previous games .
= = Aftermath = =
By late August 2015 , it became a strong possibility that a new NBL Canada team would be created in Halifax for the 2015 – 16 season . A new ownership group , led by former Rainmen advisor and CEO of Corporate Research Associates in Don Mills , soon confirmed that the defunct team 's reincarnation would compete for the next season . Mills expected a group of 25 shareholders to help start up the organization , many of whom personally paid for the Rainmen 's flights and hotels in the last season . He chose to not include Levingston in the ownership group but allowed him to assume the position as the team 's general manager . Mills said , " There would not be a new team in Halifax without Andre . We decided that the only way we would go forward to raise the money was if Andre was part of the solution . " Despite this , he preferred to break ties with the Rainmen franchise . It was not disclosed who paid for the $ 250 @,@ 000 fee required for a team to register in the NBL Canada .
On October 20 , 2015 , the team was announced as the Halifax Hurricanes . Mills commented , " We think it 's kind of an appropriate name from where we 're located and from a sports team 's point of view . What it really says is energy and power , so some of the descriptions of hurricanes sort of suit the kind of team that we want as well . " The Hurricanes also signed Cliff Clinkscales and Mike Glover as its first players and hired Hugo López as head coach . Mills aimed for lower ticket prices at the team 's games .
For the Express , head coach Bill Jones was replaced by his brother Tony Jones , who would assume the position of interim head coach until February 20 , 2016 . At this time , Bill was reinstated into the NBL Canada , with Tony remaining with Windsor as an assistant coach . Bill said , " What happened in that Game 7 was not Bill Jones . It happened in the heat of the moment and is something I 'll probably regret for the rest of my life . " Magley said that his concern with the future of the Express organization helped him make the decision to reinstate Jones , who he believed would help the team 's fan support grow .
At the beginning of the new season on December 31 , 2015 , Clinkscales and Tony Benett were both reinstated after applying to return to the league . The two players received unanimous support from the NBL Canada Board of Governors . Bennett was only suspended for two games and received a $ 500 fine , while Clinkscales still had a $ 5 @,@ 000 fine . On March 11 , 2016 , Rainmen player Tyrone Watson was also reinstated to the league after paying his $ 5 @,@ 000 fine and receiving a unanimous vote .
= USS New Hampshire ( BB @-@ 25 ) =
New Hampshire ( BB @-@ 25 ) was the sixth and final Connecticut @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleship , the last vessel of that type built for the United States Navy . Like most contemporary battleships , she was armed with an offensive armament that consisted of four large @-@ caliber 12 @-@ inch ( 300 mm ) guns and several medium @-@ caliber 7 and 8 @-@ inch ( 178 and 203 mm ) guns . The ship was laid down in May 1905 , launched in June 1906 , and commissioned in March 1908 , a little over a year after the revolutionary all @-@ big @-@ gun HMS Dreadnought rendered ships like New Hampshire obsolescent .
Despite being rapidly surpassed by new American dreadnoughts , New Hampshire had an active career . She made two trips to Europe in 1910 and 1911 , and she sank the old battleship USS Texas , which had been converted into a target ship . New Hampshire was particularly active in the Caribbean during this period , as several countries , including Haiti , the Dominican Republic , and Mexico devolved into internal political conflicts . These actions included the United States occupation of Veracruz , during which the ship 's commander was awarded the Medal of Honor .
After the United States entered World War I in April 1917 , the ship was used primarily to train gunners and engine room personnel , as the US Navy had expanded significantly to combat the German U @-@ boat campaign . She escorted convoys in late 1918 , and after the war ended she took part in the effort to bring American soldiers back from France . New Hampshire remained in service for only a few years after the war , as the 1922 Washington Naval Treaty significantly reduced the navies of the signatories ; as a result , the ship was sold for scrap in November 1923 .
= = Design = =
New Hampshire was 456 ft 4 in ( 139 m ) long overall and had a beam of 76 ft 10 in ( 23 m ) and a draft of 24 ft 6 in ( 7 m ) . She displaced 16 @,@ 000 long tons ( 16 @,@ 000 t ) as designed and up to 17 @,@ 666 long tons ( 17 @,@ 949 t ) at full load . The ship was powered by two @-@ shaft triple @-@ expansion steam engines rated at 16 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 12 @,@ 300 kW ) and twelve coal @-@ fired Babcock & Wilcox boilers , generating a top speed of 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) . As built , she was fitted with heavy military masts , but these were quickly replaced by lattice masts in 1909 . She had a crew of 827 officers and men , though this increased to 881 and later to 896 .
The ship was armed with a main battery of four 12 inch / 45 Mark 5 guns in two twin gun turrets on the centerline , one forward and aft . The secondary battery consisted of eight 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) / 45 guns and twelve 7 @-@ inch ( 178 mm ) / 45 guns . The 8 @-@ inch guns were mounted in four twin turrets amidships and the 7 @-@ inch guns were placed in casemates in the hull . For close @-@ range defense against torpedo boats , she carried twenty 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) / 50 guns mounted in casemates along the side of the hull and twelve 3 @-@ pounder guns . She also carried four 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) 1 @-@ pounder guns . As was standard for capital ships of the period , New Hampshire carried four 21 in ( 530 mm ) torpedo tubes , submerged in her hull on the broadside .
New Hampshire 's main armored belt was 11 in ( 279 mm ) thick over the magazines and the machinery spaces and 6 in ( 152 mm ) elsewhere . The main battery gun turrets had 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) thick faces , and the supporting barbettes had the 10 in ( 254 mm ) of armor plating . The secondary turrets had 7 in of frontal armor . The conning tower had 9 in ( 229 mm ) thick sides .
= = Service history = =
New Hampshire was laid down on 1 May 1905 at the New York Shipbuilding Corporation in Camden , New Jersey . She was launched on 30 June 1906 and was christened by Hazel McLane , the daughter of John McLane , then the Governor of New Hampshire . The ship was commissioned into the US Navy on 19 March 1908 ; her first commander was Captain Cameron Winslow . After completing final fitting @-@ out work , New Hampshire transported a Marine Expeditionary Regiment to Colón , Panama on 20 June , arriving six days later . She then made a series of visits to ports on the eastern coast of North America , including Portsmouth , New York , and Bridgeport , along with a stop in the Canadian province of Quebec . The ship was then overhauled in New York , followed by training exercises in the Caribbean Sea . On 22 February 1909 , she participated in a Naval Review for President Theodore Roosevelt to greet the return of the Great White Fleet in Hampton Roads , Virginia . During this period , Ernest King , later the Chief of Naval Operations during World War II , served aboard the ship in the engine room .
New Hampshire conducted training exercises in the Atlantic and Caribbean through late 1910 . On 1 November that year , she steamed out of Hampton Roads with the Second Battleship Division for a visit to Europe . There , the ships stopped in Cherbourg , France and Weymouth , the United Kingdom . The Division departed Weymouth on 30 December and returned to the Caribbean for training , before proceeding to Norfolk on 10 March 1911 . On 21 – 22 March , New Hampshire conducted gunnery training with the target ship San Marcos — the old battleship Texas — in Tangier Sound in Chesapeake Bay . Over the course of the two days of firing , New Hampshire inflicted severe damage to the old ship , sinking her in shallow water . A cursory inspection of the wreck noted that the interior of the ship above the waterline was destroyed and that she had been holed multiple times below the waterline .
She then prepared for another trip to Europe . This time the ships cruised into the Baltic Sea , stopping in several ports in Germany , Russia , and Scandinavia , before returning to New England on 13 July . New Hampshire spent the next three years training midshipmen on summer cruises and patrolling the Caribbean . In December 1912 , she steamed off the island of Hispaniola during unrest in both Haiti and the Dominican Republic . From 14 June to 29 December 1913 , she patrolled the Caribbean coast of Mexico during the Mexican Revolution . The following year , she took part in the occupation of Veracruz in Mexico , starting on 15 April . During the operations , the ship 's commander , Edwin Anderson , Jr . , led a landing party that came under fire from the Heroica Escuela Naval Militar academy ( Heroic Naval Military School ) , though gunfire from cruisers in the harbor silenced the Mexican snipers . Anderson and several others were awarded the Medal of Honor for the action . New Hampshire departed the area on 21 April for an overhaul in Norfolk . Exercises off the east coast of the United States followed before the ship returned to Veracruz in August 1915 .
= = = World War I = = =
The ship was back in Norfolk on 30 September and remained in American waters late 1916 . On 2 December , she steamed to Santo Domingo , the capital of the Dominican Republic , where the United States had instituted a military government under Rear Admiral Harry Knapp in an attempt to put an end to the political instability there . New Hampshire 's captain was involved in the government while the ship was in the country . In February 1917 , she returned to Norfolk for an overhaul ; this work was still ongoing when the United States declared war on Germany on 6 April . Over the course of the next eighteen months , the ship was occupied with training gunners and engine room personnel for the rapidly expanding wartime fleet . During training on 1 June 1918 , the crews for three of the 7 @-@ inch guns aboard New Hampshire accidentally began firing at one of the submarine chasers present ; they fired several salvos before they received the order to cease fire . One of the shells struck the nearby battleship USS Louisiana , killing one man and wounding several more . While the ships stopped to regain control of the situation , a lookout reported a periscope from a U @-@ boat ; New Hampshire and the battleship USS Ohio opened fire with their 6 @-@ inch guns to no effect . The submarine chasers could not find a U @-@ boat in the area .
In September 1918 , she was assigned to convoy escort duty , with the first such mission on 6 September . The ship departed with the battleship USS Kansas and the dreadnought USS South Carolina to protect a fast HX troopship convoy . On 16 September , the three battleships left the convoy in the Atlantic and steamed back to the United States , while other escorts brought the convoy into port . On the 17th , South Carolina 's starboard propeller fell off , which forced her to reduce speed to 11 knots ( 20 km / h ; 13 mph ) using only the port shaft . New Hampshire and Kansas remained with South Carolina to escort her back to port . This duty did not last long , as the Germans signed the Armistice that ended the war on 11 November . On 24 December , New Hampshire began the first of four trips to bring soldiers back from the battlefields of Europe . On the first trip , she steamed with Louisiana , the two ships arriving in Brest , France on 5 January 1919 . Between the two of them , they returned 2 @,@ 169 men , including eight civilians .
= = = Postwar career = = =
By 1919 , the ship had had all of her 7 @-@ inch guns and eight of the 3 @-@ inch guns removed , and a pair of 3 @-@ inch anti @-@ aircraft guns had been installed . On 22 June 1919 , the ship went into drydock in Philadelphia for an overhaul . A year later , on 5 June 1920 , she began a training cruise for midshipmen to the Pacific Ocean via the Panama Canal . The cruise took the ship to Hawaii and several cities on the western coast of the United States . She was back in Philadelphia by 11 September . From 18 October to 12 January 1921 , New Hampshire served as the flagship for a mission to Haiti . On 25 January she crossed the Atlantic to Europe for the final time to carry the remains of Wilhelm August Ferdinand Ekengren , the Swedish ambassador to the United States . She arrived in Stockholm on 14 February ; on the return voyage , she also stopped in Kiel , Germany , and Gravesend , United Kingdom . The ship reached Philadelphia on 24 March , where she was decommissioned on 21 May . According to the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty , New Hampshire was sold on 1 November 1923 and subsequently broken up for scrap .
= Troy McClure =
Troy McClure is a fictional character from the American animated sitcom The Simpsons . He was voiced by Phil Hartman and first appeared in the second season episode " Homer vs. Lisa and the 8th Commandment " . McClure is usually shown doing low @-@ level work , such as hosting infomercials and educational films . He appears as the main character in " A Fish Called Selma " , in which he marries Selma Bouvier to aid his failing career and quash rumors about his personal life . McClure also ' hosts ' " The Simpsons 138th Episode Spectacular " and " The Simpsons Spin @-@ Off Showcase " .
McClure was partially based on B movie actors Troy Donahue and Doug McClure , as well as Hartman himself . Following Hartman 's murder in 1998 , all of his Simpsons characters were retired out of respect , with Hartman 's final appearance as McClure was in the tenth season episode " Bart the Mother " four months later . Since his retirement , McClure is often cited as one of the series ' most popular characters . In 2006 , IGN ranked McClure # 1 on their list of the " Top 25 Simpsons Peripheral Characters " .
= = Role in The Simpsons = =
Troy McClure is a stereotypical Hollywood has @-@ been . He was a star in the early 1970s , but his career went downhill due to rumors of a paraphilia involving fish . In most of his appearances in the show , he hosts short video clips that other characters watch on television or in a public place . He often presents educational videos and infomercials . McClure introduces himself by saying , " Hi , I 'm Troy McClure . You may remember me from such [ films , educational videos , voiceovers , etc . ] as ... , " mentioning two titles that are similar to his current performance . For example , in the episode " Bart the Mother " , McClure introduces a film about birds by saying , " Hi , I 'm Troy McClure . You may remember me from such nature films as Earwigs : Eww ! and Man vs. Nature : The Road to Victory . "
McClure 's most prominent role occurs in the seventh @-@ season episode " A Fish Called Selma " . In the episode , McClure begins a relationship with Selma Bouvier , whom he meets when she gives him an eye test at the Department of Motor Vehicles . The relationship revives his career , leading him to star in Stop the Planet of the Apes , I Want to Get Off ! , a stage musical version of the film Planet of the Apes . To further boost McClure 's career , McClure 's agent suggests that he get married . Unaware of McClure 's motivation , Selma accepts his proposal , and moves into McClure 's house , a Modernist building which resembles the Chemosphere . At his bachelor party , a drunken McClure tells Homer Simpson that the marriage is just a sham to help his career . Homer says nothing at the wedding , but later offhandedly mentions McClure 's admission to Marge , who then informs her sister . Selma decides to remain with McClure anyway , but she becomes disturbed when McClure 's agent advises the pair to have a child ( since " all the big parts these days are going to family men " ) . Having a child will secure McClure 's casting as McBain 's sidekick in McBain IV : Fatal Discharge , but Selma is unwilling to bring a child into a loveless relationship and decides to leave McClure . McClure ultimately gets the role , but turns it down in order to direct and star in his own pet project , a 20th Century Fox film called The Contrabulous Fabtraption of Professor Horatio Hufnagel .
In addition to his in @-@ story appearances , McClure appears as host of " The Simpsons 138th Episode Spectacular " and " The Simpsons Spin @-@ Off Showcase " . The first is a behind the scenes look at The Simpsons , answering questions and featuring extra " never before seen " material . The second is an episode presenting three possible spin @-@ offs from The Simpsons .
= = = In other media = = =
McClure was made into an action figure as part of the World of Springfield toy line , and was released in the " Celebrity Series 1 " wave . He also features briefly in the video game Virtual Springfield , introducing the town of Springfield to the player .
= = Character = =
= = = Creation = = =
McClure was based on the typical " washed up " Hollywood actor . B movie actors Troy Donahue and Doug McClure served as inspiration for his name and certain character aspects . Writer Mike Reiss later met Doug McClure 's daughter , who revealed that her father had found the homage funny . His children would call their father " Troy McClure " when his back was turned . According to show creator Matt Groening , Phil Hartman was cast in the role due to his ability to pull " the maximum amount of humor " out of any line he was given . McClure 's visual appearance is similar to that of Hartman himself . When he was designed , McClure was given an extra line under his eyes to suggest that the character had gotten a facelift .
In a very brief appearance in the season 2 episode Bart 's Dog Gets an " F " , Troy was voiced by Dan Castellaneta .
= = = Development = = =
According to executive producer Al Jean , the writers often used McClure as a " panic button " and added the character when they felt an episode needed more humor .
McClure 's character is most developed in " A Fish Called Selma " , which provides a more in @-@ depth look into his private life and backstory . Showrunners Bill Oakley and Josh Weinstein were fans of Hartman , and wished to make an episode entirely about McClure in order to give Hartman as much to do as possible . From this came the idea of McClure 's marriage to Selma Bouvier , as she was " always marrying people " . Animator Mark Kirkland was particularly pleased that McClure was the star of the episode . He enjoyed interpreting Hartman 's voice @-@ over performances , and the episode allowed him and the other animators to " open [ McClure ] up visually as a character " .
Throughout " A Fish Called Selma " , it is hinted that McClure engages in strange sexual behavior . The writers did not initially know what the " unsavory " sexual preference would be , but eventually decided on a fish fetish , using a suggestion from executive producer James L. Brooks . Josh Weinstein described the fish fetish concept as " so perverted and strange , it was over the top " .
= = = Retirement = = =
After Hartman 's murder in 1998 , rather than replace him with a new voice actor , the production staff retired McClure , along with Hartman 's other recurring character , Lionel Hutz , from the show . McClure last appeared in the season ten episode " Bart the Mother " , which was dedicated to Hartman . Before his death , Hartman had often expressed an interest in starring in a live @-@ action film about McClure , which would be penned by some of the show 's writers . He noted that he was " looking forward to his live @-@ action movie , publicizing [ McClure 's ] Betty Ford appearances . " Matt Groening later told Empire that the idea never " got further than enthusiasm " , but " would have been really fun " .
= = Reception and cultural influence = =
Even after his retirement , Troy McClure remains a popular supporting character . IGN ranked McClure first in their 2006 list of the " Top 25 Simpsons Peripheral Characters " , calling him " a wonderfully bizarre and entertaining character that showcases the best of what small roles on The Simpsons can be " . In a 2007 article on Simpsons guest stars , Adam Finley of TV Squad wrote that McClure was " responsible for some of the funniest moments in Simpsons history " . Hartman ranked first on AOL 's list of their favorite 25 Simpsons guest stars . Chris Turner argues in Planet Simpson that McClure and Lionel Hutz " together ... represent the most significant contribution to the show outside of its permanent cast " , adding that " the show 's Golden Age is hard to imagine without them " . He continues , " The smarmy Hollywood type ... has been done to death , but Hartman 's version breathed new life into it with each appearance . McClure has become the apotheosis of the stereotype , a gut @-@ achingly funny reinterpretation whose trademark introduction ... has become a shorthand way to describe any grossly artificial media figure . "
McClure 's most prominent episode , " A Fish Called Selma " , is a favorite of many of the show 's staff members , and has been cited as one of the series ' best episodes by several publications . Entertainment Weekly placed the episode eighth on their top 25 The Simpsons episode list , and IGN named the episode the best of the seventh season , calling it the " obvious pick " . They also deemed McClure 's Planet of the Apes musical the best moment of the episode and " maybe even the whole show " .
McClure was one of Phil Hartman 's best known @-@ roles . He often used his McClure voice to entertain the audience between takes while taping episodes of NewsRadio . He remarked , " My favorite fans are Troy McClure fans . " He added " It 's the one thing that I do in my life that 's almost an avocation . I do it for the pure love of it . " Many obituaries of Hartman mentioned his work as McClure as one of the highlights of his career . The BBC said that " [ Hartman 's ] voice was known to millions " because of McClure and Lionel Hutz .
= Mario & Luigi : Superstar Saga =
Mario & Luigi : Superstar Saga , known in Japan as Mario & Luigi RPG ( マリオ ＆ ルイージRPG , Mario ando Ruīji Aru Pī Jī ) , is a role @-@ playing video game developed by AlphaDream and published by Nintendo for the Game Boy Advance in 2003 . The first game in the Mario & Luigi RPG series , Superstar Saga was followed by four sequels : Mario & Luigi : Partners in Time and Mario & Luigi : Bowser 's Inside Story for the Nintendo DS , Mario & Luigi : Dream Team for the Nintendo 3DS and Mario & Luigi : Paper Jam also for the Nintendo 3DS . The game was later re @-@ released for the Wii U Virtual Console on the Nintendo eShop in 2014 .
The setting of the game begins in the Mushroom Kingdom , but progresses to the Beanbean Kingdom for the majority of the game . In the game , Mario and Luigi combat Cackletta , the primary antagonist . The quest begins when Cackletta , with the aid of her assistant Fawful , steals Princess Peach 's voice after adopting the guise of an ambassador from the Beanbean Kingdom .
A role @-@ playing game , it centers on a battle system different from that of traditional games of the genre , with emphasis on timing and more elaborate attacks . The game is whimsical in tone , with various in @-@ game jokes and comical references to the heritage of the Mario series . Superstar Saga was generally well received by critics , and IGN named it the twelfth best Game Boy Advance game of all time in their feature reflecting on the Game Boy Advance 's lifespan .
= = Gameplay = =
The gameplay of Mario & Luigi differs from most other role @-@ playing games due its focus on controlling Mario and Luigi simultaneously . During overworld sections , the direction pad controls Mario 's movement with Luigi following closely , while Mario and Luigi 's other actions are controlled individually with the A and B buttons respectively . The game begins with them being able to jump independently , though they will soon gain access to hammers and a variety of other techniques as the game progresses . For example , Luigi 's hammer can be used to squash Mario into a smaller size , allowing to access small gaps , while placing Mario on Luigi 's shoulders allows them to act like a propeller and hover across large gaps . Various enemies roam the overworld , and coming into contact with these enemies initiates a battle . Landing a hit on the enemy while on the overworld allows the player to deal pre @-@ emptive damage , while the opposite is also possible .
Battles in Superstar Saga are turn @-@ based . Mario and Luigi can attack normally either by jumping , which can deal multiple hits but when used against enemies covered in flames or with spikes , Mario or Luigi will get hurt , instead of the enemy . Another attack option is the hammer , which is powerful , but ineffective against flying enemies . Similar to previous Mario RPG titles , such as Super Mario RPG and the Paper Mario series , players can time button presses to make their attacks more effective , such as earning an extra jump attack or increasing the hammer 's power . Introduced in this series is the way in which Mario and Luigi can defend themselves during an enemy 's attack . When an enemy attacks , the brothers will be able to either jump or use their hammer which , when successfully timed , allows them to dodge their attacks and even deal counter damage ( for example : if they jump on top of a charging Goomba ) . Throughout the game , players can unlock Bros. Attacks , which use Bros. Points ( BP ) which requires players to cooperate between Mario and Luigi 's actions to perform powerful combination attacks . Players can also use items such as mushrooms for healing , peppers for boosting stats and 1UP mushrooms for reviving fallen bros . Defeating enemies earns experience points which help the bros level up and increase their stats , with players given the option to further increase the stats of one attribute every time they level up . Players can further improve their stats by equipping new gear to the Bros. , or making them wear badges that give them special attributes .
Like other Mario titles for the Game Boy Advance , Superstar Saga features the enhanced remake of the Mario Bros. arcade game . The game also supports rumble functionality when used with the Nintendo GameCube 's Game Boy Player accessory .
= = Plot = =
Unlike most games in the Mario series , this game is not set in the Mushroom Kingdom . Instead , Superstar Saga introduces the Beanbean Kingdom , a neighboring monarchy to the Mushroom Kingdom . Despite this , traditional enemies such as Goombas are present , as well as new enemies exclusive to the game . The predominant race are the " Beanish " , although there are other species such as the " Hoohooligans " and Yoshis . No locations featured in the Beanbean Kingdom , with the exception of Bowser 's Castle , existed in any earlier Mario series games .
= = = Characters = = =
The playable protagonists in the game are Mario and Luigi , whose quest is to rescue the voice of Princess Peach , the princess of the Mushroom Kingdom . The voice is stolen by the game 's antagonists Cackletta and Fawful . Throughout the game , Mario and Luigi must work with the Beanbean monarchy headed by Queen Bean . Both she and her son , Prince Peasley , offer Mario and Luigi assistance . The youthful Prince Peasley is a celebrity figure in his native Beanbean Kingdom .
Deviating from a tradition of the Mario franchise , Superstar Saga 's central antagonist is not Bowser , but the Beanish witch Cackletta . Bowser aids the protagonists during a period of the game , but Bowser 's body becomes possessed by the consciousness of Cackletta to form the creature Bowletta . Cackletta is aided by the assailant Fawful , who is often characterized by his comical use of language , as evidenced by his famous quote " I HAVE FURY ! " and who is also the antagonist in the sequel Mario & Luigi : Bowser 's Inside Story . Additionally , Mario and Luigi have recurring incidents with a thief named Popple and his sidekick Rookie ( amnesiac Bowser ) , who engages both protagonists in conflict at various times throughout the game . In one case , Popple fights alone . In another , he uses Birdo instead of Rookie .
= = = Story = = =
The game opens with the witch Cackletta and her assistant Fawful arriving to steal Princess Peach 's voice and replace it with explosives . After being summoned to the palace by Toad , Mario and Luigi confront and subdue Bowser , who coincidentally was attempting to kidnap Peach . However , Bowser soon decides against kidnapping her and teams up with the Mario Bros. to retrieve her true voice back from Cackletta , who has fled to the Beanbean Kingdom , with the intention of kidnapping her afterward when her voice would not destroy his castle .
Mario , Luigi , and Bowser fly to the Beanbean Kingdom via Bowser 's airship , the Koopa Cruiser . Mid @-@ flight , Fawful attacks the cruiser and blows it out of the sky . Bowser and the brothers become separated . On their journey , the brothers rescue Prince Peasley , who had been transformed into a dragon by Cackletta . The brothers reach Beanbean Castle Town and step into a trap laid by Cackletta that drops them into the sewers . The brothers learn that Cackletta 's goal is to steal the Beanstar , a mystical object inside the castle which once awoken with Peach 's voice will grant all of her wishes . Cackletta takes the Beanstar and attacks Mario and Luigi with a mutated form of the Queen Bean during her escape . After defeating the Queen , Mario and Luigi travel to Chucklehuck Woods to retrieve the Chuckola Reserve , a soda which will restore Queen Bean to her former state . They encounter Popple , a thief also after the Chuckola Reserve , with an amnesiac Bowser as his accomplice , named Rookie . The brothers manage to obtain the Reserve , return to Beanbean Castle Town , and cure Queen Bean .
Mario and Luigi then travel to Woohoo Hooniversity , where Cackletta plans to awaken the Beanstar . The Beanstar is exposed to Peach 's voice , which causes it to go berserk and flee . Mario and Luigi then battle Cackletta and defeat her . Cackletta is severely incapacitated from the battle , so Fawful sucks up her soul into his " vacuum helmet " to save her life . Cackletta then commands Fawful to attack , but he is stopped by Prince Peasley . The brothers locate the Beanstar but encounter Popple and Rookie again . After battling them , the Beanstar is again exposed to Peach 's voice . The four grab onto the Beanstar in an effort to keep it under control , but it shoots into the sky . The Beanstar explodes into four pieces , which scatter across Beanbean Kingdom , and the brothers become separated from Popple and Bowser . Mario and Luigi backtrack and meet Peach as she arrives in Beanbean Kingdom , who inexplicably has her own voice . They discover that Prince Peasley had learned of Cackletta 's plot and warned the Princess beforehand and Birdo , disguised as Peach , had her voice stolen instead . Bowser 's arrival and presence at her castle had prevented Peach from revealing the plan to Mario and Luigi . Meanwhile , Fawful imbues a weak Bowser with Cackletta 's soul , resulting in the twisted Bowletta .
On a trip to Little Fungitown , Peach is kidnapped by Bowletta , who demands all the pieces of the Beanstar in exchange . After restoring the Beanstar , Mario and Luigi travel to Joke 's End to make the exchange . Bowletta refuses to hand over Peach , but Luigi , disguised in Peach 's spare dress , ends up being taken in Peach 's stead . He escapes from the repaired Koopa Cruiser , reclaiming the Beanstar in the process . The brothers return to Beanbean Castle Town , finding it under attack by Bowletta using Bowser 's flying castle . The brothers and Prince Peasley fly up to it to stop Cackletta once and for all . Mario and Luigi battle past the Koopalings and Fawful before confronting Bowletta . Feinting defeat , she tricks the brothers and swallows them both . After waking up in her belly , the brothers battle and defeat Cackletta 's soul , exorcising her from Bowser 's body . The two are regurgitated and Bowser returns to normal . Afterwards , the brothers escape the castle before it explodes from a bomb set by Peasley . The explosion sends the castle falling into the ocean . Exhausted from their vacation , Mario , Luigi , Peach and Toadsworth decide to head back to the Mushroom Kingdom . Before they can leave , Peasley brings a farewell gift for them to take home , which is Bowser , who regained memory . The gang then returns home .
= = Development and marketing = =
Superstar Saga , developed by AlphaDream , is said to take its inspiration from the Nintendo 64 game Paper Mario ; the two games have similar graphics and gameplay . The producers of the game were Shigeru Miyamoto , the creator of the Mario franchise , Tetsuo Mizuno , and Satoru Iwata , the president of Nintendo . The voice acting for Mario and Luigi in the game is provided by Charles Martinet , well known for providing the characters ' voice in Nintendo 's Mario franchise . The game 's music was composed by Yoko Shimomura , who also composed the score for Super Mario RPG .
Superstar Saga was first revealed at Electronic Entertainment Expo ( E3 ) 2003 , where a playable demo of the game was available . In August and September 2003 , a playable demonstration was also available at the European Computer Trade Show , the Games Convention , and Nintendo Gamers ' Summit . To link in with the game 's comic themes , Nintendo organized an official competition between October and November 2003 in which contestants would try to submit the best knock @-@ knock joke to win a Game Boy Advance SP and a copy of the game . Nintendo employed comedian Kathy Griffin to choose the winner .
= = Reception = =
Superstar Saga received universal critical acclaim . The game 's comical dialog and themes in particular were lauded by critics . Eurogamer 's Tom Bramwell commented that " each line of dialogue and identifiable cameo is handled with a loving sense of humour . " Despite this , RPGamer 's Andrew Long labelled the plot as repetitive , and the game 's characters as " a tad shallow " . While also appreciating references to the heritage of the Mario series , critics praised the game for avoiding clichés common in previous games of the Mario series .
The gameplay attained a mixed reception . Critics enjoyed the game 's battle system , which deviated from role @-@ playing game tradition . IGN 's Craig Harris commented that " unlike most Japanese RPGs Mario & Luigi 's turn @-@ based battle involves the player at all times " . Despite this novel approach to combat situations , some reviewers thought that the overall gameplay lacked innovation . GameSpy in particular criticized the game for an apparent lack of originality , commenting that " in terms of gameplay , there isn 't much there that we haven 't seen in the NES and SNES Mario and Zelda titles . " Furthermore , some reviewers were disappointed by a perceived lack of difficulty in the gameplay as a result of targeting a younger audience . However , Cubed3 welcomed this approach , citing that " any gamer , be them veterans to the genre or complete amateurs , will find the title to be perfectly accessible . " Edge and other gaming publications have criticized the controls for being occasionally confusing when considering the usage of jumping , hammers , and other combinations between the two characters .
A common concern among reviewers is the overhead perspective , which critics have bemoaned for preventing them from judging pathway routes and an object 's location in relation to its background . Besides this , the actual visuals were generally well received , as well as the setting and animations . The audio was commended for combining both originality and nostalgia , even though it looped frequently .
In 2006 , Superstar Saga was rated the 37th best game made on a Nintendo System in Nintendo Power 's Top 200 Games list . In the same year , the game became part of the Player 's Choice label . In 2007 , the game was named the twelfth best Game Boy Advance game of all time in IGN 's feature reflecting on the Game Boy Advance 's long lifespan . As of 2007 , Superstar Saga has sold over 441 @,@ 000 units in Japan and 1 @.@ 46 million in the US .
= = Sequels = =
Nintendo released Partners in Time , the prequel / sequel to Superstar Saga , on November 28 , 2005 for the Nintendo DS system . The plot and setting is relatively disconnected to that of Superstar Saga , as Cackletta has been replaced by the Shroobs as the primary antagonists . Although the game is set outside the Beanbean Kingdom , there are references to Superstar Saga in Partners in Time , such as the inclusion of Fawful in the sewers of Princess Peach 's Castle in the game . The Bros. Moves have been retained in Partners in Time , although they involve an item system as opposed to the Bros. Points system that Superstar Saga has . A second sequel , Bowser 's Inside Story , was released in 2009 for the Nintendo DS , with Fawful reprising his role as a key villain . A third sequel , Dream Team , was released in 2013 for the Nintendo 3DS . A fourth sequel , Paper Jam , a crossover with the Paper Mario series , was released for the Nintendo 3DS in 2015 .
= BBC Symphony Orchestra =
The BBC Symphony Orchestra ( BBC SO ) is a British orchestra based in London . Founded in 1930 , it was the first permanent salaried orchestra in London , and is the only one of the city 's five major symphony orchestras not to be self @-@ governing . The BBC SO is the principal orchestra of the British Broadcasting Corporation ( BBC ) .
The orchestra was originally conceived in 1928 as a joint enterprise by the BBC and the conductor Sir Thomas Beecham , but the latter withdrew the next year ; and the task of assembling and training the orchestra fell to the BBC 's director of music , Adrian Boult . Among its guest conductors in its first years was Arturo Toscanini , who judged it the finest orchestra he had ever conducted . During and after the Second World War , Boult strove to maintain standards , but the senior management of the post @-@ war BBC did not allocate the orchestra the resources to meet competition from new and well @-@ funded rivals .
After Boult 's retirement from the BBC in 1950 , the orchestra went through a fallow period . Boult 's successor , Sir Malcolm Sargent , was popular with the public but had poor rapport with his players , and orchestral morale dropped . Sargent 's successor , Rudolf Schwarz , made little public impact , and although the BBC appointed high @-@ profile chief conductors in the 1960s and 1970s – Antal Doráti , Colin Davis , Pierre Boulez and Gennady Rozhdestvensky – the BBC SO remained underfunded and could not attract enough good players to rival the leading London orchestras .
As a result of initiatives begun in the 1960s by the BBC controller of music William Glock , performing standards gradually began to rise . Under Andrew Davis in the 1990s and Jiří Bělohlávek in the 2000s the orchestra prospered . By the second decade of the 21st century the BBC SO was once again regarded by critics as of first @-@ class status . From the outset the orchestra has been known for pioneering new music , and it continues to do so , at the Proms , in concerts at the Barbican Centre , and in studio concerts from its base at BBC Maida Vale studios .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
Almost from its beginning in November 1922 the BBC had started broadcasting from its " 2LO " transmitter with its own musical ensembles . The first such groups were the " 2LO Dance Band " , the " 2LO Military Band " , the " 2LO Light Orchestra " , and the " 2LO Octette " , all of which began broadcasting in 1923 . No concert promoter would co @-@ operate with the BBC , regarding it as a dangerous competitor , but the British National Opera Company allowed broadcasts of its performances from the Royal Opera House . John Reith , the General Manager of the BBC , invited the opera company 's musical director , Percy Pitt , to become the BBC 's part @-@ time musical adviser from May 1923 . Later in the same year Pitt conducted the BBC 's first broadcast symphony concert , which included Dvořák 's New World Symphony and works by Saint @-@ Saëns , Elgar and Weber .
Pitt expanded the regular eight @-@ piece studio ensemble to form The Wireless Orchestra of 18 players , augmented to 37 for important broadcasts . There was no thought at this stage that the BBC would maintain a full @-@ scale symphonic orchestra of up to 100 players . With Reith 's approval , Pitt engaged various orchestras for a BBC concert series in 1924 at the Methodist Central Hall Westminster . Pitt and Landon Ronald conducted the Royal Albert Hall Orchestra ; Eugene Goossens conducted the London Symphony Orchestra ; and Hamilton Harty and Sir Edward Elgar conducted the orchestra of the Royal Philharmonic Society .
In 1924 the Wireless Orchestra , by then comprising 22 players , was contracted for six concerts a week . The following year , Pitt , by now working full @-@ time for the BBC , as its director of music , augmented the ensemble to form the " Wireless Symphony Orchestra " for a new series of concerts broadcast from Covent Garden , conducted by Bruno Walter , Ernest Ansermet and Pierre Monteux . In 1927 the BBC and Covent Garden collaborated in a series of public concerts with an orchestra of 150 players under conductors including Richard Strauss and Siegfried Wagner . Although the orchestra was large , it was not good . The BBC attempted to stop its contracted players sending deputies to rehearsals and even to concerts , but was unsuccessful . In January 1928 The Musical Times protested :
The B.B.C. has been blamed for devoting too much time to the classics , and also for not giving them all that is due to them ; it has been held responsible for the inferiority of the apparatus of the listener @-@ in ; it has been censured on a variety of trifling points , but never for the one heinous offence it has committed , and goes on committing : for this corporation , with all its assured and conspicuous wealth , has given and is giving us the worst orchestral performances ever heard in London . … This year at Queen 's Hall they have assembled an orchestra which sounds as if it were composed in great part of " substitutes . "
In 1927 the BBC took over the responsibility for the Promenade Concerts , widely known as " the Proms " . At first Henry Wood , the founding conductor , persuaded the corporation to engage his Queen 's Hall Orchestra for each Prom season ; from 1930 onwards , the BBC provided the orchestra .
The inadequacy of the BBC 's players , and also of the established London orchestras , was shown up by the Berlin Philharmonic , under Wilhelm Furtwängler , in two concerts in 1927 . A historian of the Queen 's Hall , Robert Elkin , writes , " At this period the standard of orchestral playing in London was distinctly low , and the well @-@ drilled efficiency of the Berliners under their dynamic conductor came as something of a revelation . " These , and later concerts by the same orchestra , gained plaudits from the public and music critics at the expense of the London orchestras . The chief music critic of The Times , Frank Howes , later commented , " the British public ... was electrified when it heard the disciplined precision of the Berlin Philharmonic ... This apparently was how an orchestra could , and , therefore , ought to sound " . After the Berliners , London heard a succession of major foreign orchestras , including the Amsterdam Concertgebouw Orchestra under Willem Mengelberg and the Philharmonic @-@ Symphony Orchestra of New York under Arturo Toscanini .
Among those determined that London should have a permanent orchestra of similar excellence were Reith and the conductor Sir Thomas Beecham . The latter aimed at setting up a first rate ensemble for opera and concert performances and , though no admirer of broadcasting , he was willing to negotiate with the BBC if this gave him what he sought . Reith 's concern was that the BBC should have a first @-@ rate radio orchestra . The critic Richard Morrison writes :
Reith 's BBC of the 1920s was ... imbued with an almost religious zeal for " enlightening " the public through the magical medium of the wireless . An orchestra , and particularly one that was unencumbered by commercial constraints and thus free to deliver the highest of highbrow programmes , would fit very well into that idealistic philosophy .
Landon Ronald brought Reith and Beecham together in April 1928 ; negotiations and preliminary arrangements continued for more than 18 months until it became clear that the corporation and the conductor had irreconcilable priorities for the proposed new ensemble . Beecham withdrew and , as described by Nicholas Kenyon :
With the collapse of the Beecham scheme , the way was open for the BBC 's music department to design an orchestral scheme truly suited to broadcasting needs – a plan for a 114 @-@ piece orchestra that could split into four different smaller groups , which had been devised in the autumn of 1929 by Edward Clark and Julian Herbage – and to place that orchestra 's fortunes under the direction of the man who was to guide it with the utmost distinction for the next 20 years , the BBC 's new director of music , Adrian Boult .
= = = Foundation = = =
By the time Adrian Boult succeeded Pitt as director of music for the BBC , the violinist Albert Sammons and the violist Lionel Tertis had scouted for new talent around the country on behalf of the corporation . Twenty @-@ seven players had been offered positions in the new orchestra . Among those who joined were Aubrey Brain , Arthur Catterall , Eugene Cruft , Sidonie Goossens , Lauri Kennedy and Frederick Thurston . Although many of the principals were stars recruited from the LSO , the Hallé and other orchestras , a high proportion of the rank and file members were fresh from music colleges . Boult wrote , " a brilliant group of young and inexperienced players came to sit behind the well @-@ known old stagers . "
A substantial number of the players performed at the 1930 Promenade Concerts under Sir Henry Wood , and the full BBC Symphony Orchestra gave its first concert on 22 October 1930 , conducted by Boult at the Queen 's Hall . The programme consisted of music by Wagner , Brahms , Saint @-@ Saëns and Ravel . Of the 21 programmes in the orchestra 's first season , Boult conducted nine and Wood five .
The reviews of the new orchestra were enthusiastic . The Times wrote of its " virtuosity " and of Boult 's " superb " conducting . The Musical Times commented , " The boast of the B.B.C. that it intended to get together a first @-@ class orchestra was not an idle one " , spoke of " exhilaration at the playing " , and called another concert later in the season " an occasion for national pride " . The Observer called the playing " altogether magnificent " . After the initial concerts Reith was told by his advisers that the orchestra had played better for Boult than anyone else . Reith asked him if he wished to take on the chief conductorship , and if so whether he would resign as director of music or occupy both posts simultaneously . Boult opted for the latter .
During the 1930s , the orchestra became renowned for its high standard of playing and for performing new and unfamiliar music . The pioneering work of Boult and the BBC SO included an early performance of Schoenberg 's Variations , Op. 31 , British premieres , including Berg 's Wozzeck and Three Movements from the Lyric Suite , and world premieres , including Vaughan Williams 's Symphony No. 4 in F minor . Anton Webern conducted eight BBC SO concerts between 1931 and 1936 .
During the 1930s the orchestra presented rarely heard large @-@ scale works from the past , including Berlioz 's Grande Messe des morts and Grande symphonie funèbre et triomphale . Mahler 's Eighth and Ninth Symphonies , and Purcell 's King Arthur .
The excellence of the orchestra attracted leading international conductors . In its second season guest conductors included Richard Strauss , Felix Weingartner and Bruno Walter , followed , in later seasons , by Serge Koussevitzky , Beecham and Mengelberg . Arturo Toscanini , widely regarded at the time as the world 's leading conductor , conducted the BBC SO in 1935 and later said that it was the finest he had ever directed . He returned to conduct the orchestra in 1937 , 1938 and 1939 , and declared , " This is the orchestra I would like to take round the world . "
= = = Second World War and postwar = = =
On the outbreak of war in September 1939 the BBC put into effect its contingency plans to minimise disruption of broadcasting . The corporation withdrew from responsibility for the Proms , with which Wood went ahead , backed by the Royal Philharmonic Society , with the LSO replacing the BBC SO . The BBC SO was relocated from London to Bristol . More than 40 players were released for active service , including the 30 youngest members ; the orchestra was reduced to a complement of 70 , although it was increased to 90 later in the war . During 1940 and 1941 Bristol suffered devastation from German air @-@ raids , and the BBC decided to move the orchestra again . In September 1941 the BBC SO took up residence in Bedford , where it remained , giving live broadcasts and making recordings until it returned permanently to its London base at the BBC 's BBC Maida Vale studios in 1945 . The BBC resumed its support for the Proms in 1942 , with the BBC SO returning temporarily to London during the Proms seasons of 1942 – 45 . For the rest of the year , the orchestra played in the hall of Bedford School , and after the launch of the V @-@ 1 raids in 1944 the remaining broadcast concerts of that year 's Proms season were performed at the Bedford Corn Exchange .
Boult had striven to maintain the orchestra 's standards and prestige during the war ; as an instance of its prowess in the 1940s Kennedy cites an HMV recording of Elgar 's Second Symphony released in January 1945 : " a performance that blazed with excitement and passion and is documentary evidence of the excellence of the orchestra in 1944 " . With Reith long gone from the post of director @-@ general , Boult found that the top management of the BBC was less concerned for the status of its Symphony Orchestra . The new director @-@ general , Sir William Haley , was unwilling to approve the funding needed to keep the orchestra competitive with new rivals – Walter Legge 's Philharmonia and Beecham 's Royal Philharmonic . Some younger players felt that many BBC SO principals were past their best . There were even a few members of the BBC 's staff who were not sorry when Steuart Wilson , a BBC executive with a private grudge against Boult , engineered Boult 's retirement in 1950 , though many profoundly regretted it . Wilson had neglected to secure a successor of similar eminence to take over the orchestra . His efforts to recruit Sir John Barbirolli and Rafael Kubelík were unsuccessful , and he was obliged to offer the post to his third choice , Sir Malcolm Sargent , on whatever terms Sargent demanded .
= = = 1950s = = =
Sargent , an immensely popular figure with the public , was not at all popular with orchestral players , because of what a historian of the Proms has called his " autocratic and prima @-@ donna attitude towards orchestral players " . He offended the BBC SO players by demanding that they all stand up when he came on to the platform – which they firmly declined to do . He rapidly became equally unpopular with the BBC music department , ignoring its agenda and pursuing his own . He refused to join the staff of the BBC , and insisted on remaining a freelance , taking numerous external engagements to the detriment of his work with the BBC SO . A senior BBC manager wrote , :
Except when a Barbirolli or a Kletzki has been in charge for a few days , the Orchestra is inferior , as an artistic instrument , to the Hallé or Philharmonia ... [ Sargent ] is indifferent to the morale and welfare of the Orchestra and to the individual temperaments of his players as artists or as human beings .
It did not help that Sargent was universally acknowledged to be at his finest in choral music . His reputation in big works for chorus and orchestra such as The Dream of Gerontius , Hiawatha 's Wedding Feast and Belshazzar 's Feast was unrivalled , and his large @-@ scale performances of Handel oratorios were assured packed houses . However , his regular programming of such works did nothing to lift the spirits of the BBC SO : orchestral musicians regarded playing the instrumental accompaniment for large choirs as drudgery .
In the 1950s the BBC SO , in common with the rest of the BBC 's musical organisation , suffered from stagnation . In the words of the critic Peter Heyworth , " the Corporation 's music department had become a byword for its narrow @-@ mindedness and lassitude " . Boult had been followed as director of music by a series of successors between 1944 and 1959 who either lacked his commitment to modern music or were actively hostile to it . Richard Howgill , who held the post from 1952 to 1959 , took the view that although Webern " might have been a small composer of some significance , Schoenberg wasn 't really a composer at all . " In addition to working under a conductor it disliked , the BBC SO found its role as a pioneer of progressive music gone , and its performances of the standard classics criticised as under @-@ rehearsed ( particularly during Proms seasons ) compared with those given by Legge 's Philharmonia and others . Sargent 's contract was not renewed in 1957 , although he continued with undiminished popularity as chief conductor of the Proms until his death ten years later . Howgill appointed Rudolf Schwarz as chief conductor of the BBC SO . Schwarz failed to restore orchestral standards to pre @-@ war levels , and lacked Sargent 's box @-@ office appeal . Under Schwarz , BBC SO concerts other than the Proms drew poor houses – as low as 29 per cent of capacity in the 1959 – 60 season . The manager of the Royal Festival Hall , Ernest Bean , spoke of " an inherited aura of mediocrity about BBC concerts which keeps people away " . Schwarz 's five @-@ year contract was not renewed when it expired .
= = = 1960s to 1980s = = =
In 1959 William Glock was appointed controller of music for the BBC , and the profile and fortunes of the BBC SO began to rise . For the post of principal conductor Glock engaged Antal Doráti , who , in Heyworth 's judgment , raised standards of playing and brought new vigour to the programmes in his four years in charge ( 1962 – 66 ) . Doráti was convinced that the orchestra was stultified by concentrating on studio broadcasts , as it did except during the Proms season . He strove to free players from " slavery to the microphone " , and Glock promoted a regular series of concerts at the Festival Hall . The music critic Tom Sutcliffe later wrote that Doráti and his successors , Colin Davis ( 1967 – 71 ) , Pierre Boulez ( 1971 – 75 ) and Gennady Rozhdestvensky ( 1978 – 81 ) had been partly successful in improving playing standards , but had not brought the orchestra up to its original level of distinction .
By 1962 Glock had persuaded the management of the BBC to increase the orchestra 's budget to allow for joint principals in the string sections , to attract top musicians who could play in the BBC SO without having to give up their solo or chamber careers . The following season he was able to engage joint principals for the wind section ; he recruited such star players as Jack Brymer and Terence MacDonagh , formerly members of Beecham 's celebrated " Royal Family " in the RPO . The problem remained that recruiting rank @-@ and @-@ file string players was difficult : although the BBC offered secure employment and a pension , it did not pay as well as its London rivals . After 1964 the BBC SO was the only one of the five London symphony orchestras that was not self @-@ governed , and some musicians felt that the BBC SO 's constitution as a body of salaried employees , with no say in the management or repertory of the orchestra , attracted an unadventurous type of player . A former member of the BBC SO said in 1979 @,@
I felt I was getting too secure ... [ in ] the BBC Symphony you can be a poor player , but if you 're on time and never moan at the conductor … you 'll have no trouble ... I think the BBC Symphony lost some good young players because the management got their priorities wrong .
Glock was well known as a proponent of music of the Second Viennese School and their successors ; earlier in his career he had been dismissed as music critic of The Observer for such views as " no great composer has ever cared how ' pleasant ' his music sounds " . Under his administration , the BBC SO gave world premieres of works by composers including Roberto Gerhard , Peter Maxwell Davies and Michael Tippett , and UK premieres of works by , among others , Luciano Berio , Boulez and Edgard Varèse . The policy of commissioning works , and giving UK premieres of new compositions was continued under Glock 's successors . World or UK premieres in the 1970s included works by Elliott Carter , György Ligeti , Witold Lutosławski , Olivier Messiaen , Luigi Nono , Arvo Pärt and Karlheinz Stockhausen . BBC commissions premiered by the BBC SO in the 1980s included Alfred Schnittke 's Second Symphony , Harrison Birtwistle 's Earth Dances , and John Tavener 's The Protecting Veil .
Although Glock restored the orchestra 's reputation as Britain 's leading modern music ensemble , the balance of programming affected the players ' capacity in the mainstream repertoire . The principal horn , Alan Civil , recalled , " We did about eighty percent modern and twenty percent classical . The awful tragedy , for the orchestra , was that eventually we were not able to play the standard classics . We could sight @-@ read the most fearsome contemporary piece , but a Brahms symphony – embarrassing ! " The bassoon player William Waterhouse who joined the BBC SO from the LSO found the BBC 's repertory refreshing , but the music making less impressive : " There were no potboilers , but also , I 'm afraid , no world @-@ ranking soloists either . "
John Pritchard was principal conductor from 1982 to 1989 . In The Times , Paul Griffiths wrote , " Sir John 's seven @-@ year period with the orchestra has been marked by growing orchestral confidence and many memorable performances . " Principal guest conductors in the 1970s and 1980s included Sir Charles Mackerras ( 1977 – 79 ) , Michael Gielen ( 1978 – 81 ) , Günter Wand , Mark Elder ( 1982 – 85 ) and Péter Eötvös ( 1985 – 88 ) .
= = = 1990s and 21st century = = =
Pritchard 's successor was Andrew Davis , who ( 1989 – 2000 ) was the longest @-@ serving chief conductor since Boult . He was at the helm for what John Allison in The Times called " the valuable Barbican weekends that each January investigate another major but not fully understood 20th @-@ century composer . " Noting that modern music was central to the work of Davis and the orchestra , Allison added that under Davis the orchestra took part in " once @-@ in @-@ a @-@ lifetime projects such as Anthony Payne 's completion of Elgar 's Third Symphony . " Such was Davis 's contribution to the orchestra that when he resigned he was appointed its first conductor laureate .
In 2000 , Davis was succeeded by Leonard Slatkin , whose relationship with the players was uneasy , and whose repertoire was not generally liked by the orchestra or the audiences ; he was felt to emphasise twentieth century American music at the expense of cutting @-@ edge modern works and the central European classics . When his departure was announced in 2004 the BBC had not found a replacement . There was speculation that the successor would be Jukka @-@ Pekka Saraste , Donald Runnicles or David Robertson , but the post went to Jiří Bělohlávek . He was well known to the players , having been the orchestra 's principal guest conductor in the 1990s . The classical repertory was regarded as one of Bělohlávek 's strengths , but he had no reputation for conducting new works , which remained a core part of the orchestra 's remit . He welcomed the fact that the orchestra 's new principal guest conductor was David Robertson , a new @-@ music expert and a protégé of Boulez . The orchestra was seen by some as " a bolshie lot " and " grumpy " , but its relations with Bělohlávek were harmonious . Under Bělohlávek the orchestra won glowing reviews : The Times referred to its " superb musicians " , Michael Kennedy in The Sunday Telegraph referred to a " rich and opulent [ score ] magnificently played by the BBC Symphony Orchestra " under Bělohlávek , and another Telegraph critic praised the BBC SO 's " virtuoso form " .
Principal guest conductors during these years were Alexander Lazarev ( 1992 – 95 ) , Bělohlávek ( 1995 – 2000 ) and Jukka @-@ Pekka Saraste ( 2002 – 05 ) . It was announced in 2012 that Sakari Oramo would take over as chief conductor in 2013 . In 2012 , Semyon Bychkov assumed a newly created position in the orchestra , the Günter Wand Conducting Chair .
= = = Function in the 21st century = = =
The BBC SO is the associate orchestra of the Barbican Centre in London , where it gives an annual season of concerts . These seasons include series of concerts devoted to individual modern composers , who have included John Cage , James MacMillan , Elliott Carter , Sofia Gubaidulina and Michael Tippett .
The orchestra remains the principal orchestra of the Proms , giving about a dozen concerts each season , including the first and last nights . Most of its concerts are broadcast on BBC Radio 3 , streamed online and available as podcasts for a month after broadcast , and a number are televised : the orchestra 's website claims that this gives the BBC " the highest broadcast profile of any UK orchestra " . The orchestra continues to make studio recordings for Radio 3 at the Maida Vale studios ; some recording sessions are free for the public to attend .
In common with other orchestras , the BBC SO engages in educational work . According to the orchestra 's website : " Among ongoing projects are the BBC SO Family Music Intro scheme , introducing families to live classical music , BBC SO Student Zone and the highly successful BBC SO Family Orchestra , alongside work in local schools . Total Immersion composer events also provide rich material for education work . "
In 2000 , the orchestra appointed its first associate composer , Mark @-@ Anthony Turnage . John Adams became the BBC Symphony Orchestra 's artist in association in June 2003 . The composer and conductor Oliver Knussen took up the post of artist @-@ in @-@ association in July 2009 . The orchestra 's commitment to new music continues . In 2013 , the music journalist Tom Service wrote , " I 've heard the BBC Symphony give concerts that I don 't think any other orchestra in the world could do as brilliantly … That supreme virtuosity in new music makes them unique among London 's big orchestras . "
= = Recordings = =
From its first years the BBC SO was active in commercial recording studios . Under Boult it recorded a wide range of music from Bach to Mozart and Beethoven , Brahms , Wagner and Elgar . In the 1950s and 1960s it recorded a range of music with Sargent , mostly British but with several Sibelius discs in addition . With Doráti the orchestra made recordings of works by Bartók , Gerhard and Messaien . Under Colin Davis it made its first opera sets : Mozart 's Idomeneo and The Marriage of Figaro , and Berlioz 's Benvenuto Cellini , as well as works by Beethoven and Tippett . Under Boulez the orchestra recorded mostly twentieth century music – works by Bartók , Berg , Schoenberg and Boulez himself – and also Berlioz . Andrew Davis has recorded extensively with the orchestra for the Teldec label and others . Under Bělohlávek the orchestra has recorded Martinů 's complete symphonies , and also his The Epic of Gilgamesh .
With guest conductors the BBC SO has recorded Elgar and Vaughan Williams under the composers , Beethoven under Toscanini , Bruno Walter and Barbirolli , and Sibelius under Beecham and Koussevitsky .
= 1903 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1903 Atlantic hurricane season featured seven hurricanes , the most in a season since 1893 . The first tropical cyclone was initially observed in the western Atlantic Ocean near Puerto Rico on July 21 . The tenth and final system transitioned into an extratropical cyclone well northwest of the Azores on November 25 . These dates fall within the period with the most tropical cyclone activity in the Atlantic . Six of the ten tropical cyclones existed simultaneously .
Of the season 's ten tropical storms , seven of those strengthened into a hurricane . One of the seven hurricanes deepened further into a major hurricane , which are tropical cyclones that reach at least Category 3 on the modern day Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . The second , third , and fourth systems left the most significant impacts during this season . The second storm , which struck Jamaica in August , devastated Martinique , Jamaica , and the Cayman Islands . At least 149 deaths were attributed to this storm , while it also caused $ 10 million ( 1903 USD ) in damage in Jamaica alone . The third cyclone made landfall in Florida twice in mid @-@ August , leaving 14 fatalities and about $ 500 @,@ 000 in damage . Only a few days later , the fourth cyclone struck New Jersey . The storm impacted many areas in the Mid @-@ Atlantic region of the United States and caused 57 deaths and about $ 8 million in damage . Additionally , the remnants of the eighth tropical cyclone caused severe flooding in the Mid @-@ Atlantic .
The Atlantic hurricane reanalysis project also indicated but could not confirm the presence of four additional tropical depressions throughout the season . However , the reanalysis added a previously undetected tropical storm in late October to the Atlantic hurricane database ( HURDAT ) . Reanalysis also resulted in the eighth cyclone being downgraded from a hurricane to a tropical storm .
= = Season summary = =
Tropical cyclogenesis began with the development of the first system on July 21 in the western Atlantic near Puerto Rico . This was the only storm in the month of July . Likewise , August also featured one storm . The second system was the most intense tropical cyclone of the season , peaking as a Category 3 hurricane with maximum sustained winds of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 958 mbar ( 28 @.@ 3 inHg ) . This was also the first major hurricane in the Atlantic basin since the second storm of 1900 and the first in the Caribbean Sea since the 1899 San Ciriaco hurricane . September was the most active month of the season , with four systems developing , three of which intensified into a hurricane . In October , there were three tropical storms , with one intensifying into a hurricane . The only November tropical cyclone , as well as the final system of the season , developed on November 17 and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone while northwest of the Azores on November 25 .
The season had a total of 10 tropical storms , 7 of which intensified into a hurricane . This marked the most hurricanes in a season since the total of eight in 1893 . There may have been an additional four tropical depressions throughout the season , but the data obtained by the Atlantic hurricane reanalysis project was inconclusive . The reanalysis added a previously undetected tropical storm in late October to the Atlantic hurricane database ( HURDAT ) . Reanalysis also resulted in the eighth cyclone being downgraded from a Category 2 hurricane to a tropical storm . Nearly all of the season 's 10 tropical cyclones impacted land . Collectively , the storms caused over $ 18 @.@ 5 million in damage and at least 222 fatalities .
The season 's activity was reflected with an accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) rating of 102 . ACE is , broadly speaking , a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed , so storms that last a long time , as well as particularly strong hurricanes , have high ACEs . It is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 39 mph ( 63 km / h ) , which is tropical storm strength .
= = Storms = =
= = = Hurricane One = = =
According to historical weather maps , an area of disturbed weather developed a closed circulation early on July 21 while located about 100 mi ( 160 km ) northeast of the Samaná Peninsula of Dominican Republic , becoming the first tropical cyclone of the season . The storm moved northwestward until about 12 : 00 UTC on July 22 , at which time it curved northward , before turning northeastward about 24 hours later . Early on July 24 , it intensified into a Category 1 hurricane . The hurricane strengthened slightly further , peaking with maximum sustained winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) six hours later . The system began weakening early on July 24 , falling to tropical storm intensity around 12 : 00 UTC . Accelerating to the east @-@ northeast , the storm also began to lose tropical characteristics and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone at 06 : 00 UTC on July 26 , while situated about 430 mi ( 690 km ) south @-@ southeast of Cape Race , Newfoundland . Shortly before , a ship recorded a barometric pressure of 999 mbar ( 29 @.@ 5 inHg ) , the lowest in relation to the storm . The extratropical remnants continued east @-@ northeastward and dissipated late on July 26 .
= = = Hurricane Two = = =
A tropical storm was first observed about 1 @,@ 160 mi ( 1 @,@ 870 km ) east @-@ southeast of Barbados , early on August 6 . The system moved generally west @-@ northwestward and strengthened into a hurricane about 24 hours later . Early on August 9 , it struck | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
2 . In 1936 , the Pennsylvania Department of Highways extended PA 343 past Bordnersville and Lickdale , along the local road . This changed the northern terminus to an intersection with US 22 ( formerly the alignment of PA 43 ) in Harper Tavern . This alignment remained intact for more than two decades . In 1963 , even with the construction of I @-@ 78 six years prior , PA 343 was realigned once again by the Department of Highways . This time , the northern terminus was cut back to the PA 72 intersection in Lickdale , with an extended PA 934 replacing the route between Harper Tavern and Lickdale . This change was made to provide the same route number on both sides of the I @-@ 81 interchange north of Harper Tavern . The highway remained intact for another seven years , and in 1970 , PA 343 was realigned for the final time , this time onto its current alignment . The northern terminus is now at a partial interchange with I @-@ 78 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Lebanon County .
= Boletus pinophilus =
Boletus pinophilus , commonly known as the pine bolete or pinewood king bolete , is a basidiomycete fungus of the genus Boletus found throughout Europe . For many years , Boletus pinophilus was considered a subspecies or form of the porcini mushroom B. edulis . In 2008 , B. pinophilus in western North America were reclassified as a new species , Boletus rex @-@ veris . Boletus pinophilus is edible , and may be preserved and cooked .
The fungus grows predominantly in coniferous forests , forming symbiotic ectomycorrhizal associations with living trees by enveloping the tree 's underground roots with sheaths of fungal tissue . The fungus produces spore @-@ bearing fruit bodies above ground in summer and autumn . The large , edible fruiting bodies known as mushrooms appear under pine trees , generally in summer and autumn . It has a matte brown to maroon @-@ coloured cap and its stem is often large and swollen , and the overall colour may have an orange @-@ red tinge . As with other boletes , the size of the fruiting body is variable .
= = Taxonomy = =
Italian naturalist Carlo Vittadini was the first to recognise the pine bolete as a distinct taxon . It was raised to species status by Antonio Venturi in 1863 . For many years , Boletus pinophilus was considered a variety of Boletus edulis , and before that as Boletus pinicola . This species , while no longer treated as a variety of B. edulis , is classified in Boletus section Boletus , and hence , as a close relative of B. edulis . It gained its current name in 1973 , described by Czech mycologists Albert Pilát and Aurel Dermek . Its specific epithet is a mix of Latin pinus " pine " , and Ancient Greek philus " loving " . Boletus pinicola is a synonym subsequently found to be an invalid name . Common names include the pine bolete , and the pinewood king bolete .
In 2008 , a taxonomic revision of western North American populations of this species was published , formally establishing them as a distinct species , Boletus rex @-@ veris . Phylogenetic analysis has shown B. pinophilus as a member of a clade , or closely related group , with the North American species B. subcaerulescens , Gastroboletus subalpinus , B. regineus , B. fibrillosus , and B. rex @-@ veris . Despite the diverse appearances , these taxa are close genetically , leading Feng and colleagues to speculate on combining the first four taxa above as a single species . These four diverged from the lineage that gave rise to B. fibrillosus and B. rex @-@ veris around 5 million years ago .
= = Description = =
The fruiting body has a convex @-@ shaped cap , at first small in relation to its stipe , expanding in volume as it matures . The skin of the cap is dry , matte and can be coloured from maroon to chocolate brown with a reddish tint . These characteristics distinguish it visually from relatives such as Boletus edulis , Boletus reticulatus and Boletus aereus . The young , immature cap may have a pale pink colour and a white , powdery flush . Measuring 4 – 10 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 4 in ) tall by 3 – 8 ( 1 @.@ 2 – 2 @.@ 2 – in ) cm wide , the bulbous stipe is often large , swollen and imposing , bearing a network . The overall colour may have an orange @-@ red tinge which is more obvious in the lowest parts , although this is also common in other species . As with all boletes , the size of the fruiting body can be very variable . The cap diameter can be as much as 30 cm ( 12 in ) and stem height 15 cm ( 6 in ) .
Like other boletes , Boletus pinophilus has small pores on the underside of its cap rather than gills . These are coloured white at first , becoming yellow with age and olivaceous @-@ brown at full maturity . The spores are cylindric @-@ ellipsoid , smooth , with oil drops and dimensions 15 @.@ 5 – 20 by 4 @.@ 5 – 5 @.@ 5 µm . They produce an olive @-@ brown spore print .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
In Europe , Boletus pinophilus is found in Britain , where it is more common in Scotland , and in France , where it is more common in the south . The bolete is considered vulnerable in the Czech Republic . It is sold commercially in Finland .
Boletus pinophilus forms ectomycorrhizal relationships with pine ( Pinus ) , fir ( Abies ) and spruce ( Picea ) . It can therefore be located wherever those trees grow , particularly with Scots pine in Britain , preferring the poor , acidic , and sandy soils associated with coniferous forests . It appears to favour Pinus , while the form of the mushroom occurring in association with Abies and Picea has been labeled Boletus pinophilus var. fuscoruber . However , it is not confined to coniferous trees and may also be found fruiting in deciduous forests , such as under chestnut trees . Fruiting bodies can occur singly , or in small groups throughout the summer and autumn months , although they are known to appear as early as April in Italy .
= = Edibility = =
The Boletus pinophilus is edible , and may be used fresh , preserved , dried and cooked in a manner similar to that of other edible boletes . It is highly regarded and can be quite expensive in central Mexico , and is often sold dried there . The flesh is white , soft in mature specimens and does not change colour upon bruising . The taste and smell is pleasant . People of La Malinche have likened the flavour to pork and pork crackling . It is easily misidentified as the porcini Boletus edulis , due to the similar habitat and appearance .
Boletus pinophilus is known to be a bioaccumulator of the heavy metals mercury , cadmium and selenium . To reduce exposure , authorities recommend avoiding mushrooms from polluted areas such as those near mines , smelters , roadways , incinerators and disposal sites . Furthermore , pores should be removed as they contain the highest concentrations of pollutants .
= Priyanka Chopra =
Priyanka Chopra ( pronounced [ prɪˈjaːŋkaː ˈtʃoːpɽaː ] ; born 18 July 1982 ) is an Indian actress , singer , philanthropist , and the winner of the Miss World pageant of 2000 . One of Bollywood 's highest @-@ paid actresses and one of the nation 's most high @-@ profile celebrities , Chopra has also gained popularity for her sense of style . She has received numerous awards , including a National Film Award , and five Filmfare Awards , and was awarded the Padma Shri , the fourth highest civilian award , by the Government of India in 2016 . That same year , Time named her as one of the 100 most influential people in the world .
Although Chopra initially aspired to study engineering or psychiatry , she accepted offers to join the Indian film industry , which came as a result of her pageant wins , making her Hindi film debut in The Hero in 2003 . She played the leading lady in the box @-@ office hits Andaaz ( 2003 ) and Mujhse Shaadi Karogi ( 2004 ) , and earned praise for her breakout role in the 2004 thriller Aitraaz . In 2006 , Chopra established herself as a leading actress of Indian cinema with starring roles in the top @-@ grossing productions Krrish and Don . Following a brief setback , she received critical acclaim for playing a troubled model in the drama Fashion ( 2008 ) , which won her the National Film Award and Filmfare Award for Best Actress . Chopra subsequently gained recognition for her versatility in portraying a range of unconventional characters in the films Kaminey ( 2009 ) , 7 Khoon Maaf ( 2011 ) , Barfi ! ( 2012 ) , Mary Kom ( 2014 ) , Dil Dhadakne Do ( 2015 ) , and Bajirao Mastani ( 2015 ) , all of which garnered her critical acclaim and several accolades . In 2015 , she began starring as Alex Parrish on the ABC drama series Quantico , becoming the first South Asian woman to headline an American network series .
In addition to her acting career , Chopra is noted for her philanthropic work , and was appointed as a UNICEF Goodwill Ambassador for Child Rights in 2010 . She promotes various causes such as environment , health and education , and women 's rights , and is particularly vocal about gender equality , and gender pay gap . Though she is reticent to discuss her personal life in public , her off @-@ screen life is the subject of substantial media coverage . As a singer , she has released three singles . Chopra is also the founder of the production company Purple Pebble Pictures .
= = Early life and background = =
Priyanka Chopra was born on 18 July 1982 in Jamshedpur , Bihar ( now in Jharkhand ) , to Ashok and Madhu Chopra , both physicians in the Indian Army . Her father was a Punjabi from Ambala , while her mother is from Jharkhand , the eldest daughter of Ms. Madhu Jyotsna Akhouri , a former member of Bihar Assembly , and Dr. Manohar Kishan Akhouri , a former Congress veteran . She has a brother , Siddharth , who is seven years her junior . Actresses Parineeti Chopra , Meera Chopra and Mannara are her cousins . Due to her parents ' occupations the family relocated to a number of places in India , including Delhi , Chandigarh , Ambala , Ladakh , Lucknow , Bareilly , and Pune . Among the schools she attended were La Martiniere Girls ' School in Lucknow and St. Maria Goretti College in Bareilly . In an interview published in Daily News and Analysis , Chopra said that she did not mind travelling regularly and changing schools ; she welcomed it as a new experience and a way to discover India 's multicultural society . Among the many places that she lived , Chopra has fond memories as a child of playing in the valleys of Leh , in the cold northwestern Indian desert region of Jammu and Kashmir . She has said , " I think I was in Class 4 when I was in Leh . My brother was just born . My dad was in the army and was posted there . I stayed in Leh for a year and my memories of that place are tremendous ... We were all army kids there . We weren 't living in houses , we were in bunkers in the valley and there was a stupa right on top of a hill which used to overlook our valley . We used to race up to the top of the stupa " . She now considers Bareilly her home town , and maintains strong connections there .
At the age of thirteen , Chopra moved to the United States to study , living with her aunt , and attending schools in Newton , Massachusetts , and Cedar Rapids , Iowa , after a stop in Queens , New York , as her aunt 's family also moved frequently . While in Massachusetts , she participated in several theatre productions and studied Western classical music , choral singing and Kathak dance . During her teenage years in America , Chopra sometimes faced racial issues and was bullied for being Indian . She has said , " I was a gawky kid , had low self @-@ esteem , came from a modest middle @-@ class background , had white marks on my legs ... But I was damn hard working . Today , my legs sell 12 brands . "
After three years , Chopra returned to India , finishing the senior year of her high @-@ school education at the Army Public School in Bareilly . During this period , she won the local " May Queen " beauty pageant , after which she was pursued by admirers , leading her family to equip their home with bars for her protection . Her mother then entered her in the Femina Miss India contest of 2000 ; she finished second , winning the Femina Miss India World title . Chopra then went on to the Miss World pageant , where she was crowned Miss World 2000 and Miss World Continental Queen of Beauty — Asia & Oceania at the Millennium Dome in London on 30 November 2000 . Chopra was the fifth Indian contestant to win Miss World , and the fourth to do so in seven years . She had enrolled in college , but left after winning the Miss World pageant . Chopra said that the Miss India and Miss World titles brought her recognition , and she then began receiving offers for film roles .
Chopra has maintained a strong relationship with her family , including her younger brother , Siddharth , and lives in an apartment on the same floor as her family . She was especially close to her father , who died in June 2013 ; in 2012 she got a tattoo reading " Daddy 's lil girl " , in his handwriting . Having not come from a film background , she describes herself as a self @-@ made woman . Her mother , a well @-@ established gynaecologist in Bareilly , gave up her practice to support Chopra as she embarked upon a film career .
= = Acting career = =
= = = Debut and breakthrough ( 2002 – 04 ) = = =
After winning Miss India World , Chopra was cast as the female lead in Abbas @-@ Mustan 's romantic thriller Humraaz ( 2002 ) , in which she was to make her film debut . However , this fell through for various reasons : she stated the production conflicted with her schedule , while the producers said they re @-@ cast because Chopra took on various other commitments . Her screen debut occurred in the 2002 Tamil film Thamizhan as the love interest of the protagonist , played by Vijay . A review published in The Hindu was appreciative of the film for its wit and dialogue , however it felt that Chopra 's role was limited from an acting viewpoint .
In 2003 , Chopra made her Bollywood film debut as the second female lead opposite Sunny Deol and Preity Zinta in Anil Sharma 's The Hero : Love Story of a Spy . Set against the backdrop of the Indian Army in Kashmir , the film tells the story of an agent and his fight against terrorism . The Hero was one of the highest @-@ grossing Bollywood films that year , but received mixed reviews from critics . Derek Elley from Variety said that " mega @-@ looker Chopra makes a solid screen debut . " Later that year she appeared in Raj Kanwar 's box @-@ office success Andaaz with Akshay Kumar , again sharing the female lead ( this time with the debuting Lara Dutta ) . Chopra played a vivacious young girl who falls in love with Kumar 's character . The Hindustan Times noted the glamour that she brought to the role ; Kunal Shah of Sify praised her performance and stated she had " all the qualities to be a star . " Her performance earned her the Filmfare Award for Best Female Debut ( along with Dutta ) and a nomination for the Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actress .
Chopra 's first three releases in 2004 — Plan , Kismat , and Asambhav — performed poorly at the box @-@ office . Chopra was typically cast during this earlier period as a " glamour quotient " , in roles that were considered " forgettable " by film critic Joginder Tuteja . Later that year she starred with Salman Khan and Akshay Kumar in David Dhawan 's romantic comedy Mujhse Shaadi Karogi , which became the third @-@ highest @-@ grossing film of the year in India and emerged as a major commercial success .
In late 2004 , she starred opposite Kumar and Kareena Kapoor in Abbas @-@ Mustan 's thriller Aitraaz . Chopra considers her first role as an antagonist , portraying Soniya Roy , an ambitious woman who accuses her employee of sexual harassment , as the " biggest learning experience of her career . " The film was a critical and commercial success , and Chopra 's performance received critical acclaim . Author Rini Bhattacharya credited her for bringing back the seductress to the silver screen . The Hindustan Times cited it as the film that changed her career significantly . A reviewer writing for the BBC said , " Aitraaz is Priyanka Chopra 's film . As the deliciously wicked , gold digging , scheming seductress , she chews up every scene she is in with her magnetic screen presence . " She won a Filmfare Award for Best Performance in a Negative Role , becoming the second and final actress to win the award after Kajol ( the category was discontinued in 2008 ) . Chopra also received a nomination for the Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actress , and the Producers Guild Film Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role .
= = = Early success and setbacks ( 2005 – 08 ) = = =
In 2005 , Chopra appeared in six films . Her first two releases — Blackmail , and Karam — were commercially unsuccessful . Shilpa Bharatan @-@ Iyer of Rediff.com considered Blackmail to be a very predictable film and believed that her role as a police commissioner 's wife was very limited from an acting point of view . Her performance in Karam was better received , Subhash K. Jha wrote that Chopra " with her poised interpretation of high drama , flies high creating a character whose vulnerability and beauty are endorsed by both the inner and outer worlds created for her character . " Later that year Chopra played the wife of Akshay Kumar in Vipul Amrutlal Shah 's family drama Waqt : The Race Against Time , the story of a small businessman ( played by Amitabh Bachchan ) who , hiding his illness , wants to teach his irresponsible son some lessons before he dies . During production , Chopra revisited Leh , a favourite childhood haunt , for the shooting of the song " Subah Hogi " . She suffered an accident during the filming for the song " Do Me A Favour Let 's Play Holi " when she electrocuted herself , spending a day recovering in hospital . The film was well received by critics , and was a commercial success .
She next starred opposite Arjun Rampal in the romantic mystery thriller Yakeen , portraying the role of a possessive lover . Critical reaction towards the film was mixed , but her performance received praise . Taran Adarsh wrote that Chopra " is bound to win laurels yet again [ ... ] the actor is emerging as one of the finest talents in these fast @-@ changing times " . Her next release was Suneel Darshan 's romance Barsaat , co @-@ starring Bobby Deol and Bipasha Basu . The film was a critical and commercial failure in India but fared better in the overseas market . Chopra 's performance received mixed reviews , with Bollywood Hungama describing it as " mechanical " . However , Rediff.com considered Chopra to be an " epitome of calm intelligence , who underplayed her role to perfection " . Later that year , Rohan Sippy cast her with Abhishek Bachchan , Ritesh Deshmukh and Nana Patekar in the comedy Bluffmaster ! Chopra played independent working woman Simran Saxena , Bachchan 's love interest . The film proved to be a box @-@ office success .
After starting 2006 with special appearances in three films , Chopra starred in Rakesh Roshan 's superhero film Krrish ( a sequel to the 2003 science @-@ fiction film Koi ... Mil Gaya ) . Co @-@ starring with Hrithik Roshan , Rekha and Naseeruddin Shah , Chopra played a young television journalist who schemes to take advantage of an innocent young man with remarkable physical abilities , but eventually falls in love with him . The film was the second @-@ highest @-@ grossing film of the year in India and grossed over ₹ 1 @.@ 17 billion ( US $ 17 million ) worldwide attaining a blockbuster status . Her next film was Dharmesh Darshan 's romantic comedy Aap Ki Khatir , co @-@ starring Akshaye Khanna , Ameesha Patel and Dino Morea . Neither the film nor Chopra 's performance were well received . Sukanya Verma of Rediff.com stated that Chopra 's portrayal of Anu was " erratically sketched " and that her character was never consistent : " first flaky , then cool , and later , sensitive " .
Chopra 's final release of 2006 was Farhan Akhtar 's action @-@ thriller Don ( a remake of the 1978 film of the same name ) , with Shah Rukh Khan . Chopra portrayed Roma ( played by Zeenat Aman in the original film ) , who joins the underworld to avenge Don for killing her brother . Chopra received martial @-@ arts training for her role in the movie , and performed her own stunts . The film was declared a box @-@ office success in India and overseas , with revenues of ₹ 1 @.@ 05 billion ( US $ 16 million ) . Raja Sen of Rediff.com found Chopra to be film 's " big surprise " ; he believed that Chopra convincingly portrayed Roma , " looking every bit the competent woman of action " and wrote " This is an actress willing to push herself , and has definite potential for screen magic . Not to mention a great smile . "
In 2007 , Chopra had two leading roles . Her first film was Nikhil Advani 's Salaam @-@ e @-@ Ishq : A Tribute to Love , a romantic comedy in six chapters with an ensemble cast . She was featured opposite Salman Khan in the first chapter as Kamini , an item girl and aspiring actress who tries to land the lead role in a Karan Johar film with a publicity gimmick . Film critic Sukanya Verma praised her flair for comedy , especially her impressions of Meena Kumari , Nargis and Madhubala . Both Salaam @-@ e @-@ Ishq : A Tribute to Love and her next film , Big Brother , proved unsuccessful at the domestic box @-@ office .
In 2008 , Chopra starred opposite Harman Baweja in his father 's Love Story 2050 . Chopra played a double role , so she coloured her hair twice ; once red to portray the girl from the future and then black for the girl of the past . Her performance was poorly received ; Rajeev Masand was unimpressed with Chopra 's chemistry with her co @-@ star , remarking that her character " fails to inspire either affection or sympathy " . She next appeared in the comedy God Tussi Great Ho , portraying a TV anchor opposite Salman Khan , Sohail Khan and Amitabh Bachchan . The film was generally perceived to be plagiarised from the Hollywood comedy Bruce Almighty , although writer and director Rumi Jaffrey claimed it to be " a village folk tale about a Brahmin " . Chopra next starred as a kindergarten teacher in Chamku opposite Bobby Deol and Irrfan Khan , and played the role of Sonia in Goldie Behl 's fantasy superhero film Drona opposite Abhishek Bachchan and Jaya Bachchan . Drona , widely criticised for its extensive use of special effects , marked Chopra 's sixth film in succession which had failed at both the box @-@ office and critically , although Sukanya Verma of Rediff.com stated that Chopra displayed convincing action heroine skills . Critics generally perceived at this time that her career was over .
= = = Critical acclaim ( 2008 – 11 ) = = =
The string of poorly received films ended when Chopra starred in Madhur Bhandarkar 's Fashion , a drama about the Indian fashion industry which followed the lives and careers of several fashion models . She portrayed the ambitious supermodel Meghna Mathur , a role which she initially thought was out of her depth , but after six months ' consideration she accepted the role , inspired by Bhandarkar 's confidence in her . For the role , Chopra had to gain 6 kilograms ( 13 lb ) and steadily shed the weight during the production as the character progressed in the film . Both the film and her performance received critical acclaim , becoming a major turning point in her career . Rajeev Masand wrote , " Priyanka Chopra turns in a respectable performance , one that will inevitably go down as her best . " Kriti Verma from Headlines India noted " Priyanka Chopra simply rocked . Her transformation from a simple Chandigarh girl to an ambitious super model to an apologizing girl is excellent and beyond imagination . " Her performance won Chopra several awards , including the National Film Award for Best Actress , the Filmfare Award for Best Actress , the IIFA Award for Best Actress , the Screen Award for Best Actress , and the Producers Guild Film Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role . With a worldwide revenue of ₹ 600 million ( US $ 9 million ) , Fashion emerged as a commercial success , and was listed by Subhash K. Jha as one of the best films of the decade with women protagonists . It was noted for being commercially successful despite being a women @-@ centric film with no male lead . She said in retrospect , " I think actually Fashion kick started ... the process of female dominated films . Today you have so many other films which have done well with female leads . "
Chopra 's final film of the year was Tarun Mansukhani 's romantic comedy Dostana , with Abhishek Bachchan and John Abraham . Set in Miami , the film tells the story of a friendship between her character and two men who pretend to be gay to share an apartment with her . Chopra played a stylish young fashion @-@ magazine editor Neha , who is trying to deal with professional pressures in her life . Produced by Dharma Productions , the film was a financial success with worldwide revenues of over ₹ 860 million ( US $ 13 million ) . Chopra 's performance and look in the film were praised .
The following year Chopra played a feisty Marathi woman named Sweety in Vishal Bhardwaj 's caper thriller Kaminey ( co @-@ starring Shahid Kapoor ) , about twin brothers and the journey in their life linked with the underworld . The film received critical acclaim and became successful at the box @-@ office with the worldwide gross earnings of ₹ 710 million ( US $ 11 million ) . Nikhat Kazmi of The Times of India thought that Chopra 's role completely reinvented her , and Rajeev Masand wrote : " Springing a delightful surprise in a smaller part is [ Chopra ] , who sprinkles her lines with a smattering of fluent Marathi and emerges one of the film 's most lovable characters . " Raja Sen of Rediff.com named Chopra 's performance as the best by an actress that year . Her role earned her several awards and nominations , including a second consecutive Producers Guild Film Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role after Fashion and Best Actress nominations at the Filmfare , Screen and IIFA awards . Chopra subsequently appeared in Ashutosh Gowariker 's romantic comedy What 's Your Raashee ? , based on the novel Kimball Ravenswood by Madhu Rye . The film depicts the story of a US @-@ based Gujrati NRI in search of his soulmate among 12 girls ( all played by Chopra ) associated with the 12 zodiac signs . She received the Screen Best Actress Award nomination for her performance in the film . She was also considered for inclusion in the Guinness World Records book for being the first film actress to portray 12 distinct characters in one film . Chopra 's heavy workload — filming for several productions , travelling for endorsements and performing at live shows ( including the Miss India pageant ) — took its toll ; she fainted during filming , and was admitted to hospital .
In 2010 , Chopra starred with Uday Chopra in Jugal Hansraj 's unremarkable romantic comedy Pyaar Impossible ! as Alisha , a beautiful college girl ( and later a working mother ) who falls in love with a nerdy boy . Later that year , she co @-@ starred with Ranbir Kapoor in Siddharth Anand 's romantic comedy Anjaana Anjaani . The film , set in New York and Las Vegas , follows the story of two strangers , both trying to commit suicide , who eventually fall in love with each other . The film was a moderate commercial success , and her performance received mixed reviews from critics . Sarita Tanwar of Mid Day wrote , " Priyanka Chopra is at her casual and spontaneous best . She embraces the character completely and makes it totally believable " , while Anupama Chopra dismissed her acting as " artificial " .
She starred as a femme fatale in her first film of 2011 , Vishal Bhardwaj 's black comedy 7 Khoon Maaf . Based on the short story " Susanna 's Seven Husbands " by Ruskin Bond , 7 Khoon Maaf centres on Susanna Anna @-@ Marie Johannes , an Anglo @-@ Indian woman ( played by Chopra ) who murders her seven husbands in an unending quest for love . The film and her performance received acclaim from critics . Nikhat Kazmi remarked , " 7 Khoon Maaf would undoubtedly end up as a milestone in Priyanka Chopra 's career graph . The actor displays exquisite command over a complex character that is definitely a first in Indian cinema . " Aniruddha Guha of Daily News and Analysis wrote : " Priyanka Chopra takes on a character that most of her contemporaries would shy away from and enacts it in a way that only she possibly can . For a woman with as many shades as Susanna , Chopra gets a crack at a role of a lifetime and she sparkles like never before . " Chopra 's performance earned her the Filmfare Critics Award for Best Actress and a nomination for the Filmfare Award for Best Actress , the IIFA Award for Best Actress , the Screen Award for Best Actress , and the Producers Guild Film Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role .
= = = Commercial success ( 2011 – 13 ) = = =
Chopra 's final release of the year saw her reprising her role as Roma in the second installment of the Don franchise , Don 2 . Although the film received mixed reviews , Chopra 's performance earned positive feedback from critics . According to The Express Tribune , " Chopra ... seems to be the perfect choice for an action heroine . As you watch her effortlessly beat up some thugs in the movie , you come to the realisation that she may be the first proper female action hero in Bollywood . " Don 2 was a major success in India and overseas , earning over ₹ 2 @.@ 06 billion ( US $ 31 million ) worldwide . Don 2 was showcased at the 62nd Berlin International Film Festival and ( with Don ) at the 2012 International Film Festival of Marrakech , in Morocco .
Chopra 's first film of 2012 was Karan Malhotra 's action drama Agneepath , in which she starred with Hrithik Roshan , Sanjay Dutt and Rishi Kapoor . Produced by Karan Johar , the film is a remake of his father 's 1990 production of the same name . In one of several accidents to happen during production , Chopra 's lehenga ( a traditional skirt ) caught fire while filming a sequence for an elaborate Ganpati festival song . She featured as Kaali Gawde , Roshan 's loquacious love interest in the film . Mayank Shekhar noted how much Chopra stood out in the male @-@ dominated film . Agneepath broke Bollywood 's highest opening @-@ day earnings record , and had a worldwide gross of ₹ 1 @.@ 93 billion ( US $ 29 million ) . Chopra next co @-@ starred with Shahid Kapoor in Kunal Kohli 's romance , Teri Meri Kahaani . The film relates the stories of three unconnected couples ( each played by Kapoor and Chopra ) , born in different eras . The film opened to mixed reactions from critics , but Chopra 's performance was generally well received .
Anurag Basu 's Barfi ! , with Ranbir Kapoor and Ileana D 'Cruz , was her final appearance of 2012 . Set in the 1970s , the film tells the story of three people , two of whom are physically disabled . Chopra played Jhilmil Chatterjee , an autistic woman who falls in love with a deaf , mute man ( Kapoor ) . Rituparno Ghosh , an acclaimed director , considered it a " very , very brave " role to accept given how demanding it is for an actor to convincingly portray a woman with autism . To prepare for the role , Chopra visited several mental institutions and spent time with autistic people . The film received rave reviews from film critics and was a major commercial success , earning ₹ 1 @.@ 75 billion ( US $ 26 million ) worldwide . Chopra received unanimous praise for her portrayal , which several reviewers regarded as her best performance at that time . The Indo @-@ Asian News Service review said , " Priyanka Chopra as the autistic Jhilmil steals the show from Ranbir , if that 's possible . Her inherent glamorous personality simply disappears into her character . We don 't see the actress on screen at all ! We see only Jhilmil who reminds us in a very pleasant way of Sridevi in Sadma . This is one of the most flawless interpretations of a physical @-@ psychological disability seen on celluloid . " Pratim D. Gupta of The Telegraph noted Ranbir and Priyanka turn in two of the finest performances seen on the Indian screen . Chopra received Best Actress nominations at the Filmfare , Screen , IIFA and Producers Guild Film Awards . The film was screened at the Busan and Marrakech International Film Festivals , and was chosen as India 's entry for the 85th Academy Awards . Don 2 , Agneepath and Barfi ! rank among the highest grossing Bollywood films of all time .
In 2013 , she lent her voice to the character of Ishani , the reigning Pan @-@ Asian champion from India and the love interest of the main protagonist in the Disney Animation Studios 's film Planes , a spinoff of Pixar 's Cars franchise . Chopra , a fan of Disney films , had fun voicing the character saying " The closest I could come to being a Disney princess , I think , was Ishani " . The film was a commercial success , grossing approximately US $ 240 million worldwide . She played an NRI girl in the Apoorva Lakhia 's bilingual action drama Zanjeer ( Thoofan in Telugu ) , a remake of the 1973 Hindi film of the same name , which met with poor reactions from critics and was unsuccessful at the box office . Chopra next reprised her role of Priya in Rakesh Roshan 's Krrish 3 — a sequel to the 2006 superhero film Krrish — with Hrithik Roshan , Vivek Oberoi and Kangana Ranaut . The film earned positive reviews though critics opined that Chopra 's role in the film was small . Writing for Daily News and Analysis , Sarita A Tanwar commented that " Priyanka is saddled with a role that doesn 't do her justice . She deserved a meatier role . " The feature became a box office success , earning over ₹ 3 billion ( US $ 45 million ) worldwide , to become Chopra 's biggest commercial success till date and her fourth major hit in the last two years . She also appeared in an item number titled " Ram Chahe Leela " for Sanjay Leela Bhansali 's Goliyon Ki Rasleela Ram @-@ Leela . The song , which took four days to rehearse , saw Chopra execute a contemporary mujra , that incorporated complicated dance steps .
= = = Recent work ( 2014 – present ) = = =
In 2014 , Chopra played the lead female role in Yash Raj Films 's romantic action drama Gunday directed by Ali Abbas Zafar , alongside Ranveer Singh , Arjun Kapoor and Irrfan Khan . She portrayed Nandita , a cabaret dancer in Calcutta . Set in the 1970s , the film tells the story of two best friends , who fall in love with Chopra 's character . Gunday proved to be a box @-@ office success , grossing over ₹ 1 billion ( US $ 15 million ) worldwide . She next featured in Mary Kom , a biographical film of the five time world boxing champion and Olympic bronze medalist Mary Kom . To prepare for the role , she spent time with Kom and received four months of boxing training . The film premiered at the 2014 Toronto International Film Festival , received positive reviews from critics , and her performance received critical acclaim . Namrata Joshi from Outlook felt that Chopra 's sincere and earnest performance brings out Kom 's " determination as well as her vulnerabilities , and insecurities " , and Indo @-@ Asian News Service wrote " Priyanka expresses every shade of her character with a pitch @-@ perfect bravado . The actress controls curbs and quantifies every component of her character 's personality without losing that basic element of spontaneity . " Mary Kom emerged as a major commercial success , with revenues of ₹ 1 @.@ 04 billion ( US $ 15 million ) at the box @-@ office . Chopra won the Screen Award for Best Actress , the Producers Guild Film Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role , and received another nomination for the Filmfare Award for Best Actress for the film .
The following year , Chopra starred in Zoya Akhtar 's Dil Dhadakne Do , an ensemble comedy @-@ drama alongside Anil Kapoor , Shefali Shah , Ranveer Singh , Anushka Sharma and Farhan Akhtar . The film tells the story of a dysfunctional Punjabi family ( the Mehras ) , who invite their family and friends on a cruise trip to celebrate the parents ' 30th wedding anniversary . She portrayed the role of Ayesha Mehra , a successful entrepreneur and the eldest child . Pratim D. Gupta from The Telegraph considered Chopra to be one of the winners of the film and wrote " From the propah body language to the measured speech [ ... ] shows the kind of depth she is able to bring to her lines and characters these days . Rajiv Vijayakar of India @-@ West wrote " Dil Dhadakne Do happily boasts stellar performances . Topping the list is the nuanced , magnificent work of Priyanka Chopra as Ayesha . Her tiny expressions and nuances , as well as her vocal inflections truly bring her character alive . " The film was a critical and commercial success , grossing ₹ 1 @.@ 47 billion ( US $ 22 million ) worldwide within seventeen days of release . Chopra won the Screen Award for Best Ensemble Cast , and was nominated for the Screen Award for Best Actress , and the Producers Guild Film Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role .
Chopra signed a talent holding deal with ABC Studios and in February 2015 was cast in the television pilot Quantico , which was picked to series . The series premiered on 27 September 2015 on ABC , making Chopra the first South Asian to headline an American network drama series . Based at the FBI Academy , the season one of Quantico follows a group of young FBI recruits , each having a specific reason for joining , one of whom will be responsible for blowing the Grand Central Terminal in the future . She plays the role of an FBI recruit , Alex Parrish , who is suspected of engineering the most devastating terrorist attack on American soil since the September 11 attacks . The series received positive reviews from television critics and Chopra was praised for her performance . James Poniewozik of The New York Times described Chopra as the " strongest human asset " of the show , and added that " she is immediately charismatic and commanding . " She received the People 's Choice Award for " Favourite Actress In A New TV Series " for her role in Quantico , becoming the first South Asian actress to win a People 's Choice Award .
Chopra next starred alongside Ranveer Singh and Deepika Padukone in Sanjay Leela Bhansali 's epic historical romance drama Bajirao Mastani . She portrayed Kashibai , the first wife of the maratha general Peshwa Bajirao I. The film opened to major critical acclaim , and Chopra received praise for her portrayal which several reviewers regarded as her best performance to date . Rajeev Masand wrote " the film benefits from a nice touch of playfulness and humor in Priyanka Chopra ’ s Kashibai . Chopra brings grace to the character , and practically steals the film . " Film critic Raja Sen thought Chopra , who , while not in the title , owned the film , and wrote " Chopra 's terrific in the part , her intelligently expressive eyes speaking volumes and her no @-@ nonsense Marathi rhythm bang @-@ on . " A major commercial success , Bajirao Mastani grossed ₹ 3 @.@ 5 billion ( US $ 52 million ) at the box @-@ office , becoming one of the highest @-@ grossing Indian films of all time . For her performance , she won the Screen Award for Best Supporting Actress and the Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actress . She also received a nomination for the Producers Guild Film Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role . In 2016 , she starred as a police officer in Prakash Jha 's social drama Jai Gangaajal .
= = = = Upcoming projects = = = =
Chopra has several projects at the various stages of production . She is currently filming the second season of Quantico in the New York City . Chopra has completed her work on the action comedy Baywatch , directed by Seth Gordon , co @-@ starring Dwayne Johnson , Zac Efron , and Alexandra Daddario , in which she plays the main antagonist . In addition , she is producing two regional language films under her production company Purple Pebble Pictures — the Marathi film Ventilator , and untitled Punjabi film , both of which are scheduled to release in 2016 .
= = Music career = =
Chopra 's main vocal influence was her father , who she said was " an incredible singer " , and helped develop her interest in singing . She used her vocal talent early in her pageantry career . Her first recording , the song " Ullathai Killathe " in the Tamil film Thamizhan ( 2002 ) , was made at the urging of her director and co @-@ star , Vijay ( who had noticed her singing on the set ) . She declined to sing playback for " Tinka Tinka " in her film Karam ( 2005 ) , preferring to concentrate on her acting career , but later sang the song live on the television programme Sa Re Ga Ma Pa . Chopra recorded an unreleased song for Bluffmaster ! ( 2005 ) . In August 2011 , Universal Music Group signed Chopra to a worldwide recording agreement with DesiHits . The deal indicated that her first studio album would be released by Interscope Records in North America and by Island Records elsewhere . Her first song as a playback singer in Bollywood was " Chaoro " from Mary Kom ( 2014 ) .
In July 2012 , Chopra became the first Bollywood star signed by Creative Artists Agency , an entertainment and sports agency based in Los Angeles . Travelling to the United States to work on her album , Chopra collaborated with Sam Watters , Matthew Koma and Jay Sean . The album will be produced by RedOne . Her first single , " In My City " , debuted in the US on 13 September 2012 in a TV spot for the NFL Network 's Thursday Night Football , 12 hours after the full song debuted in India ; a shortened version of the song was used to open each show of the season . " In My City " features rapper will.i.am ; according to Chopra , a co @-@ writer , the song was inspired by her unsettled childhood and her journey from a small @-@ town girl to a celebrity . " In My City " trended at number one on Twitter several minutes after release . The song received mixed reviews from critics , and was a commercial success in India ; it sold more than 130 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , topped the Hindi pop chart and was certified triple platinum . In the United States the single was unsuccessful , with 5 @,@ 000 digital downloads in its first week according to Nielsen SoundScan , and did not receive radio play . In October 2012 , the single won her the Best International Debut award at the People 's Choice Awards India . In December 2012 , she received three nominations : Best Female Artist , Best Song and Best Video ( for " In My City " ) at the World Music Awards . She also received the Trailblazer Award from the South Asian Media , Marketing and Entertainment Association for becoming the first Bollywood actor to win a major record deal in the U.S. Chopra was also a featured artist on " Erase " , an EDM song produced by the American DJ and producer duo The Chainsmokers .
In July 2013 , Chopra released her second single " Exotic " featuring American rapper Pitbull , along with its music video . " Exotic " debuted at number 16 on the Billboard Dance / Electronic Songs and number 11 on the Dance / Electronic Digital Songs chart in the 27 July 2013 issue . The single also entered at number 74 on the Canadian Hot 100 chart . " Exotic " debuted at number 44 on the Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs chart and peaked at number 12 . Her third single , a cover of Bonnie Raitt 's " I Can 't Make You Love Me " was released in April 2014 . The song 's accompanying video was released around the same time . The song peaked at number 28 on the Billboard Hot Dance / Electronic Songs chart .
= = Philanthropy = =
Chopra supports various causes related to the girl child through her foundation " The Priyanka Chopra Foundation for Health and Education " , which works towards providing support to unprivileged girls across the country in the areas Education and Health . She donates ten percent of her earnings to fund the foundation ’ s operations , and pays for educational and medical expenses for seventy children in India , fifty among whom are girls .
She often speaks out on women 's issues : against female infanticide and foeticide , and in support of education for girls . A believer in feminism , Chopra also speaks about women 's rights , gender equality , and gender pay inequality . In 2006 , a " day with Chopra " was auctioned on eBay ; the proceeds were donated to an NGO , Nanhi Kali , which helps educate girls in India . She has made appearances in support of other charities , such as the 2005 HELP ! Telethon Concert to raise funds for the victims of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake . In 2009 , she shot a documentary for the organisation Alert India to increase understanding of leprosy . She modelled for designer Manish Malhotra and Shaina NC 's charity fashion show to raise funds for the Cancer Patients Aid Association ( CPAA ) NGO . In 2010 Chopra was one of several celebrities who created promotional messages for Pearls Wave Trust , which campaigns against violence and abuse of women and girls . Chopra also launched the " Save the Girl Child " campaign , which aims to change the attitudes of Indians towards girls .
She has worked with UNICEF since 2008 , recording public @-@ service announcements and participating in media panel discussions promoting children 's rights and the education of girls , and also participated in celebrating the 20th anniversary of the Convention on the Rights of the Child . She was appointed a UNICEF Goodwill Ambassador for Child Rights on 10 August 2010 . UNICEF Representative Karin Hulshof said of the appointment : " She is equally passionate about her work on behalf of children and adolescents . We are proud of the work she has done with us so far on child rights , and , we are thrilled about all what we will be doing together so that no child gets left behind . " In 2012 Chopra spoke at the launch of Awakening Youth , an anti @-@ addiction programme .
Chopra is a supporter of environmental charities and is brand ambassador for NDTV Greenathon , an initiative to support eco @-@ friendliness and provide solar power to rural villages without electricity supplies . She appeared with children in an animated video to support the cause , and removed rubbish from the banks of the Yamuna river in Agra to increase awareness of environmental issues . During the third and fourth editions of Greenathon , She adopted up to seven villages to provide with a regular supply of electricity . She adopted a tigress in 2011 and a lioness in 2012 at the Birsa biological park , paying for both animals ' upkeep for a year . To promote organ donation , Chopra pledged to donate her own organs after death and was co @-@ keynote speaker at the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center 's Bollywood @-@ themed 20th @-@ anniversary celebration of its liver @-@ transplant programme in 2012 .
She donated ₹ 5 million ( US $ 74 @,@ 000 ) to Nanavati hospital to build a cancer ward . The ward , which is named after her late father , was inaugurated by her in 2013 . The same year , she provided voice @-@ over in English and Hindi for the documentary film Girl Rising for the organisation of the same name . She was invited as one of the speakers alongside Gordon Brown , Steve Wozniak , Bill Clinton , and Charlie Baker for the 50th anniversary of the World Leaders Conference at the Hynes Convention Center , Boston . She spoke about women empowerment through education , discussing inequality and the challenges of education for women , and received a standing ovation for her speech . Chopra also lent her voice to a music video of John Lennon 's " Imagine " . The video featuring her along with other singers , including Katy Perry , and The Black Eyed Peas was created as part of a global campaign by UNICEF to celebrate the 25th anniversary of the Convention on the Rights of the Child .
Indian prime minister Narendra Modi selected Chopra as one of his nine nominees called " Navratna " in 2014 for the Swachh Bharat Abhiyan , a national cleanliness campaign by the Government of India . She lent her support to the campaign by cleaning and rehabilitating a garbage @-@ laden neighbourhood in Mumbai , and urged people to maintain the cleanliness . In 2015 , she voiced People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals ( PETA 's ) life @-@ size robotic elephant named " Ellie " , who visited schools across the United States and Europe to educate kids about elephants and captivity , and to urge people to boycott circuses .
= = Other works = =
= = = Television presenting and stage performances = = =
In 2007 , Chopra was on the judges ' panel of the Miss India pageant . She stated , " Miss India will always remain special . That 's where it all started for me . And maybe that 's where it would 've ended if I hadn 't won the crown . " She also served as a judge at Miss World 2009 . In 2010 , she hosted the third season of the reality show Fear Factor : Khatron Ke Khiladi on the Colors channel , taking over from previous host Akshay Kumar . According to contestants , in hosting the series , Chopra had " transformed into quite a whip @-@ wielding dictator " , relentlessly pushing the contestants to work . She performed most of her own stunts , adamant to prove that she could rival Akshay Kumar , who had hosted the previous two seasons . The opening ratings of the show topped those of the two previous seasons . The show was praised by critics , and earned her the Indian Telly Award for Most Impactful Debut on Television . She visited Jawan troops in Tenga , in eastern India , for a special episode of the NDTV show Jai Jawan celebrating the 60th anniversary of India 's independence . In February 2016 , Chopra presented the award for Best Film Editing at the 88th Academy Awards .
Chopra has participated in a number of world tours and concerts . She took part in a world concert tour , " Temptations 2004 " , and performed with other Bollywood actors ( including Shah Rukh Khan , Saif Ali Khan , Rani Mukerji , Preity Zinta and Arjun Rampal ) in 19 stage shows . In 2011 , she participated ( with Shahid Kapoor and Shah Rukh Khan ) in a concert in Durban , South Africa celebrating 150 years of India – South Africa friendship . In 2012 , she performed at M. A. Chidambaram Stadium , Chennai in the opening ceremony of the fifth season of cricket 's Indian Premier League with Amitabh Bachchan , Salman Khan , Kareena Kapoor and Katy Perry . The same year , she performed at Dubai Festival City 's Ahlan Bollywood Concert with other Bollywood stars such as Salman Khan and Sophie Choudry .
= = = Column writing = = =
Chopra began writing an opinion column , " The Priyanka Chopra Column " , for the Hindustan Times in 2009 . She wrote a total of fifty columns for the newspaper . She said after her first year of writing : " I 'm a private person and never thought that I could express my feelings . But strangely enough , whenever I sat down to write this column , my inner most thoughts came to the fore . " In March 2009 , she met several readers who had submitted feedback on her weekly column . She continued to write sporadically for newspapers . In August 2012 she wrote a column published in The Times of India titled " No woman in Mumbai feels safe any longer " , discussing the murder of 25 @-@ year @-@ old Pallavi Purkayastha , whom she met while working on Don . In the article , Chopra expressed her views about the safety of women in cities . She wrote : " The magnitude of this crime can perhaps only truly be understood by a woman . It has much larger ramifications . We can 't allow this to happen . We have to , in whichever way we can , ensure that what happened with Pallavi does not happen again . We need to remind ourselves that we women today are a vital contributor to the growth of the new India . "
In a July 2014 article published in The Guardian , she criticised female genital mutilation and child marriage . She wrote : " These practices violate the fundamental rights of girls and women , and hold back social and economic development that would benefit children , communities and countries . Child marriage and FGM destroy childhoods , disrupt schooling , leave girls at higher risk of dying from pregnancy @-@ related causes , and contribute to a cycle of poverty . " In December 2014 , Chopra wrote an op @-@ ed for The New York Times titled " What Jane Austen Knew " about the importance of education for girls . She praised and quoted Nobel Peace Prize winners Malala Yousafzai and Kailash Satyarthi , and described how her desire to help others was triggered when , at just nine years old , she joined her parents while they volunteered their spare time to offer modern health care to the rural poor . In late 2014 , Chopra began writing a monthly column , " Pret @-@ a @-@ Priyanka " , for " Elle.com " . In an article published in January 2015 , she expressed her views on diversity and being a global citizen .
= = In the media = =
Chopra has been described by the critics as one of the most talented actresses in Bollywood . Analysing Chopra 's career highlights , Bollywood Hungama noted : " Despite a career that has seen a constant flip @-@ flop [ ... ] the performer in her has seen a constant growth with every passing year . " After playing strong characters in a series of films , she gained recognition for her versatility in portraying a range of unconventional roles , leading CNN @-@ IBN to describe her " as one of the most powerful actresses in the current lot and someone who doesn 't shy away from experimenting with roles within the realms of popular cinema " . The Times of India called her a " game changer " and added that she " made the age @-@ old demarcation between a hero and heroine redundant and one can easily describe her as a Shero " . In 2012 , film critic Subhash K. Jha labelled her " the best actress in the post @-@ Sridevi generation " and listed her character in Barfi ! as being " one of the finest inwardly ravaged characters in Bollywood . " Chopra has often featured on Rediff.com 's annual listing of " Bollywood 's Best Actresses " , and was featured in their list of " Top 10 Actresses of 2000 – 2010 " .
Chopra is one of Bollywood 's highest @-@ paid actresses , and considered one of the most popular and high @-@ profile celebrities in India . She is described as a sex symbol and a style icon . Her body , figure , eye , lips and exotic looks have been cited by the media as her distinctive physical features . Designers Falguni and Shane Peacock wrote , " She is comfortable in her own skin and looks ravishing in whatever she wears , be it a bikini , short or long dress or even a sari . " She ranks high on lists of the most influential , powerful , popular and attractive Indian celebrities . In 2006 , 2012 , 2014 and 2015 , the UK magazine Eastern Eye ranked her first on their " World 's Sexiest Asian Women " list , and she was featured on Verve 's list of most powerful women in 2009 and 2010 . She was named " India 's Best @-@ Dressed Woman of the Year " by People in 2011 , and Maxim selected her twice ( 2011 and 2013 ) as " Hottest Girl of the Year " . In 2012 , she was declared the most influential Indian on the social @-@ media circuit in a survey conducted by Pinstorm . In 2015 , People featured her as one of the " Most Intriguing People of the Year " . In 2016 , Time named her one of the " 100 Most Influential People in the World " and also featured on the cover of the issue .
Chopra was declared queen of brand endorsements in India , ranking second in on the list of brand ambassadors of 2008 ( only after Shah Rukh Khan ) in a survey conducted by TAM AdEx . The following year , she was named " India 's top brand endorser " by the same agency , becoming the first woman to top the endorsement charts in India . Manish Porwal of Alchemist Talent Solutions said in 2012 that Chopra was a stable and dependable brand endorser , and many brands renewed their contract with her . Chopra has represented many brands , including TAG Heuer , Pepsi , Nokia , Garnier and Nestlé ; she was the first female representative of Hero Honda . She and three other Bollywood actors ( Shah Rukh Khan , Kajol and Hrithik Roshan ) had their likenesses made into a series of miniature dolls for Hasbro and the UK @-@ based Bollywood Legends Corporation . In 2009 , Chopra became the first Indian actress to cast a foot impression at the Salvatore Ferragamo Museum in Florence , Italy , and she received custom @-@ designed shoes from the Ferragamo house . In 2013 , she became the first Indian model to represent Guess , whose CEO Paul Marciano called her " the young Sophia Loren " . The actress became the first Indian actress to feature in a school textbook . Her life is described in a chapter of Roving Families , Shifting Homes , a book taught at Springdales School . The book also includes pictures of her family and the moment she was crowned Miss World in 2000 .
Chopra is particularly known in the Indian media and film industry for her professionalism and is often referred to as " Piggy Chops " , a nickname given her by co @-@ stars on the set of Bluffmaster ! in 2005 . She is popularly referred to by the media and the film industry as " PeeCee " or simply " PC " . Although she is known for her media @-@ friendly attitude , Chopra is reticent to discuss details of her personal life in public . She has had a Twitter account since January 2009 , and has the greatest number of followers of any Indian actress . In 2015 , Chopra appeared in The Huffington Post 's " 100 Most Influential Women on Twitter " list , where she was named the most influential Indian woman on Twitter .
= = Filmography and awards = =
= = = Selected filmography = = =
= = = Television = = =
Quantico ( 2015 – present ; ABC )
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
Among Chopra 's film awards are a National Film Award for Best Actress for Fashion ( 2008 ) and five Filmfare Awards : Best Female Debut for Andaaz ( 2003 ) , Best Performance in a Negative Role for Aitraaz ( 2004 ) , Best Actress for Fashion ( 2008 ) , Critics Award for Best Actress for 7 Khoon Maaf ( 2011 ) , and Best Supporting Actress for Bajirao Mastani ( 2015 ) . In 2016 , she received the People 's Choice Award for " Favourite Actress In A New TV Series " for Quantico , making her the first South Asian actress to win a People 's Choice Award . The same year , she was awarded the Padma Shri , the fourth highest civilian award , by the Government of India .
= = Discography = =
As lead artist
As featured artist
Other appearances
= Destruction of Syria 's chemical weapons =
The destruction of Syria 's chemical weapons began with several international agreements that were arrived at with Syria , with an initial destruction deadline of 30 June 2014 . United Nations Security Council Resolution 2118 imposed on Syria responsibilities and a timeline for the destruction of its chemical weapons and chemical weapons production facilities . The Security Council resolution incorporated and bound Syria to an implementation plan enacted in an Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons ( OPCW ) Executive Council Decision . On 23 June 2014 , the last declared chemical weapons were shipped out of Syria for destruction . The destruction of the most dangerous chemical weapons began at sea aboard the Maritime Administration Ready Reserve Force vessel CAPE RAY crewed with U.S. civilian merchant mariners . It took 42 days aboard ship to destroy 600 metric tons of chemical agents that would have been used to make deadly Sarin and Mustard Gas .
The chemical weapons agreements arose at a time when the U.S. and France headed a coalition of countries on the verge of carrying out air strikes on Syria in response to the 21 August 2013 Ghouta chemical @-@ weapon attacks . The impetus toward peaceful destruction of the chemical weapons began on 9 September 2013 , when U.S. Secretary of State John Kerry — asked by a reporter if there was anything Assad could do avert attack — replied , " Sure , he could turn over every single bit of his chemical weapons " in the next week . " But he isn ’ t about to do it , and it can ’ t be done " . But the suggestion received a positive response from Russia and Syria , and U.S. – Russian negotiations led to the 14 September 2013 " Framework for Elimination of Syrian Chemical Weapons , " which called for the elimination of Syria 's chemical weapon stockpiles by mid @-@ 2014 . Following the agreement , Syria acceded to the Chemical Weapons Convention and agreed to apply that convention provisionally until its entry into force on 14 October 2013 . On 21 September , Syria ostensibly provided a list of its chemical weapons to the OPCW , before the deadline set by the framework .
On 27 September , the Executive Council of the OPCW adopted a decision , " Destruction of Syrian Chemical Weapons , " a detailed implementation plan based on the U.S. / Russian agreement . Later on 27 September , the UN Security Council unanimously passed United Nations Security Council Resolution 2118 , incorporating the OPCW plan and making it binding on Syria . A joint OPCW @-@ UN mission will supervise the destruction or removal of Syria 's chemical arms , while its Director @-@ General is charged with notifying the Executive Council regarding any delay in implementation . The Executive Council would decide whether the non @-@ compliance should be reported to the Security Council , which is responsible for making certain Syria fulfills its commitments under Resolution 2118 .
OPCW began preliminary inspections of Syria 's chemical weapons arsenal on 1 October 2013 , and actual destruction began on 6 October . Under OPCW supervision Syrian military personnel began " destroying munitions such as missile warheads and aerial bombs and disabling mobile and static mixing and filling units . " The destruction of Syria 's declared chemical weapons production , mixing , and filling equipment was successfully completed by 31 October deadline . The destruction of the chemical weapons fell well behind schedule . The entire chemical weapons stockpile had been scheduled to be completely removed from the country by 6 February 2014 . Only on 23 June 2014 , had Syria finished shipping the remaining declared chemicals . On 18 August 2014 , all of the most toxic chemicals had been destroyed offshore . Western officials such as British Ambassador Mark Lyall Grant have expressed concerns about the completeness of Syria 's disclosures , and believe the OPCW mission should remain in place following the removal of chemical weapons until verification tasks can be completed .
Chlorine , a common industrial chemical , is outside the scope of the disarmament agreement ; however , its use as a poison gas would violate the Chemical Weapons Convention , which Syria joined in 2013 . Various parties , including Western governments , have accused Assad of conducting illegal chlorine attacks in 2014 and 2015 . A late disclosure in 2014 regarding Syria 's ricin program raised doubts about completeness of the government 's declaration of its chemical weapons stockpile , and in early May 2015 , OPCW announced that inspectors had found traces of sarin and VX nerve agent at a military research site in Syria that had not been declared previously by the Assad regime .
= = Background = =
Syria has been in a state of civil war since 2011 .
More than 300 people died and thousands were injured in the 21 August 2013 Ghouta attacks , in which rockets containing the chemical agent sarin struck several opposition @-@ controlled or disputed areas of the Ghouta suburbs of Damascus . The United States and other Western countries blamed the Syrian government for the attacks , while Syria blamed civil war opposition forces . In response to Ghouta , a coalition of countries led by the United States and France , which support the rebels , threatened air strikes on Syria . Russia , a key ally of Syria , along with China had earlier blocked efforts by the United States , France , and the UK to secure United Nations Security Council approval for military intervention .
During the G20 summit on 6 September , Russian President Vladimir Putin and U.S. President Barack Obama discussed the idea of putting Syria 's chemical weapons under international control . On 9 September 2013 , U.S. Secretary of State John Kerry stated in response to a question from a journalist that the air strikes could be averted if Syria turned over " every single bit " of its chemical weapons stockpiles within a week , but Syria " isn 't about to do it and it can 't be done . " State Department officials stressed that Kerry 's statement and its one @-@ week deadline were rhetorical in light of the unlikelihood of Syria turning over its chemical weapons . Hours after Kerry 's statement , Russian foreign minister Sergey Lavrov announced that Russia had suggested to Syria that it relinquish its chemical weapons , and Syrian foreign minister Walid al @-@ Moallem immediately welcomed the proposal .
= = Framework for elimination of Syrian chemical weapons = =
= = = Negotiations and agreement = = =
From 12 to 14 September , details of the Framework were negotiated at the InterContinental Hotel in Geneva , Switzerland . High @-@ level negotiations were held between Kerry and Lavrov , with large teams of experts simultaneously working on technical details . A key breakthrough was reported to occur when the U.S. and Russia agreed on their approximations of the Syrian chemical weapon stockpile ( estimated at 1 @,@ 000 tons of sarin , mustard gas and VX nerve gas ) . On 14 September the Framework was agreed and signed .
On the same day , after the signing , Syria announced that it was acceding to the Chemical Weapons Convention ( provisionally applying it directly , but formally taking effect 14 October ) , and in doing so becoming a member of the OPCW . This committed Syria not to use chemical weapons , to destroy its chemical weapons within 10 years , and to convert or destroy all of its chemical weapons production facilities .
= = = Overview and enforcement = = =
In the Framework , Russia and the United States agreed to the following target dates :
Syria to provide a comprehensive listing of its weapons to the OPCW by 21 September 2013
Initial OPCW on @-@ site inspections of declared sites to be completed by November 2013
Equipment for producing , mixing , and filling chemical weapons to be destroyed by November 2013
All chemical weapons material and equipment to be eliminated in the first half of 2014
The Framework states that , in the event of noncompliance , the UN Security Council should impose measures under Chapter VII of the UN Charter . The Framework does not state how Syria 's compliance would be measured , or what the penalties would be if it did not comply . Under the UN Charter , Chapter VII measures range from " demonstrations " to sanctions or military action and could be vetoed by any of the five permanent members of the Security Council . Russia and China had previously vetoed three resolutions attempting to condemn or sanction Syria , and were considered likely to block any future Security Council sanctioned military action against Syria . The U.S. indicated it might resort to military action outside the UN if Syria failed to comply with the Security Council resolution requiring it to eliminate its chemical weapons .
Chlorine , a common industrial chemical which would later allegedly be used in poison @-@ gas attacks inside Syria in 2014 , is not on the list of prohibited chemicals covered by the disarmament agreement .
= = = Reactions to the Framework = = =
The " Framework for the Elimination of Syrian Chemical Weapons " was received positively by France , Germany , the UK , the European Union , China , and the Arab League . Israel expressed cautious optimism , but was skeptical that Syria would comply .
Ali Haidar , Syria 's Minister of National Reconciliation , praised the agreement as " a victory for Syria that was achieved thanks to our Russian friends . " He described the agreement as removing a pretext for a U.S. attack on the country . Iran also stated that the agreement had deprived the U.S. of a pretext for attacking Syria .
Leaders of the main rebel coalition , the Syrian National Coalition , were angered by the agreement . The U.S. , without consulting the coalition , had changed its mind about striking Syria . Rebels furthermore worried the agreement might be a considered a de facto admission of the Bashar al @-@ Assad government 's legitimacy .
= = OPCW Executive Council decision = =
The Executive Council of the OPCW met on 27 September and adopted a decision , " Destruction of Syrian Chemical Weapons " , that is a detailed and accelerated plan for the elimination of Syria 's chemical weapons . The Executive Council also approved Syria 's provisional application of the Chemical Weapons Convention pending entry into force on 14 October . The plan adds detail to but does not vary from the basic deadlines in the U.S. – Russian Framework . The OPCW stated that the Executive Council had agreed on " an accelerated programme for achieving the complete elimination of Syria 's chemical weapons by mid @-@ 2014 . The decision requires inspections in Syria to commence from 1 October 2013 . "
Inspectors were given unusually broad authority , because Syria was required under the plan to provide inspectors unobstructed access to any suspected chemical weapons site , even if the Syrian government had not identified the location in its list of chemical weapons sites , and without the special procedures normally required for " Challenge Inspections " under Article IX of the convention .
The decision also stipulates that if the OPCW Director @-@ General determined there had been a delay in implementation of the decision , the matter should be discussed within 24 hours , when it should be decided whether the matter should be submitted to the UN Security Council .
The Executive Council 's decision further calls , " on an urgent basis " , for funding by member states of the Syrian chemical weapons elimination process .
= = = Requirements for Syria = = =
Under the Decision , which was incorporated into Security Council Resolution 2118 , Syria is required to take the following actions :
submit to the Secretariat by 4 October further information ( to that provided on 19 September 2013 ) on its chemical weapons , in particular : " ( i ) the chemical name and military designator of each chemical in its chemical weapons stockpile , including precursors and toxins , and quantities thereof ; ( ii ) the specific type of munitions , sub @-@ munitions and devices in its chemical weapons stockpile , including specific quantities of each type that are filled and unfilled ; and ( iii ) the location of all of its chemical weapons , chemical weapons storage facilities , chemical weapons production facilities , including mixing and filling facilities , and chemical weapons research and development facilities , providing specific geographic coordinates , "
submit the declaration required by Article III of the Chemical Weapons Convention to the OPCW Secretariat no later than 27 October ,
complete elimination of all its chemical weapons material and equipment during the first half of 2014 , " subject to the detailed requirements , including intermediate destruction milestones , to be decided by the [ Executive ] Council not later than 15 November 2013 , "
complete destruction of its chemical weapons mixing / filling and production equipment by 1 November ,
cooperate fully with Decision implementation , to include providing OPCW personnel with " immediate and unfettered right to inspect any and all sites in the Syrian Arab Republic , " and
designate one official as the OPCW Secretariat 's main point of contact , and provide that person with authority to ensure that the Decision is fully implemented .
= = Security Council Resolution 2118 = =
Negotiations over the Security Council resolution were initially contentious , as the U.S. , the UK , and France submitted a draft resolution that included automatic invocation of Chapter VII , sanctioning use of military force if Syria did not fulfill its commitments under the agreement . Russia and China were opposed to any resolution that authorized enforcement under Chapter VII without a second vote of the Security Council . After further negotiations , on 26 September the five permanent members of the UN Security Council reached agreement on an implementation and enforcement draft resolution . On the following day , just hours after the OPCW Executive Council approved a detailed implementation plan for the U.S. / Russian Framework , Security Council Resolution 2118 was unanimously passed , making the OPCW plan binding on the Syrians .
The resolution requires that Syria eliminate its chemical stockpile and allow complete access to UN and OPCW chemical weapons inspectors . If it does not comply with either demand , the Security Council would need to adopt a second resolution regarding imposition of military or other actions against Syria under the UN Charter 's Chapter VII . The vote on the resolution was delayed until 27 September because the OPCW needed to vote first on its detailed implementation plan . Syria vowed to abide by the resolution .
Russian Foreign Minister Lavrov has stressed that the Western and Arab @-@ backed rebels in the Syrian civil war must also comply with the UN resolution , and must ensure that extremists do not acquire chemical weapons . " The responsibility is not only on the Syrian government , " he stated , " but also on the opposition and all the states in this sphere should of course not allow these weapons to fall into the hands of non @-@ state actors . "
= = = Reactions to Security Council Resolution 2118 = = =
= = Implementation = =
= = = Preparations and preliminary inspections = = =
On 21 September 2013 , Syria ostensibly met the Framework 's first deadline , for comprehensive chemical weapons disclosure . The OPCW stated it had received and was reviewing the " expected disclosure " concerning Syria 's chemical weapons stockpiles , 24 hours after stating it had received an " initial declaration " document from Syrian authorities . The OPCW stated that it would use on @-@ site inspections to verify the accuracy of the disclosure by Syria . It would also " assist in putting into place arrangements to keep the warfare materials and the relevant facilities secure until their destruction . "
OPCW began preliminary inspections of Syria 's chemical weapons arsenal on 1 October 2013 , and actual destruction of Syrian equipment began on 6 October 2013 , with Syrian personnel under OPCW supervision applying angle grinders and cutting torches to " a wide range of items . " Specifically , under OPCW supervision Syrian military personnel had begun " destroying munitions such as missile warheads and aerial bombs and disabling mobile and static mixing and filling units . " The U.S. and Russia announced themselves " very pleased " with the rapid pace of Syria 's chemical arms disarmament . The Economist commented that the demanding timeline may mean the OPCW will deploy ad @-@ hoc destruction methods such as sledgehammers , tanks , or concrete fills .
On Monday , 7 October , UN Secretary @-@ General Ban Ki @-@ moon stated that the UN @-@ OPCW joint mission would eventually have about 100 personnel in Syria , with a support base in Cyprus . In a letter to the Security Council , Ban set out the mission 's three phases : establish an initial presence and verify Syria 's stockpiles declaration ; oversee chemical weapons destruction ; and verify destruction of all chemical arms related materials and programs . On 13 October Ban announced that veteran UN diplomat Sigrid Kaag would head the joint UN @-@ OPCW mission .
= = = Implementation challenges = = =
UN Secretary @-@ General Ban in early October publicly recognized many of the challenges of the weapons destruction effort , in particular the dangerous nature of chemical arms destruction during a civil war , especially in urban areas such as Damascus , Aleppo , and Homs . " Heavy artillery , air strikes , mortar barrages and the indiscriminate shelling of civilian areas are commonplace and battle lines shift quickly , " he wrote . Ban added that the most challenging phase of the destruction effort would begin in November , when OPCW and UN experts begin destroying Syria 's estimated 1 @,@ 000 tons of precursor chemicals and chemical weapons . In order to do so , they will need to cross battle lines between governments and rebel forces . The Syrian government and Western @-@ backed opposition forces have pledged cooperation with chemical disarmament , but Al Qaeda @-@ linked rebel groups , including Al Nusra Front and the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria , have not .
OPCW director @-@ general Ahmet Uzumcu stated in early October that completing the destruction process by the mid @-@ 2014 deadline will depend on whether temporary cease @-@ fires can be arranged between opposition and government forces . A nine @-@ month ceasefire to allow the OPCW to carry out the entire chemical weapons destruction process was rejected by the Free Syrian Army ( FSA ) , according to a report in Asharq Al @-@ Awsat ( a Saudi @-@ linked pan @-@ Arab newspaper ) .
Also exceptionally challenging will be the movement and destruction of deadly agents such as sarin , VX nerve agents and mustard gas during the civil war . The chemical weapons convention disallows movement of such deadly agents outside the country holding them , but Security Council Resolution 2118 allows extraordinary measures to be taken in Syria . Some of the chemicals will need to be transported along the highway between Damascus and Homs , which is still contested as of December 2013 . Syria has requested the international community provide armored vehicles to assist in safe transport of the chemicals . In February 2014 , Syria stated that rebels had attempted to attack two convoys transporting chemical weapons .
OPCW director @-@ general Uzumcu called the overall timeline " doable , " though one of his field experts characterized it as " Herculean . " The Economist magazine commented in October 2013 that the timeline was " ambitious , to put it mildly , " but acknowledged it had been " worked out in consultation with American and Russians experts with full knowledge of the OPCW 's capabilities . " Li Hong , secretary @-@ general of the China Arms Control and Disarmament Association , stated that both the turbulent civil war and the financial cost of chemical weapons disposal will be a heavy burden on the Syrian government , and called it " unrealistic " to expect Syrian chemical weapons to be fully eliminated by 2014 . Expert opinions were summarized in Foreign Policy magazine as follows : " Taking control of [ Syria ] ' s enormous stores of [ chemical ] munitions would be difficult to do in the midst of a brutal civil war . Dozens of new facilities for destroying the weapons would have to be built from scratch or brought into the country from the U.S. , and completing the job would potentially take a decade or more . "
In October 2013 , Amy Smithson of the Center for Nonproliferation Studies stated that the government appears to be cooperating , but cautioned that the Syrian government has a " very sorry track record " on working with nuclear inspectors , and that it is easier to hide chemical weapons than a nuclear program . Chemical weapons expert Gwyn Winfield writes that Syria has an incentive to hold onto some of its chemical weapons , since its original incentive for developing a chemical weapons capability , as a deterrent against a suspected Israeli nuclear weapons arsenal , " isn 't going to go away . " In contrast , Ralf Trapp , a former OPCW official , has expressed optimism that satellite surveillance would deter cheating . Under the disarmament resolution , Syria is required to allow inspection of any site that raises suspicions .
A disagreement arose regarding the number of chemical weapons sites in contested areas of Syria , with the Syrian foreign minister stating that one @-@ third of sites are in such areas . FSA official Louay Miqdad stated in early October that there were no chemical weapons in areas occupied by opposition forces , " which is something that the Assad regime itself acknowledges , while these storehouses are also not located on the front , so why should we stop fighting ? " According to the OPCW chief , one abandoned site is in rebel @-@ held territory and routes to others lead through rebel @-@ held territory . Malik Ellahi of the OPCW states that few of the locations inspectors must visit will be difficult to access .
In April 2014 , disarmament experts such as Ralf Trapp characterized the pace of the operation as impressively quick . With 92 @.@ 5 % of the arsenal removed or destroyed , Trapp noted that many people hadn 't expected such speed to be achievable given the ongoing civil war .
= = = Later activity = = =
In late October 2013 , the OCPW said it expected 1 November deadline for destruction of CW production , mixing and munition @-@ filling capability to be met . It was reported on 23 October that it had visited 18 of 23 declared sites . It was reported that " ' low tech , quick and cheap ' methods were being used , such as filling equipment with concrete , smashing it , sometimes using heavy vehicles . " The OPCW " said the Syrian government had provided complete co @-@ operation with the 27 weapons inspectors in the country . "
On 31 October , the OPCW announced that it had met the deadline for destroying all declared equipment and facilities related to chemical weapons production , having visited 21 out of 23 sites , and received assurances from the Syrian government that the other two sites had been abandoned and emptied of chemicals and equipment , with these dispersed to sites visited by the OPCW . The two sites were unreachable due to being in contested areas of the ongoing civil war . On 7 November , the OPCW said that one of the two unvisited sites had been officially verified as " dismantled and abandoned " , based in part on images that the Syrian government shot using a " tamperproof " GPS @-@ enabled camera provided by the OPCW . Later , in January 2014 , U.S. Ambassador Robert Mikulak worried that the October destruction was incomplete and " reversible " and claimed that it did not , in fact , meet requirements .
On 15 November , the OPCW approved a plan to transport Syria 's chemical weapons to a location outside its territory by 5 February 2014 , where the weapons would then be destroyed . Acceptance of shipments of the 1 @,@ 000 tons of chemical agents for destruction have been refused by most countries approached by the OPCW . As of November 2013 , Belgium and France were still considering whether to agree to such shipments .
The countries of Norway and Denmark agreed to transport the chemical weapons from Syria to Italy where they were to be handed over to a United States Navy ship for destruction in international waters . The Norwegian Fridtjof Nansen @-@ class frigate Helge Ingstad will take part in the operation , as will the Norwegian marine corps unit Kystjegerkommandoen . The Norwegian government hired in the Norwegian registered RoRo cargo ship MV Taiko for the mission . Denmark will participate with the Danish frigate HDMS Esbern Snare and the Danish government has hired in the civilian cargo ship Ark Futura for the mission .
The United States will destroy the highest @-@ priority chemicals , which were scheduled for removal from Syria by 31 December , on board the MV Cape Ray in international waters of the Mediterranean , using an U.S. Army Field Deployable Hydrolysis System . The United Kingdom will give the United States specialist equipment and training to enable the highest @-@ priority chemicals to be processed more quickly . In addition around 150 tonnes of priority two chemicals , toxic material similar to industrial chemical agents , will be transported to the UK with the help of the British Royal Navy and destroyed there . The remaining stock of priority two chemicals not going to Britain will be destroyed by commercial companies .
The first shipment of components for chemical weapons were removed from Syria by a Norwegian / Danish flotilla on 7 January 2014 . The 31 December deadline for complete removal of priority chemicals had been missed ; on 7 January , the New York Times assessed the delay was due to the difficulty of overland transport of chemical weapons in the middle of a civil war . A second shipment was removed around 27 January ; that same day , the U.N. Secretary General , Ban Ki @-@ moon , expressed concern over the worsening delays and assessed that Syria already has the resources required to transport the weapons promptly despite the ongoing civil war .
On 2 July , the Danish ship Ark Futura arrived in the Italian port of Gioia Tauro , carrying the chemical weapons , which were then loaded onto the U.S. ship Cape Ray . The Cape Ray was equipped with two Field Deployable Hydrolysis Systems capable of neutralizing the poisonous substances and converting them into industrial waste . On 19 July 2014 , around 250 protesters gathered at the Souda base to protest the elimination of the chemical weapons in the nearby region of the Mediterranean Sea .
= = = = Delays = = = =
By 30 January 2014 , only about four percent of the priority chemicals had been removed . Syria continued to blame security issues ; U.S. officials disagreed and accused the government of deliberately causing or prolonging the delay . On 31 January , Russian diplomat Mikhail Ulyanov responded that " the Syrians are approaching the fulfilment of their obligations seriously and in good faith . " The U.S. blamed Syria 's Assad government for intentionally delaying efforts to remove chemical arms from the country for destruction , suggesting that the goal of liquidating the arsenal by midyear is in jeopardy . Stating that Assad is , in effect , slow @-@ walking the chemicals in order to obtain more security equipment , U.S. Ambassador Robert P. Mikulak said that " Syria has demanded armored jackets for shipping containers , electronic countermeasures , and detectors for improvised explosive devices . " He said the demands are " without merit " and " display a ' bargaining mentality ' rather than a security mentality . "
Around 21 February , Syria proposed a hundred @-@ day plan for removal of the chemicals . British official Philip Hall criticized the plan as " not adequate " . At the time , the US had stated destruction of the chemicals , once off @-@ site , would take 90 days ; given that timeframe , Syria 's proposed May removal deadline would not leave enough time for all munitions to be destroyed to meet the end @-@ of @-@ June deadline for complete destruction of Syria 's chemical weapons . Around 4 March , Syria agreed to a 60 @-@ day timetable for removal of the stockpile . By 4 March 2014 , almost a third of the stockpile had been removed or destroyed .
Syria missed a 15 March deadline for destroying its 12 chemical weapons production facilities . Syria has proposed to instead render the facilities inoperable by sealing their entrances ; the U.S. and its allies oppose this proposal and insist on destruction .
By 21 March , Syria 's entire supply of mustard gas had been removed . On 27 April , Syria missed its revised 60 @-@ day deadline for complete removal of its full chemical | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
station , as with the other Wallkill Valley stations , was based on " standard patterns ... rather than [ being designed ] by individual architects " .
Half the station 's lumber came from Honesdale , Pennsylvania , via the Delaware and Hudson Canal and its framework was raised on July 1 , 1870 . Work was completed by September 1870 . John C. Deyo had provided the carpentry , Snyder and Fuller painted it , and John C. Shaffer was the contractor . Shaffer had also constructed living quarters for the railroad 's workers .
The masonry for a bridge over the Plattekill Creek between Gardiner and New Paltz was completed by late June 1870 , and trestle work was done by July . Beginning in late September 1870 , the railroad had begun laying tracks between Gardiner and New Paltz . The tracks reached the Plattekill Creek bridge by the end of October , and the rail line reached New Paltz on December 1 , 1870 .
= = Opening and early operation = =
The rail line was officially opened in New Paltz on December 20 , 1870 , during a day @-@ long celebration . At that time , the Wallkill Valley line was connected to the Erie Railroad 's Montgomery – Goshen branch to the south ; an inaugural train containing about 350 passengers ran to Goshen , making stops at each station along the way , before heading back to New Paltz . The station 's telegraph was used to " receive ... election returns " throughout the 1870s .
On March 3 , 1880 , four men robbed the station 's safe . They broke into the depot late at night and dragged the safe to the center of the station . They then attempted to drill holes into the safe and explode it with gunpowder , but failing that , cut off one of its sides . The contents of the safe were 300 cigars and a few bills and papers . After the suspects were arrested in Poughkeepsie , the local sheriff was reluctant to transfer the suspects to New Paltz . The Poughkeepsie police were insistent that they be paid immediately for their services . The day after their arrest , the men were allowed to go to a barber shop for a shave ; some witnesses were unable to identify the suspects because of this , and the officers were publicly chided for incompetence . Cigars in the suspects ' pockets were identical to the cigars in the safe , and along with tools recovered from the site , they were used to identify the men . The suspects were brought to a jail in Kingston pending the ruling of a grand jury that April . A large crowd gathered at the New Paltz depot to watch them depart . The men were described as " cracksmen of the first water " , possibly " stylish " , and so proficient at safe @-@ cracking that , " if they [ had ] any chance at all , or [ got ] hold of any weapon , they [ would ] pick their way thro ' the jail as easily as boring through a lime heap " . The men were subsequently convicted . As a result of the burglary , station agent Dwight Marsh was given a revolver , and it became policy not to keep valuables in the safe overnight . On December 8 , 1880 , another thief broke a window at the depot and stole a box of cigars .
Two sheds had been built adjacent to the station by 1881 . The land the sheds were built on was purchased the previous year by Mohonk Mountain House co @-@ founder Albert Smiley for $ 500 . The sheds were built for the resort 's horses . During this period , as many as 14 stagecoaches each day transported guests between the station and Mohonk . The West Shore Railroad purchased the Wallkill Valley line in June 1881 , and placed an additional siding by the depot in 1887 to allow daily " special extra @-@ fare trains ... for the Minnewaska and Mohonk visitors " .
President Chester A. Arthur visited the station with his daughter in 1884 . He was welcomed by the railroad 's director and brought to Lake Mohonk . President Rutherford B. Hayes occasionally attended conferences at the Mohonk Mountain House . In 1892 , several townspeople held a reception for him at the station , giving him " three rousing cheers " . Other notable Mountain House guests who arrived by train were opera singer Ernestine Schumann @-@ Heink and orator William Jennings Bryan . A sewage line was installed from the station to the Wallkill River in 1905 .
= = Springtown station = =
As soon as the station in the village was completed , a second station was built at Springtown , a hamlet in the northwestern part of the town of New Paltz that once sported " its own post office , church , school , hotel , a gambling den ... and a bevy of bars " . The station was planned to be two stories tall with an area of 16 by 40 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 by 12 @.@ 2 m ) . A 413 @-@ foot ( 126 m ) bridge across the Wallkill River to Springtown was completed by December 1870 , and the station was constructed at the point where the rail line crossed Coffey Road . Throughout its history , the Springtown station was occupied by various tenants who took up residence .
The original New Paltz station burned down around 4 : 45 A.M. on April 23 , 1907 , damaging freight and killing station agent E. J. Snyder 's dog . The fire originated in the office stove , and spread rapidly before local fire companies could arrive . A passenger car was used as a temporary station while the building was rebuilt . By late September 1907 , the concrete foundation and the framework of the new building had been put in place , but work on the interior did not begin until November because the lumber had not arrived . The depot was completely rebuilt by December 31 , 1907 , and in active use by February 7 , 1908 . While the original station had a gabled roof , the rebuilt station was hipped . The direction of the new station 's battens was horizontal ; the original station had had vertical slats . The rebuilt freight house was placed a distance from the depot .
The building was not fully rebuilt until 1911 . A house was constructed at the site of the Springtown depot the year before it was rebuilt . The New York Public Service Commission , a regulatory agency founded in 1907 , ruled in May 1911 that the new Springtown station was adequate . The Springtown station had no station agent or freight house . In 1925 , sparks shooting off a passing train caused a fire in Springtown that burned down six buildings , causing $ 7 @,@ 000 in damage . The prominence of the New Paltz station , as well as the growth of SUNY New Paltz in the village , caused the decline of Springtown as a community .
= = Closure = =
Passenger service along the Wallkill Valley line ceased in 1937 , due to the increased usage of automobiles . By December 1958 the building ( then owned by the New York Central Railroad ) was no longer used as a railroad station . It was sold off in 1959 , and hosted a number of local endeavors , serving as a chapter house for the Knights of Columbus and as an office for a public @-@ access television station . Under the ownership of the television station , the roof and floorboards were repaired .
In April 1977 , the owner of the property , Fetner and Gold Associates , attempted to open the building as a bar . Their zoning permit was rejected ; the village mayor was " unalterably opposed " to the prospect , and the board believed the proposed bar would lead to complaints from nearby apartments . It was also believed that it would be unsafe to open a bar adjacent to an active rail line , and that such a venture would threaten the nearby Huguenot Street Historic District . On December 31 , 1977 , all regular freight service ceased along the Wallkill Valley line . By the early 1980s the depot had become a " hangout for youths to drink and carouse " and the village considered dismantling it . Conrail , at that time the owner of the rail line , removed all tracks along the corridor between 1983 and 1984 and salvaged the steel .
= = Renovation = =
Robert Mark Realty bought the former station in 1986 and renovated it at a cost of $ 175 @,@ 000 . Work began in October 1987 and was more than halfway done by January 1988 . Matt Bialecki , the architect who had overseen the renovation of the former New Paltz opera house as a restaurant , served as the project 's architect . Wilro Builders served as the contractor . The building 's design follows a Shingle Style architecture and its sidings are both shingle and clapboard . There are bay windows on the east and west faces , and rafters are partly visible . The building served as a real estate office .
On February 9 , 1999 , the village approved a plan to allow the building to open as a 36 @-@ seat Italian restaurant under the co @-@ ownership of two men , Jeff DiMarco and Rocco Panetta . It was at this time the station was given its current name , La Stazione . DiMarco had previously managed construction for an adjacent restaurant , the Gilded Otter . He sold his ownership of La Stazione in August 2000 .
The building is adjacent to a rail trail , and there is a 3 @-@ foot ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) bike rack by the building 's northern end . The village of New Paltz purchased its section of the former Wallkill Valley rail corridor from Conrail in 1991 , formally opening it on October 9 , 1993 as a public walkway , the Wallkill Valley Rail Trail . The permit allowing La Stazione to operate as a restaurant also required the placement of a sign in the building 's parking lot to indicate the presence of the trail . The village allowed La Stazione to place a public picnic table under an overhang by the rail trail , on the condition that the restaurant did not provide outdoor food service . In August 1999 , the restaurant was forced to remove a gas tank and gas line that were placed under the trail ; failure to do so could have resulted in the revocation of La Stazione 's certificate of occupancy , preventing the building from being operated as a restaurant .
In 2001 , the village was experiencing water drainage issues in the area by the restaurant . By early 2002 , the village approved plans for an expansion of La Stazione , which addressed the drainage issues ; the restaurant offered to install larger pipes than were necessary in exchange for the village " defray [ ing ] their costs " . When the Gardiner station burned down on October 10 , 2002 , La Stazione was left as the last former station of the Wallkill Valley Railroad remaining at its original location . The building 's addition was completed in 2003 .
A scene from the 2008 mob film Front Man was filmed at La Stazione ; the film 's director , Ray Genadry , is the cousin of the restaurant 's owner , Rocco Panetta . The scene featured Chris Colombo , son of the late Joseph Colombo , a former boss of the Colombo crime family . Colombo had previously starred in a 2005 mobster documentary on HBO . The building was added to the New Paltz Downtown Historic District on July 24 , 2009 .
= = Former Wallkill Valley stations = =
Binnewater Historic District
Campbell Hall ( Metro @-@ North station )
Kingston , New York railroad stations
= Chad Griffin =
Chad Hunter Griffin ( born July 16 , 1973 ) is an American political strategist best known for his work advocating for LGBT rights in the United States .
Griffin got his start in politics volunteering for the Bill Clinton presidential campaign , which led to a position in the White House Press Office at the age of 19 . Following his stint in the White House and his graduation from Georgetown University , he led a number of political campaigns advocating for or against various California ballot initiatives , as well as a number of fundraising efforts for political candidates , such as Hillary Clinton and Barack Obama .
Following the 2008 passage of California 's highly publicized Proposition 8 , which barred the recognition of same @-@ sex marriage , Griffin founded the American Foundation for Equal Rights ( AFER ) to overturn the law . AFER 's challenge , Perry v. Brown was ultimately successful following a decision by the United States Supreme Court in June 2013 . In 2012 , Griffin was appointed president of the Human Rights Campaign , the largest LGBT rights organization in the United States .
= = Early years = =
Griffin was born in Hope , Arkansas , and grew up 45 miles to the northeast in Arkadelphia . While attending Ouachita Baptist University , he volunteered for the 1992 presidential campaign of Bill Clinton , and , following the election , received a job offer from Dee Dee Myers to join the transition team and administration . Griffin dropped out of college and became , at the age of 19 , the youngest @-@ ever member of a presidential staff . He worked as a White House Press Office manager for two years . There , he also acted as White House liaison to the 1995 film The American President , where he met producer Rob Reiner . Griffin went on to lead Reiner 's charitable foundation and to work with Reiner on numerous political efforts , including the founding of the American Foundation for Equal Rights ( AFER ) . AFER is a nonprofit organization formed to challenge the federal constitutionality of California 's Proposition 8 , which limited legal recognition of marriage in California to opposite @-@ sex couples . After leaving the White House , Griffin entered the Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service at Georgetown University , from which he graduated in 1997 . Griffin was also a part of Griffin Schein , a consulting firm that he founded with Kristina Schake , former communications director for Michelle Obama .
= = LGBT rights activism = =
Griffin , who is himself gay , is best known for his work advocating for LGBT rights , often citing the elevated rate of suicide among gay teens as motivation . In 2008 , Griffin was selected as one of The Advocate 's People of the Year , and in 2013 , Griffin was placed 16th on Out magazine 's " Power 50 " list of the 50 @-@ most powerful LGBT individuals in the United States , moving up from 20th , 28th and 29th positions in 2012 , 2011 and 2010 , respectively .
= = = American Foundation for Equal Rights = = =
Griffin and Reiner founded AFER in 2008 to challenge the federal constitutionality of California 's Proposition 8 . Prior to AFER 's founding , Griffin had raised funds and produced television ads for the " No on 8 " campaign . This was Griffin 's first professional work on LGBT rights . Following Proposition 8 's passage in 2008 , Griffin and Reiner reflected on the No campaign 's failure , and the possibility of mounting a federal legal challenge . An acquaintance of Reiner 's suggested speaking to conservative lawyer Theodore Olson , who supported the challenge and soon began research on the case . Griffin saw the case and Olson 's support as an opportunity to frame the same @-@ sex marriage debate in nonpartisan terms . It was Olson who later suggested recruiting the contrastingly liberal David Boies as co @-@ counsel , the two had previously litigated opposite sides of Bush v. Gore . Griffin approached Boies , who quickly accepted .
Meanwhile , Griffin began discussing the potential case with other LGBT rights organizations . Many of those organizations , including the American Civil Liberties Union , Lambda Legal , and the National Center for Lesbian Rights opposed a federal lawsuit , seeing it as " reckless " and expressing fear that a loss at the Supreme Court could be " devastating " . These same groups would later ask to intervene in the lawsuit , an attempt which Griffin fought and which was ultimately unsuccessful . In a letter to the leaders of those organizations , Griffin wrote " You have unrelentingly and unequivocally acted to undermine this case even before it was filed . In light of this , it is inconceivable that you would zealously and effectively litigate this case if you were successful in intervening . " Griffin also expressed concern that intervention would complicate the trial , making it less efficient and would , as a result , ultimately weaken their case .
In May 2009 AFER announced its creation after filing their lawsuit , now styled Hollingsworth v. Perry , which argued that Proposition 8 was unconstitutional on equal protection and due process grounds . The lawsuit 's plaintiffs are two same @-@ sex couples , Kristin Perry and Sandra Stier , Paul Katami and Jeffrey Zarrillo . Governor of California Jerry Brown and other state officials are listed as defendants in their official capacities . Perry was successful at district court and at the 9th Circuit Court of Appeals . In December 2012 , the Supreme Court agreed to review the 9th Circuit ruling , and held in June 2013 that the proponents of Proposition 13 had lacked standing for their appeals to the 9th Circuit and Supreme Court , which left the district court ruling intact . On June 28 , California resumed marrying same @-@ sex couples .
= = = Other LGBT @-@ related activism = = =
In 2012 , Griffin was selected to succeed Joe Solmonese as president of the Human Rights Campaign , the largest LGBT advocacy and political lobbying organization in the United States . His appointment was well received by many in the LGBT community , including Cleve Jones , R. Clarke Cooper , and Transgender Law Center executive director Masen Davis . Griffin assumed his new role on June 11 , 2012 .
In May 2012 , Griffin asked a question which , in part , led Vice President Joe Biden to publicly share his support for same @-@ sex marriage . In a May 2012 Meet the Press appearance , Biden recounted that , at a private dinner with LGBT campaign donors , he had been asked " How do you feel about us ? " The dinner was being held at the home of a gay couple and their two children , and Biden told the parents : " I wish every American could see the look of love that those kids had in their eyes for you guys . And they wouldn 't have any doubt about what this is about . " Barack Obama announced his own support a few days later , becoming the first sitting United States president to do so .
Griffin was one of several executive producers of the 2009 documentary Outrage , which investigated allegations of homosexuality among a series of political figures who had worked against LGBT rights . Griffin was selected to help raise funds for its production .
= = Other work = =
Prior to his work opposing Proposition 8 , Griffin has been involved in supporting or opposing a variety of other California ballot initiatives . In 1998 , Reiner hired Griffin to lead an effort to pass California Proposition 10 . Proposition 10 created a tax on cigarettes and other tobacco products sold in California , and directed that income toward early childhood education efforts under the First 5 California Commission . That commission 's executive director , Kristin Perry , later became the named plaintiff in Perry v. Brown . In 2004 , Griffin was campaign director for California Proposition 71 , which authorized the sale of three billion dollars in general obligation bonds to fund stem cell research . Two years later , Griffin led the unsuccessful campaign for passage of California Proposition 87 , which would have established a tax on oil extraction in the state . Funds were to have been used to for alternative energy and energy efficiency efforts . Prior to these initiatives , in 2003 , Griffin ran the Rally to Save Ahmanson Ranch , which successfully advocated for wilderness protection of what became the Upper Las Virgenes Canyon Open Space Preserve . Jason Schwartzman shadowed Griffin during this campaign in preparation for Schwartzman 's role as the head of an environmental group in the 2004 film I Heart Huckabees .
Griffin 's recent work also includes political fundraising for candidates , his clients have included Hillary Clinton and Barack Obama . He was a member of the national finance committee for Obama 's 2012 reelection campaign , and raised over $ 300 @,@ 000 in that effort . Griffin also sits on the board of Brad Pitt 's Make It Right Foundation New Orleans , which works to build houses for those who lost homes in New Orleans to Hurricane Katrina .
= = Personal life = =
Griffin attended a White House dinner in 2012 . He began dating longtime friend Charlie Joughin in early 2015 .
= Pill railway station =
Pill railway station was a railway station on the Portishead Branch Line , 7 @.@ 8 miles ( 12 @.@ 6 km ) west of Bristol Temple Meads , serving the village of Pill in North Somerset , England . The station was opened by the Bristol and Portishead Pier and Railway Company on 18 April 1867 . It had two platforms , on either side of a passing loop , with a goods yard and signal box later additions . Services increased until the 1930s , at which point a half @-@ hourly service operated . However the Portishead Branch was recommended for closure by the Beeching report , and the station was closed on 7 September 1964 , although the line saw freight traffic until 1981 . Regular freight trains through the station began to run again in 2002 when Royal Portbury Dock was connected to the rail network .
The station is due to be reopened to passenger traffic in 2019 as part of MetroWest , a scheme to increase rail services in the Bristol area . The new station will have a single platform , an accessible footbridge and a car park , with trains running between Portishead and Bristol .
= = History = =
Pill railway station was opened on 18 April 1867 by the Bristol and Portishead Pier and Railway Company , when services began on their line from the Bristol and Exeter Railway at Portishead Junction to a pier on the Severn Estuary at Portishead . The station served the village of Pill on the south bank of the River Avon . The line was built as 7 ft ( 2 @,@ 134 mm ) broad @-@ gauge , and was largely single track . The station was sited in a cutting close to the old centre of Pill , 3 miles 73 chains ( 6 @.@ 3 km ) from the line 's terminus at Portishead , 7 miles 61 chains ( 12 @.@ 5 km ) from Bristol Temple Meads and 126 miles 12 chains ( 203 @.@ 0 km ) from the Great Western Railway 's terminus at London Paddington . To the east , the railway passed through the village and crossed a valley on the brick @-@ built Pill Viaduct , while to the west the line was largely through flat , open countryside . The station was initially the second along the line from Portishead Junction , after Clifton Bridge and before Portbury .
The station at Pill was aligned roughly north @-@ west / south @-@ east , with the line bridged to the east by Station Road and Myrtle Hill . There were two platforms , separated by two running lines , forming a passing loop . The southern " down " platform was for trains towards Portishead , the northern " up " platform for trains towards Bristol . Each platform was provided with a brick shelter and steps up to Station Road . The station building was sited on Station Road , west of the platforms .
There were initially six trains per day in each direction on weekdays and one on Sundays , operated by the Bristol and Exeter Railway . The Great Western took over the Bristol and Exeter in 1876 , and in 1884 took over ownership of the Bristol and Portishead . Services increased to nine trains per day on weekdays by 1889 . The line was relaid as 4 ft 8 1 ⁄ 2 in ( 1 @,@ 435 mm ) standard gauge in 1880 , coinciding with a lengthening of the platforms , and by 1909 there were 13 trains per day on weekdays and two trains on Sundays .
The double track loop through the station was extended at both ends in March 1912 , with the platforms also extended . A small goods yard and coal depot was built at the north @-@ west end of the station at the same time . A signal box was built on the southern platform at the end of the First World War . By 1929 , services had increased to 21 trains per day on weekdays and eight per day on Sundays . This allowed a train every half @-@ hour , with one train per hour running to Bristol Temple Meads and the other terminating at Ashton Gate . Passenger traffic was mainly commuters , to both Bristol and Portishead , as well as people who wished to use the Pill ferry across the river to Shirehampton . During the Second World War , many evacuees from Bristol commutered into the city from Pill . The station staff at this time consisted of a station master , two porters and two female signallers .
When the railways were nationalised in 1948 , Pill came under the aegis of the Western Region of British Railways . Passenger services had reduced by 1949 to 13 trains per day on weekdays and seven on Sundays . In 1963 the Beeching report suggested the complete withdrawal of services along the line as a cost @-@ saving measure , and so goods services at Pill were ended on 10 June 1963 ; with the station closing completely on 7 September 1964 . In the final year of operation , there were only six trains on weekdays and none on Sundays . Freight trains continued to pass through the station , but their number decreased over time , and the line fell out of regular use after 30 March 1981 . The line however was kept intact by British Rail , with occasional freight trains , and in 2002 a single track was relaid to allow rail access to Royal Portbury Dock , which brought regular freight traffic . At this time remnants of both platforms could be seen and the station buildings were in commercial use .
= = Future = =
The Portishead Branch Line is to be reopened as part of the MetroWest scheme , a rail transport plan which aims to enhance transport capacity in the Bristol area . The scheme was given the go @-@ ahead in July 2012 as part of the City Deal , whereby local councils would be given greater control over money by the government . There had been calls for the line to reopen , primarily due to traffic congestion on the A369 , which is the only route from Portishead to Bristol . A consultation on the reopening plans was held between 22 June and 3 August 2015 to gather views from the community and stakeholders before moving on to detailed designs . The detailed proposals will be subject to a second consultation before the plans are finalised . Due to the additional capital costs , the line will not be electrified , however the design will include passive provision for future electrification .
As part of the works , Pill station will be reopened . Trains both to and from Portishead will use the southern platform , which will be resurfaced and provided with a waiting shelter , lighting , passenger information displays and audible announcements . The northern platform , adjacent to the current single track line to Royal Portbury Dock , will not be reinstated , however the track will be retained for freight trains . The two tracks will have a junction east of the station .
Initial plans for the station were for access to be from Monmouth Road , which runs parallel to the railway , north of the line . There was to be a fully accessible footbridge across the line , with both ramp and stairs , as well as a pedestrian crossing across Monmouth Road and a lit 50 @-@ space car park on the old goods yard at the eastern end of Monmouth Road . The very end of the goods yard would be maintained for Network Rail access . These plans were changed following an agreement to acquire a property on Station Road . The new plans have the entrance to be on Station Road , at the east end of the site , meaning there would be no need for a footbridge . There would be disabled parking and a pick up / drop off point adjacent to the entrance , although the exact design of this area is still under consideration . Noise mitigation options are to be investigated and there will be improvements to local footpaths . The line is due to reopen in 2020 .
It is expected that reopening the station will result in reduced car usage to and from Pill and the surrounding villages . Most station users will walk to the station , with the next largest share being car drivers and car passengers being dropped off , followed by cyclists and bus users . Some parking restrictions are proposed to prevent rail users parking on the local streets , which are narrow and not suitable for widening .
Trains along the reopened line will operate between Portishead and Bristol Temple Meads , with two trains per hour in each direction . Services would call at Pill and Parson Street , with aspirations to also call at Bedminster and a reopened Ashton Gate . Trains could also be extended on to the Severn Beach Line . The trains used will be diesel multiple units , likely three carriages long . The line will be operated as part of the Greater Western passenger franchise . Great Western Railway , a subsidiary of FirstGroup , currently operate the Greater Western franchise , however their contract expires in early 2019 , before services to Portishead are due to start .
= Be Our Guest =
" Be Our Guest " is a song written by lyricist Howard Ashman and composer Alan Menken for Walt Disney Pictures ' 30th animated feature film Beauty and the Beast ( 1991 ) . Recorded by American actor Jerry Orbach and English actress Angela Lansbury as Lumiere and Mrs. Potts , respectively , " Be Our Guest " is a large @-@ scale Broadway @-@ inspired musical number that takes place during the first half of Beauty and the Beast , performed by the castle 's staff of enchanted objects in an elaborate attempt to welcome Belle . Menken initially intended for the melody of " Be Our Guest " to be temporary but was ultimately unable to compose a satisfying one with which to replace it . The song had originally been intended for Belle 's father Maurice . However , " Be Our Guest " had to be entirely re @-@ written as the story evolved in order to return its focus to Belle .
" Be Our Guest " has garnered universal acclaim from both film and music critics who , in addition to dubbing the song a show @-@ stopper , praised its catchiness and Orbach 's vocal performance while applauding the scene 's unprecedented use of computer @-@ generated imagery . " Be Our Guest " has since been extolled as one of Disney 's most celebrated and popular songs , establishing itself as one of the studio 's greatest and most iconic . " Be Our Guest " received nominations for both the Golden Globe and Academy Awards for Best Original Song , ultimately losing both to the film 's title song . " Be Our Guest " has been ranked highly on several " best Disney song " countdown lists , garnering recognition from IGN , M and the American Film Institute . In addition to appearing in the Broadway musical adaptation of Beauty and the Beast , " Be Our Guest " was performed by Orbach live at the 64th Academy Awards , has been parodied in an episode of The Simpsons and covered by Alvin and the Chipmunks and The Chipettes .
= = Background = =
Originally , Beauty and the Beast , under the direction of Richard Purdum , was not intended to be a musical . Then @-@ studio chief Jeffrey Katzenberg made the decision to turn the film into a Broadway @-@ style musical similar to The Little Mermaid ( 1989 ) , Disney 's previous animated film , after he , displeased with the film 's initial story reel , ordered the film scrapped and restarted from scratch . As a result , Purdum resigned , and first @-@ time feature film directors Kirk Wise and Gary Trousdale replaced him .
Following the Academy Award @-@ winning success of The Little Mermaid , Katzenberg asked the The Little Mermaid songwriting duo of Howard Ashman and Alan Menken to write the songs for and score Beauty and the Beast . At first Ashman , who was at the time writing songs with Menken for a recently pitched idea for another Disney film called Aladdin ( 1992 ) , was reluctant to join the struggling film project , but eventually agreed .
Musically , " Be Our Guest " is based on a simple melody that was composed by Menken , who initially had little intention of using it as anything more than just a " dummy . " Upon singing the tune and presenting it to co @-@ writer Ashman , Menken discovered that he was unable to come up with a melody capable of surpassing " that dumb piece of music that I wrote initially because it was just right . " Subsequently , Ashman wrote the song 's lyrics .
Originally , the filmmakers had initially intended for " Be Our Guest " to be performed by Lumiere to Belle 's disoriented father Maurice when the character first discovers the Beast 's castle . According to co @-@ director Gary Trousdale , " The song had already been recorded and the sequence partially animated when we decided that it would be more meaningful if it was directed towards Belle " because " she is one of the two main characters and the story revolves around her coming to the castle . " Consequently , the song had to be re @-@ written and the entire scene re @-@ animated . Trousdale explained , " We had to bring Jerry Orbach and all the other vocal talents back into the studio to change all references to gender that appeared in the original recording . "
= = Context , scene and analysis = =
Beauty and the Beast 's fourth musical number , " Be Our Guest " is set within the first half of the film , occurring shortly after Belle sacrifices her own freedom in return for her father 's , becoming the Beast 's prisoner . Confined to her bedroom when she , upset , stubbornly refuses to join the Beast for dinner , Belle eventually ventures into the kitchen after feeling hungry , where she is greeted by the castle 's staff of enchanted inanimate objects – Mrs. Potts , Cogsworth and Lumiere . Upon insisting that they treat her more like a guest than a prisoner , Lumiere decides to go against the Beast 's orders and invites Belle to dinner . A " food chorus line , " " Be Our Guest " is " a rollicking invitation to Belle from the castle staff . " As one of the film 's most poignant , large @-@ scale , " all @-@ stops @-@ pulled production number [ s ] , " the scene features " dancing plates and other fanciful dinner guests " as they " perform for Belle , hoping to make her stay a little more comfortable . " As the film 's heroine , Belle is served a meal in the form of " a Broadway @-@ quality stage show . " Commonly regarded as the " show @-@ stopper " of Beauty and the Beast , the sequence both visually and musically " derive [ s its ] insatiable energy and excitement from the gradual accumulation of participation . " The Washington Post observed that " ' Be Our Guest ' " involves " the household gadgets enjoin [ ing ] Belle to live with them , " comparing it heavily to the song " Under the Sea " from Disney 's The Little Mermaid ( 1989 ) , which was also written by Menken and Ashman . Longing to be human , servant and maître d ' Lumiere is also of the impression that he is worth nothing unless he serves , singing , " Life is so unnerving / For a servant who 's not serving . "
Significantly , Beauty and the Beast was one of Disney 's earliest feature @-@ length animated films to fully employ computer @-@ generated imagery and technology , utilizing it to a significant extent , as depicted throughout its signature musical numbers " Be Our Guest " and " Beauty and the Beast . " Significantly , " Be Our Guest " " marks the debut of the [ Pixar Image Computer ] system that is featured in the ballroom dance sequence and ' Be Our Guest ' . " Due to its elaborateness , the sequence has been noted for " tak [ ing ] full advantage of the advantages of animation . " In terms of character development , " Be Our Guest introduces both Belle and audiences to Lumiere 's " musical expertise . " Additionally , the energetic and flamboyant way in which Lumiere , a suave , French @-@ accented candelabra , is personified and portrayed throughout " Be Our Guest " has often been likened to French entertainer Maurice Chevalier . The Washington Post commented , " The model for Lumiere seems to have been Maurice Chevalier , and the idea is so choice , and so deftly executed , that it places him immediately among the top rank of Disney characters . " American actor and singer Jerry Orbach , who provided the voice of Lumiere , himself admitted to People that the character was very much him doing a deliberate impersonation of Chevalier .
Described as both a " musical montage " and the " magical set piece " of Beauty and the Beast , " Be Our Guest " is " a big production number featuring dancing cutlery . " Analyzing the scene 's complex , elaborate choreography , film critics have observed the profound influence that American filmmaker and choreographer Busby Berkeley has had on " Be Our Guest " , deeming its lively " Busby Berkeley @-@ style choreography " both " joyous and charming " while commenting , " Without the confines of camera range , there are virtually no limits to how spectacular an animated Berkeley scene can be ... most notably ... ' Be Our Guest ' . " David Kronke of Amazon.com hailed the song itself as " an inspired Busby Berkeley homage . " Similarly , the Dance Films Association wrote , " the ' Be Our Guest ' number features practically all of the techniques employed by Berkeley in his musical comedies , " while The New York Times called " Be Our Guest " a " Busby Berkeley @-@ style number in which Belle is serenaded by furniture and dishes . " Film critic Roger Ebert joked that the " Be Our Guest " choreography resembles " Busby Berkeley running amok . " Additionally , Jerry Griswold , author of The Meanings of " Beauty and the Beast " : A Handbook , observed several similarities between " Be Our Guest " and a scene from Maurice Sendak and Carole King 's musical Really Rosie .
= = Music and lyrics = =
Written in the key of B ♭ major , " Be Our Guest " is , according to the song 's official sheet music which , published by Walt Disney Music Publishing , is available at Musicnotes.com , a Broadway musical @-@ inspired song . An energetic , " turbo @-@ charged Broadway chorus number , " " Be Our Guest " was written in common time at a " free " tempo of 50 beats per minute , spanning a length of three minutes and forty @-@ four seconds . In " Be Our Guest , " Orbach 's " low " tenor or baritone vocal range spans roughly three octaves , from the low note of F3 to the high note of D ♭ 6 . Described as a " scintillating , " " jolly , " " lavish and bouncy " song , " Be Our Guest " is , according to TV Guide , a " boisterous " number , comparing it to songs from the Broadway musicals Hello , Dolly ! and Mame . With the film 's " roots in Broadway , " Beliefnet described " Be Our Guest " as a " rousing " and " tuneful ballad . " Musically , the song , according to Film.com , has a total of four key changes and modulations , beginning slowly and " gradually build [ ing ] ... to a thunderous , bring @-@ the @-@ house @-@ down climax . "
Additionally described as " a spark of Gallic vaudeville that lights a flame to both [ entertainers ] Maurice Chevalier and Yves Montand , " " Be Our Guest " depicts both " fun " and " humour . " Extending a warm , energetic invitation towards Belle , the first verse of the song is preceded by a spoken introduction . It reads , at first in French , " Ma chere Mademoiselle , it is with deepest pride and greatest pleasure that we welcome you tonight . And now we invite you to relax , let us pull up a chair as the dining room proudly presents : your dinner , " immediately succeeded by the sung lyrics " Be our guest , be our guest , put our service to the test , " continuing with " Go on , unfold your menu / take a glance and then you 'll / be our guest / oui , our guest / be our guest . " A nostalgic Lumiere muses about being human , pining for the " good old days when we were useful . " Furthermore , Lumiere voices his need to serve , singing , " Life is so unnerving / For a servant who 's not serving . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
" Be Our Guest " has been universally lauded , receiving widespread critical acclaim and garnering nearly unanimously positive reviews from both film and music critics . Hailing it as a " crowd @-@ pleasing production number , " TV Guide drew similarities between " Be Our Guest " and songs from the Broadway musicals Hello , Dolly ! and Mame . The Globe and Mail 's Jennie Punter called the song " show @-@ stopping . " Similarly , Drew Taylor of Indiewire echoed Punter 's statement , writing , " when the enchanted wait staff dazzle the captive Belle , assuring her that she 's not a prisoner she 's a guest of the castle , " the result is ultimately " show @-@ stopping . " Writing for the Austin Chronicle , Kathleen Maher , who generally panned the film 's songs and musical numbers , liked " Be Our Guest " , describing it as Beauty and the Beast 's " only ... magical set piece . " Ranking Beauty and the Beast : Original Motion Picture Soundtrack as Disney 's greatest soundtrack , Moviefone 's Sandie Angulo Chen highlighted " Be Our Guest " , noting its " infectious quality " while haling it as an " amazing food chorus line . " JoBlo.com wrote that " Be Our Guest " is both " eye @-@ popping " and " impossibly catchy . " Orbach 's performance as Lumiere has also garnered significant praise . Filmtracks.com commented , " the ever popular ' Be Our Guest ' ... flourish [ es ] due to a spirited lead performance by Jerry Orbach . " Similarly , Hollywood.com cited in the website 's biography of the actor , " Among the highlights of [ Beauty and the Beast ] was Orbach 's delivery of the showstopping number ' Be Our Guest ' . "
Several critics have awarded specific praise to " Be Our Guest " ' s choreography , comparing it extensively to the work of director and choreographer Busby Berkeley . In addition to hailing " Be Our Guest " as " delightful , " Candice Russel of the Sun @-@ Sentinel wrote , " In setting the table for Belle , Lumiere and friends concoct a Busby Berkeley song @-@ and @-@ dance extravaganza . " The Deseret News ' Chris Hicks described " the Busby Berkeley @-@ style ' Be Our Guest ' " as " first @-@ rate . " Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly highlighted the scene , writing , " The set pieces are narcotically pleasing , especially the Busby Berkeley @-@ style dancing @-@ kitchenware spectacular , ' Be Our Guest ' . " James Berardinelli of ReelViews coined " ' Be Our Guest ' ... the animated equivalent of Broadway show @-@ stoppers , with all the energy and audacity of something choreographed by Busby Berkeley . " Calling it a " wonderful musical number , " Roger Ebert enthused , " ' Be Our Guest ' is a rollicking invitation to Belle from the castle staff , choreographed like Busby Berkeley running amok . " In review of the 2011 3D re @-@ release of Beauty and the Beast , Stephen Whitty of The Star @-@ Ledger commented , " The illusion of depth does add more life to the enchanted housewares — particularly the ' Be Our Guest ' number , with its Busby Berkeley geometrics . "
While Beauty and the Beast 's several theatrical re @-@ releases and reissues have been met with generally mixed reviews , critical response towards the " Be Out Guest " musical sequence has remained predominantly positive . Reviewing the 2001 IMAX re @-@ release of the film , the Los Angeles Times ' Charles Solomon felt that the inclusion of the deleted song " Human Again " was unnecessary , preferring " Be Our Guest " and writing , " a second major production number simply isn 't needed ; ' Be Our Guest ' is sufficient . " Similarly , the Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer 's William Arnold wrote , " On the other hand , it 's understandable why [ " Human Again " ] was cut from the original . It 's almost too similar to the film 's show @-@ stopper , ' Be Our Guest ' . " Reviewing the film 's 2012 3D conversion , Todd Gilchrist of Boxoffice wrote that " Be Our Guest " is " effective , immersive and maybe even memorable . " Meanwhile , Annlee Ellingson of Paste wrote , " It 's thrilling to experience this film 's major set pieces on the big screen again , especially the Broadway @-@ infused ' Be Our Guest ' number . " The Times @-@ Picayune 's Mike Scott wrote , " But then the 3 @-@ D all but disappears until the ' Be Our Guest ' number -- with its artfully surreal dance of the dishes . " Andrew Pulver of The Guardian , who otherwise criticized the film 's songs , praised " Be Our Guest " , writing , " Apart from the spectacular Busby Berkeleyesque [ ' ] Be Our Guest [ ' ] , the film pretty much grinds to a halt whenever one of the songs ... starts up . " Likewise , Neil Smith of Total Film concluded that " only ‘ Be Our Guest ’ and the ballroom swoop really benefit from a stereoscopic make @-@ over that doesn ’ t do the hand @-@ drawn remainder many favours . "
Although vastly critically acclaimed , the song was not entirely void of some minor criticism . Lukewarmly , Irving Tan of Sputnikmusic commented , " numbers like ' Be Our Guest ' provides evidence that Lumiere and co. are infinitely preferable as entertaining flatware . " On Lansbury 's performance , Tan joked , " The singer 's delightfully personable contribution is almost reason enough to forgive Disney for thinking her English accent ... would not look out of place in a film set in 18th century France . " A more negative review was written by Pete Vonder Haar of The Houston Press . Observing that Beauty and the Beast " was Disney 's first stab at incorporating computer animation , " he felt that " the results are , now , pretty primitive , " concluding , " I recall thinking the dancing forks during ' Be Our Guest ' ... looked pretty bad and time has not been kind . " The song has also been compared to " Under the Sea " from The Little Mermaid , most of which have been mixed . Jay Boyar the Orlando Sentinel opined , " ' Be Our Guest ' ... is the closest thing in Beauty and the Beast to the bubbly ' Under the Sea ' extravaganza in The Little Mermaid , " while Entertainment Weekly 's Owen Gleiberman 's review was much more negative , describing the song as " merely serviceable " and concluding , ' Be Our Guest , ' ... sorry to say , is no ' Under the Sea ' . " Likewise , Desson Howe of The Washington Post panned both the song and Lumiere , writing , " the Candelabrum 's Maurice Chevalier accent is clearly intended to substitute for the Caribbean @-@ lilted lobster in Mermaid . And the ensemble song , ' Be Our Guest , ' in which the household gadgets enjoin Belle to live with them , is an obvious attempt to reprise a similar Mermaid number , ' Under the Sea . ' But it 's just under par . "
= = = Awards , accolades and legacy = = =
Alongside the songs " Beauty and the Beast " and " Belle , " " Be Our Guest " was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Song at the 64th Academy Awards in 1992 . Having garnered three separate Academy Award nominations for Best Original Song , Beauty and the Beast became the first film in the history of the Academy Awards to achieve this rare feat ; this would not be repeated until Dreamgirlswas nominated for the award in 2007 . Ultimately , " Be Our Guest " lost to the film 's title song . In an interview with Entertainment Weekly , Beauty and the Beast producer Don Hahn revealed that Disney feared that having three songs nominated for Best Original Song would result in a draw or three @-@ way tie . Therefore , while " Beauty and the Beast " received heavy promotion from the studio , significantly less was given to " Be Our Guest " and " Belle . " " Be Our Guest " was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song at the 49th Golden Globe Awards in 1992 , losing again to " Beauty and the Beast . " In 2004 , the American Film Institute nominated " Be Our Guest " for its " 100 Years … 100 Songs " ranking .
Allwomenstalk believes that " Be Our Guest " represents " what Disney is all about . " Dubbed one of the most memorable songs from Beauty and the Beast , while lauded as a " favorite , " a " classic " and " one of the greatest showstoppers " in film history , " Be Out Guest " is commonly cited as one of Disney 's greatest songs . As Beauty and the Beast 's " most frequently heard song , " BuzzSugar ranked " Be Our Guest " third on the website 's list of the " 25 Disney Songs We Will Never Stop Singing " . Calling the song a " gem , " author Maggie Pehanick wrote that " Be Our Guest " was " one of the first [ Disney ] songs to get permanently lodged in your brain . " Oh No They Didn 't ranked " Be Our Guest " eighth on its list of " The Top 25 Disney Songs of All Time " , while IGN ranked the song third , with author Lucy O 'Brien writing , " Of all the brilliant numbers peppered throughout Beauty and the Beast , it 's the turbo @-@ charged Broadway chorus number [ ' ] Be Our Guest [ ' ] that 's the stand @-@ out , " describing it as " one of the best songs ever devised by Alan Menken and Howard Ashman . " " Be Our Guest " was ranked seventh on M 's " Top 20 Disney Songs of All Time " list , with author Stephanie Osmanski citing " Be our guest , be our guest , put our service to the test " as her favorite lyrics . Meanwhile , HitFix ranked " Be Our Guest " sixth on their own list o " The 20 Best Disney Songs of All Time . " Additionally , while ranking Lumiere the thirty @-@ ninth " Best Animated Movie Character " of all @-@ time , Empire hailed " Be Our Guest " as the character 's best moment and " Stroke of genius , " writing , " The song ... sees Lumiere introduce perhaps the greatest dining experience in animation history . " While ranking the " 50 Greatest Fairy Tale Movies , " on which Beauty and the Beast ranked second , Total Film highlighted " Be Our Guest " as the film 's " Most Magical Moment . " Film.com ranked " Be Our Guest " the thirteenth " Greatest Musical Number ... in Movie History , " describing the song as " a masterpiece of showtune construction " while lauding its Busby Berkeley @-@ inspired choreography . " Be Our Guest " was the only animated musical number included on the website 's list of 50 .
= = Live performances = =
In 1992 , Jerry Orbach performed " Be Our Guest " at the 64th Academy Awards .
= = Cultural impact = =
= = = Covers and parodies = = =
In 1995 , Alvin and the Chipmunks and The Chipettes recorded a cover of " Be Our Guest " for their Disney @-@ themed concept album When You Wish Upon a Chipmunk .
In the Animaniacs parody episode " Cutie and the Beast " , Yakko and Wakko Warner sing a version entitled " She 's a Pest . "
In The Simpsons sixth season episode " Two Dozen and One Greyhounds " ( 1995 ) , " Be Our Guest " is parodied by the character Mr. Burns when he performs the song " See My Vest " . New York magazine @-@ run website Vulture.com ranked the song eighth on its list of " The Ten Best Simpsons Songs " .
In South Park : Bigger , Longer and Uncut , the song is parodied by Big Gay Al when he performs the song " I 'm Super " .
An Oscar @-@ themed rendition of the song was performed by Seth MacFarlane at the 85th Academy Awards .
In 2013 , English television personalities Ant & Dec appeared in a Christmas television advertisement for the supermarket Morrisons . In the minute @-@ long commercial , a computer @-@ animated gingerbread man named Ginger serenades Ant & Dec to the tune of " Be Our Guest , " inviting them to enjoy the store 's products .
In the Disney Channel Original Movie Descendants , Prince Ben ( the son of Belle and the Beast ) and the Auradon Prep Glee Club perform an a cappella hip @-@ hop version of the song before Ben 's coronation .
= = = Broadway musical = = =
" Be Our Guest " was also featured as an elaborate production number in the Broadway musical adaptation of Beauty and the Beast , which ran from 1994 to 2007 . Originally performed by American actors Gary Beach and Beth Fowler , who originated the roles of Lumiere and Mrs. Potts , respectively , " Be Our Guest " was " a spectacular dance of illuminated saucers , showgirls bedecked with spinning plates , and giant @-@ size bottles spewing streams of brilliant sparkles . " In addition to " performance [ s ] by eye @-@ catching cutlery , plates , a tablecloth and napkins , " the musical number featured " a show @-@ stopping routine [ from ] a dancing doormat . "
Reception towards the Broadway treatment of " Be Our Guest " has been generally mixed . While some theatre critics , such as Alex Bentley of CultureMap , felt that " Be Our Guest " " remain [ s ] as timeless as ever , " The Christian Science Monitor 's Karen Campbell criticized the number 's lavishness , feeling that it compromised the story Campbell wrote , " Only in the fantastical ' Be Our Guest ' number ... does the show 's extraordinary technological magic threaten to derail the story line . " However , some critics did positively comment on the fact that the Broadway adaptation of " Be Our Guest " was more than simply a " cookie @-@ cutter " carbon copy rendition of the original version featured in the animated film .
= Coronation of the British monarch =
The coronation of the British monarch is a ceremony ( specifically , initiation rite ) in which the monarch of the United Kingdom is formally invested with regalia and crowned at Westminster Abbey . It corresponds to the coronations that formerly took place in other European monarchies , all of which have abandoned coronations in favour of inauguration or enthronement ceremonies .
The coronation usually takes place several months after the death of the previous monarch , as it is considered a joyous occasion that would be inappropriate while mourning continues . This interval also gives the planners enough time to complete the elaborate arrangements required . For example , Queen Elizabeth II was crowned on 2 June 1953 , having ascended the throne on 6 February 1952 ; the date of her coronation was announced almost a year in advance , and preparations inside the abbey took five months .
The ceremony is performed by the Archbishop of Canterbury , the most senior cleric in the Church of England , of which the monarch is head . Other clergy and members of the nobility also have roles ; most participants in the ceremony are required to wear ceremonial uniforms or robes and coronets . Many other government officials and guests attend , including representatives of other countries .
The essential elements of the coronation have remained largely unchanged for the past thousand years . The sovereign is first presented to , and acclaimed by , the people . He or she then swears an oath to uphold the law and the Church . Following that , the monarch is anointed with holy oil , invested with regalia , and crowned , before receiving the homage of his or her subjects . Wives of kings are then anointed and crowned as queen consort . The service ends with a closing procession , and since the 20th century it has been traditional for the Royal Family to appear later on the balcony of Buckingham Palace , before attending a banquet there .
= = History = =
= = = Development of the English coronation = = =
The main elements of the coronation service and the earliest form of oath were devised by Saint Dunstan for the coronation of King Edgar in 973 AD . It drew on ceremonies used by the Kings of the Franks and those used in the ordination of bishops . Two versions of coronation services , known as ordines ( from the Latin ordo meaning " order " ) or rescensions , survive from before the Norman Conquest . It is not known if the First Rescension was ever used in England and it was the Second Rescension which was used by Edgar in 973 and by subsequent Anglo @-@ Saxon and early Norman kings .
A Third Rescension was probably compiled during the reign of King Henry I and was used at the coronation of King Stephen in 1135 . While retaining the most important elements of the Anglo @-@ Saxon rite , it borrowed heavily from the consecration of the Holy Roman Emperor from the Pontificale Romano @-@ Germanicum , a book of German liturgy compiled in Mainz in 961 , thus bringing the English tradition into line with continental practice . It remained in use until the Coronation of Edward II in 1308 when the Fourth Rescencion was first used , having been compiled over several preceding decades . Although influenced by its French counterpart , the new ordo focussed on the balance between the monarch and his nobles and on the oath , neither of which concerned the absolutist French kings . One manuscript text of this rescension is the Liber Regalis at Westminster Abbey which has come to be regarded as the definitive version .
Following the start of the Reformation in England , the boy king Edward VI had been crowned in the first Protestant coronation in 1547 , during which Archbishop Thomas Cranmer preached a sermon against idolatry and " the tyranny of the Bishops of Rome " . However , six years later , he was succeeded by his half @-@ sister , Mary I , who restored the Catholic rite . In 1559 , Elizabeth I underwent the last English coronation under the auspices of the Catholic Church ; however , Elizabeth 's insistence on changes to reflect her Protestant beliefs resulted in several bishops refusing to officiate at the service and it was conducted by the low @-@ ranking Bishop of Carlisle , Owen Oglethorpe .
= = = Scottish coronations = = =
Scottish coronations were traditionally held at Scone Abbey , with the king seated on the Stone of Destiny . The original rituals were a fusion of ceremonies used by the kings of Dál Riata , based on the inauguration of Aidan by Columba in 574 , and by the Picts from whom the Stone of Destiny came . A crown does not seem to have been used until the inauguration of Alexander II in 1214 . The ceremony included the laying on of hands by a senior cleric and the recitation of the king 's genealogy . Alexander III was the last Scottish king to be crowned in this way in 1249 , since the Stone was captured by the English forces of Edward I in 1296 . It was later incorporated into the English Coronation Chair and its first certain use at an English coronation was that of Henry IV in 1399 . Pope John XXII in a bull of 1329 granted the kings of Scotland the right to be anointed and crowned . No record exists of the exact form of the medieval rituals , but a later account exists of the coronation of the 17 @-@ month @-@ old infant King James V at Stirling Castle in 1513 . The ceremony was held in a church , since demolished , within the castle walls and was conducted by the Bishop of Glasgow , because the Archbishop of St Andrews had been killed at the Battle of Flodden . It is likely that the child would have been knighted before the start of the ceremony . The coronation itself started with a sermon , followed by the anointing and crowning , then the coronation oath , in this case taken for the child by an unknown noble or priest , and finally an oath of fealty and acclamation by the congregation .
James VI of Scotland had been crowned in The Church of the Holy Rude , Stirling , in 1567 and became James I of Great Britain in 1603 . Charles I travelled north for a Scottish coronation at Holyrood Abbey in Edinburgh in 1633 , but caused consternation amongst the Presbyterian Scots by his insistence on elaborate High Anglican ritual , arousing " gryt feir of inbriginge of poperie " . Charles II underwent a simple Presbyterian coronation ceremony at Scone in 1650 , but his brother James II was never crowned in Scotland , although Scottish peers attended his coronation in London , setting a precedent for future ceremonies .
= = = Modern coronations = = =
The Liber Regalis was translated into English for the first time for the Coronation of James I in 1601 as a result of the Reformation in England . James II who was a Catholic , ordered a truncated version omitting the Eucharist in 1685 , but this was restored for later monarchs . Only four years later , the service was again revised by Henry Compton for the Coronation of William and Mary and this has formed the basis of subsequent coronation services . However , in the 20th century , liturgical scholars have sought to restore the spiritual meaning of the ceremony by rearranging the elements with reference to the medieval texts , creating a " complex marriage of innovation and tradition " .
= = = Timing = = =
The timing of the coronation has varied throughout British history . King Edgar 's coronation was some 15 years after his accession in 957 and may have been intended to mark the high point of his reign , or that he reached the age of 30 , the age at which Jesus Christ was baptised . Harold II was crowned on the day after the death of his predecessor , Edward the Confessor , the rush probably reflecting the contentious nature of Harold 's succession ; whereas the first Norman monarch , William I " The Conqueror " , was also crowned on the day he became king , 25 December 1066 , but three weeks since the surrender of English nobles and bishops at Berkhampstead , allowing time to prepare a spectacular ceremony . Most of his successors were crowned within weeks , or even days , of their accession . Edward I was fighting in the Ninth Crusade when he acceded to the throne in 1272 ; he was crowned soon after his return in 1274 . Edward II 's coronation , similarly , was delayed by a campaign in Scotland in 1307 . Henry VI was only a few months old when he acceded in 1422 ; he was crowned in 1429 , but did not officially assume the reins of government until he was deemed of sufficient age , in 1437 . Pre @-@ modern coronations were usually either on a Sunday , the Christian Sabbath , or on a Christian holiday . Edgar 's coronation was at Pentecost , William I 's on Christmas Day , possibly in imitation of the Byzantine emperors , and King John 's was on Ascension Day . Elizabeth I consulted her astrologer , John Dee , before deciding on an auspicious date . The coronations of Charles II in 1661 and Anne in 1702 were on St George 's Day , the feast of the patron saint of England .
Under the Hanoverian monarchs in the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries , it was deemed appropriate to extend the waiting period to several months , following a period of mourning for the previous monarch and to allow time for preparation of the ceremony . In the case of every monarch since and including George IV , at least one year has passed between accession and coronation , with the exception of George VI , whose predecessor did not die but abdicated . The coronation date had already been set ; planning simply continued with a new monarch .
Since a period of time has often passed between accession and coronation , some monarchs were never crowned . Edward V and Lady Jane Grey were both deposed before they could be crowned , in 1483 and 1553 , respectively . Edward VIII also went uncrowned , as he abdicated in 1936 before the end of the customary one @-@ year period between accession and coronation . A monarch , however , accedes to the throne the moment their predecessor dies , not when they are crowned. i.e. " The King is dead . Long live the King . "
= = = Location = = =
The Anglo @-@ Saxon monarchs used various locations for their coronations , including Bath , Kingston upon Thames , London , and Winchester . The last Anglo @-@ Saxon monarch , Harold II , was crowned at Westminster Abbey in 1066 ; the location was preserved for all future coronations . The basic elements of the coronation ceremony have also remained the same for the last thousand years ; it was devised in 973 by Dunstan . When London was under the control of the French , Henry III was crowned at Gloucester in 1216 ; he later chose to have a second coronation at Westminster in 1220 . Two hundred years later , Henry VI also had two coronations ; as King of England in London in 1429 , and as King of France in Paris in 1431 .
= = = Coronation of consorts and others = = =
Coronations may be performed for a person other than the reigning monarch . In 1170 , Henry the Young King , heir apparent to the throne , was crowned as a second king of England , subordinate to his father Henry II ; such coronations were common practice in mediaeval France and Germany , but this is only one of two instances of its kind in England ( the other being that of Ecgfrith of Mercia in 796 , crowned whilst his father , Offa of Mercia , was still alive ) . More commonly , a king 's wife is crowned as queen consort . If the king is already married at the time of his coronation , a joint coronation of both king and queen may be performed . The first such coronation was of Henry II of England and Eleanor of Aquitaine in 1154 ; seventeen such coronations have been performed , including that of the co @-@ rulers William III and Mary II . The most recent was that of George VI and the former Elizabeth Bowes @-@ Lyon in 1937 . If the king married , or remarried , after his coronation , or if his wife were not crowned with him for some other reason , she might be crowned in a separate ceremony . The first such separate coronation of a queen consort in England was that of Matilda of Flanders in 1068 ; the last was Anne Boleyn 's in 1533 . The most recent King to wed post @-@ coronation , Charles II , did not have a separate coronation for his bride , Catherine of Braganza . Following the English Civil War , Oliver Cromwell declined the crown but underwent a coronation in all but name in his second investiture as Lord Protector in 1657 .
= = = Bringing coronations to the people = = =
The idea of the need to gain popular support for a new monarch by making the ceremony a spectacle for ordinary people , started with the coronation in 1377 of Richard II who was a 10 @-@ year @-@ old boy , thought unlikely to command respect simply by his physical appearance . On the day before the coronation , the boy king and his retinue were met outside the City by the Lord Mayor , Aldermen and the livery companies , and he was conducted to the Tower of London where he spent the night in vigil . The following morning , the king travelled on horseback in a great procession through the decorated City streets to Westminster . Bands played along the route , the public conduits flowed with red and white wine , and an imitation castle had been built in Cheapside , probably to represent the New Jerusalem , where a girl blew gold leaf over the king and offered him wine . Similar , or even more elaborate pageants continued until the coronation of Charles II in 1661 . Thereafter , there was only a short procession from Westminster Hall to the abbey . For the coronation of George IV in 1831 , a state procession from St James 's Palace to the abbey was instituted , and this pageantry is an important feature of the modern event .
In early modern coronations , the events inside the Abbey were usually recorded by artists and published in elaborate folio books of engravings , the last of these was published in 1905 depicting the coronation which had taken place three years earlier . Re @-@ enactments of the ceremony were staged at London and provincial theatres ; in 1761 , a production featuring the Westminster Abbey Choir at the Royal Opera House in Covent Garden ran for three months after the real event . In 1902 , a request to record the ceremony on a gramophone record was rejected , but Sir Benjamin Stone photographed the procession into the abbey . Nine years later , at the coronation of George V , Stone was allowed to photograph the recognition , the presentation of the swords , and the homage .
The coronation of George VI in 1937 was broadcast on radio by the British Broadcasting Corporation ( BBC ) , and parts of the service were filmed and shown in cinemas . The state procession was shown live on the new BBC Television Service , the first major outside broadcast . At Elizabeth II 's coronation in 1953 , most of the proceedings inside the Abbey were also televised by the BBC . Originally , events as far as the choir screen were to be televised live , with the remainder to be filmed and released later after any mishaps were edited out . This would prevent television viewers from seeing most of the highlights of the coronation , including the actual crowning , live ; it led to controversy in the press and even questions in Parliament . The organising committee subsequently decided the entire ceremony would be televised , except for the anointing and communion , which had also been excluded from photography at the last coronation . It was revealed 30 years later that the about @-@ face was due to the personal intervention of the Queen . It is estimated that over 20 million people watched the broadcast in the United Kingdom . As a result of the coronation , public interest in television rose significantly .
= = = Commonwealth realms = = =
The need to include the various elements of the British Empire in coronations was not considered until 1902 , when it was attended by the prime ministers and governors @-@ general of the British Dominions , by then almost completely autonomous , and also by many of the rulers of the Indian Princely States and the various British Protectorates . An Imperial Conference was held afterwards . In 1911 , the procession inside the Abbey included the banners of the Dominions and the Indian Empire along with the traditional banners of the Home Nations . By 1937 , the Statute of Westminster 1931 had made the Dominions fully independent , and the wording of the coronation oath had to be amended to include their names and confine the elements concerning religion to the United Kingdom .
Thus since 1937 , the monarch has been simultaneously crowned as sovereign of several independent nations besides the United Kingdom , known since 1953 as the Commonwealth realms . Elizabeth II was asked , for example : " Will you solemnly promise and swear to govern the Peoples of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland , Canada , Australia , New Zealand , the Union of South Africa , Pakistan and Ceylon , and of your Possessions and other Territories to any of them belonging or pertaining , according to their respective laws and customs ? "
= = Participants = =
Attendees include foreign and Commonwealth dignitaries as well as Britons , some of whom participate in the ceremony directly . For Elizabeth II 's coronation in 1953 , 8 @,@ 000 guests were squeezed into the Abbey and each person had to make do with a maximum of 18 inches ( 46 cm ) of seating .
= = = Clergy = = =
The Archbishop of Canterbury , who has precedence over all other clergy and all laypersons except members of the Royal Family , traditionally officiates at coronations ; in his or her absence , another bishop appointed by the monarch may take the Archbishop 's place . There have , however , been several exceptions . William I was crowned by the Archbishop of York , since the Archbishop of Canterbury had been appointed by the Antipope Benedict X , and this appointment was not recognised as valid by the Pope . Edward II was crowned by the Bishop of Winchester because the Archbishop of Canterbury had been exiled by Edward I. Mary I , a Catholic , refused to be crowned by the Protestant Archbishop Thomas Cranmer ; the coronation was instead performed by the Bishop of Winchester . Elizabeth I was crowned by the Bishop of Carlisle ( to whose see is attached no special precedence ) because the senior prelates were " either dead , too old and infirm , unacceptable to the queen , or unwilling to serve " . Finally , when James II was deposed and replaced with William III and Mary II jointly , the Archbishop of Canterbury refused to recognise the new Sovereigns ; he had to be replaced by the Bishop of London . Hence , in almost all cases where the Archbishop of Canterbury has failed to participate , his place has been taken by a senior cleric : the Archbishop of York is second in precedence , the Bishop of London third , the Bishop of Durham fourth , and the Bishop of Winchester fifth .
= = = Great Officers of State = = =
The Great Officers of State traditionally participate during the ceremony . The offices of Lord High Steward and Lord High Constable have not been regularly filled since the 15th and 16th centuries respectively ; they are , however , revived for coronation ceremonies . The Lord Great Chamberlain enrobes the Sovereign with the ceremonial vestments , with the aid of the Groom of the Robes and the Master ( in the case of a king ) or Mistress ( in the case of a queen ) of the Robes .
The Barons of the Cinque Ports also participated in the ceremony . Formerly , the Barons were the Members of the House of Commons representing the Cinque Ports of Hastings , New Romney , Hythe , Dover and Sandwich . Reforms in the 19th century , however , integrated the Cinque Ports into a regular constituency system applied throughout the nation . At later coronations , Barons were specially designated from among the city councillors for the specific purpose of attending coronations . Originally , the Barons were charged with bearing a ceremonial canopy over the Sovereign during the procession to and from Westminster Abbey . The last time the Barons performed such a task was at the coronation of George IV in 1821 . The Barons did not return for the coronations of William IV ( who insisted on a simpler , cheaper ceremonial ) and Victoria . At coronations since Victoria 's , the Barons have attended the ceremony , but they have not carried canopies .
= = = Other claims to attend the coronation = = =
Many landowners and other persons have honorific " duties " or privileges at the coronation . Such rights are determined by a special Court of Claims , over which the Lord High Steward traditionally presided . The first recorded Court of Claims was convened in 1377 for the coronation of Richard II . By the Tudor period , the hereditary post of Lord High Steward had merged with the Crown , and so Henry VIII began the modern tradition of naming a temporary Steward for the coronation only , with separate commissioners to carry out the actual work of the court .
In 1952 , for example , the Court accepted the claim of the Dean of Westminster to advise the Queen on the proper procedure during the ceremony ( for nearly a thousand years he and his predecessor abbots have kept an unpublished Red Book of practices ) , the claim of the Lord Bishop of Durham and the Lord Bishop of Bath and Wells to walk beside the Queen as she entered and exited the Abbey and to stand on either side of her through the entire coronation ritual , the claim of the Earl of Shrewsbury in his capacity as Lord High Steward of Ireland to carry a white staff . The legal claim of the Queen 's Scholars of Westminster School to be the first to acclaim the monarch on behalf of the common people was formally disallowed by the Court , but in practice their traditional shouts of " Vivat ! Vivat Regina ! " were still incorporated into the Coronation Anthem .
= = Dress = =
= = = Sovereign 's robes = = =
The Sovereign wears a variety of different robes and other garments during the course of the ceremony :
Crimson surcoat – the regular dress during most of the ceremony , worn under all other robes . In 1953 , Elizabeth II wore a newly made gown in place of a surcoat .
Robe of State of crimson velvet or Parliament Robe – the first robe used at a coronation , worn on entry to the Abbey and later at State Openings of Parliament . It consists of an ermine cape and a long crimson velvet train lined with further ermine and decorated with gold lace .
Anointing gown – a simple and austere garment worn during the anointing . It is plain white , bears no decoration and fastens at the back .
Colobium sindonis ( " shroud tunic " ) – the first robe with which the Sovereign is invested . It is a loose white undergarment of fine linen cloth edged with a lace border , open at the sides , sleeveless and cut low at the neck . It symbolises the derivation of Royal authority from the people .
Supertunica – the second robe with which the Sovereign is invested . It is a long coat of gold silk which reaches to the ankles and has wide @-@ flowing sleeves . It is lined with rose @-@ coloured silk , trimmed with gold lace , woven with national symbols and fastened by a sword belt . It derives from the full dress uniform of a consul of the Byzantine Empire .
Robe Royal or Pallium Regale – the main robe worn during the ceremony and used during the Crowning . It is a four @-@ square mantle , lined in crimson silk and decorated with silver coronets , national symbols and silver imperial eagles in the four corners . It is lay , rather than liturgical , in nature .
Stole Royal or armilla – a gold silk scarf which accompanies the Robe Royal , richly and heavily embroidered with gold and silver thread , set with jewels and lined with rose @-@ coloured silk and gold fringing .
Purple surcoat – the counterpart to the crimson surcoat , worn during the final part of the ceremony .
Imperial Robe of purple velvet – the robe worn at the conclusion of the ceremony , on exit from the Abbey . It comprises an embroidered ermine cape with a train of purple silk velvet , trimmed with Canadian ermine and fully lined with pure silk English satin . The purple recalls the imperial robes of Roman Emperors .
In contrast to the history and tradition which surround the Regalia , it is customary for most coronation robes to be newly made for each monarch . The present exceptions are the supertunica and Robe Royal , which both date from the coronation of George IV in 1821 .
= = = Official costume = = =
Several participants in the ceremony wear special costumes , uniforms or robes . Peers ' robes comprise a full @-@ length crimson velvet coat , and an ermine cape . Rows of sealskin spots on the cape designate the peer 's rank ; dukes use four rows , marquesses three and a half , earls three , viscounts two and a half , and barons and lords of Parliament two . Royal dukes use six rows of ermine , ermine on the front of the cape and long trains borne by pages . Peeresses ' ranks are designated not by sealskin spots , but by the length of their trains and the width of the ermine edging on the same . For duchesses , the trains are 1 @.@ 8 m ( 2 yds ) long , for marchionesses one and three @-@ quarters yards , for countesses one and a half yards , for viscountesses one and a quarter yards , and for baronesses and ladies 90 cm ( 1 yd ) . The ermine edgings are 13 cm ( 5 in ) in width for duchesses , 10 cm ( 4 in ) for marchionesses , 7 @.@ 5 cm ( 3 in ) for countesses and 5 cm ( 2 in ) for viscountesses , baronesses and ladies . The robes of peers and peeresses are used only during coronations . The canopy @-@ bearers wear their Garter robes as well as Tudor @-@ style underdress .
= = = Crowns and coronets = = =
Peers wear coronets , as do most members of the Royal Family ; such coronets display heraldic emblems based on rank or association to the monarch . The heir @-@ apparent 's coronet displays four crosses @-@ pattée alternating with four fleurs @-@ de @-@ lis , surmounted by an arch . The same style , without the arch , is used for the children and siblings of Sovereigns . The coronets of children of the heir @-@ apparent display four fleurs @-@ de @-@ lis , two crosses @-@ pattée and two strawberry leaves . A fourth style , including four crosses @-@ pattée and four strawberry leaves , is used for the children of the sons and brothers of Sovereigns . The aforementioned coronets are borne instead of any coronets based on peerage dignities . The coronets of dukes show eight strawberry leaves , those of marquesses four strawberry leaves alternating with four raised silver balls , those of earls eight strawberry leaves alternating with eight raised silver balls , those of viscounts sixteen silver balls and those of barons six silver balls . Peeresses use the same design , except that they appear on smaller circlets than the peers ' coronets .
Aside from kings and queens , the only individuals authorised to wear crowns ( as opposed to coronets ) are the Kings of Arms , the United Kingdom 's senior heraldic officials . Garter , Clarenceaux , and Norroy and Ulster Kings of Arms have heraldic jurisdiction over England , Wales and Northern Ireland ; Lord Lyon King of Arms is responsible for Scotland . In addition , there is a King of Arms attached to each of the Order of the Bath , Order of St. Michael and St. George and the Order of the British Empire . These have only a ceremonial role , but are authorised by the statutes of their orders to wear the same crown as Garter at a coronation . The crown of a King of Arms is silver @-@ gilt and consists of sixteen acanthus leaves alternating in height , and inscribed with the words Miserere mei Deus secundum magnam misericordiam tuam ( Latin : " Have mercy on me O God according to Thy great mercy " , from Psalm 51 ) . The Lord Lyon King of Arms has worn a crown of this style at all coronations since that of George III . Prior to that he wore a replica of the Crown of Scotland . In 2004 a new replica of this crown was created for use by the Lord Lyon at future coronations .
= = = Other participants = = =
Along with persons of nobility , the coronation ceremonies are also attended by a wide range of political figures , including the Prime Minister and all members of the Cabinet of the United Kingdom , all Governors @-@ General and Prime Ministers of the Commonwealth realms , all Governors of British Crown Colonies , as well as the Heads of State of dependent nations . Dignitaries and representatives from other nations are also customarily invited .
= = = Guests = = =
In the 20th century , guests not participating directly wore court dress or white tie of some form . Ladies wore long evening gowns with tiaras or similar .
= = Service = =
= = = Recognition and oath = = =
The Sovereign enters Westminster Abbey wearing the crimson surcoat and the Robe of State of crimson velvet .
Once the Sovereign takes his or her seat on the Chair of Estate , the Garter Principal King of Arms , the Archbishop of Canterbury , the Lord Chancellor , the Lord Great Chamberlain , the Lord High Constable and the Earl Marshal go to the east , south , west and north of the Abbey . At each side , the Archbishop calls for the Recognition of the Sovereign , with the words ,
Sirs , I here present unto you [ name ] , your undoubted King ( Queen ) . Wherefore all you who are come this day to do your homage and service , are you willing to do the same ?
After the people acclaim the Sovereign at each side , the Archbishop administers an oath to the Sovereign . Since the Glorious Revolution , the Coronation Oath Act of 1688 has required , among other things , that the Sovereign " Promise and Sweare to Governe the People of this Kingdome of England and the Dominions thereto belonging according to the Statutes in Parlyament Agreed on and the Laws and Customs of the same " . The oath has been modified without statutory authority ; for example , at the coronation of Elizabeth II , the exchange between the Queen and the Archbishop was as follows :
The Archbishop of Canterbury : Will you solemnly promise and swear to govern the Peoples of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland , Canada , Australia , New Zealand , the Union of South Africa , Pakistan and Ceylon , and of your Possessions and other Territories to any of them belonging or pertaining , according to their respective laws and customs ?
The Queen : I solemnly promise so to do .
The Archbishop of Canterbury : Will you to your power cause Law and Justice , in Mercy , to be executed in all your judgments ?
The Queen : " I will . "
The Archbishop of Canterbury : Will you to the utmost of your power maintain the Laws of God and the true profession of the Gospel ? Will you to the utmost of your power maintain in the United Kingdom the Protestant Reformed Religion established by law ? Will you maintain and preserve inviolable the settlement of the Church of England , and the doctrine , worship , discipline , and government thereof , as by law established in England ? And will you preserve unto the Bishops and Clergy of England , and to the Churches there committed to their charge , all such rights and privileges , as by law do or shall appertain to them or any of them ?
The Queen : All this I promise to do . The things which I have here before promised , I will perform , and keep . So help me God .
The monarch additionally swears an oath to preserve Presbyterian church government in the Church of Scotland . This part of the oath is taken before the coronation .
Once the taking of the oath concludes , an ecclesiastic presents a Bible to the Sovereign , saying " Here is Wisdom ; This is the royal Law ; These are the lively Oracles of God . " The Bible used is a full King James Bible , including the Apocrypha . At Elizabeth II 's coronation , the Bible was presented by the Moderator of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland . Once the Bible is presented , the Holy Communion is celebrated , but the service is interrupted after the Nicene Creed .
= = = Anointing = = =
After the Communion service is interrupted , the crimson robe is removed , and the Sovereign proceeds to the Coronation Chair , which has been set in a prominent position , wearing the anointing gown . In 1953 , the chair stood atop a dais of several steps . This mediaeval chair has a cavity in the base into which the Stone of Scone is fitted for the ceremony . Also known as the " Stone of Destiny " , it was used for ancient Scottish coronations until brought to England by Edward I. It has been used for every coronation at Westminster Abbey since . Until 1996 , the stone was kept with the chair in Westminster Abbey , but it was moved that year to Edinburgh Castle in Scotland , where it is displayed on the proviso that it be returned to England for use at future coronations .
Once seated in this chair , a canopy of golden cloth is held over the monarch 's head for the anointing . The duty of acting as canopy @-@ bearers was performed in recent coronations by four Knights of the Garter . This element of the coronation service is considered sacred and is concealed from public gaze ; it was not photographed in 1937 or televised in 1953 . The Dean of Westminster pours consecrated oil from an eagle @-@ shaped ampulla into a spoon with which the Archbishop of Canterbury anoints the Sovereign in the form of a cross on the hands , head , and heart . The filigreed spoon is the only part of the mediaeval Crown Jewels which survived the commonwealth . The Archbishop concludes by reciting a blessing .
= = = Investing = = =
The Sovereign is then enrobed in the colobium sindonis , over which is placed the supertunica .
The Lord Great Chamberlain presents the spurs , which represent chivalry . The Archbishop of Canterbury , assisted by other bishops , then presents the Sword of State to the Sovereign . The Sovereign is then further robed , this time receiving bracelets and putting the Robe Royal and Stole Royal on top of the supertunica . The Archbishop then delivers several Crown Jewels to the Sovereign . First , he delivers the Orb , a hollow gold sphere decorated with precious and semi @-@ precious stones . The Orb is surmounted by a cross , representing the rule of Jesus over the world ; it is returned to the Altar immediately after being received . Next , the Sovereign receives a ring representing his or her " marriage " to the nation . The Sovereign 's Sceptre with Dove , so called because it is surmounted by a dove representing the Holy Ghost , and the Sovereign 's Sceptre with Cross , which incorporates Cullinan I , are delivered to the Sovereign .
= = = Crowning = = =
The Archbishop of Canterbury lifts St Edward 's Crown from the high altar , sets it back down , and says a prayer : " Oh God , the crown of the faithful ; bless we beseech thee and sanctify this thy servant our king / queen , and as thou dost this day set a crown of pure gold upon his / her head , so enrich his / her royal heart with thine abundant grace , and crown him / her with all princely virtues through the King Eternal Jesus Christ our Lord . Amen " .
The Dean of Westminster picks up the crown and he , the archbishop and several other high @-@ ranking bishops proceed to the Coronation Chair where the crown is handed back to the archbishop , who reverently places it on the monarch 's head . At this moment , the king or queen is crowned , and the guests in the abbey cry in unison three times , " God Save the King / Queen " . Peers of the realm and officers of arms put on their coronets , the trumpeters sound a fanfare and church bells ring out across the kingdom , as gun salutes echo from the Tower of London and Hyde Park .
Finally , the archbishop , standing before the monarch , says another prayer : " God crown you with a crown of glory and righteousness , that having a right faith and manifold fruit of good works , you may obtain the crown of an everlasting kingdom by the gift of him whose kingdom endureth for ever . " To this the guests , with heads bowed , say " Amen " .
= = = Enthronement and homage = = =
The Sovereign is then borne into the Throne . The Archbishops and Bishops swear their fealty , saying " I , N. , Archbishop [ Bishop ] of N. , will be faithful and true , and faith | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
they had recovered from their surprise and were ready for his attack . The Japanese ships were spotted by the protected cruiser Boyarin , which was patrolling offshore and alerted the Russians . Tōgō chose to attack the Russian coastal defenses with his main armament and engage the ships with his secondary guns . Splitting his fire proved to be a poor decision as the Japanese eight- and six @-@ inch guns inflicted little damage on the Russian ships , which concentrated all their fire on the Japanese ships with some effect . Although many ships on both sides were hit , Russian casualties numbered some 150 , while the Japanese suffered roughly 90 killed and wounded before Tōgō disengaged .
In early March , Kamimura was tasked to take the reinforced 2nd Division north and make a diversion off Vladivostok . While scouting for Russian ships in the area , the Japanese cruisers bombarded the harbor and defenses of Vladivostok on 6 March to little effect . Upon their return to Japan a few days later , the 2nd Division was ordered to escort the transports ferrying the Imperial Guards Division to Korea and then to join the ships blockading Port Arthur . Kamimura was ordered north in mid @-@ April to cover the Sea of Japan and defend the Korea Strait against any attempt by the Vladivostok Independent Cruiser Squadron , under the command of Rear Admiral Karl Jessen , to break through and unite with the Pacific Squadron . The two units narrowly missed each other on the 24th in heavy fog and the Japanese proceeded to Vladivostok where they laid several minefields before arriving back at Wonsan on the 30th .
The division failed to intercept the Russian squadron as it attacked several transports south of Okinoshima Island on 15 June due to heavy rain and fog . The Russians sortied again on 30 June and Kamimura finally was able to intercept them the next day near Okinoshima . The light was failing when they were spotted and the Russians were able to disengage in the darkness . Jessen 's ships sortied again on 17 July headed for the eastern coast of Japan to act as a diversion and pull Japanese forces out of the Sea of Japan and the Yellow Sea . The Russian ships passed through Tsugaru Strait two days later and began capturing ships bound for Japan . The arrival of the Russians off Tokyo Bay on the 24th caused the Naval General Staff to order Kamimura to sail for Cape Toi Misaki , Kyūshū , fearing that Jessen would circumnavigate Japan to reach Port Arthur . Two days later he was ordered north to the Kii Channel and then to Tokyo Bay on the 28th . The General Staff finally ordered him back to Tsushima Island on the 30th ; later that day he received word that Jessen 's ships had passed through the Tsugaru Strait early that morning and reached Vladivostok on 1 August .
= = = = Battle off Ulsan = = = =
On 10 August , the ships at Port Arthur attempted a breakout to Vladivostok , but were turned back in the Battle of the Yellow Sea . Jessen was ordered to rendezvous with them , but the order was delayed . His three armored cruisers , Rossia , Gromoboi , and Rurik , had to raise steam , so he did not sortie until the evening of 13 August . By dawn he had reached Tsushima , but turned back when he failed to see any ships from the Port Arthur squadron . 36 miles ( 58 km ) north of the island he encountered Kamimura 's squadron , which consisted of four modern armored cruisers , Iwate , Tokiwa , Azuma , and Izumo . The two squadrons had passed during the night without spotting one another and each had reversed course around first light . This put the Japanese ships astride the Russian route to Vladivostok .
Jessen ordered his ships to turn to the northeast when he spotted the Japanese at 05 : 00 and they followed suit , albeit on a slightly converging course . Both sides opened fire around 05 : 23 at a range of 8 @,@ 500 meters ( 9 @,@ 300 yd ) . The Japanese ships concentrated their fire on Rurik , the rear ship of the Russian formation . She was hit fairly quickly and began to fall astern of the other two ships . Jessen turned southeast in an attempt to open the range , but this blinded the Russian gunners with the rising sun and prevented any of their broadside guns from bearing on the Japanese . About 06 : 00 , Jessen turned 180 ° to starboard in an attempt to reach the Korean coast and to allow Rurik to rejoin the squadron . Kamimura followed suit around 06 : 10 , but turned to port , which opened the range between the squadrons . Azuma then developed engine problems and the Japanese squadron slowed to conform with her best speed . Firing recommenced at 06 : 24 and Rurik was hit three times in the stern , flooding her steering compartment ; she had to be steered with her engines . Her speed continued to decrease , further exposing her to Japanese fire , and her steering jammed to port around 06 : 40 .
Jessen made another 180 ° turn in an attempt to interpose his two ships between the Japanese and Rurik , but the latter ship suddenly turn to starboard and increased speed and passed between Jessen 's ships and the Japanese . Kamimura turned 180 ° as well so that both squadrons were heading southeast on parallel courses , but Jessen quickly made another 180 ° turn so that they headed on opposing courses . The Russians reversed course for the third time around 07 : 45 in another attempt to support Rurik although Rossia was on fire herself ; her fires were extinguished about twenty minutes later . Kamimura circled Rurik to the south at 08 : 00 and allowed the other two Russian ships to get to his north and gave them an uncontested route to Vladivostok . Despite this , Jessen turned back once more at 08 : 15 and ordered Rurik to make her own way back to Vladivostok before turning north at his maximum speed , about 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) .
About this time Kamimura 's two elderly protected cruisers , Naniwa and Takachiho , were approaching from the south . Their arrival allowed Kamimura to pursue Jessen with all of his armored cruisers while the two new arrivals dealt with Rurik . They fought a running battle with the Russians for the next hour and a half ; scoring enough hits on them to force their speed down to 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The Japanese closed to a minimum of about 5 @,@ 000 meters ( 5 @,@ 500 yd ) , but Kamimura then opened the range up to 6 @,@ 500 meters ( 7 @,@ 100 yd ) .
About 10 : 00 , Kamimura 's gunnery officer erroneously informed him that Izumo had expended three @-@ quarters of her ammunition and he turned back after a five @-@ minute rapid @-@ fire barrage . He did not wish to leave the Tsushima Strait unguarded and thought that he could use his remaining ammunition on Rurik . By this time she had been sunk by Naniwa and Takachiho . They had radioed Kamimura that she was sunk , but he did not receive the message . Shortly after the Japanese turned back , Gromoboi and Rossia were forced to heave @-@ to to make repairs . None of the Japanese ships were seriously damaged ; despite Izumo receiving over 20 hits , she only suffered 3 men killed and 16 wounded during the battle . She began repairs at Sasebo Naval Arsenal in mid @-@ September .
On 26 January 1905 , Kamimura hoisted his flag again in Izumo at Sasebo and then escorted several troop convoys to Wonsan on February . On 13 April , the 2nd Division , including the armored cruisers Tokiwa and Kasuga , sailed to escort minelayers as they laid 715 mines off Vladivostok .
= = = = Battle of Tsushima = = = =
As the Russian 2nd and 3rd Pacific Squadrons approached Japan on 27 May , having sailed from the Baltic Sea , they were spotted by patrolling Japanese ships early that morning , but visibility was limited and radio reception poor . The preliminary reports were enough to cause Tōgō to order his ships to put to sea and the 2nd Division spotted the Russian ships under the command of Vice Admiral Zinovy Rozhestvensky at around 11 : 30 . Kamimura closed to about a range of 8 @,@ 000 meters ( 8 @,@ 700 yd ) before sheering off under fire to join Tōgō 's battleships . Izumo was leading the 2nd Division when Tōgō opened fire on the 2nd Pacific Squadron at 14 : 10 and , like most of the ships in the division , engaged the battleship Oslyabya which was forced to fall out of formation at 14 : 50 and sank 20 minutes later . By this time the Russian formation was in disorder and Knyaz Suvorov suddenly appeared out of the mist at 15 : 35 at a range of about 2 @,@ 000 meters ( 6 @,@ 600 ft ) . All of Kamimura 's ships engaged her for five minutes or so with Azuma and the armored cruiser Yakumo also firing torpedoes at the Russian ship without effect .
After 17 : 30 Kamimura led his division in a fruitless pursuit of some of the Russian cruisers , leaving Tōgō 's battleships to their own devices . He abandoned his chase around 18 : 03 and turned northwards to rejoin Tōgō . His ships spotted the rear of the Russian battleline around 18 : 30 and opened fire when the range closed to 8 @,@ 000 – 9 @,@ 000 meters ( 8 @,@ 700 – 9 @,@ 800 yd ) . Nothing is known of any effect on the Russians and they ceased fire by 19 : 30 and rejoined Tōgō at 20 : 08 as night was falling . The surviving Russian ships were spotted the next morning and the Japanese ships opened fire around 10 : 30 , staying beyond the range at which the Russian ships could effectively reply . Rear Admiral Nikolai Nebogatov therefore decided to surrender his ships as he could neither return fire nor close the range . Over the course of the battle , Izumo was struck by five large shells , mostly 12 @-@ inch , and three smaller shells , mostly 6 @-@ inch . They caused only minor damage , although one 12 @-@ inch shell , which pierced a boiler uptake , could have disabled all of the middle boilers had it detonated . The shells killed 4 men and wounded 26 others .
As the IJN was preparing to invade Sakhalin Island in early July , Kamimura 's 2nd Division , now reduced to Iwate , Izumo , and Tokiwa , was tasked to defend the Korea Strait before it escorted troops that made an amphibious landing in northeastern Korea . In mid @-@ August , the division covered the landing at Chongjin , closer to the Russian border .
On 20 September 1909 , under command of Captain Takeshita Isamu , Izumo departed Yokohama for the United States to participate in the Portola Festival at San Francisco , a city @-@ wide fair held on 19 – 23 October to mark the 140th anniversary of the Portolà expedition , the first recorded Spanish ( and European ) land entry and exploration of present @-@ day California , and to proclaim to the world that San Francisco was recovered from its devastating 1906 earthquake . Lieutenant Prince Shimazu Tadashige was assigned to the ship during this visit . She made port calls in Hawaii , Monterrey , Santa Barbara , and San Diego en route . On 12 November 1913 , Izumo was ordered to patrol the west coast of Mexico to safeguard Japanese interests and nationals during the Mexican Revolution .
= = = World War I = = =
When Japan declared war on the Central Powers in August 1914 , Izumo was still off the Mexican coast and was ordered to protect Allied shipping there and search for German commerce raiders . On 1 November , the ship , then off San Francisco , was ordered to join a British task force commanded by Admiral Sir George Patey off San Clemente Island that included the battlecruiser Australia and the light cruiser Newcastle . After the German gunboat SMS Geier was interned by the Americans on 8 November , the ex @-@ Russian battleship Hizen and Asama , which had been patrolling off Honolulu , Hawaii , to prevent the German ship from leaving , rendezvoused with the other ships of the American Expeditionary Squadron at Magdalena Bay , Baja California on 22 November . The squadron , now commanded by Rear Admiral Moriyama Keizaburo in Izumo , then headed south to search along the western coast of South America for German ships . On 11 December , after the receiving the news of the British victory in the Battle of the Falkland Islands , the squadron moved north to search off the western coast of Central America and then Mexican and U.S. waters in January .
While searching Baja California , Asama was badly damaged when she struck an uncharted rock on 31 January . Izumo , delayed by poor communications , arrived on 12 February and Moriyama radioed for repair and salvage ships to be sent from Japan . Izumo was relieved by Tokiwa on 19 March and the ship returned home .
Izumo relieved the protected cruiser Akashi in June 1917 at Malta as the flagship of Rear Admiral Kōzō Satō , commander of the Second Special Mission Squadron that controlled the Japanese destroyers that escorted convoys in the Mediterranean Sea . In December 1918 , Izumo , accompanied by the destroyers Hinoki and Yanagi , sailed from Malta to Scapa Flow to assume control of seven captured German U @-@ boats as prizes of war . They returned to Malta with the U @-@ boats in March 1919 and the armored cruiser Nisshin accompanied eight destroyers and the U @-@ boats to Japan , while Izumo made port calls at Naples , Genoa and Marseilles before arriving in Japan with the remaining destroyers on 2 July 1919 .
= = = Interwar years = = =
Izumo participated in the 1919 Naval Review by Emperor Taishō . She was re @-@ designated a 1st class coast @-@ defense ship on 1 September 1921 and used primarily for training duties in long @-@ distance oceanic navigation and officer training for cadets in the Imperial Japanese Navy Academy . In this capacity , she participated six voyages in the 1920s and 1930s to Europe , North and South America , and Oceania , including a circumnavigation of the globe from August 1921 to April 1922 with Yakumo . Two of the naval cadets that participated in this cruise were Princes Kuni Asaakira and Kachō Hirotada . While in Vancouver , British Columbia , on 7 February 1925 , on one of these cruises , a tugboat collided with one of the ship 's boats at night , drowning 11 crewmen .
In 1924 , four of Izumo 's 12 @-@ pounder guns were removed , as were all of her QF 2 @.@ 5 @-@ pounder guns , and a single 8 cm / 40 3rd Year Type anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) gun was added . Refitted again in 1930 – 31 , her torpedo tubes were removed as were all of her main deck 6 @-@ inch guns and their casemates plated over ; she now carried only four 12 @-@ pounders . In 1935 her boilers were replaced by six Kampon water @-@ tube boilers with an output of only 7 @,@ 000 ihp ( 5 @,@ 200 kW ) which reduced her top speed to 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) . She now carried 1 @,@ 428 metric tons ( 1 @,@ 405 long tons ) of coal and 329 metric tons ( 324 long tons ) of fuel oil which increased her deep displacement to 10 @,@ 864 metric tons ( 10 @,@ 692 long tons )
= = = China service and World War II = = =
On 2 February 1932 , during the First Shanghai Incident , Izumo became the flagship of the newly re @-@ established 3rd Fleet under Admiral Kichisaburō Nomura and arrived in Shanghai six days later . In 1934 , Izumo was equipped to operate a floatplane at the Sasebo Naval Arsenal .
Shortly after the beginning of the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War in July 1937 , Izumo was attacked on 14 August 1937 in a series of raids by Chinese Air Force aircraft during the Battle of Shanghai . Most of the bombs landed in the river without effect , but two bombs landed among spectators , killing hundreds . Izumo 's Nakajima E4N floatplane and another from the light cruiser Sendai managed to get into the air and they claimed to have shot down one Curtiss Hawk biplane fighter and a Northrop Gamma bomber . Two days later , her E4N claimed to have shot down another Hawk . Izumo was attacked that same day by a Chinese torpedo boat , but the torpedoes missed and the boat was abandoned by its crew . The ship provided naval gunfire support to Japanese troops ashore during the battle . Izumo was repeatedly attacked without effect by Chinese aircraft for the duration of the Battle of Shanghai .
Still in Shanghai at the beginning of the Pacific War on 8 December 1941 , Izumo captured the American river gunboat USS Wake and assisted in sinking the British river gunboat HMS Peterel . On 31 December , the cruiser struck a mine in the Lingayen Gulf while supporting Japanese forces during the Philippines Campaign . She was towed to Hong Kong in February 1942 for repairs . Izumo was re @-@ classified as a 1st @-@ class cruiser on 1 July . She returned to Japan in late 1943 and was reclassified as a training ship for the Kure Naval District .
On 19 March 1945 , Izumo was attacked by American carrier aircraft off Etajima , although they failed to inflict any damage . Shortly afterwards , her 8 @-@ inch guns were replaced by four 12 @.@ 7 cm ( 5 @.@ 0 in ) Type 89 dual @-@ purpose guns in two twin mounts and four of her remaining 6 @-@ inch guns were removed . Her light anti @-@ aircraft armament was significantly reinforced by the addition of 14 license @-@ built Hotchkiss 25 @-@ millimeter Type 96 light AA guns in two triple , two twin , and four single @-@ gun mounts and two 13 @.@ 2 @-@ millimeter Hotchkiss machine guns in single mounts . The ship was damaged by an American mine on 9 April off Hiroshima . Izumo was not attacked on the first day of the American aerial attack on Kure on 24 July 1945 , but she was near missed three times four days later . The shockwave from the detonations sprang the ship 's seams and the resulting flooding caused her to capsize at coordinates 34 ° 14 ′ N 132 ° 30 ′ E. She was removed from the navy list on 20 November and her hulk was raised and scrapped in 1947 by the Harima Dock Company .
= Tom 's Rhinoplasty =
" Tom 's Rhinoplasty " is the eleventh episode in the first season of the American animated television series South Park . It originally aired on Comedy Central in the United States on February 11 , 1998 . In the episode , the South Park Elementary boys become infatuated with the new substitute teacher Ms. Ellen , making Wendy Testaburger extremely jealous . Meanwhile , Mr. Garrison gets a nose job that makes him resemble actor David Hasselhoff .
" Tom 's Rhinoplasty " was the first Valentine 's Day @-@ themed episode of the series and was written by series co @-@ creator Trey Parker . The episode advocates the concept of inner beauty through the Mr. Garrison subplot , and shows the boys ' efforts to win Ms. Ellen 's affection despite the fact that she is a lesbian .
Natasha Henstridge makes a guest appearances as Ms. Ellen , marking the first time a celebrity guest played a major role in a South Park episode . She is credited as " The Chick from Species " in the opening credits . The episode marked the first time a real photographic image of a person 's head ( in this case David Hasselhoff ) was superimposed over a cartoon body , a practice which would become common throughout the series .
" Tom 's Rhinoplasty " introduced the song " No Substitute " , which was sung by Chef and was later included on Chef Aid : The South Park Album . Trey Parker and Matt Stone said they were initially unhappy with " Tom 's Rhinoplasty " when production of the episode concluded , and were surprised when fans responded positively to it .
= = Plot = =
Valentine 's Day approaches , and Wendy suggests to her boyfriend Stan ways to spend time together . However , when their schoolteacher Mr. Garrison decides to get a rhinoplasty , a new substitute arrives named Ms. Ellen ( Natasha Henstridge ) and all the boys in class find themselves inexplicably enamored with her , including Stan . Wendy becomes incredibly jealous and warns Ms. Ellen to stay away from Stan , unaware that the substitute teacher does not return Stan 's affection .
Concerned about the children 's education , Ms. Ellen reveals she will buy dinner for the winner of a spelling test . The boys actively try to court Ms. Ellen , but Chef ( having beaten them to it ) warns them she is a lesbian and thus only likes other lesbians . The boys do not realise what this means and try to become lesbians in order to attract Ms. Ellen . Meanwhile , Mr. Garrison 's nose job makes him one of the most attractive men in South Park , with his face resembling David Hasselhoff , and he decides to quit teaching and pursue women . Stan wins the dinner ( much to Wendy 's dismay ) , but finds out that Ms. Ellen has no intention of making love with him . Wendy however sees them through the window and leaves distraught . The next day , several Iraqi men burst into the classroom and declare that Ms. Ellen is actually an Iraqi fugitive . As she resists arrest , she inadvertently kills Kenny by impaling him with a sword to his face . The soldiers take her into custody and shoot her into the center of the Sun via a rocket .
Mr. Garrison becomes a successful model , but he soon finds himself being chased throughout the streets by a large group of women attracted to him . Frightened by all the attention , Mr. Garrison decides to return to his normal looks . Wendy reclaims Stan as her boyfriend . Wendy speaks with the Iraqi men in fluent Arabic and pays them with a wad of American money . Later , Wendy watches joyfully as the rocket blows up in the sun , and Kyle realizes Wendy hired the Iraqis to kill Ms. Ellen . Outraged by this , Kyle angrily confronts Wendy for this , but Wendy declares , " I told her : ' Don 't ... fuck ... with ... Wendy ... Testaburger ! ' "
= = Production = =
" Tom 's Rhinoplasty " was written and directed by South Park co @-@ creator Trey Parker . It first aired on Comedy Central in the United States on February 11 , 1998 . It is considered the show 's first Valentine 's Day episode , since it came out three days before Valentine 's Day and involved semi @-@ romantic plot @-@ lines . Natasha Henstridge makes a guest appearance as substitute teacher Ms. Ellen . Following the success of " Mr. Hankey , the Christmas Poo " , a large number of celebrities started contacting Comedy Central with the hopes of making guest appearances in South Park episodes , allowing Parker and fellow co @-@ creator Matt Stone to practically take their pick of guest stars . Parker asked for Henstridge solely because he found her attractive in Species , the 1995 science fiction horror film in which she starred . Henstridge was nervous performing the role because she had never conducted a voice over performance before . Henstridge was credited as " The Chick from Species " in the opening credits .
" Tom 's Rhinoplasty " marked the first time a real photographic image of a person 's head ( in this case David Hasselhoff ) was superimposed over a cartoon body , a practice which would become common throughout the series . Parker said the technology was not previously available in the earliest episodes of the series . Comedy Central was required to pay royalties to the photographer of the picture used for Hasselhoff 's head , but was not required to pay Hasselhoff himself . " Tom 's Rhinoplasty " displayed notable improvements in South Park 's animation , which was gradually improving throughout the first season and settling into the defined look the series has maintained throughout the years . One of the exterior scenes in " Tom 's Rhinoplasty " featured the first perspective angle of a street , which were previously only shown sideways or straight angles . Additionally , the simulated rain during a scene with Wendy watching Ms. Ellen and Stan from outside a restaurant was far more sophisticated than any such animation in previous episodes .
Chef sings a song called " No Substitute " to Ms. Ellen in an attempt to woo her . The brief song was later expanded and included in Chef Aid : The South Park Album , a South Park soundtrack released in 1998 . " No Substitute " was performed by Isaac Hayes and was written by Parker , Stone and Bruce Howell , a South Park composer and producer . During one montage scene in " Tom 's Rhinoplasty " , a jealous Wendy recalls memories of her relationship with Stan while a sad song plays in the background . The song is performed by actress Courtney Ford , who appeared as an extra in the 1998 comedy film BASEketball , which starred Parker and Stone . Like Henstridge , Parker asked Ford to appear in the episode because he found her attractive . The Indigo Girls @-@ style song in " Tom 's Rhinoplasty " was written and sung by Toddy Walters , who played protagonist Polly Pry in Trey Parker 's 1996 film , Cannibal ! The Musical . The song is called " I Love Domestic Chores " , and was written " as sort of a lesbian anthem " .
During one scene , Wendy tells Stan that she smelled Ms. Ellen taking a " smelly dump " in the bathroom in an attempt to make him less attracted to her . In the original script , Wendy originally told Stan that she had a yeast infection , but Comedy Central censors made Parker and Stone change the line . Parker and Stone said although the network typically provides great leniency in permitting obscene jokes , they often object to lines about female hygiene problems . During a cafeteria scene , a boy visible at a lunch table in the background looks exactly like Craig Tucker , but the color of his hat has been changed to make him appear to be a different character . The idea of Ms. Ellen taking one of the children to dinner came from Parker 's real @-@ life experiences . At his school , the children were able to have lunch with the teacher and principal if they were awarded " Student of the Week " . Parker said he went on one of the lunches once and found the experience " really , really creepy " because he had the impression the teacher and principal were having a romantic affair .
Parker and Stone had trouble deciding how to end " Tom 's Rhinoplasty " in a way that would bring everything back to normal in South Park . Originally , the episode ended with Ms. Ellen being taken away by the Iraqi soldiers , leaving the impression that she was in fact an Iraqi fugitive . They ultimately decided this was a poor way to end the show , so they recast the ending to make Ms. Ellen an innocent woman who was framed by Wendy . Parker and Stone also struggled with how to make Mr. Garrison decide he wanted his old nose back . It was only a few days before the episode aired that these final decisions about the ending were made .
= = Theme = =
Describing the general tone of the show , Teri Fitsell of The New Zealand Herald explains that " South Park is a vicious social satire that works by spotlighting not the immorality of these kids but their amorality , and contrasting it with the conniving hypocrisy of the adults who surround them . " The humor of the show comes from the disparity between the cute appearance of the characters and their crude behavior . However , Parker and Stone said in an early interview that the show 's language is realistic . " There are so many shows where little kids are good and sweet , and it 's just not real ... Don 't people remember what they were like in third grade ? We were little bastards . "
" Tom 's Rhinoplasty " in general advocates the concept of inner beauty by showing how miserable Mr. Garrison becomes after having his nose job ; as a model , he becomes a burnout and heroin addict who only finds happiness once he sheds his new outer image and becomes his old self . The episode also demonstrates the lack of understanding many have about the gay community by portraying the characters as seeking to become lesbians in order to win Ms. Ellen 's affection , even though they do not know what a lesbian is .
= = Cultural references and impact = =
After Mr. Garrison gets a nose job , his face resembles that of David Hasselhoff , the actor and singer best known for the series Knight Rider and Baywatch . Mr. Garrison refers disparagingly to the 1997 science fiction drama film Contact . Parker and Stone said they went out of their way to include the reference due to their own strong distaste for the film .
The song that plays when Mr. Garrison strolls down the street after his nose job is " Shadow Dancing " by Andy Gibb . When trying to determine how attractive Ms. Ellen is , Chef asks the boys how she compares to a number of celebrities , including Vanessa L. Williams , Toni Braxton , Pamela Anderson and Erin Gray . For the latter actress , he specifically asks if Ms. Ellen is as attractive as Gray was in the second season of the NBC series , Buck Rogers in the 25th Century . When Ms. Ellen asks the class about the last lesson Mr. Garrison taught them , Cartman said they had been learning about how actress Yasmine Bleeth was dating Richard Grieco , the star of television series 21 Jump Street and Booker .
The store Tom 's Rhinoplasty first appeared in the background of the short Jesus vs. Santa ; it is regularly shown in the background throughout the rest of the series , as well as in the 1999 South Park film , South Park : Bigger , Longer & Uncut . A South Park drinking game included in the book " The Complete Guide to Television and Movie Drinking " encourages viewers to drink whenever South Park residents walk by or gather in front of the Tom 's Rhinoplasty building .
= = Release and reception = =
When production of " Tom 's Rhinoplasty " ended , Parker and Stone were dissatisfied with the final product and believed audiences would hate it , but were surprised to receive largely positive feedback from fans , some of whom described it as their favorite of the latter half of the season . " Tom 's Rhinoplasty " has been described as one of the classic episodes of South Park . In 2003 , the Chicago Tribune listed it among the top 10 episodes of the series . Walt Belcher of The Tampa Tribune praised the episode and said it " celebrates Valentine 's Day [ as ] only the Comedy Central series can " , although he warned it was not for children . During a brief scene in " Tom 's Rhinoplasty " , Mr. Garrison leans against a mailbox with a United States Postal Service logo printed on the side . The Postal Service contacted Comedy Central after the episode aired and threatened legal action if the logo was used again without permission .
" Tom 's Rhinoplasty " was released , along with 11 other episodes , in a three @-@ disc DVD set in November 1998 . It was included in the third volume , which also included the episodes " Starvin ' Marvin " , " Mr. Hankey , the Christmas Poo " and " Mecha @-@ Streisand " . The DVD commentary recorded by Parker and Stone for " Tom 's Rhinoplasty " has been cited as one of the primary reasons the commentaries were not included in the South Park Season One DVD release . Warner Bros. , which released the DVD set , refused to include the commentaries due to " standards " issues with some of the statements unless Parker and Stone allowed the tracks to be edited , which they refused . Media outlets said the commentary that most bothered Warner Bros. executives was the one for " Tom 's Rhinoplasty " , in which Parker and Stone say they agree with Mr. Garrison 's character that the 1997 film Contact ( also released by Warner Bros. ) was " terrible " . The commentaries were ultimately released on CD separately from the DVDs .
= Retiarius =
A retiarius ( plural retiarii ; literally , " net @-@ man " or " net @-@ fighter " in Latin ) was a Roman gladiator who fought with equipment styled on that of a fisherman : a weighted net ( rete , hence the name ) , a three @-@ pointed trident ( fuscina or tridens ) , and a dagger ( pugio ) . The retiarius was lightly armoured , wearing an arm guard ( manica ) and a shoulder guard ( galerus ) . Typically , his clothing consisted only of a loincloth ( subligaculum ) held in place by a wide belt , or of a short tunic with light padding . He wore no head protection or footwear .
The retiarius was routinely pitted against a heavily armed secutor . The net @-@ fighter made up for his lack of protective gear by using his speed and agility to avoid his opponent 's attacks and waiting for the opportunity to strike . He first tried to throw his net over his rival . If this succeeded , he attacked with his trident while his adversary was entangled . Another tactic was to ensnare his enemy 's weapon in the net and pull it out of his grasp , leaving the opponent defenseless . Should the net miss or the secutor grab hold of it , the retiarius likely discarded the weapon , although he might try to collect it back for a second cast . Usually , the retiarius had to rely on his trident and dagger to finish the fight . The trident , as tall as a human being , permitted the gladiator to jab quickly and keep his distance . It was a strong weapon , capable of inflicting piercing wounds on an unprotected skull or limb . The dagger was the retiarius 's final backup should the trident be lost . It was reserved for when close combat or a straight wrestling match had to settle the bout . In some battles , a single retiarius faced two secutores simultaneously . For these situations , the lightly armoured gladiator was placed on a raised platform and given a supply of stones with which to repel his pursuers .
Retiarii first appeared in the arena during the 1st century AD and had become standard attractions by the 2nd or 3rd century . The gladiator 's lack of armour and his reliance on evasive tactics meant that many considered the retiarius the lowliest ( and most effeminate ) of an already stigmatised ( i.e. gladiators ) class . Passages from the works of Juvenal , Seneca , and Suetonius suggest that those retiarii who fought in tunics may have constituted an even more demeaned subtype ( retiarii tunicati ) who were not viewed as legitimate retiarii fighters but as arena clowns . Nevertheless , Roman artwork , graffiti , and grave markers include examples of specific net @-@ men who apparently had reputations as skilled combatants and lovers .
= = History and role = =
Roman gladiators fell into stock categories modelled on real @-@ world precedents . Almost all of these classes were based on military antecedents ; the retiarius ( " net @-@ fighter " or " net @-@ man " ) , which was themed after the sea , was one exception . Rare gladiator fights were staged over water ; these may have given rise to the concept of a gladiator based on a fisherman . Fights between differently armed gladiators became popular in the Imperial period ; the retiarius versus the scaly secutor developed as the conflict of a fisherman with a stylised fish . The earlier murmillones had borne a fish on their helmets ; the secutores with their scaly armour evolved from them . However , because of the stark differences in arms and armour between the two types , the pairing pushed such practices to new extremes . Roman art and literature make no mention of retiarii until the early Imperial period ; for example , the type is absent from the copious gladiator @-@ themed reliefs dating to the 1st century found at Chieti and Pompeii . Nevertheless , graffiti and artifacts from Pompeii attest to the class 's existence by this time . Fights between retiarii and secutores probably became popular as early as the middle of the 1st century CE , and the net @-@ fighter became one of the standard gladiator categories by the 2nd or 3rd century CE and remained a staple attraction until the end of the gladiatorial games . In addition to the man @-@ versus @-@ nature symbolism inherent in such bouts , the lightly armoured retiarius was viewed as the effeminate counterpoint to the manly , heavily armoured secutor . The retiarius was also seen as water to the secutor 's fire , one constantly moving and escaping , the other determinedly inescapable . Another gladiator type , the laquearius ( " noose @-@ man " ) , was similar to the retiarius but fought with a lasso in place of a net .
The more skin left unarmoured and exposed , the lower a gladiator 's status and the greater his perceived effeminacy . Likewise , the engulfing net may have been seen as a feminine symbol . The light arms and armour of the retiarius thus established him as the lowliest , most disgraced , and most effeminate of the gladiator types . Helmets allowed both gladiators and spectators to dehumanise the fighters ; when an arena combatant had to kill a comrade @-@ at @-@ arms , someone he probably lived and trained with every day , his opponent 's helmet added an extra layer of separation . However , the retiarius was allowed no head protection ; his face was visible to all . The emperor Claudius had all net @-@ fighters who lost in combat put to death so that spectators could enjoy their expressions of agony . The retiarius 's fighting style was another strike against him , as reliance on speed and evasion were viewed as undignified in comparison to the straightforward trading of blows . The retiarii lived in the worst barracks . Some members of the class trained to fight as Samnites , another gladiator type , in order to improve their status .
There is evidence that those net @-@ men wearing tunics , known as retiarii tunicati , formed a special sub @-@ class , one even more demeaned than their loincloth @-@ wearing colleagues . The Roman satirist Juvenal wrote that :
So even the lanista 's establishment is better ordered than yours , for he separates the vile from the decent , and sequesters even from their fellow @-@ retiarii the wearers of the ill @-@ famed tunic ; in the training @-@ school , and even in gaol , such creatures herd apart … .
The passage suggests that tunic @-@ wearing retiarii were trained for a different role , " in servitude , under strict discipline and even possibly under some restraints . " Certain effeminate men mentioned by Seneca the Younger in his Quaestiones naturales were trained as gladiators and may correspond to Juvenal 's tunic @-@ wearing retiarii . Suetonius reports this anecdote : " Once a band of five retiarii in tunics , matched against the same number of secutores , yielded without a struggle ; but when their death was ordered , one of them caught up his trident and slew all the victors . " The reaction of Emperor Caligula showed the disgust with which he viewed the gladiators ' actions : " Caligula bewailed this in a public proclamation as a most cruel murder , and expressed his horror of those who had had the heart to witness it . " The fate of the retiarii is not revealed . This was probably not a standard competition , as real gladiators did not surrender so easily . Rather , such tunic @-@ wearing net @-@ men may have served as comic relief in the gladiatorial programming .
Juvenal 's second satire , wherein he deplores the immorality he perceived in Roman society , introduces a member of the Gracchus family who is described as a homosexual married ( in female persona ) to a horn player . Gracchus later appears in the arena :
Greater still the portent when Gracchus , clad in a tunic , played the gladiator , and fled , trident in hand , across the arena — Gracchus , a man of nobler birth than the Capitolini , or the Marcelli , or the descendants of Catulus or Paulus , or the Fabii : nobler than all the spectators in the podium ; not excepting him who gave the show at which that net was flung .
Gracchus appears once again in Juvenal 's eighth satire as the worst example of the noble Romans who have disgraced themselves by appearing in public spectacles and popular entertainments :
To crown all this [ scandal ] , what is left but the amphitheatre ? And this disgrace of the city you have as well — Gracchus not fighting as equipped as a Mirmillo , with buckler or falchion ( for he condemns — yes , condemns and hates such equipment ) . Nor does he conceal his face beneath a helmet . See ! he wields a trident . When he has cast without effect the nets suspended from his poised right hand , he boldly lifts his uncovered face to the spectators , and , easily to be recognized , flees across the whole arena . We can not mistake the tunic , since the ribbon of gold reaches from his neck , and flutters in the breeze from his high @-@ peaked cap . Therefore , the disgrace , which the Secutor had to submit to , in being forced to fight with Gracchus , was worse than any wound .
The passage is obscure , but Cerutti and Richardson argue that Gracchus begins the fight as a loincloth @-@ wearing retiarius . When the tide turns against him , he dons a tunic and a womanish wig ( spira ) , apparently part of the same costume , and thus enjoys a reprieve , although this attire may not itself have been considered effeminate as it was also worn by the priests of Mars of whom Gracchus was the chief priest . The change of clothing seems to turn a serious fight into a comical one and shames his opponent . It is unusual to see a gladiator depicted this way in a satire , as such fighters usually take the role of men who are " brawny , brutal , sexually successful with women of both high and low status , but especially the latter , ill @-@ educated if not uneducated , and none too bright intellectually . " The retiarius tunicatus in the satire is the opposite : " a mock gladiatorial figure , of equivocal sex , regularly dressed in costume of some sort , possibly usually as a woman , and matched against a secutor or murmillo in a mock gladiatorial exhibition . "
Despite their low status , some retiarii became quite popular throughout the early Empire . The fact that spectators could see net @-@ fighters ' faces humanised them and probably added to their popularity . At Pompeii , graffiti tells of Crescens or Cresces the retiarius , " lord of the girls " and " doctor to nighttime girls , morning girls , and all the rest . " Evidence suggests that some homosexual men fancied gladiators , and the retiarius would have been particularly appealing . Roman art depicts net @-@ men just as often as other types . A mosaic found in 2007 in a bathhouse at the Villa dei Quintili shows a retiarius named Montanus . The fact that his name is recorded indicates that the gladiator was famous . The mosaic dates to c . CE 130 , when the Quintilii family had the home built ; the emperor Commodus , who fought in gladiatorial bouts as a secutor , acquired the house in CE 182 and used it as a country villa . In modern times , popular culture has made the retiarius probably the most famous type of gladiator .
= = Arms and armour = =
The retiarius is the most readily identifiable gladiator type , due to his signature equipment : arm guard ( manica ) , shoulder guard ( galerus ) , net ( rete ) , trident ( fuscina or tridens ) , and dagger ( pugio ) . ( Technically , the retiarius was not a " gladiator " at all , since he did not fight with the sword — gladius — after which such fighters took their name . ) His weapons and armour could be decorated . An embellished gladiatorial dagger is held at the Naples National Archaeological Museum . Archaeologists have excavated three engraved shoulder guards from the gladiator barracks at Pompeii : one is engraved with illustrations of an anchor , a crab , and a dolphin ; another with cupids and the head of Hercules ; and a third with weapons and the inscription RET / SECUND ( " retiarius , second rank " ) .
Although the net ( rete ) was this gladiator 's signature weapon , few depictions of the device survive . Combat with throwing nets may have occurred on ancient battlefields , but modern experiments and comparisons with modern fishing nets offer the only clues as to how the gladiatorial net was constructed . Such data indicate that the rete was circular , with a wide mesh about 3 metres ( 9 @.@ 5 ft ) in diameter and lead weights along the edges . A rope ran around the perimeter of the mesh , with the ends tied to the gladiator 's wrist . Because it was thrown , the net was sometimes called a iaculum .
The retiarius complemented his net with an iron or bronze trident ( fuscina , fascina or , rarely , tridens ) that stood about as high as a human being . A skull found in a gladiator graveyard in Ephesus , Turkey , shows puncture holes consistent with a trident strike . The wounds are 5 centimetres ( 2 in ) apart and match a bronze trident excavated from Ephesus harbour in 1989 . The trident 's prongs are 21 @.@ 6 centimetres ( 8 @.@ 5 in ) long .
A long , straight @-@ bladed dagger ( pugio ) was the gladiator 's final weapon . A tombstone found in Romania shows a retiarius holding a dagger with four spikes ( known as a quadrens — each spike at the corner of a square guard ) instead of the usual bladed dagger . This was previously thought to be an artistic invention or perhaps a ceremonial weapon but a recently excavated femur bone from a gladiator graveyard in Ephesus has wounds consistent with the use of such a weapon .
The retiarius wore minimal armour ; unlike other gladiator types , he wore no helmet , greaves , or shield . He wore a manica on his left arm , where other gladiators wore it on the right ; this allowed him to more fluidly make a right @-@ handed cast of his net . Attached to the top of this was a long bronze or leather guard over the upper left arm and shoulder , known as a galerus . This guard extended 12 to 13 centimetres ( 4 @.@ 7 to 5 @.@ 1 in ) beyond the shoulder blade and flared outward , allowing free movement of the gladiator 's head . The device protected the upper arm , head and face when the retiarius kept his left side to his opponent . The armour was designed to let the net @-@ man duck his head behind it , and it was curved so as to deflect a blow from the top downwards , not up towards the eyes . Three examples of this protective gear found at Pompeii vary between 30 and 35 centimetres ( 11 @.@ 8 and 13 @.@ 7 in ) in length and about the same in width . They weigh about 1 @.@ 1 to 1 @.@ 2 kilograms ( 2 @.@ 4 to 2 @.@ 6 lb ) .
In the Eastern Roman Empire in later years , some retiarii wore a chainmail manica instead of the galerus . This mail covered the arm and upper chest . Equipment styles stayed relatively fixed in the Western Empire .
Besides these items , the retiarius wore only a loincloth ( subligaculum ) held in place by a wide belt and gaiters or , as images show in lieu of the loincloth , a tunic that left the right shoulder uncovered . He wore fabric padding on his body to provide minimal additional protection . Artistic depictions show that other options included legbands , anklebands , a headband , and a medallion . All told , the retiarius 's equipment weighed 7 to 8 kilograms ( 15 @.@ 4 to 17 @.@ 6 lb ) , making him the lightest of the standard gladiator types . Like other arena combatants , the retiarius fought barefoot .
= = Fighting style = =
The retiarius was traditionally pitted against a secutor or , possibly on rare occasions , a murmillo . Despite the disparity between the nearly nude net @-@ fighter and his heavily armoured adversary , modern re @-@ enactments and experiments show that the retiarius was by no means outmatched . His lack of heavy equipment meant that he could use speed and evasion to his advantage . He also fought with three offensive weapons to his opponent 's one . The net @-@ fighter had to avoid close combat at all costs , keep his distance , and wait for an opening to stab with his trident or throw his net . The name secutor means " pursuer " or " chaser " , because this gladiator had to chase down the retiarius . They were also known as contraretiarii ( " those against the net @-@ man " ) . The secutor 's strategy was to keep behind his shield ( scutum ) and force his opponent into close combat so that he could strike with his sword . In close quarters , the net @-@ man had only his galerus shoulder guard for defence ; its design forced him to keep his head ducked down behind it . The secutor 's helmet greatly restricted his sight , hearing , and airflow . Coupled with the heavy weight of his arms and armour — the gear of a murmillo , of which the secutor was a variant , weighed 15 to 18 kilograms ( 33 @.@ 1 to 39 @.@ 7 lb ) — this gladiator was in greater danger of exhausting himself in a long fight . One of the retiarius 's tactics was to jab at the secutor 's shield ( the heaviest part of his equipment ) , forcing him to block and wear himself out . Overall , Roman oddsmakers gave an advantage to a retiarius , although skill and experience could affect the odds in individual matches .
In skilled hands , the net was a useful weapon . The retiarius 's primary objective with it was to capture his opponent . A ewer found at Rheinzabern demonstrates the throwing technique : the retiarius held the net folded up in his right hand and cast it underhanded . He held his trident and dagger in his left hand , careful to keep the trident 's prongs pointed downward to avoid snagging it in the mesh . If the toss missed , the retiarius used the drawrope tied to his wrist to bring the net back in hand . On a successful cast , the gladiator tightened the drawcord around the net 's perimeter and tried to unbalance or topple his rival . A successful cast of the net could win the battle for the retiarius straightaway . This was not certain , however , as a mosaic at the National Archaeological Museum in Madrid shows : in the first panel , the retiarius Kalendio has caught his opponent , a secutor named Astyanax , in his net . In the later image , however , Kalendio lies on the ground , wounded , and raises his dagger to surrender . The inscription above Kalendio shows the sign for " null " , implying that the match organisers ordered him killed .
The net could ensnare the secutor 's weapon to disarm him and snag away his shield to put him at a significant disadvantage . Other retiarius tricks were to whip the net at his opponent 's eyes to blind him and at his legs to trip him . The helmet of the secutor was smooth and round to avoid snagging the net . In most cases , the secutor knew to expect the net @-@ man 's tactics and tried to intercept and hold on to the weapon , possibly unsteadying his enemy by yanking on the net . In such danger , the retiarius could sever the drawstring from his wrist with his dagger . The secutor stood by a lost net and left little chance to recover it . Speculation surrounds the frequency with which the retiarius used his net . Extant imagery rarely shows gladiators of the type with a net , yet the class is named for the device , and Juvenal uses the net to quickly identify a retiarius in his satires . The discrepancy may simply be a case of artistic licence ; other types of gladiator are often shown without their weapons but can be assumed to be holding them due to their stance , and a net is a particularly difficult weapon to depict . The lack of nets in retiarius images may show gladiators who have already lost the weapon in the fight . Another possibility is that some retiarii simply did not use nets .
In most bouts , the retiarius probably had to resort to fighting with just his trident and dagger , placing him at a disadvantage . The trident was his primary weapon in such situations , and its length allowed the retiarius to keep his opponent at bay . He held the weapon two @-@ handed , left nearer the prongs , so that he could parry his enemy 's strikes with its shaft and strike with both ends . Wielded two @-@ handed , the weapon could land powerful blows . Images show retiarii stabbing downward at the secutor 's unshielded legs or stabbing down at the helmet in an attempt to poke through an eyehole . The trident itself was too weak to pierce the metal , although a skull found at Ephesus , Turkey , dating to CE 200 to 300 shows that a trident strike to the head could be fatal on a bareheaded opponent . The secutor 's helmet was rounded and free of protrusions to avoid snaring the net or being caught in the trident 's prongs , but attacks on it forced the secutor to duck or hide behind his shield . This reduced his field of vision and gave the retiarius an advantage with his speed . Should the secutor strike with his sword , the retiarius parried with the trident prongs and attempted to disarm him . Likewise , the more heavily armoured gladiator tried to block the trident with his shield and force the net @-@ man to lose it . Another type of gladiator , scissor could also be pitted against a retiarius . Images from the Eastern Roman Empire show scissores wearing a tubular arm @-@ guard in lieu of a shield . The guard fits over the left hand and ends in a hooked , knife @-@ like blade that was probably intended to parry the net and trident or to snag and pull away the net . Scissores who succeeded in this probably dropped the hook weapon and fought with just a sword .
The retiarius held the dagger in his left hand . The gladiator could use the dagger to cut his net free if it got snagged on his trident . He might fight with the trident in one hand and the dagger in the other , but this negated the advantage of distance afforded by the longer weapon when wielded by itself . The dagger also served as a backup should the retiarius lose both net and trident . He attacked with the dagger when he had the element of surprise and could attempt to wrestle the secutor to the ground . Fights could devolve into straight wrestling matches in such situations , perhaps with daggers . Should the retiarius win and be ordered to kill his rival , he used his knife to stab him or cut his throat . Evidence shows that retiarii could be quite successful combatants ; a tombstone from Gaul reads , " [ For ] the retiarius , L. Pompeius , winner of nine crowns , born in Vienna , twenty @-@ five years of age . His wife put this up with her own money for her wonderful spouse . " Nevertheless , the gladiators themselves were prone to boast : A graffito at Pompeii shows the retiarius Antigonus , who claims a ridiculous 2 @,@ 112 victories , facing a challenger called Superbus , who has won but a single fight .
In some contests , a retiarius faced two secutores at the same time . He stood on a bridge or raised platform with stairs and had a pile of fist @-@ sized stones to lob at his adversaries and keep them at bay . The secutores tried to scale the structure and get at him . The platform ( called a pons , " bridge " ) may have been constructed over water . Such scenarios were one of the rare situations where gladiators were not paired one on one .
= Lady Charlotte Finch =
Lady Charlotte Finch ( née Fermor ; 14 February 1725 – 11 July 1813 ) served as royal governess to the children of King George III and Queen Charlotte for over thirty years , holding the position from 1762 to 1793 . She was born to Thomas Fermor , 1st Earl of Pomfret and his wife Henrietta Louisa Jeffreys , both of whom held court appointments . The couple were educated and frequently travelled with their growing brood of children to the continent . Charlotte , like her sisters , was well @-@ educated ; in 1746 , she married the Hon. William Finch and had issue including George Finch , 9th Earl of Winchilsea .
An accomplished woman , Finch gained her appointment as royal governess in August 1762 upon the birth of George , Prince of Wales , the eldest son of King George and Queen Charlotte . Finch 's duties included oversight of the royal nursery and all the staff employed therein , as well as organising lessons for the children . Finch oversaw the princes ' education until they became old enough to live in their own households under the watch of governors , while the six princesses remained under her supervision until they turned 21 . Finch retired from her role in 1793 , though she continued to correspond with members of the royal family and receive gifts from them .
= = Early life and marriage = =
Lady Charlotte Fermor was born on 14 February 1725 , the second eldest daughter of Thomas Fermor , 1st Earl of Pomfret and his wife Henrietta Louisa Jeffreys . The growing family would come to include ten children : four sons and six daughters . Lord and Lady Pomfret held various court appointments during their lifetimes ; the earl served as Master of the Horse to Queen Caroline while his wife was a Lady of the Bedchamber .
Charlotte and her family were well travelled and sojourned to cultural and historical landmarks on the continent . While details on Fermor and her sisters ' education are minimal , mention of them in contemporary diaries implies they were well @-@ educated . She and Lady Pomfret were well @-@ read and interested in theology ; Charlotte 's friends included the educated Elizabeth Carter . Charlotte was fluent enough in Italian for Horace Walpole to remark in 1740 , she " speaks the purest Tuscan , like any Florentine " and " the Florentines look on her as the brightest foreigner that has honoured their [ Accademia ] . " According to Walpole , Lord Granville , who had been briefly married to Charlotte 's sister Sophia , was " extremely fond " of Charlotte ; after Sophia 's death in 1745 , Granville gave his deceased wife 's jewels to Charlotte , " to the great discontent of his own daughters " .
On 9 August 1746 , Charlotte married the Hon. William Finch ( 1691 – 1766 ) , heir to his brother Daniel Finch , 8th Earl of Winchilsea . Shortly after the wedding , Walpole reported that Charlotte had five thousand pounds from her father , a sum that would increase when " Mr Finch settles fifteen thousand pounds more upon her " . William Finch had previously been married to Lady Anne Douglas but had no issue . He was a diplomat who served as envoy to Sweden and the Netherlands in the 1720s before becoming an MP for Cockermouth and Bewdley . Another of his roles , held from 1742 , was to serve as vice @-@ chamberlain of the royal household . He and Lady Charlotte had one son and four daughters together . One of their daughters died in 1765 . Their only son , George , inherited the earldoms of Nottingham and Winchilsea from his paternal uncle in 1769 .
= = Royal governess = =
Lady Charlotte Finch 's career as royal governess began in August 1762 , when she was appointed a day after the birth of George , Prince of Wales , the eldest son and heir of King George III and Queen Charlotte . Walpole called the decision " a choice so universally approved that I do not think she will be abused even in the North Briton " . Finch 's biographer , Jill Shefrin , writes that the governess was noted for the skill she devoted to the raising of her own children , while Christopher Hibbert suggests that her educated background made her " well @-@ suited " to the position . Lady Charlotte held the role of royal governess for over 30 years , and oversaw 14 of the king and queen 's 15 children . She presided over the royal nursery , overseeing the staff members designated for each child ; the staff included sub @-@ governesses , teachers , personal attendants , and assistant governesses . She oversaw the princes until they became old enough to live in their own households , while the six princesses remained under her supervision until they turned 21 .
In the mid @-@ 1760s , shortly after her appointment , troubling developments began occurring in Lady Charlotte 's home . One of her daughters died in 1765 . Furthermore , William Finch , who was 34 years older than his wife , had by 1765 become senile and mentally unstable . Rumours circulated that he threw her down a staircase . Fearing for her safety , she obtained a formal separation from her husband , taking their children to live with her in an apartment at St James 's Palace and a house in Kew . He died in late 1766 . Despite these stresses on her personal life , Finch continued to fulfil her position with zeal . However , when another of her daughters became ill in early 1767 , Finch took leave of her job and brought the young girl to various locales in the unsuccessful hope she would survive . Finch left the sub @-@ governess Mrs Cotesworth in charge and returned grieving in November 1767 , in time to care for the fifth addition to the nursery , Prince Edward .
= = = Educational approach and lessons = = =
Lady Charlotte has been variously described by biographers as warm , competent , and kindly . As was typical for the period , the children were infrequently seen by the king and queen ; Finch was the unvarying adult figure in their lives . While the royal princes endured disciplined lessons in an austere educational environment , Finch was loved by her female charges . They affectionately referred to her as " Lady Cha " , and upon returning from a trip to the continent in 1771 , Queen Charlotte wrote her , " They can never be in better hands than yours " . Shefrin says that Finch " supervised a progressive nursery focused on child @-@ centred learning " and shared a passion for education with Queen Charlotte , as is evident in their correspondence and the writings of contemporaries ; the idea of noble mothers encouraging education for their children – a concept advocated by educators and scholars – was becoming popular , and Finch 's approach at court helped spread these new educational theories . Among the methods she employed was the use of " dissected maps " , some of the earliest jigsaw puzzles , to teach geography .
The historian Flora Fraser writes that " in many ways , the education ... ordered for the princesses would be as rigorous as " that which the king ordered for the princes . Queen Charlotte felt that a woman equipped with an education was as able as a man . An accomplished woman herself , Finch , alongside Mrs Cotesworth , organised lessons in the arts and sciences which were taught to both the princes and princesses . Subjects included geography , English , grammar , music , needlework , dancing , and art . A tutor , Julie Krohme , taught the children in the French language . Once old enough , the princesses would travel each day to receive their education at Finch 's new house at Kew alongside the river . Conversely , the princes gradually saw less of Lady Charlotte as they became older and entered into the care of governors .
In 1774 , Mrs Cotesworth retired due to ill health . While seeking a successor , Lady Charlotte requested that she devote less time to the children . This was opposed by Queen Charlotte . The monarch felt that Cotesworth 's resignation was partly due to Finch decreasing hours with the children , and also thought the other staff would be encouraged by Finch increasing her presence and " make them look upon it as a less confinement " . Finch replied that she had regularly spent many hours with the princesses , both mornings and evenings , adding :
How can I without deviating from my own principles undertake an additional duty of a kind for which I am conscious I am growing every day more unfit , as your Majesty must know what an uncommon stock of spirits and cheerfulness is necessary to go through the growing attendance of so many and such very young people in their amusements , as well as behaviour and instruction , besides ordering all the affairs of the nursery .
Lady Charlotte threatened to resign so that the queen could hire someone " younger and more fitted for it " , a declaration which ended Queen Charlotte 's quest to increase her hours . Finch remained at her post . A new sub @-@ governess , Martha Gouldsworthy – hired on Finch 's recommendation – now spent frequent time with the princesses , chaperoning and supervising their studies in preparation for their lessons with their teacher Miss Planta . In 1782 , the 14th royal child , Prince Alfred , sickened and died at Windsor near the age of two , despite Lady Charlotte 's devoted nursing .
= = = Retirement and death = = =
By 1792 , Lady Charlotte Finch had become ill and deaf . Princess Sophia remarked that autumn , " I am grieved to death about her , she is if possible more kind to us than ever . Indeed , both [ Mrs Gouldsworthy ] and her are so good to us that we should not be deserving of having such treasures about us , if we did not feel their kindness in the highest degree " . Finch resigned from her role in November 1792 and retired on 5 January 1793 , though she continued to correspond with members of the royal family and receive gifts from them , particularly the Prince of Wales , the future George IV . She received £ 600 in yearly payment , supplemented by income from the South Sea Company , until her death on 11 July 1813 at St James 's Palace .
She was buried in the family vault at Ravenstone , Buckinghamshire and five royal dukes attended her funeral . Her youngest daughter was allowed to maintain their apartments at St James 's . Her will was mainly portioned out between her three surviving children . Her memorial by Francis Leggatt Chantrey ( 1820 ) , is in Holy Cross Church , Burley , adjacent to Burley House , the Rutland mansion of her son , George Finch , 9th Earl of Winchilsea .
= = Issue = =
Charlotte Finch
George Finch , 9th Earl of Winchilsea ( 4 November 1752 – 2 August 1826 )
Sophia Finch , married Captain Charles Fielding in 1772 and had issue
Henrietta Finch
Frances Finch ( ? – 1765 )
= = Ancestry = =
= WIN Television =
WIN Television is an Australian television network owned by the WIN Corporation that is based in Wollongong , New South Wales . WIN commenced transmissions on 18 March 1962 as a single Wollongong @-@ only station , and has since expanded to 24 owned @-@ and @-@ operated stations with transmissions covering a larger geographical area of Australia than any other television network except for Australia Plus which broadcasts to 44 countries .
The network 's name , WIN is a reference to its original Wollongong station WIN @-@ 4 , itself an acronym of Wollongong Illawarra New South Wales . Through its news division , WIN News , WIN Television broadcasts a half @-@ hour news service to twenty regional markets .
= = History = =
= = = The Beginning = = =
Television Wollongong Transmission Limited ( TWT ) , was incorporated on 4 October 1955 by a group of local businessmen . Five years later , it was awarded a licence by the Postmaster @-@ General 's Department broadcast to the Illawarra and South Coast regions , over a number of other groups aligned to Sydney @-@ based stations ATN @-@ 7 and TCN @-@ 9 . The new station was to broadcast on the VHF @-@ 4 frequency , using the callsign WIN ( which stood for Wollongong ( and the ) Illawarra Network or alternatively Wollongong Illawarra New ( South Wales ) , in line with other Australian callsigns ) . Soon after , a plot of land was purchased at Fort Drummond , approximately two kilometres south of the Wollongong central business district , for the station 's television studios .
Prior to the opening night 's transmissions , WIN @-@ 4 undertook a television conversion program , aimed at encouraging residents to acquire new tuning equipment and converting television sets in the area to receive the station 's allocated frequency . A transmitter was to be erected on Knight 's Hill , however test transmissions were delayed due to rain .
= = = 1960s to the 1970s = = =
WIN @-@ 4 commenced transmissions at 5 : 15 pm. on 18 March 1962 . The first night was met with a number of technical issues , most notably the complete loss of audio . TCN @-@ 9 and ATN @-@ 7 refused to sell programming to the station , leading to an unstable financial situation which , at its peak left the station with only 42 hours ' programming .
In April 1963 , Media Securities , owned by Rupert Murdoch , acquired a controlling interest in the station ( his second television station after NWS @-@ 9 Adelaide ) and soon appointed a new general manager , Bill Lean . Both TCN @-@ 9 and ATN @-@ 7 began purchasing several hours of first @-@ run American television programming from WIN @-@ 4 , following contractual arrangements signed by Murdoch . Throughout this period WIN @-@ 4 expanded its repeater transmissions to include Moruya , Batemans Bay , Narooma , Bega and Eden . Local programming and the station 's near @-@ monopoly in the area meant that by 1973 , viewership had increased to occupy 63 percent of the audience .
Murdoch sold the station in 1979 to the head of Paramount Pictures ' international distribution arm , Bruce Gordon , to purchase controlling interests in capital city stations TEN @-@ 10 Sydney and ATV @-@ 0 ( now ATV @-@ 10 ) Melbourne .
= = = 1980s to the 1990s = = =
During this period , WIN expanded to include new stations in Victoria , Queensland , and New South Wales . In 1984 , WIN became the first regional television station to transmit in stereophonic sound . Close links between WIN Television and the Nine Network , ensured it the Nine Network affiliation for southern New South Wales when aggregation took place in 1989 thus the logo of the station changed to that of its partner network with the matching nine dots and similar ident packages . The changes meant that WIN expanded into the rest of southern New South Wales , launching new stations in Canberra , Orange , Bathurst , Dubbo and Wagga Wagga , amongst others in 1989 , and at the same time acquiring new facilities in Orange , Wagga and Canberra . It also provided the network with two additional competitors , The Prime Network and Capital Television .
In 1990 WIN purchased Queensland station Star TV , with stations in Rockhampton ( RTQ ) and the Darling Downs ( DDQ and SDQ ) , shortly before regional Queensland was to be aggregated . The new station was set to become a Network Ten affiliate , however WIN 's links with the Nine Network caused the Nine affiliation to move from QTV , which itself became affiliated to Ten , all within days before statewide broadcasts commenced .
ENT Limited , a Launceston @-@ based company that owned a number of television and radio stations in regional Victoria and Tasmania , was bought in 1994 . Vic Television and TasTV were , as a result , incorporated into the WIN network and subsequently renamed WIN Television , complete with the nine dots logo of the Nine Network . The network further expanded to Griffith in 1998 , when WIN purchased MTN @-@ 9 Griffith and its supplementary station AMN @-@ 31 from its local owners . Although station had previously been part of the Prime Television network , MTN already had links with WIN and took its feed from the network 's Wollongong base .
WIN became regional Western Australia 's second commercial television network on 26 March 1999 after winning rights in 1997 . Prior to the launch of the new station , GWN held a commercial monopoly on the market . GWN became an affiliate of the Seven Network , while WIN took a combination of Nine Network and Network Ten programming . Despite the Nine Network 's traditional ratings dominance throughout most of the country , GWN has remained the market 's most @-@ watched station . The second ratings survey of 2006 placed WIN Television with a 34 @.@ 7 % commercial audience share in prime time , compared to the Golden West Network with 65 @.@ 3 % , thus being no.2 among regional viewers .
In the same year , WIN purchased two stations in South Australia , SES8 in Mount Gambier and RTS @-@ 5a in the Riverland region . They became known as WIN South Australia and until recently featured news bulletins presented from studios at both stations ( bulletins are now presented from the set of studios in Mount Gambier ) . In 2002 supplementary licences were granted under Section 38A of the Broadcasting Services Act , allowing the network to launch additional channels , using the callsigns MGS in Mount Gambier and LRS in the Riverland , and known as WIN Ten , thus converting it into the sole Nine affiliate for regional viewers in SA . This was the case until the affiliation moved to the Seven Network due to advertising problems with Nine 's then owners in 2007 .
= = = 2000s = = =
WIN Television began to introduce digital television soon after it became available to metropolitan areas in January 2001 . Under Section 38A of the Broadcasting Services Act , the network has been able to introduce , in partnership with other stations , additional digital @-@ only Network Ten affiliates . These have included Tasmanian Digital Television , launched in late 2003 in partnership with Southern Cross Broadcasting , and Mildura Digital Television in January 2006 , with Prime Television Limited .
On 30 May 2007 , Southern Cross Broadcasting announced its sale of NWS to the WIN Corporation for A $ 105 million . Similarly , STW Perth , owned by Sunraysia Television and affiliated to the Nine Network , was purchased on 8 June 2007 , when the station was sold to WIN Television 's parent company , WIN Corporation , for A $ 163 @.@ 1 million .
Despite the station 's ownership of Nine Perth , WIN in Western Australia broadcast Ten News Perth , produced for and shown on rival station Ten Perth up until 27 August 2007 . Preceding this in June 2007 , the network announced their intention to show National Nine News on WIN WA , due to the rise of yet another joint venture station , Ten West . This was its 3rd digital only Ten affiliate with both WIN and GWN taking charge .
A conflict between WIN and its long @-@ time metropolitan counterpart the Nine Network arose in mid @-@ 2007 . PBL Media , Nine 's parent company , requested up to 40 % of the network 's advertising revenue in return for program supply . WIN 's owner , WIN Corporation rejected this offer , expecting to pay only 29 % ( a 3 % decrease from the previous contract and in line with many of the network 's competitors , such as Prime Television and Southern Cross Ten ) . The network 's owner , Bruce Gordon , subsequently threatened to sever the network 's affiliation after negotiations stagnated , stating that his previous position at the Paramount Pictures Corporation meant he could program the network independently . On 16 August 2007 WIN Television dropped key Nine Network programs from its daytime television schedule , including Mornings with Kerri @-@ Anne and National Nine News : Morning Edition . The end result was that WIN SA began to change affiliation from Nine to the Seven Network and the change was announced on 4 September 2007 , for the network 's eastern South Australian stations in Mount Gambier and the Riverland . The new program schedule is a mixture of Seven and WIN programming and commenced broadcasting on 1 October 2007 . Two years later , WIN officially relaunched its Nine Network service with the new channel , now known as WIN SA , carrying NWS from Adelaide and all Nine News programs but with local advertisements inserted to serve regional viewers .
On 9 August 2009 WIN began transmission of the new digital channel GO ! on channel 88 in Southern NSW , Regional Victoria , Tasmania and Regional Queensland . It soon reached Midura in 2010 and regional SA in 2011 .
= = = 2010s = = =
In June 2010 , playout was moved from WIN 's Wollongong headquarters to a new facility shared with ABC Television at Ingleburn in Sydney 's south @-@ west .
On 26 September 2010 WIN began transmission of the HD digital channel GEM on channel 80 in Southern NSW , Regional Victoria , Tasmania and Regional Queensland .
In Mid @-@ 2011 , The WIN Network stopped using the Supertext logo , and replaced it with the generic Closed Captioning Logo .
On 1 May 2012 WIN began transmission of an SD digital infomercial channel , Gold on channel 84 . The second infomercial channel , Gold2 began on 13 July 2013 as a five @-@ hour timeshift of Gold .
On 21 January 2016 WIN replaced Gold2 on channel 82 with Nine 's metropolitan infomercial channel , Extra .
After Nine revived 9HD and launched new lifestyle channel 9Life on 26 November 2015 , WIN CEO Andrew Lancaster issued a memo to staff citing that WIN would not be reviving WIN HD or launching 9Life at the same time as Nine , but promised that WIN would do this in future . WIN continued to broadcast the HD feed of 9Gem on channel 80 . On 10 February 2016 , WIN began broadcasting a " coming soon " test pattern on channels 85 and 86 indicating that they will revive WIN HD and carry 9Life from the Nine Network from 1 March 2016 . As a result , their channel listing was reshuffled to match to Nine 's metropolitan with 9Gem on channel 82 , 9Go ! on channel 83 , 9Life on channel 84 , Extra on channel 85 and Gold on channel 86 .
After Nine launched its new online catch @-@ up video on demand and live streaming service 9Now on 27 January 2016 , WIN filed a lawsuit against Nine , claiming that live streaming into regional areas breaches their affiliation agreement . Justice Hammerschlag of the NSW Supreme Court dismissed the case on 28 April 2016 , citing that " live streaming is not broadcasting within the meaning of the PSA ( program supply agreement ) , and that Nine is under no express or implied obligation not to do it . "
Following WIN 's defeat in the 9Now lawsuit , Nine announced it had signed a new $ 500 million affiliation deal with Network Ten affiliate Southern Cross Austereo , switching its primary Nine affiliation to stations currently affiliated with Ten in Southern NSW , ACT , and regional areas in Victoria and Queensland on 1 July 2016 . With that announcement , WIN was effectively stripped of its 27 @-@ year partnership with Nine . In response , WIN entered affiliation talks with Network Ten , reaching a final agreement on 23 May 2016 . Under the new agreement , beginning 1 July 2016 , WIN would carry Ten programming into regional Queensland , Southern NSW , Victoria , Tasmania , South Australia , Western Australia and the Australian Capital Territory . Deals to supply Nine programming to South Australia , and Griffith were secured on 29 June 2016 , a day later Tasmania were secured as well . A supply deal for Western Australia joint venture West Digital Television was not secured before the 1 July 2016 deadline , but a deal was later finalised on 2 July 2016 with programming resuming that night .
= = Programming = =
WIN Television carries programming of all three commercial television stations in Australia . It is a sole Network Ten affiliate in all broadcast areas , but also carries Seven Network and the Nine Network affiliated channels in Griffith , New South Wales and eastern South Australia . WIN Television has always produced regional programming , including the flagship local news service WIN News , that supplement programs sourced from affiliates .
Since inception , the network has produced and broadcast notable programs including Sportsview and Sportsworld , a review of international , national and local sporting events . From the first week of transmissions , children 's television series The Channel 4 Club was produced , with children 's television program Stopwatch beginning in 1979 . English @-@ language educational programme You Say the Word began in 1971 , catering to non @-@ English @-@ speaking immigrants . Long @-@ running entertainment program Variety Italian Style premiered in 1974 , with Malcom Elliott initially hosting the short @-@ lived Tonight Show in 1981 being replaced by John Tingle a year later . To commemorate WIN Television 's 21st year of broadcasting , a one @-@ and @-@ half @-@ hour retrospective montage special was produced in 1983 . WIN Television also co @-@ produced telemovie Last Chance in 1986 with a Canadian television production company . Spanning close to a decade , children 's television series Goodsports was produced by WIN Television from 1991 to 2000 .
WIN Television 's current Australian programming productions consists of television shows including ; Fishing Australia and Alive and Cooking . On 17 May 2007 , WIN Television announced a new midday program called Susie , however this was subsequently moved to a morning timeslot . WIN Television also broadcasts a range of exclusive overseas and domestically sourced programming including The Ellen DeGeneres Show and Alive and Cooking .
= = = News & Current Affairs = = =
WIN News is the network 's local news service . Eighteen regional bulletins are presented from studios in Wollongong , Tasmania and Maroochydore . Although in most areas it is the only local news bulletin , WIN News may compete in some markets with Prime News , Seven Local News , GWN7 News , or Southern Cross News .
WIN has produced independent news reports and bulletins since 1962 for its original Wollongong station . As well as the flagship nightly bulletin , WIN Television has in the past produced current affairs programming including community affairs program Roving Eye , and Sunday Review , a weekly review of international , national and local stories .
WIN also broadcasts All Australian News at 7am and at late nights , featuring highlights from news bulletins from its regional stations .
= = = Sport = = =
WIN Television simulcasts sports coverage from Ten Sport , the sports brand of the Network Ten under the WIN Sport brand .
WIN Television in Queensland also produced its own rugby league coverage in 1995 , televising games which featured the fledgling North Queensland Cowboys in their maiden season after entering the ARL 's Winfield Cup competition .
= = Availability = =
WIN Television 's transmissions are available from both free @-@ to @-@ air terrestrial transmitters in major regional centres , and free @-@ to @-@ view satellite transmissions across regional and remote Western Australia on the Viewer Access Satellite Television service . WIN News bulletins are carried on the VAST service to allow viewers in remote areas of Central and Eastern Australia , and terrestrial reception blackspots to obtain news local to their area .
Subscription cable is also provided by TransACT in the Australian Capital Territory , and Neighbourhood Cable in Ballarat and Mildura .
WIN broadcasts a larger geographical area than any other television network , in the world , through owned @-@ and @-@ operated stations including RTQ Queensland , WIN Southern New South Wales , VTV Victoria , TVT Tasmania , MTN Griffith , STV Mildura , SES Mount Gambier , RTS Riverland , and WOW Western Australia .
= = = WIN HD = = =
WIN Television announced on 10 February 2016 it would launch its own HD simulcast in the coming months . It was later confirmed the HD simulcast would be titled WIN HD and would launch on 1 March 2016 . Four WIN regions were excluded from the 1 March launch date . Griffith , Tasmania , and Eastern South Australia did not receive the channel until 2 March 2016 due to technical issues . In addition , the regional WA station didn 't receive the channel until 10 March 2016 .
= = Logos = =
The original WIN Television logo was used by the station until 1980 , featuring the word WIN TV , derived from the station 's call sign . In 1980 , the logo was updated with the TV removed , and the WIN placed inside a blue rectange . Coinciding with the network 's aggregation in 1989 , WIN added nine dots into a new logo designed similarly to the Nine Network , and also began using Nine 's on @-@ air promotion , with the WIN logo replacing Nine 's . In 1998 , the dots were changed to spheres .
Three @-@ dimensions were added to the letters WIN in 2002 , coinciding with a revamp of the network 's on @-@ air identity , concurrently with Nine Network . On 30 January 2006 , the station relaunched its logo along with the major rebranding of the Nine Network . The new logo designed by Bruce Dunlop Associates saw the removal of the nine dots , with a blue rectangle added to behind the letters WIN . Following this in 2008 , as a part of the Nine Network relaunch , WIN dropped the rectangle , however , it did not revive the Nine Network 's famous ' nine dots ' due to affiliation disagreements . Promotions on the WIN website in the lead up to the change of affiliation to Network Ten show a logo similar to Ten with the current WIN font in a blue circle .
= Homesick ( MercyMe song ) =
" Homesick " is a song by Christian rock band MercyMe . Written by Bart Millard , the song is an expression of grief and longing that was written after the band experienced the deaths of nine people they were connected to in a short period of time . " Homesick " was included on MercyMe 's third studio album Undone and was released as the second single from that album .
" Homesick " received positive critical reception , with some critics considering the song one of the best off of Undone . " Homesick " was successful on both Christian and mainstream radio , peaking at the top on the Radio & Records Christian AC Indicator and Soft AC / INSPO charts , number 3 on the Billboard Hot Christian Songs and Hot Christian AC charts and the Radio & Records Christian AC chart , as well as peaking at number 9 on the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart . It was ranked at number 13 on the Billboard 2005 year @-@ end Hot Christian Songs and Hot Christian AC charts , and at number 20 on the year @-@ end Adult Contemporary chart .
= = Background = =
" Homesick " was written during a time of hardship for the band — nine people close to MercyMe 's band members had died in a short span of time . Lead singer Bart Millard initially wrote the chorus to " Homesick " following a funeral service for two infants that died in pregnancy , but did not finish the song , as didn ’ t want to fake his way through writing the song . However , following the death of Millard 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , Chris , in a car accident , Millard finished the song so as to play it at Chris 's funeral . Millard and the rest of MercyMe intended the song only to be played once — at Chris 's funeral — but Millard 's mother @-@ in @-@ law encouraged them to record it . Although the record they were going to release , Undone , was essentially complete , the band returned to the studio to record " Homesick " for inclusion on the project .
= = Composition = =
" Homesick " is a ballad with a length of three minutes and forty @-@ one seconds . Lyrically , the song is an expression of grief , pondering Heaven and the time it takes to get there , as well as anger , confusion , and brokenness . The song is set in the key of F major and has a moderate tempo of 72 beats per minute . Millard 's vocal range in the song spans from C4 – A5 .
Some comparisons have been made between the lyrical content of " Homesick " and MercyMe 's 2001 single " I Can Only Imagine . " David Jenison of CCM Magazine referred to the song as the ' sequel ' to " I Can Only Imagine . " Regarding these comparisons , Millard said " ’ I Can Only Imagine ’ took the focus off of what you are going through and was comforting because it put the focus on where they were going ... ’ Homesick ’ is the opposite because it completely addresses us that are left here . I don ’ t think as a Christian that it ’ s right for me to say , ‘ I wish you could ’ ve stayed here , ’ because truthfully , we ’ re getting the raw end of the deal if we really believe what we say that heaven is as great as we want it to be . The whole idea is that we ’ re the ones who have to wait . ” Millard has also noted , " The difference with ‘ Homesick ’ [ as compared to " I Can Only Imagine " ] is that it talks about those who are stuck around here after someone passes away . When you lose somebody , you learn what being homesick is really about . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Critical reception to " Homesick " was generally positive . Allmusic reviewer Johnny Loftus selected the song as a track pick on his review of Undone , commenting that " [ Homesick ] is a delicate ballad about being apart . " Russ Breimeier of The Fish noted , " The beautiful ballad ' Homesick ' is both similar to and an improvement on ' Imagine ' , the difference in how it focuses on persevering on earth in anticipation of heaven " . Kim Jones of About.com commented , " ' Homesick ' is the true gem on this release , " also opining , " Should it be a radio release , I won 't be a bit surprised to see it in the number one spot for many , many weeks " .
= = = Chart performance = = =
" Homesick " debuted at number 35 on the Billboard Hot Christian Songs chart for the chart week of November 13 , 2004 , advancing to number 6 four weeks later . The song held that spot for three weeks before advancing to its peak position of number 3 for the chart week of January 1 , 2005 . " Homesick " dropped to number 11 the next week , but returned to the top ten and , after spending two weeks at number 5 and number 7 , respectively , " Homesick " spent ten consecutive weeks in the top five of the chart . After dropping out of the top five , the song spent nine more weeks on the chart before dropping out . In all , the song spent a total of thirty weeks on the chart .
On the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart , " Homesick " debuted at number 32 for the chart week of February 12 , 2005 . The song spent seventeen more weeks on the chart before reaching its peak of number 9 for the chart week of June 18 , 2005 . In all , the song spent twenty @-@ six weeks on the chart .
" Homesick " also peaked at number 3 on the Billboard Hot Christian AC and the R & R Christian AC charts , spending twenty @-@ eight weeks on both . On the R & R Christian AC Indicator chart the song peaked at number 1 , spending a total of five weeks at the top spot and 25 weeks on the chart in total . On the R & R Soft AC / INSPO chart , " Homesick " spent one week at the top spot and twenty weeks on it total . " Homesick " also spent four weeks on Christian CHR chart , peaking at number 27 .
= = Uses = =
" Homesick " is also featured by the compilation album WOW Hits 2006 and the 2009 compilation album 10 .
= = Charts = =
= = = Weekly charts = = =
= = = Year @-@ end charts = = =
= = = Decade @-@ end charts = = =
= John Philip Sousa =
John Philip Sousa ( / ˈsuːsə / ; Portuguese pronunciation : [ ˈso ( w ) zɐ ] ; November 6 , 1854 – March 6 , 1932 ) was an American composer and conductor of the late Romantic era , known primarily for American military and patriotic marches . Because of his mastery of march composition , he is known as " The March King " , or the " American March King " due to his British counterpart Kenneth J. Alford also being known by the former nickname . Among his best @-@ known marches are " The Stars and Stripes Forever " ( National March of the United States of America ) , " Semper Fidelis " ( Official March of the United States Marine Corps ) , " The Liberty Bell " , " The Thunderer " and " The Washington Post " .
Sousa 's father was of Portuguese and Spanish descent , his mother of Hessian ancestry . Sousa began his career playing violin and studying music theory and composition under John Esputa and George Felix Benkert . His father enlisted him in the United States Marine Band as an apprentice in 1868 . After departing the band in 1875 , Sousa learned to conduct . From 1880 until his death , he focused exclusively on conducting and the writing of music . He eventually rejoined the Marine Band and served there for 12 years as director . On leaving the Marine Band , Sousa organized his own band . He toured Europe and Australia and developed the sousaphone , a large brass instrument similar to the tuba . On the outbreak of World War I , Sousa was commissioned as a lieutenant and led the Naval Reserve Band in Illinois . Following his tenure , he returned to conduct the Sousa Band until his death in 1932 . In the 1920s he was promoted to lieutenant commander in the naval reserve , but never saw active service again .
= = Early life and education = =
John Philip Sousa was born in Washington , D.C. , the third of ten children of João António de Sousa ( John Anthony Sousa ) ( Seville , 22 September 1824 - 27 April 1892 ) , who was of Portuguese and Spanish ancestry ( son of João António de Sousa and wife Josefina Blanco , from Seville ) , and wife Maria Elisabeth Trinkhaus ( Darmstadt , 20 May 1826 - 25 August 1908 ) , who was of Hessian ancestry ( daughter of Peter Trinkhaus and wife Catherine Schafers ) . Sousa started his music education by playing the violin as a pupil of John Esputa and George Felix Benkert for harmony and musical composition at the age of six . He was found to have absolute pitch . During his childhood , Sousa studied voice , violin , piano , flute , cornet , baritone horn , trombone , and alto horn . When Sousa was 13 , his father , a trombonist in the Marine Band , enlisted him in the United States Marine Corps as an apprentice to keep him from joining a circus band .
= = Career = =
Several years long after serving his apprenticeship , Sousa joined a theatrical ( pit ) orchestra where he learned to conduct . He returned to the U.S. Marine Band as its head in 1880 and remained as its conductor until 1892 . Sousa led " The President 's Own " band under five presidents from Rutherford B. Hayes to Benjamin Harrison . Sousa 's band played at two Inaugural Balls , those of James A. Garfield in 1881 , and Benjamin Harrison in 1889 . The marching brass bass , or sousaphone , a modified helicon , was created by J. W. Pepper – a Philadelphia instrument maker who created the instrument in 1893 at Sousa 's request using several of his suggestions in its design . He wanted a tuba that could sound upward and over the band whether its player was seated or marching . The sousaphone was re @-@ created in 1898 by C.G. Conn and this was the model that Sousa preferred to use .
He organized The Sousa Band the year he left the Marine Band . The Sousa Band toured from 1892 to 1931 , performing at 15 @,@ 623 concerts both in America and around the world , including at the World Exposition in Paris , France and at the Royal Albert Hall in London . In Paris , the Sousa Band marched through the streets to the Arc de Triomphe – one of only eight parades the band marched in over its forty years .
= = Personal life = =
On December 30 , 1879 , Sousa married Jane van Middlesworth Bellis ( 1862 – 1944 ) . They had three children : John Philip , Jr . ( April 1 , 1881 – May 18 , 1937 ) , Jane Priscilla ( August 7 , 1882 – October 28 , 1958 ) , and Helen ( January 21 , 1887 – October 14 , 1975 ) . All were buried in the John Philip Sousa plot in the Congressional Cemetery . Wife Jane , daughters Jane Priscilla and Helen Abert joined the Daughters of the American Revolution ( DAR ) in 1907 . Their ancestor was Adam Bellis , who served under several different commands for the New Jersey troops in the American Revolutionary War .
Late in his life , Sousa lived in Sands Point , New York . Sousa died of heart failure at the age of 77 on March 6 , 1932 , in his room at the Abraham Lincoln Hotel in Reading , Pennsylvania . He had conducted a rehearsal of " The Stars and Stripes Forever " the previous day with the Ringgold Band . He is buried in Washington , D.C. ' s Congressional Cemetery . A school ( John Philip Sousa Elementary ) and a band shell were named after him and there was a memorial tree planted in nearby Port Washington , New York . Wild Bank , his seaside house on Hicks Lane , has been designated a National Historic Landmark , although it remains a private home and is not open to the public . He was posthumously enshrined in the Hall of Fame for Great Americans in 1976 , one of just 102 Americans ever to be honored in such a manner .
= = Military service = =
Sousa served two periods of service in the United States Marine Corps . He first enlisted on June 9 , 1868 at the age of 13 as an apprentice musician . In official records , his initial rank was listed as " boy " . He re @-@ enlisted on July 8 , 1872 and was promoted to musician . He left the Marine Corps in 1875 at the age of 20 .
His second period of Marine service was from 1880 to 1892 . During this period he was the leader of the Marine Band in Washington , D.C. ( Some sources state that Sousa served with the rank of Sergeant Major and was eventually promoted to Warrant Officer but this is erroneous as the leader of the band was a separate rank from sergeant major and the Marine Corps did not have warrant officers until 1916 . ) Sousa 's salary as " leader of the band " ( his official Marine Corps rank ) was $ 83 per month which compared to a second lieutenant at $ 115 @.@ 67 per month and a sergeant major with 20 years of service at $ 30 per month .
Under his leadership , the Marine Band became the premier military band in the United States . The Columbia Phonograph Company produced 60 cylinders of recordings of the Marine Band conducted by Sousa . The recordings , along with two tours in 1891 and 1892 , led to Sousa becoming nationally famous . During his time with the Marine Band , Sousa composed several of his famous marches including The Washington Post , The Thunderer and Semper Fidelis which remain staples of marching bands to this day .
In July 1892 , Sousa requested , and received , a discharge from the Marine Corps to pursue a financially promising civilian career as a band leader . He conducted a farewell concert at the White House on July 30 , 1892 and was discharged from the Marine Corps the next day .
On May 31 , 1917 , shortly after the United States declared war on Germany and entered World War I , Sousa was commissioned as a lieutenant in the United States Naval Reserve . At that time , Sousa was 62 years old which was then the mandatory retirement age for Navy officers . During the war , Sousa led the Navy Band at the Great Lakes Naval Station near Chicago , Illinois . Being independently wealthy at this point in his life , he donated most of his naval salary , except a token $ 1 per month , to the Sailors ' and Marines ' Relief Fund .
Sousa was discharged from active duty after the war 's end in November 1918 . He returned to conducting his own band but continued to wear his naval uniform for many of his concerts and other public appearances . In the early 1920s , he was promoted to the rank of lieutenant commander in the Naval Reserve but did not return to active duty .
For this service during the war , Sousa received the World War I Victory Medal . By right of his wartime service , he was elected as a Veteran Companion of the Military Order of Foreign Wars .
= = Honors = =
Sousa was decorated with the palms of the Order of Public Instruction of Portugal . He also received the Royal Victorian Medal from King Edward VII of the United Kingdom in December 1901 for conducting a private birthday concert for Queen Alexandra .
During World War II , the Liberty ship SS John Philip Sousa was named after him . The ship 's bell is still used by the Marine Band in concert .
Sousa has a star in his honor at 1500 Vine Street on the Hollywood Walk of Fame .
In 1976 , Sousa was inducted into the Hall of Fame for Great Americans . In 1998 , he was inducted into the American Classical Music Hall of Fame in Cincinnati , Ohio .
The band hall of the Marine Band was dedicated as " John Philip Sousa Band Hall . "
In 1987 , an act of Congress named " The Stars and Stripes Forever " as the National March of the United States .
= = Music = =
Sousa wrote 137 marches , 15 operettas , 5 overtures , 11 suites , 24 dances , 28 fantasies , and 322 arrangements of nineteenth @-@ century western European symphonic works .
= = = Marches = = =
Sousa wrote 137 marches , published by Harry Coleman of Philadelphia , Carl Fischer Music , the John Church Company , and the Sam Fox Publishing Company , the last association beginning in 1917 and continuing until his death . Some of his notable ones are :
" The Gladiator March " ( 1886 )
" Semper Fidelis " ( 1888 ) ( Official March of the United States Marine Corps )
" The Washington Post " ( 1889 )
" The Thunderer " ( 1889 )
" The Loyal Legion March " ( 1890 )
" High School Cadets " ( 1890 )
" The Liberty Bell " ( 1893 ) ( later used as credits theme for Monty Python 's Flying Circus TV series )
" Manhattan Beach March " ( 1893 )
" King Cotton " ( 1895 )
" Stars and Stripes Forever " ( 1896 ) ( National March of the United States )
" El Capitan " ( 1896 )
" Hands Across the Sea " ( dedicated to the band of the Virginia Tech Corps of Cadets – the Highty @-@ Tighties ) ( 1899 )
" Hail to the Spirit of Liberty " March ( 1900 )
" Invincible Eagle " ( 1901 ) ( dedicated to Pan @-@ American Buffalo Exposition )
" Imperial Edward " March ( 1902 )
" Fairest of the Fair " ( 1908 )
" Glory of the Yankee Navy " ( 1909 )
" U.S. Field Artillery " ( 1917 ) ( modified version " The Army Goes Rolling Along " is the official song of the U.S. Army )
" Who 's Who in Navy Blue " ( 1920 ) ( composed at the request of the United States Naval Academy class of 1920 and dedicated to Tecumseh , a bronze reproduction of the figurehead of the U.S.S. Delaware that occupies a key place at the Academy )
" The Gallant Seventh " ( 1922 )
" Nobles of the Mystic Shrine " ( 1923 )
" The Black Horse Troop " ( 1924 ) ( written in honor of Troop A , 107th Cavalry , Ohio National Guard ) .
" Pride of the Wolverines " ( 1926 )
" Minnesota March " ( 1927 )
" New Mexico March " ( 1928 )
" Salvation Army March " ( 1930 ) ( dedicated to the Salvation Army 's 50th anniversary in the U.S. )
Sousa wrote marches for several American universities , including the University of Minnesota , University of Illinois , University of Nebraska , Kansas State University , and Marquette University .
= = = Operettas = = =
Sousa wrote many notable operettas including :
The Smugglers ( 1882 )
Désirée ( 1883 )
The Queen of Hearts ( 1885 ) , also known as Royalty and Roguery
El Capitan ( 1896 )
The Bride Elect ( 1897 ) , libretto by Sousa .
The Charlatan ( 1898 ) , also known as The Mystical Miss , lyrics by Sousa
Chris and the Wonderful Lamp ( 1899 )
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Free Lance ( 1905 )
The American Maid ( 1909 ) , also known as The Glass Blowers .
Marches and waltzes have been derived from many of these stage @-@ works . Sousa also composed the music for six operettas that were either unfinished or not produced : The Devils ' Deputy , Florine , The Irish Dragoon , Katherine , The Victory , and The Wolf .
In addition , Sousa wrote a march based on themes from Gilbert and Sullivan 's comic opera The Mikado , the elegant overture Our Flirtations , a number of musical suites , etc . He frequently added Sullivan opera overtures or other Sullivan pieces to his concerts . He was quoted saying , " My religion lies in my composition " .
= = Writings , views and interests = =
Sousa had several additional interests outside of music . He wrote three novels – The Fifth String , Pipetown Sandy , and The Transit of Venus – as well as a full @-@ length autobiography , Marching Along and numerous articles and letters @-@ to @-@ the @-@ editor on a variety of subjects . He participated in trapshooting , taking an active role on the national stage in competitions .
= = = Trapshooting = = =
As a trapshooter , he ranks as one of the all @-@ time greats , and is enshrined in the Trapshooting Hall of Fame . He organized the first national trapshooting organization , a forerunner to today 's Amateur Trapshooting Association ( ATA ) . Sousa remained active in the fledgling ATA for some time after its formation . Some credit Sousa as the father of organized trapshooting in United States . He also wrote numerous articles about trapshooting . Sousa was a regular competitor representing the United States Navy in trapshooting competitions , particularly against the United States Army . Available records indicate that Sousa registered more than 35 @,@ 000 targets during his shooting career . A quote from his Trapshooting Hall of Fame biography says it best : " Let me say that just about the sweetest music to me is when I call , ' pull , ' the old gun barks , and the referee in perfect key announces , ' dead ' . "
= = = Writing = = =
In his 1902 novel The Fifth String , a young violinist made a deal with the Devil for a magic violin with five strings . The strings can excite the emotions of Pity , Hope , Love and Joy – the fifth string was of Death and can be played only once before causing the player 's own death . He was unable to win the love of the woman he desired . At a final concert , he played upon the death string . In 1905 , Sousa published a book Pipetown Sandy , which included a satirical poem titled " The Feast of the Monkeys " . The poem described " a lavish party attended by variety of animals , however , overshadowed by the King of Beasts , the lion ... who allows the muttering guests the privilege of watching him eat the entire feast " . At the end of his gluttony , the lion explained , " Come all rejoice , You 've seen your monarch dine . "
In 1920 , he wrote a 40 @,@ 000 @-@ word story , " The Transit of Venus " . It was about a group of misogynists called the Alimony Club who , as a way of temporarily escaping the society of women , embark on a sea voyage to observe the transit of Venus . The captain 's niece , however , had stowed away on board and soon won over the men . Sousa also wrote a booklet , " A manual for trumpet and drum " , published by the Ludwig drum company , with advice for playing drums and trumpet . An early version of the trumpet solo to " Semper Fidelis " was included in this volume .
= = = Hostility to recording = = =
Sousa held a very low opinion of the emerging and upstart recording industry . Using an epithet coined by Mark Twain , he derided recordings as " canned music " , a reference to the early wax cylinder records that came in can @-@ like cylindrical cardboard boxes . In a submission to a congressional hearing in 1906 , he argued :
These talking machines are going to ruin the artistic development of music in this country . When I was a boy ... in front of every house in the summer evenings , you would find young people together singing the songs of the day or old songs . Today you hear these infernal machines going night and day . We will not have a vocal cord left . The vocal cord will be eliminated by a process of evolution , as was the tail of man when he came from the ape .
Law professor Lawrence Lessig cited this passage to argue that in creating a system of copyrights in which control of music is in the hands of record labels , Sousa was essentially correct .
Sousa 's antipathy to recording was such that he almost never conducted his band when it was being recorded . Nevertheless , Sousa 's band made numerous recordings , the earliest being issued on cylinders by several companies , followed by many recordings on discs by the Berliner Gramophone Company and its successor , the Victor Talking Machine Company ( later RCA Victor ) . The Berliner recordings were conducted by Henry Higgins ( one of Sousa 's cornet soloists ) and Arthur Pryor ( Sousa 's trombone soloist and assistant conductor ) , with Sousa quoted as saying , " I have never been in the gramophone company 's office in my life . " A handful of the Victor recordings were actually conducted by Sousa , but most were conducted by Pryor , Herbert L. Clarke , Edwin H. Clarke , or by four of Victor 's most prolific house musicians : Walter B. Rogers ( who had also been a cornet soloist with Sousa ) , Rosario Bourdon , Josef Pasternack , and Nathaniel Shilkret . Details of the Victor recordings are available in the external link below to the EDVR .
= = = Other interests = = =
Sousa also appeared with his band in newsreels and on radio broadcasts ( beginning with a 1929 nationwide broadcast on NBC ) . In 1999 , Legacy Records released some of Sousa 's historic recordings on CD . In 1922 , he accepted the invitation of the national chapter to become an honorary member of Kappa Kappa Psi , the national honorary band fraternity . In 1925 , he was initiated as an honorary member of Phi Mu Alpha Sinfonia , the national fraternity for men in music , by the fraternity 's Alpha Xi chapter at the University of Illinois . In 1952 , 20th Century Fox honored Sousa in their Technicolor feature film Stars and Stripes Forever with Clifton Webb portraying the composer . Fox music director Alfred Newman arranged the music and conducted the studio orchestra for the soundtrack . It was loosely based on Sousa 's memoirs , Marching Along .
= = = Music sources = = =
Bierley , Paul E. The Works of John Philip Sousa Columbus , OH : Integrity Press , 1984 .
Sousa , John Philip . Marching Along : Recollections of Men , Women and Music . Edited by Paul E. Bierley . Boston : Hale , Cushman & Flint , 1928 , rev. 1994 .
Sousa , John Philip . National , Patriotic and Typical Airs of All Lands . N.Y. : Da Capo Press , 1977 .
Sousa , John Philip . Through the Year with Sousa : Excerpts from the Operas , Marches , Miscellaneous Compositions , Novels , Letters , Magazine Articles , Songs , Sayings and Rhymes of John Philip Sousa . New York : Thomas Y. Crowell & , 1910 .
Warfield , Patrick , ed . ( 2010 ) . John Philip Sousa : Six Marches . Music of the United States of America ( MUSA ) vol 21 . Madison , Wisconsin : A @-@ R Editions .
Articles
Bennett , Jeb . " John Philip Sousa : 100th Anniversary . " Marine Corps Gazzette 64 , no . 10 ( 1980 ) : 31 – 34 .
Bierley , Paul E. " Sousa : America 's Greatest Composer ? " Musical Journal 25 , no . 1 ( 1967 ) : 83 – 87 .
Bierley , Paul E. " Sousa on Programming . " Instrumentalist , December 1973 .
Bierley , Paul E. " Sousa 's Mystery March . " Instrumentalist , February 1966 .
Dvorak , Raymond F. " Recollections of Sousa 's March Performances . " School Musician , Director and Teacher , December 1969 .
Evenson , Orville . " The March Style of Sousa . " Instrumentalist , November 1954 .
Fennell , Frederick . " Sousa : Still a Somebody . " Instrumentalist , March 1982 .
Gaydos , Jeff . " Stars and Stripes and Sousa Forever ! " Bandwagon , June 1980 .
Goldberg , Isaac . " Sousa . " American Mercury 27 ( 1932 ) : 193 – 200 .
Goldman , Richard Franko . " John Philip Sousa . " HiFi / Stereo Review 19 , no . 1 ( 1967 ) : 35 – 47 .
Gordon , Marjorie M. " John Philip Sousa : A Centennial @-@ Year Salute to the March King . " Musical Journal 11 , no . 11 ( 1954 ) : 28 – 34 .
Heney , John J. " On the Road with the Sousa Band . " School Musician , Director and Teacher , 1976 .
Howard , George S. " A New Era for Brass : Sousa 's Role . " Music Journal , January 1966 .
Intravaia , Lawrence J. " Wind Band Scoring Practices of Gilmore and Sousa . " School Musician , Director and Teacher 36 , no . 7 ( March 1965 ) : 62 – 63 .
Larson , Cedric . " John Philip Sousa as an Author . " Etude , August 1941 .
Mangrum , Mary Gailey . " I Remember Sousa . " Instrumentalist 24 , no . 5 ( 1969 ) : 38 – 41 .
Mangrum , Mary Gailey . " Sousa the Patriot . " Instrumentalist 24 , no . 6 ( 1970 ) : 33 – 35 .
Marek , George Richard . " John Philip Sousa . " HiFi / Musical America 23 , no . 11 ( 1973 ) : 57 – 61 .
Mathews , William Smith Babcock . " An Interview with John Philip Sousa . " Music : A Monthly Magazine 9 ( 1896 ) : 487 – 92 .
Mayer , Francis N. " John Philip Sousa : His Instrumentation and Scoring . " Music Educator 's Journal , January 1960 .
Peterson , O. A. " The Human Side of Sousa . " Musical Messenger , May 1916 .
Pleasants , Henry . " A Look at Sousa : Ormandy and Critics . " International Herald Tribune ( Paris Edition ) , December 1969 .
" Sousa and His Mission . " Music : A Monthly Magazine 16 ( July 1899 ) : 272 – 76 .
" Sousa as He Is . " Music : A Monthly Magazine 14 ( May 1899 ) .
" Sousa 's New Marine Band . " Musical Courier , November 9 , 1892 .
Stoddard , Hope . " Sousa : Symbol of an Era . " International Musician , December 1948 .
Thomson , Grace F. " Memories of the March King . " Musical Journal 22 , no . 5 ( 1964 ) : 27 – 49 .
Trimborn , Thomas J. " In the Footsteps of Sousa . " Instrumentalist 35 , no . 4 ( 1980 ) : 10 – 13 .
Wimbush , Roger . " Sousa at the " Proms " " Monthly Musical Record 68 : 238 – 40 .
Dissertations
Bly , Leon Joseph . " The March in American Society . " Diss . , University of Miami , 1977 .
Bowie , Gordon W. " R. B. Hall and the Community Bands of Maine . " Diss . , University of Maine , 1993 .
Carpenter , Kenneth William . " A History of the United States Marine Band . " Diss . , University of Iowa , 1971 .
Church , Charles Fremont . " The Life and Influence of John Philip Sousa . " Diss . , Ohio State University , 1942 .
Darling , Matthew H. " A Study and Catalogue of the Solos Composed , Arranged , and Transcribed for Xylophone and Band by John Joseph Heney ( 1902 – 1978 ) , Percussionist ( 1926 – 31 ) and Xylophone Soloist ( 1931 ) with the John Philip Sousa Band . " Diss . , University of Arizona , 1998 .
Hemberger , Glen J. " Selected Songs for Chamber Winds and Soprano : Rediscovering a Forgotten Repertoire of John Philip Sousa . " Diss . , University of North Texas , 2001 .
Hester , Michael E. " A Study of the Saxophone Soloists Performing with the John Philip Sousa Band , 1893 – 1930 . " Diss . , University of Arizona , 1995 .
Jorgensen , Michael R. " John Philip Sousa 's Operetta El Capitan : A Historical , Analytical , and Performance Guide . " Diss . , Ball State University , 1995 .
Korzun , Jonathan Nicholas . " The Orchestral Transcriptions for Band of John Philip Sousa : a Description and Analysis . " Diss . , University of Illinois at Urbana @-@ Champaign , 1994 .
Kreitner , Mona Bulpitt . " ' A Splendid Group of American Girls ' : The Women Who Sang with the Sousa Band . " Diss . , University of Memphis , 2007 .
Norton , Pauline Elizabeth Hosack . " March Music in Nineteenth Century America . " Diss . , University of Michigan , 1983 .
Stacy , William Barney . " John Philip Sousa and His Band Suites . " Diss . , University of Colorado , 1973 .
Summers , C. Oland . " The Development of Original Band Scoring from Sousa to Husa . " Diss . , Ball State University , 1986 .
Warfield , Patrick . " " Salesman of Americanism , Globetrotter and Musician " the Nineteenth @-@ century John Philip Sousa ; 1854 – 1893 . " Diss . , Indiana University , 2003 .
Whisler , John A. " The Songs of John Philip Sousa . " Diss . , Memphis State University , 1975 .
Wright , Maurice . " The Fifth String : an Opera in One Act . " Diss . , Columbia University , 1989 .
= = = Archives = = =
J. P. Sousa Collection . Washington D.C. : Archives of the U.S. Marine Band , 2011 .
The Sousa Archives and Center for American Music . University of Illinois at Urbana @-@ Champaign , 2011 .
= New York State Route 390 =
New York State Route 390 ( NY 390 ) is a north – south state highway located along the western edge of the city of Rochester , New York , in the United States . The route , a limited @-@ access northward continuation of Interstate 390 ( I @-@ 390 ) , extends for 8 @.@ 00 miles ( 12 @.@ 87 km ) from I @-@ 490 in Gates to the Lake Ontario State Parkway in Greece , less than 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) from the Lake Ontario shoreline . Between I @-@ 490 and NY 104 , NY 390 makes up the north – south segment of the northwest quadrant of the Rochester Outer Loop , a series of expressways encircling Rochester . At NY 104 , the Outer Loop departs NY 390 and follows NY 104 east into the city .
The freeway was constructed in stages from the 1960s to the 1980s , with the first segment — between I @-@ 490 and NY 31 — opening to traffic c . 1963 . At the time , it was part of NY 47 , which followed the completed portions of the Outer Loop from Gates to Irondequoit . An extension of the freeway north to U.S. Route 104 ( US 104 ; now NY 104 ) was opened to traffic in the early 1970s . NY 47 was eliminated in 1980 , giving way to NY 390 from I @-@ 490 to NY 104 . NY 390 was extended to its current length in the early 1980s .
= = Route description = =
NY 390 begins at the point where I @-@ 390 northbound crosses over I @-@ 490 eastbound in the center of a complex interchange between the two in Gates . Due to the setup of the junction , the northbound and southbound roadways , both two lanes wide , are initially set about 250 yards ( 229 m ) apart . The highway heads through the remainder of the exit , passing over the left exit ramp from I @-@ 490 west to I @-@ 390 south heading northbound and under the ramp linking I @-@ 490 east to NY 390 north southbound and crossing over I @-@ 490 westbound . North of the junction , the median narrows to a more standard width as NY 390 widens to six lanes and connects to NY 31 ( Lyell Avenue ) . The expressway proceeds north through neighborhoods equally residential and industrial , crossing over both the former right @-@ of @-@ way of the CSX Transportation @-@ owned Falls Road Secondary Track and the Erie Canal prior to meeting Lexington Avenue via a modified trumpet interchange .
From Lexington Avenue , where NY 390 passes into the town of Greece , north to NY 104 , NY 390 runs parallel to the western edge of Eastman Business Park , the large production and distribution complex owned and maintained by Eastman Kodak . Midway between the Lexington Avenue and West Ridge Road exits , NY 390 encounters Ridgeway Avenue via a partial diamond interchange . Just north of Ridgeway Avenue , the expressway crosses a small , narrow strip of land that lies within the Rochester city limits , a carryover from when the Erie Canal occupied this tract and entered the city decades before . North of the strip , NY 390 curves to the northeast , passing along the west side of the industrial park and the eastern edge of a residential yet wooded area to reach NY 104 . Heading northbound , the is split into two halves , with exit 24A connecting to NY 104 east and exit 24B linking to NY 104 west .
Past NY 104 , the roadway surface shifts from pavement to concrete as the freeway heads generally northward through primarily residential neighborhoods . The next exit , with Vintage Lane 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) to the north @-@ northeast of NY 104 , is the highway 's last as a six @-@ lane freeway . Here , it narrows to four lanes — two in both directions — before continuing onward to meet NY 18 ( Latta Road ) at a conventional diamond interchange . At this point , all commercial vehicles are forced to exit NY 390 due to a similar restriction on the Lake Ontario State Parkway 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) to the north . Outside of a small pocket of development near Greece Arcadia High and Middle Schools , the remainder of the freeway crosses open , sparsely developed areas of Greece . NY 390 curves to the northeast for its final 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) before ending at a trumpet interchange with the parkway 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) from the shore of Lake Ontario .
= = History = =
The 2 @-@ mile ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) segment of the Rochester Outer Loop between NY 33A and NY 31 was completed c . 1963 . It was originally designated as part of NY 47 , which had followed the parallel Howard Road to the west prior to the freeway 's construction . Work on an extension north to US 104 ( now NY 104 ) began in the mid @-@ 1960s and was completed in the early 1970s . The freeway officially became part of NY 47 on January 1 , 1970 , when the route was extended northward over the then @-@ proposed Outer Loop to a new terminus at the Lake Ontario State Parkway . In actuality , however , NY 47 never extended any farther north than NY 104 , which served as the freeway 's northern terminus throughout the 1970s .
In the late 1970s , the state of New York submitted a proposal to the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials that would substantially alter how the Outer Loop was numbered . As part of the plan , the NY 47 designation would be eliminated while the northwestern section of the Outer Loop — from I @-@ 490 in Gates to the proposed northern terminus at the Lake Ontario Parkway in Greece — would become the northernmost part of I @-@ 390 . Most of the proposed changes took effect on March 18 , 1980 , when NY 47 was eliminated ; however , I @-@ 390 was modified to end at its junction with I @-@ 490 . In its place , the Gates – Greece leg of the Outer Loop was assigned NY 390 . The NY 390 designation was extended northward to its current terminus in the early 1980s when the segment of the Outer Loop between NY 104 and the Lake Ontario State Parkway was completed .
The pair of interchanges connecting NY 390 to I @-@ 490 and NY 31 have two major movements that cause weaving . The first is on NY 390 northbound , where traffic entering NY 390 from I @-@ 490 west must immediately merge into traffic to avoid taking the NY 31 exit while motorists already on NY 390 must cross traffic coming from I @-@ 490 to reach the ramp for NY 31 . The other is on NY 390 southbound , where commuters entering NY 390 south from NY 31 must cross several lanes of traffic to access I @-@ 490 east . Additionally , the junction between NY 390 / I @-@ 390 and I @-@ 490 serves over 200 @,@ 000 cars daily and is often heavily congested during the morning and evening rush hours . In July 2010 , the New York State Department of Transportation began soliciting ideas on how to improve the junction . Roughly $ 32 million has been earmarked for a future project to improve the interchange , which is tentatively scheduled to begin in mid @-@ 2014 .
= = Exit list = =
The entire route is in Monroe County .
= Rose Colored Glasses ( Kelly Rowland song ) =
" Rose Colored Glasses " is a song by American recording artist Kelly Rowland , recorded for her third studio album , Here I Am ( 2011 ) . It was written by Ester Dean and Lukasz " Dr. Luke " Gottwald , with lyrics reflecting the different perspectives on relationships and how one can perceive a relationship different from the outside . It opens with an electro @-@ crescendo followed with vocals by Rowland while Emily Wright produced Rowland 's vocals ; the production is based upon layered synths and drums , programmed by Dr. Luke . Dean helped Rowland to record the song , which Rowland said made her cry as it reminded her of her own experiences in past relationships . " Rose Colored Glasses " also had an effect on Rowland 's vocals , causing them to swell . The song was serviced to rhythmic and contemporary hit radio on June 29 , 2010 . Critics praised " Rose Colored Glasses " as one of Rowland 's strongest vocal and emotional performances to date .
The arrangement and delivery were praised as being classy , while the critics felt that the overall emotion of the song gave Rowland the best chance of achieving US chart success . " Rose Colored Glasses " was released on June 28 , 2010 across some parts of Europe , and a day later in the United States and Canada , where it was intended to be one of the album 's two lead singles . An accompanying 3 @-@ D concept music video , directed by John " Rankin " Wadell was released , featuring atmospheric visuals and mood @-@ lit scenes including streamers , doves , and rose petals . Reception for the video was positive , praising its simplicity and noting the stunning visuals and variety of outfits worn by Rowland . The single had limited chart success , entering the top @-@ forty radio airplay charts in Slovakia and the United States , but failed to appear on the US Billboard Hot 100 . It is excluded from the US track listing for Here I Am .
= = Background = =
At the 2010 Winter Music Conference , Rowland confirmed she was ready to release the lead single from her third studio album . On March 29 , 2010 , during the conference , she debuted the David Guetta @-@ helmed song , " Commander " with her live performance of the song . However , just prior to its release , Rowland ’ s label ( Universal Motown ) confirmed that the song would only be fully released as a single in international markets . At the end of May 2010 , Rowland announced that " Shake Them Haters Off " , penned by singer @-@ songwriter Ne @-@ Yo , would be the American lead single for her third album . Prior to its release , " Shake Them Haters Off " was replaced by two new songs , one for urban radio and one for contemporary hit radio . " Rose Colored Glasses " was unveiled as the pop lead single , and serviced to both contemporary and rhythmic radio on June 29 , 2010 . It was also released for digital download on June 29 , 2010 in Canada and the United States . The urban single , " Grown Woman " , was also serviced to urban , urban adult contemporary and rhythmic radio on June 29 , 2010 . At the time of this announcement , it meant that three singles would precede the album before its worldwide release . However , the album was pushed back into 2011 , leaving time for two other singles to precede the album : " Forever and a Day " ( 2010 ) and " Motivation " ( 2011 ) .
= = Music and recording = =
“ Rose Colored Glasses ” is a mid @-@ tempo electropop ballad written by Ester Dean and Lukasz Gottwald ( Dr. Luke ) . The song , which opens with an electro @-@ crescendo followed by Rowland 's vocals , has a layered synth production , courtesy of Dr. Luke . In the lyrics , Rowland " explores the subtle ways that perspective can truly change everything ... [ telling ] a story of a relationship that , on the outside , seems troubled . " Lizzie Goodwin , from entertainment website Gather.com , called the song an " addition to your break @-@ up / female empowerment playlist . " Dean accompanied Rowland in the recording studios when she recorded the song .
During an interview for Rowland ’ s segment in the iheartradio concert series , it was revealed that " Rose Colored Glasses " had made Rowland cry . She said “ the first time I heard the song it made me think of all of the relationships where I had to wear rose colored glasses , ” in particular noting her past “ toxic relationships ” and “ situations where I needed to leave ” as the causes of her Rowland ’ s tears . Later it was revealed that the song had made Rowland ’ s vocals swell . During an interview for The Belfast Telegraph , Rowland spoke of the songs she had recorded for her third studio album . When speaking of " Rose Colored Glasses " , she said that it had taken its toll on her , “ It brought back a few memories , and when I recorded it I cried so much my vocal chords got swollen . " She also expressed her pleasure at being able to sing about her experiences .
" It 's just so nice to express that emotion and get it all out there because everyone out there , I 'm sure you guys can relate to the pain of feeling like a complete idiot when everybody 's laughing at you when you 're getting played by the person in your life at the time . And you just need to take off your rose colored glasses . "
= = Critical reception = =
The song was praised by critics who agreed that it was Rowland 's best chance of reaching the US Billboard Hot 100 again . They praised both production and vocal delivery of the song . Robbie Daw of Idolator said that , although he " liked the dancability of the Kelly 's upbeat tunes , " it was " as nice to hear her take on a ballad again . " He called the single her best chance of " finally crack [ ing ] the upper reaches of the Hot 100 once again . " Following the video 's premier , Daw said that , alongside " Kelly looking stunning in the video , " the song had " hit " potential . " Surely the timing is right — especially with all the other singles Dr. Luke has had a hand in dominating the charts — for Rowland to be allowed into the spotlight once more . " Lizzie Goodwin of Gather.com agreed that the song , though different from her previous singles , stands on its own as a catchy tune . " Though it ’ s no ' When Love Takes Over ' , Kelly Rowland ’ s latest single and music video ' Rose Colored Glasses ' isn ’ t half @-@ bad . It might not be a dance hit , but her new single is pretty catchy and is a great addition to include in a breakup / girl empowerment playlist . " Mack from Sound @-@ Savvy said , " Kelly always makes those love songs that make you re @-@ examine things ... While I don ’ t think Rose Colored Glasses will impact as hard as Commander , it 's a formidable single in its own right and I kinda like it . " Despite accepting that Rowland has had her moments with the club songs , Melinda Newman of HitFix praised Dr. Luke 's production work , stating that " the song is a show stopper ( a nice production by him - we often find him too slick ) . " Jeremy Helligar of True / Slant said that Rowland had done a smart thing by not releasing " Commander " in the United States . He said , " [ Rowland 's ] edgier preference of dance music is very different to the dance @-@ pop that Lady Gaga often tops the charts with . " He later added that the song was " still to the left of what normally passes for modern R & B. " PopinStereo said that the electro ballad " sounds fresh and breathtaking " thanks to an " amazing production " and " great vocal delivery . "
= = Release and chart performance = =
When the single 's cover was revealed , it divided opinions . Becky Bain of Idolator liked " simplicity of the black and white cover , " though she felt it strange that the image " didn 't have color or glasses . " Rap @-@ Up magazine thought the opposite to Bain , saying that " Rowland 's eyes do the talking with the black @-@ and @-@ white artwork . " On June 28 , 2010 , the single was released as a digital download in Belgium , Norway , and Sweden . A day later , it was sent to American pop and rhythmic radio , as well as released for digital download . On July 23 , 2010 , it was also released in other parts of Europe , including Italy and The Netherlands . Media Base 's seven @-@ day airplay report showed that in the last week of August , " Rose Colored Glasses " managed to peak at number thirty @-@ nine on the US Top 40 Airplay chart , a component of the Mainstream Top 40 chart published by Billboard . However , by the week ending September 11 , 2010 , it had received no adds to official playlists , despite being played 585 times across thirty @-@ four stations . The only other territory where the song charted was Slovakia . It debuted on the Slovakian Airplay Chart at number sixty @-@ eight before peaking at number twenty @-@ five three weeks later .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background and concept = = =
Rowland first revealed on New York 's 103 @.@ 5 KTU FM that the video was due to be filmed in the last week of July 2010 . The video shoot began on July 31 , 2010 . The clip was filmed using 3 @-@ D technology and was directed by British fashion photographer John " Rankin " Wadell , whose previous credits include " Say it Right " by Nelly Furtado and " Acapella " by Kelis . Behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage on Rap @-@ Up TV revealed that the video focuses on the pain of leaving a relationship .
Scenes in the video include vivid colors , unique visuals , and mood @-@ responsive lighting . During the shoot , Rowland said , " This video has been one of the best video experiences I ’ ve ever had . I ’ ve shot a lot of videos , but this one is probably the most intriguing because of how it ’ s shot , the lighting — everything is so detailed . " Rankin said that " the concept for the video was 3D " to best portray how " the people look at your relationships with an optimism that can 't be seen from the inside . " The scenes feature the use of circular trap and turntables so that Rowland " could be seen from every angle . " " Rose Colored Glasses " was set to premier on the Vevo network on September 20 , 2010 ; however , it was uploaded to her Vevo account on September 15 , 2010 , five days earlier than expected .
= = = Synopsis = = =
At the beginning of the video , Rowland is seen dressed in waist @-@ high trousers , a white blouse , and a black tie . The first scene of the video features Rowland and her love interest , played by Alvino Lewis , arguing . During the song 's build @-@ up , she is dressed in a black @-@ and @-@ white netted catsuit , standing in front of pink and red streamers . Just before the chorus , she appears in a low cut corset against a dark backdrop with her hair tied in a tight bun . In the chorus , she appears in a gold dress on a turntable surrounded by smoke , spliced with scenes of the argument and a blue @-@ tinged image of Rowland . As she sings the hook of the song , the camera flicks to a scene where she is surrounded by windswept rose petals ( top frame ) . During the second verse , the blue tinged image of Rowland is seen again , as is a new scene where she is on the turntable again dressed in a black ball gown with frills around the neck and shoulder . This is spliced with more scenes of Rowland in her gold dress . As the chorus builds for a second time , Rowland is seen wearing a tube dress before switching to the dark corset scene where it begins to rain . Rowland is then seen surrounded by white doves ( bottom frame ) which fly around her while she spins on the circular trap . The bridge of the song focuses on the dark corset scenes where the rain increases and Rowland 's facial expressions display deep sadness . Billboard commented on the last scenes : " In the end , Rowland finally takes those ' Rose Colored Glasses ' off – the ones that have prevented her from seeing how truly damaging her relationship is – punching through a glass wall before pastel @-@ colored butterflies appear in representation of her breakthrough . " The video ends with blue @-@ tinged images , where she sheds a single tear .
= = = Reception = = =
Critics generally praised the clip 's simplicity , the visuals , and the choice of outfits . A reviewer from Rap @-@ Up said , " Kelly Rowland turns her tears into art in the eye @-@ popping video for ' Rose Colored Glasses ' ... " They focused on the choice of visuals , saying that " the clip shows the Destiny 's Child alum struggling with a relationship , while numerous wardrobe changes , vivid colors , doves , and stunning shots of Kelly burst onto the screen . " Liz Goodwin of Gather.com agreed with the visuals , saying , " In the music video , Kelly Rowland 's body is looking fantastic . ( Though she could switch up the weave for another hairstyle . ) The outfits are hot – she ’ s looking fit ! Kudos to Kelly for pulling off the very , very low @-@ cut corset without falling out of it ! She can be grateful to gravity for still being on her side ... and for double @-@ sided tape . " Robbie Daw of Idolator said , " We hope two things happen now that Kelly Rowland ’ s Rankin @-@ directed ' Rose Colored Glasses ' music video has premiered : 1 . ) you like it and show Miss Kelly some love on iTunes , and 2 . ) radio programmers in this fine country open their ears and show Miss Kelly major love on the airwaves ... Kelly looks truly stunning in this video , from the opening shot of her wearing a dress shirt and tie to the couture dresses she vamps in expertly . "
Mariel Concepcion of Billboard was also positive of the video , saying that " not only does she walk away from an unhealthy situation in the clip - she looks completely stunning while doing so . " A reviewer from Kayrhythm.com said , " The clip is fairly successful , despite its simplicity and sobriety , which probably result from a lack of budget . In the song , Kelly is very beautiful and very emotional because it gives way to sadness created by the decline of a relationship with her boyfriend . In the absence of a spectacular clip , Kelly still focused on her wardrobe , perfect for the occasion . " The reviewer pointed out that the video works because of Rowland having a good team behind her . " Kelly 's team is really good . Imagine the damage that Kelly could have done with the team of Rihanna ! ... " Julia Guez of Ados.fr was also critical of the clip , saying , " The aesthetic is the rendezvous , the Destiny 's Child alum appears sexier than ever , but why has it increased the costumes ? Something is missing ... coherence , an imprint ? We do not yet see the real Kelly ... "
= = Live performance and promotion = =
Rowland performed the single live for the first time during the set list of her iheartradio concert at P.C. Richard and Son Theater in New York City on August 25 , 2010 . However , two weeks after the performance , a reporter from the New York Post alleged that Rowland lip @-@ synced both the performance at the iheartradio concert and her appearance at KTU Beatstock . The report stated that Rowland 's record label , Universal Motown , had banned Clear Chanel Suits from using the footage for an online video . A representative for the singer said that Rowland " sang live to a track " and the report was seemingly dismissed after iheartradio uploaded the performance footage to its official YouTube page . Meanwhile , Entertainment Weekly revealed that Rowland had recorded " Rose Colored Glasses " in Simlish for The Sims 3 : Late Night expansion pack . She reprised her performance of the single at her Walmart @-@ Soundcheck mini @-@ concert .
= = Track listing = =
Digital download
" Rose Colored Glasses " – 4 : 01
= = Credits = =
Recording
Recorded in Los Angeles , California ; at Conway Recording Studios and Dr. Luke 's .
Mixed at MixStar Studios in Virginia Beach , Virginia .
Mastered at Sterling Sound in New York City , New York .
Personnel
= = Charts = =
= = Radio and release history = =
= Sweet Dreams ( Beyoncé song ) =
" Sweet Dreams " is a song by American singer and songwriter Beyoncé from her third studio album I Am ... Sasha Fierce ( 2008 ) . Originally titled " Beautiful Nightmare " , it leaked online in March 2008 . The song was written and produced by Knowles , James Scheffer , Wayne Wilkins , and Rico Love . Columbia Records released " Sweet Dreams " , the album 's sixth single , to mainstream radio and rhythmic contemporary radio playlists in the United States on June 2 , 2009 , and elsewhere on July 13 . It is an electropop song whose instrumentation includes synthesizers , a keyboard , and snare drums . Knowles employs slinky vocals to sing the haunting lyrics , which describe a romantic relationship that the female protagonist believes could be a dream .
" Sweet Dreams " was critically acclaimed by contemporary music critics , who praised its beats , synthpop sound and Knowles ' vocals . Some critics noted that the sliding bassline gave the song a dark quality and resembles the one used in some of Michael Jackson 's songs on Thriller ( 1982 ) . " Sweet Dreams " gained popularity for its electro music style , which contrasts Knowles ' earlier R & B , urban , and funk @-@ tinged releases . The song was nominated for the Viewers Choice Award at the 2010 BET Awards . It topped the New Zealand Singles Chart , peaked at number ten on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart , and reached the top five on singles charts in Australia , the Czech Republic , Ireland , Slovakia , and the United Kingdom among others . " Sweet Dreams " was certified platinum in Australia , New Zealand and the US .
The song 's accompanying music video was directed by Adria Petty , and was filmed in Brooklyn , New York . It mainly uses a green screen and computer @-@ generated effects , making the clip minimal and performance @-@ based . The video sees Knowles wearing a golden robot suit designed by French fashion designer Thierry Mugler . The video received favorable reviews from critics , who described it as high @-@ fashion and noted that Knowles reprised part of the choreography from her 2008 video for " Single Ladies " . Knowles promoted the song by performing it live at the 2009 MTV Europe Music Awards and occasionally during the I Am ... World Tour ( 2009 – 10 ) . " Sweet Dreams " was recognized as one of the most performed songs of 2009 at the 27th American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers ( ASCAP ) Pop Music Awards . It was used in a Cryster Geyser Water Japanese advertisement that featured Knowles .
= = Production and recording = =
Initially titled " Beautiful Nightmare " , " Sweet Dreams " became one of the first songs composed for the 2008 double album I Am ... Sasha Fierce . Record producer Rico Love regards writing " Sweet Dreams " with Knowles as " the experience of a lifetime " . When Knowles went to the South Beat Studios in Miami Beach , Florida , she was not prepared to record and had to attend the opening concert of her husband Jay @-@ Z 's tour . However , when she heard a demo of " Sweet Dreams " , she was impressed and wanted to record the song immediately .
Knowles , Wayne Wilkins and Jim Jonsin did some additional writing and produced the song alongside Love at the same studio . Knowles and Love worked on the vocal arrangements ; Knowles appreciated Love 's background vocals in the hook and retained them . Jim Caruana assisted in recording the music . Love then recorded Knowles ' vocals ; the recording session lasted for an hour . Lastly , Wilkins mixed the track . " Sweet Dreams " appears on the Sasha Fierce disc of I Am ... Sasha Fierce as it allows Knowles to portray her alter ego Sasha Fierce , whom Knowles described as " [ her ] fun , more sensual , more aggressive , more outspoken side and more glamorous side " .
= = Leak and release = =
" Sweet Dreams " was leaked under its original title the day after it was recorded in March 2008 , eight months before the album 's release . It was the first time that a single by Knowles was leaked before its inclusion on an upcoming album . She responded to the leak on her official website , thanking her fans for the positive response towards the song , before clarifying that it was just a work in progress and that she did not intend to release new material in the near future . About the leak , Love told MTV News :
I was more concerned that [ Beyoncé ] would feel that we did it . A lot of times producers or songwriters leak records because they feel if you put the song out there it would go [ on to become a hit ] . Usually a leak that far in advance of an album release puts the song in serious jeopardy of being excluded from the final track list . It was frustrating . I felt like you work hard to get in the studio to work with Beyoncé . [ But ] I was blessed ... that song turned out [ to ] have nine lives .
Under the song 's original title " Beautiful Nightmare " , " Sweet Dreams " gained some attention in the United States , where it amassed enough airplay to chart at number forty @-@ five on Hot Dance Club Songs chart and at number fifty @-@ seven on Pop 100 Airplay chart . " Broken @-@ Hearted Girl " was initially intended as the sixth US and fourth international single alongside the stateside @-@ only single " Ego " ( 2009 ) . However , its release was scrapped at the last minute , and replaced by " Sweet Dreams " , which Knowles selected for a summer single release because she wanted an uptempo song that would keep people dancing . She added , " It 's very rare to find an uptempo song that means something ... that 's not just about going to a club or partying or being a sexy girl . "
" Sweet Dreams " was added to US contemporary hit radio and rhythmic contemporary radio playlists on June 2 , 2009 . Dance remixes of the song alongside the album version of " Ego " and its remixes were later released on the same digital EP on August 17 , 2009 , in the US . In Germany , the album version of " Sweet Dreams " and a radio edit of a remix produced by Steve Pitron and Max Sanna were made available as a digital download and as a CD single on July 13 , and July 17 , 2009 . A different digital EP containing remixes and the music video of the song was released in the same country on July 31 , 2011 . On July 16 , 2009 , the album version and the radio edit of " Sweet Dreams " was serviced as a two @-@ track digital single in Oceania and Europe , excluding France , where it was made available on the same format the following day . In the UK , the song was released on CD and as a stand @-@ alone digital single on August 10 , 2009 . A different digital EP containing four remixes and the album version of " Sweet Dreams " was also released . On the same date , the song was released as a two @-@ sided digital EP in mainland Europe ; it contained ten remixes of " Sweet Dreams " .
= = Composition and lyrical interpretation = =
" Sweet Dreams " is an electropop song that incorporates elements of rock and old school funk music . The song is built on undulating electro rhythms and a thumping beat ; its groove fits into hip hop phrasing . It is essentially driven by a keyboard and also has guitar , piano , synthesizer , snare drum and bass instrumentation . Many music critics noted that several components of " Sweet Dreams " are reminiscent of the songs on Michael Jackson 's 1982 album Thriller . James Montgomery of MTV News said that the " gnarly low end " sounds like Jackson 's song " Beat It " ( 1983 ) . Nick Levine of Digital Spy noted that the electronic bassline is similar to those used in Jackson 's songs " Thriller " ( 1983 ) and " Bad " ( 1987 ) . Arielle Castillo of Miami New Times noted that Jackson could use the beat of " Sweet Dreams " to bring up to date his Thriller @-@ era style .
The lyrics of " Sweet Dreams " are about a female protagonist who has some insecurities about her new romantic relationship ; she is confused about whether her relationship with her partner is a " sweet dream or a beautiful nightmare " . The song starts with a bassline , which is occasionally interrupted by spare snare kicks , drum fills and Knowles ' chanting , " Turn the lights on " . She then adopts slinky vocals to begin the first verse . The " expansive @-@ yet @-@ molecular " chorus then starts with the line , " You can be a sweet dream or a beautiful nightmare / Either way , I don 't wanna wake up from you . " The song is written in the key of D ♯ minor with a tempo of 122 beats per minute . Beyoncé 's vocals span from C ♯ 4 to E ♯ 5 in the song .
= = Critical reception = =
= = = Reviews = = =
" Sweet Dreams " was acclaimed by critics , some of whom praised its dark tone and electropop sound that is different from Knowles ' previous work . James Montgomery of MTV News wrote that Knowles ' vocals , which he called , " icy and cool , slippery like mercury [ and ] nothing to scoff at either " , help make the song an " undeniable smash " that is unique compared to the work of other artists . Jennifer Vineyard of the same publication argued that the rock elements and smooth vocals contribute to Knowles ' " fierce " alter ego , who " dares the listener to dream of her , warning that it might be a ' beautiful nightmare ' . " Arielle Castillo of Miami New Times noted that " Sweet Dreams " is another one of Jim Jonsin 's productions with a keyboard @-@ propelled arrangement , but unlike the material Jonsin crafted for Soulja Boy , the song is " swirling , and darker " . Joey Guerra of the Houston Chronicle and Gary Trust of Billboard magazine agreed that the song is one of Knowles ' purest dance songs and is " an irresistible call to the dance floor " . Describing " Sweet Dreams " as a " cool dance track " , Dennis Amith of J ! -ENT complimented its arrangement , calling it " experimental " with " cool transitions " .
Adam Mazmanian of The Washington Times described the song as " a gritty slow grind with a salacious bassline " and noted that Knowles " delivers a near parody of a good @-@ girl voice " while singing the chorus . Ryan Dombal of Pitchfork Media wrote that " Sweet Dreams " sounds like a song Rihanna would sing . Echoing Dombal 's sentiments , Nick Levine of Digital Spy wrote that the best song on the Sasha Fierce disc is a " dark [ ish ] electropop track called ' Sweet Dreams ' , [ which ] actually sounds like the cousin of Rihanna 's ' Disturbia ' " . On a separate review for the single , Levine awarded " Sweet Dreams " a rating of four stars out of five , and commented that the song seduces listeners with its catchy chorus hook , and thereafter keeps them intrigued by " placing a hint of darkness just beneath the shiny , synthy surface " . Spence D. of IGN Music wrote that though " Sweet Dreams " is not a " stellar track " , it is superior to other album tracks , including " Diva " and " Radio " . Similarly , Vicki Lutas of BBC Music wrote that even though " Sweet Dreams " appears to lack something , it is undeniably a good song overall . She added that " Sweet Dreams " may not be Knowles ' finest or most memorable work , but it remains her best offering since her 2003 song " Crazy in Love " . Lutas also commended Knowles ' vocal delivery , which he described as " beautiful and soft , yet strong and powerful " . Talia Kraines of the same publication wrote that " Sweet Dreams " is one of the standout tracks on the Sasha Fierce disc though Knowles does not get as experimental as she did on her 2006 song " Ring the Alarm " .
= = = Recognition and accolades = = =
" Sweet Dreams " earned Knowles the Best Female Vocal accolade at the 2009 Music MP3 Awards . It was nominated for Best R & B / Urban Dance Track at the 25th Annual International Dance Music Awards , but lost to The Black Eyed Peas 's 2009 song " I Gotta Feeling " . It was also nominated for the Viewers Choice Award at the 2010 BET Awards . The American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers ( ASCAP ) recognized " Sweet Dreams " as one of the most performed songs of 2009 at the 27th ASCAP Pop Music Awards . On the occasion of Knowles ' thirtieth birthday , Erika Ramirez and Jason Lipshutz of Billboard magazine ranked the song at number 21 on their list of Knowles ' 30 biggest Billboard hits , and noted that its electropop sound , which was in contrast to Knowles ' previous singles , showcased her range of talent . On The Village Voice 's 2009 Pazz & Jop singles list , " Sweet Dreams " was ranked at number 114 . In 2013 , John Boone and Jennifer Cady of E ! Online placed the song at number five on their list of ten best Knowles ' songs , writing that Knowles " stepped away from R & B roots with this surreal electropop tune , which features these standout lyrics : ' My guilty pleasure , I ain 't going nowhere / As long as you 're here , I 'll be floating on air ' ( which , from Bey 's mouth , sounds like the greatest threat ever ) . "
= = Chart performance = =
" Sweet Dreams " debuted at number seventy @-@ two on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart issue dated August 9 , 2009 . It peaked at number ten for two non @-@ consecutive weeks on the charts issued dated November 7 , and November 21 , 2009 . The song became Knowles ' thirteenth top ten Hot 100 single as a solo artist during 2001 – 10 , and tied her with Ludacris and T @-@ Pain for second @-@ most top tens on the chart since 2000 ; Knowles ' husband Jay @-@ Z leads with fourteen in that period . Knowles ' is the third song titled " Sweet Dreams " to reach the top ten of the Hot 100 chart , following " Sweet Dreams " by Air Supply in 1982 and " Sweet Dreams " by Eurythmics in 1983 .
" Sweet Dreams " peaked at number forty @-@ eight on the US Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart , making I Am ... Sasha Fierce the first album of the 21st century to have seven entries on that chart . For the week ending September 12 , 2009 , it topped the US Hot Dance Club Songs chart ; it became Knowles ' eleventh number @-@ one song , and was the fourth song from I Am ... Sasha Fierce to top that chart . " Sweet Dreams " tied Knowles with Kristine W for second @-@ most number one songs on the Hot Dance Club Songs during 2001 – 10 . The song peaked at number five for three consecutive weeks on the US Pop Songs chart in November 2009 . " Sweet Dreams " was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , denoting sales of two million digital copies . As of October 2012 , it had sold 2 @,@ 091 @,@ 000 digital downloads in the US .
" Sweet Dreams " also performed well outside the US . In the UK , the song initially entered the UK Singles Chart more than a month before its physical release , on July 5 , 2009 , at number one hundred and eighty @-@ nine . The following week , it rose to number fifty @-@ two , and thereafter continuously ascended the chart ; it peaked at number five on August 9 , 2009 , and became Knowles ' sixth top five single in the UK as a solo artist . The song was last seen on the UK Singles Chart on January 17 , 2010 , after spending 26 weeks in the top 100 . On July 16 , 2009 , " Sweet Dreams " debuted at number seventeen on the Irish Singles Chart and climbed to its peak position at number four in its fourth charting week . The single stayed in top ten for eight weeks and left the chart after spending nineteen consecutive weeks on it .
For the week ending June 18 , 2009 , " Sweet Dreams " was the most added song on Australian radio stations . On August 9 , 2009 , it peaked at number two on the Australian Singles Chart , and became the highest charting single from I Am ... Sasha Fierce in Australia . The song spent thirty @-@ eight consecutive weeks in the top 100 , where it last charted on March 1 , 2010 ; it was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipping 70 @,@ 000 copies . In New Zealand , " Sweet Dreams " debuted at number thirty @-@ nine , and peaked at number one for three consecutive weeks . It was the most added song on New Zealand radios as from September 21 , 2009 to November 2 , 2009 . The song was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) , representing shipment of 15 @,@ 000 copies .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background and concept = = =
The accompanying music video for " Sweet Dreams " was directed by Adria Petty , whom Knowles chose because of her intelligence and beautiful visual references . After Knowles learned the choreography in Los Angeles , the video was shot in a studio in Brooklyn , New York City . It was the seventh video released from I Am ... Sasha Fierce , and the second to have complete color throughout ; " Halo " was the first . Knowles described it as more " graphic " when compared to the previous six videos ; its motive was to " take Sasha [ Fierce ] to the next level " . In the video , Knowles ' alter ego is symbolized by the golden robot suit she wears ; it was designed by French fashion designer Thierry Mugler .
A green @-@ screen and computer @-@ generated effects were used for the video to create a minimal and performance @-@ based clip . The computer @-@ generated imagery ( CGI ) was employed to create a context @-@ less void ; the CGI effects were used to delete the background and setting before creating a void @-@ like digital canvas for the dance routine that is executed by Knowles and her dancers Ebony Williams and Ashley Everett , who all sport numerous flashy and symmetrical costumes throughout the video . Accordingly , there were no concerns of cutting ; the images were easily merged into one another using computers . A high number of camera lens glare effects was used in the video , part of which was inspired by British designer Gareth Pugh 's Autumn / Winter 2009 video presentation . Knowles further explained that the fashion and choreography were the main elements of the music video :
The fashion was extremely important in this video because everything was so minimal ... With the choreography , we really focused on hitting all of the accents in the drum beat . What makes this choreography so interesting is that in one instance , it is very staccato and hard ... And the next instance ; the movement is very smooth and there are lots of melts with inter @-@ kit movement in the fingers and hands .
On June 12 , 2009 , a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes video , which Knowles ' dance rehearsal , was released ; Knowles was dressed in golden costumes and was performing some robotic movements The music video of " Sweet Dreams " was not included on the remixes and video album Above and Beyoncé – Video Collection & Dance Mixes as it was not finished when the CD / DVD collection was made ; instead , a Making of Sweet Dreams video was included . A 30 @-@ second clip from the video was posted online on July 8 , 2009 ; it showed Knowles alongside her two female back @-@ up dancers in a virtual desert . The following day , the full video was leaked online but was soon deleted after Knowles ' label issued warnings to infringing websites . The video for " Sweet Dreams " premiered on MTV later the same day .
= = = Synopsis and analysis = = =
The video opens with Knowles tossing and turning in her bed ; her idea was to make the opening shot look like " a dark fairy tale " . As she tries to sleep , Brahms 's Lullaby plays softly in the background . She then levitates off her bed using her stomach muscles to move the top half of her body . Knowles said that the levitation shot was the hardest one as she had difficulties making her neck look straight . She added that the scene represents the nightmare and the white bird flying above her takes her into her dream , which unfolds after the screech of an electric guitar . Knowles is transported to a desert and several clouds are present in the background . She wears a black Roberto Cavalli dress and boots ; as the music begins , her two backup dancers wearing Gareth Pugh pieces appear . The scene changes into a computer @-@ generated sci @-@ fi landscape where Knowles is inscribed with a circle and square in a similar fashion to Leonardo da Vinci 's Vitruvian Man . The first chorus is brought in by a subtle glass @-@ breaking sound effect as the sci @-@ fi special effects disappear and Knowles appears in a silver one @-@ shouldered mini dress on a white background . Accompanied by her backup dancers , she performs sophisticated , street and hip @-@ busting dance moves .
The second chorus shows Knowles wearing a silver lined body suit while smashing mirrors . During the bridge , the video fades to black and white and Knowles appears wearing the gold robot suit , and gold and diamond nail rings valued at $ 36 @,@ 000 and designed by Bijules designer Jules Kim . She executes some robotic movements . As the chorus begins to play for the third and final time , digital doubling and mirroring are used to create a collection of dance moves and multiple images Knowles arching her back . The gold outfit is then reused , this time in color . Knowles performs another dance routine with her two backup dancers , then says , " Turn the lights out " , and the video ends .
= = = Reception = = =
James Montgomery of MTV News wrote that the video is " an eye @-@ popping , herky @-@ jerky , high @-@ fashion " one . He praised the way Knowles " [ pops ] her pelvis in ways never imagined " , and the wardrobe changes in the clip , before concluding : " She expands on her burgeoning robot fetish , flashes the crazy eyes and contorts her body in downright unsettling ways . All of which is to say that ' Sweet Dreams ' is just like every amazingly crazy Beyoncé video from the past three years , which — to extend the point — also means that it 's pretty great . " Olivia Smith of Daily News noted that in the video , Knowles references Jane Fonda in the movie Barbarella ( 1968 ) , Tin Woodman and Pamela Anderson through the different costumes she wears . Smith further compared the video with the one for " Single Ladies " , writing that Knowles reprises some of the moves as she " can only swivel those hips in so many ways " . Brandon Soderberg of Slant Magazine described the introductory part of the video as a David Lynch @-@ like mixture of eroticism and symbolism . He wrote that the video was " one part Victoria 's Secret commercial , another part dream logic anti @-@ narrative , and a CGI @-@ assisted freakout all around " . Soderberg commended the video for being " an excess of body and action , not filmic techniques " , adding that the dancing in the video " blow [ s ] our minds anew " .
Rolling Stone found similarities between the video for " Sweet Dreams " , Kanye West 's video for " Paranoid " ( 2009 ) and the cover artworks of English rock band Yes . Canadian magazine Dose also compared the video with " Paranoid " due to their similar dream sequences . Nadia Mendoza of The Sun further compared Knowles ' look in the video with Lady Gaga 's . Vicki Lutas of the BBC did not appreciate the first 30 seconds of the video , writing that " the dark , horror @-@ type music , the pumping heartbeat , the equally spooky lullaby , the screech of an electric guitar " , gave her the impression that she was watching " some [ 19 ] 80s magician , with a Knowles soundtrack " . However , she complimented the rest of the video writing that " things ( thankfully ) move away from the Hallowe 'en cheese and into familiar Beyoncé territory ( right from the fact it 's proper [ 19 ] 80s pop through to the video essentially being ' Single Ladies ' with Beyoncé and 2 dancers ) " . Lutas concluded that the video might not be remembered for long or hailed as Beyoncé 's finest and more memorable work , but it remains one of the best music videos from Knowles she has seen since " Crazy in Love " . Nick Levine of Digital Spy compared the dancing moves in the video with those in " Single Ladies " .
The video stayed at number one for several weeks on the UK TV Airplay Chart in August and September 2009 . It was ranked at number 13 on BET 's Notarized : Top 100 Videos of 2009 countdown . Tamar Anitai of MTV placed the video at number three on his list of the best five videos of 2009 , wrote that it " isn 't just another high @-@ fashion look at Beyoncé ... " and continued , " It 's the dark yin to the brighter , lighter fare of ' Single Ladies . ' This is a 360 @-@ degree look at Beyoncé 's life : Beyoncé the woman , Sasha Fierce the performer , and the powerful force that occupies the spaces in between . " . In 2013 , John Boone and Jennifer Cady of E ! Online placed the video at number ten on their list of Knowles ' ten best music videos , praising Knowles ' sexy robotic look .
= = Promotion = =
Knowles was due to perform " Sweet Dreams " at the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards on September 13 . However , last minute changes were brought to her performance that night ; wearing a leotard and a silver glove , Knowles sang a short drum @-@ led remix of " Sweet Dreams " before switching to " Single Ladies ( Put a Ring on It ) " , accompanied by two female backup dancers . Wearing a red Agent Provocateur corset , stockings and long satin gloves , Knowles sang " Sweet Dreams " at the 2009 MTV Europe Music Awards on November 5 . She appeared on stage in a heart @-@ shaped bed with satin sheets and later leapt up and performed a choreography to the song . A Daily Mail reporter wrote that the live performance was " triumphant " and " much to the delight of the audience " . Charly Wilder of Spin magazine commented that Knowles overshadowed American singer Katy Perry 's " tweaked @-@ out pinup shtick with her mesmerizing , sexed @-@ up rendition " of " Sweet Dreams " . Gordon Smart of The Sun commented that Knowles stole the show with the " iconic " performance of the song and " eye @-@ popping " look .
" Sweet Dreams " was not regularly performed on the I Am ... World Tour , a 2009 – 10 world tour in support of I Am ... Sasha Fierce , but a video interlude featuring the song was included . Knowles sang an acoustic and downtempo rendition of the song live during the revue I Am ... Yours that was held at the Encore Theater in Las Vegas on August 2 , 2009 . She blended it into a romantic medley that also included her 2003 song " Dangerously in Love " and Anita Baker 's 1986 song " Sweet Love " . The performance was subsequently included on her 2009 CD / DVD live album I Am ... Yours : An Intimate Performance at Wynn Las Vegas . Knowles performed " Sweet Dreams " live at the Glastonbury Festival on June 26 , 2011 ; she mixed it with the 1983 song " Sweet Dreams " , originally performed by the British pop music duo Eurythmics . " Sweet Dreams " was used in a commercial for Crystal Geyser bottled water in which Knowles appeared ; she dances and drinks water while the song is played in the background .
= = Cover versions = =
An unofficial remix , featuring American rappers Lil Wayne and Nicki Minaj , was leaked on some websites on March 9 , 2010 , and was included on Wayne 's 2009 mixtape No Ceilings . The Big Pink , an English electro @-@ rock duo consisting multi @-@ instrumentalists Robbie Furze and Milo Cordell , covered " Sweet Dreams " in a live session for BBC Radio 1 on November 7 , 2009 . They also performed the song live on at the 2010 Isle of Wight Festival on June 13 , 2010 . The cover later became a B @-@ side to their 2010 single " Tonight " . Jon Caramanica of The New York Times commented that The Big Pink 's version of " Sweet Dreams " had a " disarmingly flat affect , delivering it as the ramble of a neurotic " when compared to the original recording sung by Knowles . Likewise , Pitchfork Media 's Ryan Dombal felt that their cover " obliterates the original 's Hi @-@ NRG pulse , turning it into something a lot moodier and creepier " . British soul and R & B singer Lemar covered " Sweet Dreams " in his Biz Session in January 2011 . On November 1 , 2010 , American professional basketball player , Shaquille O 'Neal , dressed as his female alter ego Shaquita for Halloween , and gave a lip @-@ synching performance of Knowles ' " Sweet Dreams " . In September 2011 , Jade Collins covered " Sweet Dreams " during an episode of the ninth series of The X Factor . On October 27 , 2012 , boy band Union J covered the song during the same season of the show and released the cover through the iTunes Store as a single the same day .
= = = Jessica Sanchez cover = = =
On March 28 , 2012 , Jessica Sanchez , a contestant of the eleventh season of American Idol , covered " Sweet Dreams " performing a slow @-@ tempo ballad version of the song accompanied at the beginning by harps . Her performance received favorable comments and a standing ovation from the judges of the show . Jennifer Lopez commented , " You did a beautiful job on it ... If I was Beyoncé and I was home and I heard that , I 'd be like ' I got to do that in my next concert , slow that one down . ' " Steven Tyler described Sanchez 's performance as " great " while Randy Jackson noted that it was " unbelievable , sensational " . James Montgomery of MTV News graded her performance with a B , and called the cover " a bit of an odd choice , and yet also a supremely confident one " . He added , " For once , she pulled things back , and maybe suffered a bit for doing so , but there were still plenty of subtly great moments , particularly in the verses . Might not have been her best — it definitely lacked in vocal fireworks ... And really , it was good enough " .
Mellisa Locker of Rolling Stone praised Sanchez 's performance , calling it a " brilliant job " and adding that " it 's risky , but Beyoncé has done it , and if anyone can pull off a dazzling repeat performance , it 's Jessica " . She further compared the performance with the dream sequence from the 1945 film Spellbound but noted that it was " slightly weirder " Jim Farber of the Daily News commented that " her take on a song by her clear role model , Beyoncé , showed too much similarity in their timbres and phrasing , making Sanchez 's voice seem redundant ... despite the fact she switched up the arrangement of the bootylicious song she chose , ' Sweet Dreams . ' " Laura Schreffler of the Daily Mail described Sanchez ' performance as " pared @-@ down , show @-@ stopping ... a floaty , dreamy , confection that wows the judges . " Amy Reiter of the Los Angeles Times wrote , " Sanchez gave yet another perfectly calibrated performance with Beyoncé 's ' Sweet Dreams , ' balancing restraint and power . Everything from her voice to her dress to the red door she walked through seemed polished and tour @-@ ready . " The Arizona Republic 's Randy Cordova praised the performance , saying that the slow @-@ tempo version allowed Sanchez " to really delve into the song 's emotional core " . The Hollywood Reporter 's Erin Carlson praised the tonned @-@ down theatrical stage during the performance and Sanchez 's vibrato voice , further describing the performance as a " near @-@ perfection " .
= = Formats and track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits are taken from I Am ... Sasha Fierce liner notes .
Beyoncé Knowles – lead vocals , music producer , songwriter
Rico Love – vocal producer , music producer , songwriter , additional vocals
Jim Caruana – recording engineer
James Scheffer – music producer , songwriter
Wayne Wilkins – songwriter , audio mixer , music producer
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= 2014 – 15 Tranmere Rovers F.C. season =
The 2014 – 15 season was the 114th season of competitive association football and the 88th season in the Football League played by Tranmere Rovers Football Club , a professional football club based in Birkenhead , Wirral . The results on the final day of the 2013 – 14 season meant Tranmere were relegated from League One and were to spend this season in League Two for the first time since promotion from it in 1988 – 89 . On 11 August , former Football Association chief executive and ex @-@ Tranmere Rovers player Mark Palios and his wife Nicola took a controlling interest in the club from outgoing chairman Peter Johnson .
On 27 May 2014 , Rob Edwards was appointed as the new manager replacing Ronnie Moore , who was suspended in the middle of February 2014 for breaching FA rules . The summer transfer window saw twelve players join the club , including experienced striker Kayode Odejayi while Ryan Lowe left the club shortly after being handed the Player of the Season award . Edwards was sacked after just five months following the home loss to Plymouth Argyle which saw Tranmere Rovers at the bottom of League Two . Three days later Micky Adams was announced as new manager . A brief improvement in results which saw Tranmere reach the Third Round of the FA Cup and move out of the relegation zone was followed by disastrous spring form resulting in Adams leaving Tranmere by mutual consent two games before the end of the season , with the club again bottom of the table . Assistant manager Alan Rogers took charge , but on 25 April Tranmere was defeated at Plymouth Argyle which confirmed Rovers ' relegation to the National League one round prior to the end of the season . Thus , Tranmere Rovers ' ninety @-@ four @-@ year presence in the Football League had ended .
The season saw forty @-@ eight players make at least one appearance in nationally organised first @-@ team competition , including 24 players joining on loan . Max Power participated in fifty @-@ three matches missing only one game , and he finished as leading scorer with thirteen goals .
= = Background and pre @-@ season = =
Tranmere Rovers ended the previous season with John McMahon as caretaker manager after manager Ronnie Moore was suspended by the club in the middle of February 2014 for breaching FA rules against betting on competitions in which his club were involved . On 6 May , 42 @-@ year old Jamaican international Ian Goodison ended his ten @-@ year stay at Prenton Park in which he made 410 appearances and won the Player of the Season accolade three times . Also , experienced forward Jean @-@ Louis Akpa Akpro was released . On the same day , the club offered new contracts to five players , though finally only veteran Jason Koumas agreed to sign a new one @-@ year deal , while goalkeeper Jason Mooney , defender Ash Taylor and midfielders James Wallace and Steve Jennings left the club . Eleven players , including first @-@ choice goalkeeper Owain Fôn Williams and Player of the Season 2013 – 14 Ryan Lowe already had contracts for the upcoming season . Despite that , on 19 May Lowe , whose request to sign a longer contract was refused by the club , was transferred to division rivals Bury for an undisclosed fee .
On 27 May , 41 @-@ year old former Welsh international Rob Edwards was appointed new Tranmere Rovers manager with John McMahon staying at the club as assistant manager . It was the first managerial experience for Edwards , who had been an assistant at Exeter City previously . The next day , the first signing was made – 22 @-@ year old Welsh striker Eliot Richards signed a two @-@ year contract . He was followed by his Bristol Rovers teammate midfielder Matthew Gill . Previously Gill had spent three seasons with Exeter , winning back @-@ to @-@ back promotions from the Conference National and League Two together with Edwards . Further Edwards signings were young central defender Michael Ihiekwe from Wolverhampton Wanderers , ex @-@ Rotherham United striker Kayode Odejayi , 24 @-@ year old defender Marcus Holness from Burton Albion , Scottish midfielder Marc Laird released by Southend United and 30 @-@ year old defender Danny Woodards , while Evan Horwood cancelled his contract with Tranmere Rovers by mutual consent to return to Northampton Town , where he had spent end of the previous season on loan . On 4 August , ex @-@ Tranmere Rovers player Joe Thompson had been signed by Bury . The midfielder was sidelined since November 2013 when he was diagnosed with a rare form of cancer . In June he was given the all @-@ clear after completing a course of chemotherapy , but he had not been contacted to negotiate a new contract with Tranmere Rovers .
On 30 May , new home kits in the traditional all @-@ white design were revealed for the upcoming season , while the existing away kits were retained .
= = = Pre @-@ season matches = = =
= = Review = =
= = = August = = =
Tranmere Rovers started the season at home against the previous season 's play @-@ off semi @-@ finalists York City . A ninety @-@ fourth minute James Rowe goal earned Rovers a draw after Keith Lowe opened the scoring in the middle of the second half . Six players earned their first competitive caps for Rovers , while ex @-@ Tranmere goalkeeper Jason Mooney took his place in York 's starting line @-@ up .
On 11 August , former Football Association chief executive and ex @-@ Tranmere Rovers player Mark Palios and his wife Nicola took a controlling interest in the club from outgoing chairman Peter Johnson . Palios become Executive Chairman of the club , with Nicola as Vice @-@ Chairman , and Johnson as Honorary President . This ended Johnson 's 27 @-@ year spell as an owner , which counts the most successful period in the club 's history due to three consecutive First Division play @-@ off finishes in the early 90s and the 2000 Football League Cup Final . The next day assistant manager John McMahon left the club by mutual agreement as Rob Edwards wanted to make a change in his coaching department . Alex Russell , familiar to Edwards from playing at Exeter , joined Tranmere Rovers as the Club 's new first team coach .
On 12 August , Tranmere were knocked out of the League Cup after a home defeat to the Championship side Nottingham Forest through a single first half goal . Rovers played with a numerical advantage for almost the whole second half after Michael Mancienne was sent off . In the next two games Tranmere was defeated by Shrewsbury Town 1 – 2 after two late goals and earned their first win and clean sheet at Wycombe Wanderers by scoring a goal either side of half @-@ time . On 18 August , Edwards added to the squad with the first loan signing of the season , bringing young Saint Lucian defender Janoi Donacien over from Aston Villa until January 2015 . Tranmere were defeated at home by Cheltenham Town 2 – 3 despite leading 2 – 0 at half @-@ time . The first month of the season was concluded with a victory against 10 @-@ man Morecambe . Both goals were scored by Cole Stockton who extended his contract with Tranmere earlier that week till the summer of 2017 .
= = = September = = =
On the final day of the summer transfer window , Tranmere Rovers signed Slovakian goalkeeper Peter Brezovan and bought ex @-@ Rochdale striker George Donnelly for an undisclosed fee . Also , defender Hill signed a permanent deal after a successful contribution on a non @-@ contract basis , though shortly after he suffered an Achilles tendon injury that ruled him out for six months . Tranmere was defeated 2 – 3 at Accrington Stanley , for the third time in the season losing the game after taking the lead . On 8 September , 33 @-@ year old Matthew Gill was named assistant manager . After goalless draws against Hartlepool United and Newport County , Tranmere was defeated by Exeter City and Carlisle United with former Rovers winger David Amoo scoring decisive goal for Carlisle .
= = = October = = =
Rovers ' losing streak resumed in October with a loss at league leaders Bury . Tranmere finally scored a goal , which was only their second in seven games , in the League Trophy Second Round clash against Carlisle United . The game went to a shoot @-@ out , won by Rovers 5 – 4 after Patrick Brough missed the sixth shot for the guests . On 11 October , after fourth consecutive league defeat at Plymouth Argyle , Tranmere Rovers reached the bottom of the League Two table with only nine points in 12 games . Two days later manager Rob Edwards had been sacked . On 16 November , ex @-@ Port Vale manager Micky Adams was announced as his replacement , though the team was to be prepared for the next game by the assistant managers | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
arta is set in an alternate version of ancient Greece populated by the Olympian Gods , Titans , and other beings from Greek mythology . With the exception of flashbacks , the events are set between the games God of War ( 2005 ) and Betrayal ( 2007 ) . Several locations are explored , including the fictional city of Atlantis ( and later a sunken version ) . Atlantis is a mythical city erected by the Sea God Poseidon , and houses the Temple of Poseidon . Near the city is real @-@ world location , the Methana Volcano , which is contained by the archimedean screws and is also the prison of the Titan Thera , who is guarded by automatons . On the outskirts of the city is the Temple of the god Thanatos , the location of Death 's Gate and portal to the Domain of Death . Other locations include the Island of Crete and its capital city , Heraklion , the Mounts of Aroania , the ancient city of Sparta ( also home to the Temple of Ares ) , the Mounts of Laconia , and a brief scene above the city of Athens featuring Suicide Bluffs , the highest cliff in the city overlooking the Aegean Sea and a recurring location during Kratos ' adventures .
= = = Characters = = =
The protagonist of the game is Kratos ( voiced by Terrence C. Carson ) , the God of War after having killed the former , Ares ( who appears in flashbacks and voiced by Steven Blum ) . Other characters include Athena ( Erin Torpey ) , the Goddess of Wisdom who warns Kratos about exploring his past ; Deimos ( Mark Deklin ) , the younger brother of Kratos and imprisoned and tortured in the Domain of Death ; Thanatos ( Arthur Burghardt ) , the God of Death and main antagonist ; Callisto ( Deanna Hurstold ) , the mother of Kratos and Deimos ; Thera ( Dee Dee Rescher ) , a Titan imprisoned beneath the Methana Volcano ; and Erinys ( Erin Torpey and Jennifer Hale ) , Thanatos ' daughter . Minor characters include Lanaeus ( Fred Tatasciore ) ; a servant of Poseidon ; King Midas ( Fred Tatasciore ) , a king whose touch will turn anything to gold ; the gravedigger ( Paul Eiding ) , who warns Kratos to not alienate the gods ; a loyal Spartan soldier ( Gideon Emery ) ; and Poseidon ( Gideon Emery ) , the God of the Sea . Zeus ( Fred Tatasciore ) , the King of the Gods , appears in the " Combat Arena " ( bonus feature ) after the player selects the gravedigger .
= = = Plot = = =
A series of flashbacks reveals that an oracle had foretold that the demise of Olympus would come not by the revenge of the Titans , who had been imprisoned after the Great War , but by a marked warrior . The Olympians Zeus and Ares believed this warrior to be Deimos , the brother of Kratos , due to his strange birthmarks . Ares interrupted the childhood training of Kratos and Deimos , with Athena on hand , and kidnapped Deimos . Kratos attempted to stop Ares , but was swept aside and subsequently scarred across his right eye by the Olympian . Athena stopped Ares from killing Kratos , knowing his eventual destiny . Taken to Death 's Domain , Deimos was imprisoned and tortured by Thanatos . In honor of his sibling , Kratos marked himself with a red tattoo , identical to his brother 's birthmark .
Years later , when the game begins , Kratos has taken Ares ' place as the new God of War on Mount Olympus . Still haunted by visions of his mortal past , Kratos decides against Athena 's advice to explore his past and travels to the Temple of Poseidon , located within the city of Atlantis . The sea monster , Scylla , attacks and destroys Kratos ' vessel off the coast of Atlantis , although the Spartan drives the beast off . After a series of skirmishes across the city , he eventually kills Scylla .
Reaching the temple , Kratos locates his mother , Callisto , who attempts to reveal the identity of his father . When Callisto is suddenly transformed into a hideous beast , Kratos is forced to battle her , and before dying , Callisto thanks him and beseeches him to seek out Deimos in Sparta . Prior to departure , Kratos encounters and frees the trapped Titan , Thera , which causes the eruption of the Methana Volcano , and subsequently destroys the city . During his escape , he has another encounter with the enigmatic gravedigger , who warns him of the consequences of alienating the gods .
After a battle with Erinys , Kratos arrives in Sparta and witnesses a group of Spartans tearing down a statue of Ares , intent on replacing it with one of Kratos . Kratos then chases a dissenter loyal to Ares into the Spartan Jails , who attempts to kill Kratos by releasing the Piraeus Lion . Defeating both foes , Kratos journeys to the Temple of Ares , where he encounters the spirit of his child self and learns that he must return to the now sunken Atlantis and locate the Domain of Death . Before leaving , a loyal Spartan provides him with his former weapons — used during Kratos ' days as a Captain of the Spartan army — the Arms of Sparta . After returning to the sunken Atlantis , Kratos receives great resentment from Poseidon for sinking his beloved city .
Entering the Domain of Death , the Spartan frees his imprisoned brother . Enraged that Kratos had failed to rescue him sooner and stating he will never forgive him , Deimos attacks Kratos , but Thanatos intervenes . The god takes Deimos against his will to Suicide Bluffs ( the site of Kratos ' suicide attempt ) , where Kratos saves Deimos from falling to his death . A grateful Deimos then aids his brother in battling the god with the Arms of Sparta . Thanatos , however , kills Deimos but is destroyed , in turn , by Kratos . Remarking that his brother is finally free , Kratos places Deimos in his grave ( leaving the Arms of Sparta as a grave marker ) , while the gravedigger states that Kratos has become " Death ... the Destroyer of Worlds . " Athena appears , begs for forgiveness , and offers full godhood for not revealing the truth , but Kratos ignores her and returns to Olympus , promising that " the gods will pay for this . " As Kratos is seen leaving , Athena looks apologetically at Kratos and whispers out of his earshot , " Forgive me ... brother . "
In a post @-@ credits scene , the gravedigger places Callisto in a grave by Deimos ( with an empty third grave nearby ) and states " Now ... only one remains . " The final scene is a brooding Kratos sitting on his throne on Mount Olympus .
= = Development = =
God of War : Ghost of Sparta was announced on May 4 , 2010 , on PlayStation.Blog. According to Sony , Ready at Dawn utilized " state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art visual technologies " that allowed " higher quality environments and characters . " Ghost of Sparta apparently offers " over 25 % more gameplay " than its PSP predecessor , Chains of Olympus , while adding more enemies on screen and a greater number of boss encounters . Development of Ghost of Sparta took 23 months to complete . Chains of Olympus Game Director Ru Weerasuriya did not return to direct due to his busy schedule at Ready at Dawn , so Dana Jan , the Lead Level Designer on Chains of Olympus , became director . At Comic @-@ Con 2010 , Jan noted that when development began in 2008 , the goal was to make the game " bigger " than Chains of Olympus , which had apparently " pushed " the PSP to its functional limits . Jan stated that Ghost of Sparta has taken the PSP to its " absolute capacity " , with one additional feature being more on @-@ screen foes . The game concept was originally used as a teaser for players who obtained the platinum trophy from God of War III . The trophy revealed a site called spartansstandtall.com – it initially featured a simple animation of torrential rain falling into a body of water and a Spartan shield encompassed by a meter on the screen . The meter was speculated to have been filled by players achieving the trophy and reaching the site . On May 4 , 2010 , the meter reached maximum and the site was updated for a final time , revealing an image of Kratos standing above a reflection and the logo for God of War : Ghost of Sparta , as the official site . On June 15 , 2010 , Sony displayed a cinematic trailer narrated by Linda Hunt during their 2010 Electronic Entertainment Expo ( E3 ) Press Conference .
Dana Jan stated the reason they chose to have the game take place between God of War and God of War II was because " It seemed to make a lot of sense to fill in that void . " Jan said with some scenes , " the team wasn 't sure how gamers would react " because " God of War usually doesn 't slow ... down " and the team " worried if these scenes would be captivating enough to keep player interested and still feel like God of War . " For puzzles , Jan stated that they tried to make the outcomes unexpected because players assume that they will have to " push something , carry a body or smash something with [ the ] blades . " Hinting at a possible future installment from Ready at Dawn , Jan stated that he is " intrigued " by the flashbacks in God of War and God of War II and that " There 's definitely a back story to Kratos that nobody 's touched on . " For the character Deimos , Jan stated that the first reference was actually in the Chains of Olympus finale . In the game , Helios states " Do you think that they 'll survive ? " and Athena says " They must . " Jan said that this line was " purposefully put " in that game and that there are also references to Deimos in God of War III . He confirmed that Kratos and Deimos are not twins and that while Kratos ' father is Zeus , " Deimos ' father is more of a mystery . " He confirmed that a character named Dominus appears in the game ( Kratos ' original name ) and " the scene featuring a soldier named Dominus was a nod to that . " He also stated that he does not know where God of War : Betrayal fits chronologically in the series .
Several voice actors returned to reprise their roles from previous installments , including Terrence C. Carson , Erin Torpey , Gideon Emery , Steven Blum , Paul Eiding , and Linda Hunt , who voiced Kratos , Athena , Poseidon , Ares , the gravedigger , and the narrator , respectively . Actors Mark Deklin and Arthur Burghardt voiced the characters of Deimos and Thanatos , respectively . During flashbacks to Kratos ' childhood , Antony Del Rio , Bridger Zadina , and Jennifer Hale provided the respective voices of Kratos , Deimos , and Callisto . Both Erin Torpey and Jennifer Hale voiced the character Erinys via overdubbed voices . Josh Keaton , who had previously voiced the loyal Spartan soldier ( credited as the Last Spartan ) , did not return to reprise the role , and as such , Gideon Emery voiced the character in addition to Poseidon . Series veteran Fred Tatasciore voiced the characters Lanaeus , King Midas , and the minor role of Zeus . The voice directors were Kris Zimmerman and Gordon Hunt .
= = Release = =
The demo for God of War : Ghost of Sparta was available for play at Sony 's E3 2010 booth to attendees of the event . The 15 @-@ minute sequence pits Kratos against various sea and land enemies , including the main opponent Scylla , a sea monster . The sequence also features Kratos using a new weapon , " Arms of Sparta " ( a spear and shield ) , and the magical attack , " Eye of Atlantis . " On September 3 , 2010 , Ready at Dawn emailed registrants of GodofWar.com and SpartansStandTall.com a voucher for the demo and on September 7 , PlayStation Plus members received early access to it . On September 28 , the demo was made available to all PlayStation Network ( PSN ) members to download from the PlayStation Store .
The game was released in North America on November 2 , 2010 , in mainland Europe on November 3 , in Australia and New Zealand on November 4 , and in the United Kingdom and Ireland on November 5 . By June 2012 , God of War : Ghost of Sparta had sold almost 1 @.@ 2 million copies worldwide . Together with God of War : Chains of Olympus , the game was released as part of the God of War : Origins Collection on September 13 , 2011 , in North America and September 16 in Europe . The collection is a remastered port of both games to the PlayStation 3 , with features including high @-@ definition resolution , stereoscopic 3D , anti @-@ aliased graphics locked in at 60 frames per second , DualShock 3 vibration function , and Trophies . God of War : Origins Collection was also released to download on the PlayStation Store on September 13 in North America ( including full game trials of both games ) . By June 2012 , God of War : Origins Collection had sold 711 @,@ 737 copies worldwide . On August 28 , 2012 , God of War Collection , God of War III , and Origins Collection were released as part of the God of War Saga under Sony 's line of PlayStation Collections for the PlayStation 3 in North America .
= = = Marketing = = =
As a pre @-@ order bonus at select retailers , players received exclusive downloadable content ( DLC ) available via the PlayStation Network . The content included the original soundtrack , a Ghost of Sparta PSP XrossMediaBar ( XMB ) theme , a PS3 dynamic XMB theme ( " Palace of Hades " ) , a PSN Avatar , a Legionnaire Skin for use in @-@ game , and an exclusive documentary , God of War – Game Directors Live . PSPgo owners received the pre @-@ order items by purchasing the game between November 2 and 23 , 2010 , on the PlayStation Store . GameStop offered an exclusive Challenge arena , " The Forest of the Forgotten " , in addition to the other bonuses .
Ghost of Sparta was also available in a special limited edition PSP bundle pack , which included the game , a voucher to download Chains of Olympus , a UMD of the 2010 film Kick @-@ Ass , a 2 GB Memory Stick Pro Duo , and a special black and red two @-@ toned PSP @-@ 3000 . For a limited time , specially marked packages included a voucher enabling a download of the " Deimos Skin " for use in God of War III . The Deimos Skin was available in the PSP bundle pack , and PSPgo owners received the bonus skin with the pre @-@ order items . In Europe , the Deimos Skin can still be obtained by purchasing Ghost of Sparta from the PlayStation Store .
= = Soundtrack = =
God of War : Ghost of Sparta – Original Soundtrack from the Video Game — composed by Gerard K. Marino and Mike Reagan — was released on iTunes on October 18 , 2010 , by Sony Computer Entertainment and includes three bonus tracks from Chains of Olympus . It was also included as downloadable content in the Ghost of Sparta pre @-@ order package . Square Enix Music Online ( 8 / 10 ) stated that several tracks were intended for purely contextual purposes , with the remainder of the soundtrack rating well in comparison to the soundtracks of the main installments in the series .
= = Reception = =
God of War : Ghost of Sparta was received positively by various media outlets . Nicole Tanner of IGN stated that in terms of gameplay , " there 's nothing unique here , but that 's not a bad thing . " 1UP 's Chris Pereira said that the controls are " largely the same " as Chains of Olympus , but it " is still an extremely well @-@ paced action game . " He said that it is put together so well that it is worth playing , " unless you 've become truly tired of the franchise " . Joystiq 's Randy Nelson stated that the scope of the game seems like it " was planned for release on consoles " , but " if you were hoping for something really innovative , you 're out of luck . " Joe Juba of Game Informer stated that " the other core fighting mechanics are familiar , but the tweaks go a long way toward improving gameplay " . PlayStation : The Official Magazine stated " [ Ghost of ] Sparta offers an immersive experience on par with many of the best PS3 games " . Simon Parkin of Eurogamer praised the battle system as strong , however , he stated " There is a sense that Ghost of Sparta is a step back for the series " and claimed that it is " best enjoyed by newcomers " or " those yet to play " God of War III .
Praising its story , Pereira claimed that it is " a more personal story than the other GOW games , but one that still features the series ' signature trademarks " , and also said that the sex mini @-@ game is " arguably the most over @-@ the @-@ top of the bunch " . Nelson stated that it is " a game that upholds the standard of quality in gameplay , storytelling and sheer wow factor of the series , while also – like Metal Gear Solid : Peace Walker before it – blurring the lines between portable and console experiences with its amazing presentation . " Juba said that it " doesn ’ t have any mind @-@ blowing moments " , but " this isn ’ t an optional side @-@ story ; Ghost of Sparta is a must @-@ play for God of War fans . " GameTrailers said it has a " pretty cool story " that will " definitely feel familiar " . Parkin , however , stated the " game 's primary problem ... is in its in @-@ built focus " and that the series " is principally concerned with endlessly upping the ante . " He also claimed that the developers have " [ taken ] away the sense of wonder " that is expected of a God of War game and stated " the remaining components struggle to carry the experience . "
In terms of visuals , Tanner stated that the graphics are " better than a big chunk of PS2 games " and that it is the " best @-@ looking game on the PSP thus far . " Pereira said that it looks as good if not better than other handheld games available . Nelson said the graphics are " the best you 've ever seen on a handheld . " He also said that it makes the first two God of War games on the PlayStation 2 look dated . GameTrailers said " you 'll be treated to the very best visuals the PSP has to offer " . Parkin described the set @-@ pieces as " incredible " for a handheld platform , however , he stated they " seem tired " in comparison to the opening scenes of God of War III .
= = = Awards and accolades = = =
At E3 2010 , Ghost of Sparta received nine awards , including " Best Handheld Game " , " Best PSP Game " , and " PSP Game of Show " from several media outlets , as well as three nominations . PlayStation : The Official Magazine awarded it the " Gold Award " . Kotaku awarded it " Editor 's Choice " , stating " God of War : Ghost of Sparta is a palm @-@ sized epic video game . " At the 2010 Spike Video Game Awards , it received " Best Handheld Game " . At the 2011 British Academy of Film and Television Arts ( BAFTA ) Video Game Awards , Ghost of Sparta was a nominee for the " Handheld " award .
= Akane Tsunemori =
Akane Tsunemori ( 常守 朱 , Tsunemori Akane ) is a fictional female character in the anime television series Psycho @-@ Pass , which was produced by Production I.G. Akane is a young adult who has just graduated from college ; she is a new member of Unit One of the Public Safety Bureau 's Criminal Investigation Division , which follows several crime investigations . Akane befriends the unit 's Enforcers and becomes involved in several crime scenes , which makes her question her views on society and causes her to become a strong detective . Akane has also appeared in manga and novel adaptations of the series . In the animated series , she is voiced by Kana Hanazawa in Japanese and by Kate Oxley in English .
Akane was created to be a relatable character who would question the setting and answer the viewer 's questions . Early in the show 's development , the production staff planned the way Akane would mature throughout the story . Early critical reception to Akane has been mixed . Some critics saw her as typical new cop often seen in dramas ; others criticized her as uninteresting . However , her growth in the story earned praise for becoming a highly appealing protagonist .
= = Appearances = =
Akane is the 20 @-@ year @-@ old main female protagonist of Psycho @-@ Pass . Akane is the newly assigned Inspector of Unit One of the Public Safety Bureau 's Criminal Investigation Division . She passes the exams with the highest score for employment on several public sectors and private corporations . Of more than 500 students , Akane was the only one to get an " A " ranking for the Public Safety Bureau and decided to join it because she thought she would be able to accomplish something that only she could do and find her purpose in life . She is initially uncomfortable with her job because it involved attacking and subduing potentially violent criminals before they can act . Enforcer Shinya Kogami 's recognizes and is curious by Akane 's views on these criminals . Akane befriends Kogami and Enforcer Tomomi Masaoka , which makes the veteran Inspector Nobuchika Ginoza — with whom Akane often argues — angry . In one case , Akane 's best friend is murdered by criminal mastermind Shogo Makishima . However , her acceptance of society and will to fight to against conflicts prevent her from becoming a latent criminal , despite the trauma of seeing her best friend 's death . Akane then resolves to arrest Makishima .
Akane and Kogami arrest Makishima but he escapes . Akane is disappointed when Kogami leaves the police force to hunt him alone . Akane soon discovers that members of the Sibyl System , a private organization that manages the Psycho @-@ Pass technology , want to use her to capture Makishima alive . Akane agrees on the condition they rescind their orders to kill the defecting Kogami . Despite her efforts , Akane fails to stop Kogami from killing Makishima . The Sibyl System members allow her to live on condition she does not reveal the truth about them . In the epilogue , Akane becomes the de facto leader of Unit One ; she is seen briefing a newly recruited Inspector in the finale of season one .
Akane returns as the leading character from Psycho @-@ Pass 2 working with Inspector Mika Shimotsuki to arrest a criminal named Kirito Kamui . After a betraying Enforcer Sakuya Tōgane attempts to raise her Crime Coefficient , Kamui calms Akane down before sacrificing himself in order to shoot Togane as he is intent in lowering people 's Crime Coefficients .
Akane also appears in the printed adaptations of the series , which include a manga in which she is the titular character . Additionally , a novel expands on the ending and Akane starts having hallucinations of the people who died during the story . In the audio drama After Stories , she contacts Kogami after the events of the series and promises to meet him again as equals .
= = Creation and design = =
Akane Tsunemori was created by the Production I.G staff to be the most relatable character in the series . She would question the setting from the audience 's point of view and have it explained to them . She was written as the heroine , who would come between Shinya Kogami and Shogo Makishima and see their conflict from her own viewpoint . One of the staff 's main objectives was Akane 's growth . Akane appears at the start of the first season as an innocent rookie who matures through her experiences . This was affirmed by Japanese female actor Kana Hanazawa , who voices Akane in Japanese . Hanazawa said one of the focal points of the series after the third episode was the changes Akane would undergo ; she would be influenced by many unfamiliar , traumatic experience she must endure as part of her policing role .
Akane was designed by manga artist Akira Amano . The series is " anti @-@ moe " , so the production team decided to avoid having the Akane remove her clothes during episodes and instead had Kogami remove his . Akane is voiced in the English @-@ dubbed version by Kate Oxley .
= = Reception = =
Initial reactions to Akane were mixed . Hiroko Yamamura from Japanator liked the way the first episode focused on Akane 's first day as a police officer and her opinions of it . Thomas Zoth from The Fandom Post said Akane 's personality is typical of those in dramas ; he called her a " naive waif who gets over her head with her first case " . Zoth said that in later episodes , he liked the relationship Akane established with Masaoka and Ginoza , which resulted in several interesting scenes . Zoth said he grew to care about Akane during the first half of the series in " a somewhat ironically ' moe ' way , as she 's grown as a character " . In a similar review , Rebecca Silverman from Anime News Network said Akane 's actions in the first episode " [ set ] her up as the clear @-@ eyed , albeit naïve , outsider of the story , willing to look at things differently " .
Bamboo Dong from Anime News Network was more critical of the character , calling her " a blank slate " . She said Akane is " uninteresting and forgettable , and her previous role in the show as the moral compass seems to have waned as well " . Chris Beveridge from The Fandom Post was more optimistic ; he said , " Akane provides a good voice for this , since she ’ s new to it all and wants to bring nuance to the numbers and the situations , but we see how experience plays out against her at times , but also that she does have something to offer with it " .
Despite mixed reactions to the character , her growth during the series earned praise . Silverman said that ever since her best friend 's death at Shogo Makishima 's hands , Akane underwent major character development as she " further distances herself from the bright @-@ eyed rookie she began as , recognizing the flaws in the system while not being entirely certain that she can be the force for change in it " . Silverman also praised the impact Akane brought to the climax and her relationship with Shinya Kogami . In a later review , Dong said the character 's uninteresting traits stop appearing in the second half of the series .
Zoth said episode 20 , in which " Akane finally snaps " , was one of his most expected parts from the story . Zoth also said , " Akane has grown as a character , and a detective , and in a bit of a heavy @-@ handed move , she ’ s shown transforming into Kogami in Ginoza 's eyes " . Similarly , Bamboo Dong said , " No longer the dull and meek woman she was for over half the series , [ Akane 's ] now confident and capable , doling out commands that are instantly followed and respected by her comrades " . Dong said Akane is an appealing main character who is " worth paying attention to , and her presence on screen is the perfect complement to the much more complex side characters that populate the show " . Richard Eisenbeis from Kotaku said he found Akane more interesting than Kogami because her overall development . Akane also won the " Miss Noitamina " award in an official poll involving characters that appeared in noitamina television series . In the 2013 Newtype anime awards , Akane was voted the third @-@ best female character . In 2015 , she once again took that place . The same year , a Charapedia poll , which asked fans to list their favourite " cool " women in anime , had Akane placed 10th with 257 votes .
= Nikita ( character ) =
Nikita Mears is the primary protagonist and eponymous character of Nikita , an American action and drama television series , which debuted in September 2010 on The CW Television Network . She is played by American actress Maggie Q. The series follows Nikita 's efforts in bringing down Division , a secret agency that trained her into becoming an agent and assassin , but betrayed her by killing Daniel Monroe , a civilian she fell in love with . She recruits Alexandra Udinov ( Lyndsy Fonseca ) into helping her destroy Division from within .
Q was in talks to appear on the series as the title character in February 2010 , and it was her first time working on a television series . She was chosen for the role because series creator Craig Silverstein believed Q had qualities that would fit the character : " beautiful , who could fight , " and be believable with a gun . The actress meanwhile was intrigued by the original Nikita film and Luc Besson 's creation of a flawed female character . The series also deals with Nikita and Michael 's romantic tension , then relationship , described by the fans as " Mikita . " The character and Q 's portrayal garnered mostly positive reactions from critics . Q performs her own stunts of the series .
= = Character arc = =
Orphaned as a teenager , Nikita turns to drugs and crime . She comes across a halfway house run by Carla Bennett ( Erica Gimpel ) and temporarily gets clean until she relapses and murders a police officer . Nikita is arrested and sentenced to death . She attracts the attention of Division , a secret American agency that recruits young criminals by faking their deaths and then train them to become assassins . For three years , Nikita was trained under Michael ( Shane West ) , and committed assassinations . After she begins a relationship with civilian Daniel Monroe ( Sebastien Roberts ) , Nikita learns that Division has become corrupt under the leadership of Percy ( Xander Berkeley ) . In one mission , Nikita is part of a team to assassinate a family of Russian oligarchs ; the Udinov family . Nikita defies Division by saving the life of the daughter , Alexandra . After Division kills Daniel as it is against their policy for agents have relationships , She becomes a rogue agent intent on stopping Division , tracks down Alexandra ( Lyndsy Fonseca ) , who had since become a drug addict and sex slave , and saves and trains her . Nikita arranges Alex to be arrested for murdering a man Division was targeting . Inside , Alex helps Nikita stop Division 's illegal missions .
During the first season , Nikita gains some allies to aid in her fight against Division , including Owen Elliot ( Devon Sawa ) , a guardian to one of Division 's several black boxes ; hard drives contain files of Division 's missions , until Percy tried to have him killed , CIA analyst Ryan Fletcher ( Noah Bean ) who was investigating black operations invisible to the United States government , and eventually her trainer Michael , after he learns Percy was responsible for the deaths of his wife and daughter . The two would be in a relationship for the rest of the series ' run . By the first season finale , Alex learns that Nikita killed her father and leaves her to become a free agent for Amanda ( Melinda Clarke ) , Division 's psychologist who overthrew Percy to lead Division with the help of Oversight , a group of American politicians who ensure that Division 's existence remains secret from the public ( Alex would later return to fight alongside with Nikita again midway through season two ) . Michael is discovered to be working with Nikita and the two end up on the run together with a black box .
In the second season , Nikita and Michael team up with Seymour Birkhoff ( Aaron Stanford ) , a Division computer programmer who left the agency to avoid Amanda . In " Looking Glass " , Nikita learns that during an operation , Michael impregnated his asset , Cassandra Ovechkin ( Helena Mattsson ) and eventually tells him he has a son . The couple 's relationship faces some tention due to that development , but they appear to reconcile after Michael decides to put Cassandra and his son Max ( who calls her " The Gun Lady " ) behind him . In the meantime , Nikita learns about the existence of Oversight , and reunites with Carla Bennett , who is revealed to be one of the founders of Division , until her death . " Wrath " explores Nikita 's dark side when she is captured and tortured by Nicholas Brandt , an arms dealer Nikita tortured during her days in Division . Nikita confesses to Michael that " there is evil " in her , but Michael assures her it is only a part of her . After the two are rescued , the ordeal brings Michael and Nikita closer . The two eventually sneak into Division and kill Percy after he has regained control of it .
In the third season , Ryan takes charge of Division to clean up its own mess by recalling all the agents at which point President Kathleen Spencer ( Michelle Nolden ) will grant the agents freedom ( as all were recruited against their will ) . However , Nikita later learns the President will have Division terminated should they fail . Nikita and others work to find rogue agents who refused the recall order , nicknamed the " Dirty Thirty " , until her efforts are focused on Amanda , who is also on the run and later working with a company nicknamed " The Shop " , who developed sophisticated technologies , some of which was used by Division . Michael and Nikita become engaged , but their relationship faces further tention after Nikita cuts off his right hand to save his life . An advanced prosthetic is eventually discovered , but it is later revealed to have been laced with nano @-@ cells that would kill Michael unless Nikita assassinates Spencer . When Michael lies to her that a cure has been found , Nikita stands down . However Spencer shoots herself in the head ( she is later revealed to be a double by The Shop ; the real Spencer was captured and imprisoned ) . Framed for her death , Nikita becomes that most wanted person in the United States . She goes on the run , but leaves Michael behind .
= = Characterization = =
= = = Creation and casting = = =
The CW was looking to create a female @-@ driven action series . Creator Craig Silverstein discussed with Warner Bros. about the previous incarnations of Nikita ( the original 1990 film , and La Femme Nikita ) and wished to make the current television series look fresh . Silverstein wanted to follow Nikita after she left the agency , as that chapter was yet to be told in the previous incarnations . He also believed it would have done the original story justice . Also , he wanted to include a highlight of Nikita 's original story in the pilot to earn the title , and then move on from there . Silverstein described Nikita 's transition in a Collider interview ; " It 's a dark fairytale . This girl is taken from one life , her identity is erased , she 's put in another life and she 's transformed . It 's like Alice in Wonderland . She 's told , " Eat this , drink that , steal this , kill that , " and she 's not told why . And , she begins to find her own identity through that . It 's just a great story . "
On February 2010 it was announced that Maggie Q was in talks to play the title character of Nikita . Q 's casting would mark the highest @-@ profile series role for an Asian actress on a broadcast drama series . Q was drawn to the series because she was intrigued by the original film and Luc Besson 's creation of an incredibly flawed female . According to the actress the process of her casting took about four to five days . In describing Q 's casting , Silverstein stated ;
Appearing on Nikita would be Q 's first television role . During an interview with IGN , Q explained that she had not been on television before " not because I didn 't want to . I just never thought about it , " adding " When this came up , everything just felt right . I knew McG and when Wonderland came on he was like , ' This is you , we 're not doing this without you . ' and I went ' That 's very sweet ! ' So it felt right . "
= = = Development = = =
Because the CW is a fashion @-@ orientated network , there were times Nikita had to be dressed in a certain way to get her noticed by her targets . Q liked the idea , but at the same time wanted Nikita 's dress sense to be " toned down a bit " because she is an assassin . In one scene in particular Q had to wear a red bikini in the pilot , which " mortified " her . She added " that red bikini was the bane of my existence . You 're not going to see me in a bikini again , that 's for sure . [ ... ] I was like , ' Danny , can you put me in a one @-@ piece ? , ' and he gave me that red bikini . I was like , ' That 's not a one @-@ piece . That 's a two @-@ piece with a string . ' " However , Q did not have to cover her tattoos like she had to in the films , as it was in keeping with who the character is ; a hardcore , street kid .
Q performs her own stunts in the series . The actress liked to have her character " be able to do her own thing , " as it is an action series where females play lead roles ; during her film career , she noted " but in movies , alongside big action men , we 've always got to take a step back and let the men shine . And in this , it 's about the women who know what they 're doing . " At some point Q set up a three @-@ week long training period for the rest of the cast to make their fight scenes in the series believable ; she had her partner , an action director , bring his stunt team to train them . In filming the stunts she was already used to working in an environment where filming in television would be faster than in American films , because of her time starring in films in Asia , which usually took two to six weeks .
One of the more prominent aspects of Nikita 's character development since the beginning of the series is her relationship with Michael , and has been dubbed by fans as " Mikita " . Unlike other works on film and television , Silverstein did not play the traditional " Will They / Won 't They ? " game between the two characters . Co @-@ star Shane West stated " It 's not hard to bring Michael and Nikita together , " but it is " really hard to keep them apart ... We 're barely into the season yet , so why not keep teasing ? " When the first season started airing , West also expected that their romance would come , citing Michael and Nikita 's past relationship while she was working with Division . Now that the two are together by the end of the first season , in the second season Silverstein wanted something to happen to get in their way , saying that no new tension would make the relationship boring , adding " I don 't think you can just have them happy and in love , kicking ass together forever . "
= = Reception = =
Nikita and Maggie Q 's portrayal of the character was met with generally positive reactions from television critics . Nikita was included in TV Guide 's lists of " TV 's Sexiest Crime Fighters " and " TV 's Toughest Ladies " . Alessandra Stanley of The New York Times felt that Q was suited for the role , stating " she has a solemn , exotic beauty and hauteur that echo the heroine 's self @-@ possession and cool relentlessness , " adding " Nikita is noticeably more hard @-@ boiled and less girlish than the undercover agent played by Jennifer Garner on Alias , or the C.I.A. rookie that Piper Perabo plays on Covert Affairs . " Troy Patterson of Slate felt that " Ms. Q 's Nikita is only half so crush @-@ worthy as Bionic Woman 's Jaime Sommers or Dollhouse 's what 's @-@ her @-@ name , but her predicament is no less tasty . " Robert Bianco of USA Today believed Q 's performance was " a fairly sizable incentive " to watch the show , adding she " combines stunt @-@ fighting chops and lithe beauty with an unusual @-@ for @-@ the @-@ genre air of somber intelligence . Her Nikita is not above cracking a joke , but it 's clear from Q 's eyes and bearing that she has suffered at the hands of evil men , and she 's not going to take it anymore . " Alan Sepinwall of HitFix believed that Q " carries herself in a way that makes it believable she could be a hard @-@ core killer , and she has the requisite dramatic chops and charisma for the part . " Maureen Ryan of AOL TV said " Maggie Q , has real charisma and presence ; she invests Nikita 's drive to bring down the secretive Division with potent energy . You have to believe that Nikita would devote her life to wreaking vengeance on the people she views as her former captors , and you also have to buy her as a butt @-@ kicking , gun @-@ toting action heroine who also looks great in a cocktail gown . Maggie Q makes all those things look easy . "
Some other critics however , did not react so warmly towards Q 's Nikita . Chris Conaton of PopMatters felt that Q " seems to be a good choice for the title role , " but noted that the pilot did not call attention to the character 's background . That said Conaton stated " it 's still something of a novelty to build a TV series around an Asian American lead — though plenty of recent ensemble and reality TV shows have featured prominent cast members of Asian descent . " Matthew Gilbert of The Boston Globe felt that Q was " too much of a sad sack , " adding " Q doesn 't seem able to layer any other emotions over her cold resolve , " and compares the character to " a little bit like [ Saturday Night Live character ] Debbie Downer . " Mary McNamara of The Los Angeles Times believed that while Nikita " provides some sizzle , " her emotions " run that famous distance from A to B , as do virtually [ every other character ] . "
Before the show started airing , Q posed for several billboard posters . However , they were met with some controversy for being revealing , and several locations across the United States , including in areas of Chicago , Los Angeles and New York , refused to allow them to be put up , as they were located near churches and schools . Rick Haskins , the marketing executive for the CW , stated " we 've been down this road a few times with some of our campaigns . "
= Harry McNish =
Henry McNish ( 11 September 1874 — 24 September 1930 ) , often referred to as Harry McNeish or by the nickname Chippy , was the carpenter on Sir Ernest Shackleton 's Imperial Trans @-@ Antarctic Expedition of 1914 – 1917 . He was responsible for much of the work that ensured the crew 's survival after their ship , the Endurance , was destroyed when it became trapped in pack ice in the Weddell Sea . He modified the small boat , James Caird , that allowed Shackleton and five men ( including McNish ) to make a voyage of hundreds of miles to fetch help for the rest of the crew .
After the expedition he returned to work in the Merchant Navy and eventually emigrated to New Zealand , where he worked on the docks in Wellington until poor health forced his retirement . He died destitute in the Ohiro Benevolent Home in Wellington .
= = Early life = =
Harry " Chippy " McNish was born in 1874 in the former Lyons Lane near the present site of the library in Port Glasgow , Renfrewshire , Scotland . He was part of a large family , being the third of eleven children born to John and Mary Jane ( née Wade ) McNish . His father was a journeyman shoemaker . McNish held strong socialist views , was a member of the United Free Church of Scotland and detested bad language . He married three times : in 1895 to Jessie Smith , who died in February 1898 ; in 1898 to Ellen Timothy , who died in December 1904 ; and finally to Lizzie Littlejohn in 1907 .
There is some confusion as to the correct spelling of his name . He is variously referred to as McNish , McNeish , and in Alexander Macklin 's diary of the expedition , MacNish . The McNeish spelling is common , notably in Shackleton 's and Frank Worsley 's accounts of the expedition and on McNish 's headstone , but McNish is also widely used , and appears to be the correct version . On a signed copy of the expedition photo his signature appears as " H. MacNish " , but his spelling is in general idiosyncratic , as revealed in the diary he kept throughout the expedition . There also is a question regarding McNish 's nickname . " Chippy " was a traditional nickname for a shipwright ; both this and the shorter " Chips " ( as in wood chips from carpentry ) seem to have been used .
= = Imperial Trans @-@ Antarctic Expedition = =
= = = Endurance = = =
The aim of the Imperial Trans @-@ Antarctic Expedition was to be the first to cross the Antarctic continent from one side to the other . McNish was apparently attracted by Shackleton 's advertisement for the expedition ( although there are doubts as to whether the advertisement ever appeared ) :
MEN WANTED : FOR HAZARDOUS JOURNEY . SMALL WAGES , BITTER COLD , LONG MONTHS OF COMPLETE DARKNESS , CONSTANT DANGER , SAFE RETURN DOUBTFUL . HONOUR AND RECOGNITION IN CASE OF SUCCESS . SIR ERNEST SHACKLETON
McNish , at 40 , was one of the oldest members of the crew of the Endurance ( Shackleton though was seven months older ) . He suffered from piles and rheumatism in his legs . He was regarded as somewhat odd and unrefined , but also highly respected as a carpenter — Frank Worsley , the captain of the Endurance , refers to him as a " splendid shipwright " . The pipe @-@ smoking Scot was , however , the only man of the crew that Shackleton was " not dead certain of " . His Scots accent was described as rasping like " frayed cable wire " .
During the initial stage of the voyage to Antarctica from Buenos Aires , he was kept busy with a number of routine tasks . He worked on the pram dinghy Nancy Endurance ; made a small chest of drawers for Shackleton ; specimen shelves for the biologist , Robert Clark ; instrument cases for Leonard Hussey , the meteorologist ; and put up wind screens to protect the helmsman . He constructed a false deck , extending from the poop @-@ deck to the chart @-@ room to cover the extra coal that the ship had taken on board . He also acted as the ship 's barber . As the ship pushed into the pack ice in the Weddell Sea it became increasingly difficult to navigate . McNish constructed a six @-@ foot wooden semaphore on the bridge to enable the navigating officer to give the helmsman directions , and built a small stage over the stern to allow the propeller to be watched in order to keep it clear of the heavy ice .
When the ship became trapped in pack ice his duties expanded to constructing makeshift housing , and , once it became clear that the ship was doomed , to altering the sledges for the journey over the ice to open water . He built the quarters where the crew took their meals ( nicknamed The Ritz ) and cubicles where the men could sleep . These were all christened as well ; McNish shared The Sailors ' Rest with Alfred Cheetham , the Third Officer . Assisted by the crew , he constructed kennels for the dogs on the upper deck . Once Endurance became trapped , and the crew were spending the days on the ice , McNish erected goalposts and football became a daily fixture for the men . To pass the time in the evening , McNish joined Frank Wild , Tom Crean , James McIlroy , Worsley and Shackleton playing poker in the wardroom .
The pressure from the ice caused Endurance to start to take on water . To prevent the ship from flooding McNish built a cofferdam , caulking it with strips of blankets and nailing strips over the seams , standing for hours up to his waist in freezing water as he worked . He could not prevent the pressure from the ice crushing the ship though and was experienced enough to know when to stop trying . Once the ship had been destroyed he was put in charge of rescuing the stores from what had been The Ritz . With McNish in charge it took only a couple of hours to open the deck far enough to retrieve a good quantity of provisions .
= = = On the ice = = =
During his watch one night while the crew were camped on the ice , a small part of the ice floe broke away and he was only rescued due to the quick intervention of the men of the next watch who threw him a line allowing him to jump back to safety . Shackleton reported that McNish calmly mentioned his narrow escape the next day after further cracks appeared in the ice . Mrs. Chippy , the cat McNish had brought on board , had to be shot after the loss of the Endurance , as it was obvious he would not survive the harsh conditions . McNish apparently never forgave Shackleton for giving the order .
McNish proposed building a smaller craft from the wreckage of the ship , but was overruled , with Shackleton instead deciding to head across the ice to open water pulling the ship 's three lifeboats . McNish had been suffering with piles and homesickness from almost before the voyage had begun , and once the ship was lost his frustration began to grow . He vented his feelings in his diary , targeting his tent @-@ mates ' language :
I have been shipmates with all sorts of men both in sail and steam , but never nothing like some of our party - as the most filthy language is used as terms of endearment , and , worse of all , is tolerated .
In great pain while pulling sledges across the ice , McNish briefly rebelled , refusing to take his turn in the harness and protesting to Frank Worsley that since the Endurance had been destroyed the crew was no longer under any obligation to follow orders . Accounts vary as to how Shackleton handled this : some report that he threatened to shoot McNish ; others that he read him the ship 's articles , making it clear that the crew were still under obligation until they reached port . McNish 's assertion would have normally been correct : duty to the master ( and pay ) normally stopped when a ship was lost , but the articles the crew had signed for the Endurance had a special clause inserted in which the crew agreed " to perform any duty on board , in the boats , or on the shore as directed by the master and owner " . Aside from this , McNish really had no choice but to comply : he could not survive alone and could not continue with the rest of the party unless he obeyed orders . Eventually , Shackleton decided that the attempt to pull the boats had been a mistake , and decided that the only solution was to wait for the movement of the ice to bring the party to open water .
As supplies began to dwindle the party grew hungry . McNish records that he smoked himself sick trying to alleviate the pangs of hunger and although he thought the shooting of the dogs terribly sad , he was happy to eat the meat they provided stating " Their flesh tastes a treat . It is a big treat for us after being so long on seal meat . "
When the ice finally brought the camp to the edge of the pack ice , Shackleton decided that the three boats , the James Caird , Stancomb Wills , and Dudley Docker , should make initially for Elephant Island . McNish had prepared the boats as best he could for a long journey in the open ocean , building up their sides to give them a higher clearance from the water .
= = = Elephant Island and the James Caird = = =
On the sea journey to Elephant Island , McNish was in the James Caird with Shackleton and Frank Wild . As they approached the island , Wild , who had been at the tiller for 24 hours straight , was close to collapse , so Shackleton ordered McNish to relieve him . McNish was not in a much better state himself and , despite the terrible conditions , he fell asleep after half an hour . The boat swung around and a huge wave drenched him . This was enough to wake him , but Shackleton , seeing McNish too was exhausted , ordered him to be relieved .
After the crew had made it to Elephant Island , Shackleton decided to take a small crew and make for South Georgia , where there was a possibility that they would find crews from the whaling ships to help effect a rescue for the rest of the men . McNish was called upon by Shackleton to make the James Caird seaworthy for the long voyage and was selected as part of the crew , possibly because Shackleton was afraid of the effect he would have on morale if left behind with the other men . For his part , McNish seemed happy to go ; he was unimpressed by the island and the chances of survival for the men overwintering there :
I don 't think there are ever many fine days on this forlorn island ... I dont think there will be many survivers if they have to put in a winter here . [ sic ]
McNish used the mast of another of the boats , the Stancomb Wills , to strengthen the keel and build up the small 22 foot ( 6 @.@ 7 m ) long boat , so it would withstand the seas during the 800 mile ( 1480 km ) trip . He caulked it using a mixture of seal blood and flour , and , using wood and nails taken from packing cases and the runners of the sledges , he built a makeshift frame which was then covered with canvas . Shackleton was worried the boat " bore a strong likeness to stage scenery " , only giving the appearance of sturdiness . He later admitted that the crew could not have lived through the voyage without it . When launching the boat McNish and John Vincent were thrown from the deck into the sea . Although soaked , both were unharmed , and managed to exchange some clothes with the Elephant Island party before the James Caird set off . The mood on board was buoyant and McNish recorded in his diary on 24 April 1916 :
We took Good bye with our companions . & set sail on our 870 miles to South Georgia for assistance ... we were in the open sea wet through but happy through it all .
The mood did not last though : conditions aboard the small craft during the trip were terrible , with the crew constantly soaked and cold . McNish impressed Shackleton with his ability to bear up under the strain ( more so than the younger Vincent , who collapsed from exhaustion and cold ) . The six men split into two watches of four hours : three of the men would handle the boat while the other three lay beneath the canvas decking attempting to sleep . McNish shared a watch with Shackleton and Crean . All the men complained of pains in their legs and , on the fourth day out from Elephant Island , McNish suddenly sat down and removed his boots , revealing his legs and feet were white and puffy with the early signs of trench foot . On seeing the state of McNish 's feet Shackleton ordered all the men to remove their boots .
= = = South Georgia = = =
The crew of the James Caird reached South Georgia on 10 May 1916 , 15 days after setting out from Elephant Island . They landed in Cave Cove on King Haakon Bay ; it was on the wrong side of the island , but it was a relief for all of them to make land ; McNish wrote in his diary :
I went to the top of the hill & had a lay on the grass & it put me in mind of old times at Home sitting on the hillside looking down at the sea .
They found albatross chicks and seals to eat , but despite the relative comfort of the island compared to the small boat , they still urgently needed to reach the whaling station at Husvik on the other side of the island to fetch help for the men on Elephant Island . It was clear that McNish and Vincent could not continue , so Shackleton left them in the care of Timothy McCarthy camped in the upturned James Caird , and with Worsley and Crean made the hazardous trip over the mountains . McNish took screws from the James Caird and attached them to the boots of the men making the journey to help them grip the ice . He also fashioned a crude sledge from driftwood he found on the beach , but it proved too clumsy to be practical . When Shackleton 's party set off on 18 May 1916 , McNish accompanied them for a few hundred yards but he was unable to go any further . He shook hands with each of the men , wished them good luck and then Shackleton sent him back . Putting McNish in command of the remaining men , Shackleton charged him to wait for relief and if none had come by the end of winter to attempt to sail to the east coast . Once Shackleton 's party had crossed the mountains and arrived in Husvik , he sent Worsley with one of the whaler 's ships , Samson , to pick up McNish and the other men . After seeing the emaciated and drawn McNish on his arrival at the whaling station , Shackleton recorded that he felt that the rescue had come just in time for him .
= = Polar Medal = =
Whatever the true story of the rebellion on the ice , neither Worsley nor McNish ever mentioned the incident in writing . Shackleton omitted it entirely from South , his account of the expedition , and referred to it only tangentially in his diary : " Everyone working well except the carpenter . I shall never forget him in this time of strain and stress " . The event was recorded in the ship 's log , but the log entry was struck during the sea voyage in the James Caird , Shackleton being impressed by the carpenter 's show of " grit and spirit " . Nevertheless , McNish 's name appeared on the list of the four men not recommended for the Polar Medal in the letter sent by Shackleton on his return . Macklin thought the denial of the medal unjustified :
I was disheartened to learn that McNeish , Vincent , Holness and Stephenson had been denied the Polar Medal ... of all the men in the party no @-@ one more deserved recognition than the old carpenter .... I would regard the withholding of the Polar Medal from McNeish as a grave injustice .
Macklin believed that Shackleton may have been influenced in his decision by Worsley who shared a mutual enmity with McNish , and had accompanied Shackleton back from Antarctica . Members of the Scott Polar Research Institute , New Zealand Antarctic Society and Caroline Alexander , the author of Endurance , have criticised Shackleton 's denial of the award to McNish , and there is an ongoing campaign to have him awarded the medal posthumously .
= = Later life , memorials and records = =
After the expedition McNish returned to the Merchant Navy , working on various ships . He often complained that his bones permanently ached due to the conditions during the journey in the James Caird ; he would reportedly sometimes refuse to shake hands because of the pain . He divorced Lizzie Littlejohn on 2 March 1918 , by which time he had already met his new partner , Agnes Martindale . McNish had a son named Tom and Martindale had a daughter named Nancy . Although she is mentioned frequently in his diary , it appears McNish was not Nancy 's father . He spent 23 years in the Navy in total during his life , but eventually secured a job with the New Zealand Shipping Company . After making five trips to New Zealand he moved there in 1925 , leaving behind his wife and all of his carpentry tools . He worked on the waterfront in Wellington until his career was ended by an injury . Destitute , he would sleep in the wharf sheds under a tarpaulin and relied on monthly collections from the dockworkers . He was found a place in the Ohiro Benevolent Home , but his health continued to deteriorate and he died on 24 September 1930 in Wellington Hospital . He was buried in Karori Cemetery , Wellington , on 26 September 1930 , with full naval honours ; HMS Dunedin ( which happened to be in port at the time ) provided twelve men for the firing party and eight bearers . However , his grave remained unmarked for almost thirty years ; the New Zealand Antarctic Society ( NZAC ) erected a headstone on 10 May 1959 . In 2001 , it was reported that the grave was untended and surrounded by weeds , but in 2004 , the grave was tidied and a life size bronze sculpture of McNish 's beloved cat , Mrs. Chippy , was placed on his grave by NZAC . His grandson , Tom , believes this tribute would have meant more to him than receiving the Polar Medal .
In 1958 the British Antarctic Survey named a small island in his honour , " McNeish Island " , which lies in the approaches to King Haakon Bay , South Georgia . The island was renamed " McNish Island " in 1998 after his birth certificate was presented to the United Kingdom Antarctic Place @-@ Names Committee . On 18 October 2006 , a small , oval wall plaque commemorating his achievements was unveiled at the Port Glasgow Library in his home town , and earlier in the same year he was the subject of an exhibition at the McLean Museum and Art Gallery , Greenock . His journals are held in the Alexander Turnbull Library in Wellington , New Zealand .
= Bat 'leth =
The bat 'leth ( Klingon : betleH , pronunciation : [ ˈbɛtʰlɛx ] ) is a double sided scimitar / hook sword / deer horn knives hybrid @-@ edged weapon with a curved blade , four points and handholds on the back . It was designed and created by Star Trek : The Next Generation visual effects producer Dan Curry for the Star Trek franchise , where it is the characteristic melee weapon of Klingons . Curry has called the bat 'leth " one of the iconic images associated with the show " . It has spawned a smaller version , which became known as the " mek 'leth " ( Klingon : meqleH ) . Bat 'leths have become an enduring symbol of the franchise among fans and are occasionally referenced in other media .
= = Description = =
A bat 'leth is a curved blade approximately 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) long , with two spiked protrusions at each end and three handholds along the back which can be used to twist and spin the blade rapidly .
Dan Curry created the bat 'leth in 1990 for Worf , a character played by Michael Dorn in Star Trek : The Next Generation after receiving approval from producer Rick Berman . Curry based it on the " Chinese fighting crescent " . Curry — a martial artist — also developed a fighting style similar to t 'ai chi ch 'uan for the use of the weapon . In 1995 , he developed a smaller version of the bat 'leth , the " mek 'leth " — which is based on a Northern Tibetan cavalry sword . He designed the weapon for Dorn to use when Worf joined the crew of Star Trek : Deep Space Nine . Mek 'leths are intended for one @-@ handed use and shaped like a scimitar ; it is about half the length of the full @-@ size bat 'leth .
= = Use in Star Trek = =
In Star Trek lore , the Klingon Kahless created the bat 'leth around 625 A.D. According to Klingon mythology , he formed the blade by dropping a length of his hair into some lava from inside the Kri 'stak Volcano , then cooling , shaping , and hardening it in the lake of Lursor . He then united Qo 'noS , the Klingon homeworld by killing a tyrant named Molor with the weapon , which became known as the " Sword of Kahless " . The sword was later stolen by a species called the Hur 'q during their invasion of Qo 'noS . In the Deep Space Nine episode " The Sword of Kahless " , Worf and another Klingon named Kor rediscover the artifact , but it is eventually transported into space to prevent them from using it to attack each other . The Sword of Kahless differs from normal bat 'leths as it has five points and one handhold compared to four points and three handholds .
In the Klingon language , the bat 'leth was originally referred to as batlh 'etlh , then was shortened to betleH . The word " bat 'leth " means " Sword of Honor " . Bat 'leths are made of a reinforced metal called baakonite and are normally 116 centimetres ( 3 @.@ 81 ft ) long and weigh 5 @.@ 3 kilograms ( 12 lb ) .
The bat 'leth appeared in 29 television episodes across the Star Trek franchise in Star Trek : The Next Generation , Star Trek : Voyager , Star Trek : Deep Space Nine and Star Trek : Enterprise . The Bat 'leth was also used in the 1994 film Star Trek Generations . The mek 'leth appeared in the television series Deep Space Nine and in the 1996 film Star Trek : First Contact . The Sword of Kahless appeared in the 2000 video game Star Trek : Armada and normal bat 'leths appeared in the 1996 video game Star Trek : Klingon . Some of the bat 'leth 's uses were in the debut episode " Reunion " , where Worf teaches his son Alexander how to use one . Worf used a bat 'leth to kill Duras — a Klingon who killed Worf 's mate K 'Ehleyr . Notable uses of the weapon occurred in the Voyager episode " Barge of the Dead " — in which Tuvok uses a bat 'leth to teach B 'Elanna Torres about her Klingon heritage , and in the Deep Space Nine episode " Tacking into the Wind " — in which Worf kills the leader of the Klingon High Council , Gowron in a bat 'leth duel to give the Klingon Chancellorship to General Martok .
= = Cultural legacy = =
The bat 'leth is considered an iconic image of the Star Trek universe . Replicas are widespread and are considered collectibles by some and a part of Klingon costume . A number of outlets , including replica merchants , weapons dealers and pawn shops sell them . Ronald D. Moore , who has worked on Star Trek and Battlestar Galactica , displays one in his office . However , due to the dangers of real bat 'leths , no officially licensed replicas of the weapon are available from either Curry or Paramount Pictures .
The rise in the popularity of the bat 'leth has led to the formation of martial arts teams aiming to develop a martial art distinct from the one Curry initially developed . Such teams have incorporated moves from ju @-@ jitsu , kendo , kinjitsu and nunchaku . Bat 'leth competitions have been held at conventions such as MileHiCon and StarCon .
The bat 'leth has appeared in television programs outside the Star Trek franchise . In 2002 , it was seen in Stargate SG @-@ 1 episode " The Other Guys " . In 2005 , a bat 'leth was in the background of the US detective series Monk episode " Mr. Monk vs. the Cobra " . In 2010 , one was seen in the " Chuck Versus the Beard " episode of American comedy series Chuck . In 2011 , a bat 'leth was used in American situation comedy The Big Bang Theory episode " The Zarnecki Incursion " .
= = Legality = =
Replicas of the bat 'leth are often made of metal and can be dangerous . A British police spokesman said that stainless steel bat 'leth could " literally , take someone 's head off " . Media reports documenting instances of replica bat 'leths being used in crimes have referred to the weapon as a " double @-@ pointed Klingon crescent @-@ shaped sword " , a " Klingon @-@ type sword " , a " Star Trek Klingon @-@ type sword " or as a " double @-@ pointed scimitar " .
= = = United Kingdom = = =
In the United Kingdom , it is legal to possess a bat 'leth on private property ; however , they may be seized if they are considered to be " potential evidence of a criminal lifestyle . " They are classed as weapons , which makes it illegal to carry one in a public place . A replica bat 'leth was surrendered to Gloucestershire Constabulary as part of the 2006 knife amnesty in the UK . In 2008 , a miniature bat 'leth was seized in Oxford after a 17 @-@ year @-@ old was caught trying to smuggle it into a College . Police described the weapon as " most horrendous " . The person was arrested and sentenced to six months in a young offenders ' institution . In 2009 , a man from Billingham , County Durham , was arrested for possession of a miniature bat 'leth in a public street . In the court documents , it was referred to as a " multi @-@ bladed sword " , and the judge said " I 've never seen anything like it in my life before . " The accused pleaded guilty at Teesside Crown Court , and he was later sentenced to thirteen weeks in prison . The court ordered that the bat 'leth was to be forfeited and destroyed . A custom @-@ made bat 'leth was seized in 2009 in Accrington , Lancashire .
= = = United States = = =
The legality of the bat 'leth in the United States differs between states . In 2009 , a replica bat 'leth was used in Colorado Springs , Colorado , in two armed robberies . The Colorado Springs Police Department said that it was a deadly weapon . In New Jersey , bat 'leths are considered weapons and are liable to be seized . The Federal Bureau of Investigation discovered and seized a bat 'leth as part of a cache of weapons in connection with a $ 4 million Medicare fraud investigation in 2010 .
= Syrgiannes Palaiologos =
Syrgiannes Palaiologos Philanthropenos ( Greek : Συργιάννης Παλαιολόγος Φιλανθρωπηνός , c . 1290 – 1334 ) was a Byzantine aristocrat and general of mixed Cuman and Greek descent , who was involved in the civil war between Emperor Andronikos II Palaiologos ( r . 1282 – 1328 ) and his grandson Andronikos III ( r . 1328 – 1341 ) . Loyal only to himself and his own ambitions , he switched sides several times , and ended up conquering much of Macedonia for the Serbian ruler Stefan Dušan ( r . 1331 – 1346 ) before being assassinated by the Byzantines .
= = Biography = =
= = = Family origins and early career = = =
Syrgiannes was born about 1290 . He was named after his father or possibly grandfather , a Cuman leader who became Megas Domestikos ( Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Army ) under Emperor Andronikos II . At the time there were many Cumans in the Empire , who settled during the reign of John III Doukas Vatatzes ( r . 1221 – 1254 ) . The elder Syrgiannes 's original name was Sytzigan ( from Cuman @-@ Turkic Sïčğan , " mouse " ) ; it was Hellenized to Syrgiannes ( " master John " ) when he was baptized . The elder Syrgiannes rose in the hierarchy of the Byzantine army , eventually reaching the supreme rank of megas domestikos . The younger Syrgiannes 's mother was Eugenia Palaiologina , a member of the ruling Palaiologos family and niece of Emperor Michael VIII ( r . 1259 – 1282 ) . Conscious of the prestige of his mother 's family name , young Syrgiannes chose to use that in order to advance himself in the imperial hierarchy . Syrgiannes also had a sister , Theodora , who married Guy de Lusignan , later King of Armenian Cilicia as Constantine II . Syrgiannes makes his appearance in history in 1315 , when he was placed as military governor of a Macedonian province near the Serbian border . Despite the existing treaties , and against his instructions , he resolved to attack both Serbia and Epirus . Relieved of his post , he rebelled , was captured and imprisoned . Sometime before 1320 , however , he was eventually pardoned and appointed to a command in Thrace .
= = = Support of Andronikos III = = =
In 1320 , following the death of Michael IX Palaiologos ( eldest son of Andronikos II and co @-@ emperor from 1295 on ) , his son Andronikos III was crowned as co @-@ emperor by Andronikos II . Although initially popular with his grandfather , the younger Andronikos and his entourage of young nobles , to which Syrgiannes belonged , had by that time caused the elder emperor 's displeasure by their extravagance . Their excesses culminated in the mistaken @-@ identity murder of the young emperor 's younger brother , Manuel ; enraged , the elder Andronikos annulled his grandson 's titles , and a deep personal rift was opened between the two .
At that time , Syrgiannes and John Kantakouzenos bought for themselves governorships in Thrace , where discontent with the old emperor was rife , and they quickly mobilized support for the younger Andronikos . Together with Alexios Apokaukos and Theodore Synadenos , they prepared to overthrow the aged Andronikos II in favour of his grandson . In Easter 1321 , the younger Andronikos came to Adrianople , and the uprising broke out . Syrgiannes led a large army towards the capital , forcing the old emperor to negotiate . Consequently , on 6 June 1321 , an agreement was reached which partitioned the empire . Young Andronikos III was recognized as co @-@ emperor and given Thrace to govern as a quasi @-@ appanage , setting up his court at Adrianople , while Andronikos II continued to rule from the capital , Constantinople , as senior emperor .
Syrgiannes was dissatisfied with the new arrangements , feeling that he had not been sufficiently rewarded for his support of Andronikos III . He also resented the greater favour shown by the young emperor to Kantakouzenos , and developed a fierce rivalry with the latter . Furthermore , chroniclers also report a story whereby Andronikos III attempted to seduce Syrgiannes 's wife . In December 1321 , Syrgiannes switched sides , fleeing to Constantinople . Rewarded with the lofty title of megas doux , he convinced Andronikos II to resume the war against his grandson . In July 1322 , however , another agreement was reached between the two Andronikoi , which left Syrgiannes in an awkward position . His own schemes having failed , he began plotting to murder the aged Andronikos II and seize the throne for himself . The plot was foiled , however , and Syrgiannes was sentenced to life imprisonment .
= = = Governorship in Macedonia , defection to the Serbs and death = = =
In 1328 , Andronikos III finally overthrew his grandfather and established himself as sole emperor . Syrgiannes was freed , and was able to restore himself to Andronikos 's favour , to the extent that in late 1329 he was entrusted with the important governorship of Thessalonica , the Empire 's second @-@ largest city , and of western Macedonia and Albania . There , he was again suspected of plotting against Kantakouzenos , this time with the emperor 's mother , Empress Maria . She lived in Thessalonica , and was supposed to keep an eye on Syrgiannes ; instead , she became so infatuated with him that she had him adopted . Following the death of the Empress in late 1333 , the plot was uncovered and Syrgiannes was arrested and brought to Constantinople to face charges of treason . Syrgiannes , however , managed to escape and flee to the court of the Serbian ruler Stefan Dušan .
Dušan put Syrgiannes at the head of a large Serbian force , with which he invaded Byzantine Macedonia in 1334 . Syrgiannes 's abilities as a general , his knowledge of the Byzantine army 's dispositions and the friendships he had maintained with several local Byzantine officers resulted in the swift capture of many important Byzantine cities , including Ohrid , Prilep , Strumica , and Kastoria . The road was open for an advance towards Thessalonica , and Syrgiannes 's army encamped before the walls of the city , facing a Byzantine relief force . Both sides remained encamped confronting each other for several days , but on 23 August 1334 , Syrgiannes was lured away from his camp with only a few retainers and murdered by Sphrantzes Palaiologos , a Byzantine general who had defected on purpose to the Serbian camp a few days earlier . With the loss of their principal military leader , the Serbs settled for a negotiated peace with the Byzantines , which was very advantageous for them as they were left in possession of most of the cities won by Syrgiannes in northern Macedonia .
= = Appraisal = =
Syrgiannes 's ambition , inveterate plotting , and multiple betrayals made him one of the darkest figures of the era in the eyes of both contemporary and later historians : the 14th @-@ century historian Nikephoros Gregoras compared his flight to Serbia with Themistocles 's flight to the Persians , while Donald Nicol likened him to Alcibiades and Angeliki Laiou called him " the most evil presence " of the civil war .
= Kataragama temple =
Kataragamam temple ( Sinhalese Katharagama ; Tamil Katirkāmam ) in Kataragama , Sri Lanka , is a temple complex dedicated to Kataragama deviyo . It is one of the few religious sites in Sri Lanka that is venerated by the Sinhala Buddhists , Hindu Sri Lankan Tamils , Sri Lankan Moors and the Vedda people . It is a collection of modest shrines , of which the one dedicated to Kataragama deviyo , is the most important . For most of the past millennia , it was a jungle shrine very difficult to access ; today it is accessible by an all @-@ weather road . Almost all the shrines — and the nearby Kiri Vehera — are managed by Buddhists , apart from shrines dedicated to Teyvāṉai and Shiva and mosques .
Up until the 1940s a majority of the pilgrims were Tamil Hindus from Sri Lanka and South India who undertook an arduous padayatra or " pilgrimage on foot " . Since then most pilgrims tend to be Sinhala Buddhists and the cult of Kataragama deviyo has become the most popular amongst the Sinhalese people .
A number of legends and myths are associated with the deity and the location , differing by religion , ethnic affiliation and time . These legends are changing with the deity 's burgeoning popularity with Buddhists , as the Buddhist ritual specialists and clergy try to accommodate the deity within Buddhist ideals of nontheism . With the change in devotees , the mode of worship and festivals has changed from that of Hindu orientation to one that accommodates Buddhist rituals and theology . It is difficult to reconstruct the factual history of the place and the reason for its popularity amongst Sri Lankans and Indians based on legends and available archeological and literary evidence alone , although the place seems to have a venerable history . The lack of clear historic records and resultant legends and myths fuel the conflict between Buddhists and Hindus as to the ownership and the mode of worship at Kataragama .
The priests of the temple are known as Kapuralas and are believed to be descended from Vedda people . Veddas , too , have a claim on the temple , a nearby mountain peak and locality through a number of legends . There is a mosque and a few tombs of Muslim pious men buried nearby . The temple complex is also connected to other similar temples in Eastern Province dedicated to Murugan which are along the path of pilgrimage from Jaffna in the north to Kataragama in the south of the island ; Arunagirinathar traversed this pilgrimage route in the 15th century . The vicinity of the temple complex is used for secretive practices of sorcery and cursing peculiar to Sri Lanka . The entire temple complex was declared a holy place by the government of Sri Lanka in the 1950s ; since then political leaders have contributed for its maintenance and upkeep .
= = History = =
= = = Origin theories = = =
There are number of theories as to the origin of the shrine . According to Heinz Bechert and Paul Younger , the mode of veneration and rituals connected with Kataragama deviyo is a survival of indigenous Vedda mode of veneration that preceded the arrival of Buddhist and Indo @-@ Aryan cultural influences from North India in Sri Lanka in the last centuries BCE , although Hindus , Buddhists and even Muslims have tried to co @-@ opt the deity , rituals and the shrine . But according to S. Pathmanathan , the original Kataragama shrine was established as an adjunct guardian deity shrine to Skanda @-@ Kumara within a Buddhist temple complex . This particular shrine then became idealized as the very spot where Valli met Murukan amongst local Tamils and Sinhalese , and Kataragama deviyo subsumed the identity of Skanda @-@ Kumara and became a deity on his own right with rituals and pilgrimage . According to Pathmanathan , it happened after the 13th century CE when Murukan became popular amongst Tamils and before the 15th century CE when the poet Arunagirinathar identified the very location as a sacred spot .
= = = Literary evidence = = =
The first literary mention of Kataragama in a context of a sacred place to Skanda @-@ Murukan is in its Tamil form Kathirkamam in the 15th @-@ century devotional poems of Arunagirinathar . Tradition claims that he visited the forest shrine when he composed the poems . According to his poems , the deity dwelt on top of a mountain . The first mention of Kataragama deviyo in the form Khattugama , as a guardian deity of Sri Lanka and its Buddhist relics , was in the Pali chronicle of Jinakalamali written during the 16th century in what is today Thailand . ( see Jatukham Rammathep a popular Thai amulet , based on Khattugama , a deity from Sri Lanka ) Kataragama village is first mentioned in the historical annals known as Mahavamsa written down in the 5th century CE . It mentions a town named Kajjaragama from which important dignitaries came to receive the sacred Bo sapling sent from Ashoka ’ s Mauryan Empire on 288 BCE . ( According to Ponnambalam Arunachalam Kajjaragama is derived from Kârttikeya Grâma ( " City of Kartikeya " ) shortened to Kajara @-@ gama )
= = = Archeological evidence = = =
The vicinity of the temple has number of ancient ruins and inscriptions . Based on dated inscriptions found , the nearby Kiri Vehera is believed to have been built or renovated around the 1st century BCE . There is an inscription , a votive offering to the Mangala Mahacetiya , apparently the former name of Kiri Vehera on the orders of one Mahadathika Mahanaga , a son of king Tiritara who ruled in 447 CE . There is also an inscription of Dapula I dated to the 7th century CE who built a sanctuary for Buddhist monks , but the inscription does not mention Kataragama by name . Nearby Tissamaharama was a trading town of antiquity by the 2nd century BCE , as indicated by Prakrit and Tamil Brahmi legends in coins and potsherds unearthed on the site . The region was part of the ancient kingdom of Ruhuna which played an important role in the political history of the island .
= = = Role of Kalyangiri Swamy = = =
The medieval phase of the history of the shrine began with the arrival of Kalyanagiri Swamy from North India sometimes during the 16th or 17th century . He identified the very spot of the shrines and their mythic associations with characters and events as expounded in Skanda Purana . Following his re @-@ establishment of the forest shrine , it again became a place of pilgrimage for Indian and Sri Lankan Hindus . The shrine also attracted local Sinhala Buddhist devotees . The caretakers of the shrines were people of the forest who were of indigenous Vedda or mixed Vedda and Sinhalese lineages . The shrines popularity increased with the veneration of the place by the kings of the Kingdom of Kandy , the last indigenous kingdom before colonial occupation of the island . When Indian indentured workers were brought in after the British occupation in 1815 , they too began to participate in the pilgrimage in droves , thus the popularity of the shrine increased amongst all sections of the people .
= = Legends = =
= = = Hindu legends = = =
According to Hindus and some Buddhist texts , the main shrine is dedicated to Kartikeya , known as Murukan in Tamil sources . Kartikeya , also known as Kumara , Skanda , Saravanabhava , Visakha or Mahasena , is a god of war . The Kushan Empires and the Yaudheyas had his likeness minted in coins that they issued in the last centuries BCE . The deity 's popularity has waned in North India but has survived in South India . In South India , he became known as Subrahmaniya and was eventually fused with another local god of war known as Murukan among Tamils . Murukan is known independently from Sangam literature dated from the 2nd century BCE to the 6th century CE . Along the way , a number of legends were woven about the deity ’ s birth , accomplishments , and marriages , including one to a tribal princess known amongst Tamil and Sinhalese sources as Valli . The Skanda Purana , written in Sanskrit in the 7th or 8th century , is the primary corpus of all literature about him . A Tamil rendition of the Skanda Purana known as the Kandha Puranam written in the 14th century also expands on legends of Valli meeting Murukan . The Kandha Puranam plays an greater role for Sri Lankan Tamils than Tamils from India , who hardly know it .
In Sri Lanka the Sinhala Buddhists also worshiped Kartikeya as Kumaradevio or Skanda @-@ Kumara since at least the 4th century , if not earlier . Skanda @-@ Kumara was known as one of the guardian deities until the 14th century , invoked to protect the island ; they are accommodated within the non @-@ theistic Buddhist religion . During the 11th and 12th century CE , the worship of Skanda @-@ Kumara was documented even among the royal family . At some point in the past Skanda @-@ Kumara was identified with the deity in Kataragama shrine , also known as Kataragama deviyo and Kataragama deviyo , became one of the guardian deities of Sri Lanka . Numerous legends have sprung about Kataragama deviyo , some of which try to find an independent origin for Katargamadevio from the Hindu roots of Skanda @-@ Kumara .
= = = Buddhist legends = = =
One of the Sinhala legends tells that when Skanda @-@ Kumara moved to Sri Lanka , he asked for refuge from Tamils . The Tamils refused , and he came to live with the Sinhalese in Kataragama . As a penance for their refusal , the deity forced Tamils to indulge in body piercing and fire walking in his annual festival . This legend tries to explain the location of the shrine as well as the traditional patterns of worship by Tamils . Another Sinhala legends attests that Kataragama deviyo was the deity worshiped by Dutugamunu in the 1st century BCE , before his war with Ellalan , and that Dutugamunu had the shrine erected to Skanda @-@ Kumara at Kataragama after his victory . This legend has no corroboration in the Mahavamsa , the historic annals about Dutugamunu . Another Sinhala legend makes Kataragama deviyo a deification of a Tamil spy sent by Elara to live amongst the Sinhalese or a Tamil juggler who made the locals deify him after his death . Yet another legend says that Kataragama deviyo is a deification of the legendary king Mahasena , who is born as a bodhisattva or Buddha in waiting . Anthropologists Richard Gombrich and Gananath Obeyesekere were able to identify new strands of these legends and the originators of these legends since the 1970s , with the burgeoning popularity of the shrine and its deity amongst the Sinhala Buddhists .
According to the practice of cursing and sorcery peculiar to Sinhala Buddhists , Kataragama deviyo has his dark side represented by Getabaru and Kadavara . The current Getabaru shrine is located in an isolated place near Morawaka . The shrine for Kadavara is in the town of Kataragama . His power to curse is carried out in secret outside the Main Kataragama deviyo shrine at a place at the Menik Ganga , where he receives animal sacrifices . Katagama devio is also directly invoked in sorcery practices .
= = = Muslim legends = = =
Muslim or Islamic legends about Kataragama are relatively newer . According to Muslims Kataragama is referred to as al @-@ Khidr or land of Khidr . A number of Muslim pious and holy men seems to have migrated from India and settled down in the vicinity . The earliest known one is one Hayathu , whose simple residence became the mosque . Another one called Karima Nabi is supposed to have discovered a source of water that when drunk provides immortality . Historic figures such as Jabbar Ali Sha ( died 1872 ) and Meer Syed Mohhamed Alisha Bawa ( died 1945 ) also have mausoleums built over their tombs .
= = = Vedda legends = = =
The Veddas who have kept out of the mainstream culture of Sri Lanka do not subscribe to Kataragama deviyo as their deity . Unassimilated Veddas consider Kande Yakka or Gale Yakka ( Lord of the Rock ) as their primarily deity to be propitiated before hunts . They propitiate the deity by building a shrine made out of thatched leaves with a lance or arrow planted in the middle of the structure . They dance around the shrine with the shaman becoming possessed with the spirits of the dead ancestors who guide the hunting party in techniques and places to go hunt . Anthropologist Charles Gabriel Seligman felt that the Kataragama deviyo cult has taken on some aspects of the Kande Yakka rituals and traditions . A clan of Veddas who lived near to the shrine was known as Kovil Vanam ( Temple precincts ) . As a clan they are extinct but were to be found in the eastern province during the 19th century . Local Veddas believed that the nearby mountain peak of Vaedihitti Kande ( The Mountain of Veddas ) was the abode of the deity . The deity after coming over the shore married a local Vedda woman named Valli , a daughter of a Vedda chief and resided in the mountain . Eventually he was coaxed into settling down at the current location .
= = Temple layout = =
Almost all the shrines are nondescript small rectangular buildings without any ornamentation . There is no representative of deities adorning the outside of the buildings . This is in contrast to any other Hindu temple in Sri Lanka or India . Almost all shrines are built of stone except that one dedicated to Valli which shows timber construction . They have been left as originally constructed and there are not any plans to improve upon them , because people are reluctant to tamper with the original shrine complex .
The most important one is known as Maha Devale or Maha Kovil and is dedicated to Skanda @-@ Murugan known amongst the Sinhalese as Kataragama deviyo . It does not have a statute of the deity ; instead it holds a Yantra , a spiritual drawing of the deity 's power . Of all the shrines in the complex , it is the largest and the first that all pilgrims come to visit . Although it does not have a representation of the deity , kept in an adjoining room is a statue of Shiva also known amongst Sinhalese as Karanduva . Within it there is a clay arm chair known as Kalana Mandima that supposedly belonged to Kalyanagiri Swamy . It is covered by a leopard ’ s skin and on it has all the ceremonial instruments . To the left of the main shrine lies a smaller shrine dedicated to Hindu god Ganesha who is known as Ganapatidevio amongst Sinhalese . Tamils refer to him as the Manica Pillaiyar as well . It too is a small rectangular building without any decoration . To the left of Ganesha shrine stands the Vishnu Devale the shrine dedicated to Vishnu within which there is also a Buddha image . Behind this is a large Bo tree that tradition holds as sprung from the sapling of the original Bo tree in Anuradhapura , hence is very much held in high esteem by the visiting Buddhists .
Attached to the western wall of the shrine complex are shrines dedicated Kali , Pattini , Managaradevio , Dedimunda and Suniyam . Outside the temple yard and beyond the northern gate lies the shrine to Teyvanai , the consort of Murugan . Teyvanai shrine is managed by the Sankara Mutt from Sringeri in Karnataka , India . The shrine dedicated to Valli , the consort of the main deity lies in front of the mosque . Close to the Valli shrine is a Kadamba tree that is sacred to Murugan . Within the mosque are number of tombs of Muslim holy men . There is also a separate shrine dedicated to the tomb of Kalayangiri swamy known amongst Tamils as Mutuligaswamy kovil . It is also known as the Siva Devale .
= = Murukan and Kataragama deviyo cults = =
Buddhism doesn ’ t encourage beliefs in gods or their veneration and yet Buddhists in Sri Lanka make an annual pilgrimage to Kataragama . The deity has attained the position of national god amongst the Sinhalese . This reflects the similar position held by Murukan amongst Tamils .
= = = Murukan cult = = =
Murukan is known from Sangam Tamil literature . The earliest reference to Murukan was as a god who was propitiated to help in good hunting . He was the primary god of hunter @-@ gatherer people from the mountainous region of southern Tamil Nadu very much like the Veddas of Sri Lanka . With the advancement of settled agriculture , Murukan became identified with the tribal chieftains as a god of war , becoming popular among all segments of the society . He was worshiped symbolically as lance and trees such as the Kadamba Neolamarckia cadamba ) were considered to be sacred to him . Birds such as the peafowl or rooster were also identified with the deity . Velans were a special class of priests identified with his worship .
With advent of North Indian traditions arriving with the Pallava and Kadamba dynasties , Murukan was infused with the aspects of Kartikeya or Skanda , a god | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
of war from North India . All legends that were attributed to Kartikeya were also attributed to Murukan . The syncretic deity has six major temples in Tamil Nadu and countless many other smaller temples . Legends developed that bound the worship of syncretic Skanda @-@ Murukan to Tamil Nadu as a god of the Tamils . It included his marriage of Valli from Toṇṭaināṭu .
= = = Katargamadevio cult = = =
Legends in Sri Lanka claimed that Valli was a daughter of a Vedda chief from Kataragama in the south of the island . The town of Kalutara , known in some sources as Velapura , became associated with Murukan worship as well . The cult of Murukan was grafted onto the worship of Skanda @-@ Kumara that was prevalent in Sri Lanka . Amongst the Sinhalese he became known as the god of Kataragama village , thus Kataragamdevio . Shrines of Katargamadevio are found in almost all Sinhala Buddhist villages and towns . He is recognized as one of the guardian deities . Worshipers take an arduous pilgrimage on foot through jungles to fulfill their vows to the deity . The pilgrimage included both Tamils from India and Sri Lanka as well as Sinhalese . Number of temples mostly in the east coast of Sri Lanka became identified with Kataragama temple and synchronized their festivals based on the arrival of pilgrims all the way from the north of the island . These include temples in Verugal , Mandur , Tirukovil and Okanda . In the interior of the island temples such as Embekke were built in the 15 to 17 the century CE to propitiate the Murukan aspect of Kataragamdevio by the Sinhalese elite .
Since the 1950s the cult of Kataragama has taken a nationalistic tone amongst the Sinhalese people . People visit the shrine year long , and during the annual festival it looks like a carnival . People get into trance and indulge in ecstatic rituals formerly associated with Hindus such as fire walking , Kavadi and even body piercing or hook swinging . These ecstatic rituals have carried through the island and are widely practiced . Prominent Sinhalese politicians such as Dudley Senanayake and Ranasinghe Premadasa have associated with the temple upkeep by building , renovation and cleaning projects .
= = Festivals = =
The festivals and daily rituals do not adhere to standard Hindu Agamic or Buddhist rituals . It follows what Paul Younger calls as ancient Vedda traditions of worship . Although since the medieval period Hindus , Buddhists and even Muslims have tried to co @-@ opt the temple , deity and its worship as their own , the rituals maintained by the native priests are still intact . The main festival known in Sinhalese as Esela Perehera . It is celebrated during the months of July and August . About 45 days before the festival begins , the priests go into the forest and find two forked branches of a sacred tree . The branches are then immersed in the local river and kept at the shrines dedicated to Kataragama deviyo and Vali . When the main festival begins , the Yantra representing the deity is retrieved from its storage location , paraded through a street on top of an elephant , and carried to the Valli shrine . After two hours it is returned . On the last day of the festival the Yantra is left overnight at the Valli shrine and brought back to the main shrine . The priests conduct the rituals in silence , covering their mouths with white cloth . Associated with the main festival is fire walking arranged by a master of the ritual . Hundreds of devotees participate in fire walking , yet others participate in ecstatic dance forms called Kavadi and body piercing . Many of the pilgrims exhibit signs of being possessed .
= = Hindu and Buddhist conflicts = =
Sri Lanka has had a history of conflict between its minority Hindu Tamils and majority Buddhists since its political independence from Great Britain in 1948 . Paul Wirz in the 1930s wrote about tensions between Hindus and Buddhists regarding the ownership and mode of ritual practice in Kataragama . For the past millennia the majority of the pilgrims were Hindus from Sri Lanka and South India who undertook an arduous pilgrimage on foot . By the 1940 roads were constructed and more and more Sinhala Buddhists began to take the pilgrimage . This increased the tensions between the local Hindus and Buddhists about the ownership and type of rituals to be used . The government interceded on behalf of the Buddhists and enabled the complete takeover of the temple complex and in effect the shrines have become an adjunct to the Buddhist Kiri Vehera . Protests occurred upon this development in the 1940s , particularly when restrictions were placed on Tamil worship at the shrine .
Typical Tamil Hindu rituals at Kataragama such as fire walking , Kavadi dance and body piercing have been taken over by the Buddhists and have been spread to the rest of the island . The Buddhist takeover of the temple and its rituals has profoundly affected the rationale nature of austere Theravada Buddhism practiced in Sri Lanka to that of the personal Bhakti veneration of deities found amongst the Hindus of Sri Lanka and South India . The loss of Hindu influence within the temple complex has negatively affected the Sri Lankan Tamil Hindu society . According to Paul Younger , the Buddhist takeover was precipitated by the overwhelming participation of Buddhists in what are essentially Hindu rituals that worried the Buddhist establishment . There is a strong political and religious pressure to further modify the temple rituals to conform within an orthodox Theravada Buddhist world view .
= = Cited literature = =
= Residente o Visitante =
Residente o Visitante ( English : Resident or Visitor ) is the second studio album by Puerto Rican urban / hip hop band Calle 13 , released on April 24 , 2007 , by Sony BMG . Recorded in various countries while on tour in promotion of the duo 's debut album Calle 13 , Residente o Visitante marked an evolution in the band 's musical and lyrical style . While writing the album , the duo took a trip to South America to explore areas populated by Latin America 's indigenous and African @-@ descended minorities , a journey that greatly influenced the music on Residente o Visitante . The album features six guest artists and delves into genres such as tango , bossa nova , cumbia , and electronica .
Residente o Visitante debuted at number one on the US Billboard Top Latin Albums chart , selling 12 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . The record was also certified Gold in Argentina by the Argentine Chamber of Phonograms and Videograms Producers ( CAPIF ) . The first single released from the album , " Tango del Pecado " , reached number 14 on the Billboard Latin Rhythm Airplay chart . The record received positive reviews from critics , who praised the album 's experimental nature and unique lyrical themes . The album also won Best Urban Music Album and Best Urban Song for " Pal ' Norte " at the 8th Annual Latin Grammy Awards . A film entitled Sin Mapa documenting the group 's travel experiences while recording the album was released on July 29 , 2009 .
= = Background = =
Calle 13 was formed when step @-@ brothers Residente ( real name René Pérez Joglar ) and Visitante ( real name Eduardo José Cabra Martínez ) began creating music together in 2004 . The step @-@ brothers hosted their music on a website , and began searching for a record label in order to release their music commercially . After sending demo tapes to White Lion Records , the duo was offered a record deal . The duo gained recognition for their controversial song " Querido FBI " , which responded to the killing of Filiberto Ojeda Ríos , a key figure for the Puerto Rican independence movement .
Soon after " Querido FBI " gained notoriety for Calle 13 , the band 's 2005 eponymously titled debut album was released and became commercially and critically successful in Latin America . The group was subsequently labeled as reggaeton , a genre that the duo wished to distance itself from . Visitante commented on the situation : " The truth is that the first record had only four reggaetons . Those were the cuts used for promotional purposes , and so that ’ s the brand that was put on us . But from the beginning , to me , reggaeton never offered anything musically . My brother liked it , yes , but we always tried to execute it in an organic way , with real instruments and mixing it with other genres . "
= = Recording = =
While writing Residente o Visitante , the duo took a trip to South America to explore areas populated by Latin America 's indigenous and African @-@ descended minorities . Residente reflected on the journey , stating , " We saw horrible things , but also things that were incredibly beautiful . Some of the contrasts are really intense . " The duo was strongly influenced by the experience ; Visitante discovered and purchased several new musical instruments on the trip including a quijada , a charango and a bombo legüero , all of which were used on the song " Llegale a Mi Guarida " . Residente and Visitante felt that writing on the road was conducive to the group 's creative output . The group 's journeys were documented in a film entitled Sin Mapa , which debuted on July 29 , 2009 at the New York International Latino Film Festival and later was released on DVD .
Residente o Visitante was recorded in various countries , as the band was on tour during the making of the album . Residente explained that the group did not feel any pressure to compete with the success of Calle 13 , and felt that the recording of Residente o Visitante was a smoother process than the first : " The main difference for us this time around was that we had more opportunities , more tools and more money . We were also on tour at the same time , unlike the first . I spent my time writing during the travels , while my brother would write the music . " Residente was invited by La Mala Rodriguez to come to Spain to collaborate on a song . He agreed , as he greatly admired La Mala 's work , and the two met for drinks where they discussed the kind of song they wanted to create before going to the studio to record what would later become " Mala Suerta Con el 13 " .
= = Composition = =
= = = Music = = =
On the record , the band wished to experiment more with live instruments and diverse styles of music . Margarita Diaz of NY Daily News referred to Residente o Visitante as " an exhilarating travelogue through the sounds and rhythms of [ South America ] . " Visitante , who composed the music on the album , credits the musical diversity to his past . He began playing classical piano at age six , and at age 17 , he joined a varied array of bands and played saxophone and keyboards . Residente o Visitante features more guest artists than the band 's debut , including collaborations with musicians such as Tego Calderón , La Mala Rodríguez and Orishas .
The introduction to the album , as described by Elijah Wald of the Los Angeles Times , " sounds like a lovely Baroque chorale - unless one speaks Spanish , in which case it becomes immediately evident that it 's an ornate canon of the filthiest words in Puerto Rican street slang . " " Tango del Pecado " mixes tango and reggaeton , and has been referred to as " tango @-@ tón " . The song features Argentinian music producer Gustavo Santaolalla and his Bajofondo Tango Club . Puerto Rican rapper Tego Calderón is featured on " Sin Exagerar " , which contains guitar influenced by surf rock . Additionally , the song " Cumbia de los Aburridos " is strongly influenced by Colombian cumbia music , featuring an accordion and a horn section . " Un Beso De Desayuno " mixes electronica , rap and bossa nova .
= = = Lyrics = = =
Residente described the album as more introspective and autobiographical than its predecessor . With the lyrics on the record , Residente aimed for authenticity , attempting to tackle subjects not typically discussed in conventional reggaeton . He explained that listening to Residente o Visitante is similar to watching a movie , in the sense that the album depicts real life events and uses profanity to evoke emotion in the listener . Leila Cobo of Billboard wrote that the lyrical content of Residente o Visitante ranges from " sophomoric humor to outright perversion " . The song " Mala Suerte Con el 13 " , the group 's collaboration with La Mala Rodriguez , is a satire of the " Latin macho attitude " . He wished to defy and poke fun at traditional gender roles , citing feminist philosopher Judith Butler as an influence ; " I wanted to record a duet between a guy who 's weak and inadequate , and a woman who 's a sexual psychopath and has all the power in the world . A complete mockery of macho stereotypes " . In the same vein , " Sin Exagerar " parodies the misogyny that Residente felt had saturated the reggaeton scene .
The album 's lead single , " Tango del Pecado " , is addressed to the parents of Residente 's then @-@ girlfriend , former Miss Universe Denise Quiñones , who did not approve of the couple 's relationship . He explains that the song expresses how he will still date her regardless of their opinions , and author Ed Morales observes that " It 's a calling out of the morality of Latin America . It 's just an invitation to turn everything upside @-@ down by embracing the ugly and profane in life and , you know , asking people to go on that journey . " " Tango del Pecado " also created controversy due to the repeated chanting of " Súbele el volumen a la música satánica " ( turn up the satanic music ) . Residente asserts that he did not add the line to create a reaction , saying , " I never do something expecting something . I do things because I like them . " " El Avión Se Cae " depicts the thoughts of a drunken airplane passenger . In " Pal Norte " , Residente discusses the plight of immigrants in the United States . Commenting on the track 's lyrical themes , he explained " I had wanted to do that theme because I think it is an important topic . And not just for the immigrants in the United States but all over . It is a song that immigrants can identify with , Dominicans as well as Puerto Ricans . All the people leave one country for another for the same reasons . " Although much of the album addresses immigration and moving to different countries , " La Crema " is a celebration of living in Puerto Rico .
= = Title and artwork = =
The album 's name was inspired by an experience from Residente and Visitante 's childhood . When they were children , Visitante would visit his brother at the Calle 13 ( 13th Street ) of the El Conquistador subsection of Trujillo Alto , Puerto Rico every week . Since the subsection is a gated community , visitors were routinely asked " ¿ Residente o visitante ? " ( " Resident or visitor ? " ) by a security guard when approaching the community 's main gate . Therefore , Visitante would identify himself as a visitor , while Residente would have to insist that he was a resident to clear the gate . The pair named themselves Calle 13 after the street their family 's house was on . The title is also meant to refer to the status of immigrants in the United States , a recurring theme on the record .
The album cover depicts a winged virgin with a canteen on her chest resembling the Sacred Heart of Jesus . Residente noted that the image represents Hispanic immigrants coming to the United States , in an attempt to both sanctify the immigrants and humanize the holy images common in Latin America . An image inside the CD booklet features Residente with stigmata in his hands . He noted that the photo is intended to portray Jesus as a " regular guy " who deals with struggles similar to those of people crossing borders . He further commented , " Obviously , [ the art of the CD ] is not made for people who are used to seeing the guy with the chick in a bikini in a car with all her jewelry . We don 't come here to befuddle the people more . "
= = Release and reception = =
= = = Chart performance = = =
Residente o Visitante debuted on the U.S. Billboard Top Latin Albums chart at number one , displacing Jennifer Lopez 's Spanish album Como Ama una Mujer , and on the Billboard 200 at number 52 , selling about 12 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . The album remained on the Billboard 200 for a total of four weeks . Additionally , the album debuted on the Billboard Rap Albums chart at number 13 . In Argentina , the album was certified Gold by Argentine Chamber of Phonograms and Videograms Producers ( CAPIF ) .
" Tango del Pecado " , the first single released from the album , reached number 14 on the Billboard Latin Rhythm Airplay chart . The second single , " Cumbia de los Aburridos " , peaked at number 31 on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart . " Pa 'l Norte " , the third single from the record , reached number 27 on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart and number 40 on the Regional Mexican Songs chart . The fourth and final single was " Un Beso de Desayuno " , which failed to chart .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The album received positive reviews from critics . Jason Birchmeier of Allmusic gave Residente o Visitante 4 out of 5 stars , noting the disc 's diverse musical styles and unique lyricism : " Residente is a gifted rapper who matches Eminem in terms of wit and playfulness while Visitante is a similarly gifted producer who creates multi @-@ layered tracks that rarely sound alike . " Andrew Casillas of Stylus Magazine gave the album an A- grade , calling it a " trailblazing record " . Casillas praised Residente 's rapping on the record , calling his performance " a revelation " and referring to the song " Un Beso de Desayuno " as the band 's " most noble achievement : a fully formed reggaetón love song . " However , Casillas felt that the album was overly long and stated that " Uiyi Guaye " sounds like " Donald Duck on a treadmill " .
Olivia Muñoz of The Philadelphia Inquirer referred to the record as " weird , seductive , thought @-@ provoking and hilarious all at once " , and despite noting the unconventional lyrical themes , she deemed many of the songs to be " surprisingly danceable " . Phil Freeman of The Village Voice called the album " more thoughtful and musically broad @-@ minded " than its predecessor , and noted that the album gave Residente " a platform for a more explicit political consciousness than some might have predicted " , referring to the songs " Pal Norte " and " La Cumbia de los Aburridos " . Agustin Gurza of the Los Angeles Times opined that the album is " more mature , though no less outrageous " than the band 's debut , and referred to " Tango del Pecado " and " Pal ' Norte " as " two of the most memorable songs of the year . " Nuria Net of Vibe felt that the " cutting edge appeal " of the debut album was " reduced to vulgar lyrics " on Residente o Visitante , writing , " though this second album shows impressive breadth , swaying from reggaeton to cumbia to tango , Calle 13 's powerful social critiques are but a memory . "
= = = Awards = = =
At the 8th Annual Latin Grammy Awards on November 8 , 2007 Residente o Visitante received two Latin Grammy Awards : Best Urban Music Album and Best Urban Song for " Pal ' Norte " . It was also nominated for Album of the Year , and Best Short Form Music Video for the video of the first single " Tango del Pecado " . Calle 13 performed at the ceremony in a well @-@ received act featuring Orishas and the Stomp dance troupe . The performance was referred to by Agustin Gurza of the Los Angeles Times as " both a celebratory and seditious moment " . In late @-@ 2009 , the Latin music website Club Fonograma named it the 5th best album of the decade .
= = Track listing = =
All lyrics written by Residente , all music composed by Visitante . Adapted from Allmusic .
= = = Bonus tracks = = =
= = Chart positions = =
= = Album certification = =
= Hlín =
In Norse mythology , Hlín ( Old Norse " protectress " ) is a goddess associated with the goddess Frigg . Hlín appears in a poem in the Poetic Edda , compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources , the Prose Edda , written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson , and in kennings found in skaldic poetry . Hlín has been theorized as possibly another name for Frigg .
= = Attestations = =
In the Poetic Edda poem Völuspá , Hlín receives a mention regarding the foretold death of the god Odin during the immense battle waged at Ragnarök :
Then is fulfilled Hlín 's
second sorrow ,
when Óðinn goes
to fight with the wolf ,
and Beli 's slayer ,
bright , against Surtr .
Then shall Frigg 's
sweet friend fall .
In chapter 35 of the Prose Edda book Gylfaginning , Hlín is cited twelfth among a series of sixteen goddesses . High tells Gangleri ( earlier in the book described as King Gylfi in disguise ) that Hlín " is given the function of protecting people whom Frigg wishes to save from some danger . " High continues that , from this , " someone who escapes finds refuge ( hleinar ) . " In chapter 51 , the above @-@ mentioned Völuspá stanza is quoted . In chapter 75 of the book Skáldskaparmál Hlín appears within a list of 27 ásynjur names .
In skaldic poetry , the name Hlín is frequent in kennings for women . Examples include Hlín hringa ( " Hlín of rings " ) , Hlín goðvefjar ( " Hlín of velvet " ) and arm @-@ Hlín ( " arm @-@ Hlín " ) . The name is already used frequently in this way by the 10th @-@ century poet Kormákr Ögmundarson and remains current in skaldic poetry through the following centuries , employed by poets such as Þórðr Kolbeinsson , Gizurr Þorvaldsson and Einarr Gilsson . The name remained frequently used in woman kennings in rímur poetry , sometimes as Lín .
In a verse in Hávarðar saga Ísfirðings , the phrase á Hlín fallinn ( " fallen on Hlín " ) occurs . Some editors have emended the line while others have accepted the reading and taken Hlín to refer to the earth .
= = Theories = =
Andy Orchard says that in Völuspá , Hlín appears to be just another name for Frigg , and adds that " the numerous occurrences of the name in skaldic poetry in poetic periphrases or kennings for women do nothing to dispel the confusion . " Rudolf Simek agrees that Hlín seems to appear as another name for Frigg in Völuspá , and that in skaldic poetry Hlín was a well @-@ known mythological figure by the 10th century . Simek states that Hlín is likely simply another name for Frigg , and that Snorri " misunderstood her to be a goddess in her own right in his reading of the Völuspá stanza . "
However , in the same work , Rudolf Simek also says that the goddesses Sága , Hlín , Sjöfn , Snotra , Vár , and Vör should be considered vaguely defined figures who " should be seen as female protective goddesses " that are all responsible for " specific areas of the private sphere , and yet clear differences were made between them so that they are in many ways similar to matrons . " John Lindow observes that if Hlín is indeed Frigg , then this means that Hlín 's " second sorrow " in Völuspá is the death of Odin , the first being the death of Baldr .
= One Sweet Day =
" One Sweet Day " is a song by American singer Mariah Carey and R & B group Boyz II Men . The song was written by Carey , Walter Afanasieff and Boyz II Men : Wanya Morris , Shawn Stockman , Nathan Morris , and Michael McCary . " One Sweet Day " was produced by Carey and Afanasieff for her fifth studio album , Daydream , and was released as the album 's second single on November 14 , 1995 ( 1995 @-@ 11 @-@ 14 ) . The song speaks about death of a loved one , how the protagonist took their presence for granted and misses them , and finally about seeing the person in heaven . Both Carey and Boyz II Men wrote the song about specific people in their lives , being inspired by sufferers of AIDS epidemic , which was globally prevalent at that time .
" One Sweet Day " received universal acclaim from critics , many of whom praised its lyrical content and vocals , as well as calling it a standout track from Daydream . It was ranked first in Rolling Stone 's reader 's poll for the Best Collaboration of All Time . The song spent 16 weeks atop the Billboard Hot 100 in the United States , becoming the longest running number one song on the chart . Subsequently , " One Sweet Day " became the Billboard 's most successful song of the 1990s , topping the Hot 100 decade @-@ end chart . Internationally , the song topped the charts in Canada and New Zealand , and reached the top @-@ ten in Australia , Belgium , France , Ireland , the Netherlands , Norway , Sweden and the United Kingdom .
Carey performed " One Sweet Day " live alongside Boyz II Men at the 38th Grammy Awards ceremony , held on February 26 , 1996 . Additionally , the song was performed at Princess Diana 's memorial service in September 1997 . " One Sweet Day " was part of the set list on several of Carey 's succeeding tours , making its debut during the album 's accompanying set of concerts , the Daydream World Tour . It is featured on her compilation albums , # 1 's ( 1998 ) , Greatest Hits ( 2001 ) , The Ballads ( 2008 ) , and # 1 to Infinity ( 2015 ) .
The music video for " One Sweet Day " was filmed in February 1995 , and features snippets of Carey and Boyz II Men in and around the studio , and recording the song . The busy schedule of both Carey and Boyz II Men did not allow time to record a proper video . The singer later said that she was content a real music video was never filmed , fearing that no video could truly capture the song 's strong lyrical message . Critics felt the video choice was wise , and agreed that the simple concept paid homage to the song 's selfless message .
= = Background = =
" One Sweet Day " was a song that Carey wrote with the R & B group Boyz II Men . After Carey 's friend and past collaborator David Cole died , she began writing and developing a song that would pay homage to him and all the friends and family her fans had lost along the life 's journey . Carey had the idea and chorus composed , and after meeting with Boyz II Men , they realized they too had a similar idea in development . Together , using Carey 's chorus and idea , as well as the melody they had produced , they wrote and composed the song . The song was produced by Afanasieff , who built on the song 's melody and added various grooves and beats . Carey expressed how the song was " meant to be " and how all the pieces fit into place :
" I wrote the initial idea for ' One Sweet Day ' with Walter , and I had the chorus ... and I stopped and said , ' I really wanna do this with Boyz II Men , ' because ... obviously I 'm a big fan of theirs and I just thought that the work was crying out for them , the vocals that they do , so I put it away and said , ' Who knows if this could ever happen , but I just don 't wanna finish this song because I want it to be our song if we ever do it together . [ The ] whole idea of when you lose people that are close to you , it changes your life and changes your perspective . When they came into the studio , I played them the idea for the song and when [ it ] was finished , they looked at each other , a bit stunned , and told me that Nathan " Nate " Morris had written a song for his road manager who had passed away . It had basically the same lyrics and fitted over the same chord changes . It was really , really weird , we finished the song right then and there . We were all kinda flipped about it ourselves . Fate had a lot to do with that . I know some people won 't believe it , but we wouldn 't make up such a crazy story . "
After they began working on the song , Carey began to incorporate other lyrics into the chorus , trying to make the song relatable to the AIDS epidemic that was in full force in the mid @-@ 1990s . Additionally , Mariah 's sister Alison Carey had been diagnosed with HIV in 1988 when she was 27 , an event that ruined their relationship and tore them apart . Carey has stated that she wrote the song hoping that all her fans that have lost someone could relate to " One Sweet Day " and maybe help ease the pain of the loss . Carey described the song as " [ the ] whole idea of when you lose people that are close to you , it changes your life and changes our perspective . "
= = Composition = =
" One Sweet Day " is a downtempo song that blends R & B and pop music . It incorporates organ instrumentation and different contemporary grooves and beats into its primary arrangement , adding percussion and synthesizers as well . The song is set in the time signature common time and moves at a slow tempo of 64 beats per minute . It is written in the key of A ♭ major and features a basic chord progression of A ♭ – D ♭ maj9 – A ♭ – D ♭ maj9 – G ♭ add9 , while the basic melodic line spans roughly an octave and a half from E ♭ 4 to A ♭ 5 ; the piano in the piece ranges from D ♭ 2 to A ♭ 5 . The song contains choral lyrics written by Carey , who also arranged and co @-@ produced the song alongside Walter Afanasieff . Author Chris Nickson complimented the song 's instrumentation and arrangement , calling its use of synthesizers " wise " and " efficient . " Additionally , he claimed Afanasieff 's production and Carey 's vocal and production arrangement helped the song 's vocals and lyrical content flow together . The song finishes with the last chorus and coda in the key of B major .
= = Reception and recognition = =
" One Sweet Day " has been lauded with universal acclaim from contemporary music critics . Allmusic 's Stephen Thomas Erlewine praised the song for its craft and writing , commenting that " [ in ] " One Sweet Day , " a duet with Boyz II Men , Carey appeals to both audiences equally because of the sheer amount of craft and hard work she puts into her albums . Ken Tucker from Entertainment Weekly felt the song truly highlighted the album , " [ One Sweet Day ] radiates a breezy sexiness that Carey , for all the brazen hussiness of her public persona , rarely permits herself to reveal in song . Stephen Holden from The New York Times shared similar sentiments and wrote " On ' One Sweet Day , ' the singer joins forces with Boyz II Men , those masters of pleading post @-@ doo @-@ wop vocal harmonies , for a tender eulogy that suggests that the singers have been personally touched by the AIDS crisis . " People felt the song was a " stand @-@ out track " and called Carey 's vocal performance " bravura belting " .
" One Sweet Day " won many prestigious awards throughout 1996 . At the Blockbuster Entertainment Awards , the song won the award for " Favorite Adult Contemporary Single Female ' One Sweet Day ' " . " One Sweet Day " also won the award for " Song of the Year " at the BMI Awards and a " Special Award for 16 weeks at # 1 " at the Billboard Music Awards . Together , Daydream and " One Sweet Day " were nominated for six Grammy Awards at the 38th annual ceremony , however , to Carey 's surprise , and to the shock of many critics , they lost all of the nominations . In a readers ' poll conducted by Rolling Stone , the song was ranked first for the category of the Best Collaboration of All Time .
= = Commercial performance = =
" One Sweet Day " became Carey 's tenth chart topping single on the Billboard Hot 100 and Boyz II Men 's fourth . The song remained at the peak for a record @-@ breaking , 16 consecutive weeks , from December 2 , 1995 to March 16 , 1996 . Boyz II Men had previously held this record twice , with " End of the Road " ( 1992 ) spending 13 weeks at the top and " I 'll Make Love to You " ( 1994 ) spending 14 . The former song shares this record with Brandy and Monica 's " The Boy Is Mine " , and the latter song shared its record with Whitney Houston 's " I Will Always Love You " . Carey 's 2005 song " We Belong Together " , The Black Eyed Peas 's 2009 " I Gotta Feeling " and Mark Ronson 's 2014 track , " Uptown Funk " , managed to stay at number one for 14 weeks as well . " One Sweet Day " replaced " Exhale ( Shoop Shoop ) " by Whitney Houston at number one , and was replaced by Celine Dion 's " Because You Loved Me " . The single also debuted at number one , making Carey the first artist to have more than one number @-@ one debut , and one of the two artists ever to have two consecutive singles debut at the top of the chart , along with Britney Spears , with " 3 " ( 2009 ) and " Hold It Against Me " ( 2011 ) . One Sweet Day was the third best @-@ selling single of 1995 in the US , with sales of over 1 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 , with the second best @-@ selling single being Carey 's " Fantasy " . The song spent 26 weeks in the top 40 , was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) and was ranked number one on Billboard 's " Decade @-@ End Charts " . To date the single sold 2 @,@ 334 @,@ 000 physical units .
Outside the U.S. , " One Sweet Day " was not as successful but did manage to reach the top @-@ ten in over 13 countries and topped the chart in Canada and New Zealand , where it was certified platinum . In Canada , the song debuted on the RPM Singles Chart at number 89 on the RPM issue dated December 4 , 1995 , and reached the top of the chart on January 22 , 1996 . It was present on the chart for a total of 24 weeks , and ranked 12th on the RPM Year @-@ end chart for 1996 . It reached the top @-@ two in Australia ( platinum ) , The Netherlands ; the top @-@ five in France ( silver ) and Ireland and the top @-@ ten in Belgium , Norway ( platinum ) , Sweden and the United Kingdom ( silver ) . In the UK , it is one of Carey 's best @-@ selling singles , with estimated sales of 255 @,@ 000 .
= = Music video = =
The song 's music video was directed by Larry Jordan . When Carey and Boyz II Men got together to record " One Sweet Day " , they did not have enough time to re @-@ unite and film a video . Instead , a filming crew was present during the song 's recording , and filmed bits of Carey and Boyz recording the song . Walter Afanasieff later told Fred Bronson that shooting the video was " crazy " , stating " They had film crews and video guys , while I 'm at the board trying to produce . And these guys were running around having a ball , because Mariah and them are laughing and screaming and they 're being interviewed . And I 'm tapping people on the shoulder . ' We 've got to get to the microphone ! ' They 're gone in a couple of hours , so I recorded everything they did , praying that it was enough . " After the song 's release , Carey expressed her content with the video. that she was happy a real music video was never filmed , fearing that no video could truly capture the song 's " precious message " . Critics agreed , feeling that the song was a perfect match for the video and its message . Aside from the recording sessions , the video also shared bits of Carey and Boyz bonding and sharing their ideas in the studio , where Carey felt they " bonded " .
= = Live performances = =
" One Sweet Day " was performed at the 38th Annual Grammy Awards , held on February 28 , 1996 . During the performance , Carey wore a long black dress and matching sleeveless blouse , while the group wore white jackets and black pants . After the song 's bridge , a choir of male and female vocalists took place on the rafters placed over the stage , all wearing white gowns . The song was also performed at the memorial service for Princess Diana in September 1997 , where other performers included Elton John . During the service and song recital , Carey wore a conservative long black sheer gown , with long golden curls . Boyz II Men all wore similar matching dark suit and garments . The song became part of Carey 's BET Christmas special in 2001 , where she sang the song alongside Boyz II Men . During the special , Carey wore a red gown in honor of the show 's holiday theme , and featured a long golden hairstyle . One of the male vocalists had already been switched , as one of the group members had already resigned .
Aside from live television appearances , the song was performed on many of Carey 's tours . " One Sweet Day " was performed at every show on her Daydream World Tour ( 1996 ) , where Boyz II Men were featured on a large projection screen . The footage was taken from Carey 's filmed concert at Madison Square Garden in late @-@ 1995 , and was played in sync with Carey 's verses . A similar concept was used for her Butterfly World Tour ( 1998 ) , with the addition of several live back up vocalists joining on stage . Additionally , the song was performed on select dates on her The Adventures of Mimi tour ( 2006 ) . During the tour 's filmed show in Anaheim California , the group joined Carey live on stage and performed the song together . For the segment of the show , Carey wore a long turquoise gown , with several slits and cuts fashioned into the sides . During the Angels Advocate Tour in 2010 , Carey performed a snippet of the song in Singapore , with Trey Lorenz filling in for the group 's verses . Carey also performed the song as a part of her 2015 Las Vegas residency , Mariah Carey Number 1 's , with Lorenz reprising his role as well as Daniel Moore .
= = Cover versions = =
" One Sweet Day " was performed by the seven finalists on the seventh season of American Idol . The performance was taped due to the " Mariah Carey " themed week , where all the competitors sang songs from Carey 's repertoire . The song was additionally sung on the fifth season of the UK TV show The X Factor , by the British boy @-@ band JLS . Their performance received praise from all four judges , who commented how it was an " impossibly hard song to sing " because it was a " Mariah song " . The song was also performed by John Adeleye during the seventh season The X Factor . The theme of the night was " # 1 songs " . Shannon Magrane performed the song on the eleventh season of American Idol the week the contestants performed songs from their birth years . Andy Williams released a version in 2007 on his album , I Don 't Remember Ever Growing Up .
= = Formats and track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the Daydream liner notes .
Mariah Carey – co @-@ production , songwriting , vocals
Walter Afanasieff – co @-@ production , songwriting
Nathan Morris – songwriting , vocals
Wanya Morris – songwriting , vocals
Shawn Stockman – songwriting , vocals
Michael McCary – songwriting , vocals
= = Charts and certifications = =
= 2000 – 01 Arsenal F.C. season =
The 2000 – 01 season was the 103rd season of competitive football played by Arsenal . The club ended the campaign second in the Premier League , ten points behind reigning champions Manchester United . Arsenal reached the 2001 FA Cup Final at the Millennium Stadium , Cardiff in May 2001 ; in spite of dominating against Liverpool , they conceded two late goals , both scored by Michael Owen . In Europe , Arsenal made it to the quarter @-@ finals of the UEFA Champions League for the first time since 1972 , only to be eliminated on the away goals rule by eventual finalists Valencia .
In the transfer window , Arsenal sold Marc Overmars and Emmanuel Petit to Barcelona for a combined fee of more than £ 30 million . Defender Lauren was signed as a direct replacement for Nigel Winterburn , who signed on a free transfer to West Ham United . French footballers Robert Pirès and Sylvain Wiltord were purchased from Marseille and Bordeaux respectively ; the latter 's arrival broke the club 's transfer record .
Midfielder Patrick Vieira was sent off in Arsenal ’ s first two league games of the season , though the team coped well in his absence and went unbeaten throughout September and October . Arsenal made it past the next phase of the Champions League by November , but continued to perform inconsistently in the Premier League away from home ; they lost at Everton , Leeds United and Liverpool in the space of a month . A 6 – 1 defeat to Manchester United in February prompted Wenger to rule out their chances of winning the league . The team finished in second on 70 points , three fewer than in the previous season .
35 different players represented the club in four competitions and there were 17 different goalscorers . Thierry Henry was Arsenal 's top goalscorer in the 2000 – 01 season ; he scored 22 goals in 53 appearances .
= = Background = =
In the 1999 – 2000 season , Arsenal participated in the Premier League . Despite the loss of striker Nicolas Anelka to Real Madrid , the club significantly strengthened in the summer , signing defenders Oleg Luzhny and Sylvinho as well as forwards Davor Šuker and Thierry Henry . Inconsistent performances in the league against lowly opposition meant Arsenal never posed a serious title challenge , ending the campaign as runners @-@ up , 18 points behind Manchester United . The club had another poor season in the Champions League , finishing third in their group ; this won them a consolation place in the UEFA Cup and Arsenal managed to go all the way to the final , where they faced Galatasaray in Copenhagen . The match ended in a 0 – 0 draw with few chances for either side to score ; it went to penalties and Arsenal lost after Šuker and Patrick Vieira missed their spot @-@ kicks .
= = = Transfers = = =
Arsenal 's first signing in the transfer window was Cameroon international Lauren Etame Mayer from Mallorca for an estimated fee of £ 7 million . Robert Pirès moved to Arsenal in July 2000 and was later joined by Brazilian Edu ; both players were transferred from Marseille and Corinthians respectively . Striker Guy Demel signed for Arsenal a month later and after weeks of transfer speculation , Sylvain Wiltord joined on a club @-@ record fee from Bordeaux , believed to be £ 13 million . Defenders Igors Stepanovs and Sebastian Svärd were purchased during the season , as well as forward Tomas Danilevičius , who impressed on a trial spell .
After 13 years of building his career at Arsenal , defender Nigel Winterburn moved to West Ham United on a free transfer ; he was described by Wenger as a " consummate professional " , who " has not only shown a remarkable amount of commitment to Arsenal but has also proven that he is an excellent footballer . " Winterburn was joined by Šuker , who also signed for West Ham . Midfielders Marc Overmars and Emmanuel Petit joined Barcelona for a combined fee of £ 30 million . Other notable departures included Christopher Wreh to Saudi club Al @-@ Hilal and teenage striker Jay Bothroyd to Coventry City for £ 1 million .
= = = = In = = = =
= = = = Out = = = =
= = Premier League = =
= = = August – October = = =
Arsenal opened the league season away to Sunderland on 18 August 2000 . A second @-@ half header from Niall Quinn was enough to earn the home team victory , in a match where Arsenal wasted numerous chances to equalise . Patrick Vieira was sent off for swiping his forearm at defender Darren Williams in injury time and Wenger was involved in an altercation with fourth official Paul Taylor in the stadium tunnel . He was later charged with " alleged threatening behaviour and physical intimidation " and found guilty by a FA disciplinary commission . Right back Lauren scored on his debut for Arsenal against Liverpool two days after ; Vieira was dismissed off the pitch for the second successive game , with Liverpool being reduced to nine men when midfielders Gary McAllister and Dietmar Hamann were also shown red cards . In Vieira 's final match before his five @-@ match suspension , he scored two goals against Charlton Athletic at Highbury in a 5 – 3 win . Arsenal earned a point away to Chelsea in the first week of September and drew 1 – 1 against Bradford City . Although the team beat Coventry City 2 – 1 , they needed a late goal scored by Dennis Bergkamp to draw away against promoted Ipswich Town .
An " spectacular " goal by Henry against Manchester United on 1 October 2000 inflicted the champions their first league defeat of the season . The Frenchman scored after receiving a pass from Gilles Grimandi in the 30th minute ; with his back to goal he flicked the ball up before pivoting to strike the ball over goalkeeper Fabian Barthez . Henry scored the winning goal against Aston Villa the following week and a further league victory , away at West Ham United moved Arsenal level on points with Manchester United . The month ended with a 5 – 0 win against Manchester City .
= = = November – February = = =
A penalty scored by Henry against Middlesbrough ensured a fifth successive league win for Arsenal . They were held to a stalemate against Derby County ; this was followed by defeat at Goodison Park away to Everton in which Wenger called the team performance as " not acceptable " . Arsenal lost their second consecutive league match against Leeds United when a deflected Olivier Dacourt free @-@ kick went past goalkeeper Alex Manninger and into his net . A win against Southampton came before a 5 – 0 victory at home to Newcastle United where Ray Parlour scored a hat @-@ trick .
The Christmas period began with a 1 – 1 draw against local rivals Tottenham Hotspur . A 4 – 0 defeat away to Liverpool concerned Wenger , who noted a lack of goals being problematic : “ It has been our problem all season . We so very rarely score two in a match , and that makes life very difficult . " Henry scored a hat @-@ trick in a 6 – 1 win at home to Leicester City on Boxing Day . A draw against Sunderland , having been 2 – 0 up at half time meant Arsenal ended the calendar year in second place , eight points behind Manchester United .
Charlton Athletic recorded their first victory over Arsenal in 44 years , on New Years ’ Day ; Jonatan Johansson scored the winning goal in the first half . Back @-@ to @-@ back draws , first at Chelsea and then Leicester City , preceded a 2 – 0 win against Bradford City . Bergkamp scored the winning goal at Coventry City ; it was the club 's first away win since November . A 1 – 0 victory at home to Ipswich Town on 10 February 2001 moved the club five points clear of Liverpool .
Arsenal faced Manchester United at Old Trafford , needing a win to realistically have a chance of winning the league . Striker Dwight Yorke scored in the second minute for the home team , before Henry equalised . They conceded within 60 seconds , when Igors Stepanovs played Yorke onside to put the ball past Seaman . He completed his hat @-@ trick , before Roy Keane , Ole Gunnar Solskjær and Teddy Sheringham each scored to compound a 6 – 1 loss – Arsenal 's biggest defeat in the Premier League . Wenger rued the performance , saying " ... we were very naive and gave too much freedom to United . No one communicated . "
= = = March – May = = =
Wiltord scored a hat @-@ trick in Arsenal 's 3 – 0 win over West Ham United on 3 March 2001 . A scoreless draw at Aston Villa was followed with a 2 – 0 win against Tottenham Hotspur ; both clubs observed a minute 's silence before the game , in honour of former Arsenal midfielder David Rocastle , who died at age 33 . Arsenal rested several first @-@ teamers for the trip to Manchester City and won the match 4 – 0 . However , defeat to Middlesbrough three days after handed the league championship to Manchester United , for the third consecutive season . Wenger refuted criticism over the team 's league performance , and said , " It 's not just Arsenal 's responsibility to push Manchester United . There are 10 to 15 teams with the potential quality of Arsenal . "
Following their exit in the Champions League in midweek , Arsenal beat Everton 4 – 1 on 21 April 2001 . They moved four points clear in second with a further win , this time away at Derby County . Wiltord scored the winning goal against Leeds United to secure a Champions League place for Arsenal ; a draw against Newcastle United confirmed the club as runners @-@ up for the third season running . Arsenal ended their league campaign against Southampton , in the final match played at The Dell . With the score 2 – 2 in the 89th minute , striker Matthew Le Tissier volleyed the ball from inside the penalty box and over goalkeeper Alex Manninger , to win the match for the home team .
= = = Match details = = =
= = = Classification = = =
Source :
Rules for classification : 1 ) points ; 2 ) goal difference ; 3 ) number of goals scored ( C )
= Champion ; ( R ) =
Relegated ; ( P )
= Promoted ; ( E ) =
Eliminated ; ( O )
= Play @-@ off winner ; ( A ) =
Advances to a further round .
Only applicable when the season is not finished : ( Q )
= Qualified to the phase of tournament indicated ; ( TQ ) =
Qualified to tournament , but not yet to the particular phase indicated ; ( RQ )
= Qualified to the relegation tournament indicated ; ( DQ ) =
Disqualified from tournament .
= = = = Results summary = = = =
Source :
= = = = Results by round = = = =
Source : Ground : A
= Away ; H =
Home . Result : D
= Draw ; L =
Loss ; W
= Win ; P =
Postponed .
= = FA Cup = =
Arsenal entered the FA Cup in the third round , receiving a bye as a Premier League club . Their opening match was a 1 – 0 victory against Carlisle United ; Wiltord scored the winning goal in the 22nd minute . At Loftus Road , a 6 – 0 away win at Queens Park Rangers in the fourth round represented Wenger 's " best win as Arsenal manager " and the club 's best away win in the FA Cup for 64 years . Wiltord , who started the match against Chelsea as a substitute , came off the bench to score twice in the second half and sent Arsenal into the quarter @-@ finals , where they enjoyed a comfortable win against Blackburn Rovers of the First Division . Arsenal was drawn against Tottenham Hotspur in the semi @-@ final and it was their rivals who had taken the lead in the 14th minute . Vieira equalised before several players – " Pirès , Parlour and Wiltord continued to squander chances " . With 17 minutes remaining in the match , Pirès scored via a tap @-@ in to secure Arsenal 's passage into the final .
= = = Final = = =
In the final against Liverpool , played at the Millennium Stadium in Cardiff , Arsenal began the brighter of the two teams , before being denied two penalty shouts – one involving Stéphane Henchoz , who cleared Henry 's shot with his hand . In the 72nd minute , Arsenal took a " deserved " lead , when Pirès played Ljungberg clean through to round goalkeeper Sander Westerveld and shoot . Liverpool equalised nine minutes after , through a Gary McAllister free @-@ kick , which was not cleared properly by Arsenal ; Michael Owen " waited for the loose ball to come down before drilling a rebound into Seaman 's bottom right corner " . Owen scored in the 88th minute , outpacing both Adams and Dixon to shoot the ball into the bottom right corner of the goalnet . The defeat prompted Wenger to admit new players would be brought in during the transfer window .
= = Football League Cup = =
Together , with the other clubs playing in European football , Arsenal entered the Football League Cup in the third round , where they were drawn at home to fellow Premier League club Ipswich Town . Despite dominating territorial advantage , the Arsenal team were beaten 2 – 1 – the winning goal scored late by substitute James Scowcroft .
= = UEFA Champions League = =
= = = First group stage = = =
Arsenal won their first three matches in Group B , against Sparta Prague , Shakhtar Donetsk and Lazio . The club secured qualification into the second group stage with a 1 – 1 draw away at Lazio , before a win against Sparta Prague and defeat to Shakhtar Donetsk to end the first group stage with 13 points . Arsenal finished top of Group B due to a better head @-@ to @-@ head record .
= = = Second group stage = = =
Arsenal succumbed to a 4 – 1 defeat in their opening match against Spartak Moscow , which was the biggest loss inflicted on the club in 18 years . The team let slip a two @-@ goal lead against Bayern Munich at Highbury on 5 December 2000 , before winning 1 – 0 at Olympique Lyonnais to keep their aspirations of qualifying for the quarter @-@ finals attainable . In the reverse fixture , an equaliser scored by Edmílson in the last minute of normal time prompted Wenger to rue fatigue and the absence of captain Adams . Arsenal defeated Spartak Moscow by a solitary goal and in spite of losing to Bayern Munich on 14 March 2001 , Lyon 's draw with Spartak Moscow meant Arsenal qualified for the quarter @-@ finals by the head @-@ to @-@ head rule .
= = = Knockout stage = = =
= = = = Quarter @-@ finals = = = =
Arsenal faced Spanish club Valencia and won 2 – 1 at Highbury in the first leg , with goals scored by Henry and Parlour . The team however were beaten 1 – 0 at the Estadio Mestalla , thus being knocked @-@ out on away goals .
= = Player statistics = =
Numbers in parentheses denote appearances as substitute .
Players with name struck through and marked left the club during the playing season .
Source :
= Summer of ' 69 =
" Summer of ' 69 " is a song recorded by Canadian recording artist Bryan Adams , from his fourth studio album , Reckless ( 1984 ) . The song was written by Adams and Jim Vallance , a long @-@ time writing partner of Adams . " Summer of ' 69 " was produced by Adams and Bob Clearmountain . It was released in June 1985 under A & M Records as the fourth single from Reckless . As with most Adams songs , " Summer of ' 69 " is an up @-@ tempo rock song .
The song was released with two B @-@ side tracks ; " Kids Wanna Rock " and " The Best Was Yet to Come " , which had previously appeared on the albums Reckless and Cuts Like a Knife respectively . " Summer of ' 69 " received favourable reviews from music critics . The single had a strong effect on music charts internationally , with its highest peak being number four in the Netherlands , and its least successful charting country being Germany . The track was promoted with a music video , which was filmed by Steve Barron . The video features Adams and his backing band in a variety of settings , including running from the police .
= = Conception and themes = =
After a tour supporting his album Cuts Like a Knife , he immediately started the recording sessions for the new album , Reckless . " Summer of ' 69 " was finished on January 25 , 1984 , co @-@ written with Jim Vallance in his basement studio . The song went through a number of changes because neither Adams nor Vallance was convinced it was a strong enough song to be featured on the album . In their first draft , the lyric " summer of ' 69 " appeared only once . At that time the two were planning to title it " Best Days of My Life " instead . While the lyric " Best days of my life " appeared seven times in the first draft , on the final draft it had been replaced by " summer of ' 69 " and only appeared two times throughout the song .
When writing the lyrics " Jimmy quit , Jody got married " , Vallance suggested using " Woody quit and Gordy got married " , referring to members of his high school band , but Adams liked his version better . Adams mentioned once in an interview that " Jimmy " was one of his early drummers . " Jody " is a reference to Adams ' sound manager , Jody Perpick , who got married during the album 's recording session .
On the song 's very first demo , it started with a 12 @-@ string riff , just like the breakdown section in the middle of the song , but they replaced it with a chunky 6 @-@ string intro on the second demo . The song was recorded three to four times , in different ways , with both Adams and Vallance still not convinced that it was finished .
When Adams appeared on The Early Show in 2008 , he was asked about " Summer of ' 69 " and its lyrical meaning . Adams said the song was about sex and making love in the summertime . " 69 " is a reference to the sexual position , 69 . On the Reckless 25th anniversary , Adams told In the Studio that the song was built on the theme of nostalgia , such as the " cultural revolution " , the break @-@ up of The Beatles , his discovery of music and the moon landing , but also about a character who plays until his fingers bleed and sexual discovery . Vallance however has gone for the more conventional interpretation of the title being a reference to a year . He notes Jackson Browne 's " Running on Empty " , which contains references to 1965 and 1969 , as his own influence , and recalls Adams citing the film Summer of ' 42 as his .
" That song is 25 years old now so it 's had that many years to incubate . A lot of songs , like that one , hit big in America but really not anywhere else . It didn 't chart anywhere in Europe until at least 10 years after it was released . [ ... ] I think songs can have a life of their own regardless of the promotion . "
In 1985 the song won the BMI ( Broadcast Music Inc . ) Citation of Achievement for US radio airplay , the following year 1986 - Procan Award ( Performing Rights Organization of Canada ) for Canadian radio airplay and in 2000 it won a Socan Classics Award for more than 100 @,@ 000 Canadian radio performances . In a poll conducted by Decima Research in 2006 , " Summer of ' 69 " was voted the best driving song among Canadians who sing in their cars . The song topped the survey with both sexes , and with French and English @-@ speaking Canadians . In 2010 , the song was voted the " hottest summer song " in Germany . In another poll , this time by Canadian magazine Chart , " Summer of ' 69 " was voted the fourth best song of all @-@ time in 2000 , four years earlier it had been voted the twenty @-@ fourth best song of all @-@ time . The song was ranked # 17 on CBC Radio 's 50 Tracks : The Canadian Version . In 2008 , the song was voted the 87th best @-@ song of all @-@ time by radio listeners in Norway , becoming the second highest Adams song ranked , the highest being " ( Everything I Do ) I Do It for You " from 1991 . It was voted the fourth best @-@ song ever on Radio 2 , a Belgian radio station , in 2008 .
" Summer of ' 69 " remains popular to this day in many countries around the world . The song has a dedicated following in Nepal and " always gets a warm reception " when played by the bands performing in the country . Bryan Adams sang " Summer of ' 69 " during the 2011 Cricket World Cup opening ceremony in Bangladesh .
= = Accolades = =
" Summer of ' 69 " has found itself in several " best of " lists compiled by various music publications and critics , including the following :
= = Chart performance = =
" Summer of ' 69 " was released as a single internationally in June 1985 and charted on the Billboard Hot 100 where it peaked at 5 . Like the previous single released from Reckless , " Heaven " , " Summer of ' 69 " was a commercial success worldwide . " Summer of ' 69 " debuted at number fifty @-@ nine , and managed to climb up the chart , and two weeks later reached its peak position 42 , on August 24 , 1985 , on the UK Singles Chart . The single remained on the country 's chart for four consecutive weeks from August to September 1985 , before falling out of the top 100 . The track debuted at number twenty @-@ two on September 22 , and peaked at number seven in the fifth week on the New Zealand Singles Chart . The song debuted at 95 on the Canadian RPM Singles Chart on June 29 , 1985 , jumping to fifty in its second week and peaking at eleven on September 14 , 1985 after spending seven weeks on the chart .
The song debuted at its peak position , number 9 , on August 10 , on the Norwegian Singles Chart and stayed there for another four weeks before falling off the charts . " Summer of ' 69 " charted on the Swedish Singles Chart for five consecutive weeks . Having debuted at number twenty on December 13 , and peaked at number thirteen two weeks later . The single spent another three weeks on the chart before falling off . The track peaked at number seventeen on the Austrian Singles Chart , and remained on the country 's chart for five weeks . The single 's most commercially successful charting territory was the Netherlands , where it peaked at number 4 on September 22 , 1990 . The single 's least successful chart territory was Germany . Having peaked on the country 's singles chart at number sixty @-@ two , the single spent the next five weeks fluctuating down the chart .
= = Music video = =
The music video , released in 1985 , was directed by Irish director Steve Barron . In 1985 the music video was nominated for an MTV Video Music Award in the category for Best Male Video . While the song did not win the award , it was one of the four nominated songs from Adams ' fourth studio album Reckless . The video includes appearances by Lysette Anthony and Garwin Sanford .
= = Track listings = =
All songs written by Bryan Adams and Jim Vallance
= = Personnel = =
Bryan Adams - rhythm guitar , vocals
Keith Scott - lead guitar , backing vocals
Dave Taylor - bass
Pat Steward - drums
Tommy Mandel - keyboards
Bruce Paulen - backing vocals
= = Charts = =
= KevJumba =
Kevin Wu ( traditional Chinese : 吳凱文 ; simplified Chinese : 吴凯文 ; pinyin : Wú Kǎiwén ) ( born June 12 , 1990 ) is an American blogger and former comedian and actor . He was a YouTube celebrity best known by his YouTube username of KevJumba . The San Francisco Chronicle 's Jeff Yang has noted that Wu is not a comedian in the conventional sense but that by " just talking [ he ] is , well , pretty hilarious " due to his deadpan vocal delivery , animated facial expressions and tendency toward unexpected digressions . Wu previously appeared on The CW Television Network 's short @-@ lived Online Nation and co @-@ starred with Jessica Lee Rose and Philip DeFranco in Hooking Up from HBOLabs ( the online arm of HBO ) in 2008 . In 2010 , Wu and his father , Michael , competed as a team on the 17th season of The Amazing Race , placing seventh out of eleven teams . In 2014 , Wu starred in crime drama film Revenge of the Green Dragons ( executive produced by Martin Scorsese ) .
= = Background = =
Kevin Wu was born on June 12 , 1990 in Houston , Texas . His father , Michael Wu , a Taiwanese immigrant , is a computer engineer . Wu graduated from Clements High School in Sugar Land , Texas , in 2008 and attended the University of California , Davis before dropping out . He was living in downtown Los Angeles while in the entertainment business but now has relocated to Culver City , where he has retired .
= = Wu 's YouTube videos = =
Wu was known for posting humorous videos on YouTube . When Wu 's " I Have to Deal With Stereotypes " video was featured on YouTube 's home page , his number of viewers began to increase . In this video , Wu talks about stereotypes he has to deal with as an Asian @-@ American . He tries to disprove his cheapness by bragging about the recent purchase of a " brand new , top @-@ of @-@ the @-@ line , TI @-@ 84 calculator " . He acknowledges that this might make him nerdy but dismisses this stereotype too as he does not " make all A 's ... in school today [ he ] made a B + . " He is then greeted by a voice that was supposed to be his mother calling him a loser and accusing him of dishonoring their family . Wu goes on to say he can prove his predominant social life with the constant ringing of his cell phone . At this point , his phone indeed rings , he answers it , and the voice on the other end to Wu 's disappointment says , " Hey , why did you tell me to call you ? " Wu has collaborated with fellow YouTube comedian Christine Gambito ( HappySlip ) , making five videos with her . In one of Kevin 's older videos , he said he was an only child , which was later proven wrong by his father .
Following his video , " Butthash Hero " , Wu introduced his father , PapaJumba , onto his YouTube channel , and his father made several appearances in candid video clips taken by his son . Responding to Wu 's father 's growing popularity among viewers , his father made a debut in " I Love My Dad " , and has been featured alongside his son many times since . As of August 2014 , Wu had more than 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 subscribers and more than 350 million combined views on the videos in his main channel . His combined video views total over 343 @.@ 9 million . On February 26 , 2008 , the Los Angeles Times compared the web series Quarterlife 's viewership to Wu 's . At the time Wu was a " semi @-@ well known YouTube blogger " and had received 450 @,@ 000 views for a video describing how he broke his shin . Quarterlife , which had been picked up by NBC , had received only 100 @,@ 000 views on MySpace and 50 @,@ 000 views on YouTube .
By May 29 , 2008 , Wu had become one of three East Asians under the age of 21 to be in the top five of YouTube 's all @-@ time most subscribed users with 187 @,@ 000 subscribers and more than 5 @.@ 9 million views . By June 5 , 2008 , he had become the number one subscribed comedian on YouTube , and third most subscribed uploader overall . Wu 's videos have received replies from Ella Koon , Jessica Alba , and Baron Davis . In 2008 , Davis created a " longest stare " contest for ibeatyou.com , a site that he and Alba 's husband Cash Warren co @-@ founded . The contest began with Davis challenging Wu , who then challenged Alba , who responded to the challenge .
As of September 27 , 2013 , KevJumba has remained inactive with no new uploads to the channel . In early 2016 , Wu privatized his videos on the KevJumba account , disabling all content to the public . However , the 35 videos on Wu 's JumbaFund channel are still public .
In May 2016 , Wu made 7 private videos on his channel public again , including " Shed a Tear " , " Awkward " , and " Nice Guys " .
On May 21 , 2016 , Wu unprivated and reuploaded more of his old videos on his main channel .
= = = Funemployed = = =
The web series Funemployed , launched in the summer of 2010 , stars Wu and Philip Wang of Wong Fu Productions and includes other notable YouTube stars such as Nigahiga , David Choi , Kina Grannis , and Chester See . With the large number of fans , this series quickly took off and became a hit , reaching 500 @,@ 000 viewers in only a few weeks . The series focuses on two good friends named Kyle ( Wu ) and Jason ( Philip Wang ) , and how they are dealing with unemployment after Jason is laid off at work . Kyle is characterized as the typical laid back guy , who comes off as somewhat of a slacker , while Jason is characterized as the more studious hard worker of the two . The two eventually come up with an idea of how to make money , believing that YouTube is the key , an allusion to Wu 's and Wang 's real life success with YouTube videos . " Funemployed " eventually came to an end on July 27 , 2010 , with their last episode entitled , " Gave it a Shot " . There were a total of eleven episodes and 30 sitcoms .
= = After YouTube = =
On April 21 , 2016 , Wu resurfaced on social media after an almost three @-@ year absence as he made a blog titled " Monk.College " . Wu said on his blog that he left YouTube so he could meditate and go to college . According to his blog , Wu currently resides in Culver City , California and is attending the University of Houston . Answering fan 's question , he has no plans on coming back to YouTube .
= = Other work = =
In 2007 , Wu appeared on The CW Television Network 's short @-@ lived Online Nation . Online Nation compiled an hour of web clips , broadcast them during primetime , lasting four episodes . Wu , along with other popular YouTube personalities , is also paid to broadcast a streaming show on BlogTV . He has been a member of BlogTV since March 29 , 2008 , and as of November 2 , 2008 , he had produced 70 live and 23 recorded shows with over 300 @,@ 000 viewers of the live show and 100 @,@ 000 viewers of the recorded shows .
As of October 2008 , Wu starred with Jessica Rose and Phillip DeFranco in Hooking Up from HBOLabs ( the online arm of HBO ) , a scripted 10 @-@ episode web @-@ based series . Hooking Up is set at a fictional university where the students spend most of their time emailing and twittering , but still manage to miscommunicate . It is his first work on a scripted production . Guest appearances on Hooking Up will be made by Kevin Nalty , Michael Buckley , and other internet celebrities . The entire cast of Hooking Up is composed of YouTube video bloggers in the hope of attracting a young , internet knowledgeable audience . By the show 's second day on YouTube , it had received more than 450 @,@ 000 views . According to NewTeeVee.com , an evolving consensus is that for an online video to be a hit , somewhere between 100 @,@ 000 and one million views are needed , giving Hooking Up a strong start . Maria Russo of the Los Angeles Times felt that Wu was better looking than star DeFranco and wondered why Wu plays the " tired role of the East Asian friend who helps the white guy get the chicks , " while Bobbie Johnson of The Guardian said that many web surfers had " scoffed at what they see as a cynical attempt to cash in . " On October 2 , 2011 , Wu hosted " Flicks " on Cartoon Network during an airing of Around the World in 80 Days . Wu has also announced he will be starring in the independent film Rock Jocks with Justin Chon , Felicia Day , and Gerry Bedknob , which will be released in 2012 .
In 2011 , Wu began performing with Yesterday , Today , Forever ( YTF ) along with other YouTube personalities . The group performed their first concert on October 9 , 2011 in Honolulu , Hawaii .
Wu also has another YouTube account going by the username JumbaFund , which donated all of its earnings to a charity that viewers suggested . Wu donated over 5 @,@ 000 dollars to a charity in Kenya , which later built a school after him , to build a new school in a span of 5 months from all of the profits he made | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
with a small ink drawing usually accompanying the summary of each story , in an attempt to make the magazine appear more dignified . The cover art came almost entirely from artists who did not contribute to many science fiction or fantasy magazines : six of the sixteen paintings were by H. W. Scott ; Manuel Islip , Modest Stein , Graves Gladney , and Edd Cartier provided the others . Cartier was the only one of these who regularly contributed to sf and fantasy periodicals ; he painted four of Unknown 's last six covers before the change to a text @-@ heavy design .
= = Influence = =
Unknown was , along with Weird Tales , an important early influence on the fantasy genre . In the foreword to From Unknown Worlds , in 1948 , Campbell commented that fantasy before Unknown had been too much infused with " gloom and terror " ; his approach in Unknown had been to assume that the " creatures of mythology and folklore " could be characters in an amusing tale as easily as they could be made part of a horror story . Horror stories , he said , had a place , but " horror injected with a sharp and poisoned needle is just as effective as when applied with the blunt @-@ instrument technique of the so @-@ called Gothic horror tale " . Campbell insisted on the same rational approach to fantasy that he required of his science fiction writers , and in the words of Clareson , this led to the destruction of " not only the prevalent narrative tone but also most of the trappings that had dominated fantasy from The Castle of Otranto and The Monk through the nineteenth century to Weird Tales " . Unknown quickly separated itself from Weird Tales , whose fantasies still primarily aimed to produce fear or shock . The closest predecessor to Unknown was Thorne Smith , whose prohibition @-@ era " Topper " stories also mixed fantasy with humor . Before Unknown , fantasy had received little serious attention , though on occasion writers such as James Branch Cabell had achieved respectability . In Ashley 's opinion , Unknown created the modern genre of fantasy , though commercial success for the genre had to wait until the 1970s .
Clareson also suggests that Unknown influenced the science fiction that appeared in Astounding after Unknown folded . According to this view , stories such as Clifford Simak 's City series would not have appeared without the destruction of genre boundaries that Campbell oversaw . Clareson further proposes that Galaxy Science Fiction and The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction , two of the most important and successful science fiction and fantasy magazines , were direct descendants of Unknown .
Unknown is widely regarded as the finest fantasy magazine ever published : Ashley says , for example , that " Unknown published without doubt the greatest collection of fantasy stories produced in one magazine . " Despite its lack of commercial success , Unknown is the most lamented of all science fiction and fantasy magazines ; Lester del Rey describes it as having gained " a devotion from its readers that no other magazine can match " . Edwards comments that Unknown " appeared during Campbell 's peak years as an editor ; its reputation may stand as high as it does partly because it died while still at its best " .
In a conversation with David G. Hartwell in 1962 , Shirley Jackson stated she owned a complete run of Unknown and expressed strong admiration for the publication , stating " It 's the best " .
= = Bibliographic details = =
Unknown was edited by John W. Campbell and published by Street & Smith Publications throughout its run . It was pulp @-@ sized from its launch through August 1941 , and then bedsheet @-@ sized from October 1941 to April 1943 . The last three issues were pulp @-@ sized again . Street & Smith had planned to switch it to digest size with the December 1943 issue , but it was cancelled before that issue appeared . The price began at 20 cents and rose to 25 cents with the change to bedsheet size ; it remained at 25 cents when the size changed back to pulp . It had 164 pages when pulp @-@ sized and 130 pages while it was bedsheet @-@ sized . It began as a monthly and switched to bimonthly from December 1940 on . The volume numbering was regular , with six volumes of six numbers and a final volume of three numbers . The title began as simply Unknown . In December 1940 " Fantasy Fiction " was added as a subtitle , and with the following issue the title became Unknown Worlds .
The first six U.S. issues were available directly in the UK , but thereafter an abridged British reprint edition was issued by Atlas Publications , beginning in September 1939 . It was pulp @-@ sized , and priced at 9d ( nine pence ) throughout . It appeared on a regular monthly schedule until December 1940 , after which the schedule became quite irregular , with two or three issues appearing each year until 1949 . The volume numbering initially followed the corresponding U.S. editions , with some omitted numbers in 1942 and 1943 , and then disappeared for four issues ; from the twenty @-@ eighth issue ( Spring 1945 ) the magazine was numbered as if it had been given volumes of twelve numbers since the start of the run . The title was changed from Unknown to Unknown Worlds with the March 1942 issue .
= = = Related publications = = =
In 1948 , Street & Smith reprinted several stories from Unknown in a bedsheet @-@ sized magazine format , priced at 25 cents , with the title From Unknown Worlds . This was an attempt to determine if there was a market for a revived Unknown . Street & Smith printed 300 @,@ 000 copies , against the advice of John Campbell , but although it sold better than the original , too many copies were returned for the publisher to be willing to revive the magazine . The issue was reprinted in Britain in 1952 , reduced in size to 7 by 9 @.@ 5 inches ( 180 mm × 240 mm ) and cut from 130 pages to 124 ; it was priced at 2 / 6 ( two shillings and six pence ) . Part of the run was issued in a hardcover binding at a higher price . One story from the U.S. version was omitted : " One Man 's Harp " by Babette Rosmond .
Three anthologies of stories from Unknown were published in the early 1960s . The Unknown Five includes four stories reprinted from Unknown and the first print appearance of " Author ! Author ! " , by Isaac Asimov , which was sold to Unknown shortly before Street & Smith shut it down . Two additional Unknown anthologies were published in the late 1980s .
= Khris Middleton =
James Khristian " Khris " Middleton ( born August 12 , 1991 ) is an American professional basketball player for the Milwaukee Bucks of the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) . He attended Porter @-@ Gaud School , where he was coached by John Pearson . As a junior and senior , he was named South Carolina Player of the Year , and was a McDonald 's All @-@ American nominee . He went on to play college basketball for Texas A & M University , where he started the majority of the games in his freshman year . In his sophomore season , he earned second @-@ team All @-@ Big 12 honors after leading the Aggies in scoring with 14 @.@ 3 points per game . Middleton was selected by the Detroit Pistons with the 39th overall pick of the 2012 NBA draft .
= = Early life and high school = =
Middleton was born on August 12 , 1991 in Charleston , South Carolina to James and Nichelle Middleton . He has one older sister named Brittney , and his cousin , Josh Powell , has played in the NBA . Another cousin , Kenny Manigault , plays basketball for Wichita State University and was teammates with Middleton on the Amateur Athletic Union ( AAU ) team Carolina Celtics . Two other teammates on the Carolina Celtics accepted Division I basketball scholarships , Jamal Curry ( Radford ) and Devin Booker ( Clemson ) .
Middleton attended Porter @-@ Gaud School and played basketball for the Cyclones under coach John Pearson . As a sophomore , he averaged 12 points and eight rebounds per game . In his junior season , Middleton posted averages of 21 points and 8 @.@ 6 rebounds per game and was named state player of the year . He repeated as player of the year as a senior , scoring 22 @.@ 4 points per game and grabbing 8 @.@ 6 rebounds per game in leading Porter @-@ Gaud to the state title game . Middleton was named Most Valuable Player of the Porter @-@ Gaud Holiday Classic , scoring 22 points in the championship . He was nominated for the 2009 McDonald 's All @-@ American Boys Game , but was not selected to participate .
ESPN ranked him the 64th best prospect in the Class of 2009 , and noted he was the best shooter at his position . Middleton was recruited by Texas A & M , Virginia Tech , South Carolina , Michigan , and Saint Joseph 's . He chose Texas A & M , and signed with the Aggies on May 30 , 2008 . He liked the college town atmosphere , and got along well with the coaching staff .
= = College career = =
= = = Freshman = = =
Coming into his freshman year , Middleton expected to fill the three point shooting void of departed senior Josh Carter . Middleton 's college career started slowly , connecting on 1 @-@ of @-@ 12 field goals in limited action of his first three games . After a season @-@ ending leg injury to Derrick Roland on December 11 , 2009 , Middleton was forced to take a larger role in the offense and started 18 of the last 20 games . On February 3 , 2010 , he scored 16 points to help Texas A & M erase an 11 @-@ point second half deficit to defeat Missouri 77 @-@ 74 . In a 69 @-@ 53 NCAA Tournament Round of 64 victory over Utah State , Middleton scored a season @-@ high 19 points on 7 @-@ of @-@ 10 shooting . Texas A & M 's season ended with a loss in the Round of 32 to Purdue ; the Aggies finished with a record of 24 @-@ 10 . Overall Khris Middleton averaged 7 @.@ 2 points and 3 @.@ 7 rebounds per game and led the team in scoring five times .
= = = Sophomore = = =
As a sophomore , Middleton led the team and finished ninth in the Big 12 in scoring at 14 @.@ 3 points per game while also contributing 5 @.@ 2 rebounds per game . He hit 45 percent of his shots from the floor and 78 @.@ 4 percent of his free throws . Middleton scored in excess of 10 points in 27 games and led the team in scoring 16 times . He scored a career @-@ high 31 points in a 71 @-@ 62 overtime victory over Arkansas , including 11 of the team 's las 12 points in regulation . This earned him Big 12 Player of the Week and Oscar Robertson National Player of the Week honors for the week of December 13 – 19 , 2010 . On January 15 , 2011 , Middleton tallied 28 points , including 11 in overtime , to defeat Missouri 91 @-@ 89 .
Middleton @-@ led Texas A & M went 24 @-@ 9 and lost in the NCAA Tournament Round of 64 to Florida State 57 @-@ 50 , in a contest in which Middleton contributed 16 points . He was selected to the All @-@ Big 12 Second Team at the conclusion of the regular season . The U.S. Basketball Writers Association named Middleton to the 10 @-@ man All @-@ District VII team covering college basketball players in the states of Texas , Arkansas , and Louisiana . He was recognized as an All @-@ Eighth District second @-@ team selection by the National Association of Basketball Coaches making him eligible for the State Farm Division I All ‐ America teams . Since the Big 12 Conference was its own district , this is equivalent to being named second team All @-@ Big 12 by the NABC .
= = = Junior = = =
Prior to Middleton 's junior season , head coach Mark Turgeon left to take the same position at the University of Maryland and was replaced by Billy Kennedy of Murray State . Middleton was impressed with Kennedy 's coaching acumen and chose to remain an Aggie . He was listed on the preseason watchlist for the Wooden Award . Middleton was a unanimous choice to the preseason All @-@ Big 12 team .
Despite being the preseason co @-@ favorite in the league , Texas A & M finished 14 @-@ 18 overall and 4 @-@ 14 in the Big 12 . The team was hampered by a rash of injuries , including a knee injury that forced Middleton to sit for 12 games . He averaged 13 @.@ 2 points and 5 @.@ 0 rebounds per game , down from the previous season . On April 9 , 2012 , Middleton declared for the NBA Draft , forgoing his final season of collegiate eligibility . He thanked Texas A & M in a statement .
= = = College statistics = = =
= = Professional career = =
= = = Detroit Pistons ( 2012 – 2013 ) = = =
Middleton was selected by the Detroit Pistons with the 39th overall pick in the 2012 NBA draft . On August 15 , 2012 , he signed his rookie scale contract with the Pistons . On December 12 , 2012 , he was assigned to the Fort Wayne Mad Ants of the NBA Development League . A week later , he was recalled by the Pistons . He finished his rookie season having managed just 27 games for the Pistons while averaging 6 @.@ 1 points , 1 @.@ 9 rebounds and 1 @.@ 0 assists in 17 @.@ 6 minutes per game .
= = = Milwaukee Bucks ( 2013 – present ) = = =
On July 31 , 2013 , Middleton was traded , along with Brandon Knight and Viacheslav Kravtsov , to the Milwaukee Bucks in exchange for guard Brandon Jennings . In contrast to his limited action in 2012 – 13 , Middleton played all 82 games in 2013 – 14 , while starting 64 and averaging 12 @.@ 1 points , 3 @.@ 8 rebounds , 2 @.@ 1 assists and 1 @.@ 0 steals in 30 @.@ 0 minutes per game . On December 6 , 2013 , he scored a then career @-@ high 29 points in a 109 – 105 win over the Washington Wizards .
On December 15 , 2014 , the Bucks were down by one to the Phoenix Suns with under four seconds remaining in regulation as Middleton hit a contested game @-@ winning buzzer beater to defeat the Suns , 96 – 94 . In just under 29 minutes of action off the bench , he recorded 14 points , 3 assists , 1 rebound and 1 steal . On March 7 , 2015 , he scored a then career @-@ high 30 points on 11 @-@ of @-@ 20 shooting in a 91 – 85 win over the Washington Wizards . In his second season with the Bucks , Middleton emerged as an important " 3 @-@ and @-@ D " player , shooting 46 @.@ 7 percent from the floor and 40 @.@ 7 percent from behind the three @-@ point arc . He averaged 13 @.@ 4 points , 4 @.@ 4 rebounds and 2 @.@ 3 assists per game .
On July 9 , 2015 , Middleton re @-@ signed with the Bucks to a five @-@ year , $ 70 million contract , with a player option for the fifth year . This constituted a significant pay raise for Middleton , as he earned $ 915 @,@ 000 the prior year . On December 29 , 2015 , in a loss to the Oklahoma City Thunder , he scored a career @-@ high 36 points on 13 @-@ of @-@ 22 from the field and 6 @-@ of @-@ 9 from three @-@ point range . On March 4 , 2016 , in a win over the Minnesota Timberwolves , he scored 32 points on 11 @-@ of @-@ 16 shooting , including 8 @-@ of @-@ 9 on three @-@ pointers , marking the most three @-@ pointers made by a Bucks player since Carlos Delfino had eight on March 18 , 2011 . He tied his career high of 36 points on April 10 , 2016 in a 109 – 108 overtime win over the Philadelphia 76ers .
= = Personal life = =
Middleton is a Christian .
On July 7 , 2015 , Middleton penned a column in The Players ' Tribune about the 2015 Charleston church shooting . He explained that the shooting affected him deeply because he grew up in Charleston and his grandmother , Juanita Middleton , knew four of the nine people slaughtered . Khris Middleton had personally met one of the victims , Cynthia Hurd , as she dropped her nephew off at a basketball camp not long before the shooting . " In Charleston , we ’ re staying strong , but the wounds are still deep , " he wrote .
= = NBA career statistics = =
= = = Regular season = = =
= = = Playoffs = = =
= Bedminster railway station =
Bedminster railway station is on the Bristol to Exeter Line and serves the districts of Bedminster and Windmill Hill in Bristol , England . It is 0 @.@ 9 miles ( 1 @.@ 4 km ) to the west of Bristol Temple Meads , and 119 miles ( 192 km ) from London Paddington . Its three letter station code is BMT . It was opened in 1871 by the Bristol and Exeter Railway , was resited slightly further to the west in 1884 and was rebuilt in 1932 . The station , which has three through @-@ lines and two island platforms , but minimal facilities , is managed by Great Western Railway , the seventh company to be responsible for the station , and the third franchise since privatisation in 1997 . They provide all train services at the station , mainly an hourly service between Bristol Parkway and Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare .
There is local support for the line to be electrified , as an extension of the planned electrification of the London to Bristol route , and the level of service will be increased by two trains per hour between Portishead and Bristol when the Portishead Branch Line reopens to passengers in 2019 .
= = Description = =
The station is built on the lower northern slopes of Windmill Hill , on the Bristol to Exeter Line 119 miles 22 chains ( 191 @.@ 95 km ) from London Paddington and 71 chains ( 1 @.@ 43 km ) from Bristol Temple Meads . It the first station along the line from Bristol . To the south of the station is a primarily residential area , with terraced houses and several tower blocks ; while to the north is an industrial estate and shopping area . The railway line serves as the boundary between the Southville and Windmill Hill council wards , although the area is generally considered part of Bedminster , it is not part of the Bedminster council ward . The area is also served by Parson Street railway station , 74 chains ( 1 @.@ 49 km ) further along the line .
The station has two island platforms , each 240 yards ( 220 m ) long , but only the first 100 – 110 yards ( 90 – 100 m ) are in use , the rest fenced off . Platform 1 is on the north side of the southern island , on the " Down Main " line serving westbound trains , the other side of the island is not in use , having been converted to a carriage siding . Platforms 2 and 3 are on the northern island . Platform 3 , on the north side " Up Relief " line , is used exclusively for eastbound trains . Platform 2 , on the south side " Up Main " line , is used mostly for eastbound trains , but can be used for westbound services , as the line is signalled for bidirectional running . There is a carriage siding on the south side of the southern island , coming from the east and terminating within the station limits . The speed limit through the station is 90 miles per hour ( 140 km / h ) on the Down Main and eastbound on the Up Main . The Up Relief and westbound Up Main have a speed limit of 40 miles per hour ( 64 km / h ) , the siding has a speed limit of 25 miles per hour ( 40 km / h ) . The line is not electrified .
Access between the platforms is via a subway with ramps at the west end of the platforms , although the station is not considered completely accessible as the ramps are steeper than 1 in 12 . The subway exits onto Fraser Street , which is the sole entrance to the station . The subway is decorated with murals painted by local schoolchildren , reflecting the history and culture of Bristol .
Facilities at the station are minimal – there is a metal and glass shelter on each of the two islands , and a bench on the eastbound island . The station is completely unstaffed , and there are no facilities for buying tickets . There are customer help points , giving next train information for both platforms . There is no car park or taxi rank , and the nearest bus stop is 200 yards ( 180 m ) away on Malago Road . There is some cycle storage available .
= = Services = =
The station is managed by Great Western Railway , who also operate all rail services from the station . As of the May 2016 timetable , the basic service from Monday to Friday consists of one train in each direction per hour between Bristol Parkway and Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare , calling at all stations . Some trains working between Cardiff and Taunton or Exeter St Davids call at peak hours and in the evening . All weekday trains at Bedminster also stop at Parson Street westbound and Bristol Temple Meads eastbound . On Saturday there is a similar pattern , but with no services beyond Bristol Parkway or Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare except during the early morning and late evening . Sunday sees a reduced service , with no trains eastbound until afternoon , and no trains westbound until 3pm . After that there is approximately one train every two hours , most of which do not call at Parson Street .
Services are formed by a mix of Class 150 , 153 and 158 diesel multiple @-@ unit trains . Until 2012 , Class 143 Pacer units were a regular sight , but these have mostly been moved south to work in Devon and Cornwall following a cascade of Class 150 / 1 units from London Midland and London Overground . CrossCountry services between Scotland and the South West pass non @-@ stop throughout the day , with Great Western Railway services between London Paddington and Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare passing through during the morning and evening peaks .
The typical journey time to Bristol Temple Meads is 4 minutes , while to Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare takes 33 minutes .
= = History = =
The first section of the Bristol and Exeter Railway 's main line opened on 14 June 1841 between Bristol and Bridgwater . The station at Bedminster , originally known as Ashton , opened in 1871 , on the site of an earlier excursion platform which had closed in about 1870 . Sited approximately 57 chains ( 1 @.@ 1 km ) from the Bristol & Exeter 's northern terminus at Bristol Temple Meads and 119 miles 08 chains ( 191 @.@ 7 km ) from the Great Western Railway 's London terminus at Paddington , there were two tracks , both originally 7 ft ( 2 @,@ 134 mm ) broad @-@ gauge , but the line was reconstructed as a mixed gauge line to accommodate local 4 ft 8 1 ⁄ 2 in ( 1 @,@ 435 mm ) -gauge traffic by 1 June 1875 . On 1 January 1876 , the Bristol and Exeter was amalgamated into the Great Western Railway ( GWR ) , who took over services . The station had been renamed Bedminster by 1884 , when on 27 May the original station closed and a new station was opened some 14 chains ( 280 m ) west . There were two separate platforms , one on each side of the two tracks . Broad @-@ gauge trains ceased operation on 20 May 1892 , and in 1908 the new station was extended , with the addition of ornate station buildings and a footbridge at the west end of the platforms . Until the opening of Parson Street in 1927 , Bedminster had served as the first station for trains heading for the Portishead Branch Line , which served the town of Portishead , the villages of Pill and Portbury , and the south side of the River Avon .
The station was rebuilt in 1932 , opening on 30 April . The ornate buildings were demolished to enable the line to be four @-@ tracked , and were replaced by more austere buildings on two island platforms between the tracks , including two waiting rooms , ticket and parcel offices . The new station was accessed , as now , by a subway from Fraser Street . The station employed 15 men in 1938 . There was a 74 lever signal box to the east of the northern platform , and also a small siding to serve local coal merchants .
When the railways were nationalised in 1948 , the GWR became the Western Region of British Railways . Goods traffic at Bedminster ceased from 1 June 1964 , traffic to Portishead ended with the closure of that line in September the same year , and the station became unstaffed from September 1968 . The signal box was taken out of service in April 1970 , and by 1979 all the station buildings had been demolished .
British Rail was split into business @-@ led sectors in the 1980s , at which time operations at Bedminster passed to Regional Railways . Local services were franchised to Wales & West when the railway was privatised in 1997 , which was in turn succeeded by Wessex Trains , an arm of National Express , in 2001 . The Wessex franchise was amalgamated with the Great Western franchise into the Greater Western franchise from 2006 , and responsibility passed to First Great Western , a subsidiary company of FirstGroup , rebranded in 2015 as Great Western Railway .
In 2010 , the Severnside Community Rail Partnership began a comprehensive scheme to improve the station . The work included removing foliage from the platforms , new lighting and artwork for the subway , community display panels and the installation of help points . The subway artwork came third in the arts category at the 2011 Community Rail Awards .
= = Future = =
First Great Western declined an option to continue the Greater Western passenger franchise , of which services at Bedminster are a part , beyond 2013 , citing a desire for a longer @-@ term contract due to the impending upgrade to the Great Western Main Line . The franchise was put out to tender , but the process was halted and later scrapped due to the fallout from the collapse of the InterCity West Coast franchise competition . A two @-@ year franchise extension until September 2015 was agreed in October 2013 , and subsequently extended until March 2019 .
With the coming upgrade to the Great Western Main Line , the main line from London to Bristol is due to be electrified by 2016 . However , the electrification will not extend beyond Bristol to Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare , so Bedminster will continue to be served by diesel trains . The group Friends of Suburban Bristol Railways supports the electrification continuing to Weston , as does MP for Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare John Penrose . " Sprinter " units , which currently operate the train service , are expected to be replaced by Class 165 and 166 " Turbo " units .
Bedminster is on the Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare / Yate corridor , one of the main axes of the Greater Bristol Metro , a rail transport plan which aims to enhance transport capacity in the Bristol area . As part of this scheme , the Portishead Branch Line , which runs along the south side of the River Avon from a junction just beyond Parson Street railway station , will be reopened . Trains along the line will likely serve Bedminster , with an aspiration of two trains per hour in peak periods . The line was built in the 1860s , but closed to passenger traffic in 1964 , leaving Portishead as one of Britain 's largest towns without a railway station . The line was reopened for freight traffic to serve Royal Portbury Docks in 2001 . The scheme was given the go @-@ ahead in July 2012 as part of the City Deal , whereby local councils would be given greater control over money by the government . A consultation on the plans was held between 22 June and 3 August 2015 to gather views from the community and stakeholders before moving on to detailed designs . The detailed proposals will be subject to a second consultation before the plans are finalised . Trains along the reopened line will operate between Portishead and Bristol Temple Meads , with two trains per hour in each direction . Services would call at Pill and Parson Street , with aspirations to also call at Bedminster and a reopened Ashton Gate . Trains could also be extended on to the Severn Beach Line . The line will be operated as part of the Greater Western passenger franchise , with services due to start in Spring 2019 .
The Down Relief line between Bristol Temple Meads and Parson Street is to be partially reinstated as part of the MetroWest scheme in order to ease congestion . According to the Great Western Route Utilisation Strategy , in the December 2007 timetable period , the line through Parson Street was running at over 75 % capacity in the morning peak between 8 and 9am . It was predicted that by 2019 , trains working the line would be completely full during peak hours . While the three tracks could cope with traffic generated by the reopening of the Portishead Line , campaigners note it would leave little room for growth . Parson Street Junction will also be upgraded during the works .
= = Incidents = =
There have been several railway incidents in the Bedminster area over the years . On 1 May 2001 , a Class 153 unit passed a red signal near Bedminster , but was stopped before it could head on to the Main line from the Relief line in front of a High Speed Train . Three years later , on 23 September 2004 , the 12 : 10 Wessex Trains service from Penzance to Bristol Temple Meads struck and killed a 12 @-@ year @-@ old boy on the Up Relief line , who had been hiding under the platform . The death was ruled accidental .
What used to be the westbound relief line at Bedminster was converted into a carriage siding , and is used to stable trains to avoid clogging the platforms at Bristol Temple Meads . However , as the tracks are fairly easily accessible , such trains can be a magnet for vandals , causing First Great Western to offer a reward of £ 1000 in March 2007 to catch vandals who had been damaging and spray @-@ painting the trains . More generally , there were 19 crimes reported at Bedminster railway station in 2007 , and 14 in 2008 . British Transport Police statistics noted a 53 % reduction in reported crime at Bristol area stations between 2007 and 2012 .
On 6 January 2009 , the Windmill Hill bridge , just to the west of Bedminster station , was hit by a vehicle , causing some delays to train services while it was assessed for damage . The bridge was struck again on 17 December 2009 , which stopped services for 40 minutes .
= The Tale of Benjamin Bunny =
The Tale of Benjamin Bunny is a children 's book written and illustrated by Beatrix Potter , and first published by Frederick Warne & Co. in September 1904 . The book is a sequel to The Tale of Peter Rabbit ( 1902 ) , and tells of Peter 's return to Mr. McGregor 's garden with his cousin Benjamin to retrieve the clothes he lost there during his previous adventure . In Benjamin Bunny , Potter deepened the rabbit universe she created in Peter Rabbit , and , in doing so , suggested the rabbit world was parallel to the human world but complete and sufficient unto itself .
Benjamin Bunny was an instant commercial and popular success , and thousands of copies were in print by the end of 1904 . The Times Literary Supplement thought Potter 's illustrations " pencil perfect " , but suggested that she engage a literary assistant for future productions . Potter created a nursery wallpaper tapping Benjamin 's image , and Benjamin returned as an adult rabbit in the Flopsy Bunnies and Mr. Tod . In 1992 , Benjamin Bunny was adapted as an episode of the BBC animated television series , The World of Peter Rabbit and Friends .
= = Plot = =
When Mr. McGregor and his wife leave home in their gig , Benjamin Bunny and his cousin Peter Rabbit venture into Mr. McGregor 's garden to retrieve the clothes Peter lost there in The Tale of Peter Rabbit . They find the blue jacket and brown shoes on a scarecrow , but Peter is apprehensive about lingering in the garden because of his previous experience . Benjamin delays their departure by gathering onions , which he wraps in Peter 's handkerchief , hoping to give them to his aunt , Peter 's mother . He then takes a casual stroll around the garden , followed by an increasingly nervous Peter .
Rounding a corner , they see a cat and hide under a basket , but the cat then sits on top of the basket for hours , trapping the pair . Benjamin 's father enters the garden looking for his son . He drives the cat from the basket and locks her in the greenhouse , then rescues Benjamin and Peter . But he also punishes them for going to Mr. McGregor 's garden by whipping them with a switch he had brought . Once home , Peter gives the onions to his mother , who forgives his adventure because he has recovered his jacket and shoes . Following his return , Mr. McGregor is puzzled by the scarecrow 's missing clothes and the cat locked in the greenhouse .
= = Background = =
In 1901 , Potter privately published The Tale of Peter Rabbit , and , in 1902 , Frederick Warne & Co. published a trade edition of the book , which was hugely successful . In 1904 , she followed Peter Rabbit with its sequel , The Tale of Benjamin Bunny , and continued the rabbit saga in 1909 with The Tale of the Flopsy Bunnies and in 1912 with The Tale of Mr. Tod . All the tales were in part inspired by Joel Chandler Harris 's Uncle Remus stories , which Potter illustrated as early as 1893 in an attempt to find a career direction . Potter was unable to successfully translate Harris 's characters to the English country garden , but she transformed the American author 's " lippity @-@ clippity , clippity @-@ lippity " to " lippity @-@ lippity " in Peter Rabbit , and used his " rabbit tobacco " ( lavender ) in Benjamin Bunny and Mr. Tod . None of her rabbit characters were based on Br 'er Rabbit ; Harris 's rabbit wins by cunning , but Potter 's Benjamin and Peter win by pure luck . The rabbit universe in Potter is decidedly a more pleasant place than that found in Harris 's stories .
= = Composition and publication = =
In July 1903 , Potter suggested to her publisher Frederick Warne & Co. that the book to follow The Tale of Squirrel Nutkin and The Tailor of Gloucester ought to be something less complex than the two previous productions . She had several possible stories in mind and outlined them for the firm , but was anxious to settle on a choice as quickly as possible to guide her sketching while on holiday . It was decided between Potter and her publisher that one of the two books for 1904 would be Benjamin Bunny . Benjamin Bunny had been mentioned in the manuscript of the privately printed edition of Peter Rabbit but had been dropped as irrelevant to the tale . A picture of his father was included in the private edition although he has no part in the story .
Potter was sensitive to the beginnings and endings of her books and usually avoided the conventional at those key places . The publisher did not like the Benjamin Bunny ending , but she refused to alter it to their suggested " happily ever after " because such an ending in her estimation was " rather trite " and " inexact " . She suggested the last paragraph as it now appears in the book with the comment , " I would like the book to end with the word ' rabbit @-@ tobacco ' , it is a rather fine word . " She rewrote several other passages including twice rewriting the passage depicting Mr. McGregor 's discovery of the cat locked in the greenhouse .
Summering at Fawe Park in Keswick , Cumbria with her parents , Potter filled her sketchbook with pictures of the estate 's several gardens including the kitchen garden and its greenhouses , cold frames , potting shed , and espaliered fruit trees . Her father photographed Fawe Park and Potter probably used his photographs ( or her own ) as an aid in her work . The picture of Old Mr. Bunny attacking the cat did not satisfy her publisher , and she redrew it as she did the picture of Benjamin and Peter standing on the garden wall . In Peter Rabbit , Mr. McGregor 's garden was in Perthshire , but in Benjamin Bunny , the rabbit clan and the garden setting were moved to the Lake District , where they remained for The Tale of Mr. Tod , the final book of the Peter Rabbit saga .
During her London winter , Potter developed her work , and , by the middle of June 1904 , Benjamin Bunny was almost finished . Many of the sketches from her Fawe Park holiday were little altered in their migration to the book , and , upon completion of the work , Potter declared she was relieved to be finished with the rabbits .
The book was dedicated to " the children of Sawrey from old Mr. Bunny " . Beginnings and endings of tales were important to Potter and she specified Benjamin Bunny was to end with the words , " rabbit tobacco " – a term from Uncle Remus she had made her own .
Twenty thousand copies were published and released in September 1904 . Within a month , reprints were ordered , and another ten thousand copies were printed at year 's end . Much to her embarrassment , Potter realized " muffettees " ( a muff worn at the wrist ) was misspelled , but the error was not corrected until the third printing .
= = Illustrations = =
Potter borrowed a cat , and took a pet rabbit to Fawe Park as models . Her meticulous preparation before finalizing an illustration was noted in a letter to Warne : " I think I have done every imaginable rabbit background and miscellaneous sketches as well – about seventy ! I hope you will like them , though rather scribbled . " Scribbled or not , the work is of the highest quality with the sketches of onions and red carnations ( which were dropped as the frontispiece ) being chief examples . The illustrations communicate her obvious appreciation and love for the humble pots , onions , and flowers of the garden . Many of the objects in the illustrations – the gate , the potting shed , the wall – have changed little over the years and are recognizable today from her illustrations . Aware the type of story she was writing was set primarily in colours of fawn , brown , and soft green , Potter wrote that , " the ( red ) handkerchief will make a good bit of colour all through the book . "
= = Critical reception = =
The tale was well received by the Scotsman , but The Times Literary Supplement was not entirely enthusiastic :
Among the little books that have become as much a manifestation of autumn as falling leaves , one looks first for whatever Miss Beatrix Potter gives ... In her new book ... although there is no diminution in the charm and drollery of the drawings , Miss Potter 's fancy is not what it was . The story is inconclusive . Next year we think she must call in a literary assistant . We have no hesitation in calling her pencil perfect .
Potter biographer Linda Lear notes that none of the rabbit books subsequent to Peter Rabbit appealed to Potter with the passion she experienced for the original , but , in Benjamin Bunny , she successfully wrote a simple , didactic tale for very young children that was less complicated than The Tale of Squirrel Nutkin and The Tailor of Gloucester . Benjamin Bunny however lacked the vitality of her previous efforts because it was made to order rather than allowed to flower from a picture letter to real children in the manner of Peter Rabbit and Squirrel Nutkin . The weak story line of Benjamin Bunny is evidence of her dwindling interest in continuing the Peter Rabbit saga , but the book displays a delight in place , a deep understanding of rabbit anatomy and behaviour , and beautifully miniaturized illustrations of vegetable gardens . Benjamin Bunny presented demands upon Potter she had not encountered in her previous three tales . She had depleted all her sketchbook backgrounds in the production of the other tales and was forced to create new ones , but the greatest challenge to Potter 's artistry was consciously working to satisfy both her publisher 's demand for another commercial success and her public 's expectation of a tale as delightful as her others while labouring under the pressure to produce a sequel to a work of genius .
= = Merchandising and adaptations = =
Benjamin became a motif in a nursery wallpaper designed by Potter shortly after the tale 's publication . Benjamin and Peter made a cameo appearance in the artwork of Potter 's The Tale of Mrs. Tiggy @-@ Winkle ( 1905 ) , and returned as adult rabbits in The Tale of the Flopsy Bunnies ( 1909 ) and The Tale of Mr. Tod ( 1912 ) .
In 1992 , an animated adaptation of the story was integrated with The Tale of Peter Rabbit and telecast on the BBC anthology series , The World of Peter Rabbit and Friends . Benjamin also appeared in the episodes , The Tale of Mr. Tod and The Tale of the Flopsy Bunnies and Mrs. Tittlemouse . Also in the BBC adaptation , Peter Rabbit 's mother 's first name is revealed to be Josephine , while in the actual books , her first name is not given .
= Steamer Maxwell =
Frederick George " Steamer " Maxwell ( May 19 , 1890 – September 11 , 1975 ) was a Canadian amateur ice hockey player . He played rover in the days of seven @-@ man hockey at the turn of the 20th century , spending six seasons with the Winnipeg Monarchs of the Manitoba Hockey League ( MHL ) between 1909 and 1915 . Considered one of the top players of his era , he won two Manitoba provincial championships with the Monarchs and was a member of the team that won the 1915 Allan Cup as Canadian senior amateur champions . Maxwell spurned multiple offers to turn professional and ultimately quit playing hockey when he learned some of his peers at the senior amateur level were getting paid .
A long @-@ time coach at the senior level , Maxwell led the Winnipeg Falcons to an Allan Cup championship in 1920 ; the team went on to win an Olympic Gold medal as Canada 's representative in the 1920 Olympic ice hockey tournament . He coached into the 1930s , leading several teams to senior and junior championships . Maxwell is an honoured member of the Manitoba Sports and Hockey Halls of Fame and was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1962 .
= = Playing career = =
Quick on his feet , Maxwell 's skating ability at rover earned him the nickname " Steamer " . He began his senior career in 1909 – 10 , appearing in one game with the Winnipeg Monarchs of the Manitoba Hockey League ( MHL ) . In 1910 – 11 , he scored six goals for the Monarchs in five games and was named to the league 's second All @-@ Star team . He scored seven goals in seven games for the Monarchs in 1911 – 12 , and by the following season had been named the team 's captain .
Maxwell scored three goals and two assists for the Monarchs in the 1913 – 14 season as the team won the city and provincial championships . By virtue of the title , the team was granted possession of the Allan Cup , emblematic of Canada 's national senior @-@ amateur championship . The team initially refused to defend the trophy against a challenge by the Kenora Thistles after the Cup 's trustees ruled Dick Irvin ineligible . Facing the possibility of having to play with only six players against Kenora 's seven , the Monarchs threatened to default . The game , held March 11 , 1914 , was ultimately played – with Irvin in the line @-@ up – and Maxwell 's speed and skating helped lead the Monarchs to a 6 – 2 victory . The team was unable to defend the trophy against a second challenge , played two nights later against the Regina Victorias . Maxwell scored a goal in a 5 – 4 defeat .
The Monarchs repeated as Manitoba provincial champions in 1914 – 15 as Maxwell again scored three goals and two assists during regular league play . The team reached the 1915 Allan Cup finals , where they challenged the Saskatchewan champion Melville Millionaires who held the Cup . Unlike the previous year 's single @-@ game contests , the 1915 final was played as a two @-@ game , total @-@ goals series . Melville defeated Winnipeg by a 4 – 3 score in the first game , but the Monarchs overcame a two @-@ goal deficit in the second match to win 4 – 2 and win the series on an aggregate total of six to five . There were no further challenges , and Maxwell and the Monarchs ended the season as Allan Cup champions .
Throughout his playing career , Maxwell received several offers to turn professional. the National Hockey Association 's Toronto Blueshirts offered him $ 1 @,@ 500 to join their team , while representatives of the Pacific Coast Hockey Association made an offer of $ 1 @,@ 800 the following season . He turned both offers down , preferring to remain an amateur . His feelings on what constituted an amateur player were so strong that he quit playing hockey following the 1915 Allan Cup as the nature of the senior game at the time failed to meet his expectations : " When I played , I bought my own skates and boots . When I found out some of the others were getting paid , I quit . "
= = Coaching career = =
Maxwell remained in the game , turning to coaching . He served two seasons as coach of the Winnipeg Monarchs before moving to the cross @-@ town rival Winnipeg Falcons . He led the Falcons to the 1920 Allan Cup , defeating the University of Toronto Varsity Blues by scores of 8 – 3 and 3 – 2 . The victory also earned his team the right to represent Canada at the first Olympic ice hockey tournament at the Summer Games in Antwerp . His business interests outside of hockey prevented Maxwell from travelling to Belgium with his team ; however the International Ice Hockey Federation ( IIHF ) lists him as the coach for the gold medal winning Canadians , who outscored their opponents 29 – 1 in three games played .
Maxwell coached several Winnipeg teams throughout the 1920s and 1930s . He led the Winnipeg Rangers , Winnipeg Winnipegs and Elmwood Millionaires to Manitoba provincial senior championships in 1926 , 1927 and 1930 , respectively . He led the Millionaires ' junior team to a provincial title that same season .
Maxwell briefly coached in the professional ranks , with the Winnipeg Maroons of the American Hockey Association in 1927 – 28 . The Toronto Maple Leafs attempted to sign him to coach their National Hockey League club in 1931 , however team owner Conn Smythe chose to hire Dick Irvin instead after Maxwell insisted on a three @-@ year contract . Instead , Maxwell returned to the Winnipeg Monarchs , where he led their junior team to the western Canadian championship in 1931 – 32 . In the Memorial Cup final , Maxwell 's squad lost to the eastern champion Sudbury Cub Wolves .
Coaching the senior Monarchs , Maxwell led the team to the Manitoba Championship in 1933 – 34 . Canadian Amateur Hockey Association invited the team to represent Canada at the 1935 World Championship . However , as with 1920 , Maxwell was unable to travel to Europe with his team . The Monarchs went on to win the World Championship .
In addition to coaching , Maxwell was a long time referee . He frequently officiated matches in both Allan and Memorial Cup playoffs , as well as professional teams that traveled through Western Canada . He was recognized numerous times for his playing and coaching career . Maxwell is an honoured member of the Manitoba Hockey Hall of Fame , and was inducted into the Manitoba Sports Hall of Fame in 1988 . That honour followed his 1962 induction into the Hockey Hall of Fame .
= = Personal life = =
Outside of hockey , Maxwell owned a lumber business , F. G. Maxwell Co . Ltd , which he operated until his retirement in 1967 . He was a partner with fellow Hall of Famer Charlie Gardiner until the latter 's death in 1934 . The company , which focused on plywood supply , was successful and ultimately made Maxwell a millionaire . Following his retirement , Maxwell turned to photography and world travel . He and his wife Ann resided in his hometown of Winnipeg . He had two sisters , Genevieve and Beatrice . Genevieve was herself a champion tennis player in Western Canada .
An avid baseball fan , Maxwell was among the founders of the Winnipeg Arena baseball club in 1908 , and became the team 's manager in 1912 . At its peak , the team drew as many as 5 @,@ 000 fans per game . As a player , manager or general manager , Maxwell was a member of eight Arena teams that won the Winnipeg city championship between 1908 and 1923 . He was known for his quick , and often barbed , wit ; His friends often told a story of an Arenas baseball game where , after failing to convince the umpire that it was too dark to play , Maxwell sent his players onto the field with lighted candles . In his later years , he served on the advisory board of the Winnipeg Goldeyes professional club .
= = Career statistics = =
= Rudolf Hess =
Rudolf Walter Richard Heß , also spelled Hess ( 26 April 1894 – 17 August 1987 ) , was a prominent politician in Nazi Germany . Appointed Deputy Führer to Adolf Hitler in 1933 , he served in this position until 1941 , when he flew solo to Scotland in an attempt to negotiate peace with the United Kingdom during World War II . He was taken prisoner and eventually was convicted of crimes against peace , serving a life sentence .
Hess enlisted in the 7th Bavarian Field Artillery Regiment as an infantryman at the outbreak of World War I. He was wounded several times over the course of the war , and won the Iron Cross , 2nd class , in 1915 . Shortly before the war ended , Hess enrolled to train as an aviator , but he saw no action in this role . He left the armed forces in December 1918 with the rank of Leutnant der Reserve .
In 1919 , Hess enrolled in the University of Munich , where he studied geopolitics under Karl Haushofer , a proponent of the concept of Lebensraum ( " living space " ) , which later became one of the pillars of Nazi Party ( National Socialist German Workers Party ; NSDAP ) ideology . Hess joined the NSDAP on 1 July 1920 , and was at Hitler 's side on 8 November 1923 for the Beer Hall Putsch , a failed Nazi attempt to seize control of the government of Bavaria . Whilst serving time in jail for this attempted coup , Hess helped Hitler write his opus , Mein Kampf , which became a foundation of the political platform of the NSDAP .
After the Nazi seizure of power in 1933 , Hess was appointed Deputy Führer of the NSDAP and received a post in Hitler 's cabinet . He was the third most powerful man in Germany , behind only Hitler and Hermann Göring . In addition to appearing on Hitler 's behalf at speaking engagements and rallies , Hess signed into law much of the legislation , including the Nuremberg Laws of 1935 , which stripped the Jews of Germany of their rights in the lead @-@ up to the Holocaust .
Hess continued to be interested in aviation , learning to fly the more advanced aircraft that were coming into development at the start of World War II . On 10 May 1941 he undertook a solo flight to Scotland , where he hoped to arrange peace talks with the Duke of Hamilton , whom he believed to be prominent in opposition to the British government . Hess was immediately arrested on his arrival and was held in British custody until the end of the war , when he was returned to Germany to stand trial in the Nuremberg Trials of major war criminals in 1946 . Throughout much of the trial , he claimed to be suffering from amnesia , but later admitted this was a ruse . Hess was convicted of crimes against peace and conspiracy with other German leaders to commit crimes and was transferred to Spandau Prison in 1947 , where he served a life sentence . Repeated attempts by family members and prominent politicians to win him early release were blocked by the Soviet Union . Still in custody in Spandau , he died by suicide in 1987 at the age of 93 . After his death the prison was demolished to prevent it from becoming a neo @-@ Nazi shrine .
= = Early life = =
Hess , the oldest of three children , was born on 26 April 1894 in Alexandria , Egypt , into the ethnic German family of Fritz Hess , a prosperous merchant from Bavaria , and Clara Hess ( née Münch ) . His brother , Alfred , was born in 1897 and his sister , Margarete , was born in 1908 . The family lived in a villa on the Egyptian coast near Alexandria , and visited Germany often from 1900 , staying at their summer home in Reicholdsgrün ( now part of Kirchenlamitz ) in the Fichtel Mountains . Hess attended a German language Protestant school in Alexandria from 1900 to 1908 , when he was sent back to Germany to study at a boarding school in Bad Godesberg . He demonstrated an aptitude for science and mathematics , but his father wished him to join the family business , Hess & Co . , so he sent him in 1911 to study at the École supérieure de commerce in Neuchâtel , Switzerland . After a year there , Hess took an apprenticeship at a trading company in Hamburg .
= = World War I = =
Within weeks of the outbreak of World War I , Hess enlisted in the 7th Bavarian Field Artillery Regiment . His initial posting was against the British on the Somme ; he was present at the First Battle of Ypres . On 9 November 1914 Hess transferred to the 1st Infantry Regiment , stationed near Arras . He was awarded the Iron Cross , second class , and promoted to Gefreiter ( corporal ) in April 1915 . After additional training at the Munster Training Area , he was promoted to Vizefeldwebel ( senior non @-@ commissioned officer ) and received the Bavarian Military Merit Cross . Returning to the front lines in November , he fought in Artois , participating in the battle for the town of Neuville @-@ Saint @-@ Vaast . After two months out of action with a throat infection , Hess served in the Battle of Verdun in May , and was hit by shrapnel in the left hand and arm on 12 June 1916 in fighting near the village of Thiaumont . After a month off to recover , he was sent back to the Verdun area , where he remained until December .
Hess was promoted to platoon leader of the 10th Company of the 18th Bavarian Reserve Infantry Regiment , which was serving in Romania . He was wounded on 23 July and again on 8 August 1917 ; the first injury was a shell splinter to the left arm , which was dressed in the field , but the second was a bullet wound that entered the upper chest near the armpit and exited near his spinal column , leaving a pea @-@ sized entry wound and a cherry stone @-@ sized exit wound on his back . By 20 August he was well enough to travel , so he was sent to hospital in Hungary and eventually back to Germany , where he recovered in hospital in Meissen . In October he received promotion to Leutnant der Reserve and was recommended for , but did not receive , the Iron Cross , first class . At his father 's request , Hess was transferred to a hospital closer to home , arriving at Alexandersbad on 25 October .
While still convalescing , Hess had requested that he be allowed to enrol to train as a pilot , so after some Christmas leave with his family he reported to Munich , where he passed the required tests and underwent aeronautical training . By 14 October he had been assigned to Jagdstaffel 35b , a Bavarian fighter squadron equipped with Fokker D.VII biplanes . He saw no action with Jagdstaffel 35b , as the war ended on 11 November 1918 , before he had the opportunity .
Hess was discharged from the armed forces in December 1918 . The family fortunes had taken a serious downturn , as their business interests in Egypt had been expropriated by the British . Hess joined the Thule Society , an antisemitic right @-@ wing Völkisch group , and a Freikorps , one of many such volunteer paramilitary organisations active in Germany at the time . Bavaria witnessed frequent and often bloody conflicts between right @-@ wing groups such as the Freikorps and left @-@ wing forces as they fought for control of the state during this period . Hess was a participant in street battles in the spring of 1919 and led a group which distributed thousands of antisemitic pamphlets in Munich .
In 1919 Hess enrolled in the University of Munich , where he studied history and economics . His geopolitics professor was Karl Haushofer , a proponent of the concept of Lebensraum ( " living space " ) , which Haushofer cited to justify the proposal that Germany should forcefully conquer additional territory in Eastern Europe . Hess later introduced this concept to Adolf Hitler , and it became one of the pillars of Nazi Party ideology . Hess became friends with Haushofer and his son Albrecht , a social theorist and lecturer .
Ilse Pröhl , a fellow student at the university , met Hess in April 1920 when they by chance rented rooms in the same boarding house . They married on 20 December 1927 and their son Wolf Rüdiger Hess was born ten years later , in 1937 .
= = Relationship with Hitler = =
After hearing NSDAP leader Hitler , a powerful orator , speak for the first time in 1920 at a Munich rally , Hess became completely devoted to him . They held a shared belief in the stab @-@ in @-@ the @-@ back myth , the notion that Germany 's loss in World War I was caused by a conspiracy of Jews and Bolsheviks rather than a military defeat . Hess joined the NSDAP on 1 July as member number 16 . As the party continued to grow , holding rallies and meetings in ever larger beer halls in Munich , he focused his attention on fundraising and organisational activities . On 4 November 1921 he was injured while protecting Hitler when a bomb planted by a Marxist group exploded at the Hofbräuhaus during a party event . Hess joined the Sturmabteilung ( SA ) by 1922 and helped organise and recruit its early membership .
Meanwhile , problems continued with the economy ; hyperinflation caused personal fortunes to be rendered worthless . When the German government failed to meet their reparations payments and French troops marched in to occupy the industrial areas along the Ruhr in January 1923 , widespread civil unrest was the result . Hitler decided the time was ripe to attempt to seize control of the government with a coup d 'état modelled on Benito Mussolini 's 1922 March on Rome . Hess was with Hitler on the night of 8 November 1923 when he and the SA stormed a public meeting organised by Bavaria 's de facto ruler , Staatskommissar ( state commissioner ) Gustav von Kahr , in the Bürgerbräukeller , a large beer hall in Munich . Brandishing a pistol , Hitler interrupted Kahr 's speech and announced that the national revolution had begun , declaring the formation of a new government with World War I General Erich Ludendorff . The next day , Hitler and several thousand supporters attempted to march to the Ministry of War in the city centre . Gunfire broke out between the Nazis and the police ; fourteen marchers and four police officers were killed . Hitler was arrested on 11 November .
Hess and some SA men had taken a few of the dignitaries hostage on the night of the 8th , driving them to a house about 50 kilometres ( 31 mi ) from Munich . When Hess left briefly to make a phone call the next day , the hostages convinced the driver to help them escape . Hess , stranded , called Ilse Pröhl , who brought him a bicycle so he could return to Munich . He went to stay with the Haushofers and then fled to Austria , but they convinced him to return . He was arrested and sentenced to 18 months in prison for his role in the attempted coup , which later became known as the Beer Hall Putsch . Hitler was sentenced to five years imprisonment , and the NSDAP and SA were both outlawed .
Both men were incarcerated in Landsberg Prison , where Hitler soon began work on his memoir , Mein Kampf ( " My Struggle " ) , which he dictated to fellow prisoners Hess and Emil Maurice . Edited by publisher Max Amann , Hess and others , the work was published in two parts in 1925 and 1926 . It was later released in a single volume , which became a best @-@ seller after 1930 . This book , with its message of violent antisemitism , became the foundation of the political platform of the NSDAP .
Hitler was released on parole on 20 December 1924 and Hess ten days later . The ban on the NSDAP and SA was lifted in February 1925 , and the party grew to 100 @,@ 000 members in 1928 and 150 @,@ 000 in 1929 . They received only 2 @.@ 6 per cent of the vote in the 1928 election , but support increased steadily up until the seizure of power in 1933 .
Hitler named Hess his private secretary in April 1925 at a salary of 500 Reichsmarks per month , and named him as personal adjutant on 20 July 1929 . Hess accompanied Hitler to speaking engagements around the country and became his friend and confidante . In December 1932 Hess was named party Political Central Commissioner .
Retaining his interest in flying after the end of his active military career , Hess obtained his private pilot 's licence on 4 April 1929 . His instructor was World War I flying ace Theodor Croneiss . In 1930 Hess became the owner of a BFW M.23b monoplane sponsored by the party newspaper , the Völkischer Beobachter . He acquired two more Messerschmitt aircraft in the early 1930s , logging many flying hours and becoming proficient in the operation of light single @-@ engine aircraft .
= = Deputy Führer = =
On 30 January 1933 Hitler was appointed Reich Chancellor , his first step in gaining dictatorial control of Germany . Hess was named Deputy Führer of the NSDAP on 21 April and was appointed to the cabinet , with the post of Reich Minister without Portfolio , on 1 December . With offices in the Brown House in Munich and another in Berlin , Hess was responsible for several departments , including foreign affairs , finance , health , education and law . All legislation passed through his office for approval , except that concerning the army , the police and foreign policy , and he wrote and co @-@ signed many of Hitler 's decrees . An organiser of the annual Nuremberg Rallies , he usually gave the opening speech and introduced Hitler . Hess also spoke over the radio and at rallies around the country , so frequently that the speeches were collected into book form in 1938 . Hess acted as Hitler 's delegate in negotiations with industrialists and members of the wealthier classes . As Hess had been born abroad , Hitler had him oversee the NSDAP groups such as the NSDAP / AO that were in charge of party members living in other countries . Hitler instructed Hess to review all court decisions that related to persons deemed enemies of the Party . He was authorised to increase the sentences of anyone he felt got off too lightly in these cases , and was also empowered to take " merciless action " if he saw fit to do so . This often entailed sending the person to a concentration camp or simply ordering the person killed . Hess was given the rank of Obergruppenführer in the Schutzstaffel ( SS ) in 1934 , the second @-@ highest SS rank .
The Nazi regime began to persecute Jews soon after the seizure of power . Hess 's office was partly responsible for drafting Hitler 's Nuremberg Laws of 1935 , laws that had far @-@ reaching implications for the Jews of Germany , banning marriage between non @-@ Jewish and Jewish Germans and depriving non @-@ Aryans of their German citizenship . Hess 's friend Karl Haushofer and his family were subject to these laws , as Haushofer had married a half @-@ Jewish woman , so Hess issued documents exempting them from this legislation .
Hess did not build a power base or develop a coterie of followers . He was motivated by his loyalty to Hitler and a desire to be useful to him ; he did not seek power or prestige or take advantage of his position to accumulate personal wealth . He lived in a modest house in Munich . Although Hess had less influence than other top NSDAP officials , he was popular with the masses . After the Invasion of Poland and the start of World War II in September 1939 , Hitler made Hess second in line to succeed him , after Hermann Göring . Around the same time , Hitler appointed Hess 's chief of staff , Martin Bormann , as his personal secretary , a post formerly held by Hess .
Hess was obsessed with his health to the point of hypochondria , consulting many doctors and other practitioners for what he described to his captors in Britain as a long list of ailments involving the kidneys , colon , gall bladder , bowels and heart . Like Hitler , Hess was a vegetarian , and he did not smoke or drink . He brought his own food to the Berghof , claiming it was biologically dynamic , but Hitler did not approve of this practice , so he discontinued taking meals with the Führer .
Hess was interested in music , enjoyed reading and loved to spend time hiking and climbing in the mountains with Ilse . He and his friend Albrecht Haushofer shared an interest in astrology , and Hess also was keen on clairvoyance and the occult . Hess continued to be interested in aviation . He won an air race in 1934 , flying a BFW M.35 in a circuit around Zugspitze Mountain and returning to the airfield at Munich with a time of 29 minutes . He placed sixth of 29 participants in a similar race held the following year . With the outbreak of World War II , Hess asked Hitler to be allowed to join the Luftwaffe as a pilot , but Hitler forbade it , and ordered him to stop flying for the duration of the war . Hess convinced him to reduce the ban to one year .
= = Attempted peace mission = =
As the war progressed , Hitler 's attention became focused on foreign affairs and the conduct of the war , to the exclusion of all else . Hess , not directly engaged in either of these endeavours , though he felt qualified to do so , became increasingly sidelined from the affairs of the nation and from Hitler 's attention ; Bormann had successfully supplanted Hess in many of his duties and usurped his position at Hitler 's side . Also concerned that Germany would face a war on two fronts as plans progressed for Operation Barbarossa , the invasion of the Soviet Union scheduled to take place in spring 1941 , Hess decided to boldly attempt to bring Britain to the negotiating table by travelling there himself to seek meetings with the British government . He asked the advice of Albrecht Haushofer , who suggested several potential contacts in Britain . Hess settled on fellow aviator Douglas Douglas @-@ Hamilton , the Duke of Hamilton , whom he had never met . On Hess 's instructions , Haushofer wrote to Hamilton in September 1940 , but the letter was intercepted by MI5 and Hamilton did not see it until March 1941 . Hamilton was chosen in the mistaken belief that he was one of the leaders of an opposition party opposed to war with Germany , and because he was a friend of Haushofer .
A letter Hess wrote to his wife dated 4 November 1940 shows that in spite of not receiving a reply from Hamilton , he intended to proceed with his plan . He began training on the Messerschmitt Bf 110 , a two @-@ seater twin @-@ engine aircraft , in October 1940 under instructor Wilhelm Stör , the chief test pilot at Messerschmitt . He continued to practice , including logging many cross @-@ country flights , and found a specific aircraft that handled well — a Bf 110E @-@ 1 / N — which was from then on held in reserve for his personal use . He asked for a radio compass , modifications to the oxygen delivery system , and large long @-@ range fuel tanks to be installed on this plane , and these requests were granted by March 1941 .
After a final check of the weather reports for Germany and the North Sea , Hess took off at 17 : 45 on 10 May 1941 from the airfield at Augsburg @-@ Haunstetten in his specially prepared aircraft . It was the last of several attempts to depart on his mission ; previous efforts had to be called off due to mechanical problems or poor weather . Wearing a leather flying suit bearing the rank of captain , he brought along a supply of money and toiletries , a torch , a camera , maps and charts , and a collection of 28 different medicines , as well as dextrose tablets to help ward off fatigue and an assortment of homeopathic remedies .
= = = Flight to Scotland = = =
Initially setting a course towards Bonn , Hess used landmarks on the ground to orient himself and make minor course corrections . When he reached the coast near the Frisian Islands , he turned and flew in an easterly direction for some twenty minutes to stay out of range of British radar . He then took a heading of 335 degrees for the trip across the North Sea , initially at low altitude , but travelling for most of the journey at 5 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 500 m ) . At 20 : 58 he changed his heading to 245 degrees , intending to approach the coast of North East England near the town of Bamburgh , Northumberland . As it was not yet sunset when he initially approached the coast , Hess backtracked , zigzagging back and forth for some 40 minutes until it grew dark . Around this time his auxiliary fuel tanks were exhausted , so he released them into the sea . Also around this time , at 22 : 08 , the British Chain Home station at Ottercops Moss near Newcastle upon Tyne detected his presence and passed along this information to the Filter Room at Bentley Priory . Soon he had been detected by several other stations , and the aircraft was designated as " Raid 42 " .
Two Spitfires of No. 72 Squadron RAF , No. 13 Group RAF that were already in the air were sent to attempt an interception , but failed to find the intruder . A third Spitfire sent from Acklington at 22 : 20 also failed to spot the aircraft ; by then it was dark and Hess had dropped to an extremely low altitude , so low that the volunteer on duty at the Royal Observer Corps ( ROC ) station at Chatton was able to correctly identify it as a Bf 110 , and reported its altitude as 50 feet ( 15 m ) . Tracked by additional ROC posts , Hess continued his flight into Scotland at high speed and low altitude , but was unable to spot his destination , Dungavel House , so he headed for the west coast to orient himself and then turned back inland . At 22 : 35 a Boulton Paul Defiant sent from No. 141 Squadron RAF based at Ayr began pursuit . Hess was nearly out of fuel , so he climbed to 6 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) and parachuted out of the plane at 23 : 06 . He injured his foot , either while exiting the aircraft or when he hit the ground . The aircraft crashed at 23 : 09 , about 12 miles ( 19 km ) west of Dungavel House . He would have been closer to his destination had he not had trouble exiting the aircraft . Hess considered this achievement to be the proudest moment of his life .
Before his departure from Germany , Hess had given his adjutant , Karlheinz Pintsch , a letter addressed to Hitler that detailed his intentions to open peace negotiations with the British . Pintsch delivered the letter to Hitler at the Berghof around noon on 11 May . Albert Speer later said Hitler described Hess 's departure as one of the worst personal blows of his life , as he considered it a personal betrayal . Hitler worried that his allies , Italy and Japan , would perceive Hess 's act as an attempt by Hitler to secretly open peace negotiations with the British . For this reason , Hitler ordered that the German press should characterise Hess as a madman who made the decision to fly to Scotland entirely on his own , without Hitler 's knowledge or authority . Some members of the government , including Göring and Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels , believed this only made matters worse , because if Hess truly were mentally ill , he should not have been holding an important government position . Hitler stripped Hess of all of his party and state offices , and secretly ordered him shot on sight if he ever returned to Germany . He abolished the post of Deputy Führer , assigning Hess 's former duties to Bormann , with the title of Head of the Party Chancellery . Hitler initiated Aktion Hess , a flurry of hundreds of arrests of astrologers , faith healers and occultists that took place around 9 June . The campaign was part of a propaganda effort by Goebbels and others to denigrate Hess and to make scapegoats of occult practitioners .
American journalist H. R. Knickerbocker , who had met both Hitler and Hess , speculated that Hitler had sent Hess to deliver a message informing Winston Churchill of the forthcoming invasion of the Soviet Union , and offering a negotiated peace or even an anti @-@ Bolshevik partnership . Soviet leader Joseph Stalin believed that Hess 's flight had been engineered by the British . Stalin persisted in this belief as late as 1944 , when he mentioned the matter to Churchill , who insisted that they had no advance knowledge of the flight .
Peter Padfield 's Hess , Hitler and Churchill ( 2013 ) explores the mystery of Hess 's flight to Britain . Padfield suggests that Hess was carrying documents with detailed proposals from Hitler which would have meant peace between Germany and Britain , which would stand neutral in a planned German war against the Soviet Union , in return for which Germany was willing to withdraw from Western Europe .
= = = Capture = = =
Hess landed at Floors Farm , Eaglesham , south of Glasgow , where he was discovered still struggling with his parachute by local ploughman David McLean . Identifying himself as " Hauptmann Alfred Horn " , Hess said he had an important message for the Duke of Hamilton . McLean helped Hess to his nearby cottage and contacted the local Home Guard unit , who escorted the captive to their headquarters in Busby , East Renfrewshire . He was next taken to the police station at Giffnock , arriving sometime after midnight ; he was searched and his possessions confiscated . Hess repeatedly requested to meet with the Duke of Hamilton during questioning undertaken with the aid of an interpreter by Major Graham Donald , the area commandant of Royal Observer Corps . After the interview Hess was taken under guard to Maryhill Barracks in Glasgow , where his injuries were treated . By this time some of his captors suspected Hess 's true identity , though he continued to insist his name was Horn .
Hamilton had been on duty as Wing Commander at RAF Turnhouse near Edinburgh when Hess had arrived , and his station had been one of those that had tracked the progress of the flight . He arrived at Maryhill Barracks the next morning , and after examining Hess 's effects , he met alone with the prisoner . Hess immediately admitted his true identity and outlined the reason for his flight . Hamilton told Hess that he hoped to continue the conversation with the aid of an interpreter ; Hess could speak English well , but was having trouble understanding Hamilton . After the meeting , Hamilton examined the remains of the Messerschmitt in the company of an intelligence officer , then returned to Turnhouse , where he made arrangements through the Foreign Office to meet Prime Minister Winston Churchill , who was at Ditchley for the weekend . They had some preliminary talks that night , and Hamilton accompanied Churchill back to London the next day , where they both met with members of the War Cabinet . Churchill sent Hamilton with foreign affairs expert Ivone Kirkpatrick , who had met Hess previously , to positively identify the prisoner , who had been moved to Buchanan Castle overnight . Hess , who had prepared extensive notes to use during this meeting , spoke to them at length about Hitler 's expansionary plans and the need for Britain to let the Nazis have free rein in Europe , in exchange for being allowed to keep its overseas possessions . Kirkpatrick held two more meetings with Hess over the course of the next few days , while Hamilton returned to his duties . Hess , in addition to being disappointed at the apparent failure of his mission , began claiming that his medical treatment was inadequate and that there was a plot afoot to poison him .
Hess 's flight , but not his destination or fate , was first announced by Munich Radio in Germany on the evening of 12 May . On 13 May Hitler sent Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop to give the news in person to Mussolini , and the British press was permitted to release full information about events that same day . On 14 May Ilse Hess finally learned that her husband had survived the trip when news of his fate was broadcast on German radio .
The wreckage of the aircraft was salvaged by 63 Maintenance Unit between 11 and 16 May 1941 and was taken to Oxford to be stored . The aeroplane was armed with four machine guns in the nose but carried no ammunition . Several pieces of the plane are still extant , including the two engines , one of which is at the Royal Air Force Museum London . The other engine and a piece of the fuselage are at the Imperial War Museum in London .
= = Trial and imprisonment = =
= = = Prisoner of war = = =
From Buchanan Castle , Hess was transferred briefly to the Tower of London and then to Mytchett Place in Surrey , a fortified mansion , designated " Camp Z " , where he stayed for the next thirteen months . Churchill issued orders that Hess was to be treated well , though he was not allowed to read newspapers or listen to the radio . Three intelligence officers were stationed onsite and 150 soldiers were placed on guard . By early June , Hess was allowed to write to his family . He also prepared a letter to the Duke of Hamilton , but it was never delivered , and his repeated requests for further meetings were turned down . Major Frank Foley , the leading German expert in MI6 and former British Passport Control Officer in Berlin , took charge of a year @-@ long abortive debriefing of Hess , according to Foreign Office files released to the National Archives . Dr Henry V. Dicks and Dr John Rawlings Rees , psychiatrists who treated Hess during this period , note that while he was not insane , he was mentally unstable , with tendencies toward hypochondria and paranoia . Hess repeated his peace proposal to John Simon , 1st Viscount Simon , then serving as Lord Chancellor , in an interview on 9 June . Lord Simon noted that the prisoner 's mental state was not good ; Hess claimed he was being poisoned and was being prevented from sleeping . He would insist on swapping his dinner with that of one of his guards , and attempted to get them to send samples of the food out for analysis .
In the early morning hours of 16 June , Hess rushed his guards and attempted suicide by jumping over the railing of the staircase at Mytchett Place . He fell onto the stone floor below , fracturing the femur of his left leg . The injury required that the leg be kept in traction for twelve weeks , with a further six weeks bed rest before he was permitted to walk with crutches . Captain Munro Johnson of the Royal Army Medical Corps , who assessed Hess , noted that another suicide attempt was likely to occur in the near future . Hess began around this time to complain of amnesia . This symptom and some of his increasingly erratic behaviour may have in part been a ruse , because if he were declared mentally ill , he could be repatriated under the terms of the Geneva Conventions .
Hess was moved to Maindiff Court Hospital on 26 June 1942 , where he would remain for the next three years . The facility was chosen for its added security and the need for fewer guards . Hess was allowed walks on the grounds and car trips into the surrounding countryside . He had access to newspapers and other reading materials ; he wrote letters and journals . His mental health remained under the care of Dr Rees . Hess continued to complain on and off of memory loss and made a second suicide attempt on 4 February 1945 , when he stabbed himself with a bread knife . The wound was not serious , requiring two stitches . Despondent that Germany was losing the war , he took no food for the next week , only resuming eating when he was threatened with being force @-@ fed .
Germany surrendered unconditionally on 8 May 1945 . Hess , facing charges as a war criminal , was ordered to appear before the International Military Tribunal and was transported to Nuremberg on 10 October 1945 .
= = = Nuremberg Trials = = =
The Allies of World War II held a series of military tribunals and trials , beginning with a trial of the major war criminals from November 1945 to October 1946 . Hess was tried with this first group of twenty @-@ three defendants , all of whom were charged with four counts — conspiracy to commit crimes , crimes against peace , war crimes and crimes against humanity , in violation of international laws governing warfare .
On his arrival in Nuremberg , Hess was reluctant to give up some of his possessions , including samples of food he claimed had been poisoned by the British ; he proposed to use these for his defence during the trial . The commandant of the facility , Colonel Burton C. Andrus of the United States Army , advised him that he would be allowed no special treatment ; the samples were sealed and confiscated . Hess 's diaries indicate that he did not acknowledge the validity of the court and felt the outcome was a foregone conclusion . He was thin when he arrived , weighing 65 kilograms ( 143 lb ) , and had a poor appetite , but was deemed to be in good health . As one defendant , Robert Ley , had managed to hang himself in his cell on 24 October , the remaining prisoners were monitored around the clock . Because of his previous suicide attempts , Hess was handcuffed to a guard whenever he was out of his cell .
Almost immediately after his arrival , Hess began exhibiting amnesia , which may have been feigned in the hope of avoiding the death sentence . Medical personnel who examined Hess reported he was not insane and was fit to stand trial . At least two examiners , the British doctor and the Soviet one , noted their belief that Hess 's amnesia might be fake . Efforts were made to trigger his memory , including bringing in his former secretaries and showing old newsreels , but he persisted in showing no response to these stimuli . When Hess was allowed to make a statement to the tribunal on 30 November , he admitted that he had faked memory loss as a tactic . He spoke to the tribunal again on 31 August 1946 , the last day of closing statements .
The prosecution 's case against Hess was presented by Mervyn Griffith @-@ Jones beginning on 7 February 1946 . By quoting from Hess 's speeches , he attempted to demonstrate that Hess had been aware of and agreed with Hitler 's plans to conduct a war of aggression in violation of international law . He declared that as Hess had signed important governmental decrees , including the decree requiring mandatory military service , the Nuremberg racial laws , and a decree incorporating the conquered Polish territories into the Reich , he must share responsibility for the acts of the regime . He pointed out that the timing of Hess 's trip to Scotland , only six weeks before the German invasion of the Soviet Union , could only be viewed as an attempt by Hess to keep the British out of the war . Hess resumed showing symptoms of amnesia at the end of February , partway through the prosecution 's case .
The case for Hess 's defence was presented from 22 – 26 March by his lawyer , Dr Alfred Seidl . He noted that while Hess accepted responsibility for the many decrees he had signed , he said these matters were part of the internal workings of a sovereign state and thus outside the purview of a war crimes trial . He called to the stand Ernst Wilhelm Bohle , the man who had been head of the NSDAP / AO , to testify on Hess 's behalf . When presented by Griffith @-@ Jones with questions about the organisation 's spying in several countries , Bohle testified that any warlike activities such as espionage had been done without his permission or knowledge . Seidl called two other witnesses , former mayor of Stuttgart Karl Strölin and Hess 's brother Alfred , both of whom refuted the allegations that the NSDAP / AO had been spying and fomenting war . Seidl presented a summation of the defence 's case on 25 July , in which he attempted to refute the charge of conspiracy by pointing out that Hitler alone had made all the important decisions . He noted that Hess could not be held responsible for any events that took place after he left Germany in May 1941 . Meanwhile , Hess mentally detached himself from what was happening , declining visits from his family and refusing to read the newspapers .
The court deliberated for nearly two months before passing judgement on 30 September , with the defendants being individually sentenced on 1 October . Hess was found guilty on two counts : crimes against peace ( planning and preparing a war of aggression ) , and conspiracy with other German leaders to commit crimes . He was found not guilty of war crimes and crimes against humanity . He was given a life sentence , one of seven Nazis to receive prison sentences at the trial . These seven were transported by aircraft to the Allied military prison at Spandau in Berlin on 18 July 1947 . The Soviet member of the tribunal , Major @-@ General Iona Nikitchenko , filed a document recording his dissent of Hess 's sentence ; he felt the death sentence was warranted .
= = = Spandau Prison = = =
Spandau was placed under the control of the Allied Control Council , the governing body in charge of the military occupation of Germany . It consisted of representatives from four member states : Britain , France , the United States and the Soviet Union . Each country supplied guards for the prison for a month at a time on a rotating basis . After the inmates were given medical examinations — Hess refused his body search , and had to be held down — they were provided with prison garb and assigned the numbers by which they would be addressed throughout their stay . Hess was Number 7 . The prison had a small library , and inmates were allowed to file special requests for additional reading material . Writing materials were limited ; each inmate would be allowed four pieces of paper per month for letters . The prisoners were not allowed to speak to one another without permission and were expected to work in the facility , helping with cleaning and gardening chores . The inmates were taken for outdoor walks around the prison grounds for an hour each day , separated about 10 yards ( 9 m ) apart . Some of the rules became more relaxed as time went on .
Visits to Spandau of half an hour per month were allowed , but Hess forbade his family to visit until December 1969 , when he was a patient at the British Military Hospital in West Berlin for a perforated ulcer . By this time Wolf Rüdiger Hess was 32 years old and Ilse 69 ; they had not seen Hess since his departure from Germany in 1941 . After this illness , he allowed his family to visit regularly . His daughter @-@ in @-@ law Andrea , who often brought photos and films of his grandchildren , became a particularly welcome visitor . Hess 's health problems , both mental and physical , were ongoing during his captivity . He cried out in the night , claiming he had stomach pains . He continued to suspect that his food was being poisoned and complained of amnesia . A psychiatrist who examined him in 1957 deemed he was not ill enough to be transferred to a mental hospital . Another unsuccessful suicide attempt took place in 1977 .
Other than his stays in hospital , Hess spent the rest of his life in Spandau Prison . His fellow inmates Konstantin von Neurath , Walther Funk and Erich Raeder were released because of poor health in the 1950s ; Karl Dönitz , Baldur von Schirach and Albert Speer served their time and were released , Dönitz in 1956 , Schirach and Speer in 1966 . The 600 @-@ cell prison continued to be maintained for its lone prisoner from Speer and Schirach 's release until Hess 's death in 1987 , at an estimated cost of DM 800 @,@ 000 . Conditions were far more pleasant in the 1980s than in the early years ; Hess was allowed to move more freely around the cell block , setting his own routine and choosing his own activities , which included television , films , reading and gardening . A lift was installed so he could more readily access the garden , and he was provided with a medical orderly from 1982 onward .
Numerous appeals for Hess 's release were launched by his lawyer , Dr Seidl , beginning as early as 1947 . These were denied , mainly because the Soviets repeatedly vetoed the proposal . Spandau was located in West Berlin , and its existence gave the Soviets a foothold in that sector of the city . Additionally , Soviet officials believed Hess must have known in 1941 that an attack on their country was imminent . In 1967 Wolf Rüdiger Hess began a campaign to win his father 's release , garnering support from notable politicians such as Geoffrey Lawrence , 1st Baron Oaksey in Britain and Willy Brandt in Germany , but to no avail , in spite of the prisoner 's advanced age and deteriorating health .
= = Death and aftermath = =
Hess died on 17 August 1987 at the age of 93 in a summer house that had been set up in the prison garden as a reading room . He took an extension cord from one of the lamps , strung it over a window latch , and hanged himself . Death occurred by asphyxiation . A short note to his family , thanking them for all they had done , was found in his pocket . The Four Powers released a statement on 17 September ruling the death a suicide . Initially buried at a secret location to avoid media attention or demonstrations by Nazi sympathisers , Hess was re @-@ interred in a family plot at Wunsiedel on 17 March 1988 , and his wife was buried beside him when she died in 1995 . Spandau Prison was demolished to prevent it from becoming a neo @-@ Nazi shrine .
His lawyer , Dr Seidl , felt Hess was too old and frail to have managed to kill himself . Wolf Rüdiger Hess repeatedly claimed that his father had been murdered by the British Secret Intelligence Service to prevent him from revealing information about British misconduct during the war . Abdallah Melaouhi , who served as Hess 's medical orderly from 1982 to 1987 , was dismissed from his position at his local district parliament 's Immigration and Integration Advisory Council after he wrote a self @-@ published book on a similar theme . According to an investigation by the British government in 1989 , the available evidence did not back up the claim that Hess was murdered , and Solicitor General Sir Nicholas Lyell saw no grounds for further investigation . Moreover , the autopsy results support the conclusion that Hess had killed himself . A report released in 2012 again raised the question of whether Hess was murdered . Historian Peter Padfield claims the suicide note found on the body appears to have been written when Hess was hospitalised in 1969 .
After the town of Wunsiedel became the scene of pilgrimages and neo @-@ Nazi demonstrations every August on the date of Hess 's death , the parish council decided not to allow an extension on the grave site 's lease when it expired in 2011 . With the consent of his family , Hess 's grave was re @-@ opened on 20 July 2011 and his remains were exhumed , and then cremated . His ashes were scattered at sea by family members ; the gravestone , which bore the epitaph " Ich hab 's gewagt " ( " I have dared " ) , was destroyed .
= Tropical Storm Alberto ( 2006 ) =
Tropical Storm Alberto was the first tropical storm of the 2006 Atlantic hurricane season . Forming on June 10 in the northwestern Caribbean , the storm moved generally to the north , reaching a maximum intensity of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) before weakening and moving ashore in the Big Bend area of Florida on June 13 . Alberto then moved through eastern Georgia , North Carolina , and Virginia as a tropical depression before becoming extratropical on June 14 .
Across the Western Caribbean , the storm produced heavy rainfall , causing some minor damage . In Florida , a moderate storm tide caused coastal damage and flooding , while Alberto 's outer rainbands produced several tornadoes . The storm was indirectly responsible for two drownings off the coast of Tampa Bay . In North Carolina , heavy rainfall caused locally severe flooding , and one child drowned in a flooded storm drain near Raleigh . The remnants of Alberto produced strong winds and left four people missing in Atlantic Canada . Overall , damage was minor along Alberto 's path .
= = Meteorological history = =
In early June 2006 , an area of convection persisted across Central America and the western Caribbean in association with a broad , nearly stationary trough of low pressure . Thunderstorms increased and became more concentrated on June 8 after a tropical wave moved into the western Caribbean , and an upper @-@ level low to its west increased outflow over the system . The disturbance moved slowly north @-@ northwestward , and development was initially inhibited by marginally favorable upper @-@ level winds and land interaction . The system gradually organized , and by June 10 a circulation formed with sufficiently organized convection for the National Hurricane Center to classify it Tropical Depression One . At this point the storm was located about 140 miles ( 225 km ) south of the western tip of Cuba .
The depression tracked to the northwest through the Yucatán Channel into an area of increased wind shear , which left the center exposed and elongated . Despite its poor structure , the system maintained strong winds in its eastern semicircle . The depression intensified into Tropical Storm Alberto early on June 11 about 260 miles ( 420 km ) southwest of the Dry Tortugas , based on Hurricane Hunters ' reports of flight level winds of 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) in a few convective bands . Upon becoming a tropical storm , the low @-@ level circulation had become better defined , though forecasts predicted the wind shear would increase , preventing significant strengthening of the storm . One forecaster at the National Hurricane Center remarked the system resembled a subtropical cyclone . However , deep convection developed and built westward against the wind shear as the overall organization improved . At the same time Alberto turned northeastward under the influence of an approaching trough . On June 12 , the circulation abruptly reformed under the area of deepest convection , which coincided with the storm 's passage over the loop current ; consequentially , Alberto quickly strengthened to reach peak winds of 70 mph ( 115 km / h ) about 220 miles ( 350 km ) west @-@ northwest of Tampa , Florida .
Though it was projected to track over cooler waters and stay in an area of increased shear , forecasters at the National Hurricane Center predicted Alberto would attain hurricane status and make landfall at that intensity . The storm maintained peak intensity for about 18 hours , and while accelerating northeastward , Alberto 's convection diminished as the cloud pattern became elongated . On June 13 , dry air became entrained in the circulation , leaving the center exposed from the convection and the wind field greatly broadened . A partial eyewall developed in the western semicircle of the center ; however , winds were well below hurricane force . Alberto continued to weaken , and made landfall at about 1630 UTC on June 13 with 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) winds in Taylor County , Florida , about 50 miles ( 80 km ) southeast of Tallahassee .
The storm maintained a well @-@ organized structure and banding features over land , while continuing to produce winds of tropical storm force as it moved into Georgia . Early on June 14 , the storm weakened to tropical depression status while located near the city of Millen , Georgia . Alberto began to lose tropical characteristics soon thereafter , and about six hours after weakening to a tropical depression it transitioned into an extratropical cyclone . Late on June 14 it accelerated northeastward to emerge into the Atlantic Ocean , and on June 15 , it entered the area of responsibility of the Canadian Hurricane Centre . While over open waters , Alberto 's remnants began to re @-@ intensify ; later that day , the extratropical remnant low attained winds of 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) and a pressure of 969 mbar while a short distance south of Nova Scotia . At this time , the low presented a well @-@ defined comma structure . After passing near Sable Island , the remnants of Alberto crossed the Avalon Peninsula of Newfoundland on June 16 . The extratropical storm turned to the east @-@ northeast and later to the east as it continued its rapid forward motion , and on June 19 the remnants of Alberto merged with an approaching cold front near the British Isles .
= = Preparations = =
By June 12 , the Cuban government had evacuated over 25 @,@ 000 people in the western portion of the country due to the threat of flooding . The National Hurricane Center recommended tropical storm warnings for the Isle of Youth and the Pinar del Río Province early on June 10 , but they were not issued by the Cuban government .
In northwestern Florida , officials issued a mandatory evacuation order a day before the storm moved ashore for about 21 @,@ 000 citizens in Levy County , Citrus County , and Taylor County . Several schools were closed as well , and converted into shelters . In all , about 350 coastal residents took refuge in emergency shelters . Prior to the arrival of the storm , Florida governor Jeb Bush declared a state of emergency for the state . A tropical storm watch was first issued for portions of the Florida Panhandle about 43 hours prior to landfall . As Alberto was predicted to continue intensifying , the National Hurricane Center issued a hurricane warning from Longboat Key to the mouth of the Ochlockonee River approximately 25 hours before landfall . A tropical storm warning extended southward to Englewood and westward to Indian Pass . A tropical storm warning was also issued from Flagler Beach , Florida to the mouth of the Santee River in South Carolina . As the storm moved inland , local National Weather Service offices issued flood watches for portions of North Carolina , Virginia , and the Delmarva Peninsula . Additionally , flood and flash flood warnings were issued for some portions of the country from South Carolina through Virginia .
While Alberto was becoming extratropical over land , the Canadian Hurricane Centre issued gale warnings for offshore waters of Nova Scotia , and later for Newfoundland . In addition , the Atlantic Storm Prediction Center issued inland wind warnings for coastal regions of Nova Scotia . Due to the prediction for precipitation , the Atlantic Storm Prediction Center posted rainfall warnings for all Atlantic coastal regions of Nova Scotia .
= = Impact = =
= = = Caribbean = = =
In its early stages of development , the tropical depression which later became Alberto produced heavy rainfall across the western Caribbean . A station on Grand Cayman reported 22 @.@ 72 inches ( 577 mm ) of rain in one 24 @-@ hour period . In Cuba , rainfall amounted to 17 @.@ 52 inches ( 445 mm ) in Pinar del Río province , where one station recorded 4 @.@ 06 inches ( 103 mm ) in one hour . On the Isle of Youth , precipitation accrued to 15 @.@ 67 inches ( 398 mm ) in Sumidero . Air and marine travel was disrupted between the Cuban mainland and the Isle of Youth . In Havana Province rainfall totaled 8 @.@ 46 inches ( 215 mm ) at Playa Baracoa . Much of the precipitation fell during a fairly short time , and was beneficial , as the area had been suffering from severe drought conditions . In Pinar del Río province , the precipitation flooded 50 sq mi ( 130 km2 ) of crop land . The storm damaged about 50 houses across the country , about half of which in Havana .
Alberto dropped light amounts of rainfall across Mexico , with a 24 @-@ hour total peaking at 4 inches ( 100 mm ) in Peto , Yucatán . Light rain was also reported throughout Quintana Roo and in eastern Campeche .
= = = Florida = = =
The large area of convection associated with Alberto dropped rainfall across Florida for several days . The statewide precipitation maximum reached 7 @.@ 08 inches ( 180 mm ) at a station 5 miles ( 8 km ) east of Tarpon Springs . The highest sustained winds from the storm were officially clocked at 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) in St. Petersburg , which also saw reports of wind gusts of up to 56 mph ( 90 km / h ) . Upon making landfall on the Florida Panhandle , the storm produced a storm tide which unofficially peaked at 7 @.@ 3 feet ( 2 @.@ 2 m ) at Crystal River Power Plant . The combination of high surf and the storm tide caused surge flooding along the Florida Panhandle . Six tornadoes were spawned in the state from the outer rainbands of Alberto , none of which caused serious damage .
Across coastal areas , the storm surge flooding caused minor damage to dozens of homes and closed several roads . Near Homosassa , two people who did not evacuate required water rescue . At Egmont Key State Park , a woman fell off of a boat when a band of showers and surging currents made navigation difficult ; her husband and a friend drowned after jumping in to save her without life jackets , though the woman returned safely to the boat . The rainfall caused some temporary road flooding , though precipitation was mostly beneficial in alleviating drought conditions . Moderate wind gusts caused scattered power outages and downed some trees across the northeast portion of the state . Overall , property damage in the state rose to about $ 390 @,@ 000 ( 2006 USD ) in total .
= = = Southeast United States = = =
While the storm moved through the state of Georgia , moderate winds of up to 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) occurred along the coastline . Rainfall ranged from 3 – 5 inches ( 75 – 125 mm ) across the southeast portion of the state , with isolated higher maxima of up to 7 @.@ 05 inches ( 179 mm ) in Rincon . Alberto produced a storm tide of 8 @.@ 53 feet ( 2 @.@ 6 m ) at Fort Pulaski National Monument , causing some beach erosion along the coastline .
Alberto produced winds of tropical storm force along the South Carolina coastline ; the highest official wind gust was 51 mph ( 82 km / h ) at Edisto Beach . The storm dropped precipitation across much of the state , including a state maximum of 4 @.@ 42 inches ( 112 mm ) at Pritchardville . Storm tides reached 7 @.@ 81 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) above the mean low @-@ level water mark along Fripp Island , leading to some beach erosion along portions of the coastline . While in the process of becoming extratropical , the rainbands of Alberto spawned seven confirmed tornadoes in the state , most of which rated F0 ; a National Weather Service report indicated additional tornadoes may have occurred in the state . The tornadoes caused some minor damage , though overall damage in the state was minimal .
The remnants of Alberto dropped heavy precipitation across North Carolina , including a nationwide high of 7 @.@ 16 inches ( 182 mm ) at the Raleigh National Weather Service Office . Some totals broke previous rainfall records , including the station at Raleigh @-@ Durham International Airport which broke the all @-@ time daily precipitation record for that station . The rainfall led to flooding across the central portion of the state , with 45 flash flood warnings issued by the Raleigh National Weather Service . Police and firefighters in Wake County performed 47 water rescues . Additionally , the Raleigh @-@ Wake 9 @-@ 1 @-@ 1 center received more than 1 @,@ 076 calls for help . Flash flooding occurred throughout the area , which caused the Crabtree Creek in Raleigh to crest at 23 @.@ 77 feet ( 7 @.@ 2 m ) ; this was the second highest flood stage on record for the creek . The overflown creek flooded a few cars to their rooftops , and resulted in the closure of the Crabtree Valley Mall . Major flooding was reported elsewhere throughout the region , which closed several roads and damaged some houses . In Franklin County , an eight @-@ year @-@ old boy drowned after getting sucked into a flooded drainage system ; the death is considered indirect because the boy was chasing a ball into the drainage system . Near the coast , the storm produced several waterspouts , some of which moved ashore in Dare and Carteret counties . Isolated reports of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) wind gusts resulted in downed trees and minor damage .
Rainfall from the storm extended into Virginia , the Eastern Shore of Maryland , and extreme southeastern Delaware . Precipitation totaled 5 @.@ 8 inches ( 147 mm ) in Virginia Beach , which caused flash flooding in the Hampton Roads area . The flooding closed several roads , though no major damage was reported .
= = = Canada = = =
The extratropical remnant of Alberto produced strong winds across the Canadian Maritimes , including gusts of 74 mph ( 119 km / h ) in the Barrington district of Nova Scotia . Sustained winds reached 51 mph ( 83 km / h ) . Rainfall from the storm was moderate , with some locations reporting 0 @.@ 4 inches ( 10 mm ) per hour ; totals exceeded 2 inches ( 50 mm ) in numerous areas . Due to wet grounds , the winds knocked down some trees and several tree limbs , and also downed some power lines , causing localized power outages . Moderate winds and rainfall affected Newfoundland , as well . According to a press report , the storm left four sailors missing about 230 miles ( 370 km ) south of Nova Scotia .
= Flagstaff , Arizona =
Flagstaff is a city located in northern Arizona , in the southwestern United States . In 2015 , the city 's estimated population was 70 @,@ 320 . The combined metropolitan area of Flagstaff has an estimated population of 139 @,@ 097 . It is the county seat of Coconino County . The city is named after a ponderosa pine flagpole made by a scouting party from Boston ( known as the " Second Boston Party " ) to celebrate the United States Centennial on July 4 , 1876 .
Flagstaff lies near the southwestern edge of the Colorado Plateau , along the western side of the largest contiguous Ponderosa Pine forest in the continental United States . Flagstaff is located adjacent to Mount Elden , just south of the San Francisco Peaks , the highest mountain range in the state of Arizona . Humphreys Peak , the highest point in Arizona at 12 @,@ 633 feet ( 3 @,@ 851 m ) , is located about 10 miles ( 16 km ) north of Flagstaff in Kachina Peaks Wilderness .
Flagstaff 's early economy was based on the lumber , railroad , and ranching industries . Today , the city remains an important distribution hub for companies such as Nestlé Purina PetCare , and is home to Lowell Observatory , The U.S. Naval Observatory , the United States Geological Survey Flagstaff Station , and Northern Arizona University . Flagstaff has a strong tourism sector , due to its proximity to Grand Canyon National Park , Oak Creek Canyon , the Arizona Snowbowl , Meteor Crater , and historic Route 66 . The city is also a center for medical device manufacturing , since Flagstaff is home to W. L. Gore and Associates .
= = History = =
In 1855 Samuel Clark Hudson had been a surveyor for building the Santa Fe Railroad through Colorado , New Mexico and Arizona . Out by themselves with a team and a wagon on the 4th of July , he and his partner decided to climb a tall pine tree nearby and tying a flag to the top then trimming off the branches as they came down . A few days later the other crews came along and were surprised to find an American flag flying high . The railroad built a tow nearby , and the name of it is Flagstaff , Arizona .
The first permanent settlement was in 1876 , when Thomas F. McMillan built a cabin at the base of Mars Hill on the west side of town . During the 1880s , Flagstaff began to grow , opening its first post office and attracting the railroad industry . The early economy was based on timber , sheep , and cattle . By 1886 , Flagstaff was the largest city on the railroad line between Albuquerque and the west coast of the United States . A circa 1900 diary entry by journalist Sharlot Hall described the houses in the city at the time as a " third rate mining camp " , with unkempt air and high prices of available goods .
In 1894 , Massachusetts astronomer Percival Lowell hired A. E. Douglass to scout an ideal site for a new observatory . Douglass , impressed by Flagstaff 's elevation , named it as an ideal location for the now famous Lowell Observatory , saying : " other things being equal , the higher we can get the better " . Two years later , the specially designed 24 @-@ inch ( 610 mm ) Clark telescope that Lowell had ordered was installed . In 1930 , Pluto was discovered using one of the observatory 's telescopes . In 1955 the U.S. Naval Observatory joined the growing astronomical presence , and established the United States Naval Observatory Flagstaff Station , where Pluto 's satellite , Charon , was discovered in 1978 .
During the Apollo program in the 1960s , the Clark Telescope was used to map the moon for the lunar expeditions , enabling the mission planners to choose a safe landing site for the lunar modules . In homage to the city 's importance in the field of astronomy , asteroid 2118 Flagstaff is named for the city , and 6582 Flagsymphony for the Flagstaff Symphony Orchestra .
The Northern Arizona Normal School was established in 1899 , renamed Northern Arizona University in 1966 . Flagstaff 's cultural history received a significant boost on April 11 , 1899 , when the Flagstaff Symphony made its concert debut at Babbitt 's Opera House . The orchestra continues today as the Flagstaff Symphony Orchestra , with its primary venue at the Ardrey Auditorium on the campus of Northern Arizona University .
The city grew rapidly , primarily attributable to its location along the east @-@ west transcontinental railroad line in the United States . In the 1880s , the railroads purchased land in the west from the federal government , which was then sold to individuals to help finance the railroad projects . By the 1890s , Flagstaff found itself located along one of the busiest railroad corridors in the U.S. , with 80 @-@ 100 trains travelling through the city every day , destined for Chicago , Los Angeles , and elsewhere .
Route 66 was completed in 1926 and ran through Flagstaff . Flagstaff was incorporated as a city in 1928 , and in 1929 , the city 's first motel , the Motel Du Beau , was built at the intersection of Beaver Street and Phoenix Avenue . The Daily Sun described the motel as " a hotel with garages for the better class of motorists . " The units originally rented for $ 2 @.@ 60 to $ 5 @.@ 00 each , with baths , toilets , double beds , carpets , and furniture . Flagstaff went on to become a popular tourist stop along Route 66 , particularly due to its proximity to the Grand Canyon .
Flagstaff grew and prospered through the 1960s . During the 1970s and 1980s , however , many businesses started to move from the city center , and the downtown area entered an economic and social decline . Sears and J.C. Penney left the downtown area in 1979 to open up as anchor stores in the new Flagstaff Mall , joined in 1986 by Dillard 's . By 1987 , the Babbitt Brothers Trading Company , which had been a retail fixture in Flagstaff since 1891 , had closed its doors at Aspen Avenue and San Francisco Street .
In 1987 , the city drafted a new master plan , also known as the Growth Management Guide 2000 , which would transform downtown Flagstaff from a shopping and trade center into a regional center for finance , office use , and government . The city built a new city hall , library , and the Coconino County Administrative Building in the downtown district , staking an investment by the local government for years to come . In 1992 , the city hired a new manager , Dave Wilcox , who had previously worked at revitalizing the downtown areas of Beloit , Wisconsin and Missoula , Montana . During the 1990s , the downtown area underwent a revitalization , many of the city sidewalks were repaved with decorative brick facing , and a different mix of shops and restaurants opened up to take advantage of the area 's historical appeal .
On October 24 , 2001 , Flagstaff was recognized by the International Dark @-@ Sky Association as the world 's first " International Dark @-@ Sky City . "
The Railroad Addition Historic District ( Flagstaff , Arizona ) was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1983 .
= = Geography = =
Flagstaff is located at 35 ° 11 ′ 57 ″ N 111 ° 37 ′ 52 ″ W. According to the United States Census Bureau , the city has a total area of 63 @.@ 9 square miles ( 165 @.@ 5 km2 ) , of which only 0 @.@ 03 square miles ( 0 @.@ 08 km2 ) ( 0 @.@ 08 % ) is water .
At 7 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @,@ 130 m ) elevation , located adjacent to the largest contiguous Ponderosa Pine forest in North America , Flagstaff is located on a mountain surrounded by volcanoes , in the heart of the Coconino national forest . Any type of desert climate can be found below its elevation 100 miles from Flagstaff . The city is situated on the Rio de Flag , and is about 130 miles ( 210 km ) north of Phoenix .
= = = Cityscape = = =
Downtown Flagstaff lies immediately to the east of Mars Hill , the location of Lowell Observatory . Streets in the downtown area are laid out in a grid pattern , parallel to Route 66 and the Burlington Northern Santa Fe Rail Line , running east @-@ west through the city . Milton Road branches off from Route 66 west of downtown , and travels south , adjacent to the Northern Arizona University campus , to the junction of Interstate 17 and Interstate 40 . Milton Road becomes I @-@ 17 . A road called Beulah Boulevard , which also runs south , becomes State Route 89A , and travels through Oak Creek Canyon to Sedona . Traveling north from downtown , Fort Valley Road ( U.S. 180 ) connects with the Museum of Northern Arizona , Arizona Snowbowl , and Grand Canyon National Park . Traveling east from downtown , Route 66 and the railroad run in parallel toward East Flagstaff ( and beyond ) , at the base of Mount Elden . Much of Flagstaff 's industry is located east of downtown , adjacent to the railroad tracks , as well as in East Flagstaff .
Several towns are located close to Flagstaff along Interstates 40 and 17 . Approximately 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) south are the small urban areas of Kachina Village ( west of I @-@ 17 ) and Mountainaire ( east of I @-@ 17 ; 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) ) . About 35 miles ( 56 km ) to the west is Williams , 20 miles ( 32 km ) to the south is Munds Park , and 30 miles ( 48 km ) to the south on Arizona Highway 89A is Sedona . 15 miles ( 24 km ) to the east of Flagstaff is the town of Winona , mentioned in the famous song , Route 66 .
= = = Climate = = =
Flagstaff has a rather dry semi @-@ continental climate ( Köppen Dsb / Csb ) . Flagstaff has five distinct seasons : a cold and snowy winter , with extended dry periods punctuated with deep snows about once every 3 – 4 weeks ; a dry and windy spring with occasional snows ; a very dry and hot early summer from May to early July ; a wet and humid monsoon season from July to early September ; and a dry and pleasant fall which lasts until the first snows in November .
The combination of high elevation and low humidity provide mild weather conditions throughout most of the year . The predominantly clear air and high elevation radiates daytime heating effectively resulting in overnight temperatures generally much lower than the daytime temperature . This means a 55 degree day in January can drop to 15 at night . Winter nights in fact can be extremely cold , with temperatures dropping below 0 ° F ( − 17 @.@ 8 ° C ) on 5 to 6 nights per year .
Winter weather patterns in Flagstaff are cyclonic and frontal in nature , originating in the eastern Pacific Ocean . These deliver periodic , widespread snowfall followed by extended periods of sunny weather . The area 's generally stable weather pattern is broken by brief , but often intense , afternoon downpours and dramatic thunderstorms common during the monsoon of July and August . Summer temperatures are moderate and high temperatures average around 82 ° F ( 27 @.@ 8 ° C ) . Extreme temperatures range from − 30 ° F ( − 34 @.@ 4 ° C ) on January 22 , 1937 up to 97 ° F ( 36 @.@ 1 ° C ) on July 5 , 1973 , respectively . The weather in Flagstaff is generally sunny , with much more sunshine than other snowy cities like New York City , Chicago , Boston and even Denver . Flagstaff is the only city in Arizona never to have reported temperatures of 100 ° F ( 38 ° C ) or higher .
The annual snowfall averages 100 @.@ 3 inches ( 254 @.@ 76 cm ) , placing Flagstaff among the snowiest incorporated cities in the United States . Overall , the city features an average of 277 days without measurable precipitation each year . Despite snowstorms often being spread weeks apart , snow often covers the ground for weeks after major winter storms due to the low night temperatures refreezing the snowpack , even when daytime temperatures are above freezing . The maximum daily snow cover has been 83 inches ( 210 @.@ 82 cm ) on December 20 , 1967 , although the mean maximum for a full winter is only 20 inches ( 50 @.@ 80 cm ) and the lowest maximum only 6 inches ( 15 @.@ 24 cm ) in the dry winter of 1955 – 56 . However , due to the infrequent and scattered nature of the snowstorms , persistent snow pack into spring is rare . One notable exception occurred during the severe winter of 1915 – 16 , when successive Pacific storms buried the city under over 70 inches ( 177 @.@ 80 cm ) of snow , and some residents were snowbound in their homes for several days .
= = Demographics = =
According to the 2010 census , the population of the city was 65 @,@ 870 . The population density was 831 @.@ 9 people per square mile ( 321 @.@ 2 / km ² ) . There were 26 @,@ 254 housing units at an average density of 336 @.@ 5 per square mile ( 129 @.@ 9 / km ² ) . The racial makeup of the city was 73 @.@ 4 % White , 1 @.@ 9 % Black or African American , 11 @.@ 7 % Native American , 1 @.@ 9 % Asian , 0 @.@ 2 % Pacific Islander , 7 @.@ 3 % from other races , and 3 @.@ 6 % from two or more races . 18 @.@ 4 % of the population were Hispanics or Latinos of any race . The city 's African American population is considerably lower than the U.S. average ( 1 @.@ 9 % versus 12 @.@ 6 % ) , while the Native American population is markedly higher ( 11 @.@ 7 % vs. 0 @.@ 9 % ) . This is primarily attributable to the city 's proximity to several Native American reservations , including the Navajo , Hopi , Havasupai , and Yavapai . Flagstaff 's Native American community is chiefly Navajo , and there are about 5 @,@ 500 people of Navajo ancestry living in the city .
As of 2000 , there were 19 @,@ 306 households out of which 32 @.@ 8 % had children under the age of 18 living with them , 44 @.@ 0 % were married couples living together , 11 @.@ 6 % had a female householder with no husband present , and 39 @.@ 9 % were non @-@ families . 23 @.@ 2 % of all households were made up of individuals and 3 @.@ 8 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 2 @.@ 59 and the average family size was 3 @.@ 13 .
The age distribution was 24 @.@ 3 % under the age of 18 , 21 @.@ 7 % from 18 to 24 , 30 @.@ 5 % from 25 to 44 , 18 @.@ 2 % from 45 to 64 , and 5 @.@ 3 % who were 65 years of age or older . The median age was 27 years . For every 100 females there were 98 @.@ 3 males . For every 100 females age 18 and over , there were 96 @.@ 4 males .
The median income for a household in the city was $ 37 @,@ 146 , and the median income for a family was $ 48 @,@ 427 . Males had a median income of $ 31 @,@ 973 versus $ 24 @,@ 591 for females . The per capita income for the city was $ 18 @,@ 637 . About 10 @.@ 6 % of families and 17 @.@ 4 % of the population were below the poverty line , including 17 @.@ 6 % of those under age 18 and 7 @.@ 0 % of those age 65 or over .
As a college town , Flagstaff 's population is considerably more educated than the U.S. average . 89 @.@ 8 % of the population has a high school diploma or higher , while the national average is 80 @.@ 4 % . 39 @.@ 4 % of the population has a bachelor 's degree or higher , compared to the national average of 24 @.@ 4 % .
= = = Crime = = =
For 2012 , the FBI 's Uniform Crime Report indicated for Flagstaff a rate of 262 cases of violent crime per 100 @,@ 000 population and 2 @,@ 834 cases of property crime per 100 @,@ 000 population .
A 1988 Arizona state law made it a crime | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
Clubman Award respectively .
= = = Captaining the Cats ( 2007 – 2009 ) = = =
At the beginning of 2007 , Harley was appointed as club captain of Geelong . Harley 's elevation to the captaincy was considered a surprise move to many outside the club . Despite the reaction , Harley was recommended by the club 's board of directors following a review of the football department the previous year . The club noted that Harley " was a player who would dig deep and stand up when it counts " , and was also chosen to help improve communication links between players , coaching staff and the board of directors .
Harley endured a difficult start to his first season as captain , as he ruptured a finger tendon during the club 's round one loss to the Western Bulldogs . After undergoing surgery on his finger , Harley made his return through the club 's reserves team in the VFL but failed to earn a recall to the senior team until round ten . After playing the majority of his career at Geelong as a centre half back , Harley struggled to find his niche in the defence following the emergence of the younger Matthew Egan in the key position . He soon adjusted himself as a floating defender capable of playing on small forwards , and retained his position in the side after achieving career @-@ best averages of 14 disposals and 5 marks a game . Harley helped the team compile an 18 @-@ 4 win @-@ loss record at the conclusion of the home and away season , earning them their eighth McClelland Trophy and securing first position on the ladder leading into the finals series . Harley led the defence to the number one defensive record in the league during the season , by letting only 1664 points be scored against them . After wins against North Melbourne and Collingwood in the Qualifying and Preliminary finals respectively , Geelong earned a spot in the Grand Final against Harley 's former team Port Adelaide . Collecting 13 disposals and 7 marks , Harley helped the club to an AFL @-@ record 119 point win and secure its first premiership in 44 years . Harley became the first Geelong captain of a premiership @-@ winning side since Fred Wooller in 1963 , and achieved the rare distinction of becoming a premiership @-@ winning captain in his first year at the helm .
Harley 's leadership qualities and influence on the club as captain was commended early on in the season after his handling of teammate Steve Johnson 's off @-@ field discretions . Johnson was banished from the team during the pre @-@ season and demoted to the reserves for the first five games of the season . However , he successfully returned to the team and finished the season as a Norm Smith Medallist and All @-@ Australian . Harley 's leadership influence on the team was reflected in his finishing fourth in the AFLPA Best Captain award during his first year at the helm . He was also awarded life membership of the Geelong Football Club following his 150th team appearance in the round sixteen win against the Western Bulldogs , and named in the end @-@ of @-@ season South Australian State of Origin team .
Harley 's achievements at the club were recognised prior to the 2008 AFL season when he was inducted into the Geelong Football Club Hall of Fame . Following the success of 2007 , Harley and the club were expected to feature prominently in the 2008 finals series once more . Harley featured in all 22 home @-@ and @-@ away fixture games and 3 finals games . He set career @-@ highs of 14 marks ( round three ) and 14 handpasses ( Preliminary Final ) in the process , and helped the club achieve the number one defensive record during the season for the second consecutive year . During the season , he was also selected to the initial squad for the AFL Hall of Fame all @-@ star game , although he failed to make the final teams . Geelong compiled a 21 – 1 win @-@ loss record to once again capture the McClelland Trophy and qualify for the finals series in first position on the ladder . After successive wins against St Kilda and the Western Bulldogs , Harley led the team to their second straight Grand Final appearance . During the Grand Final , Harley suffered mild concussion following a collision prior to the half @-@ time break . As a result , he struggled to contribute for the rest of the game as Geelong lost to Hawthorn by 26 points .
Despite the club 's Grand Final defeat , Harley collected a range of individual accolades following his performances throughout the season . He earned his first All @-@ Australian honour and was named as vice @-@ captain of the team . Harley was also recognised by the AFLPA , as he was awarded the AFLPA Best Captain award in just his second season at the helm . After setting career @-@ highs of 209 handballs and 378 disposals during the season , Harley was awarded a career @-@ high seven Brownlow Medal votes during the count and named once again in the South Australian State of Origin team . He was also awarded the Geelong Football Club Best Clubman award for a record third time , and named a co @-@ winner of the club ’ s Community Champion award alongside teammates James Kelly and David Wojcinski .
Harley was charged with helping the players regroup following the Grand Final loss the previous season , and admitted " losing the grand final was horrific " . Harley missed the first six rounds of the 2009 campaign with a knee injury , before returning to feature in fourteen games for the year . Despite Harley 's injury @-@ riddled campaign , Geelong finished the home @-@ and @-@ away campaign in second place on the ladder with an 18 – 4 win @-@ loss record . Following the failure of 2008 , Harley suggested that the club had learnt that it needed to " just be the best team in September " and that once qualified for the finals , focus had shifted towards rest and recovery .
After finals wins against the Western Bulldogs and Collingwood , Harley and Geelong progressed through to the Grand Final against St Kilda for a third successive season . During the final , Harley struggled to stay involved in the game and gathered only 5 disposals , 1 mark , and 3 tackles . However , Geelong prevailed by 12 points to win the 2009 AFL premiership and capture its second premiership cup within three seasons .
At the conclusion of the 2009 season , Harley announced his retirement from AFL football . Harley cited his inability to physically meet the demands of AFL football as his reason for departing the game . Harley retired as one of the most successful captains in Geelong 's history : during his three years as captain , Harley led the club to a club @-@ high two premierships — equalling the accomplishments of Fred Flanagan — and compiled a 49 @-@ 7 win @-@ loss record . His legacy at the club was pronounced by Thompson as being " one of the great captains in the history of the Geelong Football Club " .
Harley 's achievements during his playing career were recognised when he was nominated for a record four awards during the AFL Player 's Association Madden Medal night : the Madden Medal , the Football Achievement award , the Personal Development award , and the Community Spirit award .
= = After retiring as a player = =
In the weeks following his retirement , Harley was sounded out by the AFL 's newest team , Western Sydney , to join the club in an off @-@ field role . On 4 December 2009 , it was announced that Harley would join the club as a project consultant , serving on committee board and the football department in a part @-@ time role .
Harley later also joined the AIS @-@ AFL Academy as an assistant coach and mentor . Prior to the 2010 AFL season , it was further announced that Harley would join the Channel 7 network football commentary team , replacing Nathan Buckley in the leading special comments role . Harley admitted that his previous experience as a regular panellist on the football program One Week at a Time during his playing days had fuelled an interest in working within the media industry . He is currently the general manager of football at the Sydney Swans .
= = Player profile = =
During his playing career , Harley was considered as one of the league 's " most respected players " and the " general of the most miserly defence in the league " . Harley began his early career as a key position player at centre half back , where he used his physical size to great effect . However , during his later years he played as a floating defender capable of playing on small forwards . Despite his personal admission to not being " the greatest player " , Harley 's play @-@ reading ability saw him recognised as one of the league 's best at intercepting opposition passes inside his defensive 50m arc .
Harley 's leadership skills have been consistently praised during his time in the league . Despite his reputation for not being the team 's greatest player , he was widely regarded as a natural leader whose character " was the heartbeat of Geelong " . Teammate Gary Ablett complimented Harley as being " very approachable ... [ and ] the key to gelling the team together " . Many commentators have attributed his leadership influence as being a key factor in Geelong 's premiership success . Specifically , he was credited with helping transform the culture of the club , in setting standards for on and off @-@ field behaviour . Harley 's legacy as captain of the club was pronounced by Bill McMaster as being one of the great leaders of Geelong alongside Reg Hickey and Fred Flanagan .
= = Personal life = =
Harley is the second of three children and has two brothers , elder brother Sam and younger brother Ben . He is married to Sydney @-@ based journalist Felicity Harley ( née Percival ) , whom he met while being interviewed for an article in Cosmopolitan .
After starting his Bachelor of Commerce degree at an Adelaide institution in 1996 , Harley transferred to Deakin University and graduated 11 years later in 2007 . Harley was one of 21 players from the Geelong Football Club who witnessed the 2002 Bali bombings first @-@ hand during an off @-@ season holiday to the popular tourist destination . Harley and his team mates were preparing to venture to the Sari night club just moments prior to the terrorist attack .
In 2008 , Harley was named an ambassador for an anti @-@ booze @-@ fuelled violence campaign run by the Geelong Advertiser newspaper , titled " Just Think " . As part of his ambassadorial role , Harley has appeared in numerous advertisements alongside fellow Geelong teammates and ambassadors James Kelly and David Wojcinski . He is an active health ambassador for Barwon Health .
In 2009 , Harley 's position as captain of the Geelong Football Club saw him participate in the inaugural Captains ' Forum . He was selected as one of 24 leaders in Australian sport to discuss and develop a national response at Parliament House , Canberra , for emerging challenges impacting sport and the broader community .
= = Statistics = =
= = Honours and achievements = =
Team
AFL Premiership ( Geelong ) : 2007 ( C ) , 2009 ( C )
McClelland Trophy ( Geelong ) : 2007 ( C ) , 2008 ( C )
SANFL Reserves Premiership ( Norwood ) : 1998
Individual
All @-@ Australian : 2008 ( VC )
AFLPA Best Captain Award : 2008
Captain of Geelong F.C. : 2007 – 2009
Geelong F.C. Best Clubman Award : 2002 , 2006 , 2008
Geelong F.C. Coach 's Award : 2001
Geelong F.C. Most Determined and Most Dedicated Player Award : 2000
Geelong F.C. Community Champion Award : 2008
South Australian State of Origin representative honours : 2007 , 2008 ( Captain )
Legendary Performers Award : 2009
= Hobart coastal defences =
The Hobart coastal defences are a network of now defunct coastal batteries , some of which are inter @-@ linked with tunnels , that were designed and built by British colonial authorities in the nineteenth century to protect the city of Hobart , Tasmania , from attack by enemy warships . During the nineteenth century , the port of Hobart Town was a vital re @-@ supply stop for international shipping and trade , and therefore a major freight hub for the British Empire . As such , it was considered vital that the colony be protected . In all , between 1804 and 1942 there were 12 permanent defensive positions constructed in the Hobart region .
Prior to Australian Federation , the island of Tasmania was a colony of the British Empire , and as such was often at war with Britain 's enemies and European rivals , such as France and later Russia . The British had already established the colony of Sydney at Port Jackson in New South Wales in 1788 , but soon began to consider the island of Tasmania as the potential site of a useful second colony . It was an island , cut off from the mainland of Australia and isolated geographically , making it ideal for a penal colony , and was rich in timber , a resource useful to the Royal Navy . In 1803 , the British authorities decided to colonise Tasmania , and to establish a permanent settlement on the island that was at the time known as Van Diemen 's Land , primarily to prevent the French from doing so . During this period tensions between Great Britain and France remained high . The two nations had been fighting the French Revolutionary Wars with each other through much of the 1790s , and would soon be engaging each other again in the Napoleonic Wars .
The first British settlement in Van Diemen 's Land had begun on 8 September 1803 , at Risdon Cove on the Derwent River 's eastern shore . However , the arrival of Lieutenant @-@ Governor David Collins on 16 February 1804 , saw him make the decision to relocate the settlement to Sullivan 's Cove on the western shore of the Derwent River . Within days of the settlement 's establishment , Collins had decided the new colony would need protection should the French send warships up the river to threaten the fledgling colony . A crude earthwork redoubt was dug into an elevated position near the centre of Sullivan 's Cove , in the area that is now Franklin Square , and two ships cannons were placed inside . For the next seven years , this muddy emplacement would serve as the only defensive position of what was growing to become Hobart Town .
When Governor Lachlan Macquarie toured the Hobart Town settlement in 1811 , he was alarmed at the poor state of the defences and the general disorganisation of the colony . Along with planning for a new grid pattern of streets to be laid out , and new administrative and other buildings to be built , he commissioned the building of Anglesea Barracks , which opened in 1814 , and is now the oldest continually occupied barracks in Australia . Macquarie also suggested the construction of more permanent fortifications . Following his advice , a new location comprising an area of 8 acres ( 32 @,@ 000 m2 ) was selected at the eastern end of Battery Point on the southern side of Sullivan 's Cove , and construction began on what was to become the first of a series of new defensive installations .
= = Mulgrave Battery = =
By 1818 , the new battery had been completed on a location in Battery Point near the present Castray Esplanade , and was named Mulgrave Battery in honour of Henry Phipps , 1st Earl of Mulgrave , who was at that time Master @-@ General of the Ordnance . The battery had six guns which projected forward through earthwork embrasures . At first , these were ships guns , but in 1824 they were replaced with 32 pounders . Now Hobart Town had two firing positions protecting either side of the entrance to Sullivans Cove .
Upon its completion , the Mulgrave Battery soon attracted heavy criticism from those who had to serve there . Members of the Royal Artillery felt it was inadequate , and one critic is even said to have described the battery as " a poor pitiful mud fort . " Engineers reported that the gun carriages were a danger to men firing the guns , and so new timber was sent from Macquarie Harbour in 1829 to make them safer ; however , records showed that only one gun had been upgraded by 1831 . The same year , the galleries were improved with large 15 metre long sections of timber , heavy bolts , braces and bars .
As the colony began to grow larger , more British units were sent to serve in the settlement of Hobart Town . Amongst one of these contingents was a commander of the Royal Engineers named Captain Roger Kelsall , who arrived in Hobart in 1835 to take over HM Ordnance Department . When he arrived , he assessed these two fortifications , and wrote in his report that he felt the colony was virtually undefended . He devised an ambitious plan to fortify the whole inner harbour of the Derwent River with a network of heavily armed and fortified batteries located at Macquarie Point , Battery Point and Bellerive Bluff on the eastern shore . He envisaged the forts all having an interlocking firing arc , which would cover the entire approach to Sullivan 's Cove , making it impossible for ships to enter the docks or attack the town unchallenged .
The scale of the plan was enormous for such a small colony , the population being approximately 20 @,@ 000 in the 1830s . This meant that the cost was too prohibitive , considering that at that period the British Empire enjoyed relative peace with the exception of border conflicts in India . Nevertheless , despite funding problems , work using convict labour began in 1840 . Mulgrave Battery was enhanced and expanded , and a new site was located slightly further up the hillside on Battery Point , behind the location of the Mulgrave Battery , where construction also commenced in 1840 . A semaphore station , built in 1829 , and signal mast were constructed above Mulgrave Battery , allowing communication with ships entering the mouth of the river , and through a relay system of masts , all the way to Port Arthur penitentiary on the Tasman Peninsula .
The modern Hobart suburb of Battery Point takes its name from the Mulgrave Battery . The original guardhouse , built in 1818 which had been located nearby is the oldest building in Battery Point , and one of the oldest buildings still standing in Tasmania .
= = Prince of Wales Battery and Albert Battery = =
The new battery , named the " Prince of Wales Battery " , was completed in 1842 . That year ten new 8 @-@ inch ( 200 mm ) muzzle loading cannons were lifted into position , enhancing the firepower of the colony 's defences . Despite its significant firepower , the poor location and firing angles of the new fortress soon became obvious . The powder magazine was fitted out in 1845 .
The layout of the fortifications continued to have the Mulgrave and Prince of Wales batteries to the south of Sullivan 's Cove and the Queen 's Battery to the north , until the outbreak of the Crimean War with the Russian Empire . Fear of attack or even invasion by Russian warships of the Imperial Russian Navy , which were known to sail in the South Pacific , led to calls for review of Hobart Town 's defences . A commission was called and it found that further strengthening was needed . With the problems of the Prince of Wales Battery , it was decided a third battery , the Albert Battery ( originally called Prince Albert 's Battery after HRH Prince Albert , Queen Victoria 's Prince Consort ) , would be constructed even further up the hill , behind the Prince of Wales Battery .
By 1855 , the colony of Van Diemen 's Land was granted responsible self @-@ government by the Colonial Office , and renamed Tasmania . The Colonial Office began to pressure the newly formed local government to take more responsibility for the self @-@ defence of the colony .
As a result of these calls , the Tasmanian colonial government began to establish Volunteer Local Militia Forces . One such force , established in 1859 was the Hobart Town Artillery Company under the command of Captain A. F. Smith , formerly of the 99th . ( Wiltshire ) Regiment , who began to assume responsibility for the Hobart fortifications from the Royal Artillery who were increasingly being withdrawn , and had all departed well before the withdrawal of the last British forces from Tasmania in 1870 . Prior to this , in 1868 a Defence Proposals paper had been published which outlined the need for greater defensive fortifications . It also suggested the need for proposed batteries further to the south of Hobart Town on either side of the river .
Improvements to ship 's armaments meant that the existing fortifications , which provided covering fire to a range of approximately 2 @,@ 000 yards ( 2 @,@ 000 m ) , would allow enemy ships to ship outside the range of the defenders guns and still be able to bombard the town . This left the colony virtually defenceless .
Three Imperial Russian Navy warships , the Africa , Plastun , and Vestnik , arrived in January 1882 . Britain and its empire had fought against the Russians 26 years previously during the Crimean War and the colony was virtually defenceless . The Russians were on a goodwill mission , but had they had hostile intent , the colony would have easily fallen . As a result , the visit caused a great deal of debate about the state of the colony 's defences .
It had also highlighted the state of decay the existing fortresses had reached . Another Commission was carried out , and it was decided the Mulgrave , Prince of Wales and Albert Batteries were inadequate for the defence of the town . By 1878 , both had been condemned , and were dismantled by 1880 . In 1882 , the sites were handed over to Hobart City Council for use as public space , although the subterranean Prince of Wales magazine remains . Most of the stonework was removed and reused in the construction of the Alexandra Battery further to the south .
Following the closures , the entrance to the old magazine soon became a popular place for children to play , and at night , the underground magazine rooms often became a meeting place for men to drink and play cards , until they were closed and kept permanently locked by the council in 1934 .
To this day , the park in which the Mulgrave , Prince of Wales and Albert Batteries had been located remains a popular public park , and is named Princes Park in honour of the men who served in the batteries there , and as a reminder of the heritage of the site . The iron gate at the entrance of the underground magazine rooms can still be seen at the base of the park .
= = Queen 's Battery = =
As part of Major Roger Kellsall 's recommendations , another site to the north @-@ eastern side of Hobart Town was to be used for an additional fortification . This site , located almost exactly underneath the present site of the Hobart Cenotaph war memorial upon Queens Domain was first constructed in 1838 and opened the same year as Queen 's Battery , named in honour of HRH Queen Victoria , who was on the throne at the time of the fort 's construction . It had been envisaged that this would be the grandest of the forts in Hobart , and would command the prominent point overlooking the entrance to Sullivans Cove ; however , the full plans were never developed . The battery was set back by delays and funding problems , and was not completed until 1864 .
With the imminent withdrawal of British forces due in 1870 , a major review of defences had been carried out in 1868 . It was decided the current system was inadequate to cope with advances in naval ordnance , and two new forts would be positioned at One Tree Point and Bellerive Bluff . The Queen 's Battery was to assume the apex position of a triangular coverage of the entrance to Sullivans Cove .
As the Royal Artillery were to withdraw within two years , a handbook containing range tables was created by Staff @-@ Sergeant R.H. Eccleston which suggested that to repel a vessel doing 10 knots ( 19 km / h ) up the river would take 226 men approximately 30 minutes to fire 365 rounds from the 20 guns that were available from the existing three forts . Despite this , it became an operational position , and for a time served as an effective defence . The Queen 's Battery remained in operation until the 1920s . The excavation of the site in 1992 revealed the hot shot oven which was uncovered and metal parts for rolling the shot which had been preserved . The oven and archaeological trenches were later filled in at the request of the Returned and Services League ( RSL ) . Hot shot was intended to be fired at wooden ships and to cause ignition of gunpowder . It was never fired in anger .
= = Alexandra Battery = =
Following the condemnation of the Mulgrave , Prince of Wales , and Albert batteries in 1878 , it was decided to re @-@ institute the plans for the alteration of the defensive strategy around the entrance to Sullivans Cove that were first drawn up in 1868 .
A triangle of fortresses with the Queen 's Battery at the Apex , and two new batteries , the Alexandra Battery , named for Princess Alexandra , the Princess of Wales , and the Kangaroo Battery on the eastern shore would be adequate for the task . Construction began on the new fortifications in 1880 , and at the same time , a new permanent field artillery unit , the Southern Tasmanian Volunteer Artillery equipped with two breech @-@ loading 12 @-@ pound howitzers and two 32 @-@ pound guns on field carriages , was raised .
Following the dismantling of the Battery Point batteries , much of the stonework was relocated to the Alexandra Battery . The Alexandra Battery site is now a public park with commanding views of the river , and much of the original construction is still accessible .
= = Kangaroo Battery = =
The presence of the Russian warships in the Derwent River in 1873 , and the condemning of the Battery Point batteries in 1878 had expedited the development of the Alexandra and Kangaroo Batteries .
The design of the fort was a pentagon shape that fitted conveniently into the point of the bluff above the cliff . The ditch , tunnels and underground chambers had to be cut out of solid stone and faced with masonry . Several loopholes and firing ports were fitted into the stone encasements to allow rifle fire from every aspect of the fort . In case of an attempted infantry assault , caponiers faced both landward sides of the fort , with firing positions facing each direction . This meant that the only position to safely assault the fort with infantry was up the sheer cliffs of Kangaroo Bluff . Access to the caponiers was through iron hatchways that opened into open passageways three metres deep . These in turn led to tunnels accessing underground magazines , stores , a lamp room , well and the loading galleries . The loading galleries were ingenious and allowed the guns to be muzzle loaded with shells dragged along a conveyor belt directly to the muzzle of the gun , when it was in a downward tilted position .
Construction of the Kangaroo Battery was begun when excavations began to be dug in September 1880 , according to the plans of Colonel Peter Scratchley , a Royal Engineer who had been placed in charge of overseeing construction of defences for all of the Australian colonies .
Work was intermittent and beset by funding problems and delays , but in May 1883 , Patrick Cronly was placed in charge of the construction on behalf of the Public Works Department , and under the supervision of Staff Officer Boddam , work was completed the following year with the arrival of two massive 14 tonne eight @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) cannons from England . The construction had cost £ 8 @,@ 150 ( A $ 16 @,@ 300 ) at a time when labourers earned an average wage of about 4 shillings ( 50c ) per day . The guns fired shells weighing 81 @.@ 7 kg , and thanks to the barreled rifling , had excellent range and accuracy . In 1888 , two smaller QF 6 pounder Nordenfelt guns were added . Although the projectiles were only 2 @.@ 7 kg , they also had excellent accuracy and range . The same year , a Nordenfelt machine gun was mounted facing the entrance gate of the fort .
The first shots were fired on 12 February 1885 . Later that year , a dry mound , and deepened wet moat were added , as was further coarse @-@ work covered in broken bottle glass set in mortar . Fences were constructed around the moat in November 1885 when a local boy fell into the moat and drowned .
From 1887 , both the Alexandra and Kangaroo Batteries were being manned by detachments of the Southern Tasmanian Volunteer Artillery , as well as the Tasmanian Permanent Artillery . In 1901 Tasmania joined the new Federation of Australia , and all of the city 's fortifications passed into Commonwealth control . Kangaroo Fort remained operational until the 1920s , but never fired a shot in anger . In 1925 , all of the guns were buried as obsolete , and in 1930 , the Clarence City Council took over the site for use as a public park . In 1961 , the Scenery Preservation Board acquired the site , and in 1970 , the site was turned into a historical site , with the guns being dug up and put on display . The site is now operated by Tasmanian National Parks and Wildlife Service and is a major tourist attraction .
= = Fort Direction and Pierson 's Point = =
With the outbreak of World War II , the Department of Defence acquired land near South Arm close to the mouth of the Derwent River on the eastern shore , from Courtland Calvert and his sister in September 1939 . At first , the land was used purely as a training ground , with mock battles that were disruptive to locals being fought day and night . But as war preparations evolved , the Commonwealth decided that the port of Hobart would require some degree of defence to protect the state 's vital zinc industry that was crucial to the war effort . Major Mark Pritchard was the first commanding officer of the new defences that became known as Fort Direction . By the end of 1939 , construction of two fortified six @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) Mk VII gun emplacements , and a small four room weatherboard control building had been completed . Soon there was also a flagpole and set of naval signals .
Throughout the war , a 24 @-@ hour watch was maintained every day , and the site was usually manned by at least 15 Royal Australian Navy personnel . A record of every ship entering the Derwent River between 1940 and 1945 was kept . Between 1941 and 1944 , both guns were regularly used for training exercises . Although never used in hostile action against enemy vessels , the guns were fired in anger once . A liberty ship entering the mouth of the Derwent River failed to obey instructions issued from the Naval Command on the hill above the fort , and one shell was accurately fired across her bow , which immediately resulted in the liberty ship hoving to .
On the opposite western shore of the Derwent River , another emplacement was constructed with one four @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) gun . However , several huts to house men were constructed at that location as well as a complicated underground tunnel and command structure . Local residents recall barbed wire still surrounding the site well after the war and the site ’ s de @-@ commissioning . Nearby Goat Bluff was also the location of further underground tunnel systems .
The only enemy action to ever affect Hobart happened on 1 August 1942 , when a submarine @-@ launched Japanese spy plane flew from the submarine ’ s mooring in Great Oyster Bay south along the east coast of Tasmania , before flying northward along the Derwent River surveying Hobart and then returning to its mother submarine . Although both emplacements detected the flight , the plane was at too high an altitude to fire upon , and no aircraft were available to intercept it . After this event , two anti @-@ aircraft guns were positioned on nearby hills , but the Japanese never returned to Tasmania again during the war .
= Cornwallis in Ireland =
British General Charles Cornwallis , the 1st Marquess Cornwallis was appointed in June 1798 to serve as both Lord Lieutenant of Ireland and Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of Ireland , the highest civil and military posts in the Kingdom of Ireland . He held these offices until 1801 .
Cornwallis had specific instructions and authority to deal with the Irish Rebellion of 1798 , which had broken out in May 1798 . He took steps to ensure that justice was consistently applied to captured rebels , personally reviewing a significant number of court cases . He directed military operations when a French Revolutionary force landed at Killala Bay in August 1798 .
In the aftermath of the rebellion , the political climate with regard to Ireland became dominated by the idea that the union of the Irish and British kingdoms ( which were in personal union under the sovereignty of King George III ) was necessary to improve conditions in Ireland . Cornwallis favoured union , but believed that it would also require Catholic emancipation ( the granting of basic civil rights to the predominantly Roman Catholic Irish population ) to create a lasting peace . While Cornwallis was instrumental in achieving the passage of the Act of Union in 1800 by the Irish Parliament , he and Prime Minister William Pitt were unable to convince the king of the merits of Catholic emancipation . This difference of opinion led to the fall of Pitt 's government . Cornwallis also resigned , and was replaced in May 1801 by the Earl of Hardwicke .
= = Background = =
Charles Cornwallis , 1st Marquess Cornwallis , was a British general , civil administrator , and diplomat . His early career was primarily military in nature , including a series of well @-@ known campaigns during the War of American Independence from 1776 to 1781 that culminated in his surrender at Yorktown . This was followed in 1786 by a period of service as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief and Governor @-@ General of India . There he oversaw the consolidation of British power throughout most of southern India , primarily at the expense of the Kingdom of Mysore and its vassals , and introduced administrative reforms that had long @-@ term consequences . In 1794 he returned to England , which was then militarily engaged in the French Revolutionary Wars . After he was sent on an ultimately fruitless diplomatic mission to stop the fighting , he was appointed master of the ordnance , a post he held until 1798 .
The Kingdom of Ireland was at this time in personal union with the Kingdom of Great Britain , and therefore was under the rule of King George III , although it had separate political and administrative institutions . Members of the Parliament of Ireland were only elected by Protestants , as the Roman Catholic property owners had been disenfranchised in 1728 . The majority Catholics had , over the previous century , been progressively stripped of other rights as well . King George was represented in civil affairs by the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland , who ruled in consultation with a privy council , and in military affairs by a Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief .
The demands of the American War of Independence had forced King George to withdraw many troops from Ireland for service in North America . To bolster forces supportive of the king , Protestants raised militia companies called the Irish Volunteers to replace the departing regulars . Protestant leaders in the Irish Parliament , including Henry Flood and Henry Grattan , who had the support of the Volunteers , convinced the British Parliament to pass a series of acts known collectively as the Constitution of 1782 , giving the Irish Parliament significant political independence .
Unlike many English , Flood and Grattan were also proponents of Catholic emancipation , and under their leadership the Irish Parliament overturned a number of the restrictions on the rights of Catholics , although they continued to be unable to vote or hold elected offices . When the French Revolution broke out in the early 1790s , Catholics and middle @-@ class Protestants united to form the Society of United Irishmen . They successfully extracted additional rights , although there was some Protestant resistance to the idea of full Catholic suffrage due to their overwhelming numerical majority . The more radical elements favouring Irish independence found a leader in Theobald Wolfe Tone , who went to France for support from the revolutionaries there that led to an aborted attempt to invade Ireland in 1796 . The failed invasion led the government of the Earl of Camden to round up leaders of the United Irishmen and attempt to disarm the Catholic populace . Use of these tactics was made possible in part by the passage of an Insurrection Act , giving the administration broad police powers , and also by the suspension of habeas corpus in October 1796 .
By mid @-@ May 1798 the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , General Gerard Lake had organised British troops and the Irish Volunteers to put down elements of the growing rebellion . These actions , sometimes capricious and brutal , fanned the flames of rebellion . While Lake 's actions had been effective in Dublin , rebel leaders successfully orchestrated the simultaneous start of widespread hostilities on 23 May . News of the rebellion reached London a few days later , taking the British cabinet by surprise . Lord Camden had assured the Home Secretary , the Duke of Portland , that rebellion was unlikely in a letter written less than two weeks earlier . Camden , predicting a protracted and bloody struggle , sent his family to safety in England , undermining William Pitt 's confidence in him .
= = Appointment = =
Lord Camden had suggested Cornwallis for the position of Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief as early as 1797 , since he was unhappy with Lake 's heavy @-@ handed leadership . Cornwallis refused this initial offer because the position was subservient to that of the Lord Lieutenant , which he felt would diminish its effectiveness . In March 1798 , Camden suggested to Pitt that he be replaced as Lord Lieutenant with Cornwallis , and then in May suggested that Cornwallis be offered both posts , an arrangement similar to the position he held in India . Cornwallis was aware of the discussions around these later proposals , and he agreed to the idea in discussions with Pitt in early June . On 13 June , King George 's Privy Council approved his appointment to both posts . On 21 June , Cornwallis arrived in Dublin to take command . While these discussions went on , General Lake directed the response to the rebellion . On the day Cornwallis landed , the back of the rebellion was broken with a British victory over a large rebel force at Vinegar Hill .
= = Rebellion = =
= = = Irish remnants = = =
As the British military and loyal militia mopped up the remnants of the rebellion in Wexford and other counties , the atrocities and sectarian violence left a mark on Cornwallis . He wrote that " the life of a Lord Lieutenant of Ireland comes up to my idea of a perfect misery ; but if I can achieve the great object of consolidating the British Empire , I shall be sufficiently repaid . " In early July he issued a proclamation offering amnesty to rebels who laid down their arms and took an oath to the crown , and he cracked down on the sometimes arbitrary courts martial held in the field by requiring the review of all sentences in Dublin . However , not all of Ireland received this treatment : areas that were still " disturbed " were exempted from the requirement , Lord Castlereagh , Cornwallis ' Chief Secretary , reported that " numbers were tried and executed " without the lord lieutenant 's review . One principal stronghold of the rebels was the Wicklow Mountains , through which the army began construction of a road facilitate its operations . The Wicklow Military Road survives today as the R115 road in Wexford and Dublin .
Cornwallis also negotiated with the parliament the passage of a bill offering amnesty to most of the rebels . This idea was vigorously opposed both in the Protestant @-@ controlled Irish Parliament and in London . By the time the bill passed and received the royal signature in October , it contained numerous exceptions , meaning that anyone with a role of significance in the rebellion was likely not eligible . The bill was also enacted too late to be of significant benefit anyway . He offered financial compensation for losses incurred by loyalists , the terms of which were significantly abused , as claims were often made well in excess of actual losses . This policy of lenience was furthermore disliked by politically influential Protestants , which complicated some of Cornwallis 's later activities .
To finish putting down the rebellion and create a semblance of peace , Cornwallis needed more troops . Pitt had promised him 5 @,@ 000 regulars and militia prior to his appointment . While regular troops were among the first to arrive , Ireland became a virtual garrison by September as militia companies flooded in . On 27 June , the Irish Parliament passed a bill Cornwallis introduced to regulate the use of English militia companies .
The rebel ringleaders were subjected to courts martial dominated by Protestants , something Cornwallis disliked but put up with . A few of the rebel leaders were tried for treason in July , and sentenced by Cornwallis to hang . This prompted a large number of prisoners , who had not yet been tried , to petition Cornwallis for banishment in exchange for their co @-@ operation . Cornwallis agreed in principle , to stem the flow of blood that was still ongoing in the countryside , and out of concern that the rebellion might be renewed if French assistance arrived . The banishments in many cases were not carried out until 1799 . In spite of some opposition , Cornwallis ultimately succeeded in having more than 400 rebels banished , primarily to Scotland . According to Lord Castlereagh , Cornwallis ' Chief Secretary , Cornwallis personally reviewed 400 court cases , sentencing 131 to death .
= = = French invasion = = =
French support for Irish independence waned after the death of Lazare Hoche , one of its main proponents , and the driving force behind the 1796 invasion attempt . Napoleon considered an invasion of Great Britain in late 1797 and early 1798 , but dropped the idea in February 1798 after seeing the poor condition of the navy . Napoleon instead chose to begin an expedition to Malta and Egypt in May , shortly before the Irish rebellion erupted . However , Wolfe Tone and other Irish dissidents in France managed to extract some assistance from the French Directory .
Cornwallis did not directly involve himself in military matters until the unexpected arrival on 22 August of French troops at Killala Bay in County Mayo , an area that had not seen much rebellious activity . A fleet of three ships had sailed from Rochefort in early August , carrying General Jean Humbert and over 1 @,@ 000 French troops , pursuant to a plan that also included 3 @,@ 000 troops to sail from Brest . When they landed , Humbert relatively quickly raised several hundred poorly disciplined recruits to join him , and began moving south .
News of Humbert 's landing reached Dublin two days later . Cornwallis , fearing their presence would encourage renewed uprisings , stepped in to direct military matters . He despatched General Lake to oversee the defences at Castlebar , where Humbert appeared to be heading , with orders to avoid a confrontation until he had sufficient strength . On the morning of 27 August , Lake 's force was routed in the " races of Castlebar " . Most of the fleeing defenders ended up at Tuam , some 30 miles ( 48 km ) from Castlebar , where Cornwallis went the next day with reinforcements . To bolster the forces , he reduced the garrisons at Dublin and Wexford significantly . Despite building a sizeable force ( estimated at about 10 @,@ 000 ) , Cornwallis was concerned about the quality of these forces , which included sizeable militia and yeomanry whose reliability in combat was uncertain . He also had to deal with their behaviour : actions of plunder and violence against locals in the early stages of the campaign prompted him to issue orders threatening immediate execution for soldiers caught stealing , and called on officers " to assist him in stopping the licentious behavior of the troops " .
General Humbert , who knew he would be significantly outmanned until the arrival of the Brest fleet unless he could reignite the rebellion and raise more men , then led Cornwallis and Lake on a chase . Seeking to gain support in Ulster , Humbert rapidly moved north . Cornwallis detached Lake to follow Humbert , while he monitored Humbert 's movements and kept positions between Humbert and Dublin . Humbert failed to gain significant local support , and was eventually trapped between the two forces at Ballinamuck . After a brief battle there on 8 September , Humbert surrendered . The fleet from Brest , carrying Wolfe Tone among others , sailed late , and attempted to escape British naval ships in an attempt to return to France ; most of the fleet was captured , and Wolfe Tone was brought to Dublin in chains . According to one account , Cornwallis ordered a number of Humbert 's Irish supporters to be killed by lottery . Pieces of paper , some marked " death " , were placed in a hat . Prisoners then drew from the hat , and were immediately led to the gallows if they drew one of the marked papers .
Cornwallis was criticised for the slow pace with which he went after Humbert , and the large number of troops used to capture the relatively modest French army . However , supporters pointed out that all of the French force was captured , and there was no subsequent uprising . General John Moore countered some of the criticisms , noting that Cornwallis " always suspected the Shannon and Dublin to be the objects [ of Humbert 's movements ] , and by guarding against them in time he prevented much mischief . He showed much prudence and judgment in the service . "
= = = Aftermath = = =
In the aftermath of the rebellion , Cornwallis came to believe that British policy toward Ireland was flawed , and that it was his job as Lord Lieutenant to promote measures that would benefit the entire population . This view brought him into conflict with both the Protestant elites in the Irish parliament , and the political establishment in London , even though he was in agreement with the latter that Ireland should be united with Great Britain .
In 1799 and 1800 , Ireland was suffering from food shortages that were exacerbated by crop failures in 1799 and a shortage of milling capacity . When Cornwallis offered a bounty to food importers , Portland , the Home Secretary , objected . Cornwallis did take other steps , including the banning of distillation of spirits ; he even considered arranging for imports of grain from America .
Attempting to act on a bequest by the recently deceased Bishop of Armagh for the establishment of a " university of Dissenters " there , Cornwallis proposed the establishment of a university for Presbyterians modelled on Trinity College , Dublin . Portland opposed the move , arguing in a manner the Wickwires describe as specious that the dissenters did not require a university , and that Ireland only needed the one university it already had .
= = Union = =
The Protestant elites in Ireland had previously petitioned for union with Great Britain early in the 18th century , principally to overcome London 's essentially colonial treatment of the country , which included trade restrictions detrimental to Irish merchants and businessmen . The subject arose several times in Irish and British political circles , and William Pitt had decided that it was time to give the matter serious consideration by the time Cornwallis went to Dublin . British politicians saw the immediate aftermath of the rebellion as a particularly opportune moment to press the matter . King George wrote that his officials should use " the present moment of terror " to convince Irish political interests previously opposed to support the idea .
The Protestant Ascendancy stood to lose a great deal in union , as seats in parliament , a significant source of power to a relatively small number of families , would necessarily be reduced as a consequence . To counter this assault on their power base , Cornwallis sought to use his power as lord lieutenant to grant government jobs ( patronage ) and peerages to essentially buy off enough votes in the Irish parliament so that it would vote itself out of existence . This task , which the Wickwires describe as " a program of wholesale bribery " , was one that Cornwallis found extremely unpleasant .
= = = Early setback = = =
Cornwallis believed that the terms of union should include Catholic emancipation . While some rights had been restored in the early 1790s , Catholics were still denied elective offices and other rights . Almost everyone in the establishments of Dublin and London , including the king and much of Pitt 's cabinet , opposed this , leading Cornwallis to write that " some mode must be adopted to soften the hatred of the Catholics to our government " . In a letter to the Home Secretary he wrote , " I trust that your grace and His Majesty 's other ministers will on no account consent to the insertion of any clause which shall unalterably bind the United Parliament to persevere in the exclusion of Catholics . " Protestants , including the Lord Chancellor , Lord Clare , who favoured union , opposed Catholic emancipation . " I trust , and I hope I am not deceived , that they are fairly inclined to give them up , and to bring [ union ] forward unencumbered with the doctrine of emancipation . " King George , after Cornwallis ' appointment , wrote to Pitt that " Cornwallis must clearly understand that no indulgence can be granted to the Catholics farther than has been " . Cornwallis ' efforts to include support for emancipation clearly had negative repercussions . One Protestant wrote , " his silly conduct , his total incapacity , and self conceit and mulishness have alone lost the question [ of union ] " , while another wrote to Castlereagh that Cornwallis had been rendered " not only an object of disgust , but of abhorrence . "
None of this prevented Cornwallis , with the assistance of Castlereagh , from forging ahead with the raising of support for union in November 1798 , after the rebellion had died down . Their politicking included firing government officials opposed to union and giving the jobs to supporters , and the offering of a small number of peerages . However , they could not overcome the rumours generated by early drafts of the details of union that appeared to conspire against the Protestant interests . In December 1798 , trade groups representing lawyers , merchants , and bankers all came out against the idea . The principal objection was that there would be fewer seats available for Irish representation in the united parliament , resulting in a loss of power for those whose seats would not be retained . Cornwallis saw the trouble ahead , warning Portland that it was unlikely to pass .
On 22 January 1799 , both the Irish and British parliaments met , and each heard a substantially similar address in favour of union delivered in London by the king , and in Dublin by the Lord Lieutenant . The Irish House of Commons , in a clear signal , agreed with the sentiments of the speech by only two votes . Castlereagh , who had been optimistic about the prospects of passage , informed Portland , " I should despair of the success of the measure at any future period , so weighty is the opposition ... , were I not convinced that their repugnance turns more upon points of personal interest , than a fixed aversion to the principle of union . "
= = = Building support = = =
In the aftermath of the speech 's poor reception , Pitt effectively promised Cornwallis carte blanche to build support for union . Portland wrote to Cornwallis , " I hope it is unnecessary to assure your excellency that whatever your decisions may be you may depend upon their receiving the unreserved sanction and support of His Majesty 's servants . " On the basis of these assurances , Cornwallis and Castlereagh developed a plan to coopt or convince enough of the propertied interests that controlled the parliament to support the union . Cornwallis found this task , which occupied much of the next year , to be extremely distasteful : " My occupation is now of the most unpleasant nature , negotiating and jobbing with the most corrupt people under heaven . I despise and hate myself every hour for engaging in such dirty work , and am supported only by the reflection that without an Union the British Empire must be dissolved . " The task was made somewhat more pleasant by the arrival of his son for a short visit in July 1799 .
Some of Cornwallis ' opponents were particularly difficult to deal with . The Marquess of Downshire , who controlled eight seats in the Irish parliament , managed to convince his militia regiment to sign a petition in February 1800 opposing union ; Cornwallis used his military authority to suspend Downshire from his command . When the news reached London , Downshire was stripped of further privileges by King George , and formally stripped of his colonel 's commission . Others were more easily bought off with further promises of patronage and peerages . Cornwallis also worked to get support from Catholics , but was only able to make the vaguest promises concerning their rights due to the high @-@ level resistance to the idea .
Debate for union began in the Irish parliament on 15 January 1800 . Peers in the upper house , concerned that Irish peerages would be debased by the union , at first resisted ; Cornwallis promised them that the king would phase out Irish peerages , issuing more British peerages instead . On 28 March the parliament passed resolutions indicating support for union , so Castlereagh formally introduced the Act of Union on 21 May . The bill was passed in June , and Cornwallis gave it the royal assent on 1 August , with the union to take effect on 1 January 1801 . It included no provisions for Catholic rights . Clare , the Lord Chancellor , wrote , " I am now quite satisfied that [ Cornwallis ] has on the whole been the man of all others best selected for the crisis . "
Some political opponents declared that the union had been accomplished by corrupt on the part of government officials . Jonah Barrington alleged that Castlereagh corruptly spent £ 1 @.@ 5 million of treasury funds to achieve union , and Henry Grattan 's son wrote that " the union ... was an act of power and corruption . " This accusation was picked up by 19th @-@ century historians , and persisted into 20th century historiography . Historian Patrick Geoghegan observes that the methods the government employed were not unusual for the time , and Donal McCartney observes " it would be old @-@ fashioned , too nationalist , and much too simplistic to hold that the act of union was carried mainly because of the corrupt methods employed by the government . "
= = = Delivering on promises = = =
After dissolving the Irish parliament , Cornwallis embarked on a goodwill tour of the island , and was generally well @-@ received wherever he went ; " not an unpleasant circumstance to a man who has governed a country above two years by martial law . " Anticipating little trouble delivering on the many promises he had made , Cornwallis had forwarded to London a list of sixteen names to be granted peerages . The Home Secretary hedged , delayed , and refused many of them ; Cornwallis threatened to resign , since he had staked his reputation on the matter .
" When the promise was given I thought that I had made a good bargain for the public , and in the progress of the business I have seen no cause to alter my opinion ... I am bound in honor to stand by it ... There was no sacrifice that I should not have been happy to make for the service of my king and country , except that of honor . "
Castlereagh supported Cornwallis in his quest , and the pressure on the London cabinet succeeded . Portland informed Cornwallis that the cabinet would respond favourably , and it did . In the following months , many new peerages were issued , over and above those that Cornwallis requested .
Cabinet and royal support did not extend to Cornwallis 's persistent requests for Catholic rights ; he gave signs that he would eventually resign if action was not taken . Neither he nor Pitt , who had come to support him , was able to sway the king , who gave an anti @-@ Catholic speech in January 1801 . In response to this , Pitt requested the king 's permission to resign . At an impasse over the issue , King George accepted Pitt 's resignation on 5 February ; Cornwallis also resigned , agreeing to remain in office until a successor arrived to replace him . On 25 May 1801 , his successor , the Earl of Hardwicke , arrived in Dublin . Three days later , Cornwallis , delayed by bad weather , arrived at Holyhead , and returned to London .
= = Legacy = =
Cornwallis ' work on union and his position on Catholic emancipation , while unsuccessful at the time , were politically influential . Although he was unable to move the king on the issue of emancipation , his views may have played a role in the change of position on the issue by Lord Clare and Edward Cooke , another early critic of emancipation , and rendered its passage , according to one commentator , " only a question of time " . Political movements toward emancipation continued , first under Henry Grattan , and then later under Daniel O 'Connell , whose campaigns for Catholic rights in the 1820s led to the 1829 Catholic Relief Act .
Cornwallis next was engaged by the king in diplomatic efforts in Europe . He led the British diplomatic team whose negotiations with Napoleon resulted in the 1802 Treaty of Amiens . He was then offered a second tour of duty in India . After a difficult sea voyage , he died in India not long after arriving there in 1805 . He is buried in Ghazipur , India .
= Max Payne ( character ) =
Max Payne is the main character and protagonist from the neo @-@ noir video game series of the same name . Max was introduced in the 2001 third @-@ person shooter Max Payne , which was written by Sam Lake and developed by Remedy Entertainment . The game 's publisher , 3D Realms , intended Max to serve as the " foundation of a new gaming franchise " . In the first game the character was portrayed by Lake , with Timothy Gibbs and James McCaffrey later taking over the role , and consistently voiced by McCaffrey . Mark Wahlberg portrayed Max in the film adaptation . The first game in the series presents the story as retold by Max from his point of view , while the sequel , Max Payne 2 : The Fall of Max Payne , alternates between his and that of the femme fatale character Mona Sax .
In the original Max Payne , Max is an NYPD police officer and an undercover special agent for the DEA . Max becomes a vigilante following the murder of his family and later the murder of his police partner , which he was framed for . Later , he returns to the service as a detective , before his life is soon shattered by death and betrayal . At the start of Max Payne 3 by Rockstar Games , he finds himself employed as a bodyguard for Rodrigo Branco , a wealthy man in Brazil . Max Payne has been very well received by media .
= = Character development = =
In the creation of Max Payne , the publisher 3D Realms " wanted to develop another strong character that would be the foundation for a new gaming franchise , much like we [ 3D Realms ] had done with Duke Nukem . " The titular character of Max Payne was originally named Max Heat , and 3D Realms spent over $ 20 @,@ 000 worldwide trademarking this name before someone at the company suggested the last name Payne , which was immediately adopted . He was modeled after Sam Lake ( Sami Järvi ) , who wrote the game 's story and script for the Finnish company Remedy Entertainment . Lake also dressed up and played this role for the graphic novel @-@ style cutscenes . For Max Payne 2 : The Fall of Max Payne , however , Lake declined the role . Due to having a much larger budget this time , the developers were able to hire professional actors , choosing Timothy Gibbs to be the new model for Max .
In both games , Max 's voice actor was James McCaffrey . McCaffrey recalled : " Originally , I ’ d worked on a show called Swift Justice , and there were some similarities between the two characters in terms of them both having experienced some family tragedy and were familiar with the concept of vengeance , but there weren ’ t any specific characters that Max is based on . " In an early announcement from Rockstar Games ( the franchise 's new developer and publisher ) Max 's voice actor was to be recast with an older actor . In the end , however , McCaffrey did return to the role of Max in Max Payne 3 , for which he also provided the motion capture material . McCaffrey said that performing motion capture helped match the dialogue to the scenes and compared it to " having to act in Avatar . " Payne 's look changed significantly for the third game , featuring an older , bald and bearded Max ; this move received an overwhelmingly negative reception . In response , Rockstar Games made changes to the game , as Max 's appearance shifts over the course of the game , including his ' classic ' appearance during flashbacks of his time in New Jersey . According to Rockstar 's Sam Houser , " This is Max as we 've never seen him before , a few years older , more world @-@ weary and cynical than ever . " McCaffrey compared Max in the third game to Charles Bronson 's character Paul Kersey in the film Death Wish .
= = = Attributes = = =
Max Payne has been put into a fatalist situation against his will , in the style of a classic element of many noir films , the fall guy . Max is an antihero , as he himself states : " I was not one of them , I was no hero . " The character is noted for his complex use of both metaphors and wordplay to describe the world around him within his inner monologues , which often contradict his external responses to characters he speaks with . He is an extreme introvert and his life is largely illustrated through dramatic and often morbidly cynical soliloquies describing his feelings about his actions and situation . It is also hinted through the games that Max has a questionable grip on reality .
At the beginning of the first game , Max is seen differently as a smiling , happily married extrovert with a bright personality . However , after his family was murdered , Max loses his meaning of life and blindly works toward his only remaining purpose : vengeance . However , he has not nullified his feelings , as he is taken with the femme fatale contract killer Mona Sax first they meet , and befriends Vladimir Lem . All the while , Max shows signs of survivor 's guilt and self @-@ destructive behaviour , considering his life to have ended " in a New York minute " . At the end of the second game , he finally seems to find peace within himself , saying : " I had a dream of my wife . She was dead . But it was alright . " However , this is not the case in Max Payne 3 as in the opening cinematic the drunk Max angrily throws a portrait of what is implied to be his family against his apartment wall ; he regrets this act and picks up the picture .
Rockstar vice @-@ president Dan Houser described Max Payne in the third game as " a drunk , somewhat morose , widowed ex @-@ cop , trying to find some kind of peace with himself . [ ... ] A man who has spent his life killing , even in the service of his idea of what is right or wrong , is going to be extremely damaged . [ ... ] He wants to be a thinker but he 's much better as a doer . When he thinks he gets wrapped up in himself or makes mistakes . When he acts , he is brilliant , almost super @-@ human . That is his character , and the dichotomy between the two is the reality of his life , and at the heart of the game . He cannot seem to move forward emotionally , but physically he is relentless . " Max is shown to be quite aware of his shortcomings and flaws , stating : " I 'm not slipping . I 'm slipped . I 'm a bad joke . " Max Payne 3 has him display not only extreme violence but also more restraint than in the previous games .
= = Appearances = =
= = = In video games = = =
In the original game , spanning the period of three years between 1998 and 2001 , Max Payne ( voiced by James McCaffrey ) is a former New York City Police Department ( NYPD ) homicide detective whose wife Michelle and six @-@ month @-@ old daughter Rose were brutally murdered in a home invasion connected with the investigation of a new street drug known as Valkyr . In response , Max joined the Drug Enforcement Administration ( DEA ) as a secret agent and went undercover in the Mafia . Eventually , framed for the murder of his NYPD and DEA partner Alex Balder , and with his identity exposed , Max becomes a fugitive wanted by the Mafia and the police alike while waging his personal war on the crime . Eventually , he discovers and seemingly destroys a powerful conspiracy behind all these events .
After solving the Valkyr case and avenging his family , Max is cleared by his contact in the powerful secret society known as the Inner Circle , and returns to the NYPD . In the first sequel , taking place in 2003 , Max begins investigating a series of murders by a shadowy group of professional killers called the Cleaners . Soon , Max reunites with the murder suspect Mona Sax to solve the mysteries of the Inner Circle ; the investigation leads to Mona 's death .
Following the events of the second game , Max is dismissed from the force , and is now addicted to alcohol and painkillers . After a violent mob confrontation , he eventually leaves New York City for the unfamiliar streets of São Paulo , Brazil . Max gets a job working in a security detail for Rodrigo Branco , a wealthy businessman along with Raul Passos who went through police training with Max . After Rodrigo 's wife is kidnapped , Max and Raul discover and then destroy a human organ harvesting ring involving local street gangs , right @-@ wing paramilitary mercenaries and a corrupt Brazilian special police force .
= = = In film = = =
In the film adaptation , loosely based on the plot of the first game in the series , Max Payne , played by Mark Wahlberg , is a NYPD cop seeking revenge against his family 's killers . When Mark Wahlberg first read Beau Thorne 's script he thought it was " awesome " but became wary after finding out it was based on a video game . Describing his role , Wahlberg said : " It 's probably one of the edgier roles I 've played but also the most layered . Here 's a very happy guy who worked a dismal job , had a beautiful family . But the beauty in his life was taken away . He just goes on a rampage . It 's all driven by emotion . " 3D Realms ' Scott Miller , however , said Max Payne was poorly portrayed in the film , falling short of the game 's standards .
= = = Other appearances = = =
A three @-@ issue Max Payne 3 tie @-@ in digital comic , created and released in partnership between Rockstar Games and Marvel Comics explores Max 's early years and the events prior to the third game in the series . Max was born to Helen and Jack Payne . Max 's father was a PTSD suffering Vietnam veteran who cheated on and sometimes beat his wife . An important influence on the boy was his maternal grandfather ; a college professor who would tell him stories of ancient mythology . Helen died in 1976 , possibly due to her alcoholism ; Jack 's death followed three years later . As a young man , Max graduated from the New York City Police Academy as the top trainee in his class . Several years later , he has first met his future wife Michelle by saving her from two robbers . They married six months later and their daughter was born on February 4 , 1998 .
In 2012 , several sets of Max Payne 's Xbox Live Avatar clothes from the original game were released by Rockstar on the Xbox Live Marketplace . Max Payne 3 Special Edition was bundled with a 10 " tall collectible Max Payne statue made by TriForce . According to an Easter egg in Remedy Entertainment 's Alan Wake , Max died 13 years after the events of Max Payne 2 ( in 2016 ) . However , this is not canonical , as the rights to the series have moved to Rockstar Games . In Rockstar 's 2013 Grand Theft Auto V , the player character Michael can be customized to look like Max in Max Payne 3 .
= = Reception = =
Max Payne was named the year 's best game character by Eurogamer in 2001 . In 2008 , PC Zone ranked him as PC gaming 's seventh @-@ best character , commenting : " He might be a film noir cliché , but Max Payne is a relatively unique specimen in games , with a superb script and suitably smooth voice acting to match . " Game Informer included him on their list of game characters that " shaped the 2000s , " as chosen by the staff and readers alike . In 2011 , readers of Guinness World Records voted Max as the 42nd @-@ top video game character of all time . In 2012 , GamesRadar ranked him as the 23rd " most memorable , influential , and badass " protagonist in video games due to his " series of extraordinary mobster @-@ murdering scenarios . "
Gulf News ranked him as second on their 2011 list of top video game characters , adding that " his no @-@ nonsense , take @-@ no @-@ prisoners attitude won him legions of fans . " That same year , Max was ranked sixth on the list of gaming 's top antiheroes by ScrewAttack , and 360 ranked his name as fifth on their list of the top " manliest " character names on Xbox 360 . IGN featured Max prominently in their 2012 article " A History of Badasses , " ranked him as the gaming 's " most notorious " antihero that same year , and called him " one of video games ' most troubled characters . " In 2013 , Complex ranked him as the 42nd " most badass " video game character of all time . He was also ranked as the eighth " most bad @-@ ass " video game character by The Ultimate Gamer that same year .
In addition , the sex scene between Max and Mona was ranked as the fifth sexiest moment in gaming by Games.net in 2007 , who called it " actually one of the most fitting [ sex scenes ] ever seen in a video game . " Their affair also ranked as sixth on the list of the most " disastrous game romances " by GamesRadar in 2011 . ScrewAttack , in 2012 , included both the new and the classic versions of the character in Max Payne 3 on their list of top ten " gamer costumes " for Halloween . That same year , GamesRadar included Max among the " 13 unluckiest bastards in gaming , " stating that " it ’ s hard to think of a protagonist who gets shit on more relentlessly than Max Payne " and noting him for having " the most comically overwrought internal monologues ever to appear in a game . "
In 2013 , Complex included Max Payne at the number @-@ two spot on their list of " old school " video game characters who were style icons , as " the gritty , hard @-@ boiled NYC cop look was a perfect fit . " The character 's initial design changes during the long development cycle of Max Payne 3 brought severe criticism from the fan community as well as the media ; UGO commented that " his suave , noir look got booted by trailer trash sensibilities " and blamed Obadiah Stane , Bam Bam Bigelow , John McClane and Kerry King for being " most responsible for Max 's new style . " Keith Stuart of The Guardian opined that , with the third game , Rockstar succeeded in turning " its ex @-@ cop anti @-@ hero into a credible character , " even as there is a " slight disconnect between the shambling Max of the cinematic sequences and the athletic psychopath we control in the interactive sections . "
= The Gift ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" The Gift " is the eleventh episode of the eighth season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network in the United States on February 4 , 2001 . The episode was written by Frank Spotnitz and directed by Kim Manners . " The Gift " has elements of both a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " episode , and an entry in the series ' mythology . The episode received a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 8 and was viewed by 14 @.@ 6 million viewers . Overall , the episode received largely mixed reviews from television critics ; while many appreciated the return focus on Fox Mulder 's ( David Duchovny ) absence , others felt that the plot revelations were unnaturally forced into the show .
The season centers on FBI special agents Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) and her new partner John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) — following the alien abduction of her former partner , Mulder — who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In this episode , Doggett comes upon an old case about a professed " soul @-@ eater " that he hopes will ultimately prove the truth behind Mulder ’ s abduction . In a series of flashbacks , it is revealed that , after his exposure to an alien artifact , Mulder was slowly dying of a brain disease . In an attempt to heal himself , he tracked down the soul eater a year before the events of the episode , but felt pity for the creature . In the present , Doggett is shot and killed by the local sheriff , but the soul eater consumes his death and is finally allowed to die , resurrecting Doggett in the process .
" The Gift " featured the first substantial appearance of Duchovny since the season opener ; he had elected not to return to the show as a full @-@ time main character following the season seven finale . The episode was written by Spotnitz and was based on folklore surrounding the soul eater . Gillian Anderson , who did not appear in the episode , save for stock footage , later revealed that she was grateful for the time off because it allowed her to spend more time with her daughter . The episode has been analyzed for its themes of death and resurrection , its use of a medicine wheel as a motif , and it has been compared and contrasted with the fourth season episode " Leonard Betts " .
= = Plot = =
= = = Background = = =
FBI special agent Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) is currently missing , having been abducted by aliens in the seventh season finale , " Requiem . " His partner Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) has been working with Agent John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) in order to locate him . Shortly after Mulder was abducted , Scully and Doggett learned that he had been suffering from a brain tumor and was nearing his demise . After a false lead in the Arizona desert early in the year , Doggett has been assigned to the X @-@ Files division , but he has continued his search for Mulder , despite a lack of definite leads .
= = = Events = = =
A man — whose face is hidden from the camera — drives up to and enters a house , which has an ominous symbol drawn in blood on the door . When he 's inside , a creature that looks somewhat human @-@ like approaches the woman but the mysterious man shoots the creature three times . As he returns to his car his identity is finally revealed : Agent Fox Mulder .
Agent Doggett investigates a possible lead into Mulder 's disappearance in Squamash , Pennsylvania . Apparently , in the spring of 2000 , Mulder visited the small town searching for something to cure his terminal brain disease that he received via exposure to an alien artifact . Doggett is informed by the local sheriff ( Michael McGrady ) that Mulder was there investigating a case involving Marie Hangemuhl ( Natalie Radford ) . Hangemuhl was told by her sister about a Native American legend of some sort of creature that lives in the woods . While interrogating the Hangemuhls in the present , Doggett learns that Hangemuhl is suffering from terminal renal failure . As he is leaving , he also notices plastered @-@ over gunshot holes in their wall . Later , at Mulder 's apartment , Doggett finds a gun Mulder kept hidden under his sink . Meanwhile , in Squamash , a backhoe digs at a stone circle located in the town cemetery . Later that night , the citizens of Squamash show up at a cabin in the woods , demanding to a rustic woman ( Caroline Lagerfelt ) living there that " it " be sent out . A creature attempts to escape , but it is captured .
Doggett and Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) return to Squamash , and the two ask the sheriff about the murder of an unidentified transient . Doggett believes that the transient was murdered by Mulder . Doggett and Skinner travel to the cemetery and discover that the grave dug up by the backhoe earlier is that of the transient . The two find the casket empty , but Doggett notices that the transient tunneled out of his own coffin . The sheriff arrives with the creature — revealed to be a soul eater , a creature that subsists off human disease — at the Hangemuhl home , where the symbol in blood is on the door again . The hideous creature opens its jaws wide and bites Hangemuhl . Doggett suggests to Skinner that Mulder shot someone to protect Hangemuhl from the man who was supposed to be in that grave . Meanwhile , deep underground , the creature vomits what appears to be the visceral remains of Marie into a person @-@ shaped mold in the soil .
Doggett goes off alone to see the woman who guarded the creature in the woods . The woman implies that Mulder , feeling sorry for the creature , was trying to euthanize the creature , not save Hangemuhl . Doggett hears a noise and finds a trap door leading into the tunnels . Underground , he finds Hangemuhl and takes her to the hospital . Skinner checks in with Doggett who reports that Hangemuhl 's kidneys have healed spontaneously . Doggett returns to the woman in the woods who watches over the creature ; after recoiling at its ugliness , the woman explains that it looks the way it does because it takes the sickness of others into itself , while healing them in the process . Doggett decides to take the creature away from the society , which only uses it . However , Doggett is shot and killed in a scuffle with the sheriff and is promptly buried . Later , Doggett awakens in the tunnels . In the dark corner of the cavern , the woman kneels beside the dead soul eater . She weeps over it , revealing that , by eating Doggett 's death , it has finally been allowed to die .
Back at FBI Headquarters , Doggett is struggling to write his report . When Skinner checks in on him , he encourages Doggett to not submit a report , as it would contradict Mulder 's earlier report and damage his , Scully 's , and Doggett 's reputation . Doggett protests that Scully had no knowledge of the events , but Skinner reminds him that it would take months to clear her name , and that it is enough that the two of them know the truth about what happened .
= = Production = =
= = = Background and writing = = =
" The Gift " featured the first substantial appearance from Duchovny as Mulder since the season openers " Within " and " Without " . After settling his contract dispute with Fox , Duchovny quit full @-@ time participation in the show after the seventh season . In order to explain Mulder 's absence , Duchovny 's character was abducted by aliens in the seventh season finale , " Requiem " . After several rounds of contractual discussions , Duchovny agreed to return for a total of 11 season eight episodes . Series creator Chris Carter later argued that Mulder 's absences from the series did not affect the characterization , noting that " there are characters who can be powerful as absent centers , as Mulder was through the eighth and ninth seasons . "
The episode was written by executive producer Frank Spotnitz and was intended as a morality tale . Spotnitz made sure that the episode had an explicit purpose and reason , and he noted , " If you 're going to depart from literal reality as most of us know — if you 're going to go into supernatural — as a writer you have to ask yourself ' Why ? ... And if you don 't really have a point or reason , your story 's probably not going to be very good . " Despite largely being concerned with a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " , " The Gift " also fits in the series ' overarching mythology . The Complete X @-@ Files book , released in 2008 , considers the episode part of the overall myth arc , however , it was not included on the 2005 DVD release The X @-@ Files Mythology , Volume 4 – Super Soldiers .
The episode touches upon and explores Mulder 's brain disease , a plot device that was introduced in the season opener " Within " . This was largely a retcon placed in the series after the fact . The series rationalized this revelation with the fact that , due to Mulder 's exposure to the black oil in the fourth season episodes " Tunguska " and " Terma " and his forced brain operation by The Smoking Man ( William B. Davis ) in the seventh season episode " The Sixth Extinction II : Amor Fati " , his brain developed an incurable disease that was slowly killing him . In fact , Mulder 's " one @-@ week recovery " from his brain surgery was a point of criticism when " The Sixth Extinction II : Amor Fati " initially aired in 1999 .
= = = Filming = = =
" The Gift " was directed by Kim Manners , and it marked his third directing credit for the season , after the opening two @-@ parter " Within " and " Without " . Although the episode was the eighth entry aired during the 2000 – 01 season , it was actually the eleventh filmed , as evidenced by its production number . Due to Duchovny 's limited availability , Mulder 's appearances were limited to flashbacks . This technique had previously been used during the filming of the episode " Per Manum " , which — although it was aired after " The Gift " — was filmed before this episode .
The majority of the episode — like the rest of seasons six , seven , eight and nine — was filmed in and around the Los Angeles , California area . The scenes taking place at the soul eater 's residence were filmed on Ventura Farms , a California horse establishment and filming location near the town of Thousand Oaks . The filming location had previously been used for the earlier eight season episode " Patience " , for scenes taking place at the undertaker 's residence . The scene featuring The Lone Gunmen talking to Doggett via webcams was actually filmed on the set of their spin @-@ off series , the eponymous The Lone Gunmen . Although the bulk of the episode was filmed by director Manners , the snippet of the Gunmen was directed by Bryan Spicer , who directed several of The Lone Gunmen episodes , as well as the Gunmen @-@ centric sixth season entry " Three of a Kind " .
The episode was written to not require Gillian Anderson at all . As a result , the finished episode only features stock footage of Scully from " Within " , and Anderson was not required to film any new scenes . Anderson later revealed that she was extremely grateful for this and other " Doggett @-@ centric " episodes , because they provided her time to spend time with her daughter , Piper Maru , who was attending school in Canada . Anderson insisted that the show both understand her situation and make accommodations : in an interview , she explained , " I was determined that they respect that I would work for three weeks and then have two or three weeks off to go and be with her . So they agreed to that , and that was important to me . I 'd never had that before on the show . "
" The Gift " was the first episode that make @-@ up artist Matthew W. Mungle 's company worked on for The X @-@ Files . The soul eater was a combination of actor Jordan Marder in make @-@ up , and a silicone dummy that featured an extendable mouth and movable teeth .
= = Themes = =
As The X @-@ Files entered into its eighth season , " human resurrection and salvation " as well as " disease , suffering , and healing " became an increasingly central focus of the show . " The Gift " , along with various other episodes during the eighth season of the show , would be the first to explore themes of death and resurrection . These sub @-@ themes emerged in the season premiere " Within " when Scully is shown Mulder 's tombstone . In " The Gift " , the theme is explored further ; not only is Doggett mortally wounded and then resurrected , the story behind Mulder 's inoperable brain tumor is also explored . In " Deadalive " , the theme reappears in full @-@ force : Billy Miles is found dead but resurrects , Mulder is buried for three months , and later , is brought back to life . This sub @-@ theme would continue well into the ninth season , in entries such as " Audrey Pauley " .
The episode makes heavy use of a medicine wheel . Doggett first discovers this symbol on the unknown grave that he digs up . The wheel is a Native American symbol common in folklore that is considered sacred ; although the size and shape varies , it usually consists of a central stone or cairn , concentric circles of stones , and at least two lines coming from the center of the middle stone . The stone usage has been " mired in controversy " , but most Native American scholars agree that it represents the " synthesis and wholeness , including concepts of renewal and rebirth " . In the episode , the symbol is similar to the " X " that is " identical to The X @-@ Files program symbol " .
Amy Donaldson , in her book We Want to Believe contrasted the soul eater from " The Gift " to Leonard Betts , a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " character from the fourth season episode of the same name . In the episode , Mulder and Scully investigate the supposed death and regeneration of an emergency medical technician ( EMT ) named Leonard Betts , a mutant who subsists on and can detect cancer in others , as well as regenerate severed body parts . Donaldson reasons that Betts ' condition , in which he is " riddled with cancer " but can " see the sickness within people " , is a metaphor for someone who " has let sin or evil become the regular course of life " . Although Betts can detect and consume the illness , his motives are derived from " his own self appetite " . Donaldson argues that the soul eater is the polar opposite of Betts because it takes an illness in order to help a person . This is in contrast to Betts , who takes an illness — and harms his victim in the process — in order to keep himself alive .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" The Gift " first premiered on Fox in the United States on February 4 , 2001 . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 8 @.@ 8 , meaning that it was seen by 8 @.@ 8 % of the nation 's estimated households . The episode was viewed by 8 @.@ 87 million households and 14 @.@ 6 million viewers overall . The episode ranked as the 35th most @-@ watched episode for the week ending February 4 . The episode subsequently debuted in the United Kingdom on the BBC Two on May 19 , 2002 . Furthermore , because this was Duchovny 's first episode since the season opener , Fox heavily promoted the promo spots on television ; in the clip the announcer noted that " David Duchovny returns to The X @-@ Files " in the episode . In part , the episode was heavily promoted because it occurred during the February Sweeps , a time in which Nielsen processes approximately 2 million paper diaries from households across the country to collect viewing information . On November 4 , 2003 , the episode was released as part of the eighth season DVD box set .
= = = Reviews = = =
Critical reception to the episode was largely mixed . Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club awarded the episode an " A " and called it " a great monster story , and my favorite of what I 've seen of [ season eight ] so far . " He argued that the episode was " so effective " because it " isn 't just the inversion of the monster / normal personal dichotomy ; the show has pulled that trick before , and while it tries to play coy about the true nature of the soul eater at first , it 's not hard to recognize who the real villain is . " Handlen also wrote that the episode both " forces the audience to identify more strongly with Doggett " and made good use of Anderson 's absence . Meghan Deans of Tor.com felt that , while " the tale of the soul eater may have been a little rushed and a little sloppy " , the episode itself " has a spark to it [ which is the ] spark of the absent , the drive of the missing . The feeling that we ’ re all here for a reason , and that the show wants to live . "
Television Without Pity writer Jessica Morgan rated the episode a " B + " and applauded the return of Duchovny , writing , " welcome back , [ ... ] you magnificent bastard . " Tom Kessenich , in his book Examinations wrote a mixed review of the episode . On one hand , he praised the feel of the episode , writing , " in many ways , this was an episode that brought back the intensity , magic , and the power of The X @-@ Files that I have been missing throughout this most mundane of seasons . " In this manner , Kessenich felt that Doggett became " part of The X @-@ Files for the first time . " However , Kessenich also felt that the plot involving Mulder 's terminal brain disease was a mis @-@ step , noting that Mulder would have never kept something so serious and personal from Scully . He wrote , " a year ago , Mulder was not dying [ but ] what we once knew as truth has suddenly been replaced with a lie . " George Avalos and Michael Liedtke of the Contra Costa Times called the entry " one of the season 's more engaging episodes " and wrote positively of the " intriguing possibilities " that it set up for the final part of the season . They were also positive about the manner in which Doggett and Mulder were able to connect in " some mystical way " . However , Avalos and Liedtke were critical of the episode 's placement , noting that it would have worked better had it been the " fourth or fifth episode of the season " , as opposed to the eighth . Furthermore , they negatively wrote about the revelation that Mulder was suffering from a terminal brain disease , calling it a " monumental story " curve that did not bother " to connect all the dots behind " it .
Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode two stars out of five . Despite calling the episode " different " , the two wrote that the story involving Mulder was " not very satisfying " . In addition , the two called the finale " problematic " because it featured Skinner and Doggett suppressing the truth , a thematic choice that goes against the spirit of the series . Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a negative review and awarded it one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of four . Vitaris criticized Doggett 's role , noting that " you would think after this even he would become a raging believer , but no , he 's not changed one bit . " Marisa Guthrie of the Boston Herald derided the fact that Duchovny was given such little amounts of screen time . Furthermore , she was critical that Doggett remained a skeptic at the end of the episode .
= Augustus =
Augustus ( Latin : Imperātor Caesar Dīvī Fīlius Augustus ; 23 September 63 BC – 19 August 14 AD ) was the founder of the Roman Empire and its first Emperor , ruling from 27 BC until his death in AD 14 .
He was born Gaius Octavius into an old and wealthy equestrian branch of the plebeian Octavii family . His maternal great @-@ uncle Julius Caesar was assassinated in 44 BC , and Octavius was named in Caesar 's will as his adopted son and heir , then known as Octavianus ( Anglicized as Octavian ) . He , Mark Antony , and Marcus Lepidus formed the Second Triumvirate to defeat the assassins of Caesar . Following their victory at Philippi , the Triumvirate divided the Roman Republic among themselves and ruled as military dictators . The Triumvirate was eventually torn apart under the competing ambitions of its members . Lepidus was driven into exile and stripped of his position , and Antony committed suicide following his defeat at the Battle of Actium by Octavian in 31 BC .
After the demise of the Second Triumvirate , Augustus restored the outward facade of the free Republic , with governmental power vested in the Roman Senate , the executive magistrates , and the legislative assemblies . In reality , however , he retained his autocratic power over the Republic as a military dictator . By law , Augustus held a collection of powers granted to him for life by the Senate , including supreme military command , and those of tribune and censor . It took several years for Augustus to develop the framework within which a formally republican state could be led under his sole rule . He rejected monarchical titles , and instead called himself Princeps Civitatis ( " First Citizen of the State " ) . The resulting constitutional framework became known as the Principate , the first phase of the Roman Empire .
The reign of Augustus initiated an era of relative peace known as the Pax Romana ( The Roman Peace ) . The Roman world was largely free from large @-@ scale conflict for more than two centuries , despite continuous wars of imperial expansion on the Empire 's frontiers and one year @-@ long civil war over the imperial succession . Augustus dramatically enlarged the Empire , annexing Egypt , Dalmatia , Pannonia , Noricum , and Raetia ; expanding possessions in Africa ; expanding into Germania ; and completing the conquest of Hispania .
Beyond the frontiers , he secured the Empire with a buffer region of client states and made peace with the Parthian Empire through diplomacy . He reformed the Roman system of taxation , developed networks of roads with an official courier system , established a standing army , established the Praetorian Guard , created official police and fire @-@ fighting services for Rome , and rebuilt much of the city during his reign .
Augustus died in AD 14 at the age of 75 . He may have died from natural causes , although there were unconfirmed rumors that his wife Livia poisoned him . He was succeeded as Emperor by his adopted son ( also stepson and former son @-@ in @-@ law ) Tiberius .
= = Name = =
Augustus ( / ɔːˈɡʌstəs / ; Classical Latin : [ awˈɡʊstʊs ] ) was known by many names throughout his life :
At birth , he was named Gaius Octavius after his biological father . Historians typically refer to him simply as Octavius ( or Octavian ) between his birth in 63 until his adoption by Julius Caesar in 44 BC ( after Julius Caesar 's death ) .
Upon his adoption , he took Caesar 's name and became Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus in accordance with Roman adoption naming standards . He quickly dropped " Octavianus " from his name , and his contemporaries typically referred to him as " Caesar " during this period ; historians , however , refer to him as Octavian between 44 BC and 27 BC .
In 42 BC , Octavian began the Temple of Divus Iulius or Temple of the Comet Star and added Divi Filius ( Son of the Divine ) to his name in order to strengthen his political ties to Caesar 's former soldiers by following the deification of Caesar , becoming Gaius Julius Caesar Divi Filius .
In 38 BC , Octavian replaced his praenomen " Gaius " and nomen " Julius " with Imperator , the title by which troops hailed their leader after military success , officially becoming Imperator Caesar Divi Filius .
In 27 BC , following his defeat of Mark Antony and Cleopatra , the Roman Senate voted new titles for him , officially becoming Imperator Caesar Divi Filius Augustus . It is the events of 27 BC from which he obtained his traditional name of Augustus , which historians use in reference to him from 27 BC until his death in AD 14 .
= = Early life = =
While his paternal family was from the town of Velletri , approximately 40 kilometres ( 25 mi ) from Rome , Augustus was born in the city of Rome on 23 September 63 BC . He was born at Ox Head , a small property on the Palatine Hill , very close to the Roman Forum . He was given the name Gaius Octavius Thurinus , his cognomen possibly commemorating his father 's victory at Thurii over a rebellious band of slaves .
Due to the crowded nature of Rome at the time , Octavius was taken to his father 's home village at Velletri to be raised . Octavius only mentions his father 's equestrian family briefly in his memoirs . His paternal great @-@ grandfather Gaius Octavius was a military tribune in Sicily during the Second Punic War . His grandfather had served in several local political offices . His father , also named Gaius Octavius , had been governor of Macedonia . His mother , Atia , was the niece of Julius Caesar .
In 59 BC , when he was four years old , his father died . His mother married a former governor of Syria , Lucius Marcius Philippus . Philippus claimed descent from Alexander the Great , and was elected consul in 56 BC . Philippus never had much of an interest in young Octavius . Because of this , Octavius was raised by his grandmother ( and Julius Caesar 's sister ) , Julia .
Julia died in 52 or 51 BC , and Octavius delivered the funeral oration for his grandmother . From this point , his mother and stepfather took a more active role in raising him . He donned the toga virilis four years later , and was elected to the College of Pontiffs in 47 BC . The following year he was put in charge of the Greek games that were staged in honor of the Temple of Venus Genetrix , built by Julius Caesar . According to Nicolaus of Damascus , Octavius wished to join Caesar 's staff for his campaign in Africa , but gave way when his mother protested . In 46 BC , she consented for him to join Caesar in Hispania , where he planned to fight the forces of Pompey , Caesar 's late enemy , but Octavius fell ill and was unable to travel .
When he had recovered , he sailed to the front , but was shipwrecked ; after coming ashore with a handful of companions , he crossed hostile territory to Caesar 's camp , which impressed his great @-@ uncle considerably . Velleius Paterculus reports that after that time , Caesar allowed the young man to share his carriage . When back in Rome , Caesar deposited a new will with the Vestal Virgins , naming Octavius as the prime beneficiary .
= = Rise to power = =
= = = Heir to Caesar = = =
Octavius was studying and undergoing military training in Apollonia , Illyria , when Julius Caesar was killed on the Ides of March ( 15 March ) 44 BC . He rejected the advice of some army officers to take refuge with the troops in Macedonia and sailed to Italy to ascertain whether he had any potential political fortunes or security . Caesar had no living legitimate children under Roman law , and so had adopted Octavius , his grand @-@ nephew , making him his primary heir . Mark Antony later charged that Octavian had earned his adoption by Caesar through sexual favours , though Suetonius describes Antony 's accusation as political slander . After landing at Lupiae near Brundisium , Octavius learned the contents of Caesar 's will , and only then did he decide to become Caesar 's political heir as well as heir to two @-@ thirds of his estate .
Upon his adoption , Octavius assumed his great @-@ uncle 's name Gaius Julius Caesar . Roman citizens adopted into a new family usually retained their old nomen in cognomen form ( e.g. , Octavianus for one who had been an Octavius , Aemilianus for one who had been an Aemilius , etc . ) . However , though some of his contemporaries did , there is no evidence that Octavius ever himself officially used the name Octavianus , as it would have made his modest origins too obvious . Historians usually refer to the new Caesar as Octavian during the time between his adoption and his assumption of the name Augustus in 27 BC in order to avoid confusing the dead dictator with his heir .
Octavian could not rely on his limited funds to make a successful entry into the upper echelons of the Roman political hierarchy . After a warm welcome by Caesar 's soldiers at Brundisium , Octavian demanded a portion of the funds that were allotted by Caesar for the intended war against Parthia in the Middle East . This amounted to 700 million sesterces stored at Brundisium , the staging ground in Italy for military operations in the east .
A later senatorial investigation into the disappearance of the public funds took no action against Octavian , since he subsequently used that money to raise troops against the Senate 's arch enemy Mark Antony . Octavian made another bold move in 44 BC when , without official permission , he appropriated the annual tribute that had been sent from Rome 's Near Eastern province to Italy .
Octavian began to bolster his personal forces with Caesar 's veteran legionaries and with troops designated for the Parthian war , gathering support by emphasizing his status as heir to Caesar . On his march to Rome through Italy , Octavian 's presence and newly acquired funds attracted many , winning over Caesar 's former veterans stationed in Campania . By June , he had gathered an army of 3 @,@ 000 loyal veterans , paying each a salary of 500 denarii .
= = = Growing tensions = = =
Arriving in Rome on 6 May 44 BC , Octavian found consul Mark Antony , Caesar 's former colleague , in an uneasy truce with the dictator 's assassins . They had been granted a general amnesty on 17 March , yet Antony succeeded in driving most of them out of Rome . This was due to his " inflammatory " eulogy given at Caesar 's funeral , mounting public opinion against the assassins .
Mark Antony was amassing political support , but Octavian still had opportunity to rival him as the leading member of the faction supporting Caesar . Mark Antony had lost the support of many Romans and supporters of Caesar when he initially opposed the motion to elevate Caesar to divine status . Octavian failed to persuade Antony to relinquish Caesar 's money to him . During the summer , he managed to win support from Caesarian sympathizers , however , who saw the younger heir as the lesser evil and hoped to manipulate him , or to bear with him during their efforts to get rid of Antony .
Octavian began to make common cause with the Optimates , the former enemies of Caesar . In September , the leading Optimate orator Marcus Tullius Cicero began to attack Antony in a series of speeches portraying him as a threat to the Republican order . With opinion in Rome turning against him and his year of consular power nearing its end , Antony attempted to pass laws that would lend him control over Cisalpine Gaul , which had been assigned as part of his province , from Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus , one of Caesar 's assassins .
Octavian meanwhile built up a private army in Italy by recruiting Caesarian veterans and , on 28 November , he won over two of Antony 's legions with the enticing offer of monetary gain . In the face of Octavian 's large and capable force , Antony saw the danger of staying in Rome and , to the relief of the Senate , he fled to Cisalpine Gaul , which was to be handed to him on 1 January .
= = = First conflict with Antony = = =
Decimus Brutus refused to give up Cisalpine Gaul , so Antony besieged him at Mutina . Antony rejected the resolutions passed by the Senate to stop the violence , as the Senate had no army of its own to challenge him . This provided an opportunity for Octavian , who already was known to have armed forces . Cicero also defended Octavian against Antony 's taunts about Octavian 's lack of noble lineage and aping of Julius Caesar 's name , stating " we have no more brilliant example of traditional piety among our youth . "
At the urging of Cicero , the Senate inducted Octavian as senator on 1 January 43 BC , yet he also was given the power to vote alongside the former consuls . In addition , Octavian was granted propraetor imperium ( commanding power ) which legalized his command of troops , sending him to relieve the siege along with Hirtius and Pansa ( the consuls for 43 BC ) . In April 43 BC , Antony 's forces were defeated at the battles of Forum Gallorum and Mutina , forcing Antony to retreat to Transalpine Gaul . Both consuls were killed , however , leaving Octavian in sole command of their armies .
The senate heaped many more rewards on Decimus Brutus than on Octavian for defeating Antony , then attempted to give command of the consular legions to Decimus Brutus — yet Octavian decided not to cooperate . Instead , Octavian stayed in the Po Valley and refused to aid any further offensive against Antony . In July , an embassy of centurions sent by Octavian entered Rome and demanded that he receive the consulship left vacant by Hirtius and Pansa .
Octavian also demanded that the decree should be rescinded which declared Antony a public enemy . When this was refused , he marched on the city with eight legions . He encountered no military opposition in Rome , and on 19 August 43 BC was elected consul with his relative Quintus Pedius as co @-@ consul . Meanwhile , Antony formed an alliance with Marcus Aemilius Lepidus , another leading Caesarian .
= = = Second Triumvirate = = =
= = = = Proscriptions = = = =
In a meeting near Bologna in October 43 BC , Octavian , Antony , and Lepidus formed a junta called the Second Triumvirate . This explicit arrogation of special powers lasting five years was then supported by law passed by the plebs , unlike the unofficial First Triumvirate formed by Pompey , Julius Caesar , and Marcus Licinius Crassus . The triumvirs then set in motion proscriptions in which 300 senators and 2 @,@ 000 equites allegedly were branded as outlaws and deprived of their property and , for those who failed to escape , their lives .
The estimation that 300 senators were proscribed was presented by Appian , although his earlier contemporary Livy asserted that only 130 senators had been proscribed . This decree issued by the triumvirate was motivated in part by a need to raise money to pay the salaries of their troops for the upcoming conflict against Caesar 's assassins , Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus . Rewards for their arrest gave incentive for Romans to capture those proscribed , while the assets and properties of those arrested were seized by the triumvirs .
Contemporary Roman historians provide conflicting reports as to which triumvir was more responsible for the proscriptions and killing . However , the sources agree that enacting the proscriptions was a means by all three factions to eliminate political enemies . Marcus Velleius Paterculus asserted that Octavian tried to avoid proscribing officials whereas Lepidus and Antony were to blame for initiating them . Cassius Dio defended Octavian as trying to spare as many as possible , whereas Antony and Lepidus , being older and involved in politics longer , had many more enemies to deal with .
This claim was rejected by Appian , who maintained that Octavian shared an equal interest with Lepidus and Antony in eradicating his enemies . Suetonius presented the case that Octavian , although reluctant at first to proscribe officials , nonetheless pursued his enemies with more rigor than the other triumvirs . Plutarch described the proscriptions as a ruthless and cutthroat swapping of friends and family among Antony , Lepidus , and Octavian . For example , Octavian allowed the proscription of his ally Cicero , Antony the proscription of his maternal uncle Lucius Julius Caesar ( the consul of 64 BC ) , and Lepidus his brother Paullus .
= = = = Battle of Philippi and division of territory = = = =
On 1 January 42 BC , the Senate posthumously recognized Julius Caesar as a divinity of the Roman state , Divus Iulius . Octavian was able to further his cause by emphasizing the fact that he was Divi filius , " Son of God " . Antony and Octavian then sent 28 legions by sea to face the armies of Brutus and Cassius , who had built their base of power in Greece . After two battles at Philippi in Macedonia in October 42 , the Caesarian army was victorious and Brutus and Cassius committed suicide . Mark Antony later used the examples of these battles as a means to belittle Octavian , as both battles were decisively won with the use of Antony 's forces . In addition to claiming responsibility for both victories , Antony also branded Octavian as a coward for handing over his direct military control to Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa instead .
After Philippi , a new territorial arrangement was made among the members of the Second Triumvirate . Gaul and the provinces of Hispania and Italia were placed in the hands of Octavian . Antony traveled east to Egypt where he allied himself with Queen Cleopatra VII , the former lover of Julius Caesar and mother of Caesar 's infant son Caesarion . Lepidus was left with the province of Africa , stymied by Antony , who conceded Hispania to Octavian instead .
Octavian was left to decide where in Italy to settle the tens of thousands of veterans of the Macedonian campaign , whom the triumvirs had promised to discharge . The tens of thousands who had fought on the republican side with Brutus and Cassius could easily ally with a political opponent of Octavian if not appeased , and they also required land . There was no more government @-@ controlled land to allot as settlements for their soldiers , so Octavian had to choose one of two options : alienating many Roman citizens by confiscating their land , or alienating many Roman soldiers who could mount a considerable opposition against him in the Roman heartland . Octavian chose the former . There were as many as eighteen Roman towns affected by the new settlements , with entire populations driven out or at least given partial evictions .
= = = = Rebellion and marriage alliances = = = =
There was widespread dissatisfaction with Octavian over these settlements of his soldiers , and this encouraged many to rally at the side of Lucius Antonius , who was brother of Mark Antony and supported by a majority in the Senate . Meanwhile , Octavian asked for a divorce from Clodia Pulchra , the daughter of Fulvia ( Mark Antony 's wife ) and her first husband Publius Clodius Pulcher . He returned Clodia to her mother , claiming that their marriage had never been consummated . Fulvia decided to take action . Together with Lucius Antonius , she raised an army in Italy to fight for Antony 's rights against Octavian . Lucius and Fulvia took a political and martial gamble in opposing Octavian , however , since the Roman army still depended on the triumvirs for their salaries . Lucius and his allies ended up in a defensive siege at Perusia ( modern Perugia ) , where Octavian forced them into surrender in early 40 BC .
Lucius and his army were spared , due to his kinship with Antony , the strongman of the East , while Fulvia was exiled to Sicyon . Octavian showed no mercy , however , for the mass of allies loyal to Lucius ; on 15 March , the anniversary of Julius Caesar 's assassination , he had 300 Roman senators and equestrians executed for allying with Lucius . Perusia also was pillaged and burned as a warning for others . This bloody event sullied Octavian 's reputation and was criticized by many , such as Augustan poet Sextus Propertius .
Sextus Pompeius was the son of First Triumvir Pompey and still a renegade general following Julius Caesar 's victory over his father . He was established in Sicily and Sardinia as part of an agreement reached with the Second Triumvirate in 39 BC . Both Antony and Octavian were vying for an alliance with Pompeius , who was a member of the republican party , ironically , not the Caesarian faction . Octavian succeeded in a temporary alliance in 40 BC when he married Scribonia , a daughter of Lucius Scribonius Libo who was a follower of Sextus Pompeius as well as his father @-@ in @-@ law . Scribonia gave birth to Octavian 's only natural child , Julia , who was born the same day that he divorced her to marry Livia Drusilla , little more than a year after their marriage .
While in Egypt , Antony had been engaged in an affair with Cleopatra and had fathered three children with her . Aware of his deteriorating relationship with Octavian , Antony left Cleopatra ; he sailed to Italy in 40 BC with a large force to oppose Octavian , laying siege to Brundisium . This new conflict proved untenable for both Octavian and Antony , however . Their centurions , who had become important figures politically , refused to fight due to their Caesarian cause , while the legions under their command followed suit . Meanwhile , in Sicyon , Antony 's wife Fulvia died of a sudden illness while Antony was en route to meet her . Fulvia 's death and the mutiny of their centurions allowed the two remaining triumvirs to effect a reconciliation .
In the autumn of 40 , Octavian and Antony approved the Treaty of Brundisium , by which Lepidus would remain in Africa , Antony in the East , Octavian in the West . The Italian peninsula was left open to all for the recruitment of soldiers , but in reality , this provision was useless for Antony in the East . To further cement relations of alliance with Mark Antony , Octavian gave his sister , Octavia Minor , in marriage to Antony in late 40 BC . During their marriage , Octavia gave birth to two daughters ( known as Antonia Major and Antonia Minor ) .
= = = = War with Pompeius = = = =
Sextus Pompeius threatened Octavian in Italy by denying shipments of grain through the Mediterranean to the peninsula . Pompeius ' own son was put in charge as naval commander in the effort to cause widespread famine in Italy . Pompeius ' control over the sea prompted him to take on the name Neptuni filius , " son of Neptune " . A temporary peace agreement was reached in 39 BC with the treaty of Misenum ; the blockade on Italy was lifted once Octavian granted Pompeius Sardinia , Corsica , Sicily , and the Peloponnese , and ensured him a future position as consul for 35 BC .
The territorial agreement between the triumvirate and Sextus Pompeius began to crumble once Octavian divorced Scribonia and married Livia on 17 January 38 BC . One of Pompeius ' naval commanders betrayed him and handed over Corsica and Sardinia to Octavian . Octavian lacked the resources to confront Pompeius alone , however , so an agreement was reached with the Second Triumvirate 's extension for another five @-@ year period beginning in 37 BC .
In supporting Octavian , Antony expected to gain support for his own campaign against Parthia , desiring to avenge Rome 's defeat at Carrhae in 53 BC . In an agreement reached at Tarentum , Antony provided 120 ships for Octavian to use against Pompeius , while Octavian was to send 20 @,@ 000 legionaries to Antony for use against Parthia . Octavian sent only a tenth of those promised , however , which Antony viewed as an intentional provocation .
Octavian and Lepidus launched a joint operation against Sextus in Sicily in 36 BC . Despite setbacks for Octavian , the naval fleet of Sextus Pompeius was almost entirely destroyed on 3 September by general Agrippa at the naval Battle of Naulochus . Sextus fled to the east with his remaining forces , where he was captured and executed in Miletus by one of Antony 's generals the following year . As Lepidus and Octavian accepted the surrender of Pompeius ' troops , Lepidus attempted to claim Sicily for himself , ordering Octavian to leave . Lepidus ' troops deserted him , however , and defected to Octavian since they were weary of fighting and were enticed by Octavian 's promises of money .
Lepidus surrendered to Octavian and was permitted to retain the office of pontifex maximus ( head of the college of priests ) , but was ejected from the Triumvirate , his public career at an end , and effectively was exiled to a villa at Cape Circei in Italy . The Roman dominions were now divided between Octavian in the West and Antony in the East . Octavian ensured Rome 's citizens of their rights to property in order to maintain peace and stability in his portion of the Empire . This time , he settled his discharged soldiers outside of Italy , while also returning 30 @,@ 000 slaves to their former Roman owners — slaves who had fled to join Pompeius ' army and navy . Octavian had the Senate grant him , his wife , and his sister tribunal immunity , or sacrosanctitas , in order to ensure his own safety and that of Livia and Octavia once he returned to Rome .
= = = = War with Antony = = = =
Meanwhile , Antony 's campaign turned disastrous against Parthia , tarnishing his image as a leader , and the mere 2 @,@ 000 legionaries sent by Octavian to Antony were hardly enough to replenish his forces . On the other hand , Cleopatra could restore his army to full strength ; he already was engaged in a romantic affair with her , so he decided to send Octavia back to Rome . Octavian used this to spread propaganda implying that Antony was becoming less than Roman because he rejected a legitimate Roman spouse for an " Oriental paramour " . In 36 BC , Octavian used a political ploy to make himself look less autocratic and Antony more the villain by proclaiming that the civil wars were coming to an end , and that he would step down as triumvir — if only Antony would do the same . Antony refused .
Roman troops captured the Kingdom of Armenia in 34 BC , and Antony made his son Alexander Helios the ruler of Armenia . He also awarded the title " Queen of Kings " to Cleopatra , acts that Octavian used to convince the Roman Senate that Antony had ambitions to diminish the preeminence of Rome . Octavian became consul once again on 1 January 33 BC , and he opened the following session in the Senate with a vehement attack on Antony 's grants of titles and territories to his relatives and to his queen .
The breach between Antony and Octavian prompted a large portion of the Senators , as well as both of that year 's consuls , to leave Rome and defect to Antony . However , Octavian received two key deserters from Antony in the autumn of 32 BC : Munatius Plancus and Marcus Titius . These defectors gave Octavian the information that he needed to confirm with the Senate all the accusations that he made against Antony .
Octavian forcibly entered the temple of the Vestal Virgins and seized Antony 's secret will , which he promptly publicized . The will would have given away Roman @-@ conquered territories as kingdoms for his sons to rule , and designated Alexandria as the site for a tomb for him and his queen . In late 32 BC , the Senate officially revoked Antony 's powers as consul and declared war on Cleopatra 's regime in Egypt .
In early 31 BC , Antony and Cleopatra were temporarily stationed in Greece when Octavian gained a preliminary victory : the navy successfully ferried troops across the Adriatic Sea under the command of Agrippa . Agrippa cut off Antony and Cleopatra 's main force from their supply routes at sea , while Octavian landed on the mainland opposite the island of Corcyra ( modern Corfu ) and marched south . Trapped on land and sea , deserters of Antony 's army fled to Octavian 's side daily while Octavian 's forces were comfortable enough to make preparations .
Antony 's fleet sailed through the bay of Actium on the western coast of Greece in a desperate attempt to break free of the naval blockade . It was there that Antony 's fleet faced the much larger fleet of smaller , more maneuverable ships under commanders Agrippa and Gaius Sosius in the battle of Actium on 2 September 31 BC . Antony and his remaining forces were spared only due to a last @-@ ditch effort by Cleopatra 's fleet that had been waiting nearby .
Octavian pursued them and defeated their forces in Alexandria on 1 August 30 BC — after which Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide . Antony fell on his own sword and was taken by his soldiers back to Alexandria where he died in Cleopatra 's arms . Cleopatra died soon after , reputedly by the venomous bite of an asp or by poison . Octavian had exploited his position as Caesar 's heir to further his own political career , and he was well aware of the dangers in allowing another person to do so the same . He , therefore , followed the advice of Arius Didymus that " two Caesars are one too many " , ordering Caesarion to be killed ( Julius Caesar 's son by Cleopatra ) , while sparing Cleopatra 's children by Antony , with the exception of Antony 's older son .
Octavian had previously shown little mercy to surrendered enemies and acted in ways that had proven unpopular with the Roman people , yet he was given credit for pardoning many of his opponents after the Battle of Actium .
= = Change to Augustus = =
After Actium and the defeat of Antony and Cleopatra , Octavian was in a position to rule the entire Republic under an unofficial principate — but he had to achieve this through incremental power gains . He did so by courting the Senate and the people while upholding the republican traditions of Rome , appearing that he was not aspiring to dictatorship or monarchy . Marching into Rome , Octavian and Marcus Agrippa were elected as dual consuls by the Senate .
Years of civil war had left Rome in a state of near lawlessness , but the Republic was not prepared to accept the control of Octavian as a despot . At the same time , Octavian could not simply give up his authority without risking further civil wars among the Roman generals and , even if he desired no position of authority whatsoever , his position demanded that he look to the well @-@ being of the city of Rome and the Roman provinces . Octavian 's aims from this point forward were to return Rome to a state of stability , traditional legality , and civility by lifting the overt political pressure imposed on the courts of law and ensuring free elections — in name at least .
= = = First settlement = = =
In 27 BC , Octavian made a show of returning full power to the Roman Senate and relinquishing his control of the Roman provinces and their armies . Under his consulship , however , the Senate had little power in initiating legislation by introducing bills for senatorial debate . Octavian was no longer in direct control of the provinces and their armies , but he retained the loyalty of active duty soldiers and veterans alike . The careers of many clients and adherents depended on his patronage , as his financial power was unrivaled in the Roman Republic . Historian Werner Eck states :
The sum of his power derived first of all from various powers of office delegated to him by the Senate and people , secondly from his immense private fortune , and thirdly from numerous patron @-@ client relationships he established with individuals and groups throughout the Empire . All of them taken together formed the basis of his auctoritas , which he himself emphasized as the foundation of his political actions .
To a large extent , the public were aware of the vast financial resources that Augustus commanded . He failed to encourage enough senators to finance the building and maintenance of networks of roads in Italy in 20 BC , but he undertook direct responsibility for them . This was publicized on the Roman currency issued in 16 BC , after he donated vast amounts of money to the aerarium Saturni , the public treasury .
According to H. H. Scullard , however , Augustus 's power was based on the exercise of " a predominant military power and ... the ultimate sanction of his authority was force , however much the fact was disguised . "
The Senate proposed to Octavian , the victor of Rome 's civil wars , that he once again assume command of the provinces . The Senate 's proposal was a ratification of Octavian 's extra @-@ constitutional power . Through the Senate , Octavian was able to continue the appearance of a still @-@ functional constitution . Feigning reluctance , he accepted a ten @-@ year responsibility of overseeing provinces that were considered chaotic .
The provinces ceded to him for that ten @-@ year period comprised much of the conquered Roman world , including all of Hispania and Gaul , Syria , Cilicia , Cyprus , and Egypt . Moreover , command of these provinces provided Octavian with control over the majority of Rome 's legions .
While Octavian acted as consul in Rome , he dispatched senators to the provinces under his command as his representatives to manage provincial affairs and ensure that his orders were carried out . The provinces not under Octavian 's control were overseen by governors chosen by the Roman Senate . Octavian became the most powerful political figure in the city of Rome and in most of its provinces , but he did not have sole monopoly on political and martial power .
The Senate still controlled North Africa , an important regional producer of grain , as well as Illyria and Macedonia , two martially strategic regions with several legions . However , the Senate had control of only five or six legions distributed among three senatorial proconsuls , compared to the twenty legions under the control of Augustus , and their control of these regions did not amount to any political or military challenge to Octavian .
The Senate 's control over some of the Roman provinces helped maintain a republican façade for the autocratic Principate . Also , Octavian 's control of entire provinces followed Republican @-@ era precedents for the objective of securing peace and creating stability , in which such prominent Romans as Pompey had been granted similar military powers in times of crisis and instability .
On 16 January 27 BC the Senate gave Octavian the new titles of Augustus and Princeps . Augustus is from the Latin word Augere ( meaning to increase ) and can be translated as " the illustrious one " . It was a title of religious authority rather than political authority . According to Roman religious beliefs , the title symbolized a stamp of authority over humanity — and in fact nature — that went beyond any constitutional definition of his status . After the harsh methods employed in consolidating his control , the change in name served to demarcate his benign reign as Augustus from his reign of terror as Octavian .
His new title of Augustus was also more favorable than Romulus , the previous one which he styled for himself in reference to the story of Romulus and Remus ( founders of Rome ) , which symbolized a second founding of Rome . The title of Romulus was associated too strongly with notions of monarchy and kingship , an image that Octavian tried to avoid . Princeps comes from the Latin phrase primum caput , " the first head " , originally meaning the oldest or most distinguished senator whose name would appear first on the senatorial roster . In the case of Augustus , however , it became an almost regnal title for a leader who was first in charge . Princeps had also been a title under the Republic for those who had served the state well ; for example , Pompey had held the title .
Augustus also styled himself as Imperator Caesar divi filius , " Commander Caesar son of the deified one " . With this title , he boasted his familial link to deified Julius Caesar , and the use of Imperator signified a permanent link to the Roman tradition of victory . The word Caesar was merely a cognomen for one branch of the Julian family , yet Augustus transformed Caesar into a new family line that began with him .
Augustus was granted the right to hang the corona civica above his door , the " civic crown " made from oak , and to have laurels drape his doorposts . This crown was usually held above the head of a Roman general during a triumph , with the individual holding the crown charged to continually repeat to the general " memento mori " , or " Remember that you are mortal " . Additionally , laurel wreaths were important in several state ceremonies , and crowns of laurel were rewarded to champions of athletic , racing , and dramatic contests . Thus , both the laurel and the oak were integral symbols of Roman religion and statecraft ; placing them on Augustus ' doorposts was tantamount to declaring his home the capital .
However , Augustus renounced flaunting insignia of power such as holding a scepter , wearing a diadem , or wearing the golden crown and purple toga of his predecessor Julius Caesar . If he refused to symbolize his power by donning and bearing these items on his person , the Senate nonetheless awarded him with a golden shield displayed in the meeting hall of the Curia , bearing the inscription virtus , pietas , clementia , iustitia — " valor , piety , clemency , and justice . "
= = = Second settlement = = =
By 23 BC , some of the un @-@ Republican implications were becoming apparent concerning the settlement of 27 BC . Augustus ' policy of holding of an annual consulate drew attention to his dominance over the Roman political system , at the same time cutting in half the opportunities for others to achieve what was still purported to be the head of the Roman state . Further , he was causing political problems by desiring to have his nephew Marcus Claudius Marcellus follow in his footsteps and eventually assume the Principate in his turn , alienating his three biggest supporters – Agrippa , Maecenas , and Livia . Feeling pressure from his own core group of adherents , Augustus turned to the Senate for help .
He appointed noted Republican Calpurnius Piso for co @-@ consul in 23 BC , after his choice Aulus Terentius Varro Murena was executed as part of the Marcus Primus Affair , in an attempt to bolster his support there , especially with the Republicans . ( Murena had fought against Julius Caesar and supported Cassius and Brutus . )
In the late spring Augustus suffered a severe illness , and on his supposed deathbed made arrangements that would ensure the continuation of the Principate in some form , while at the same time put into doubt the senators ' suspicions of his anti @-@ republicanism . Augustus prepared to hand down his signet ring to his favored general Agrippa . However , Augustus handed over to his co @-@ consul Piso all of his official documents , an account of public finances , and authority over listed troops in the provinces while Augustus ' supposedly favored nephew Marcellus came away empty @-@ handed . This was a surprise to many who believed Augustus would have named an | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
heir to his position as an unofficial emperor .
Augustus bestowed only properties and possessions to his designated heirs , as an obvious system of institutionalized imperial inheritance would have provoked resistance and hostility among the republican @-@ minded Romans fearful of monarchy . With regards to the Principate , it was obvious to Augustus that Marcellus was not ready to take on his position ; nonetheless , by giving his signet ring to Agrippa , it was Augustus ' intent to signal to the legions that Agrippa was to be his successor , and that no matter what the constitutional rules were , they would continue to obey Agrippa .
Soon after his bout of illness subsided , Augustus gave up his annual consulship . The only other times Augustus would serve as consul would be in the years 5 and 2 BC , both times to introduce his grandsons into public life . This was a clever ploy by Augustus ; his ceasing to perennially be one of two annual consuls allowed aspiring senators a better chance to fill that position , while at the same time Augustus could exercise wider patronage within the senatorial class . Although Augustus had resigned as consul , he desired to retain his consular imperium not just in his provinces but throughout the empire . This desire , along with the Marcus Primus Affair , led to a second compromise between him and the Senate known as the Second Settlement .
= = = Primary reasons for the Second settlement = = =
The primary reasons for the Second Settlement were as follows . First , after Augustus relinquished the annual consulship , he was no longer in an official position to rule the state , yet his dominant position remained unchanged over his Roman , ' imperial ' provinces where he was still a proconsul . When he annually held the office of consul , he had the power to intervene with the affairs of the other provincial proconsuls appointed by the Senate throughout the empire , when he deemed necessary . When he relinquished his annual consulship , he legally lost this power because his proconsular powers applied only to his imperial provinces . Augustus wanted to keep this power .
A second problem later arose showing the need for the Second Settlement in what became known as the " Marcus Primus Affair " . In late 24 or early 23 BC , charges were brought against Marcus Primus , the former proconsul ( governor ) of Macedonia , for waging a war without prior approval of the Senate on the Odrysian kingdom of Thrace , whose king was a Roman ally . He was defended by Lucius Lucinius Varro Murena , who told the trial that his client had received specific instructions from Augustus , ordering him to attack the client state . Later , Primus testified that the orders came from the recently deceased Marcellus . Such orders , had they been given , would have been considered a breach of the Senate 's prerogative under the Constitutional settlement of 27 BC and its aftermath — i.e. , before Augustus was granted imperium proconsulare maius — as Macedonia was a Senatorial province under the Senate 's jurisdiction , not an imperial province under the authority of Augustus . Such an action would have ripped away the veneer of Republican restoration as promoted by Augustus , and exposed his fraud of merely being the first citizen , a first among equals . Even worse , the involvement of Marcellus provided some measure of proof that Augustus 's policy was to have the youth take his place as Princeps , instituting a form of monarchy – accusations that had already played out .
The situation was so serious that Augustus himself appeared at the trial , even though he had not been called as a witness . Under oath , Augustus declared that he gave no such order . Murena disbelieved Augustus 's testimony and resented his attempt to subvert the trial by using his auctoritas . He rudely demanded to know why Augustus had turned up to a trial to which he had not been called ; Augustus replied that he came in the public interest . Although Primus was found guilty , some jurors voted to acquit , meaning that not everybody believed Augustus 's testimony , an insult to the ' August One ' .
The Second Constitutional Settlement was completed in part to allay confusion and formalize Augustus ' legal authority to intervene in Senatorial provinces . The Senate granted Augustus a form of general imperium proconsulare , or proconsular imperium ( power ) that applied throughout the empire , not solely to his provinces . Moreover , the Senate augmented Augustus ' proconsular imperium into imperium proconsulare maius , or proconsular imperium applicable throughout the empire that was more ( maius ) or greater than that held by the other proconsuls . This in effect gave Augustus constitutional power superior to all other proconsuls in the empire . Augustus stayed in Rome during the renewal process and provided veterans with lavish donations to gain their support , thereby ensuring that his status of proconsular imperium maius was renewed in 13 BC .
= = = Additional powers = = =
During the second settlement , Augustus was also granted the power of a tribune ( tribunicia potestas ) for life , though not the official title of tribune . For some years , Augustus had been awarded tribunicia sacrosanctitas , the immunity given to a Tribune of the Plebeians . Now he decided to assume the full powers of the magistracy , renewed annually , in perpetuity . Legally , it was closed to patricians , a status that Augustus had acquired some years earlier when adopted by Julius Caesar . This power allowed him to convene the Senate and people at will and lay business before them , to veto the actions of either the Assembly or the Senate , to preside over elections , and to speak first at any meeting . Also included in Augustus ' tribunician authority were powers usually reserved for the Roman censor ; these included the right to supervise public morals and scrutinize laws to ensure that they were in the public interest , as well as the ability to hold a census and determine the membership of the Senate .
With the powers of a censor , Augustus appealed to virtues of Roman patriotism by banning all attire but the classic toga while entering the Forum . There was no precedent within the Roman system for combining the powers of the tribune and the censor into a single position , nor was Augustus ever elected to the office of censor . Julius Caesar had been granted similar powers , wherein he was charged with supervising the morals of the state . However , this position did not extend to the censor 's ability to hold a census and determine the Senate 's roster . The office of the tribunus plebis began to lose its prestige due to Augustus ' amassing of tribunal powers , so he revived its importance by making it a mandatory appointment for any plebeian desiring the praetorship .
Augustus was granted sole imperium within the city of Rome itself , in addition to being granted proconsular imperium maius and tribunician authority for life . Traditionally , proconsuls ( Roman province governors ) lost their proconsular " imperium " when they crossed the Pomerium – the sacred boundary of Rome – and entered the city . In these situations , Augustus would have power as part of his tribunician authority but his constitutional imperium within the Pomerium would be less than that of a serving consul . That would mean that , when he was in the city , he might not be the constitutional magistrate with the most authority . Thanks to his prestige or auctoritas , his wishes would usually be obeyed , but there might be some difficulty . To fill this power vacuum , the Senate voted that Augustus 's imperium proconsulare maius ( superior proconsular power ) should not lapse when he was inside the city walls . All armed forces in the city had formerly been under the control of the urban praetors and consuls , but this situation now placed them under the sole authority of Augustus .
In addition , the credit was given to Augustus for each subsequent Roman military victory after this time , because the majority of Rome 's armies were stationed in imperial provinces commanded by Augustus through the legatus who were deputies of the princeps in the provinces . Moreover , if a battle was fought in a Senatorial province , Augustus ' proconsular imperium maius allowed him to take command of ( or credit for ) any major military victory . This meant that Augustus was the only individual able to receive a triumph , a tradition that began with Romulus , Rome 's first King and first triumphant general . Lucius Cornelius Balbus was the last man outside Augustus ' family to receive this award in 19 BC . ( Balbus was the nephew of Julius Caesar 's great agent , who was governor of Africa and conqueror of the Garamantes . ) Tiberius , Augustus ' eldest son by marriage to Livia , was the only other general to receive a triumph — for victories in Germania in 7 BC .
= = = Conspiracy = = =
Many of the political subtleties of the Second Settlement seem to have evaded the comprehension of the Plebeian class , who were Augustus ' greatest supporters and clientele . This caused them to insist upon Augustus ' participation in imperial affairs from time to time . Augustus failed to stand for election as consul in 22 BC , and fears arose once again that he was being forced from power by the aristocratic Senate . In 22 , 21 , and 19 BC , the people rioted in response , and only allowed a single consul to be elected for each of those years , ostensibly to leave the other position open for Augustus . Likewise , there was a food shortage in Rome in 22 BC which sparked panic , while many urban plebs called for Augustus to take on dictatorial powers to personally oversee the crisis . After a theatrical display of refusal before the Senate , Augustus finally accepted authority over Rome 's grain supply " by virtue of his proconsular imperium " , and ended the crisis almost immediately . It was not until AD 8 that a food crisis of this sort prompted Augustus to establish a praefectus annonae , a permanent prefect who was in charge of procuring food supplies for Rome .
Nevertheless , there were some who were concerned by the expansion of powers granted to Augustus by the Second Settlement , and this came to a head with the apparent conspiracy of Fannius Caepio . Some time prior to 1 September 22 BC , a certain Castricius provided Augustus with information about a conspiracy led by Fannius Caepio . Murena was named among the conspirators , the outspoken Consul who defended Primus in the Marcus Primus Affair . The conspirators were tried in absentia with Tiberius acting as prosecutor ; the jury found them guilty , but it was not a unanimous verdict . All the accused were sentenced to death for treason and executed as soon as they were captured — without ever giving testimony in their defence . Augustus ensured that the facade of Republican government continued with an effective cover @-@ up of the events .
In 19 BC , the Senate granted Augustus a form of ' general consular imperium ' , which was probably ' imperium consulare maius ' , like the proconsular powers that he received in 23 BC . Like his tribune authority , the consular powers were another instance of gaining power from offices that he did not actually hold . In addition , Augustus was allowed to wear the consul 's insignia in public and before the Senate , as well as to sit in the symbolic chair between the two consuls and hold the fasces , an emblem of consular authority . This seems to have assuaged the populace ; regardless of whether or not Augustus was a consul , the importance was that he both appeared as one before the people and could exercise consular power if necessary . On 6 March 12 BC , after the death of Lepidus , he additionally took up the position of pontifex maximus , the high priest of the college of the Pontiffs , the most important position in Roman religion . On 5 February 2 BC , Augustus was also given the title pater patriae , or " father of the country " .
= = = Stability and staying power = = =
A final reason for the Second Settlement was to give the Principate constitutional stability and staying power in case something happened to Princeps Augustus . His illness of early 23 BC and the Caepio conspiracy showed that the regime 's existence hung by the thin thread of the life of one man , Augustus himself , who suffered from several severe and dangerous illnesses throughout his life . If he were to die from natural causes or fall victim to assassination , Rome could be subjected to another round of civil war . The memories of Pharsalus , the Ides of March , the proscriptions , Philippi , and Actium , barely twenty @-@ five years distant , were still vivid in the minds of many citizens . Proconsular imperium was conferred upon Agrippa for five years , similar to Augustus ' power , in order to accomplish this constitutional stability . The exact nature of the grant is uncertain but it probably covered Augustus ' imperial provinces , east and west , perhaps lacking authority over the provinces of the Senate . That came later , as did the jealously guarded tribunicia potestas .
Augustus ' powers were now complete . In fact , he dated his ' reign ' from the completion of the Second Settlement , July 1 , 23 BC . Almost as importantly , the Principate now had constitutional stability . Later Roman Emperors were generally limited to the powers and titles originally granted to Augustus , though often newly appointed Emperors would decline one or more of the honorifics given to Augustus in order to display humility . Just as often , as their reign progressed , Emperors would appropriate all of the titles , regardless of whether they had been granted them by the Senate . Later Emperors took to wearing the civic crown , consular insignia , and the purple robes of a Triumphant general ( toga picta ) , which became the imperial insignia well into the Byzantine era .
= = War and expansion = =
Imperator Caesar Divi Filius Augustus chose Imperator ( " victorious commander " ) to be his first name , since he wanted to make an emphatically clear connection between himself and the notion of victory . By the year 13 , Augustus boasted 21 occasions where his troops proclaimed " imperator " as his title after a successful battle . Almost the entire fourth chapter in his publicly released memoirs of achievements known as the Res Gestae was devoted to his military victories and honors .
Augustus also promoted the ideal of a superior Roman civilization with a task of ruling the world ( to the extent to which the Romans knew it ) , a sentiment embodied in words that the contemporary poet Virgil attributes to a legendary ancestor of Augustus : tu regere imperio populos , Romane , memento — " Roman , remember by your strength to rule the Earth 's peoples ! " The impulse for expansionism apparently was prominent among all classes at Rome , and it is accorded divine sanction by Virgil 's Jupiter in Book 1 of the Aeneid , where Jupiter promises Rome imperium sine fine , " sovereignty without end " .
By the end of his reign , the armies of Augustus had conquered northern Hispania ( modern Spain and Portugal ) and the Alpine regions of Raetia and Noricum ( modern Switzerland , Bavaria , Austria , Slovenia ) , Illyricum and Pannonia ( modern Albania , Croatia , Hungary , Serbia , etc . ) , and had extended the borders of the Africa Province to the east and south .
Judea was added to the province of Syria when Augustus deposed Herod Archelaus , successor to client king Herod the Great ( 73 – 4 BC ) . Syria ( like Egypt after Antony ) was governed by a high prefect of the equestrian class rather than by a proconsul or legate of Augustus .
Again , no military effort was needed in 25 BC when Galatia ( modern Turkey ) was converted to a Roman province shortly after Amyntas of Galatia was killed by an avenging widow of a slain prince from Homonada . The rebellious tribes of Asturias and Cantabria in modern @-@ day Spain were finally quelled in 19 BC , and the territory fell under the provinces of Hispania and Lusitania . This region proved to be a major asset in funding Augustus ' future military campaigns , as it was rich in mineral deposits that could be fostered in Roman mining projects , especially the very rich gold deposits at Las Medulas .
Conquering the peoples of the Alps in 16 BC was another important victory for Rome , since it provided a large territorial buffer between the Roman citizens of Italy and Rome 's enemies in Germania to the north . Horace dedicated an ode to the victory , while the monument Trophy of Augustus near Monaco was built to honor the occasion . The capture of the Alpine region also served the next offensive in 12 BC , when Tiberius began the offensive against the Pannonian tribes of Illyricum , and his brother Nero Claudius Drusus moved against the Germanic tribes of the eastern Rhineland . Both campaigns were successful , as Drusus ' forces reached the Elbe River by 9 BC — though he died shortly after by falling off his horse . It was recorded that the pious Tiberius walked in front of his brother 's body all the way back to Rome .
To protect Rome 's eastern territories from the Parthian Empire , Augustus relied on the client states of the east to act as territorial buffers and areas that could raise their own troops for defense . To ensure security of the Empire 's eastern flank , Augustus stationed a Roman army in Syria , while his skilled stepson Tiberius negotiated with the Parthians as Rome 's diplomat to the East . Tiberius was responsible for restoring Tigranes V to the throne of the Kingdom of Armenia .
Yet arguably his greatest diplomatic achievement was negotiating with Phraates IV of Parthia ( 37 – 2 BC ) in 20 BC for the return of the battle standards lost by Crassus in the Battle of Carrhae , a symbolic victory and great boost of morale for Rome . Werner Eck claims that this was a great disappointment for Romans seeking to avenge Crassus ' defeat by military means . However , Maria Brosius explains that Augustus used the return of the standards as propaganda symbolizing the submission of Parthia to Rome . The event was celebrated in art such as the breastplate design on the statue Augustus of Prima Porta and in monuments such as the Temple of Mars Ultor ( ' Mars the Avenger ' ) built to house the standards .
Parthia had always posed a threat to Rome in the east , but the real battlefront was along the Rhine and Danube rivers . Before the final fight with Antony , Octavian 's campaigns against the tribes in Dalmatia were the first step in expanding Roman dominions to the Danube . Victory in battle was not always a permanent success , as newly conquered territories were constantly retaken by Rome 's enemies in Germania .
A prime example of Roman loss in battle was the Battle of Teutoburg Forest in AD 9 , where three entire legions led by Publius Quinctilius Varus were destroyed by Arminius , leader of the Cherusci , an apparent Roman ally . Augustus retaliated by dispatching Tiberius and Drusus to the Rhineland to pacify it , which had some success although the battle of AD 9 brought the end to Roman expansion into Germany . Roman general Germanicus took advantage of a Cherusci civil war between Arminius and Segestes ; they defeated Arminius , who fled that battle but was killed later in 21 due to treachery .
= = Death and succession = =
The illness of Augustus in 23 BC brought the problem of succession to the forefront of political issues and the public . To ensure stability , he needed to designate an heir to his unique position in Roman society and government . This was to be achieved in small , undramatic , and incremental ways that did not stir senatorial fears of monarchy . If someone was to succeed Augustus ' unofficial position of power , he would have to earn it through his own publicly proven merits .
Some Augustan historians argue that indications pointed toward his sister 's son Marcellus , who had been quickly married to Augustus ' daughter Julia the Elder . Other historians dispute this due to Augustus ' will read aloud to the Senate while he was seriously ill in 23 BC , instead indicating a preference for Marcus Agrippa , who was Augustus ' second in charge and arguably the only one of his associates who could have controlled the legions and held the Empire together .
After the death of Marcellus in 23 BC , Augustus married his daughter to Agrippa . This union produced five children , three sons and two daughters : Gaius Caesar , Lucius Caesar , Vipsania Julia , Agrippina the Elder , and Postumus Agrippa , so named because he was born after Marcus Agrippa died . Shortly after the Second Settlement , Agrippa was granted a five @-@ year term of administering the eastern half of the Empire with the imperium of a proconsul and the same tribunicia potestas granted to Augustus ( although not trumping Augustus ' authority ) , his seat of governance stationed at Samos in the eastern Aegean . This granting of power showed Augustus ' favor for Agrippa , but it was also a measure to please members of his Caesarian party by allowing one of their members to share a considerable amount of power with him .
Augustus ' intent became apparent to make Gaius and Lucius Caesar his heirs when he adopted them as his own children . He took the consulship in 5 and 2 BC so that he could personally usher them into their political careers , and they were nominated for the consulships of AD 1 and 4 . Augustus also showed favor to his stepsons , Livia 's children from her first marriage Nero Claudius Drusus Germanicus ( henceforth referred to as Drusus ) and Tiberius Claudius ( henceforth Tiberius ) , granting them military commands and public office , though seeming to favor Drusus . After Agrippa died in 12 BC , Tiberius was ordered to divorce his own wife Vipsania and marry Agrippa 's widow , Augustus ' daughter Julia — as soon as a period of mourning for Agrippa had ended . Drusus ' marriage to Antonia was considered an unbreakable affair , whereas Vipsania was " only " the daughter of the late Agrippa from his first marriage .
Tiberius shared in Augustus ' tribune powers as of 6 BC , but shortly thereafter went into retirement , reportedly wanting no further role in politics while he exiled himself to Rhodes . No specific reason is known for his departure , though it could have been a combination of reasons , including a failing marriage with Julia , as well as a sense of envy and exclusion over Augustus ' apparent favouring of his young grandchildren @-@ turned @-@ sons Gaius and Lucius . ( Gaius and Lucius joined the college of priests at an early age , were presented to spectators in a more favorable light , and were introduced to the army in Gaul . )
After the early deaths of both Lucius and Gaius in AD 2 and 4 respectively , and the earlier death of his brother Drusus ( 9 BC ) , Tiberius was recalled to Rome in June AD 4 , where he was adopted by Augustus on the condition that he , in turn , adopt his nephew Germanicus . This continued the tradition of presenting at least two generations of heirs . In that year , Tiberius was also granted the powers of a tribune and proconsul , emissaries from foreign kings had to pay their respects to him , and by AD 13 was awarded with his second triumph and equal level of imperium with that of Augustus .
The only other possible claimant as heir was Postumus Agrippa , who had been exiled by Augustus in AD 7 , his banishment made permanent by senatorial decree , and Augustus officially disowned him . He certainly fell out of Augustus ' favor as an heir ; the historian Erich S. Gruen notes various contemporary sources that state Postumus Agrippa was a " vulgar young man , brutal and brutish , and of depraved character " . Postumus Agrippa was murdered at his place of exile either shortly before or after the death of Augustus .
On 19 August AD 14 , Augustus died while visiting Nola where his father had died . Both Tacitus and Cassius Dio wrote that Livia was rumored to have brought about Augustus ' death by poisoning fresh figs . This element features in many modern works of historical fiction pertaining to Augustus ' life , but some historians view it as likely to have been a salacious fabrication made by those who had favoured Postumus as heir , or other of Tiberius ' political enemies . Livia had long been the target of similar rumors of poisoning on the behalf of her son , most or all of which are unlikely to have been true .
Alternatively , it is possible that Livia did supply a poisoned fig ( she did cultivate a variety of fig named for her that Augustus is said to have enjoyed ) , but did so as a means of assisted suicide rather than murder . Augustus ' health had been in decline in the months immediately before his death , and he had made significant preparations for a smooth transition in power , having at last reluctantly settled on Tiberius as his choice of heir . It is likely that Augustus was not expected to return alive from Nola , but it seems that his health improved once there ; it has therefore been speculated that Augustus and Livia conspired to end his life at the anticipated time , having committed all political process to accepting Tiberius , in order to not endanger that transition .
Augustus ' famous last words were , " Have I played the part well ? Then applaud as I exit " — referring to the play @-@ acting and regal authority that he had put on as emperor . Publicly , though , his last words were , " Behold , I found Rome of clay , and leave her to you of marble . " An enormous funerary procession of mourners traveled with Augustus ' body from Nola to Rome , and on the day of his burial all public and private businesses closed for the day . Tiberius and his son Drusus delivered the eulogy while standing atop two rostra . Augustus ' body was coffin @-@ bound and cremated on a pyre close to his mausoleum . It was proclaimed that Augustus joined the company of the gods as a member of the Roman pantheon . The mausoleum was despoiled by the Goths in 410 during the Sack of Rome , and his ashes were scattered .
Historian D. C. A. Shotter states that Augustus ' policy of favoring the Julian family line over the Claudian might have afforded Tiberius sufficient cause to show open disdain for Augustus after the latter 's death ; instead , Tiberius was always quick to rebuke those who criticized Augustus . Shotter suggests that Augustus ' deification obliged Tiberius to suppress any open resentment that he might have harbored , coupled with Tiberius ' " extremely conservative " attitude towards religion .
Also , historian R. Shaw @-@ Smith points to letters of Augustus to Tiberius which display affection towards Tiberius and high regard for his military merits . Shotter states that Tiberius focused his anger and criticism on Gaius Asinius Gallus ( for marrying Vipsania after Augustus forced Tiberius to divorce her ) , as well as toward the two young Caesars , Gaius and Lucius — instead of Augustus , the real architect of his divorce and imperial demotion .
= = Legacy = =
Augustus ' reign laid the foundations of a regime that lasted , in one form or another , for nearly fifteen hundred years through the ultimate decline of the Western Roman Empire and until the Fall of Constantinople in 1453 . Both his adoptive surname , Caesar , and his title Augustus became the permanent titles of the rulers of the Roman Empire for fourteen centuries after his death , in use both at Old Rome and at New Rome . In many languages , Caesar became the word for Emperor , as in the German Kaiser and in the Bulgarian and subsequently Russian Tsar . The cult of Divus Augustus continued until the state religion of the Empire was changed to Christianity in 391 by Theodosius I. Consequently , there are many excellent statues and busts of the first emperor . He had composed an account of his achievements , the Res Gestae Divi Augusti , to be inscribed in bronze in front of his mausoleum . Copies of the text were inscribed throughout the Empire upon his death . The inscriptions in Latin featured translations in Greek beside it , and were inscribed on many public edifices , such as the temple in Ankara dubbed the Monumentum Ancyranum , called the " queen of inscriptions " by historian Theodor Mommsen .
There are a few known written works by Augustus that have survived such as his poems Sicily , Epiphanus , and Ajax , an autobiography of 13 books , a philosophical treatise , and his written rebuttal to Brutus ' Eulogy of Cato . Historians are able to analyze existing letters penned by Augustus to others for additional facts or clues about his personal life .
Many consider Augustus to be Rome 's greatest emperor ; his policies certainly extended the Empire 's life span and initiated the celebrated Pax Romana or Pax Augusta . The Roman Senate wished subsequent emperors to " be more fortunate than Augustus and better than Trajan " . Augustus was intelligent , decisive , and a shrewd politician , but he was not perhaps as charismatic as Julius Caesar , and was influenced on occasion by his third wife , Livia ( sometimes for the worse ) . Nevertheless , his legacy proved more enduring . The city of Rome was utterly transformed under Augustus , with Rome 's first institutionalized police force , fire fighting force , and the establishment of the municipal prefect as a permanent office . The police force was divided into cohorts of 500 men each , while the units of firemen ranged from 500 to 1 @,@ 000 men each , with 7 units assigned to 14 divided city sectors .
A praefectus vigilum , or " Prefect of the Watch " was put in charge of the vigiles , Rome 's fire brigade and police . With Rome 's civil wars at an end , Augustus was also able to create a standing army for the Roman Empire , fixed at a size of 28 legions of about 170 @,@ 000 soldiers . This was supported by numerous auxiliary units of 500 soldiers each , often recruited from recently conquered areas .
With his finances securing the maintenance of roads throughout Italy , Augustus also installed an official courier system of relay stations overseen by a military officer known as the praefectus vehiculorum . Besides the advent of swifter communication among Italian polities , his extensive building of roads throughout Italy also allowed Rome 's armies to march swiftly and at an unprecedented pace across the country . In the year 6 Augustus established the aerarium militare , donating 170 million sesterces to the new military treasury that provided for both active and retired soldiers .
One of the most enduring institutions of Augustus was the establishment of the Praetorian Guard in 27 BC , originally a personal bodyguard unit on the battlefield that evolved into an imperial guard as well as an important political force in Rome . They had the power to intimidate the Senate , install new emperors , and depose ones they disliked ; the last emperor they served was Maxentius , as it was Constantine I who disbanded them in the early 4th century and destroyed their barracks , the Castra Praetoria .
Although the most powerful individual in the Roman Empire , Augustus wished to embody the spirit of Republican virtue and norms . He also wanted to relate to and connect with the concerns of the plebs and lay people . He achieved this through various means of generosity and a cutting back of lavish excess . In the year 29 BC , Augustus paid 400 sesterces each to 250 @,@ 000 citizens , 1 @,@ 000 sesterces each to 120 @,@ 000 veterans in the colonies , and spent 700 million sesterces in purchasing land for his soldiers to settle upon . He also restored 82 different temples to display his care for the Roman pantheon of deities . In 28 BC , he melted down 80 silver statues erected in his likeness and in honor of him , an attempt of his to appear frugal and modest .
The longevity of Augustus ' reign and its legacy to the Roman world should not be overlooked as a key factor in its success . As Tacitus wrote , the younger generations alive in AD 14 had never known any form of government other than the Principate . Had Augustus died earlier ( in 23 BC , for instance ) , matters might have turned out differently . The attrition of the civil wars on the old Republican oligarchy and the longevity of Augustus , therefore , must be seen as major contributing factors in the transformation of the Roman state into a de facto monarchy in these years . Augustus ' own experience , his patience , his tact , and his political acumen also played their parts . He directed the future of the Empire down many lasting paths , from the existence of a standing professional army stationed at or near the frontiers , to the dynastic principle so often employed in the imperial succession , to the embellishment of the capital at the emperor 's expense . Augustus ' ultimate legacy was the peace and prosperity the Empire enjoyed for the next two centuries under the system he initiated . His memory was enshrined in the political ethos of the Imperial age as a paradigm of the good emperor . Every Emperor of Rome adopted his name , Caesar Augustus , which gradually lost its character as a name and eventually became a title . The Augustan era poets Virgil and Horace praised Augustus as a defender of Rome , an upholder of moral justice , and an individual who bore the brunt of responsibility in maintaining the empire .
However , for his rule of Rome and establishing the principate , Augustus has also been subjected to criticism throughout the ages . The contemporary Roman jurist Marcus Antistius Labeo ( d . AD 10 / 11 ) , fond of the days of pre @-@ Augustan republican liberty in which he had been born , openly criticized the Augustan regime . In the beginning of his Annals , the Roman historian Tacitus ( c . 56 – c.117 ) wrote that Augustus had cunningly subverted Republican Rome into a position of slavery . He continued to say that , with Augustus ' death and swearing of loyalty to Tiberius , the people of Rome simply traded one slaveholder for another . Tacitus , however , records two contradictory but common views of Augustus :
Intelligent people praised or criticized him in varying ways . One opinion was as follows . Filial duty and a national emergency , in which there was no place for law @-@ abiding conduct , had driven him to civil war — and this can neither be initiated nor maintained by decent methods . He had made many concessions to Anthony and to Lepidus for the sake of vengeance on his father 's murderers . When Lepidus grew old and lazy , and Anthony 's self @-@ indulgence got the better of him , the only possible cure for the distracted country had been government by one man . However , Augustus had put the state in order not by making himself king or dictator , but by creating the Principate . The Empire 's frontiers were on the ocean , or distant rivers . Armies , provinces , fleets , the whole system was interrelated . Roman citizens were protected by the law . Provincials were decently treated . Rome itself had been lavishly beautified . Force had been sparingly used — merely to preserve peace for the majority .
According to the second opposing opinion :
filial duty and national crisis had been merely pretexts . In actual fact , the motive of Octavian , the future Augustus , was lust for power ... There had certainly been peace , but it was a blood @-@ stained peace of disasters and assassinations .
In a recent biography on Augustus , Anthony Everitt asserts that through the centuries , judgments on Augustus ' reign have oscillated between these two extremes but stresses that :
" Opposites do not have to be mutually exclusive , and we are not obliged to choose one or the other . The story of his career shows that Augustus was indeed ruthless , cruel , and ambitious for himself . This was only in part a personal trait , for upper @-@ class Romans were educated to compete with one another and to excel . However , he combined an overriding concern for his personal interests with a deep @-@ seated patriotism , based on a nostalgia of Rome 's antique virtues . In his capacity as princeps , selfishness and selflessness coexisted in his mind . While fighting for dominance , he paid little attention to legality or to the normal civilities of political life . He was devious , untrustworthy , and bloodthirsty . But once he had established his authority , he governed efficiently and justly , generally allowed freedom of speech , and promoted the rule of law . He was immensely hardworking and tried as hard as any democratic parliamentarian to treat his senatorial colleagues with respect and sensitivity . He suffered from no delusions of grandeur . "
Tacitus was of the belief that Nerva ( r . 96 – 98 ) successfully " mingled two formerly alien ideas , principate and liberty " . The 3rd @-@ century historian Cassius Dio acknowledged Augustus as a benign , moderate ruler , yet like most other historians after the death of Augustus , Dio viewed Augustus as an autocrat . The poet Marcus Annaeus Lucanus ( AD 39 – 65 ) was of the opinion that Caesar 's victory over Pompey and the fall of Cato the Younger ( 95 BC – 46 BC ) marked the end of traditional liberty in Rome ; historian Chester G. Starr , Jr. writes of his avoidance of criticizing Augustus , " perhaps Augustus was too sacred a figure to accuse directly . "
The Anglo @-@ Irish writer Jonathan Swift ( 1667 – 1745 ) , in his Discourse on the Contests and Dissentions in Athens and Rome , criticized Augustus for installing tyranny over Rome , and likened what he believed Great Britain 's virtuous constitutional monarchy to Rome 's moral Republic of the 2nd century BC . In his criticism of Augustus , the admiral and historian Thomas Gordon ( 1658 – 1741 ) compared Augustus to the puritanical tyrant Oliver Cromwell ( 1599 – 1658 ) . Thomas Gordon and the French political philosopher Montesquieu ( 1689 – 1755 ) both remarked that Augustus was a coward in battle . In his Memoirs of the Court of Augustus , the Scottish scholar Thomas Blackwell ( 1701 – 1757 ) deemed Augustus a Machiavellian ruler , " a bloodthirsty vindicative usurper " , " wicked and worthless " , " a mean spirit " , and a " tyrant " .
= = = Revenue reforms = = =
Augustus ' public revenue reforms had a great impact on the subsequent success of the Empire . Augustus brought a far greater portion of the Empire 's expanded land base under consistent , direct taxation from Rome , instead of exacting varying , intermittent , and somewhat arbitrary tributes from each local province as Augustus ' predecessors had done . This reform greatly increased Rome 's net revenue from its territorial acquisitions , stabilized its flow , and regularized the financial relationship between Rome and the provinces , rather than provoking fresh resentments with each new arbitrary exaction of tribute .
The measures of taxation in the reign of Augustus were determined by population census , with fixed quotas for each province . Citizens of Rome and Italy paid indirect taxes , while direct taxes were exacted from the provinces . Indirect taxes included a 4 % tax on the price of slaves , a 1 % tax on goods sold at auction , and a 5 % tax on the inheritance of estates valued at over 100 @,@ 000 sesterces by persons other than the next of kin .
An equally important reform was the abolition of private tax farming , which was replaced by salaried civil service tax collectors . Private contractors that raised taxes had been the norm in the Republican era , and some had grown powerful enough to influence the amount of votes for politicians in Rome . The tax farmers had gained great infamy for their depredations , as well as great private wealth , by winning the right to tax local areas .
Rome 's revenue was the amount of the successful bids , and the tax farmers ' profits consisted of any additional amounts they could forcibly wring from the populace with Rome 's blessing . Lack of effective supervision , combined with tax farmers ' desire to maximize their profits , had produced a system of arbitrary exactions that was often barbarously cruel to taxpayers , widely ( and accurately ) perceived as unfair , and very harmful to investment and the economy .
The use of Egypt 's immense land rents to finance the Empire 's operations resulted from Augustus ' conquest of Egypt and the shift to a Roman form of government . As it was effectively considered Augustus ' private property rather than a province of the Empire , it became part of each succeeding emperor 's patrimonium . Instead of a legate or proconsul , Augustus installed a prefect from the equestrian class to administer Egypt and maintain its lucrative seaports ; this position became the highest political achievement for any equestrian besides becoming Prefect of the Praetorian Guard . The highly productive agricultural land of Egypt yielded enormous revenues that were available to Augustus and his successors to pay for public works and military expeditions , as well as bread and circuses for the population of Rome .
During his reign the circus games resulted in the murder of 3 @,@ 500 elephants .
= = = Month of August = = =
The month of August ( Latin : Augustus ) is named after Augustus ; until his time it was called Sextilis ( named so because it had been the sixth month of the original Roman calendar and the Latin word for six is sex ) . Commonly repeated lore has it that August has 31 days because Augustus wanted his month to match the length of Julius Caesar 's July , but this is an invention of the 13th century scholar Johannes de Sacrobosco . Sextilis in fact had 31 days before it was renamed , and it was not chosen for its length ( see Julian calendar ) . According to a senatus consultum quoted by Macrobius , Sextilis was renamed to honor Augustus because several of the most significant events in his rise to power , culminating in the fall of Alexandria , fell in that month .
= = = Building projects = = =
On his deathbed , Augustus boasted " I found a Rome of bricks ; I leave to you one of marble . " Although there is some truth in the literal meaning of this , Cassius Dio asserts that it was a metaphor for the Empire 's strength . Marble could be found in buildings of Rome before Augustus , but it was not extensively used as a building material until the reign of Augustus .
Although this did not apply to the Subura slums , which were still as rickety and fire @-@ prone as ever , he did leave a mark on the monumental topography of the centre and of the Campus Martius , with the Ara Pacis ( Altar of Peace ) and monumental sundial , whose central gnomon was an obelisk taken from Egypt . The relief sculptures decorating the Ara Pacis visually augmented the written record of Augustus ' triumphs in the Res Gestae . Its reliefs depicted the imperial pageants of the praetorians , the Vestals , and the citizenry of Rome .
He also built the Temple of Caesar , the Baths of Agrippa , and the Forum of Augustus with its Temple of Mars Ultor . Other projects were either encouraged by him , such as the Theatre of Balbus , and Agrippa 's construction of the Pantheon , or funded by him in the name of others , often relations ( e.g. Portico of Octavia , Theatre of Marcellus ) . Even his Mausoleum of Augustus was built before his death to house members of his family .
To celebrate his victory at the Battle of Actium , the Arch of Augustus was built in 29 BC near the entrance of the Temple of Castor and Pollux , and widened in 19 BC to include a triple @-@ arch design . There are also many buildings outside of the city of Rome that bear Augustus ' name and legacy , such as the Theatre of Mérida in modern Spain , the Maison Carrée built at Nîmes in today 's southern France , as well as the Trophy of Augustus at La Turbie , located near Monaco .
After the death of Agrippa in 12 BC , a solution had to be found in maintaining Rome 's water supply system . This came about because it was overseen by Agrippa when he served as aedile , and was even funded by him afterwards when he was a private citizen paying at his own expense . In that year , Augustus arranged a system where the Senate designated three of its members as prime commissioners in charge of the water supply and to ensure that Rome 's aqueducts did not fall into disrepair .
In the late Augustan era , the commission of five senators called the curatores locorum publicorum iudicandorum ( translated as " Supervisors of Public Property " ) was put in charge of maintaining public buildings and temples of the state cult . Augustus created the senatorial group of the curatores viarum ( translated as " Supervisors for Roads " ) for the upkeep of roads ; this senatorial commission worked with local officials and contractors to organize regular repairs .
The Corinthian order of architectural style originating from ancient Greece was the dominant architectural style in the age of Augustus and the imperial phase of Rome . Suetonius once commented that Rome was unworthy of its status as an imperial capital , yet Augustus and Agrippa set out to dismantle this sentiment by transforming the appearance of Rome upon the classical Greek model .
= = Physical appearance and official images = =
His biographer Suetonius , writing about a century after Augustus ' death , described his appearance as : " ... unusually handsome and exceedingly graceful at all periods of his life , though he cared nothing for personal adornment . He was so far from being particular about the dressing of his hair , that he would have several barbers working in a hurry at the same time , and as for his beard he now had it clipped and now shaved , while at the very same time he would either be reading or writing something ... He had clear , bright eyes ... His teeth were wide apart , small , and ill @-@ kept ; his hair was slightly curly and inclining to golden ; his eyebrows met . His ears were of moderate size , and his nose projected a little at the top and then bent ever so slightly inward . His complexion was between dark and fair . He was short of stature ( although Julius Marathus , his freedman and keeper of his records , says that he was five feet and nine inches , more or less 1 @.@ 75 meter , in height ) , but this was concealed by the fine proportion and symmetry of his figure , and was noticeable only by comparison with some taller person standing beside him . ... "
His official images were very tightly controlled and idealized , drawing from a tradition of Hellenistic royal portraiture rather than the tradition of realism in Roman portraiture . He first appeared on coins at the age of 19 , and from about 29 BC " the explosion in the number of Augustan portraits attests a concerted propaganda campaign aimed at dominating all aspects of civil , religious , economic and military life with Augustus ' person . " The early images did indeed depict a young man , but although there were gradual changes his images remained youthful until he died in his seventies , by which time they had " a distanced air of ageless majesty " . Among the best known of many surviving portraits are the Augustus of Prima Porta , the image on the Ara Pacis , and the Via Labicana Augustus , which shows him as a priest . Several cameo portraits include the Blacas Cameo and Gemma Augustea .
= = Ancestry = =
= = Descendants = =
Augustus ' only biological ( non @-@ adopted ) child was his daughter .
= State of the World ( song ) =
" State of the World " is a song recorded by American singer Janet Jackson for her fourth studio album , Janet Jackson 's Rhythm Nation 1814 ( 1989 ) . It was written and produced by Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis , with additional writing by Jackson . While recording the album , Jackson and the producers watched television , especially news channels , and created the song inspired by that . " State of the World " focuses lyrically on homeless people . It was released as the eighth and final single from the album on February 6 , 1991 , by A & M Records .
The song was not released commercially in the United States , making it ineligible to chart on the Billboard Hot 100 or the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs , but it reached number five on Billboard 's Hot 100 Airplay chart . No music video was made to accompany the song . Jackson has only included " State of the World " on her Rhythm Nation World Tour in 1990 .
= = Background and release = =
Following the commercial and critical success of her 1986 album , Control , Jackson was motivated to continue songwriting and took a larger role in the creative production of her new album . Executives at A & M requested that she expand on the ideas presented on Control , suggesting a concept album entitled Scandal that would have been about the Jackson family . She wrote a song titled " You Need Me " which was directed at her father Joseph , but was unwilling to devote an entire album to the subject and substituted her own concept for theirs . She commented that " [ a ] lot of people wanted me to do another album like Control and that 's what I didn 't want to do . I wanted to do something that I really believed in and that I really felt strong about . " The concept of Rhythm Nation emerged as Jackson was a TV watcher , " We would watch BET , MTV ... then switched over to CNN , and there 'd always be something messed @-@ up happening . It was never good news , always bad news " , producer James " Jimmy Jam " Harris recalled . " State of the World " was one of these songs , influenced by TV and news . Jam recalled that with the song , they were trying to do something like Marvin Gaye 's song " What 's Going On " although we never could hope to achieve that , but still wanted to make people aware of what was happening in a way they could dance to it . Released on February 6 , 1991 , " State of the World " was the eighth and the final single of Janet Jackson 's Rhythm Nation 1814 . The record label reckoned that they would boost album sales with a radio @-@ only promotion .
= = Composition = =
" State of the World " focuses lyrically on homeless people . According to Jon Pareles of The New York Times , Jackson tries to stay optimistic with the world 's state : " Let 's weather the storm together " , and compared the song musically to the music by Prince . In the book Born in the U.S.A. : The Myth of America in Popular Music from Colonial Times to the Present by Timothy E. Scheurer , the author noted that she " attempts to deliver a message of hope " . According to him , the song is like a " medical diagnosis in which Jackson proposes education as the key to settling problems " . Pace magazine described the song as an " aggressive dance assault " . Eric Henderson from Slant Magazine noted that the producers " loosened their rigid backbeats in acquiescence with new jack 's standard three @-@ on @-@ one swing " as noted in the song .
= = Critical reception = =
Jon Pareles of The New York Times considered that " despite its platitudinous message , [ the song ] has stark edges and angles " . Sputnikmusic 's Zachary Powell commented that " ' State of the World ' keeps the upbeat motion that Rhythm Nation begins , but with more of a socially conscious twist . It shares with the preceding track a groovy beat and danceability , but takes it to another direction lyrically and shows the caring side of Janet Jackson " . Dennis Hunt of Los Angeles Times commented positively saying that the move to social commentary was a rocky decision . However , he felt that " State of the World " was not interesting enough musically to carry the messages .
On the book Michael Jackson A Life In Music : A Life in Music , by writer Geoff Brown focusing on Jackson 's brother Michael , he noted that like her brother , she can focus on problems as shown on the song , but she offers no solutions to them . The New Rolling Stone Album Guide commented that " heartfelt pleas for racial unity and cloudy musings on the ' State of the World ' don 't obscure the pulsating beat of other songs " from the album . Jonathan Van Meter from Spin was critical of the song , saying that " State of the World " , " Rhythm Nation " and " The Knowledge " formed " a Spike Lee @-@ esque trilogy made even less convincing by a tiresome house music back @-@ beat and that unfortunate , outdated beat on every fourth count " . AllMusic 's editor Alex Henderson called the song " disturbing " .
= = Chart performance and live performance = =
In the US the song was released as a radio @-@ only single , and was therefore ineligible to chart on the Billboard Hot 100 and Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs . However , it peaked at number five on the US Billboard Hot 100 Airplay and number nine on the Hot Dance Club Songs charts . Author Fred Bronson noted it likely would have been the album 's eighth top ten hit if a commercial product had been distributed . In Australia , the song received a commercial release , and peaked at number 94 on the ARIA Singles Chart in July 1991 .
Jackson has only performed the song on her Rhythm Nation World Tour .
= = Track listings = =
Australian CD single
" State of the World " ( LP Version ) – 4 : 49
" State of the World " ( State of the World Suite ) – 14 : 09
Japanese CD maxi single – The Remixes
" State of the World " ( United Nations 7 " ) – 4 : 20
" State of the World " ( State of the House 7 " ) – 4 : 32
" State of the World " ( Third World 7 " ) – 4 : 26
" State of the World " ( LP Version ) – 4 : 49
" State of the World " ( State of the House 12 " ) – 4 : 59
" State of the World " ( United Nations 12 " ) – 7 : 50
" State of the World " ( United Nations Dub ) – 6 : 15
" State of the World " ( United Nations Instrumental ) – 4 : 49
" State of the World " ( Third World Dub ) – 3 : 08
" State of the World " ( Third World Instrumental ) – 4 : 47
" State of the World " ( Make a Change Dub ) – 4 : 45
" State of the World " ( World Dance Mix ) – 4 : 52
" State of the World Suite " – 14 : 09
= = Credits and personnel = =
Locations
Recorded at the Flyte Tyme Studios
( Minneapolis , Minnesota )
Mixed at the Flyte Tyme Studios
( Edina , Minnesota )
Personnel
Janet Jackson – lead vocals , background vocals , songwriter , co @-@ producer , keyboards , rhythm and vocal arranger
Jimmy Jam – producer , songwriter , keyboards and drum programming , percussion , rhythm and vocal arranger
Terry Lewis – producer , songwriter , percussion , background vocals , rhythm and vocal arranger
René Elizondo , Jr . – background vocals
Steve Hodge – background vocals , recording and mixing engineer
Brian Gardner – mastering
Credits adapted from Janet Jackson 's Rhythm Nation 1814 album booklet .
= = Charts = =
= Personal relationships of Paul McCartney =
Paul McCartney had numerous relationships during his early life in Liverpool , and during his time with the Beatles . He was engaged to Dot Rhone , actress Jane Asher , and married three times : to Linda Eastman , Heather Mills and Nancy Shevell .
McCartney had a three year relationship with Dot Rhone in Liverpool , buying her a gold ring in Hamburg . In London , McCartney had a five year relationship with Asher , living in her parents ' house for three years . He wrote several songs at the Ashers ' house , including " Yesterday " . Asher inspired other songs , such as " And I Love Her " , " You Won 't See Me " and " I 'm Looking Through You " . On 25 December 1967 they announced their engagement , but separated in early 1968 . McCartney met American photographer Linda Eastman in a club in London while still with Asher . They met again at the launch party for the Beatles ' Sgt. Pepper album . In May 1968 , McCartney met Eastman again in New York , and they were married on 12 March 1969 . They had three children together , and remained married until her death from breast cancer in 1998 .
McCartney appeared publicly beside Heather Mills at a party in January 2000 , to celebrate her 32nd birthday . On 11 June 2002 , they were married at Castle Leslie in Glaslough , Ireland . They had one child , Beatrice , in 2003 , but were living apart by May 2006 . In July 2006 , British newspapers announced that McCartney had petitioned for divorce . On 17 March 2008 , the financial terms of the divorce were finalised , which awarded Mills £ 24 @.@ 3 million ( $ 38 @.@ 5 million ) . In November 2007 McCartney started dating Nancy Shevell , who is a member of the board of the New York Metropolitan Transportation Authority , as well as vice president of a family owned New England Motor Freight . It was announced on 6 May 2011 that the two had become engaged , and they married in London on 9 October 2011 .
= = Early relationships = =
One of McCartney 's first girlfriends , in 1959 , was called Layla ; a name he remembered as being unusual in Liverpool at the time . She was slightly older than McCartney and used to ask him to baby @-@ sit with her . Julie Arthur , another girlfriend , was Ted Ray 's niece .
McCartney 's first serious girlfriend in Liverpool was seventeen year old Dorothy " Dot " Rhone ( a bank clerk or a cashier at a chemist 's , according to varying accounts ) , whom he had met at The Casbah Club in 1959 . McCartney picked out the clothes he liked Rhone to wear and told her which make up to use , also paying for her to have her blonde hair done in the style of Brigitte Bardot , whom both he and John Lennon idolised . He disliked Rhone seeing her friends , and stopped her from smoking , even though he did so himself . When McCartney first went to Hamburg with The Beatles he wrote regular letters to Rhone , and she accompanied Lennon 's girlfriend , Cynthia Lennon to Hamburg when the group played there again in 1962 . According to Rhone , McCartney bought her a gold ring in Hamburg , a leather skirt , took her sightseeing , and was very attentive and caring . For the time Rhone was there , the couple lived in a bungalow by the Hamburg docks that belonged to Rosa , a former cleaner at the Indra club . McCartney admitted that he had other girlfriends in Hamburg when Rhone was in Liverpool , admitting that they were usually strippers , who knew a lot more about sex than Liverpool girls .
Rhone later rented a room in the same house as Cynthia Lennon was living , with McCartney contributing to the rent . Shortly after McCartney returned from Hamburg in May 1962 , Rhone told him that she was pregnant . They told McCartney 's father , Jim McCartney , whom they expected to be shocked at the news , but found him delighted at the prospect of becoming a grandfather . McCartney took out a marriage licence and set the wedding date for November , shortly before the baby was due . Rhone had a miscarriage in July 1962 , and after a few weeks , McCartney 's feelings towards Rhone " cooled off " , and he finished their relationship .
He then had a brief relationship with Thelma Pickles , who had previously dated Lennon . She later married Liverpool poet Roger McGough , but remembered McCartney as growing from a " plump young schoolboy into someone very much his own person " during their time together . McCartney also had a fiery " on @-@ off " relationship with Iris Caldwell , the younger sister of singer Rory Storm , who refused to bow to McCartney 's demands . After one argument , Caldwell poured a bowl of sugar over his head , but when McCartney turned up the next day , she had to phone her new boyfriend , George Harrison , to cancel their date .
Rhone later emigrated to Toronto , Canada , and McCartney met her again when the Beatles played there , and then again with Wings . Rhone later said that " Love of the Loved " and " P.S. I Love You " were written about her . Years later , Cynthia Lennon gave back to Rhone the gold ring that McCartney had bought her in Hamburg , having once tried it on while Rhone was washing dishes , and forgotten to take it off . Rhone is now a grandmother and lives in Mississauga , Ontario .
= = Asher , Eastman , Schwartz and McGivern = =
McCartney first met British actress Jane Asher on 18 April 1963 , when the Beatles performed at the Royal Albert Hall , in London , after a photographer asked them to pose with her . They were then interviewed by Asher for the BBC , with Asher being photographed screaming at them like a fan . McCartney soon met Asher 's family : Margaret , her mother was a music teacher , and Asher 's father Richard was a physician . Her brother , Peter , was a member of Peter and Gordon , and her younger sister , Clare , was also an actress . McCartney later gave " A World Without Love " to Peter and Gordon , as well as " Nobody I Know " . Both songs were hits for the duo . McCartney took up residence at the Ashers ' house at 57 Wimpole Street , London , and lived there for nearly three years . During his time there McCartney met writers such as Bertrand Russell , Harold Pinter , and Len Deighton . He wrote several songs at the Ashers ' , including " Yesterday " , and worked on songs with Lennon in the basement music room . Asher inspired many songs , such as " And I Love Her " , " You Won 't See Me " , and " I 'm Looking Through You " .
On 13 April 1965 , McCartney bought a £ 40 @,@ 000 three storey Regency house at 7 Cavendish Avenue , St. John 's Wood , London , and spent a further £ 20 @,@ 000 renovating it . He thanked the Ashers by paying for the decoration of the front of their house . On 15 May 1967 , McCartney met American photographer Linda Eastman at a Georgie Fame concert at The Bag O 'Nails in London . Eastman was in the UK on an assignment to take photographs of " swinging sixties " musicians in London . They met again four days later at the launch party for the Sgt. Pepper album at Beatles ' manager Brian Epstein 's house in Belgravia , but after her assignment was completed , she flew back to New York . On 25 December 1967 , McCartney and Asher announced their engagement , and she accompanied McCartney to India in February and March 1968 .
Dark haired model Maggie McGivern was dating a photographer when , in 1966 , she embarked on a secret relationship with McCartney . She had just taken on a steady job working for Marianne Faithful and John Dunbar as the nanny to their little boy Nicholas , and it was while taking care of Nicholas in Marianne ’ s third floor Chelsea flat that she first encountered Paul McCartney . He buzzed the intercom to ask if John ( Dunbar ) was around , and when Paul explained who he was , Maggie invited him straight up . “ Paul ran up the stairs and came in . Very casually I told him that John wasn ’ t really in and that sent us both into hysterics . We were laughing and chatting . I made a nice lunch for Marianne and a bunch of her friends but they never showed up . Paul and I sat together and ate it instead . I ’ ll never forget the meal – it was chicken casserole . It was such a funny introduction that it threw us both off guard . It could have been very embarrassing , but there was an immediate rapport and we just couldn ’ t stop talking . ” They began a secret three year affair which ended just before Paul married Linda .
Asher broke off the engagement in early 1968 , after coming back from an acting assignment in Bristol to find McCartney in bed with another woman , Francie Schwartz . McCartney and Asher later attempted to mend their relationship , but finally broke up in July 1968 . Asher has consistently refused to publicly discuss that part of her life . Schwartz , a twenty three year old New York scriptwriter , had travelled to London trying to interest Apple Corps in a film script . Schwartz was then asked by McCartney to move into his Cavendish Avenue house , and was given a job working for Derek Taylor at Apple , which was then based in Wigmore Street , London . She attended many sessions during the recording of the White Album , and was living with McCartney when Lennon and Yoko Ono were also invited to live there . Shortly after , Schwartz sold the story of her time at Cavendish Avenue to Rolling Stone magazine .
= = Marriage to Linda Eastman = =
In May 1968 , McCartney met Eastman again in New York , when Lennon and McCartney were there to announce the formation of Apple Corps . In September , McCartney phoned her and asked her to fly over to London . Six months later they were married at a small civil ceremony — when Eastman was four months pregnant with their child , Mary McCartney — at Marylebone Registry Office on 12 March 1969 . He later said that his wife was the woman who " gave me the strength and courage to work again " , after the break @-@ up of the Beatles . McCartney adopted her daughter from her first marriage , Heather , and had three children together : Mary , Stella , and James McCartney . McCartney taught Linda to play keyboards , and permanently included her in the line @-@ up of Wings .
Linda died of breast cancer at age 56 in Tucson , Arizona , on 17 April 1998 ; McCartney denied rumours that her death was an assisted suicide . Along with eight other British composers , he contributed to the choral album A Garland for Linda , and dedicated his classical album , Ecce Cor Meum , to his late wife . McCartney has said that he and Linda spent less than a week apart during their entire marriage , excluding McCartney 's incarceration in Tokyo on drug charges in January 1980 .
= = Marriage to Heather Mills = =
After having sparked the interest of the tabloids about his appearances with Mills at events , McCartney appeared publicly beside Mills at a party in January 2000 , to celebrate her 32nd birthday . On 11 June 2002 , McCartney married Mills , a former model , amputee , and campaigner against landmines , in an elaborate ceremony at Castle Leslie in Glaslough , County Monaghan , Ireland , where more than 300 guests were invited and the reception included a vegetarian banquet . On 28 October 2003 , Mills gave birth to a daughter , Beatrice Milly McCartney , although the date has also been stated as 30 October . The baby was reportedly named after Mills ' mother Beatrice , and McCartney 's Aunt Milly .
On 29 July 2006 , British newspapers announced that McCartney had petitioned for divorce , which sparked a media furore . On 17 March 2008 , the financial terms of the divorce were finalised , with a settlement awarding Mills £ 24 @.@ 3 million ( $ 38 @.@ 5 million ) . The settlement stated that McCartney pay their four @-@ year @-@ old daughter Beatrice 's nanny , school fees , and pay Beatrice £ 35 @,@ 000 ( $ 70 @,@ 000 ) a year until she is 17 , or ends her secondary education . After the divorce ruling , Justice Bennett said that throughout the case Mills was " inconsistent , inaccurate and less than candid " while McCartney was " honest . " On 12 May 2008 , Justice Hugh Bennett issued a decree nisi , which would become final after a period of six months apart .
= = Marriage to Nancy Shevell = =
McCartney started dating Shevell in November 2007 . She is a member of the board of the New York Metropolitan Transportation Authority as well as vice president of a family @-@ owned transportation conglomerate that includes New England Motor Freight . It was announced on 6 May 2011 that the two had become engaged . On 9 October 2011 McCartney and Shevell were married at Old Marylebone Town Hall where his first wedding took place in 1969 . The couple attended Yom Kippur synagogue services prior to the wedding , out of respect for Shevell 's Jewish faith , but did not seek a religious blessing for their union . Upon their marriage , Shevell became Lady McCartney . McCartney wrote the song " My Valentine " , from his 2012 album Kisses on the Bottom , about Shevell . She is second cousin to broadcast journalist Barbara Walters .
= My Big Fat Greek Rush Week =
" My Big Fat Greek Rush Week " is the second episode of the third season of the American mystery television series Veronica Mars , and the forty @-@ sixth episode overall . Written by executive producer Diane Ruggiero and directed by John T. Kretchmer , the episode premiered on The CW on October 10 , 2006 .
The series depicts the adventures of Veronica Mars ( Kristen Bell ) as she deals with life as a college student while moonlighting as a private detective . In this episode , Veronica infiltrates the Theta Beta sorority as part of her investigation into Parker 's rape . Meanwhile , the Hearst sociology teacher , Dr. Kinny ( Dan Castellaneta ) , conducts an experiment similar to the Stanford prison experiment .
" My Big Fat Greek Rush Week " featured several notable guest stars , including appearances from Dan Castellaneta , Samm Levine , Rider Strong , and Rachelle Lefevre . In addition , David Tom returned as Chip Diller after previously appearing in the second season . The episode was watched by 2 @.@ 96 million people in its initial airing and received mixed to positive reviews from television critics .
= = Synopsis = =
A police officer interrogates Parker ( Julie Gonzalo ) about her rape , but she does not remember any of it . Veronica tells Sheriff Lamb ( Michael Muhney ) that she ran into the room and heard Parker having sex , and Parker berates her for not checking to see what was happening . Keith ( Enrico Colantoni ) hikes through the desert after fleeing from Cormac Fitzpatrick ( Jason Beghe ) ; Cormac later realizes that Keith has disappeared and starts following him . Wallace ( Percy Daggs III ) and Logan 's ( Jason Dohring ) sociology professor recruits volunteers for a Stanford prison experiment @-@ like study . Veronica interviews for a photography position at the college newspaper , but the editor tasks her with writing an exposé of the Theta Beta sorority , where Parker was during the night of her rape . Parker ’ s parents appear at Hearst and announce that they are going to remove her from the college in light of her assault . During her investigation , Veronica poses as a potential recruit , but she does not note any suspicious activity . In the sociology experiment , Logan is assigned to the role of a prisoner , while Wallace acts as a " guard " . While tracking Keith , Cormac gets stuck in a bear trap ; his brother Liam ( Rod Rowland ) appears and shoots him . Veronica is invited to attend a " private party " , which she believes will be the key to her exposé . At the party , Veronica encounters Dick ( Ryan Hansen ) and learns that Parker 's room was easily accessible . Veronica pretends to be drunk in order to ascertain whether or not the sorority members collaborate with the rapist , but they just drive her home .
The police search Kendall 's ( Charisma Carpenter ) apartment , but they only find a small amount of blood . In the fake prison during the experiment , the guards use sleep deprivation and verbal abuse to indicate the " prisoners " . Returning home , Keith cries and tells Veronica that he made a mistake . The guard puts one prisoner in solitary confinement . Veronica learns that a student , Moe Flater ( Andrew McClain ) , took Parker home the night of the rape . She confronts him , but upon further investigation , she accepts his alibi . Veronica learns that the main surveillance camera of the sorority was in the den mother 's room . The prisoners in the experiment successfully escape from prison . Veronica breaks into the room that is under surveillance and finds that they are growing marijuana . Veronica types up her exposé and hands it to the newspaper editor , but before it is published , one of the sorority members informs Veronica that they are growing the cannabis in order to aid the den mother 's cancer . Veronica cannot stop the publication of the article , but she warns the sorority about potential repercussions nonetheless . Mac ( Tina Majorino ) convinces Parker to stay at Hearst .
The prisoners believe they have won the study , but the guards have tricked them into winning , allowing them to escape . Keith tells the police the story of Kendall and Cormac 's deaths : Kendall gave Keith a valuable painting disguised as money in a case , and Cormac tried to kill Kendall and Keith to get the case 's contents . Cormac killed Liam out of anger that there was no money . The episode concludes with Logan streaking through sociology class , fulfilling a bet made earlier in the episode .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Diane Ruggiero and directed by John T. Kretchmer , marking Ruggiero 's thirteenth writing credit and Kretchmer 's eleventh directing credit for the series . The episode features several notable guest appearances . Dan Castellaneta , best known as the voice of Homer Simpson on The Simpsons , appears as Dr. Kinny , a sociology professor . Rider Strong guest stars as a student who participates as a guard in the experiment . The episode features a guest appearance by Samm Levine , best known for his role on Freaks and Geeks . Levine had previously worked with series star Chris Lowell on Life as We Know It , a show that had been cancelled in 2005 . Rachelle Lefevre , known for her later roles as Victoria in The Twilight Saga and in Under the Dome , guest stars as Marjorie , one of the sorority girls who becomes friends with Veronica .
On the DVD Commentary , series creator Rob Thomas opined that the relationship between Veronica and Keith was the core of the series and listed the scene in which Keith stays up all night before scaring Veronica in the morning as one of his favorite examples of their chemistry in the season . Thomas highlighted the scene in which a girl shows Veronica around the sorority as indicative of Hansen 's comedic talents ; in addition , it marked the first appearance of David Tom in the season , a guest star in season two who was brought back for a recurring role in this season . The actress who played the girl showing Veronica around , Keri Lynn Pratt , previously appeared in the film Drive Me Crazy , which Thomas co @-@ wrote .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" My Big Fat Greek Rush Week " was watched by 2 @.@ 96 million viewers in its initial airing , marking a decrease from the season premiere and ranking 83rd out of 88 in the weekly rankings .
= = = Reviews = = =
The episode received mixed to positive reviews . Eric Goldman , writing for IGN , gave the episode an 8 @.@ 3 out of 10 , indicating that it was great . He wrote that it felt " more like a normal episode of the series " compared to the premiere 's " introduction type " tone . He also praised the prison experiment subplot , writing that it " introduced a who 's who of recognizable guest stars , all of whom could clearly rerun on a show that loves to build a large cast of periphery characters . " Price Peterson , writing for TV.com , gave a positive review , writing " Anytime Veronica goes undercover as her polar opposite is just a good time , you know ? [ … ] And as much as the Stanford Experiment thing was low @-@ stakes and standalone , I enjoyed its unpredictable twists and reveals . Perfect early season plotline . " Alan Sepinwall wrote that the prison experiment plotline never getting " out of hand [ … ] made it feel like a wasted opportunity " while writing that " Enrico Colantoni really sold Keith 's despair at the resolution " of his plotline .
Writing for The A.V. Club , Rowan Kaiser gave a more mixed review , stating that the show and Veronica were both still discovering their place at the show 's new setting . " The show is still tense , still powerful , still amusing . But it doesn 't know how to apply those things in its new setting . " However , Kaiser concluded that " Veronica Mars is a mess right now . But it ’ s an extremely ambitious mess . I ’ d watch rather ' ambitious and difficult ' than ' boring , ' and ' My Big Fat Greek Rush Week ' was anything but boring . " Television Without Pity gave the episode a " B " .
= Looking Forward ( 1910 film ) =
Looking Forward is a 1910 American silent short drama produced by the Thanhouser Company . Adapted from James Oliver Curwood 's short story of the same name , the film follows a young chemist named Jack Goodwin . He discovers a chemical compound that puts a person into a state of sleep for a determined period of time and decides to test it upon himself . The first test is a success and Jack makes arrangements for his sleep of a hundred years , in a state similar to suspended animation . When he awakes in 2010 into a world ruled by women , he woos the female mayor . Jack joins a society to campaign for men 's rights . The society ends up before the female mayor who jails all of them , save for Jack who she proposes to . Jack accepts on the condition that men are given back their rights and she accepts . The cast and production credits of the film are not known , but Theodore Marston was not the director . The film was released on December 20 , 1910 . The film is presumed lost .
= = Plot = =
The film focuses on Jack Goodwin , a young chemistry student who has discovered a novel compound that allows a person to be put in a state of sleep for any length of time . The compound causes an effect similar to suspended animation , with no ill @-@ effects or bodily changes . Jack tests the compound on himself for a period of a week and desires to test it for a century . In preparation for this , he obtains a safety deposit vault and provides instructions to be presented before the mayor in a hundred years . Jack 's experiment works and he awakes in the year 2010 to a very different future . Transportation has been radically changed to pneumatic tubes allowing him to be transported to the mayor . The woman mayor takes an interest in him and invites her over to her home . In the intervening years , the world has become ruled by women and Jack is now out of place , but the two fall in love . Her father is an advocate for men 's rights and Jack joins their society . The group soon appears before the mayor and she sends all of them to jail through the pneumatic tube , except for Jack . She proposes to him , but Jack only consents if the rights of men would be granted . The mayor is true to her word and signs a decree to give the men their liberty . During the ceremony , she attempts to lead Jack to the altar , but Jack shows her that the man must lead . When the bridal veil is placed on Jack , he places it on his new wife .
= = Cast = =
Frank H. Crane
William Russell
= = Production = =
The scenario is adapted from James Oliver Curwood 's short story of the same name . The writer of the scenario is unknown , but it was most likely Lloyd Lonergan . He was an experienced newspaperman employed by The New York Evening World while writing scripts for the Thanhouser productions . The film director is unknown , but it may have been Barry O 'Neil or Lucius J. Henderson . Sometimes the directional credit is given to Theodore Marston . The apparent origin of this error is from the American Film @-@ Index 1908 – 1915 . Film historian Q. David Bowers consulted one of the co @-@ authors of the book , Gunnar Lundquist , and confirmed that the credit of Marston was in error . Theodore Marston worked with Pathé , Kinemacolor , Vitagraph and other companies , but there is no record of Marston working with Thanhouser . This error has persisted in several works including The Complete Index to Literary Sources in Film . Cameramen employed by the company during this era included Blair Smith , Carl Louis Gregory , and Alfred H. Moses , Jr. though none are specifically credited . The role of the cameraman was uncredited in 1910 productions .
The cast credits are unknown , but many 1910 Thanhouser productions are fragmentary . In late 1910 , the Thanhouser company released a list of the important personalities in their films . The list includes G.W. Abbe , Justus D. Barnes , Frank H. Crane , Irene Crane , Marie Eline , Violet Heming , Martin J. Faust , Thomas Fortune , George Middleton , Grace Moore , John W. Noble , Anna Rosemond , Mrs. George Walters .
Musical accompaniment for the silent films were not provided by the studios , and the Thanhouser productions were no exception . The musical program for the screenings were decided and played by the individual accompanists . At times , musical accompaniments were shared in trade journals , but for Looking Forward a dispute serves to provide one musical credit provided by Mrs. Buttery of Pennsylvania . In responding to an editorial in The Moving Picture World , Mrs. Buttery stated that " John Took Me Home to See His Mother " was played during film at some unstated point .
= = Release and reception = =
The single reel comedy , approximately 1 @,@ 000 feet long , was released on December 20 , 1910 . The New York Dramatic Mirror stated , " Here is a rather exaggerated farce with a good many laughs in it . It has for its basis recent cartoons , but has original treatment . The male members of the cast seemed to enjoy their roles , perhaps for the reason that it is a man 's picture ; the laugh seems on the ladies . " A more contemporary analysis of the film was covered in a paper by Eric Dewberry , who credits this film as Thanhouser 's first film portraying suffragists . Dewberry writes that the film presents the idea of a woman mayor , something which was not farfetched for women to find to be humorous . Despite Jack 's lack of power in the new era which he awakes to , he managed to win the heart of a powerful woman and easily restore the rights of men . Taken one way , the film seems to advance the idea that a women of power are controlled by their hearts . Dewing writes , " On the one hand it mocks many female suffrage " fighting tactics , " as suffragists , in an attempt to not appear too extremist and alienable , exploited conservative ideas of feminine virtue in order to assert their citizenship and reform desires . In the film , the man assumes effeminate passions to woo the Mayor . On the other hand , those sympathetic to the cause can see this as proof that these tactics can work in politics . The film also toys with the fears men harbored concerning the loss of power over females in public spaces , a threat to masculinity and manhood . " The film is also believed to have been the first adaptation of Curwood 's work .
= Francis Pegahmagabow =
Francis Pegahmagabow MM & Two bars ( March 9 , 1889 – August 5 , 1952 ) was the First Nations soldier most highly decorated for bravery in Canadian military history and the most effective sniper of World War I. Three times awarded the Military Medal and seriously wounded , he was an expert marksman and scout , credited with killing 378 Germans and capturing 300 more . Later in life , he served as chief and a councilor for the Wasauksing First Nation , and as an activist and leader in several First Nations organizations . He corresponded with and met other noted aboriginal figures including Fred Loft , Jules Sioui , Andrew Paull and John Tootoosis .
= = Early life = =
Francis Pegahmagabow was born on March 9 , 1889 , on what is now the Shawanaga First Nation reserve in Nobel , Ontario . In Ojibwe his name was Binaaswi ( " the wind that blows off " ) . His father was a man of the First Nation and his mother of the First Nation , located further up Bay 's north shore . His father Michael had been raised by Noah Nebimanyquod after the deaths of his parents ; Michael died of an unspecified severe illness in April 1891 , and his mother Mary Contin returned to her native Henvey Inlet First Nation after contracting the same illness . Francis was raised by Nebimanyquod and grew up in Shawanaga , where he learned traditional skills such as hunting , fishing , and practised a mix of Catholicism and Anishnaabe spirituality .
In January 1912 Pegahmagabow received financial aid for room and board to complete his education with the help of the Parry Sound Crown attorney Walter Lockwood Haight . That summer he worked for the Department of Marine and Fisheries on the Great Lakes as a marine fire fighter .
= = Military career = =
Following the outbreak of World War I , Pegahmagabow volunteered for service with the Canadian Expeditionary Force in August 1914 , despite Canadian government discrimination that initially excluded minorities . He was posted to the 23rd Canadian Regiment ( Northern Pioneers ) . After joining the Canadian force he was based at CFB Valcartier . While there he decorated his army tent with traditional symbols including a deer , the symbol of his clan . In February 1915 he was deployed overseas with the 1st Canadian Infantry Battalion of the 1st Canadian Division — the first contingent of Canadian troops sent to flight in Europe . His companions there nicknamed him " Peggy " .
Shortly after his arrival on the continent , Pegahmagabow fought in the Second Battle of Ypres , where the Germans used chlorine gas for the first time on the Western Front , and it was during this battle that he began to establish a reputation as a sniper and scout . Following the battle he was promoted to lance corporal . His battalion took part in the Battle of the Somme in 1916 , during which he was wounded in the left leg . He recovered in time to return to the 1st Battalion as they moved to Belgium . He received the Military Medal for carrying messages along the lines during these two battles . Initially , his commanding officer , Lieutenant Colonel Frank Albert Creighton , had nominated him from the Distinguished Conduct Medal , citing his disregard for danger and " faithfulness to duty " , but it was downgraded .
On November 6 / 7 , 1917 , Pegahmagabow earned a Bar to his Military Medal for his actions in the Second Battle of Passchendaele . During the fighting there Pegahmagabow 's battalion was given the task of launching an attack at Passchendaele . By this time , he had been promoted to the rank of corporal and during the battle he was recorded playing an important role as a link between the units on the 1st Battalion 's flank . When the battalion 's reinforcements became lost , Pegahmagabow was instrumental in guiding them and ensuring that they reached their allocated spot in the line .
On August 30 , 1918 , during the Battle of the Scarpe , Pegahmagabow was involved in fighting off a German attack at Orix Trench near Upton Wood . His company was almost out of ammunition and in danger of being surrounded . Pegahmagabow braved heavy machine gun and rifle fire by going into no @-@ man 's land and brought back enough ammunition to enable his post to carry on and assist in repulsing heavy enemy counter @-@ attacks . For these efforts he received a second Bar to his Military Medal , becoming one of only 38 Canadians to receive this honour .
The war ended in November 1918 and in 1919 Pegahmagabow was invalided back to Canada . He had served for almost the whole war , and had built a reputation as a skilled marksman . Using the much @-@ maligned Ross rifle , he was credited with killing 378 Germans and capturing 300 more . By the time of his discharge he had attained the rank of sergeant @-@ major and had been awarded the 1914 – 15 Star , the British War Medal , and the Victory Medal .
= = Political life = =
Upon his return to Canada he continued to serve in the Algonquin Regiment militia as a non @-@ permanent active member . Following in his father 's and grandfather 's footsteps , he was elected chief of the Parry Island Band from February 1921 . Once in office he caused a schism in the band after he wrote a letter calling for certain individuals and those of mixed race to be expelled from the reserve . He was re @-@ elected in 1924 and served until he was deposed via an internal power struggle in April 1925 . Before the motion could go through , Pegahmagabow resigned . A decade later , he was appointed councillor from 1933 to 1936 . In 1933 the Department of Indian Affairs ( DIA ) changed its policies and forbade First Nation chiefs from corresponding with the DIA . They directed that all correspondence , as of the spring of 1933 , go through the Indian Agent . This gave huge power to the Agent , something that grated on Pegahmagabow , who did not get along with his Indian Agent , John Daly . First Nation members who served in the army during World War I were particularly active as political activists . They had travelled the world , earned the respect of the comrades in the trenches , and refused to be sidelined by the newly empowered Indian Agent . Historian Paul Williams termed these advocates " returned soldier chiefs " , and singled out a few , including Pegahmagabow , as being especially active . This caused intense disagreements with Daly and eventually led to Pegahmagabow being deposed as chief . Daly and other agents who came in contact with Pegahmagabow were incredibly frustrated by his attempts , in his words , to free his people from " white slavery " . The Indian agents labelled him a " mental case " and strove to sideline him and his supporters .
In addition to the power struggle between the Indian council and the DIA with which Pegahmagabow took issue , he was a constant agitator over the islands in Georgian Bay of the Huron . The Regional First Nation governments claimed the islands as their own and Pegahmagabow and other chiefs tried in vain to get recognition of their status .
During World War II Pegahmagabow worked as a guard at a munitions plant near Nobel , Ontario , and was a Sergeant @-@ major in the local militia . In 1943 , he became the Supreme Chief of the Native Independent Government , an early First Nations organization .
= = Family and legacy = =
A married father of six children , Pegahmagabow died on the Parry Island reserve in 1952 at the age of 61 . He is a member of the Indian Hall of Fame at the Woodland Centre in Brantford , Ontario , and his memory is also commemorated on a plaque honouring him and his regiment on the Rotary and Algonquin Regiment Fitness Trail in Parry Sound . Honoured by the Canadian Forces by naming the 3rd Canadian Ranger Patrol Group HQ Building at CFB Borden after him .
Canadian journalist Adrian Hayes wrote a biography of Pegahmagabow titled Pegahmagabow : Legendary Warrior , Forgotten Hero , published in 2003 , and another titled Pegahmagabow : Life @-@ Long Warrior , published in 2009 . Canadian novelist Joseph Boyden 's 2005 novel Three Day Road was inspired in part by Pegahmagabow . The novel 's protagonist is a fictional character who , like Pegahmagabow , serves as a military sniper during World War I , although Pegahmagabow also appears as a minor character .
A life @-@ sized bronze statue of Pegahmagabow was erected in his honour on National Aboriginal Day , June 21 , 2016 , in Parry Sound , near Georgian Bay . The figure has an eagle on one arm , a Ross rifle slung from its shoulder , and a caribou at its feet , representing the Caribou Clan that Pegahmagabow belonged to . The Eagle was his spirit animal . The artist Tyler Fauvelle spent eight months sculpting the statue , which spent a further year in casting . Fauvelle chose to erect it in Parry Sound rather than Wasauksing to reach a larger public and educate them on the contributions of First Nations people to Canada .
= = = Awards = = =
He was first awarded the Military Medal while fighting at the second battle of Ypres , Festubert and Givenchy , for courage above fire in getting important messages through to the rear .
Earned his first bar to the Military Medal at the bloody Battle of Passchendaele .
His second bar to the Military Medal came at the battle of The Scarpe , in 1918 . Only 37 other Canadian men received the honour of two bars .
The 1914 – 15 Star
The British War Medal
The Victory Medal
In 2003 the Pegahmagabow family donated his medals and chief head dress to the Canadian War Museum where they can be seen as of 2010 as part of the World War I display . While researching his 2005 novel Three Day Road , Boyden was asked about why he thought that Pegahmagabow had not received a higher award like the Distinguished Conduct Medal or the Victoria Cross . Boyden speculated it was due to Pegahmagabow being a First Nations soldier , and that there may have been jealousy on the part of some officers who he felt might have been suspicious of the number of Germans Pegahmagabow claimed to have shot because he did not use an observer while sniping .
= RMS Magdalena ( 1948 ) =
Magdalena was a 17 @,@ 547 GRT passenger and refrigerated cargo ocean liner that Harland and Wolff built in Belfast in 1948 for Royal Mail Lines ( RML ) . Launched on 11 May 1948 , she was the third @-@ largest ship being built in a UK shipyard at that time .
Built as a replacement for a ship lost during the Second World War , she was to serve on route between England and the east coast of South America . She was wrecked on her maiden voyage in 1949 , the third ship built by Harland and Wolff to suffer this fate . The insurance payout of £ 2 @,@ 295 @,@ 000 was the largest made at the time for a marine casualty in the United Kingdom . Due to changing trading conditions RML decided not to replace her .
= = Description = =
Magdalena was 570 feet 1 inch ( 173 @.@ 76 m ) long overall ( 540 feet 0 inches ( 164 @.@ 59 m ) between perpendiculars , with a beam of 73 feet 3 inches ( 22 @.@ 33 m ) , and a draught of 28 feet 9 inches ( 8 @.@ 76 m ) ( SLL ) . She was propelled by two Parsons steam turbines , double reduction geared , driving twin screws . Developing 12 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 8 @,@ 900 kW ) , they could propel the ship at 18 knots ( 33 km / h ) .
Magdalena had five holds for the carriage of refrigerated cargo , three forward and two aft , for a total of 460 @,@ 000 cubic feet ( 13 @,@ 000 m3 ) . Internally she was divided into nine watertight compartments . She was of part @-@ riveted and part @-@ welded construction , with a double bottom . She was certificated to carry 251 crew and 529 passengers . She was assessed at 17 @,@ 547 GRT , 9 @,@ 885 NRT , 9 @,@ 725 DWT .
= = History = =
RML ordered Magdalena in 1946 . Her keel had been laid by 8 October when Harland and Wolff applied for a passenger certificate for the ship . In 1947 it was reported that delivery would be delayed until the end of 1948 and that the cost of building her would be considerably higher than the estimated cost when the order was placed . She was built to replace Highland Patriot , which had been sunk in 1940 . Magdalena was the first passenger ship built by Harland and Wolff in Belfast after the end of the war and the third @-@ largest being built in the United Kingdom at that time .
The ship was the third in the Royal Mail Lines fleet to carry the name Magdalena , she was built to serve on the Tilbury – Cherbourg – Vigo – Lisbon – Las Palmas – Pernambuco – Bahia – Rio de Janeiro – Santos – Montevideo – Buenos Aires route . She was launched on 11 May 1948 . Her passenger certificate was issued on 18 February 1949 . Her port of registry was London . The Official Number 182955 and Code Letters GFQD were allocated .
Magdalena left London on her maiden voyage on 9 March 1949 , bound for Buenos Aires , Argentina . Her captain was on his final voyage before retirement . She called at Las Palmas in the Canary Islands on 15 March , and Rio de Janeiro , Brazil on 24 March . She reached Buenos Aires , where a cargo of 3 @,@ 000 long tons ( 3 @,@ 048 t ) of meat was loaded , and called at Santos where a cargo of oranges was loaded . Carrying 237 crew and 347 passengers , she left Santos on 24 April , passing south of the Isle of Moela and the Isle of San Sebastian . Magdalena 's course was more northerly than that intended , and adjustments were made twice on the orders of her captain . She passed Boi Point , San Sebastian at 19 : 56 and her course was altered to pass about 0 @.@ 5 nmi ( 0 @.@ 93 km ) north of the Palmas Island Lighthouse , at the entrance to Rio de Janeiro Harbour . The captain retired to bed at about 22 : 45 , leaving written orders to be called when the ship was at a bearing of 315 ° off the Garituba Lighthouse . As Magdalena was not due at Rio de Janeiro until the morning , her speed was reduced to 13 @.@ 5 knots ( 25 @.@ 0 km / h ) . At 02 : 30 on 25 April , she was some 2 to 2 @.@ 5 nmi ( 3 @.@ 7 to 4 @.@ 6 km ) north of her intended position and another adjustment was made to her heading . By 03 : 30 , she was on course and the bearing of 315 ° to the Guarituba Lighthouse was obtained at 03 : 49 , at which point the captain was called . Having checked that all was well , he left orders to be called at 04 : 30 .
At 04 : 00 , the watch changed ; the incoming watch were informed that the ship 's course would mean that it would pass close to the Tijucas Rocks . Shortly before 04 : 30 , a fix was obtained which showed that Magdalena was again 1 ⁄ 2 nautical mile ( 930 m ) north of her intended position . The captain was called as ordered and informed that arrival off Palmas Island would be at about 05 : 07 . The first officer then took another fix as he was unsure of the accuracy of the first fix . He had just returned to the bridge when something was seen in the water ahead of them , which the Third Officer took to be a ship without lights . The order " port , 3 degrees " was given , followed by " hard @-@ a @-@ starboard " immediately before Magdalena struck the Tijucas Rocks , located between the Carragas Islands and the Palmas Islands . The time of the grounding was 04 : 40 .
An SOS was broadcast , which was answered by the Brazilian Navy , which sent three submarine chasers and three destroyers to the scene . The passengers were ordered to take to the lifeboats . Tenders and tugs also assisted in the rescue of all passengers from Magdalena without loss of life . The sea conditions at the time were smooth . At 19 : 00 , the steam turbines had to be shut down , and power was then provided by her auxiliary diesel engines . At about 20 : 00 , the submarine chaser Guaporé arrived and started to rescue the passengers . Other ships which assisted in the rescue were the tugs Comandante Triunfo , Dorat , Saturno and Trovão , and also the cargo ship Goiaz .
Magdalena was refloated at 23 : 34 . Her No.3 compartment was flooded and she was down by the bows . Tugs were sent to tow her the 15 nautical miles ( 28 km ) into Rio de Janeiro . The tow started at 07 : 00 on 26 April , making slow progress , with the ship being towed stern first and making just 3 knots ( 5 @.@ 6 km / h ) . Her bows were drawing 45 feet ( 14 m ) of water . She was abeam of Sugarloaf Mountain when she began to split in two forward of her aft superstructure . This happened as the ship was passing over a sandbank at the harbour mouth , which lay at a depth of about 45 feet ( 14 m ) . The anchors were then dropped . The remaining passengers and crew abandoned ship , with the last three leaving just before Magdalena broke up .
The bow section remained at anchor in the Guanabara Bay , The bow section slowly sank , being noticeably deeper in the water by 29 April . It finally sank on 30 April , with its foremast clear of the water marking its position ( 22 ° 57 ′ 05 ″ S 43 ° 7 ′ 30 ″ W ) . Much of her cargo of oranges washed up on Copacabana Beach . Salvage of the bow section was officially abandoned on 7 June . The wreck now lies in 36 to 44 feet ( 11 to 13 m ) of water .
The stern section drifted aground at the opposite side to the bay to where the bow section remained . The passengers ' baggage was salvaged , as well as mail being carried . Of her cargo , 450 long tons ( 457 t ) of frozen meat was salvaged , with hopes that a further 300 long tons ( 305 t ) would also be salvageable , as well as 2 @,@ 000 of the 12 @,@ 000 cases of oranges . They were shipped to the United Kingdom aboard Highland Brigade . Salvage operations were abandoned on 25 May , and it was decided to sell her remains for scrap .
Magdalena 's stern section was towed to Imbuí Bay , and was sold for £ 50 @,@ 000 . Her steam turbines were used for many years to generate electricity for Manaus . The ship 's bell and some other small parts , including some portholes are preserved at the Jurujuba Yacht Club , Niterói . The wreck of the bow section was a hazard to shipping until at least the 1970s , but has since been mostly demolished . It is difficult to dive due to strong currents in the area , poor visibility and anchoring in the busy shipping lane being banned .
On 4 May , Magdalena was declared to be a total loss , making her the third ship built by Harland and Wolff to be lost on her maiden voyage . [ Note 1 ] Her insurers paid out £ 2 @,@ 295 @,@ 000 to Royal Mail Lines by cheque on 16 May . At the time , this was the biggest payout for a marine casualty in the United Kingdom . It was decided that a replacement ship would not be built .
= = Investigation = =
A preliminary enquiry into Magdalena 's was held at Rio de Janeiro by the British Consul @-@ General , who sent a report to the Minister of Transport , who ordered that a Court of Formal Investigation be held . The enquiry was held at the Royal Courts of Justice , London on 26 – 28 September 1949 with J. V. Naisby KC in charge , assisted by Captains Grimston and Williamson , and a Mr. Gray . Evidence was heard that the ship was seaworthy , and that the provision of rescue equipment on board either met or exceeded the required standard . The course selected was deemed to be correct , but the navigation of the ship was defective , with insufficient attention being paid to compass errors . Her captain had his master 's certificate suspended for two years . Her first officer had his certificate suspended for a year , being allowed to hold a second mate 's certificate during this time . These suspensions were effective from the date of the report 's | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
release on 3 October 1949 .
= = Reunion = =
In April 1996 a reunion was held at Belfast of people who had either helped to build or worked on board Magdalena . It was organised by the Lagan Legacy heritage organisation . Four of the seven people contacted attended the reunion , with one coming from Australia .
= Daisy Jugadai Napaltjarri =
Daisy Jugadai Napaltjarri ( c . 1955 – 2008 ) was a Pintupi @-@ Luritja @-@ speaking Indigenous artist from Australia 's Western Desert region , and sister of artist Molly Jugadai Napaltjarri . Daisy Jugadai lived and painted at Haasts Bluff , Northern Territory . There she played a significant role in the establishment of Ikuntji Women 's Centre , where many artists of the region have worked .
Influenced by the Hermannsburg School , Jugadai 's paintings reflect her Tjuukurrpa , the complex spiritual knowledge and relationships between her and her landscape . The paintings also reflect fine observation of the structures of the vegetation and environment . Jugadai 's works were selected for exhibition at the National Aboriginal & Torres Strait Islander Art Awards five times between 1993 and 2001 , and she was a section winner in 2000 . Her paintings are held in major collections including the National Gallery of Victoria , National Gallery of Australia and the Museum and Art Gallery of the Northern Territory .
= = Life = =
Daisy Jugadai was born circa 1955 at Haasts Bluff , Northern Territory , daughter of artists Narputta Nangala and Timmy Jugadai Tjungurrayi . The ambiguity around the year of birth is in part because Indigenous people operate using a different conception of time from non @-@ Indigenous Australians , often estimating dates through comparisons with the occurrence of other events .
The people of Papunya and Haasts Bluff , such as Daisy , speak a variety of the Pintupi language referred to as Pintupi @-@ Luritja , a Western Desert dialect . Napaltjarri ( in Western Desert dialects ) or Napaljarri ( in Warlpiri ) is a skin name , one of sixteen used to denote the subsections or subgroups in the kinship system of central Australian Indigenous people . These names define kinship relationships that influence preferred marriage partners and may be associated with particular totems . Although they may be used as terms of address , they are not surnames in the sense used by Europeans . Thus " Daisy Jugadai " is the element of the artist 's name that is specifically hers .
Jugadai 's childhood was spent at both Haasts Bluff and a nearby camp , Five Mile , while she was schooled at Papunya . She married Kelly Multa , and they had a daughter , Agnes . They lived on an outstation , Kungkayunti , but Daisy moved back to Haasts Bluff when Kelly died . It was not until the 1990s that she was remarried , to an Elcho Islander , after which she travelled regularly between Arnhem Land and Haasts Bluff . Jugadai died in 2008 , her funeral held at Haasts Bluff , where she was born . Daisy Jugadai had an older sister , artist Molly Jugadai Napaltjarri , and another sister , Ester , who predeceased her .
= = Art = =
= = = Background = = =
The contemporary Indigenous Australian art movement began in the western desert in 1971 , when Indigenous men at Papunya took up painting , led by elders such as Kaapa Tjampitjinpa , and assisted by teacher Geoffrey Bardon . This initiative , which used acrylic paints to create designs representing body painting and ground sculptures , rapidly spread across Indigenous communities of central Australia , particularly following the commencement of a government @-@ sanctioned art program in central Australia in 1983 . By the 1980s and 1990s , such work was being exhibited internationally . The first artists , including all of the founders of the Papunya Tula artists ' company , had been men , and there was resistance amongst the Pintupi men of central Australia to women painting . However , many women in the communities wished to participate , and in the 1990s many began to create paintings . In the western desert communities such as Kintore , Yuendumu , Balgo , and on the outstations , people were beginning to create art works expressly for exhibition and sale .
Daisy Jugadai came from a family of painters , including her uncle Uta Uta Tjangala and her mother . She learned to draw during her schooling at Papunya and Haasts Bluff , but her first experience as a painter came working on backgrounds for the pictures created by her father . From the Pintupi / Luritja language group , Daisy Jugadai was one of a range of artists who came to painting through the Ikuntji Women 's Centre in the early 1990s . She is credited with a significant role in the centre 's establishment . She began with screen printing and linocut printmaking , but quickly shifted to acrylic painting , producing many of her best works during the mid @-@ 1990s . Western Desert artists such as Daisy Jugadai will frequently paint particular ' dreamings ' or Tjukurrpa for which they have personal responsibility or rights . A complex concept , Tjukurrpa refers to the spiritual knowledge of the landscape and custodianship of it ; it also refers to laws , rules or stories that people must maintain and re @-@ produce in their communities . Daisy Jugadai portrayed in her art both those for which she had personal responsibility , and those of her late husband and late father . These included honey ant , spinifex and emu dreamings ; geographical locations that were the settings for these paintings included Muruntji waterhole and Talabarrdi , and other locations around Kungkayunti , where her family had lived for many years .
= = = Career = = =
Throughout the 1990s , Daisy Jugadai was a regular exhibitor at the Araluen Art Centre in Alice Springs , and well as other major exhibitions such as the Australian Heritage Art Awards in Canberra in 1994 . Recognition came in 1993 , in two forms : an award of a Northern Territory Women 's Fellowship ; and the purchase by the Araluen Arts Centre of a work exhibited in its annual art award . Within her community she was an administrator as well as an artist . A member of the Ikuntji Women 's Centre and a representative on Ikuntji Community Council , Daisy was one of those who successfully lobbied to have artist Marina Strocchi appointed as an art centre coordinator in the early 1990s . The respect between the two women was mutual : Daisy was one of a group of artists whose work was selected for an exhibition that toured regional Australian public galleries in 1999 – 2000 , Ikuntji tjuta – touring , which was curated by Marina Strocchi , the art centre coordinator who had first helped develop the Ikuntji centre in Haasts Bluff some years earlier .
Works by Daisy Jugadai are held by the National Gallery of Victoria , National Gallery of Australia and the Museum and Art Gallery of the Northern Territory . They are also held in major private collections , such as Nangara ( also known as the Ebes Collection ) , as well as by Edith Cowan University . First exhibiting in the National Aboriginal & Torres Strait Islander Art Awards in 1993 , she was a finalist on several occasions including 1995 , 1998 and 2001 , and a section winner in 2000 . Her 1994 entry in the award , Karu kapingku pungu ( Creek after rain ) , belongs to the Museum and Art Gallery of the Northern Territory . Her work is also featured alongside other Indigenous artists such as Gloria Petyarre in the Melbourne international airport terminal , completed in 1996 . Antiti , near Five Mile , a 1998 painting , has appeared as cover art on an issue of the Medical Journal of Australia .
= = = Style = = =
Alone amongst the Ikuntji artists , Daisy Jugadai worked at an easel . She cited the Hermannsburg School , a group of Indigenous artists including Albert Namatjira who began painting at Hermannsburg Mission in the 1930s , as an influence on her work . Memory and Five Mile Creek ( 1995 ) represents the country of her childhood . It shows the hills of the region in elevation rather than in plan , and represents the range of vegetation typical of that country . Curator Marina Strocchi notes how Daisy Jugadai 's painting reflects close observation of the complex structures of the vegetation and environment , its features " obsessively detailed " , with the artist " devotedly [ including ] all the bush tucker of that area " , as well as choosing " a time of year in which to depict her country " . Vegetation would be carefully painted with a trimmed brush , while even finer detail , such as pollen , would be rendered using a matchstick . Clouds were always the final features to be included . Despite this devotion to detail , Daisy preferred to paint large canvasses . Memory and Five Mile Creek was included in the National Gallery of Victoria 's 2004 – 05 exhibition " Aboriginal Art Post 1984 " and reviewer Miriam Cosic , while noting its " naive charm " , also drew attention to the work 's title and the implication that , like other more explicitly political painters of her era , " she too is talking of violent dispossession " .
Artist Mandy Martin , who participated in a 2005 collaboration with several painters from the Haasts Bluff region , thought that Daisy 's rendering of bush tucker was achieved with a " stylised but dazzling personal language " . Writer and critic Morag Fraser described Daisy 's work as " extraordinary " , observing that in Daisy 's paintings " nature is so wholly internalised , and its rendering so uninhibited . " A distinguished artist in her community , her death coincided with a vigorous renewal of artistic expression amongst her successors .
= Murder of Lenford Harvey =
Lenford " Steve " Harvey was a Jamaican activist who campaigned for the rights of those living with HIV / AIDS in Jamaican society . In November 2005 he was abducted from his home and murdered in a robbery that some commentators believed was also a homophobic hate crime . Openly gay , Harvey had worked for Jamaica AIDS Support for Life ( JASL ) since 1997 , becoming the group 's coordinator for Kingston . In this position , he focused on distributing information and services surrounding HIV / AIDS to the most marginalised sectors of Jamaican society , among them prisoners , sex workers , and lesbian , gay , bisexual , and transgender ( LGBT ) people . In 2005 , he was selected as the Latin America and Caribbean Council of AIDS Service Organizations ' project coordinator for Jamaica .
In November 2005 , three men carrying guns broke into his home , removing any valuables . They asked if he was gay , and when he refused to respond they kidnapped him , later shooting him dead and dumping the body elsewhere . The police subsequently arrested four individuals and charged them with murder in the furtherance of a robbery . The accused remained in police custody for almost ten years before the case came to court . At that point , the police dropped their murder charges against two of the accused . The other two , Dwayne Owen and Andrew West , went on trial and were found unanimously guilty of murder by a jury . Although prosecutors had requested capital punishment in the case , the judge sentenced them to life in prison with a minimum of thirty years before becoming eligible for parole .
= = Background = =
= = = Harvey 's biography = = =
In 1997 , Harvey became involved with Jamaica AIDS Support for Life ( JASL ) , an organisation that was a partner of Christian Aid . He became the group 's Kingston co @-@ ordinator , and in this position primarily worked to ensure that the marginalised groups within the country – including prisoners , sex workers , and lesbian , gay , bisexual , and transgender ( LGBT ) people – had access to information about the HIV / AIDS virus . He was selected as Jamaica 's representative at the Latin America and Caribbean Council of AIDS Service Organizations . He was also a registered delegate to the conference of the People 's National Party . In the week preceding his death , Harvey led JASL 's annual candle @-@ lit vigil in memory of those who had died as a result of AIDS .
= = = Anti @-@ LGBT sentiment in Jamaica = = =
In 2006 , Time magazine asked whether Jamaica was " the most homophobic place on Earth " , and answered that it " may be the worst offender " . The country 's laws criminalising same @-@ sex activity between males were introduced in 1864 , during the British colonial administration . According to the Sexual Offences Act of 2009 , any man convicted under these laws must register as a sex offender . These laws have been cited as contributing to wider homophobic attitudes among the Jamaican populace , including the view that gay people are criminals regardless of whether or not they have committed any crime . Anti @-@ LGBT perspectives have been furthered by the island 's conservative Christian churches . Many reggae and dancehall songs , among them Buju Banton 's " Boom Bye Bye " , call for the killing of gays . Writing for the International Business Times in the summer of 2013 , the journalist Palash Gosh noted that while Jamaica was " awash in crime and violence , gays and lesbians are particularly prominent targets of wanton brutality . " In the summer of 2013 , Human Rights Watch carried out five weeks of fieldwork among Jamaica 's LGBT community , reporting that over half of those interviewed had experienced violence as a result of their sexual orientation or gender identity , sometimes on more than one occasion .
= = Murder = =
On the night of Wednesday 30 November 2005 , three armed men broke into Harvey 's home , confronting him and his two roommates and demanding money . The intruders said " We hear that you are gay " and while the two room mates denied this , Harvey – who was openly gay – remained silent . The two room mates were bound and gagged while Harvey was forced to carry valuables to the criminal 's car . At gunpoint , they forced him into the car and abducted him .
Two hours later , Harvey 's corpse was found at Pinewood Terrace , a rural area far from his home ; his body had gunshot wounds in the head and back . Harvey 's clothes , suitcases , jewellery , cellphones , and watches were recovered by police . Reporter Gary Younge expressed the view that the killing " appears to have been a homophobic attack " , while an editorial in The New York Times noted that " the Harvey killing has the earmarks of a hate crime " .
= = = Arrest and trial = = =
Following investigations , in 2005 police arrested four individuals – Dwayne Owen , Andrew West , Ryan Wilson , and Chevaughn Gibson – charging them all with committing murder in the furtherance of a robbery . The accused were from an area known as Vietnam in Grant 's Pen . Defence lawyers repeatedly complained that the prosecution had been late in handing over relevant documents to them .
The case was brought before the Home Circuit Court on April 24 , 2014 , however it could not proceed because important documents had not been served on the defence . The witnesses for the case , who included ten police officers and two civilians , were bound over . Senior Puisne Judge Gloria Smith stated that no further adjournments of the case would be permitted , ordering the Director of Public Prosecutions to make full disclosure to the defence , and insisting that the trial must start on May 19 . In her words , " This case has been going on for far too long and has reached the point where something must happen . " However , on that date the trial was postponed again due to the unavailability of a courtroom , being rescheduled for June 1 . At that date it was again postponed , this time due to a shortage of available jurors , with the new date being set for July 7 .
In early July 2014 , the prosecution announced that they were dropping all charges against Wilson , who was declared free to go after over eight years in prison . They had determined that at the time of the murder he had been in custody at the Constant Spring Police Station . The prosecution also stated that it was dropping the murder charges against Gibson , who would instead be charged with misprision of felony . After a three week trial , in late July a twelve @-@ person jury unanimously found both Owen and West guilty of murder . The state prosecutors , Kathy Pryce and Karen Seymour Johnson , requested that Owen and West face the death penalty . However , in November Justice Lloyd Hibbert sentenced them to life in prison , stipulating that they must serve a minimum of thirty years before becoming eligible for parole . He stated that in sentencing the pair he took into account the fact that they had already spent a decade in custody . In December , both Owen and West launched appeals against their conviction .
Independently of the Harvey case , West was also charged with being involved in the murder of Jamie Lue , a financial analyst at Alliance Capital Limited , who had been abducted , robbed and killed in December 2005 .
= = Reaction = =
In December 2005 , the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV / AIDS ( UNAIDS ) issued a statement expressing the view that " Harvey 's death is a profound shock and loss not only to the AIDS movement in Jamaica and the Caribbean , but to the whole world " , furthermore calling on the Jamaican government to ensure that Harvey 's killers be found and convicted . Rebecca Schleifer , a researcher with Human Rights Watch 's HIV / AIDS and Human Rights Program , stated that Harvey was " a person of extraordinary bravery and integrity , who worked tirelessly to ensure that some of Jamaica 's most marginalized people had the tools and information to protect themselves from HIV / AIDS " .
According to Peter Tatchell of the British LGBT rights organisation OutRage ! , " It is thanks to the efforts of Steve and his colleagues that many Jamaican men and women - both gay and straight - have not contracted HIV . They have helped save hundreds of lives . " The Guyanese Society Against Sexual Orientation Discrimination issued a press release condemning Harvey 's killing and calling for the perpetrators to be convicted .
= Spinner shark =
The spinner shark ( Carcharhinus brevipinna ) is a species of requiem shark , in the family Carcharhinidae , named for the spinning leaps it makes as a part of its feeding strategy . This species occurs in tropical and warm temperate waters worldwide , except for in the eastern Pacific Ocean . It is found from coastal to offshore habitats to a depth of 100 m ( 330 ft ) , though it prefers shallow water . The spinner shark resembles a larger version of the blacktip shark ( C. limbatus ) , with a slender body , long snout , and black @-@ marked fins . This species can be distinguished from the blacktip shark by the first dorsal fin , which has a different shape and is placed further back , and by the black tip on the anal fin ( in adults only ) . It attains a maximum length of 3 m ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) .
Spinner sharks are swift and gregarious predators that feed on a wide variety of small bony fishes and cephalopods . When feeding on schools of forage fish , they will speed vertically through the school while spinning on their axis , erupting from the water at the end . Like other members of its family , the spinner shark is viviparous , with females bearing litters of three to 20 young every other year . The newborns are born in shallow nursery areas near the coast , and are relatively fast @-@ growing . This species is not usually dangerous to humans , but may become belligerent when excited by food . Spinner sharks are valued by commercial fisheries across their range for their meat , fins , liver oil , and skin . They are also esteemed as strong fighters by recreational fishers . The IUCN has assessed this species as Near Threatened worldwide and Vulnerable off the southeastern United States .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
The spinner shark was originally described as Carcharias ( Aprion ) brevipinna by Johannes Peter Müller and Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle in their 1839 Systematische Beschreibung der Plagiostomen , based on the mounted skin of a 79 @-@ cm @-@ long specimen collected off Java . This species was subsequently moved to the genera Aprion , Squalus , and Aprionodon before being placed within the genus Carcharhinus . The tooth shape and coloration of this species varies significantly with age and between geographical regions , which caused much taxonomic confusion . Other common names include blacktipped shark , great blacktip shark , inkytail shark , large blacktip shark , long @-@ nose grey shark , longnose grey whaler , and smoothfang shark .
Based on similarities in morphology , tooth shape , and behavior , the closest relatives of the spinner shark were originally believed to be the blacktip shark and the graceful shark ( C. amblyrhynchoides ) . However , this interpretation was not supported by Gavin Naylor 's 1992 allozyme analysis , which suggested that these similarities are the product of convergent evolution and that the closest relative of the spinner shark is the copper shark ( C. brachyurus ) . In a 2007 ribosomal DNA study , the spinner shark was found to be the most genetically divergent of all the requiem shark species examined save for the tiger shark ( Galeocerdo cuvier ) , being less related to other Carcharhinus species than the lemon shark ( Negaprion brevirostris ) .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Some uncertainty exists in the distribution data for the spinner shark due to confusion with the blacktip shark . In the western Atlantic Ocean , it occurs from North Carolina to the northern Gulf of Mexico , including the Bahamas and Cuba , and from southern Brazil to Argentina . In the eastern Atlantic , it occurs from off North Africa to Namibia . In the Indian Ocean , it is found from South Africa and Madagascar , to the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden , to India and nearby islands , to Java and Sumatra . In the Pacific Ocean , it occurs off Japan , Vietnam , Australia , and possibly the Philippines . Parasitological evidence suggests that Indian Ocean spinner sharks have passed through the Suez Canal into the Mediterranean Sea , becoming Lessepsian migrants .
The spinner shark has been reported from ocean surface to a depth of 100 m ( 330 ft ) , though it prefers water less than 30 m ( 98 ft ) deep , and occupies all levels of the water column . This species may be found from coastal waters to well offshore , over continental and insular shelves . Juveniles have been known to enter bays , but avoid brackish conditions . The northwest Atlantic subpopulation is known to be migratory ; in spring and summer , they are found in warm inshore waters , and in winter they move south into deeper water .
= = Description = =
The average spinner shark is 2 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) long and weighs 56 kg ( 123 lb ) ; this species attains a maximum known length and weight of 3 m ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) and 90 kg ( 200 lb ) . Indo @-@ Pacific sharks are generally larger than those from the northwest Atlantic . This species has a slim , streamlined body with a distinctive , long , pointed snout . The eyes are small and circular . There are prominent forward @-@ pointing furrows at the corners of the mouth . The tooth rows number 15 – 18 in each half of the upper jaw and 14 – 17 in each half of the lower jaw , with two and one tiny symphysial ( central ) teeth , respectively . The teeth have long , narrow central cusps and are finely serrated in the upper jaw and smooth in the lower jaw . The five pairs of gill slits are long .
The first dorsal fin is relatively small and usually originates behind the free rear tip of the pectoral fins . No ridge exists between the first and second dorsal fins . The pectoral fins are moderately short , narrow , and falcate ( sickle @-@ shaped ) . The body is densely covered with diamond @-@ shaped dermal denticles with seven ( rarely five ) shallow horizontal ridges . The coloration is gray above , sometimes with a bronze sheen , and white below , with a faint white band on the sides . Young individuals have unmarked fins ; the tips of the second dorsal fin , pectoral fins , anal fin , and lower caudal fin lobe ( and sometimes the other fins , as well ) are black in larger individuals . The spinner shark differs from the blacktip shark in that its first dorsal fin is slightly more triangular in shape and is placed further back on the body . Adults can also be distinguished by the black tip on the anal fin .
= = Biology and ecology = =
The spinner shark is a fast , active swimmer that sometimes forms large schools , segregated by age and sex . Young individuals prefer cooler water temperatures than adults . Off South Africa , females are found close to shore year @-@ round while males only appear during the summer . Smaller spinner sharks may be preyed upon by larger sharks . Known parasites of the spinner shark include the copepods Kroyeria deetsi , Nemesis pilosus , and N. atlantica , which infest the shark 's gills , Alebion carchariae , which infests the skin , Nesippus orientalis , which infests the mouth and gill arches , and Perissopus dentatus , which infests the nares and the rear margins of the fins .
= = = Feeding = = =
Spinner sharks feed primarily on small bony fish , including tenpounders , sardines , herring , anchovies , sea catfish , lizardfish , mullets , bluefish , tunas , bonito , croakers , jacks , mojarras , and tongue @-@ soles . They have also been known to eat stingrays , cuttlefish , squid , and octopus . Groups of spinner sharks are often found pursuing schools of prey at high speed . Individual prey are seized and swallowed whole , as this shark lacks cutting dentition . This species employs an unusual tactic when feeding on schools of small fish ; the shark charges vertically through the school , spinning on its axis with its mouth open and snapping all around it . The shark 's momentum at the end of these spiraling runs often carries it into the air , giving it its common name . The blacktip shark also performs this behavior , though not as often . Off Madagascar , spinner sharks follow migrating schools of mackerel , tunas , and jacks . Like blacktip sharks , they congregate around shrimp trawlers to feed on the discarded bycatch , and may be incited into feeding frenzies .
= = = Life history = = =
Like other requiem sharks , the spinner shark is viviparous . Adult females have a single functional ovary and two functional uteri ; each uterus is divided into compartments , one for each embryo . The embryos are initially sustained by a yolk sac . When the embryo grows to around 19 cm ( 7 @.@ 5 in ) long , the supply of yolk has been exhausted and the empty yolk sac develops into a placental connection through which the mother provides nutrients for the remainder of gestation . This species has the smallest ova relative to the fully developed embryo of any viviparous shark known . Females give birth to three to 20 ( usually seven to 11 ) pups every other year , after a gestation period of 11 – 15 months . Mating occurs from early spring to summer , and parturition in August off North Africa , from April to May off South Africa , and from March to April in the northwestern Atlantic . Young are birthed in coastal nursery areas such as bays , beaches , and high @-@ salinity estuaries in water deeper than 5 m ( 16 ft ) .
The length at birth is 66 – 77 cm ( 26 – 30 in ) in the northwestern Atlantic , 61 – 69 cm ( 24 – 27 in ) off Tunisia , and 60 cm ( 24 in ) off South Africa . Spinner sharks are relatively fast @-@ growing sharks : 30 cm ( 12 in ) per year for newborns , 25 cm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) per year for one @-@ year @-@ olds , 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) per year for adolescents , and 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) per year for adults . In the northwestern Atlantic , males mature at 1 @.@ 3 m ( 4 @.@ 3 ft ) long and females at 1 @.@ 5 – 1 @.@ 6 m ( 4 @.@ 9 – 5 @.@ 2 ft ) long , corresponding to ages of 4 – 5 years and 7 – 8 years , respectively . Off South Africa , males mature at 1 @.@ 8 m ( 5 @.@ 9 ft ) and females at 2 @.@ 1 m ( 6 @.@ 9 ft ) . Spinner sharks generally do not reproduce until they are 12 – 14 years old . The maximum lifespan has been estimated at 15 – 20 years or more .
= = Human interactions = =
Ordinarily , spinner sharks do not pose a substantial danger to humans ; they do not perceive large mammals as prey , as their small , narrow teeth are adapted for grasping rather than cutting . However , they can become excited by the presence of food , so caution is warranted if this species is encountered while spearfishing . As of 2008 , the International Shark Attack File listed 16 unprovoked attacks and one provoked attack attributable to the spinner shark , none of them fatal .
The meat of the spinner shark is of high quality and sold fresh or dried and salted . In addition , the fins are used for shark fin soup in East Asia , the liver oil is processed for vitamins , and the skin is made into leather products . Spinner sharks are an important catch of the US commercial shark fisheries operating in the northwestern Atlantic and the Gulf of Mexico . The meat is marketed under the name " blacktip shark " in the United States , due to that species being considered superior in quality by consumers . It is likely also caught by other fisheries across its range , going unreported owing to confusion with the blacktip shark . The spinner shark is also highly regarded by recreational fishers , being described as a " spectacular fighter " that often leaps out of the water .
The IUCN has assessed the spinner shark as Near Threatened worldwide and Vulnerable in the northwest Atlantic ; its frequent use of coastal habitats render it vulnerable to human exploitation and habitat degradation . The Northwest Atlantic fishery for this species is managed under the US National Marine Fisheries Service ( NMFS ) 1999 Fishery Management Plan ( FMP ) for Atlantic Tunas , Swordfish and Sharks . For the purposes of commercial quotas and recreational bag limits , the spinner shark is categorized as a " large coastal shark " .
= Sagtikos State Parkway =
The Sagtikos State Parkway , also known as the Sagtikos or Sagtikos Parkway , known colloquially as " the Sag " is a 5 @.@ 14 @-@ mile ( 8 @.@ 27 km ) north – south limited @-@ access parkway in Suffolk County on Long Island , New York , in the United States . It begins at an interchange with the Southern and Heckscher state parkways in the hamlet of West Islip and goes north to a large cloverleaf interchange with the Northern State Parkway in the town of Smithtown , where the Sagtikos ends and the road becomes the Sunken Meadow State Parkway . The parkway comprises the southern half of New York State Route 908K ( NY 908K ) , an unsigned reference route , with the Sunken Meadow State Parkway forming the northern portion . Commercial vehicles are prohibited from using the Sagtikos State Parkway , a restriction that applies to most parkways in the state .
The parkway was proposed to help bridge a gap in the eastern part of the Long Island Parkway system . Construction began in 1949 with the opening of an interchange between Bay Shore Road and the Southern State Parkway . Work on the parkway itself began the following year , with plans calling for connections to three spurs : the Captree State Parkway ( now Robert Moses Causeway ) , the Sunken Meadow Spur ( Sunken Meadow State Parkway ) , and the Heckscher Spur ( Heckscher State Parkway ) . The parkway was completed in 1952 , closing the highway loop on Long Island . In 2001 , a study by the New York State Department of Transportation ( NYSDOT ) called for the Sagtikos State Parkway to be widened to include new bus and carpool lanes from end to end .
= = Route description = =
The Sagtikos State Parkway begins at an interchange with the Southern and Heckscher state parkways in the hamlet of West Islip , just north of the Robert Moses Causeway 's junction with the Southern State Parkway . Heading southbound , this junction is signed as exit S4 . The parkway proceeds northward through the town of Islip as a four @-@ lane divided highway , passing through residential parts of the adjacent hamlet of Brentwood to reach exit S3 , a partial cloverleaf interchange with Pine Aire Drive . Just north of the junction , the highway passes over the Main Line of the Long Island Rail Road . Continuing northward through Islip , the Sagtikos Parkway leaves Brentwood ahead of exit S2 , a connection to County Route 13 ( CR 13 , named Crooked Hill Road ) . The southbound exit serves CR 13 by way of access roads through the Pilgrim Psychiatric Center while the northbound direction uses part of G Road to reach CR 13 and Suffolk County Community College 's Grant Campus .
Past the exit , the Sagtikos State Parkway crosses under CR 13 and immediately enters exit S1 , a large modified cloverleaf interchange with the Long Island Expressway ( Interstate 495 or I @-@ 495 ) . The junction brings the parkway into the town of Smithtown , where it bends northwestward and parallels CR 67 ( Vanderbilt Motor Parkway ) for a half @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) through the town 's Commack section . CR 67 eventually turns westward to pass under the Sagtikos Parkway , at which point the parkway curves back to the north and enters exit SM1E , a cloverleaf interchange serving as the Northern State Parkway 's exit 44 . The Sagtikos State Parkway name ends here while the highway continues northward toward Long Island 's North Shore as the Sunken Meadow State Parkway .
According to annual average daily traffic counts compiled in 2011 by NYSDOT , the most @-@ traveled stretch of the Sagtikos State Parkway was the portion between the Southern State Parkway and the Long Island Expressway . The part between the Southern State and Pine Aire Drive handled an average of 87 @,@ 250 vehicles per day ; slightly lower numbers were recorded along the segment between Pine Aire Drive and the Long Island Expressway , with roughly 85 @,@ 300 vehicles using the section on a daily basis . The portion between the Long Island Expressway and the Northern State Parkway carries an average of 67 @,@ 600 vehicles per day . All three segments saw a rise in traffic over the course of the previous decade , with the Pine Aire Drive – Long Island Expressway segment gaining 14 @,@ 000 vehicles per day during that time .
= = History = =
= = = Construction and opening = = =
The Sagtikos State Parkway was first proposed in the 1920s as a connector between the Northern and Southern state parkways . In order to construct the freeway , the heirs of the late David Gardiner , who owned the historic Sagtikos Manor in West Bay Shore , donated 197 acres ( 80 ha ) of land to the Long Island State Park Commission ( LISPC ) . This donation was considered unusual by the commission as it would break up the family 's estate , which had been constructed in 1692 and served George Washington in 1780 . In addition to this donation , James Fisher , a nearby resident , gave the commission 23 @.@ 5 acres ( 9 @.@ 5 ha ) of land north of the Gardiner property and another 0 @.@ 3 acres ( 0 @.@ 12 ha ) north of the Fisher property to ensure that LISPC had the necessary right @-@ of @-@ way for the new parkway .
The right @-@ of @-@ way on which the parkway was built had originally been part of a private road leading to Sagtikos Manor . The parkway was designed to have connections with the Sunken Meadow Spur ( the future Sunken Meadow State Parkway ) and the Captree State Parkway ( now known as the Robert Moses Causeway ) proposed by New York City highway engineer Robert Moses . On November 13 , 1949 , a new interchange between the Southern State Parkway and Bay Shore Road was opened to traffic . This interchange would eventually serve as the Southern State Parkway 's junction with the Sagtikos , Heckscher and Captree state parkways . Proposals conceived at this time called for grading on the new Sagtikos State Parkway to begin in early 1950 .
In March 1950 , $ 3 million ( 1950 USD ) was earmarked out of a $ 104 @.@ 5 million budget for the start of construction on the parkway . The contract for paving 4 @.@ 76 miles ( 7 @.@ 66 km ) of the Sagtikos Parkway was awarded by the New York State Department of Public Works on June 7 , 1951 , to Hudson Contracting Corporation of Kew Gardens , who entered a bid of $ 1 @,@ 407 @,@ 037 ( 1951 USD ) for the project . The remainder of the parkway was paved as part of a contract valued around $ 418 @,@ 000 ( 1951 USD ) and let by the state on July 11 . A 3 @-@ mile ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) stretch of the Northern State Parkway was also built as part of the project . On September 29 , 1952 , an extension of the Northern State Parkway , Southern State Parkway , and the entire length of the Sagtikos State Parkway were opened without celebration . Robert Moses commented that the completed parkway reflected LISPC 's objective to construct well @-@ designed recreational facilities .
= = = Roadway improvements = = =
From 1997 – 2001 , engineers from NYSDOT worked on a $ 6 @.@ 5 million ( 2001 USD ) study aimed to improve Long Island 's transportation system by 2020 . The resulting plan included proposals to widen 130 miles ( 210 km ) of roads , including the entirety of the Sagtikos State Parkway from the Southern to Northern state parkways . These proposals would give the Sagtikos a restricted @-@ access lane for buses and carpooling drivers , which would be part of a 60 @-@ mile ( 97 km ) system of similar lanes across Long Island .
In 2002 , the Wolkoffs , a family of real estate developers , bought land used by the Pilgrim Psychiatric Center for $ 20 million ( 2002 USD ) with the intent of replacing the property with a new smart growth community named Heartland Town Square . The community , situated near the junction of the Sagtikos Parkway and the Long Island Expressway , would have 9 @,@ 000 housing units and various commercial and recreational buildings . As part of the redevelopment of the property , a study was done on the existing facilities and the surrounding area , which noted several deficiencies in the area 's transportation system , including several related to the Sagtikos . The study determined that the deficiencies would be " exacerbated " if no changes were made .
In response , the study suggested that a third lane be constructed along the Sagtikos from the Southern State Parkway to the Long Island Expressway . The bridges over the Sagtikos at Campus Road and Crooked Hill Road ( CR 13 ) would have to be reconstructed to make room for the added lane , and the interchange with Pine Aire Drive ( exit S3 ) would be completely rebuilt . A new interchange would also be constructed on the parkway between Pine Aire Drive and Campus Road , creating a junction with CR 100 . The project would cost $ 4 billion ( 2011 USD ) and be built in phases for 15 – 20 years .
As of 2012 , progress on the project has been stalled by disagreements between the Wolkoffs and the town of Islip over the amount the Wolkoffs will spend for the transportation piece of the project , and between the family and labor unions over wages and health care . The town of Islip has stated that the Wolkoffs agreed to spend $ 75 million ( 2011 USD ) for the infrastructure improvements ; however , the family stated in a September 2011 letter that they would only commit to $ 27 million ( 2011 USD ) and that they never agreed to the original figure . Gerald Wolkoff thought that the discrepancy stemmed from his belief that transportation should be funded by the government , not from private sources , as his project would generate tax revenue for the government . Despite the issues surrounding the project , the Heartland project received $ 2 @.@ 5 million from the State of New York for roadway improvements in December 2011 . The funding was part of a $ 101 million ( 2011 USD ) package given to Long Island for various economic improvements .
= = Exit list = =
The entire route is in Suffolk County .
= Lanthanum =
Lanthanum is a soft , ductile , silvery @-@ white metallic chemical element with symbol La and atomic number 57 . It tarnishes rapidly when exposed to air and is soft enough to be cut with a knife . It gave its name to the lanthanide series , a group of 15 similar elements between lanthanum and lutetium in the periodic table . It is also sometimes considered the first element of the 6th @-@ period transition metals , and is traditionally counted among the rare earth elements . As such , it almost always assumes the oxidation state + 3 . Lanthanum has no biological role and is not very toxic .
Lanthanum usually occurs together with cerium and the other rare earth elements . Lanthanum was first found by the Swedish chemist Carl Gustav Mosander in 1839 as an impurity in cerium nitrate – hence the name lanthanum , from the Ancient Greek λανθάνειν ( lanthanein ) , meaning " to lie hidden " . Although it is classified as a rare earth element , lanthanum is the 28th most abundant element in the Earth 's crust , being just under three times as abundant as lead . In minerals such as monazite and bastnäsite , lanthanum makes up about a quarter of the lanthanide content . It is extracted from these minerals using a process of such complexity that pure lanthanum metal was not isolated until 1923 .
Lanthanum compounds have numerous applications as catalysts , additives in glass , carbon lighting for studio lighting and projection , ignition elements in lighters and torches , electron cathodes , scintillators , GTAW electrodes , and others . Lanthanum carbonate has been approved as a medicine for treating renal failure .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Physical = = =
Lanthanum is the first element and prototype of the lanthanide series . In the periodic table , it appears to the right of the alkaline earth metal barium and to the left of the lanthanide cerium . Lanthanum is often considered to be a group 3 element , along with its lighter congeners scandium and yttrium and its heavier congener , the radioactive actinium , although this classification is sometimes disputed . Similarly to scandium , yttrium , and actinium , the 57 electrons of a lanthanum atom are arranged in the configuration [ Xe ] 5d16s2 , with three valence electrons outside the noble gas core . In chemical reactions , lanthanum almost always gives up these three valence electrons from the 5d and 6s subshells to form the + 3 oxidation state , achieving the stable configuration of the preceding noble gas xenon . Some lanthanum ( II ) compounds are also known , but they are much less stable .
Among the lanthanides , lanthanum is exceptional as it does not have any 4f electrons ; indeed , the sudden contraction and lowering of energy of the 4f orbital that is important for the chemistry of the lanthanides only begins to happen at cerium . Thus it is only very weakly paramagnetic , unlike the strongly paramagnetic later lanthanides ( with the exceptions of the last two , ytterbium and lutetium , where the 4f shell is completely full ) . Furthermore , since the melting points of the trivalent lanthanides are related to the extent of hybridisation of the 6s , 5d , and 4f electrons , lanthanum has the second @-@ lowest ( after cerium ) melting point among all the lanthanides : 920 ° C. The lanthanides become harder as the series is traversed : as expected , lanthanum is a soft metal . Lanthanum has a relatively high resistivity of 615 nΩm at room temperature ; in comparison , the value for the good conductor aluminium is only 26 @.@ 50 nΩm . Lanthanum is the least volatile of the lanthanides . Like most of the lanthanides , lanthanum has a hexagonal crystal structure at room temperature . At 310 ° C , lanthanum changes to a face @-@ centered cubic structure , and at 865 ° C , it changes to a body @-@ centered cubic structure .
= = = Chemical = = =
As expected from periodic trends , lanthanum has the largest atomic radius of the lanthanides and the stable group 3 elements . Hence , it is the most reactive among them , tarnishing slowly in air and burning readily to form lanthanum ( III ) oxide , La2O3 , which is almost as basic as calcium oxide . A centimeter @-@ sized sample of lanthanum will corrode completely in a year as its oxide spalls off like iron rust , instead of forming a protective oxide coating like aluminium and its lighter congeners scandium and yttrium . Lanthanum reacts with the halogens at room temperature to form the trihalides , and upon warming will form binary compounds with the nonmetals nitrogen , carbon , sulfur , phosphorus , boron , selenium , silicon and arsenic . Lanthanum reacts slowly with water to form lanthanum ( III ) hydroxide , La ( OH ) 3 . In dilute sulfuric acid , lanthanum readily forms the aquated tripositive ion [ La ( H2O ) 9 ] 3 + : this is colorless in aqueous solution since La3 + has no f electrons . Lanthanum is the strongest and hardest base among the lanthanides .
= = = Isotopes = = =
Naturally occurring lanthanum is made up of two isotopes , the stable 139La and the primordial long @-@ lived radioisotope 138La . 139La is by far the most abundant , making up 99 @.@ 910 % of natural lanthanum : it is produced in the s @-@ process ( slow neutron capture , which occurs in low- to medium @-@ mass stars ) and the r @-@ process ( rapid neutron capture , which occurs in core @-@ collapse supernovae ) . The very rare isotope 138La is one of the few primordial odd @-@ odd nuclei , with a long half @-@ life of 1 @.@ 05 × 1011 years : it is one of the proton @-@ rich p @-@ nuclei which cannot be produced in the s- or r @-@ processes . 138La , along with the even rarer 180mTa , is produced in the ν @-@ process , where neutrinos interact with stable nuclei . All other lanthanum isotopes are synthetic : with the exception of 137La with a half @-@ life of about 60 @,@ 000 years , all of them have half @-@ lives less than a day , and most have half @-@ lives less than a minute . The isotopes 139La and 140La occur as fission products of uranium .
= = = Position in the periodic table = = =
Traditionally , from the 1940s , lanthanum has been placed under scandium and yttrium in group 3 of the periodic table , as its differentiating electron from the previous element goes into a d @-@ orbital . This results in a consistent set of electron configurations in group 3 ( Sc : [ Ar ] 3d14s2 ; Y : [ Kr ] 4d15s2 ; La : [ Xe ] 5d16s2 ) . However , this position has sometimes been disputed , on the grounds that yttrium and to a lesser extent scandium are closer in their chemical properties to lutetium than lanthanum . Indeed , early techniques on separating the rare earths relied on the distinction between the early lanthanides in the cerium group ( whose sodium double sulfates dissolve in water with difficulty ) and the late ones ( as well as yttrium ) in the yttrium group ( whose sodium double sulfates are very water @-@ soluble ) , prompting some researchers in the 1920s and 1930s to place lutetium under yttrium instead . Since the differentiating electron between ytterbium and lutetium also goes into a d @-@ orbital , both lutetium and lanthanum appear by this argument as equally valid candidates for being the third member of group 3 .
Many of the discrepancies between lanthanum and the lighter group 3 elements can simply be explained by its larger size , as expected from periodic trends , as it precedes the lanthanide contraction that makes the early period 6 transition metals so similar to their period 5 homologs . This phenomenon , based on the poor shielding of nuclear charge by the 4f electrons that are added across the lanthanide series , results in a decrease of ionic and atomic radii across the lanthanide series , resulting in the early period 6 transition metals ( just after the lanthanides ) until about rhenium to be very similar to their period 5 homologs . This same effect makes yttrium more similar to lutetium ( [ Xe ] 4f145d16s2 ) than lanthanum , although scandium still shows many differences from lutetium because it is even smaller . Unlike all the other lanthanides , no lanthanum ions have any electrons in f @-@ orbitals ( La + : [ Xe ] 5d2 ; La2 + : [ Xe ] 5d1 ; La3 + : [ Xe ] ) , and in lanthanum metal the f @-@ orbitals are core @-@ like and localized .
= = Compounds = =
Lanthanum oxide is a white solid that can be prepared by direct reaction of its constituent elements . Due to the large size of the La3 + ion , La2O3 adopts a hexagonal 7 @-@ coordinate structure that changes to the 6 @-@ coordinate structure of scandium oxide ( Sc2O3 ) and yttrium oxide ( Y2O3 ) at high temperature . When it reacts with water , lanthanum hydroxide is formed : a lot of heat is evolved in the reaction and a hissing sound is heard . Lanthanum hydroxide will react with atmosphering carbon dioxide to form the basic carbonate .
Lanthanum fluoride is insoluble in water and can be used as a qualitative test for the presence of La3 + . The heavier halides are all very soluble deliquescent compounds . The anhydrous halides are produced by direct reaction of their elements , as heating the hydrates causes hydrolysis : for example , heating hydrated LaCl3 produces LaOCl .
Lanthanum reacts exothermically with hydrogen to produce the dihydride LaH2 , a black , pyrophoric , brittle , conducting compound with the calcium fluoride structure . This is a non @-@ stoichiometric compound , and further absorption of hydrogen is possible , with a concomitant loss of electrical conductivity , until the more salt @-@ like LaH3 is reached . Like LaI2 and LaI , LaH2 is probably an electride compound .
Due to the large ionic radius and great electropositivity of La3 + , there is not much covalent contribution to its bonding and hence it has a limited coordination chemistry , like yttrium and the other lanthanides . Lanthanum oxalate does not dissolve very much in alkali @-@ metal oxalate solutions , and [ La ( acac ) 3 ( H2O ) 2 ] decomposes around 500 ° C. Oxygen is the most common donor atom in lanthanum complexes , which are mostly ionic and often have high coordination numbers over 6 : 8 is the most characteristic , forming square antiprismatic and dodecadeltahedral structures . These high @-@ coordinate species , reaching up to coordination number 12 with the use of chelating ligands such as in La2 ( SO4 ) 3 · 9H2O , often have a low degree of symmetry because of stereochemical factors .
Lanthanum chemistry tends not to involve π bonding due to the electron configuration of the element : thus its organometallic chemistry is quite limited . The best @-@ characterised organolanthanum compounds are the cyclopentadienyl complex La ( C5H5 ) 3 , which is produced by reacting anhydrous LaCl3 with NaC5H5 in tetrahydrofuran , and its methyl @-@ substituted derivatives .
= = History = =
In 1751 , the Swedish mineralogist Axel Fredrik Cronstedt discovered a heavy mineral from the mine at Bastnäs , later named cerite . Thirty years later , the fifteen @-@ year @-@ old Vilhelm Hisinger , from the family owning the mine , sent a sample of it to Carl Scheele , who did not find any new elements within . In 1803 , after Hisinger had become an ironmaster , he returned to the mineral with Jöns Jacob Berzelius and isolated a new oxide which they named ceria after the dwarf planet Ceres , which had been discovered two years earlier . Ceria was simultaneously independently isolated in Germany by Martin Heinrich Klaproth . Between 1839 and 1843 , ceria was shown to be a mixture of oxides by the Swedish surgeon and chemist Carl Gustaf Mosander , who lived in the same house as Berzelius : he separated out two other oxides which he named lanthana and didymia . He partially decomposed a sample of cerium nitrate by roasting it in air and then treating the resulting oxide with dilute nitric acid . Since lanthanum 's properties differed only slightly from those of cerium , and occurred along with it in its salts , he named it from the Ancient Greek λανθάνειν [ lanthanein ] ( lit. to lie hidden ) . Relatively pure lanthanum metal was first isolated in 1923 .
= = Occurrence and production = =
Lanthanum is the third @-@ most abundant of all the lanthanides , making up 39 mg / kg of the Earth 's crust , behind neodymium at 41 @.@ 5 mg / kg and cerium at 66 @.@ 5 mg / kg . It is almost three times as abundant as lead in the Earth 's crust . Despite being among the so @-@ called " rare earth metals " , lanthanum is thus not actually rare at all , but it is historically so named because it is indeed rarer than " common earths " such as lime and magnesia , and historically only a few deposits were known . Lanthanum is taken into consideration as a rare earth metal because the process to mine it is difficult , time @-@ consuming and expensive .
The La3 + ion is similarly @-@ sized to the early lanthanides of the cerium group ( those up to samarium and europium ) that immediately follow in the periodic table , and hence it tends to occur along with them in phosphate , silicate and carbonate minerals , such as monazite ( MIIIPO4 ) and bastnäsite ( MIIICO3F ) , where M refers to all the rare earth metals except scandium and the radioactive promethium ( mostly Ce , La , and Y ) . Bastnäsite is usually lacking in thorium and the heavy lanthanides , and the purification of the light lanthanides from it is less involved . The ore , after being crushed and ground , is first treated with hot concentrated sulfuric acid , evolving carbon dioxide , hydrogen fluoride , and silicon tetrafluoride : the product is then dried and leached with water , leaving the early lanthanide ions , including lanthanum , in solution .
The procedure for monazite , which usually contains all the rare earths as well as thorium , is more involved . Monazite , because of its magnetic properties , can be separated by repeated electromagnetic separation . After separation , it is treated with hot concentrated sulfuric acid to produce water @-@ soluble sulfates of rare earths . The acidic filtrates are partially neutralized with sodium hydroxide to pH 3 @-@ 4 . Thorium precipitates out of solution as hydroxide and is removed . After that , the solution is treated with ammonium oxalate to convert rare earths to their insoluble oxalates . The oxalates are converted to oxides by annealing . The oxides are dissolved in nitric acid that excludes one of the main components , cerium , whose oxide is insoluble in HNO3 . Lanthanum is separated as a double salt with ammonium nitrate by crystallization . This salt is relatively less soluble than other rare earth double salts and therefore stays in the residue . Care must be taken when handling some of the residues as they contain 228Ra , the daughter of 232Th , which is a strong gamma emitter . Lanthanum is relatively easy to extract as it has only one neighbouring lanthanide , cerium , which can be removed by making use of its ability to be oxidised to the + 4 state ; thereafter , lanthanum may be separated out by the historical method of fractional crystallization of La ( NO3 ) 3 · 2NH4NO3 · 4H2O , or by ion @-@ exchange techniques when higher purity is desired .
Lanthanum metal is obtained from its oxide by heating it with ammonium chloride or fluoride and hydrofluoric acid at 300 @-@ 400 ° C to produce the chloride or fluoride :
La2O3 + 6 NH4Cl → 2 LaCl3 + 6 NH3 + 3 H2O
This is followed by reduction with alkali or alkaline earth metals in vacuum or argon atmosphere :
LaCl3 + 3 Li → La + 3 LiCl
Also , pure lanthanum can be produced by electrolysis of molten mixture of anhydrous LaCl3 and NaCl or KCl at elevated temperatures .
= = Applications = =
The first historical application of lanthanum was in gas lantern mantles . Carl Auer von Welsbach used a mixture of 60 % magnesium oxide , 20 % lanthanum oxide , and 20 % yttrium oxide , which he called Actinophor and patented in 1885 . The original mantles gave a green @-@ tinted light and were not very successful , and his first company , which established a factory in Atzgersdorf in 1887 , failed in 1889 .
Modern uses of lanthanum include :
One material used for anodic material of nickel @-@ metal hydride batteries is La ( Ni
3.6Mn
0.4Al
0.3Co
0 @.@ 7 ) . Due to high cost to extract the other lanthanides , a mischmetal with more than 50 % of lanthanum is used instead of pure lanthanum . The compound is an intermetallic component of the AB
5 type .
As most hybrid cars use nickel @-@ metal hydride batteries , massive quantities of lanthanum are required for the production of hybrid automobiles . A typical hybrid automobile battery for a Toyota Prius requires 10 to 15 kilograms ( 22 to 33 lb ) of lanthanum . As engineers push the technology to increase fuel efficiency , twice that amount of lanthanum could be required per vehicle .
Hydrogen sponge alloys can contain lanthanum . These alloys are capable of storing up to 400 times their own volume of hydrogen gas in a reversible adsorption process . Heat energy is released every time they do so ; therefore these alloys have possibilities in energy conservation systems .
Mischmetal , a pyrophoric alloy used in lighter flints , contains 25 % to 45 % lanthanum .
Lanthanum oxide and the boride are used in electronic vacuum tubes as hot cathode materials with strong emissivity of electrons . Crystals of LaB
6 are used in high @-@ brightness , extended @-@ life , thermionic electron emission sources for electron microscopes and Hall @-@ effect thrusters .
Lanthanum trifluoride ( LaF
3 ) is an essential component of a heavy fluoride glass named ZBLAN . This glass has superior transmittance in the infrared range and is therefore used for fiber @-@ optical communication systems .
Cerium @-@ doped lanthanum bromide and lanthanum chloride are the recent inorganic scintillators , which have a combination of high light yield , best energy resolution , and fast response . Their high yield converts into superior energy resolution ; moreover , the light output is very stable and quite high over a very wide range of temperatures , making it particularly attractive for high @-@ temperature applications . These scintillators are already widely used commercially in detectors of neutrons or gamma rays .
Carbon arc lamps use a mixture of rare earth elements to improve the light quality . This application , especially by the motion picture industry for studio lighting and projection , consumed about 25 % of the rare @-@ earth compounds produced until the phase out of carbon arc lamps .
Lanthanum ( III ) oxide ( La
2O
3 ) improves the alkali resistance of glass and is used in making special optical glasses , such as infrared @-@ absorbing glass , as well as camera and telescope lenses , because of the high refractive index and low dispersion of rare @-@ earth glasses . Lanthanum oxide is also used as a grain @-@ growth additive during the liquid @-@ phase sintering of silicon nitride and zirconium diboride .
Small amounts of lanthanum added to steel improves its malleability , resistance to impact , and ductility , whereas addition of lanthanum to molybdenum decreases its hardness and sensitivity to temperature variations .
Small amounts of lanthanum are present in many pool products to remove the phosphates that feed algae .
Lanthanum oxide additive to tungsten is used in gas tungsten arc welding electrodes , as a substitute for radioactive thorium .
Various compounds of lanthanum and other rare @-@ earth elements ( oxides , chlorides , etc . ) are components of various catalysis , such as petroleum cracking catalysts .
Lanthanum @-@ barium radiometric dating is used to estimate age of rocks and ores , though the technique has limited popularity .
Lanthanum carbonate was approved as a medication ( Fosrenol , Shire Pharmaceuticals ) to absorb excess phosphate in cases of end @-@ stage renal failure .
Lanthanum fluoride is used in phosphor lamp coatings . Mixed with europium fluoride , it is also applied in the crystal membrane of fluoride ion @-@ selective electrodes .
Like horseradish peroxidase , lanthanum is used as an electron @-@ dense tracer in molecular biology .
Lanthanum @-@ modified bentonite ( or phoslock ) is used to remove phosphates from water in lake treatments .
= = Biological role = =
Lanthanum has no known biological role . The element is very poorly absorbed after oral administration and when injected its elimination is very slow . Lanthanum carbonate ( Fosrenol ) was approved as a phosphate binder to absorb excess phosphate in cases of end stage renal disease .
While lanthanum has pharmacological effects on several receptors and ion channels , its specificity for the GABA receptor is unique among trivalent cations . Lanthanum acts at the same modulatory site on the GABA receptor as zinc , a known negative allosteric modulator . The lanthanum cation La3 + is a positive allosteric modulator at native and recombinant GABA receptors , increasing open channel time and decreasing desensitization in a subunit configuration dependent manner .
= = Precautions = =
Lanthanum has a low to moderate level of toxicity and should be handled with care . The injection of lanthanum solutions produces hyperglycemia , low blood pressure , degeneration of the spleen and hepatic alterations . The application in carbon arc light led to the exposure of people to rare earth element oxides and fluorides , which sometimes led to pneumoconiosis . As the La3 + ion is similar in size to the Ca2 + ion , it is sometimes used as an easily traced substitute for the latter in medical studies . Lanthanum , like the other lanthanides , is known to affect human metabolism , lowering cholesterol levels , blood pressure , appetite , and risk of blood coagulation . When injected into the brain , it acts as a painkiller , similarly to morphine and other opiates , though the mechanism behind this is still unknown . The first four lanthanides , lanthanum , cerium , praseodymium , and neodymium , act as essential cofactors for the methanol dehydrogenase of the methanotrophic bacterium Methylacidiphilum fumariolicum SolV .
= Justice ( Star Trek : The Next Generation ) =
" Justice " is the eighth episode of the first season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : The Next Generation . The episode first aired in broadcast syndication on November 9 , 1987 . Directed by James L. Conway , writer John D. F. Black originally pitched the story , but after Worley Thorne and Gene Roddenberry modified it , Thorne wrote the script . Because of the changes to the story , Black chose to receive his credit under the pseudonym Ralph Wills .
Set in the 24th century , the series follows the adventures of the Starfleet crew of the Federation starship Enterprise @-@ D. In this episode , Wesley Crusher ( Wil Wheaton ) is sentenced to death after inadvertently breaking the law on an alien planet . Captain Jean @-@ Luc Picard ( Patrick Stewart ) must deal with the powerful and mysterious protector of the planet while deliberating whether to violate the Prime Directive to save Wesley 's life .
This was the first episode of The Next Generation to feature multiple shots filmed on location , with scenes filmed in Van Nuys , Los Angeles , and the Huntington Library in Pasadena , California . " Justice " was the second most viewed episode of the first season , with 12 @.@ 7 million viewers . The episode received a mostly negative response , with critics pointing to issues with the quality of the acting and the predictability of the plot .
= = Plot = =
The USS Enterprise arrives for shore leave at the newly discovered planet of Rubicun III . A small advance party from the ship are sent down to meet with the Edo , the native people of the planet . Captain Jean @-@ Luc Picard ( Patrick Stewart ) sends Wesley Crusher ( Wil Wheaton ) as part of the away team to evaluate the planet on behalf of the young people on board the Enterprise . Upon their arrival , they are greeted by Rivan ( Brenda Bakke ) and Liator ( Jay Louden ) in a very comfortable way , triggering Lt. Worf ( Michael Dorn ) to determine it a " nice planet " , while Wesley leaves the adults to play with the native children . On the Enterprise , Lt. Commander Data ( Brent Spiner ) reports something unusual orbiting the planet , but nothing appears on the viewscreen . He sends out a communications signal which reveals another vessel in orbit . A small ball of light enters the bridge and communicates with Picard through Data in a booming voice warning him not to interfere with the Edo , calling them " his children " . The intruder then incapacitates Data .
On Rubicun III , the Edo explain to Lt. Tasha Yar ( Denise Crosby ) and Worf that capital punishment is used to enforce their laws . The away team rush to warn Wesley , only to discover he has accidentally broken a greenhouse whilst playing catch with the Edo children . An Edo attempts to give Wesley a lethal injection for this infraction of the law , but Yar and Worf draw their phasers . On the ship , the sphere leaves Data 's body and departs . Picard , upon hearing of the situation with Wesley , transports to the surface . He meets with representatives of the Edo in a council chamber and explains that Earth no longer practices capital punishment . Some Edo interpret this stance as an attempt by the Federation to push their superiority and suggest that Picard should mount a rescue effort for the boy . He says he cannot , quoting the Prime Directive .
Picard asks about the mysterious vessel in orbit and discovers that the Edo worship it as a god . He returns to his ship with Rivan and Counsellor Deanna Troi ( Marina Sirtis ) . Rivan sees the strange ship from orbit and confirms it is the Edo 's god . She is transported back to the surface when the ship threatens the Enterprise for taking her away from the planet . Data reveals that , while he was in communication with the entity , it will protect the Edo as if they were its children . After considering their options , Picard returns to the planet 's surface and announces that he is willing to risk the wrath of the entity . He orders the transportation of Wesley to the Enterprise , but the entity does not allow the transporters to operate . Picard pleads with the Edo god that laws must allow for exceptions to ensure justice , and after this statement the transporters go back online and allows the away team to return . Upon leaving the planet , Picard communicates with the entity to inform it that they are leaving and will remove recently placed colonists at a nearby star system under the entity 's jurisdiction . With that , the entity disappears and the Enterprise departs .
= = Production = =
John D. F. Black 's original pitch featured a story about capital punishment . His idea was based on a film treatment detailing the colony planet of Llarof where capital punishment is handed down as a sentence for any offense except against those who are immune from the law . In the treatment , a security officer is killed by a local law enforcement officer , who is then killed himself by his partner for unjustly killing the Enterprise crewman . The planet would have had a rebel faction who wanted to overthrow the laws , which Picard refused to back initially whilst citing the Prime Directive . A second draft featured a rebel leader executed for treason . Black explained the premise of a society that developed laws to prevent terrorism and anarchy : " Let 's say that what we do is kill everybody who is a terrorist or suspected of being a terrorist . Now the people who have killed everybody , what do they do ? "
The idea was re @-@ written by the show 's creator Gene Roddenberry and writer Worley Thorne . It was Roddenberry and Thorne who created the godlike entity and sexed up the Edo . James L. Conway directed the episode , having just finished the MacGyver episode , " Jack in the Box " . Josh Clark , who plays a Conn officer in " Justice " , later appears as Lt. Joe Carey in all seven seasons of Star Trek : Voyager .
" Justice " is the first episode of Star Trek : The Next Generation filmed mostly on location , and the first of any scenes on location other than those set in the holodeck in " Encounter at Farpoint " . Scenes shot at the Tillman Water Reclamation Plant in Van Nuys , Los Angeles , were located under the flight path for the Van Nuys Airport . The noise from overhead planes was so loud , the actors were required to re @-@ record their lines in the studio . Filming for the scene where Wesley crashes into the greenhouse occurred on the grounds of the Huntington Library in Pasadena , California .
= = Reception and home media = =
" Justice " first aired in broadcast syndication on November 8 , 1987 . It received Nielsen ratings of 12 @.@ 7 million , placing it in third place in the timeslot . It ranked the second highest viewed episode of the first season , after the premiere " Encounter at Farpoint " , which was seen by 15 @.@ 7 million viewers .
Several reviewers re @-@ watched the episode after the end of the series . Castmember Wil Wheaton watched " Justice " for AOL TV in December 2006 . He observed problems with his acting and the plot development , particularly where Picard transports the Edo woman to the Enterprise . Wheaton felt Picard 's actions were a clear breach of the Prime Directive which was otherwise at the heart of the episode . On the other hand , he thought the episode showed a proper dynamic between Picard and the bridge crew , and he believed it tackled a real ethics problem in a manner more frequently seen in the 2004 Battlestar Galactica television series . Wheaton gave the episode of " Justice " a grade of B + .
Keith DeCandido reviewed the episode for Tor.com in May 2011 . He said the episode " collapses under the weight of its own ridiculousness " , and he criticized the Edo as caricatures . DeCandido thought that the plot involving Wesley was predictable , but that the scripting for Picard helped to cement him as a " great character " . He gave the episode a score of two out of ten .
James Hunt reviewed the episode for Den of Geek in November 2012 . He liked the central idea , but said it was typical of the poor quality of the early episodes of the series . Hunt also thought multiple plot details were not addressed , such as the origin of the alien entity and the reason for the Edo 's fear of it . Jamahl Epsicokhan for his website Jammer 's Reviews , said that the episode featured " yet another Trek @-@ cliched Infinitely Superior Life Form " , and featured a debate which was " more obtuse than enlightening " . He gave it a score of one out of four .
" Justice " was first released on VHS cassette in the United States and Canada on July 1 , 1992 . The episode was later included on the Star Trek : The Next Generation season one DVD box set , released in March 2002 . The most recent release was as part of the season one Blu @-@ ray set on July 24 , 2012 .
= The Blues Brothers ( film ) =
The Blues Brothers is a 1980 American musical crime comedy film directed by John Landis . It stars John Belushi and Dan Aykroyd as " Joliet " Jake and Elwood Blues , characters developed from " The Blues Brothers " musical sketch on the NBC variety series Saturday Night Live . The film 's screenplay was written by Aykroyd and Landis . It features musical numbers by rhythm and blues ( R & B ) , soul , and blues singers James Brown , Cab Calloway , Aretha Franklin , Ray Charles , and John Lee Hooker . The film is set in and around Chicago , Illinois , where it was filmed . It features non @-@ musical supporting performances by John Candy , Carrie Fisher , Charles Napier , and Henry Gibson .
The story is a tale of redemption for paroled convict Jake and his brother Elwood , who set out on " a mission from God " to save from foreclosure the Catholic orphanage in which they were raised . To do so , they must reunite their R & B band and organize a performance to earn $ 5 @,@ 000 needed to pay the orphanage 's property tax bill . Along the way , they are targeted by a destructive " mystery woman " , Neo @-@ Nazis , and a country and western band — all while being relentlessly pursued by the police .
Universal Studios , which had won the bidding war for the film , was hoping to take advantage of Belushi 's popularity in the wake of Saturday Night Live , Animal House , and the Blues Brothers ' musical success ; it soon found itself unable to control production costs . The start of filming was delayed when Aykroyd , new to film screenwriting , took six months to deliver a long and unconventional script that Landis had to rewrite before production , which began without a final budget . On location in Chicago , Belushi 's partying and drug use caused lengthy and costly delays that , along with the destructive car chases depicted onscreen , made the final film one of the most expensive comedies ever produced .
Concerns that the film would fail limited its initial bookings to less than half those a film of its magnitude normally received . Released in the United States on June 20 , 1980 , it received generally positive reviews . It earned just under $ 5 million in its opening weekend and went on to gross over $ 115 million in theaters worldwide before its release on home video . It has become a cult classic , spawning the sequel , Blues Brothers 2000 , 18 years later , which was a critical and commercial failure .
= = Plot = =
Jake Blues is released from prison after serving three years for armed robbery , and is picked up by his brother Elwood in the new Bluesmobile , a battered former Mount Prospect police car , replacing their old Cadillac . Jake approves it after Elwood demonstrates its capabilities by jumping an open drawbridge . The brothers visit the Roman Catholic orphanage where they were raised , and learn from Sister Mary " The Penguin " Stigmata that it will be closed unless $ 5 @,@ 000 in property taxes is collected . During a sermon by the Reverend Cleophus James at the Triple Rock Baptist church , Jake has an epiphany : They can re @-@ form the Blues Brothers Band , which broke up while Jake was in prison , and raise the money to pay the tax bill .
That night , Elwood is pulled over for running a red light , and the state troopers attempt to arrest him for driving with a suspended license due to 116 parking tickets and 56 moving violations . After a high @-@ speed chase through the Dixie Square Mall , the brothers escape . The next morning , as the police arrive at the flophouse where Elwood lives , a mysterious woman detonates a bomb that demolishes the building , but miraculously leaves Jake and Elwood unharmed , and saves them from being arrested .
Jake and Elwood begin tracking down members of the band . Trombonist Tom " Bones " Malone , drummer Willie " Too Big " Hall , rhythm guitarist Steve " The Colonel " Cropper , bassist Donald " Duck " Dunn , and keyboardist Murphy " Murph " Dunne are now performing as a lounge band , " Murph and the Magictones " , at a deserted Holiday Inn , and quickly agree to rejoin . Trumpeter Alan " Mr. Fabulous " Rubin , now the maître d ' at an expensive restaurant , turns them down , but the brothers refuse to leave the restaurant until he relents . On their way to meet the final two band members , saxophonist Louis " Blue Lou " Marini and guitarist Matt " Guitar " Murphy , the brothers find the road blocked by a Nazi Party demonstration on a bridge ; Elwood runs them off the bridge into Lake Michigan . Marini and Murphy , who now run a soul food restaurant , ignore the advice of Murphy 's wife ( Aretha Franklin ) and rejoin the band . The reunited group obtain instruments and equipment from Ray 's Music Exchange , and Ray ( Ray Charles ) , as usual , takes an IOU .
As Jake attempts to book a gig , the mystery woman blows up the phone booth he is using ; once again , he is miraculously unhurt . The band stumbles into a gig at Bob 's Country Bunker , a local honky @-@ tonk . They win over the rowdy crowd , but run up a bar tab higher than their pay , and infuriate the country band that was actually booked for the gig , the Good Ol ' Boys .
Realizing that they need one big show to raise the necessary $ 5 @,@ 000 , the brothers persuade their old agent to book the Palace Hotel Ballroom , north of Chicago . They mount a loudspeaker atop the Bluesmobile and drive all over greater Chicago promoting the concert — and alerting the police , the Nazis , and the Good Ol ' Boys of their whereabouts . The ballroom is packed with blues fans , police officers , and the Good Ol ' Boys . Jake and Elwood perform two songs , then sneak offstage , as the tax deadline is rapidly approaching . A record company executive offers them a $ 10 @,@ 000 cash advance on a recording contract — more than enough to pay off the orphanage 's taxes and Ray 's IOU — and then shows the brothers how to slip out of the building unnoticed . As they make their escape via a service tunnel , they are confronted by the mystery woman : Jake 's jilted ex @-@ fiancée ( Carrie Fisher ) . After her volley of M16 rifle bullets leaves them miraculously unharmed , Jake offers a series of ridiculous excuses that she miraculously believes , allowing the brothers to escape to the Bluesmobile .
Jake and Elwood race back toward Chicago , pursued at high speeds by dozens of police cars and the Good Ol ' Boys . They elude them all with a series of improbable maneuvers , including a miraculous , gravity @-@ defying escape from the Illinois Nazis . At the Richard J. Daley Center , they rush inside the adjacent Chicago City Hall building with hundreds of law officers of every conceivable type in hot pursuit . At the office of the Cook County Assessor , the brothers pay the tax bill . As their receipt is stamped " paid " , they are arrested by the mob of law officers . In prison , the band plays " Jailhouse Rock " for the inmates .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
= = = Origins = = =
The characters , Jake and Elwood Blues , were created by Belushi and Aykroyd in performances on Saturday Night Live . The name " The Blues Brothers " was the idea of Howard Shore . The fictional back story and character sketches of blood brothers Jake and Elwood were developed by Aykroyd in collaboration with Ron Gwynne , who is credited as a story consultant for the film . As related in the liner notes of the band 's debut album , Briefcase Full of Blues , the brothers grew up in an orphanage , learned the blues from a janitor named Curtis , and sealed their brotherhood by cutting their middle fingers with a steel string said to have come from the guitar of Elmore James .
Belushi had become a star in 1978 as a result of both the Blues Brothers ' musical success and his role in National Lampoon 's Animal House . At one point , he managed the triple feat of being the star of the week 's top @-@ grossing film , top @-@ rated television show , and singing on the number @-@ one album within a year . When Aykroyd and Belushi decided they could make a Blues Brothers film , the bidding war was intense . Universal Studios narrowly beat Paramount Pictures for the project . John Landis , who had directed Belushi in Animal House , was aboard as director .
However , the project had neither a budget nor a script . On the former issue , Universal head Lew Wasserman thought the film could be made for $ 12 million ; the filmmakers wanted $ 20 million . It would be impossible to settle on a specific amount without a screenplay to review , and after Mitch Glazer declined to help him , Aykroyd wrote one on his own .
Aykroyd had never written a screenplay before , he admitted in the 1998 documentary , Stories Behind the Making of The Blues Brothers , or even read one , and he was unable to find a writing partner . Consequently , he put together a very descriptive volume that explained the characters ' origins and how the band members were recruited . His final draft was 324 pages , which was three times longer than a standard screenplay , written not in a standard screenplay format , but more like free verse . To soften the impact , Aykroyd made a joke of the thick script and had it bound with the cover of the Los Angeles Yellow Pages directory for when he turned it in to producer Robert K. Weiss . Landis was given the task of editing the script into a usable screenplay , which took him about two weeks .
The premise of the underlying plot was somewhat unrealistic . It would be unlikely that a church @-@ owned orphanage would have to pay a property tax bill since , in Illinois - as in much of the rest of the world - property owned by religious groups and other not @-@ for @-@ profit organizations is tax @-@ exempt . However , while the script was being written , a legislative proposal to tax such property was under consideration .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography began in July 1979 , with the film 's budget still not settled . For the first month , things ran smoothly on and off the set . When Weiss saw the supposedly final $ 17 @.@ 5 million budget , he reportedly joked , " I think we 've spent that much already . "
In the next month , the production began falling behind schedule . Much of the delay was due to Belushi 's partying and carousing . When not on the set , he went out to his familiar Chicago haunts such as Wrigley Field . People often recognized him and slipped him cocaine , a drug he was already using heavily on his own , hoping to use it with him . " Every blue @-@ collar Joe wants his John Belushi story , " said Smokey Wendell , who was eventually hired to keep it away from the star . As a result of his late nights and drug and alcohol use , Belushi would often miss unit calls ( the beginning of a production day ) or go to his trailer after them and sleep , wasting hours of production time . One night , Aykroyd found him crashing on the sofa of a nearby house , where Belushi had already helped himself to food in the refrigerator .
Cocaine was already so prevalent on the set ( like many other film productions of that era ) that Aykroyd , who used far less than his partner , claims a section of the budget was actually set aside for purchases of the drug during night shooting . The stars had a private bar , the Blues Club , built on the set , for themselves , crew , and friends . Carrie Fisher , Aykroyd 's girlfriend at the time , says most of the bar 's staff doubled as dealers , procuring any drug patrons desired .
The original budget was quickly surpassed , and back in Los Angeles , Wasserman grew increasingly frustrated . He was regularly confronting Ned Tanen , the executive in charge of production for Universal , in person over the costs . Sean Daniel , another studio executive , was not reassured when he came to Chicago and saw the production had set up a special facility for the 70 cars used in the chase sequences . Filming there , which was supposed to have concluded in the middle of September , continued into late October .
On the set , Belushi 's drug use worsened . Fisher , who herself later struggled with cocaine addiction , says Landis told her to keep Belushi away from the drug . Wendell was hired to clear any from the places Belushi visited off @-@ camera . Nevertheless , at one point , Landis found Belushi with what he described as a " mountain " of cocaine on a table in his trailer , which led to a tearful confrontation in which Belushi admitted his addiction and feared it could eventually kill him .
After Aykroyd and Belushi 's wife Judy had a talk with him about his antics , the production returned to Los Angeles . Filming there again ran smoothly , until it came time to shoot the final sequence at the Hollywood Palladium . Just beforehand , Belushi fell off a borrowed skateboard and seriously injured his knee , making it unlikely he could go through with the scene , which required him to sing , dance , and do cartwheels . Wasserman persuaded the city 's top orthopedic surgeon to postpone his weekend plans long enough to stop by and sufficiently anesthetize Belushi 's knee , and the scene was filmed as intended .
= = = = Locations = = = =
Much of the film was shot on location in and around Chicago between July and October 1979 , including Wauconda , Illinois , where the car crashes into the side of Route 12 . Made with the cooperation of Mayor Jane M. Byrne , it is credited for putting Chicago on the map as a venue for filmmaking . Nearly 200 movies have been filmed in Chicago . " Chicago is one of the stars of the movie . We wrote it as a tribute , " Dan Aykroyd told the Chicago Sun @-@ Times in an article written to mark the film 's 25th @-@ anniversary DVD release .
The first traffic stop was in Park Ridge , Illinois . The shopping mall car chase was filmed in the real , albeit abandoned , Dixie Square Mall , in Harvey , Illinois . The bridge jump was filmed on an actual drawbridge , the 95th Street bridge over the Calumet River , on the southeast side of Chicago . The main entrance to Wrigley Field ( and its sign reading " Save lives . Drive safely , prevent fires . " ) makes a brief appearance when the " Illinois Nazis " visit it after Elwood falsely registers the ballpark 's location , 1060 West Addison , as his home address on his driver 's license . ( Elwood 's Illinois driver 's license number is an almost @-@ valid encoded number , with Dan Aykroyd 's own birth date embedded . ) Jake 's final confrontation with his girlfriend was filmed in a replica of a section of the abandoned Chicago freight tunnel system . The other chase scenes included lower Wacker Drive , Lake Street , and Richard J. Daley Center .
Jake and Elwood push their fuel @-@ less Blues Mobile off the highway and into a service station named Lloyd 's Tire Clinic . This was located right off IL 38 ( Roosevelt Road ) and IL 59 , four miles west of Belushi 's former high school , Wheaton Central . The station was detonated late one night while filming , but this scene was deleted . While Lloyd 's is long gone , the adjacent West @-@ Wind Motel ( slightly to the east ) at Gary 's Mill Road , where Twiggy 's character waited for a no @-@ show Elwood , survives to this date .
In the final car chase scene , the production actually dropped a Ford Pinto , representing the one driven by the " Illinois Nazis " , from a helicopter at an altitude of about 1 @,@ 200 feet — and had to gain a Special Airworthiness Certificate from the Federal Aviation Administration to do it . The FAA was concerned that the car could prove too aerodynamic in a high @-@ altitude drop , and pose a threat to nearby buildings . The shot leading up to the car drop , where the " Illinois Nazis " drive off a freeway ramp , was shot in Milwaukee , Wisconsin , near the Hoan Bridge on Interstate 794 . The Lake Freeway ( North ) was a planned but not completed six @-@ lane freeway , and I @-@ 794 contained an unfinished ramp off which the Nazis drove . Several Milwaukee skyscrapers are visible in the background as the Bluesmobile flips over , notably the U.S. Bank Center .
The " Palace Hotel Ballroom " , where the band performs its climactic concert , was at the time of filming a country club , but later became the South Shore Cultural Center , named after the Chicago neighborhood where it is located . The interior concert scenes were filmed in the Hollywood Palladium .
The filming in downtown Chicago was conducted on Sundays during the summer of 1979 , and much of the downtown was cordoned off from the public . Costs for filming the largest scene in the city 's history totaled $ 3 @.@ 5 million . Permission was given after Belushi and Aykroyd offered to donate $ 50 @,@ 000 to charity after filming . Although the Bluesmobile was allowed to be driven through the Daley Center lobby , special breakaway panes were temporarily substituted for the normal glass in the building . The speeding car caused $ 7 @,@ 650 in damages to 35 granite paver stones and a bronze air grill in the building . Interior shots of the elevator , staircase , and assessor 's office were all recreated in a film set for filming .
As revealed in the DVD commentary , both Brown and Lee Hooker sang their songs live on set because they couldn 't accurately lip @-@ sync to pre @-@ recorded audio tracks . Charles and Franklin sang to playback , despite the latter 's similar difficulties with lip @-@ sync .
= = = Bluesmobile = = =
The film used thirteen different cars bought at auction from the California Highway Patrol to depict the Bluesmobile , a retired 1974 Mount Prospect , Illinois Dodge Monaco patrol car . The vehicles were outfitted by the studio to do particular driving chores ; some were customized for speed and others for jumps , depending on the scene . For the large car chases , filmmakers purchased 60 police cars at $ 400 each , and most were destroyed at the completion of the filming . More than 40 stunt drivers were hired , and the crew kept a 24 @-@ hour body shop to repair cars .
For the scene when the Blues Brothers finally arrive at the Richard J. Daley Center , a mechanic took several months to rig the car to fall apart . At the time of the film 's release , it held the world record for the most cars destroyed in one film until it was surpassed by its own sequel .
= = = Casting = = =
Soul and R & B stars James Brown , Cab Calloway , Ray Charles , and Aretha Franklin were cast in speaking parts to support musical numbers built around them . This caused friction between Landis and Universal later in the production , as its costs far exceeded the original budget . Since none of them except Charles had had any hits in recent years , the studio wanted the director to replace them with , or add , performances by younger acts such as Rose Royce , whose " Car Wash " had made them disco stars after its use in the 1976 film of that name .
Other notable musicians in the cast include Big Walter Horton , Pinetop Perkins , and John Lee Hooker ( who performed " Boom Boom " during the Maxwell Street scene ) . The members of The Blues Brothers band are notable for their musical accomplishments , as well . Steve Cropper and Donald Dunn are architects of the Stax Records sound ( Cropper 's guitar can be heard at the start of the Sam & Dave song " Soul Man " ) and were half of Booker T. & the M.G. ' s . Horn players Lou Marini , Tom Malone , and Alan Rubin had all played in Blood , Sweat & Tears and the Saturday Night Live band . Drummer Willie Hall had played in The Bar @-@ Kays and backed Isaac Hayes . Matt Murphy is a veteran blues guitarist . As the band developed at Saturday Night Live , pianist Paul Shaffer was part of the act and was cast in the film . However , due to contractual obligations with SNL , he was unable to participate , so actor @-@ musician Murphy Dunne ( whose father , George Dunne , was the Cook County Board President ) was hired to take his role .
Fisher , Freeman , Gibson , and Candy were cast in non @-@ musical supporting roles . The film is also notable for the number of cameo appearances by established celebrities and entertainment @-@ industry figures , including Steve Lawrence as a booking agent , Twiggy as a " chic lady " in a Jaguar convertible whom Elwood propositions at a gas station , Steven Spielberg as the Cook County Assessor 's clerk , John Landis as a state trooper in the mall chase , Paul Reubens ( before Pee @-@ wee Herman ) as a waiter in the Chez Paul restaurant scene , Joe Walsh in a cameo as the first prisoner to jump up on a table in the final scene , and Chaka Khan is the soloist in James Brown 's choir . Muppet performer Frank Oz plays a corrections officer , and in the scene where the brothers crash into Toys R Us , a Grover and Kermit the Frog toy can be spotted . Right before the brothers crash into the Toys R Us , a customer ( played by stunt coordinator Gary McLarty ) asks the cashier if they have a Miss Piggy doll , a Muppet character that is voiced by Oz . The character portrayed by Cab Calloway is named Curtis as an homage to Curtis Salgado , a Portland , Oregon , blues musician who inspired Belushi while he was in Oregon filming Animal House .
Over 500 extras were used for the next @-@ to @-@ last scene , the blockade of the building at Daley Center , including 200 National Guardsmen , 100 state and city police officers , with 15 horses for the mounted police ( and 3 each Sherman tanks , helicopters , and fire engines ) .
= = = Post @-@ production = = =
Landis ' difficulties continued even after principal photography was completed . The first cut of the film lasted two and a half hours , with an intermission . After one early screening , Wasserman demanded it be shortened , and 20 minutes were cut . The film 's final budget was $ 27 @.@ 5 million ( $ 79 million in modern dollars ) , $ 10 million over its original budget .
Prospects for a successful release did not look good . Aykroyd and Belushi had left SNL at the end of the previous season , reducing their bankability . Belushi 's fame had taken a further hit after the commercial and critical failure of 1941 at the end of the year . One day after the editing was done , Wasserman invited Landis up to his office to speak with Ted Mann , head of the Mann Theatres chain , which dominated film exhibition in the Western United States . He told Landis that he would not book the film at any theaters in predominately white neighborhoods , such as Westwood . Not only did Mann not want black patrons going there to see the film , he surmised that white viewers were unlikely to see a film featuring older black musical stars . Ultimately The Blues Brothers got less than half the bookings nationwide for its initial release than a typical big @-@ budget studio film of the era , which did not bode well for its success at the box office .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
The Blues Brothers opened on June 20 , 1980 , with a release in 594 theaters . It took in $ 4 @,@ 858 @,@ 152 , ranking second for that week ( after The Empire Strikes Back ) and 10th for the entire year . Over the years , it has retained a following through television and home video . The film in total grossed $ 57 @,@ 229 @,@ 890 domestically and $ 58 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in foreign box offices for a total of $ 115 @,@ 229 @,@ 890 . By genre , it is the ninth @-@ highest grossing musical and the tenth @-@ highest earner among comedy road movies . It ranks second , between Wayne 's World and Wayne 's World 2 ( which , coincidentally , also take place in the greater Chicago metropolitan area , in the outlying suburb of Aurora , Illinois ) , among films adapted from Saturday Night Live sketches . Director John Landis claimed The Blues Brothers was also the first American film to gross more money overseas than it did in the United States .
The popularity of the film boosted the Ray @-@ Ban Wayfarer , which was yet experiencing some renewed popularity thanks to the rise of the " New Music " movement . From a few thousands sold through the mid @-@ 1970s , sales rose to 18 @,@ 000 during 1981 partly because of the film , bringing the model out from the verge of withdrawal .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The Blues Brothers received generally positive reviews from critics . On Rotten Tomatoes , the film has an 85 % " Certified Fresh " rating , based on 53 reviews , with an average rating of 7 @.@ 1 / 10 . The site 's critical consensus reads , " Too over the top for its own good , but ultimately rescued by the cast 's charm , director John Landis ' grace , and several soul @-@ stirring musical numbers " . It won the Golden Reel Award for Best Sound Editing and Sound Effects , is 14th on Total Film magazine 's " List of the 50 Greatest Comedy Films of All Time " and is number 69 on Bravo 's " 100 Funniest Movies " .
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times gave the film 3 out of 4 stars , praising it for its energetic musical numbers and said the car chases were " incredible " if so over @-@ the @-@ top that they finally became numbing . Ebert further noted " Belushi and Aykroyd come over as hard @-@ boiled city guys , total cynics with a world @-@ view of sublime simplicity , and that all fits perfectly with the movie 's other parts . There 's even room , in the midst of the carnage and mayhem , for a surprising amount of grace , humor , and whimsy . In his review for The Washington Post , Gary Arnold criticized Landis for engorging " the frail plot of The Blues Brothers with car chases and crack @-@ ups , filmed with such avid , humorless starkness on the streets of Chicago that comic sensations are virtually obliterated " . Time magazine 's Richard Corliss wrote , " The Blues Brothers is a demolition symphony that works with the cold efficiency of | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
a Moog synthesizer gone sadistic " .
Janet Maslin of The New York Times criticized the film for shortchanging viewers on more details about Jake and Elwood 's affinity for African @-@ American culture . She also took director Landis to task for " distracting editing " , mentioning the Soul Food diner scene in which saxophonist Lou Marini 's head is out of shot as he dances on the counter . In the documentary , Stories Behind the Making of The Blues Brothers , Landis acknowledges the criticism , and Marini recalls the dismay he felt at seeing the completed film .
Kim Newman , writing for Empire in 2013 , considered The Blues Brothers to be " an amalgam of urban sleaze , automobile crunch and blackheart rhythm and blues " with " better music than any film had had for many years . " He noted that Belushi and Akyroyd pack in their heroes : " Aretha storming through ' Think ' , Cab Calloway cruising through ' Minnie the Moocher ' , John Lee Hooker boogying through ' Boom Boom ' and Ray Charles on electric piano , not to mention the hottest band . " He observed that " the picture had revived the careers of virtually all the musicians that appeared in it " and concluded " it still sounds great and looks as good as ever through Ray Bans " .
On the 30th anniversary , L 'Osservatore Romano , the daily newspaper of Vatican City State , wrote that the film is filled with positive symbolism and moral references that can be related to Catholicism . They went further , stating , The Blues Brothers " is a memorable film , and , judging by the facts , a Catholic one . "
= = = Cult @-@ film status = = =
The Blues Brothers has become a staple of late @-@ night cinema , even slowly morphing into an audience @-@ participation show in its regular screenings at the Valhalla Cinema , in Melbourne , Australia . John Landis acknowledged the support of the cinema and the fans by a phone call he made to the cinema at the 10th @-@ anniversary screening , and later invited regular attendees to make cameo appearances in Blues Brothers 2000 . The fans act as the members of the crowd during the performance of " Ghost Riders in the Sky " .
In August 2005 , a 25th @-@ anniversary celebration for The Blues Brothers was held at Grauman 's Chinese Theatre in Los Angeles . Attendees included Landis , former Universal Studios executive Thom Mount , film editor George Folsey , Jr . , and cast members James Brown , Henry Gibson , Charles Napier , Steve Cropper , and Stephen Bishop . It featured a press conference , a panel discussion where Dan Aykroyd joined by satellite , and a screening of the original theatrical version of the film . The panel discussion was broadcast direct to many other cinemas around the country .
The popularity of the film has also spread overseas . The film was an inspiration for Japanese companies Studio Hibari and Aniplex , which led to the creation of the manga and anime franchise Nerima Daikon Brothers , which contain heavy references to the film .
= = = American Film Institute = = =
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Laughs - Nominated
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Songs :
Think - Nominated
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movie Quotes :
" We 're on a mission from God . " - Nominated
= = Release = =
= = = Home media = = =
When the film was first screened for a preview audience , a producer demanded that director Landis cut 25 minutes from the film . After trimming 15 minutes , it was released in theaters at 132 minutes . It was first released on VHS and Betamax from MCA Videocassette Inc. in 1983 . A Laserdisc from MCA Videodisc was released the same year . It was re @-@ released on VHS , Laserdisc , and Betamax in 1985 from MCA Home Video , and again in 1990 from MCA / Universal Home Video . It was also released in a 2 @-@ Pack VHS box set with along with Animal House . The film 's original length was restored to 148 minutes for the " Collector 's Edition " DVD and a Special Edition VHS and Laderdisc release in 1998 . The DVD and Laserdisc versions included a 56 minute documentary called " The Stories Behind The Making Of The Blues Brothers " . Produced and directed by JM Kenny ( who also produced the Animal House Collector 's Edition DVD the same year ) , it included interviews with Landis , Aykroyd , members of The Blues Brothers Band , producer Robert K. Weiss , editor George Folsey Jr . , and others involved with the film . It also included production photographs , the theatrical trailer , production notes , and cast and filmmaker bios . The 25th @-@ anniversary DVD release in 2005 included both the theatrical cut and the extended version .
The film was released on Blu @-@ ray on July 26 , 2011 , with the same basic contents as the 25th @-@ anniversary DVD . In a March 2011 interview with Ain 't it Cool News , Landis also mentioned he had approved the Blu @-@ ray 's remastered transfer .
= = = Soundtrack = = =
The Blues Brothers : Original Soundtrack Recording ( later re @-@ released as The Blues Brothers : Music from the Soundtrack ) was released on June 20 , 1980 as the second album by the Blues Brothers Band , which also toured that year to promote the film . " Gimme Some Lovin ' " was a Top 20 Billboard hit , peaking at number 18 . The album was a followup to their debut , the live album , Briefcase Full of Blues . Later that year they released a second live album , Made in America , which featured the Top 40 track , " Who 's Making Love " .
The songs on the soundtrack album are a noticeably different audio mix than in the film , with a prominent baritone saxophone in the horn line ( also heard in the film during " Shake a Tail Feather " , though no baritone sax is present ) , and female backing vocals on " Everybody Needs Somebody to Love " , though the band had no other backup singers , besides Jake & / or Elwood , in the film . A number of regular Blues Brothers ' members , including saxophonist Tom Scott and drummer Steve Jordan , perform on the soundtrack album , but are not in the film .
According to Landis in the 1998 documentary The Stories Behind the Making of ' The Blues Brothers ' , filmed musical performances by Franklin and Brown took more effort , as neither artist was accustomed to lip @-@ synching their performances on film . Franklin required several takes , and Brown simply rerecorded his performance live . Cab Calloway initially wanted to do a disco variation on his signature tune , " Minnie the Moocher " , having done the song in several styles in the past , but Landis insisted that the song be done faithful to the original big @-@ band version .
" She Caught the Katy " ( Taj Mahal , Yank Rachell ) – The Blues Brothers with lead vocals by Jake Blues - 4 : 10
" Peter Gunn Theme " ( Henry Mancini ) – The Blues Brothers Band - 3 : 46
" Gimme Some Lovin ' " ( Steve Winwood , Muff Winwood , Spencer Davis ) – The Blues Brothers with lead vocals by Jake Blues - 3 : 06
" Shake a Tail Feather " ( Otha Hayes , Andre Williams , Verlie Rice ) – Ray Charles with the Blues Brothers ( Jake and Elwood , backing vocals ) - 2 : 48
" Everybody Needs Somebody to Love " ( Jerry Wexler , Bert Berns , Solomon Burke ) – The Blues Brothers ( Jake Blues , lead vocals ; Elwood Blues , harmonica and vocals ) - 3 : 21
" The Old Landmark " ( Adeline M. Brunner ) – James Brown and the Rev. James Cleveland Choir ( additional choir vocals by Chaka Khan credited in the film ) - 2 : 56
" Think " ( Teddy White , Aretha Franklin ) – Aretha Franklin and the Blues Brothers with backing vocals by Brenda Corbett , Margaret Branch , Carolyn Franklin , Jake , and Elwood - 3 : 13
" Theme from Rawhide " ( Dimitri Tiomkin , Ned Washington ) – Elwood , Jake , and the Blues Brothers Band - 2 : 37
" Minnie the Moocher " ( Cab Calloway , Irving Mills ) – Cab Calloway with the Blues Brothers Band - 3 : 23
" Sweet Home Chicago " ( Robert Johnson ) – The Blues Brothers with lead vocals by Jake Blues ( dedicated to the musician Magic Sam ) - 7 : 48
" Jailhouse Rock " ( Jerry Leiber , Mike Stoller ) – Jake Blues and the Blues Brothers ( Over the closing credits in the film , verses are sung by James Brown , Cab Calloway , Ray Charles , Aretha Franklin and " crew " ) - 3 : 19
Other songs in the film
The film 's score includes " God Music " ( instrumental with choir vocalese ) composed by Elmer Bernstein , who previously had worked with John Landis on National Lampoon 's Animal House . Other songs in the film include :
" Somebody Loan Me a Dime " - composed and performed by Fenton Robinson ( music playing on the radio while Jake is being escorted from his prison cell . )
" Shake Your Moneymaker " – composed and performed by Elmore James ( music playing in Curtis ' basement when Jake and Elwood go to visit the orphanage )
" Soothe Me " / " Hold On ! I 'm Comin ' " – composed by Sam Cooke / Isaac Hayes and David Porter ; performed by Sam & Dave ( both tracks paying on the Bluesmobile 's 8 @-@ track player . The former when Jake and Elwood get pulled over by the police ; latter when they are then chased after resisting arrest )
" I Can 't Turn You Loose " – composed by Otis Redding ; instrumental performed by the Blues Brothers band ( their theme song ; plays during the smashing of the Mall and again when they are introduced at the Palace Hotel Ballroom , incorporating " Time Is Tight " by Booker T. and The M.G. ' s )
" Let the Good Times Roll " – composed and performed by Louis Jordan ( plays on the record player in Elwood 's corner of the flophouse )
" Anema e core " – performed by Ezio Pinza ( plays when Jake and Elwood investigate Tom Malone and Lou Marini 's old home )
" Quando , quando , quando " – performed by Murph and the Magic Tones
" Just the Way You Are " – composed by Billy Joel ; ( plays during the ' Magic Tones ' scene , as a reel @-@ to @-@ reel tape instrumental when the band takes their set break to discuss rejoining Jake & Elwood )
" Die Romantiker " - composed by Joseph Lanner ( 1801 – 1843 ) , performed by an uncredited group ( background music in the Chez Paul restaurant scene )
" Boom Boom " – composed by John Lee Hooker ; performed by John Lee Hooker ( as " Street Slim " ) , vocals and guitar ; Big Walter Horton ( as " Tampa Pete " ) , harmonica ; Pinetop Perkins ( as " Luther Jackson " ) electric piano ; Willie " Big Eyes " Smith , drums ; Luther Johnson ( Guitar Junior ) , guitar ; Calvin " Fuzz " Jones , bass ( plays in the Maxwell Street scene , short version in the theatrical cut , full @-@ length in the extended cut )
" Mama Lawdy " / " Boogie Chillen ' " – composed and performed by John Lee Hooker ( plays in the film twice ; first when Jake tries to phone Maury Sline , again when the band go to Bob 's Country Bunker )
" Your Cheatin ' Heart " – composed by Hank Williams ; performed by Kitty Wells ( heard when Jake and Elwood first enter Bob 's Country Bunker )
" Stand by Your Man " – composed by Tammy Wynette and Billy Sherrill ; performed by the Blues Brothers
Sink The Bismarck - cut from the film
" I 'm Walkin ' " – performed by Fats Domino ( plays during the scenes where Jake , Elwood and the orphans promote the concert )
" Ride of the Valkyries " – composed by Richard Wagner ; performed by the Pittsburgh Symphony Orchestra ( plays when Jake and Elwood are pursued by the Nazis ; ends abruptly when the Head Nazi 's car falls through the middle of the road )
" The Girl from Ipanema " – composed by Antônio Carlos Jobim ; performed by an uncredited group ( background music while the brothers are in the elevator to the assessor 's office )
= = Sequel = =
The 1998 sequel , Blues Brothers 2000 , had similar traits to the original , including large car @-@ chase scenes and musical numbers . Landis returned to direct the film and Aykroyd reprised his role , joining John Goodman , Joe Morton , and 10 @-@ year @-@ old J. Evan Bonifant as the new Blues Brothers . Franklin and Brown were among the celebrities returning from the first film . There were also musical performances by Sam Moore , Wilson Pickett , Paul Shaffer , B.B. King , and Eric Clapton , among others . Dozens of artists were packed into an all @-@ star band called The Louisiana Gator Boys . Even with many returning cast members , the film was considered a box @-@ office failure , only generating a little over $ 14 million in sales , and critics ' reactions were very poor .
= Alternative rock =
Alternative rock ( also called alternative music , alt @-@ rock or simply alternative ) is a genre of rock music that emerged from the independent music underground of the 1980s and became widely popular in the 1990s and 2000s . In this instance , the word " alternative " refers to the genre 's distinction from mainstream rock music . The term 's original meaning was broader , referring to a generation of musicians unified by their collective debt to either the musical style or simply the independent , D.I.Y. ethos of punk rock , which in the late 1970s laid the groundwork for alternative music . At times , " alternative " has been used as a catch @-@ all description for music from underground rock artists that receives mainstream recognition , or for any music , whether rock or not , that is seen to be descended from punk rock ( including some examples of punk itself , as well as new wave , and post @-@ punk ) .
Alternative rock is a broad umbrella term consisting of music that differs greatly in terms of its sound , its social context , and its regional roots . By the end of the 1980s magazines and zines , college radio airplay , and word of mouth had increased the prominence and highlighted the diversity of alternative rock , helping to define a number of distinct styles ( and music scenes ) such as gothic rock , jangle pop , noise pop , indie rock , indie pop , grunge , industrial rock , alternative hip hop , and rap rock . Most of these subgenres had achieved minor mainstream notice and a few bands representing them , such as Hüsker Dü and R.E.M. , had even signed to major labels . But most alternative bands ' commercial success was limited in comparison to other genres of rock and pop music at the time , and most acts remained signed to independent labels and received relatively little attention from mainstream radio , television , or newspapers . With the breakthrough of Nirvana and the popularity of the grunge and Britpop movements in the 1990s , alternative rock entered the musical mainstream and many alternative bands became successful .
By the end of the decade , alternative rock 's mainstream prominence declined due to a number of events that caused grunge and Britpop to fade and led to the hiatus of the Lollapalooza festival . Nevertheless , post @-@ grunge remained commercially viable into the start of the 21st century , with the commercial success of Creed and Matchbox Twenty ; Radiohead 's critical acclaim , and the success of some post @-@ Britpop groups like Coldplay . Emo attracted attention in the larger alternative rock world , and the term was applied to a variety of artists , including multi @-@ platinum acts . During the late 1990s and early 2000s , several alternative rock bands emerged , including The White Stripes , The Strokes , Arcade Fire , Franz Ferdinand , and Interpol , that drew from post @-@ punk and new wave . Post @-@ punk revival artists such as Modest Mouse and The Killers had commercial success in the early and mid 2000s .
= = Origin of term = =
Before the term alternative rock came into common usage around 1990 , the sort of music to which it refers was known by a variety of terms . In 1979 , Terry Tolkin used the term Alternative Music to describe the groups he was writing about . In 1979 Dallas radio station KZEW had a late night new wave show entitled " Rock and Roll Alternative " . " College rock " was used in the United States to describe the music during the 1980s due to its links to the college radio circuit and the tastes of college students . In the United Kingdom , dozens of small do it yourself record labels emerged as a result of the punk subculture . According to the founder of one of these labels , Cherry Red , NME and Sounds magazines published charts based on small record stores called " Alternative Charts " . The first national chart based on distribution called the Indie Chart was published in January 1980 ; it immediately succeeded in its aim to help these labels . At the time , the term indie was used literally to describe independently distributed records . By 1985 , indie had come to mean a particular genre , or group of subgenres , rather than simply distribution status .
The use of the term alternative to describe rock music originated around the mid @-@ 1980s ; at the time , the common music industry terms for cutting @-@ edge music were new music and post modern , respectively indicating freshness and a tendency to re contextualize sounds of the past . Individuals who worked as DJs and promoters during the 1980s claim the term originates from American FM radio of the 1970s , which served as a progressive alternative to top 40 radio formats by featuring longer songs and giving DJs more freedom in song selection . According to one former DJ and promoter , " Somehow this term ' alternative ' got rediscovered and heisted by college radio people during the 80s who applied it to new post @-@ punk , indie , or underground @-@ whatever music " . At first the term referred to intentionally non – mainstream rock acts that were not influenced by " heavy metal ballads , rarefied new wave " and " high @-@ energy dance anthems " . Usage of the term would broaden to include new wave , pop , punk rock , post @-@ punk , and occasionally " college " / " indie " rock , all found on the American " commercial alternative " radio stations of the time such as Los Angeles ' KROQ @-@ FM . The use of alternative gained further exposure due to the success of Lollapalooza , for which festival founder and Jane 's Addiction frontman Perry Farrell coined the term Alternative Nation . In the late 1990s , the definition again became more specific . In 1997 , Neil Strauss of The New York Times defined alternative rock as " hard @-@ edged rock distinguished by brittle , ' 70s @-@ inspired guitar riffing and singers agonizing over their problems until they take on epic proportions " .
Defining music as alternative is often difficult because of two conflicting applications of the word . Alternative can describe music that challenges the status quo and that is " fiercely iconoclastic , anticommercial , and antimainstream " , but the term is also used in the music industry to denote " the choices available to consumers via record stores , radio , cable television , and the Internet . " However alternative music has paradoxically become just as commercial and marketable as the mainstream rock , with record companies using the term " alternative " to market music to an audience that mainstream rock does not reach . Using a broad definition of the genre , Dave Thompson in his book Alternative Rock cites the formation of the Sex Pistols as well as the release of the albums Horses by Patti Smith and Metal Machine Music by Lou Reed as three key events that gave birth to alternative rock . Until recent years ( early 2000s ) when indie rock became the most common term in the US to describe modern pop and rock , the terms " indie rock " and " alternative rock " were often used interchangeably ; whilst there are aspects which both genres have in common , indie rock was regarded as a British @-@ based term , unlike the more American alternative rock .
= = Characteristics = =
The name " alternative rock " essentially serves as an umbrella term for underground music that has emerged in the wake of punk rock since the mid @-@ 1980s . Throughout much of its history , alternative rock has been largely defined by its rejection of the commercialism of mainstream culture , although this could be contested ever since some of the major alternative artists have achieved mainstream success or co @-@ opted with the major labels from the 1990s onwards ( especially since the new millennium and beyond ) . Alternative bands during the 1980s generally played in small clubs , recorded for indie labels , and spread their popularity through word of mouth . As such , there is no set musical style for alternative rock as a whole , although The New York Times in 1989 asserted that the genre is " guitar music first of all , with guitars that blast out power chords , pick out chiming riffs , buzz with fuzztone and squeal in feedback . " Sounds range from the gloomy soundscapes of gothic rock to the jangling guitars of indie pop to the dirty guitars of grunge to the 1960s / 1970s revivalism of Britpop . More often than in other rock @-@ styles since the mainstreaming of rock music during the 1970s , alternative rock lyrics tend to address topics of social concern , such as drug use , depression , suicide , and environmentalism . This approach to lyrics developed as a reflection of the social and economic strains in the United States and United Kingdom of the 1980s and early 1990s .
= = History = =
= = = The 1980s = = =
By 1984 , a majority of groups signed to independent record labels mined from a variety of rock and particularly 1960s rock influences . This represented a sharp break from the futuristic , hyper @-@ rational post @-@ punk years .
Throughout the 1980s , alternative rock remained mainly an underground phenomenon . While on occasion a song would become a commercial hit or albums would receive critical praise in mainstream publications like Rolling Stone , alternative rock in the 1980s was primarily featured on independent record labels , fanzines , and college radio stations . Alternative bands built underground followings by touring constantly and by regularly releasing low @-@ budget albums . In the case of the United States , new bands would form in the wake of previous bands , which created an extensive underground circuit in America , filled with different scenes in various parts of the country . Although American alternative artists of the 1980s never generated spectacular album sales , they exerted a considerable influence on later alternative musicians and laid the groundwork for their success . By 1989 the genre had become popular enough that a package tour featuring New Order , Public Image Limited and The Sugarcubes toured the United States arena circuit .
In contrast , British alternative rock was distinguished from that of the United States early on by a more pop @-@ oriented focus ( marked by an equal emphasis on albums and singles , as well as greater openness to incorporating elements of dance and club culture ) and a lyrical emphasis on specifically British concerns . As a result , few British alternative bands have achieved commercial success in the US . Since the 1980s alternative rock has been played extensively on the radio in the UK , particularly by disc jockeys such as John Peel ( who championed alternative music on BBC Radio 1 ) , Richard Skinner , and Annie Nightingale . Artists that had cult followings in the United States received greater exposure through British national radio and the weekly music press , and many alternative bands had chart success there .
= = = = American underground in the 1980s = = = =
Early American alternative bands such as Dream Syndicate , R.E.M. , The Feelies and Violent Femmes combined punk influences with folk music and mainstream music influences . R.E.M. was the most immediately successful ; its debut album , Murmur ( 1983 ) , entered the Top 40 and spawned a number of jangle pop followers . One of the many jangle pop scenes of the early 1980s , Los Angeles ' Paisley Underground revived the sounds of the 1960s , incorporating psychedelia , rich vocal harmonies and the guitar interplay of folk rock as well as punk and underground influences such as The Velvet Underground .
American indie record labels SST Records , Twin / Tone Records , Touch and Go Records , and Dischord Records presided over the shift from the hardcore punk that then dominated the American underground scene to the more diverse styles of alternative rock that were emerging . Minneapolis bands Hüsker Dü and The Replacements were indicative of this shift . Both started out as punk rock bands , but soon diversified their sounds and became more melodic . Michael Azerrad asserted that Hüsker Dü was the key link between hardcore punk and the more melodic , diverse music of college rock that emerged . Azerrad wrote , " Hüsker Dü played a huge role in convincing the underground that melody and punk rock weren 't antithetical . " The band also set an example by being the first group from the American indie scene to sign to a major record label , which helped establish college rock as " a viable commercial enterprise . " By focusing on heartfelt songwriting and wordplay instead of political concerns , The Replacements upended a number of underground scene conventions ; Azerrad noted that " along with R.E.M. [ The Replacements ] were one of the few underground bands that mainstream people liked . "
By the late 1980s , the American alternative scene was dominated by styles ranging from quirky alternative pop ( They Might Be Giants and Camper Van Beethoven ) , to noise rock ( Sonic Youth , Big Black , The Jesus Lizard ) and industrial rock ( Ministry , Nine Inch Nails ) . These sounds were in turn followed by the advent of Boston 's Pixies and Los Angeles ' Jane 's Addiction . Around the same time , the grunge subgenre emerged in Seattle , Washington , initially referred to as " The Seattle Sound " until its rise to popularity in the early 1990s . Grunge featured a sludgy , murky guitar sound that synthesized heavy metal and punk rock . Promoted largely by Seattle indie label Sub Pop , grunge bands were noted for their thrift store fashion which favored flannel shirts and combat boots suited to the local weather . Early grunge bands Soundgarden and Mudhoney found critical acclaim in the U.S. and UK , respectively .
By the end of the decade , a number of alternative bands began to sign to major labels . While early major label signings Hüsker Dü and The Replacements had little success , acts who signed with majors in their wake such as R.E.M. and Jane 's Addiction achieved gold and platinum records , setting the stage for alternative 's later breakthrough . Some bands such as Pixies had massive success overseas while they were ignored domestically .
In the middle of the decade Hüsker Dü 's album Zen Arcade influenced other hardcore acts by tackling personal issues . Out of Washington , D.C. ' s hardcore scene what was called " emocore " or " emo " emerged and was noted for its lyrics which delved into emotional very personal subject matter ( vocalists sometimes cried ) and added free association poetry and a confessional tone . Rites of Spring has been described as the first " emo " band . Former Minor Threat singer Ian MacKaye founded Dischord Records which became the center for the city 's emo scene .
= = = = British genres and trends of the 1980s = = = =
Gothic rock developed out of late @-@ 1970s British post @-@ punk . With a reputation as the " darkest and gloomiest form of underground rock " , gothic rock utilizes a synthesizer @-@ and @-@ guitar based sound drawn from post @-@ punk to construct " foreboding , sorrowful , often epic soundscapes " , and the genre 's lyrics often address literary romanticism , morbidity , religious symbolism , and supernatural mysticism . This genre among bands that took inspiration from late @-@ 1970s British post @-@ punk groups , Joy Division and Siouxsie and the Banshees . Bauhaus ' debut single " Bela Lugosi 's Dead " , released in 1979 , is considered to be the proper beginning of the gothic rock genre . The Cure 's " oppressively dispirited " albums Seventeen Seconds ( 1980 ) , Faith ( 1981 ) , Pornography ( 1982 ) and their opus Disintegration ( 1989 ) cemented that group 's stature in that style and laid the foundation for its large cult following .
The key British alternative rock band to emerge during the 1980s was Manchester 's The Smiths . Music journalist Simon Reynolds singled out The Smiths and their American contemporaries R.E.M. as " the two most important alt @-@ rock bands of the day " , commenting that they " were eighties bands only in the sense of being against the eighties " . Reynolds noted that The Smiths ' " whole stance was predicated on their British audience being a lost generation , exiles in their own land " . The Smiths ' embrace of the guitar in an era of synthesizer @-@ dominated music is viewed as signaling the end of the new wave era and the advent of alternative rock in the United Kingdom . Despite the band 's limited chart success and short career , The Smiths exerted an influence over the British indie scene through the end of the decade , as various bands drew from singer Morrissey 's English @-@ centered lyrical topics and guitarist Johnny Marr 's jangly guitar @-@ playing style . The C86 cassette , a 1986 NME premium featuring Primal Scream , The Wedding Present and others , was a major influence on the development of indie pop and the British indie scene as a whole .
Other forms of alternative rock developed in the UK during the 1980s . The Jesus and Mary Chain 's sound combined the Velvet Underground 's " melancholy noise " with Beach Boys pop melodies and Phil Spector 's " Wall of Sound " production , while New Order emerged from the demise of post @-@ punk band Joy Division and experimented with techno and house music . The Mary Chain , along with Dinosaur Jr . , C86 and the dream pop of Cocteau Twins , were the formative influences for the shoegazing movement of the late 1980s . Named for the band members ' tendency to stare at their feet and guitar effects pedals onstage rather than interact with the audience , shoegazing acts like My Bloody Valentine and Slowdive created an overwhelmingly loud " wash of sound " that obscured vocals and melodies with long , droning riffs , distortion , and feedback . Shoegazing bands dominated the British music press at the end of the decade along with the Madchester scene . Performing for the most part in The Haçienda , a nightclub in Manchester owned by New Order and Factory Records , Madchester bands such as Happy Mondays and The Stone Roses mixed acid house dance rhythms with melodic guitar pop .
= = = Popularization in the 1990s = = =
By the start of the 1990s , the music industry was enticed by alternative rock 's commercial possibilities and major labels actively courted bands including Jane 's Addiction , Red Hot Chili Peppers , Dinosaur Jr . , Firehose , and Nirvana . In particular , R.E.M. ' s success had become a blueprint for many alternative bands in the late 1980s and 1990s to follow ; the group had outlasted many of its contemporaries and by the 1990s had become one of the most popular bands in the world .
The breakthrough success of the band Nirvana led to the widespread popularization of alternative rock in the 1990s . The release of the band 's single " Smells Like Teen Spirit " from its second album Nevermind ( 1991 ) " marked the instigation of the grunge music phenomenon " . Due to constant airplay of the song 's music video on MTV , Nevermind was selling 400 @,@ 000 copies a week by Christmas 1991 . The success of Nevermind surprised the music industry . Nevermind not only popularized grunge , but also established " the cultural and commercial viability of alternative rock in general . " Michael Azerrad asserted that Nevermind symbolized " a sea @-@ change in rock music " in which the hair metal that had dominated rock music at that time fell out of favor in the face of music that was authentic and culturally relevant .
Nirvana 's surprise success with Nevermind heralded a " new openness to alternative rock " among commercial radio stations , opening doors for heavier alternative bands in particular . In the wake of Nevermind , alternative rock " found itself dragged @-@ kicking and screaming ... into the mainstream " and record companies , confused by the genre 's success yet eager to capitalize on it , scrambled to sign bands . The New York Times declared in 1993 , " Alternative rock doesn 't seem so alternative anymore . Every major label has a handful of guitar @-@ driven bands in shapeless shirts and threadbare jeans , bands with bad posture and good riffs who cultivate the oblique and the evasive , who conceal catchy tunes with noise and hide craftsmanship behind nonchalance . " However , many alternative rock artists rejected success , for it conflicted with the rebellious , D.I.Y. ethic the genre had espoused before mainstream exposure and their ideas of artistic authenticity .
= = = = Grunge explosion = = = =
Other grunge bands subsequently replicated Nirvana 's success . Pearl Jam had released its debut album Ten a month before Nevermind in 1991 , but album sales only picked up a year later . By the second half of 1992 Ten became a breakthrough success , being certified gold and reaching number two on the Billboard 200 album chart . Soundgarden 's album Badmotorfinger , Alice in Chains ' Dirt and Stone Temple Pilots ' Core along with the Temple of the Dog album collaboration featuring members of Pearl Jam and Soundgarden , were also among the 100 top @-@ selling albums of 1992 . The popular breakthrough of these grunge bands prompted Rolling Stone to nickname Seattle " the new Liverpool . " Major record labels signed most of the prominent grunge bands in Seattle , while a second influx of bands moved to the city in hopes of success .
At the same time , critics asserted that advertising was co @-@ opting elements of grunge and turning it into a fad . Entertainment Weekly commented in a 1993 article , " There hasn 't been this kind of exploitation of a subculture since the media discovered hippies in the ' 60s . " The New York Times compared the " grunging of America " to the mass @-@ marketing of punk rock , disco , and hip hop in previous years . As a result of the genre 's popularity , a backlash against grunge developed in Seattle . Nirvana 's follow @-@ up album In Utero ( 1993 ) was an intentionally abrasive album that Nirvana bassist Krist Novoselic described as a " wild aggressive sound , a true alternative record . " Nevertheless , upon its release in September 1993 In Utero topped the Billboard charts . Pearl Jam also continued to perform well commercially with its second album , Vs . ( 1993 ) , which topped the Billboard charts by selling a record 950 @,@ 378 copies in its first week of release .
= = = = Britpop = = = =
With the decline of the Madchester scene and the unglamorousness of shoegazing , the tide of grunge from America dominated the British alternative scene and music press in the early 1990s . As a reaction , a flurry of British bands emerged that wished to " get rid of grunge " and " declare war on America " , taking the public and native music press by storm . Dubbed " Britpop " by the media , this movement represented by Pulp , Oasis , Suede , and Blur was the British equivalent of the grunge explosion , in that the artists propelled alternative rock to the top of the charts in their home country . Britpop bands were influenced by and displayed reverence for British guitar music of the past , particularly movements and genres such as the British Invasion , glam rock , and punk rock . In 1995 the Britpop phenomenon culminated in a rivalry between its two chief groups , Oasis and Blur , symbolized by their release of competing singles on the same day . Blur won " The Battle of Britpop " , but Oasis soon eclipsed the other band in popularity with its second album , ( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? ( 1995 ) , which went on to become the third best @-@ selling album in the UK 's history .
= = = = Other trends = = = =
Long synonymous with alternative rock as a whole in the US , indie rock became a distinct form following the popular breakthrough of Nirvana . Indie rock was formulated as a rejection of both alternative rock 's absorption into the mainstream by artists who could not or refused to cross over , and a wariness of its " macho " aesthetic . While indie rock artists share the punk rock distrust of commercialism , the genre does not entirely define itself against that , as " the general assumption is that it 's virtually impossible to make indie rock 's varying musical approaches compatible with mainstream tastes in the first place " .
Labels such as Matador Records , Merge Records , and Dischord , and indie rockers like Pavement , Superchunk , Fugazi , and Sleater @-@ Kinney dominated the American indie scene for most of the 1990s . One of the main indie rock movements of the 1990s was lo @-@ fi . The movement , which focused on the recording and distribution of music on low @-@ quality cassette tapes , initially emerged in the 1980s . By 1992 , Pavement , Guided by Voices and Sebadoh became popular lo @-@ fi cult acts in the United States , while subsequently artists like Beck and Liz Phair brought the aesthetic to mainstream audiences . The period also saw alternative confessional female singer @-@ songwriters . Besides the aforementioned Liz Phair , Lynda Thomas , PJ Harvey and the massively successful Alanis Morissette fit into this sub group .
In 1993 , Smashing Pumpkins album Siamese Dream was a major commercial success . The strong influence of heavy metal and progressive rock on the album helped to legitimize alternative rock to mainstream radio programmers and close the gap between alternative rock and the type of rock played on American 1970s Album Oriented Rock radio .
During the latter half of the 1990s , grunge was supplanted by post @-@ grunge . Many post @-@ grunge bands lacked the underground roots of grunge and were largely influenced by what grunge had become , namely " a wildly popular form of inward @-@ looking , serious @-@ minded hard rock . " ; many post @-@ grunge bands emulated the sound and style of grunge , " but not necessarily the individual idiosyncracies of its original artists . " Post @-@ grunge was a more commercially viable genre that tempered the distorted guitars of grunge with polished , radio @-@ ready production . Originally , post @-@ grunge was a label used almost pejoratively on bands that emerged when grunge was mainstream and emulated the grunge sound . The label suggested that bands labelled as post @-@ grunge were simply musically derivative , or a cynical response to an " authentic " rock movement . Bush , Candlebox and Collective Soul were labelled almost pejoratively as post @-@ grunge which , according to Tim Grierson of About.com , is " suggesting that rather than being a musical movement in their own right , they were just a calculated , cynical response to a legitimate stylistic shift in rock music . " Post @-@ grunge morphed during the late 1990s as post @-@ grunge bands such as Creed and Nickelback emerged .
Post @-@ rock was established by Talk Talk 's Laughing Stock and Slint 's Spiderland albums , both released in 1991 . Post @-@ rock draws influence from a number of genres , including Krautrock , progressive rock , and jazz . The genre subverts or rejects rock conventions , and often incorporates electronic music . While the name of the genre was coined by music journalist Simon Reynolds in 1994 , the style of the genre was solidified by the release of Millions Now Living Will Never Die ( 1996 ) by the Chicago group Tortoise . Post @-@ rock became the dominant form of experimental rock music in the 1990s and bands from the genre signed to such labels as Thrill Jockey , Kranky , Drag City , and Too Pure . A related genre , math rock , peaked in the mid @-@ 1990s . In comparison to post @-@ rock , math rock is more " rockist " and relies on complex time signatures and intertwining phrases . While by the end of the decade a backlash had emerged against post @-@ rock due to its " dispassionate intellectuality " and its perceived increasing predictability , a new wave of post @-@ rock bands such as Godspeed You ! Black Emperor and Sigur Rós emerged who further expanded the genre .
After almost a decade in the underground , ska punk , a mixture of earlier British ska and punk acts , became popular in the United States . Rancid was the first of the " Third Wave Ska Revival " acts to break . In 1996 , the Mighty Mighty Bosstones , No Doubt , Sublime , Goldfinger , Reel Big Fish , Less Than Jake and Save Ferris charted or received radio exposure .
= = = = Decline of popularity = = = =
By the end of the decade , alternative rock 's mainstream prominence declined due to a number of events , notably the death of Nirvana 's Kurt Cobain in 1994 and Pearl Jam 's lawsuit against concert venue promoter Ticketmaster , which in effect barred the group from playing many major venues around the United States . In addition to the decline of grunge bands , Britpop faded as Oasis 's third album , Be Here Now ( 1997 ) , received lackluster reviews and Blur began to incorporate influences from American alternative rock . A signifier of alternative rock 's declining popularity was the hiatus of the Lollapalooza festival after an unsuccessful attempt to find a headliner in 1998 . In light of the festival 's troubles that year , Spin said , " Lollapalooza is as comatose as alternative rock right now " .
Despite alternative rock 's declining popularity , some artists retained mainstream relevance . Post @-@ grunge remained commercially viable into the start of the 21st century , when bands like Creed and Matchbox Twenty became among the most popular rock bands in the United States . At the same time Britpop began to decline , Radiohead achieved critical acclaim with its third album OK Computer ( 1997 ) , and its follow @-@ ups Kid A ( 2000 ) and Amnesiac ( 2001 ) , which were in marked contrast with the traditionalism of Britpop . Radiohead , along with post @-@ Britpop groups like Travis and Coldplay , were major forces in British rock in subsequent years .
In the mid @-@ 1990s Sunny Day Real Estate defined the " emo " genre for many . Weezer 's album Pinkerton ( 1996 ) was also influential . By 2000 and on into the new decade emo was one of the most popular rock music genres . Popular acts included platinum selling success of Bleed American by Jimmy Eat World ( 2001 ) and Dashboard Confessional 's The Places You Have Come to Fear the Most ( 2003 ) . The new emo had a much more mainstream sound than in the 1990s and a far greater appeal amongst adolescents than its earlier incarnations . At the same time , use of the term " emo " expanded beyond the musical genre , becoming associated with fashion , a hairstyle and any music that expressed emotion . The term " emo " has been applied by critics and journalists to a variety of artists , including multi @-@ platinum acts such as Fall Out Boy and My Chemical Romance and disparate groups such as Paramore and Panic ! at the Disco , even when they reject the label .
= = = 2000s revival = = =
During the late 1990s and early 2000s , several alternative rock bands emerged , including The Strokes , Franz Ferdinand , Interpol and The Rapture that drew primary inspiration from post @-@ punk and new wave , establishing the post @-@ punk revival movement . Preceded by the success of bands such as The Strokes and The White Stripes earlier in the decade , an influx of new alternative rock bands , including several post @-@ punk revival artists and others such as Modest Mouse , The Killers , and Yeah Yeah Yeahs , found commercial success in the early and mid 2000s . Owing to the success of these bands , Entertainment Weekly declared in 2004 , " After almost a decade of domination by rap @-@ rock and nu @-@ metal bands , mainstream alt @-@ rock is finally good again . " Worldwide arena tours for alternative rock acts were culled to a few well @-@ established players such as U2 , Muse , Foo Fighters and Coldplay , with American band Thirty Seconds to Mars experiencing a notable rise in popularity during the latter half of the 2000s . American rock band Red Hot Chili Peppers entered a new @-@ found popularity in 1999 after the release of their album Californication ( 1999 ) , with continued success throughout the 2000s .
Most references to modern alternative rock music in the United States are to the indie rock genre , a term that previously had limited usage on alternative rock channels and media . While there have been conflicting opinions on the relevance of alternative rock to mainstream audiences beyond 2010 , Dave Grohl commented on an article from the December 29 , 2013 issue of the New York Daily News stating that rock is dead : " speak for yourself ... Rock seems pretty alive to me . "
= Symeon the New Theologian =
Symeon the New Theologian ( sometimes spelled " Simeon " ) ( Greek : Συμεὼν ὁ Νέος Θεολόγος ; 949 – 1022 AD ) was a Byzantine Christian monk and poet who was the last of three saints canonized by the Eastern Orthodox church and given the title of " Theologian " ( along with John the Apostle and Gregory of Nazianzus ) . " Theologian " was not applied to Symeon in the modern academic sense of theological study , but to recognize someone who spoke from personal experience of the vision of God . One of his principal teachings was that humans could and should experience theoria ( literally " contemplation , " or direct experience of God ) .
Symeon was born into the Byzantine nobility and given a traditional education . At age fourteen he met Symeon the Studite , a renowned monk of the Monastery of Stoudios in Constantinople , who convinced him to give his own life to prayer and asceticism under the elder Symeon 's guidance . By the time he was thirty , Symeon the New Theologian became the abbot of the Monastery of St. Mammas , a position he held for twenty @-@ five years . He attracted many monks and clergy with his reputation for sanctity , though his teachings brought him into conflict with church authorities , who would eventually send him into exile . His most well known disciple was Nicetas Stethatos who wrote the Life of Symeon .
Symeon is recognized as the first Byzantine mystic to freely share his own mystical experiences . Some of his writings are included in the Philokalia , a collection of texts by early Christian mystics on contemplative prayer and hesychast teachings . Symeon wrote and spoke frequently about the importance of experiencing directly the grace of God , often talking about his own experiences of God as divine light . Another common subject in his writings was the need of putting oneself under the guidance of a spiritual father . The authority for many of his teachings derived from the traditions of the Desert Fathers , early Christian monks and ascetics . Symeon 's writings include Hymns of Divine Love , Ethical Discourses , and The Catechetical Discourses .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
The details of Symeon 's life come from his own writings and from the Life of Symeon , written by his disciple Nicetas . He was born at Basileion in Galatia to Basil and Theophano Galaton , members of the Byzantine nobility who supported the Macedonian dynasty . His given name at birth is unclear — it was traditional at that time , when becoming a monk , to take on a new name with the same initial as one 's birth name . Symeon may have ignored that tradition in order to take the same name as his spiritual father , Symeon the Studite . In his writings , he sometimes described the experiences of " George , " which might have been his birth name . Symeon received a basic Greek school education until the age of eleven , when an uncle recognized that he had potential for higher learning . The uncle helped Symeon to complete his secondary education at the court of the emperor Basil II and his brother Constantine VIII .
At age fourteen he met Symeon the Studite ( also called Symeon the Pious ) , a holy monk of the Monastery of Stoudios in Constantinople . That meeting convinced the younger Symeon to forgo higher education and take on Symeon the Studite as his spiritual father . At that time he began studying the life of prayer and asceticism under his guidance , with the desire to immediately enter the monastery . Symeon the Studite asked the young Symeon to wait before becoming a monk , so he spent the years until age twenty @-@ seven serving in the household of a patrician , though according to some sources he served the emperor instead .
Living a worldly life during the day , he reportedly spent his evenings in vigils and prayer , putting into practice the writings of two authors — Marcus Eremita and Diadochos of Photiki — that were given to him by his spiritual father . It was during this time that Symeon had his first experience of God as divine light , as he described later in one of his Discourses ( Disc . 22 @.@ 2 – 4 ) . He attributed the experience to the prayers of Symeon the Studite . In spite of the experience , the young Symeon confessed that he still fell into worldly ways of living . Direct personal experience of God was to become one of Symeon 's central teachings in his writings , and to the monks who followed him .
= = = Abbot of St. Mammas monastery = = =
At age twenty @-@ seven , he entered the Monastery of Stoudios , giving his life over completely to discipleship to his teacher Symeon the Studite . The elder Symeon was not an ordained priest , but a simple monk who was considered holy by many people . The younger Symeon was extremely zealous in his practices and in following his teacher — to such an extent that the abbot of the monastery insisted that Symeon leave after only a few months .
Following the elder Symeon 's advice , he left for the nearby Monastery of St. Mammas in Constantinople , which was described as run down , both physically and spiritually . During his time at St. Mammas he continued to follow Symeon the Studite 's guidance . Within three years after moving to St. Mammas , Symeon was tonsured as a monk , ordained as a priest , and elected as the abbot of the monastery . He spent the next twenty @-@ five years as abbot of St. Mammas , attracting many monks and clergy with his reputation for learning and sanctity .
Not all of the monks were attracted by Symeon 's zealous approach . Symeon attempted to reform the Byzantine monasteries , where monks had become subservient to the emperor and had acquired large holdings of property , libraries , and art . His writings and teachings were aimed at returning the monasteries to their traditional role in the early church , urging the monks to take up a life of simplicity , asceticism , purity of heart , and constant prayer . The strict monastic discipline for which Symeon aimed upset several monks in the monastery . Symeon also took a more emotional approach to worship , suggesting that a monk shouldn 't take the sacrament without tears . The introduction of vegetarian meals , along with other unique practices to instill discipline and humility , also caused some displeasure among the monks .
Fifteen years after becoming abbot , one morning after the Divine Liturgy a group of approximately thirty monks rose against Symeon , who drove them away . Breaking the locks on the monastery gate on their way out , the monks took their appeal to the Patriarch Sisinios , who sided with Symeon and sent the monks into exile . Symeon pleaded on their behalf , doing everything he could to have the monks return to the monastery , including seeking out some of the monks to apologize to them . During his time as abbot , Symeon wrote Hymns of Divine Love ( completed during his exile ) , the Discourses , and many letters and polemical works which have been lost . He also wrote articles relating to his disputes with the church theologians — these survived as his theological and ethical treatises . In 1005 Symeon resigned as abbot of St. Mammas , appointing one of his disciples in his stead , and taking up a more solitary life at the monastery .
= = = Opposition from the church = = =
Symeon endured severe opposition from church authorities , particularly from the chief theologian of the emperor 's court , Archbishop Stephen , who at one time was the Metropolitan of Nicomedia . Stephen was a former politician and diplomat with a reputation for a thorough theoretical understanding of theology , but one which was removed from actual experience of the spiritual life . Symeon , in contrast , held the view that one must have actual experience of the Holy Spirit in order to speak about God , at the same time recognizing the authority of scripture and of the earlier church fathers . Their differing views on the source of authority to speak on spiritual matters was the cause of several years of intense conflict , ending with Symeon 's eventual exile .
Stephen found fault with Symeon especially for his charismatic approach , and his support of individual direct experience of God 's grace . Symeon believed that direct experience gave monks the authority to preach and give absolution of sins , without the need for formal ordination — as practiced by his own teacher , Symeon the Studite . Church authorities also taught from a speculative and philosophical perspective , while Symeon taught from his own direct mystical experience . Symeon 's teachings , especially those regarding the direct experience of God 's grace , brought accusations of heresy from Stephen . Symeon responded to Stephen 's charges by declaring that the real heresy was to teach that it is impossible to have direct experience of God ( Disc . 29 @.@ 4 ) .
Stephen also found fault with Symeon for revering his spiritual father , Symeon the Studite . At that time , formal recognition of saints was seldom practiced and not obligatory , so revered monks were informally recognized and honored by monasteries and by their disciples . Every year the younger Symeon arranged a celebration honoring his teacher , which included an icon of Symeon the Studite and a service to him . Stephen rebuked Symeon for honoring his teacher as a saint , because in his opinion the Studite was not worth of any honor . The conflict between the two lasted for six years .
Stephen was finally able to bring Symeon before the Synod on charges of honoring as a saint someone who Stephen believed was far from saintly . At first , Patriarch Sergius II of Constantinople supported Symeon , going so far as to send candles and perfume in support of the veneration of Symeon the Studite at St. Mammas . Stephen attacked the Studite as unholy and sinful , and was eventually able to convince others that Symeon 's homage was improper by convincing them that the Studite held some unorthodox beliefs . As a compromise , Stephen suggested that the annual festival honoring the elder Symeon be held as a private observance within the monastery . Symeon the New Theologian refused to compromise , declaring that it was his duty to honor the church fathers and the saints , and in January 1009 was condemned to go into exile . Stephen also convinced the Patriarch to order all icons of Symeon the Studite removed from St. Mammas , with many of them destroyed or covered over with soot .
Symeon , for his part , never backed down from the church authorities . In one of his hymns , he had Christ speaking the following rebuke to the bishops :
They ( the bishops ) unworthily handle My Body
and seek avidly to dominate the masses ...
They are seen to appear as brilliant and pure ,
but their souls are worse than mud and dirt ,
worse even than any kind of deadly poison ,
these evil and perverse men ! ( Hymn 58 )
= = = Exile and death = = =
In 1009 Symeon was sent into exile near Paloukiton , a small village near Chrysopolis on the Asiatic shore of the Bosphorus . According to one account , he was left by church authorities alone and without food , in the middle of winter . There he found a deserted and ruined chapel that had been dedicated to Saint Macrina . It happened to be on land owned by one of Symeon 's spiritual children , Christopher Phagouras , who donated the land and proceeds to start a monastery .
By this time , Symeon had many disciples — some of them , including the patrician Geneseos , appealed to Sergius II , the Patriarch of Constantinople , to lift the order of exile . Out of fear that the dispute would reach the emperor , Sergius II lifted the exile order completely , and then offered to re @-@ establish Symeon at the monastery of St. Mammas and consecrate him as archbishop of an important see in Constantinople . The only qualification was that Symeon must show some restraint in his celebration of Symeon the Studite 's festival day . Symeon refused to compromise — the Patriarch , out of respect for Symeon , gave him his blessing to " live together with your disciples and act according to your good pleasure . "
Symeon remained at the Saint Macrina monastery , where many close disciples , both monks and secular people , gathered around him . At Saint Macrina he was free of monks who were averse to his discipline and zeal , and free from direct conflict with church authorities . He continued to honor Symeon the Studite — most of the clergy from Constantinople , along with many monks and laymen , joined him during those celebrations . He also wrote during that time and made himself accessible to all who wanted to see him . Symeon spent the last thirteen years of his life in exile , dying from dysentery on March 12 , 1022 . According to his biographer and disciple , Nicetas , Symeon foretold his own death many years previously , and on his last day called together all the monks to sing the funeral hymns .
Symeon is now recognized as a saint by the Orthodox Church . The title of " Theologian " was not given to him in the modern academic sense of someone who is learned in theology , but to recognize someone who speaks from personal experience of the vision of God . Until Symeon 's time , that title was reserved mainly for John the Apostle , author of one of the four gospels , and Gregory of Nazianzus , writer of contemplative poetry . His opponents derisively called him the " new " theologian because of his creative approach — his supporters , and later the Church at large , embraced the name in the most positive sense .
= = Writings = =
After Symeon 's death his writings were kept alive by small groups of followers , eventually becoming one of the central teachings of the hesychast movement . Many copies of his works were made in the following centuries , particularly around the 14th century , and among the Eastern Orthodox monasteries on Mt . Athos . His recognition has always been greater outside the official church , its calendar and liturgy . Historians credit this to his zealous personality , his criticism of the church hierarchy , his emphasis on direct experience of God , and some of his unorthodox teachings — including his belief that an unordained monk who had the direct experience of God was empowered to absolve others of their sins .
Symeon wrote in a similar style and taught the traditional views of several early Christian fathers and hesychasts , including St. Augustine , Gregory of Nyssa , Gregory of Nazianzus , and Mark the Hermit . Where Symeon differed from his predecessors was in his transparent and open sharing of his most interior experiences . Symeon was the first Byzantine mystic to freely share those experiences , which were given in the context of his teaching that the direct experience of God was something to which all Christians could aspire .
One catechesis of Symeon 's , On Faith , along with a composite work titled One Hundred and Fifty @-@ Three Practical and Theological Texts , are included in the Philokalia , a collection of texts by early Christian mystics . Another text in the Philokalia , titled The Three Methods of Prayer is also attributed to Symeon — it describes a method of practicing the Jesus Prayer that includes direction on correct posture and breathing while reciting the prayer . It is extremely unlikely that he wrote that text — some scholars attribute it to Nikiphoros the Monk , while others believe it was written by disciples of Symeon .
= = = Discourses = = =
The Discourses are the central work of Symeon 's life , and were written during his time as abbot at St. Mammas ( 980 – 998 ) . They consist of thirty @-@ four discourses , along with two pieces on thanksgiving , that were given as talks to his monks and others interested in the spiritual life — often at St. Mammas during Matins services — and then compiled and likely edited by Symeon himself . They were widely read in Constantinople even before Symeon 's exile . Their style maintains the personality of Symeon as expressed in his live talks : simplicity , sincerity , humility , speaking from the heart , and " full of fire and persuasion . " There is no obvious sequence or order to the Discourses — the topics are apparently a collection of talks given during different liturgical seasons or at feast days of saints .
There are two main themes running through the different discourses . One is the traditional theme of the early hesychasts and mystical theologians of the Christian East , especially the practices of faith ( praxis ) and asceticism ( askesis ) that they frequently taught as the way to reach direct experience of God ( theoria ) . Specific practices discussed by Symeon include : repentance , detachment , renunciation , mercy , sorrow for sins , faith , and contemplation .
Symeon 's other main emphasis is the power of the Holy Spirit to transform , and the profound mystical union with God that is the end result of a holy life . Symeon referred to this as the Baptism of the Holy Spirit , compared to the more ritualistic Baptism of water . Symeon believed that Christianity had descended into formulae and church ritual , which for many people replaced the earlier emphasis on actual and direct experience of God . The Discourses express Symeon 's strong conviction that the life of a Christian must be much more than mere observance of rules , and must include personal experience of the presence of the living Christ . Symeon describes his own conversion and mystical experience of the divine light .
= = = Hymns of Divine Love = = =
In Hymns of Divine Love ( also called Hymns of Divine Eros ) most of which were completed during his time in exile , Symeon describes his vision of God as uncreated divine light . That experience of divine luminosity is associated by Symeon with the Holy Trinity , with God , and sometimes with Christ . The Hymns are similar in theme to the Discourses , but are written with poetic meter and rhyme . He began writing them at the same time as the Discourses but only finished editing them during the last thirteen years of his life at the monastery of St. Macrina . There are 58 hymns totaling approximately 11 @,@ 000 verses .
The Hymns cover various themes , similar to the Discourses : repentance , death , the practice of virtue , charity , detachment , and more . Especially notable are the Hymns that recount Symeon 's mystical experiences and his love for Christ , which have been described as " ecstatic writing and ... mystical content that becomes very personal , both to Symeon and to the reader . "
An excerpt from Hymn 25 includes the following description of Symeon 's mystical union with God as light :
— But , Oh , what intoxication of light , Oh , what movements of fire !
Oh , what swirlings of the flame in me , miserable one that I am ,
coming from You and Your glory !
The glory I know it and I say it is your Holy Spirit ,
who has the same nature with You , and the same honor , O word ;
He is of the same race , the same glory ,
of the same essence , He alone with your Father ,
and with you , O Christ , O God of the universe !
I fall down in adoration before You .
I thank You that You have made me worthy to know , however little it may be ,
the power of Your divinity .
= = = Theological and ethical treatises = = =
Symeon 's theological and ethical treatises were original written works , as compared to many of his other writings that were taken from his talks . They cover his positions on various controversial issues of theology . Many of them were directed at Stephen , his main antagonist in the church , along with other church officials whom Symeon saw as taking an overly theoretical approach to Christianity . In these pieces Symeon defended the traditions of the early Byzantine mystical theologians from the teachings of the church officials of his own time . Central to this defense was Symeon 's view that the revelation of scripture could only be understood through the experience of divine grace given to the pure of heart during contemplation .
The treatises cover a wide range of topics , including Symeon 's defense against Stephen regarding his own views on the unity of the Holy Trinity . He also presents his doctrine on mysticism , the necessity of faith , the possibility of direct experience of God , the Baptism of the Holy Spirit , and more . The last four treatises were written during his exile , and discuss living a holy life while on earth , salvation through faith and good works , and the need for solitude if one wants to become a channel of divine grace to others .
= = Teachings = =
The church authorities regularly challenged Symeon , even though his teachings were rooted in the Gospels . He was also faithful to the early Greek Fathers and the two main traditions of Byzantine spirituality : the Alexandrian School , which took a more intellectual approach , and the " school of the heart " , represented by Mark the Hermit , Pseudo @-@ Macarius , John Climacus , and other early ascetic monks . He combined these different traditions with his own inner experience in a synthesis that was new in Byzantine mysticism .
Symeon often taught that all followers of Christ could have the direct experience of God , or theoria , just as the early church fathers experienced and taught . In that context he frequently described his own experiences of God as divine light . He preached to his monks that the way to God 's grace was through a life of simplicity , asceticism , sanctity , and contemplation , which was also the doctrine of the hermits and monks known as the Desert Fathers . In addition , Symeon placed great emphasis on putting oneself under the complete guidance of a spiritual father .
= = = Direct experience = = =
A central theme throughout Symeon 's teachings and writings is that all Christians should aspire to have actual direct experience of God in deep contemplation , or theoria . Regarding his own mystical experiences , he presented them not as unique to himself , but as the norm for all Christians . He taught that the experience came after purification through prayer , repentance , and asceticism . He especially called on his monks to take on the traditional charismatic and prophetic role in the Church .
In one of his Discourses he defended the frequent sharing of his own inner experiences , writing that it was not presumptuous , but was done to encourage others in their inner life :
We have written them because we are mindful of God 's gifts , which He has bestowed on our unworthy self from the beginning of life until the present moment ... and in gratitude we show to all of you the talent He has entrusted to us . How can we be silent before such an abundance of blessings , or out of ingratitude bury the talent that has been given to us ( Mt . 25 : 18 ) , like ungrateful and evil servants ? ... By our oral teaching we encourage you too to strive that you may have part in His gifts and enjoy them , the gifts of which we , though unworthy , have been partakers through His unutterable goodness . ( Discourse XXXIV )
= = = Divine light = = =
Symeon repeatedly describes the experience of divine light in his writings , as both an inward and outward mystical experience . These experiences began in his youth , and continued all during his life . They came to him during inward prayer and contemplation , and were associated with a feeling of indescribable joy , as well as the intellectual understanding that the light was a vision of God . In his writings , he spoke directly to God about the experience variously as " the pure Light of your face " and " You deigned to reveal Your face to me like a formless sun . " He also described the light as the grace of God , and taught that its experience was associated with a mind that was completely still and had transcended itself . At times he described the light speaking to him with kindness , and explaining who it was .
In Discourse XXVIII Symeon wrote about the light and its power to transform :
It shines on us without evening , without change , without alteration , without form . It speaks , works , lives , gives life , and changes into light those whom it illuminates . We bear witness that " God is light , " and those to whom it has been granted to see Him have all beheld Him as light . Those who have seen Him have received Him as light , because the light of His glory goes before Him , and it is impossible for Him to appear without light . Those who have not seen His light have not seen Him , for He is the light , and those who have not received the light have not yet received grace . Those who have received grace have received the light of God and have received God , even as Christ Himself , who is the Light , has said , " I will live in them and move among them . " ( 2 Cor . 6 : 16 )
= = = Guidance of a spiritual father = = =
Symeon taught that putting oneself under the guidance of a spiritual father was essential for those who were serious about living the spiritual life . That relationship was a historical tradition especially prominent among the Desert Fathers , who defined the qualifications for acting in the role of a spiritual father : personal experience ; an interior life ; purity of heart ; the vision of God ; insight ; inspiration ; discernment . Official ordination as a priest was not a requirement — Symeon 's own spiritual father was a simple unordained monk who had many spiritual children . Symeon also taught that such teachers were empowered by their holiness to preach and to absolve others of their sins , a view that brought him into disagreement with church leaders of his time .
In Hymns of Divine Love Symeon wrote that :
Listen only to the advice of your spiritual father ,
answer him with humility
and , as to God , tell him your thoughts ,
even to a simple meditation , without hiding anything ,
do nothing without his advice .
= = = Absolution of sins = = =
Symeon 's teachings on the hearing of confession and the absolution of sins brought him into regular conflict with church authorities , particularly Archbishop Stephen . According to Symeon , only one who had the grace and direct experience of God was empowered by God to preach and absolve the sins of others . Stephen held the view that only ordained priests had that authority . Symeon 's views were colored by his own spiritual father , Symeon the Studite , who was a simple monk , unordained , and yet who preached and gave absolution . In one of his Ethical Discourses Symeon went further and wrote that one should not give absolution without having first received the experience of God 's grace :
Be careful , I beg you , never to assume the debts of others when you are a debtor yourself ; do not dare give absolution without having received in your heart the One who takes away the sin of the world . " ( Eth . 6 ' )
= History of the Galveston Bay Area =
For a period of over 7000 years , humans have inhabited the Galveston Bay Area in what is now the United States . Through their history the communities in the region have been influenced by the once competing sister cities of Houston and Galveston , but still have their own distinct history . Though never truly a single , unified community , the histories of the Bay Area communities have had many common threads .
Prior to European settlement the area around Galveston Bay was settled by the Karankawa and Atakapan tribes , who lived throughout the Gulf coast region . Spanish and French explorers traveled the area for many years gradually establishing trade with the local natives . In the early 19th century the pirate Jean Lafitte created a small , short @-@ lived empire around the bay ruled from his base on Galveston Island before his being ousted by the United States Navy .
Following Mexico 's independence from Spain , the new nation established long @-@ term settlements , including Anahuac and San Jacinto , around the bay . Early rebellions by the settlers against Mexican rule occurred in the region and it was later the site of the victory of the Texas army over the Mexican army during the Texas Revolution . Following Texas ' independence from Mexico and its annexation by the United States , economic growth was centered initially on agriculture and cattle ranching . Commerce grew between Galveston , Harrisburg and Houston in the later 19th century , and created additional economic opportunities as railroads were built through the Bay Area to connect these and other commercial centers .
In the early 20th century the region gave birth to some of the state 's earliest oil fields and refineries as the Texas Oil Boom took hold . Refining and manufacturing grew rapidly in the area , particularly around Baytown , Pasadena , and Texas City . The opening of the Port of Texas City , and later Barbours Cut and Bayport , gradually established the region as an important shipping center . As wealth increased in southeast Texas , resorts and other tourist draws developed in the Bay Area . During the 1960s the area became home of the Johnson Space Center , headquarters for the nation 's manned space program , which helped diversify the regional economy and began the development of an aerospace industry , and later other high @-@ tech industries .
= = Early history = =
The present geography of the Gulf Coast was formed during an ice age approximately 30 @,@ 000 years ago when dramatic lowering of the sea level occurred . As the ice later melted , it formed a flow through the Trinity and San Jacinto rivers and carved wide valleys in the soft sediments , resulting in the creation of the modern system of bays and lakes approximately 4500 years ago .
Humans first entered the region as early as 10 @,@ 000 years ago following migrations into the Americas from Asia during the ice age . Research has indicated that the first settlements around Galveston Bay may have been constructed around 5500 BCE . The first ceramics appeared around 100 CE , and arrow points around 650 CE . When Europeans first entered the region there were still significant numbers of Native Americans living there . Along the southern coast around the Colorado River and Matagorda Bay and up toward Galveston Bay lived the Capoque tribe , a branch of the Karankawa people . The northeast was inhabited by the Akokisa , or Han , tribe as part of the Atakapan people 's homelands . The Karankawa were migratory hunter @-@ gatherers . Their diet included deer , bison , peccary , and bears , in addition to fish , oysters , nuts , and berries as they were available . They used portable huts for shelter . Dugout canoes were used to travel the many internal waterways and the coast , an advantage that initially gave them tactical superiority over the Europeans . The Akokisa in the area were similarly hunter @-@ gatherers , and utilized canoes for transport . They became well @-@ known among the Europeans for their hide @-@ tanning abilities , especially for bear hide . | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
business operations , and declined comment during John McCain 's 2008 presidential campaign when the Keating Five scandal was brought up again by the press . During his final years , Keating maintained good physical shape through swimming and walking and was able to go out in public without being recognized .
Charles Keating died in a Phoenix hospital on March 31 , 2014 , at the age of 90 , after an undisclosed illness for several weeks .
= = Legacy = =
The Chicago Tribune 's lengthy profile of Keating in 1990 said in summary :
To say that Charles Keating is a complex man seems a gross understatement . Some see him as an aggressive man who got desperate when the real estate market bottomed out and crossed the line between " business as usual " and fraud . Others see him as a con artist who finally got caught , a hyprocrite who masked his greed with phony piety .
Michael Binstein and Charles Bowden 's 1993 book , Trust Me : Charles Keating and the Missing Billions , also presents Keating as a complex individual with contradictory tendencies , and concludes :
Charlie Keating built things , and , at some level that haunts anyone who looks over his records , he thought his schemes would work . He did not simply rob a bank . He broke a bank with his dreams . If he is simply a thief , why did he put the money into deals and projects instead of into his own pocket ? If he is just a hardworking businessman simply trying to make a profit and create jobs , why the need for jets , fancy meals , big paychecks to his family ? If he is such a devout communicant of his faith , why did he peddle hundreds of millions of dollars ' worth of junk bonds to old people when he knew his empire was in serious jeopardy ?
Keating steadfastly maintained that it was not his mistakes or criminal deeds but regulators ' actions that were responsible for the major losses . A 2004 Milken Institute study also made the claim that regulators ' actions were responsible for the Lincoln failure and presents Keating 's actions in a favorable light . The Milken institute was founded by Michael Milken , the " junk bond " king also convicted on felony charges , for violating U.S. securities laws .
Some of Keating 's 1980s judgment as a developer was later vindicated . The Phoenician became a successful hotel in the luxury segment , and the Estrella project achieved at least some of Keating 's vision and was acquired again in 2005 .
= Latin American Boom =
The Latin American Boom was a flourishing of literature , poetry and criticism in Latin America during the 1960s and 1970s , when writers from this region explored new ideas and came to international renown in a way that had not happened previously . Major figures of the boom include Julio Cortázar , Gabriel García Márquez , Carlos Fuentes , Jorge Luis Borges and Mario Vargas Llosa .
= = Background = =
The 1960s and 1970s were decades of political turmoil all over Latin America , in a political and diplomatic climate strongly influenced by the dynamics of the Cold War . This climate formed the background for the work of the writers of the Latin American Boom , and defined the context in which their sometimes radical ideas had to operate . The Cuban Revolution in 1959 and the subsequent USA attempt to thwart it through the Bay of Pigs Invasion can be seen as the start of this period . Cuba 's vulnerability led it to closer ties with the USSR , resulting in the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962 when the US and USSR came dangerously close to nuclear war . Throughout the 1960s and 1970s military authoritarian regimes ruled in Argentina , Brazil , Chile , Paraguay , Peru and many others . For example , on September 11 , 1973 the democratically elected President Salvador Allende was overthrown in Chile and replaced by General Augusto Pinochet who would go on to rule until the end of the 1980s . Chile under Pinochet became " infamous for [ ... ] human rights abuses and torture techniques " , and in Argentina the 1970s brought the Dirty War , notorious for its human rights violations and the disappearances of Argentine citizens . Many of these governments ( which were supported by the US ) cooperated with each other in terms of torturing or eliminating political opponents and " disposing of their bodies " in " the so @-@ called Operation Condor . "
The period between 1950 and 1975 saw major changes in the way in which history and literature were approached in terms of interpretation and writing . It also produced a change in the self perception of Spanish American novelists . The development of the cities , the coming of age of a large middle class , the Cuban Revolution , the Alliance for Progress , an increase in communication between the countries of Latin America , the greater importance of the mass media , and a greater attention to Latin America from Europe and the United States all contributed to this change . The most important political events of the period were the Cuban Revolution in 1959 and the Chilean coup d 'état in 1973 . The fall of General Perón in Argentina , the protracted violent struggle of the urban guerrillas , brutally repressed in Argentina and Uruguay , and the unending violence in Colombia also affected writers , as they generated explanations , or testimonies , or provided a troubling background for their work .
The greater attention paid to Spanish American novelists and their international success in the 1960s , a phenomenon that was called the Boom , affected all writers and readers in that period . What mainly brought writers together and focused the attention of the world on Hispanic America was the triumph of the Cuban Revolution in 1959 , which promised a new age . The period of euphoria can be considered closed when in 1971 the Cuban government hardened its party line and the poet Heberto Padilla was forced to reject in a public document his so @-@ called decadent and deviant views . The furor over Padilla 's case brought to an end the affinity between Spanish American intellectuals and the Cuban inspirational myth . The Padilla affair is thought by some to have signalled the beginning of the end of the Boom . However , in a significant sense , the Boom has not ended ; the writers associated with the Boom have continued to publish books that have been read by audiences far larger than those enjoyed by Latin American writers prior to the Boom . The books of such writers as Carlos Fuentes and Mario Vargas Llosa are widely distributed and translated into other major European and Asian languages to a much greater extent than those of such significant pre @-@ Boom writers as José María Arguedas , Eduardo Mallea or Manuel Rojas .
= = Literary influences = =
The rise of Latin American literature began with the writings of Jose Martí , Ruben Darío and José Asunción Silva 's modernist departures from the European literary canon . European modernist writers like James Joyce have also influenced the writers of the Boom , as have the Latin American writers of the Vanguardia movement . Elizabeth Coonrod Martinez argues that the writers of the Vanguardia were the " true precursors " to the Boom , writing innovative and challenging novels before Borges and others conventionally thought to be the main Latin American inspirations for the mid @-@ 20th century movement .
In 1950 , Spanish American novelists were tolerated but marginal in the literary landscape , with Paris and New York representing the center of the literary world ; by 1975 they were celebrated as central figures . As well as being a publishing phenomenon , the Boom introduced a series of novel aesthetic and stylistic features to world literature . In general — and considering there are many countries and hundreds of important authors — at the start of the period , Realism prevails , with novels tinged by an existentialist pessimism , with well @-@ rounded characters lamenting their destinies , and a straightforward narrative line . In the 1960s , language loosens up , gets hip , pop , streetwise , characters are much more complex , and the chronology becomes intricate , making of the reader an active participant in the deciphering of the text . Late in the period the political adventure goes sour , while the linguistic sophistication reaches a new height , and novelists turn more to a reflection on their own writing , a fiction on fiction or metafiction , while characters and story lines show the corrosive power of a postmodern society , where all is equally available and insignificant .
With the success of the Boom , the work of a previous generation of writers gained access to a new and expanded public . These precursors include Jorge Luis Borges , Miguel Ángel Asturias , Arturo Uslar Pietri and Alejo Carpentier , Juan Carlos Onetti , and Juan Rulfo .
= = Origins = =
While most critics agree that the Boom started some time in the 1960s , there is some disagreement as to which work should be considered the first Boom novel . Some ( such as Alfred McAdam ) would start with Julio Cortázar 's Hopscotch ( Rayuela in Spanish ) from 1963 while others prefer Vargas Llosa 's The Time of the Hero ( La ciudad y los perros in Spanish ) which won the Biblioteca Breve Award in 1962 . Fernando Alegria considers Augusto Roa Bastos ' Hijo de hombre the inaugural work of the Boom even though , as Shaw notes , " it was published in 1959 . " One could , however , even go as far back as Miguel Ángel Asturias 's 1949 novel Men of Maize .
Another variation is articulated by Randolph D. Pope : " The story of the Boom could start chronologically with Miguel Ángel Asturias 's El Señor Presidente ( published in 1946 , but started in 1922 ) . Other starting points could be Ernesto Sabato 's " El túnel " ( 1948 ) or Onetti 's " El pozo " ( 1939 ) , or even the vanguardist movements of the 1920s . However , the writers of the Boom declared themselves orphaned and without any autochthonous model , caught between their admiration for Proust , Joyce , Mann , Sartre and other European writers and their need to have a Spanish American voice , even if they rejected the most respected Spanish American writers Indigenistas , Criollistas , and Mundonovistas . "
The major representatives of the Boom claimed that they were an " orphan " literary generation , without a " Latin American " father " of influence ; however , they owe much of their stylistic innovation to the Vanguardists . Jean Franco writes that the Boom marks " a refusal to be identified with the rural or with anachronistic narratives such as the novela de la tierra . "
= = Hallmarks = =
The Boom novels are essentially modernist novels . They treat time as nonlinear , often use more than one perspective or narrative voice and feature a great number of neologisms ( the coining of new words or phrases ) , puns and even profanities . As Pope writes , in reference to the style of the Boom : " It relied on a Cubist superposition of different points of view , it made time and lineal progress questionable , and it was technically complex . Linguistically self assured , it used the vernacular without apologies . " Other notable characteristics of the Boom include the treatment of both " rural and urban settings " , internationalism , an emphasis on both the historical and the political , as well as " questioning of regional as well as , or more than , national identity ; awareness of hemisphereic as well as worldwide economic and ideological issues ; polemicism ; and timeliness . " Boom literature breaks down the barriers between the fantastical and the mundane , transforming this mixture into a new reality . Of the Boom writers , Gabriel García Márquez is most closely associated with the use of magical realism ; indeed , he is credited with bringing it " into vogue " after the publishing of One Hundred Years of Solitude in 1967 .
= = = Magical realism = = =
In The Ends of Literature , Brett Levinson writes that magical realism , " a key aesthetic mode within recent Latin American fiction ... materializes when Latin American history reveals itself as incapable of accounting for its own origin , an incapacity which traditionally ... represents a demand for a myth : mythos as a means to explain the beginnings which escape history 's narrative . " The writings of the Chroniclers of the Indies depicted the exotic " new world " and their accounts of conquering strange new lands became accepted as history . These often fantastical stories helped to bring about a new aesthetic , which morphed into magical realism and " ( as conceived by Alejo Carpentier ) marvelous realism or lo real maravilloso . According to this aesthetic , unreal things are treated as if realistic and mundane , and mundane things as if unreal . Plots , while often based on real experiences , incorporate strange , fantastic , and legendary elements , mythical peoples , speculative settings , and characters who , while plausible , could also be unreal , and combine the true , the imaginary , and the nonexistent in such a way that they are difficult to separate . "
= = = Historical fiction = = =
An interest in history is another characteristic of the novels of the Boom period . The epitome of this is the dictator novel where historical figures and events were portrayed in a way that connections between them and contemporary events in Latin America could not be doubted . An example is Roa Bastos 's I , the Supreme , which depicts the 19th century Paraguayan dictatorship of José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia but was published at the height of Alfredo Stroessner 's regime . Nunn writes that " novelists of the Boom themselves evinced a sophisticated grasp of their genre 's ability to depict parallel and alternative history . And they actively participated in the cultural and political debates of the region that questioned the very meaning and worth of history . "
= = Major representatives = =
Who is and who is not to be included in the Boom has been widely debated and never settled . On the other hand , a few writers exerted wide and undisputed influence . While the names of many other writers may be added to the list , the following may not be omitted :
= = = Julio Cortázar = = =
Julio Cortázar was born in Belgium in 1914 to Argentinian parents with whom he lived in Switzerland until moving to Buenos Aires at the age of four . Like other Boom writers , Cortázar grew to question the politics in his country : his public opposition to Juan Domingo Perón caused him to leave his professorial position at the University of Mendoza and , ultimately , led to his exile . He moved to France , where he spent most of his professional life and , in 1981 , he became a French citizen . Like García Márquez , Cortázar publicly supported the Cuban government of Fidel Castro , as well as leftist Chilean President Salvador Allende and other left @-@ wing movements like the Sandinistas in Nicaragua . In his fiction , however , political elements were generally muted or absent until the publication of the explicitly political novel Libro de Manuel in 1973 .
Cortázar was influenced by Borges , as well as by Edgar Allan Poe . He was perhaps the most radically experimental of all the Boom authors . His most important work , and the one that propelled him to international recognition , is the highly experimental novel Hopscotch ( 1963 ) . This consists of 155 chapters , 99 of which are " expendable " , which can be read in multiple orders according to the reader 's predilection .
His other works include the short story collections Bestiario ( 1951 ) , Final del juego ( 1956 ) , Las armas secretas ( 1959 ) , Todos los fuegos el fuego ( 1966 ) . He also wrote novels such as Los premios ( 1960 ) and Around the Day in Eighty Worlds ( 1967 ) , and the unclassifiable Historias de cronopios y de famas ( 1962 ) . Cortázar died in Paris , France in 1984 .
= = = Carlos Fuentes = = =
Carlos Fuentes was born on November 11 , 1928 and began to publish in the 1950s . He was the son of a Mexican diplomat and lived in cities such as Buenos Aires , Quito , Montevideo and Rio de Janeiro , as well as Washington , D. C .. His experiences with anti @-@ Mexican discrimination in the United States led him to examine Mexican culture more closely . His 1962 novel The Death of Artemio Cruz ( La muerte de Artemio Cruz in Spanish ) , which employs innovative changes in narrative point @-@ of @-@ view , describes the life of a former Mexican revolutionary on his deathbed . Other important works include Where the Air Is Clear ( 1959 ) , Aura ( 1962 ) , Terra Nostra ( 1975 ) , and the post @-@ Boom novella The Old Gringo ( 1985 ) .
Fuentes not only wrote some of the most important novels of the period , but was also a critic and publicist of Spanish America . In 1955 Fuentes and Emmanuel Carballo founded the journal Revista Mexicana de Literatura which introduced Latin Americans to the works of European Modernists and the ideas of Jean @-@ Paul Sartre and Albert Camus . In 1969 he published the important critical work , La nueva novela hispanoamericana . Fuentes held the position of professor of Latin American literature at Columbia University ( 1978 ) and at Harvard ( 1987 ) and more recently was associated with Brown University . He once said that " the so @-@ called Boom , in reality , is the result of four centuries that , literarily , reached a moment of urgency in which fiction became the way to organize lessons from the past . " Fuentes died on May 15 , 2012 .
= = = Gabriel García Márquez = = =
Gabriel García Márquez is undoubtedly the most internationally renowned of the Boom writers . He started out as a journalist and has written many acclaimed non @-@ fiction and short stories ; his earliest published writings were short stories which appeared in Bogotá 's El Espectador newspaper in the 1940s .
He is best known for novels such as One Hundred Years of Solitude ( 1967 ) and The Autumn of the Patriarch ( 1975 ) , No One Writes to the Colonel ( 1962 ) , and post @-@ Boom work such as Love in the Time of Cholera ( 1985 ) . He has achieved significant critical acclaim and widespread commercial success , most notably for introducing what has been labeled magical realism to the literary world . He experimented with more or less traditional approaches to reality , so that " the most frightful , the most unusual things are told with the deadpan expression " . A commonly cited example is the physical and spiritual ascending into heaven of a character while she is hanging the laundry out to dry in One Hundred Years of Solitude . García Márquez is now considered one of the most significant authors of the 20th century , as is attested by his winning the 1982 Nobel Prize in Literature . García Márquez died on April 17 , 2014 .
= = = Mario Vargas Llosa = = =
Mario Vargas Llosa is a Peruvian novelist , short story writer , playwright , journalist and literary and political critic . He attended Lima 's University of San Marcos and subsequently attained a doctorate in Latin American literature in Spain . In fact , his thesis was on Gabriel García Márquez . He shot to fame with his novel The Time of the Hero ( 1963 ) , a scathing indictment of cruelty and corruption in a Peruvian military academy ( and , by implication , in Peruvian society ) .
Vargas Llosa also wrote The Green House ( 1966 ) , the epic Conversation in the Cathedral ( 1969 ) , Captain Pantoja and the Special Service ( 1973 ) , and post @-@ Boom novels such as Aunt Julia and the Scriptwriter ( 1977 ) . Vargas Llosa returned to Lima in 2000 , following the resignation of President Fujimori who won the 1990 Peruvian election , beating Vargas Llosa . The Swedish Academy awarded him the 2010 Nobel Prize in Literature . He is the most important living representative of the boom .
= = Other figures = =
Several other writers have been associated with the Boom . Juan Rulfo , the author of two books , only one of them a novel , was the acknowledged master incorporated a posteriori ; a writer who balances social concern , verbal experimentation and unique style . Augusto Roa Bastos of Paraguay wrote Hijo de hombre , considered by some to be the first novel of the Boom . His highly experimental I , the Supreme has been compared to Joyce 's Ulysses and is " one of the most highly regarded works of fictional history to ever come out of South America . " Manuel Puig , an Argentine , is a central figure , along with Vargas Llosa , of the Seix @-@ Barral publishing world . The Cuban novelist José Lezama Lima , though not widely known in the English @-@ language publishing world , can also be regarded as a major figure on the basis of his major novel , Paradiso ( 1966 ) . José Donoso is a Chilean writer of both the Boom and the post @-@ Boom . In his book , Historia Personal del " Boom " , Donoso also mentions other writers associated with the movement . Examples are Jorge Amado ( although he began writing novels back in the 1930s ) of Brazil , Salvador Garmendia and Adriano González León of Venezuela , Gastón Suárez and Marcelo Quiroga Santa Cruz of Bolivia and David Viñas of Argentina , among many others .
= = Publishing Latin American Boom novelists = =
Publishing played a crucial role in the advent of the Boom . Major publishing houses based in Havana , Mexico City , Buenos Aires , Montevideo , Asunción or Santiago were responsible for publishing most of the Boom novels , and these cities became strong centers of cultural innovation .
Santiago in Chile , is presided over by the criticism of Alone , while the older generation of Benjamín Subercaseaux , Eduardo Barrios , Marta Brunet , and Manuel Rojas were quietly superseded by José Donoso . Other writers , such as Enrique Lafourcade , have a large national readership .
Cuba is a lively cultural center , first with the group of Orígenes , and then with Lunes de Revolución .
In Colombia the rural novels of Eduardo Caballero Calderón were displaced by García Márquez who was followed by Alvarez Gardeazábal .
Mexico continues a tradition of strong regional writers and diverse schools of writing , from Yáñez to Sainz , with novelists such as Luis Spota or Sergio Fernández , the first a popular , the other a refined , writer , both better known in Mexico than abroad .
It should be noted , however , that this period saw the publishing of Boom novels in Barcelona , reflecting the new interest of Spanish publishing houses in the Spanish American market . However , as Alejandro Herrero @-@ Olaizola notes , the revenue generated by the publishing of these novels gave a boost to the Spanish economy , even as the works were subjected to Franco 's censors . Some of the Seix Barral @-@ published novels include Mario Vargas Llosa 's The Time of the Hero ( 1963 ) and his Captain Pantoja and the Special Service ( 1973 ) , and Manuel Puig 's Betrayed by Rita Hayworth ( 1971 ) . A crucial figure " in the promotion of Latin American literature in Spain " , ( and elsewhere ) was the " super @-@ agent " Carmen Balcells , whom Vargas Llosa referred to as " The Big Mama of the Latin American novel . "
= = Critique = =
A common criticism of the Boom is that it is too experimental and has a " tendency toward elitism . " In his study of the Post @-@ Boom Donald L. Shaw writes that Mario Benedetti was very critical of Boom writers like García Márquez who , in Benedetti 's view , " represent a privileged class that had access to universal culture and were thus utterly unrepresentative of average people in Latin America . " In his article on Donoso 's break from the Boom Philip Swanson articulates another critique of the " new novel " ( i.e. Boom novel ) : " Though [ it ] was essentially a reaction against a perceived staleness in conventional realism , many of the formal experiments and innovations of modern fiction have themselves become standardized features of modern writing , leading to another form of traditionalism where one set of stereotypes has been replaced with another . " Also often criticized is the Boom 's emphasis on masculinity , both in the fact that all of the movement 's representatives were male and the treatment of female characters within the novels . The Boom fiction 's emphasis on history and the fantastic has also been the subject of criticism as it was claimed that it is too removed from the realities of Latin American political situations that it criticized .
= = Impact = =
The Boom had an immediate impact as it changed the way Latin American culture was viewed around the world . The commercial success of the Boom writers had the effect of elevating them almost to rock star status in Latin America . Of course , translation played a major role in the success of the Boom writers because it gave them a much larger audience . These authors continued to produce best @-@ sellers for four decades . In addition , the Boom opened the door for new Latin American writers in terms of the international scene . A testimony to the Boom 's global impact is the fact that " up @-@ and @-@ coming international writers " look upon the likes of Fuentes , García Márquez or Vargas Llosa as their mentors .
= = = Post @-@ Boom = = =
Since the 1980s it has become common to speak of Post @-@ Boom writers , most of whom were born during the 1940s , 1950s , and 1960s , such as Roberto Bolaño , the post Boom Spanish language writer who has made the greatest impact on world literature . It is difficult to clearly situate the Post @-@ Boom as many of its writers were active before the end of the Boom . Indeed , some writers , like Jose Donoso could be said to belong to both movements . His novel The Obscene Bird of Night ( El obsceno pájaro de la noche , 1970 ) is considered , as Philip Swanson notes , " one of the classics of the Boom . " His later work , however , fits more comfortably into the post @-@ Boom . Manuel Puig and Severo Sarduy are considered writers whose works embody the transition from the Boom to the Post @-@ Boom . It is important to note that this uneasiness in categorization is perpetuated by the fact that major writers of the Boom ( Fuentes , García Márquez and Vargas Llosa ) continued writing well after the end of the Boom . The post @-@ Boom is distinct from the Boom in various respects , most notably in the presence of female authors such as Isabel Allende , Luisa Valenzuela , Giannina Braschi , Cristina Peri Rossi , and Elena Poniatowska . While Valenzuela and Poniatowska were both active writers during , and in Poniatowska 's case even before , the Boom period , Allende is considered " a product of the Boom . " Shaw also identifies Antonio Skármeta , Rosario Ferre and Gustavo Sainz as Post @-@ Boom writers . The Post @-@ Boom writers challenge the perceived elitism of the Boom by using a simpler , more readable style and going back to realism .
= Donkey Kong Country 2 : Diddy 's Kong Quest =
Donkey Kong Country 2 : Diddy 's Kong Quest is an adventure platform video game developed by Rare and published by Nintendo for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System ( SNES ) . It was first released on 20 November 1995 in North America , 21 November 1995 in Japan and on 14 December 1995 in Europe . It is the second instalment of the Donkey Kong Country series and serves as a direct sequel to Donkey Kong Country . It was also re @-@ released for the Game Boy Advance in 2004 . The game was made available for download on the Wii 's Virtual Console in 2007 , and for the Wii U 's Virtual Console in 2015 . On 15 April 2016 it was also re @-@ released on the eShop for the New Nintendo 3DS . It was followed by a sequel , Donkey Kong Country 3 : Dixie Kong 's Double Trouble ! in 1996 .
The story revolves around Diddy Kong and his girlfriend , Dixie Kong , who try to rescue Donkey Kong after he is abducted by King K. Rool . The game is set on " Crocodile Isle " , in which there are eight worlds of varying environments , totalling to 47 levels . The game utilises the same Silicon Graphics technology from the original , which features the use of pre @-@ rendered 3D imagery . Diddy 's Kong Quest received critical acclaim . Praise was directed at its graphics , gameplay and varying colour palette . It is considered by many to be the best game in the series , as well as one of the most graphically and musically ambitious games on the SNES . It was the second best selling game of 1995 and the sixth best @-@ selling game on the SNES .
= = Gameplay = =
The game is a 2D side @-@ scrolling platformer in which the player controls either Diddy Kong or his girlfriend Dixie Kong through 47 varying levels over eight different worlds . The main objective of the game is to rescue Donkey Kong from King K. Rool . The game features a wide amount of enemies , which include land @-@ based reptilian Kremlings , rats , bees and vultures . Enemies in underwater sections include pufferfish , eels and sharks . Each world culminates with a boss fight , which is required to be defeated in order to progress through that world . Similar to its predecessor , the player @-@ characters may neutralise most hostiles by jumping on their heads , cartwheeling through them , or throwing a barrel at them . When hit by an enemy , the active character leaves the screen , thus control will immediately switch to the other character . The player can reclaim their partner from marked DK barrels throughout the game . If both characters die , the player will lose a life and will restart from the last checkpoint , which come in the form as a star @-@ painted barrel . If the player loses all of their lives , the game will end .
Both Diddy and Dixie have unique attributes ; Diddy is more agile and will run faster , whereas Dixie has a higher jump and can spin her hair in order to float . The player can also pick up the other character and throw them in any direction , in similar vain to barrels . The game also features " Animal Friends " , which returns from its predecessor . Playable animals include Squitter the spider , Glimmer the anglerfish , Rambi the rhino , Rattly the rattlesnake , Clapper the seal , Enguarde the swordfish and Squawks the parrot . These animals have unique abilities which the player can utilise , such as Rambi 's ability to charge at enemies , Squawks ' ability of flight , and Rattly 's ability to jump extreme heights .
The game features environmental effects throughout some levels , which includes fog , rain and thunder storms . Some levels feature different mechanics and settings , such as underwater sections , riding a mine cart , grappling onto vines , and " honey " levels which feature sticky surfaces . As with its predecessor , the game features barrels which will propel the player in any direction they are facing . Aside from checkpoint barrels , some give the player temporary invincibility or an " Animal Buddy " . Bonus barrels hidden throughout the game transport the player to a bonus game , which features a challenge such as eliminating all enemies in order to earn a " Kremcoin " . In addition , there are some barrels that can only be activated by a specific character . Players may earn extra lives by collecting balloons , earning 100 bananas or collecting four letters which spell " KONG " .
The game is Dixie Kong 's first appearance in the Donkey Kong franchise . Other characters include Cranky Kong , situated in " Monkey Museum " , who is back due to " popular demand " to divulge secrets of the game world , provide comic relief , as well as offering advice . Wrinkly Kong , the wife of Cranky Kong and grandmother of Donkey Kong , makes her first appearance in this game . She runs an educational facility called " Kong Kollege " , where she gives guidance to the player . Swanky Kong runs a gameshow quiz where the player may complete quizzes and earn extra lives . Funky Kong offers an aeroplane that can connect the player to the next world . Additionally , the player can meet a large Kremling called " Klubba " , at " Klubba 's Kiosk " , who demands a number of Kremkoins from the characters if they want to pass onto the " Lost World " and complete a secret level .
= = Plot = =
Diddy , standing on the deck of a pirate ship , finds a note stating that Donkey Kong has been kidnapped by King K. Rool , who had demanded the entire Banana Hoard that he stole in the previous game for a ransom from the Kongs . Diddy , aided by Dixie , subsequently attempts to rescue Donkey Kong from K. Rool . Together , the two travel through Crocodile Isle and are helped on their way by an assortment of animals to defeat K. Rool and rescue Donkey Kong . Diddy and Dixie eventually battle and defeat K. Rool , though he escapes after releasing Donkey Kong . Shortly after , Diddy and Dixie discover a secret area known as the " Lost World " . After going through the Lost World , they once again defeat K. Rool in " Krocodile Kore " , in a hidden geyser at the heart of Crocodile Island . Upon being defeated , K. Rool is hurled into the geyser , causing it to clog up and explode . The explosion causes all of Crocodile Island to sink , as the Kongs watch K. Rool escape on a small sailboat .
= = Development = =
Similar to its predecessor , the game utilises the same Silicon Graphics ( SGI ) and Advanced Computer Modelling ( ACM ) rendering technology . Pre @-@ rendered animations are modelled as 3D objects and then transformed into 2D sprites and background layers . Rare founder Tim Stamper served as director of the game , whereas his colleague Brendan Gunn , who had worked on the original , returned to design the game . Development of Diddy 's Kong Quest began shortly after the release of its predecessor . Rare took significant financial risks in purchasing the expensive SGI equipment used to render the graphics . David Wise , Rare 's composer from 1985 to 1994 , admitted that the workstations Rare purchased were worth £ 80 @,@ 000 each . A new compression technique they developed allowed them to incorporate more detail and animation for each sprite for a given memory footprint than previously achieved on the SNES , which better captured the pre @-@ rendered graphics .
Diddy 's Kong Quest 's soundtrack was composed entirely by Wise . In addition , the game 's soundtrack was the focus of an OverClocked ReMix collaboration titled Serious Monkey Business . The final track , " Donkey Kong Rescued " , was remixed by David Wise himself , featuring Grant Kirkhope on electric guitar and Robin Beanland on trumpet . Wise cited Koji Kondo 's music for the Mario and Zelda games , Geoff and Tim Follin 's music for Plok , and synthesizer @-@ based film soundtracks released in the 1980s as influences in creator the music for Donkey Kong Country series . As with its predecessor , the music was produced for the SNES 's SPC700 chip for the game to sound similar to the Korg Wavestation synthesizer .
= = Reception = =
The game received critical acclaim . The SNES version holds an aggregate score of 90 % at GameRankings , whereas the Virtual Console re @-@ release and the Game Boy Advance version both hold a score of 80 % at GameRankings and Metacritic , respectively . Diddy 's Kong Quest sold a combined 4 @.@ 37 million copies in the United States and Japan on the SNES ; the total number of copies sold in Japan at 2 @.@ 21 million , and 2 @.@ 16 million in the United States . It was also the second best @-@ selling game of 1995 , after Yoshi 's Island , and the sixth best @-@ selling game on the SNES .
The graphics and gameplay were the most praised aspects of the game . Aaron Kosydar of AllGame thought that Diddy 's Kong Quest 's graphics were superior than that of its predecessor , stating that the game " looks as cool as it plays " . Reviewing the SNES version , Frank Provo of GameSpot heralded the graphics as " more detailed " although admitting that it appeared stylistically similar to the first game . In a separate review regarding the Game Boy Advance version , Provo praised the graphics as richer and " livelier " than those of the original . In a retrospective review , Mark Birnbuam of IGN stated that whilst the original " boasted some of the most beautiful graphics " on the SNES at the time , Diddy 's Kong Quest offered a superior experience due to its detail , smooth animation and varying colour palette .
Jeff Pearson of Nintendojo stated that Rare improved the graphics for Diddy 's Kong Quest , and that the character animations appeared " much smoother and more cartoon like " in contrast to the computer generated feel in of the original . Pearson also heralded the background designs as reaching " newer heights " of quality . A reviewer of Cubed3 heralded the visuals as " unbelievable " for a 16 @-@ bit game . A reviewer of Jeux Video stated that the game " pushed the boundaries " of the console and that every detail was " devilishly handsome " , and also praised the handling of the gameplay as being " pushed to a climax " .
Dan Whitehead of Eurogamer stated that the graphics of the game were similar its predecessor , although he praised them both as " impressively " . However , Whitehead criticised the gameplay was " mediocre " and not " terribly imaginative " . Whitehead also expressed concern over the lack of ambition from the sequel , stating that the gameplay uses the defence of " if it ain 't broke , don 't fix it " .
= = = Sequels and re @-@ releases = = =
A direct sequel , Donkey Kong Country 3 : Dixie Kong 's Double Trouble ! , was released for the SNES in 1996 to positive reviews . In the game , Dixie Kong and Kiddy Kong must find both Donkey and Diddy Kong , who have been once again abducted by K. Rool . It was further followed by a succession of more related Donkey Kong video games , such as Donkey Kong 64 in 1999 and Donkey Kong Country Returns in 2010 . Diddy 's Kong Quest was later released for the Game Boy Advance on 15 November 2004 and on the Wii 's Virtual Console on 21 May 2007 . It was made available for the Wii U 's Virtual Console in 2015 .
= Thomas Metcalfe ( Kentucky ) =
Thomas Metcalfe ( March 20 , 1780 – August 18 , 1855 ) , also known as Thomas Metcalf or as " Stonehammer " , was a U.S. Representative , Senator , and the tenth Governor of Kentucky . He was the first gubernatorial candidate in the state 's history to be chosen by a nominating convention rather than a caucus . He was also the first governor of Kentucky who was not a member of the Democratic @-@ Republican Party .
At age 16 , Metcalfe was apprenticed to his older brother and became a stonemason . He helped construct the Green County courthouse , known as the oldest courthouse in Kentucky . Later , political opponents would mock his trade , giving him the nickname " Old Stone Hammer . " His political career began with four terms in the Kentucky House of Representatives . His service was interrupted by the War of 1812 , in which he commanded a company in the defense of Fort Meigs . At the age of thirty @-@ eight , he was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives . He held his seat in the House for five terms , then resigned to run for governor . In an election decided by 709 votes , Metcalfe defeated William T. Barry in the gubernatorial election of 1828 . Metcalfe 's predecessor , Joseph Desha was so stunned by his party 's loss that he threatened not to vacate the governor 's mansion . Ultimately , however , he respected the will of the people , and allowed an orderly transition .
Metcalfe 's primary concern as governor was the issue of internal improvements . Among his proposed projects were a road connecting Shelbyville to Louisville and a canal on the Falls of the Ohio . When President Andrew Jackson vetoed funds to construct a turnpike connecting Maysville and Lexington , Metcalfe built it anyway , paying for it entirely with state funds . Following his term as governor , he served in the state senate , and completed the unfinished term of John J. Crittenden in the U.S. Senate in 1848 . After this , he retired to " Forest Retreat " , his estate in Nicholas County , where he died of cholera in 1855 . Metcalfe County , Kentucky was named in his honor .
= = Early life = =
Thomas Metcalfe was born on March 20 , 1780 to John Metcalfe and his third wife , Sarah " Sally " Dent ( Chinn ) Metcalfe in Fauquier County , Virginia . His father served as a captain in the Revolutionary War . In 1784 , the Metcalfe family settled near Russell 's Cave in Fayette County , Kentucky . Some years later , they would move to a farm in Nicholas County .
Metcalfe received only a rudimentary education , and at age sixteen , he was apprenticed to his brother and learned the craft of stonemasonry . Three years later , their father died , leaving the brothers to provide for their mother and younger siblings . Metcalfe became one of the most prominent stonemasons and building contractors during the settlement period of Kentucky . A number of his stone houses survive and are listed on the National Register of Historic Places , including his first home in Robertson County . Other structures built by the Metcalfe brothers are the state 's first governor 's mansion and the Green County courthouse , known as the oldest courthouse in Kentucky , and the Presbyterian church at West Union in far southern Ohio .
On October 2 , 1801 , Metcalfe enlisted as a lieutenant in the 29th Regiment of the Kentucky Militia . He was promoted to captain on October 12 , 1802 . About 1806 , Metcalfe married Nancy Mason of Fairfax , Virginia . The couple had four children . Between 1817 and 1820 , Metcalfe built a house for his family in Nicholas County . The estate was dubbed " Forest Retreat " by statesman Henry Clay who , on his first visit to the newly constructed house , told Metcalfe , " Tom , you have here a veritable Forest Retreat . "
= = Political career = =
Metcalfe 's political career began in 1812 when he was elected to represent Nicholas County in the Kentucky House of Representatives . His service was interrupted by the War of 1812 . In 1813 , he raised a company of volunteers and commanded them at the Battle of Fort Meigs . While he was away at war , the voters of his district re @-@ elected him to the Kentucky House ; only thirteen votes were cast against him . He continued to serve in the Kentucky House until 1816 .
= = = In the House of Representatives = = =
At the age of thirty @-@ eight , Metcalfe was elected to the Sixteenth Congress , defeating Joshua Desha . During his tenure in the House , which lasted five terms , he was the chairman of the Committee on Indian Affairs and the Committee on Militia . He opposed the Second Bank of the United States , but favored extension of credit to purchasers of public land . In 1821 , he proposed granting preemption rights to squatters . He also opposed restrictions on slavery in Missouri and the Louisiana Purchase .
In James Monroe 's annual address to the legislature in December 1822 , he called on Congress to report on how to best deal with the Seminoles that inhabited the recently acquired territory of Florida . As chair of the Committee on Indian Affairs , Metcalfe delivered the report on February 21 , 1823 . His committee found that , under the terms of the Adams @-@ Onis Treaty that transferred control of Florida to the United States from Spain , the Seminoles were to be accorded the same privileges as U.S. citizens . Accordingly , the committee recommended that each Seminole family be given a land grant . They hoped that this would help break the tribal loyalties of the Seminoles and expedite their amalgamation into white society . The committee 's report was largely ignored .
In 1826 , Metcalfe served on a House committee that investigated allegations that Vice @-@ President John C. Calhoun had improperly benefited from a contract he awarded while serving as Secretary of War in 1822 . While Calhoun was cleared of any wrongdoing , his friend , South Carolina Representative George McDuffie , began an exchange of correspondence with Metcalfe regarding the proceedings . The correspondence became heated , and McDuffie challenged Metcalfe to a duel . As the recipient of the challenge , Metcalfe had the right to choose the terms of the engagement . He chose rifles as the weapon at a distance of 90 feet . McDuffie insisted that wounds from a previous duel had left him incapable of handling a rifle , and proposed pistols as an alternative . Metcalfe replied that he had never handled a pistol in his life . Unable to come to an agreement on the conditions of the duel , both sides eventually dropped the matter entirely .
= = = Governor of Kentucky = = =
Metcalfe resigned his seat in the House on June 1 , 1828 in order to run for the governorship of Kentucky . He was chosen as the candidate of the National Republican Party at their nominating convention and was the first gubernatorial candidate in the state to be chosen using this method . He defeated William T. Barry by a margin of 709 votes , but his running mate , Joseph R. Underwood , was badly defeated by the Democratic @-@ Republican nominee , John Breathitt . Metcalfe 's election in 1828 marked the first time the governorship had been won by a candidate who was not a Democratic @-@ Republican . However , only one Democratic @-@ Republican would hold the office between Metcalfe 's term and the election of Lazarus W. Powell in 1851 .
Joseph Desha , the outgoing governor , refused to believe that his party had lost the election . He disliked Metcalfe not only due to his party affiliation , but also because of his occupation as a stonemason , which he believed was too low a calling for a governor . Metcalfe 's opponents made slights on the quality of his stone work and his views on the Old Court @-@ New Court controversy . When told about these charges , Metcalfe remarked " They may say what they like about my views , but the first man that dares to attack my character , I will cleave his skull with my stone hammer , as I would cleave a rock . " As word of this remark spread , Metcalfe was given the nickname " Old Stone Hammer . " Despite his threats to remain in the governor 's mansion until the legislature convened , Desha respected the will of the people , and left the residence on September 2 , 1828 .
Metcalfe opposed the spoils system and the doctrine of nullification . He favored protective tariffs and federal aid for internal improvements . He oversaw the establishment of a road connecting Shelbyville to Louisville . When President Andrew Jackson vetoed federal aid for a turnpike connecting Maysville and Lexington , Metcalfe continued constructing it with state funds . ( The road is now a portion of U.S. Route 68 . ) Metcalfe 's term also saw the commissioning of the state 's first railroad and the beginning of plans for a canal at the Falls of the Ohio . At the governor 's recommendation , the state legislature approved additional aid for education , and the creation of district schools .
= = Later life and death = =
Following his term as governor , Metcalfe represented Nicholas and Bracken Counties in the Kentucky Senate from 1834 to 1838 . In 1836 , he served as a Whig presidential elector , and he presided over the Kentucky Whig Convention in Harrodsburg on August 26 , 1839 . From 1840 to 1849 , he served as president of the state board of internal improvements . Finally , he was appointed and subsequently elected as a Whig to the United States Senate to fill the vacancy caused by the resignation of John J. Crittenden . He served from June 23 , 1848 , to March 3 , 1849 . During his short tenure , he denounced secession , and asserted that Kentucky would remain part of the Union .
After his term in the Senate Metcalfe engaged in agricultural pursuits near Carlisle , Kentucky . He died of cholera in his home on August 18 , 1855 . He was interred in the family burial ground at Forest Retreat . Metcalfe County , Kentucky was formed in 1860 and named in his honor . " Forest Retreat " was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on October 2 , 1973 .
= Leonardo DiCaprio =
Leonardo Wilhelm DiCaprio ( / dᵻˈkæpri.oʊ / ; born November 11 , 1974 ) is an American actor and a film producer .
In the early 1990s , DiCaprio began his career by appearing in television commercials , after which he had recurring roles in various television series such as the soap opera , Santa Barbara , and the sitcom , Growing Pains . In 1993 , he began his film career by starring as Josh in Critters 3 ( 1991 ) . He starred in the film adaptation of the memoir , This Boy 's Life ( 1993 ) , and was praised for his supporting role in What 's Eating Gilbert Grape ( 1993 ) . He gained public recognition with leading roles in The Basketball Diaries ( 1995 ) , and the romantic drama Romeo + Juliet ( 1996 ) , before achieving international fame with James Cameron 's epic romance , Titanic ( 1997 ) , which became the highest @-@ grossing film to that point .
Since 2000 , DiCaprio has received critical acclaim for his work in a wide range of film genres . DiCaprio 's subsequent films include , The Man in the Iron Mask ( 1998 ) , the biographical crime drama Catch Me If You Can ( 2002 ) , and the epic historical drama Gangs of New York ( 2002 ) , which marked his first of many collaborations with director , Martin Scorsese . He was acclaimed for his performances in the political war thriller Blood Diamond ( 2006 ) , the neo @-@ noir crime drama The Departed ( 2006 ) , the espionage thriller Body of Lies ( 2008 ) , the drama Revolutionary Road ( 2008 ) , the psychological thriller Shutter Island ( 2010 ) , the science fiction thriller Inception ( 2010 ) , the biographical film J. Edgar ( 2011 ) , the western Django Unchained ( 2012 ) , and the period drama The Great Gatsby ( 2013 ) .
DiCaprio 's portrayals of Howard Hughes in The Aviator ( 2004 ) and Hugh Glass in The Revenant ( 2015 ) won him the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Drama , and his role as Jordan Belfort in The Wolf of Wall Street ( 2013 ) won him the award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy . He won his first BAFTA award for Best Actor for The Revenant . He has been nominated for six Academy Awards — five for acting and one for producing — and in 2016 , he won the Academy Award for Best Actor for The Revenant .
DiCaprio is the founder of his own production company , Appian Way Productions .
= = Early life = =
DiCaprio was born in Hollywood , California , the only child of Irmelin ( née Indenbirken ) , a German @-@ born legal secretary , and George DiCaprio , an underground comics artist and producer and distributor of comic books . DiCaprio 's father is of half Italian ( from the Naples area ) and half German ( from Bavaria ) descent . DiCaprio 's maternal grandfather , Wilhelm Indenbirken , was German . His maternal grandmother , Helene Indenbirken ( 1915 – 2008 ) , a German citizen , was born as Yelena Smirnova in Russia . In an interview in Russia , DiCaprio referred to himself as " half Russian " and said that two of his late grandparents were Russians .
DiCaprio 's parents met while attending college and subsequently moved to Los Angeles . He was named Leonardo because his pregnant mother was looking at a Leonardo da Vinci painting in a museum in Italy when DiCaprio first kicked . His parents separated when he was a year old , and he lived mostly with his mother . The two lived in several Los Angeles neighborhoods , such as Echo Park , and at 1874 Hillhurst Avenue in the Los Feliz district ( which was later converted into a local public library ) , while his mother worked several jobs to support them . He attended Seeds Elementary School ( now UCLA Lab School ) and John Marshall High School a few blocks away , after attending the Los Angeles Center for Enriched Studies for four years . However , he dropped out of high school following his third year , eventually earning his general equivalency diploma ( GED ) . DiCaprio spent part of his childhood in Germany with his maternal grandparents , Wilhelm and Helene . He speaks a little German and Italian .
= = Career = =
= = = Early career = = =
DiCaprio 's career began with his appearance in several commercials and educational films . After being removed from the set of children 's television series Romper Room for being disruptive at the age of five , he followed his older stepbrother Adam Farrar into television commercials , landing an ad for Matchbox cars at 14 . In 1990 , he got his break on television when he was cast in the short @-@ lived series based on the movie Parenthood . After Parenthood , DiCaprio had bit parts on several shows , including The New Lassie and Roseanne , as well as a brief stint on the soap opera Santa Barbara , playing the young Mason Capwell . His involvement in Parenthood and the daily soap earned him a nomination for the Young Artist Award for Best Young Actor each .
= = = 1991 – 95 : Breaking into film = = =
DiCaprio 's debut film role was in the comedic sci @-@ fi horror film Critters 3 , in which he played the stepson of an evil landlord , a role that DiCaprio described as " your average , no @-@ depth , standard kid with blond hair . " Released in 1991 , the movie went direct @-@ to @-@ video . Soon after , he became a recurring cast member on the ABC sitcom Growing Pains , playing Luke Brower , a homeless boy who is taken in by the Seaver family . DiCaprio made his big screen breakthrough in 1992 , when he was handpicked by Robert De Niro out of 400 young actors to play the lead role in This Boy 's Life .
Later in 1993 , DiCaprio co @-@ starred as the mentally handicapped brother of Johnny Depp 's character in What 's Eating Gilbert Grape , a comic @-@ tragic odyssey of a dysfunctional Iowa family . Director Lasse Hallström admitted he was initially looking for a less good @-@ looking actor but finally settled on DiCaprio as he had emerged as " the most observant actor " among all auditionees . Budgeted at US $ 11 million , the film became a critical success , resulting in various accolades for DiCaprio , who was awarded the National Board of Review Award and nominated for both an Academy Award and a Golden Globe for his portrayal . New York Times critic Janet Maslin praised DiCaprio 's performance , writing " the film 's real show @-@ stopping turn comes from Mr. DiCaprio , who makes Arnie 's many tics so startling and vivid that at first he is difficult to watch . The performance has a sharp , desperate intensity from beginning to end . "
DiCaprio 's first effort of 1995 was Sam Raimi 's The Quick and the Dead , a western film . Sony Pictures was dubious over DiCaprio 's casting , and as a result , co @-@ star Sharon Stone decided to pay the actor 's salary herself . The film was released to a dismal box office performance , barely grossing US $ 18 @.@ 5 million in the US , and received mixed reviews from critics . DiCaprio next starred in Total Eclipse , a fictionalized account of the homosexual relationship between Arthur Rimbaud and Paul Verlaine . He replaced River Phoenix , who died during pre @-@ production on the project . A minor art @-@ house success , the film grossed US $ 0 @.@ 34 million throughout its domestic theatrical run .
DiCaprio appeared in the mostly improvised short film called Don 's Plum , as a favor to aspiring director R. D. Robb . When Robb decided to expand the black @-@ and @-@ white film to feature length , however , DiCaprio and costar Tobey Maguire had its release blocked by court order , arguing that they never intended to make it a theatrical release , as it would have commercial value thanks to their stardom . The film eventually premiered at the 2001 Berlin International Film Festival , where it was well received by critics . DiCaprio 's last film of the year 1995 was The Basketball Diaries , a biopic about Jim Carroll .
= = = 1996 – 2001 : Mainstream success = = =
In 1996 , DiCaprio appeared opposite Claire Danes in Baz Luhrmann 's film Romeo + Juliet , an abridged modernization of William Shakespeare 's romantic tragedy of the same name , which retained the original Shakespearean dialogue . The project achieved a worldwide box office take of $ 147 million .
Later that year , he starred in Jerry Zaks ' family drama Marvin 's Room , reuniting with Robert De Niro . Based on Scott McPherson 's screenplay adaptation of his own 1991 stage play of the same name , the film revolves around two sisters , played by Meryl Streep and Diane Keaton , who are reunited through tragedy after 17 years of estrangement . DiCaprio portrayed Hank , Streep 's character 's troubled son , who has been committed to a mental asylum for setting fire to his mother 's house .
In 1997 , DiCaprio starred in James Cameron 's Titanic ( 1997 ) as twenty @-@ year @-@ old Jack Dawson , a penniless Wisconsin man who wins two tickets for the third @-@ class on the ill @-@ fated RMS Titanic . DiCaprio initially refused to portray the character but was eventually encouraged to pursue the role by Cameron , who strongly believed in his acting ability . Against expectations , the film went on to become the highest @-@ grossing film to date ( it was surpassed in 2010 by Cameron 's film Avatar ) , grossing more than $ 1 @.@ 843 billion in box @-@ office receipts worldwide , and transformed DiCaprio into a commercial movie superstar , resulting in fan worship among teenage girls and young women in general that became known as " Leo @-@ Mania " . In May 1998 , for example , his face appeared on the covers of at least four teen magazines , and three books about DiCaprio were among the top six paperbacks on The New York Times Best Seller List . More than 200 fans contacted the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences to protest his not being nominated for the 70th Academy Awards . He was nominated for other high @-@ profile awards , including a second Golden Globe nomination . Upon the success of Titanic , DiCaprio stated in 2000 : " I have no connection with me during that whole Titanic phenomenon and what my face became around the world [ ... ] I 'll never reach that state of popularity again , and I don 't expect to . It 's not something I 'm going to try to achieve either . "
The following year , DiCaprio made a self @-@ mocking cameo appearance in Woody Allen 's caustic satire of the fame industry , Celebrity ( 1998 ) . That year , he also starred in the dual roles of the villainous King Louis XIV and his secret , sympathetic twin brother Philippe in Randall Wallace 's The Man in the Iron Mask , based on the same @-@ titled 1939 film . Despite receiving a rather mixed to negative response , the film became a box office success , grossing US $ 180 million internationally . Though DiCaprio 's performance was generally well @-@ received , with Entertainment Weekly critic Owen Gleiberman writing that " the shockingly androgynous DiCaprio looks barely old enough to be playing anyone with hormones , but he 's a fluid and instinctive actor , with the face of a mischievous angel , " he was awarded a Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Screen Couple for both incarnations the following year .
DiCaprio 's next project was the drama film The Beach ( 2000 ) , an adaption of Alex Garland 's 1996 novel of the same name . He played an American backpacking tourist looking for the perfect way of life in a secret island commune in the Gulf of Thailand . Budgeted at $ US50 million , the film became a financial success , grossing $ US144 million worldwide , but as with DiCaprio 's previous project , the film was largely panned by critics . Todd McCarthy of Variety noted that " Richard [ DiCaprio 's role ] is too much the American Everyman and not enough of a well @-@ defined individual to entirely capture one 's interest and imagination , and DiCaprio , while perfectly watchable , does not endow him with the quirks or distinguishing marks to make this man from nowhere a dimensional character . " The next year , he was nominated for another Razzie Award for his work on the film .
= = = 2002 – 07 = = =
DiCaprio 's first film of 2002 was the biographical crime drama film Catch Me If You Can , based on the life of Frank Abagnale Jr . , who , before his 19th birthday , used his charm , confidence , and several different personas , to make millions in the 1960s writing bad checks . Directed by Steven Spielberg , the film was shot in 147 different locations in only 52 days , making it " the most adventurous , super @-@ charged movie @-@ making " DiCaprio had experienced yet . Catch Me If You Can received favorable reviews and proved to be an international success , becoming DiCaprio 's highest @-@ grossing film since Titanic with a total of US $ 351 @.@ 1 million worldwide . Roger Ebert praised his performance , and noted that while " DiCaprio , who in recent films [ ... ] has played dark and troubled characters , is breezy and charming here , playing a boy who discovers what he is good at , and does it . " The following year , DiCaprio received his third Golden Globe nomination for his work in the film .
Also in 2002 , DiCaprio appeared in Martin Scorsese 's Gangs of New York , a historical film set in the mid @-@ 19th century in the Five Points district of New York City . Director Scorsese initially struggled selling his idea of realizing the film until DiCaprio became interested in playing protagonist Amsterdam Vallon , a young leader of the Irish faction , and thus , Miramax Films got involved with financing the project . Nonetheless production on the film was plagued by blown @-@ out budgets and producer @-@ director squabbles , resulting in a marathon eight @-@ month shoot and , at US $ 103 million , the most expensive film Scorsese had ever made . Upon its release , Gangs of New York became a financial and critical success . DiCaprio 's acting was well @-@ received but was overshadowed by Daniel Day @-@ Lewis ' performance among most critics .
Forging a collaboration with Scorsese , the two paired again for a biopic of the eccentric and obsessive American film director and aviation pioneer Howard Hughes in The Aviator ( 2004 ) . Centering on Hughes ' life from the late 1920s to 1947 , DiCaprio initially developed the project with Michael Mann , who decided against directing it after back @-@ to @-@ back film biographies in Ali and The Insider . The actor eventually pitched John Logan 's script to Scorsese , who quickly signed on to direct . The Aviator became a critical and financial success . DiCaprio received rave reviews for his performance and won a Golden Globe Award for Best Actor , also receiving another Academy Award nomination .
In 2005 , DiCaprio was made a commander of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres by the French Minister of Culture for his contributions to the arts . The following year , the actor starred in both Blood Diamond and The Departed . In Edward Zwick 's war film Blood Diamond , he starred as a diamond smuggler from Rhodesia who is involved in the Sierra Leone Civil War . The film itself received generally favorable reviews , and DiCaprio was praised for the authenticity of his South African Afrikaner accent , known as a difficult accent to imitate . In Scorsese 's The Departed he played the role of Billy Costigan , a state trooper working undercover in an Irish Mob in Boston . Highly anticipated , the film was released to overwhelmingly positive reviews and became one of the highest @-@ rated wide release films of 2006 . Budgeted at US $ 90 million , it also emerged as DiCaprio and Scorsese 's highest @-@ grossing collaboration to date , easily beating The Aviator ´ s previous record of US $ 213 @.@ 7 million . DiCaprio 's performance in The Departed was applauded by critics and earned him a Satellite Award for Best Supporting Actor . The same year , both the Golden Globes and the Screen Actors Guild nominated DiCaprio twice in the Best Actor category for both of his 2006 features , and in addition , DiCaprio earned his third Academy Award nomination for Blood Diamond .
= = = 2008 – 12 = = =
In 2008 , DiCaprio starred in Body of Lies , a spy film based on the novel of the same name by David Ignatius , set in context of the Middle East and the War on Terror , telling the story of three men battling a terrorist organization , and each other . Directed by Ridley Scott , DiCaprio dyed his hair brown and wore brown contacts for the role , which he chose to pursue because he considered it a throwback to political films of the 1970s such as The Parallax View ( 1974 ) and Three Days of the Condor ( 1975 ) . The film received mixed reviews from critics , and at a budget of US $ 67 @.@ 5 million , became a moderate box office success , grossing US $ 115 million worldwide .
The same year , DiCaprio reunited with Kate Winslet to film the drama Revolutionary Road ( 2008 ) , directed by Winslet 's then @-@ husband Sam Mendes . As both actors had been reluctant to make romantic films similar to Titanic , it was Winslet who suggested that both should work with her on a film adaptation of the 1961 novel of the same name by Richard Yates after reading the script by Justin Haythe , knowing that plot had little in common with the 1997 blockbuster . Once DiCaprio agreed to do the film , it went almost immediately into production . He noted that he saw his character as " unheroic " and " slightly cowardly " and that he was " willing to be just a product of his environment . " Portraying a couple in a failing marriage in the 1950s , DiCaprio and Winslet watched period videos promoting life in the suburbs to prepare themselves for Revolutionary Road , which eventually earned them favorable reviews . For his portrayal DiCaprio garnered his seventh Golden Globes nomination .
DiCaprio continued his collaborative streak with Scorsese in the 2010 psychological thriller film Shutter Island ( 2010 ) , based on the 2003 novel of the same name by Dennis Lehane . He played U.S. Marshal Edward " Teddy " Daniels , who is investigating a psychiatric facility located on an island and comes to question his own sanity . The film grossed $ 294 million .
Also in 2010 , DiCaprio starred in director Christopher Nolan 's science @-@ fiction film Inception . Inspired by the experience of lucid dreaming and dream incubation , DiCaprio portrays the character of Dom Cobb , an " extractor " who enters the dreams of others to obtain information that is otherwise inaccessible . Cobb is promised a chance to regain his old life in exchange for planting an idea in a corporate target 's mind . DiCaprio was " intrigued by this concept — this dream @-@ heist notion and how this character 's gonna unlock his dreamworld and ultimately affect his real life . " Released to critical acclaim , the film grossed over $ 825 million worldwide . To star in this film , DiCaprio agreed to a pay cut from his $ 20 million fee , in favor of splitting first @-@ dollar gross points , which means he receives money coming directly off the top of ticket sales . This risk paid off , with DiCaprio earning $ 50 million from the film to become his highest payday yet . In July 2010 , it was announced that DiCaprio had pulled out of a Viking movie to be directed by Mel Gibson amid controversy over Gibson 's rage @-@ fueled rant tapes and domestic violence probe .
In 2011 , DiCaprio starred alongside Armie Hammer and Naomi Watts in Clint Eastwood 's J. Edgar , a biopic about J. Edgar Hoover . Written by Dustin Lance Black , the film focuses on the career of the FBI director from the Palmer Raids onwards , including an examination of his private life as an alleged closeted homosexual . Reviews towards the film were mostly mixed , with many critics commending DiCaprio 's performance but feeling that , overall , the film lacked coherence . Roger Ebert praised DiCaprio 's performance as a " fully @-@ realized , subtle and persuasive performance , hinting at more than Hoover ever revealed , perhaps even to himself . "
In 2012 , DiCaprio starred as villainous Calvin Candie in Quentin Tarantino 's spaghetti western , Django Unchained . While filming Django Unchained , DiCaprio accidentally cut his hand on glass , but continued filming despite the injury , and Tarantino elected to use the take in the final movie . The film received positive reviews from critics and earned DiCaprio his ninth nomination from the Golden Globes . Django Unchained grossed $ 424 million worldwide .
= = = 2013 – present = = =
DiCaprio 's next film was The Great Gatsby , again with Baz Luhrmann ( who directed him in Romeo + Juliet in 1996 ) , an adaptation of F. Scott Fitzgerald 's 1925 novel , also starring Carey Mulligan and Tobey Maguire ; the film was released on May 10 , 2013 . It received mixed reviews from critics , however DiCaprio 's portrayal as Jay Gatsby was praised . Critic Rafer Guzman of Newsday praised DiCaprio by stating , " As for Leonardo DiCaprio , he is now the Gatsby to beat . Despite a borderline comedic entrance -- haloed by fireworks and accompanied by Gershwin 's " Rhapsody in Blue " — DiCaprio nails this maddeningly enigmatic character . He 's as tough as Alan Ladd in ' 49 , as suave as Redford in ' 74 , but also vulnerable , touching , funny , a faker , a human . You hear it all in Gatsby 's favorite phrase , " old sport , " a verbal tic that stumped other actors . It 's a tremendous , hard @-@ won performance . " Matt Zoller Seitz of Roger Ebert.com described his performance as Gatsby as " The movie 's greatest and simplest special effect , " and states " This is an iconic performance — maybe his career best . " The film grossed $ 348 million worldwide and became Luhrmann 's highest @-@ grossing film .
DiCaprio reunited with Scorsese for the fifth time in The Wolf of Wall Street , a film based on the life of stockbroker Jordan Belfort , who was arrested in the late 1990s for securities fraud and money laundering . Filming began on August 8 , 2012 , in New York , and the film was released on December 25 , 2013 . The role earned him a Golden Globe Award for Best Actor in a Musical or Comedy and his fourth Academy Award nomination for acting . In January 2013 , DiCaprio said he was going to take a long break from acting and would " fly around the world doing good for the environment . "
In 2015 , DiCaprio played fur trapper Hugh Glass in the survival drama The Revenant , directed by Alejandro González Iñárritu . The film was well received by critics and DiCaprio 's performance garnered universal acclaim that earned him numerous awards , including his first win at the Academy Awards in the Best Actor category , his eleventh nomination and third win at Golden Globes in the Best Actor Drama category , and his first BAFTA award for Best Actor . On August 10 , 2015 , it was announced that Martin Scorsese will direct an adaptation of Erik Larson 's The Devil in the White City , which will star DiCaprio with a screenplay to be written by Billy Ray .
In October 2015 , Appian Way acquired the movie rights for a book about the Volkswagen emissions scandal .
= = Personal life = =
DiCaprio 's romantic relationships have been widely covered in the media . Among those he has dated were actress Bijou Phillips in the late 90s , model Kristen Zang , and British model and socialite Emma Miller . In 2000 , he met Brazilian model Gisele Bündchen who he dated until 2005 . He was romantically involved with Israeli model Bar Refaeli from 2005 through 2011 , during which time he met with Israeli president Shimon Peres and visited Refaeli 's hometown of Hod HaSharon .
DiCaprio dated actress Blake Lively in 2011 , then model Erin Heatherton for most of 2012 . In 2013 he dated German model Toni Garrn until late 2014 . He dated model Kelly Rohrbach in 2015 .
DiCaprio owns a home in Los Angeles , California and an apartment in Battery Park City , New York . In 2009 , he bought an island off mainland Belize , on which he is planning to create an eco @-@ friendly resort . In 2014 , he purchased the original Dinah Shore residence designed by mid @-@ century modern architect Donald Wexler in Palm Springs , California .
In 2005 , DiCaprio 's face was severely injured when model Aretha Wilson hit him over the head with a broken bottle at a Hollywood party . After pleading guilty in 2010 , Wilson was sentenced to prison for two years .
During the 2004 presidential election , DiCaprio campaigned and donated to John Kerry 's presidential bid . The FEC showed that DiCaprio gave $ 2 @,@ 300 to Barack Obama 's presidential campaign in the 2008 election , the maximum contribution an individual could give in that election cycle , and $ 5 @,@ 000 to Obama 's 2012 campaign .
= = = Environmental activism = = =
Following the success of Titanic in 1997 along with earlier films , 24 @-@ year @-@ old DiCaprio established the Leonardo DiCaprio Foundation in 1998 , a non @-@ profit organization devoted to promoting environmental awareness . Although concerned with all areas of the environment , it focuses on global warming , preserving Earth 's biodiversity and supporting renewable energy . It has worked on projects in over 40 countries and has produced two short web documentaries , Water Planet and Global Warning .
Because of his active involvement in those causes , he has received praise from environmental groups . Among the accolades received were the Martin Litton Environment Award , in 2001 , from Environment Now , and the Environmental Leadership Award in 2003 from Global Green USA .
DiCaprio chaired the national Earth Day celebration in 2000 , where he interviewed President Clinton and they discussed plans to deal with global warming and the environment . In 2007 he had a major role in The 11th Hour , a documentary about people 's relationship to nature and global warming . He co @-@ produced , co @-@ wrote and narrated the film . From a benefit " 11th Hour " fine art auction he organized in 2013 , he raised nearly $ 40 million to toward his foundation . He told attendees , " Bid as if the fate of the planet depended on us . " It became the world 's highest @-@ grossing environmental charity event ever held . DiCaprio states that global warming is the world 's " number @-@ one environmental challenge " . In July 2016 his foundation awarded $ 15 @.@ 6 million to help protect wildlife and the rights of native Americans , along with combating climate change .
He has been an active supporter of numerous environmental organizations and has sat on the board of the World Wildlife Fund , Global Green USA , International Fund for Animal Welfare and the Natural Resources Defense Council . He traveled to Indonesia in early 2016 where he criticized the government 's palm oil industry 's slash @-@ and @-@ burn forest clearing methods .
He drives environment @-@ friendly vehicles , including an electric Tesla Roadster , a Fisker Karma plug @-@ in hybrid , and a Toyota Prius . His home is powered by solar panels . At the 2007 Oscar ceremony , DiCaprio and former Vice President Al Gore appeared to announce that the Academy Awards had incorporated environmentally intelligent practices in its production . He presented at the 2007 American leg of Live Earth , and in 2010 his environmental work earned DiCaprio a nomination for the VH1 Do Something Award , honoring people who do good . In 2014 he was appointed as a United Nations representative on climate change , and later that year he made an opening statement to members of the UN Climate Summit . He again spoke at the UN in April 2016 prior to the signing of Paris Climate Change Agreement .
In 2015 , DiCaprio executive produced a new Netflix @-@ exclusive cut of Cowspiracy . The film explored the impact of animal agriculture on the environment and the positions of several environmental organizations on the issue .
At the 2016 Oscar ceremony , DiCaprio won the award for Best Actor . He used his acceptance speech to express his appreciation and worry for the environment when he said :
Climate change is real , it is happening right now . It is the most urgent threat facing our entire species , and we need to work collectively together and stop procrastinating . We need to support leaders around the world who do not speak for the big polluters , but who speak for all of humanity , for the indigenous people of the world , for the billions and billions of underprivileged people out there who would be most affected by this . For our children ’ s children , and for those people out there whose voices have been drowned out by the politics of greed .
DiCaprio 's use of private jets and superyachts has attracted criticism by some sections of the media . In 2016 , during a vacation in Cannes , France , he made a one @-@ day visit to New York City by private jet to collect an environmental award . Robert Rapier , an environmental analyst , said DiCaprio 's lifestyle “ diminishes his moral authority to lecture others on reducing their own carbon emissions . He demonstrates exactly why our consumption of fossil fuels continues to grow . “ It ’ s because everyone loves the combination of cost and convenience they offer . Alternatives usually require sacrifice of one form or another . ”
= = = Philanthropy = = =
In 1998 , DiCaprio and his mother donated $ 35 @,@ 000 for a " Leonardo DiCaprio Computer Center " at the Los Feliz branch of the Los Angeles Public Library , the site of his childhood home . It was rebuilt after the 1994 Northridge earthquake and opened in early 1999 . During the filming of Blood Diamond , DiCaprio worked with 24 orphaned children from the SOS Children 's Village in Maputo , Mozambique , and was said to be extremely touched by his interactions with the children . In 2010 , he donated $ 1 million to relief efforts in Haiti after the earthquake .
In November 2010 , DiCaprio donated $ 1 million to the Wildlife Conservation Society at Russia 's tiger summit . DiCaprio 's persistence in reaching the event after encountering two plane delays caused then Prime Minister Vladimir Putin to describe him as a " muzhik " or " real man " . In 2011 , DiCaprio joined the Animal Legal Defense Fund 's campaign to free Tony , a tiger who has spent the last decade at the Tiger Truck Stop in Grosse Tete , Louisiana . In April 2013 , DiCaprio donated $ 61 @,@ 000 to GLAAD , an organization which promotes the image of LGBT people in the media .
In early 2016 , at a meeting with Pope Francis , he gave a charity donation and spoke about environmental issues . A few days later , possibly influenced by his meeting with DiCaprio , the Pope said he would act in a planned faith @-@ based charity film , Beyond the Sun . It would be his first acting experience , and would also be the first time in history that a Pope appeared in a feature film . Profits from the film would be given to charities in Argentina .
= = Filmography and awards = =
Leonardo DiCaprio filmography
List of awards and nominations received by Leonardo DiCaprio
= Duncan Robinson ( basketball ) =
Duncan McBryde Robinson ( born April 22 , 1994 ) is an American college basketball player for the Michigan Wolverines who has completed his redshirt sophomore season for the 2015 – 16 team . He transferred to Michigan after leading the NCAA Division III Williams Ephs to the 2014 NCAA Men 's Division III Basketball Tournament championship game . He was the 2014 Division III Rookie of the Year and a Division III All @-@ American .
He had played high school basketball for The Governor 's Academy before a postgraduate season at the Phillips Exeter Academy where he led the team to a New England Preparatory School Athletic Council ( NEPSAC ) Class A championship in 2013 . He earned the 2013 NEPSAC Class A tournament MVP . He was a NEPSAC All @-@ League First Team selection in both 2012 ( Class B ) and 2013 ( Class A ) .
Robinson made a splash at Michigan , leading the Big Ten Conference in three point shooting percentage from the beginning of conference play in December until early February . In both of Michigan 's wins in the 2016 Big Ten Conference Men 's Basketball Tournament , Robinson made three point shots to tie the score with less than a minute remaining .
= = Early life = =
Born April 22 , 1994 in York , Maine , Robinson is the son of the Elisabeth and Jeffrey Robinson and the youngest of their three children ( after sister Marta and brother Eli ) . Jeffrey , who is 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 83 m ) , had played one season for the Maine Black Bears men 's basketball team . Robinson grew up on the remote New Hampshire island of New Castle where his Maude H. Trefethen Elementary School 6th grade graduating class was composed of four students and he had to leave the island to continue his education . He attended Rye Junior High School and elected to attend The Governor 's Academy rather than Portsmouth High School , which was the public high school for students in New Castle . Without Robinson , Portsmouth still reached four consecutive New Hampshire Interscholastic Athletic Association final fours and won the 2012 state championship .
Robinson began his freshman season as a 5 @-@ foot @-@ 7 @-@ inch ( 1 @.@ 70 m ) point guard for The Governor 's Academy in 2008 , but did not play much until he became " serviceable " as a junior . In his early years , he shot for hours , attempting to make 1600 shots per week . Robinson started working with trainer Noah LaRoche during his junior season . After Christmas of his junior year , he began to see a future in basketball although he was still coming off the bench . After averaging 18 @.@ 5 points as a senior at The Governor 's Academy , he was selected to the 2012 All @-@ NEPSAC Class B first team and the 2012 All @-@ Independent School League ( ISL ) team . He graduated with a 3 @.@ 55 G.P.A. Following his senior season , he still had visions of an NCAA Division I scholarship offer and opted for the spring and summer Amateur Athletic Union ( AAU ) circuit and a postgraduate year . Robinson played for Michael Crotty Jr . ' s Middlesex Magic AAU team , who helped win the Basketbull National HOF Championship . Crotty had been a two @-@ time All @-@ American at Williams College , having served as point guard for the 2003 NCAA Division III Tournament champions ( and 2004 Tournament runners up ) . Following his senior season , Robinson measured 6 feet 6 inches ( 1 @.@ 98 m ) and 175 pounds ( 79 @.@ 4 kg ) . By the end of the summer , he had become 6 feet 8 inches ( 2 @.@ 03 m ) and 195 pounds ( 88 @.@ 5 kg ) .
During the last weekend of September 2012 while on a campus visit , Division III Williams made Robinson an offer that he accepted immediately . At the time , Williams was ranked the number one liberal arts college in the country according to U.S. News & World Report , and the school was a Division III basketball powerhouse . They had gone 93 – 22 over the prior four seasons under head coach Mike Maker . In 2013 , Robinson led Phillips Exeter Academy to its first NEPSAC Class A championship victory on March 10 against Choate Rosemary Hall with a 24 @-@ point , 10 @-@ rebound MVP performance . Exeter finished the season at 28 – 1 . Nonetheless , his only scholarship offer was from NCAA Division II Merrimack College . He also had interest from Division I Brown Bears men 's basketball and Columbia Lions men 's basketball as well as Division III Bates and Amherst .
= = College career = =
= = = Williams College = = =
Prior to the November 15 , 2013 season opener against Southern Vermont College , Williams was the number one ranked Division III basketball program in the nation according to the preseason The Sporting News poll , but Williams lost in the shadow of a home court scheduling conflict despite 5 – 6 shooting by Robinson . Robinson became the only freshman starter in Maker 's six @-@ year tenure as head coach at Williams . In his 2013 – 14 freshman season at Williams , Robinson was twice named New England Small College Athletic Conference ( NESCAC ) Player of the Week during the regular season . Williams reached the 2014 NCAA Men 's Division III Basketball Tournament championship game , but fell 75 – 73 to University of Wisconsin – Whitewater as Robinson scored 17 points . After Williams took a one @-@ point lead with 4 @.@ 9 seconds left , Wisconsin pushed the ball upcourt without calling time @-@ out to score the winning basket in what Chris Strauss of USA Today described as the best NCAA basketball tournament game of the weekend . Robinson had posted 30 points in the tournament semifinal against bitter rival Amherst College who had defeated Williams in the season 's three previous meetings . Williams finished the season with a 28 – 5 record . That season , he led Williams in minutes played ( a school record 1 @,@ 110 ) , points scored ( 548 ) , three @-@ point shots made ( 81 – 179 ) , three + -point % ( 45 @.@ 3 ) , free throw percentage ( 87 @.@ 8 % ) , blocks ( 36 ) and steals ( 36 ) . He averaged 17 @.@ 1 points , 6 @.@ 5 rebounds and 34 @.@ 7 minutes per game . Following the season , he was the NESCAC Rookie of the Year and a Second Team All @-@ NESCAC selection . Robinson became Williams ' first freshman to be named All @-@ American ( 4th team , D3Hoops.com ) , first D3Hoops.com National Rookie of the Year , first freshman NCAA All @-@ Tournament Team selection and first freshman 500 @-@ point scorer . His season was described as " one of the best freshman seasons in Division III men 's basketball history " by Jeremy Leveille of WGAM in a story for NHNotebook.com.
Following the 2013 – 14 season , Maker left Williams to become the head coach for Marist Red Foxes men 's basketball . Robinson was immediately contacted by schools from the ACC , Big 12 , Big Ten , Pac @-@ 12 , Atlantic 10 , Ivy League , Patriot League and American East conferences . Among the schools that were interested were Creighton , Boston College and Providence . After his freshman success , he had decided that he would only leave Williams to play for a winning program that was an elite academic institution and that used a system and style that he had become use to . Robinson had played against Nik Stauskas in NEPSAC play and was impressed with how Michigan 's John Beilein had developed " under @-@ recruited players " such as Stauskas who was a 1st round selection in the 2014 NBA Draft . Maker had been an assistant coach for Beilein at West Virginia from 2005 – 07 . At both Exeter and Williams , Robinson had played in systems that were similar to the one that Beilein runs at Michigan . Robinson asked Maker to contact Beilein who on faith replied that Michigan may have interest at the preferred walk @-@ on level . Robinson was not interested in walk @-@ on consideration given competing scholarship offers . A week later , after seeing video , Beilein said Michigan was considering a scholarship offer . Robinson scheduled visits to Michigan and new Atlantic 10 member Davidson . After the visit to Michigan , Robinson committed to the school . He announced his decision via Twitter on August 6 , 2014 .
= = = University of Michigan = = =
Robinson is the first player to transfer from Division III to Division I with a full scholarship according to some sources . During the 2014 – 15 NCAA Division I men 's basketball season , Robinson redshirted for the 2014 – 15 Michigan Wolverines men 's basketball team , meaning that he could not participate in games , but could practice with the team . In December 2014 with assistant coach Jeff Meyer as his rebounder , Robinson broke Stauskas ' Michigan Wolverines men 's basketball practice record for three @-@ pointers in a drill ( five minutes , one ball , one rebounder ) by posting 78 , surpassing Stauskas by 3 .
In Robinson 's second game for the 2015 – 16 Michigan Wolverines men 's basketball team , he posted 19 points on 6 – 6 shooting ( 5 – 5 3 @-@ point shots ) from the floor against Elon . On December 12 , Michigan defeated Delaware State 80 – 33 , as Robinson made his first career start for Michigan by posting 11 points on 3 – 5 three @-@ point shooting . At the time Robinson ranked third in the nation in three @-@ point shooting percentage . Note that various sources have various eligibility thresholds . E.g. , while BigTen.org only requires a minimum of 1 @.@ 0 made per game , NCAA.org requires a minimum of 2 @.@ 5 made per game . On December 23 , Robinson tied his career high ( set twice at Williams ) with six assists against Bryant . The game marked the ninth consecutive game in which he made at least 3 3 @-@ point shots . Robinson entered conference play as the Big Ten leader in three @-@ point field goal percentage and led the Big Ten Conference in both three @-@ point field goals ( 52 ) and three @-@ point field goal percentage ( .565 ) through the first week of the Big Ten Conference schedule . On January 12 , with leading scorer Caris LeVert sidelined , Michigan defeated ( # 3 / # 3 ) Maryland 70 – 67 as Robinson contributed 17 points on 5 – 9 three @-@ point shooting . On January 23 , Michigan defeated Nebraska 81 – 68 , behind a game @-@ high and season @-@ high 21 points by Robinson . With the Cornhusker defense challenging his three @-@ point shot , he scored more points inside the three @-@ point line than outside it for the first time as a Wolverine . The January 27 game against Rutgers marked the 17th consecutive game in which Robinson made at least two three @-@ point shots . Robinson made only one three @-@ point shot in each the subsequent two games against Penn State and ( # 22 / 21 ) Indiana . Nonetheless , Robinson entered the February 6 Michigan – Michigan State men 's basketball rivalry game against the # 10 @-@ ranked 2015 – 16 Spartans as the Big Ten Conference leader in three @-@ point shots made and three @-@ point field goal percentage , but he was held to 0 – 3 three @-@ point shooting in the game . The game marked the first time since the season opener , that Robinson did not make a single three point shot , ending a 22 @-@ game streak . On February 10 , Michigan defeated Minnesota as Robinson posted a game- and season @-@ high nine rebounds to go along with 14 points on 4 @-@ for @-@ 7 three @-@ point shooting .
On March 10 , in Michigan 's first game of the 2016 Big Ten Conference Men 's Basketball Tournament against Northwestern , Robinson scored 21 points including a three @-@ point shot that tied the score with 46 @.@ 5 seconds remaining in overtime . The following day , in the quarterfinals against No. 1 @-@ seeded ( # 10 / # 10 ) Indiana , Robinson again put Michigan in position to win by tieing the score with a three @-@ point shot with 46 seconds remaining ( this time in regulation ) . The following day , in the semifinals against ( # 13 / # 13 ) Purdue , Robinson recorded his 90th three @-@ pointer of the season , becoming just the fifth Wolverine in history to reach the milestone . On March 16 , in the First Four round of the 2016 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament , Michigan defeated Tulsa , 67 – 62 , with support from Robinson who recorded his first double @-@ double as a Wolverine with 13 points and a season @-@ high 11 rebounds . Robinson finished the season second to Bryn Forbes ( 48 @.@ 1 % ) among Big Ten players in three @-@ point field goal percentage with a 45 @.@ 0 % mark .
Following the season , several other wing players left the team . Caris LeVert graduated . Aubrey Dawkins transferred to play for the UCF Knights , Kameron Chatman announced his intention to transfer .
= Frederick III , German Emperor =
Frederick III ( German : Friedrich III . , Deutscher Kaiser und König von Preußen ; 18 October 1831 – 15 June 1888 ) was German Emperor and King of Prussia for ninety @-@ nine days in 1888 , the Year of the Three Emperors . Friedrich Wilhelm Nikolaus Karl , known informally as " Fritz " , was the only son of Emperor Wilhelm I and was raised in his family 's tradition of military service . Although celebrated as a young man for his leadership and successes during the Second Schleswig , Austro @-@ Prussian and Franco @-@ Prussian wars , he nevertheless professed a hatred of warfare and was praised by friends and enemies alike for his humane conduct . Following the unification of Germany in 1871 his father , then King of Prussia , became the German Emperor . Upon Wilhelm 's death at the age of ninety on 9 March 1888 , the throne passed to Frederick , who had by then been Crown Prince for seventeen years . Frederick was suffering from cancer of the larynx when he died on 15 June 1888 , aged fifty @-@ six , following unsuccessful medical treatments for his condition .
Frederick married Princess Victoria , eldest daughter of Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom . The couple were well @-@ matched ; their shared liberal ideology led them to seek greater representation for commoners in the government . Frederick , in spite of his conservative militaristic family background , had developed liberal tendencies as a result of his ties with Britain and his studies at the University of Bonn . As the Crown Prince , he often opposed the conservative Chancellor Otto von Bismarck , particularly in speaking out against Bismarck 's policy of uniting Germany through force , and in urging that the power of the Chancellorship be curbed . Liberals in both Germany and Britain hoped that as emperor , Frederick III would move to liberalize the German Empire .
Frederick and Victoria were great admirers of the Prince Consort of the United Kingdom , Victoria 's father . They planned to rule as consorts , like Albert and Queen Victoria , and to reform what they saw as flaws in the executive branch that Bismarck had created for himself . The office of Chancellor , responsible to the Emperor , would be replaced with a British @-@ style cabinet , with ministers responsible to the Reichstag . Government policy would be based on the consensus of the cabinet . Frederick " described the Imperial Constitution as ingeniously contrived chaos . "
The Crown Prince and Princess shared the outlook of the Progressive Party , and Bismarck was haunted by the fear that should the old Emperor die — and he was now in his seventies — they would call on one of the Progressive leaders to become Chancellor . He sought to guard against such a turn by keeping the Crown Prince from a position of any influence and by using foul means as well as fair to make him unpopular .
However , his illness prevented him from effectively establishing policies and measures to achieve this , and such moves as he was able to make were later abandoned by his son and successor , Wilhelm II .
The timing of Frederick 's death and the length of his reign are important topics among historians . The premature demise of Frederick III is considered a potential turning point in German history ; and whether or not he would have made the Empire more liberal if he had lived longer is still discussed .
= = Personal life = =
= = = Early life and education = = =
Frederick William was born in the New Palace at Potsdam in Prussia on 18 October 1831 . He was a scion of the House of Hohenzollern , rulers of Prussia , then the most powerful of the German states . Frederick 's father , Prince William , was a younger brother of King Frederick William IV and , having been raised in the military traditions of the Hohenzollerns , developed into a strict disciplinarian . William fell in love with his cousin Elisa Radziwill , a Princess of the Polish nobility , but his parents felt Elisa 's rank was not suitable for the bride of a Prussian Prince and forced a more suitable match . The woman selected to be his wife , Princess Augusta of Saxe @-@ Weimar , had been raised in the more intellectual and artistic atmosphere of Weimar , which gave its citizens greater participation in politics and limited the powers of its rulers through a constitution ; Augusta was well @-@ known across Europe for her liberal views . Because of their differences , the couple did not have a happy marriage and , as a result , Frederick grew up in a troubled household , which left him with memories of a lonely childhood . He had one sister , Louise ( later Grand Duchess of Baden ) , who was eight years his junior and very close to him . Frederick also had a very good relationship with his uncle , King Frederick William IV , who has been called " the romantic on the throne " .
Frederick grew up during a tumultuous political period as the concept of liberalism in Germany , which evolved during the 1840s , was gaining widespread and enthusiastic support . The liberals sought a unified Germany and were constitutional monarchists who desired a constitution to ensure equal protection under the law , the protection of property , and the safeguarding of basic civil rights . Overall , the liberals desired a government ruled by popular representation . When Frederick was 17 , these emergent nationalistic and liberal sentiments sparked a series of political uprisings across the German states and elsewhere in Europe . In Germany , their goal was to protect freedoms , such as the freedom of assembly and freedom of the press , and to create a German parliament and constitution . Although the uprisings ultimately brought about no lasting changes , liberal sentiments remained an influential force in German politics throughout Frederick 's life .
Despite the value placed by the Hohenzollern family on a traditional military education , Augusta insisted that her son also receive a classical education . Accordingly , Frederick was thoroughly tutored in both military traditions and the liberal arts . His private tutor was Ernst Curtius , a famous archaeologist . Frederick was a talented student , particularly good at foreign languages , becoming fluent in English and French , and studying Latin . He also studied history , geography , physics , music and religion , and excelled at gymnastics ; as required of a Prussian Prince , he became a very good rider . Hohenzollern princes were made familiar with the military traditions of their dynasty at an early age ; Frederick was ten when he was commissioned as a second lieutenant into the First Infantry Regiment of Guards and invested with the Order of the Black Eagle . As he grew older , he was expected to maintain an active involvement in military affairs . But , at the age of 18 , he broke with family tradition and entered the University of Bonn where he studied history , law and governance and public policy . During his time at Bonn ( 1850 @-@ 1852 ) , his teachers included Ernst Moritz Arndt and Friedrich Christoph Dahlmann . His time spent at the university , coupled with the influence of less conservative family members , were instrumental in his embrace of liberal beliefs .
= = = Marriage and family = = =
Royal marriages of the 19th century were arranged to secure alliances and to maintain blood ties among the European nations . As early as 1851 , Queen Victoria of Great Britain and her German @-@ born Prince @-@ Consort Prince Albert were making plans to marry their eldest daughter , Victoria , Princess Royal , to Frederick . The royal dynasty in Britain was predominantly German ; there was little British blood in Queen Victoria , and none in her husband . The monarchs desired to maintain their family 's blood ties to Germany , and Prince Albert further hoped that the marriage would lead to the liberalization and modernization of Prussia . King Leopold I of Belgium , uncle of the British monarch and consort , also favoured this pairing ; he had long treasured Baron Stockmar 's idea of a marriage alliance between Britain and Prussia . Frederick 's father , Prince William , had no interest in the arrangement , hoping instead for a Russian Grand Duchess as his daughter @-@ in @-@ law . However , Princess Augusta was greatly in favour of a match for her son that would bring closer connections with Britain . In 1851 , his mother sent Frederick to England , ostensibly to visit the Great Exhibition but in truth she hoped that the cradle of liberalism and home of the industrial revolution would have a positive influence on her son . Prince Albert took Frederick under his wing during his stay but it was Albert 's daughter , only eleven at the time , who guided the German prince around the Exhibition . A regular exchange of letters between Victoria and Frederick followed .
Frederick proposed to Victoria in 1855 , when she was 14 years old . The betrothal of the young couple was announced on May 19 , 1857 at Buckingham Palace and the Prussian Court , and their marriage took place on 25 January 1858 in the Chapel Royal of St. James 's Palace , London . To mark the occasion , Frederick was promoted to Major @-@ General in the Prussian army . Although it was an arranged marriage , the newlyweds were compatible from the start and their marriage was a loving one ; Victoria too had received a liberal education and shared her husband 's views . Of the two , Victoria was the dominant one in the relationship . The couple often resided at the Crown Prince 's Palace and had eight children : Wilhelm in 1859 , Charlotte in 1860 , Henry in 1862 , Sigismund in 1864 , Victoria in 1866 , Waldemar in 1868 , Sophia in 1870 and Margaret in 1872 . Sigismund died at the age of 2 and Waldemar at age 11 , and their eldest son , Wilhelm , suffered from a withered arm — probably due to his difficult and dangerous breech birth , although it could have also resulted from a mild case of cerebral palsy . Wilhelm , who became emperor after Frederick 's death , shared none of his parent 's liberal ideas ; his mother viewed him as a " complete Prussian " . This difference in ideology created a rift between Wilhelm and his parents , and relations between them were strained throughout their lives .
= = Political life = =
= = = Crown Prince = = =
When his father succeeded to the Prussian throne as King William I on 2 January 1861 , Frederick became the Crown Prince . Already twenty @-@ nine years old , he would be Crown Prince for a further twenty @-@ seven years . The new king was initially considered politically neutral ; Frederick and Prussia 's liberal elements hoped that he would usher in a new era of liberal policies . The liberals managed to greatly increase their majority in the Prussian Diet ( Landtag ) , but William soon showed that he preferred the conservative ways . On the other hand , Frederick declared himself in complete agreement with the " essential liberal policy for internal and foreign affairs " .
Because William was a dogmatic soldier and unlikely to change his ideas at the age of sixty @-@ four , he regularly clashed with the Diet over policies . In September 1862 , one such disagreement almost led to Frederick being crowned and replacing his father as king ; William threatened to abdicate when the Diet refused to fund his plans for the army 's reorganization . Frederick was appalled by this action , and said that an abdication would " constitute a threat to the dynasty , country and Crown " . William reconsidered , and instead on the advice of Minister of War Albrecht von Roon appointed Otto von Bismarck , who had offered to push through the military reform even against the majority of the Diet , as Minister @-@ President . The appointment of Bismarck , an authoritarian who would often ignore or overrule the Diet , set Frederick on a collision course with his father and led to his exclusion from affairs of state for the rest of William 's reign . Frederick insisted on bloodless " moral conquests " , unifying Germany by liberal and peaceful means , but it was Bismarck 's policy of blood and iron that prevailed . His protests against William 's rule peaked at Danzig on 4 June 1863 , where at an official reception in the city he loudly denounced Bismarck 's restrictions on freedom of the press . He thereby made Bismarck his enemy and his father extremely angry . Consequently , Frederick was excluded from positions of political power throughout his father 's reign . Retaining his military portfolio , he continued to represent Germany and its Emperor at ceremonies , weddings , and celebrations , such as Queen Victoria 's Golden Jubilee in 1887 .
Frederick was severely reproached by his father for his liberal ideas , so he spent a large portion of time in Britain where Queen Victoria frequently allowed him to represent her at ceremonies and social functions .
Frederick fought in the wars against Denmark , Austria and France . Although he had opposed military action in each case , once war had started he supported the Prussian military wholeheartedly and took positions of command . Since he had no political influence at all , these were opportunities to prove himself . Frederick experienced his first combat in the Second Schleswig War . Appointed to supervise the supreme German Confederation commander Field Marshal Wrangel and his staff , the Crown Prince tactfully managed disputes between Wrangel and the other officers . The Prussians and their Austrian allies defeated the Danes and conquered the southern part of Jutland , but after the war they spent two years politicking to assume leadership of the German states . This culminated in the Austro @-@ Prussian War . Frederick " was the only member of the Prussian Crown Council to uphold the rights of the Duke of Augustenberg and oppose the idea of a war with Austria which he described as fratricide . " Although he supported unification and the restoration of the medieval empire , " Fritz could not accept that war was the right way to unite Germany . " . However , when war with Austria broke out , he accepted command of one of Prussia 's three armies , with General Leonhard Graf von Blumenthal as his chief of staff . The timely arrival of his II Army was crucial to the Prussian victory in 1866 at the decisive Battle of Königgrätz , which won the war for Prussia . After the battle , William presented Frederick with the Order Pour le Mérite for his personal gallantry on the field and leadership of the II Army . Nevertheless , the bloodshed caused him great dismay . A few days before Königgrätz , Frederick had written to his wife , expressing his hope that this would be the last war he would have to fight . On the third day of the battle he wrote to her again : " Who knows whether we may not have to wage a third war in order to keep what we have now won ? "
Four years later Frederick was in action again , this time during the Franco @-@ Prussian War of 1870 , in which he was once more paired with Blumenthal and commanded the III Army , consisting of troops from the southern German states . He was praised for his leadership after defeating the French at the battles of Wissembourg and Wörth , and met with further successes at the Battle of Sedan and during the Siege of Paris . Frederick 's humane treatment of his country 's foes earned him their respect and the plaudits of neutral observers . After the Battle of Wörth , a London journalist witnessed the Crown Prince 's many visits to wounded Prussian soldiers and lauded his deeds , extolling the love and respect the soldiers held for Frederick . Following his victory , Frederick had remarked to two Paris journalists , " I do not like war gentlemen . If I should reign I would never make it . " One French journalist remarked that " the Crown Prince has left countless traits of kindness and humanity in the land that he fought against . " For his behaviour and accomplishments , The Times wrote a tribute to Frederick in July 1871 , stating that " the Prince has won as much honour for his gentleness as for his prowess in the war " .
= = = German Empire and brief reign = = =
In 1871 , following Prussia 's victories , the German states were united into the German Empire , with William as the Emperor and Frederick as heir @-@ apparent to the new German monarchy . Although William thought the day when he became Emperor the saddest of his life , Frederick was excited to be witness to a great day in German history . Bismarck , now Chancellor , disliked Frederick and distrusted the liberal attitudes of the Crown Prince and Princess . Often at odds with his father 's and Bismarck 's policies and actions , Frederick sided with the country 's liberals in their opposition to the expansion of the empire 's army . The Crown Prince also became involved in many public works projects , such as the establishment of schools and churches in the area of Bornstedt near Potsdam . To assist his father 's effort to turn Berlin , the capital city , into a great cultural centre , he was appointed Protector of Public Museums ; it was largely due to Frederick that considerable artistic collections were acquired , housed in Berlin 's new Kaiser Friedrich Museum ( later known as the Bode Museum ) after his death . In 1878 , when his father was incapacitated by injury from an assassination attempt , Frederick briefly took over his tasks but was soon relegated to the sidelines once again . His lack of influence affected him deeply , even causing him to think about suicide .
During an effort led , between 1879 and 1881 , by the völkisch historian Heinrich von Treitschke and the court chaplain , Adolf Stoecker to dis @-@ emancipate German Jews , the Crown Prince and Crown Princess were in opposition , Victoria writing that she saw " Treitschke and his supporters as lunatics of the most dangerous sort " , and opining that Pastor Stoecker properly belonged in an insane asylum . She went on to write that she felt ashamed of her adopted country because people like Treitschke and Stoecker " behave so hatefully towards people of a different faith and another race who become an integral part ( and by no means the worst ) of our nation ! " . Clad in the uniform of a Prussian field marshal Frederick , together with Victoria , attended a synagogue service in Berlin in 1880 to show support for tolerance in contrast to what Victoria called Treitscke 's " disgraceful attacks " . Shortly afterward , Frederick gave a speech denouncing the anti @-@ Semitic movement in Germany as " a shameful blot on our time " , adding that " We are ashamed of the Judenhetze which has broken all bounds of decency in Berlin , but which seems to flourish under the protection of the Court clerics . " In 1881 , Frederick and Victoria again attended a synagogue service , this time in Wiesbaden " to demonstrate as clearly as we can what our convictions are " . Frederick followed this up by giving a speech in which he spoke out for " poor , ill @-@ treated Jews " of Europe . Frederick 's mother @-@ in @-@ law , Queen Victoria , wrote to thank him for his speech , saying she was proud that her daughter had married someone like him , but within Junker circles , Frederick was widely criticised for his actions in support of the Jews . Prominent among the Crown Prince 's critics was his eldest son , Prince Wilhelm , who called his father a weak , cowardly man controlled by his British mother and the Jews . Beyond Wilhelm , many of the " reactionary and ' chauvinistic ' circles in Germany " had , in the words of the British historian John C. G. Röhl come to the " ... conviction that the Crown Prince and his liberal English wife were an alien , un @-@ German force that must not be allowed to accede to the throne " .
Germany 's progressive elements hoped that William 's death , and thus Frederick 's succession , would usher the country into a new era governed along liberal lines . The conservative William , however , lived a long life , dying at the age of 90 on 9 March 1888 . Logically , Frederick should have taken as his regnal name either Frederick I ( if the Bismarckian empire was considered a new entity ) or Frederick IV ( if it was considered a continuation of the old Holy Roman Empire , which had had three emperors named Frederick ) ; he himself preferred the latter . However , on the advice of Bismarck that this would create legal problems , he opted to simply keep the same regnal name he had as king of Prussia . By the time he ascended the throne , Frederick was 56 years old and suffering from a debilitating cancer of the larynx . He viewed his illness with dismay , crying " To think I should have such a horrid disgusting illness ... I had so hoped to have been of use to my country . " He received conflicting medical advice regarding treatment . In Germany , Doctor Ernst von Bergmann proposed to remove the larynx completely , but his colleague , Doctor Rudolf Virchow , disagreed ; such an operation had never been performed without the death of the patient . The British doctor Sir Morell Mackenzie , who had diagnosed the cancer , advised a tracheotomy , to which Frederick and his wife agreed . On 8 February , a month before his father died , a cannula was fitted to allow Frederick to breathe ; for the remainder of his life he was unable to speak and often communicated through writing . During the operation , Dr. Bergmann almost killed him by missing the incision in the trachea and forcing the cannula into the wrong place . Frederick started to cough and bleed , and Bergmann placed his forefinger into the wound to enlarge it . The bleeding subsided after two hours , but Bergmann 's actions resulted in an abscess in Frederick 's neck , producing pus which gave the new Emperor discomfort for the remaining months of his life . Later , Frederick would ask " Why did Bergmann put his finger in my throat ? " and complain that " Bergmann ill @-@ treated [ me ] " . The diagnosis and treatment of Prince Frederick 's fatal illness caused some medical controversy well into the next century .
In spite of his illness , Frederick did his best to fulfill his obligations as Emperor . Immediately after the announcement of his accession , he took the ribbon and star of his Order of the Black Eagle from his jacket and pinned it on the dress of his wife ; he was determined to honor her position as Empress . As the German Emperor , he officially received Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom ( his mother @-@ in @-@ law ) and King Oscar II of Sweden and Norway , and attended the wedding of his son Prince Henry to his niece Princess Irene . However , Frederick reigned for only 99 days , and was unable to bring about much lasting change . An edict he penned before he ascended to the throne that would limit the powers of the chancellor and monarch under the constitution was never put into effect , although he did force Robert von Puttkamer to resign as Prussian Minister of the Interior on 8 June , when evidence indicated that Puttkamer had interfered in the Reichstag elections . Dr. Mackenzie wrote that the Emperor had " an almost overwhelming sense of the duties of his position " . In a letter to Lord Napier , Empress Victoria wrote " The Emperor is able to attend to his business , and do a great deal , but not being able to speak is , of course , most trying . " Frederick had the fervour but not the time to accomplish his desires , lamenting in May 1888 , " I cannot die ... What would happen to Germany ? "
Frederick III died in Potsdam on 15 June 1888 , and was succeeded by his 29 @-@ year @-@ old son Wilhelm II . Frederick is buried in a mausoleum attached to the Friedenskirche in Potsdam . After his death , William Ewart Gladstone described him as the " Barbarossa of German liberalism " . Empress Victoria went on to continue spreading Frederick 's thoughts and ideals throughout Germany , but no longer had power within the government .
= = Legacy = =
Frederick believed a state should not act against the popular opinion of its inhabitants . He had a long history of liberalism , and had discussed his ideas and intentions with Victoria and others before his reign . Admiring Prince Albert of Saxe @-@ Coburg @-@ Gotha and the British parliamentary system , Frederick and his wife planned to rule as consorts and liberalize Germany through the appointment of more liberal ministers . They intended to severely limit the office of Chancellor , and reorganize Germany to include many elements of British liberalism . Many historians , including William Harbutt Dawson and Erich Eyck , consider that Frederick 's early death put an end to the development of liberalism within the German empire . They believe that , given a longer reign and better health , Frederick might indeed have transformed Germany into a more liberal democratic country , and prevented its militaristic path toward war . Dr. J. McCullough claims that Frederick would have averted World War I — and by extension the resulting Weimar Republic — while other historians such as Michael Balfour go even further by postulating that , as the end of World War I directly affected the state of the world 's development , the liberal German Emperor might also have prevented the outbreak of World War II . Author Michael Freund states outright that both world wars would have been averted had Frederick lived longer . Frederick 's life inspired historian Frank Tipton to speculate : " What would have happened had his father died sooner or if he himself had lived longer ? "
Other historians , including Wilhelm Mommsen and Arthur Rosenberg , oppose the idea that Frederick could have , or would have , liberalized Germany . They believe that he would not have dared to oppose both his father and Bismarck to change Germany 's course ; a natural soldier , he was steeped in his family 's strong military tradition , and had happily reported to his father since he joined the army at the age of ten . Andreas Dorpalen notes that Frederick had complied with most of William 's and Bismarck 's policies early in his life , and would have been unlikely to change his behaviour . According to Arthur Rosenberg , despite his liberal tendencies Frederick still firmly believed in Bismarck and his system , with Dorpalen adding that in any case Frederick had too weak and ineffectual a character to have brought about real change , regardless of how long he reigned . James J. Sheehan states that the political climate and party system of Germany during that period were too steeped in the old ways for Frederick to overcome with liberalization . Dorpalen also observes that Frederick 's liberal persona may have been exaggerated after his death , to keep the liberal movement strong in Germany , and he points out that the many mistakes made by Wilhelm II helped to paint his father in a more favorable light .
Frederick 's children — Wilhelm in particular — held various political positions and greatly influenced Europe . Unlike | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
his father , Wilhelm had not personally experienced the horrors of war , and he enthusiastically embraced his family 's military heritage , coming under Bismarck 's tutelage . The Chancellor , who disapproved of Frederick 's and Victoria 's liberal ways , felt bound to increase the tensions between Wilhelm and his parents . Wilhelm grew up full of disdain for their opinions on government , and shortly after his father 's death , proclaimed that he would follow the path of his grandfather , William I. He made no reference to Frederick III . William II abandoned all of his father 's policies and ideas , and eventually led Germany into World War I.
Bismarck 's plan of undermining Frederick and Victoria , and of using Wilhelm II as a tool for retaining his own power , led to his own downfall . As it turned out , Wilhelm did share his father 's conviction that the position of the chancellor was too strong and should be modified in favour of a more powerful Emperor . When Bismarck realized that Wilhelm II was about to dismiss him :
All Bismarck 's resources were deployed ; he even asked Empress Victoria to use her influence with her son on his behalf . But the wizard had lost his magic ; his spells were powerless because they were exerted on people who did not respect them , and he who had so signally disregarded Kant 's command to use people as ends in themselves had too small a stock of loyalty to draw on . As Lord Salisbury told Queen Victoria : ' The very qualities which Bismarck fostered in the Emperor in order to strengthen himself when the Emperor Frederick should come to the throne have been the qualities by which he has been overthrown . ' The Empress , with what must have been a mixture of pity and triumph , told him that her influence with her son could not save him for he himself had destroyed it .
Churches honouring Frederick include the Kaiser @-@ Friedrich @-@ Gedächtniskirche in Berlin and the former Kalthof Church in Königsberg . Mount Frederick William in the Jervis Inlet area of the British Columbia Coast in Canada is named in his honour .
= = Titles , styles , honours and arms = =
= = = Titles and styles = = =
18 October 1831 – 2 January 1861 : His Royal Highness Prince Frederick of Prussia
2 January 1861 – 18 January 1871 : His Royal Highness The Crown Prince of Prussia
18 January 1871 – 9 March 1888 : His Imperial and Royal Highness The German Crown Prince , Crown Prince of Prussia
9 March 1888 – 15 June 1888 : His Imperial and Royal Majesty The German Emperor , King of Prussia
= = = Honours = = =
Domestic
He was Grand Master of the following orders :
Order of the Black Eagle
Order of Merit of the Prussian Crown
Order of the Red Eagle
Order of the Crown ( Prussia )
Royal House Order of Hohenzollern
Pour le Mérite
Grand Cross of the Iron Cross
Order of St. John ( Bailiwick of Brandenburg )
Kingdom of Bavaria : Knight Grand Cross of the Military Order of Max Joseph
Kingdom of Bavaria : Knight of the Order of Saint Hubert
Kingdom of Saxony : Knight Grand Cross of the Military Order of Saint Henry
Foreign
Denmark : Knight of the Order of the Elephant
Holy See : Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Holy Sepulchre of Jerusalem
Hungary : Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Saint Stephen of Hungary
Kingdom of Italy : Knight of the Supreme Order of the Most Holy Annunciation
Kingdom of Italy : Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus
Kingdom of Italy : Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Crown of Italy
Sovereign Military Order of Malta : Knight of the Order of Malta
Russia : Knight of the Order of St. Andrew
Russia : Knight of the Order of St. George
Spain : Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece
Sweden : Knight of the Order of Charles XIII
United Kingdom : Knight of the Order of the Garter
United Kingdom : Royal Victorian Order
= = Ancestry = =
= = Issue = =
= Saw ( 2004 film ) =
Saw is a 2004 American psychological horror film directed by James Wan . It is Wan 's feature film directorial debut . The screenplay , written by Leigh Whannell , is based on a story by Wan and Whannell . The film stars Cary Elwes , Danny Glover , Monica Potter , Michael Emerson , Ken Leung , Tobin Bell and Leigh Whannell . In the film , Elwes and Whannell portrayed two men who awake to find themselves chained in a large dilapidated bathroom , with one being ordered to kill the other or his family will die . It is the first installment of the seven @-@ part Saw franchise .
The debut of Wan and Whannell , the screenplay was written in 2001 , but after failed attempts to get the script produced in Wan and Whannell 's home country of Australia , they were urged to travel to Los Angeles . In order to help attract producers they shot a low @-@ budget short film of the same name from a scene out of the script . This proved successful in 2003 as producers from Evolution Entertainment were immediately attached and also formed a horror genre production label Twisted Pictures . The film was given a small budget and shot for 18 days .
Saw was first screened on January 19 , 2004 . Lionsgate picked up the rights and released the film in the United States and Canada on October 29 , 2004 . Critical responses were generally mixed and divided , but the film gained a cult following . Compared to its low budget , Saw performed very well at the box office , grossing more than $ 100 million worldwide and becoming , at the time , one of the most profitable horror films since 1996 's Scream . The success of the film prompted a green @-@ light of a sequel soon after Saw 's opening weekend , which was released the following October .
The film was theatrically re @-@ released by Lionsgate on October 31 , 2014 to celebrate its tenth anniversary .
= = Plot = =
Adam , a photographer , awakens in a bathtub in a large dilapidated bathroom , and finds himself chained at the ankle to a pipe . Lawrence Gordon , an oncologist , is similarly shackled across the room , and between them is a corpse holding a revolver and a microcassette recorder . Each man has a tape in his pocket , and Adam is able to retrieve the recorder . Adam 's tape urges him to escape the bathroom , while Lawrence 's tape tells him to kill Adam by six o 'clock , or his wife and daughter will be killed and he will be left to die . Adam finds a bag containing two hacksaws inside a toilet tank ; they attempt to cut through the chains , but Adam 's saw breaks and he angrily throws it at the mirror . Lawrence realizes the hacksaws are meant for their feet and identifies their captor as the Jigsaw Killer , whom Lawrence knows of because he was a suspect five months before .
Flashbacks show that while Lawrence was discussing the terminal brain cancer of a patient , identified as John by an orderly named Zep Hindle , with his medical students , he was approached by Detectives David Tapp and Steven Sing , who found his penlight at the scene of a Jigsaw " game " , of which at least three have been investigated . Lawrence 's alibi clears him , but he reluctantly agrees to view the testimony of the only known survivor , a heroin addict named Amanda Young , who believes Jigsaw has helped her .
Meanwhile , Alison and Diana Gordon are being held captive in their home by Zep , who is watching Adam and Lawrence through a camera behind a two @-@ way mirror in the bathroom . The house is simultaneously being watched by Tapp , who has since been discharged from the force . Flashbacks show that Tapp became obsessed with the Jigsaw case after hearing Amanda 's testimony , and eventually found Jigsaw 's warehouse using the videotape from her game . He and Sing entered the warehouse , where they apprehended Jigsaw and saved a man from a drill trap , but Jigsaw escaped after slashing Tapp 's throat , and Sing was killed by a shotgun trap while pursuing him . Convinced that Lawrence is Jigsaw , Tapp began stalking him after his discharge .
In the bathroom , Lawrence finds a box containing a lighter , two cigarettes , and a one @-@ way cellphone . He then recalls his abduction : he was trying to use his phone after being trapped in a parking garage , and was suddenly attacked by a pig @-@ masked figure . They try to use a cigarette dipped in the corpse 's " poisoned " blood to stage Adam 's death , but the plan fails when Adam is zapped through his ankle chain . Adam then recalls his own abduction : he woke up in his photo development room to find the power was out and , after finding a puppet , was attacked by a similar pig @-@ masked figure . At gunpoint , Alison calls Lawrence and tells him not to trust Adam , who admits he was being paid to take photos of Lawrence , many of which were in the hacksaw bag . Adam also reveals his knowledge of Lawrence 's affair with one of his medical students ; Lawrence had been with her before he was abducted . Lawrence realizes from Adam 's description that Tapp was paying him . Adam finds a photo he didn 't take , of a man staring out a window of Lawrence 's house , whom Lawrence identifies as Zep . The clock then strikes six .
As Alison , who managed to free herself , calls Lawrence at gunpoint again , she fights Zep for the gun . The struggle gets Tapp 's attention , and he saves the Gordons and chases Zep to the sewers , where he is eventually shot during a struggle . Lawrence , aware only of gunshots and screaming , is zapped as well and loses reach of the phone ; in desperation , he saws off his foot and shoots Adam with the corpse 's revolver . Zep enters the bathroom to kill Lawrence , but is knocked down and beaten to death with the toilet tank cover by Adam , who only suffered a flesh wound . As Lawrence crawls out of the room to find help , Adam searches Zep 's body for a key and finds another microcassette recorder , which reveals that Zep was another victim , following the rules of his own game to survive a slow @-@ acting poison . As the tape ends , the " corpse " rises and is revealed to be Lawrence 's patient , John , the real Jigsaw Killer . He says the key to the chain is in the bathtub , which was drained when Adam awoke . He zaps Adam , who loses reach of Zep 's pistol , and then turns off the lights and seals the bathroom door , leaving Adam to die .
= = Cast = =
Cary Elwes as Dr. Lawrence Gordon
Leigh Whannell as Adam Stanheight
Tobin Bell as John Kramer
Danny Glover as David Tapp
Monica Potter as Alison Gordon
Michael Emerson as Zep Hindle
Ken Leung as Detective Steven Sing
Makenzie Vega as Diana Gordon
Shawnee Smith as Amanda Young
Dina Meyer as Detective Allison Kerry
Alexandra Bokyun Chun as Carla
Mike Butters as Paul Leahy
Paul Gutrecht as Mark Wilson
Ned Bellamy as Jeff Ridenhour
Oren Koules as Donnie Greco
= = Production = =
= = = Development and writing = = =
After finishing film school , Australian director James Wan and Australian writer Leigh Whannell wanted to write and fund a film . The inspiration that they needed came after watching the low @-@ budget independent film The Blair Witch Project . Another film that inspired them to finance the film themselves was Darren Aronofsky 's Pi . The two thought the cheapest script to shoot would involve two actors in one room . Whannell said , " So I actually think the restrictions we had on our bank accounts at the time , the fact that we wanted to keep the film contained , helped us come up with the ideas in the film . " One idea was to have the entire film set with two actors stuck in an elevator and being shot in the point of view of security cameras .
Wan pitched the idea to Whannell of two men chained to opposite sides of a bathroom with a dead body in the middle of the floor and they are trying to figure out why and how they are there . By the end of the film they realize the person lying on the floor is not dead and he is the reason they are locked in the room . Whannell initially did not give Wan the reaction he was looking for . He said , " I 'll never forget that day . I remember hanging up the phone and started just going over it in my head , and without any sort of long period of pondering , I opened my diary that I had at the time and wrote the word ' Saw ' . " Before instantaneously writing the word " Saw " in a blood @-@ red , dripping font , the two had not come up with a title . " It was one of those moments that made me aware that some things just really are meant to be . Some things are just waiting there to be discovered , " Whannell said .
The character of Jigsaw did not come until months later , when Whannell was working at a job he was unhappy with and began having migraines . Convinced it was a brain tumor , he went to a neurologist to have an MRI and while sitting nervously in the waiting room he thought , " What if you were given the news that you had a tumor and you were going to die soon ? How would you react to that ? " He imagined the character Jigsaw having been given one or two years to live and combined that with the idea of Jigsaw putting others in a literal version of the situation , but only giving them a few minutes to choose their fate .
Wan did not intend to make a " torture porn " film as the script only had one short segment of " torture . " He said the film " played out like a mystery thriller . " It was not until the sequels that the plot focused more on torture scenes .
= = = Funding = = =
Whannell and Wan initially had $ 30 @,@ 000 to spend on the film , but as the script developed it was clear that more funds would be needed . The script was optioned by a producer in Sydney for a year but the deal eventually fell through . After other failed attempts to get the script produced in Australia from 2001 to 2002 , literary agent Ken Greenblat read the script and suggested they travel to Los Angeles , where their chances of finding an interested studio were greater . Wan and Whannell initially refused , due to lack of traveling funds but the pair 's agent , Stacey Testro , convinced them to go . In order to help studios take interest in the script , Whannell provided A $ 5 @,@ 000 ( US $ 5 @,@ 000 ) to make a seven @-@ minute short film based on the script 's jaw trap scene , which they thought would prove most effective . Whannell played David , the man wearing the Reverse Bear Trap . Working at the Australian Broadcasting Corporation , Whannell and Wan knew cameramen who were willing to provide technical assistance for the short .
Wan shot the short with a 16mm camera in over two days and transferred the footage to DVDs to ship along with the script . Whannell wanted to play the lead character in the feature film . The short helped show that Wan and Whannell was a " director @-@ actor team " rather than just wanting to sell the script . Wan said , " Leigh and I just loved the project so much and we wanted a career in filmmaking so we stuck to our guns and said , ' Look , guys , if you want this project , we 're coming on board - Leigh has to act in it and I have to direct it . "
In early 2003 , while in Los Angeles and before they met with producer Gregg Hoffman , Hoffman 's friend pulled him into his office and showed him the short . Hoffman said , " About two or three minutes into it , my jaw hit the floor . " He quickly showed the short and script to his partners Mark Burg and Oren Koules of Evolution Entertainment . They later formed Twisted Pictures as a horror genre production label . The producers read the screenplay that night and two days later offered Wan and Whannell creative control and 25 % of the net profits . Even though Wan and Whannell received " better offers " from studios like DreamWorks and Gold Circle Films , they were not willing to chance Wan 's directing and Whannell acting in the lead role . In order to finance the film , Hoffman , Burg , and Koules put up a second mortgage on their Highland Avenue headquarters . Saw was given a production budget of between $ 1 million and $ 1 @.@ 2 million .
= = = Casting = = =
Elwes was sent the short film on DVD and immediately became interested in the film . He read the script in one sitting and was drawn in by the " uniqueness and originality " of the story . To prepare for his role as an oncologist , he met with a doctor at UCLA 's Department of Neurosurgery .
Smith , who is not a horror fan , initially refused the role , calling the script " horrific . " However , after watching the short , she agreed to the role , which was the part that Whannell portrayed in the short .
On taking the role of Jigsaw , Bell said - " I did Saw because I thought it was a fascinating location for a film to be made . These guys locked in a room , to me , was fresh . I did not anticipate the ending when I read the script , so I was quite caught by surprise and it was clear to me that if the filmmakers shot the scene well , the audience would be caught by surprise as well . The film was worth doing for that moment alone . "
= = = Filming and post @-@ production = = =
With a shooting budget of $ 700 @,@ 000 , Saw began principal photography on September 22 , 2003 at Lacy Street Production Facility in Los Angeles for 18 days . The bathroom was the only set that had to be built . Danny Glover completed his scenes in two days . Due to the tight shooting schedule , Wan could not afford to shoot more than a couple of takes per actor . " It was a really tough struggle for me . Every day , it was me fighting to get the shots I did not get . I had high aspirations , but there 's only so much you can do . I wanted to make it in a very Hitchcockian style of filmmaking , but that style of filmmaking takes time to set up and so on , " Wan said about the very short shooting schedule . He said the style instead ended up being " more gritty and rough around the edges due to the lack of time and money that we had to shoot the movie with " and it ultimately became the aesthetic of the film .
In post @-@ production , Wan found he did not have enough shots or takes to work with as he was basically shooting rehearsals . Having a lot of missing gaps in the final product , he and editor Kevin Greutert created shots to mend together during editing ; such as making a shot look like a surveillance camera feed and using still photographs . " We did a lot of things to fill in gaps throughout the film . Whatever we cut to newspaper clippings and stuff like that , or we cut to surveillance cameras , or we cut to still photography within the film , which now people say , ' Wow , that 's such a cool experimental style of filmmaking ' , we really did that out of necessity to fill in gaps we did not get during the filming , " he explained .
= = = Music = = =
The soundtrack was mainly composed by Charlie Clouser , which took six weeks to complete . Other songs were performed by Front Line Assembly , Fear Factory , Enemy , Pitbull Daycare and Psycho Pumps . Megadeth 's song " Die Dead Enough " was originally set to be featured in the film , but was not used for undisclosed reasons .
The soundtrack was released on October 5 , 2004 by Koch Records . Johnny Loftus of Allmusic gave it three out of five stars . He said that Clouser " really nails it with his creaky , clammy score " and that he " understands that Saw 's horror only works with a heady amount of camp , and he draws from industrial music in the same way . " He particularly liked , " Cigarette " ; " Hello , Adam " ; and " F * * k This S * ! t , " commenting that they " blend chilling sounds with harsh percussion and deep @-@ wound keyboard stabs . "
= = Release = =
Lionsgate picked up Saw 's worldwide distribution rights at the Sundance Film Festival days before the film premiered on January 19 , 2004 . There it played to a packed theater for three nights to a very positive reaction . It was the closing film at the Toronto International Film Festival on September 18 , 2004 . Lionsgate initially planned to release the film direct @-@ to @-@ video , but due to the positive reaction at Sundance , they chose to release it theatrically by Halloween . It was released on October 1 , 2004 in the United Kingdom , October 29 , 2004 in the United States and December 2 , 2004 in Australia . The film was originally rated NC @-@ 17 ( No children under 17 permitted ) by the Motion Picture Association of America for strong graphic violence , though after being re @-@ edited , it was released with an R rating . Lionsgate held the first annual " Give Til It Hurts " blood drive for the Red Cross and collected 4 @,@ 249 pints of blood .
= = = Tenth anniversary re @-@ release = = =
On October 31 , 2014 , in honor of the film 's 10th anniversary , Saw was re @-@ released to theatres for one week .
The release was a box office bomb , earning only $ 650 @,@ 051 in its opening weekend , and is the third lowest @-@ grossing wide opening . At the end of its run , the release had grossed $ 815 @,@ 324 , bringing the film 's overall domestic gross to $ 56 @,@ 000 @,@ 369 .
= = = Home media = = =
The theatrical version of the film was released on VHS and DVD on February 15 , 2005 in the United States . After its first week , it made $ 9 @.@ 4 million in DVD rentals and $ 1 @.@ 7 million in VHS rentals , making it the top rental of the week . For the second week it remained as the number one DVD rental with $ 6 @.@ 8 million , for a $ 16 @.@ 27 million two @-@ week total . It dropped to third place in VHS rentals with $ 1 @.@ 09 million , for a $ 2 @.@ 83 million two @-@ week total . The film went on to sell more than $ 70 million worth of video and DVDs . A two @-@ disc " Uncut Edition " was released on October 18 , 2005 to tie in with the release of Saw II . The short film , also entitled Saw , was included on the DVD . The film was subsequently included in a boxed set with all six sequels entitled Saw : The Complete Movie Collection , which was released in September , 2014 for the film 's tenth anniversary . The set contained the unrated editions of all seven films , though it lacked any of the special features from previous releases .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
Saw opened at # 3 on Halloween weekend 2004 in 2 @,@ 315 theaters and grossed $ 18 @.@ 2 million , behind Ray ( $ 20 million ) and The Grudge ( $ 21 @.@ 8 million ) . According to Lionsgate 's exit poll , 60 % of the mostly male audience was under 25 years of age . Saw had also become Lionsgate 's second best opening , after Fahrenheit 9 / 11 's $ 23 @.@ 9 million ( 2004 ) . On its second weekend , an additional 152 theaters were added , bringing the theater count to 2 @,@ 467 . It dropped to number four , making $ 11 million , a 39 % drop from the opening weekend .
Saw opened in the United Kingdom to $ 2 @.@ 2 million in 301 theaters , grossing a $ 12 @.@ 3 million total in seven weeks . In Australia , it opened in 161 theaters with $ 1 @.@ 2 million and totaled out to $ 3 @.@ 1 million in six weeks . In Italy , the film opened on January 14 , 2005 in 267 theaters to $ 1 @.@ 7 million and grossed $ 6 @.@ 4 million in six weeks . Saw opened to $ 1 @.@ 5 million 187 theaters in France on March 16 , 2005 and made $ 3 @.@ 1 million by the end of its four @-@ week run . Saw came to gross $ 55 @.@ 1 million in the United States and Canada and $ 47 @.@ 9 million in other markets for a worldwide total of $ 103 million . It is the second lowest grossing film in the series after Saw VI . At the time , it became the most profitable horror film after Scream ( 1996 ) .
= = = Critical reviews = = =
Critical reception to Saw was mixed . On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes , the film has a rating of 48 % , based on 181 reviews , with an average rating of 5 @.@ 5 / 10 . The site 's consensus reads , " Saw is more than nasty enough for genre junkies , but far too twisted , gory , and shallow for more discerning horror fans . " Metacritic gave the film a score of 46 out of 100 , based on 32 critics , indicating " mixed or average reviews " .
Dennis Harvey of Variety gave the film a negative review after its Sundance premiere . He called it a " crude concoction sewn together from the severed parts of prior horror / serial killer pics . " He called the screenplay " convoluted , " criticizing the use of " flashbacks within flashbacks " and red herrings . He described the film as being " too hyperbolic to be genuinely disturbing . " Carla Meyer of the San Francisco Chronicle gave the film a positive review saying the film " combined B @-@ movie acting with a twisted mind @-@ set and visual tricks designed to camouflage cheap effects " and that it was " terrifying at some moments and insinuatingly creepy at many others . " She called the killing scenes " amazingly evocative for such a low @-@ budget movie . "
Empire 's Kim Newman gave the film four out of five stars . He said Saw is styled like early David Fincher films and " boasts an intricate structure - complex flashbacks @-@ within @-@ flashbacks explain how the characters have come to this crisis - and a satisfying mystery to go with its ghastly claustrophobia . " He ended his review saying , " As good an all @-@ out , non @-@ camp horror movie as we 've had lately . " Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a B minus , calling it " derivative and messy and too nonsensical for its own good . " He described Jigsaw 's intent as " to show you the serial killer lurking inside yourself . " Gleiberman criticized Elwes ' performance by saying , " [ Elwes ] ought to be featured in a seminar on the perils of overacting . " Daniel M. Kimmel of the Telegram & Gazette called it " one of the most loathsome films this critic has seen in more than 20 years on the job . "
The New York Times 's Stephen Holden gave a mixed review saying the film " does a better @-@ than @-@ average job of conveying the panic and helplessness of men terrorized by a sadist in a degrading environment , but it is still not especially scary . What sets its demon apart from run @-@ of @-@ the @-@ mill movie serial killers is his impulse to humiliate and torture his victims and justify it with some twisted morality . " He said the film is " seriously undermined by the half @-@ baked , formulaic detective story in which the horror is framed . " Carina Chocano of the Los Angeles Times also gave the film a mixed review saying , " Saw is so full of twists it ends up getting snarled . For all of his flashy engineering and inventive torture scenarios , the Jigsaw Killer comes across as an amateur . Hannibal Lecter would have him for lunch . " She said the film " carelessly underscores its own shaky narrative at every turn with its mid @-@ budget hokiness . " She also noted that Elwes and Whannell had trouble keeping an American accent . Another mixed review came from Roger Ebert , who gave the film 2 out of 4 stars and lamented the gimmicks and plot contrivances but nonetheless described Saw as " well made and acted , and does what it does about as well as it could be expected to . "
= = = Comparisons to Seven ( 1995 ) = = =
When asked if the 1995 thriller film Seven was an inspiration to Saw , Whannell said " For me as the writer , definitely . I mean , Seven is just a very well constructed film , and if you 're writing a thriller , it can 't hurt to study it . In terms of the story though , James and I never really felt Seven was that close to our film . I guess if you stand back , you have two detectives chasing a psychopath , who uses vile methods to teach people lessons , and those points echo Seven . What we always liked about Saw , though , was the fact that the story is told from the point of view of two of the psychopath 's victims , instead of the police chasing after him , as you so often see . " Entertainment Weekly 's Owen Gleiberman compared the plot to Seven saying , " In a blatant imitation of Seven , Saw features a lunatic sadist whose ghoulish crimes are meant , in each case , to mirror the sins of his victims . The twist here is that the psycho doesn 't do the killing . " Richard J. Leskosky of Champaign @-@ Urbana 's The News @-@ Gazette said " Saw wants to be taken as another Seven . Though it features perverse gross @-@ out scenes and a villain with a superficially pedantic motive behind his crimes ( his victims , if they survive , have learned to appreciate life more ) , it lacks the finesse and polish of the David Fincher film . "
= = = Accolades = = =
On Empire magazine 's list of the 500 greatest films , Saw ranked 499th . Bloody Disgusting ranked the film tenth in its list of the Top 20 Horror Films of the Decade , with the article calling Saw " perhaps the most influential horror film of the decade , which kick @-@ started a franchise .... In light of its measly $ 1 @.@ 2 million price tag the film 's quality relative to bigger @-@ budget horror films is striking . It also takes itself seriously , which came as a breath of fresh air following the trend of wimpy tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek horror that had dominated the multiplexes post @-@ Scream . More than anything , this twisted morality tale is a film made by horror fans , for horror fans ; it 's gory , it 's depraved , and best of all it introduced a new horror icon in Jigsaw . " The Daily Telegraph listed the film number 14 on their Top 100 list that defined the 2000s .
= Lawrence Wetherby =
Lawrence Winchester Wetherby ( January 2 , 1908 – March 27 , 1994 ) was an American politician who served as lieutenant governor and governor of Kentucky . He is the only governor in state history born in Jefferson County , despite the fact that Louisville , the county seat , is the state 's most populous city .
After graduating from the University of Louisville , Wetherby held several minor offices in the Jefferson County judicial system before being elected lieutenant governor in 1947 . He was called Kentucky 's first " working " lieutenant governor because Governor Earle C. Clements asked him to carry out duties beyond his constitutional responsibility to preside over the state Senate , such as preparing the state budget and attending the Southern Governors Conference . In 1950 , Clements resigned to assume a seat in the U.S. Senate , elevating Wetherby to governor . Wetherby won immediate acclaim by calling a special legislative session to increase funding for education and government benefits from the state 's budget surplus . In 1951 , he won a four @-@ year full term as governor , during which he continued and expanded many of Clements ' programs , including increased road construction and industrial diversification . He endorsed the Supreme Court 's 1954 desegregation order in the case of Brown v. Board of Education and appointed a biracial commission to oversee the successful integration of the state 's schools . As chair of the Southern Governors Conference in 1954 and 1955 , he encouraged other southern governors to accept and implement desegregation .
Limited to one term by the state constitution , Wetherby supported Bert T. Combs to be his successor , but Combs lost in the Democratic primary to A. B. " Happy " Chandler , a former governor and factional opponent of both Wetherby and Clements . Chandler 's failure to support Wetherby 's 1956 bid to succeed Democrat Alben Barkley in the Senate contributed to his loss to Republican John Sherman Cooper . From 1964 to 1966 , Wetherby served on a commission charged with revising the state constitution , and in 1966 he was elected to the Kentucky Senate , where he provided leadership in drafting the state budget . Following this , he retired from politics and served as a consultant for Brighton Engineering . He died March 27 , 1994 of complications from a broken hip and was buried in Frankfort Cemetery in Frankfort , Kentucky .
= = Early life and career = =
Lawrence Wetherby was born January 2 , 1908 in Middletown , Kentucky . He was the fourth child of Samuel Davis and Fanny ( Yenowine ) Wetherby . His grandfather was a surgeon in the Union Army during the Civil War . His father was also a physician and farmer , and during his childhood years , Wetherby worked on the family farm .
After graduating from Anchorage High School , Wetherby enrolled in the pre @-@ law program at the University of Louisville . He was a letterman on the football team in 1927 and 1928 ; he also played second base on the baseball team in 1928 and 1929 , and was a letterman in that sport in 1929 . He was later inducted into the university 's Athletic Hall of Fame . In 1929 , he earned his Bachelor of Laws degree and went to work for Judge Henry Tilford . The two would remain partners until 1950 . On April 24 , 1930 , he married Helen Dwyer ; the couple had three children .
Thanks to his father 's influence , Wetherby became interested in local politics at an early age . School board races fascinated him , and he allied himself with a faction of the Jefferson County Democratic Party headed by Leland Taylor and Ben Ewing . When Ewing was elected county judge in 1933 , he appointed Wetherby as a part @-@ time attorney for the Jefferson County juvenile court . He held this position through 1937 , then returned to it in 1942 and 1943 . In March 1943 , he was appointed the first trial commissioner of the juvenile court .
= = Lieutenant governor = =
Wetherby was elected chairman of the 34th Legislative District Democratic Committee in 1943 and held the position through 1956 . In March 1947 , he resigned as trial commissioner of the juvenile court in order to run for lieutenant governor . The strongest of his four opponents in the Democratic primary was Bill May , the nephew of U.S. Representative Andrew J. May . May had sought the support of gubernatorial candidate Earle C. Clements , but Clements refused , possibly because Congressman May was an ally of Clements ' political opponent John Y. Brown . Wetherby was also unable to secure Clements ' public endorsement , but he won the primary and went on to defeat Republican Orville M. Howard by over 95 @,@ 000 votes .
Despite Clements ' refusal to endorse Wetherby in the primary , the two generally agreed on their legislative agendas and worked well together . Some observers called Wetherby Kentucky 's first " working " lieutenant governor . Previous lieutenant governors did little beyond their constitutionally mandated duty of presiding over the Kentucky Senate , but during Clements ' administration , Wetherby was charged with preparing a state budget , presiding over the Legislative Research Commission , leading tours for the state Chamber of Commerce , and attending the Southern Governors Conference . Clements also made Wetherby executive secretary of the State Democratic Central Committee , which allowed Wetherby to make many important political contacts .
= = Governor of Kentucky = =
On November 27 , 1950 , Clements resigned to accept a seat in the U.S. Senate , elevating Wetherby to governor . One of his first actions was to call a special legislative session to convene on March 6 , 1951 for the purpose of allocating the state 's $ 10 million budget surplus . Among the expenditures approved in the special session were increases in teachers ' salaries and state benefits for the needy and government employees . Wetherby 's popularity soared as a result of this session , and he seriously considered running for the Senate seat vacated by the death of Virgil Chapman in 1951 . Instead , after talking with Clements and other Democratic leaders , he decided to seek a full , four @-@ year term as governor .
= = = Election of 1951 = = =
Among the potential candidates for the Democratic gubernatorial nomination in 1951 was former governor A. B. " Happy " Chandler , who was about to be released as baseball commissioner . Chandler and Clements were bitter political enemies , and the possibility of a Chandler candidacy provided the Clements faction of the Democratic party with the impetus to unite behind Wetherby to prevent Chandler from gaining the nomination . Ultimately , Chandler did not seek the nomination and , despite implying that Clements controlled Wetherby , Chandler endorsed Wetherby on May 15 , 1951 . Wetherby had little trouble defeating Howell Vincent and Jesse Cecil in the Democratic gubernatorial primary , polling the largest majority ever in a Kentucky primary race .
In the general election , Wetherby faced Republican Court of Appeals judge Eugene Siler . Siler was a fundamentalist Christian who claimed that the state government was full of corruption , and only he could stop it . Citing the gambling in Northern Kentucky , bribery accusations against members of Clements ' and Wetherby 's administrations , and a 1951 scandal involving the University of Kentucky men 's basketball team , he referred to Frankfort as " our Nineveh on the Kentucky River " . Wetherby countered Siler 's accusations of corruption by removing one of the officials accused of bribery from office . He deployed the newly organized Kentucky State Police to counter organized crime in Campbell and Henderson counties . To further discourage crime , he supported legislation to revoke the alcohol licenses of establishments that allowed gambling . Siler 's pro @-@ temperance and anti @-@ Catholic views played well in the state 's rural areas , but cost him the vote of the growing urban population . Wetherby won the election by a vote of 346 @,@ 345 to 288 @,@ 014 .
= = = Administration = = =
Early in Wetherby 's term , the state 's revenues were inflated by the Korean War . Having adopted a pay @-@ as @-@ you @-@ go program for the state , he was forced to raise additional revenue after the war ended . He did so by imposing sin taxes on cigarettes , alcoholic beverages , and parimutuel betting , but he was unable to convince the General Assembly to adopt a sales tax .
Because three members of Wetherby 's close family had been killed in automobile accidents on the state 's roadways , improving roads was a high priority for Wetherby . Using revenue from a two @-@ cent @-@ per @-@ gallon gasoline tax passed under the Clements administration , Wetherby authorized the building , re @-@ building , or re @-@ surfacing of nearly 6 @,@ 000 miles ( 9 @,@ 700 km ) of roads during his administration . The most important of these was the state 's first toll road — the Kentucky Turnpike — connecting Louisville and Elizabethtown . He encouraged President Dwight D. Eisenhower to construct a federal toll road connecting the Great Lakes and the Gulf of Mexico . Other political leaders joined him , convincing Eisenhower to construct the long @-@ talked @-@ about Interstate Highway System . Improved roads brought increased tourism , which Wetherby supported by increasing funding to the state park system and adding Breaks Interstate Park , a new park owned jointly by Kentucky and Virginia . Wetherby also brought national attention to Kentucky as prime hunting and fishing land by conducting his own personal sporting excursions in the state .
Wetherby tried to diversify the industries located in Kentucky to balance the state 's primarily agrarian economy . He expanded the Agricultural and Industrial Development Board and charged it with conducting land surveys to identify potential industrial sites . He encouraged the development of modern airports in the state and supported the canalization of the Big Sandy River and improvement of the locks and dams on the Kentucky River . He continued to personally lead tours given by the state 's Chamber of Commerce . Among the industries that came to the state during his administration were the General Electric Appliance Park in Louisville and the Paducah Gaseous Diffusion Plant in Paducah . In 1954 , he used the state police to quash labor unrest in Central City and other parts of the Western Coal Fields . He was not a pawn of industry , however : he secured passage of the state 's first laws regulating strip mining and killed a right @-@ to @-@ work bill in 1954 .
Neither did Wetherby ignore the needs of agriculture . Under his Green Pastures Program , measures were enacted to diversify crop production , improve beef production , and encourage soil conservation . He secured federal flood control programs for the watersheds of the Salt , Licking , Green , and Kentucky Rivers , saving valuable farmland . In 1952 , Wetherby organized an agricultural council to consolidate the work of the state 's agricultural bureaucracy . He oversaw completion of the state fairgrounds in Louisville , a project begun under Clements , to better display the state 's agricultural products .
Improvements in education were a hallmark of Wetherby 's term as governor . Over the course of his administration , he increased funding to education by $ 20 million . He called for the creation of an educational television network and initiated the state 's first publicly funded bookmobile program . He supported the 1954 Minimum Foundation Program , an amendment to the state constitution that allowed funding to be allocated to school districts based upon need rather than number of pupils .
In 1954 and 1955 Wetherby served as chairman of the Southern Governors Conference and urged the southern governors to peacefully implement desegregation as required by the Supreme Court 's decision in Brown v. Board of Education . He was one of five southern governors that refused to sign a statement opposing integration . In Kentucky , he appointed an advisory council of both white and black citizens to oversee public school integration , which was accomplished with little acrimony compared to other states . Desegregation was one issue where Wetherby and his lieutenant governor , Emerson " Doc " Beauchamp , disagreed , but because Beauchamp believed he would succeed Wetherby as governor , he did not openly oppose Wetherby 's actions .
Among Wetherby 's other accomplishments were the creation of a Department of Mental Health and the construction of fifteen hospitals and thirty health centers throughout the state . In 1952 , he created the Youth Authority as a central point for the administration of services to delinquent children . He constructed new state prisons , modernized the probation and parole systems , and established a more orderly system of selecting grand and petit juries . He also oversaw some voting reform measures , including the provision of funds to purchase voting machines in areas where they were desired . He was not as successful in the area of government reform . He failed in his efforts to amend the state 's constitution to allow the governor to succeed himself in office . He was also unable to win support for a plan to consolidate some of Kentucky 's counties . In 1955 , the state 's voters approved a constitutional amendment granting suffrage to eighteen @-@ year @-@ olds over Wetherby 's objections .
= = Later life = =
Both Clements and Wetherby endorsed Bert T. Combs to succeed Wetherby as governor . Wetherby had named Combs to the Kentucky Court of Appeals in 1951 to fill a vacancy created by the death of Judge Roy Helm . Happy Chandler , Clements ' old foe , ran against Combs in the primary and painted him as a pawn of " Clementine " and " Wetherbine " , his derogatory nicknames for Clements and Wetherby . In fact , Chandler ran the entire campaign not just against Combs , but against Clements and Wetherby as well . He charged both Clements and Wetherby with extravagant spending in their administrations . Among his allegations were that Clements had purchased a $ 20 @,@ 000 rug for his office and that Wetherby had paneled his office with African mahogany . Chandler promised that , if elected , he would use " good , honest Kentucky wood " in his office and that all Kentuckians would be invited to the capitol to walk on the $ 20 @,@ 000 rug . Ultimately , invoices showed that no $ 20 @,@ 000 rug had been purchased by Clements and Wetherby 's paneling had been purchased from and installed by a local contractor . Chandler 's charges may have been inaccurate , but he defeated Combs in the primary and went on to win the general election .
Following his term as governor , Wetherby resumed his private law practice . In 1956 , Senator Alben Barkley unexpectedly died of a heart attack . The timing of his death meant that the state would elect two senators in 1956 — Clements ' term was expiring and now Barkley 's seat was vacant . President Eisenhower convinced former senator and ambassador John Sherman Cooper to be the Republican candidate for the seat , hoping Cooper 's immense popularity in the state would help his own re @-@ election bid . Barkley 's death occurred so late in the year that there was not time for a Democratic primary to choose the party 's candidate for the open seat . The Democratic state committee chose Wetherby , who was only six months removed from his term as governor .
Neither Wetherby nor Clements enjoyed the support of Governor Chandler . Coupled with this , Senate Majority Leader Lyndon B. Johnson suffered a heart attack during the campaign , and as majority whip , Clements assumed the role of acting majority leader . This took him away from the campaign trail for extended periods of time . During the infrequent visits he was able to make to the state , he campaigned for his former lieutenant governor , Wetherby . In the general election , Cooper defeated Wetherby by 65 @,@ 000 votes and Clements lost to Thruston Ballard Morton by about 7 @,@ 000 votes . It was the first time Clements had lost a race in thirty years , and Kentucky Democrats would not elect a senator again for another sixteen years .
After this defeat , Wetherby moved to Franklin County and secured a position at Brighton Engineering with help from his old primary opponent , Bill May . From 1964 to 1966 , he was a delegate to an assembly charged with revising the state constitution . In 1965 , May backed Wetherby in his campaign for the Kentucky Senate . He won the election , defeating the candidate favored by Chandler , and was chosen president of that body from 1966 to 1968 . He was so effective in this position that the state 's 1966 budget was debated for only ten days before passing by a vote of 31 – 5 in virtually the same form as it was presented .
After his service in the state senate , Wetherby returned to Brighton Engineering , where he eventually became a vice @-@ president . He died March 27 , 1994 of complications from a broken hip . He is buried at the Frankfort Cemetery . The administration building at Western Kentucky University and a gymnasium at Morehead State University were named in his honor .
= English Reformation =
The English Reformation was a series of events in 16th century England by which the Church of England broke away from the authority of the Pope and the Roman Catholic Church . These events were , in part , associated with the wider process of the European Protestant Reformation , a religious and political movement that affected the practice of Christianity across all of Europe during this period . Many factors contributed to the process : the decline of feudalism and the rise of nationalism , the rise of the common law , the invention of the printing press and increased circulation of the Bible , the transmission of new knowledge and ideas among scholars , the upper and middle classes and readers in general . However , the various phases of the English Reformation , which also covered Wales and Ireland , were largely driven by changes in government policy , to which public opinion gradually accommodated itself .
Based on Henry VIII 's desire for an annulment of his marriage ( first requested of Pope Clement VII in 1527 ) , the English Reformation was at the outset more of a political affair than a theological dispute . The reality of political differences between Rome and England allowed growing theological disputes to come to the fore . Until the break with Rome , it was the Pope and general councils of the Church that decided doctrine . Church law was governed by the code of canon law with final jurisdiction in Rome . Church taxes were paid straight to Rome , and the Pope had the final word in the appointment of bishops .
The break with Rome was effected by a series of acts of Parliament passed between 1532 and 1534 , among them the 1534 Act of Supremacy which declared that Henry was the " Supreme Head on earth of the Church of England " . ( This title was renounced by Mary I in 1553 in the process of restoring papal jurisdiction ; when Elizabeth I reasserted the royal supremacy in 1559 her title was Supreme Governor . ) Final authority in doctrinal and legal disputes now rested with the monarch , and the papacy was deprived of revenue and the final say on the appointment of bishops .
The theology and liturgy of the Church of England became markedly Protestant during the reign of Henry 's son Edward VI largely along lines laid down by Archbishop Thomas Cranmer . Under Mary , the whole process was reversed and the Church of England was again placed under papal jurisdiction . Soon after , Elizabeth reintroduced the Protestant faith but in a more moderate manner . The structure and theology of the church was a matter of fierce dispute for generations .
The violent aspect of these disputes , manifested in the English Civil Wars , ended when the last Roman Catholic monarch , James II , was deposed , and Parliament asked William and Mary to rule jointly in conjunction with the English Bill of Rights in 1688 ( in the " Glorious Revolution " ) , from which emerged a church polity with an established church and a number of non @-@ conformist churches whose members at first suffered various civil disabilities but which were removed over time . The legacy of the past Roman Catholic Establishment remained an issue for some time , and still exists today . A substantial minority remained Roman Catholic in England , and in an effort to disestablish it from British systems , their church organisation remained illegal until the 19th century .
= = Background = =
= = = Henry VIII : marriages and desire for a male heir = = =
Henry VIII ascended the English throne in 1509 at the age of 17 . He made a dynastic marriage with Catherine of Aragon , widow of his brother Arthur , in June 1509 , just before his coronation on Midsummer 's Day . Unlike his father , who was secretive and conservative , the young Henry appeared the epitome of chivalry and sociability . An observant Roman Catholic , he heard up to five masses a day ( except during the hunting season ) ; of " powerful but unoriginal mind , " he let himself be influenced by his advisors from whom he was never apart , by night or day . He was thus susceptible to whoever had his ear .
This contributed to a state of hostility between his young contemporaries and the Lord Chancellor , Cardinal Thomas Wolsey . As long as Wolsey had his ear , Henry 's Roman Catholicism was secure : in 1521 , he had defended the Roman Catholic Church from Martin Luther 's accusations of heresy in a book he wrote — probably with considerable help from the conservative Bishop of Rochester John Fisher — entitled The Defence of the Seven Sacraments , for which he was awarded the title " Defender of the Faith " ( Fidei Defensor ) by Pope Leo X. ( Successive English and British monarchs have retained this title to the present , even after the Anglican Church broke away from Roman Catholicism , in part because the title was re @-@ conferred by Parliament after the split . ) Wolsey 's enemies at court included those who had been influenced by Lutheran ideas , among whom was the attractive , charismatic Anne Boleyn .
Anne arrived at court in 1522 , from years in France where she had been educated by Queen Claude of France , as maid of honour to Queen Catherine , a woman of " charm , style and wit , with will and savagery which made her a match for Henry . " By the late 1520s , Henry wanted his marriage to Catherine annulled . She had not produced a male heir who survived into adulthood , and Henry wanted a son to secure the Tudor dynasty .
Before Henry 's father ( Henry VII ) ascended the throne , England had been beset by civil warfare over rival claims to the English crown . Henry wanted to avoid a similar uncertainty over the succession . Catherine 's only surviving child was Princess Mary .
Henry claimed that this lack of a male heir was because his marriage was " blighted in the eyes of God . " Catherine had been his late brother 's wife , and it was therefore against biblical teachings for Henry to have married her ( Leviticus 20 : 21 ) ; a special dispensation from Pope Julius II had been needed to allow the wedding in the first place . Henry argued that this had been wrong and that his marriage had never been valid . In 1527 Henry asked Pope Clement VII to annul the marriage , but the Pope refused . According to Canon Law the Pope cannot annul a marriage on the basis of a canonical impediment previously dispensed . Clement also feared the wrath of Catherine 's nephew , Holy Roman Emperor Charles V , whose troops earlier that year had sacked Rome and briefly taken the Pope prisoner .
The combination of his " scruple of conscience " and his captivation by Anne Boleyn made his desire to rid himself of his Queen compelling . The indictment of his chancellor Cardinal Wolsey in 1529 for praemunire ( taking the authority of the Papacy above the Crown ) , and subsequent death in November 1530 on his way to London to answer a charge of high treason left Henry open to the opposing influences of the supporters of the Queen and those who sanctioned the abandonment of the Roman allegiance , for whom an annulment was but an opportunity .
= = = Parliamentary debate and legislation = = =
In 1529 the king summoned Parliament to deal with annulment , thus bringing together those who wanted reform but who disagreed what form it should take ; it became known as the Reformation Parliament . There were Common lawyers who resented the privileges of the clergy to summon laity to their courts ; there were those who had been influenced by Lutheran evangelicalism and were hostile to the theology of Rome ; Thomas Cromwell was both . Henry 's Chancellor , Thomas More , successor to Wolsey , also wanted reform : he wanted new laws against heresy .
Cromwell was a lawyer and a member of Parliament — a Protestant who saw how Parliament could be used to advance the Royal Supremacy , which Henry wanted , and to further Protestant beliefs and practices Cromwell and his friends wanted . One of his closest friends was Thomas Cranmer , soon to be Archbishop .
In the matter of the annulment , no progress seemed possible . The Pope seemed more afraid of Emperor Charles V than of Henry . Anne and Cromwell and their allies wished simply to ignore the Pope , but in October 1530 a meeting of clergy and lawyers advised that Parliament could not empower the archbishop to act against the Pope 's prohibition . Henry thus resolved to bully the priests .
= = = Actions by the king against English clergy = = =
Having brought down his Chancellor , Cardinal Wolsey , Henry VIII finally resolved to charge the whole English clergy with praemunire to secure their agreement to his annulment . The Statute of Praemunire , which forbade obedience to the authority of the Pope or of any foreign rulers , enacted in 1392 , had been used against individuals in the ordinary course of court proceedings . Now Henry , having first charged Queen Catherine 's supporters , Bishops John Fisher , Nicholas West and Henry Standish and Archdeacon of Exeter , Adam Travers , decided to proceed against the whole clergy . Henry claimed £ 100 @,@ 000 from the Convocation of Canterbury of the Church of England for their pardon , which was granted by the Convocation on 24 January 1531 . The clergy wanted the payment to be spread over five years . Henry refused . The Convocation responded by withdrawing their payment altogether , and demanded Henry fulfill certain guarantees before they would give him the money . Henry refused these conditions . He agreed only to the five @-@ year period of payment and added five articles that specified that :
The clergy recognise Henry as the " sole protector and Supreme Head of the Church and clergy of England "
The King had spiritual jurisdiction
The privileges of the Church were upheld only if they did not detract from the royal prerogative and the laws of the realm
The King pardoned the clergy for violating the statute of praemunire , and
The laity were also pardoned .
= = = Further legislative acts = = =
In Parliament , Bishop John Fisher championed Catherine and the clergy ; he had inserted into the first article , the phrase " ... as far as the word of God allows ... " . In Convocation , however , Archbishop Warham requested a discussion but was met by a stunned silence ; then Warham said , " He who is silent seems to consent , " to which a clergyman responded , " Then we are all silent . " The Convocation granted consent to the King 's five articles and the payment on 8 March 1531 .
That same year Parliament passed the Pardon to Clergy Act 1531 .
The breaking of the power of Rome proceeded little by little . In 1532 , Cromwell brought before Parliament the Supplication Against the Ordinaries , which listed nine grievances against the Church , including abuses of power and Convocation 's independent legislative power . Finally , on 10 May , the King demanded of Convocation that the Church renounce all authority to make laws . On 15 May , the Submission of the Clergy was subscribed , which recognised Royal Supremacy over the church so that it could no longer make canon law without royal licence — i.e. , without the King 's permission — thus emasculating it as a law @-@ making body . ( The Parliament subsequently passed this in 1534 and again in 1536 . ) The day after this , More resigned as Chancellor , leaving Cromwell as Henry 's chief minister . ( Cromwell never became Chancellor . His power came — and was lost — through his informal relations with Henry . )
Several Acts of Parliament then followed . The Act in Conditional Restraint of Annates proposed that the clergy pay no more than 5 % of their first year 's revenue ( annates ) to Rome . This was initially controversial , and required that Henry visit the House of Lords three times to browbeat the Commons .
The Act in Restraint of Appeals , drafted by Cromwell , apart from outlawing appeals to Rome on ecclesiastical matters , declared that
" This realm of England is an Empire , and so hath been accepted in the world , governed by one Supreme Head and King having the dignity and royal estate of the Imperial Crown of the same , unto whom a body politic compact of all sorts and degrees of people divided in terms and by names of Spirituality and Temporality , be bounden and owe to bear next to God a natural and humble obedience . "
This declared England an independent country in every respect . English historian Geoffrey Elton called this Act an " essential ingredient " of the " Tudor revolution " in that it expounded a theory of national sovereignty . The Act in Absolute Restraint of Annates outlawed all annates to Rome , and also ordered that if cathedrals refused the King 's nomination for bishop , they would be liable to punishment by praemunire . Finally in 1534 the Acts of Supremacy made Henry " supreme head in earth of the Church of England " and disregarded any " usage , custom , foreign laws , foreign authority [ or ] prescription . "
Meanwhile , having taken Anne to France on a pre @-@ nuptial honeymoon , Henry married her in Westminster Abbey in January 1533 . This was made easier by the death of Archbishop Warham , a strong opponent of an annulment . Henry appointed Thomas Cranmer as his successor as Archbishop of Canterbury . Cranmer was prepared to grant the annulment of the marriage to Catherine as Henry required , going so far as to pronounce the judgement that Henry 's marriage with Catherine was against the law of God on 23 May . Anne gave birth to a daughter , Princess Elizabeth , in September 1533 . The Pope responded to the marriage by excommunicating both Henry and Cranmer from the Roman Catholic Church ( 11 July 1533 ) . Henry was excommunicated again in December 1538 .
Consequently , in the same year the Act of First Fruits and Tenths transferred the taxes on ecclesiastical income from the Pope to the Crown . The Act Concerning Peter 's Pence and Dispensations outlawed the annual payment by landowners of one penny to the Pope . This Act also reiterated that England had " no superior under God , but only your Grace " and that Henry 's " imperial crown " had been diminished by " the unreasonable and uncharitable usurpations and exactions " of the Pope .
In case any of this should be resisted , Parliament passed the Treasons Act 1534 , which made it high treason punishable by death to deny Royal Supremacy . The following year , Thomas More and John Fisher were executed under this legislation . Finally , in 1536 , Parliament passed the Act against the Pope 's Authority , which removed the last part of papal authority still legal . This was Rome 's power in England to decide disputes concerning Scripture .
= = Theological radicalism = =
The break with Rome was not , by itself , a Reformation . That was to come from the dissemination of ideas . The views of the German reformer Martin Luther and his school were widely known and disputed in England . A major manifestation of theological radicalism in England was Lollardy , a movement deriving from the writings of John Wycliffe , the 14th century Bible translator , which stressed the primacy of Scripture . But after the execution of Sir John Oldcastle , leader of the Lollard rebellion of 1415 , they never again had access to the levers of power , and by the 15th century were much reduced in numbers and influence .
Many Lollards were still about , especially in London and the Thames Valley , in Essex and Kent , Coventry , Bristol and even in the North , who would be receptive to the new ideas when they came , who looked for a reform in the lifestyle of the clergy . They emphasised the preaching of the word over the sacrament of the altar , holding the latter to be but a memorial , but they were not party to the actions of the government . Other ideas , critical of the papal supremacy were held , not only by Lollards , but by those who wished to assert the supremacy of the secular state over the church but also by conciliarists such as Thomas More and , initially , Cranmer . Other Roman Catholic reformists , including John Colet , Dean of St Paul 's , warned that heretics were not nearly so great a danger to the faith as the wicked and indolent lives of the clergy .
The impact of Luther 's thinking was of a different order . The main plank of his thinking , justification by faith alone rather than by good works , threatened the whole basis of the Roman Catholic penitential system with its endowed masses and prayers for the dead as well as its doctrine of purgatory . Faith , not pious acts , prayers or masses , in this view , can secure the grace of God . Moreover , printing , which had become widespread at the end of the previous century , meant that vernacular Bibles could be produced in quantity . A further English translation by William Tyndale was banned but it was impossible to prevent copies from being smuggled and widely read . The Church could no longer effectively dictate its interpretation .
A group in Cambridge , which met at the White Horse tavern from the mid @-@ 1520s and became known as Little Germany , soon became influential . Its members included Robert Barnes , Hugh Latimer , John Frith and Thomas Bilney — all eventually burned as heretics . Cranmer 's change of mind , borne partly by his membership of the team negotiating for the annulment , finally came through his stay with Andreas Osiander in Nuremberg in 1532 . ( Cranmer also secretly married Osiander 's niece ) . Even then the position was complicated by the fact that Lutherans were not in favour of the annulment . Cranmer ( and Henry ) felt obliged to seek assistance from Strasbourg and Basel , which brought him into contact with the more radical ideas associated with Zwingli .
Cromwell 's programme , assisted by Anne Boleyn 's influence over episcopal appointments , was not merely against the clergy and the power of Rome . He persuaded Henry that safety from political alliances that Rome might attempt to bring together lay in negotiations with the German Lutheran princes . There also seemed to be a possibility that Charles V , the Holy Roman Emperor , might act to avenge his rejected aunt ( Queen Catherine ) and enforce the Pope 's excommunication . It never came to anything but it brought to England Lutheran ideas : three sacraments only — baptism , Eucharist and penance — which Henry was prepared to countenance to maintain the possibility of an alliance .
More noticeable , and objectionable to many , were the Injunctions , first of 1536 and then of 1538 . The programme began with the abolition of many feast days , " the occasion of vice and idleness " which , particularly at harvest time , had an immediate effect on village life . The offerings to images were discouraged , as were pilgrimages — these injunctions were issued while monasteries were being dissolved . In some places images were burned on the grounds that they were objects of superstitious devotion , candles lit before images were prohibited , and Bibles in both English and Latin were to be bought . Thus did the Reformation begin to affect the towns and villages of England and , in many places , people did not like it .
= = = Dissolution of the Monasteries = = =
In 1534 , Cromwell initiated a Visitation of the Monasteries ostensibly to examine their character , but in fact , to value their assets with a view to expropriation . The Crown was undergoing financial difficulties , and the wealth of the church , in contrast to its political weakness , made appropriation of church property both tempting and feasible . Suppression of monasteries to raise funds was not unknown previously . Cromwell had done the same thing on the instructions of Cardinal Wolsey to raise funds for two proposed colleges at Ipswich and Oxford years before .
Now the Visitation allowed for an inventory of what the monasteries possessed , and the visiting commissioners claimed to have uncovered sexual immorality and financial impropriety amongst the monks and nuns , which became the ostensible justification for their suppression . The Church owned between one @-@ fifth and one @-@ third of the land in all England ; Cromwell realised that he could bind the gentry and nobility to Royal Supremacy by selling to them the huge amount of Church lands , and that any reversion to pre @-@ Royal Supremacy would entail upsetting many of the powerful people in the realm . For these various reasons the Dissolution of the Monasteries began in 1536 with the Dissolution of the Lesser Monasteries Act , affecting smaller houses — those valued at less than £ 200 a year . Henry used the revenue to help build coastal defences ( see Device Forts ) against expected invasion , and all the land was given to the Crown or sold to the aristocracy . Whereas the royal supremacy had raised few eyebrows , the attack on abbeys and priories affected lay people . Mobs attacked those sent to break up monastic buildings . Suppression commissioners were attacked by local people in several places . In Northern England there were a series of uprisings by Roman Catholics against the dissolutions in late 1536 and early 1537 .
In the autumn of 1536 there was a great muster , reckoned to be up to 40 @,@ 000 in number , at Horncastle in Lincolnshire . The nervous gentry managed , with difficulty , to disperse these masses — who had tried unsuccessfully to negotiate with the king by petition . The Pilgrimage of Grace was a more serious matter . Revolt spread through Yorkshire , and the rebels gathered at York . Robert Aske , their leader , negotiated the restoration of sixteen of the twenty @-@ six northern monasteries , which had actually been dissolved . However , the promises made to them by the Duke of Suffolk were ignored on the king 's orders . Suffolk was instructed to put the rebellion down . Forty @-@ seven of the Lincolnshire rebels were executed , and 132 from the northern pilgrimage . Further rebellions took place in Cornwall in early 1537 , and in Walsingham ( in Norfolk ) . These received similar treatment .
It took Cromwell four years to complete the process . In 1539 he moved to the dissolution of the larger monasteries that had escaped earlier . Many houses gave up voluntarily , though some sought exemption by payment . When their houses were closed down some monks sought to transfer to larger houses . Many became secular priests . A few , including eighteen Carthusians , refused and were killed to the last man .
Henry VIII personally devised a plan to form at least thirteen new dioceses so that most counties had one based on a former monastery ( or more than one ) , though this scheme was only partly carried out . New dioceses were established at Bristol , Gloucester , Oxford , Peterborough , Westminster and Chester , but not , for instance , at Shrewsbury , Leicester or Waltham .
= = = Reformation reversed = = =
The abolition of papal authority made way not for orderly change , but for dissension and violence . Iconoclasm , destruction , disputes within communities that led to violence , and radical challenge to all forms of faith were reported daily to Cromwell — developments which he tried to hide from the King . Once Henry knew what was afoot , he acted . Thus at the end of 1538 , a proclamation was issued forbidding free discussion of the Sacrament and forbidding clerical marriage , on pain of death .
Henry personally presided at the trial of John Lambert in November 1538 for denying the real presence . At the same time , he shared in the drafting of a proclamation giving Anabaptists and Sacramentaries ten days to get out of the country . In 1539 Parliament passed the Six Articles reaffirming Roman Catholic practices such as transubstantiation , clerical celibacy and the importance of confession to a priest and prescribed penalties if anyone denied them . Henry himself observed the Easter Triduum in that year with some display .
On 28 June 1540 Cromwell , Henry 's longtime advisor and loyal servant , was executed . Different reasons were advanced : that Cromwell would not enforce the Act of Six Articles ; that he had supported Barnes , Latimer and other heretics ; and that he was responsible for Henry 's marriage to Anne of Cleves , his fourth wife . Many other arrests under the Act followed . Cranmer lay low .
In 1540 Henry began his attack upon the free availability of the Bible . In 1536 Cromwell had instructed each parish to acquire " one book of the whole Bible of the largest volume in English " by Easter 1539 . This instruction had been largely ignored , so a new version , the Great Bible ( largely William Tyndale 's English translation of the Hebrew and Greek Scriptures ) , was authorised in August 1537 . But by 1539 Henry had announced his desire to have it " corrected " ( which Cranmer referred to the universities to undertake ) .
Many parishes were , in any case , reluctant to use English Bibles . Now the mood was conservatism , which expressed itself in the fear that Bible reading led to heresy . Many Bibles that had been put in place were removed . By the 1543 Act for the Advancement of True Religion , Henry restricted Bible reading to men and women of noble birth . He expressed his fears to Parliament in 1545 that " the Word of God , is disputed , rhymed , sung and jangled in every ale house and tavern , contrary to the true meaning and doctrine of the same . "
By 1546 the conservatives , the Duke of Norfolk , Wriothesly , Gardiner and Tunstall were in the ascendent . They were , by the king 's will , to be members of the regency council on his death . However , by the time he died in 1547 , Edward Seymour , Earl of Hertford , brother of Jane Seymour , Henry 's third wife ( and therefore uncle to the future Edward VI ) , managed — by a number of alliances with influential Protestants such as Lisle — to gain control over the Privy Council . He persuaded Henry to change his will to replace Norfolk , Wriothesly , Gardiner and Tunstall as executors with Seymour 's supporters .
= = Edward 's Reformation = =
When Henry died in 1547 , his nine @-@ year @-@ old son , Edward VI , inherited the throne . Edward was a precocious child who had been brought up as a Protestant , but was initially of little account politically . Edward Seymour was made Lord Protector . He was commissioned as virtual regent with near sovereign powers . Now made Duke of Somerset , he proceeded at first hesitantly , partly because his powers were not unchallenged . When he acted it was because he saw the political advantage in doing so .
The 1547 Injunctions against images were a more tightly drawn version of those of 1538 , but they were more fiercely enforced , at first informally , and then by instruction . All images in churches were to be dismantled . Stained glass , shrines and statues were defaced or destroyed . Roods , and often their lofts and screens , were cut down and bells were taken down . Vestments were prohibited and either burned or sold . Chalices were melted down or sold . The requirement of the clergy to be celibate was lifted . Processions were banned and ashes and palms were prohibited . Chantries ( endowments to provide masses for the dead ) were abolished completely . How well this was received is disputed . Modern historian A.G. Dickens contends that people had " ceased to believe in intercessory masses for souls in purgatory " , while others , such as Eamon Duffy , argue that the demolition of chantry chapels and the removal of images coincided with the activity of royal visitors . The evidence is often ambiguous . In 1549 Cranmer introduced a Book of Common Prayer in English , which while to all appearances kept the structure of the Mass , altered the theology so that the holy gifts of consecrated bread and wine were not offered to God as a sacrifice . In 1550 stone altars were replaced by wooden communion tables , a very public break with the past , as it changed the look and focus of church interiors .
Less visible , but still influential , was the new ordinal — which provided for Protestant ministers rather than Roman Catholic priests , an admittedly conservative adaptation of Bucer 's draft ; its Preface explicitly mentions the historic succession but it has been described as " ... another case of Cranmer 's opportunist adoption of medieval forms for new purposes . " In 1551 , the episcopate was remodelled by the appointment of Protestants to the bench . This removed the refusal of some bishops to enforce the regulations as an obstacle to change .
Henceforth , the Reformation proceeded apace . In 1552 , the prayer book — which the conservative Bishop Stephen Gardiner had approved from his prison cell as being " patient of a Catholic interpretation " — was replaced by a second , much more radical prayer book that altered the service to remove any sense that the Eucharist was a material sacrifice offered to God while keeping the belief that it was a sacrifice of thanksgiving and praise ( in word ) . Edward 's Parliament also repealed his father 's Six Articles .
The enforcement of the new liturgy did not always take place without a struggle . Conformity was the order of the day , but in East Anglia and in Devon there were rebellions , as also in Cornwall , to which many parishes sent their young men ; they were put down only after considerable loss of life . In other places the causes of the rebellions were less easy to pin down but by July throughout southern England , there was " quavering quiet , " which burst out into " stirs " in many places , most significantly in Kett 's Rebellion in Norwich .
Apart from these more spectacular pieces of resistance , in some places chantry priests continued to say prayers and landowners to pay them to do so . Opposition to the removal of images was widespread — so much so that when during the Commonwealth , William Dowsing was commissioned to the task of image breaking in Suffolk , his task , as he records it , was enormous . In Kent and the southeast , compliance was mostly willing and for many , the sale of vestments and plate was an opportunity to make money ( but it was also true that in London and Kent , Reformation ideas had permeated more deeply into popular thinking ) .
The effect of the resistance was to topple Somerset as Lord Protector , so that in 1549 it was feared by some that the Reformation would cease . The prayer book was the tipping point . But Lisle , now made Earl of Warwick , was made Lord President of the Privy Council and , ever the opportunist ( he died a public Roman Catholic ) , he saw the further implementation of the reforming policy as a means of defeating his rivals .
Outwardly , the destruction and removals for sale had changed the church forever . Many churches had concealed their vestments and their silver , and had buried their stone altars . There were many disputes between the government and parishes over church property . Thus , when Edward died in July 1553 and the Duke of Northumberland attempted to have the Protestant Lady Jane Grey made Queen , the unpopularity of the confiscations gave Mary the opportunity to have herself proclaimed Queen , first in Suffolk , and then in London to the acclamation of the crowds .
= = Roman Catholic Restoration under Mary I = =
From 1553 , under the reign of Henry 's Roman Catholic daughter , Mary I , the Reformation legislation was repealed and Mary sought to achieve the reunion with Rome . Her first Act of Parliament was to retroactively validate Henry 's marriage to her mother and so legitimise her claim to the throne .
Achieving her objective was , however , not straightforward . The Pope was only prepared to accept reunion when church property disputes had been settled — which , in practice , meant letting those who had bought former church property keep it . Thus did Cardinal Pole arrive to become Archbishop of Canterbury in Cranmer 's place . Mary could have had Cranmer imprisoned as he was tried and executed for treason — he had supported the claims of Lady Jane Grey — but she resolved to have him tried for heresy . His recantations of his Protestantism would have been a major coup . Unhappily for her , he unexpectedly withdrew his recantations at the last minute as he was to be burned at the stake , thus ruining her government 's propaganda victory .
If Mary was to secure England for Roman Catholicism , she needed an heir . On the advice of the Holy Roman Emperor she married his son , Philip II of Spain ; she needed to prevent her Protestant half @-@ sister Elizabeth from inheriting the Crown and thus returning England to Protestantism . There was opposition , and even a rebellion in Kent ( led by Sir Thomas Wyatt ) ; even though it was provided that Philip would never inherit the kingdom if there was no heir , received no estates and had no coronation . He was there to provide an heir . But she never became pregnant , and likely suffered from cancer . Ironically , another blow fell . Pope Julius died and his successor , Pope Paul IV , declared war on Philip and recalled Pole to Rome to have him tried as a heretic . Mary refused to let him go . The support she might have expected from a grateful Pope was thus denied .
After 1555 , the initial reconciling tone of the regime began to harden . The medieval heresy laws were restored . The Marian Persecutions of Protestants ensued and 283 Protestants were burnt at the stake for heresy . This resulted in the Queen becoming known as Bloody Mary , due to the influence of John Foxe , one of the Protestants who fled Marian England . Foxe 's Book of Martyrs recorded the executions in such detail that it became Mary 's epitaph ; Convocation subsequently ordered that Foxe 's book should be placed in every cathedral in the land . In fact , while those who were executed after the revolts of 1536 , and the St David 's Down rebellion of 1549 , and the unknown number of monks who died for refusing to submit , may not have been tried for heresy , they certainly exceeded that number by some amount . Even so , the heroism of some of the martyrs was an example to those who witnessed them , so that in some places it was the burnings that set people against the regime .
There was a slow consolidation in Roman Catholic strength in Mary 's latter years . The reconciled Roman Catholic Edmund Bonner , Bishop of London , produced a catechism and a collection of homilies . Printing presses produced primers and other devotional materials , and recruitment to the English clergy began to rise after almost a decade . Repairs to long @-@ neglected churches began . In the parishes " ... restoration and repair continued , new bells were bought , and churches ' ales produced their bucolic profits . " Commissioners visited to ensure that altars were restored , roods rebuilt and vestments and plate purchased . Moreover , Pole was determined to do more than remake the past . He insisted on scripture , teaching and education , and on improving the clergy 's moral standards .
It is difficult to determine how far previous reigns had broken Roman Catholic devotion , with its belief in the saints and in purgatory , but certainties — especially those that drew public financial support — had been shaken . Benefactions to the church did not return significantly . Trust in clergy who had changed their minds and were now willing to leave their new wives — as they were required to do — was bound to have weakened .
Few monasteries , chantries , and gilds were reinstated . " Parish religion was marked by religious and cultural sterility , " though some have observed enthusiasm , marred only by poor harvests that produced poverty and want . Full restoration of the Roman Catholic faith in England to its pre @-@ Reformation state would take time . Consequently , Protestants secretly ministering to underground congregations , such as Thomas Bentham , were planning for a long haul , a ministry of survival . Mary 's death in November 1558 , childless and without having made provision for a Roman Catholic to succeed her , would undo her consolidation .
= = Elizabethan Settlement = =
Following Mary 's childless death , her half @-@ sister Elizabeth inherited the throne . One of the most important concerns during Elizabeth 's early reign was religion . Elizabeth could not be Roman Catholic , as that church considered her illegitimate . At the same time , she had observed the turmoil brought about by Edward 's introduction of radical Protestant reforms . Communion with the Roman Catholic Church was again severed by Elizabeth . She relied primarily on her chief advisors , Sir William Cecil , as her Secretary of State , and Sir Nicholas Bacon , as the Lord Keeper of the Great Seal , for direction on the matter . Chiefly she supported her father 's idea of reforming the church but made some minor adjustments . In this way , Elizabeth and her advisors aimed at a church that included most opinions .
Two groups were excluded . Roman Catholics who remained loyal to the Pope would not be tolerated . They were , in fact , regarded as traitors , because the Pope had refused to accept Elizabeth as Queen of England . Roman Catholics were given the hard choice of being loyal either to their church or their country . For some priests it meant life on the run , in some cases death for treason .
The other group not to be tolerated was people who wanted reform to go much further , and who finally gave up on the Church of England . They could no longer see it as a true church . They believed it had refused to obey the Bible , so they formed small groups of convinced believers outside the church . The government responded with imprisonment and exile to try to crush these " ' separatists " ' .
The Church of England itself contained three groups . Those who believed the form of the church was just what it should be included leaders like John Jewel and Richard Hooker . A second group looked for opportunities to reintroduce some Roman Catholic practices . Under the Stuart kings they would have their chance . The third group , who came to be called Puritans , wanted to remove remaining traces of the old ways . The Stuart kings were to give them a rough passage . At the end of Elizabeth 's reign , the Church of England was firmly in place , but held the seeds of future conflict .
Parliament was summoned in 1559 to consider the Reformation Bill and to create a new church . The Reformation Bill defined the Communion as a consubstantial celebration as opposed to a transubstantial celebration , included abuse of the pope in the litany , and ordered that ministers should not wear the surplice or other Roman Catholic vestments . It allowed ministers to marry , banned images from churches , and confirmed Elizabeth as Supreme Governor of the Church of England .
The Bill met heavy resistance in the House of Lords , as Roman Catholic bishops as well as the lay peers voted against it . They reworked much of the Bill , changed the litany to allow for a transubstantial belief in the Communion and refused to grant Elizabeth the title of Supreme Head of the Church . Parliament was prorogued over Easter , and when it resumed , the government entered two new bills into the Houses — the Act of Supremacy and the Act of Uniformity .
= = = Act of Supremacy 1558 = = =
This Act made null and void ( with certain specific exceptions ) the Marian act of 1554 that had repealed all of Henry VIII 's legislation from 1529 onwards which had denied the authority of the See of Rome and also confirmed Elizabeth as Supreme Governor of the Church of England . Supreme Governor was a suitably equivocal title that made Elizabeth head of the Church without ever saying she was . This was important for two reasons : ( 1 ) it satisfied those who felt that a woman could not rule the church , and ( 2 ) it acted in a conciliatory way toward English Roman Catholics . For the clergy , Elizabeth 's changes were more wholesale than those of her half @-@ brother , Edward , had been . All but one ( Anthony Kitchin ) of the bishops lost their posts , a hundred fellows of Oxford colleges were deprived ; many dignitaries resigned rather than take the oath . The bishops who were removed from the ecclesiastical bench were replaced by appointees who would agree to the reforms .
On the question of images , Elizabeth 's initial reaction was to allow crucifixes and candlesticks and the restoration of roods , but some of the new bishops whom she had elevated protested . In 1560 Edmund Grindal , one of the Marian exiles now made Bishop of London , was allowed to enforce the demolition of rood lofts in London and in 1561 the Queen herself ordered the demolition of all lofts . Thereafter , the determination to prevent any further restoration was evidenced by the more thoroughgoing destruction of roods , vestments , stone altars , dooms , statues and other ornaments . The queen also appointed a new Privy Council , removing many Roman Catholic counsellors by doing so . Under Elizabeth , factionalism in the Council and conflicts at court greatly diminished . The Act of Supremacy was passed without difficulty .
= = = Act of Uniformity 1558 = = =
The Act of Uniformity 1558 , which forced people to attend Sunday service in an Anglican church with a new version of the Book of Common Prayer , passed by only three votes . The Bill of Uniformity was more cautious than the initial Reformation Bill . It revoked the harsh laws proposed against Roman Catholics , it removed the abuse of the pope from the litany and kept the wording that allowed for both consubstantial and transubstantial beliefs in the presence of Christ in the Eucharist .
After Parliament was dismissed , Elizabeth and Cecil drafted the Royal Injunctions . These were additions to the settlement , and largely stressed continuity with the Catholic past – clergy were ordered to wear the surplice and the use of the cope was allowed in cathedrals and collegiate chapels . The Ornaments Rubric states that the ornaments of the church and ministers thereof shall remain as they were in the second year of the reign of Edward VI , i.e. in 1548 , when Mass was still celebrated ( the Oxford Movement in the 19th century interpreted this as permission to wear chasubles , dalmatics and other vestments ) . Wafers , as opposed to ordinary baker 's bread , were to be used as the bread at Communion . There had been opposition to the settlement in rural England , which for the most part was largely Roman Catholic , so the changes aimed for acceptance of the settlement . What succeeded more than anything else was the sheer length of Elizabeth 's reign ; while Mary had been able to impose her programme for a mere five years , Elizabeth had more than forty . Those who delayed , " looking for a new day " when restoration would again be commanded , were defeated by the passing of years .
= = = Puritans and Roman Catholics = = =
Elizabeth 's reign saw the emergence of Puritanism , which encompassed those Protestants who , whilst they agreed that there should be one national church , felt that the church had been but partially reformed . Puritanism ranged from hostility to the content of the Prayer Book and " popish " ceremony , to a desire for church governance to be radically reformed . Grindal was made Archbishop of Canterbury in 1575 and chose to oppose even the Queen in his desire to forward the Puritan agenda . He ended a 6 @,@ 000 @-@ word reproach to her with , " Bear with me , I beseech you Madam , if I choose rather to offend your earthly majesty than to offend the heavenly majesty of God . " He was placed under house arrest for his trouble and though he was not deprived , his death in 1583 put an end to the hopes of his supporters .
Grindal 's successor , Archbishop Whitgift , more reflected the Queen 's determination to discipline those who were unprepared to accept her settlement . A conformist , he imposed a degree of obedience on the clergy that apparently alarmed even the Queen 's ministers , such as Lord Burghley . The Puritan cause was not helped even by its friends . The pseudonymous " Martin Marprelate " tracts , which attacked conformist clergy with a libellous humorous tone , outraged senior Puritan clergy and set the government on an unsuccessful attempt to run the writer to earth . The defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 incidentally made it more difficult for Puritans to resist the conclusion that since God " blew with his wind and they were scattered " he could not be too offended by the religious establishment in the land .
On the other side , there were still huge numbers of Roman Catholics . Some conformed , bending with the times , hoping that there would be a fresh reverse . Vestments were still hidden , golden candlesticks bequeathed , chalices kept . The Mass was still celebrated in some places alongside the new Communion service but was more difficult than before . Both Roman Catholic priests and laity lived a double life , apparently conforming , but avoiding taking the oath of conformity . Only as time passed did recusancy — refusal to attend Protestant services — became more common . Jesuits and seminary priests , trained in Douai and Rome to make good the losses of English priests , encouraged this .
By the 1570s , an underground church was growing fast as the Church of England became more Protestant and less bearable for Roman Catholics who were still a sizeable minority . Only one public attempt to restore the old religion occurred : the Rising of the Northern earls in 1569 . It was a botched attempt ; in spite of tumultuous crowds who greeted the rebels in Durham , the rebellion did not spread . The assistance they sought did not materialise , their communication with allies at Court was poor They came nowhere near to freeing Mary Stuart , whose presence might have rallied support , from her imprisonment in Tutbury .
The Roman Catholic Church 's refusal to countenance occasional attendance at Protestant services , as well as the excommunication of Elizabeth by Pope Pius V in 1570 , presented the choice to Roman Catholics more starkly . The arrival of the seminary priests , while it was a lifeline to many Roman Catholics , brought further trouble . Elizabeth 's ministers took steps to stem the tide : fines for refusal to attend church were raised from 12 d. per service to £ 20 a month , fifty times an artisan 's wage ; it was now treason to be absolved from schism and reconciled to Rome ; the execution of priests began — the first in 1577 , four in 1581 , eleven in 1582 , two in 1583 , six in 1584 , fifty @-@ three by 1590 , and seventy more between 1601 and 1608 . It became treasonable for a Roman Catholic priest ordained abroad to enter the country . Because the papacy had called for the deposing of the Queen , the choice for moderate Roman Catholics lay between treason and damnation . The List of Catholic martyrs of the English Reformation was extensive .
There is some distance between legislation and its enforcement . The governmental attacks on recusancy were mostly upon the gentry . Few recusants were actually fined ; the fines that were imposed were often at reduced rates ; the persecution eased ; priests came to recognise that they should not refuse communion to occasional conformists . The persecutions did not extinguish the faith , but they tested it sorely . The huge number of Roman Catholics in East Anglia and the North in the 1560s disappeared into the general population in part because recusant priests largely served the great Roman Catholic houses , which alone could hide them . Without the Mass and pastoral care , yeomen , artisans and husbandmen fell into conformism . Roman Catholicism , supported by foreign or expatriate priests , came to be seen as treasonous .
= = Legacy = =
By the time of Elizabeth 's death a third party had emerged , " perfectly hostile " to Puritans but not adherent to Rome . It preferred the revised Book of Common Prayer of 1559 , which was without some of the matters offensive to Roman Catholics . The recusants had been removed from the centre of the stage . The new dispute was now between the Puritans ( who wished to see an end of the prayer book and episcopacy ) , and this third party ( the considerable body of people who looked kindly on the Elizabethan Settlement , who rejected prophesyings , whose spirituality had been nourished by the Prayer Book and who preferred the governance of bishops ) .
It was between these two groups that , after Elizabeth 's death in 1603 , a new , more savage episode of the Reformation was in the process of gestation . During the reigns of the Stuart kings , James I and Charles I , the battle lines were to become more defined , leading ultimately to the English Civil War , the first on English soil to engulf parts of the civilian population . The war was only partly about religion , but the abolition of prayer book and episcopacy by a Puritan Parliament was an element in the causes of the conflict . As historian MacCulloch has noted , the legacy of these tumultuous events can be recognised , throughout the Commonwealth ( 1649 – 60 ) and the Restoration that followed it , and beyond . This third party was to become the core of the restored Church of England , but at the price for further division .
= = = Historiography = = =
Haigh , Christopher . " The Recent Historiography of the English Reformation , " Historical Journal Vol . 25 , No. 4 ( Dec. 1982 ) , pp. 995 – 1007 in JSTOR
Marshall , Peter . " ( Re ) defining the English Reformation , " Journal of British Studies , July 2009 , Vol . 48 # 3 pp 564 – 586
Vidmar , John . English Catholic Historians and the English Reformation : 1585 – 1954 ( 2005 )
Walsham , Alexandra . " History , Memory , and the English Reformation . " Historical Journal ( 2012 ) 55 # 4 pp : 899 – 938 @.@ online
= Hillary Clinton =
Hillary Diane Rodham Clinton ( / ˈhɪləri daɪˈæn ˈrɒdəm ˈklɪntən / ; born October 26 , 1947 ) is an American politician and the nominee of the Democratic Party for President of the United States in the 2016 election . She is the first female candidate to gain that status in a major American political party . She served as the 67th United States Secretary of State from 2009 to 2013 , the junior United States Senator representing New York from 2001 to 2009 , First Lady of the United States during the presidency of Bill Clinton from 1993 to 2001 , and First Lady of Arkansas during the governorship of Bill Clinton from 1979 to 1981 and from 1983 to 1992 .
Clinton grew up in Chicago and the neighboring suburb of Park Ridge , Illinois . She attended Wellesley College , graduating in 1969 , and earned a J.D. from Yale Law School in 1973 . After serving as a congressional legal counsel , she moved to Arkansas , marrying Bill Clinton in 1975 . In 1977 , she co @-@ founded Arkansas Advocates for Children and Families . She was appointed the first female chair of the Legal Services Corporation in 1978 , and , the following year , became the first woman partner at Rose Law Firm . As First Lady of Arkansas ( 1979 – 81 , 1983 – 92 ) , she led a task force whose recommendations helped reform Arkansas 's public schools , and served on the boards of corporations including Walmart .
As First Lady of the United States , Clinton led the unsuccessful effort to enact the Clinton health plan of 1993 . In 1997 and 1999 , she helped create programs for children 's health insurance , adoption , and foster care . The only first lady to have been subpoenaed , she faced a federal grand jury in 1996 regarding the Whitewater controversy ; no charges were ever brought against her related to this or any other controversy . Her marriage endured the Lewinsky scandal of 1998 , and overall her role as first lady drew a polarized response from the public .
Clinton was elected in 2000 as the first female senator from New York , the only first lady ever to have sought elective office . Following the September 11 attacks , she voted to approve the war in Afghanistan . She also voted for the Iraq Resolution ( which she later regretted ) , sought to hasten the withdrawal of U.S. troops from Iraq , and opposed the Iraq War troop surge of 2007 ( which she later commended ) . She voted against the Bush tax cuts , and voted against John Roberts and Samuel Alito for the United States Supreme Court , filibustering the latter . She was re @-@ elected to the Senate in 2006 . Running for president in 2008 , she won far more delegates than any previous female candidate , but lost the Democratic nomination to Barack Obama .
As Secretary of State in the Obama administration from 2009 to 2013 , Clinton responded to the Arab Spring , during which she advocated the U.S. military intervention | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
voted for the USA Patriot Act in October 2001 . In 2005 , when the act was up for renewal , she expressed concerns with the USA Patriot Act Reauthorization Conference Report regarding civil liberties , before voting in favor of the USA PATRIOT Improvement and Reauthorization Act of 2005 in March 2006 that gained large majority support .
Clinton strongly supported the 2001 U.S. military action in Afghanistan , saying it was a chance to combat terrorism while improving the lives of Afghan women who suffered under the Taliban government . Clinton voted in favor of the October 2002 Iraq War Resolution , which authorized President George W. Bush to use military force against Iraq .
After the Iraq War began , Clinton made trips to Iraq and Afghanistan to visit American troops stationed there . On a visit to Iraq in February 2005 , Clinton noted that the insurgency had failed to disrupt the democratic elections held earlier and that parts of the country were functioning well . Observing that war deployments were draining regular and reserve forces , she co @-@ introduced legislation to increase the size of the regular U.S. Army by 80 @,@ 000 soldiers to ease the strain . In late 2005 , Clinton said that while immediate withdrawal from Iraq would be a mistake , Bush 's pledge to stay " until the job is done " was also misguided , as it gave Iraqis " an open @-@ ended invitation not to take care of themselves " . Her stance caused frustration among those in the Democratic Party who favored quick withdrawal . Clinton supported retaining and improving health benefits for reservists and lobbied against the closure of several military bases , especially those in New York . She used her position on the Armed Services Committee to forge close relationships with a number of high @-@ ranking military officers . ( By 2014 and 2015 Clinton had fully reversed herself on the Iraq War Resolution , saying that she " got it wrong " and the vote in support had been a " mistake " . )
Senator Clinton voted against President Bush 's two major tax cut packages , the Economic Growth and Tax Relief Reconciliation Act of 2001 and the Jobs and Growth Tax Relief Reconciliation Act of 2003 . Clinton voted against the 2005 confirmation of John Roberts as Chief Justice of the United States and the 2006 confirmation of Samuel Alito to the U.S. Supreme Court , filibustering the latter .
In 2005 , Clinton called for the Federal Trade Commission to investigate how hidden sex scenes showed up in the controversial video game Grand Theft Auto : San Andreas . Along with Senators Joe Lieberman and Evan Bayh , she introduced the Family Entertainment Protection Act , intended to protect children from inappropriate content found in video games . In 2004 and 2006 , Clinton voted against the Federal Marriage Amendment that sought to prohibit same @-@ sex marriage . ( Clinton opposed same @-@ sex marriage until 2013 . )
Looking to establish a " progressive infrastructure " to rival that of American conservatism , Clinton played a formative role in conversations that led to the 2003 founding of former Clinton administration Chief of Staff John Podesta 's Center for American Progress , shared aides with Citizens for Responsibility and Ethics in Washington , founded in 2003 , and advised the Clintons ' former antagonist David Brock 's Media Matters for America , created in 2004 . Following the 2004 Senate elections , she successfully pushed new Democratic Senate leader Harry Reid to create a Senate war room to handle daily political messaging .
= = = 2006 re @-@ election campaign = = =
In November 2004 , Clinton announced that she would seek a second Senate term . Clinton easily won the Democratic nomination over opposition from antiwar activist Jonathan Tasini . The early frontrunner for the Republican nomination , Westchester County District Attorney Jeanine Pirro , withdrew from the contest after several months of poor campaign performance . Clinton 's eventual opponent in the general election was Republican candidate John Spencer , a former mayor of Yonkers . Clinton won the election on November 7 , 2006 , with 67 percent of the vote to Spencer 's 31 percent , carrying all but four of New York 's sixty @-@ two counties . Her campaign spent $ 36 million for her re @-@ election , more than any other candidate for Senate in the 2006 elections . Some Democrats criticized her for spending too much in a one @-@ sided contest , while some supporters were concerned she did not leave more funds for a potential presidential bid in 2008 . In the following months , she transferred $ 10 million of her Senate funds toward her presidential campaign .
= = = Second term = = =
Clinton opposed the Iraq War troop surge of 2007 , for both military and domestic political reasons ( by the following year , she was privately acknowledging that the surge had been successful ) . In March of that year , she voted in favor of a war @-@ spending bill that required President Bush to begin withdrawing troops from Iraq by a deadline ; it passed almost completely along party lines but was subsequently vetoed by Bush . In May , a compromise war funding bill that removed withdrawal deadlines but tied funding to progress benchmarks for the Iraqi government passed the Senate by a vote of 80 – 14 and would be signed by Bush ; Clinton was one of those who voted against it . Clinton responded to General David Petraeus 's September 2007 Report to Congress on the Situation in Iraq by saying , " I think that the reports that you provide to us really require a willing suspension of disbelief . "
In March 2007 , in response to the dismissal of U.S. attorneys controversy , Clinton called on Attorney General Alberto Gonzales to resign . Regarding the high @-@ profile , hotly debated comprehensive immigration reform bill known as the Secure Borders , Economic Opportunity and Immigration Reform Act of 2007 , Clinton cast several votes in support of the bill , which eventually failed to gain cloture .
As the financial crisis of 2007 – 08 reached a peak with the liquidity crisis of September 2008 , Clinton supported the proposed bailout of the U.S. financial system , voting in favor of the $ 700 billion law that created the Troubled Asset Relief Program , saying that it represented the interests of the American people . It passed the Senate 74 – 25 .
In 2007 , Clinton and Virginia Sen. Jim Webb called for an investigation into whether the body armor issued to soldiers in Iraq was adequate .
= = 2008 presidential campaign = =
Clinton had been preparing for a potential candidacy for U.S. President since at least early 2003 . On January 20 , 2007 , she announced via her website the formation of a presidential exploratory committee for the United States presidential election of 2008 , stating " I 'm in , and I 'm in to win . " No woman had ever been nominated by a major party for the presidency . When Bill Clinton became president in 1993 , a blind trust was established ; in April 2007 , the Clintons liquidated the blind trust to avoid the possibility of ethical conflicts or political embarrassments as Hillary Clinton undertook her presidential race . Later disclosure statements revealed that the couple 's worth was now upwards of $ 50 million , and that they had earned over $ 100 million since 2000 , with most of it coming from Bill Clinton 's books , speaking engagements , and other activities .
Throughout the first half of 2007 , Clinton led candidates competing for the Democratic presidential nomination in opinion polls for the election . Senator Barack Obama of Illinois and former Senator John Edwards of North Carolina were her strongest competitors . The biggest threat to her campaign was her past support of the Iraq War , which Obama had opposed from the beginning . Clinton and Obama both set records for early fundraising , swapping the money lead each quarter .
By September 2007 , polling in the first six states holding Democratic contests showed that Clinton was leading in all of them , with the races being closest in Iowa and South Carolina . By the following month , national polls showed Clinton far ahead of Democratic competitors . At the end of October , Clinton suffered a rare poor debate performance against Obama , Edwards , and her other opponents . Obama 's message of change began to resonate with the Democratic electorate better than Clinton 's message of experience . The race tightened considerably , especially in the early states of Iowa , New Hampshire , and South Carolina , with Clinton losing her lead in some polls by December .
In the first vote of 2008 , she placed third in the January 3 Iowa Democratic caucus behind Obama and Edwards . Obama gained ground in national polling in the next few days , with all polls predicting a victory for him in the New Hampshire primary . Clinton gained a surprise win there on January 8 , defeating Obama narrowly . It was the first time a woman had won a major American party 's presidential primary for the purposes of delegate selection . Explanations for Clinton 's New Hampshire comeback varied but often centered on her being seen more sympathetically , especially by women , after her eyes welled with tears and her voice broke while responding to a voter 's question the day before the election .
The nature of the contest fractured in the next few days . Several remarks by Bill Clinton and other surrogates , and a remark by Hillary Clinton concerning Martin Luther King , Jr. and Lyndon B. Johnson , were perceived by many as , accidentally or intentionally , limiting Obama as a racially oriented candidate or otherwise denying the post @-@ racial significance and accomplishments of his campaign . Despite attempts by both Hillary Clinton and Obama to downplay the issue , Democratic voting became more polarized as a result , with Clinton losing much of her support among African Americans . She lost by a two @-@ to @-@ one margin to Obama in the January 26 South Carolina primary , setting up , with Edwards soon dropping out , an intense two @-@ person contest for the twenty @-@ two February 5 Super Tuesday states . Bill Clinton had made more statements attracting criticism for their perceived racial implications late in the South Carolina campaign , and his role was seen as damaging enough to her that a wave of supporters within and outside of the campaign said the former President " needs to stop " . The South Carolina campaign had done lasting damage to Clinton , eroding her support among the Democratic establishment and leading to the prized endorsement of Obama by Ted Kennedy .
On Super Tuesday , Clinton won the largest states , such as California , New York , New Jersey and Massachusetts , while Obama won more states ; they almost evenly split the total popular vote . But Obama was gaining more pledged delegates for his share of the popular vote due to better exploitation of the Democratic proportional allocation rules .
The Clinton campaign had counted on winning the nomination by Super Tuesday and was unprepared financially and logistically for a prolonged effort ; lagging in Internet fundraising , Clinton began loaning money to her campaign . There was continuous turmoil within the campaign staff and she made several top @-@ level personnel changes . Obama won the next eleven February contests across the country , often by large margins , and took a significant pledged delegate lead over Clinton . On March 4 , Clinton broke the string of losses by winning in Ohio among other places , where her criticism of NAFTA , a major legacy of her husband 's presidency , helped in a state where the trade agreement was unpopular . Throughout the campaign , Obama dominated caucuses , for which the Clinton campaign largely ignored preparation . Obama did well in primaries where African Americans or younger , college @-@ educated , or more affluent voters were heavily represented ; Clinton did well in primaries where Hispanics or older , non @-@ college @-@ educated , or working @-@ class white voters predominated . Behind in delegates , Clinton 's best hope of winning the nomination came in persuading uncommitted , party @-@ appointed superdelegates .
Clinton 's admission in late March , that her repeated campaign statements about having been under hostile fire from snipers during a March 1996 visit to U.S. troops at Tuzla Air Base in Bosnia and Herzegovina were not true , attracted considerable media attention . On April 22 , she won the Pennsylvania primary and kept her campaign alive . On May 6 , a narrower @-@ than @-@ expected win in the Indiana primary , coupled with a large loss in the North Carolina primary , ended any realistic chance she had of winning the nomination . She vowed to stay on through the remaining primaries , but stopped attacks against Obama ; as one advisor stated , " She could accept losing . She could not accept quitting . " She won some of the remaining contests , and indeed over the last three months of the campaign won more delegates , states , and votes than Obama , but she failed to overcome Obama 's lead .
Following the final primaries on June 3 , 2008 , Obama had gained enough delegates to become the presumptive nominee . In a speech before her supporters on June 7 , Clinton ended her campaign and endorsed Obama . By campaign 's end , Clinton had won 1 @,@ 640 pledged delegates to Obama 's 1 @,@ 763 ; at the time of the clinching , Clinton had 286 superdelegates to Obama 's 395 , with those numbers widening to 256 versus 438 once Obama was acknowledged the winner . Clinton and Obama each received over 17 million votes during the nomination process with both breaking the previous record . Clinton was the first woman to run in the primary or caucus of every state , and she eclipsed , by a very wide margin , Congresswoman Shirley Chisholm 's 1972 marks for most votes garnered and delegates won by a woman . Clinton gave a passionate speech supporting Obama at the 2008 Democratic National Convention and campaigned frequently for him in Fall 2008 , which concluded with his victory over McCain in the general election on November 4 . Clinton 's campaign ended up severely in debt ; she owed millions of dollars to outside vendors and wrote off the $ 13 million that she lent it herself . The debt was eventually paid off by the beginning of 2013 .
= = U.S. Secretary of State = =
= = = Nomination and confirmation = = =
In mid @-@ November 2008 , President @-@ elect Obama and Clinton discussed the possibility of her serving as U.S. Secretary of State in his administration . She was initially quite reluctant , but on November 20 , she told Obama she would accept the position . On December 1 , President @-@ elect Obama formally announced that Clinton would be his nominee for Secretary of State . Clinton said she did not want to leave the Senate , but that the new position represented a " difficult and exciting adventure " . As part of the nomination and in order to relieve concerns of conflict of interest , Bill Clinton agreed to accept several conditions and restrictions regarding his ongoing activities and fundraising efforts for the William J. Clinton Foundation and Clinton Global Initiative .
The appointment required a Saxbe fix , passed and signed into law in December 2008 . Confirmation hearings before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee began on January 13 , 2009 , a week before the Obama inauguration ; two days later , the Committee voted 16 – 1 to approve Clinton . By this time , her public approval rating had reached 65 percent , the highest point since the Lewinsky scandal . On January 21 , 2009 , Clinton was confirmed in the full Senate by a vote of 94 – 2 . Clinton took the oath of office of Secretary of State and resigned from the Senate that same day . She became the first former first lady to serve in the United States Cabinet .
= = = First half of tenure = = =
Clinton spent her initial days as Secretary of State telephoning dozens of world leaders and indicating that U.S. foreign policy would change direction : " We have a lot of damage to repair . " She advocated an expanded role in global economic issues for the State Department and cited the need for an increased U.S. diplomatic presence , especially in Iraq where the Defense Department had conducted diplomatic missions . Clinton announced the most ambitious of her departmental reforms , the Quadrennial Diplomacy and Development Review , which establishes specific objectives for the State Department 's diplomatic missions abroad ; it was modeled after a similar process in the Defense Department that she was familiar with from her time on the Senate Armed Services Committee . The first such review was issued in late 2010 and called for the U.S. leading through " civilian power " as a cost @-@ effective way of responding to international challenges and defusing crises . It also sought to institutionalize goals of empowering women throughout the world . A cause Clinton advocated throughout her tenure was the adoption of cookstoves in the developing world , to foster cleaner and more environmentally sound food preparation and reduce smoke dangers to women .
In an internal debate regarding the war in Afghanistan during 2009 , Clinton sided with the military 's recommendations for a maximal " Afghanistan surge " , recommending 40 @,@ 000 troops and no public deadline for withdrawal ; she prevailed over Vice President Joe Biden 's opposition , but eventually supported Obama 's compromise plan to send an additional 30 @,@ 000 troops and tie the surge to a timetable for eventual withdrawal . In March 2009 , Clinton presented Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov with a " reset button " symbolizing U.S. attempts to rebuild ties with that country under its new president , Dmitry Medvedev . The photo op was remembered for a mistranslation into Russian . The policy , which became known as the Russian reset , led to improved cooperation in several areas during Medvedev 's time in office , but relations would worsen considerably following Vladimir Putin 's return to the position in 2012 . In October 2009 , on a trip to Switzerland , Clinton 's intervention overcame last @-@ minute snags and saved the signing of an historic Turkish – Armenian accord that established diplomatic relations and opened the border between the two long @-@ hostile nations . In Pakistan , she engaged in several unusually blunt discussions with students , talk show hosts , and tribal elders , in an attempt to repair the Pakistani image of the U.S. Beginning in 2010 , she helped organize a diplomatic isolation and international sanctions regime against Iran , in an effort to force curtailment of that country 's nuclear program ; this would eventually lead to the multinational Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action being agreed to in 2015 .
Clinton and Obama forged a good working relationship without power struggles ; she was a team player within the administration and a defender of it to the outside , and was careful that neither she nor her husband would upstage the president . Clinton formed an alliance with Secretary of Defense Gates as they shared similar strategic outlooks . Obama and Clinton both approached foreign policy as a largely non @-@ ideological , pragmatic exercise . She met with him weekly but did not have the close , daily relationship that some of her predecessors had had with their presidents ; moreover , certain key areas of policymaking were kept inside the White House or Pentagon . Nevertheless , the president had trust in her actions .
In a prepared speech in January 2010 , Clinton drew analogies between the Iron Curtain and the free and unfree Internet . Chinese officials reacted negatively towards it and the speech garnered attention as the first time a senior American official had clearly defined the Internet as a key element of American foreign policy . In July 2010 , she visited Korea , Vietnam , Pakistan , and Afghanistan , all the while preparing for the July 31 wedding of daughter Chelsea amid much media attention .
In late November 2010 , she led the U.S. damage control effort after WikiLeaks released confidential State Department cables containing blunt statements and assessments by U.S. and foreign diplomats , by contacting foreign leaders in Europe and the Middle East ahead of the release .
= = = Second half of tenure = = =
The 2011 Egyptian protests posed the most challenging foreign policy crisis for the administration yet . Clinton 's public response quickly evolved from an early assessment that the government of Hosni Mubarak was " stable " , to a stance that there needed to be an " orderly transition [ to ] a democratic participatory government " , to a condemnation of violence against the protesters . Obama came to rely upon Clinton 's advice , organization , and personal connections in the behind @-@ the @-@ scenes response to developments . As Arab Spring protests spread throughout the region , Clinton was at the forefront of a U.S. response that she recognized was sometimes contradictory , backing some regimes while supporting protesters against others .
As the Libyan Civil War took place , Clinton 's shift in favor of military intervention aligned her with Ambassador to the UN Susan Rice and National Security Council figure Samantha Power and was a key turning point in overcoming internal administration opposition from Defense Secretary Gates , security advisor Thomas E. Donilon , and counterterrorism advisor John Brennan in gaining the backing for , and Arab and U.N. approval of , the 2011 military intervention in Libya . Secretary Clinton testified to Congress that the administration did not need congressional authorization for its military intervention in Libya , despite objections from some members of both parties that the administration was violating the War Powers Resolution , and the State Department 's legal advisor argued the same when the Resolution 's 60 @-@ day limit for unauthorized wars was passed ( a view that prevailed in a legal debate within the Obama administration ) . Clinton later used U.S. allies and what she called " convening power " to promote unity among the Libyan rebels as they eventually overthrew the Gaddafi regime . The aftermath of the Libyan Civil War saw the country becoming a failed state , and the wisdom of the intervention and interpretation of what happened afterward would become the subject of considerable debate .
During April 2011 internal deliberations of the president 's innermost circle of advisors over whether to order U.S. special forces to conduct a raid into Pakistan against Osama bin Laden , Clinton was among those who argued in favor , saying the importance of getting bin Laden outweighed the risks to the U.S. relationship with Pakistan . Following completion of the mission on May 2 , which resulted in bin Laden 's death , Clinton played a key role in the administration 's decision not to release photographs of the dead al @-@ Qaeda leader . During internal discussions regarding Iraq in 2011 , Clinton argued for keeping a residual force of up to 10 @,@ 000 – 20 @,@ 000 U.S. troops there ( all ended up being withdrawn after negotiations for a revised U.S. – Iraq Status of Forces Agreement failed ) .
In a speech before the United Nations Human Rights Council in December 2011 , Clinton said that " Gay rights are human rights " , and that the U.S. would advocate for gay rights and legal protections of gays abroad . The same period saw her overcome internal administration opposition with a direct appeal to Obama and stage the first visit to Burma by a U.S. secretary of state since 1955 , as she met with Burmese leaders as well as opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyi and sought to support the 2011 Burmese democratic reforms . She also said that the 21st century would be " America 's Pacific century " , a declaration that was part of the Obama administration 's " pivot to Asia " .
During the Syrian Civil War , Clinton and the Obama administration initially sought to persuade Syrian President Bashar al @-@ Assad to engage popular demonstrations with reform , then as government violence rose in August 2011 , called for him to relinquish power . The administration joined a number of allied countries in delivering non @-@ lethal assistance to rebels opposed to the Assad government , as well as to humanitarian groups working in Syria . During mid @-@ 2012 , Clinton formed a plan with CIA Director David Petraeus to further strengthen the opposition by arming and training vetted groups of Syrian rebels , but the proposal was rejected by the White House , who were reluctant to become entangled in the conflict and who feared that extremists hidden among the rebels might turn the weapons against other targets .
In December 2012 , Clinton was hospitalized for a few days for treatment of a blood clot in her right transverse venous sinus . Her doctors had discovered the clot during a follow @-@ up examination for a concussion she had sustained when she had fainted and fallen nearly three weeks earlier , after developing severe dehydration from a viral intestinal ailment acquired during a trip to Europe . The clot , which caused no immediate neurological injury , was treated with anticoagulant medication , and her doctors subsequently said she made a full recovery .
= = = Overall themes = = =
Throughout her time in office , and in her final speech concluding it , Clinton viewed " smart power " as the strategy for asserting U.S. leadership and values — in a world of varied threats , weakened central governments , and increasingly important nongovernmental entities — by combining military hard power with diplomacy and U.S. soft power capacities in global economics , development aid , technology , creativity , and human rights advocacy . As such , she became the first secretary of state to methodically implement the smart power approach . In debates over use of military force , she was generally one of the more hawkish voices in the administration . In August 2011 she hailed the ongoing multinational military intervention in Libya and the initial U.S. response towards the Syrian Civil War as examples of smart power in action .
Clinton greatly expanded the State Department 's use of social media , including Facebook and Twitter , both to get its message out and to help empower citizens of foreign countries vis @-@ à @-@ vis their governments . And in the Mideast turmoil , Clinton particularly saw an opportunity to advance one of the central themes of her tenure , the empowerment and welfare of women and girls worldwide . Moreover , in a formulation that became known as " the Hillary Doctrine " , she viewed women 's rights as critical for U.S. security interests , due to a link between the level of violence against women and gender inequality within a state and the instability and challenge to international security of that state . In turn , there was a trend of women around the world finding more opportunities , and in some cases feeling safer , as the result of her actions and visibility .
Clinton visited 112 countries during her tenure , making her the most widely traveled secretary of state ( Time magazine wrote that " Clinton 's endurance is legendary " ) . The first secretary of state to visit countries such as Togo and Timor @-@ Leste , she believed that in @-@ person visits were more important than ever in the virtual age . As early as March 2011 , she indicated she was not interested in serving a second term as Secretary of State should Obama be re @-@ elected in 2012 ; in December 2012 , following that re @-@ election , Obama nominated Senator John Kerry to be Clinton 's successor . Her last day as Secretary of State was February 1 , 2013 . Upon her departure , analysts commented that Clinton 's tenure did not bring any signature diplomatic breakthroughs as some other Secretaries of State had , and highlighted her focus on goals that she thought were less tangible but would have more lasting effect .
= = = Benghazi attack and subsequent hearings = = =
On September 11 , 2012 , the U.S. diplomatic mission in Benghazi , Libya , was attacked , resulting in the deaths of the U.S. Ambassador , J. Christopher Stevens , and three other Americans . The attack , questions surrounding the security of the U.S. consulate , and the varying explanations given afterward by administration officials for what had happened , became politically controversial in the U.S. On October 15 , Clinton took responsibility for the question of security lapses and said the differing explanations were due to the inevitable fog of war confusion after such events .
On December 19 , a panel led by Thomas R. Pickering and Michael Mullen issued its report on the matter . It was sharply critical of State Department officials in Washington for ignoring requests for more guards and safety upgrades and for failing to adapt security procedures to a deteriorating security environment . It focused its criticism on the department 's Bureau of Diplomatic Security and Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs ; four State Department officials at the assistant secretary level and below were removed from their posts as a consequence . Clinton said she accepted the conclusions of the report and that changes were underway to implement its suggested recommendations .
Clinton gave testimony to two congressional foreign affairs committees on January 23 , 2013 , regarding the Benghazi attack . She defended her actions in response to the incident and , while still accepting formal responsibility , said she had had no direct role in specific discussions beforehand regarding consulate security . Congressional Republicans challenged her on several points , to which she responded . In particular , after persistent questioning about whether the administration had issued inaccurate " talking points " after the attack , Clinton responded with the much @-@ quoted rejoinder , " With all due respect , the fact is we had four dead Americans . Was it because of a protest or was it because of guys out for a walk one night who decided that they 'd they go kill some Americans ? What difference at this point does it make ? It is our job to figure out what happened and do everything we can to prevent it from ever happening again , Senator . " In November 2014 , the House Intelligence Committee issued a report that concluded there had been no wrongdoing in the administration 's response to the attack .
The House Select Committee on Benghazi was created in May 2014 and conducted a two @-@ year investigation related to the 2012 attack . Its actions were often seen through the prism of domestic politics . This was especially the case in September 2015 , when House Majority Leader Kevin McCarthy credited the Benghazi hearings with lowering Clinton 's poll numbers , thereby contradicting the Republicans ' previous talking points on the investigation . On October 22 , 2015 , Clinton testified at an all @-@ day and nighttime session before the committee . The hearing included many heated exchanges between committee members and Clinton , and between the committee members themselves . Clinton was widely seen as emerging largely unscathed from the hearing , because of what the media perceived as a calm and unfazed demeanor , and a lengthy , meandering , repetitive line of questioning from the committee . The committee issued competing final reports in June 2016 that broke along partisan lines , with the Republican report offering some new details about the attack but no new evidence of culpability by Clinton .
= = = Email controversy = = =
A controversy arose in March 2015 , when it was revealed by the State Department 's inspector general that Clinton had exclusively used personal email accounts on a non @-@ government , privately maintained server — in lieu of email accounts maintained on federal government servers — when conducting official business during her tenure as Secretary of State . Some experts , officials , members of Congress , and political opponents , contended that her use of private messaging system software and a private server violated State Department protocols and procedures , and federal laws and regulations governing recordkeeping requirements .
The controversy occurred against the backdrop of Clinton 's 2016 presidential election campaign and hearings held by the House Select Committee on Benghazi .
The New York Times reported in February of 2016 that nearly 2 @,@ 100 emails contained in Clinton 's server were retroactively marked classified by the State Department . A later FBI investigation found that Clinton both sent and received 110 emails that contained classified information , including a " small number " that contained markings indicating classified status .
Additionally , the intelligence community 's inspector general wrote Congress to say that some of the emails " contained classified State Department information when originated . " In a joint statement released on July 15 , 2015 , the inspector general of the State Department and the inspector general of the intelligence community said that through their review of the emails , they found information that was classified when sent , remained so as of their inspection , and " never should have been transmitted via an unclassified personal system . " They also stated unequivocally that those secrets never should have been stored outside of secure government computer systems . Clinton had said over a period of months that she kept no classified information on the private server that she set up in her house .
Government policy , reiterated in the nondisclosure agreement signed by Clinton as part of gaining her security clearance , is that sensitive information can be considered as classified even if not marked as such . After allegations were raised that some of the emails in question fell into the so @-@ called " born classified " category , an FBI probe was initiated regarding how classified information was handled on the Clinton server . In May 2016 , the inspector general of the State Department criticized her use of a private email server while she was Secretary of State stating that she had not requested permission to use it and even if she had , she would not have been given permission .
Clinton maintained that she did not send or receive any confidential emails from her personal server . In a Democratic debate with Bernie Sanders on February 4 , 2016 , Clinton said , " I never sent or received any classified material – they are retroactively classifying it . " In a Meet the Press interview , Clinton said , " Let me repeat what I have repeated for many months now , I never received nor sent any material that was marked classified . " On July 2 , 2016 , Clinton stated : " Let me repeat what I have repeated for many months now , I never received nor sent any material that was marked classified . "
On July 5 , 2016 , the FBI concluded its investigation . In a statement , FBI director James Comey said :
110 e @-@ mails in 52 e @-@ mail chains have been determined by the owning agency to contain classified information at the time they were sent or received . Eight of those chains contained information that was Top Secret at the time they were sent ; 36 chains contained Secret information at the time ; and eight contained Confidential information , which is the lowest level of classification . Separate from those , about 2 @,@ 000 additional e @-@ mails were “ up @-@ classified ” to make them Confidential ; the information in those had not been classified at the time the e @-@ mails were sent .
Only three emails were found to be marked as classified , although they lacked classified headers and were only marked with a small " c " in parentheses , described as " portion markings " by Comey . They found that Clinton used her personal email extensively while outside the United States , both sending and receiving work @-@ related emails in the territory of sophisticated adversaries . The FBI assessed that it " is possible that hostile actors gained access to Secretary Clinton 's personal email account . " Comey stated that although Clinton was " extremely careless in their handling of very sensitive , highly classified information " , the FBI was expressing to the Justice Department that " no charges are appropriate in this case . " On July 6 , 2016 , U.S. Attorney General Loretta Lynch confirmed that the investigation into Hillary Clinton 's use of private email servers while secretary of state will be closed without criminal charges .
= = Clinton Foundation and speeches = =
When Clinton left the State Department she became a private citizen for the first time in thirty years . She and her daughter joined her husband as named members of the Bill , Hillary & Chelsea Clinton Foundation in 2013 . There she focused on early childhood development efforts , including an initiative called Too Small to Fail and a $ 600 million initiative to encourage the enrollment of girls in secondary schools worldwide , led by former Australian Prime Minister Julia Gillard .
Clinton also led the No Ceilings : The Full Participation Project , a partnership with the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation to gather and study data on the progress of women and girls around the world since the Beijing conference in 1995 ; its March 2015 report said that while " There has never been a better time in history to be born a woman ... this data shows just how far we still have to go . " The foundation began accepting new donations from foreign governments , which it had stopped doing while she was secretary .
She began work on another volume of memoirs , and made appearances on the paid speaking circuit . There she received $ 200 @,@ 000 – 225 @,@ 000 per engagement , often appearing before Wall Street firms or at business conventions . She also made some unpaid speeches on behalf of the foundation . For the fifteen months ending in March 2015 , Clinton earned over $ 11 million from her speeches . For the overall period 2007 – 14 , the Clintons earned almost $ 141 million , paid some $ 56 million in federal and state taxes , and donated about $ 15 million to charity . As of 2015 , she was estimated to be worth over $ 30 million on her own , or $ 45 – 53 million with her husband .
Clinton resigned from the foundation 's board in April 2015 , when she began her presidential campaign , and the foundation said it would accept new foreign governmental donations from six Western nations only .
= = 2016 presidential campaign = =
On April 12 , 2015 , Clinton formally announced her candidacy for the presidency in the 2016 election . She had a campaign @-@ in @-@ waiting already in place , including a large donor network , experienced operatives , and the Ready for Hillary and Priorities USA Action political action committees , and other infrastructure . The campaign 's headquarters were established in the New York City borough of Brooklyn . Focuses of her campaign have included raising middle class incomes , establishing universal preschool and making college more affordable , and improving the Affordable Care Act . Initially considered a prohibitive favorite to win the Democratic nomination , Clinton has faced an unexpectedly strong challenge from self @-@ professed democratic socialist Senator Bernie Sanders of Vermont , whose longtime stance against the influence of corporations and the wealthy in American politics has resonated with a dissatisfied citizenry troubled by the effects of income inequality in the U.S. and has contrasted with Clinton 's Wall Street ties .
In the initial contest of the primaries season , Clinton only very narrowly won the Iowa Democratic caucuses , held February 1 , over an increasingly popular Sanders , making her the first woman to win the Iowa caucuses . In the first primary , held in New Hampshire on February 9 , she lost to Sanders by a wide margin . Sanders was an increasing threat in the next contest , the Nevada caucuses on February 20 , but Clinton managed a five @-@ percentage @-@ point win , aided by final @-@ days campaigning among casino workers . She followed that with a lopsided victory in the South Carolina primary on February 27 . These two victories stabilized her campaign and showed an avoidance of the management turmoil that harmed her 2008 effort .
On March 1 ( " Super Tuesday " ) , Clinton won seven of eleven contests , including a string of dominating victories across the South buoyed , as in South Carolina , by African @-@ American voters , and opened up a significant lead in pledged delegates over Sanders . She maintained this delegate lead across subsequent contests during the primary season , with a consistent pattern throughout being that Sanders did better among younger , whiter , more rural , and more liberal voters and in states that held caucuses or where eligibility was open to independents , while Clinton did better among older and more diverse voter populations and in states that held primaries or where eligibility was restricted to registered Democrats .
By June 6 , 2016 , she had earned enough pledged delegates and supportive superdelegates for the media to consider her the presumptive nominee . The next day , after winning most of the states in the final major round of primaries , Clinton held a victory rally in Brooklyn in which she became the first woman to claim the status of presumptive nominee for a major American political party . By campaign 's end , Clinton had won 2 @,@ 219 pledged delegates to Sanders ' 1 @,@ 832 ; with an estimated 594 superdelegates compared to Sanders ' 47 . She received almost 17 million votes during the nominating process , as opposed to Sanders ' 13 million .
Clinton was formally nominated at the 2016 Democratic National Convention in Philadelphia on July 26 , 2016 , becoming the first woman to be nominated for president by a major U.S. political party .
= = Political positions = =
Several organizations have attempted to measure Clinton 's place on the political spectrum scientifically using her Senate votes . National Journal 's 2004 study of roll @-@ call votes assigned Clinton a rating of 30 in the political spectrum , relative to the Senate at the time , with a rating of 1 being most liberal and 100 being most conservative . National Journal 's subsequent rankings placed her as the 32nd @-@ most liberal senator in 2006 and 16th @-@ most liberal senator in 2007 . A 2004 analysis by political scientists Joshua D. Clinton of Princeton University and Simon Jackman and Doug Rivers of Stanford University found her to be likely the sixth @-@ to @-@ eighth @-@ most liberal senator . The Almanac of American Politics , edited by Michael Barone and Richard E. Cohen , rated her votes from 2003 through 2006 as liberal or conservative , with 100 as the highest rating , in three areas : Economic , Social , and Foreign . Averaged for the four years , the ratings are : Economic
= 75 liberal , 23 conservative ; Social =
83 liberal , 6 conservative ; Foreign
= 66 liberal , 30 conservative . Total average =
75 liberal , 20 conservative .
Organizations have also attempted to give newer assessments of Clinton once she reentered elective politics in 2015 . Based on her stated positions from the 1990s to the present , On the Issues places her in their " Left Liberal " region on their two @-@ dimensional grid of social and economic ideologies , with a social score of 80 on a scale of 0 more @-@ restrictive to 100 less @-@ government stances and an economic score of 10 on a scale of 0 more @-@ restrictive to 100 less @-@ government stances . Crowdpac , which does a data aggregation of campaign contributions , votes , and speeches , gives her a 6.5L rating on a one @-@ dimensional left @-@ right scale from 10L ( most liberal ) to 10C ( most conservative ) . Through 2008 , she had an average lifetime 90 percent " Liberal Quotient " from Americans for Democratic Action , and a lifetime 8 percent rating from the American Conservative Union .
In a Gallup poll conducted during May 2005 , 54 percent of respondents considered Clinton a liberal , 30 percent considered her a moderate , and 9 percent considered her a conservative .
= = Religious views = =
Clinton has been a lifelong Methodist , attending various churches throughout her lifetime ; all belonging to the United Methodist Church :
First United Methodist Church of Park Ridge , Illinois – in her early life ,
First United Methodist Church of Little Rock , Arkansas – while in Arkansas ,
Foundry United Methodist Church in Washington , D.C. – as First Lady of the United States ,
Metropolitan Community United Methodist Church in New York City , New York – currently a congregant .
She discussed her faith at 2014 United Methodist Women church rally at the Kentucky International Convention Center in Louisville , Kentucky . However , she has infrequently discussed her faith while campaigning . James Macintyre for Christianity Today has written that her Christian faith is " undeniably strong " and compared her lightly worn but " very real " faith to that of British prime minister Theresa May . Clinton 's friend Lissa Muscatine has suggested that perhaps because Clinton 's faith has motivated her so deeply , she has rarely talked about it .
In early 2016 , a Pew poll was released finding that over 4 in 10 Americans believed Clinton was not very religious . As of 2016 , Clinton has openly discussed her Christianity on several occasions , discussing for example the importance of loving one 's neighbor as oneself , of helping the poor and " creating opportunities for others to be lifted up " . Clinton has also expressed disappointment that " Christianity , which has such great love at its core , is sometimes used to condemn so quickly and judge so harshly . "
Professor Paul Kengor , author of God and Hillary Clinton : A Spiritual Life , has suggested that Clinton 's political positions are rooted in her faith . Clinton reportedly often repeats John Wesley 's maxim " Do all the good you can , by all the means you can , in all the ways you can . "
= = Writings and recordings = =
As First Lady of the United States , Clinton published a weekly syndicated newspaper column titled " Talking It Over " from 1995 to 2000 . It focused on her experiences and those of women , children , and families she met during her travels around the world .
In 1996 , Clinton presented a vision for the children of America in the book It Takes a Village : And Other Lessons Children Teach Us . The book made the Best Seller list of The New York Times and Clinton received the Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album in 1997 for the book 's audio recording .
Other books published by Clinton when she was first lady include Dear Socks , Dear Buddy : Kids ' Letters to the First Pets ( 1998 ) and An Invitation to the White House : At Home with History ( 2000 ) . In 2001 , she wrote an afterword to the children 's book Beatrice 's Goat .
In 2003 , Clinton released a 562 @-@ page autobiography , Living History , for which publisher Simon & Schuster paid Clinton a near @-@ record advance of $ 8 million . The book set a first @-@ week sales record for a nonfiction work , went on to sell more than one million copies in the first month following publication , and was translated into twelve foreign languages . Clinton 's audio recording of the book earned her a nomination for the Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album .
In 2014 , Clinton published a second memoir , Hard Choices , which focused on her time as Secretary of State . It has sold about 250 @,@ 000 copies .
= = Cultural and political image = =
Over a hundred books and scholarly works have been written about Hillary Rodham Clinton , from many perspectives . A 2006 survey by the New York Observer found " a virtual cottage industry " of " anti @-@ Clinton literature " , put out by Regnery Publishing and other conservative imprints , with titles such as Madame Hillary : The Dark Road to the White House , Hillary 's Scheme : Inside the Next Clinton 's Ruthless Agenda to Take the White House , and Can She Be Stopped ? : Hillary Clinton Will Be the Next President of the United States Unless ... Books praising Clinton did not sell nearly as well ( other than the memoirs written by her and her husband ) . When she ran for Senate in 2000 , a number of fundraising groups such as Save Our Senate and the Emergency Committee to Stop Hillary Rodham Clinton sprang up to oppose her . Van Natta found that Republican and conservative groups viewed her as a reliable " bogeyman " to mention in fundraising letters , on a par with Ted Kennedy , and the equivalent of Democratic and liberal appeals mentioning Newt Gingrich .
Hillary Clinton has also been featured in the media and popular culture from a wide spectrum of varying perspectives . In 1995 , writer Todd S. Purdum of The New York Times characterized Clinton as a Rorschach test , an assessment echoed at the time by feminist writer and activist Betty Friedan , who said , " Coverage of Hillary Clinton is a massive Rorschach test of the evolution of women in our society . " She has been the subject of many satirical impressions on Saturday Night Live , beginning with her time as first lady , and has made guest appearances on the show herself , in 2008 and in 2015 , to face @-@ off with her doppelgängers .
Clinton has often been described in the popular media as a polarizing figure , with some arguing otherwise . James Madison University political science professor Valerie Sulfaro 's 2007 study used the American National Election Studies ' " feeling thermometer " polls , which measure the degree of opinion about a political figure , to find that such polls during Clinton 's first lady years confirm the " conventional wisdom that Hillary Clinton is a polarizing figure " , with the added insight that " affect towards Mrs. Clinton as first lady tended to be very positive or very negative , with a fairly constant one fourth of respondents feeling ambivalent or neutral " . University of California , San Diego political science professor Gary Jacobson 's 2006 study of partisan polarization found that in a state @-@ by @-@ state survey of job approval ratings of the state 's senators , Clinton had the fourth @-@ largest partisan difference of any senator , with a 50 @-@ percentage @-@ point difference in approval between New York 's Democrats and Republicans .
Northern Illinois University political science professor Barbara Burrell 's 2000 study found that Clinton 's Gallup poll favorability numbers broke sharply along partisan lines throughout her time as first lady , with 70 to 90 percent of Democrats typically viewing her favorably while only 20 to 40 percent of Republicans did . University of Wisconsin – Madison political science professor Charles Franklin analyzed her record of favorable versus unfavorable ratings in public opinion polls , and found that there was more variation in them during her first lady years than her Senate years . The Senate years showed favorable ratings around 50 percent and unfavorable ratings in the mid @-@ 40 percent range ; Franklin noted that , " This sharp split is , of course , one of the more widely remarked aspects of Sen. Clinton 's public image . " McGill University professor of history Gil Troy titled his 2006 biography of her Hillary Rodham Clinton : Polarizing First Lady , and wrote that after the 1992 campaign , Clinton " was a polarizing figure , with 42 percent [ of the public ] saying she came closer to their values and lifestyle than previous first ladies and 41 percent disagreeing . " Troy further wrote that Hillary Clinton " has been uniquely controversial and contradictory since she first appeared on the national radar screen in 1992 " and that she " has alternately fascinated , bedeviled , bewitched , and appalled Americans . "
Burrell 's study found women consistently rating Clinton more favorably than men by about ten percentage points during her first lady years . Jacobson 's study found a positive correlation across all senators between being women and receiving a partisan @-@ polarized response . Colorado State University communication studies professor Karrin Vasby Anderson describes the first lady position as a " site " for American womanhood , one ready made for the symbolic negotiation of female identity . In particular , Anderson states there has been a cultural bias towards traditional first ladies and a cultural prohibition against modern first ladies ; by the time of Clinton , the first lady position had become a site of heterogeneity and paradox . Burrell , as well as biographers Jeff Gerth and Don Van Natta Jr . , note that Clinton achieved her highest approval ratings as first lady late in 1998 , not for professional or political achievements of her own , but for being seen as the victim of her husband 's very public infidelity . University of Pennsylvania communications professor Kathleen Hall Jamieson saw Hillary Clinton as an exemplar of the double bind , who though able to live in a " both @-@ and " world of both career and family , nevertheless " became a surrogate on whom we projected our attitudes about attributes once thought incompatible " , leading to her being placed in a variety of no @-@ win situations . Quinnipiac University media studies professor Lisa Burns found press accounts frequently framing Clinton both as an exemplar of the modern professional working mother and as a political interloper interested in usurping power for herself . University of Indianapolis English professor Charlotte Templin found political cartoonists using a variety of stereotypes — such as gender reversal , radical feminist as emasculator , and the wife the husband wants to get rid of — to portray Hillary Clinton as violating gender norms .
Going into the early stages of her presidential campaign for 2008 , a Time magazine cover showed a large picture of her , with two checkboxes labeled " Love Her " , " Hate Her " , while Mother Jones titled its profile of her " Harpy , Hero , Heretic : Hillary " . Democratic netroots activists consistently rated Clinton very low in polls of their desired candidates , while some conservative figures such as Bruce Bartlett and Christopher Ruddy were declaring a Hillary Clinton presidency not so bad after all . An October 2007 cover of The American Conservative magazine was titled " The Waning Power of Hillary Hate " . By December 2007 , communications professor Jamieson observed that there was a large amount of misogyny present about Clinton on the Internet , up to and including Facebook and other sites devoted to depictions reducing Clinton to sexual humiliation . She noted , in response to widespread comments on Clinton 's laugh , that " We know that there 's language to condemn female speech that doesn 't exist for male speech . We call women 's speech shrill and strident . And Hillary Clinton 's laugh was being described as a cackle . " The " bitch " epithet , which had been applied to Clinton going back to her first lady days and had been seen by Karrin Vasby Anderson as a tool of containment against women in American politics , flourished during the campaign , especially on the Internet but via conventional media as well . Following Clinton 's " choked up moment " and related incidents in the run @-@ up to the January 2008 New Hampshire primary , both The New York Times and Newsweek found that discussion of gender 's role in the campaign had moved into the national political discourse . Newsweek editor Jon Meacham summed the relationship between Clinton and the American public by saying that the New Hampshire events " brought an odd truth to light : though Hillary Rodham Clinton has been on the periphery or in the middle of national life for decades ... she is one of the most recognizable but least understood figures in American politics . "
Once she became Secretary of State , Clinton 's image seemed to improve dramatically among the American public and become one of a respected world figure . She gained consistently high approval ratings ( by 2011 , the highest of her career except during the Lewinsky scandal ) , and her favorable @-@ unfavorable ratings during 2010 and 2011 were the highest of any active , nationally prominent American political figure . A 2012 Internet meme , " Texts from Hillary " , was based around a photograph of Clinton sitting on a military plane wearing sunglasses and using a mobile phone and imagined the recipients and contents of her text messages . It achieved viral popularity among younger , technically adept followers of politics . Clinton sought to explain her popularity by saying in early 2012 , " There 's a certain consistency to who I am and what I do , and I think people have finally said , ' Well , you know , I kinda get her now . ' " She continued to do well in Gallup 's most admired man and woman poll and in 2015 she was named the most admired woman by Americans for a record fourteenth straight time and twentieth time overall .
Her favorability ratings dropped , however , after she left office and began to be viewed in the context of partisan politics again . By September 2015 , with her 2016 presidential campaign underway and beset by continued reports regarding her private email usage at the State Department , her ratings had slumped to the some of her lowest levels ever . During 2016 she acknowledged that : " I 'm not a natural politician , in case you haven 't noticed . " Journalist Indira A. R. Lakshmanan , who has covered Clinton extensively both as a presidential candidate and as secretary of state , believes that Clinton 's persona is almost completely different in the two roles and that while Clinton definitely has the political skills that an officeholder needs , " Clearly , however , something seems to happen to Clinton when the task is asking people to vote for her . "
= = Electoral history = =
= = = Cited bibliography = = =
= Replaceable You =
" Replaceable You " is the fourth episode of the twenty @-@ third season of the American animated sitcom The Simpsons . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on November 6 , 2011 . In the episode , Homer gets a new assistant named Roz who is secretly out to steal his job . Meanwhile , Bart teams up with Martin Prince for the upcoming Springfield Elementary science fair , constructing robot baby seals that become popular with the senior citizens at the Springfield Retirement Castle . The role of Roz was played by American actress Jane Lynch . " Replaceable You " was seen by approximately eight million viewers during its original broadcast , and it has received mixed reviews from critics .
= = Plot = =
Homer is initially happy to get an organized , cheerful new assistant at the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant , a very tall woman named Roz Davis . However , when he and Barney head out to see a film during their work shift , Roz reveals this to Mr. Burns , who demotes Homer to Roz 's job and gives Roz Homer 's position . Roz proceeds to charm the regulars at Moe 's Tavern while finding dozens of ways to make Homer 's job miserable . After Ned Flanders sees Homer is depressed , Homer tells him about Roz , and is shocked to learn that Ned knew Roz back in Ohio ; they were part of the same Christian group , and when Ned gave her a congratulatory hug for winning a " no @-@ fun run " he learned that Roz cannot stand any physical contact . When Roz wins a " Worker of Millennium " award at the plant , Homer manipulates Burns into giving Roz a hug . She proceeds to beat Burns up , and is fired . Roz then compliments Homer for being much smarter than she expected , in terms Homer does not quite understand .
Elsewhere , Bart is not ready for the upcoming Springfield Elementary science fair . He ends up working with Martin Prince and after Bart comes up with a general idea — cool robotics — Martin does all the work and constructs an adorable robotic baby seal . However , it is revealed that when the wiring is tampered with , they become violent attackers . The seal wins first prize at the Fair , to Lisa 's disdain . When she goes to the Springfield Retirement Castle to whine about the injustice to Grampa , the seniors citizen see the seal visibly cheer up Jasper and the value of the invention becomes clear . All of the senior citizens then get their own seals , and they become happier and healthier , which angers a consortium of local businesses ( led by the local funeral home ) who want the oldsters to go back to being miserable and more rapidly dying . The group figures out the wiring secret and reworks the seals so their fury returns , even causing the death of Mrs. Glick . Chief Wiggum has all the robots impounded . Bart and Martin enlist the aid of Professor Frink who then gets a larger group of nerds to remotely hack into the robot software and make them nice again . They succeed and as a result , Chief Wiggum releases all the seals , who return to the nursing home .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Stephanie Gillis and directed by Mark Kirkland . American actress Jane Lynch guest starred in the episode as Roz . Showrunner Al Jean noted in an interview with Entertainment Weekly that it was easy to cast Lynch , since " she can do edge , sweetness , and a mix of both " . He further noted that the crew was happy when she agreed to take the role , and that he was " embarrassed [ the show ] didn ’ t ask her before she was so successful because she ’ s funny in everything she does . " Lynch recorded her scenes together with cast member Dan Castellaneta , who voices Homer . In an interview with the website Hollywood Outbreak , she commented that " It was pretty amazing to every once in a while look up at his face and go ' Oh my God , it 's that guy that does that voice . ' " Lynch added that she " had the best time . I would do it again and again . This is kind of very much a milestone in my career . I will point to this as a big deal . " In an interview with Fox All Access , Lynch revealed that she is a longtime fan : " Indeed I am a fan of The Simpsons . I started watching twenty years ago . I remember the first season . I remember clearly moments from the episodes and I thought it was revolutionary , the comedy of it . I really loved it . "
As with most episodes of The Simpsons , the music was composed by Alf Clausen and edited by Chris Ledesma . In a blog written by Ledesma , it was revealed prior to the airing of the episode that it would contain the use of the waltz " Tales from the Vienna Woods " by Johann Strauss II as well as a musical cue similar to the style of the main theme from the film Catch Me If You Can . The episode features several other references to popular culture as well . For example , Homer skips work to go see a film called Paul Flart : Water Park Cop , a parody of the 2009 film Paul Blart : Mall Cop . In addition , there is a brief shot of the character Bender from the animated television series Futurama .
= = Release = =
" Replaceable You " originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on November 6 , 2011 . It was watched by approximately eight million people during this broadcast . In the demographic for adults aged 18 – 49 , the episode received a 3 @.@ 7 Nielsen rating ( down eight percent from the previous episode ) and ten percent share . The Simpsons became the highest @-@ rated program in Fox 's Animation Domination lineup that night in terms of total viewers and in the 18 – 49 demographic , finishing before new episodes of Family Guy , American Dad ! , and Allen Gregory . For the week of October 31 – November 6 , " Replaceable You " finished fifteenth in the ratings among all network prime @-@ time broadcasts in the 18 – 49 demographic .
= = = Critical reception = = =
" Replaceable You " has received mixed reviews from television critics . Josh Harrison of Ology wrote positively about the episode , giving it an eight out of ten rating . He commented : " This episode of The Simpsons swerved toward the wacky in the best possible . I approve of this bounce @-@ back from the decidedly meh Treehouse of Horrors [ the previous episode of the series — ' Treehouse of Horror XXII ' ] and I 'm looking forward to what 's next . " Stephanie Krikorian of The Wall Street Journal 's Speakeasy publication named Lynch 's appearance one of the television highlights of the week November 6 – 13 . She wrote that " Simply put , Jane Lynch is good TV . Even the cartoon version , non @-@ track @-@ suit @-@ wearing Jane Lynch was worth watching . Her role as a schemer on this week ’ s Simpsons was no exception , making her performance voicing Roz one of the top moments in this week ’ s Rewind . "
The A.V. Club critic Hayden Childs was more negative , giving the episode a C − rating and criticizing the two plots and the lack of good jokes . He wrote that while there was " some comic potential " in the premise , the writers failed to deliver funny material . Commenting on the plot with Homer and Roz , Childs explained that " there ’ s some comic possibility and resonance in having Homer stabbed in the back at work . Many people have been stabbed in the back by an ambitious colleague . Unfortunately , Homer may not be the best character to give this sort of storyline a heart . Homer is a bad employee who deserves to be ratted out by his subordinate . The fact that she is selfish and mean doesn ’ t add to this story . Yes , that is the sort of person who would stab someone in the back for their own gain , but yes , Homer also had it coming . Where is the joke ? "
= Nyon Conference =
The Nyon Conference was a diplomatic conference held in Nyon , Switzerland in September 1937 to address attacks on international shipping in the Mediterranean Sea during the Spanish Civil War . The conference was convened in part because Italy had been carrying out unrestricted submarine warfare , although the final conference agreement did not accuse Italy directly ; instead , the attacks were referred to as " piracy " by an unidentified body . Italy was not officially at war , nor did any submarine identify itself . The conference was designed to strengthen non @-@ intervention in the Spanish Civil War . The United Kingdom and France led the conference , which was also attended by Bulgaria , Egypt , Greece , Romania , Turkey , the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia .
The first agreement , signed on 14 September 1937 , included plans to counterattack aggressive submarines . Naval patrols were established ; the United Kingdom and France were to patrol most of the western Mediterranean and parts of the east , and the other signatories were to patrol their own waters . Italy was to be allowed to join the agreement and patrol the Tyrrhenian Sea if it wished . A second agreement followed three days later , applying similar provisions to surface ships . Italy and Germany did not attend , although the former took up naval patrols in November . In marked contrast to the actions of the Non @-@ Intervention Committee and the League of Nations , this conference succeeded in preventing attacks by submarines .
= = Context and organisation = =
The Non @-@ Intervention Committee , a group of twenty @-@ four nations set up in 1936 and based in London , had attempted to restrict the flow of weapons to the parties of the Spanish Civil War . For the United Kingdom , it formed part of the policy of appeasement towards Germany and Italy and aimed at preventing a proxy war – with Italy and Germany supporting Franco 's Nationalist Coalition on one side and the Soviet Union supporting the Republican faction on the other – from escalating into a major pan @-@ European conflict . An Anglo @-@ Italian " Gentleman 's Agreement " had been signed on 2 January 1937 , with each party respecting the rights of the other in the Mediterranean and aimed at improving Anglo @-@ Italian relations . In May 1937 , Neville Chamberlain succeeded Stanley Baldwin as British Prime Minister , and adopted a new policy of dealing directly with Germany and Italy . The British believed they could convince Italy to abandon Germany through appeasement .
Under a Non @-@ Intervention Committee plan , neutral observers were posted to Spanish ports and borders . The plan also assigned zones of patrol to the United Kingdom , France , Germany and Italy , and patrols began in April . Following attacks on the German cruiser Leipzig on 15 and 18 June , Germany and Italy withdrew from the patrols . The United Kingdom and France offered to replace Germany and Italy in patrols of their sections , but the latter powers believed these patrols would be too partial . The British Admiralty proposed four plans in response to attacks on British shipping , favouring sending significant naval resources to the Mediterranean as the best solution ; previous control measures had been widely evaded . As suspected by the other powers , Italy was behind some of these attacks . Whilst officially being at peace , the Italian leadership had ordered the commencement of unrestricted submarine warfare , referred to in discussion as a campaign of piracy without mention of Italy . These plans would be the basis for a Mediterranean meeting , suggested by French Foreign Minister Yvon Delbos . Meanwhile , on the night of 31 August to 1 September , the Italian submarine Iride unsuccessfully attacked the British destroyer Havock with torpedoes , between the Gulf of Valencia and the Balearic Islands , strengthening British Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden 's sceptical stance towards Italy . The attack led the British representative in Rome to protest to the Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs , but without response .
Up to 60 @,@ 000 Italian volunteers were now operating in Spain , and the removal of foreign nationals was discussed by the Non @-@ Intervention Committee . Italy had made a declaration that it would stop Italian volunteers from fighting in Spain on 7 January 1937 , and put a moratorium on volunteers on 20 January , also agreeing to support limitations on the number of volunteers on the 25th . Italy continued to request that belligerent rights be given to the Nationalists and Republicans , so both would gain the right to search vessels for contraband , thus removing the need for naval patrols . This request was opposed by the United Kingdom , France and the Soviet Union . British recognition of Italian sovereignty over Abyssinia following the Second Italo @-@ Abyssinian War was an important issue during Anglo @-@ Italian discussions in August 1937 . Following Eden 's disagreement with Chamberlain and Lord Halifax , Leader of the House of Lords and influential politician , over the issue , any agreement recognising Italian sovereignty was postponed until after the planned shipping conference had taken place .
On 5 or 6 September , the British arranged a conference for all parties with a Mediterranean coastline , along with Germany . The conference was to be held at Nyon , Switzerland – Geneva was avoided because Italians associated it with the actions of the League of Nations over the Abyssinian Crisis . The United Kingdom agreed to France 's request to extend an invitation to the Soviet Union , but blocked France 's attempt to invite a representative from Republican Spain . Portugal expressed surprise at not being invited . Camille Chautemps , the new French Prime Minister , opposed direct intervention on the Spanish question . The Soviet Union accepted the invitation , indicating that it would use the opportunity to blame Italy for the attacks on shipping . The Soviet government formally accused the Italians of sinking two Soviet merchant vessels , the Tuniyaev and the Blageav , an accusation the Italians described as " aggressive and offensive " . This was perhaps an attempt by the Soviet Union to push Italy and Germany away from the conference . Germany rejected the invitation , stating that piracy and other issues the conference was to discuss should be handled only by normal meetings of the Non @-@ Intervention Committee , not a conference like Nyon . The United Kingdom and France rejected this suggestion , and continued to prepare for the conference . Soon after , the Italians similarly declined . The Non @-@ Intervention Committee , it said , also had the advantage of including other European powers , notably Poland and Portugal .
= = Provisions = =
British and French naval staffs rejected the idea of a convoy system in draft proposals . The British wanted to curb submarine activity , on the theory that focusing on covert submarine attacks would help avoid confrontation , whereas the French considered surface vessels and aircraft just as important . The French protested at a plan to create multi @-@ nation squadrons , unhappy at the prospect of French ships coming under foreign command . On 8 September , plans were discussed in the British Cabinet , including the setting up of eight groups of three destroyers for the western Mediterranean . Preliminary talks with the French were held on 9 September , and the conference began on the 10th . Proceedings took two forms : discussions between the British and French , and formal meetings of all attending parties . Many of the other nations opposed the participation of the Soviet Navy in the Mediterranean , so the United Kingdom and France agreed to handle Aegean patrols . This was , perhaps surprisingly , accepted by the Soviet Union .
The conference ended on 14 September with the signing of the " Mediterranean Agreement " . Signatories were the countries of Bulgaria , Egypt , France , Greece , Romania , Turkey , the United Kingdom , the USSR and Yugoslavia . The agreement noted attacks on neutral shipping by submarines , in contravention of the London Naval Treaty ( signed in 1930 ) and the Submarine Protocol , part of the Second London Naval Treaty ( signed in 1936 ) .
The agreement provided that any submarine that attacked neutral shipping was to be sunk if possible , including submarines in the vicinity of a recent attack that were determined to be responsible for the attack . French and British fleets would patrol the seas west of Malta and attack any suspicious submarines , with the division of patrols between the United Kingdom and France to be decided by their governments . Both countries would patrol the high seas and territorial waters of signatory countries in the Mediterranean . The British would provide slightly more than half the 60 destroyers needed , with the French providing the remainder and most of the accompanying aircraft . It was agreed that Italy could participate in patrols of the Tyrrhenian Sea if it wished to do so . In the Eastern Mediterranean , British and French ships would patrol up to the Dardanelles , but not in the Adriatic Sea . In this area , signatory countries would patrol their own territorial waters , and would provide any reasonable assistance to the French and British patrols . The future revision of these provisions , including the way the area had been divided into zones , was specifically allowed . Submarine activity would be banned , subject to two exemptions : travel on the surface accompanied by a surface ship , and activity in certain areas for training purposes . Governments would only allow foreign submarines into each of their territorial waters in extreme situations , such as immediate distress . Merchant shipping would also be advised to stick to particular shipping routes . The agreement repeated the suggestion that Italy join in the proposal . Delbos announced that similar proposals about surface craft would be prepared . The provisions of the agreement would come into force on 20 September . The British and French knew that the secret Italian submarine operations had already been paused , but actions to enforce the conference agreement started at midnight on 19 / 20 September . The delegates to the agreement were happy ; The Times likened them to cricketers , " reviewing their innings , over by over " .
The French and British naval staffs moved to Geneva , where a second agreement was signed on 17 September 1937 . It extended the rules governing submarine warfare to surface vessels , and had the same signatories . Official versions of both agreements were published in French and English . Several proposals were not implemented : for instance , the British Admiral Ernle Chatfield wanted the Spanish parties to be able to verify that the flag a ship was displaying was correct , thereby preventing attacks on British shipping if Republican ships continued to use the British flag as a means of escape . This would have benefited the Nationalists , and the French insisted that this provision be dropped . Greece and Turkey wanted ships with a clear identifying mark to be excluded , so as to avoid being forced to fire on a German or Italian warship . This was rejected , but an amendment was made allowing nations to issue their preferred orders in their own territorial waters . A suggestion to fire at any attacking aircraft was easily passed . Another suggestion on surface ships ( which incorrectly stated no attack had yet been proven ) was eventually toughened with the addition of a clause stating aggressors would be attacked , at the request of the French . A Soviet proposal strengthening the effect of the agreement was made .
= = Aftermath = =
Meanwhile , on 13 September , Italy was invited to join in the agreement . Italy unequivocally rejected it , refusing to patrol the Tyrrhenian Sea . It demanded " absolute parity " with the United Kingdom and France , meaning the same right of patrol in the Mediterranean . Italy subsequently indicated that its refusal would be reversed if such parity was granted . Meanwhile , on the 15th , Benito Mussolini 's government sent two submarines to Francisco Franco 's National Faction . The Soviet Union refused to use routes patrolled by the Italians ; the Turks , Greeks and Yugoslavs refused to let the Italians use their ports . A compromise was signed on 30 September , and Italian patrols started on 10 November . The British government , and in particular Neville Chamberlain , desired better relations with Italy and these were achieved with the signing of the Anglo @-@ Italian Agreements of 1938 .
The patrols were a strain on the Royal Navy and the provisions were relaxed with French agreement , effective from January . Submarine activity soon returned and full patrols were resumed in early February . On the whole , submarine activity during this period did not amount to much ; patrols were again relaxed in May , and the agreement suspended in August . The success of the conference was in marked contrast to the failure of the Non @-@ Intervention Committee . The Nationalists and Italians switched to using air power against shipping ; at least one ship was sunk off the Spanish coast by aircraft in the final months of 1937 .
In the United Kingdom , Eden described the submarine attacks as savage . He also noted that attacks on submarines would be restricted to suitably extreme circumstances and that the two parties in the war would still not be able to engage neutral vessels . He was keen to avoid an " Anglo @-@ Franco @-@ Soviet bloc " . The British press was in favour of the agreement , although The Times and The Guardian expressed some concerns . British historians have tended to see the Nyon Conference as an important stand against aggression , with some reservations . Christopher Seton @-@ Watson describes it as a " diplomatic victory " , but Jill Edwards points out that it failed to achieve a change in Italian policy . The agreement created further divisions between Eden as foreign minister and Neville Chamberlain as prime minister .
Maxim Litvinov , the Soviet representative , was pleased with the outcome . The agreement also allowed for greater military resources to be deployed to the Mediterranean as needed . Litvinov , in particular , stressed the Soviet Union 's " indisputable right " to commit naval forces to the Mediterranean ( something Germany and Italy had opposed in meetings of the Non @-@ Intervention Committee ) . He also said he regretted that Spanish merchant shipping had been left out – the other nations believed this would have amounted to formal intervention into the civil war . Aretas Akers @-@ Bouglas , Viscount Chilston and British Ambassador to the Soviet Union , reported that the Soviets considered the conference with " tempered satisfaction " , and that they claimed credit for their delegation 's role .
Elsewhere , French public opinion was strongly in favour of the outcome of the conference , the only criticism coming from the far left that Republican ships would not receive direct protection . The German mood was restrained , where the press were satisfied by the Soviet exclusion from patrols . In Spain , the Republicans – on the verge of disaster – were largely in favour , and the Nationalists strongly against . The Republicans praised the improved safety of the shipping routes , but were somewhat unhappy that belligerent rights had not been granted to both sides . The Nationalists made several complaints , including one over the route recommended to shipping , but none of these resulted in changes to the agreement . The agreement was welcomed by other members of the League of Nations . Italian historians tend to downplay the importance of the Nyon Conference , often seeing it as a mere extension of the Non @-@ Intervention Committee .
= Music of Kingdom Hearts =
The music of the Kingdom Hearts video game series was composed by Yoko Shimomura with orchestral music arranged by Kaoru Wada . The original soundtracks of the games have been released on three albums and a fourth compilation album . The soundtracks to the Kingdom Hearts games feature several musical pieces from both Disney films and Final Fantasy games , including such pieces as " Mickey Mouse Club March " by Jimmie Dodd , " This Is Halloween " by Danny Elfman , and " One @-@ Winged Angel " by Nobuo Uematsu . They also feature several vocal songs , the most notable being the two main theme songs , " Hikari " and " Passion " . The two themes were written and performed by Japanese American pop star Hikaru Utada . " Hikari " and " Passion " were originally in Japanese , but English versions were also produced , titled " Simple and Clean " and " Sanctuary " , respectively .
Although the majority of the music has been released only in Japan , the first soundtrack was released worldwide and tracks from the Kingdom Hearts series have been featured in Video Games Live at multiple venues . The music has overall been well received and several tracks have received particular praise . The two main themes were well received by both video game and music critics , and did well on Japan 's Oricon Weekly Singles chart .
= = Musical pieces = =
The Kingdom Hearts games feature music that ranges from dark to cheerful to sorrowful . Several musical pieces are included that have either met with a positive reception or were already well known – mostly from Disney films . Such pieces include " Mickey Mouse Club March " by Jimmie Dodd ; " Winnie The Pooh " by Robert B. Sherman and Richard M. Sherman ; " This Is Halloween " by Danny Elfman ; " He 's a Pirate " by Geoff Zanelli , Klaus Badelt , and Hans Zimmer ; and " Beauty and the Beast " by Howard Ashman and Alan Menken . Other well @-@ known tracks include " Night on Bald Mountain " ( rendered " A Night on the Bare Mountain " ) by Modest Mussorgsky , and a remixed version of " One @-@ Winged Angel " by Final Fantasy series composer Nobuo Uematsu . Some Disney worlds in Kingdom Hearts feature corresponding music from their related Disney film . Original tracks include the title screen track , " Dearly Beloved " , and the two theme songs , " Simple and Clean " and " Sanctuary " . The soundtracks feature a mix of piano and orchestral pieces . The main themes differ from the other music in that they are pop songs . The series also features several vocal songs — the most notable being the two theme songs . Kingdom Hearts II includes more vocal songs found specifically in the Atlantica world , which features rhythm @-@ based minigames set in the world of The Little Mermaid . Such vocal songs include " Part of Your World " and " Under the Sea " , both by Alan Menken and Howard Ashman .
= = = " Hikari " and " Simple and Clean " = = =
" Hikari " ( 光 , lit . " light " ) is the theme song to the Japanese release of Kingdom Hearts , the first game in the series as well as the Game Boy Advance sequel Kingdom Hearts : Chain of Memories and its remake Re : Chain of Memories , the PlayStation Portable prequel Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep , as well as the theme to Kingdom Hearts coded and its DS remake Re : Coded . Its English counterpart , " Simple and Clean " , is the theme song to the English release of the games as well as the Japanese re @-@ release of the first game , Kingdom Hearts Final Mix . Both songs were written and performed by Hikaru Utada . This marked the first time she had produced a song for a video game . Although the two songs share a similar melody and background music , the meaning of the songs ' lyrics differ as " Simple and Clean " is not a literal translation of " Hikari " . The single , " Hikari " , was released in Japan on March 20 , 2002 and proved to be very popular ; it sold over 270 @,@ 000 copies in a week . " Simple And Clean " ( full version and PLANITb Remix ) is included on Utada 's single release of " COLORS " , which debuted on Japan 's Oricon charts at number one and stayed on the charts for 19 weeks . It was later included as a bonus track on Utada 's 2009 English @-@ language album This Is the One . Both songs have a " PLANITb remix " , which are house versions , and " Hikari " has a " Godson Mix " . The different versions are used at various points in the game ; the " Short Edit " version of the PLANITb remix is used for the opening sequence and the full version of the original song is used for the ending sequence .
= = = " Passion " and " Sanctuary " = = =
" Passion " is the theme song for the Japanese release of Kingdom Hearts II , and the Nintendo DS title , Kingdom Hearts 358 / 2 Days . Its English counterpart , " Sanctuary " , is the theme song for the English versions and Kingdom Hearts II – FINAL MIX . Like the first theme , Hikaru Utada wrote and performed both the Japanese and English versions , and there are two mixes . The " ~ opening version ~ " mix is played during the opening movies , and the " ~ after the battle ~ " version is played after defeating the final boss of the games . " Sanctuary " and " ~ after the battle ~ " were both used in Kingdom Hearts 358 / 2 Days for DS . " Passion " was included in the Kingdom Hearts II Original Soundtrack and a CD single was released on December 14 , 2005 . " Sanctuary " was first previewed on MTV.com in early 2006 . Both the " Opening " and " After the Battle " versions of " Sanctuary " were later released in May 2009 as bonus tracks on Utada 's second American album , This Is the One . The " After the Battle " versions of " Passion " and " Sanctuary " also serve as the ending theme songs for the 3DS game , Kingdom Hearts 3D : Dream Drop Distance .
= = Creation and influence = =
Yoko Shimomura composed the music for the three main Kingdom Hearts games and their remakes . She began composing video game music in 1988 , and joined Square in 1993 , but left in 2002 to work freelance . In creating music , Shimomura gathers inspiration from different things outside of her daily routine , like traveling or when she is emotionally moved . She has a respect for solo and orchestral pieces , such as Piano Sonata No. 7 by Ludwig van Beethoven , Ballade No. 1 by Frédéric Chopin , and La Valse by Maurice Ravel . Shimomura was initially hesitant to handle the music for the first Kingdom Hearts ; the mix of a Square @-@ style story and Disney characters made it hard to imagine what the game would be like , which made it difficult to compose the music . Many of the musical pieces are arrangements of Disney themes , which Shimomura stated she enjoyed arranging . Shimomura felt a great deal of pressure working on such recognizable tunes , and made an effort to maintain the original mood and atmosphere of them while complying with the technical specifications of the PlayStation 2 . For example , the original orchestrated arrangement of the song " This is Halloween " from The Nightmare Before Christmas was impossible to reproduce on the PlayStation 2 's sound system . To keep aspects of it intact , Shimomura used a trial and error method to arrange the piece .
In creating original music , Shimomura wanted to create compositions that would make players feel good while playing to accompany the action aspect of Kingdom Hearts . She played the game and looked over scripts and illustrations for inspiration . After coming up with ideas , she discussed them with director Tetsuya Nomura and the game planners . For the PlayStation 2 re @-@ release of Kingdom Hearts : Chain of Memories , she and her team spent much of their time working on the fight music ; Shimomura wanted the different fight music to reflect different emotions such as happiness and sadness . To handle the large workload for Kingdom Hearts coded , Kingdom Hearts 358 / 2 Days and Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep , Shimomura composed the most prominent themes , while the rest was created by other composers . In retrospect , Shimomura has stated that the Kingdom Hearts series combined the scenes and music well , and she felt very honored her music has entered into people 's hearts . She has also commented that she enjoyed working on the project , despite its hardships , and is proud of the work .
The two main theme songs were written and performed by Japanese American artist Hikaru Utada . She wrote two versions for each , one in Japanese and one in English ; the latter is used for international releases of the games . " Hikari " and " Passion " are the Japanese version theme songs for Kingdom Hearts and Kingdom Hearts II respectively , while their English counterparts are called " Simple and Clean " and " Sanctuary " . Utada was the only singer Nomura had in mind for the first Kingdom Hearts theme song . He considered Utada an iconic young singer whose music could break language and international barriers . Her involvement , along with the first song 's Japanese title , was announced in January 2002 . Utada 's involvement with the sequel was announced in July 2005 . Nomura chose not to have a different singer perform the second theme song because he believed fans associated Utada with Kingdom Hearts . Utada derived her inspiration from the worlds and characters in Kingdom Hearts ; she also received written explanations of the stories from Nomura . Nomura stated that the vocals of the second theme tie in more closely with the game 's story than " Hikari " / " Simple and Clean " did with Kingdom Hearts and Kingdom Hearts : Chain of Memories . Conversely , Nomura commented that Utada 's theme songs influenced several factors in creating the games .
= = Releases = =
Aside from being featured in the Kingdom Hearts video games , the music has been released via a variety of methods . Soundtracks for the first and third game were released shortly after the games ' release . These were followed by a compilation set which featured unreleased tracks from the series , as well as new and rearranged versions of tracks from the re @-@ released versions of the games . The first soundtrack was released in Japan , United States and Europe . All other albums were released only in Japan . Though the two main themes were released as part of the game soundtracks , they were officially released as singles a week prior to the games ' releases . Utada 's 2009 album This Is the One features the theme songs " Simple And Clean " and " Sanctuary " . Tracks from Kingdom Hearts series have also been played by Play ! A Video Game Symphony at various venues in the United States and around the world . Arnie Roth arranged Kingdom Hearts pieces for the Symphonic Fantasies concerts in September 2009 . Music from Kingdom Hearts is included in Yoko Shimomura 's best works compilation album Drammatica .
= = = Kingdom Hearts Original Soundtrack = = =
Kingdom Hearts Original Soundtrack is the official soundtrack for the video game Kingdom Hearts . It was first released in Japan on March 27 , 2002 by Toshiba @-@ EMI , and later released in Europe on November 25 , 2002 by Virgin Records and the United States on March 23 , 2003 by Walt Disney Records . The soundtrack is a 2 @-@ CD set which contains most of music in the original version of the game along with two bonus tracks . The music was composed by Yoko Shimomura , with vocals done by Hikaru Utada for " Simple And Clean " and " Hikari " . The orchestral music was arranged by Kaoru Wada and performed by the New Japan Philharmonic Orchestra . Because Kingdom Hearts Final Mix was released after the soundtrack , additional tracks from it were not included .
The soundtrack has met with an overall positive reception . IGN listed the opening track for Kingdom Hearts , " Dearly Beloved " , as number four on their top ten list of RPG title tracks . In their " Best of 2002 " awards , Kingdom Hearts was nominated for the " Best Sound in a PlayStation 2 Game Editor 's Choice Award " and was a runner up for " Best Sound in Game 2002 Reader 's Choice Award " . Allmusic rated the first soundtrack a 3 out of 5 . GameSpy described the soundtrack as " pleasant , melodious , and most of all fitting for the various situations in which it plays " and complimented the English translation of " Simple And Clean " .
Track listing
= = = Kingdom Hearts -Final Mix- Additional Tracks = = =
Kingdom Hearts -Final Mix- Additional Tracks is a separate CD that features new tracks from the re @-@ release of the first game , Kingdom Hearts Final Mix . It was released in Japan on December 26 , 2002 , by Walt Disney Records .
= = = Kingdom Hearts II Original Soundtrack = = =
Kingdom Hearts II Original Soundtrack is the official soundtrack for Kingdom Hearts II video game . The album contains musical tracks from the game , composed and produced by Yoko Shimomura , with the main orchestral tracks arranged by Kaoru Wada and performed by the Tokyo Philharmonic Orchestra . Vocals were performed by Hikaru Utada for the theme song , " Passion " . The soundtrack was released in Japan on January 25 , 2006 .
The soundtrack received positive remarks from critics . G4TV awarded Kingdom Hearts II " Best Soundtrack " at their 2006 G @-@ Phoria awards show . GameSpy complimented the soundtrack but stated it was not as good as the first game 's soundtrack . GameInformer called the musical score " unforgettable " . GameSpot stated the " superb soundtrack " further enhanced the gaming experience and rated the sound a 9 out of 10 .
Track listing
= = = Kingdom Hearts Original Soundtrack Complete = = =
Kingdom Hearts Original Soundtrack Complete is a compilation album of the video game music from the three main games in the series , Kingdom Hearts , Kingdom Hearts : Chain of Memories , and Kingdom Hearts II . The boxset contains music composed and produced by Yoko Shimomura , with the main orchestral tracks arranged by Kaoru Wada . The album also features various unreleased tracks from the series , as well as new and rearranged versions of tracks from the two Final Mix releases and Re : Chain of Memories . The compilation boxset was released in Japan on March 28 , 2007 .
The collection has printed images on each disc and includes a deluxe booklet containing new illustrations designed by director and character designer Tetsuya Nomura and comments from Yoko Shimomura . A special CD carrying case featuring artwork of Sora and Roxas was also released as a bonus . The soundtrack comprises nine discs with 229 tracks in total . Discs one and two contain unaltered tracks from the Kingdom Hearts Original Soundtrack while discs three to six contain lengthier and looped tracks from the Kingdom Hearts II Original Soundtrack . Discs seven and eight contain tracks from Kingdom Hearts Re : Chain of Memories while disc nine contains bonus tracks from Kingdom Hearts Final Mix and Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix .
Track listing
= = = Piano Collections Kingdom Hearts = = =
On May 27 , 2009 , Square Enix released a collection of Kingdom Hearts music arranged for the piano . The tracks are popular pieces chosen by members of Square Enix 's music website . A mini concert was held on April 2 , 2009 in Tokyo to preview the album , attendees of which were drawn from a lottery held on the Square Enix Members website . There , composer Yoko Shimomura described the album as consisting of easy listening piano solo arrangements . Tracks 5 through 8 are a sonata on the various themes of the series .
" The Other Promise " is used for a cutscene of Kingdom Hearts Re : coded in Kingdom Hearts HD 2 @.@ 5 Remix .
= = = Piano Collections Kingdom Hearts Field & Battle = = =
Piano Collections Kingdom Hearts Field & Battle is the second compilation album of compositions from the Kingdom Hearts series arranged for solo piano by Sachiko Miyano and Natsumi Kameoka . Unlike the first album , which features mostly character themes and background music , this compilation features themes from battles and worlds . Square Enix announced it at the 2009 Tokyo Game Show , and released it in Japan on January 13 , 2010 .
= = = Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep & 358 / 2 Days Original Soundtrack = = =
Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep & 358 / 2 Days Original Soundtrack is a three @-@ disc album containing music from the games Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep and Kingdom Hearts 358 / 2 Days , as well as Kingdom Hearts Re : coded , composed by Yoko Shimomura . It was released on February 2 , 2011 . Discs one and two contain music from Birth by Sleep , and disc three contains music from 358 / 2 Days ( tracks 1 through 13 ) , Re : coded ( tracks 14 through 20 ) , and Birth by Sleep : Final Mix ( tracks 21 through 27 ) . Tracks from 358 / 2 Days and Re : coded are in pure orchestrated form , and are not digitized as they are in the original game releases .
Track listing
= = = Kingdom Hearts Dream Drop Distance Original Soundtrack = = =
Kingdom Hearts Dream Drop Distance Original Soundtrack is a three @-@ disc album containing music from Kingdom Hearts 3D : Dream Drop Distance , released on April 18 , 2012 . Unlike previous soundtracks , this set features a collaboration between composers Yoko Shimomura , Takeharu Ishimoto , and Tsuyoshi Sekito , containing musical compositions from all three . Among the songs included are tracks from The World Ends with You , originally composed by Ishimoto , who remixed them for Dream Drop Distance . Orchestral arrangements were provided by Kaoru Wada .
Track listing
= = = Kingdom Hearts 10th Anniversary Fan Selection -Melodies & Memories- = = =
Kingdom Hearts 10th Anniversary Fan Selection -Melodies & Memories- is a 2 @-@ CD album made in conmemoration of the series ' 10th anniversary . The tracks included in the album were chosen by fans in the series ' official website . It was released in Japan on September 19 , 2012 .
Track listing
= = Reception = =
The music of Kingdom Hearts was overall well received . Greg Kasavin of GameSpot felt the background music was appropriate for each setting . However , he complained that the music loops were too short and repetitive . IGN reviewer David Smith was impressed by the production values that went into the music of Kingdom Hearts , namely the use of the New Japan Philharmonic Orchestra and excellent arrangements of pieces such as " Night on Bald Mountain " and " Under the Sea " . He also praised composer Yoko Shimomura 's ability to maintain the atmosphere while keeping a " common thread of character running through the soundtrack " . Daniel Kalabakov of SoundtrackCentral.com called Shimomura 's orchestral composition sophisticated and stated that the score possesses unique qualities . He also stated that though the album is excellent , he considered it one of Shimomura 's weaker albums overall . In reviewing Shimomura 's compilation album Drammatica , SoundtrackCentral.com reviewer Adam Corn considered the Kingdom Hearts tracks one of the highlights of the album . Jim Cordeira of Gaming Age stated the music was one of the best aspects of the first game and the orchestrated soundtrack is better quality than the " midi @-@ sounding " tunes of previous Final Fantasy games . GameSpy 's Benjamin Turner had positive comments about the main theme , but found some worlds ' background music weak . A second GameSpy reviewer , Gerald Villoria , complimented both PlayStation 2 game soundtracks , but stated Kingdom Hearts II 's soundtrack was not as good as the first game 's .
Several tracks garnered extra attention and their own positive reception . " Hikari " debuted at number one on the Oricon Weekly Singles chart in Japan . It stayed at number one for three weeks and stayed on the chart for thirteen weeks . " Hikari " sold more than 270 @,@ 000 copies during its first week on sale , and by August 2002 , it sold over 860 @,@ 000 copies in Japan . In 2008 , Guinness World Records listed it as the best @-@ selling video game theme song in Japan . Kalabakov complimented Utada 's singing and the instrumentation of " Hikari " , but commented that he was not a fan of pop songs . Turner was impressed by the translation of " Hikari " into English , and felt Utada 's vocals were a good addition to the opening and ending segments of the game . " Passion " debuted at number four on the Oricon Weekly Singles chart in Japan where it stayed on the chart for nine weeks . G4TV 's Miguel Concepcion was particularly pleased by " Dearly Beloved " , the track that plays during the title screen . IGN echoed the sentiment and listed it as number four in their top ten list of RPG title tracks . They commented that the track lifted the doubts they had about the game 's potential . Kalabakov referred to it as a fitting " fairy tale @-@ style " piece to the game 's setting . He further stated that it was a simple piece that was " not short on emotion " .
= Boeing C @-@ 17 Globemaster III in Australian service =
The Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) operates eight Boeing C @-@ 17 Globemaster III large transport aircraft . Four C @-@ 17s were ordered in mid @-@ 2006 to improve the Australian Defence Force 's ( ADF 's ) ability to operate outside Australia and its region . The aircraft entered service between November 2006 and January 2008 , the second pair being delivered ahead of schedule . Two more Globemasters were ordered in 2011 , the sixth being delivered to the RAAF in November 2012 . Another two C @-@ 17s were ordered in October 2014 , with the final aircraft being delivered in November 2015 . The Globemasters are built to the same specifications as those operated by the United States Air Force ( USAF ) , and the Australian aircraft are maintained through an international contract with Boeing .
All of the RAAF 's Globemasters are assigned to No. 36 Squadron and are based at RAAF Base Amberley in Queensland . The aircraft have supported ADF operations in Afghanistan , Iraq and other locations in the Middle East , as well as training exercises in Australia and the United States . They have also transported supplies and personnel as part of relief efforts following natural disasters in Australia , Japan , New Zealand and several other countries . The C @-@ 17s are highly regarded throughout the Australian military for their ability to carry large amounts of cargo across long distances , and the process through which they were acquired has been identified as an example of good practice in defence procurement .
= = Acquisition = =
= = = Selection = = =
The RAAF began considering options for heavy transport aircraft to provide a strategic airlift capability during the early 2000s . This investigation was initiated after the ADF deployment to East Timor in 1999 and operations in the Middle East from 2001 revealed shortcomings in the RAAF 's ability to transport the increasingly large and heavy vehicles and other items of equipment used by the Australian Army . To support these operations , the ADF found that it needed long @-@ ranged aircraft capable of carrying larger loads than could be accommodated in the RAAF 's force of Lockheed C @-@ 130 Hercules transports . As a result of this capability gap , the ADF needed to use USAF transports and chartered Russian @-@ built commercial heavy lift aircraft to move supplies and equipment from Australia to its forces in Afghanistan and the Middle East . This experience proved frustrating , as both categories of aircraft were often not available and the commercial transports were expensive to lease . In addition , the crash of a civil @-@ chartered Ilyushin Il @-@ 76 in East Timor in 2003 raised concerns within the ADF about the safety of the Russian transport aircraft . Following advocacy from the military , the Australian Government announced as part of an update to its national security strategy in December 2005 that it would consider acquiring heavy lift aircraft to supplement the RAAF 's Lockheed Martin C @-@ 130J Super Hercules transports . This initiative was one of several measures announced in the government 's Defence Update 2005 paper , which sought to better prepare the ADF to operate in locations distant from Australia .
In early 2006 a project office was established within the Defence Materiel Organisation ( DMO ) to evaluate the options for acquiring heavy lift aircraft . The office considered the Boeing C @-@ 17 Globemaster III , which was in service with the USAF at the time , as well as the Airbus A400M Atlas , which was yet to make its first flight . Boeing aggressively marketed the C @-@ 17 to the Australian Government during this period . Though unstated , commonality with the USAF and the United Kingdom 's RAF was also considered advantageous . In March 2006 , Minister for Defence Brendan Nelson announced that the government had decided to purchase three C @-@ 17s and take out an option for a fourth . Nelson also announced that the C @-@ 17s would be operated by No. 36 Squadron RAAF , which was to transfer its C @-@ 130H Hercules to No. 37 Squadron and relocate from RAAF Base Richmond in New South Wales to RAAF Base Amberley in Queensland . Amberley was selected over Richmond as the base for the Globemasters as its runways and engineering facilities were better able to support large aircraft .
The government exercised the option to purchase a fourth C @-@ 17 between the time this announcement was made and the signing of the final contract on 31 July 2006 . The total cost of the four aircraft was $ A821 million , and Boeing also received an A $ 85 million contract to allow Australia to join the " virtual fleet " global C @-@ 17 sustainment program . Additional funding was allocated to build headquarters and maintenance facilities at Amberley as well as to upgrade the air movements facilities at RAAF Bases Darwin , Edinburgh , Townsville , and Pearce . The package of funding needed to purchase and introduce the Globemasters into service was provided as a supplement to the government 's long @-@ term defence funding program , so the ADF did not have to forego any other planned capabilities . The C @-@ 17s were acquired through the United States Government 's Foreign Military Sales program , meaning that they were first delivered to the USAF and then transferred to the RAAF . The USAF provided some of the C @-@ 17 delivery " slots " it had purchased to the RAAF to enable the type to rapidly enter Australian service , making them identical to American C @-@ 17 even in paint scheme , the only difference being the national markings . This allowed delivery to commence within nine months of commitment to the program .
= = = Delivery and sustainment = = =
The RAAF received its first four C @-@ 17s between late 2006 and early 2008 . The initial aircraft , which was allocated the serial number A41 @-@ 206 , was completed in October 2006 and arrived in Australia on 4 December that year . A welcome ceremony attended by Prime Minister John Howard , Nelson and other dignitaries was held at Defence Establishment Fairbairn in Canberra . The second aircraft , A41 @-@ 207 , was delivered on 11 May 2007 . A41 @-@ 208 was handed over to the RAAF on 18 December 2007 , and A41 @-@ 209 was accepted on 18 January 2008 . The first two aircraft were delivered in accordance with the expected schedule , and the third and fourth were each delivered two months early . The RAAF also acquired a C @-@ 17 flight simulator , which entered service in January 2010 . In the 2012 – 13 edition of its annual Major Projects Report , the Australian National Audit Office judged that a lesson for the Australian Government from the successful procurement of the first four Globemasters was that purchasing major equipment on an " off @-@ the @-@ shelf " basis allows " considerable acceleration of the standard acquisition cycle " . Similarly , Australian Strategic Policy Institute analyst Mark Thomson wrote in 2008 that " the breakneck speed with which the C @-@ 17 acquisition was executed ( and the good outcomes of the acquisition ) provides an example of what can be achieved " through off @-@ the @-@ shelf purchasing , and that such projects generally deliver better outcomes for the ADF than attempts to develop equipment tailored to Australia 's needs .
The Australian Government ordered a further two C @-@ 17s during 2011 and 2012 . In February 2011 Minister for Defence Stephen Smith announced that an additional C @-@ 17 would be purchased for a cost of $ A130 million . This aircraft was ordered to prevent a shortfall of airlift capacity while the original four C @-@ 17s underwent scheduled heavy maintenance . The decision to purchase this aircraft also supplanted an earlier plan to acquire an additional two C @-@ 130Js . As the deadline for A41 @-@ 206 to be temporarily taken out of service for maintenance was rapidly approaching , the USAF agreed to transfer a C @-@ 17 airframe that was nearing completion to the RAAF . This aircraft was delivered on 14 September 2011 , and arrived in Australia nine days later . At the ceremony held to welcome A41 @-@ 210 , Smith announced that the government intended to order another C @-@ 17 . The $ A160 million contract for this aircraft was signed in March 2012 , and it was delivered to the RAAF on 1 November that year . Funding for these two aircraft was obtained through a combination of supplements to the Defence budget and reallocating unspent funds from ADF projects running behind schedule .
Owing to budget constraints and the scheduled closure of Boeing 's Globemaster production line in 2015 , it was considered unlikely in 2012 that the RAAF would acquire additional Globemasters . However , in August 2014 Minister for Defence David Johnston stated that the Government was likely to purchase a further one or two C @-@ 17s . The Government announced that it would purchase two additional Globemasters in October 2014 , and requested information on the pricing and availability for a further pair of aircraft . In November 2014 Australia lodged a formal request with the United States Defense Security Cooperation Agency for four C @-@ 17s and associated equipment , for a total cost of $ A1.85 billion . An order for the RAAF 's seventh and eighth Globemasters was formally announced by Prime Minister Tony Abbott on 10 April 2015 . The first of the new C @-@ 17s arrived in Australia on 29 July 2015 , and the second on 4 November that year . These two aircraft were among the last C @-@ 17s to have been built before the production line was closed , and it is not expected that the RAAF will acquire additional Globemasters . It was reported in December 2014 that the New Zealand Government was considering purchasing between two and four Globemasters , and Australian Aviation journalist Andrew McLaughlin suggested that any such acquisition would build on Australia 's C @-@ 17 support infrastructure . However , the New Zealand Government ultimately decided to not purchase any Globemasters .
Maintenance of the Australian Globemasters is undertaken by both the RAAF and Boeing . As part of Australia 's membership of the Globemaster III Sustainment Partnership , Air Force technicians are responsible for routine servicing and Boeing handles major maintenance tasks . Boeing also provides technical support for RAAF Globemasters during deployments outside of Australia , and the company is paid in return for achieving contractually mandated aircraft availability targets . Due to the economies of scale arising from a large international maintenance program , the contract with Boeing is considered to be cheaper than attempting to support the aircraft through unique Australian contracts . It is expected that the RAAF 's Globemasters will remain in service for 30 years .
The ADF and defence commentators have judged that the Globemaster acquisition has significantly increased the RAAF 's airlift capabilities . The aircraft have a maximum range of 10 @,@ 389 kilometres ( 6 @,@ 455 mi ) and are capable of operating from short and unsealed airstrips . Each Globemaster can carry up to 77 @,@ 519 kilograms ( 170 @,@ 900 lb ) of cargo , and the large size of the aircraft means that it can accommodate outsize items . Maximum loads include 102 passengers , 36 personnel on stretchers , an M1 Abrams tank , three Eurocopter Tiger helicopters or five Bushmaster Protected Mobility Vehicles . These are much larger loads than can be transported by the Air Force 's C @-@ 130 Hercules transports , and the RAAF website states that each C @-@ 17 can carry three times as much cargo as a C @-@ 130 . Flown with a joystick and fly @-@ by @-@ wire controls , the C @-@ 17 is also highly manoeuvrable and responsive considering its size . Ian McPhedran , the defence correspondent for News Corp Australia , judged that the C @-@ 17s have " changed the game " for the RAAF by allowing the force to rapidly transport large amounts of cargo into combat zones . According to aviation journalist Nigel Pittaway , the Globemaster 's capabilities have made it a highly regarded asset throughout the Australian Defence Organisation .
= = Operational service = =
= = = Training and combat operations = = =
Ahead of the delivery of Australia 's first C @-@ 17s , RAAF personnel received training on the aircraft in the United States . From May 2006 a group of pilots and loadmasters led by Wing Commander Linda Corbould , the commanding officer designate of No. 36 Squadron , undertook conversion training with the USAF 's C @-@ 17 units at Altus Air Force Base and Charleston Air Force Base . A group of 48 technical personnel also received training at Charleston and McChord Air Force Base from September that year . No. 36 Squadron began a period of intensive training once Corbould delivered A41 @-@ 206 to Amberley on 7 December 2006 , and the unit achieved initial operating capability status in September 2007 . Also in 2007 , the RAAF 's No. 1 Air Operations Support Squadron was expanded by 80 personnel to provide air load teams to support the Globemasters . A project to acquire the equipment needed to allow the RAAF 's C @-@ 17s to be used in the aeromedical evacuation role and develop associated crew procedures began in late 2007 . The first Globemaster aeromedical evacuation sortie was flown on 5 September 2008 , the day after the type was certified to operate in this role . On 8 December 2008 , Corbould led the RAAF 's first all @-@ female aircrew during a training flight over South East Queensland to mark the second anniversary of the entry of the Globemaster into service . A team of USAF trainers was posted to Amberley until the RAAF had sufficient C @-@ 17 pilots who were qualified to instruct others . The RAAF began training new C @-@ 17 pilots in early 2010 after the flight simulator was delivered , and the first Australian @-@ trained pilots graduated in early May that year . No. 36 Squadron achieved final operating capability status in December 2011 . The components for a simulated C @-@ 17 cargo compartment were delivered to Amberley in early 2013 , and this facility was commissioned in November that year . The simulator is used to train air movements and medical staff as well as to develop and trial new cargo carrying techniques for the C @-@ 17s . The first Australian trained Globemaster loadmasters graduated in mid @-@ 2014 .
The RAAF 's Globemasters have supported Australian military deployments worldwide . The Air Mobility Control Centre manages the tasking of the Globemasters , and tries to allocate them to missions for which they are the most cost @-@ effective option . As of September 2008 , No. 36 Squadron was conducting fortnightly flights to transport supplies from Australia to bases in the Middle East ; at this time the supplies were moved into the combat zones in Iraq and Afghanistan using C @-@ 130 transports . Direct C @-@ 17 flights into the major Australian base at Tarin Kot in Afghanistan began in July 2009 . As No. 36 Squadron 's structure does not enable it to permanently station Globemasters in the Middle East , the usual practice has been for one of the type to carry a load of cargo from Australia and then conduct missions in the region for several days before returning to Amberley . In a speech delivered in early 2013 , Smith stated that during the previous year the Globemasters had supported operations in the Middle East by flying " 60 missions , about 330 hours of flight time , during which the C @-@ 17As moved 190 vehicles , 1 @,@ 800 passengers and over 3 @,@ 600 tonnes of cargo and conducted 20 aeromedical evacuations " . In late 2013 a detachment of two Globemasters , three air crews and a large number of other personnel from No. 36 Squadron was established at Al Minhad Air Base in the United Arab Emirates . This detachment was the first time that Australian C @-@ 17s had been deployed away from Amberley for more than two weeks , and was established to transport ADF equipment out of Afghanistan as part of the reduction of the Australian force in the country . Overall , around 100 Globemaster sorties were conducted to fly equipment out of Tarin Kot between November 2012 and the end of 2013 . All Australian C @-@ 17s that fly into Afghanistan are fitted with a Large Aircraft Infrared Countermeasures system for protection against missiles .
In December 2013 one of the Globemasters which was deployed to the Middle East was , along with a RAAF Hercules , tasked with flying peacekeepers into South Sudan to reinforce the United Nations force there following an outbreak of fighting . This airlift was completed in mid @-@ January , by which time the Australian C @-@ 17 had made eight flights into South Sudan from Brindisi in Italy and Djibouti . During September and December 2014 RAAF Globemasters flew five sorties into Iraq to deliver weapons and ammunition destined for Iraqi forces fighting the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant .
C @-@ 17s have also supported ADF training . In this role they have moved helicopters and other equipment between Australian bases , and supported training deployments to the United States . In April 2010 , members of the Australian Army 's No. 176 ( Air Dispatch ) Squadron became the first paratroopers to jump from a non @-@ American Globemaster ; the type was first used to support training by the Army 's Parachute Training School in June that year . A C @-@ 17 transported an Army M1 Abrams tank for the first time during a training exercise conducted on 11 May 2012 . To mark the arrival of the RAAF 's final Globemaster , four of the aircraft flew over Brisbane together on 22 November 2012 . Each of the C @-@ 17s involved in the flight carried a different type of cargo to showcase the type 's capabilities ; A41 @-@ 211 was configured for aeromedical evacuation tasks , another C @-@ 17 embarked an Abrams tank , one carried two Tiger helicopters and the fourth was loaded with several Bushmasters .
Despite the wide range of tasks which have been assigned to the aircraft , the RAAF is currently not operating its Globemasters in all the roles the type is capable of . In February 2013 the Air Force was reported to be investigating using C @-@ 17s to drop special forces boats as well as supplies to warships . The Australian C @-@ 17s have also not yet been refuelled while in flight , though it is planned to develop this capability once the flying boom refuelling systems fitted to the RAAF 's new KC @-@ 30A tanker aircraft become operational .
= = = Humanitarian tasks = = =
In addition to their military tasks , the C @-@ 17s have formed part of the Australian Government 's response to natural disasters . In November 2007 a C @-@ 17 delivered 27 tonnes of supplies to Port Moresby in Papua New Guinea following heavy flooding caused by Cyclone Guba . At the conclusion of the ADF response to this disaster , another C @-@ 17 mission was conducted to return Army Sikorsky S @-@ 70A @-@ 9 Black Hawks to their base at Townsville . During May 2008 a C @-@ 17 flew 31 tonnes of emergency equipment from Australia to Yangon in Burma following Cyclone Nargis . Later in the month a RAAF Globemaster transported two Aérospatiale SA 330 Puma helicopters from South Africa to Thailand , from where the helicopters flew into Burma . On 1 October 2009 , C @-@ 17s transported supplies and ADF evacuation teams from RAAF Base Richmond to Samoa following the earthquake there . Two days later another C @-@ 17 sortie delivered medical personnel and other specialists to Padang in Indonesia after the Sumatra earthquakes . In August 2010 , two C @-@ 17s were dispatched to deliver emergency supplies to Pakistan following widespread flooding there .
No. 36 Squadron was particularly active during 2011 . In January that year the squadron had to evacuate two C @-@ 17s from Amberley to Richmond when the base was threatened by rising floodwaters during the Queensland floods ; of the other two Globemasters , one was in the Middle East and the other was undergoing maintenance and could not be flown . The aircraft stranded at Amberley was moved onto high ground during the crisis at the base and escaped without damage . The two Richmond @-@ based C @-@ 17s subsequently flew over 227 tones of supplies to flood @-@ affected regions of Queensland . When flooding also took place in Victoria during January , No. 36 Squadron transported 100 @,@ 000 sandbags to Melbourne and flew Royal Australian Navy personnel and vehicles into the state from HMAS Albatross in New South Wales . No. 36 Squadron returned to Amberley after the flood waters dropped in mid @-@ February . In early February the north Queensland city of Cairns was threatened by Cyclone Yasi , and the RAAF conducted two C @-@ 17 sorties and two C @-@ 130 sorties to evacuate patients from Cairns Base Hospital on the night of 1 / 2 February . After the cyclone passed over the Queensland coast , C @-@ 17s flew 200 tonnes of groceries into Cairns over a two @-@ day period as part of Operation Yasi Assist . No. 36 Squadron also contributed aircraft to the Australian response to the 2011 Christchurch earthquake in late February , the C @-@ 17s flying urban search and rescue teams into the city from the 23rd of the month and evacuating Australian citizens on their return flights .
Three of the Australian C @-@ 17s were deployed to Japan following the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami on 11 March . The first aircraft departed Australia two days after the disaster carrying 75 emergency response personnel , most of whom were members of Fire and Rescue NSW . After delivering these personnel to Yokota Air Base , the C @-@ 17 remained in Japan to provide additional airlift to the Japan Self @-@ Defense Forces ( JSDF ) . In this role , the C @-@ 17 moved elements of the Japanese 15th Brigade from Okinawa to Honshu , and also transported supplies from a JSDF base in Hokkaido . On 21 / 22 March , two other C @-@ 17s ( including one temporarily brought back from the Middle East ) flew a large water cannon system from RAAF Base Pearce in Western Australia to Yokota ; owned by the Bechtel corporation , the water cannon formed part of the efforts to bring the badly damaged Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant under control . With the arrival of these aircraft , all three of the available Australian C @-@ 17s were in Japan ( the fourth was still undergoing maintenance at Amberley ) . The RAAF maintained a C @-@ 17 , two flight crews and support personnel in Japan until 25 March . By the end of this deployment the Australian aircraft had conducted 31 sorties and delivered 450 tonnes of cargo . No. 36 Squadron maintained a C @-@ 17 in the Middle East over most of this period . Also in March 2011 , Smith stated that the Australian Government would probably provide C @-@ 17s to transport humanitarian supplies to Libya if the United Nations requested assistance .
The RAAF 's C @-@ 17s responded to several other natural disasters between late 2011 and 2013 . In October 2011 a Globemaster flew a water purification plant to Samoa , from where it was transported by Royal New Zealand Air Force aircraft to Tuvalu . C @-@ 17s also transported supplies to Fiji and Samoa in December 2012 following Cyclone Evan . In January 2013 two Globemasters flew power generators and transformers from Amberley to Hobart following the Tasmanian bushfires . Later that month C @-@ 17s were used to transport aviation fuel and other supplies into the Queensland town of Bundaberg after it was affected by heavy flooding . In November 2013 a Globemaster flew a civilian medical team and its equipment from Australia to Cebu in the Philippines as part of the relief effort following Typhoon Haiyan ; an RAAF C @-@ 130 subsequently transported the medical team from Cebu to Tacloban in the disaster zone .
In July 2014 , an Australian C @-@ 17 was sent to aid the transportation of the victims ' bodies of Malaysia Airlines Flight 17 . The aircraft flew the first 24 bodies from Kharkiv , Ukraine to Eindhoven Airport in the Netherlands , on 23 July . The remaining victims ' bodies will be flown into the Netherlands in cooperation with an RNLAF Lockheed C @-@ 130 Hercules . The plan is that , once all bodies have been retrieved from the crash site , the Globemaster will repatriate those bodies identified as Australian .
In November 2015 the first flight by an RAAF C @-@ 17 to Antarctica was conducted . The aircraft transported supplies for the Australian Antarctic Division from Hobart to Wilkins Runway , and its crew practised evacuating casualties from Wilkins after the cargo was unloaded . This flight was reported to have been first time the RAAF had flown missions to the Australian Antarctic Territory since the Antarctic Flight was withdrawn in 1963 . Further flights occurred in early 2016 .
= Laozi =
Laozi ( also Lao @-@ Tzu / ˈlaʊˈdzʌ / or Lao @-@ Tze , Chinese : 老子 ; pinyin : Lǎozǐ , lit . " Old Master " ) was an ancient Chinese philosopher and writer . He is known as the reputed author of the Tao Te Ching and the founder of philosophical Taoism , and as a deity in religious Taoism and traditional Chinese religions . Although a legendary figure , he is usually dated to around the 6th century BC and reckoned a contemporary of Confucius , but some historians contend that he actually lived during the Warring States period of the 5th or 4th century BC . A central figure in Chinese culture , Laozi is claimed by both the emperors of the Tang dynasty and modern people of the Li surname as a founder of their lineage . Laozi 's work has been embraced by various anti @-@ authoritarian movements as well as Chinese | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
an affair .
= = Plot = =
Don Geiss , the chairman of General Electric ( GE ) , challenges Jack and his rivals to come up with an idea to make money " from this environmentalism trend . " This leads to him casting an actor called Jared to play Greenzo , NBC 's environmental mascot . Initially , Greenzo is a success , making a well received appearance on The Today Show with Meredith Vieira . Eventually , he becomes more and more self @-@ absorbed and starts insulting the TGS staff and criticizing the staff 's environmentally unfriendly habits . This is until he conducts a second interview , when he begins ranting negatively about " big companies and their two @-@ faced , fat cat executives , " referring to GE and Jack . Angered , Jack fires Jared and tries tricking Al Gore into replacing him to no avail . Also , a drunken Greenzo shows up and tries to continue only to mess things up even more .
Meanwhile , Kenneth is planning a party . Knowing this , Liz recounts past parties of Kenneth 's to Tracy , telling him that she was the only other person who attended those parties . Feeling pity for Kenneth , Tracy tells the biggest gossips on TGS with Tracy Jordan , Grizz and Dot Com ( Grizz Chapman and Kevin Brown ) , that T.I. will be attending . They persuade other people to attend by telling various other lies . The resulting party is so outrageous that Kenneth decides never to throw a party again .
When Liz finds another woman 's lipstick in her apartment , she and Jenna begin to suspect that Pete , who is separated from his wife , is having an affair . Liz later discovers , much to her horror , that Pete is having an " affair " with his own wife , Paula Hornberger ( Paula Pell ) . Later , Pete asks if he can still stay with Liz because for the first time , they have been able to date .
= = Production = =
" Greenzo " is the first episode of 30 Rock written by Jon Pollack . Pollack was added to the writing staff of 30 Rock at the beginning of the second season . The episode is the ninth episode of 30 Rock directed by Don Scardino . This episode aired as part of Green Week , an initiative introduced by NBC 's Chief Executive Jeff Zucker which included having every primetime program which aired between November 4 , 2007 and November 10 , 2007 contain some sort of positive environmental theme . This was also the first episode of 30 Rock to air after the start of the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike . The strike began on November 5 , 2007 and ended on February 12 , 2008 . This episode was filmed on September 27 and September 28 , 2007 .
= = Reception = =
" Greenzo " brought in an average of 6 @.@ 6 million viewers , the highest amount of viewers since the second season premiere , " SeinfeldVision " . The episode also achieved a 3 @.@ 1 / 8 in the key 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ old demographic , matching the series ' highest rating in that demographic . The 3 @.@ 1 refers to 3 @.@ 1 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds in the U.S. and the 8 refers to 8 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast , in the U.S. This episode also ranked in first place in the men 18 – 34 demographic , against programs airing on other networks in the same timeslot .
Matt Webb Mitovich of TV Guide praised " David Schwimmer for throwing himself into this role " as Jared , " this rather unlikable lout . " Webb Mitovich also wrote that " [ Kenneth 's ] party in and of itself has to be one of 30 Rock 's finest and most manic moments . " Bob Sassone of AOL 's TV Squad thought that " [ David ] Schwimmer was good as Greenzo " and that " the subplots were some of the most bizarre this season . " Robert Canning of IGN thought that the " cameo from Al Gore at the end of the show added little to the episode . It was a fine bit , but it wasn 't helped by the fact that nearly the entire scene had already aired in the promos leading up to the episode " and that " seeing [ Schwimmer ] desperately take on the role of Greenzo and then get carried away with the whole concept could have been hysterically self @-@ referential [ to his work on the situation comedy Friends ] . Instead we got Jerrod [ sic ] as Greenzo and the whole thing just felt flat and forced . " Canning rated the episode " 8 out of 10 " Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette 's Rob Owen also felt that Al Gore 's appearance had been " already given away in [ NBC 's ] promos " . He praised the episode 's dialogue , saying that Baldwin 's line , " you could put on a silly hat and tell the kids how outsourcing means cheaper toys for Christmas " was the sort of dialogue that " makes 30 Rock rock . Hard . " Jeff Labrecque of Entertainment Weekly wrote that this episode " was one of the best of season 2 " and that " Schwimmer 's performance reminded [ him ] of his most bizarre episodes as Friends ' Ross Geller , like ' The One With Ross 's Sandwich ' . " The episode of Friends referred to includes Schwimmer 's character , Ross , shouting at his boss for eating his special Thanksgiving leftover sandwich .
= D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company =
The D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company is a professional light opera company that staged Gilbert and Sullivan 's Savoy operas nearly year @-@ round in the UK and sometimes toured in Europe , North America and elsewhere , from the 1870s until 1982 . The company was revived for short seasons and tours from 1988 to 2003 , and with Scottish Opera it later co @-@ produced two productions .
In 1875 , Richard D 'Oyly Carte asked the dramatist W. S. Gilbert and the composer Arthur Sullivan to collaborate on a short comic opera to round out an evening 's entertainment . When that work , Trial by Jury , became a success , Carte put together a syndicate to produce a full @-@ length Gilbert and Sullivan work , The Sorcerer ( 1877 ) , followed by H.M.S. Pinafore ( 1878 ) . After Pinafore became an international sensation , Carte jettisoned his difficult investors and formed a new partnership with Gilbert and Sullivan that became the D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company . The company produced the succeeding ten Gilbert and Sullivan operas and many other operas and companion pieces at the Savoy Theatre in London , which Carte built in 1881 for that purpose . The company also mounted tours in Britain , New York and elsewhere , usually running several companies simultaneously . Carte 's able assistant , Helen Lenoir , became his wife in 1888 and , after his death in 1901 , she ran the company until her own death in 1913 . By this time , it had become a year @-@ round Gilbert and Sullivan touring repertory company .
Carte 's son Rupert inherited the company . Beginning in 1919 , he mounted new seasons in London with new set and costume designs , while continuing the year @-@ round tours in Britain and abroad . With the help of the director J. M. Gordon and the conductor Isidore Godfrey , Carte ran the company for 35 years . He redesigned the Savoy Theatre in 1928 and sponsored a series of recordings over the years that helped to keep the operas popular . After Rupert 's death in 1948 , his daughter Bridget D 'Oyly Carte inherited the company and hired Frederic Lloyd as general manager . The company continued to tour for 35 weeks each year , issue new recordings and play London seasons of Gilbert and Sullivan . In 1961 , the last copyright on the Gilbert and Sullivan operas expired , and Bridget set up and endowed a charitable trust that presented the operas until mounting costs and a lack of public funding forced the closure of the company in 1982 . It re @-@ formed in 1988 with a legacy left by Bridget D 'Oyly Carte , played short tours and London seasons , and issued some popular recordings . Denied significant funding from the English Arts Council , it suspended productions in 2003 . With Scottish Opera , it co @-@ produced The Pirates of Penzance 2013 and The Mikado in 2016 .
Some of the company 's performers , over the decades , became stars of their day and often moved on to careers in musical theatre or grand opera . The company licensed the operas for performance in Australasia and to numerous amateur troupes in Britain and elsewhere , providing orchestra parts and prompt books for hire . The company kept the Savoy operas in the public eye for over a century and left an enduring legacy of production styles and stage business that continue to be emulated in new productions .
= = History = =
= = = Beginnings = = =
By 1874 , Richard D 'Oyly Carte , a musician and ambitious young impresario , had begun producing operettas in London . He announced his ambitions on the front of the programme for one of his productions that year : " It is my desire to establish in London a permanent abode for light opera . " The Observer reported , " Mr D 'Oyly Carte is not only a skilful manager , but a trained musician , and he appears to have grasped the fact that the public are beginning to become weary of what is known as a genuine opera bouffe , and are ready to welcome a musical entertainment of a higher order , such as a musician might produce with satisfaction " . He wanted to establish a body of tasteful English comic opera that would appeal to families , in contrast to the bawdy burlesques and adaptations of French operettas and opera bouffes that dominated the London musical stage at that time .
In early 1875 , Carte was managing London 's Royalty Theatre . Needing a short piece to round out an evening 's entertainment featuring the popular Offenbach operetta La Périchole he brought W. S. Gilbert and Arthur Sullivan together . On tour in 1871 , Carte had conducted Arthur Sullivan 's one @-@ act comic opera Cox and Box , which received an 1874 London revival . In 1873 , W. S. Gilbert had offered a libretto to Carte about an English courtroom , but at the time Carte knew of no composer available to set it to music . Carte remembered Gilbert 's libretto and suggested to Gilbert that Sullivan write the music for a one @-@ act comic opera , Trial by Jury , which was quickly composed and added to the Royalty 's bill in March 1875 . The witty and " very English " little piece proved even more popular than La Périchole and became the first great success of Carte 's scheme to found his school of English comic opera , playing for 300 performances from 1875 to 1877 , as well as touring and enjoying many revivals .
At the Theatre Royal , in Dublin , Ireland in September 1875 , while there managing the first tour of Trial by Jury , Carte met a young Scottish actress , Helen Lenoir . She became fascinated by his vision for establishing a company to promote English comic opera and gave up her next engagement to join his theatrical organisation as his secretary . Lenoir was well @-@ educated , and her grasp of detail and diplomacy , as well as her organisational ability and business acumen , surpassed even Carte 's . She became intensely involved in all of his business affairs and soon managed many of the company 's responsibilities , especially concerning touring . She later travelled to America numerous times over the years to arrange the details of the company 's New York engagements and American tours . Still , Carte continued to produce continental operetta , touring in the summer of 1876 with a repertoire consisting of three English adaptations of French opera bouffe and two one @-@ act English curtain raisers ( Happy Hampstead and Trial by Jury ) . Carte himself was the musical director of this travelling company , which disbanded after the tour .
In 1876 , Carte found four financial backers and formed the Comedy Opera Company in 1876 to produce more works by Gilbert and Sullivan , along with the works of other British lyricist / composer teams . With this theatre company , Carte finally had the financial resources , after many failed attempts , to produce a new full @-@ length Gilbert and Sullivan opera . Carte leased the Opera Comique , a small theatre off The Strand . The first comic opera produced by the Comedy Opera Company was Gilbert and Sullivan 's The Sorcerer , about a tradesmanlike London sorcerer . It opened in November 1877 together with Dora 's Dream , a curtain @-@ raiser with music by Sullivan 's assistant Alfred Cellier and words by Arthur Cecil , a friend of both Gilbert and Sullivan .
Instead of writing a piece for production by a theatre proprietor , as was usual in Victorian theatres , Gilbert , Sullivan and Carte produced the show with their own financial support . They were therefore able to select their own cast of performers , rather than being obliged to use the actors already engaged at the theatre . They chose talented actors , most of whom were not well @-@ known stars and did not command high fees , and to whom they could teach a more naturalistic style of performance than was commonly used at the time . Carte 's talent agency provided many of the artists to perform in the new work . They then tailored their work to the particular abilities of these performers . Some of the cast members , including principal comedian George Grossmith , Richard Temple and Rutland Barrington , stayed with the company for almost 15 years . Two other longstanding members of the company were Rosina Brandram , who started in D 'Oyly Carte touring companies with The Sorcerer , and Jessie Bond who joined the group for Pinafore at the Opera Comique in 1878 . As Grossmith wrote in 1888 , " We are all a very happy family . "
Knowing that Gilbert and Sullivan shared his vision of broadening the audience for British light opera by increasing its quality and respectability , Carte gave Gilbert wider authority as a director than was customary among Victorian producers , and Gilbert tightly controlled all aspects of production , including staging , design and movement . Gilbert hired the Gaiety Theatre 's ballet @-@ master John D 'Auban to choreograph most of the Savoy operas . The skill with which Gilbert and Sullivan used their performers had an effect on the audience ; as the critic Herman Klein wrote : " we secretly marvelled at the naturalness and ease with which [ the Gilbertian quips and absurdities ] were said and done . For until then no living soul had seen upon the stage such weird , eccentric , yet intensely human beings .... [ They ] conjured into existence a hitherto unknown comic world of sheer delight . " The Sorcerer ran for 178 performances , a healthy run at the time , making a profit , and Carte sent out a touring company in March 1878 . Sheet music from the show sold well , and street musicians played the melodies . The success of The Sorcerer showed Carte , Gilbert and Sullivan that there was a future in family @-@ friendly English comic opera .
= = = Pinafore to Patience = = =
The next Gilbert and Sullivan collaboration , H.M.S. Pinafore , opened in May 1878 . The opera 's initial slow business was generally ascribed to a heat wave that made the stuffy Opera Comique particularly uncomfortable . Carte 's partners in the Comedy Opera Company lost confidence in the show and posted closing notices . After Carte made promotional efforts and Sullivan included some of the Pinafore music in several promenade concerts that he conducted at Covent Garden , Pinafore became a hit . The Opera Comique was required to close at Christmas 1878 for repairs to drainage and sewage under the Public Health Act of 1875 . Carte used the enforced closure of the theatre to invoke a contract clause reverting the rights of Pinafore and Sorcerer to Gilbert and Sullivan after the initial run of H.M.S. Pinafore . Carte then took a six @-@ month personal lease on the theatre beginning on 1 February 1879 . Carte persuaded Gilbert and Sullivan that when their original agreement with the Comedy Opera Company expired in July 1879 , a business partnership among the three of them would be to their advantage . The three each put up £ 1 @,@ 000 and formed a new partnership under the name " Mr Richard D 'Oyly Carte 's Opera Company " . Under the partnership agreement , once the expenses of mounting the productions had been deducted , each of the three men was entitled to one third of the profits .
On 31 July 1879 , the last day of their agreement with Gilbert and Sullivan , the directors of the Comedy Opera Company attempted to repossess the set by force during a performance , causing a celebrated fracas . Carte 's stagehands managed to ward off their backstage attackers and protect the scenery . The Comedy Opera Company opened a rival production of H.M.S. Pinafore in London , but it was not as popular as the D 'Oyly Carte production , and soon closed . Legal action over the ownership of the rights ended in victory for Carte , Gilbert and Sullivan . From 1 August 1879 , the company , later called the D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company , became the sole authorised producer of the works of Gilbert and Sullivan .
Pinafore became so successful that the piano score sold 10 @,@ 000 copies , and Carte soon sent two additional companies out to tour in the provinces . The opera ran for 571 performances in London , the second longest run in musical theatre history up to that time . Over 150 unauthorised productions sprang up in America alone , but because American law then offered no copyright protection to foreigners , Gilbert , Sullivan and Carte had no way to prevent them . To try to make some money from the popularity of their opera in America , Carte travelled to New York with Gilbert , Sullivan and the company to present an " authentic " production of Pinafore on Broadway , beginning in December 1879 , also mounting American tours . Beginning with Pinafore , Carte licensed the J. C. Williamson company to produce the works in Australia and New Zealand .
In an effort to head off unauthorised American productions of their next opera , The Pirates of Penzance , Carte and his partners opened it in New York on 31 December 1879 , prior to its 1880 London premiere . Pirates was the only Gilbert and Sullivan opera to have its official premiere in America . Carte and his partners hoped to forestall further " piracy " by establishing the authorised production and tours in America before others could copy it and by delaying publication of the score and libretto . They did succeed in keeping for themselves the direct profits of the venture , but they tried without success for many years to control the American performance copyrights over their operas . Pirates was an immediate hit in New York , and later London , becoming one of the most popular Gilbert and Sullivan operas . To secure the British copyright , there was a perfunctory performance the afternoon before the New York premiere , at the Royal Bijou Theatre , Paignton , Devon , organised by Helen Lenoir .
The next Gilbert and Sullivan opera , Patience , opened at the Opera Comique in April 1881 and was another big success , becoming the second longest @-@ running piece in the series and enjoying numerous foreign productions . Patience satirised the self @-@ indulgent Aesthetic movement of the 1870s and ' 80s in England , part of the 19th @-@ century European movement that emphasised aesthetic values over moral or social themes in literature , fine art , the decorative arts , and interior design . From the beginning , the D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company established strict rules for its actors and actresses , to avoid any hint of scandal such as performers were accused of in other companies . As Jessie Bond described in her autobiography :
No lingering about was allowed , no gossiping with the other actors ; the women ’ s dressing @-@ rooms were on one side of the stage , the men 's on the other , and when we were not actually playing we had to mount at once our respective narrow staircases – sheep rigorously separated from the goats ! Once , when my mother came to see me in London , expecting to find me dwelling in haunts of gilded luxury , and far down the road to perdition , I took her behind the scenes and showed her the arrangements for the actors and actresses , conventual in their austerity . ... I think there never was a theatre run on lines of such strict propriety ; no breath of scandal ever touched it in all the twenty years of my experience . Gilbert would suffer no loose word or gesture either behind the stage or on it , and watched over us young women like a dragon .
With profits from the success of the Gilbert and Sullivan operas and his concert and lecture agency ( his talent roster included Adelina Patti , Clara Schumann , Jacques Offenbach , Oscar Wilde and Charles Gounod ) , Carte bought property along the Strand with frontage onto the Thames Embankment , where he built the Savoy Theatre in 1881 . He chose the name in honour of the Savoy Palace . The Savoy Theatre was a state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art facility , setting a new standard for technology , comfort and decor . It was the first public building in the world to be lit entirely by electric lights and seated nearly 1 @,@ 300 people ( compared to the Opera Comique 's 862 ) .
Patience was the first production at the new theatre , transferring there on 10 October 1881 . The first generator proved too small to power the whole building , and though the entire front @-@ of @-@ house was electrically lit , the stage was lit by gas until 28 December 1881 . At that performance , Carte stepped on stage and broke a glowing lightbulb before the audience to demonstrate the safety of the new technology . The Times concluded that the theatre " is admirably adapted for its purpose , its acoustic qualities are excellent , and all reasonable demands of comfort and taste are complied with . " Carte and his manager , George Edwardes ( later famous as manager of the Gaiety Theatre ) , introduced several innovations at the theatre , including numbered seating , free programme booklets , the " queue " system for the pit and gallery ( an American idea ) and a policy of no tipping for cloakroom or other services . Daily expenses at the theatre were about half the possible takings from ticket sales . The last eight of Gilbert and Sullivan 's comic operas were premièred at the Savoy .
During the years when the Gilbert and Sullivan operas were being written , the company also produced operas by other composer – librettist teams , either as curtain @-@ raisers to the Gilbert and Sullivan pieces , or as touring productions , as well as other works to fill the Savoy Theatre in between Savoy operas , and Carte also toured the Gilbert and Sullivan operas extensively . For example , a souvenir programme commemorating the 250th performance of Patience in London and its 100th performance in New York shows that , aside from these two productions of Patience , Carte was simultaneously producing two companies touring with Patience , two companies touring with other Gilbert and Sullivan operas , a company touring with Olivette ( co @-@ produced with Charles Wyndham ) a company touring Claude Duval in America , a production of Youth running at a New York theatre , a lecture tour by Archibald Forbes ( a war correspondent ) and productions of Patience , Pirates , Claude Duval and Billee Taylor in association with J. C. Williamson in Australia , among other things .
In the 1880s , Carte also introduced the practice of licensing amateur theatrical societies to present works for which he held the rights , increasing their popularity and the sales of scores and libretti , as well as the rental of band parts . This had an important influence on amateur theatre in general . Cellier and Bridgeman wrote in 1914 that , prior to the creation of the Savoy operas , amateur actors were treated with contempt by professionals . After the formation of amateur Gilbert and Sullivan companies licensed to perform the operas , professionals recognised that the amateur societies " support the culture of music and the drama . They are now accepted as useful training schools for the legitimate stage , and from the volunteer ranks have sprung many present @-@ day favourites . " Cellier and Bridgeman attributed the rise in quality and reputation of the amateur groups largely to " the popularity of , and infectious craze for performing , the Gilbert and Sullivan operas " . The National Operatic and Dramatic Association was founded in 1899 . It reported , in 1914 , that nearly 200 British societies were producing Gilbert and Sullivan operas that year . Carte insisted that amateur companies follow the D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company staging , using its prompt books . Even after the copyrights expired at the end of 1961 , the company continued to , and still does , rent out band parts to companies around the world .
= = = Iolanthe to The Gondoliers = = =
After Patience , the company produced Iolanthe , which opened in 1882 . During its run , in February 1883 , Carte signed a five @-@ year partnership agreement with Gilbert and Sullivan , obligating them to create new operas for the company upon six months ' notice . Sullivan had not intended immediately to write a new work with Gilbert , but he suffered a serious financial loss when his broker went bankrupt in November 1882 and must have felt the long @-@ term contract necessary for his security . But he soon felt trapped . Gilbert scholar Andrew Crowther comments , regarding the agreement : " Effectively , it made [ Gilbert and Sullivan ] Carte 's employees – a situation which created its own resentments . " The partnership 's next opera , Princess Ida , opened in January 1884 . Carte soon saw that Ida was running weakly at the box office and invoked the agreement to call upon his partners for a new opera to be written . Almost from the beginning of the partnership , the musical establishment put pressure on Sullivan to abandon comic opera , and he soon regretted having signed the five @-@ year contract . In March 1884 , Sullivan told Carte that " it is impossible for me to do another piece of the character of those already written by Gilbert and myself . "
During this conflict and others during the 1880s , Carte and Helen Lenoir frequently had to smooth over the partners ' differences with a mixture of friendship and business acumen . Sullivan asked to be released from the partnership on several occasions . Nevertheless , they coaxed eight comic operas out of Gilbert and Sullivan in the 1880s . When Princess Ida closed after a comparatively short run of nine months , for the first time in the partnership 's history , the next opera was not ready . To make matters worse , Gilbert suggested a plot in which people fell in love against their wills after taking a magic lozenge – a scenario that Sullivan had previously rejected , and he now rejected the " lozenge plot " again . Gilbert eventually came up with a new idea and began work in May 1884 .
The company produced the first revival of The Sorcerer , together with Trial by Jury , and matinees of The Pirates of Penzance played by a cast of children , while waiting for the new work to be completed . This became the partnership 's most successful opera , The Mikado , which opened in March 1885 . The piece satirised British institutions by setting them in a fictional Japan . At the same time , it took advantage of the Victorian craze for the exotic Far East using the " picturesque " scenery and costumes of Japan . The Mikado became the partnership 's longest @-@ running hit , enjoying 672 performances at the Savoy Theatre , the second longest run for any work of musical theatre up to that time , and it was extraordinarily popular in the U.S. and worldwide . It remains the most frequently performed Savoy opera . Beginning with The Mikado , Hawes Craven , the designer of the sets for Henry Irving 's spectacular Shakespeare productions at the Lyceum Theatre , designed all of the D 'Oyly Carte sets until 1893 .
The partnership 's next opera was Ruddigore , which opened in January 1887 . It satirised and used elements of Victorian stock melodrama . The piece , though profitable , was a relative disappointment after the extraordinary success of The Mikado . When Ruddigore closed after a run of only nine months , the company mounted revivals of earlier Gilbert and Sullivan operas for almost a year . After another attempt by Gilbert to persuade Sullivan to set a " lozenge plot " , Gilbert met his collaborator half way by writing a serio @-@ comic plot for The Yeomen of the Guard , which premiered in October 1888 . The opera was a success , running for over a year , with strong New York and touring productions . During the run , in March 1889 , Sullivan again expressed reluctance to write another comic opera , asking if Gilbert would write a " dramatic work on a larger musical scale " . Gilbert declined , but offered a compromise that Sullivan ultimately accepted : The two would write a light opera for the Savoy , and at the same time , Sullivan could work on a grand opera ( Ivanhoe ) for a new theatre that Carte was constructing to present British grand opera . The new comic opera was The Gondoliers , which opened in December 1889 and became one of the partnership 's greatest successes . After Carte 's first wife died in 1885 , Carte married Helen Lenoir in 1888 , who was , by this time , nearly as important in managing the company as Carte himself .
During these years , the company 's high production values , and the quality of the operas , created a national and international taste for them , and the company mounted touring productions throughout the provinces , in America ( generally managed by Helen ) , Europe and elsewhere . Queen Victoria honoured the company by calling for a Royal Command Performance of The Gondoliers at Windsor Castle in 1891 . George Bernard Shaw , writing in The World in October 1893 , commented , " Those who are old enough to compare the Savoy performances with those of the dark ages , taking into account the pictorial treatment of the fabrics and colours on the stage , the cultivation and intelligence of the choristers , the quality of the orchestra , and the degree of artistic good breeding , so to speak , expected from the principals , best know how great an advance has been made by Mr. D 'Oyly Carte . "
= = = The Carpet Quarrel and the end of the partnership = = =
On 22 April 1890 , during the run of The Gondoliers , Gilbert discovered that maintenance expenses for the theatre , including a new £ 500 carpet for the front lobby of the theatre , were being charged to the partnership instead of borne by Carte . Gilbert confronted Carte , and Carte refused to reconsider the accounts : Even though the amount of the charge was not great , Gilbert felt it was a moral issue involving Carte 's integrity , and he could not look past it . Gilbert wrote in a letter to Sullivan that " I left him with the remark that it was a mistake to kick down the ladder by which he had risen " . Helen Carte wrote that Gilbert had addressed Carte " in a way that I should not have thought you would have used to an offending menial . " Gilbert brought a lawsuit , but Sullivan sided with Carte , who was building the Royal English Opera House , the inaugural production of which was to be Sullivan 's forthcoming grand opera . Gilbert won the suit , but the partnership disbanded .
Sullivan 's opera , Ivanhoe , had a successful run , but no other operas shared Carte 's new opera house , and so the theatre soon failed . Carte sold the opera house , and it eventually became the Palace Theatre .
After The Gondoliers closed in 1891 , Gilbert withdrew the performance rights to his libretti and vowed to write no more operas for the Savoy . The D 'Oyly Carte company turned to new writing teams for the Savoy , first producing The Nautch Girl , by George Dance , Frank Desprez and Edward Solomon , which ran for a satisfying 200 performances in 1891 – 92 . Next was a revival of Solomon and Sydney Grundy 's The Vicar of Bray , which played through the summer of 1892 . Grundy and Sullivan 's Haddon Hall then held the stage until April 1893 . While the company presented new pieces and revivals at the Savoy , Carte 's touring companies continued to play throughout Britain and in America . In 1894 , for example , Carte had four companies touring Britain and one playing in America .
Gilbert 's aggressive , though successful , legal action had embittered Sullivan and Carte , but the partnership had been so profitable that the Cartes eventually sought to reunite Gilbert and Sullivan . The reconciliation finally came through the efforts of Tom Chappell , who published the sheet music to the Savoy operas . In 1893 , the company produced the penultimate Gilbert and Sullivan collaboration , Utopia , Limited . While Utopia was being prepared , the company produced Jane Annie , by J. M. Barrie and Arthur Conan Doyle , with music by Ernest Ford . Despite the popularity of Barrie and Conan Doyle , the show was a flop , closing in July 1893 after only 51 performances . Utopia was the Savoy 's most expensive production to date , but it ran for a comparatively disappointing 245 performances , until June 1894 , turning a very modest profit . The company then played first Mirette , composed by André Messager , then The Chieftain , by F. C. Burnand and Sullivan . These ran for 102 and 97 performances , respectively . After The Chieftain closed , the company toured the London suburbs , while Carte leased the Savoy Theatre to the Carl Rosa Opera Company . The theatre was dark during the summer of 1895 , reopening in November for a revival of The Mikado . This was followed by The Grand Duke , in 1896 , which ran for 123 performances and was Gilbert and Sullivan 's only financial failure . The Gondoliers turned out to be Gilbert and Sullivan 's last big hit , and after The Grand Duke , the two men never collaborated again .
In 1894 , Carte had hired his son , Rupert , as an assistant . Rupert assisted Mrs. Carte and W. S. Gilbert with the first revival of The Yeomen of the Guard at the Savoy in May 1897 . Throughout the later 1890s , Carte 's health was declining , and Mrs. Carte assumed more and more of the responsibilities of running the opera company . She profitably managed the theatre and the provincial touring companies . The Savoy 's shows during this period received comparatively short runs , including His Majesty ( 1897 ) , The Grand Duchess of Gerolstein ( 1897 ) , The Beauty Stone ( 1898 ) and The Lucky Star ( 1899 ) , as well as revivals of the Gilbert and Sullivan operas . Sullivan 's The Beauty Stone ran for only 50 performances . In 1899 , the Savoy finally had a new success , with Sullivan and Basil Hood 's The Rose of Persia , which ran for 213 performances . Neither Carte nor Sullivan lived to see the production of Sullivan and Hood 's The Emerald Isle ( 1901 ) , for which Edward German completed the score .
= = = Early 20th century = = =
Carte left his theatre , opera company and hotels to his wife , who assumed full control of the family businesses . Her London and touring companies continued to present the Savoy operas in Britain and overseas . She leased the Savoy Theatre to William Greet in 1901 and oversaw his management of the company 's revival of Iolanthe and the production of several new comic operas , including The Emerald Isle ( 1901 ) , Merrie England ( 1902 ) and A Princess of Kensington ( with music by Edward German , libretto by Basil Hood ) , which ran for four months in early 1903 and then toured . When A Princess of Kensington closed at the Savoy , Mrs. Carte leased the theatre to other managements until 8 December 1906 . The company 's fortunes declined for a time , and by 1904 there was only a single touring company wending its way through the British provinces , when it took a seven @-@ month South African tour .
In 1906 – 07 , Mrs. Carte staged a repertory season at the Savoy Theatre , with Gilbert returning to direct . The season , which included Yeomen , The Gondoliers , Patience and Iolanthe , was a sensation and led to another in 1908 – 09 including The Mikado , Pinafore , Iolanthe , Pirates , The Gondoliers and Yeomen . Afterwards , however , Mrs. Carte 's health prevented her from staging more London seasons . She retired and leased the theatre to C. H. Workman , and the company did not perform in London again until 1919 , although it continued to tour throughout Britain .
After Gilbert 's death in 1911 , the company continued to produce productions of the operas in repertory until 1982 . In 1911 , Helen Carte hired J. M. Gordon as stage manager . Gordon , who was promoted to stage director in 1922 , had been a member of the company and a stage manager under Gilbert 's direction , and he fiercely preserved the company 's performing traditions in exacting detail for 28 years . Except for Ruddigore , which underwent some cuts and received a new overture , very few changes were made to the text and music of the operas as Gilbert and Sullivan had produced them , and the company stayed true to Gilbert 's period settings . The traditions evolved over time , after Gordon 's death , but many of Gilbert 's directorial concepts survived , both in the stage directions printed in the libretti and as preserved in company prompt books from the era . Original choreography was also maintained . In addition , some of the staging added over the years became traditional and was repeated again and again in successive productions . Many of these traditional stagings are imitated today in productions by both amateur and professional companies .
Helen Carte died in 1913 , and Carte 's son Rupert D 'Oyly Carte inherited the company . During World War I , he was away serving in the Royal Navy . According to H. M. Walbrook , " Through the years of the Great War [ the company ] continued to be on tour through the country , drawing large and grateful audiences everywhere . They helped to sustain the spirits of the people during that stern period , and by so doing they helped to win the victory . " The company also toured in North America several times , beginning with a Canadian tour in 1927 .
Rupert D 'Oyly Carte found the company 's productions increasingly " dowdy " , however , and on his return from the war , he determined to refresh them , bringing in new designers including W. Bridges @-@ Adams for the sets , and , for the costumes , George Sheringham and Hugo Rumbold . He also commissioned new costumes from Percy Anderson who had worked with Gilbert and Richard D 'Oyly Carte on the original productions of the later Savoy operas . Charles Ricketts redesigned sets and costumes for The Mikado ( 1926 ) and The Gondoliers ( 1929 ) . His costumes for The Mikado were retained by all subsequent designers until 1982 . In an interview in The Observer in August 1919 , Carte set out his policy for staging the operas : " They will be played precisely in their original form , without any alteration to the words , or any attempt to bring them up to date . " This uncompromising declaration was modified in a later interview in which he said , " the plays are all being restaged . ... Gilbert 's words will be unaltered , though there will be some freshness in the method of rendering them . Artists must have scope for their individuality , and new singers cannot be tied down to imitate slavishly those who made successes in the old days . "
The main company made a triumphant return to London for the 1919 – 20 season at the Prince 's Theatre , playing most of the Gilbert and Sullivan operas in repertory and showing off the new sets and costumes . The success of this season led to additional London seasons in 1919 – 20 , 1921 – 22 , 1924 , and 1926 ; the company toured the rest of the year . Carte 's first London season stimulated renewed interest in the operas , and by 1920 he had established a second , smaller company to tour smaller towns . It was disbanded in 1927 , although the company often ran multiple tours simultaneously . For London seasons , Carte engaged guest conductors , first Geoffrey Toye , then Malcolm Sargent , who examined Sullivan 's manuscript scores and purged the orchestral parts of accretions . So striking was the orchestral sound produced by Sargent that the press thought he had retouched the scores , and Carte had the pleasant duty of correcting their error . In a letter to The Times , he noted that " the details of the orchestration sounded so fresh that some of the critics thought them actually new ... the opera was played last night exactly as written by Sullivan . " Carte also hired Harry Norris , who started with the touring company , then was Toye 's assistant before becoming musical director .
In 1917 , the company made the first complete recording of a Gilbert and Sullivan opera , The Mikado , for the Gramophone Company ( later known as His Master 's Voice ) . Rupert D 'Oyly Carte supervised the company 's recordings , including eight more acoustic recordings by 1924 , and a series of complete electrical recordings in the late 1920s and early 1930s . There were additional recordings , in high fidelity , for Decca Records , in the late 1940s and early 1950s and stereo recordings in the late 1950s and early 1960s , all supervised after Rupert 's death by his daughter , Bridget D 'Oyly Carte .
= = = The new Savoy Theatre = = =
Rupert D 'Oyly Carte also redesigned the Savoy Theatre . On 3 June 1929 the Savoy closed , and it was completely rebuilt to designs by Frank A. Tugwell with décor by Basil Ionides . The old house had three tiers ; the new one had two . The seating capacity was increased from 986 to 1 @,@ 158 . The theatre reopened 135 days later on 21 October 1929 , with The Gondoliers , designed by Ricketts and conducted by Sargent . George Sheringham designed new productions that season of H.M.S. Pinafore , The Pirates of Penzance , and Patience ( 1929 , with other designs contributed by Hugo Rumbold ) , and he later designed costumes for Trial by Jury and Iolanthe .
The Savoy also hosted London seasons for the company in 1930 – 31 , 1933 , 1941 , 1951 , 1954 , 1961 , 1963 – 64 , and 1975 . London seasons at other theatres , mostly Sadler 's Wells , included summer seasons from 1935 to 1939 , 1942 , 1947 to 1950 , 1953 , 1971 , 1975 , 1977 and 1980 ; and winter seasons in 1956 – 57 , 1958 – 59 , 1960 – 61 , 1963 – 63 , 1965 – 66 , 1967 – 68 , and then every winter between 1969 – 70 and 1981 – 82 . The company continued to tour the British provinces and abroad when it was not in London , and these tours also often included London suburbs . The company 's musical director from 1929 ( having been assistant musical director from 1925 ) was Isidore Godfrey , who retained the position until 1968 and guest conducted the company in 1975 , as part of the centenary season at the Savoy Theatre . Guest conductors during Godfrey 's tenure were Sargent and Boyd Neel . Henry Lytton retired in 1934 after a quarter century as the principal comedian , and the company made a highly successful eight @-@ month North American tour with its new principal comedian , Martyn Green . In 1938 , many company members participated in the Technicolor film of The Mikado produced and conducted by Geoffrey Toye .
On 3 September 1939 , at the outbreak of World War II , the British government ordered the immediate and indefinite closure of all theatres . Carte cancelled the autumn tour and disbanded the company . Theatres were permitted to reopen from 9 September , but it took some weeks to re @-@ form the company . Some performers , including Martyn Green , were already committed elsewhere , and Grahame Clifford was engaged to play his roles . The company resumed touring , in Edinburgh , on Christmas Day 1939 . The company continued to perform throughout the war , both on tour and in London , but in 1940 German bombing destroyed the sets and costumes for five of its shows : Cox and Box , The Sorcerer , H.M.S. Pinafore , Princess Ida and Ruddigore . The old productions of Pinafore and Cox and Box were recreated shortly after the war , and Ruddigore received a new production , planned by Carte but not seen until after his death . The other two operas took longer to rejoin the company 's repertory . On the other hand , for the first wartime season , Peter Goffin , a protege of Carte 's daughter , Bridget , had designed a new production of The Yeomen of the Guard first seen in January 1940 , and his new Ruddigore debuted in 1948 . A return to the U.S. in 1947 was very successful , and the company resumed frequent visits to America .
Rupert died in 1948 , leaving a strong company to his daughter Bridget D 'Oyly Carte . She soon hired Frederic Lloyd as general manager . Bridget and Lloyd also took steps to keep the productions fresh , engaging designers to redesign the costumes and scenery . Peter Goffin , who had redesigned Yeomen ( 1939 ) and Ruddigore ( 1948 ) for the company , created new settings and costumes for Bridget for half a dozen more productions : The Mikado ( 1952 ; settings only , most of the celebrated Charles Ricketts costumes being retained ) , Patience ( 1957 ) , The Gondoliers ( 1958 ) , Trial by Jury ( 1959 ) , H.M.S. Pinafore ( 1961 ; ladies ' costumes ) and Iolanthe ( 1961 ) . A new production of Princess Ida in 1954 was designed by James Wade . Eleanor Evans , however , was an example of one of the company 's stage directors ( from 1949 to 1953 ) who was said to be reluctant to update and freshen stagings . In 1957 , Goffin designed a unit set for the company to facilitate touring , reducing the number of vans required to carry the scenery from twenty to nine . A 1957 review of Yeomen in The Times praised the production and marvelled at " the continued vitality of the Savoy operas " , noting : " The opera remains enchanting ; the singing seems , on the whole , better and more musical than that which one used to hear , say , 30 years since ; and though the acting lacks some of the richly crusted performances of those days , it is perhaps none the worse for that " . In 1949 , the company began a new series of recordings with Decca , featuring Green , who had returned to the company after the war , and continued the series with his successor , Peter Pratt . The company cooperated with the production of the 1953 film The Story of Gilbert and Sullivan , which used some former members of the company in the cast . In 1955 , the company gave a seven @-@ month tour to the U.S. to celebrate the 75th anniversary of its first American productions . In 1959 , the company began the tradition of holding a zany " last night " on the last evening of each London season .
= = = Later years and closing = = =
With the approaching end of the D 'Oyly Carte monopoly on Gilbert and Sullivan performances , when the copyright on Gilbert 's words expired in 1961 ( Sullivan ’ s music had already come out of copyright at the end of 1950 ) , Bridget D 'Oyly Carte contributed the company and all its assets to an independent charitable trust . She endowed the trust with the company 's scenery , costumes , band parts and other assets , together with a cash endowment , and supervised the production of operas on behalf of the trust until economic necessity forced the closure of the company in 1982 . As it turned out , competing professional productions of Gilbert and Sullivan did not harm the company . Beginning in 1960 , the company re @-@ recorded all of the operas with Pratt 's successor , John Reed , and also recorded a number of other Sullivan pieces . It made a cinema film of The Mikado in 1966 , and recorded for television broadcast its productions of Patience ( 1965 ) and H.M.S. Pinafore ( 1973 ) . It also supplied the soundtrack for a cartoon film of Ruddigore ( 1967 ) . During the 1960s , the company gave five North American tours . A new stage director , Michael Heyland , was hired in 1969 , staying until 1978 .
In March and April 1975 , after the regular London season at Sadler 's Wells , the company moved to the Savoy Theatre for a fortnight 's centennial performances , beginning on 25 March , the 100th anniversary of the first performance of Trial by Jury . All thirteen surviving Gilbert and Sullivan operas were performed in chronological order . Trial by Jury was given four times , as a curtain raiser to The Sorcerer , Pinafore and Pirates and as an afterpiece following The Grand Duke . Before the first of the four performances of Trial , a specially written curtain raiser by William Douglas @-@ Home , called Dramatic Licence , was played by Peter Pratt as Richard D 'Oyly Carte , Kenneth Sandford as Gilbert and John Ayldon as Sullivan , in which Gilbert , Sullivan and Carte plan the birth of Trial in 1875 ; afterwards , the prime minister , Harold Wilson , and Bridget D 'Oyly Carte each gave a short speech . A highlight of the season was a new staging of Utopia Limited ( later given again at the Royal Festival Hall ) , its first revival by the company . The Grand Duke was given as a concert performance , with narration by the BBC presenter Richard Baker . Royston Nash , who was at the company 's musical helm from 1971 to 1979 , conducted most of the performances , with Isidore Godfrey ( Pinafore ) and Sir Charles Mackerras ( Pirates and Mikado ) as guest conductors . Princes Philip and Andrew saw The Gondoliers . In the final performance of Trial by Jury , the regular D 'Oyly Carte chorus was augmented by fourteen former stars of the company : Sylvia Cecil , Elsie Griffin , Ivan Menzies , John Dean , Radley Flynn , Elizabeth Nickell @-@ Lean , Ella Halman , Leonard Osborn , Cynthia Morey , Jeffrey Skitch , Alan Barrett , Mary Sansom , Philip Potter and Gillian Humphreys .
In 1977 , during Queen Elizabeth II 's Jubilee Year , the company gave a Royal Command Performance of Pinafore at Windsor Castle . The company visited Denmark in 1970 , Rome in 1974 , and gave its last American tours in 1976 and 1978 . Its last tour , in Australasia , conducted by the company 's new musical director , Fraser Goulding , was a success in 1979 . Throughout the 20th century , until 1982 , the company toured , on average , for 35 weeks per year ( in addition to its 13 @-@ week London seasons ) , fostering a " strong family atmosphere , reinforced by the number of marriages in the company and the fact that so many people stayed with it for so long . " Principal soprano Valerie Masterson married the company 's principal flautist , Andrew March . She explained , " people didn 't have flats or houses ... touring was your life . " Throughout its history , the company maintained strict moral standards , and it was sometimes referred to as the " Savoy boarding school " , enforcing policies regarding behaviour on and off stage , and even a dress code . Soprano Cynthia Morey ascribed the strong affection that artists had for the company to " the unique family atmosphere engendered by the company 's direct descent from its creators , Gilbert , Sullivan ... Richard D 'Oyly Carte , followed by his widow , Helen , his son Rupert , and finally his granddaughter Bridget . " The company also preserved , for over a century , what The Times called a " unique performance style , which may be summarised as a combination of good taste and good fun " .
After the 1979 tour , the rising costs of mounting year @-@ round professional light opera without any government support , despite some generous private contributions , caused the company to accrue increasing losses. in 1980 , the English Arts Council 's Music Panel and Touring Committee recommended that the Arts Council make a grant to the company , but this idea was rejected . The company 's fans made an effort to raise private funds , but these were insufficient to make up the accelerating losses . In 1981 , producer George Walker proposed to film the company performing all of the Gilbert and Sullivan operas but backed out . Bridget D 'Oyly Carte was forced to close the company in 1982 , after a final London season in which John Reed and Valerie Masterson returned as guest artists . It gave its last performance on 27 February 1982 , at the Adelphi Theatre . A three @-@ LP recording of this performance was released , which included songs from all of the Gilbert and Sullivan operas . The company had operated nearly continuously for 107 years since the opening of Trial by Jury in 1875 . Even after it closed , however , the company 's productions continued to influence the productions of other companies .
= = Revivals of the company = =
Dame Bridget D ’ Oyly Carte died in 1985 , leaving in her will a £ 1 million legacy to enable the company to be revived . The company secured sponsorship from Sir Michael Bishop , who later became chairman of the board of trustees , the Birmingham City Council and BMI British Midland Airways ( of which Bishop is chairman ) . Richard Condon was appointed the revived company 's first general manager , and Bramwell Tovey was its first musical director . In succeeding seasons , the company 's productions of The Mikado and H.M.S. Pinafore were nominated for Olivier Awards . From 1988 to 2003 , the company mounted productions of the Gilbert and Sullivan operas on tour and in London , and it produced several operettas by Offenbach , Lehár and Strauss . Unlike the original company , which had regularly performed up to a dozen operas each year , 48 weeks a year , the new company generally presented only one or two operas in shorter seasons . In the first season , in 1988 , the operas played were Iolanthe and The Yeomen of the Guard , both starring Gillian Knight . The company made its debut at the Sunderland Empire Theatre on 29 April 1988 , and , after touring , opened in London at the Cambridge Theatre in July . The press notices were good , particularly about the musical aspects of the new company ; opinion was divided about the staging . The Observer thought the productions " miles superior to the later work of the old D 'Oyly Carte ; better designed , better lit ... better played and better sung . " A review in The Guardian praised the musical standards , but added , " Gilbert and Sullivan is as much theatrical as musical entertainment and there remains a lot to be done on the visual side . "
The two operas presented in 1989 were The Mikado and The Pirates of Penzance . The new company 's first three productions were broadly traditional in their staging . The Pirates , however , marked a break with traditional presentations , with the setting a giant toy @-@ box and a collapsible toy boat . In 1990 the company presented campier versions of Pinafore and Trial ( including a heavily pregnant Angelina ) that were much criticised by the old company 's fans , who complained that it was a betrayal of the legacy left by Bridget D 'Oyly Carte . The next season departed further from earnest presentations in its production of The Gondoliers , which included a deeply corrugated stage floor , " startling " , " surreal , primary coloured , starkly angled sets " , gimmicky distracting business and generally staging that was considered " way over the top " . It " was unveiled to storms of outraged booing " . Most of the critics shared the public 's disapproval of the production . The Times wrote , " The satiric point disappears in meretricious ado and humourless humour " . Some critics , however , thought that it was time to sweep away " bad and lazy " traditions of the old company , calling the production " riotous , zany and subversive ... with a Goonish or Pythonesque sense of slapstick comedy " , noting that " The girls are pretty and the boys are handsome , and they sing and dance with a youthful freshness " . Also in 1991 , the company accepted an offer from the Alexandra Theatre , Birmingham , to make its base there , although its pattern of spring national tours and summer London seasons was not affected .
Another initiative was to stage a foreign operetta for the first time since Richard D 'Oyly Carte 's day , in what would be D 'Oyly Carte 's first co @-@ production . The work chosen was Orpheus in the Underworld , which Opera North presented in 1992 and D 'Oyly Carte toured in 1993 as part of its 35 @-@ week tour celebrating the 150th anniversary of Sullivan 's birth . The innovation was welcomed , receiving an Arts Council Grant , and the company later presented Die Fledermaus ( 1994 ) , La vie parisienne ( 1995 ) and The Count of Luxembourg ( 1997 ) . Of the Savoy operas , the new company never staged The Sorcerer , Patience , Princess Ida , Ruddigore , Utopia and The Grand Duke , stating that they lacked box @-@ office potential .
Unlike its predecessor , the new company was not a permanent ensemble with a recognisable style . Some performers appeared in several productions , but each production was cast anew , often with guest stars from British television in leading roles , with varying degrees of success . The chorus and orchestra of the new company were much smaller than those of the old company : the chorus was reduced from 32 ( or more ) to 20 , and the orchestra from 38 generally to 24 . For a 1998 production of Pirates at the Queen 's Theatre , the orchestra was even smaller : The Guardian wrote , " The goings @-@ on in the pit are dispiriting . Budgetary constraints have forced the company to re @-@ write the score for a band of nine instrumentalists . They play well enough , but every one of Sullivan 's parodies loses its clout . " The company received a modest Arts Council grant in 1997 to keep it afloat and turned to private funding from Raymond Gubbay for London seasons beginning in 1998 . Despite the lean forces , the company received generally favourable reviews over the next five years under the management of Ian Martin . Although the new company 's productions met with mixed reviews , some of its recordings have been well received . Many of these recordings also restore music that had been cut by Gilbert and Sullivan or the company over the years . Gubbay felt over @-@ committed by 2003 and pulled out . After fifteen years , with no Arts Council funding forthcoming , the company suspended productions in May 2003 .
From May to July 2013 , Scottish Opera produced a British touring production of The Pirates of Penzance in partnership with the D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company , although it was not reported what role the latter company took in the producing team . Richard Suart played Major @-@ General Stanley and Nicholas Sharratt played Frederic . The Daily Telegraph , The Guardian and The Times each gave the production three out of five stars . The company is co @-@ producing The Mikado with Scottish Opera on tour in May to July 2016 , directed by Martin Lloyd @-@ Evans and starring Suart , Sharatt , Andrew Shore and Rebecca Bottone .
= = Principal performers = =
Gilbert and Sullivan aficionados frequently use the names of the principal comedians of the D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company to refer to time periods of the company 's history . Thus , after the sudden death of Sullivan 's brother Fred , who had created the role of the Learned Judge in Trial by Jury in 1875 , the unknown George Grossmith was recruited in 1877 . Before Grossmith left the company in 1889 , he created the principal comic roles in nine of the operas , and so the principal comedian parts in the operas are often referred to as the " Grossmith " roles . Other performers who created a long series of roles in the original productions of the operas included baritone Rutland Barrington , mezzo @-@ soprano Jessie Bond , soprano Leonora Braham , contralto Rosina Brandram , tenor Durward Lely and bass @-@ baritone Richard Temple . In the original New York City productions and British touring productions , soprano Geraldine Ulmar , baritone Signor Brocolini , comic George Thorne and bass @-@ baritone Fred Billington became particularly well known .
After Grossmith left the company , the most notable players of his roles during the rest of Gilbert 's lifetime were Walter Passmore ( principal comedian from 1894 to 1903 ) and Charles H. Workman , who played the roles on tour with the company from 1897 and took over as principal comedian at the Savoy between 1906 and 1909 . Both of these performers made recordings of songs from the Savoy operas . During the Passmore era , principal players of the company included Brandram and Barrington , as well as tenor Robert Evett , soprano Isabel Jay , sopranos Ruth Vincent and Florence St. John , tenor Courtice Pounds and his sister , mezzo @-@ soprano Louie Pounds . During Workman 's tenure , principal players included contralto Louie René , soprano Clara Dow , Leo Sheffield , and a young Henry Lytton . No complete recordings of the operas were made that included active members of the Company until the 1920s . Workman and W. S. Gilbert quarrelled over their production of Fallen Fairies in 1909 , and Gilbert banned Workman from appearing in his works in Britain . It is likely that , otherwise , Workman would have continued as principal comedian of the company . Indeed , Rupert D 'Oyly Carte wrote to Workman in 1919 asking him to return to the company as principal comedian , but Workman declined .
From 1909 to 1934 , the principal comedian was Henry Lytton , who had been playing a variety of roles with the company steadily since 1887 . He received a knighthood for his performances during his long tenure with the company . Lytton 's voice deteriorated during his later career , and when HMV embarked on a series of complete recordings of the operas after World War I , Lytton was not invited to record most of his roles . Instead , the concert singer George Baker was brought in to substitute . Other performers from this period include mezzo @-@ soprano Nellie Briercliffe , bass @-@ baritone Darrell Fancourt , who is estimated to have portrayed the Mikado of Japan more than 3 @,@ 000 times , contralto Bertha Lewis , tenor Derek Oldham , soprano Elsie Griffin and baritones Leo Sheffield and Sydney Granville .
Lytton was succeeded in 1934 by Martyn Green , who played the principal comic parts until 1951 , except for a gap from the end of 1939 to 1946 , when Grahame Clifford replaced him . Green 's time with the company is remembered for the early Decca recordings of the operas . During Green 's tenure , in addition to the long @-@ serving Fancourt , principal players included baritone Richard Walker , soprano Helen Roberts , mezzo @-@ soprano Marjorie Eyre , baritone Leslie Rands and contralto Ella Halman . Green was followed by Peter Pratt . He left the company in 1959 , after more than eight years as principal comedian , still only 36 years old . During Pratt 's years , principals included bass @-@ baritone Donald Adams , tenor Leonard Osborn ( who later directed the productions ) , contralto Ann Drummond @-@ Grant and mezzo @-@ soprano Joyce Wright .
Pratt 's successor was John Reed , who served as principal comedian for two decades . Other stars from this era were Thomas Round , Donald Adams , Gillian Knight , Valerie Masterson and Kenneth Sandford , all of whom , except the last , left the company for the wider operatic stage of Covent Garden , Sadler 's Wells , English National Opera , Aix @-@ en @-@ Provence and elsewhere . When Reed left the company in 1979 , his understudy James Conroy @-@ Ward took over until the closure of the company in 1982 .
From 1988 , the revived company used guest artists for each production . The most regularly seen principal comedians were Eric Roberts and Richard Suart , both of whom regularly perform the " Grossmith " roles for other opera companies . Others have included Sam Kelly , Jasper Carrott and Simon Butteriss .
= Radioactive contamination from the Rocky Flats Plant =
The Rocky Flats Plant , a former U.S. nuclear weapons production facility located about 15 miles northwest of Denver , caused radioactive ( primarily plutonium , americium , and uranium ) contamination within and outside its boundaries . The contamination primarily resulted from two major plutonium fires in 1957 and 1969 ( plutonium is pyrophoric and shavings can spontaneously combust ) and from wind @-@ blown plutonium that leaked from barrels of radioactive waste . Much lower concentrations of radioactive isotopes were released throughout the operational life of the plant from 1952 to 1992 , from smaller accidents and from normal operational releases of plutonium particles too small to be filtered . Prevailing winds from the plant swept airborne contamination south and east , into populated areas northwest of Denver .
The contamination of the Denver area by plutonium from the fires and other sources was not publicly reported until the 1970s . According to a 1972 study coauthored by Edward Martell , " In the more densely populated areas of Denver , the Pu contamination level in surface soils is several times fallout " , and the plutonium contamination " just east of the Rocky Flats plant ranges up to hundreds of times that from nuclear tests . " As noted by Carl Johnson in Ambio , " Exposures of a large population in the Denver area to plutonium and other radionuclides in the exhaust plumes from the plant date back to 1953 . "
Weapons production at the plant was halted after a combined FBI and EPA raid in 1989 and years of protests . The plant has since been shut down , with its buildings demolished and completely removed from the site . The Rocky Flats Plant was declared a Superfund site in 1989 and began its transformation to a cleanup site in February 1992 . Removal of the plant and surface contamination was largely completed in the late 1990s and early 2000s . Nearly all underground contamination was left in place , and measurable radioactive environmental contamination in and around Rocky Flats will probably persist for thousands of years . The land formerly occupied by the plant is now the Rocky Flats National Wildlife Refuge . Plans to make this refuge accessible for recreation have been repeatedly delayed due to lack of funding and protested by citizen organizations . The Department of Energy continues to fund monitoring of the site , but private groups and researchers remain concerned about the extent and long @-@ term public health consequences of the contamination . Estimates of the public health risk caused by the contamination vary significantly , with accusations that the United States government is being too secretive and that citizen activists are being alarmist .
= = Background = =
The Rocky Flats Plant was located south of Boulder , Colorado and northwest of Denver . Originally under management of the Dow Chemical Company , management was transferred to Rockwell in 1975 . Initially having an area of 4 sq mi ( 10 km2 ) , the site was expanded with a 4 @,@ 600 acres ( 19 km2 ) buffer zone in 1972 .
Construction of the first buildings was started on the site on July 10 , 1951 . Production of parts for nuclear weapons began in 1953 . At the time , the precise nature of the work at Rocky Flats was a closely guarded secret . The plant produced fission cores for nuclear weapons , used to " ignite " fusion and fissionable fuel in all modern nuclear weapons . Fission cores resemble miniaturized versions of the Fat Man nuclear bomb detonated above Nagasaki . They are often referred to as " triggers " in official and news documents to obfuscate their function . For much of its operational lifetime , Rocky Flats was the sole mass @-@ producer of plutonium components for America 's nuclear stockpile .
Management of the site passed to EG & G in 1990 , which did not reapply for the contract in 1994 . Management of the site then passed to the Kaiser @-@ Hill Company as of July 1 , 1995 . The Department of Energy now manages the central portion of the plant where production buildings were once located , while the Fish and Wildlife Service has taken over management of the peripheral outer unit .
= = = 1957 fire = = =
On the evening of September 11 , 1957 , plutonium shavings in a glove box located in building 771 ( the Plutonium Recovery and Fabrication Facility ) spontaneously ignited . The fire spread to the flammable glove box materials , including plexiglas windows and rubber gloves . The fire rapidly spread through the interconnected glove boxes and ignited the large bank of High @-@ efficiency particulate air ( HEPA ) filters located in a plenum downstream . Within minutes the first filters had burned out , allowing plutonium particles to escape from the building exhaust stacks . The building exhaust fans stopped operating due to fire damage at 10 : 40 PM , which ended the majority of the plutonium release . Fire fighters initially used carbon dioxide fire extinguishers because water can act as a moderator and cause plutonium to go critical . They resorted to water hoses when the dry fire extinguishers proved ineffective .
The 1957 fire released 11 @-@ 36 Ci ( 160 – 510 grams or 0 @.@ 35 – 1 @.@ 12 pounds ) of plutonium , much of which contaminated off @-@ site areas as microscopic particles entrained in smoke from the fire . Isopleth diagrams from studies show portions of the city of Denver included in the area where surface sampling detected plutonium . The fact that the fire had resulted in significant plutonium contamination of surrounding populated areas remained secret . News reports at the time reported , per the Atomic Energy Commission 's briefing , that there was slight risk of light contamination and that no fire fighters had been contaminated . No abnormal radioactivity was reported by the Colorado Public Health Service .
= = = Pad 903 leakage = = =
Plutonium milling operations produced large quantities of toxic cutting fluid contaminated with particles of plutonium and uranium . Thousands of 55 @-@ gallon drums of the waste were stored outside in an unprotected earthen area called the 903 pad storage area , where they corroded and leaked radionuclides over years into the soil and water . An estimated 5 @,@ 000 gallons of plutonium @-@ contaminated oil leached into the soil between 1964 and 1967 . Portions of this waste , mixed with dust that composed Pad 903 , became airborne in the heavy winds of the Front Range and contaminated offsite areas to the south and east .
Leaking storage barrels at Pad 903 released 1 @.@ 4 @-@ 15 Ci ( 19 – 208 grams or 0 @.@ 042 – 0 @.@ 459 pounds ) of plutonium as airborne dust during the storage and subsequent attempts at cleanup . Much more remains interred under the Pad 903 area , which has been paved over with asphalt .
= = = 1969 fire = = =
Another major fire occurred on May 11 , 1969 in building 776 / 777 ( the Plutonium Processing Facility ) , again starting due to spontaneous combustion of plutonium shavings in a glove box . Fire fighters again resorted to fighting the fire with water after dry extinguishers proved ineffective . Despite recommendations after the 1957 fire , suppression systems were not built into the glove boxes .
While the fire bore marked similarities to the 1957 fire , the level of contamination was less severe because the HEPA filters in the exhaust system did not burn through ( After the 1957 fire , the filter material was changed from cellulose to nonflammable fiberglass ) . Had the filters failed or the roof ( which sustained heavy fire damage ) been breached , the release could have been more severe than the 1957 fire . About 1 @,@ 400 kilograms ( 3 @,@ 100 lb ) of plutonium was in the storage area where the fire occurred , and about 3 @,@ 400 kilograms ( 7 @,@ 500 lb ) total plutonium was in building 776 / 777 .
The 1969 fire released 13 @-@ 62 mCi ( 140 – 900 milligrams or 0 @.@ 00031 – 0 @.@ 00198 pounds ) of plutonium , about 1000th as much as was released in the 1957 fire . The 1969 fire , however , led local health officials to perform independent tests of the area surrounding Rocky Flats to determine the extent of the contamination . This resulted in the first releases of information to the public that populated areas southeast of Rocky Flats had been contaminated .
= = = Other sources = = =
Hundreds of other small plutonium fires and intentional incinerations also occurred at Rocky Flats that were not nearly as destructive .
Rockwell workers mixed hazardous and other wastes with concrete to create one @-@ ton solid blocks called pondcrete . These were stored in the open under tarps on asphalt pads . The pondcrete turned out to be weak storage , an outcome that had been predicted by Rockwell 's own engineers . Relatively unprotected from the elements , the blocks began to leak and sag . Nitrates , cadmium and low @-@ level radioactive waste began to leach into the ground and run downhill toward Walnut Creek and Woman Creek .
Most of the plutonium from Rocky Flats was oxidized plutonium , which does not readily dissolve in water . A large portion of the plutonium released into the creeks sank to the bottom and is now found in the streambeds of Walnut and Woman Creeks , and on the bottom of local public reservoirs just outside Rocky Flats : Great Western Reservoir , ( no longer used for city of Broomfield drinking water consumption as of 1997 but still used for irrigation ) , and Standley Lake , a drinking water supply for the cities of Westminster , Thornton , Northglenn and some residents of Federal Heights . As one of several forms of remediation and once the extent of the lapses at Rocky Flats became public knowledge , several streams that were formed by drainage through the contaminated areas of the Rocky Flats Plant were diverted such that they would no longer flow directly into some of the local reservoirs , such as Mower Reservoir and Standley Lake . Also , a surface water control system was built to allow runoff from contaminated creeks to collect in holding ponds and thus reduce or prevent direct runoff into Standley Lake . Proposals to remove or breach some of these dams to reduce the cost of maintenance have been protested by the cities downstream .
= = Reporting of contamination = =
No radioactivity warning , advisement or cleanup was provided to the public in the 1957 fire , the worse of the two major fires . At the time of the 1957 fire , AEC officials told the Denver Post that the fire “ resulted in no spread of radioactive contamination of any consequence . ” The public was not informed of substantial contamination from the 1957 plutonium fire until after the highly visible 1969 fire , when civilian monitoring teams confronted government officials with measurements made outside the plant of radioactive contamination suspected to be from the 1969 fire , which consumed hundreds of pounds of plutonium ( 850 kg ) .
The 1969 fire raised public awareness of potential hazards posed by the plant and led to years of increasing citizen protests and demands for plant closure . Releases from previous years had not been reported publicly prior to the fire ; airborne @-@ become @-@ groundborne radioactive contamination extending well beyond the Rocky Flats plant was not publicly reported until the 1970s .
In 2002 , the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service surveyed tissues harvested from deer that lived at Rocky Flats for plutonium and other actinides . Isotopes of plutonium , americium , and uranium were detected , with the highest measured activity being 0 @.@ 0125 pCi / g ( 2360 seconds per disintegration ) for uranium @-@ 233 or uranium @-@ 234 . The increased cancer risk , as reported by the study , to an individual who ate 28 kilograms ( 62 lb ) of Rocky Flats deer meat per year over a 70 @-@ year lifetime was estimated to be as high as 1 in 210 @,@ 000 . This is near the conservative end of the EPA 's acceptable risk range .
In 2010 , samples of plutonium were found off @-@ site from Rocky Flats by citizens of the area . " High concentrations of plutonium were found in dust collected in a crawl space under a house where it had accumulated for 50 years . Specialist Marco Kaltofen of the Boston Chemical Data Corp. , who did the technical analysis of the samples , pointed out that this plutonium laden dust certainly endangered the health of anyone who spent much time in this crawl space . "
= = Contamination and health studies = =
Plutonium @-@ 239 and 240 emit ionizing radiation in the form of alpha particles . Inhalation is the primary pathway by which plutonium enters the body , though plutonium can also enter the body through a wound . Once inhaled , plutonium increases the risk of lung cancer , liver cancer , bone cancer , and leukemia . Once absorbed into the body , the biological half life of plutonium is about 200 years .
Following the public 1969 fire , surveys were taken of the land outside the boundaries of Rocky Flats to quantify the amount of plutonium contamination . Researchers noted that plutonium contamination from the plant was present , but did not match the wind conditions of the 1969 fire . The 1957 fire and leaking barrels on Pad 903 have since been confirmed to be the main sources of plutonium contamination . Authors Krey and Hardy estimated the total quantity of plutonium contamination outside of Rocky Flats 's boundaries to be 2 @.@ 6 Ci ( 36 grams or 0 @.@ 079 pounds ) , while Poet and Martell estimated the value to be 6 @.@ 6 Ci ( 92 grams or 0 @.@ 203 pounds ) . The study also noted that plutonium levels just outside the boundaries of the plant were hundreds of times higher than the background level caused by global fallout from nuclear testing , and that contamination to the north of the plant was probably caused by normal operations rather than accidental releases .
In a 1981 study by Dr. Carl Johnson , health director for Jefferson County , showed a 45 percent increase in congenital birth defects in Denver suburbs downwind of Rocky Flats compared to the rest of Colorado . Moreover , he found a 16 % increase in cancer rates for those living closest to the plant as compared to those on the outer perimeter of the area , and he estimated 491 excess cancer cases whereas the DOE estimated one . Real estate interests pressed the county to fire Johnson , claiming his findings hurt their industry . After electing a real estate investor to the county board , they succeeded . A 1987 study by Crump and others did not find the cancer rates in the northwestern portion of Denver to be significantly higher than other parts of the city and attributed variance in cancer rates to the population density of urban areas . Crump 's conclusions were contested by Johnson in a letter to the journal editor . In a 1992 survey of radiation risk analysis , the authors concluded , " Johnson failed to describe an effective and complete model for the cause of the cancers and its relationship to other knowledge as Crump et al. have done . Therefore , Crump et al . ' s explanation must be preferred . "
In 1983 , Colorado University Medical School professor John C. Cobb and the EPA reported plutonium concentrations from about 500 persons who had died in Colorado . A comparison study was done of those who lived near Rocky Flats with those who lived far from this nuclear weapons production site . The ratio of Pu @-@ 240 to Pu @-@ 239 was " minutely lower " for persons who lived within 50 km of Rocky Flats , but was more strongly correlated to age , gender , and smoking habits than proximity to the plant .
In 1991 , the Department of Energy 's public affairs group published a pamphlet stating that the inhalation of sediments that become resuspended in the air is considered the most significant pathway that could expose human beings to plutonium from the contaminated local reservoirs , but also stated that the airborne plutonium concentrations as measured by downwind air monitors remained below the DOE standard .
In a 1999 analysis , it was found that " the major event contributing the highest individual risk from plutonium released from Rocky Flats was the 1957 fire , " with wind distribution of plutonium from the 903 Pad Storage Area being the next greatest source of health risk . In this report , health risk estimates for off @-@ site humans had a variance of four orders of magnitude , from " between 2 @.@ 0 × 10 − 4 ( 95th percentile ) and 2 @.@ 2 × 10 − 8 ( 5th percentile ) , with a median risk estimate of 2 @.@ 3 × 10 − 6 . " The DOE maintains a list of Rocky Flats epidemiological studies .
In 2003 , Dr. James Ruttenber led a study on the health effects of plutonium . Conducted by the University of Colorado Health Sciences Center and the Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment , the study concluded that lung cancer is linked to plutonium inhalation . " We have supporting evidence from other studies that , along with our findings , support the hypothesis that plutonium exposure causes lung cancer , " Ruttenber said . His group 's findings were part of a broader study that tracked 16 @,@ 303 people who worked at the Rocky Flats plant between 1952 and 1989 . Their research also found that these workers were 2 @.@ 5 times more likely to develop brain tumors than other people .
= = Legal actions = =
Subsequent to reports of environmental crimes being committed at Rocky Flats , the United States Department of Justice sponsored an FBI raid dubbed " Operation Desert Glow , " which began at 9 a.m. on June 6 , 1989 . The FBI entered the premises under the ruse of providing a terrorist threat briefing , and served its search warrant to Dominick Sanchini , Rockwell International 's manager of Rocky Flats .
The FBI raid led to the formation of Colorado 's first special grand jury , the juried testimony of 110 witnesses , reviews of 2 @,@ 000 exhibits and ultimately a 1992 plea agreement in which Rockwell admitted to 10 federal environmental crimes and agreed to pay $ 18 @.@ 5 million in fines out of its own funds . This amount was less than the company had been paid in bonuses for running the plant as determined by the GAO , and yet was also by far the highest hazardous @-@ waste fine ever ; four times larger than the previous record . Due to DOE indemnification of its contractors , without some form of settlement being arrived at between the U.S. Justice Department and Rockwell the cost of paying any civil penalties would ultimately have been borne by U.S. taxpayers . While any criminal penalties allotted to Rockwell would not have been covered by U.S. taxpayers , Rockwell claimed that the Department of Energy had specifically exempted them from most environmental laws , including hazardous waste .
As forewarned by the prosecuting U.S. Attorney , Ken Fimberg ( later Ken Scott ) , the Department of Justice 's stated findings and plea agreement with Rockwell were heavily contested by its own , 23 @-@ member special grand jury . Press leaks by both members of the DOJ and the grand jury occurred in violation of secrecy Rule 6 ( e ) regarding Grand Jury information . The public contest led to U.S. Congressional oversight committee hearings chaired by Congressman Howard Wolpe , which issued subpoenas to DOJ principals despite several instances of the DOJ 's refusal to comply . The hearings , whose findings include that the Justice Department had " bargained away the truth , " ultimately still did not fully reveal the special grand jury 's report to the public , which remains sealed by the DOJ courts .
The special grand jury report was nonetheless leaked to Westword . According to its subsequent publications , the Rocky Flats special grand jury had compiled indictments charging three DOE officials and five Rockwell employees with environmental crimes . The grand jury also wrote a report , intended for the public 's consumption per their charter , lambasting the conduct of DOE and Rocky Flats contractors for " engaging in a continuing campaign of distraction , deception and dishonesty " and noted that Rocky Flats , for many years , had discharged pollutants , hazardous materials and radioactive matter into nearby creeks and Broomfield 's and Westminster 's water supplies .
The DOE itself , in a study released in December of the year prior to the FBI raid , called Rocky Flats ' ground water the single greatest environmental hazard at any of its nuclear facilities . From the grand jury 's report : " The DOE reached this conclusion because the groundwater contamination was so extensive , toxic , and migrating toward the drinking water supplies for the Cities of Broomfield and Westminster , Colorado . "
A class action lawsuit , Cook v. Rockwell International Corp. , was filed in January 1990 against Rockwell and Dow Chemical ( due to the indemnity of nuclear contractors , the award would have be paid by the federal government ) . Sixteen years later , the plaintiffs were awarded $ 926 million in economic damages , punitive damages , and interest . The 10th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals subsequently threw out the verdict and ordered a retrial . A further appeal was rejected without comment by the United States Supreme Court in June 2012 .
Carl Johnson sued Jefferson County for unlawful termination , after he was forced to resign from his position as Director of the Jefferson County Health Department . He alleged that his termination was due to concerns by the board members that his reports of contamination would lower property values . The suit was settled out of court for $ 150 @,@ 000 .
= = Legacy = =
Denver 's automotive beltway does not include a component in the northwest sector , partly due to concerns over unremediated plutonium contamination .
In 2006 , according to DOE , " The selected remedy / corrective action for the Peripheral OU is no action . The RI / FS report ( RCRA Facility Investigation @-@ Remedial Investigation / Corrective Measures Study- Feasibility Study ) concludes that the Peripheral OU is already in a state protective of human health and the environment . "
In 2007 , the " Peripheral Operable Unit " ( Peripheral OU ) land area of Rocky Flats was redesignated as the Rocky Flats National Wildlife Refuge and fell under U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service ( USFWS ) stewardship in 2007 following the EPA ’ s determination that final corrective actions had been completed . According to the USFWS , " the refuge has remained closed to the public due to a lack of appropriations for refuge management operations " . The U.S. Government 's efforts to make the area surrounding the former plant into the Rocky Flats National Wildlife Refuge have been controversial due to the contamination , much of which is underground and not remediated . The substantially contaminated " Central Operable Unit " ( COU ) land area of Rocky Flats remains under DOE control , and is now surrounded by the refuge .
Plutonium 239 , with a 24 @,@ 000 year half life , will persist in the environment hundreds of thousands of years . The DOE 's assessment of the Central Operating Unit indicates that the long @-@ term risk to citizens living outside the boundaries of Rocky Flats is negligible , but citizen organizations state that the remediation of the site was inadequate .
= = Public opposition = =
On the weekend of April 28 , 1979 , more than 15 @,@ 000 people demonstrated against the Rocky Flats Nuclear Weapons Plant . The protest was coordinated with other anti @-@ nuclear demonstrations across the country . Daniel Ellsberg and Allen Ginsberg were among the 284 people who were arrested . The demonstration followed more than six months of continuous protests that included an attempted blockade of the railroad tracks leading to the site . Large pro @-@ nuclear counter demonstrations were also staged that year .
On October 15 , 1983 , about 10 @,@ 000 demonstrators turned out for protest at Rocky Flats ( well short of the 21 @,@ 000 hoped for by protest organizers ) . No arrests were made . On August 10 , 1987 ( the 42nd anniversary of the atomic bombing of Nagasaki ) , 320 demonstrators were arrested after they tried to force a one @-@ day shutdown of the plant . A similar protest with a turnout of about 3 @,@ 500 was staged on August 6 , 1989 ( the anniversary of the nuclear bombing of Hiroshima ) .
Though public demonstrations against plant operations ceased with the decommissioning of the plant , protests have continued regarding the disposal of nuclear waste from the site and the scale and scope of cleanup operations . Since 2013 , opposition has focused on the Candelas development located along the southern border of the former Plant site .
= New York State Route 17M =
New York State Route 17M ( NY 17M ) is an east – west state highway in Orange County , New York , in the United States . It extends for 26 @.@ 63 miles ( 42 @.@ 86 km ) from west of the city of Middletown to what is currently the north – south section of NY 17 just southeast of the village of Harriman . It is a busy main street in Middletown and the village of Monroe ; in the former , it divides into a parkway for several blocks and forms the city 's major commercial strip , located between the downtown district and an interchange with Interstate 84 ( I @-@ 84 ) . The rest of the road is a two @-@ lane rural route . Between New Hampton and Goshen , the highway overlaps with U.S. Route 6 ( US 6 ) . The easternmost section of that overlap near Goshen is routed on the Quickway , making a three @-@ route concurrency with NY 17 .
Most of NY 17M follows the course used by NY 17 prior to the construction of the Quickway through the Catskill Mountains . The first section of the Quickway opened in 1951 and extended from Fair Oaks to Goshen . NY 17M was initially assigned to NY 17 's old surface routing between Fair Oaks and Middletown ; however , it was extended east to Harriman and , for a brief time , northwest to Wurtsboro as more sections of the freeway were completed .
= = Route description = =
The portions of NY 17M that lie north and east of the city of Middletown are maintained by the New York State Department of Transportation ( NYSDOT ) . Within the Middletown city limits , NY 17M is city @-@ maintained .
= = = Wallkill and Middletown = = =
County Route 76 ( CR 76 ) becomes NY 17M when the highway passes through the site of a former interchange ( once exit 118A ) with the nearby Quickway ( NY 17 ) in the town of Wallkill , located in northern Orange County . The junction was just north of the former right @-@ of @-@ way of the New York , Ontario and Western Railway , which NY 17M crosses as it makes its way southward over some gentle , lightly developed hills . After 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) , the road reaches a signalized intersection with NY 302 , its first junction with another state highway . The junction currently serves as NY 302 's southern terminus ; however , NY 302 once continued south to Middletown by way of an overlap with NY 17M . Continuing on , NY 17M traverses increasingly developed areas , passing through the hamlet of Rockville on its way to the densely populated neighborhood of Washington Heights , situated just outside Middletown .
The route seamlessly passes from Washington Heights to Middletown , where it becomes known as North Street . The street is initially fairly wide — featuring shoulders on each side — but it narrows in the residential neighborhoods closer to the city 's center . Upon reaching the northern edge of Middletown 's central business district , the route turns right onto Wickham Avenue , which carries NY 211 through northern Middletown . The resulting overlap between NY 17M and NY 211 is a wrong @-@ way concurrency : NY 17M eastbound is concurrent with NY 211 westbound and vice versa . NY 17M and NY 211 head west along the fringe of downtown , climbing slightly in elevation as the street passes through mostly residential areas . After seven blocks , Wickham Avenue merges into West Main Street ; however , the road 's surroundings remain unchanged .
NY 17M and NY 211 continue along West Main Street for another four blocks , traversing a slight westerly turn in the street prior to intersecting Monhagen Avenue in the western part of the city . Both routes leave Main Street here : NY 211 turns right , following the road northwest toward Otisville while NY 17M heads left , proceeding southeastward toward downtown . It continues through a six @-@ block commercial and residential area to Mill Street , at which point Monhagen Avenue becomes Fulton Street and expands to become a parkway with a tree @-@ lined median strip . This stretch continues for five blocks along the southern edge of downtown Middletown to Academy Avenue , where NY 17M turns right and heads southward . After just two blocks , the route changes streets for the final time in Middletown , veering left onto Dolson Avenue .
= = = East of Middletown = = =
As Dolson Avenue , NY 17M passes by a single residential block before entering a linear commercial district that follows the highway to an interchange with I @-@ 84 roughly 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) to the south . The route initially remains two lanes wide , but widens to four lanes after crossing the Middletown and New Jersey Railway at @-@ grade . This stretch of NY 17M also features a center left @-@ turn lane to accommodate the traffic turning into the many commercial plazas on either side . The road remains within the Middletown city limits until a block before the intersection where US 6 comes in from the west and joins NY 17M . Together , they cross over I @-@ 84 at exit 3 , providing access to the cities of Port Jervis and Newburgh in the western and eastern parts of the county , respectively .
Just past I @-@ 84 , the Wawayanda hamlet of New Hampton begins , with car dealerships and other commercial establishments on either side . The road narrows to two lanes as the combined highways begin a slow , gentle descent through less developed areas to the bridge over the Wallkill River , situated at the northern tip of the county 's Black Dirt Region . Short sections of the approach on either side add a passing lane in the uphill direction . The river marks the Goshen town line , and the slight climb out of the river depression is accompanied again with some extra lanes . Past the climb , development aside the road picks up slightly , although most of the land around the highway remains undeveloped as open fields or forests . US 6 and NY 17M continue to the western outskirts of the village of Goshen , where they merge into NY 17 at exit 123 .
NY 17M follows the Quickway for about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) , meeting NY 17A and NY 207 at an interchange ( exit 124 ) in a commercialized area southwest of the center of Goshen . It ultimately leaves the Quickway before US 6 does , splitting from the highway at exit 125 . From here to the village of Chester , NY 17M closely follows the NY 17 freeway , serving a handful of homes in an otherwise undeveloped area adjacent to the Quickway . In Chester , NY 17M becomes Brookside Avenue and intersects with NY 94 in the commercial center of the community . It continues on , passing through the rural areas of the southern portion of the town of Blooming Grove prior to becoming heavily developed as it passes into the town of Monroe .
Just inside the town line , NY 17M turns southward , leaving the vicinity of the Quickway and entering the village of Monroe . It bypasses the downtown portion of the village and its historic district to the west and south . Despite this fact , it still serves as one of the community 's major commercial strips , intersecting NY 208 in a built @-@ up area due west of downtown . The route continues to the east , serving commercial and residential areas on its way to the nearby village of Harriman . Development abates slightly past Harriman as NY 17M continues with a slight southward bent towards its final junction with NY 17 just outside the Harriman village limits in the town and village of Woodbury .
= = History = =
= = = Origins and designation = = =
What is now NY 17M was originally designated as part of Route 4 by the New York State Legislature in 190 | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
8 . The unsigned legislative route extended across the Southern Tier of New York , beginning near the shores of Lake Erie in Westfield and ending at the Hudson River in Highland Falls . The first set of posted routes in New York were assigned in 1924 , at which time most of legislative Route 4 was designated as NY 17 . While Route 4 went northeast from Harriman , NY 17 continued south from the village toward the New Jersey state line .
In the late 1940s , construction began on the Quickway , a limited @-@ access highway connecting Binghamton to Harriman by way of the NY 17 corridor . The first portion to be built was the section between exit 118A in Fair Oaks and exit 123 near Goshen , which opened to traffic in July 1951 . NY 17 was subsequently realigned to bypass Middletown to the northeast on the new freeway while the former routing of NY 17 between US 6 south of Middletown and the new Fair Oaks interchange was redesignated as NY 17M . The remainder of old NY 17 from Middletown to Goshen remained part of US 6 , which had overlapped with NY 17 between Middletown and Goshen .
The Goshen – Chester and Chester – Harriman segments of the Quickway were completed in October 1954 and August 1955 , respectively , creating a continuous limited @-@ access highway between Fair Oaks and the New York State Thruway . US 6 and NY 17 were moved onto the highway as sections opened to traffic , while NY 17M was extended eastward along NY 17 's old routing to Harriman following the completion of the Quickway between Chester and the Thruway . On October 23 , 1958 , the portion of the Quickway between Fair Oaks and Wurtsboro ( exit 114 ) was completed as part of a realigned NY 17 . The former surface routing of NY 17 between the two locations initially became part of NY 17M ; however , this extension was eliminated in the late 1960s .
= = = Realignment and ramp closure = = =
NY 17M originally followed a slightly different alignment through downtown Middletown . When the route was first assigned , it continued south from Wickham Avenue on North Street , proceeding into what was then the main commercial hub of the city . The highway rejoined its modern alignment at the intersection of South Street and Fulton Street south of downtown . In 1969 , the city of Middletown began planning a project that would rehabilitate part of North Street . As part of the project , the section of North Street between Orchard Street and Main Street would be closed to traffic and converted into a pedestrian mall . The street was closed in early 1970 , forcing NY 17M to be realigned onto Wickham Avenue , West Main Street , and Monhagen Avenue . The pedestrian mall project faced opposition from business owners , leading to its cancellation on February 9 , 1970 . North Street was reopened one day later ; however , the rerouting of NY 17M proved to be permanent .
When the Quickway was first built , exit 118A was made up of two ramps , one leading from NY 17 eastbound to NY 17M and another connecting NY 17M westbound to NY 17 westbound . The exit was eliminated at some point after 1996 . The westbound on @-@ ramp was converted into a residential street known as Sands Road West while the eastbound half of the exit was completely removed . As a result , NY 17M 's western terminus is no longer at an intersecting road . Instead , the highway simply changes from a state highway to a county road at the former site of the exit .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Orange County .
= The Wild Flower and the Rose =
The Wild Flower and the Rose is a 1910 American silent short drama produced by the Thanhouser Company . The film focuses on Frank Wilson , the son of an inventor who has constructed a new airplane model . After failing to secure financing , his father suggests that he marry Rose , the daughter of his wealthy employer , to get the money they need . Jack rejects this idea because he is engaged to another woman , but he soon learns she does not love him . He heads out West to seek a fortune and is quickly successful . He returns to the aviation field and meets Rose again , after a successful flight she confesses to loving him . The cast and staff credits are unknown , but the film may have included scenes from the 1910 International Aviation Meet at Belmont Park . One reviewer claimed that a Wright brothers flyer was also shown in full flight . The film was released on November 25 , 1910 , but is now presumed lost .
= = Plot = =
Though the film is presumed lost , a synopsis survives in The Moving Picture World from November 26 , 1910 . It states : " Frank Wilson is the son of an inventor who has perfected an airship model in which Jack is greatly interested , but which neither of them have the money to finance . Wilson tries to interest his wealthy employer , Fisher , but is unsuccessful in the attempt . However he gains the support of his employer 's beautiful daughter , Rose . The old inventor suggests to his son that if he marries Rose they could secure the money to perfect the invention . But Jack spurns the idea , as he is already engaged to marry a country girl , Daisy Lane , who , he believes , loves him devotedly . Upon learning that Daisy is a heartless coquette , Jack is heartbroken , and goes west to seek a fortune and forget her conduct . Success comes to him quickly , and he returns to tell his father that now , unaided , they can finance the invention . On the aviation field , Jack once more meets Rose , and confesses to her that it was the memory of her kindness that helped him achieve success . Jack makes a successful flight in the invention – a new style of aeroplane – and in offering her congratulations Rose confesses that she has loved him from the first . "
= = Production = =
The writer of the scenario is unknown , but it was most likely Lloyd Lonergan . He was an experienced newspaperman employed by The New York Evening World while writing scripts for the Thanhouser productions . The film director is unknown , but it may have been Barry O 'Neil or Lucius J. Henderson . Cameramen employed by the company during this era included Blair Smith , Carl Louis Gregory , and Alfred H. Moses , Jr. though none are specifically credited . The role of the cameraman was uncredited in 1910 productions . The cast credits are unknown , but many 1910 Thanhouser productions are fragmentary . In late 1910 , the Thanhouser company released a list of the important personalities in their films . The list includes G.W. Abbe , Justus D. Barnes , Frank H. Crane , Irene Crane , Marie Eline , Violet Heming , Martin J. Faust , Thomas Fortune , George Middleton , Grace Moore , John W. Noble , Anna Rosemond , Mrs. George Walters .
It is unknown when the film was shot , but the aviation meet may have been at Belmont Park in Long Island , New York . The second International Aviation Meet took place from October 22 – 30 , 1910 . One newspaper would state that a " one of the Wright Brothers ' 1910 model flying machines " was shown in full flight .
= = Release and reception = =
The single reel drama , approximately 1 @,@ 000 feet long , was released on November 25 , 1910 . The film had a wide national release , known advertising theaters include those in Nebraska , North Carolina , Pennsylvania , Arizona , Indiana , Montana , and Oklahoma , The New York Dramatic Mirror was neutral to slightly praising the production . The reviewer stated , " It is a discursive narrative , not bound by laws of cause and effect , although it does not contradict them . It is amusing to see the rapidity with which a motion picture hero goes West . He throws a toothbrush and his pajamas into a suitcase , takes his hat over his arm , and breaks the news to his father before stepping from the living room out into the street . The special point of this film is the aviation exhibition , which is well handled . The hero is a very jocose gentleman , who smiles broadly with and without provocation . Other parts are adequately filled . " The Moving Picture World spared three roughly three sentences surrounding the focus of the plot , " A love story built up around the invention of a new type of aeroplane . The machine flies and the inventor gets the girl of his choice . The picture has , therefore , a pleasant ending . "
= Wyatt Earp =
Wyatt Berry Stapp Earp ( March 19 , 1848 – January 13 , 1929 ) was an American Old West gambler , a deputy sheriff in Pima County , and deputy town marshal in Tombstone , Arizona Territory , who took part in the Gunfight at the O.K. Corral , during which lawmen killed three outlaw Cowboys . He is often regarded as the central figure in the shootout in Tombstone , although his brother Virgil was Tombstone city marshal and Deputy U.S. Marshal that day , and had far more experience as a sheriff , constable , marshal , and soldier in combat .
Earp lived a restless life . He was at different times a constable , city policeman , county sheriff , Deputy U.S. Marshal , teamster , buffalo hunter , bouncer , saloon @-@ keeper , gambler , Brothel keeper , miner , and boxing referee . Earp spent his early life in Iowa . In 1870 , Earp married his first wife , Urilla Sutherland Earp , who contracted typhoid fever and died shortly before their first child was to be born . Within the next two years Earp was arrested , sued twice , escaped from jail , then was arrested three more times for " keeping and being found in a house of ill @-@ fame " . He landed in the cattle boomtown of Wichita , Kansas , where he became a deputy city marshal for one year and developed a solid reputation as a lawman . In 1876 , he followed his brother James to Dodge City , Kansas , where he became an assistant city marshal . In winter 1878 , he went to Texas to track down an outlaw and met John " Doc " Holliday , whom Earp later credited with saving his life .
Earp moved constantly throughout his life from one boomtown to another . He left Dodge City in 1879 and moved to Tombstone with his brothers James and Virgil , where a silver boom was underway . There , the Earps clashed with a loose federation of outlaws known as the Cowboys . Wyatt , Virgil , and their younger brother Morgan held various law enforcement positions that put them in conflict with Tom and Frank McLaury , and Ike and Billy Clanton , who threatened on several occasions to kill the Earps . The conflict escalated over the next year , culminating on October 26 , 1881 in the Gunfight at the O.K. Corral , in which the Earps and Holliday killed three of the Cowboys . In the next five months , Virgil was ambushed and maimed , and Morgan was assassinated . Pursuing a vendetta , Wyatt , his brother Warren , Holliday , and others formed a federal posse that killed three of the Cowboys whom they thought responsible . Wyatt was never wounded in any of the gunfights , unlike his brothers Virgil and James or Doc Holliday , which only added to his mystique after his death .
Earp was a lifelong gambler and was always looking for a quick way to make money . After leaving Tombstone , Earp went to San Francisco where he reunited with Josephine Earp . She became his common @-@ law wife . They joined a gold rush to Eagle City , Idaho , where they owned mining interests and a saloon . They left there to race horses and open a saloon during a real estate boom in San Diego , California . Back in San Francisco , Wyatt raced horses again , but his reputation suffered irreparably when he refereed the Fitzsimmons @-@ Sharkey boxing match and called a foul that led many to believe that he fixed the fight . They moved briefly to Yuma , Arizona before they joined the Alaskan Gold Rush to Nome , Alaska . They opened the biggest saloon in town and made a large sum of money . Returning to the lower 48 , they opened another saloon in Tonopah , Nevada , the site of a new gold find . In about 1911 , Earp began working several mining claims in Vidal , California , retiring in the hot summers with Josephine to Los Angeles .
When Earp died in 1929 , he was well known for his notorious handling of the Fitzsimmons @-@ Sharkey fight along with the O.K. Corral gun fight . An extremely flattering , largely fictionalized biography was published in 1931 after his death , becoming a bestseller and creating his reputation as a fearless lawman . Since then , Wyatt Earp has been the subject of and model for numerous films , TV shows , biographies , and works of fiction that have increased his mystique . Earp 's modern @-@ day reputation is that of the Old West 's " toughest and deadliest gunman of his day . " Until the book was published , Earp had a dubious reputation as a sometime Western lawman and gunfighter who had been arrested nine times and left more than one town with warrants for his arrest still outstanding . In modern times , Wyatt Earp has become synonymous with the stereotypical image of the Western lawman , and is a symbol of American frontier justice .
= = Early life = =
Wyatt was born on March 19 , 1848 , to Nicholas Porter Earp and his second wife , Virginia Ann Cooksey . He was named after his father 's commanding officer in the Mexican – American War , Captain Wyatt Berry Stapp , of the 2nd Company Illinois Mounted Volunteers . Some evidence supports Wyatt Earp 's birthplace as 406 South 3rd Street in Monmouth , Illinois , though the street address is disputed by Monmouth College professor and historian William Urban . Monmouth is in Warren County in western Illinois . Wyatt had an elder half @-@ brother from his father 's first marriage , Newton , and a half @-@ sister Mariah Ann , who died at the age of ten months .
In March 1849 or in early 1850 , Nicholas Earp joined about one hundred other people in a plan to relocate to San Bernardino County , California , where he intended to buy farm land . Only 150 miles ( 240 km ) west of Monmouth , their daughter Martha became ill . The family stopped and Nicholas bought a new 160 acres ( 0 @.@ 65 km2 ) farm 7 miles ( 11 km ) northeast of Pella , Iowa . Martha died there on May 26 , 1856 .
Nicholas and Virginia Earp 's last child Adelia was born in June 1861 in Pella . Newton , James , and Virgil joined the Union Army on November 11 , 1861 . Their father was busy recruiting and drilling local companies , and Wyatt and his two younger brothers Morgan and Warren were left in charge of tending 80 @-@ acre ( 32 ha ) of corn . Wyatt was only thirteen years old , too young to enlist , but he tried on several occasions to run away and join the army . Each time , his father found him and brought him home . James was severely wounded in Fredericktown , Missouri , and returned home in summer 1863 . Newton and Virgil fought several battles in the east and later followed the family to California .
= = = California = = =
On May 12 , 1864 , Nicholas Earp organized a wagon train and headed to San Bernardino , California , arriving on December 17 , 1864 . By late summer 1865 , Virgil found work as a driver for Phineas Banning 's Stage Coach Line in California 's Imperial Valley , and 16 @-@ year @-@ old Wyatt assisted . In spring 1866 , Wyatt became a teamster , transporting cargo for Chris Taylor . From 1866 – 1868 , he drove cargo over the 720 miles ( 1 @,@ 160 km ) wagon road from Wilmington , through San Bernardino then Las Vegas , Nevada , to Salt Lake City , Utah Territory .
In spring 1868 , Earp was hired to transport supplies needed to build the Union Pacific Railroad . He learned gambling and boxing while working on the rail head in the Wyoming Territory . Earp developed a reputation officiating boxing matches and refereed a fight in front of 3000 spectators between John Shanssey and Mike Donovan on July 4 , 1869 in Cheyenne , Wyoming .
= = = Lawman and marriage = = =
In spring 1868 , the Earps moved east again to Lamar , Missouri , where Wyatt 's father Nicholas became the local constable . Wyatt rejoined the family the next year . Nicholas resigned as constable on November 17 , 1869 to become the justice of the peace , and Wyatt was appointed constable in his place .
In late 1869 , Earp courted 20 @-@ year @-@ old Urilla Sutherland ( c . 1849 – 1870 ) , the daughter of William and Permelia Sutherland , who operated the Exchange Hotel in Lamar . They were married by his father Nicholas in Lamar on January 10 , 1870 , and in August 1870 Wyatt bought a lot on the outskirts of town for $ 50 where he built a house . Urilla was pregnant and about to deliver their first child when she suddenly died from typhoid fever . In November , Earp sold the lot and a house on it for $ 75 . Hoping to keep the office that he 'd been appointed to , he ran against his elder half @-@ brother Newton for the office of constable . The Earps may have hoped to keep the job in the family one way or another . Wyatt won by 137 votes to Newton 's 108 , but their father Nicholas lost the election for justice of the peace in a very close four @-@ way race .
= = = Lawsuits and charges = = =
After Urilla 's death , Wyatt went through a downward spiral and had a series of legal problems . On March 14 , 1871 , Barton County filed a lawsuit against Earp and his sureties . Earp was in charge of collecting license fees for Lamar , which funded local schools , and he was accused of failing to turn in the fees . On March 31 , James Cromwell filed a lawsuit against Earp , alleging that Earp had falsified court documents about the amount of money collected from Cromwell to satisfy a judgment . To make up the difference between what Earp turned in and Cromwell owed ( which he claimed to have paid ) , the court seized Cromwell 's mowing machine and sold it for $ 38 . Cromwell 's suit claimed that Earp owed him $ 75 , the estimated value of the machine .
On March 28 , 1871 Earp , Edward Kennedy , and John Shown were charged with stealing two horses , " each of the value of one hundred dollars " , from William Keys while in the Indian Country . On April 6 , Deputy United States Marshal J. G. Owens arrested Earp for the horse theft . Commissioner James Churchill arraigned Earp on April 14 , and set bail at $ 500 . On May 15 , an indictment was issued against Earp , Kennedy , and Shown . Anna Shown , John Shown 's wife , claimed that Earp and Kennedy got her husband drunk and then threatened his life to persuade him to help . On June 5 Edward Kennedy was acquitted while the case against Earp and John Shown remained . Earp did not wait for the trial . He climbed out through the roof of his jail and headed for Peoria , Illinois .
= = = Arrests in Peoria = = =
Years afterward , Wyatt 's biographer Stuart N. Lake wrote that Wyatt was hunting buffalo during the winter of 1871 – 72 . But Earp was arrested three times in the Peoria , Illinois area during that period . Earp is also listed in the Peoria city directory during 1872 as a resident in the house of Jane Haspel , who operated a brothel . In February 1872 , Peoria police raided the brothel , arresting four women and three men : Wyatt and Morgan Earp , and George Randall . They were charged with " Keeping and being found in a house of ill @-@ fame . " They were later fined twenty dollars plus costs for the criminal infraction . Wyatt Earp was arrested for the same crime on May 11 and again on September 10 , 1872 . The Peoria Daily National Democrat reported in September that Wyatt had been arrested aboard a floating brothel he owned named the Beardstown Gunboat with a woman named Sally Heckell , who called herself Wyatt Earp 's wife .
Some of the women are said to be good looking , but all appear to be terribly depraved . John Walton , the skipper of the boat and Wyatt Earp , the Peoria Bummer , were each fined $ 43 @.@ 15 . Sarah Earp , alias Sally Heckell , calls herself the wife of Wyatt Earp .
By calling Earp the " Peoria bummer " , the newspaper was including him in a class of " contemptible loafers who impose on hard @-@ working citizens , " a " beggar , " and worse than tramps . They were men of poor character who were chronic lawbreakers .
= = = Wichita , Kansas = = =
Wyatt moved to the growing cow town of Wichita in early 1874 , and local arrest records show that a prostitute named Sally Earp operated a brothel with the wife of his brother James from early 1874 to the middle of 1876 . Wyatt may have been a pimp , but historian Robert Gary L. Roberts believes it more likely that he was an enforcer , or a bouncer for the brothel . It is possible that he hunted buffalo during 1873 – 74 before he went to Wichita . When the Kansas state census was completed in June 1875 , Sally was no longer living with Wyatt , James , and Bessie .
Wichita was a railroad terminal and a destination for cattle drives from Texas . Like other frontier railroad terminals , when the cowboys accompanying the cattle drives arrived , the town was filled with drunken , armed cowboys celebrating the end of their long journey . Lawmen were kept busy . When the cattle drives ended and the cowboys left , Earp searched for something else to do . A newspaper story in October 1874 reported that he earned some money helping an off @-@ duty police officer find thieves who had stolen a man 's wagon . Earp officially joined the Wichita marshal 's office on April 21 , 1875 , after the election of Mike Meagher as city marshal ( or police chief ) , making $ 100 per month . He also dealt faro at the Long Branch Saloon . In late 1875 , the Wichita Beacon newspaper published this story :
On last Wednesday ( December 8 ) , policeman Earp found a stranger lying near the bridge in a drunken stupor . He took him to the ' cooler ' and on searching him found in the neighborhood of $ 500 on his person . He was taken next morning , before his honor , the police judge , paid his fine for his fun like a little man and went on his way rejoicing . He may congratulate himself that his lines , while he was drunk , were cast in such a pleasant place as Wichita as there are but a few other places where that $ 500 bank roll would have been heard from . The integrity of our police force has never been seriously questioned .
Earp was embarrassed on January 9 , 1876 when he was sitting with friends in the back room of the Custom House Saloon when his loaded single @-@ action revolver fell out of his holster . It discharged when the hammer hit the floor . " The ball passed through his coat , struck the north wall then glanced off and passed out through the ceiling . " Wyatt was so red @-@ faced by the incident that years later he persuaded biographer Stuart Lake to omit it from his book Wyatt Earp , Frontier Marshal .
Wyatt 's stint as Wichita deputy came to a sudden end on April 2 , 1876 , when Earp took too active an interest in the city marshal 's election . According to news accounts , former marshal Bill Smith accused Wyatt of using his office to help hire his brothers as lawmen . Wyatt got into a fistfight with Smith and beat him . Meagher was forced to fire Earp and arrest him for disturbing the peace , which ended a tour of duty that the papers called otherwise " unexceptionable " . Meagher won the election , but the city council was split evenly on re @-@ hiring Earp . His brother James opened a brothel in Dodge City , and Wyatt left Wichita to join him .
= = = Dodge City , Kansas = = =
After 1875 , Dodge City became a major terminal for cattle drives from Texas along the Chisholm Trail . Earp was appointed assistant marshal in Dodge City under Marshal Lawrence " Larry " Deger around May 1876 . There is evidence that Earp spent the winter of 1876 – 77 in another boomtown , Deadwood , Dakota Territory . He was not on the police force in Dodge City in late 1877 , but rejoined the force in spring 1877 at the request of mayor James H. " Dog " Kelley . The Dodge City newspaper reported in July 1878 that Earp had been fined $ 1 for slapping a muscular prostitute named Frankie Bell , who ( according to the papers ) " heaped epithets upon the unoffending head of Mr. Earp to such an extent as to provide a slap from the ex @-@ officer " . Bell spent the night in jail and was fined $ 20 , while Earp 's fine was the legal minimum .
In October 1877 , outlaw Dave Rudabaugh robbed a Sante Fe Railroad construction camp and fled south . Earp was given a temporary commission as Deputy U.S. Marshal and he left Dodge City , following Rudabaugh over 400 miles ( 640 km ) through Ft . Clark , Texas , where the newspaper reported his presence on January 22 , 1878 , and on to Fort Griffin , Texas .
He arrived at the frontier town on the Clear Fork of the Brazos River . Earp went to the Bee Hive Saloon , the largest in town and owned by John Shanssey , who Earp had known since he was 21 . Shanssey told Earp that Rudabaugh had passed through town earlier in the week , but he did not know where he was headed . Shanssey suggested that Earp ask gambler " Doc " Holliday , who had played cards with Rudabaugh . Holliday told Earp that Rudabaugh had headed back into Kansas .
By May 11 , 1878 , the Dodge newspapers reported that Wyatt had returned to Dodge City and on May 14 the Times noted that Wyatt had been appointed Assistant Marshal for the salary of $ 75 per month , serving under Charlie Bassett . Doc Holliday with his common @-@ law wife Big Nose Kate also showed up in Dodge City during the summer of 1878 . During the summer , Ed Morrison and other Texas cowboys rode into Dodge and shot up the town , galloping down Front Street . They entered the Long Branch Saloon , vandalized the room , and harassed the customers . Hearing the commotion , Wyatt burst through the front door into a bunch of guns pointing at him . Holliday was playing cards in the back and put his pistol at Morrison 's head , forcing him and his men to disarm . Earp credited Holliday with saving his life that day , and he and Earp became friends .
While in Dodge City , he became acquainted with James and Bat Masterson , Luke Short , and prostitute Celia Anne " Mattie " Blaylock . Blaylock became Earp 's common @-@ law wife until 1881 . Earp resigned from the Dodge City police force on September 9 , 1879 , and she accompanied him to Las Vegas in New Mexico Territory , and then to Tombstone in Arizona Territory .
= = = George Hoyt shooting = = =
At about 3 : 00 in the morning of July 26 , 1878 , George Hoyt ( spelled in some accounts as " Hoy " ) and other drunken cowboys shot their guns wildly , including three shots into Dodge City 's Comique Theater , causing comedian Eddie Foy to throw himself to the stage floor in the middle of his act . Fortunately , no one was injured . Assistant Marshal Earp and policeman Bat Masterson responded and " together with several citizens , turned their pistols loose in the direction of the fleeing horsemen " . As the riders crossed the Arkansas river bridge south of town , George Hoyt fell from his horse after he was wounded in the arm or leg . Earp told Stuart Lake that he saw Hoyt through his gun sights against the morning horizon and fired the fatal shot , killing him that day , but the Dodge City Times reported that Hoyt developed gangrene and died on August 21 after his leg was amputated .
= = Move to Tombstone , Arizona = =
In 1879 , Wyatt received a letter from his older brother Virgil , who was the town constable in Prescott , Arizona Territory . Virgil wrote Wyatt about the opportunities in the silver @-@ mining boomtown of Tombstone . In September 1879 , Wyatt resigned as assistant marshal in Dodge City . Accompanied by his common @-@ law wife Mattie Blaylock , his brother Jim and his wife Bessie , they left for Arizona Territory . They stopped in Las Vegas , New Mexico , where they reunited with Doc Holliday and his common @-@ law wife Big Nose Kate . The five of them arrived in Prescott in November . Wyatt , Virgil , and James Earp with their wives arrived in Tombstone on December 1 , 1879 , although Doc remained in Prescott , where the gambling afforded better opportunities . There , the Earps bought an interest in the Vizina mine , the First North Extension of the Mountain Maid mine , and some water rights . Later in life , Wyatt wrote that " In 1879 Dodge was beginning to lose much of the snap which had given it a charm to men of reckless blood , and I decided to move to Tombstone , which was just building up a reputation . "
On November 27 , 1879 , three days before moving to Tombstone , Virgil was appointed by Crawley Dake , U.S. Marshal for the Arizona Territory , as Deputy U.S. Marshal for the Tombstone mining district , some 280 miles ( 450 km ) from Prescott . His territory included all of the southeast area of the Arizona Territory .
On March 5 , 1879 , when the city of Tombstone was founded , it had about 100 people living in tents and a few shacks . By the time the Earps arrived nine months later on December 1 , it had grown to about 1 @,@ 000 residents . Wyatt brought horses and a buckboard wagon , which he planned to convert into a stagecoach , but on arrival he found two established stage lines already running . In Tombstone , the Earps staked mining claims and water rights interests , attempting to capitalize on the mining boom . Jim worked as a barkeep . On December 6 , 1879 , the three Earps and Robert J. Winders filed a location notice for the First North Extension of the Mountain Maid Mine . When none of their business interests proved fruitful , Wyatt was hired in April or May 1880 by Wells , Fargo & Co. agent Frederick James Dodge as a shotgun messenger on stagecoaches when they transported Wells Fargo strongboxes . In summer 1880 , younger brothers Morgan arrived from Montana and Warren Earp moved to Tombstone as well . In September , Wyatt 's friend Doc Holliday arrived from Prescott with $ 40 @,@ 000 in gambling winnings in his pocket .
= = = First confrontation with the Cowboys = = =
On July 25 , 1880 , U.S. Army Captain Joseph H. Hurst asked Deputy U.S. Marshal Virgil Earp to assist him in tracking Cowboys who had stolen six U.S. Army mules from Camp Rucker . Virgil requested the assistance of his brothers Wyatt and Morgan , along with Wells Fargo agent Marshall Williams , and they found the mules at the McLaurys ' ranch . McLaury was a Cowboy , a term which in that time and region was generally used to refer to a loose association of outlaws , some of whom also were landowners and ranchers . Legitimate cowmen were referred to as cattle herders or ranchers . They found the branding iron used to change the " U.S. " brand to " D.8. " Stealing the mules was a federal offense because the animals were U.S. property .
Cowboy Frank Patterson " made some kind of a compromise " with Captain Hurst , who persuaded the posse to withdraw , with the understanding that the mules would be returned . The Cowboys showed up two days later without the mules and laughed at Hurst and the Earps . In response , Capt. Hurst printed a handbill describing the theft , and specifically charged Frank McLaury with assisting with hiding the mules . He also reproduced the flyer in The Tombstone Epitaph , on July 30 , 1880 . Frank McLaury angrily printed a response in the Cowboy @-@ friendly Nuggett , calling Hurst " unmanly " , " a coward , a vagabond , a rascal , and a malicious liar " , and accused Hurst of stealing the mules himself . Capt. Hurst later cautioned Wyatt , Virgil , and Morgan that the Cowboys had threatened their lives . Virgil reported that Frank accosted him and warned him " If you ever again follow us as close as you did , then you will have to fight anyway . " A month later Earp ran into Frank and Tom McLaury in Charleston , and they told him if he ever followed them as he had done before , they would kill him .
= = = Becomes deputy sheriff = = =
On July 28 , 1880 , Wyatt was appointed Deputy Sheriff for the eastern part of Pima County , which included Tombstone , by Democratic County Sheriff Charlie Shibell . Wyatt passed on his Wells Fargo job as shotgun messenger to his brother Morgan . Wyatt did his job well , and from August through November his name was mentioned nearly every week by the The Tombstone Epitaph or the Nugget newspapers .
The deputy sheriff 's position was worth more than US $ 40 @,@ 000 a year ( about $ 980 @,@ 828 today ) because he was also county assessor and tax collector , and the board of supervisors allowed him to keep ten percent of the amounts paid . While Wyatt was Deputy Sheriff , former Democrat state legislator Johnny Behan arrived in September 1880 .
= = = Town marshal shot = = =
On October 28 , 1880 , popular Tombstone town marshal Fred White attempted to break up a group of five late @-@ night , drunken revelers shooting at the moon on Allen Street in Tombstone . Deputy Sheriff Wyatt was in Owens Saloon a block away , though unarmed . When he heard the shooting , he ran to the scene , borrowed a pistol from Fred Dodge and went to assist White . He saw White attempt to disarm Curly Bill Brocius and the gun discharge , striking White in the groin . Wyatt pistol @-@ whipped Brocius , knocking him to the ground . Then he grabbed Brocius by the collar and told him to get up . Brocius protested , asking , " What have I done ? "
Fred Dodge arrived on the scene . In a letter to Stuart Lake many years later , he recalled what he saw .
Wyatt 's coolness and nerve never showed to better advantage than they did that night . When Morg and I reached him , Wyatt was squatted on his heels beside Curly Bill and Fred White . Curly Bill 's friends were pot @-@ shooting at him in the dark . The shooting was lively and slugs were hitting the chimney and cabin ... in all of that racket , Wyatt 's voice was even and quiet as usual .
Wyatt altered his story later on , telling John H. Flood that he did not see Brocius 's pistol on the ground in the dark until afterward . The pistol contained one expended cartridge and five live rounds . Brocius waived a preliminary hearing so he and his case could be transferred to Tucson District Court . Virgil and Wyatt escorted Brocius to Tucson to stand trial , possibly saving him from a lynching . White , age 31 , died of his wound two days after his shooting .
On December 27 , 1880 , Wyatt testified that White 's shooting was accidental . Brocius expressed regret , saying he had not intended to shoot White . Gunsmith Jacob Gruber testified that Curly Bill 's single @-@ action revolver was defective , allowing it to be discharged at half @-@ cock . A statement from White before he died was introduced stating that the shooting was accidental . The judge ruled that the shooting was accidental and released Brocius . Brocius , however , remained intensely angry about how Wyatt had pistol @-@ whipped him and became an enemy to the Earps . Virgil was also appointed acting town marshal of Tombstone .
= = = Loses reappointment = = =
Wyatt only served as deputy sheriff for eastern Pima County for about three months because , in November , Democrat Shibell ran for re @-@ election against Republican challenger Bob Paul . The region was strongly Republican and Paul was expected to win . Republican Wyatt expected he would continue in the job . Given how fast eastern Pima County was growing , everyone expected that it would be split off into its own county soon with Tombstone as its seat . Wyatt hoped to win the job as the new county sheriff and continue receiving the plum 10 % of all tax moneys collected . Southern Pacific was the major landholder , so that tax collection was a relatively easy process .
On election day , November 2 , Precinct 27 in the San Simon Valley in northern Cochise County , turned out 104 votes , 103 of them for Shibell . Shibell unexpectedly won the election by a margin of 58 votes under suspicious circumstances .
James C. Hancock reported that Cowboys Curly Bill Brocius and Johnny Ringo served as election officials in the San Simon precinct . However , on November 1 , the day before the election , Ringo biographer David Johnson places Ringo in New Mexico with Ike Clanton . Curly Bill had been arrested and jailed in Tucson on October 28 for shooting Sheriff Fred White , and he was still there on election day .
The home of John Magill was used as the polling place . The precinct only contained about 10 eligible voters ( another source says 50 ) , but the Cowboys gathered non @-@ voters like the children and Chinese and had them cast ballots . Not satisfied , they named all the dogs , burros and poultry and cast ballots in their names for Shibell . The election board met on November 14 and declared Shibell as the winner .
Earp resigned from the Sheriff 's office on November 9 , 1880 , and Shibell immediately appointed Behan as the new Deputy Sheriff for eastern Pima County . Democrat Johnny Behan had considerably more political experience than Republican Wyatt Earp . Behan had previously served as Yavapai County Sheriff from 1871 to 1873 . He had been elected to the Arizona Territorial Legislature twice , representing Yavapai Country in the 7th Territorial Legislature in 1873 and Mohave County in the 10th in 1879 . Behan moved for a time to the northwest Arizona Territory , where he served as the Mohave County Recorder in 1877 and then deputy sheriff of Mohave County at Gillet , in 1879 .
Paul filed a lawsuit on November 19 contesting the election results , alleging that Shibell 's Cowboy supporters Iike Clanton , Curly Bill Brocius , and Frank McLaury had cooperated in ballot stuffing . Chief Justice of Arizona C.G.W. French ruled in Paul 's favor in late January 1881 , but Shibell appealed . His lawsuit was finally resolved by April 1881 . The election commission found that a mysterious " Henry Johnson " was responsible for certifying the ballots . This turned out to be James Johnson , the same James K. Johnson who had been shooting up Allen Street the night Marshal White was killed . Moreover , he was the same Johnson that testified at Curly Bill 's preliminary hearing after he shot Fred White . James Johnson later testified for Bud Paul in the election hearing and said that the ballots had been left in the care of Phin Clanton . None of the witnesses during the election hearing reported on ballots being cast for dogs . The recount found Paul had 402 votes and Shibell had 354 . Sixty @-@ two were kept from a closer examination . Paul was declared the winner of the Pima County sheriff election but by that time the election was a moot point . Paul could not replace Behan with Earp because on January 1 , 1881 , Cochise County was created out of the eastern portion of Pima County .
= = = Behan wins election = = =
Earp and Behan both applied to fill the new position of Cochise County sheriff , which like the Pima County Sheriff job paid the office holder 10 % of the fees and taxes collected . Earp thought he had a good chance to win the position because he was the former undersheriff in the region and a Republican , like Arizona Territorial Governor John C. Fremont . However , Behan had greater political experience and influence in Prescott .
Earp improbably testified during the preliminary hearing after the Gunfight at the O.K. Corral that he and Behan had made a deal . If Earp withdrew his application to the legislature , Behan agreed to appoint Earp as undersheriff . Behan received the appointment in February 1881 , but did not keep his end of the bargain and instead chose Harry Woods , a prominent Democrat , as undersheriff . Behan testified at first that he had not made any deal with Earp , although he later admitted he had lied . Behan said he broke his promise to appoint Earp because of an incident that occurred shortly before his appointment .
This incident arose after Earp learned that one of his prize horses , stolen more than a year before , was in the possession of Ike Clanton and his brother Billy . Earp and Holliday rode to the Clanton ranch near Charleston to recover the horse . On the way , they overtook Behan , who was riding in a wagon . Behan was also heading to the ranch to serve an election @-@ hearing subpoena on Ike Clanton . Accounts differ as to what happened next . Earp later testified that when he arrived at the Clanton ranch , Billy Clanton gave up the horse even before being presented with ownership papers . According to Behan 's testimony , however , Earp had told the Clantons that Behan was on his way to arrest them for horse theft . After the incident , which embarrassed both the Clantons and Behan , Behan testified that he did not want to work with Earp and chose Woods instead .
= = = Relationship to Sadie Marcus = = =
Thirty @-@ two @-@ year @-@ old Wyatt Earp and 35 @-@ year @-@ old Johnny Behan apparently shared an interest in the same 18 @-@ year @-@ old woman , Josephine Sarah Marcus . She said she first visited Tombstone as part of the Pauline Markham Theatre Troupe on December 1 , 1879 for a one @-@ week engagement but modern researchers have not found any record that she was ever part of the theater company . Behan owned a saloon in Tip Top , Arizona , where he maintained a prostitute named Sadie Mansfield . In September 1880 , Behan moved to Tombstone . Sadie may have returned to San Francisco and then joined Behan in Tombstone , where she and Behan continued their relationship . Sadie was a well @-@ known nickname for Sarah , and it was common for prostitutes to change their first name . Wyatt had a mischievous sense of humor . When they became a couple in 1882 , he knew his wife preferred the name " Josephine " and detested " Sadie " , but early in their relationship he began calling her ' Sadie ' .
Sadie Mansfield and Sadie Marcus had very similar names and initials and were both known by their friends as " Sadie . " Both made a stagecoach journey from San Francisco to Prescott , Arizona Territory ; both traveled with a black woman named Julia ; both were sexual partners with Behan ; both were 19 years old , born in New York City , and had parents from Prussia . The only difference noted in the 1880 census is their occupation : Sadie in San Francisco is listed as " At home " , while Sadie in Tip Top is recorded as a " Courtesan " . But Josephine said that her parents hid her activities , and they may have been covering for her when the census taker , a neighbor who knew the family , appeared on their doorstep .
In spring 1881 , Marcus found Behan in bed with the wife of a friend and kicked him out , although she still used the Behan surname through the end of that summer . Earp had a common @-@ law relationship with Mattie Blaylock , who was listed as his wife in the June 1880 census . She suffered from severe headaches and became addicted to laudanum , a commonly used opiate and painkiller . There are no contemporary records in Tombstone of a relationship between Josephine and Earp . Tombstone diarist George W. Parsons never mentioned seeing Wyatt and Josephine together and neither did John Clum in his memoirs . But Earp and Marcus certainly knew each other , as Behan and Earp both had offices above the Crystal Palace Saloon .
A letter written by former New Mexico Territory Governor Miguel Otero in 1940 appears to indicate that Earp had strong feelings for Josephine in April 1882 . After leaving Tombstone following the Earp Vendetta Ride , the Earp posse went to Albuquerque , New Mexico for two weeks . While there , Wyatt stayed with prominent businessman Henry N. Jaffa , who was also president of New Albuquerque ’ s Board of Trade . Like Josephine , Jaffa was Jewish .
Wyatt and Holliday had been fast friends since Holliday saved Earp 's life in Dodge City during 1878 . During their stay in Albuquerque , the two men ate at The Retreat Restaurant owned by " Fat Charlie " . Ortero wrote in his letter , " Holiday said something about Earp becoming ' a damn Jew @-@ boy . ' Earp became angry and left … . [ Henry ] Jaffa told me later that Earp ’ s woman was a Jewess . Earp did mezuzah when entering the house . " The Earp party split up in Albuquerque , and Holliday and Dan Tipton rode on to Pueblo , Colorado while the rest of the group headed for Gunnison . Earp 's anger at Holliday 's racial slur may indicate that his feelings for Josephine were more serious at the time than is commonly known . The information in the letter is compelling because at that time in the 1940s , the relationship between Wyatt Earp and Josephine Marcus in Tombstone was not public knowledge . Ortero could know these things only if he had a relationship with someone who had personal knowledge of the individuals involved .
Marcus went to great lengths to sanitize her own and Wyatt 's history . For example , she worked hard to keep both her name and the name of Wyatt 's second wife Mattie out of Stuart Lake 's 1931 book , Wyatt Earp : Frontier Marshal , and Marcus threatened litigation to keep it that way . Marcus also told Earp 's biographers and others that Earp never drank , did not own gambling saloons , and that he never provided prostitutes to customers , although strong evidence to the contrary exists .
= = = Interest in mining and gambling = = =
Losing the undersheriff position left Wyatt Earp without a job in Tombstone ; however , Wyatt and his brothers were beginning to make some money on their mining claims in the Tombstone area . In January 1881 , Oriental Saloon owner Mike Joyce gave Wyatt Earp a one @-@ quarter interest in the faro concession at the Oriental Saloon in exchange for his services as a manager and enforcer . Gambling was regarded as a legitimate profession , comparable to a doctor or member of clergy , at the time . Wyatt invited his friend , lawman and gambler Bat Masterson , to Tombstone to help him run the faro tables in the Oriental Saloon . In June 1881 , Wyatt also telegraphed another friend and gambler from Dodge , Luke Short , who was living in Leadville , Colorado , and offered him a job as a faro dealer .
Bat remained until April 1881 , when he returned to Dodge City to assist his brother Jim . On October 8 , 1881 , Doc Holliday got into a dispute with John Tyler in the Oriental Saloon . A rival gambling concession operator hired and disrupt Wyatt 's business . When Tyler started a fight after losing a bet , Wyatt threw him out of the saloon . Holliday later wounded Oriental owners Milt Joyce and his partner William Parker and was convicted of assault .
= = = Stands down lynch mob = = =
Stuart Lake described in his book how Earp single @-@ handedly stood down a large crowd that wanted to lynch gambler Michael O 'Rourke ( Johnny Behind the Deuce ) . O 'Rourke had killed Henry Schneider , chief engineer of the Tombstone Mining and Milling Company — he said in self @-@ defense . Henry was well @-@ liked and a mob of miners quickly gathered , threatening to lynch O 'Rourke on the spot . In fact , the Epitaph gave primary credit to Ben Sippy for standing down the crowd , assisted by Virgil Earp , Wyatt Earp , and Johnny Behan . This incident as described by Lake added to Earp 's modern legend as a lawman .
= = = Stagecoach robbers kill two = = =
Tensions between the Earps and both the Clantons and McLaurys increased through 1881 . On March 15 , 1881 , at 10 p.m. , three cowboys attempted to rob a Kinnear & Company stagecoach reportedly carrying US $ 26 @,@ 000 in silver bullion ( or about $ 637 @,@ 538 in today 's dollars ) . The amount of bullion actually carried has been questioned by modern researchers , who note that at the then current value of US $ 1 @.@ 00 per ounce , the bullion would have weighed about 1 @,@ 600 pounds ( 730 kg ) , a significant weight for a team of horses . The hold up took place near Benson , during which the robbers killed popular driver Eli " Budd " Philpot and passenger Peter Roerig .
The Earps and a posse tracked the men down and arrested Luther King , who confessed he had been holding the reins while Bill Leonard , Harry " The Kid " Head , and Jim Crain robbed the stage . They arrested King and Sheriff Johnny Behan escorted him to jail , but somehow King walked in the front door and almost immediately out the back door .
During the hearing into the Gunfight at the O.K. Corral , Wyatt testified that he offered the US $ 3 @,@ 600 in Wells Fargo reward money ( $ 1 @,@ 200 per robber ) to Ike Clanton and Frank McLaury in return for information about the identities of the three robbers . Wyatt testified that he had other motives for his plan as well : he hoped that arresting the murderers would boost his chances for election as Cochise County sheriff . Wyatt told the court that he had taken the extra step of obtaining a second copy of a telegram for Ike from Wells Fargo assuring that the reward for capturing the killers applied either dead or alive .
According to testimony given by Wyatt and Virgil , both Frank McLaury and Ike Clanton agreed to provide information to assist in capturing Leonard , Head , and Crain , but they never had a chance to fulfill the agreement . All three suspects were killed when attempting other robberies .
In his testimony at the court hearing , Clanton said Wyatt did not want to capture the men , but to kill them . Clanton told the court that Earp wanted to conceal the Earp family 's involvement in the Benson stage robbery . He said Wyatt swore him to secrecy and the next day Morgan Earp asked him whether he would make the agreement with Wyatt . He said that four or five days afterward Morgan had confided in him that he and Wyatt had " piped off $ 1 @,@ 400 to Doc Holliday and Bill Leonard " who were supposed to be on the stage the night Bud Philpot was killed . During his testimony , Clanton told the court , " I was not going to have anything to do with helping to capture — " and then he corrected himself " — kill Bill Leonard , Crane and Harry Head " . Clanton denied having any knowledge of the Wells Fargo telegram confirming the reward money .
= = = September stagecoach robbery = = =
Meanwhile , tensions between the Earps and the McLaurys increased when Cowboys robbed the passenger stage on the Sandy Bob Line in the Tombstone area on September 8 , bound for nearby Bisbee . The masked robbers shook down the passengers and robbed the strongbox . They were recognized by their voices and language . They were identified as Deputy Sheriff Pete Spence ( an alias for Elliot Larkin Ferguson ) and Deputy Sheriff Frank Stilwell , a business partner of Spence . Stilwell was fired a short while later as a Deputy Sheriff for Sheriff Behan ( for county tax " accounting irregularities " ) .
Wyatt and Virgil Earp rode with the sheriff 's posse attempting to track the stage robbers . Wyatt discovered an unusual boot heel print in the mud . The posse checked with a shoemaker in Bisbee and found a matching heel that he had just removed from Stilwell 's boot . A further check of a Bisbee corral turned up both Spence and Stilwell who were arrested by sheriff 's deputies Billy Breakenridge and Nagel .
Spence and Stilwell were arraigned on the robbery charges before Justice Wells Spicer who set their bail at $ 7 @,@ 000 each . They were released after paying their bail , but Spence and Stilwell were re @-@ arrested by Virgil for the Bisbee robbery a month later , on October 13 , on the new federal charge of interfering with a mail carrier . The newspapers , however , reported that they had been arrested for a different stage robbery that occurred ( October 8 ) near Contention City . Occurring less than two weeks before the O.K. Corral shootout , this final incident may have been misunderstood by the McLaurys . While Wyatt and Virgil were still out of town for the Spence and Stilwell hearing , Frank McLaury confronted Morgan Earp , telling him that the McLaurys would kill the Earps if they tried to arrest Spence , Stilwell , or the McLaurys again .
= = Gunfight on Fremont Street = =
On Wednesday , October 26 , 1881 , the tension between the Earps and the Cowboys came to a head . Ike Clanton , Billy Claiborne , and other Cowboys had been threatening to kill the Earps for several weeks . Tombstone city Marshal Virgil Earp learned that the Cowboys were armed and had gathered near the O.K. Corral . He asked Wyatt and Morgan Earp and Doc Holliday to assist him , as he intended to disarm them . Wyatt was acting as a temporary assistant marshal , Morgan was a Deputy City Marshal , and Virgil deputized Holliday for the occasion . At approximately 3 p.m. the Earps headed towards Fremont Street , where the Cowboys had been reported gathering .
They confronted five Cowboys in a vacant lot adjacent to the O.K. Corral 's rear entrance on Fremont Street . The lot between the Harwood House and Fly 's Boarding House and Photography Studio was narrow — the two parties were initially only about 6 to 10 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 to 3 @.@ 0 m ) apart . Ike Clanton and Billy Claiborne fled the gunfight . Tom and Frank McLaury along with Billy Clanton stood their ground and were killed . Morgan was clipped by a shot across his back that nicked both shoulder blades and a vertebra . Virgil was shot through the calf and Holliday was grazed by a bullet .
= = Charged with murder = =
On October 30 , as permitted by Territorial law , Ike Clanton filed murder charges against the Earps and Holliday . Justice Wells Spicer convened a preliminary hearing on October 31 to determine if there was enough evidence to go to trial . In an unusual proceeding , he took written and oral testimony from a number of witnesses over more than a month .
Sheriff Behan , testifying for the prosecution , said the Cowboys had not resisted but either thrown up their hands and turned out their coats to show they were not armed . He said that Tom McLaury threw open his coat to show that he was not armed and that the first two shots were fired by the Earp party . Sheriff Behan insisted Doc Holliday had fired first using a nickel @-@ plated revolver , although other witnesses reported seeing him carrying a messenger shotgun immediately beforehand .
The Earps hired an experienced trial lawyer , Thomas Fitch , as defense counsel . Wyatt testified that he drew his gun only after Billy Clanton and Frank McLaury went for their pistols . He detailed the Earps ' previous troubles with the Clantons and McLaurys and explained that they intended to disarm the cowboys . He said they fired in self @-@ defense . Fitch managed to produce testimony from prosecution witnesses during cross @-@ examination that was contradictory , or appeared to dodge his questions , or in which they said they could not remember .
After extensive testimony , Justice Spicer ruled on November 30 that there was not enough evidence to indict the men . He said the evidence indicated that the Earps and Holliday acted within the law and that Holliday and Wyatt had been deputized temporarily by Virgil . Even though the Earps and Holliday were free , their reputations had been tarnished . The Cowboys in Tombstone looked upon the Earps as robbers and murderers and plotted revenge .
= = = Cowboys ' revenge = = =
On December 28 , while walking between saloons on Allen Street in Tombstone , Virgil was ambushed and maimed by a shotgun round that struck his left arm and shoulder . Ike Clanton 's hat was found in the back of the building across Allen Street from where the shots were fired . Wyatt wired U.S. Marshal Crawley P. Dake asking to be appointed deputy U.S. marshal with authority to select his own deputies . Dake granted the request in late January and provided the Earps with some funds he borrowed from Wells Fargo | Wells , Fargo & Co. on behalf of the Earps , variously reported as $ 500 to $ 3 @,@ 000 .
In mid @-@ January , when Earp ally Rickabaugh sold the Oriental Saloon to Earp adversary Milt Joyce , Wyatt sold his gambling concessions at the hotel . The Earps also raised some funds from sympathetic business owners in town . On February 2 , 1882 , Wyatt and Virgil , tired of the criticism leveled against them , submitted their resignations to Dake , who refused to accept them because their accounts had not been settled . On the same day , Wyatt sent a message to Ike Clanton that he wanted to reconcile their differences , which Clanton refused . Clanton was also acquitted that day of the charges against him in the shooting of Virgil Earp , when the defense brought in seven witnesses who testified that Clanton was in Charleston at the time of the shooting .
The Earps needed more funds to pay for the extra deputies and associated expenses . Contributions received from supportive business owners were not enough . On February 13 , Wyatt mortgaged his home to lawyer James G. Howard for $ 365 @.@ 00 ( about $ 8 @,@ 950 today ) and received $ 365 @.@ 00 in U.S. gold coin . ( He was never able to repay the loan and in 1884 Howard foreclosed on the house . )
After attending a theatre show on March 18 , Morgan Earp was assassinated by gunmen firing from a dark alley through a door window into a room where he was playing billiards . Morgan was struck in the right side . The bullet shattered his spine , passed through his left side , and lodged in the thigh of George A. B. Berry . Another round narrowly missed Wyatt . A doctor was summoned and Morgan was moved from the floor to a nearby couch . The assassins escaped in the dark and Morgan died forty minutes later .
Wyatt Earp felt he could not rely on civil justice and decided to take matters into his own hands . He concluded that the only way to deal with Morgan 's assassins was to kill them all .
= = Earp vendetta ride = =
The day after Morgan 's assassination , Deputy U.S. Marshal Wyatt Earp formed a posse made up of his brothers James and Warren , Doc Holliday , Sherman McMaster , Jack " Turkey Creek " Johnson , Charles " Hairlip Charlie " Smith , Daniel " Tip " Tipton , and John Wilson " Texas Jack " Vermillion to protect the family and pursue the suspects , paying them $ 5 @.@ 00 a day . They took Morgan 's body to the railhead in Benson . James was to accompany Morgan 's body to the family home in Colton , California , where Morgan 's parents and wife waited to bury him . The posse guarded Virgil and Addie through to Tucson , where they had heard Frank Stilwell and other Cowboys were waiting to kill Virgil . The next morning Frank Stilwell 's body was found alongside the tracks riddled with buckshot and gunshot wounds . Wyatt and five other federal lawmen were indicted for murdering him and Tucson Justice of the Peace Charles Meyer issued warrants for their arrest .
The Earp posse briefly returned to Tombstone , where Sheriff Behan tried to stop them . The heavily armed posse brushed him aside . Hairlip Charlie and Warren remained in Tombstone , and the rest set out for Pete Spence 's wood camp in the Dragoon Mountains . They found and killed Florentino " Indian Charlie " Cruz . Two days later , near Iron Springs ( later Mescal Springs ) , in the Whetstone Mountains , they were seeking to rendezvous with a messenger for them . They unexpectedly stumbled onto the wood camp of Curly Bill Brocius , Pony Diehl , and other Outlaw Cowboys . According to reports from both sides , the two sides immediately exchanged gun fire . Except for Wyatt and Texas Jack Vermillion , whose horse was shot , the Earp party withdrew to find protection from the heavy gunfire . Curly Bill fired at Wyatt with a shotgun but missed . Eighteen months prior Wyatt had protected Curly Bill against a mob ready to lynch him and then provided testimony that helped spare Curly Bill from a murder trial for killing Sheriff Fred White . Now , Wyatt returned Curly Bill 's gunfire with his own shotgun and shot Curly Bill in the chest from about 50 feet ( 15m ) away . Curly Bill fell into the water by the edge of the spring and died .
Wyatt received bullet holes in both sides of his long coat and another struck his boot heel . After emptying his shotgun , Wyatt fired his pistol , mortally wounding Johnny Barnes in the chest and wounded Milt Hicks in the arm . Vermillion tried to retrieve his rifle wedged in the scabbard under his fallen horse , exposing himself to the Cowboys ' gunfire . Doc Holliday helped him get to cover . Wyatt had trouble remounting his horse because his cartridge belt had slipped down his legs . He was finally able to get on his horse and with the rest of the posse retreated .
The Earp Party rode north to the Percy Ranch , but were not welcomed by Hugh and Jim Percy , who feared the Cowboys ; after a meal and some rest , they left at about 3 : 00 in the morning of March 27 . The Earp party slipped into the area near Tombstone and met with supporters , including " Hairlip Charlie " Smith and Warren Earp . On March 27 , the posse arrived at the Sierra Bonita Ranch owned by Henry Hooker , a wealthy and prominent rancher . That night Dan Tipton caught the first stage out of Tombstone and headed for Benson , carrying $ 1 @,@ 000 from mining owner and Earp supporter E. B. Gage for the posse . Hooker congratulated Earp on the killing of Curly Bill . Hooker fed them and Wyatt told him he wanted to buy new mounts . Hooker was known for his purebred stallions and ran over 500 brood mares that produced horses that became known for their speed , beauty and temperament . He provided Wyatt and his posse with new mounts but refused to take Wyatt 's money . When Behan 's posse was observed in the distance , Hooker suggested Wyatt make his stand there , but Wyatt moved into the hills about three miles ( 5 km ) distant near Reilly Hill .
The federal posse led by Wyatt Earp was not found by the local posse , led by Cochise County Sheriff John Behan , although Behan 's party trailed the Earps for many miles . In the middle of April 1882 the Earp party left the Arizona Territory and headed east into New Mexico Territory and then into Colorado .
The coroner reports credited the Earp party with killing four men — Frank Stilwell , Curly Bill , Indian Charlie , and Johnny Barnes — in their two @-@ week @-@ long ride . In 1888 Wyatt Earp gave an interview to California historian H. H. Bancroft during which he claimed to have killed " over a dozen stage robbers , murderers , and cattle thieves " in his time as a lawman .
= = Life after Tombstone = =
The gunfight in Tombstone lasted only 30 seconds , but it would end up defining Earp for the rest of his life . After Wyatt killed Frank Stilwell in Tucson , his movements received national press coverage and he became a known commodity in Western folklore .
= = = Deals Faro in Colorado = = =
After killing the four Cowboys , Wyatt and Warren Earp , Holliday , Sherman McMaster , " Turkey Creek " Jack Johnson , and Texas Jack Vermillion left Arizona . Wyatt never returned to Tombstone . The group stopped in Albuquerque , New Mexico , where they met Deputy U.S. Marshal Bat Masterson , Wyatt 's friend . Masterson went with them to Trinidad , Colorado , where Masterson opened a Faro game in a saloon and later became Marshal .
Wyatt dealt faro at Masterson 's saloon for several weeks before he , McMaster , Vermillion , and Warren Earp left in May 1882 for Gunnison , Colorado .
The Earps and Texas Jack set up camp on the outskirts of Gunnison , where they remained quietly at first , rarely going into town for supplies . In Gunnison , they were reported to have pulled a " gold brick scam " on a German visitor named Ritchie by trying to sell him gold @-@ painted rocks for $ 2 @,@ 000 .
Wyatt and Holliday , who had been fast friends since Holliday saved Earp 's life in Dodge City during 1878 , had a serious disagreement and parted ways in Albuquerque . According to a letter written by former New Mexico Territory Governor Miguel Otero , Wyatt and Holliday were eating at " Fat Charlie 's " The Retreat Restaurant in Albuquerque " when Holiday said something about Earp becoming ' a damn Jew @-@ boy . ' Earp became angry and left … . [ Henry ] Jaffa told me later that Earp ’ s woman was a Jewess . Earp did mezuzah when entering the house . " Wyatt was staying with prominent businessman Henry N. Jaffa , who was also president of New Albuquerque ’ s Board of Trade . Jaffa was also Jewish , and based on the letter , Earp had , while staying in Jaffa ’ s home , honored Jewish tradition by performing the mezuzah upon entering his home . Earp 's anger at Holliday 's racial slur may indicate that the relationship between Josephine Marcus and Wyatt Earp was much more serious at the time than is commonly known . The information in the letter is compelling because at the time it was written in the 1940s , no one knew of any relationship between Wyatt Earp and Josephine Marcus while living in Tombstone . The only way Ortero could write about these things was if he knew someone with personal knowledge of the individuals involved . Holliday and Dan Tipton headed to Pueblo in late April 1882 and then Denver . Holliday and Wyatt met again in June 1882 in Gunnisonafter Wyatt helped to keep his friend from being convicted on murder charges against Frank Stillwell ; and then again lastly Wyatt was able to see his old friend Holliday in the late winter of 1886 , where they met in the lobby of the Windsor Hotel . Sadie Marcus described the skeletal Holliday as having a continuous cough and standing on " unsteady legs . ”
= = = Meets Josephine in San Francisco = = =
Sadie , traveling as either Mrs. J. C. Earp or Mrs. Wyatt Earp , left Tombstone for her family in San Francisco via Los Angeles on March 25 , 1882 . This was one week after Morgan Earp was assassinated and five days after Wyatt set out in pursuit of those he believed responsible .
In July , four months later , Wyatt traveled from Colorado to San Francisco where Sadie was living with her half @-@ sister Rebecca and husband Aaron Wiener , and where his brother Virgil was seeking treatment for his arm . Wyatt remained in San Francisco for about nine months until early 1883 , when he and Sadie left San Francisco together for Silverton , Colorado , where silver and gold mining were flourishing . It was the first of many mining camps and boom towns they lived in . Sadie was Wyatt 's common @-@ law wife until his death 46 years later .
= = = Mattie asks for divorce = = =
Wyatt still owned a house in Tombstone with his common @-@ law wife Mattie Blaylock , but she waited for him in Colton , where his parents and Virgil were living . But during the summer of 1882 , she sent Wyatt a letter saying she wanted a divorce . She had met a gambler from Arizona and he had asked her to marry him . Wyatt , who did not believe in divorce , refused . She ran away with the gambler anyway , and he later abandoned her in Arizona .
She moved to Pinal City , Arizona , where she resumed life as a prostitute . Mattie struggled with addictions and committed " suicide by opium poisoning " on July 3 , 1888 .
= = = Dodge City War = = =
During what became known as the Dodge City War , the Mayor tried to run Earp 's friend Luke Short , part owner of the Long Branch saloon , first out of business and then out of town . Short appealed to Masterson who contacted Earp . On May 31 , 1883 , Earp and Sadie went with Bat Masterson , Johnny Millsap , Shotgun John Collins , Texas Jack Vermillion , and Johnny Green to Dodge City to help Short .
Short was in Kansas City to appeal to Governor George Washington Glick for help but to no avail . When he returned , Short 's allies marched up Front Street into Short 's saloon , where they were sworn in as deputies by constable " Prairie Dog " Dave Marrow . The town council offered a compromise to allow Short to return for ten days to get his affairs in order , but Earp refused to compromise . When Short returned , there was no force ready to turn him away . Short 's Saloon reopened , and the Dodge City War ended without a shot being fired .
= = = Idaho mining venture = = =
In 1884 , Wyatt and his wife Josie , his brothers Warren and James , and James ' wife Bessie arrived in Eagle City , Idaho , another new boomtown that was created as a result of the discovery of gold , silver , and lead in the Coeur d 'Alene area . ( It 's now a ghost town in Shoshone County ) . Wyatt joined the crowd looking for gold in the Murray @-@ Eagle mining district . They paid $ 2 @,@ 250 for a 50 feet ( 15 m ) diameter white circus , in which they opened a dance hall and saloon called The White Elephant . An advertisement in a local newspaper suggests gentlemen " come and see the elephant " .
Earp was named Deputy Sheriff in the area including newly incorporated Kootenai County , Idaho , which was disputing jurisdiction of Eagle City with Shoshone County . There were a considerable number of disagreements over mining claims and property rights , which Earp had a part in . On March 28 , several feet of snow were still on the ground . Bill Buzzard , a miner of dubious reputation , began constructing a building when one of Wyatt 's partners , Jack Enright , tried to stop the construction . Enright claimed the building was on part of his property . Words were exchanged and Buzzard reached for his Winchester . He fired several shots at Enright and a skirmish developed . Allies of both sides quickly took defensive positions between snowbanks and began shooting at one another . Deputy Sheriff Wyatt Earp and his brother James stepped into the middle of the fray and helped peacefully resolve the dispute before anyone was seriously hurt . Shoshone County Deputy W. E. Hunt then arrived and ordered the parties to turn over their weapons .
In about April 1885 , it was reported that Wyatt Earp used his badge to join a band of claim jumpers in Embry Camp , later renamed Chewelah , Washington . Within six months their substantial stake had run dry , and the Earps left the Murray @-@ Eagle district . About 10 years later , after the Fitzimmons @-@ Sharkey fight , a reporter hunted up Buzzard and extracted a story from him that accused Wyatt of being the brains behind lot @-@ jumping and a real @-@ estate fraud , further tarnishing his reputation .
= = = San Diego real estate boom = = =
After the Coeur d 'Alene mining venture died out , Earp and Josie briefly went to El Paso , Texas before moving in 1887 to San Diego , where the railroad was about to arrive and a real estate boom was underway . They stayed for about four years , living most of the time in the Brooklyn Hotel . Earp speculated in San Diego 's booming real estate market . Between 1887 and around 1896 he bought four saloons and gambling halls , one on Fourth Street and the other two near Sixth and E , all in the " respectable " part of town . They offered 21 games including faro , blackjack , poker , keno , and other Victorian @-@ American games of chance like pedro and monte . At the height of the boom , he made up to $ 1 @,@ 000 a night in profit . Wyatt also owned the Oyster Bar located in the first granite @-@ faced building in San Diego , the four @-@ story Louis Bank Building at 837 5th Avenue , one of the more popular saloons in the Stingaree district . One of the reasons it drew a good crowd was the Golden Poppy brothel upstairs . Owned by Madam Cora , each room was painted a different color , like emerald green , summer yellow , or ruby red , and each prostitute was required to dress in matching garments .
Wyatt had a long @-@ standing interest in boxing and horse racing . He refereed boxing matches in San Diego , Tijuana , and San Bernardino . In the 1887 San Diego City Directory he was listed as a capitalist or gambler . He won his first race horse " Otto Rex " in a card game and began investing in racehorses . He also judged prize fights on both sides of the border and raced horses . Earp was one of the judges at the County Fair horse races held in Escondido in 1889 . As rapidly as the boom started , it came to an end , and the population of San Diego fell from a high of 40 @,@ 000 in 1885 when Earp arrived to only 16 @,@ 000 in 1890 .
On July 3 , 1888 , Mattie Blaylock , who had always considered herself Wyatt 's wife , committed suicide in Pinal , Arizona Territory , by taking an overdose of laudanum .
= = = San Francisco horse racing = = =
The Earps moved back to San Francisco in 1891 in part so Josie could be closer to her family . Earp developed a reputation as a sportsman as well as a gambler . He held onto his San Diego properties but their value fell , but he could not pay the taxes and was forced to sell the lots . He continued to race horses , but by 1896 he could no longer afford to own them but raced them on behalf of the owner of a horse stable in Santa Rosa that he managed for her . From 1891 to 1897 , they lived in at least four different locations in the city : 145 Ellis St. , 720 McAllister St. , 514A Seventh Ave. and 1004 Golden Gate Ave . In Santa Rosa , Earp personally competed in and won a harness race .
= = = Relationship to Marcus = = =
Josephine wrote in I Married Wyatt Earp : The Recollections of Josephine Sarah Marcus , that she and Wyatt were married in 1892 by the captain of multimillionaire Lucky Baldwin 's yacht off the California coast . Raymond Nez wrote that his grandparents witnessed their marriage , but no public record of the marriage has been found . Baldwin , a horse breeder and racer , also owned the Santa Anita racetrack in Los Angeles , which Wyatt — a long @-@ time horse aficionado — frequented when he was in town .
Earp 's relationship with Josephine Marcus was at times tempestuous . He had a mischievous sense of humor . He knew his wife preferred Josephine and detested " Sadie " , but early in their relationship he began calling her by that name . Josephine gambled to excess and Wyatt had affairs . Josephine later developed a reputation as a shrew who made life difficult for Earp .
Josephine frequently griped about Wyatt ’ s lack of work and financial success and even his character and personality . Wyatt would often go on long walks to get away from her . He was furious about her gambling habit , during which she lost considerable sums of money . Each may have engaged in extramarital affairs . Josephine could be controlling . Grace Spolidora was a teenager during the Earp 's many visits to her family 's home near Needles , California and sometimes went to San Diego with them . She attributed the highly exaggerated stories about Earp to Josephine . Sadie " would always interfere whenever Wyatt would talk with Stuart Lake . She always interfered ! She wanted him to look like a church @-@ going saint and blow things up . Wyatt didn 't want that at all ! "
= = = Fixes Fitzsimmons @-@ Sharkey fight = = =
On December 2 , 1896 , Earp was a last @-@ minute choice as referee for a boxing match that the promoters billed as the heavyweight championship of the world . Bob Fitzsimmons was set to fight Tom Sharkey that night at the Mechanics ' Pavilion in San Francisco . Earp had refereed 30 or so matches in earlier days , though not under the Marquis of Queensbury rules , but under the older and more liberal London Prize Ring Rules . The fight may have been the most anticipated fight on American soil that year . Fitzsimmons was favored to win , and the public and even civic officials placed bets on the outcome .
Fitzsimmons dominated Sharkey throughout the fight , and in the eighth round , he hit Sharkey with his famed " solar plexus punch " , an uppercut under the heart that could render a man temporarily helpless . Fitzsimmons ' next punch apparently caught Sharkey below the belt and Sharkey dropped , clutched his groin , and rolled on the canvas , screaming foul . Wyatt stopped the bout , ruling that Fitzsimmons had hit Sharkey below the belt , but virtually no one witnessed the punch . Earp awarded the fight to Sharkey , who attendants carried out as " limp as a rag " . The 15 @,@ 000 fans in attendance greeted his decision with loud boos and catcalls . It was widely believed that there had been no foul and Earp had bet on Sharkey . While several doctors verified afterward that Sharkey had been hit hard below the belt , the public had bet heavily on Fitzsimmons and they were livid at the outcome .
Fitzsimmons went to court to overturn Earp 's decision . Newspaper accounts and testimony over the next two weeks revealed a conspiracy among the boxing promoters to fix the fight 's outcome .
Stories about the fight and Earp 's contested decision were distributed nationwide to a public that until that time knew little of Wyatt Earp . Earp was parodied in editorial cartoon caricatures and vilified in newspaper stories across the United States .
On December 17 , Judge Sanderson finally ruled that prize fighting was illegal in San Francisco and the courts would not determine who the winner was . Sharkey retained the purse , but the decision provided no vindication for Earp . Until the fight , Earp had been a minor figure known regionally in California and Arizona . Afterward , his name was known from coast to coast in the worst possible way . Earp sold his interest in his horses on December 20 and left San Francisco shortly afterward . He only returned when he caught a boat to Alaska . Earp 's decision left a smear on his public character that followed him until he died and afterward .
Eight years later , Dr. B. Brookes Lee was arrested in Portland , Oregon . He had been accused of treating Sharkey to make it appear that he had been fouled by Fitzsimmons . Lee admitted it was true . " I fixed Sharkey up to look as if he had been fouled . How ? Well , that is something I do not care to reveal , but I will assert that it was done — that is enough . There is no doubt that Fitzsimmons was entitled to the decision and did not foul Sharkey . I got $ 1 @,@ 000 for my part in the affair . "
= = = Klondike Gold Rush = = =
On August 5 , 1897 , Earp and Josie once again joined in a mining boom and left Yuma , Arizona , for San Francisco , where they boarded the steamship Rosalie for Dawson in the Yukon to join in the Alaska Gold Rush . Earp had secured the backing of a syndicate of sporting men to open a gambling house there . He arrived in Dawson on September 12 , 1897 where he planned to open a Faro game . Earp and Josephine returned briefly to San Francisco on October 11 aboard the steamship City of Seattle with plans to return north as soon as possible . Upon returning north , Wyatt was offered a job as the marshal in Wrangell , Alaska , but he served for only 10 days .
The Earps may have spent the winter in Wrangell before setting out for Dawson in the spring on board the Governor Pingree but by the time they reached Rampart on the Yukon River , freeze @-@ up has set in . The Earps rented a cabin from Rex Beach for $ 100 a month and spent the winter of 1898 – 1899 there . He managed a small store during the spring of 1899 in St. Michael on the Norton Sound , a major gateway to the Alaskan interior via the Yukon River . By this time he decided the rush to stake a claim in the Klondike was over . Earp headed for Nome , Alaska , instead . In September , Earp and partner Charles E. Hoxie built the Dexter Saloon in Nome , the city 's first two story wooden building and its largest and most luxurious saloon . The second floor had twelve " clubrooms " upstairs decorated with fine mirrors , thick carpets , draperies , and sideboards . The building was used for a variety of purposes because it was so large : 70 by 30 feet ( 21 @.@ 3 m × 9 @.@ 1 m ) with 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) ceilings . Earp used the club rooms upstairs as a brothel , another fact that Josephine worked hard to see was omitted from stories about him .
On July 6 , 1900 , Wyatt 's brother Warren was shot and killed in a saloon in Willcox , Arizona . Wyatt learned about his death soon after , and although there are some modern rumors that he went to Arizona to avenge his brother 's death , no evidence has been found to support that theory .
While in Alaska , Wyatt rubbed elbows with future novelist Rex Beach , writer Jack London , playwright Wilson Mizner , and boxing promoter Tex Rickard , with whom Earp developed a long @-@ lasting relationship . Rickard was a partner in the Northern Saloon and gambling house in Nome . Both the Dexter and the Northern Saloon competed for business with more than 60 other saloons in town serving an estimated 20 @,@ 000 residents . Wyatt was arrested twice in Nome for minor offenses , including being drunk and disorderly , although he was not tried . Most members of law enforcement were corrupt or otherwise engaged .
= = = Saloon in Seattle = = =
In November 1899 , Earp apparently left Alaska and went to Seattle , Washington , with a plan to open a saloon and gambling room . On November 25 , 1899 the Seattle Star described him as " a man of great reputation among the toughs and criminals , inasmuch as he formerly walked the streets of a rough frontier mining town with big pistols stuck in his belt , spurs on his boots and a devil @-@ may @-@ care expression upon his official face " . The Seattle Daily Times was less full of praise , announcing in a very small article that he had a reputation in Arizona as a " bad man " .
He faced considerable opposition to his plan from John Considine , who controlled all three gaming operations in town . Although gambling was illegal , Considine had worked out an agreement with Police Chief C.S. Reed . But Earp partnered with an established local gambler name Thomas Urguhart and they opened the Union Club saloon and gambling operation in Seattle 's Pioneer Square . The Seattle Star noted two weeks later that Earp 's saloon was earning a large following . Considine unsuccessfully tried to intimidate Earp , but his saloon continued to prosper . On March 23 , 1900 , the state of Washington filed charges against several gamblers , including Earp and his partner . The club 's furnishings were confiscated and burned . The Earps returned briefly to San Francisco in April 1900 , but within a couple of months , Wyatt and Josephine returned to Oregon and caught the SS Alliance for Alaska .
= = = Silver boom in Tonopah = = =
Wyatt and Josie left Alaska and arrived in Los Angeles at the Hollenbeck Hotel on December 13 , 1901 . They had an estimated $ 80 @,@ 000 , a relative fortune ( equivalent to about $ 2 @,@ 280 @,@ 000 today ) . Three months later , in February 1902 , they arrived in Tonopah , Nevada , known as the " Queen of the Silver Camps " , where silver and gold had been discovered in 1900 and a boom was under way . Wyatt and Josie opened the Northern Saloon in Tonopah and he served as a Deputy U.S. Marshal under Marshal J.F. Emmitt . His saloon , oil , and copper mining interests produced some income for a period .
After Tonopah 's gold strike waned , they moved in 1905 to Goldfield , Nevada , where his brother Virgil and his wife were living . Tex Rickard was also already there and had opened a second Northern Saloon . He hired Wyatt as a pit boss . Wyatt also staked mining claims just outside Death Valley and elsewhere in the Mojave Desert . In 1906 he discovered several deposits of gold and copper near the Sonoran Desert town of Vidal , California on the Colorado River and filed more than 100 mining claims near the Whipple Mountains . While in Los Angeles they lived in at least nine small Los Angeles rentals as early as 1885 and as late as 1929 , mostly in the summer .
= = = Life in Los Angeles = = =
In 1910 , when he was 62 , the Los Angeles Police Department hired Wyatt and former Los Angeles detective Arthur Moore King at $ 10 @.@ 00 per day to carry out various tasks " outside the law " such as retrieving criminals from Mexico , which he did very capably . This led to Wyatt 's final armed confrontation . In October 1910 he was asked by former Los Angeles Police Commissioner H. L. Lewis to head up a posse to protect surveyors of the American Trona Company who were attempting to wrest control of mining claims for vast deposits of potash on the edge of Searles Lake held in receivership by the foreclosed California Trona Company . Wyatt and the group he guarded were regarded as claim jumpers and were confronted by armed representatives of the other company . King wrote , " it was the nerviest thing he had ever seen " . With guns pulled , Wyatt came out of his tent with a Winchester rifle , firing a round at the feet of Federal Receiver Stafford W. Austin . " Back off or I 'll blow you apart , or my name is not Wyatt Earp " . The owners summoned the U.S. Marshal who arrested Earp and 27 others , served them with a summons for contempt of court , and sent them home . Earp 's actions did not resolve the dispute , which eventually escalated into the " Pot Ash Wars " of the Mojave Desert .
On July 23 , 1911 , Earp was arrested in Los Angeles and charged with attempting to fleece J. Y. Peterson , a realty broker , in a fake faro game . Since money had not changed hands the charge against Earp was reduced to vagrancy and he was released on $ 500 bail .
= = = Happy Days mine = = =
The Earps bought a small cottage in Vidal , the only home they ever owned . Beginning in 1911 and until Wyatt 's health began in to fail in 1928 , Wyatt and Josie Earp summered in Los Angeles and spent the rest of the year in the desert working their claims . The " Happy Days " mine was located in the Whipple Mountains a few miles north of Vidal . The cottage was the only permanent residence they owned the entire time they were married . Wyatt had some modest success with the Happy Days gold mine and they lived on the slim proceeds of income from that and oil wells in Oakland and Kern County .
In about 1923 , Charles Welsh , a retired railroad engineer and friend that Earp had known since Dodge City , frequently invited the Earps to visit his family in San Bernardino . The Welsh family did not appreciate Josephine 's gambling habits . They noted that she received an allowance from her family ( likely her only living relative , half @-@ sister Rebecca and husband Aaron Wiener ) and gambled it away , often leaving Wyatt hungry .
When the Welsh family moved to Los Angeles , the Earps accepted an invitation to stay with them for a while in their top floor apartment until the Earps found a place to rent . After Earp and Josie moved into a bungalow nearby , Charlie Welsh 's daughter , Grace Spolidora , recalled that Josie , who had never had many domestic skills , did very little housekeeping or cooking for Wyatt . She and her sister Alma were concerned about the care Josie gave Wyatt . Even though he was very ill , she still did not cook for him . Spolidora , her sisters , and her mother brought in meals .
= = = Flood manuscript = = =
Earp began to collaborate with John Flood , a mining engineer and good friend , on a biography beginning in 1925 . The two men sat together every Sunday in the kitchen of Earp 's modest , rented bungalow . While Wyatt sipped a drink and smoked a cigar , they tried to tell Earp 's story . But Josephine was always present . She often interrupted and insisted " You can 't write that ! It needs to be clean . " She also demanded that they add more " pep " to the manuscript , which in her mind meant including the word " CRACK ! " in all caps . In the chapter about the shootout , the manuscript includes 109 uses of " CRACK " . She thought Earp needed to be shown as a hero , and the manuscript includes a chapter titled " Conflagration " in which Earp saves two women , one a cripple , from a Tombstone fire .
In 1990 , Spolidora was interviewed by a member of the San Bernardino historical society . She had been a teenager during the Earps ' many visits to the family home near Needles , California and sometimes went to San Diego with them . She attributed the highly exaggerated stories about Wyatt Earp to Josephine . Sadie " would always interfere whenever Wyatt would talk with Stuart Lake . She always interfered ! She wanted him to look like a church @-@ going saint and blow things up . Wyatt didn 't want that at all ! "
= = = Movie connections = = =
While living in Los Angeles , Earp became an unpaid film consultant for several silent cowboy movies . In 1916 , he went with his friend Jack London , who he knew from Nome , Alaska , to visit the set of former cowboy , sailor and movie actor @-@ turned @-@ film director Raoul Walsh who was shooting at the studio of Mutual Film conglomerate in Edendale , California . Walsh took the two men to dinner at Al Levy 's Cafe on Main and Third Street . During the meal , the highest paid entertainer in the world , Charlie Chaplin , dropped by to greet Wyatt Earp . Chaplin was impressed by both men , but particularly the former Tombstone marshal .
In 1915 , Earp visited the set of director Allan Dwan 's movie , The Half @-@ Breed , starring Douglas Fairbanks . In his autobiography , Dwan recalled , " As was the custom in those days , he [ Earp ] was invited to join the party and mingle with our background action . " Earp became friends with William Hart and later Tom Mix , the two most famous movie cowboys of their era . Hart was a stickler for realism in his depictions of Western life , and may have relied on Earp for advice . Earp later frequently visited the sets of movie director John Ford , whose movies starred Harry Carey .
In the early 1920s , Earp was given the honorary title of Deputy Sheriff in San Bernardino County , California . On January 25 , 1926 , Wyatt 's only surviving brother James died of cerebral apoplexy in San Bernardino , California .
= = = No regrets = = =
Two years before his death , Earp defended his decisions before the Gunfight at the O.K. Corral and his actions afterward in an interview with Stuart Lake , author of the 1931 largely fictionalized biography , Wyatt Earp : Frontier Marshal . He wrote Lake :
For my handling of the situation at Tombstone , I have no regrets . Were it to be done over again , I would do exactly as I did at that time . If the outlaws and their friends and allies imagined that they could intimidate or exterminate the Earps by a process of murder , and then hide behind alibis and the technicalities of the law , they simply missed their guess . I want to call your particular attention again to one fact , which writers of Tombstone incidents and history apparently have overlooked : with the deaths of the McLowerys , the Clantons , Stillwell , Florentino Cruz , Curly Bill , and the rest , organized , politically protected crime and depredations in Cochise County ceased .
He also said , " The good Lord owes me an explanation for the things that have happened in my life .
= = Death = =
Wyatt Earp was the last surviving Earp brother and the last surviving participant of the Gunfight at the O.K. Corral when he died at home in the Earps ' small rented bungalow at 4004 W 17th Street , in Los Angeles , of chronic cystitis on January 13 , 1929 at the age of 80 . Charlie Welsh 's daughter Grace Spolidora and his daughter @-@ in @-@ law , Alma , were the only witnesses to Wyatt 's cremation . Josephine was apparently too full of grief to assist . Wyatt was survived by Josephine and sister Adelia . He had no children .
= = = Hollywood pallbearers = = =
The funeral was held at the Congregational Church on Wilshire Boulevard . Earp 's pallbearers were William J. Hunsaker , ( Earp 's attorney in Tombstone and noted LA attorney ) ; Jim Mitchell ( Los Angeles Examiner reporter and Hollywood screenwriter ) ; George W. Parsons ( founding member of Tombstone 's " Committee of Vigilance " ) ; Wilson Mizner ( a friend of Wyatt 's during the Klondike Gold Rush ) ; John Clum ( a good friend from his days in Tombstone , former Tombstone mayor , and editor of The Tombstone Epitaph ) ; William S. Hart ( good friend and western actor and silent film star ) ; and Tom Mix ( friend and western film star ) . Mitchell wrote Wyatt 's local obituary . The newspapers reported that Tom Mix cried during his friend 's service . When Josephine did not attend Wyatt 's funeral , Grace Spolidora was furious . " She didn 't go to his funeral , even . She wasn 't that upset . She was peculiar . I don 't think she was that devastated when he died . "
= = = Privately buried = = =
Josie , who was of Jewish heritage , had Earp 's body cremated and secretly buried his remains in the Marcus family plot at the Hills of Eternity , a Jewish cemetery in Colma , California . When she died in 1944 , her remains were interred alongside his . In 1957 , the Tombstone Restoration Commission looked for Wyatt 's ashes with the goal of having them moved to Tombstone . They contacted family members seeking permission and the location of his ashes , but no one could tell them where Wyatt was buried , not even his closest living relative , George Earp . Arthur King , a deputy to Earp from 1910 to 1912 , finally revealed that Josephine had buried Wyatt 's cremated remains in Colma , California , and the Tombstone Commission cancelled its plans to relocate his ashes .
On July 8 , 1957 , thieves excavated the Earp 's grave in an apparent attempt to steal his cremated remains , but unable to find them , stole the simple , 600 pounds ( 270 kg ) grave marker . The stone was eventually returned but a new , more elaborate marker was erected later on . Their gravesite is the most visited resting place in the Jewish cemetery .
= = = Still controversial = = =
At the time of his death , he was still well known for his decision ending the Fitzimmons @-@ Sharkey fight along with the gunfight in Tombstone . His Associated Press obituary described him as a " gun @-@ fighter , whose blazing six @-@ shooters , were for most of his life allied with the side of law and order " . It also gave prominent attention to his officiating of the Fitzsimmons @-@ Sharkey fight .
= = Physical description = =
Like his brothers , Wyatt Earp was a physically imposing figure for his day : 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) tall , when most men were about 5 feet 6 inches ( 1 @.@ 68 m ) . He was described in 1887 by the Los Angeles Herald as " quiet , unassuming , broad @-@ shouldered , with a large blonde mustache . He is dignified , self @-@ contained , game and fearless , and no man commands greater respect ... " He weighed about 165 to 170 pounds ( 75 to 77 kg ) , was long @-@ armed , and muscular , and was very capable of using his fists instead of his weapon to control those resisting his authority .
At about the same time , The Mirror , a newspaper in Monroe , Iowa printed a wire story originating in Denver . The anonymous reporter described Wyatt in detail :
Wyatt Earp , a man whose trigger finger had considerable to do in making the border history of the West , was in Denver for several days last week . He is tall and athletic . His eyes are blue and fringed with light lashes and set beneath blonde eyebrows . His hair , which was once as yellow as gold , is beginning to be stranded with white . A heavy , tawny mustache shades his firm mouth and sweeps below his strong , square chin . He wore ... a neat gray tailor @-@ made suit , immaculate linen and fashionable neckwear . With a Derby hat and a pair of tan shoes , he was a figure to catch a lady 's eye ...
In 1926 , writer Adela Rogers St. Johns met the elderly Earp for the first time .
He was straight as a pine tree , tall and magnificently built . I knew he was nearly 80 , but in spite of his snow white hair and mustache , he did not seem or look old . His greetings were warm and friendly . I stood in awe . Somehow , like a mountain , or desert , he reduced you to size .
= = Contemporary reputation = =
Among his peers , Wyatt was respected . His deputy Jimmy Cairns described Wyatt 's work as a police officer in Wichita , Kansas . " Wyatt Earp was a wonderful officer . He was game to the last ditch and apparently afraid of nothing . The cowmen all respected him and seemed to recognize his superiority and authority at such times as he had to use it . " He described Wyatt as " the most dependable man I ever knew ; a quiet , unassuming chap who never drank and in all respects a clean young fellow " .
When citizens of Dodge City learned the Earps had been charged with murder after the gunfight , they sent letters endorsing and supporting the Earps to Judge Wells Spicer .
John Clum , owner of The Tombstone Epitaph and mayor of Tombstone while Wyatt was a gambler and lawman there , described him in his book It All Happened in Tombstone .
Wyatt 's manner , though friendly , suggested a quiet reserve ... Frequently it has happened that men who have served as peace officers on the frontier have craved notoriety in connection with their dealings with the outlaw element of their time . Wyatt Earp deprecated such notoriety , and during his last illness he told me that for many years he had hoped the public would weary of the narratives — distorted with fantastic and fictitious embellishments — that were published from time to time concerning him , and that his last years might be passed in undisturbed obscurity .
Bill Dixon knew Wyatt early in his adult life . He wrote :
Wyatt was a shy young man with few intimates . With casual acquaintances he seldom spoke unless spoken to . When he did say anything it was to the point , without fear or favor , which wasn 't relished by some ; but that never bothered Wyatt . To those who knew him well he was a genial companion . He had the most even disposition I ever saw ; I never knew him to lose his temper . He was more intelligent , better educated , and far better mannered than the majority of his associates , which probably did not help them to understand him . His reserve limited his friendships , but more than one stranger , down on his luck , has had firsthand evidence of Wyatt 's generosity . I think his outstanding quality was the nicety with which he gauged the time and effort for every move . That , plus his absolute confidence in himself , gave him the edge over the run of men .
Public perception of his life has varied over the years as media accounts of his life have changed . The story of the Earps ' actions in Tombstone were published at the time by newspapers nationwide . Shortly after the shooting of Curly Bill , the Tucson Star wrote on March 21 , 1882 , in an editorial about the O.K. Corral gunfight , that the Cowboys had been ordered to put their hands up and after they complied , were shot by the Earps , stating , " The whole series of killings cannot be classed other than cold blooded murder . "
Famous lawman Bat Masterson described Wyatt in 1907 .
Wyatt Earp was one of the few men I personally knew in the West in the early days whom I regarded as absolutely destitute of physical fear . I have often remarked , and I am not alone in my conclusions , that what goes for courage in a man is generally fear of what others will think of him – in other words , personal bravery is largely made up of self @-@ respect , egotism , and apprehension of the opinions of others . Wyatt Earp 's daring and apparent recklessness in time of danger is wholly characteristic ; personal fear doesn 't enter into the equation , and when everything is said and done , I believe he values his own opinion of himself more than that of others , and it is his own good report he seeks to preserve ... He never at any time in his career resorted to the pistol excepting cases where such a course was absolutely necessary . Wyatt could scrap with his fists , and had often taken all the fight out of bad men , as they were called , with no other weapons than those provided by nature .
= = = Experience in gun fights = = =
Wyatt was reputed to be an expert with a pistol . He showed no fear of any man . The Tombstone Epitaph said of Wyatt , " bravery and determination were requisites , and in every instance proved himself the right man in the right place " .
Wyatt was lucky during the few gun fights he took part in from his earliest job as an assistant police officer in Wichita to Tombstone , where he was briefly Deputy U.S. Marshal . Unlike his lawmen brothers Virgil and James , Wyatt was never wounded , although once his clothing and his saddle was shot through with bullet holes . According to John H. Flood 's biography ( as dictated to him by Wyatt Earp ) , Wyatt vividly recalled a presence that in several instances warned him away or urged him to take action . This happened when he was on the street , alone in his room at the Cosmopolitan Hotel , at Bob Hatch 's Pool Hall , where he went moments before Morgan was assassinated , and again when he approached Iron Springs and surprised Curly Bill Brocius , killing him .
= = Later reputation = =
After the shootout in Tombstone , his pursuit and murder of those who attacked his brothers , and after leaving Arizona , Wyatt was often the target of negative newspaper stories that disparaged his and his brothers ' reputation . His role in history has stimulated considerable ongoing scholarly and editorial debate . A large body of literature has been written about Wyatt Earp and his legacy , some of it highly fictionalized . Considerable portions of it are either full of admiration and flattery or hostile debunking .
Wyatt was repeatedly criticized in the media over the remainder of his life . His wife Josephine wrote , " The falsehoods that were printed in some of the newspapers about him and the unjust accusations against him hurt Wyatt more deeply than anything that ever happened to him during my life with him , with the exception of his mother 's death and that of his father and brother , Warren . "
= = = Negative publicity = = =
On April 16 , 1894 , the Fort Worth Gazette wrote that Virgil Earp and John Behan had a " deadly feud " . It described Behan as " an honest man , a good official , and possessed many of the attributes of a gentleman " . Earp , on the other hand , " was head of band of desperadoes , a partner in stage robbers , and a friend of gamblers and professional killers ... Wyatt was the boss killer of the region . "
Former nemesis Johnny Behan continued to spread rumors about the Earps for the next 20 years . On December 7 , 1897 , he was quoted in a story in the Washington Post , reprinted by the San Francisco Call , describing the Earp 's lawbreaking behavior in Tombstone . After referring to the Fitzimmons @-@ Sharkey fight , the article quoted Behan . " The Clanton brothers and the McLowrys were a tough lot of rustlers who were the main perpetrators of the rascailly rife in that region . Between them and Earps rose a bitter feud over the division of the proceeds of the looting . The Earp boys believed they had failed to get a fair divide of the booty and swore vengeance . They caught their former allies in Tombstone unarmed and shot three of them dead while their hands were uplifted . " Behan went on to say , " They were hauled up before a Justice of the Peace ... Warrants were issued for their arrest , and , summoning a posse , I went out to bring the Earps in . They were chased entirely out of the country and Tombstone knew them no more . " Up until he died in 1912 , Johnny Behan lambasted the Earps as the bad men who had attacked the cowboys .
After Earp left Alaska in 1901 , the New York Sun printed a story in 1903 that described a confrontation Earp had reportedly had with a short 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) Cockney Canadian Mountie , who embarrassed Earp by demanding that he leave his weapon in his room . The story was reprinted as far away as New Zealand by the Otago Witness . The Dawson Record commented on the story , mocking the newspaper as a " venerable dispenser of truth . "
On April 13 , 1921 , the Arizona Republican ran a lengthy interview with Thomas Raines , a former resident of Tombstone . Raines remembered the Earps as having shot the Cowboys and killing Ike Clanton before they had a chance to surrender . He recalled that the Cowboys " were leading their horses out of the gate when they were confronted , almost from ambush , by four of the Earps , Virgil . Wyatt , Morgan and Jim and by Doc Holliday . Virgil Earp , armed with a sawed off express shotgun , and accompanying his demand with profanity , yelled " Hands up ! " But he didn 't wait for the action demanded and shot almost as soon as he spoke . Tom McLowery [ sic ] showed his empty bands , and cried . ' Gentlemen , I am unarmed . ' Holliday answered with the discharge of his shotgun . Ike Clanton fell at the first fire , mortally wounded , but he rolled over and fired two shots from his pistol between his bent knees . "
During 1922 , Frederick R. Bechdolt published the book When the West Was Young , which included a story about Wyatt 's time in Tombstone , but he mangled many basic facts . He described the Earp @-@ Clanton differences as the falling @-@ out of partners in crime .
On March 12 , 1922 , the Sunday Los Angeles Times ran a short , scandalous article titled " Lurid Trails Are Left by Olden @-@ Day Bandits " by J.M. Scanland . It described Wyatt and his brothers as a gang , comparable to the Dalton Gang , who waylaid the cowboys in the shoot out at the O.K. Corral . It said that the Earps were allies of Frank Stilwell , who had informed on them , so they killed him , and that Earp had died in Colton , California . In an article titled , " Lurid Trails Are Left By Olden Day Bandits , " the author described the Earp 's relationship with Sheriff Behan and the Cowboys :
Trouble arose between them and Sheriff John Behan , who tried to ' clean up ' the town . Trouble began when four cowboys refused to recognize the right of the Earp gang to rule the town . The cowboys were Bill and Ike Clanton and Tom and Frank McLowry . The Earps ordered the cowboys out of town and they were preparing to leave when they were waylaid and a gun battle followed during which Virgil Earp was shot in the leg , Morgan Earp in the shoulder and Ike Clanton was killed . The town was aroused and Frank Stilwell , who led the stage robberies , brought the trouble to a climax when he informed against his partners , because the Earps would not divide fairly . In a gun battle that followed , Stilwell killed Morgan Earp . A few months later another stage was robbed , and the driver , ' Bud ' Philpot , was killed .
Josephine and Earps ' friend and actor William Hart both wrote letters to the publisher . Josephine demanded that the error " must be corrected and printed in the same sensational manner " given to the correction as to the original article , which the paper published .
In 1924 , a story in a San Francisco paper said interviewing him was " like pulling teeth " . Earp did not trust the press and he preferred to keep his mouth shut . But the story by Scanland galvanized Earp . He was tired of all the lies perpetuated about him and became determined to get his story accurately told . He began to collaborate on a biography with his friend John Flood in 1925 . It took Earp until 1927 to track down J.M. Scanland , the author of the LA Times article , and extract a written retraction from him . These and other reports bothered Earp a great deal , and he finally decided to do something about them .
= = = Walter Noble Burns = = =
Author Walter Noble Burns visited Earp in September 1926 and asked him questions with the intent to write a book about Earp . Earp declined because he was already collaborating with John Flood . Burns visited Tombstone and based on what he learned decided instead to focus his book on Doc Holliday . He pestered Earp for facts , and on March 27 the next year , Earp finally responded to Burn 's repeated requests in an 11 @-@ page letter outlining the basic facts from Earp 's point of view .
When their efforts to get the Flood manuscript published failed , the Earps decided to appeal to Burns , whose own book was near publication . But he was not interested . His book was about to be published , free of the constraints imposed by a collaboration with Earp . Burns wrote them , " I should not now care to undertake another book which , in part at least , would be upon much the same lines ... I should have been delighted six months ago to accept your offer but it is too late now . My book has championed Mr. Earp 's cause throughout and I believe will vindicate his reputation in Tombstone in a way that he will like . " When Burns turned them down , Josephine actively worked to stop the publication of his book , fearful that their efforts to publish Wyatt 's biography would be thwarted as a result .
In late 1927 , Burns published Tombstone , An Iliad of the Southwest , a mesmerizing tale " of blood and thunder " , that christened Earp as the " Lion of Tombstone " . " Strong , bold , forceful , picturesque was the fighter of the old frontier . Something epic in him , fashioned in Homeric mold . In his way , a hero . " It included a good deal about Wyatt as well , much to the Wyatt and Josie 's displeasure . Readers and reviewers found they had a difficult time discerning between " fact and fiction " . The book was the first to popularize its subject for a mass reading audience . Burns treated Earp as a mythical figure , a " larger @-@ than @-@ life hero whose many portrayals in film , television , and books often render fidelity to truth the first casualty . "
= = = Billy Breakenridge = = =
While living in Vidal , Wyatt and Josie were visited by Billy Breakenridge , the former Tombstone deputy under John Behan . He pressed Wyatt for details about his time in Tombstone to add to his book Helldorado : Bringing Law to the Mesquite . Breakenridge was assisted by Western novelist William MacLeod Raine , who since 1904 had published more than 25 novels about Western history . The book was published in 1928 before Wyatt died . It depicted Wyatt as a thief , pimp , crooked gambler , and murderer . Breakenridge wrote that the Earps and Doc Holliday aggressively mistreated the guiltless cowboys until they were forced into a fatal confrontation . His description of the 1881 O.K. Corral gun fight stated that the Clanton and McLaury brothers were merely cowboys who had been unarmed and surrendered but the Earp brothers had shot them in cold blood . Wyatt and Josie protested that the book 's contents was biased and more fiction than fact . Earp complained about the book until his death in 1929 , and his wife continued in the same vein afterward .
= = = Edwin Burkholder = = =
Edwin V. Burkholder , who specialized in stories about the Old West , published an article about Wyatt in 1955 in Argosy Magazine . He called Wyatt Earp a coward and murderer , and manufactured evidence to support his allegations . He also wrote , using the pseudonyms " George Carleton Mays " and " J. S. Qualey " , for the Western magazine Real West . His stores were filled with sensational claims about Wyatt Earp 's villainy , and he made up fake letters to the editor from supposed " old @-@ timers " to corroborate this story .
= = = Frank Waters = = =
Frank Waters interviewed Virgil Earp 's widow , Allie Sullivan Earp , to write The Earp Brothers of Tombstone . The book was so contentious and disputed that he waited until 13 years after her death to publish the book . In it he condemned the Earp brothers ' character and called them names . The book " further embroidered upon Frank Waters 's imaginings about Wyatt 's adulterous affair " with Josephine . It was described by one reviewer as " a smear campaign levied against the Earp brothers " .
Waters used Allie Earp 's anecdotes as a frame for adding a narrative and " building a case , essentially piling quote upon quote to prove that Wyatt Earp was a con man , thief , robber , and eventually murderer " . Waters vociferously berated Wyatt :
Wyatt was an itinerant saloonkeeper , cardsharp , gunman , bigamist , church deacon , policeman , bunco artist , and a supreme confidence man . A lifelong exhibitionist ridiculed alike by members of his own family , neighbors , contemporaries , and the public press , he lived his last years in poverty , still vainly trying to find someone to publicize his life , and died two years before his fictitious biography recast him in the role of America 's most famous frontier marshal .
Allie Earp was so upset by the way Waters distorted and manipulated her words that she threatened to shoot him .
S.J. Reidhead , author of Travesty : Frank Waters Earp Agenda Exposed , spent nearly a decade searching for Water 's original manuscript , researching him , his background , and his bias against the Earps . In doing so , the author discovered that the story Waters presented against the Earps was primarily fictitious . " Nothing is documented , " she wrote . " There are no notes nor sourcing . There is only the original Tombstone Travesty manuscript and the final Earp Brothers of Tombstone . Because of his later reputation , few writers , even today , dare question Waters ' motives . They also do not bother fact checking the Earp Brothers of Tombstone , which is so inaccurate it should be considered fiction , rather than fact . "
Anti @-@ Earp writers and researchers use Frank Waters ' Earp Brothers of Tombstone , as their primary source for material that presents Wyatt Earp as something of a villainous monster , aided and abetted by his brothers who were almost brutes . Waters detested the Earps so badly that he presented a book that was terribly flawed , poorly edited , and brimming with prevarications . In his other work , Waters is poetic . In the Earp Brothers of Tombstone , he is little more than a tabloid hack , trying to slander someone he dislikes . To date , no reason has been uncovered for the bias Frank Waters exhibited against Wyatt Earp and his brothers .
= = = Ed Bartholomew = = =
In 1963 , Ed Bartholomew published Wyatt Earp , The Untold Story followed by Wyatt Earp : Man and Myth in 1964 . His books were strongly anti @-@ Earp and attacked Wyatt Earp 's image as a hero . Bartholomew went about this by reciting snippets of accumulated anti @-@ Earp facts , rumors , gossip , and innuendo . Bartholomew 's books started a trend of debunking Earp , and the academic community followed his lead , pursuing the image of Earp as a " fighting pimp " .
= = = Allen Barra = = =
In reviewing Allen Barra 's Inventing Wyatt Earp . His Life and Many Legends , William Urban , a Professor of History at Monmouth College in Warren County , Illinois , pointed out a number of factual inaccuracies in the book . One inconsistency by Barra pointed out by another reviewer includes a description of the poker game the night before the shootout . Ike Clanton 's account of the game ( the only one that exists ) gives the participants as John Behan , Virgil Earp , Ike Clanton , Tom McLaury , and a fifth man Ike did not recognize , while Barra wrote the Holliday had attended the game .
= = Fame = =
Earp was dismayed about the controversy that continually followed him . He wrote a letter to John Hays Hammond on May 21 , 1925 , telling him " notoriety had been the bane of my life . I detest it , and I never have put forth any effort to check the tales that have been published in which my brothers and I are supposed to have been the principal participants . Not one of them is correct . "
Finally attempting to counter negative accounts in newspapers and books , Earp tried to persuade his good friend , well @-@ known cowboy movie star William S. Hart , to make a movie about his life . " If the story were exploited on the screen by you , " he wrote Hart , " It would do much toward setting me right before a public which has always been fed lies about me . " Hart encouraged Earp to first find an author to pen his story .
= = = Flood manuscript = = =
After Earp failed to get his story told in a way that he approved , he began working in 1925 with former mining engineer John H. Flood , Jr. to get his life story committed to paper . Flood volunteered his time and attempted to write an authorized biography of Earp 's life , based on Earp 's recollections . But Flood 's writing was " stilted , corny and one @-@ dimensional , " and the manuscript , completed some time in early 1926 , never found a publisher . In February 1927 , editor Anne Johnston of Bobbs Merrill wrote back and was highly critical of the " stilted , florid and diffuse " writing . She wrote , " Now one forgets what it 's all about in the clutter of unimportant details that impedes its pace , and the pompous manner of its telling . "
Hart tried to help . In February 1926 he wrote The Saturday Evening Post and encouraged them to publish Flood 's biography so " that ... the rising generation may know the real from the unreal " , but Flood was a horrendous writer , and publisher after publisher rejected the manuscript .
A number of copies were made and sold in 1981 , and the original carbon copy of the typed manuscript , found among Josephine Earp 's papers , was given by Glenn Boyer to the Ford County Historical Society .
= = = Lake 's biography = = =
Unlike most legendary lawmen of the American West , Earp was relatively unknown until Stuart Lake published the first biography of Wyatt Earp , Wyatt Earp : Frontier Marshal in 1931 , two years after Earp died . Lake portrayed Earp as a " Western superhero " who single @-@ handedly cleaned up a town full of cowboy criminals . In fact Earp had been a stagecoach guard for Wells Fargo , a full @-@ time gambler , a regular associate of prostitutes , and , occasionally , a lawman .
Lake wrote the book with Earp 's input , but was only able to interview him eight times before Earp died , during which Earp sketched out the " barest facts " of his life . Despite having received very little information from Earp , Lake wrote the biography in the first person .
Lake initially sought Earp out hoping to write a magazine article about him . Earp was also seeking a biographer at about the same time . Earp , who was 80 , was concerned that his vantage point on the Tombstone story may be lost , and may have been financially motivated as he had little income in his last years of life .
During the interviews and in later correspondence , Josephine and Wyatt went to great lengths to keep her name out of Lake 's book . Lake wrote Earp that he planned to send portions of the book to his New York agent , but Earp objected because he wanted to read it first . After Earp 's death on January 13 , 1929 , Josephine continued to try to persuade Lake to leave her and Earp 's former wife , Mattie Blaylock , out of the book , even threatening legal action . Lake finally published Wyatt Earp : Frontier Marshal in 1931 , two years after Earp 's death .
Lake 's creative biography portrays Earp as a " Western superhero " , " gallant white knight " and entirely avoided mentioning Josephine Earp . A number of Hollywood movies have been directly and indirectly influence by Earp 's role as a western lawman . The book drew considerable positive attention and established Lake as a western screenwriter for years to come . It also established the Gunfight at the O.K. Corral in the public consciousness and Earp as a fearless lawman in the American Old West .
The book " is now regarded more as fiction than fact " , " an imaginative hoax , a fabrication mixed with just enough fact to give it credibility " .
= = = Reputation as a teetotaler = = =
Earp 's image is that of a teetotaler , but as a saloon owner and gambler , he drank occasionally as well . When Flood and Lake wrote their biographies , Prohibition was in force . Among the other facts Josephine wanted scrubbed from Earp 's history , she persuaded biographers Flood , Lake and Burns to write that Earp was a non @-@ drinker . A good friend of Earp 's , Charlie Welsh , was known to disappear for days at a time " to see property " , the family euphemism for a drinking binge , and Earp was his regular partner . Director John Ford said that whenever Josephine left town for religious conventions , Earp would come into town , play poker , and get drunk with the cowboy actors .
= = = " Buntline Special " = = =
In his book , Lake wrote about the Colt Buntline Special , a variant of long @-@ barreled Colt Single Action Army revolver . According to Lake 's biography , dime novelist Ned Buntline had five Buntline Specials commissioned . Lake described them as extra @-@ long , 12 inches ( 300 mm ) -long barrel Colt Single Action Army revolvers . Buntline was supposed to have presented them to lawmen in thanks for their help with contributing " local color " to his western yarns . According to Lake , the pistol was equipped with a detachable metal shoulder stock . Lake wrote that Earp and four other well @-@ known western lawmen — Bat Masterson , Bill Tilghman , Charlie Bassett and Neal Brown — each received a Buntline Special . However , neither Tilghman nor Brown were lawmen then .
Researchers have never found any record of an order received by the Colt company , and Ned Buntline 's alleged connections to Earp 's have been largely discredited .
After the publication of Lake 's book , various Colt revolvers with long ( 10 " or 16 " ) barrels were referred to as " Colt Buntlines " . Colt re @-@ introduced the revolvers in its second generation revolvers produced after 1956 . The Buntline Special was further popularized by The Life and Legend of Wyatt Earp television series .
= = = Dubious claims by Earp = = =
Earp 's reputation has been confused by inaccurate , conflicting , and false stories told about him by others , and by his own claims that cannot be corroborated . For example , in an interview with a reporter in Denver in 1896 , he denied that he had killed Johnny Ringo . He then flipped his story , claiming he had killed Ringo . In 1888 , he was interviewed by an agent of California historian Hubert H. Bancroft , and Earp claimed that he had killed " over a dozen stage robbers , murderers , and cattle thieves " . In about 1918 he told Forrestine Hooker , who wrote an unpublished manuscript , and then Frank Lockwood , who wrote Pioneer Days in Arizona in 1932 , that he was the one who killed Johnny Ringo as he left Arizona in 1882 . However , Earp included details that do not match what is known about Ringo 's death . Earp repeated that claim to at least three other people .
At the hearing following the Tombstone shootout , Earp said he had been marshal in Dodge City , a claim he repeated in an August 16 , 1896 , interview that appeared in the San Francisco Examiner . But Earp had only been an assistant city marshal there .
During an interview with his future biographer Stuart Lake during the late 1920s , Earp said that he arrested notorious gunslinger Ben Thompson in Ellsworth , Kansas , on August 15 , 1873 , when news accounts and Thompson 's own contemporary account about the episode do not mention his presence . He also told Lake that he had hunted buffalo during 1871 and 1872 , but Earp was arrested three times in the Peoria area during that period for " Keeping and being found in a house of ill @-@ fame . " He was arrested and jailed on a horse theft charge on April 6 , 1871 . However he was not convicted of the last charge and was released .
In the same interview , Earp claimed that George Hoyt had intended to kill him , although newspaper accounts from that time report differently . He also said he and Bat Masterson had confronted Clay Allison when he was sent to Dodge City to finish George Hoyt 's job , and that they had forced him to back down . Two other accounts contradicted Earp , crediting cattleman Dick McNulty and Long Branch Saloon owner Chalk Beeson with convincing Allison and his cowboys to surrender their guns . Cowboy Charlie Siringo witnessed the incident and left a written account .
= = Modern image = =
Wyatt outlived his brothers , and due to the fame Wyatt gained from Lake 's biography and later adaptations of it , he is often mistakenly viewed as the central character and hero of the Gunfight at the O.K. Corral . In fact , Virgil Earp , as Deputy U.S. Marshal and Tombstone City Marshal , actually held the legal authority in Tombstone the day of the shootout . Virgil had considerably more experience with weapons and combat as a Union soldier in the Civil War , and in law enforcement as a sheriff , constable , and marshal than did Wyatt . As city marshal , Virgil made the decision to enforce a city ordinance prohibiting carrying weapons in town and to disarm the Cowboys . Wyatt was only a temporary assistant marshal to his brother .
= = = Cultural image as Western lawman = = =
Earp 's modern @-@ day reputation is that of the Old West 's " toughest and deadliest gunman of his day " . He is " a cultural icon , a man of law and order , a mythic figure of a West where social control and order were notably absent " . Due to Lake 's fanciful biography and because Wyatt outlived all of his brothers , his name became famous and he is the source of many movies , TV shows , biographies and works of fiction .
Western historian and author John Boessenecker describes Earp as an " enigmatic figure ... He always lived on the outer fringe of respectable society , and his closest companions were gamblers and sporting men ... Wyatt never set down roots in any one place ; when the money stopped coming in or his problems became too great , he would pull up stakes and move on to the next boomtown ... For his entire life was a gamble , an effort to make money without working hard for it , to succeed quickly without ever settling in for the long haul .
= = = Josephine Earp memoir = = =
One of the most well known and for many years respected books about Wyatt Earp was the book I Married Wyatt Earp , originally credited as a factual memoir by Josephine Marcus Earp . Published in 1976 , it was edited by amateur historian Glenn Boyer , and published by the respected University of Arizona Press . It was immensely popular for many years , capturing the imagination of people with an interest in western history , studied in classrooms , cited by scholars , and relied upon as factual by filmmakers .
In 1998 , writer Tony Ortega wrote a lengthy investigative article for the Phoenix New Times for which he interviewed Boyer . Boyer said that he was uninterested in what others think of the accuracy of what he has written . " This is an artistic effort . I don 't have to adhere to the kind of jacket that these people are putting on me . I am not a historian . I 'm a storyteller . " Boyer admitted that the book is " 100 percent Boyer " . He said the book was not really a first @-@ person account , that he had interpreted Wyatt Earp in Josephine 's voice , and admitted that he could not produce any documents to vindicate his methods .
Boyer and the University Press ' credibility was severely damaged . In 2000 the University referred all questions to university lawyers who investigated some of the allegations about Boyer 's work . Later that year the Press removed the book from their catalog . The book has been discredited as a fraud and a hoax that cannot be relied on .
As a result , other works by Boyer were subsequently questioned . His book , Wyatt Earp 's Tombstone Vendetta , published in 1993 , was according to Boyer based on an account written by a previously unknown Tombstone journalist that he named " Theodore Ten Eyck " , but whose identity could not be independently verified . Boyer claimed that the manuscript was " clearly authentic " and that it contained " fascinating revelations ( if they are true ) and would make an ace movie " . Boyer later said the character was in fact a blend of " scores of accounts " , but could not provide any sources .
History Professor William Urban also described " the questionable scholarship of Glenn Boyer , the dominant figure in Earpiana for the past several decades , who has apparently invented a manuscript and then cited it as a major source in his publications . This does not surprise this reviewer , who has personal experience with Boyer 's pretentious exaggeration of his acquaintance with Warren County records . "
= = In popular culture = =
When a post office was established in 1930 in the unincorporated settlement of Drennan , near the site of some of his mining claims , it was renamed Earp , California in his honor .
= = = Ship Wyatt Earp = = =
Arctic explorer Lincoln Ellsworth became fascinated with the Earp legend . Ellsworth completed four expeditions to Antarctica between 1933 and 1939 , using a former Norwegian herring boat as his aircraft transporter and base that he named Wyatt Earp after his hero .
Ellsworth befriended Earp 's widow , Josephine Earp . After Wyatt 's death , she wrote him that she was sending him Wyatt 's handgun , a shotgun , pipe , and wedding ring . She said she was sending him a .41 @-@ caliber | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
existing Adams Avenue to I @-@ 84 . This allowed commuters to bypass the rest of US @-@ 89 through Washington Terrace to I @-@ 84 .
= = Route description = =
The main access to the south end of the parkway is from I @-@ 84 at exit 85 , a pre @-@ existing diamond interchange with a local road in South Weber named 475 East . The four @-@ lane , 35 mph ( 56 km / h ) toll road , which has no shoulders or sidewalks , begins at Cottonwood Drive , I @-@ 84 's north side frontage road . It immediately crosses a bridge over the Weber River ( the Davis @-@ Weber County line and north limit of South Weber ) and the Union Pacific Railroad 's Evanston Subdivision ( the south limit of Washington Terrace ) . The parkway then curves northwest and climbs out of the Weber River 's floodplain with a maximum grade of nine percent , reaching the toll plaza most of the way up the hill .
After one intersection with 5900 South , which presently serves only the toll road company 's headquarters and a single commercial building , private maintenance gives way to a four @-@ lane city street with sidewalks just shy of 5800 South . The roadway continues northeasterly to the top of the hill near 5600 South , where pre @-@ existing Adams Avenue ( 500 East ) heads north , passing the Ogden Regional Medical Center to an intersection with Washington Boulevard ( US @-@ 89 ) on the Washington Terrace @-@ South Ogden border . Adams Avenue continues through South Ogden and into Ogden as a minor street one block east of US @-@ 89 , with a gap near 4600 South and more north of downtown Ogden . In 2006 approximately 1 @,@ 400 cars traveled the parkway on an average weekday .
= = Tolls = =
Tolls are collected in cash or via an ExpressCard account , a prepaid system that offers a discount for a $ 10 deposit to the account . The current toll is $ 1 in each direction for two @-@ axle vehicles and $ 0 @.@ 50 for each additional axle . Previously emergency vehicles ( ambulances ) were not charged a toll , however beginning July 3 , 2003 , they must pay the standard $ 1 toll . To allow quick passage through the toll barrier , these vehicles pay through a charge account . The Utah Department of Transportation worked out an agreement during local road construction for four days in 2003 to allow commuters to use the parkway free of charge .
= = History = =
The parkway was opened in 2001 after just under a year of construction and almost two decades of community requests . Local residents led by Doug and Bruce Stephens urged the state to connect I @-@ 84 directly to Adams Avenue , bypassing the congested US @-@ 89 . Then @-@ governor Mike Leavitt suggested that a private company rather than the state would need to build the road .
The roadway cost $ 8 @.@ 9 million ( equivalent to $ 13 @.@ 3 million in 2015 ) to build , of which the state provided $ 2 million ( equivalent to $ 3 million in 2015 ) . Additional funds came from taxes levied on property owners along the parkway . The entire stretch of road between Washington Boulevard and I @-@ 84 was built by the Adams Avenue Turnpike LLC ; however , they returned most of the road to local authorities . The only portion not kept was a one @-@ half @-@ mile @-@ long ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) segment between about 5800 South and I @-@ 84 .
The roadway is defined under Weber County Ordinance , Title 31 , which grants a franchise to Adams Avenue Turnpike LLC for an initial term of 50 years ( expiring in 2051 ) .
= = Major intersections = =
= Marcellus Formation =
Marcellus Formation ( also classified as the Marcellus Subgroup of the Hamilton Group , Marcellus Member of the Romney Formation , or simply the Marcellus Shale ) is a Middle Devonian age unit of marine sedimentary rock found in eastern North America . Named for a distinctive outcrop near the village of Marcellus , New York , in the United States , it extends throughout much of the Appalachian Basin . The shale contains largely untapped natural gas reserves , and its proximity to the high @-@ demand markets along the East Coast of the United States makes it an attractive target for energy development and export .
Stratigraphically , the Marcellus is the lowest unit of the Devonian age Hamilton Group , and is divided into several sub @-@ units . Although black shale is the dominant lithology , it also contains lighter shales and interbedded limestone layers due to sea level variation during its deposition almost 400 million years ago . The black shale was deposited in relatively deep water devoid of oxygen , and is only sparsely fossiliferous . Most fossils are contained in the limestone members , and the fossil record in these layers provides important paleontological insights on faunal turnovers . The black shales also contain iron ore that was used in the early economic development of the region , and uranium and pyrite which are environmental hazards . The fissile shales are also easily eroded , presenting additional civil and environmental engineering challenges .
= = Geology = =
= = = Description = = =
The Marcellus Formation is a black shale that may contain limestone beds and concentrations of iron pyrite ( FeS2 ) and siderite ( FeCO3 ) . Its sedimentary structure , or bedding , is moderately well developed . Like most shales , it tends to split easily along the bedding plane , a property known as fissility . Lighter colored shales in the upper portion of the formation tend to split into small thin @-@ edged fragments after exposure . These fragments may have rust stains from exposure of pyrite to air , and tiny gypsum ( CaSO4 · 2H2O ) crystals from the reaction between pyrite and limestone particles . Fresh exposures of the pyriteiferous shale may develop the secondary mineralization of orange limonite ( FeO ( OH ) · nH2O ) , and the pale yellow efflorescence or bloom of sulfur , associated with acid rock drainage .
Pyrite is especially abundant near the base , and the upper contacts of limestones , but framboidal microcrystals and euhedral crystals of pyrite occur throughout the organic @-@ rich deposits . The Marcellus also contains uranium , and the radioactive decay of the uranium @-@ 238 ( 238U ) makes it a source rock for radioactive radon gas ( 222Rn ) .
Measured total organic content of the Marcellus Formation ranges from less than 1 % in eastern New York , to over 11 % in the central part of the state , and the shale may contain enough carbon to support combustion . The more organic @-@ rich black shales can be bituminous , but are too old to contain bituminous coal formed from land plants . In petroleum geology , these black shales are an important source rock that filled conventional petroleum reservoirs in overlying formations , are an unconventional shale gas reservoir , and are an impermeable seal that traps underlying conventional natural gas reservoirs . To the west the formation may produce liquid petroleum ; further northt heating during deeper burial more than 240 million years ago cracked this oil into gas .
= = = Extent = = =
The Marcellus is found throughout the Allegheny Plateau region of the northern Appalachian Basin of North America . In the United States , the Marcellus shale runs across the Southern Tier and Finger Lakes regions of New York , in northern and western Pennsylvania , eastern Ohio , through western Maryland , and throughout most of West Virginia extending across the state line into extreme western Virginia . The Marcellus bedrock in eastern Pennsylvania extends across the Delaware River into extreme western New Jersey . It also exists in the subsurface of a small portion of Kentucky and Tennessee . Below Lake Erie , it can be found crossing the border into Canada , where it stretches between Port Stanley and Long Point to St. Thomas in southern Ontario .
= = = = Outcrops = = = =
The Marcellus appears in outcrops along the northern margin of the formation in central New York . There , the two joint planes in the Marcellus are nearly at right angles , each making cracks in the formation that run perpendicular to the bedding plane , which lies almost level . These joints form smooth nearly vertical cliffs , and the intersecting joint planes form projecting corners in the rock faces . Once exposed , the weathered faces lose most of their organic carbon , turning from black or dark gray to a lighter shade of gray .
Outcrops of the Marcellus can contain very small beds that resemble coal . The New York outcrops , and others further south in Pennsylvania and New Jersey , were extensively excavated in the early 19th century , sometimes at great expense , in the false hope of finding minable coal seams . In Perry County , Pennsylvania along the Juniata River the false coal beds become up to .3 m ( 1 ft ) thick , but they did not produce a valuable fuel , despite the considerable effort expended to mine it from the surrounding hills . Seaweed and marine plants probably formed the false coal . True coal is formed from terrestrial plants , which only began to appear in Marcellus and later fossils .
Close proximity to the surface of Marcellus bedrock south of the New York outcrops makes an east @-@ west band running through the city of Syracuse a high @-@ risk area for radon as an indoor air pollutant . From the surface exposures along the northern and eastern margins , the formation descends to depths of over 2 @,@ 700 m ( 8 @,@ 900 ft ) below the surface in southern Pennsylvania .
= = = Structural geology = = =
Upturned beds are exposed in sections of the folded Ridge @-@ and @-@ Valley Appalachians , including exposures on the flanks and axis of the Broad Top Synclinorium in south central Pennsylvania . Exposed beds are nearly horizontal on the Allegheny Plateau , but upturned to form slightly overturned beds found along the Allegheny Front . From Wind Gap , Pennsylvania heading south , the dip of the beds steepens , becoming vertical at Bowmanstown on the Lehigh River . Nearby , in the Lehigh Gap area of Pennsylvania , the Marcellus is extensively faulted , and the beds are steeply overturned , with a reverse dip angle of up to 40 ° south .
The Marcellus Shale and the fine @-@ grained shales near the middle of the Mahantango Formation are classified by geologists as slope @-@ formers . Marcellus and Mahantango shale beds dipping at 60 ° to 75 ° to the west form the west facing slopes of Tonoloway Ridge on the west flank of the Cacapon Mountain anticline in the Eastern Panhandle of West Virginia . On the eastern limb of this anticline , beds of these shales dipping to the east at a shallower angle also form the steep slopes on the east side of Warm Springs Ridge .
= = = Surficial geology = = =
The Marcellus is easily eroded , and is also found underlying low areas between some Appalachian ridges , forming linear valleys of moderate relief . These bedrock surfaces are typically covered with colluvium from erosion of stratigraphically higher and more erosion @-@ resistant strata that form the surrounding higher ground . The soils formed from the Marcellus and the overlying Hamilton shales are deep , free of stones , and well suited for agriculture . Sampling of soil formed on the Marcellus bedrock showed the dominant mineralogy consisted of quartz , illite , montmorillonite , muscovite , and biotite , with phases of todorokite and trona appearing at depths closer to the bedrock .
Upturned beds of the soft shale also capture streams and rivers with relatively straight segments in strike valleys such as the Aquashicola Creek and McMichael Creek at the foot of The Poconos , and the long , straight section of the Lost River in West Virginia . Below Port Jervis , New York , the Walpack Ridge deflects the Delaware River into the Minisink Valley , where it follows the southwest strike of the eroded Marcellus beds along the Pennsylvania – New Jersey state line for 40 km ( 25 mi ) to the end of the ridge at Walpack Bend in the Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area . The Minisink is a buried valley where the Delaware flows in a bed of glacial till that buried the eroded Marcellus bedrock during the last glacial period . This buried valley continues along the strike of the Marcellus southwest from the bend through Stroudsburg , Pennsylvania , and northeast from Port Jervis toward the Hudson River , along the route of the Delaware and Hudson Canal .
= = = Deposition = = =
Early in the Acadian orogeny , as the Acadian Mountains were rising up , the black and gray shales of the Hamilton Group began accumulating as erosion of the mountains deposited terrigenous sediments from the land into the sea . The Marcellus Shale was formed from the very first deposits in a relatively deep , sediment- and oxygen @-@ starved ( anoxic ) , trough that formed parallel to the mountain chain . These clastic fragments of rock were carried in braided streams to the ancient Catskill Delta , a river delta probably similar to the present day Niger Delta of Africa .
Smaller particles remained suspended longer in this epeiric sea , flowing offshore as turbidites in a slow but persistent underwater avalanche . They finally came to rest at the bottom of the Acadian foredeep in the Appalachian Basin , hundreds of meters from shore , at depths that may have been 150 m ( 490 ft ) or more beneath the surface . Alternatively , the basin may have been as shallow as 50 metres ( 160 ft ) or less , if the warm water was sufficiently stratified so that oxygen rich surface water did not mix with the anoxic bottom water . The Marcellus deposition produced a transgressive black shale , because it was deposited in deepening conditions when the basin floor dropped as the mountains rose up .
The dark shale facies of the Marcellus were formed from flysch , a fine mud deposited in the deep water ; it buried the underlying Onondaga limestone beds , as the deepening sea cut off the supply of carbonates that form limestone . Organic matter , probably dominated by plankton , also settled to the bottom , but the normal aerobic decay process was inhibited in the anaerobic environment thereby preserving the organic carbon . Uranium was also incorporated in these organic muds syndepositionally , meaning it was deposited at the same time , rather than being introduced to the formation later . The organic matter scavenged trace elements from the seawater , including the redox @-@ sensitive elements uranium , rhenium , molybdenum , osmium , chromium , and selenium .
The Marcellus was deposited during a period of development of land plants , when atmospheric oxygen was increasing , resulting in a reduction of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere , and the seawater where it was deposited . Named members of the Marcellus reflect two composite depositional sequences , with a general coarsening upward cycle that continues into the base of the overlying Mahantango Formation . The interbedding of lighter shale and limestone members is attributed to relatively short @-@ term oscillations in basin depth . Later deep water depositional sequences formed the overlying Brallier Formation and Harrell Formation .
= = = = Age = = = =
On the geological timescale , the Marcellus occurs in the Middle Devonian epoch , of the Devonian period , in the Paleozoic era , of the Phanerozoic eon . Radiometric dating of a Marcellus sample from Pennsylvania placed its age at 384 million years old , and a sample from the bentonite at the top of the Onondaga at 390 ± 0 @.@ 5 million years old .
Relative age dating of the Marcellus places its formation in the Cazenovia subdivision of the Givetian faunal stage , or 391 @.@ 9 to 383 @.@ 7 million years ago ( Ma ) . The Union Springs member , at the base of the Marcellus in New York , has been dated to the end of the Eifelian , the stage which immediately preceded the Givetian . Anoxic dark shales in the formation mark the Kačák Event , a late @-@ Eifelian @-@ stage marine anoxic event also associated with an extinction event .
= = = Stratigraphy = = =
In the first Pennsylvania Geological Survey , begun in 1836 , Henry Darwin Rogers classified the Marcellus as the " Cadent Lower Black Slate " which he numbered " No . VIII b . " In the first New York State Geological Survey , also begun that year , James Hall established the term " Marcellus Shale " in his 1839 report titled " Marcellus Shales in Seneca County . " Professor Hall also argued in 1839 against formulating geological names based on observed characteristics that may vary from place to place or need revision in the future , and in favor of location @-@ based nomenclature where " the rock or group will receive its name from the place where it is best developed . " His arguments proved persuasive , and the location @-@ based name for this , and many of the other group names he published based on exposures in New York , were adopted in the second Pennsylvania survey , and are now widely accepted .
= = = = Overlying = = = =
In the first New York survey , the Marcellus shale was placed below the Hamilton Group at the base of the Erie division of the New York system , but this taxonomy is obsolete .
In current practice , the Marcellus Formation ( abbr . Dm or Dms ) is classified as the basal unit of the Hamilton Group ( Dh ) , lying beneath the Mahantango Formation ( Dmh ) member of this group in Pennsylvania and Maryland . In New York , the Mahantango , also of Middle Devonian age , is further divided . There the Marcellus is separated from the overlying Skaneateles Formation , a more clastic and fossiliferous dark shale , by the thin Stafford or Mottville Limestone bed .
In West Virginia , the Marcellus may be separated from the brown shales of the Mahantango by occasional sandstone beds and concretions , or it may lie directly below the younger Late Devonian Harrel Formation ( or its lateral equivalents ) because of a disconformity , which represents a gap in the geological record due to a period of erosion or non @-@ deposition . In eastern Ohio the Hamilton Group also lies disconformably beneath the Rhinestreet Shale Member of the West Falls Formation , another transgressive black shale tongue with similar characteristics to the Marcellus .
= = = = Underlying = = = =
The Marcellus shale is typically found deposited on the limestone of the Onondaga Formation ( Don ) , which extends down to the end of the Early Devonian period . The contact between them may be sharp , gradational , or erosional . In southwestern Ontario , Canada , north of Lake Erie , the Marcellus overlies the Dundee Formation , a lateral equivalent of the Onondaga . In Pennsylvania , the Marcellus forms a sharp conformable contact with the Onondaga 's Selinsgrove Limestone member . A thin pyrite @-@ carbonate bed is also found at the base of the Marcellus black shale in the exposures of south central Pennsylvania , above a thin calcerous green shale bed , which lies upon the Onondaga limestone .
In eastern New York , the contact between the Marcellus and Onondaga ( where present ) is gradational . In western New York , the Union Springs member of the Marcellus conformably overlies the Seneca member of the Onondaga Limestone , or the stratigraphically higher Cherry Valley Limestone member may rest directly and unconformably upon the Onondaga in the absence of the Union Springs shale . The local disappearance of units of the Onondaga suggests that its upper contact with the Marcellus can be erosional . In Erie County in western New York , both the upper and lower contact of the Marcellus are eroded away .
In eastern West Virginia the Marcellus overlies the Onesquethaw Group , consisting of the dark gray or green , calcitic , mostly nonfissil Needmore Shale , which grades westward into the Huntersville Chert . To the south and west , the Hamilton Group grades laterally into the Millboro Shale formation in southern West Virginia and Virginia , which grades into the lower part of the Chattanooga Shale of Tennessee .
The Milboro is gradational with the underlying Needmore Formation shale . South of the Mason @-@ Dixon line , due to the difficulty in differentiating the Millboro and Needmore shales with the limited exposures available , and initial uncertainty in correlation with the New York survey , they were mapped as the Romney Formation , a unit containing all the Middle Devonian strata , named for an exposure at Romney , West Virginia . The correlations were established by 1916 through tracing the New York exposures across Pennsylvania and Maryland into West Virginia , so under the principle of scientific priority , the Romney classification is now obsolete ; but its Marcellus and underlying Needmore shale members are still found grouped in an undifferentiated map unit ( Dmn ) .
= = = = = Tioga ash beds = = = = =
Tioga metabentonite or K @-@ bentonite – stratigraphic unit about .6 m ( 2 ft ) thick that consists of several discrete , relatively thin volcanic ash falls – is also included at the base of the Marcellus in eastern Pennsylvania . In 1843 it was described without being named by Hall , and more than 100 years passed before it was eventually named for the natural gas field in Tioga County , Pennsylvania , where it was encountered when drilling gas wells . It is a regional stratigraphic marker , used by geologists to identify the Marcellus , and correlate laterally equivalent strata . Difficulty in correctly identifying the more than 80 different ash falls during the Devonian period , collected in 15 or more beds , has also led to many miscorrelations .
From Virginia to New York the Tioga is widely distributed , running across the central and northern parts of the Appalachian basin , an areal extent exceeding 265 @,@ 000 km2 ( 102 @,@ 000 sq mi ) . Explosive eruptions associated with the Acadian orogeny originating near present @-@ day central Virginia released the ash into the atmosphere . It was dispersed across the Appalachian , Michigan , and Illinois Basins by the southern trade winds , because this area was in the southern hemisphere during the Devonian period . The volcanic origin of the ash is evidenced by its distinctive mineralogy – the ash was deposited directly upon the water , so its angular quartz grains differ from the clastic sediments rounded through the erosion process that carries them to the sea . As the volcanic ash settled to the bottom , it was admixed with these terrigenous components , producing a distinctive lithology in the sedimentary rock .
The Tioga may appear in the formation as a gray , brown , black , or olive bed , or parting , consisting of coarse crystal tuff or tuffaceous shale , thinly laminated , with sand @-@ sized mica flakes . The Tioga ash bed zone consists of eight ash beds labeled according to their stratigraphic order from A ( oldest ) to H ( youngest ) , and another bed known as the Tioga middle coarse zone . Its basal beds are found within the uppermost beds of the Onondaga Limestone or Needmore Shale , and the uppermost ash bed within the lowermost part of the Marcellus or Millboro Shale . In western New York state , the Tioga Ash Bed B marks the boundary between the Moorehouse and Seneca Members of the Onondaga Formation , but in the central part of the state , and the southern part of the basin , the ash beds are actually in the Marcellus . This indicates that deposition of the Marcellus there began earlier , since the ash beds represent a single epoch in geologic time .
= = = = Thickness = = = =
Maximum thickness of the Marcellus ranges from 270 m ( 890 ft ) in New Jersey , to 12 m ( 40 ft ) in Canada . In West Virginia , the Marcellus Formation is as much as 60 m ( 200 ft ) thick . In extreme eastern Pennsylvania , it is 240 m ( 790 ft ) thick , thinning to the west , becoming only 15 m ( 49 ft ) thick along the Ohio River , and only a few feet in Licking County , Ohio . The thinning , or stratigraphic convergence , from east to west is caused by decreasing grain size in the clastic deposits , which entered the basin from the east . The beds finally " pinch out " westward because deposition was limited by the Cincinnati Arch , the bulge that formed the west shore of the basin . Where the formation is relatively thick , it is divided into several members , and as the formation continues to thicken to the east , these members are further divided . Some workers chose to classify the Marcellus as a subgroup , and classify some of the members as separate formations .
= = = = Named members = = = =
A local Purcell limestone member , 15 to 30 m ( 49 to 98 ft ) of inter @-@ bedded calcitic shale and limestone , divides the Marcellus in eastern Pennsylvania . The Purcell is stratigraphically equivalent to the Cherry Valley Limestone member in New York , a bioclastic packstone , consisting of skeletal limestones , with shaly intervals between its lower massive limestone layer , thick nodular limestone / marlstone , and upper limestone layer . Other named members include the Bakoven Shale , Cardiff Shale , Chittenango shale , Solsville sandstone , Union Springs shale and limestone , and Stony Hollow shale and limestone . The Union Springs , Cherry Valley , and Oatka Creek merge beneath Lake Erie , into the Bell Shale , Rockport Quarry Limestone , and Arkona Shale of Ontario .
The Union Springs is an organic @-@ rich , pyritiferous , thinly bedded , blackish gray to black shale with mudstone concretionary layers , and thin silt bands at the bottom . To the east , it becomes the Bakoven Member , a darker , less organic shale with fewer limestone layers . To the west the Union Springs beds thin , with its upper limestones merging with the overlying calcareous Cherry Valley Member . A regional unconformity appears in western New York , as the Union Springs lenses in and out , and then reappears in northwest Pennsylvania and northeast Ohio between the Onondaga and Cherry Valley .
In Western and central New York , the uppermost member is the dark grey to black organic @-@ rich Oatka Creek shale . Unlike the other Devonian shales in this region , the gray shale at the top of the Oatka Creek thickens gradually to the west , as well as the east , where it divides into the Cardiff member lying above the Chittenango member in central New York . Organic @-@ rich , fissile , sooty black shales make up the Chittenango Member . At the base of the Chittenango , above the Bierne Member shale , lies the Halihan Hill Bed , a highly bioturbated bioclastic limestone .
Further east , the homogeneous Cardiff divides into the Bridgewater , Solsville , and Pecksport shale members , from base to top . The Bridgewater is a fissile dark silty shale with relatively rare fossils . A thin concretionary zone lies above , then the Solsville grades from a gray calcareous shale , to sandy siltstones and fine sandstones at the top , with the gray shale of the Pecksport shale and siltsone overlying it .
In south central Pennsylvania , the Marcellus is mapped with three members , from top to base : The Mahanoy Member ( Dmm ) , a dark gray to grayish black silty shale and siltstone ; the Turkey Ridge Member ( Dmt ) , an olive to dark @-@ gray fine to medium grained sandstone ; and the Shamokin Member ( Dms ) , a dark gray to grayish black fissile carbonaceous shale that is calcareous in places near the base . The Turkey Ridge is commonly mapped in the Mahantango Formation , or included in the Montebello Formation ( Dmot ) , and only the Shamokin correlates with the Marcellus on adjacent map sheets . In extreme eastern Pennsylvania , the Broadhead Creek member , a dark gray silty shale with dark gray shaly limestone concretions , appears above the Stony Hollow and Union Springs , in a layer up to 275 m ( 902 ft ) thick .
= = = Fossils = = =
There are relatively sparse inclusions of fossilized marine fauna found in the Marcellus , but these fossils are still important to paleontology . For example , the Marcellus contains the oldest known diverse collection of thin @-@ shelled mollusks still having well preserved shell microstructure . It is also where goniatites , an extinct shelled swimmer similar to a squid , make their first appearance in the fossil record . Life on land also enters the fossil record in the Marcellus , with the trunks of branchless conifer trees that floated out to sea to be preserved in the black shale .
Marcellus fossils include specimens of the large clam @-@ like brachiopod Spinocyrtia . External molds of crinoids , plant @-@ like animals related to starfish also known as " sea lilies , " are found in the formation , with the molds partially filled with limonite ; brachiopod and bivalve ( clam ) molds have also been found in the shale . Small conical tentaculitids are commonly found in the Chittenango Member . The Halihan Hill bed contains styliolinids and macrofauna including brachiopods , coral @-@ like bryozoans , small bivalves and gastropods ( snails ) , incorporated after the faunal turnover when Emsian and Eifelian Schoharie / Onondaga fauna were replaced by the Givetian Hamilton fauna .
The Solsville member contains well preserved bivalves , gastropods , and brachiopods . These shellfish lived in the benthic zone at the bottom of marginal marine to open marine environments that existed west of the ancient Catskill Delta . The fossil record in this member shows the base was dominated by deposit feeders , while the upper layers were dominated by filter feeders . This can be correlated to the lithology : the finer sediments of the shales at the base of this member would contain abundant adherent organic matter for deposit feeders , but would tend to foul the gills of filter feeders when suspended ; the coarser sediments of the sandstones at the top would have contained less organic matter to support deposit feeders . Below the Solsville , at the base of the Otsego in eastern New York , a coral bed is found ; another coral bed can be seen at the top of the Marcellus near Berne , New York .
A diverse , eel @-@ like conodont fauna occurs in the limestone of the Cherry Valley Member , which is also known for its rich nautiloid and goniatite cephalopod fauna . Originally named the Goniatite Limestone , it produces their fossilized remains with shells that can be larger than .3 metres ( 1 ft ) across . It also contains the " Cephalopod Graveyard " in the Schoharie Valley of eastern New York , an unusual accumulation of abundant coiled and straight shells of several types of large adult cephalopods . This bed lacks juvenile fossils , indicating that if their behavior was similar to modern squid , this may have been an area where these Devonian cephalopods reproduced and died . This stratigraphic interval also provides an excellent example of incursion epiboles , which are sudden appearances and disappearances of fossil taxa in relatively thin sections of the rock unit . In the Cherry Valley , the taxa do not reoccur ; instead each thin concretionary limestone bed contains different species of goniatites . The Cherry Valley and Union Springs also contain well @-@ preserved anarcestida .
= = Economic impact = =
= = = Natural Gas = = =
The Marcellus natural gas trend , which encompasses 104 @,@ 000 square miles and stretches across Pennsylvania and West Virginia , and into southeast Ohio and upstate New York , is the largest source of natural gas in the United States , and production was still growing rapidly in 2013 . The Marcellus is an example of shale gas , natural gas trapped in low @-@ permeability shale , and requires the well completion method of hydraulic fracturing to allow the gas to flow to the well bore . The surge in drilling activity in the Marcellus Shale since 2008 has generated both economic benefits and environmental concerns — and thus , considerable controversy .
= = = Iron = = =
At the base of the Marcellus , in the pyrite @-@ carbonate bed between the carbonaceous black shale and a green calcareous shale bed , pyrite , carbonate , and groundwater reacted to form gossan iron oxide and gypsum . As far as the ground water necessary for the conversion could penetrate , the pyrite @-@ carbonate was converted to a usable brown hematite iron ore along the outcrops and near the bedrock surface . The Marcellus iron ore was actively mined in south Central Pennsylvania from its discovery in the late 18th century , until it was supplanted by the rich ore beds of the Iron Range of Minnesota in the early 20th century . The ore was easily located and worked from shallow pits and shafts , but once the usable upper deposits were removed , or if a mine shaft entered the bed too far below the surface , only unusable unconverted pyritic deposits were found .
Hematite ore was converted to pig iron in charcoal @-@ fired stone blast furnaces that were constructed throughout the Juniata River region near the workable ore deposits from the Marcellus and other formations . Iron products from this area , known as " Juniata Iron , " were produced during the period between the American Revolution and the American Civil War . These blast furnaces were important to the economy of the region at the time , but the cold blast stone furnaces typically employed were inefficient , and consumed significant amounts of timber from the nearby hardwood forests , which ultimately led to their demise . A typical furnace used 2 @,@ 400 kg ( 5 @,@ 300 lb ) of hematite ore and 7 @.@ 3 m3 ( 200 imp bu ) of charcoal to produce 910 kg ( 2 @,@ 010 lb ) of pig iron , and could produce several thousand pounds per day , which required logging more than 4 @,@ 000 m2 ( 1 acre ) of forest daily .
The ore from the Marcellus varied in thickness , becoming unworkably thin , and even disappearing altogether in places between the workable beds . The quality of the ore also varied , and it was not always profitable to smelt , as several furnaces built near iron ore mines in the Marcellus were abandoned before the ore and timber resources used to fuel them became scarce .
Ore found interbedded in the black slaty shale contained a relatively high proportion of carbon which was burned in the furnace , and sulfur , which produced a usable but " red @-@ short " iron . Red @-@ short iron has the undesirable properties of oxidizing more easily , and a tendency to crack , especially when heated to a red @-@ hot state . In some locations in Pennsylvania the quality of the ore was quite good , with relatively deep veins containing 45 % iron , and very low sulfur . In Virginia , the Marcellus ore occasionally contained zinc , which produced a characteristic green flame in the furnace as it was consumed , but deposited a hard mass of impure zinc oxide known as cadmia , which built up over time near the top of the flue , and had to be removed periodically to keep it unobstructed .
= = = = Iron pigments = = = =
Drainage that reacted with the pyrite inclusions also deposited a form of bog iron near several outcrops of the Marcellus . In the 19th century , iron ore from these deposits was used as a mineral paint pigment . After being heated in a kiln and finely ground , it was mixed with linseed oil , and used to paint exterior wood on barns , covered bridges , and railroad cars . In addition to the bog iron , at several sloped locations in eastern Pennsylvania brown hematite was found lying on the Marcellus bedrock buried beneath the soil . These deposits were also excavated and used for mineral paint during that time . A bed of hematite paint ore is also found almost directly below the Marcellus , but it is actually part of the underlying Oriskany Formation .
= = = = Chalybeate = = = =
Iron rich " ferruginous waters " emanating from chalybeate springs near the base of the Marcellus in Bedford , Pennsylvania were believed to have healing powers by Native Americans . The Bedford Springs Hotel was a mineral spa built in 1802 around a series of mineral springs , including one of these , its " iron spring " . The Chalybeate Springs Hotel , built nearby in 1851 around three other mineral springs including another chalybeate spring , became a " resort for invalids " . The iron @-@ rich waters were prescribed for anemia and related complications . Both of these mineral springs contain iron in the form of dissolved iron carbonate , which gives these waters a " slightly inky taste " .
= = = Other uses = = =
The Marcellus has also been used locally for shale aggregate and common fill , although the pyritic shales are not suitable for this purpose because of acid rock drainage and volumetric expansion . In the 19th century , this shale was used for walkways and roadways , and was considered superior " road metal " because the fine grained fragments packed together tightly , yet drained well after a rain .
The dark slaty shales may have the necessary cleavage and hardness to be worked , and were quarried for low grade roofing slate in eastern Pennsylvania during the 19th century . The slates from the Marcellus were inferior to the Martinsburg Formation slate quarried further south , and most quarries were abandoned , with the last significant operation in Lancaster County . The Marcellus black slate was also quarried in Monroe County , Pennsylvania , for school slates used by students in 19th @-@ century rural schools .
Carbonaceous shales , such as the Marcellus , are a possible target for carbon capture and storage for mitigation of global warming . Because carbon adsorbs carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) at a greater rate than methane ( CH4 ) , carbon dioxide injected into the formation for geological sequestration could also be used to recover additional natural gas in a process analogous to enhanced coal bed methane recovery , but the practical value of this theoretical technique is not yet known . Scientists believe that adsorption would allow sequestration at shallower depths than absorption in deep saline formations , which must be at least 800 m ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) below the surface to maintain liquid CO2 in a supercritical state .
= = = Engineering issues = = =
Exposures from cut and fill road construction in Virginia and Pennsylvania have resulted in localized acid rock drainage due to oxidation of the pyrite inclusions . The newly exposed shale on the cut face weathers rapidly , allowing air and water into the unexcavated rock , resulting in acidic surface runoff after precipitation events . Acidic runoff disrupts aquatic ecosystems , and highly acidic soil contaminated by this runoff will not support vegetation , which is unsightly , and can lead to problems with soil erosion .
Natural decomposition of the shale into smaller fragments can affect slope stability , necessitating shallower slopes that require more material be disturbed in cut and fill work , exacerbating the acid rock drainage problem . The cut material cannot be used as fill beneath roads and structures due to volumetric expansion , compounding the problem . The Tioga ash beds contain bentonite clay which presents a landslide hazard in the unexcavated rock as well .
Damage to structures constructed on fill consisting of pyritic Marcellus shale has been caused by expansion from sulfuric acid ( H2SO4 ) runoff reacting with the calcite ( CaCO3 ) in the shale to produce gypsum ( CaSO4 ) , which has double the molar volume . Other sulfate minerals that can be produced by reactions with pyrite include anhydrite , melanterite , rozenite , jarosite , and alunite . The reactions have generated a heave pressure on the order of 500 kPa ( 10 @,@ 000 pounds per square foot ) , but may be able to generate four times this pressure enough to heave foundations in a 5 @-@ story building . Limestone , which is used to neutralize the acid drainage , can actually exacerbate the expansion problem by promoting sulfate – sulfate reactions that form the minerals thaumasite and ettringite , which have even higher molar volumes .
Drilling boreholes through the Hamilton Group shales in the subsurface can be problematic . The Marcellus has a relatively low density , and these shales may not be chemically compatible with some drilling fluids . The shale is relatively fragile , and may fracture under pressure , causing a problem in circulating the drilling fluid back up through the borehole known as lost circulation . The formation may also be under @-@ pressurized , further complicating the drilling process .
= Alexander Godley =
General Sir Alexander John Godley , GCB , KCMG ( 4 February 1867 – 6 March 1957 ) was a senior British Army officer . He is best known for his role as commander of the New Zealand Expeditionary Force and II Anzac Corps during the First World War .
Born in Chatham , Godley joined the British Army in 1886 . He fought in the Boer War and afterwards served in a number of staff positions in England . In 1910 he went to New Zealand as Commandant of the New Zealand Military Forces . Promoted to temporary major general , he reorganised the country 's military establishment . Following the outbreak of the First World War , the New Zealand government appointed him as commander of the New Zealand Expeditionary Force , which he led for the duration of the war .
During the Gallipoli campaign , Godley commanded the composite New Zealand and Australian Division , before taking over command of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps for the final stages of the campaign . Promoted to lieutenant general , he had a brief period in command of I Anzac Corps before being given command of the II Anzac Corps . He led the corps for most of its service on the Western Front . Regarded as a cold and aloof commander , his popularity was further dented in October 1917 when he insisted on continuing an offensive in the Ypres salient when weather and ground conditions were not favourable . His corps suffered heavy losses in the ensuing battle . In 1918 , II Anzac Corps was re @-@ designated as British XXII Corps and he led it for the remainder of the war .
After the war , Godley spent time in occupied Germany as commander of firstly the IV Corps and then , from 1922 to 1924 , the British Army of the Rhine . In 1924 he was promoted to general and was made General Officer , Commanding , of England 's Southern Command . He was appointed a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath in 1928 and was Governor of Gibraltar for five years until his retirement in 1933 . During the Second World War he commanded a platoon of the Home Guard . He died in 1957 at the age of 90 .
= = Early life = =
Alexander Godley was born in Chatham , Kent , England , on 4 February 1867 , the eldest son of William Godley , a British Army captain of Irish heritage . His father 's brother was John Robert Godley , the founder of Canterbury , New Zealand . When Godley was 13 , his father died leaving the family in dire financial straits .
Godley intended to enter the Royal Navy but changed his mind and chose to pursue a career with the British Army . With the aid of his family 's connections , he was educated at Haileybury College and entered the Royal Military College , Sandhurst , in 1885 . He was commissioned into the Royal Dublin Fusiliers the following year as a lieutenant , and became the unit 's adjutant .
An enthusiastic horseman , Godley engaged in hunting and polo , becoming extremely proficient in the latter sport . He later played in the first international polo match between England and Argentina at the Hurlingham Club in Buenos Aires . To supplement his pay , he trained polo ponies .
Godley remained with the Fusiliers until 1896 , at which time he was promoted to captain and appointed adjutant of the Mounted Infantry at Aldershot . Later that year he volunteered for service in Mashonaland , where he assisted in the suppression of a rebellion in the province . After serving with the Special Service Battalion of the Mounted Infantry , he returned to England the following year and was promoted brevet major .
= = Boer War = =
In 1898 Godley attended Staff College at Camberley but , following the outbreak of the Boer War in 1899 , ended his studies early to volunteer for service in Africa . Along with other officers of the Special Service Battalion , he helped to raise irregular mounted regiments . Godley was later adjutant to Colonel Robert Baden @-@ Powell and was present during the Siege of Mafeking . He was also chief staff officer to Lieutenant Colonel Herbert Plumer and later commanded the Rhodesian Brigade . In 1900 , Godley transferred to the Irish Guards before being appointed to the staff at Aldershot as commander of the Mounted Infantry . Three years later he transferred to Longmoor Military Camp , commanding the Mounted Infantry there until 1906 .
= = Commandant of the New Zealand Military Forces = =
Godley was a colonel and serving on the staff of 2nd Division when , in 1910 , he accepted the position of Commandant of the New Zealand Military Forces , as the New Zealand Army was then known . He had some reservations about his new appointment ; he had been in line for command of an infantry brigade and was concerned that being posted to remote New Zealand would be detrimental to his career . He arrived in New Zealand to take up his duties in December 1910 .
Promoted to temporary major general , Godley , together with fourteen British Army officers seconded to the New Zealand Military Forces , was tasked with reorganising and instilling professionalism in the military establishment of the country . Compulsory military training had recently been introduced by the government but with little thought as to its implementation . In refining the New Zealand Military Forces , Godley drew heavily on the recommendations of Lord Herbert Kitchener , who had visited New Zealand earlier in the year on an inspection tour .
Godley established the Territorial Force , which replaced the outdated and recently disbanded Volunteer Force . He organised the structure of the New Zealand Military Forces into four military districts , with each district to be capable of raising an infantry and a mounted brigade . The districts had a specified number of battalions and regiments organised along the lines of the British Army . He also formed a New Zealand Staff Corps to train and administer the Territorial Force . The quality of small arms and other personal equipment provided to the country 's military personnel were improved and orders placed for new artillery pieces and machine @-@ guns .
By 1914 the Territorial Force had some 30 @,@ 000 men involved in divisional level training camps ; two years previously , the manpower and logistical constraints of the force was such that only battalion level camps could be achieved . When General Ian Hamilton , the Inspector General of Overseas Forces , visited New Zealand in 1914 , he was impressed with the level of preparedness of the country 's military . This reflected positively on Godley 's work , and he was appointed Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George the same year .
From 1912 , Godley began putting plans in place for the rapid deployment of a New Zealand Expeditionary Force ( NZEF ) in the event of war in Europe . He anticipated that Imperial Germany would be the likely enemy and envisaged deployment to either Europe or possibly Egypt , to counter the likely threat to the Suez Canal in the event Turkey aligned itself with Germany . He envisioned the expected deployment would be co @-@ ordinated with an Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) and liaised with the Australian Chief of General Staff , Brigadier General Joseph Gordon , and the possibility of a composite division was discussed . The question of Germany 's possessions in the South Pacific was also raised , and it was agreed that New Zealand would have responsibility for German Samoa , while Australia dealt with German New Guinea . The arrangements Godley put in place for deployment for the NZEF were soon put to the test , for when the First World War began , a New Zealand occupation force was quickly assembled to occupy German Samoa .
= = First World War = =
The New Zealand government authorised the formation of the NZEF for service in the war in support of Great Britain , with Godley , having relinquished his position as commandant of the New Zealand Military Forces to Major General Alfred William Robin , as its commander . Godley would retain command of the NZEF for the duration of the war , making regular reports to James Allen , the New Zealand Minister of Defence . By October 1914 , the NZEF consisted of 8 @,@ 500 men and , along with Godley , embarked from Wellington for Europe . The NZEF was intended for service on the Western Front but was diverted to Egypt while in transit , following the entry of Turkey into the war . In Egypt , the NZEF underwent an intensive period of training under Godley 's supervision . Despite his strict approach to training and discipline , he was a relatively enlightened commander for his time ; he discreetly established drinking canteens and venereal disease treatment centres for his men .
= = = Gallipoli = = =
Prior to the start of the Gallipoli Campaign , Godley was made commander of the New Zealand and Australian Division , a composite formation of infantry brigades of the NZEF and the AIF . His new command was one of two infantry divisions of the newly formed Australian and New Zealand Army Corps , commanded by General William Birdwood .
Although an extremely competent administrator , there were reservations within the New Zealand government following Godley 's appointment as commander of the division . Allen , although publicly supportive of Godley , privately believed an alternative commander should be found after the division completed its training . Godley was a distant and remote divisional commander , not popular with most soldiers of his command . He also favoured the professional officers of the NZEF , most of whom were seconded from the British Army , over those drawn from the Territorial Force .
On the day of the landing at Gallipoli , 25 April 1915 , Godley came ashore on Gallipoli at midday . Consulting with Major General William Bridges that afternoon , Godley was of the view that the Allied forces , dealing with stiffer than expected resistance , should be evacuated ahead of an expected attack by Turkish forces the next morning . Although Bridges agreed with Godley , the commander of the Mediterranean Expeditionary Force , Sir Ian Hamilton , ordered them to hold fast .
Godley continued as divisional commander for most of the campaign at Gallipoli . Of tall stature , he made constant tours of the front line amidst jokes that the communication trenches needed to be dug deeply to allow for his height . On one visit to Quinn 's Post on 7 May , he personally directed troop deployments to counter a potential Turkish counterattack . Despite his inspections , his reputation amongst the rank and file of the division did not improve . Nor was his co @-@ ordination of offensive operations sound ; during the August offensive , his lack of oversight allowed one of his brigade commanders , Brigadier General Francis Johnston , a British Army officer on secondment to the NZEF , to vacillate over deployment of reinforcements . On the morning of 8 August , the Wellington Infantry Battalion was in tenuous possession of Chunuk Bair but required support to consolidate its position . Johnstone did not order his reinforcements forward until later that day . Crucial momentum was lost and Chunuk Bair was later recaptured by the Turks .
When Birdwood took over command of the newly formed Dardanelles Army , Godley became commander of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps for the final stages of the Gallipoli campaign and was promoted to temporary lieutenant general on 25 November 1915 . With his appointment as corps commander , he also effectively took over responsibility for the administration of the AIF . The same month it was decided to evacuate the Allied forces from Gallipoli . Although much of the detailed planning for the evacuation was left to his Chief of Staff , Brigadier General Brudenell White , Godley closely inspected the plans before giving his approval . The evacuation was successfully carried out on the nights of 19 and 20 December , with Godley departing on the first night . Following the withdrawal , he was made Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath for his services at Gallipoli , on the recommendation of General Sir Charles Monro , who had replaced Hamilton as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Mediterranean Expeditionary Force .
= = = Reforming in Egypt = = =
The NZEF and the AIF had returned to Egypt following their withdrawal from Gallipoli . The number of reinforcements from both New Zealand and Australia were more than enough to bring the existing ANZAC divisions back up to strength , and in January 1916 Godley proposed forming new divisions from the surplus reinforcements . These were the New Zealand Division and the Australian 4th and 5th Divisions . The new formations , together with the existing divisions , formed the I ANZAC Corps ( the renamed Australian and New Zealand Army Corps ) and II ANZAC Corps .
Godley was named as commander of I ANZAC Corps which included the original AIF divisions , the 1st and 2nd Divisions , and the newly formed New Zealand Division . These divisions were engaged in defensive duties along the Suez Canal . However , following the German attack at Verdun in February , it was decided that the planned move of I ANZAC Corps to the Western Front be expedited . Birdwood was to take the corps to France , and on 28 March 1916 , he exchanged commands with Godley , who took over II ANZAC Corps .
= = = Western Front = = =
Godley 's II ANZAC Corps consisted of the Australian 4th and 5th Divisions along with the ANZAC Mounted Division , and it took over the defensive duties of the I ANZAC Corps . The two Australian divisions were still relatively raw and Godley oversaw the intensive training of both formations . By the end of May 1916 , he considered the divisions to be the equal of the 1st and 2nd Australian divisions , which were by that time on the Western Front . The following month , the divisions of II ANZAC Corps began departing for France . Godley went on leave for a short time during this period of transition for his corps . In July , he returned to duty and II ANZAC Corps took over the section of the front line previously occupied by the I ANZAC Corps , near Armentieres . Later that same month , the 5th Division participated in the Battle of Fromelles in support of the neighbouring British XI Corps . It , together with the 4th Division , would later be transferred to the Somme .
Godley 's rank of lieutenant general was made substantive in September 1916 and he continued to lead the II ANZAC Corps while the I ANZAC Corps was engaged in the Battle of the Somme . In October , the New Zealand Division , blooded on the Somme , joined II ANZAC Corps along with the 3rd Division , previously based in England . The corps , attached to the Second Army , performed well in its first major engagement , the Battle of Messines . Writing to Allen after the battle , Godley regarded the capture of Messines as " ... the greatest success of the war so far , all of it achieved with much lighter casualties than those incurred on the Somme . " Despite this success , in August , Godley 's poor standing amongst the NZEF was publicly raised by a member of the New Zealand Parliament who had visited the front earlier in the year .
While serving on the Western Front , Godley continued to fulfill his role as the overall commander of the NZEF in addition to his corps command . By September 1917 , as reinforcements from New Zealand continued to arrive on the Western Front to replace the casualties lost in the major battles of the previous two years , Allen , still the Minister of Defence , was concerned by the drain on New Zealand 's manpower . Allen considered that Australia and Canada were not making their proper contributions to the war effort . In response , Godley pointed out that the Australian divisions had seen more action than the New Zealanders .
Godley 's II ANZAC Corps played an important role in the Passchendaele offensive in October 1917 . Following the success of his corps at the Battle of Broodseinde on 4 October 1917 , Godley believed the morale of the Germans was low , and pushed for further attacks to secure the Passchendaele Ridge . This was in concert with the preference of Field Marshal Douglas Haig , the commander of the British Expeditionary Force . However , Godley 's superior officer , General Herbert Plumer , preferred to halt the offensive as the weather had deteriorated immediately after the battle . An attack on 9 October by the 49th and 66th Divisions , both British formations attached to II ANZAC Corps , was hampered by the poor weather which showed no signs of abating and achieved very limited gains .
Despite this , and at Godley 's urging , a further attack was planned for 12 October , this time using the New Zealand Division and the Australian 3rd Division . By now the ground was a sea of mud and a lack of preparation on the part of Godley 's corps headquarters hampered the preliminary movements of the attacking divisions and supporting artillery . Godley 's plans for the attack were overly ambitious and beyond the scale of previous operations that had been mounted earlier in the month in better weather and ground conditions and with more time to prepare . The operation on 12 October proved to be a failure with limited gains and heavy losses in the attacking divisions . After the battle , Godley downplayed the losses in the New Zealand Division ( which amounted to around 2 @,@ 900 casualties ) and overstated the gains made in official correspondence to Allen , and a friend , Clive Wigram , who was the assistant private secretary to King George V.
Notwithstanding Godley 's efforts to placate him , Allen again raised his concerns over the extent of New Zealand 's contributions to the war relative to Australia 's and sought further explanation for the New Zealand losses of 12 October . Allen was also beginning to query the quality of British generalship . Godley raised the prospect of being replaced as commander of the NZEF , and proposed Major General Andrew Hamilton Russell , the commander of the New Zealand Division , as his successor . This never eventuated and Godley remained the commander of the NZEF until its disbandment in late 1919 .
In January 1918 , II ANZAC Corps had its Australian contingent transferred and it was redesignated as British XXII Corps . Two months later , the New Zealand Division was transferred to VII Corps . Godley 's corps was now composed largely of British Army divisions with a small contingent of New Zealand corps units . After being involved in the defence of the Allied positions during the German Spring Offensive of late March , it then participated , under French command , in the Second Battle of the Marne in July . Godley was temporary commander of III Corps in the Battle of Mont Saint @-@ Quentin during the early phase of the Hundred Days Offensive in August 1918 before returning to command of XXII Corps .
By the close of the war , Godley had been mentioned in despatches ten times . He also received a number of foreign decorations as a result of his war service . After an award of the French Croix de Guerre , he was appointed in 1918 to the French Legion of Honour as a Grand Officier , having previously been made a Croix de Commandeur in 1917 . He was also awarded the Serbian Great Officer Cross of the Order of the White Eagle ( with Swords ) in October 1916 , the Belgian Order of the Crown in 1917 and the Belgian Croix de guerre in 1918 .
= = Postwar career = =
After the war , Godley became Commander of IV Corps which was based in Germany as an occupation army , but he remained responsible for administration of the NZEF until it was disestablished in November 1919 . From 1920 to 1922 , he was Military Secretary to the Secretary of State for War . He then returned to Germany as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the British Army of the Rhine . Promoted to general in 1923 , the following year he was appointed commander of England 's Southern Command .
In August 1928 , Godley was appointed to the governorship of Gibraltar , a position in which he remained until his retirement in 1933 . Godley was considered the ablest of the immediate post war governors although he made a misjudgement in interfering in the politics of the Royal Calpe Hunt . The King had to intercede after Godley removed the master of the hunt creating large divisions that were not repaired until his successor took charge .
He always held his New Zealand soldiers in high esteem , even if that respect was not reciprocated , and made tours of New Zealand in 1934 and 1935 . When made a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath in January 1928 , he included in his coat of arms an image of a New Zealand infantryman .
In late 1936 , Godley was considered a possible candidate for the governorship of New South Wales but was ultimately not appointed to the position . In his retirement Godley wrote a number of professional articles and his memoirs , Life of an Irish Soldier , were published in 1939 . He later wrote and published British Military History in South America .
In June 1939 , Godley 's wife Louise , who he had married in 1898 , died in England . The couple were childless . She had lived in New Zealand during Godley 's term as Commandant of the New Zealand Military Forces , and had also accompanied him to Egypt during the war . While in Egypt , she had been mentioned in despatches for her work in setting up and running a hospital in Alexandria for New Zealand soldiers . A wreath was sent for the funeral by the New Zealand government on behalf of its citizens .
Following the outbreak of the Second World War , Godley offered his services to the New Zealand government , but got no response . He later commanded a platoon of the Home Guard .
Alexander Godley died at the age of 90 in a rest home at Oxford on 6 March 1957 . His remains were cremated after a funeral service at Woodland St. Mary 's Church in Berkshire was held on 14 March 1957 . A memorial service was held at the Royal Military Chapel at the Wellington Barracks in London on 21 March 1957 . The service was attended by a representative of Queen Elizabeth II .
= = Publications = =
Godley , Alexander John , Sir ( 1939 ) . Life of an Irish Soldier : Reminiscences of General Sir Alexander Godley . New York : E.P. Dutton and Company . OCLC 398289 .
Godley , Alexander , Sir ( 1943 ) . British Military History in South America . London : Feilden Publications . OCLC 18542093 .
= Fading ( song ) =
" Fading " is a song by Barbadian recording artist Rihanna from her fifth studio album , Loud ( 2010 ) . The song was written by Jamal Jones and Ester Dean , whilst production of the song was completed by Jones under his production name , Polow da Don . Musically , the song samples Irish instrumentalist and singer @-@ songwriter Enya 's " One by One " , whilst lyrically , the song is about leaving a man in a relationship . After Loud had strong digital download sales in the United Kingdom , " Fading " charted at number 187 on that country 's singles chart in November 2010 . The song received generally positive reviews from music critics , who praised da Don 's production , but one critic criticized Rihanna for copying herself and failing to create something different . Some critics also compared it to one of Rihanna 's previous singles , " Take A Bow " . The song has also been performed on select dates of the Loud Tour ( 2011 ) .
= = Background = =
Recording sessions for Loud began in February 2010 , and continued for six months , overlapping with Rihanna 's Last Girl on Earth Tour and during production of her debut feature film , Battleship . At the beginning of March 2011 , Rihanna asked fans to help her select her next single , following the release of " S & M " . Via Twitter , fans were asked to choose from " Cheers ( Drink to That ) " , " Man Down " , " California King Bed " or " Fading " . The most popular choice would have its video filmed at the end of March 2011 . On March 12 , 2011 , it was confirmed that fans had selected " California King Bed " as the next single to be released from the album in the United States . In August 2011 , a new version of " Fading " was leaked online , without the Enya sample .
= = Composition and lyrics = =
" Fading " was written by Jamal James and Ester Dean , whilst production of the song was completed by Polow da Don and samples Enya 's " One by One " from her album A Day Without Rain ( 2000 ) . The song was recorded by Sandy Vee at The Bunker Studio 's in Paris , France in 2010 . Musically , the song features a piano and violin led instrumental whilst lyrically , " Fading " is about the female protagonist leaving her boyfriend because she feels that they have become distant and their relationship has faded . The lyrics of the song feature Rihanna adopting a vocal diction which urges her boyfriend to leave and walk away from the relationship , " Go on , be gone / Bye bye so long / Can 't you see we 're fading away " . As noted by Emily Mackay of NME , the song is reminiscent of one of the singer 's previous songs about a relationship gone awry , " Take A Bow " , in lyrical content and musicality .
= = Critical reception = =
Upon Loud 's release , multiple music critics wrote about " Fading " as part of their review , many of whom praised the production of the song . Emily Mackay of NME wrote about the song as part of an overall review of the album , writing " A weird baroque pop opening , violin stabs and treated vocals , builds slowly into a rolling and shuddering beat and soft , sad @-@ toned piano . Mesfin Fekadu of The Boston Globe called the track " exceptional " and compared the lyrical content to that of one of Rihanna 's previous singles " Take A Bow " , writing that Rihanna is skilled at putting out songs about being the woman in a relationship who leaves the man , as she does in " Fading " . Jon Pareles of The New York Times praised Polow da Don 's production of the song , writing " ' Fading ' strategizes with long and short elements — sustained choruses and staccato verses , edgeless keyboard chords and notes that are suddenly truncated — to capture the ambivalence of a failing romance . " Melissa Maerz of Rolling Stone commented that the singer manages to remain " serene " on the song , even with the sampling of Enya 's " One by One " , and added that " maybe the good girl gone bad is getting better ? " , in reference to Rihanna 's third studio album title , Good Girl Gone Bad ( 2007 ) .
Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly simply wrote of " Fading " that the song , a " walk away ballad " , is a " gorgeously synthesized moment of sweet defiance " . David Driver of Sputnikmusic wrote that " Fading " , along with " California King Bed " , are both " well @-@ done , soulful ballads " and that they are " completely free " of the sulky tones which could be found on some compositions on Rihanna 's previous album , Rated R ( 2009 ) . Colin Gentry of 4Music also noted in his review that the song communicates a passionate expression of grief to the listener . Ryan Burleson of Consequence of Sound wrote that the song was one of the best on the album , commenting that it stands out " sonically " . Burleson added that it is " a hopeful , piano and string @-@ based R & B " song , and compared to the work of late 1990s artists such as Aaliyah and Faith Evans . Ryan Dombell of Pitchfork Media criticized " Fading " as well as Rihanna herself , for copying " [ her ] own lightweight R & B formula so much it 's redundant " .
= = Chart performance = =
Upon the release of Loud , " Fading " charted in three territories . The song debuted at number 37 on the South Korea Gaon International Chart for the issue dated November 14 , 2010 . The following week , it fell to number 79 . " Fading " charted at number 187 on the UK Singles Chart for the issue dated November 27 , 2010 . The song was more successful on the UK R & B Chart , where it peaked at number 34 in the same chart issue . In the United States , " Fading " peaked at number 42 on the R & B / Hip @-@ hop Digital Songs chart on December 3 , 2010 .
= = Live performances = =
Though the song has never been performed live as part of a televised performance , the song was featured on the set list of select dates of the Loud Tour . Rihanna performed the song on June 6 and 7 , 2011 , at the Air Canada Centre in Toronto , Canada , where the song was featured near the end of the set . As noted by Jane Stevenson of the Toronto Sun , after performing a selection of ballads from the singer 's repertoire , including " Unfaithful " , " Hate That I Love You " and " California King Bed " , Rihanna re @-@ appeared on stage wearing a rainbow colored feathered coat , denim bra and short shorts to perform " What 's My Name ? " , " Rude Boy " , " Fading " , " Don 't Stop the Music " and " Take a Bow " .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Robyn Rihanna Fenty – Lead Vocals
Ester Dean – Background vocals
Jamal Jones and Ester Dean – Songwriting
Polow da Don – Production
Kuk Harrell , Josh Gudwin and Marcus Tovar – Vocal Recording
Kuk Harrell – Vocal production
Veronika Bozeman – Additional vocal production
Damien Lewis – Additional / Assistant Engineering
Mixed by Phil Tan at The Ninja Beat Club , Atlanta , GA – Mixing
Recorded by Sandy Vee at The Bunker Studios , Paris – Recording
Credits and personnel adapted from the liner notes of Loud .
= = Charts = =
= Whistler Sliding Centre =
The Whistler Sliding Centre ( French : Centre des sports de glisse de Whistler ) is a Canadian bobsleigh , luge , and skeleton track located in Whistler , British Columbia , that is 125 km ( 78 mi ) north of Vancouver . The centre is part of the Whistler Blackcomb resort , which comprises two ski mountains separated by Fitzsimmons Creek . Located on the lowermost slope of the northern mountain ( Blackcomb Mountain ) , Whistler Sliding Centre hosted the bobsleigh , luge , and skeleton competitions for the 2010 Winter Olympics .
Design work started in late 2004 with construction taking place from June 2005 to December 2007 . Bobsledders Pierre Lueders and Justin Kripps of Canada took the first run on the track on 19 December 2007 . Certification took place in March 2008 with over 200 runs from six different start houses ( the place where the sleds start their runs ) , and was approved both by the International Bobsleigh and Tobogganing Federation ( FIBT ) and the International Luge Federation ( FIL ) . Training runs took place in late 2008 in preparation for the World Cup events in all three sports in early 2009 . World Cup competitions were held in February 2009 for bobsleigh , luge , and skeleton . The top speed for all World Cup events set by German luger Felix Loch at 153 @.@ 98 km / h ( 95 @.@ 68 mph ) . In late 2009 , more training took place in preparation for the Winter Olympics .
On 12 February 2010 , the day of the Olympic opening ceremonies , Georgian luger Nodar Kumaritashvili was killed during a training run while reportedly going 143 @.@ 3 km / h ( 89 @.@ 0 mph ) . This resulted in the men 's singles event being moved to the women 's singles and men 's doubles start house while both the women 's singles and men 's doubles event were moved to the junior start house . During actual luge competition at the 2010 Winter Olympics , there were only two crashes , which resulted in one withdrawal . Skeleton races on 18 – 19 February had no crashes though two skeleton racers were disqualified for technical reasons . Bobsleigh competitions had crashes during all three events . This resulted in supplemental training for both the two @-@ woman and the four @-@ man event following crashes during the two @-@ man event . Modifications were made to the track after the two @-@ man event to lessen the frequency of crashes as well . A 20 @-@ page report was released by the FIL to the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) on 12 April 2010 and to the public on FIL 's website on 19 April 2010 regarding Kumaritashvili 's death . Safety concerns at Whistler have affected the track design for the Sliding Center Sanki that will be used for the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi . This includes track simulation and mapping to reduce top speeds by 6 to 9 km / h ( 3 @.@ 7 to 5 @.@ 6 mph ) for the Sochi track .
Constructed on part of First Nations spiritual grounds , the track won two provincial concrete construction awards in 2008 while the refrigeration plant earned Canada 's Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design " gold " certification two years later .
= = History = =
= = = Awarding and construction ( 2004 – 07 ) = = =
At the 115th IOC Session held at Prague in 2003 , Vancouver was chosen to host the 2010 Winter Olympics over Pyeongchang , South Korea , and Salzburg , Austria . On 15 November 2004 , it was announced that Stantec Architecture Limited , which designed the 2002 Winter Olympic bobsleigh , luge , and skeleton track in Park City , Utah , in the United States , would provide detail design and site master plan of the track . The company was advised by the German track engineering firm IBG . IBG had designed the tracks used in Oberhof , Germany , the 1988 Winter Olympics in ( Calgary ) and the 2006 Winter Olympics ( Cesana Pariol ) . The German firm is also the designer of the Russian National Sliding Centre , the venue for the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi .
Site construction of the facility began on 1 June 2005 following environmental approval from the Canadian Environmental Assessment Act . Safety and security was then put in place on the site . During its peak of construction activities in the summer of 2006 , more than 500 workers were involved both at the Sliding Centre and at the Whistler Nordic Venue ( now Whistler Olympic Park ) . A core group of 60 workers was involved with track construction from June 2005 to December 2007 . Basic track construction was completed in November 2007 though fit @-@ out and testing continued into 2008 .
= = = First testing and certification ( 2007 – 08 ) = = =
The first run was on 19 December 2007 with Canadian bobsledder Pierre Lueders and his brakeman Justin Kripps starting at the Junior Start house ( Location where the sliders start their run on the track ) 520 m ( 1 @,@ 710 ft ) down the 1 @,@ 450 m ( 4 @,@ 760 ft ) track . A total of six runs were made under the auspices of the FIBT . The Canadian Luge Association opened a branch at the track in February 2008 . Luge tests occurred in late February 2008 and among the participants were Tatjana Hüfner ( Germany ) , Erin Hamlin ( United States ) , Armin Zöggeler ( Italy ) , and Regan Lauscher ( Canada ) . Bobsleigh participants during certification in March 2008 included Sandra Kiriasis ( Germany ) , Lueders ( Canada ) , and Shauna Rohbock ( United States ) while skeleton participants included Kristan Bromley ( Great Britain ) , Kerstin Jürgens ( Szymkowiak since summer 2008 – Germany ) , and Jon Montgomery ( Canada ) . Over 200 runs were taken from six different starting positions on the track .
Praise was given both by the FIBT and the FIL over the successful certification of the track . The Vancouver Organizing Committee ( VANOC ) reviewed the recommendations made from both the FIBT and the FIL to fine tune the track . Canadian teams continued testing and training at the track until 20 March 2008 . A total of 2155 runs ( 335 bobsleigh , 1077 luge , and 743 skeleton ) took place at the track with a total of 15 crashes . Final track inspection by the FIL Executive Board took place 25 – 27 September 2008 before the International Training Week later that year .
= = = 2008 – 09 Luge World Cup , including training = = =
International Training Week for luge took place at the track 7 – 15 November 2008 . A total of 2482 runs took place during the training with several injuries occurring , most notably Loch , the 2008 men 's singles world champion , who injured his shoulder . In a 9 December 2008 press release , the Centre was continuing certification by adding protections on the track against crashes and weather . FIL President Josef Fendt stated that the track 's speed was too high with top speeds reaching 149 km / h ( 93 mph ) during training . From the 2482 runs executed during the International Training week for luge , there were 73 crashes , a crash rate of three percent which was normal during new track testing . Three lugers , including Loch , were sent to the hospital , but were later released . Italy 's Zöggeler stated that " The track can be tackled . " and " does not see big problems for the athletes " while Fendt called for the top track speed for future tracks to be lowered to 135 or 136 km / h ( 84 or 85 mph ) where possible . For the 2008 – 09 World Cup season at the Centre , 15115 runs were made for bobsleigh ( 2153 ) , luge ( 9672 ) , and skeleton ( 3290 ) . After the World Cup event on 20 – 21 February 2009 , Austria 's Andreas Linger described the track as " fast , incredibly fast . "
Loch stated that luge speeds for men 's singles reached 100 km / h ( 62 mph ) before turn three at the women 's singles and men 's doubles ' start house . A total of 2818 runs for bobsleigh , luge , and skeleton were made at the track during the four @-@ week time period for the World Cup events . FIL President Fendt stated that " [ my ] technical delegate told me this week that the Games could start tomorrow and the track would be ready . " and he appreciated the whole Whistler Sliding Centre At the 2008 – 09 World Cup season finale , 135 athletes participated ( 67 men , 42 women , and 26 doubles ) though 144 athletes from 23 nations were registered . During the Luge World Cup event that weekend , 186 runs took place with 16 crashes .
= = = 2008 – 09 Bobsleigh and Skeleton World Cup and training = = =
The first bobsleigh and skeleton training week took place on 25 – 31 January 2009 to prepare for their respective World Cup events on 5 – 7 February 2009 . A total of 250 competitors from 24 nations took part in the World Cup practice for all five events ( Bobsleigh two @-@ man , bobsleigh two @-@ woman , bobsleigh four @-@ man , and men 's and women 's skeleton ) . Competition and weather affected testing and World Cup runs for the two @-@ week time period . A team of 118 personnel and 276 volunteers worked consecutive weeks at the Training Week and World Cup events . Track director Craig Lehto stated that the volunteer efforts were similar to what he had seen both at the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City and the 1988 Winter Olympics in Calgary . The final two days of competition had 3000 total spectators . Medical services , led by VANOC and FIBT medical director Dr. David McDonagh , tested themselves with first responder care and mock scenarios that included athlete extraction from the sled if the accident was severe enough . These services were tested again during the Luge World Cup competition on 20 – 21 February 2009 . A total of 15 @,@ 000 spectators attended all five days for the bobsleigh , luge , and skeleton World Cup events , all sold out . FIBT President Robert H. Storey stated that the Centre " ... is fast , technical , demanding , and interesting . " . A total of 235 athletes participated in the 2008 – 09 World Cup event ( 92 four @-@ man , 54 two @-@ man , 40 two @-@ woman , 28 men 's skeleton , and 21 women 's skeleton ) .
= = = 2009 – 10 World Cups , including training = = =
A paid training session took place 27 October – 7 November 2009 at the Centre for bobsleigh teams in preparation for the 2010 Games . On 9 – 15 November 2009 , a second International Training Week for luge took place in preparation for the 2010 Games with the participation of 156 athletes from 27 nations . Venezuela 's Werner Hoeger was knocked unconscious during a practice run on 13 November 2009 and was denied any further make @-@ up runs . During training that week , Hoeger expressed concern about the safety of the track . These concerns called for the resignation of track director Ed Moffat , father of lugers Chris and Mike , to offer equal runs to all lugers in future events , to have Canada forfeit any extra training runs that were negotiated for the 2014 Winter Olympics , and for the Canadian Luge Association be reprimanded for unethical actions and not providing a safe sliding environment , especially after speeds were 10 mph ( 16 km / h ) higher than expected . Canadian Luge Association officials declined to comment though they stated to the New York Times that the lugers received up to three times the amount of training runs offered in the run @-@ up to the 2006 Winter Olympics at Cesana Pariol .
Team Canada ( luge ) did not participate in the World Cup event in Lillehammer , Norway during 12 – 13 December 2009 to train at the Sliding Centre and to compete at the Canadian National Championships that took place on 17 December 2009 . A training restriction went into effect on 31 December 2009 where only host nation Canada and athletes from developing nations were allowed to train before the 2010 Games . For the 2009 – 10 season , there were a total of 15736 runs among bobsleigh ( 2512 ) , luge ( 8794 ) , and skeleton ( 4070 ) with a total of 115 crashes among the three sliding disciplines .
= = = Public opening and post @-@ Olympic usage = = =
The Centre 's official website was launched in late June 2008 . Public self @-@ guided walking tours ran from 3 July through 31 August 2008 . The cost to the public was 5 Canadian dollars ( C $ 5 ) with children under 12 admitted free . World Cup competition for bobsleigh and skeleton took place on 2 – 8 February 2009 while luge took place on 20 – 21 February 2009 . The track was a finalist for the 2012 FIL World Luge Championships along with Altenberg , Germany , at the 2008 FIL Congress in Calgary , Alberta , but the track withdrew its bid before the 28 June 2008 selection . During a 4 – 5 April 2009 weekend meeting of the FIL Commission at St. Leonhard , Austria , it was recommended that the Centre be host for the 2013 FIL World Luge Championships . This was confirmed on 19 – 20 June 2009 at the 57th FIL Congress meeting in Liberec , Czech Republic .
Post @-@ Olympic usage is a responsibility of the Whistler 2010 Sports Legacies which operates the Sliding Centre , Whistler Olympic Park , and the Whistler Olympic and Paralympic Village . The goal of this organization is to promote the legacy of the 2010 Winter Olympics and 2010 Winter Paralympics , promote healthy lifestyles and tourism in the British Columbia province , and offer revenue for the maintenance of the three facilities .
= = 2010 Winter Olympics = =
= = = Nodar Kumaritashvili = = =
On 12 February 2010 , hours before the opening ceremony for the 2010 Winter Olympics , Georgian luger Nodar Kumaritashvili suffered a crash during a training run exiting out of turn 16 . Kumaritashvili was injured when he flew off the track and collided with a steel pole . He was going 143 @.@ 3 km / h ( 89 @.@ 0 mph ) at the time of the crash . He died later that day from the injuries sustained in that crash . His accident came after other crashes during that week . This reignited concerns about the track 's safety . Kumaritashvili was the first Olympic athlete to die at the Winter Olympics in training since 1992 and the first luger to die in a practice event at the Winter Olympics since Kazimierz Kay @-@ Skrzypeski of Great Britain was killed at the luge track used for the 1964 Winter Olympics in Innsbruck . It was also luge 's first fatality since 10 December 1975 when an Italian luger was killed . A joint statement was issued by the FIL , the IOC , and VANOC over Kumaritashvili 's death . Training was suspended for the rest of that day . According to the Coroners Service of British Columbia and the Royal Canadian Mounted Police , the cause of Kumaritashvili 's death was him coming out of turn 15 late and then not compensating before turn 16 .
As a preventive measure , an extra 100 ft ( 30 m ) of wall was added after the end of Turn 16 , and the ice profile was changed . Also , the men 's singles luge event start was moved from its start house to the one for both the women 's singles and men 's doubles event . Women 's singles and men 's doubles start was moved to the Junior start house of the track , located after turn 5 . Germany 's Natalie Geisenberger complained that it was not a women 's start but more of a Kinder ( " children " in ( German ) ) start . Her teammate Hüfner , who had the fastest speed on the two practice runs at 82 @.@ 3 mph ( 132 @.@ 4 km / h ) , stated that the new start position " does not help good starters like myself . " American Erin Hamlin , the 2009 women 's singles world champion , stated the track was still demanding even after the distance was lessened from 1 @,@ 193 to 953 m ( 3 @,@ 914 to 3 @,@ 127 ft ) and one was still hitting 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) .
During a 14 February 2010 interview with Reuters , FIL Secretary @-@ General Svein Romstad stated that the federation considered cancelling the luge competition in the wake of Kumaritashvili 's death two days earlier . Romstad stated that " [ Kumaritashvili ] ... made a mistake " on the crash though " any fatality is unacceptable " . Additionally , Romstad stated that the start houses were moved to their current locations " mostly for an emotional reason " . Because of Kumaritashvili 's death , the FIL is working with the Sochi 2014 Olympic Organizing Committee over making the Russian National Sliding Centre in Rzhanaya Polyana slower in speed . Canada 's Alex Gough commented on 14 February ( two days after Kumaritashvili 's death ) that " We ’ ve got the world championships here in a few years ( 2013 ) so hopefully we can actually have a race " instead of the start at the Junior start house .
On 18 February 2010 , FIL President Fendt issued the following statement :
" At the conclusion of the luge competition at the Vancouver 2010 Olympic Games , our thoughts are with the family of Nodar Kumaritashvili . We again offer our heartfelt condolences to them , to his friends and to the entire Georgian Luge Federation . Nodar Kumaritashvili will forever stay in the hearts of all the members of the Luge family .
This has also been a difficult time for the Olympic athletes who competed in these Games . Their solidarity and sportsmanship was a tribute to the friend we lost . The International Luge Federation is touched by the outpouring of compassion and sympathy from people around the world . We will leave Whistler determined to do all we can to prevent a recurrence of this tragic event .
Kumaritashvili was buried in his hometown of Bakuriani , on 20 February 2010 . Georgian National Olympic Committee president Gia Natsvlishvili and Georgia president Mikheil Saakashvili raised concern and anger toward the Sliding Centre 's organizers that the safety concerns were not addressed .
= = = Luge = = =
On 11 February 2010 , Romania 's Violeta Strămăturaru was knocked unconscious after hitting several walls during a training run . She was strapped to a backboard and placed on a stretcher though her arms were moving . Strămăturaru withdrew before the women 's singles event .
In the first run of the men 's doubles luge competition on 17 February 2010 , Austria 's team of Tobias Schiegl and Markus Schiegl survived a crash on turn 16 where they came in at too high of an elevation . Tobias tried to correct the oversteer only to have the cousins collide on the opposite side of the ice wall , causing both to go airborne momentarily . Neither suffered any injury .
Mihaela Chiras of Romania suffered the only crash of ten actual competitive runs ( four men single , four women single , and two doubles ) , and that was during the second run of the women 's singles event . Each of the five days of luge competition was attended by a sold @-@ out crowd of 12 @,@ 000 spectators .
Event winners were Germany 's Loch in men 's singles , Germany 's Hüfner in women 's singles , and Austria 's Andreas and Wolfgang Linger in doubles .
= = = Skeleton = = =
The first skeleton practice began down the full length of the track on 15 February 2010 . It was the first time that had been done since Kumaritashvili 's death three days earlier . Britain 's Shelley Rudman stated that " The IOC and VANOC have done all they can to make it a safe environment " . Canada 's Mellisa Hollingsworth had the fastest women 's practice runs while her teammate Montgomery had the fastest men 's practice runs . Montgomery and Hollingsworth also had the fastest practice times on both the 16th and the 17th . No crashes occurred during the two days of skeleton competitions .
Event winners were Montgomery in the men 's and Britain 's Amy Williams in the women 's .
= = = Bobsleigh = = =
Bobsleigh practice began on 17 February 2010 with the two @-@ man event . Eight crashes among 57 runs took place that day . Three crashes occurred during the two @-@ man practice session on 18 February 2010 . Supplemental practice was offered on 19 February 2010 to both the two @-@ woman and four @-@ man events out of caution , and further preparation for both events that took place the following week .
For the first run on 20 February 2010 , a sled from Australia crashed out and did not finish , while a sled from Great Britain was disqualified when the sled 's brakeman was ejected during the first run . Liechtenstein 's sled crashed out during the first run and finished , but did not start the second run . During the two @-@ man event , runs three and four on 21 February 2010 were rescheduled to 16 : 00 PST ( 00 : 00 UTC on 22 February ) for run three and 17 : 35 PST ( 01 : 35 UTC on the 22nd ) for run four due to unseasonable warm weather . Temperatures reached 10 ° C ( 50 ° F ) on the afternoon of the 20th and were expected to reach 12 ° C ( 54 ° F ) on the afternoon of the 21st . No crashes occurred in the final two runs of the event . Germany 's André Lange and Kevin Kuske won the two @-@ man event .
Reactions from bobsledders about the track during the two @-@ man event varied from exciting to anxious to dangerous . The Associated Press spoke to 13 of the 21 drivers who competed at the two @-@ woman event on 23 – 24 February 2010 and the only one who did not feel safe on the track was Erin Pac of the United States . The three German drivers who competed in the two @-@ woman event stated through a team spokeswoman that they had no safety concerns about the track .
Minor changes were made to the track on 22 February 2010 after bobsleigh four @-@ man teams from Latvia and Croatia rolled over in supplementary practice . Following a meeting with 11 team captains , practice runs were postponed by the FIBT until later that day to adjust the shape of turn 11 so it would be easier for sleds to get through the rest of the track without crashing . FIBT spokesman Don Krone also stated that it was common that turn profiles were changed when it was being used by other sliding disciplines such as luge and skeleton .
After track alterations were done on 23 February 2010 , the two fastest four @-@ man practice times were done by Germany 's Lange and the United States ' Steven Holcomb . Australia withdrew its four @-@ man team on 23 February 2010 after two of its crew members suffered concussions from crashes sustained during track practice . Australia 's chef de mission Ian Chesterman stated that the decision was not taken lightly and was done on the side of safety .
In the two @-@ woman event , defending world champion Nicole Minichiello of Britain had her sled flip over after turn 12 during the third run , but both Minichiello and her brakeman Gillian Cooke walked away from the crash . Minichiello and Cooke decided not to start the final run . In the final run , Russia @-@ 2 's sled crashed which kept them at their finishing position of 18th . Meanwhile , the Germany @-@ 2 sled of Cathleen Martini and Romy Logsch was in fourth place after the third run , but was disqualified after Martini crashed in turn 13 of the final run , causing Logsch to be ejected from the sled . Both Martini and Logsch walked away from the crash by themselves . Before this incident , Martini had never crashed before in her career . Canada 's Kaillie Humphries and Heather Moyse won the event .
Lange had the fastest practice times in the four @-@ man event on the 24th with the final two practices taking place on the 25th .
For the four @-@ man event 's first two runs on 26 February , defending world champion Holcomb recorded the fastest track times in both runs while defending Olympic champion Lange had the fastest start times . Russia @-@ 2 driven by Alexandr Zubkov , the defending four @-@ man silver medalist and bronze medalist in the two @-@ man event at these Games , crashed out in the first run when one of his steering ropes broke . Austria @-@ 1 and Slovakia @-@ 1 also crashed out in the first run , and neither sled started the second run with Russia @-@ 2 . Second run crashes involved USA @-@ 2 , Great Britain @-@ 1 , and Japan @-@ 1 . USA @-@ 2 did not start the third run . There were no crashes in the final two runs of the event . America 's team of Holcomb , Steve Mesler , Curtis Tomasevicz , and Justin Olsen won the event .
= = Overall safety concerns = =
Kumaritashvili 's death raised concerns about athlete safety at the Winter Olympics . As of 21 February 2010 , there were 30 crashes in bobsleigh and luge at the Sliding Centre . Debate was raised on tightening qualification standards in weeding out unqualified athletes , in requiring a large number of training runs , in slowing down the sliding tracks , or in combining the three . The Russian National Sliding Centre planned for the bobsleigh , luge , and skeleton events at the 2014 Winter Olympics has not been built though organizers already said that it is designed to be 6 to 9 km / h ( 3 @.@ 7 to 5 @.@ 6 mph ) slower than The Whistler Sliding Centre . Sochi 's Sliding Centre will be monitored via 3 @-@ D computer graphics and simulation . The IOC has improved safety standards over the years such as lowering obstacles for the equestrian three @-@ day event , requiring protective head gear for boxing and ice hockey , and tightening qualification standards to preclude athletes not qualified for the event . FIBT President Storey wanted to wait to review safety of bobsleigh , luge , and skeleton until after the 2010 Games , stating that track designers needed to find a balance between challenges and dangers on the track . Track designer Gurgel told Sport Bild that perhaps track walls should be raised 40 to 50 cm ( 16 to 20 in ) on future courses though a risk @-@ proof course may not be possible . According to VANOC , over 30 @,@ 000 runs were made prior to the games with neither the FIBT nor the FIL issuing public danger warnings about the track . IOC President Jacques Rogge stated that he " will do everything in my power that this should not happen again in the future " .
The FIL published their reports in regards to Kumaritashvili 's death following the FIL Commissions Meeting in St. Leonhard , for both sport and technical commissions on 9 – 11 April 2010 . This report was prepared by Romstad and Claire DelNegro , FIL Vice @-@ President Sport Artificial Track . The 20 @-@ page report was released by the FIL to the IOC on 12 April 2010 and was released on FIL 's website to the public on 19 April 2010 . Documents released in February 2011 showed that the speed of the course was a concern for several years before Kumaritashvili 's death .
= = Track technical details = =
= = = Construction = = =
This venue was constructed on a First Nations designated site . According to the Squamish , the area is referred to as a " Wild Spirit Place " or Kwekwayex Kwelh7aynexw while the Lil 'oet call the area A7x7ulmecw or " Spirited Ground " . It represents the beating of the Thunderbird 's huge wings filled with thunder in the air .
Originally budgeted for C $ 55 million , the track 's actual costs were C $ 105 million ( € 68 million ) . The track is made of 350 metric tons ( 340 long tons ; 390 short tons ) of reinforced concrete that was applied using pressurized spraying to reach a maximum thickness of 6 in ( 15 cm ) . Additionally , the track contains 12 km ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) of steel conduit , 600 awnings , and 700 lights . A total of 350 track footings were used to set the track on its proper foundation . Forty percent of those footings were completed by July 2006 . There are over 100 km ( 62 mi ) of ammonia refrigeration piping used to keep the track frozen . Sloping and curves were contoured to within 1 to 3 mm ( 0 @.@ 039 to 0 @.@ 118 in ) of the planned design course . Ice thickness is 2 to 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 to 1 @.@ 97 in ) that is maintained by hand . There are 36 on @-@ track video cameras and 42 " timing eyes " located at the Sliding Centre . The track also includes a control tower and administration buildings . There are two spectator overpasses ( between turns 1 and 2 , and turns 6 and 7 ) and three spectator underpasses ( between turns 8 and 9 , turns 11 and 12 , and turns 15 and 16 ) . It seated 11 @,@ 650 spectators during the 2010 Games .
= = = Sustainability = = =
To promote sustainability , the site was selected directly adjacent to an already used part of a major ski area . It was also designed to minimize vegetation and the ecological footprint in the area . For energy efficiency , trees were retained to cast shade with weather protection and a shading system used to cover parts of the track . The track itself is painted white to maintain low temperatures while minimizing energy demand on the refrigeration system . Waste heat from the refrigeration plant is captured and reused to heat buildings on @-@ site , and could provide other heat uses in the future . Any wood waste created from site clearing activities during venue construction was composted for reuse . Other on @-@ site buildings also followed similar green building design principles .
= = = Awards = = =
In 2008 , the Sliding Centre received two British Columbia Ready @-@ Mixed Concrete Association Awards for Excellence in Concrete Construction . The first award was for Public Works while the second one was for the Century Award .
On 22 August 2006 , VANOC targeted Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design Canada by applying for " silver " green building certification for the 708 m2 ( 7 @,@ 620 sq ft ) refrigeration plant building . The refrigeration plant received " gold " certification level on 2 February 2010 .
= = = Characteristics = = =
Turn names for 4 – 6 and 8 were not given .
Track g @-@ forces were expected to reach up to 5 @.@ 02 for men 's singles luge . Maximum speed was reached at 147 @.@ 9 km / h ( 91 @.@ 9 mph ) in four @-@ man bobsleigh during the certification process .
= = Track records = =
The luge track records shown were set at the men 's singles start house and women 's singles / men 's doubles start houses during the World Cup competition in February 2009 . After Kumaritashvili 's death on 12 February 2010 , the competition for men 's singles was moved to the women 's singles / men 's doubles start house while the competition for women 's singles / men 's doubles was moved to the junior start house . The fastest runs set during the 2010 Winter Olympics are not on this list until an issue between the Whistler 2010 Sports Legacies and the FIL is resolved .
= Siege of Naxos ( 499 BC ) =
The Siege of Naxos ( 499 BC ) was a failed attempt by the Milesian tyrant Aristagoras , operating with support from , and in the name of the Persian Empire of Darius the Great , to conquer the island of Naxos . It was the opening act of the Greco @-@ Persian Wars , which would ultimately last for 50 years .
Aristagoras had been approached by exiled Naxian aristocrats , who were seeking to return to their island . Seeing an opportunity to bolster his position in Miletus , Aristagoras sought the help of his overlord , the Persian king Darius the Great , and the local satrap , Artaphernes to conquer Naxos . Consenting to the expedition , the Persians assembled a force of 200 triremes under the command of Megabates .
The expedition quickly descended into a debacle . Aristagoras and Megabates quarreled on the journey to Naxos , and someone ( possibly Megabates ) informed the Naxians of the imminent arrival of the force . When they arrived , the Persians and Ionians were thus faced with a city well prepared to undergo siege . The expeditionary force duly settled down to besiege the defenders , but after four months without success , ran out of money and were forced to return to Asia Minor .
In the aftermath of this disastrous expedition , and sensing his imminent removal as tyrant , Aristagoras chose to incite the whole of Ionia into rebellion against Darius the Great . The revolt then spread to Caria and Cyprus . Three years of Persian campaigning across Asia Minor followed , with no decisive effect , before the Persians regrouped and made straight for the epicentre of the rebellion at Miletus . At the Battle of Lade , the Persians decisively defeated the Ionian fleet and effectively ended the rebellion . Although Asia Minor had been brought back into the Persian fold , Darius vowed to punish Athens and Eretria , who had supported the revolt . In 492 BC therefore , the first Persian invasion of Greece , would begin as a consequence of the failed attack on Naxos , and the Ionian Revolt .
= = Background = =
In the Greek Dark Ages that followed the collapse of the Mycenaean civilization , significant numbers of Greeks had emigrated to Asia Minor and settled there . These settlers were from three tribal groups : the Aeolians , Dorians and Ionians . The Ionians had settled about the coasts of Lydia and Caria , founding the twelve cities which made up Ionia . These cities were Miletus , Myus and Priene in Caria ; Ephesus , Colophon , Lebedos , Teos , Clazomenae , Phocaea and Erythrae in Lydia ; and the islands of Samos and Chios . The cities of Ionia had remained independent until they were conquered by the famous Lydian king Croesus , in around 560 BC . The Ionian cities then remained under Lydian rule until Lydia was in turn conquered by the nascent Achaemenid Empire of Cyrus the Great . The Persians found the Ionians difficult to rule . Elsewhere in the empire , Cyrus was able to identify elite native groups to help him rule his new subjects — such as the priesthood of Judea . No such group existed in Greek cities at this time ; while there was usually an aristocracy , this was inevitably divided into feuding factions . The Persians thus settled for the sponsoring a tyrant in each Ionian city , even though this drew them into the Ionians ' internal conflicts . Furthermore , a tyrant might develop an independent streak , and have to be replaced . The tyrants themselves faced a difficult task ; they had to deflect the worst of their fellow citizens ' hatred , while staying in the favour of the Persians .
About 40 years after the Persian conquest of Ionia , and in the reign of the fourth Persian king , Darius the Great , the stand @-@ in Milesian tyrant Aristagoras found himself in this familiar predicament . Aristagoras 's uncle Histiaeus had accompanied Darius on campaign in 513 BC , and when offered a reward , had asked for part of the conquered Thracian territory . Although this was granted , Histiaeus 's ambition alarmed Darius 's advisors , and Histiaeus was thus further ' rewarded ' by being compelled to remain in Susa as Darius 's " Royal Table @-@ Companion " . Taking over from Histiaeus , Aristagoras was faced with bubbling discontent in Miletus .
Indeed , this period in Greek history is remarkable for the social and political upheaval in many Greek cities , particularly the establishment of the first democracy in Athens . The island of Naxos , part of the Cyclades group in the Aegean Sea , was also in this period affected by political turmoil . Naxos had been ruled by the tyrant Lygdamis , a protege of the Athenian tyrant Peisistratos , until around 524 BC , when he was overthrown by the Spartans . After this , a native aristocracy seems to have flourished , and Naxos became one of the most prosperous and powerful of the Aegean islands . Despite its success , Naxos was not immune to class tensions and internal strife , and shortly before 500 BC , the population seized power , expelling the aristocrats and establishing a democracy .
In 500 BC , Aristagoras was approached by some of the exiles from Naxos , who asked him to help restore them to the control of the island . Seeing an opportunity to strengthen his position in Miletus by conquering Naxos , Aristagoras approached the satrap of Lydia , Artaphernes , with a proposal . If Artaphernes provided an army , Aristagoras would conquer the island in Darius 's name , and he would then give Artaphernes a share of the spoils to cover the cost of raising the army . Furthermore , Aristagoras suggested that once Naxos fell , the other Cyclades would also quickly follow , and he even suggested that Euboea could be attacked on the same expedition . Artaphernes agreed in principle , and asked Darius for permission to launch the expedition . Darius assented to this , and a force of 200 triremes was assembled in order to attack Naxos the following year .
= = Prelude = =
The Persian fleet was duly assembled in the spring of 499 BC , and sailed to Ionia . Artaphernes put his ( and Darius 's ) cousin Megabates in charge of the expedition , and dispatched him to Miletus with the Persian army . They were joined there by Aristagoras and the Milesian forces , and then embarked and set sail . In order to avoid warning the Naxians , the fleet initially sailed north , towards the Hellespont , but when they arrived at Chios they doubled back and headed south for Naxos .
Herodotus recounts that Megabates made inspections of the ships ( probably whilst beached for the night ) , and came across one ship from Myndus which had not posted any sentries . Megabates ordered his guard to find the captain of the ship , Scylax , and then had the captain thrust into one of the ship 's oar holes with his head outside and his body inside the ship . News reached Aristagoras of the treatment of his friend and he went to Megabates and asked him to reconsider his decision . When Megabates refused to grant Aristagoras 's wishes , Aristagoras simply cut the captain loose himself . Predictably , Megabates was furious with Aristagoras , who in turn retorted " But you , what have you to do with these matters ? Did not Artaphrenes send you to obey me and to sail wherever I bid you ? Why are you so meddlesome ? " . According to Herodotus , Megabates was so enraged by this that he sent messengers to the Naxians to warn them of the approach of the Persian force .
Modern historians , doubting that a Persian commander would have sabotaged his own invasion , have suggested several other possible scenarios . It is , however , impossible to know exactly how the Naxians became aware of the invasion , but undoubtedly they were aware , and began to make preparations . Herodotus tells us that the Naxians had previously had no inkling of the expedition , but that when news arrived they brought everything in from the fields , gathered enough food with which to survive a siege and reinforced their walls .
= = Opposing forces = =
Herodotus does not provide complete numbers for either side , but gives some idea of the strength of the two forces . Clearly , since they were fighting on home territory , the Naxian forces could theoretically have included the whole population . Herodotus says in his narrative that the " Naxians have eight thousand men that bear shields " , which suggests that there were 8 @,@ 000 men capable of equipping themselves as hoplites . These men would have formed a strong backbone to the Naxian resistance .
The Persian force was primarily based around 200 triremes . It is not clear whether there were additional transport ships . The standard complement of a trireme was 200 men , including 14 marines . In the second Persian invasion of Greece , each Persian ship had carried thirty extra marines , and this was probably also true in the first invasion when the whole invasion force was apparently carried in triremes . Furthermore , the Chian ships at the Battle of Lade also carried 40 marines each . This suggests that a trireme could probably carry a maximum of 40 – 45 soldiers — triremes seem to have been easily destabilised by extra weight . If the Persian force at Naxos was similarly made up , then it would have contained somewhere in the region of 8 @,@ 000 to 9 @,@ 000 soldiers ( in addition to many unarmed rowers ) .
= = Siege = =
When the Ionians and Persians arrived at Naxos , they were faced by a well @-@ fortified and supplied city . Herodotus does not explicitly say , but this was presumably the eponymous capital of Naxos . He provides few details of the military actions that ensued , although there is a suggestion that there was an initial assault on the city , which was repelled . The Ionians and Persians thus settled down to besiege the city . However , after four months , the Persians had run out of money , with Aristagoras also spending a great deal . Thoroughly demoralised , the expedition prepared to return to Asia Minor empty handed . Before leaving , they built a stronghold for the exiled Naxian aristocrats on the island . This was a typical strategy in the Greek world for those exiled by internal strife , giving them a base from which to quickly return , as events permitted .
= = Aftermath = =
With the failure of his attempt to conquer Naxos , Aristagoras found himself in dire straits ; he was unable to repay Artaphernes the costs of the expedition , and had moreover alienated himself from the Persian royal family . He fully expected to be stripped of his position by Artaphernes . In a desperate attempt to save himself , Aristagoras chose to incite his own subjects , the Milesians , to revolt against their Persian masters , thereby beginning the Ionian Revolt . Although Herodotus presents the revolt as a consequence of Aristagoras 's personal motives , it is clear that Ionia must have been ripe for rebellion anyway , the primary grievance being the tyrants installed by the Persians . Aristagoras 's actions have thus been likened to tossing a flame into a kindling box ; they incited rebellion across Ionia ( and Aeolis and Doris ) , and tyrannies were everywhere abolished , and democracies established in their place .
Having brought all of Hellenic Asia Minor into revolt , Aristagoras evidently realised that the Greeks would need other allies in order to fight the Persians . In the winter of 499 BC , he sailed to mainland Greece to try to recruit allies . He failed to persuade the Spartans , but the cities of Athens and Eretria agreed to support the rebellion . In the spring of 498 BC , an Athenian force of twenty triremes , accompanied by five from Eretria , for a total of twenty @-@ five triremes , set sail for Ionia . They joined up with the main Ionian force near Ephesus . This force was then guided by the Ephesians through mountains to Sardis , Artaphernes 's satrapal capital . The Greeks caught the Persians unawares , and were able to capture the lower city . However , the lower city then caught on fire , and the Greeks , demoralised , then retreated from the city , and began to make their way back to Ephesus . The Persian troops in Asia Minor followed the Greek force , catching them outside Ephesus . It is clear that the demoralised and tired Greeks were no match for the Persians , and were completely routed in the battle which ensued at Ephesus . The Ionians who escaped the battle made for their own cities , while the remaining Athenians and Eretrians managed to return to their ships , and sailed back to Greece .
Despite these setbacks , the revolt spread further . The Ionians sent men to the Hellespont and Propontis , and captured Byzantium and the other nearby cities . They also persuaded the Carians to join the rebellion . Furthermore , seeing the spread of the rebellion , the kingdoms of Cyprus also revolted against Persian rule without any outside persuasion . For the next three years , the Persian army and navy were fully occupied with fighting the rebellions in Caria and Cyprus , and Ionia seems to have had an uneasy peace during these years . At the height of the Persian counter @-@ offensive , Aristagoras , sensing the untenability of his position , decided to abandon his position as leader of Miletus , and of the revolt , and he left Miletus . Herodotus , who evidently has a rather negative view of him , suggests that Aristagoras simply lost his nerve and fled .
By the sixth year of the revolt ( 494 BC ) , the Persian forces had regrouped . The available land forces were gathered into one army , and were accompanied by a fleet supplied by the re @-@ subjugated Cypriots , and the Egyptians , Cilicians and Phoenicians . The Persians headed directly to Miletus , paying little attention to other strongholds , presumably intending to tackle the revolt at its centre . The Ionians sought to defend Miletus by sea , leaving the defense of Miletus to the Milesians . The Ionian fleet gathered at the island of Lade , off the coast of Miletus . The Persians were uncertain of victory at Lade , so attempted to persuade some of the Ionian contingents to defect . Although this was unsuccessful at first , when the Persians finally attacked the Ionians , the Samian contingent accepted the Persian offer . As the Persian and Ionian fleets met , the Samians sailed away from the battle , causing the collapse of the Ionian battle line . Although the Chian contingent and a few other ships remained , and fought bravely against the Persians , the battle was lost .
With defeat at Lade , the Ionian Revolt was all but ended . The next year , the Persians reduced the last rebel strongholds , and began the process of bringing peace to the region . The Ionian Revolt constituted the first major conflict between Greece and the Persian Empire , and as such represents the first phase of the Greco @-@ Persian Wars . Although Asia Minor had been brought back into the Persian fold , Darius vowed to punish Athens and Eretria for their support for the revolt . Moreover , seeing that the myriad city states of Greece posed a continued threat to the stability of his empire , he decided to conquer the whole of Greece . In 492 BC , the first Persian invasion of Greece , the next phase of the Greco @-@ Persian Wars , would begin as a direct consequence of the Ionian Revolt .
= = = Ancient sources = = =
Herodotus , The Histories ( Godley translation , 1920 )
Thucydides , History of The Peloponnesian Wars
Diodorus Siculus , Library
Cicero , On the Laws
= Tropical Storm Alpha ( 2005 ) =
Tropical Storm Alpha was the twenty @-@ third named storm of the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season . The twenty @-@ one names from the predetermined A – W list having been used , Alpha was the first tropical storm ever to be given a name from the Greek alphabet . On October 20 , Tropical Depression Twenty @-@ five formed from a tropical wave near the Windward Islands . It became a tropical storm on October 23 , and reached its peak intensity but weakened again before making landfall in the Dominican Republic that afternoon . Crossing the island of Hispaniola it weakened to a tropical depression , and persisted until October 24 , when it dissipated . Its remnant low was absorbed by Hurricane Wilma 's large circulation .
Alpha dumped torrential rain on the island of Hispaniola , making it the eighth wettest storm to impact poverty @-@ stricken Haiti . It caused 26 deaths , 17 of them in Haiti and all of them caused by floods and rain @-@ related landslides . Roads were blocked for weeks and hundreds of houses were destroyed .
= = Meteorological history = =
Alpha 's origins were from a tropical wave that developed near the Windward Islands on October 20 . Satellite images indicated that a low pressure center associated with the tropical wave formed near Barbados and moved west @-@ northwest with increasing convective activity . In an area of light wind shear , the convection increased and Doppler weather radar data from Puerto Rico detected a well @-@ defined cyclonic circulation . On October 22 , the area of low pressure organized into Tropical Depression 25 , southeast of Hispaniola . Shortly thereafter , satellite imagery indicated that a closed circulation had developed , and the associated convection had started banding . Later that same day , the depression had organized enough to be upgraded to Tropical Storm Alpha ; this was the first time the National Hurricane Center had to use a Greek name for an Atlantic hurricane .
When Alpha came within the Doppler weather radar range of Puerto Rico , the radar suggested that an eyewall @-@ like feature had developed . Alpha was tracking along the southwest edge of a subtropical ridge . With nearby Hurricane Wilma 's large circulation , Alpha was experiencing strong southerly flow from Wilma . Alpha , with its small circulation , was then faced with the mountainous terrain of Hispaniola , which led forecasters to believe Alpha was soon to dissipate . Shortly after Alpha reached its peak intensity on October 23 its wind decreased . While convection remained in bands , the low level circulation was disrupted by land . This left the center ill @-@ defined and difficult to locate .
Late on October 23 , Alpha made landfall in Hispaniola , quickly decreasing in intensity as it did so . After making landfall , the storm weakened , leaving it just between tropical storm and tropical depression status . Because of the weakening , and the strong southerly flow from nearby Hurricane Wilma , it was hard to determine whether a low @-@ level circulation was present . However , satellite imagery suggested that a new center had developed over open waters to the north of Hispaniola . It was downgraded to a tropical depression early the next day , now re @-@ emerging over open waters . The storm soon developed an elongated center of circulation which indicated that the system was weakening . On October 24 the low @-@ level center had completely dissolved , and only a small area of convective activity persisted . Thus the system had dissipated , and was a remnant low pressure system when the National Hurricane Center issued their last advisories of Alpha . Shortly thereafter , the remnant low was absorbed into the circulation of Hurricane Wilma on October 25 .
= = Preparations = =
On October 22 , the National Hurricane Center issued a tropical storm warning for the island of Hispaniola and a tropical storm watch for Turks and Caicos Islands and the southeastern Bahamas . The tropical storm watch was quickly upgraded to a tropical storm warning . In the Dominican Republic , authorities ordered the evacuation of at least 30 @,@ 000 people living in areas where flooding was possible . On October 22 and 23 , the Haitian government ordered level 1 and then level 2 alerts for the county in anticipation of Tropical Storm Alpha 's rainfall . Haiti was already experiencing flooding from Hurricane Wilma 's passage between October 8 and 19 , so the threat of more rainfall was particularly dire . The country 's Centre National de Meteorologie issued weather bulletins through existing media distribution channels with clear instructions on how residences should prepare for floods and landslides . The local government of the Sud @-@ Est Department ordered the evacuation of its capital city , Jacmel . The national government mobilized personnel and resources of the Direction of Civil Protection , the Secrétariat Permanent de Gestion des Risques et des Désastres ( SPGRD ) , and the National Police to pre @-@ arranged Emergency Operation Centres .
= = Impact = =
Although the storm 's circulation technically made landfall near Barahona in the Dominican Republic , the bulk of its impact occurred in the country 's poorer neighbor , Haiti . When Alpha arrived on Hispaniola it brought between 4 inches ( 101 mm ) and 7 @.@ 9 in ( 201 mm ) of rain which triggered floods and landslides . The road between Port @-@ au @-@ Prince and the Haiti 's Sud Department was closed at Grand @-@ Goâve in the Ouest department . In the coastal city of Léogâne near Port @-@ au @-@ Prince , bridges were closed to cars but not to pedestrians . Surging rivers east of Marigot and west of Jacmel closed roads in that region , and the main road between Jérémie and Les Cayes was also closed . Elsewhere in the country , landslides temporarily blocked several other major roads . Gonâve Island , which had been suffering a brutal drought , was stricken by floods which overwhelmed and washed away pipes of the water draining system in Nan Baré .
Damages in Haiti were mostly confined to the Ouest , Sud @-@ Est , and Grand 'Anse departments . In Haiti , 17 people died . Two drowned when a river overflowed in Grande Anse and two more died after being electrocuted during flooding , one in the Port @-@ au @-@ Prince suburb of Carrefour and the other in the southern town of Jacmel . The rest of the deaths were the results of landslides and flooding in various areas in the country . Across the country , 243 houses were destroyed , and 191 more were damaged .
Nine people were killed in the Dominican Republic : two fishermen went missing at sea during the storm and the others were swept away by flood waters when rivers burst their banks in Guaricanos and Puerto Plata . Otherwise , the damage in the Dominican Republic was minimal .
The Haitian government did not request international assistance , although The United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti ( MINUSTAH ) , the United Nations Development Programme ( UNDP ) and the Haitian Red @-@ Cross , which were already working in Haiti , took on some supporting roles . In response to local flooding , the Jacmel Regional branch of the Red Cross distributed an additional 400 water purification tablets , 11 boxes of high @-@ energy biscuits , and 10 boxes of body soap .
= = Naming and records = =
Since all the twenty one predetermined hurricane names were exhausted after Hurricane Wilma , the Greek alphabet was used and the storm was designated Alpha once it reached tropical storm status . The name Alpha had been used before in the Atlantic for a subtropical storm , but 2005 was the first season to have a tropical storm Alpha .
At the time it was thought that Alpha was the twenty @-@ second storm of the season , and so was the storm which broke the 1933 season 's record for most storms in a single season . However post @-@ season analysis revealed that there was also a previously unnoticed subtropical storm on October 4 , which made Alpha the twenty @-@ third storm of the season . Alpha was the first tropical storm to be assigned a Greek @-@ alphabet name after the list of hurricane names was exhausted .
= SMS Seeadler =
SMS Seeadler ( " His Majesty 's Ship Seeadler — Sea Eagle " ) was an unprotected cruiser of the Bussard class , the third member of a class of six ships built by the German Kaiserliche Marine ( Imperial Navy ) . Her sister ships included Bussard , the lead ship , along with Falke , Condor , Cormoran , and Geier . Seeadler was built at the Kaiserliche Werft ( Imperial Shipyard ) in Danzig in late 1890 , launched in February 1892 , and commissioned in August of that year . Intended for colonial service , Seeadler was armed with a main battery of eight 10 @.@ 5 @-@ centimeter ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) guns and had a top speed of 15 @.@ 5 knots ( 28 @.@ 7 km / h ; 17 @.@ 8 mph ) .
Seeadler spent almost her entire career abroad . Following her commissioning , she joined the protected cruiser Kaiserin Augusta on a visit to the United States for the 400th anniversary of Christopher Columbus 's discovery of the Americas . She thereafter went to German East Africa , where she was stationed until 1898 . | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
. Notable Georgetown crew alumni include walk @-@ on Mike Vespoli , the founder and chief executive officer of Vespoli USA , Inc. as well as actor Bradley Cooper .
= = = Sailing = = =
The sailing team competes in the Middle Atlantic Intercollegiate Sailing Association ( MAISA ) of the Inter @-@ Collegiate Sailing Association ( ICSA ) . Under coach Mike Callahan has been ranked number 1 nationally in the ICSA Sailing World College Rankings on multiple occasions . The team sails from the Washington Sailing Marina Andrew Campbell was named U.S. Olympic Committee ( USOC ) Male Sailing Athlete of the Year in 2002 and 2005 , and ICSA College Sailor of the Year in 2006 . He is one of the six team members awarded as College Sailors of the Year on seven occasions , as Nevin Snow has taken the prize twice , in 2015 and 2016 . Campbell helped lead the team to the first of their 13 Inter @-@ Collegiate Sailing Association National Championships since 2001 , and are the reigning national co @-@ ed champions as of 2016 . During this time the team also won seven MAISA conference championships , known as the America Trophy . After the team 's 2013 national championship , they were invited to participate in the 2014 World University Match Racing Championships in Trentino , Italy , on Lago di Ledro , which they won 7 – 1 , besting nineteen teams from fourteen countries . The Hoyas won the Leonard M. Fowle Trophy to the best overall collegiate team in 2006 .
= = = Soccer = = =
The men 's soccer team was organized in 1952 , and have made four NCAA Tournament appearances , in 1994 , 1997 , 2010 , and 2012 . They play in the Big East Conference , and have made it to the Big East Tournament 19 times , and advanced to the finals in 2012 . They are coached by Brian Wiese , and play their home games on campus at North Kehoe Field . The women 's soccer team began play in 1991 , have been coached by Dave Nolan since 1999 , and share the same home field . The women 's team has been to the NCAA Tournament twice , in 2007 and 2010 , when they advanced to the quarterfinals .
Six players from the men 's soccer team have played professionally for Major League Soccer : Phil Wellington ( drafted in 1996 ) , Brandon Leib ( 1997 ) , Eric Kvello ( 1999 ) , Dan Gargan 2004 ( Selected 43rd overall in the 2005 MLS Supplemental Draft ) , Jeff Curtin 2005 ( 1st round draft Pick # 14 overall ) , and Steve Neumann 2014 ( 1st round draft pick in 2014 MLS SuperDraft , 4th overall pick ) . Ricky Schramm , who played on the 2006 Hoyas , was drafted in the 3rd round by D.C. United . Women 's team star Ingrid Wells has played on the United States U @-@ 23 women 's national soccer team and for Göteborg FC .
= = = Lacrosse = = =
Both the men 's and women 's lacrosse teams have been highly competitive in recent years , both in conference and tournament play . A men 's lacrosse team was first organized in 1951 , and entered Division 1 play in 1970 . The team played in the Eastern College Athletic Conference until the 2010 season , when the Big East Conference created a men 's league . The men 's team made the NCAA Tournament each season from 1996 – 2007 , reaching the Final Four in 1999 .
The women 's lacrosse team was formed in 1977 , and won the first 6 consecutive Big East titles from 2001 – 2006 . The Lady Hoyas reached the NCAA Women 's Lacrosse Championship final in both 2001 and 2002 . In 2005 , their first season under new coach Ricky Fried , the team went 13 – 5 and made the NCAA Tournament for the 8th straight year . Both the men 's and women 's teams play their home games on Multi @-@ Sport Field .
= = = Football = = =
The football team at Georgetown was first formed on November 1 , 1874 , with the earliest recorded games dating to 1887 . By the 1940s , Georgetown had one of the better college football teams in America , and played in the 1941 Orange Bowl , where they lost 14 – 7 to Mississippi State . As the college game became more expensive after World War II , however , Georgetown 's program began to lose money rapidly . The Hoyas last successful season was 1949 , when they lost in the Sun Bowl against Texas Western . However the program was losing too much money , and on March 22 , 1951 , the university 's president canceled the football program .
In 1964 , Georgetown allowed its students to start a football program as an exhibition @-@ only club sport . Varsity football resumed in 1970 at what later became known as the Division III level . Today , Georgetown plays at the Division I Football Championship Subdivision , competing in the Patriot League and perennially plays against Ivy League schools . The Hoyas have also begun a cross @-@ town rivalry with Howard University for a championship known as the D.C. Cup .
" Big Jim " Ricca , an NFL defensive end and offensive lineman , graduated in 1949 and was the last Hoya to play in an NFL game . In 2007 , the Washington Redskins made Alex Buzbee a reserve player , becoming the first Georgetown player on an NFL team since Ricca retired in 1956 . The 2011 Georgetown Football team finished 8 @-@ 3 , which was their first winning season since the 1999 campaign , giving them a second place in the conference .
= = = Track and field = = =
Georgetown has been nationally successful in both cross country and track and field . The men and women 's track and field teams practice off @-@ campus at Duke Ellington Track in neighboring Burleith . The men 's and women 's teams have both been ranked # 1 by the U.S. Track & Field and Cross Country Coaches Association in recent years , both nationally and in the Mid @-@ Atlantic Region . In 2011 , the women 's cross country program won Georgetown 's only other team NCAA Championship by besting Big East rival Villanova . Chris Miltenberg , women 's cross country coach , won the 2011 NCAA coach of the year for women 's cross country . Patrick Henner is the director of men 's and women 's track and field as of 2012 . Georgetown track and field has won 21 individual NCAA National Championships , being 15 by male athletes and 6 by female athletes . The first individual NCAA National Champion was Charles Capozzoli in cross country in 1952 . To date , there have also been 11 National Champions in indoor and 9 National Champions in outdoor NCAA track and field championships .
= = = Baseball = = =
Baseball is Georgetown 's oldest sport , with the first recorded game taking place in 1866 , and the team formally organized and sanctioned in 1870 . The Hoyas have seen little national success , with no appearances in the NCAA Division I Baseball Championship since the event was established in 1947 . The team was once known as the Stonewalls , and is one possible source of the Hoya Saxa cheer famous among all Georgetown sports teams . The Hoyas play their home games at Shirley Povich Field , a 1 @,@ 500 seat stadium located in Bethesda , Maryland and named for Washington Post sports columnist Shirley Povich . The stadium was built in 2000 . The Hoyas also utilize three lighted batting cages and two bullpen areas located on campus above Yates Field House , and adjacent to Kehoe Field .
= = = Golf = = =
The men 's golf team has won two Big East Conference championships : 1998 and 2010 . They are coached by Tommy Hunter , who was named Big East Coach of the Year in 2010 . They have crowned two national champions : Maurice McCarthy Jr. in 1928 and John Burke in 1938 .
= = National team championships = =
As of July 2 , 2015 , Georgetown has 2 NCAA team national championships .
Men 's ( 1 )
Basketball ( 1 ) : 1984
Women 's ( 1 )
Cross Country ( 1 ) : 2011
see also :
Big East Conference national team championships
List of NCAA schools with the most NCAA Division I championships
= = Club teams = =
Georgetown University fields numerous club sports teams . They range from club versions of varsity sports , such as tennis or basketball , to sports for which there is no varsity equivalent , such as men and women 's Water Polo Clubs or Ultimate Frisbee . The university began supporting club teams in 2000 . Though other teams exist , such as the Georgetown University Croquet Society , the Club Sports Board at Georgetown supports eleven men 's club teams , nine women 's , and three co @-@ ed teams ( year founded in parentheses ) :
Men 's : Boxing ( 2008 ) , Cycling , Ice Hockey , Basketball , Lacrosse ( 1995 ) , Rugby ( 1967 ) , Soccer , Ultimate Frisbee , Volleyball , Water polo ( 1993 ) , Triathlon ( 2005 )
Women 's : Squash ( 2008 ) , Water polo , Basketball , Field Hockey , Lacrosse , Rugby ( 2000 ) , Soccer ( 2001 ) , Ultimate Frisbee , Volleyball
Co @-@ ed : Equestrian , Racquetball ( 2007 ) , Tennis ( 2004 ) , Climbing ( 2010 )
= = = Rugby = = =
The Georgetown University Rugby Football Club is the intercollegiate men 's rugby union team that represents Georgetown in the USA Rugby Division II competition . It was founded in the spring semester of 1967 by former members of the Washington D.C. Rugby Football Club including graduate student Michael Murphy . In 2005 , Georgetown 's first reached the Final Four of the USA Rugby Collegiate Division II National Tournament . The " Hoya Ruggers " again reached for the semifinals in 2009 in Palo Alto , California , and have had an undefeated 2009 @-@ 10 season .
A women 's rugby team was founded in 2000 , and plays in Division II in the Potomac Rugby Union ( PRU ) . They have won the PRU championship four consecutive times from 2006 to 2009 . They have also been invited to the Mid @-@ Atlantic Rugby Football Union tournament three times , and were runners @-@ up in 2006 @-@ 07 .
= = = Ice hockey = = =
Georgetown 's ice hockey team plays in the ACHA Division II in the Atlantic Coast Collegiate Hockey League ( ACCHL ) as one of three teams whose primary conference is not the Atlantic Coast Conference . Since joining this conference in 2003 , the team has won the conference championship four times , in 2004 @-@ 05 , 2006 – 07 , 2007 – 08 , and again in 2012 @-@ 13 . The team previously played in the Division III Mason @-@ Dixon Collegiate Hockey Association , where it won the league championship in 1997 , 1999 , and 2000 . In 2001 and 2002 , they were invited to the national tournament of the American Collegiate Hockey Association , which the team had joined in 1999 . Coach Brad Card now leads the team , taking over the bench for Coach John Kokidko . The team plays its home matches at the Washington Capitals ' practice arena , Kettler Capitals Iceplex in Ballston , Arlington , Virginia at the Ballston Common Mall .
= = Athletic directors = =
After Bernard Muir left the position as the Director of the Athletic Department on May 11 , 2009 , a year long search for a replacement began . Dr. Daniel R. Porterfield , Senior Vice President for Strategic Development , served as Interim Director of Athletics beginning June 3 , 2009 , until Lee Reed took the position on April 15 , 2010 .
= Déjà Vu ( Beyoncé song ) =
" Déjà Vu " is a song by American singer @-@ songwriter Beyoncé , featuring vocals by rapper Jay @-@ Z. It was produced by Rodney " Darkchild " Jerkins and Beyoncé for her second solo album , B 'Day ( 2006 ) . " Déjà Vu " is an R & B song , which incorporates elements of the 1970s funk and soul music . Its music is largely based on live instrumentation , including bass guitar , hi @-@ hat , horns , except Roland TR @-@ 808 drum machine , which is a non @-@ live instrument . The song 's title and lyrics refer to a woman being constantly reminded of a past lover .
" Déjà Vu " was released as the album 's lead single to US radios on June 24 , 2006 . The song received generally mixed critical reviews . Many critics noted the similarities of " Déjà Vu " with Beyoncé 's own 2003 song " Crazy in Love " . Critics commended the assertiveness and the sensuality with which Beyoncé sings the lyrics and compared her vocal delivery to that of Tina Turner in the late 1980s . " Déjà Vu " and its Freemasons club remix version received three nominations at Best Remixed Recording , Non @-@ Classical at the 2007 Grammy Awards . It was recognized as the Best Song of 2006 at the Music of Black Origin ( MOBO ) Awards .
Commercially , " Déjà Vu " peaked at number four on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart . It topped the Hot Dance Club Play chart , the Hot Dance Singles Sales chart , and the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . The song was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . " Déjà Vu " peaked at number one on the UK Singles Chart and generally reached the top 20 in Europe . The song 's accompanying music video was directed by Sophie Muller . About 5 @,@ 000 fans petitioned online for a re @-@ shoot of the video , complaining among others , the lack of theme , the wardrobe choice , and the seemingly sexual interactions between Beyoncé and Jay @-@ Z.
= = Background and production = =
In 2005 , American record producer Rodney " DarkChild " Jerkins and producer Jon Jon Traxx " came up with the concept of doing an old @-@ school track , a throwback with real bass and horns " , to which the song 's title is partly attributed . Traxx with Jerkins , first recorded the bass sections , onto which the percussion , horns and vocals were layered . Production took place in Jerkins ' New Jersey @-@ based studio , and Sony Music Studios in New York City .
Jerkins recorded a demo version of the song with vocals by American songwriter Makeba Riddick , who is credited as co @-@ writer . They presented the demo to Beyoncé , who later approved of it . " Déjà Vu " also has lyrical contributions from songwriters Delisha Thomas and Keli Nicole Price , and Beyoncé 's husband ( then @-@ boyfriend ) Jay @-@ Z. He became involved at a late stage , when Beyoncé saw him trying to sing along to a recorded version of the track , and asked him to contribute . Jay @-@ Z recorded rap verses for the song and hence appears as a featured guest .
Concerning the production of " Déjà Vu " , Beyoncé told MTV News :
When I recorded ' Deja Vu ' ... I knew that even before I started working on my album , I wanted to add live instruments to all of my songs . It 's such a balance [ of music on the song ] [ ... ] It 's still young , still new and fresh , but it has the old soul groove . The energy is incredible . It 's the summer anthem , I pray . I feel it . Rodney Jerkins is incredible , Jay of course is on it , he blessed the song , I 'm happy with it .
= = Music and lyrics = =
" Déjà Vu " is a contemporary R & B song , performed in a moderate hip hop groove . It is also influenced by late @-@ 1970s funk music , and it contains elements of soul music as well as dance @-@ pop music . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by EMI Music Publishing , the song is composed in the key of G minor with a time signature in common time , and a moderate groove of 106 beats per minute . Beyoncé 's vocals range from the note of D ♯ 4 to F5 . The music is largely based on live instrumentation , including a bass guitar , conga , hi @-@ hat , and horns . A non @-@ live instrument , the Roland TR @-@ 808 drum machine , provides the song 's heavy and energetic disco beat . Spence D. of IGN Music commented that Beyoncé 's vocals on the song are " silky smooth " and that her vocal range leans toward the high end , hence contrasting to the song 's low @-@ end construction . Mike Joseph of PopMatters noted that " Déjà Vu " is reminiscent of Michael Jackson 's " Off the Wall " ( 1980 ) .
The lyrics to " Déjà Vu " follow the verse – pre @-@ chorus – chorus pattern , and feature two rap verses . It is hook @-@ laden , similar in this respect to " Crazy in Love " . The lyrics detail a woman being constantly reminded of a past lover , shown in the lines , " Is it because I 'm missing you that I 'm having déjà vu ? " As the song opens , Beyoncé introducing the bass , hi @-@ hat and Roland TR @-@ 808 by name . The sounds of the instruments blend as they are being mentioned one after the other ; the horns are only audible in the pre @-@ chorus and hook sections , and a short section in the second rap . The bass guitar , which is the first instrument to enter , slides into the main two @-@ bar ostinato . Following the repeated bass slides , the hi @-@ hat and the Roland TR @-@ 808 begin playing .
After that Beyoncé mentions Jay @-@ Z , the bass glides up for a vibrato @-@ rich fill , giving way to the first rap . Backgrounded with a repeating groove , Beyoncé starts the first verse . The pre @-@ chorus follows , for which the bass changes to a more melodic tone " to play something more singing " , in the words of Jon Jon Webb , the bass player on the track . The melody returns to the main groove during the repeated hook . This pattern repeats and leads to the second rap verse . The third pre @-@ chorus " comes from Jerkins ' idea to have the part changes on top , with Webb 's main groove on the bottom " . It is followed by the main pre @-@ chorus , then the hook is repeated four times . The singing stops and the instruments fill in the space . The hi @-@ hat and Roland TR @-@ 808 also stop ; the song ends with the plucked bass and blasts of horns .
= = Release and reception = =
" Déjà Vu " was leaked to the internet on June 13 , 2006 . On June 24 , 2006 , it was released to radio stations in the United States , four weeks after Beyoncé informed Columbia , her record label , that B 'Day was completed . Over one month later , it was released to physical formats ; the track was released as a CD single on July 31 , 2006 in the United States . An enhanced CD was released on September 12 , containing five tracks and an additional " Déjà Vu " multimedia track . In the United Kingdom , the digital download became available on August 15 , 2006 . A CD maxi and a 12 " single were released on August 21 , 2006 . Beyoncé 's manager approached English production team Freemasons to remix " Déjà Vu " after hearing a remix they made for a song by singer Heather Headley . A club @-@ oriented version was produced and appeared on a " Green Light " Freemasons EP , released on July 31 , 2007 . A maxi single , featuring the album version of the track and Freemasons club mix , was released on August 5 , 2006 in European countries . During an interview , Beyoncé further spoke about her decision to release the song as the first single from the album , saying , " it was soulful and had a lot of horns , it just felt good , and it didn ' t sound like everything on the radio . It wasn ' t typical but it felt timeless . " . The UK hits compilation album Now That 's What I Call Music ! 65 , released in 2006 , features an alternative version of the single , omitting Jay @-@ Z 's parts and running to 3 : 25 minutes .
= = = Critical reception = = =
" Déjà Vu " debuted to mixed and positive reviews among critics . Mike Joseph of the international webzine PopMatters ' believed that it was " fantastic to hear Beyoncé singing her lungs out over a full @-@ bodied groove featuring live instruments " . Spence D. of IGN Music , a multimedia news and reviews website , complimented Jerkins ' bass @-@ laden groove , writing that it brought the track to perfection . Describing " Déjà Vu " as a magnificent song , Caroline Sullivan of The Guardian complimented Beyoncé and Jay @-@ Z collaboration calling it " feverish as pre @-@ watershed pop gets " . She added that even though when Jay @-@ Z is not physically present , he manages to bring out something formidable in Beyoncé that evokes " the young , feral Tina Turner " . Bernard Zuel The Sydney Morning Herald praised the assertiveness with which Beyoncé delivers her lines and considered buying " Déjà Vu " as worthwhile .
Several other music critics have compared " Déjà Vu " to Beyoncé 's 2003 single , " Crazy in Love " , the lead single of her debut album . According to Gail Mitchell of Billboard magazine , the song is viewed by many as a sequel to " Crazy in Love " . Jason King of the Vibe magazine deemed the song as " cloned from the DNA of the raucous ' Crazy in Love ' " while Thomas Inskeep of Stylus Magazine referred to it as " ' Crazy in Love ' lite " . Some reviewers , however , were negative to the parallels drawn between the two songs . Andy Kellman of Allmusic , an online music database , wrote that " [ ' Déjà Vu ' ] " had the audacity to not be as monstrous as ' Crazy in Love ' " , referring to the commercial success the latter experienced in 2003 . The internet @-@ based publication Pitchfork Media 's writer Ryan Dombal claimed that " this time [ Beyoncé ] out @-@ bolds the beat " .
Sasha Frere @-@ Jones of The New Yorker deemed the lyrics as a " perplexing view of memory " , while Chris Richards of The Washington Post characterized Beyoncé as a " love @-@ dazed girlfriend " in the song . Jody Rosen of the Entertainment Weekly referred to " Déjà Vu " as an " oddly flat " choice as a lead single . Jaime Gill of Yahoo ! Music regarded " Déjà Vu " as a good choice for a single but concluded that it does lack " the kind of killer chorus " to suggest that Beyoncé would take one further step " to outright global domination " . On the other hand , Jon Pareles of The New York Times wrote that Jay @-@ Z shows up " as calmly boastful as ever " in the song but he only makes Beyoncé 's " sound more insecure " . Kelefa Sanneh of the same publication noted that " the refrain doesn 't give Beyoncé a chance really to show off " and further described the song as a " fair @-@ to @-@ middling single from a singer who is the opposite of desperate " .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
" Déjà Vu " was nominated for Best Rap / Sung Collaboration and Best R & B Song while the Freemasons club remix version was nominated for Best Remixed Recording , Non @-@ Classical at the 2007 Grammy Awards . It was also nominated for Best Collaboration alongside Beyoncé 's other song " Upgrade U " featuring Jay @-@ Z , at the Black Entertainment Television ( BET ) Awards . " Déjà Vu " won Best Song at the 2006 MOBO Awards in the UK . The following year , it also received two nominations for the Best R & B / Urban Dance Track and Best Pop Dance Track at the 22nd Annual International Dance Music Awards in 2007 . The writers of Rap @-@ Up magazine put the song at number ten on their list of the ten best singles of 2006 . In 2013 , John Boone and Jennifer Cady of E ! Online placed the song at number six on their list of ten best Beyoncé 's songs . In a 2013 list of Jay @-@ Z 's 20 Biggest Billboard Hits , " Déjà Vu " was ranked at number 19 .
= = = Chart performance = = =
" Déjà Vu " debuted on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart at number 44 , less than a month before its physical release . After the release of the digital and physical components , the song sold 75 @,@ 000 downloads in its first week . It eventually peaked at number four on the Hot 100 chart . The track 's Freemasons / M. Joshua remix topped the US Hot Dance Club Play chart , while the album version peaked at number 18 on the same component chart . " Déjà Vu " also reached the top spot of the Hot Dance Singles Sales and Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs charts , number nine on the Rhythmic Top 40 chart , and number 14 on the Top 40 Mainstream chart .
" Déjà Vu " reached the top 10 in eight European countries . Having sold 29 @,@ 365 units on its first week , the single made its debut at number one on the UK Singles Chart , becoming Beyoncé 's second solo number @-@ one single in the UK . The single reached the top five in Hungary , Ireland , Italy , Norway , and Switzerland and entered the top 10 in Belgium , Finland , and Germany . In Oceania , " Déjà Vu " peaked on the Australian Singles Chart at number 12 , and on the New Zealand Singles Chart at number 15 . " Déjà Vu " emerged as the ninety @-@ eighth best @-@ selling single in Australia in 2006 .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background and synopsis = = =
The music video for " Déjà Vu " was filmed by British director Sophie Muller in New Orleans , Louisiana on June 21 , 2006 , with parts of the video shot at the Maple Leaf Bar and the Oak Alley Plantation in Carrollton , Louisiana and Vacherie , Louisiana respectively . The footage features couture @-@ inspired outfits , vigorous footwork and sexually @-@ themed routines . The video simultaneously premiered on July 12 , 2006 on MTV 's show Total Request Live ( TRL ) , and Overdrive , MTV 's broadband video channel . It reached the top spot on the TRL , Yahoo ! , and MTV countdowns . The " Deja Vu " video topped the UK TV airplay chart in late July 2006 .
The video begins with showing Beyoncé against a green wall and Jay @-@ Z sitting on a chair inside a dark room . Beyoncé and Jay @-@ Z then start to simultaneously play imaginary instruments , mimicking the song 's tune . Scenes of Beyoncé are then shown in several different rooms wearing different outfits . As the chorus begins , she is shown running around and dancing out in a large sugarcane field . At the end of the chorus , she dances in a red dress in front of a pond and in a large red dress out in front of a mansion . When Jay @-@ Z 's verse begins , the two are shown alone inside a room , Beyoncé is now barefoot and bare @-@ legged , she dances seductively around Jay @-@ Z , and leads to the controversial oral sex scene . Beyoncé is then shown wearing a green skirt and bedazzled bra while dancing around in sand . As the song progresses , she is shown dancing alone in a dark forest wearing a sparkling black dress as fireflies circle around her head . The song ends with Beyoncé leaning back in a pose as fireflies race away .
= = = Reception = = =
Reactions to the video were mixed . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine commented it is " more thematic and thought provoking than the videos for ' Baby Boy ' and ' Naughty Girl ' " , Beyoncé 's songs from her debut album , Dangerously in Love . Allhiphop 's Eb Haynes described the video " visually fresh " and " couture motivated " . A news article published by Hindustan Times reported that a particular scene in the video is suggestive of oral sex . Natalie Y. Moore of In These Times magazine echoed the latter 's commentary , writing that the video showcases Beyoncé " strutting her sexuality " , and that in Jay @-@ Z 's scenes it " looks as if any minute now she 'll give him fellatio " . The video later appeared on a list of Yahoo ! Music News ' Worst Videos of All Time , which pointed to the negative fan reaction and stated , " It 's probably the least horrific video listed ... but as far as Beyoncé videos go , it is [ sic ] a stinker . "
According to an MTV News staff report , as of July 2006 , more than two thousand people had signed an online petition addressed to Beyoncé 's record label , Columbia , demanding a reshoot for the video . By the end of August 2006 , 5000 additional fans had signed it . The petition requested the clip to be taped again because it was considered to be " an underwhelming representation of the talent and quality of previous music @-@ video projects of Ms. Beyoncé " . Included in the laundry list of offenses were " a lack of theme , dizzying editing , over @-@ the @-@ top wardrobe choices , and unacceptable interactions " between Beyoncé and her now @-@ husband , Jay @-@ Z. Beyoncé 's dance moves were also called into question by the petition , qualifying them as " erratic , confusing and alarming at times " . Additionally , fans complained about sexual theme depicted in the video , describing that some scenes as " unacceptable interactions [ between Beyoncé and Jay @-@ Z ] " while also complaining of a " non @-@ existent sexual chemistry " between the two . The music video was awarded Best Video at the 2006 MOBO Awards . It also received two nominations for Sexiest Video and Best Hook @-@ Up at the 2007 MTV Australia Video Music Awards .
= = Live performances = =
" Déjà Vu " was performed by Beyoncé at the 2006 BET Awards on June 27 at the Shrine Auditorium . The show was opened with a performance of the song and Jay @-@ Z joined Beyoncé onstage during the second half of the song . William Keck of USA Today commented that Beyoncé " sizzled in a revealing silver ensemble " as she performed the song . She also performed " Déjà Vu " at the Fashion Rocks on September 8 , 2006 . According to Farrah Weinstein of MTV News , Beyoncé 's performance of the song was billed as a tribute to Josephine Baker , and both her stage set and outfit were in homage to the singer and dancer . The set was designed like an old cabaret club , complete with male dancers bearing saxophones , and both Beyoncé and her female dancers wore Baker 's trademark mini @-@ hula skirt embellished with fake bananas . She performed the song on the American morning news and talk show , Good Morning America during an episode which aired on September 8 , 2006 . Beyoncé also performed the song at The Ellen DeGeneres Show on September 9 , 2006 , and at The Tyra Banks Show on September 15 , 2006 . At the 2006 World Music Awards on November 15 , 2006 , Beyoncé opened the show with a performance of " Déjà Vu " .
In addition to her live performances of " Déjà Vu " in awards ceremonies and televised shows , the song was included on the set list for her tours The Beyoncé Experience and I Am ... World Tour . John Aizlewood of Daily Mail described the performance of the song during The Beyoncé Experience as " head @-@ spinning " . During Beyoncé 's performance of " Déjà Vu " at a concert in Toronto on August 25 , 2007 , she had a wardrobe malfunction as her dress flew over her head and was speculated to reveal her breast . However , a spokesperson for the singer denied speculations saying , " She 's wearing a flesh @-@ tone bra ! Do you really think Beyoncé would go onstage like that ? " . The video which was uploaded to YouTube went viral . Ann Powers of Los Angeles Times discussed about the malfunction , saying : " As a pop queen , Beyoncé is almost too perfect ... [ a ] ' wardrobe malfunction ' in Toronto garnered far more attention than was warranted partly because these mistakes contradicted her fiercely athletic style . " During the I Am ... World Tour , Beyoncé did not perform the whole song ; she sang several of the opening lines of " Déjà Vu " after her entrance on stage . During the revue I Am ... Yours which was a part of the tour , Beyoncé performed a jazz medley of " Déjà Vu " , " It Don 't Mean a Thing ( If It Ain 't Got That Swing ) " and " Bootylicious " and continued with a full version of the first song . Concert performances of " Déjà Vu " were included on her live albums The Beyoncé Experience Live ( 2007 ) , I Am ... Yours : An Intimate Performance at Wynn Las Vegas ( 2009 ) and I Am ... World Tour ( 2010 ) .
= = Cover versions = =
On January 31 , 2009 Jade Ewen performed the song during the Eurovision : Your Country Needs You show . Her performance was described as " a show @-@ stopping - and aptly chosen - rendition [ of the original ] " by Cher Thornhill of Daily Mail . During the finale of the tenth season of American Idol on May 25 , 2011 , the lady contestants joined together onstage to perform " Déjà Vu " along with a medley of Beyoncé 's other hit singles .
= = Formats and track listings = =
UK CD single
" Déjà Vu " ( Album Version ) – 3 : 59
" Déjà Vu " ( Freemasons Radio Mix ) – 3 : 15
Europe Maxi single
" Déjà Vu " ( Album Version ) – 3 : 59
" Déjà Vu " ( Freemasons Radio Mix ) – 3 : 15
" Déjà Vu " ( Freemasons Club Mix ) – 8 : 05
" Déjà Vu " ( Maurice 's Nusoul Mix ) – 6 : 00
" Déjà Vu " ( Maurice 's Nusoul Mixshow Mix ) – 5 : 57
= = Credits and personnel = =
Adapted from B 'Day 's liner notes .
Vocals : Beyoncé Knowles , Jay @-@ Z ( rap )
Recording : Jeff Villanueva , Jim Caruana
Assisted by : Rob Kinelski , Jun Ishizeki
Mix engineers : Jason Goldstein , Rodney Jerkins
Bass Guitar : Jon Jon
Horns played by : Ronald Judge , Allen " Al Geez " Arthur , Aaron " Goody " Goode .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= Oxford Castle =
Oxford Castle is a large , partly ruined Norman medieval castle on the western side of central Oxford in Oxfordshire , England . Most of the original moated , wooden motte and bailey castle was replaced in stone in the 11th century and played an important role in the conflict of the Anarchy . In the 14th century the military value of the castle diminished and the site became used primarily for county administration and as a prison .
Most of the castle was destroyed in the English Civil War and by the 18th century the remaining buildings had become Oxford 's local prison . A new prison complex was built on the site from 1785 onwards and expanded in 1876 ; this became HM Prison Oxford .
The prison closed in 1996 and was redeveloped as a hotel . The medieval remains of the castle , including the motte and St George 's Tower and crypt , are Grade I listed buildings and a Scheduled Monument .
= = History = =
= = = Construction = = =
According to the Abingdon Chronicle , Oxford Castle was built by the Norman baron Robert D 'Oyly the elder from 1071 – 73 . D 'Oyly had arrived in England with William I in the Norman Conquest of England in 1066 and William the Conqueror granted him extensive lands in Oxfordshire . Oxford had been stormed in the invasion with considerable damage , and William directed D 'Oyly to build a castle to dominate the town . In due course D 'Oyly became the foremost landowner in Oxfordshire and was confirmed with a hereditary royal constableship for Oxford Castle . Oxford Castle is not among the 48 recorded in the Domesday Book of 1086 , but not every castle in existence at the time was recorded in the survey .
D 'Oyly positioned his castle to the west side of the town , using the natural protection of a stream of the River Thames on the far side of the castle , now called Castle Mill Stream , and diverting the stream to produce a moat . There has been debate as to whether there was an earlier English fortification on the site , but whilst there is archaeological evidence of earlier Anglo @-@ Saxon habitation there is no conclusive evidence of fortification . Oxford Castle was clearly an " urban castle " but it remains uncertain whether local buildings had to be demolished to make room for it . The Domesday Book does not record any demolition , so the land may have already been empty due to the damage caused by the Norman seizure of the town . Alternatively the castle may have been imposed over an existing street front which would have required the demolition of at least several houses .
The initial castle was probably a large motte and bailey , copying the plan of the castle that D 'Oyly had already built 12 miles ( 19 km ) away at Wallingford . The motte was originally about 60 feet ( 18 m ) high and 40 feet ( 12 m ) wide , constructed like the bailey from layers of gravel and strengthened with clay facing . There has been debate over the sequencing of the motte and the bailey : it has been suggested that the bailey may have built first , which would make the initial castle design a ringwork rather than a motte and bailey .
By the mid @-@ 12th century Oxford Castle had been significantly extended in stone . The first such work was St George 's Tower , built of coral rag stone in 1074 , 30 by 30 feet ( 9 m × 9 m ) at the base and tapering significantly toward the top for stability . This was the tallest of the castle 's towers , possibly because it covered the approach to the old west gate of the city .
Inside the walls the tower included a crypt chapel , which may be the site of a previous church . The crypt chapel originally had a nave , chancel and an apsidal sanctuary . It is a typical early Norman design with solid pillars and arches . In 1074 D 'Oyly and his close friend , Roger d 'Ivry endowed a chapel with a college of priests . At an early stage it acquired a dedication to Saint George .
Early in the 13th century the wooden keep on top of the motte was replaced with a ten @-@ sided stone shell keep , 58 feet ( 18 m ) , closely resembling those of Tonbridge and Arundel Castles . The keep enclosed a number of buildings , leaving an inner courtyard only 22 feet ( 7 m ) across . Within the keep , stairs led 20 feet ( 6 m ) down to an underground 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) wide stone chamber , with an Early English hexagonal vault and a 54 feet ( 16 m ) deep well providing water in the event of siege .
= = = Role in the Anarchy and Barons War = = =
Robert D 'Oyly the younger , Robert D 'Oyly the elder 's nephew , had inherited the castle by the time of the civil war of the Anarchy in the 1140s . After initially supporting King Stephen , Robert declared his support for Empress Matilda , Stephen 's cousin and rival for the throne , and in 1141 the Empress marched to Oxford to base her campaign at the castle . Stephen responded by marching unexpectedly from Bristol in December , attacking and seizing the town of Oxford and besieging Matilda in the castle . Stephen set up two siege mounds beside the castle , called Jew 's Mount and Mount Pelham , on which he placed siege engines , largely for show , and proceeded to wait for Matilda 's supplies to run low over the next three months . Stephen would have had difficulty in supplying his men through the winter period , and this decision shows the apparent strength of Oxford Castle at the time .
Matilda responded by escaping from the castle ; the popular version of this has the Empress waiting until the Castle Mill Stream was frozen over and then dressed in white as camouflage in the snow , being lowered down the walls with three or four knights , before escaping through Stephen 's lines in the night as the king 's sentries tried to raise the alarm . The chronicler William of Malmesbury , however , suggests Matilda did not descend the walls , but instead escaped from one of the gates . Matilda safely reached Abingdon @-@ on @-@ Thames and Oxford Castle surrendered to Stephen the next day . Robert had died in the final weeks of the siege and the castle was granted to William de Chesney for the remainder of the war . At the end of the war the constableship of Oxford Castle was granted to Roger de Bussy before being reclaimed by Henry D 'Oyly , Robert D 'Oyly the younger 's son , in 1154 .
In the Barons ' War of 1215 – 17 the castle was attacked again , prompting further improvements in its defences . In 1220 Falkes de Breauté , who controlled many royal castles in the middle of England , demolished the Church of St Budoc to the south @-@ east of the castle and built a moated barbican to further defend the main gate . The remaining wooden buildings were replaced in stone , including the new Round Tower which was built in 1235 . King Henry III turned part of the castle into a prison , specifically for holding troublesome University clerks , and also improved the castle chapel , replacing the older barred windows with stained glass in 1243 and 1246 . Due to the presence of Beaumont Palace to the north of Oxford , however , the castle never became a royal residence .
= = = 14th – 17th centuries = = =
By 1327 the fortification , particularly the castle gates and the barbican , was in poor condition and £ 800 was estimated to be required for repairs . From the 1350s onwards the castle had little military use and was increasingly allowed to fall into disrepair . The castle became the centre for the administration of the county of Oxford , a jail , and a criminal court . Assizes were held there until 1577 , when plague broke out in what became known as the " Black Assize " : the Lord Lieutenant of Oxfordshire , two knights , eighty gentlemen and the entire grand jury for the session all died , including Sir Robert D 'Oyley , a relative of the founder of the castle . Thereafter assizes ceased to be held at the castle .
By the 16th century the barbican had been demolished to make way for houses and the moat had begun to be occupied with housing . By 1600 the moat was almost entirely silted up and houses had been built all around the edge of the bailey wall . In 1611 King James I sold Oxford Castle to Francis James and Robert Younglove , who in turn sold it to Christ Church College in 1613 . The college then leased it to a number of local families over the coming years . By this time Oxford Castle was in a weakened state , with a large crack running down the side of the keep .
In 1642 the English Civil War broke out and the Royalists made Oxford their capital . Parliamentary forces successfully besieged Oxford in 1646 and the city was occupied by Colonel Ingoldsby . Ingoldsby improved the fortification of the castle rather than the surrounding town , and in 1649 demolished most of the medieval stonework , replacing it with more modern earth bulwarks and reinforcing the keep with earth works to form a probable gun @-@ platform . In 1652 , in the third English Civil War , the Parliamentary garrison responded to the proximity of Charles II 's forces by pulling down these defences as well and retreating to New College instead , causing great damage to the college in the process . In the event , Oxford saw no fresh fighting ; early in the 18th century , however , the keep was demolished and the top of the motte landscaped to its current form .
= = = Role as prison = = =
After the Civil War , Oxford Castle served primarily as the local prison . As with other prisons at the time , the owners , in this case Christ Church College , leased the castle to wardens who would profit by charging prisoners for their board and lodging . The prison also had a gallows to execute prisoners , such as Mary Blandy in 1752 . For most of the 18th century , the castle prison was run by the local Etty and Wisdom families and was in increasing disrepair . In the 1770s the prison reformer John Howard visited the castle several times , and criticised its size and quality , including the extent to which vermin infested the prison . Partly as a result of this criticism , it was decided by the County authorities to rebuild the Oxford Prison .
In 1785 the castle was bought by the Oxford County Justices and rebuilding began under the London architect William Blackburn . The wider castle site had already begun to change by the late 18th century , with New Road being built through the bailey and the last parts of the castle moat being filled in to allow the building of the new Oxford Canal terminus . Building the new prison included demolishing the old college attached to St George 's chapel and repositioning part of the crypt in 1794 . The work was completed under Daniel Harris in 1805 . Harris gained a reasonable salary as the new governor and used convict labour from the prison to conduct early archaeological excavations at the castle with the help of the antiquarian Edward King .
In the 19th century the site continued to be developed , with various new buildings built including the new County Hall in 1840 – 41 and the Oxfordshire Militia Armoury in 1854 . The prison itself was extended in 1876 , growing to occupy most of the remaining space . In 1888 national prison reforms led to the renaming of the county prison as HM Prison Oxford .
= = = Today = = =
Since 1954 the two oldest parts of the castle have been Grade I listed buildings : the 11th @-@ century motte with its 13th @-@ century well @-@ chamber , and the 11th @-@ century St George 's tower with its crypt chapel and the 18th @-@ century D @-@ wing and Debtors ' Tower . The site is protected as a Scheduled Monument .
The prison was closed in 1996 and the site reverted to Oxfordshire County Council . The Oxford Prison buildings have since been redeveloped as a restaurant and heritage complex , with guided tours of the historic buildings and open courtyards for markets and theatrical performances . The complex includes a hotel in the Malmaison chain , Malmaison Oxford , occupying a large part of the former prison blocks , with cells converted as guest rooms . However , those parts of the prison associated with corporal or capital punishment have been converted to offices rather than being used for guests . The mixed @-@ use heritage project , officially opened on 5 May 2006 , won the RICS Project of the Year Award 2007 .
= Sang Penari =
Sang Penari ( The Dancer ) is a 2011 Indonesian film based on the trilogy of novels Ronggeng Dukuh Paruk by Ahmad Tohari and directed by Ifa Isfansyah . Starring Nyoman Oka Antara and Prisia Nasution , it tells the story of a young man and his friendship with his small village 's new ronggeng .
The second adaptation of the Ronggeng Dukuh Paruk trilogy , Sang Penari required two years of research to better present the historical context , including the 30 September Movement and ensuing anti @-@ communist actions ; these details , censored in the original trilogy by the New Order government , were more explicit than in the novels . Although the film was set and shot in Purwokerto , Central Java , neither of the leads was ethnic Javanese . Nasution , cast in her debut role , is Batak , while Antara is Balinese .
Upon its release on 10 November 2011 , Sang Penari was critically praised . Tohari called it a " sublime adaptation of his work " , while Labodalih Sembiring of the Jakarta Globe described its socio @-@ cultural elements as worthy of a Shakespearean tragedy . At the 2011 Indonesian Film Festival , Sang Penari won four awards , including Best Picture , out of nine nominations .
= = Plot = =
In 1953 , two tempeh bongkrèk makers in Dukuh Paruk , a small hamlet in Banyumas , Central Java , accidentally sell poisoned tempeh , which kills many residents , including the much respected ronggeng ( local traditional dancer ) . The residents of the hamlet begin panicking and rioting , causing the tempeh makers to commit suicide . Their daughter , Srintil , survives and is raised by her grandfather Sakarya ( Landung Simatupang ) .
Ten years later in 1963 , Srintil ( Prisia Nasution ) and Rasus ( Nyoman Oka Antara ) are fast friends . Rasus also has romantic feelings for her . With the hamlet starved and in a depression since the loss of its ronggeng , Sakarya receives a vision that Srintil will become a great ronggeng , capable of saving the hamlet from starvation . He then convinces Srintil to become a ronggeng . She then tries to proves herself to Kartareja ( Slamet Rahardjo ) , the hamlet 's ronggeng caretaker and his wife ( Dewi Irawan ) by dancing at the grave of Ki Secamenggala , the hamlet 's founder . Her attempt is only successful after Rasus gave her the ronggeng amulet belonged to the late ronggeng of Dukuh Paruk . Seeing this amulet , Kartareja then announces that Srintil has been chosen by the founder 's spirit . Meanwhile , Indonesian Communist Party member Bakar ( Lukman Sardi ) arrived in the hamlet and convincing local farmers to join the party , saying that the Communist party are the only ones who can help save the wong cilik ( underclass ) of Dukuh Paruk and their starved hamlet .
After the success of her dance at the grave of Ki Secamenggala , Srintil is told that she must undergo a ritual before she can truly become a ronggeng , called bukak klambu ( literally " opening the veil " ) ; her virginity will be sold to the highest bidder . This upsets Rasus , who tells Srintil that he is not comfortable with her becoming a ronggeng . Srintil says that she will give her virginity to Rasus , and on the day of the bukak klambu they have sex in a goat shack ; that evening , Srintil has sex with two other " highest bidders " and becomes a full ronggeng .
Devastated , Rasus runs away from the hamlet leaving Srintil broken @-@ hearted , and joins a local army base , where he befriends Sergeant Binsar ( Tio Pakusadewo ) . Binsar teaches him to read and wins Rasus ' trust . Meanwhile , the residents of Dukuh Paruk start to embrace communism under Bakar 's leadership , despite their unawareness of political knowledge . During Rasus ' military time , Dukuh Paruk 's ronggeng troupe which includes Kartareja , Sakarya , Sakum the blind kendhang player , and Srintil becomes increasingly popular and become involved in many rally events organised by the communist party .
Two years later , following the failed Communist @-@ led coup d 'état in Jakarta . Rasus is sent by Binsar in operations to clear the presence of Communists in the area . However , when Dukuh Paruk 's turn comes in the massacre , Rasus hurries back , leaving his army comrades to his hamlet to find and save Srintil . He found Dukuh Paruk have been destroyed and void of its inhabitants , leaving only Sakum , the blind kendhang player . His continued effort ended in vain as Rasus arrives in a hidden army concentration camp just as Srintil is taken away by the army and disappear along with the rest of Dukuh Paruk 's residents .
Ten years later , Rasus met a street dancer and a blind man in a village close to Dukuh Paruk who resemble Srintil and Sakum . He quickly stops her , giving her the amulet of Dukuh Paruk 's ronggeng which he found in Dukuh Paruk during his search for Srintil ten years ago . The dancer nervously accepts it and leave Rasus , who smiles , signalling his recognition of his love Srintil . The movie ends with the dancer and the blind man dancing away and disappear in the horizon .
= = Production = =
Sang Penari was directed by Ifa Isfansyah . Husband and wife team Wong Aksan and Titi Sjuman were chosen to do the scoring , which they spent a month and a half on ; they later said that work on the film brought them closer together . Shanty Harmayn , who had previously worked on Pasir Berbisik ( Whispering Sands ; 2004 ) , was chosen to produce , while Salman Aristo , known for his scripts for Ayat @-@ Ayat Cinta ( Verses of Love ; 2008 ) and Laskar Pelangi ( Rainbow Warriors ; 2009 ) spearheaded the writing . The screenplay went through twelve drafts and took two years of research .
Sang Penari is based on the Ronggeng Dukuh Paruk ( Ronggeng of Paruk Hamlet ) by Ahmad Tohari ; it is the second adaptation of the work , after Darah dan Mahkota Ronggeng ( Blood and Crown of a Dancer ) , directed by Yazman Yazid and starring Ray Sahetapy and Enny Beatrice , in 1983 . The film was shot mostly in Banyumas , Central Java . Director Ifa Isfansyah attempted to cast the lead role of Srintil there , but failed after several months looking .
Isfansyah eventually chose a new actress , Prisia Nasution . Balinese actor Nyoman Oka Antara , who had previously played in Ayat @-@ Ayat Cinta ( Verses of Love ; 2008 ) and Perempuan Berkalung Sorban ( The Girl With the Keffiyeh Around Her Neck ; 2009 ) , was cast in the leading male role . The film also featured Slamet Rahardjo , Dewi Irawan , Hendro Djarot , Tio Pakusadewo , Lukman Sardi , and Teuku Rifnu Wikana in supporting roles ; Happy Salma also had a cameo as a dancer .
= = Style and themes = =
Sang Penari touches on the history of communism in Indonesia , focusing on the nation 's communist party spreading its ideology and the government 's purge of the Communist Party 's members from 1965 – 1966 , which is thought to have killed several hundred thousand . It is only the third Indonesian film to cover the killings , following Arifin C. Noer 's G30S / PKI ( 1984 ) and Riri Riza 's Gie ( 2005 ) . Tohari later said that if he had written about the killings as they were depicted in the film , the repressive New Order government would have had him shot .
Sang Penari features many spoken lines in the Banyumasan language spoken in the area . It also features several aspects of Indonesian culture , including batik and Javanese music .
= = Release and reception = =
Sang Penari was released on 10 November 2011 . Tohari , who had refused to watch the first adaptation , enjoyed Sang Penari and reportedly considered it a " sublime adaptation of his work " . Triwik Kurniasari , writing for The Jakarta Post , described the film as " artistically stunning " and that Isfansyah " smoothly translates the sinister moment and the vicious attempts taken by the military in handling possible traitors " . Labodalih Sembiring , writing for the Jakarta Globe , said the socio @-@ cultural elements in the film were worthy of a Shakespearean tragedy and that it featured good acting and direction ; however , the film 's soundtrack was considered lacking .
= = Awards = =
Sang Penari was nominated for nine awards at the 2011 Indonesian Film Festival , winning four . The film was selected as the Indonesian entry for the Best Foreign Language Oscar at the 85th Academy Awards , but it did not make the final shortlist .
= Megami Tensei =
Megami Tensei ( Japanese : 女神転生 , often translated as " Rebirth of the Goddess " ) , commonly abbreviated as MegaTen ( メガテン ) and marketed overseas as Shin Megami Tensei ( originally Revelations ) , is a Japanese media franchise created by Kouji Okada ( credited as Cozy Okada in English ) , Ginichiro Suzuki , and Kazunari Suzuki . It is primarily developed by Atlus and currently owned by Sega . The first entry in the series , Digital Devil Story : Megami Tensei , was released in 1987 and its success spawned one sequel , and later multiple subseries that form part of the Megami Tensei franchise . Aside from role @-@ playing games , the series includes examples of multiple genres such as tactical role @-@ playing , action role @-@ playing , and massively multiplayer online role @-@ playing . The first two titles in the series were published by Bandai Namco ( then Namco ) , but have been almost always published by Atlus in Japan and North America since the release of Shin Megami Tensei . For Europe , Atlus publishes the games through third @-@ party companies .
The series was originally based on Digital Devil Story , a science fiction novel series by Aya Nishitani . The series takes its name from the first book 's subtitle . Most Megami Tensei titles are stand @-@ alone entries with their own stories and characters . Recurring elements include plot themes , a story shaped by player choices , and game mechanics , the most notable being the ability to fight using and often recruit creatures ( Demons , Persona ) to aid the player in battle . Elements of multiple philosophies and religions , occultism , cyberpunk and early science fiction have all been incorporated into the series at different times .
Most of the early titles have not been localized , originally due to heavy religious influences then taboo in western video games . While not maintaining as high a profile as series such as Final Fantasy and Dragon Quest , it is highly popular in Japan and maintains a strong following in the west , finding critical and commercial success . Since the release of Shin Megami Tensei : Nocturne in 2003 , the Shin Megami Tensei moniker has been attached to most entries in the west to help with marketing . The series has become well known for its artistic direction , challenging gameplay , and music . The series has equally raised controversy over its mature content , dark themes , and use of Christian religious imagery . Additional media includes manga adaptations , and anime films and TV series .
= = Titles = =
= = = Games = = =
The first installment in the franchise , Digital Devil Story : Megami Tensei , was released on September 11 , 1987 . The following entries have nearly always been unrelated to each other except in carrying over thematic and gameplay elements . The Megami Tensei games , and the later Shin Megami Tensei titles form the core of the series , while other subseries such as Persona and Devil Summoner are spin @-@ offs marketed as part of the franchise . There are also stand @-@ alone spin @-@ off titles .
= = = = Main series = = = =
Two entries have been released for the Famicom : Digital Devil Story : Megami Tensei in 1987 , and Digital Devil Story : Megami Tensei II in 1990 . The two titles are unrelated to each other in terms of story , and each introduced the basic gameplay and story mechanics that would come to define the series . Two entries were released for the Super Famicom : Shin Megami Tensei in 1992 , and Shin Megami Tensei II in 1994 .
After a nine @-@ year gap , Shin Megami Tensei III : Nocturne was released in 2003 for the PlayStation 2 . Its Maniax Edition director 's cut was released in Japan and North America in 2004 , and in Europe in 2005 . The numeral was dropped for its North American release , and its title changed to Shin Megami Tensei : Lucifer 's Call in Europe . The next entry , Shin Megami Tensei : Strange Journey , was released for the Nintendo DS in 2009 in Japan and 2010 in North America . Shin Megami Tensei IV for the Nintendo 3DS was released in 2013 in Japan and North America , and a year later in Europe as a digital @-@ only release . Another game set in the same universe , Shin Megami Tensei IV : Apocalypse , was released for the 3DS in February 2016 in Japan .
In addition to the main series , three Shin Megami Tensei spin @-@ off games exist . The first is Shin Megami Tensei If ... , released in the same year and on the same system as Shin Megami Tensei II . The second , Shin Megami Tensei : Nine , was released for the Xbox in 2002 . Originally designed as a massively multiplayer online role @-@ playing game ( MMORPG ) , it was later split into a dual single @-@ player and multiplayer package , and the single @-@ player version released first . The online version was delayed and eventually cancelled as the developers could not manage the required online capacities using Xbox Live . A true MMORPG , Shin Megami Tensei : Imagine , was released for Microsoft Windows in 2007 in Japan , 2008 in North America , and 2009 in Europe . Western service was terminated in 2014 when Marvelous USA , the game 's then @-@ handlers , shut down their PC Online game department . Its Japanese service is set to end in May 2016 .
= = = = Persona = = = =
Persona is the largest and most popular spin @-@ off from the Megami Tensei series . The first entry in the series , Megami Ibunroku Persona ( originally released overseas as Revelations : Persona ) was released in 1996 in Japan and North America . The first Persona 2 title , Innocent Sin , was released in 1999 in Japan . The second game , Eternal Punishment , was released in 2000 in Japan and North America . Persona 3 was released in 2006 in Japan , 2007 in North America , and 2008 in Europe . Its sequel , Persona 4 , was released in 2008 in Japan and North America , and in 2009 in Europe . A sixth entry in the series , Persona 5 , is scheduled for release in 2016 in Japan and 2017 in North America . In addition to the main Persona games are spin @-@ offs , so far focused on Persona 3 and 4 : the canon spin @-@ off Persona Q : Shadow of the Labyrinth , two fighting games Persona 4 Arena and its sequel Arena Ultimax , and rhythm game Persona 4 : Dancing All Night . While Persona 3 and 4 used the Shin Megami Tensei moniker , it was dropped for the Persona 4 Arena duology and Persona 4 Golden as it would have made the titles too long to be practical .
= = = = Other spin @-@ offs = = = =
Aside from Persona , there are other spin @-@ off series covering multiple genres . After the release of Shin Megami Tensei II , Atlus began focusing work on building spin @-@ offs and subseries that would form part of the Megami Tensei franchise . The Devil Summoner subseries began in 1995 with the release of Shin Megami Tensei : Devil Summoner . It was followed by Devil Summoner : Soul Hackers in 1997 , and two prequels set in 1920s Tokyo and revolving around demon summoner Raidou Kuzunoha : Raidou Kuzunoha vs. The Soulless Army and Raidou Kuzunoha vs. King Abaddon .
Shortly after Nocturne 's release , a duology titled Digital Devil Saga ( Digital Devil Saga : Avatar Tuner in Japan ) was created based around similar systems to Nocturne , and was also intended as a more accessible gaming experience . Two tactical role @-@ playing games have been developed by Atlus for the DS under the Devil Survivor moniker : the original Devil Survivor and Devil Survivor 2 . Both have received expanded ports for the 3DS . Other subseries include Last Bible , Devil Children and Majin Tensei . Two notable stand @-@ alone spin @-@ offs are Jack Bros. , and Tokyo Mirage Sessions ♯ FE , a crossover with Intelligent Systems ' Fire Emblem series .
= = = Related media = = =
Several titles in the franchise have received anime and manga adaptations : Persona 3 received both a four @-@ part theatrical adaptation ( No. 1 , Spring of Birth , No. 2 , Midsummer Knight 's Dream , No. 3 , Falling Down , No. 4 , Winter of Rebirth ) , and a non @-@ canon spin @-@ off series titled Persona : Trinity Soul . Persona 4 received two adaptations : Persona 4 : The Animation , based on the original game , and Persona 4 : The Golden Animation , based on its expanded PlayStation Vita port . A live @-@ action television series based on the original Devil Summoner was broadcast between 1997 and 1998 . Devil Survivor 2 also received an anime adaptation of the same name , while the Devil Children series received two anime adaptations . Multiple Shin Megami Tensei and Persona titles have received manga and CD drama adaptations . Action figures and merchandise related to Persona have also been produced .
= = Common elements = =
Despite most games in the series taking place in different continuities , they do share certain elements . One of its defining traits is it being set in a contemporary urban environment , specifically modern @-@ day Tokyo . This choice was originally made to set the game apart from other fantasy @-@ based gaming franchises of the time , as modern day Tokyo was rarely seen in games as opposed to versions of it from the past . Shin Megami Tensei II is one of the notable early exceptions , as it is set in a science fiction @-@ styled future despite still including fantasy elements . Two more recent notable departures were Strange Journey , which shifted the focus to Antarctica to portray the threat on a global scale , and Shin Megami Tensei IV , which included a medieval @-@ stage society existing separately from a modern @-@ day Tokyo .
The series title translates as " Rebirth of the Goddess " : this has carried over into the current Shin Megami Tensei series , which has been officially translated as " True Goddess Metempsychosis " . The word " Metempsychosis " refers to the cycle of reincarnation that ties into many Megami Tensei stories . The reborn goddess of the title has multiple meanings : it refers to a female character in each game that could be interpreted as the goddess , and is also representative of the drastic changes a location undergoes during a game . The concept of reincarnation was also included in narratives and gameplay mechanics to tie in with these themes . The series ' overarching title has been truncated to " MegaTen " by series fans . Originating in Japan , the abbreviation has become a common term for the series among its fans .
= = = Gameplay = = =
The gameplay in the series has become notable for its high difficulty , along with several mechanics that have endured through the years . A key element present since the first Megami Tensei is the ability to recruit demons to fight alongside the player in battle , alongside the ability to fuse two different demons together to create a more powerful demon . Equivalents to these systems appear in the later Persona titles . The game 's most recognizable battle system is the Press Turn system , first introduced in Nocturne . The Press Turn System is a turn @-@ based battle mechanic governing both the player party and enemies , where either party are rewarded an extra turn for striking an enemy 's weakness . A Moon Phase System or equivalent , in which phases of the moon or changes in the weather affected the behavior of enemies , is also featured in multiple games .
The layout of the first two Megami Tensei games were noticeably different from later games : Megami Tensei used a 3D first @-@ person perspective , while Megami Tensei II used a combination of first @-@ person 3D displays for battle and top @-@ down 2D displays for navigation . The change was suggested by staff members who did not want players getting lost in a large 3D environment . The 2D / first person viewpoint continued until Nocturne , which switched to a third @-@ person perspective . This was done due to a condition similar to car sickness called " 3D sickness " with first person shooters in Japan at the time : the developers wanted something for players to focus on . The first @-@ person perspective was reintroduced in Strange Journey , and incorporated into IV 's battles along with navigable 3D environments .
= = = Plots and themes = = =
Each title focuses on the extraordinary invading the ordinary world , though the two main Megami Tensei series focus on different things : Shin Megami Tensei focuses more on the main protagonist gaining the power needed to survive in a world ruled over by tyrannical deities , while Persona focuses on interpersonal relationships and the psychology of a group of people . That protagonist is generally male within the Shin Megami Tensei titles : while a female lead or the ability to choose a lead 's gender is not out of the question , many staff feel that Shin Megami Tensei lead roles are better suited to a male character . Throughout its lifetime , the series has incorporated elements of Gnosticism , various world mythologies and religions including Christianity and Buddhism , early science fiction , Jungian psychology and archetypes , occultism , punk , and cyberpunk . The science fiction and fantasy elements are brought together and unified through the use of philosophical concepts , enabling a blending of concepts and aesthetics that might normally clash .
The stories of the core Shin Megami Tensei titles frequently include fighting against a tyrannical God . The method of story @-@ telling in the series can involve traditional use of cutscenes and spoken dialogue ( Persona , Digital Devil Saga ) , or a text @-@ based minimalist approach that places emphasis on atmosphere ( Nocturne ) . A tradition within the core Shin Megami Tensei series is to focus on a single playable character as opposed to a group . A recurring character is Lucifer , the fallen angel who stands against God and is portrayed in multiple forms to represent his omnipotence . Since Megami Tensei II , the series has used a morality @-@ based decision system , where the player 's actions affect the outcome of the story . In Megami Tensei II , the alignments were defined as " Law " ( the forces of God ) and " Chaos " ( the army of Lucifer ) . In future games , an additional " Neutral " route was included where the player could reject both sides . Selected games have been thematically or otherwise linked to a particular alignment . Shin Megami Tensei II , due to events prior to the story , focuses on the " Law " alignment . For Nocturne , all the characters were roughly aligned with " Chaos " , which was done both to bring variety to the series and allow the development team more creative freedom . Shin Megami Tensei IV : Apocalypse is restricted to a " Neutral " alignment while still having multiple endings . The three @-@ tired alignment was used in Strange Journey , and continued into Shin Megami Tensei IV .
= = Development and history = =
= = = Origins = = =
The Megami Tensei series began life as a media expansion of the Digital Devil Story series , a set of science @-@ fantasy novels written by Aya Nishitani during the 1980s . The series ' creators were Kouji Okada ( credited as Cozy Okada in English ) , Ginichiro Suzuki , and Ginichiro 's son Kazunari . The first book in the Digital Devil Story series , Megami Tensei ( 女神転生 , lit . " Reincarnation of the Goddess " ) , provided the title for the original game , while the game 's story was based on both the first book and the third book Tensei no Shuuen ( 転生の終焉 , lit . " Demise of the Reincarnation " ) . The game was developed at Atlus and published by Bandai Namco ( then Namco ) . Although they wanted to incorporate as much of the original story as possible , the limited capabilities of the Famicom made this goal nearly impossible . The game proved popular in Japan , and effectively launched the Megami Tensei franchise , with its more ambitious direct sequel following in 1990 . During the development of Shin Megami Tensei , which was driven by the concept of a Super Famicom game with the company 's brand on it , the team slowly decided that they wanted to break the then @-@ current gaming status quo using its aesthetic and content . Despite this attitude , the staff considered Shin Megami Tensei to be a remake of Megami Tensei II . In many of these earlier games , staff members at Atlus had cameos . The majority of the Megami Tensei series is developed by Atlus ' R & D Department 1 . Other developers have been involved with the series : these include Multimedia Intelligence Transfer ( Last Bible series ) , Lancarse ( Strange Journey ) , CAVE ( Imagine ) and Nex Entertainment ( Nine ) , and Arc System Works ( Persona 4 Arena ) .
Most of the games up to 2003 were handled by Okada , but when he departed to form his own company Gaia , Kazuma Kaneko became the series ' creative director . There are two main writers in the franchise : Shogo Isogai and Ryutaro Ito . Ito first worked on Megami Tensei II , joining the team after development to write the script , along with working with the script and being part of the debug team . Isogai 's first work for the series was the script for Shin Megami Tensei II . The next entry If ... was also written by Ito , and designed as a departure from the grand scale of previous games , instead being set within a cloistered school environment . His final work for the series was the first Devil Summoner . Isogai also worked on Shin Megami Tensei II and If ... , and later worked on multiple Devil Summoner games , Nocturne and Strange Journey . The music for the first five main Megami Tensei titles was composed by Tsukasa Masuko . For Nocturne , Shoji Meguro , who had done work on earlier spin @-@ off titles , was brought in . He later became well known for his work on the Persona titles .
= = = Art design = = =
The Shin Megami Tensei and Persona art styles have been defined by two different artists : Kazuma Kaneko and Shigenori Soejima . Kaneko had a long history with the series , having done some work on the original Megami Tensei titles . His first prominent work for the series was on Shin Megami Tensei , who worked on both the sprite art and promotional artwork for the game 's characters and demons . He was also responsible for suggesting many of the game 's darker features , defining the series ' eventual identity . Before designing each demon , Kaneko looks up his chosen subject to get their mythological background , and uses that in their design . Many of Kaneko 's demon designs were influenced by both creatures and deities from world mythology , and monsters from popular culture like Godzilla . Alongside working on Shin Megami Tensei II , If ... and Nocturne , he also did character designs for the first three Persona games . Kaneko 's style has been described as " cold [ and ] stoic " , evolving into that state over time to keep the artwork as close as possible to the in @-@ game render .
Soejima 's first work for the series was as part of the digital coloring team for the first Devil Summoner . He later had minor roles in artwork and character design in the first Persona and Soul Hackers . He later did the secondary characters for the Persona 2 duology , and was also part of the team checking over the PlayStation ports of the first three Shin Megami Tensei games , as well as minor work on Nocturne . Soejima was chosen as the lead designer for Persona 3 by Kaneko , as Kaneko wanted the younger staff members to gain experience . Persona 3 proved challenging for Soejima as he needed to refine his drawing style and take the expectations of series fans into account . He would go on to design for Persona 3 FES and Portable , Persona 4 and Persona 5 . Soejima 's drawing style is recognized as being lighter @-@ toned than Kaneko 's work on the Shin Megami Tensei games .
Other designers have also worked on the series . For Nine , the developers wanted to have a new style to suit the game 's original vision , so the characters were designed by animator Yasuomi Umetsu . Another designer for the series is Masayuki Doi , who had made a name for himself with the Trauma Center series ; and designed the main characters for Shin Megami Tensei IV . Inspired in his work by Kaneko 's designs , he created the main characters ' clothing to be a blend of Japanese and western fashions while incorporating design elements from the Star Wars series . For the Devil Survivor games , Atlus were aiming to appeal to a wider audience and reinvigorate the Megami Tensei franchise , hiring Suzuhito Yasuda as character designer for this purpose . Some monsters in the second Devil Survivor were designed by manga artist Mohiro Kitoh .
= = = Localization = = =
For a long time , the Megami Tensei franchise was not exported to western territories despite there being a recognized market . The original reasons were the heavy religious themes and symbols used , which were considered taboo in western game markets , and Nintendo 's strict content guidelines for overseas releases . Later , many of these early works were prevented from coming overseas due to their age , which would have put them at a disadvantage in the modern gaming market . Early entries on the PlayStation were also blocked by Sony of America 's then @-@ current approval policies . The first title in the franchise to be localized was the action spin @-@ off Jack Bros. ; the first role @-@ playing game in the franchise to receive an overseas release was the first Persona game . This was done to give Atlus ' North American branch a flagship RPG franchise that could compete with the likes of Final Fantasy , Suikoden and Breath of Fire . According to Okada , the naming of creatures and enemies was adjusted from the main series and original Japanese release of Persona to make it more acceptable for an overseas audience . Though it managed to establish the franchise overseas , the localization was a taxing task due to a small staff and the need to change multiple aspects to suit a North American audience , including removing references to Japanese culture and changing one character from a Japanese to African @-@ American . The first Persona 2 title , Innocent Sin , needed to be passed over due to shortage of manpower and the fact that development was focused on the second title , Eternal Punishment .
Nocturne was the first release in the Shin Megami Tensei series to be released overseas . After the release of Nocturne , Atlus ' overseas branches decided to add the Shin Megami Tensei moniker to future releases within the Megami Tensei franchise to help market the games . Despite many of the original games not bearing the moniker , it ultimately worked in Atlus ' favor as , regardless of title differences , the games chosen for localization were all part of the larger Megami Tensei franchise , and using the core Shin Megami Tensei moniker kept all the titles under a single banner . Before this decision was made , the series was given the localized title Revelations , used for the first Persona and the first Last Bible . Later , changes to titles were made to make them less unwieldy , such as with Raidou Kuzunoha vs. The Soulless Army . Called Raidō Kuzunoha vs. The Super @-@ Powered Army in Japan , the title was altered as it sounded " goofy " in English . By the time Strange Journey was in development , the franchise had a strong presence overseas , so the team created Strange Journey with localization in mind : the two aspects actively linked with this were the game 's setting in Antarctica as opposed to modern @-@ day Japan , and the fact that it was not given a numeral . Starting with Shin Megami Tensei IV , the company decided to actively promote the franchise overseas to North America , Europe and mainland Asia . | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
After 2016 , due to Atlus USA 's merger with Sega of America , Sega took over North American publishing duties , although the Atlus brand remained intact .
In general , Atlus publishes Megami Tensei games in Japan and North America , but as they lack a European branch , they publish titles in the region through third @-@ party companies such as Ghostlight and NIS America . Their latest partnership , after their deal with NIS America ended with the publication of Odin Sphere Leifthrasir , was with European publishing firm Deep Silver to publish multiple titles in the region , including Shin Megami Tensei IV : Apocalypse and Persona 5 . Atlus has occasionally published titles digitally in Europe .
= = Reception = =
Prior to its popularity in the west , the game was a major franchise in Japan , having sold over 4 million units by 2003 . By November 2014 , the series has sold approximately 13 million packaged units worldwide , with the combined series grouped within the Megami Tensei franchise accounting for 7 million and the Persona series accounting for 6 @.@ 2 million . Megami Tensei is one of Atlus ' best @-@ selling and most important franchises .
Japanese website 4Gamer.net referred to the series as one of Japan 's biggest role @-@ playing franchises . UGO Networks writer K. Thor Jensen cited the first Megami Tensei game as the first successful use of cyberpunk aesthetics in video games , saying that the series ' mix of science fiction elements and the occult " create a truly unique fictional cyberpunk world " . Nintendo Power has noted that Atlus always mixes " familiar gameplay " with surprising settings when creating games for the series , citing Persona , with its " modern @-@ day horror stories " and " teams of Japanese high @-@ school kids " , as the perfect example . The editor also added that Strange Journey followed a similar system , calling it a " science @-@ fiction makeover " of the series . In an article about the interaction of Japanese and Western gaming culture , 1UP.com mentioned the Shin Megami Tensei subseries alongside Nippon Ichi Software 's Disgaea series . Kurt Kalata wrote : " [ They ] may not be big sellers , but they 've garnered underground success and attracted thousands of obsessed fans . " GameSpot writer Andrew Vestal referred to the series as the third biggest series in Japan after Final Fantasy and Dragon Quest . IGN 's Matt Coleman mentioned Nocturne in the article " A History of Console RPGs " , referring to its content as " challenging stuff for a genre that used to be all about princess saving and evil cleansing " .
Digital Devil Story : Megami Tensei II and Shin Megami Tensei both appeared on Famitsu 's 2006 " Top 100 Favorite Games of All Time " audience poll at No. 58 and No. 59 , respectively . RPGFan 's " Top 20 RPGs of the Past Decade " list was topped by the two Digital Devil Saga games , followed by Persona 3 in second place , while Persona 4 ranked fourth place . Kalata , writing for Gamasutra , referred to Nocturne as one of the 20 essential RPGs for players of the genre . GameTrailers cited the Press Turn system as one of the best JRPG battle systems in existence , with particular reference to the version used in Shin Megami Tensei IV .
Alongside its critical acclaim , the series has garnered controversy both in Japan and overseas . Amongst the material cited are its demon negotiation mechanic , depictions of suicide and cannibalism , religious criticism , its use and mixture of Christian and occult imagery , political references , depictions of homosexuality , and its sometimes @-@ strange demon designs . Specific examples have been cited by western journalists . The original release of Persona caused concern due to the title 's religious implications . 1UP.com 's 2007 game awards , which ran in the March 2008 issue of Electronic Gaming Monthly , Persona 3 was given the " Most controversial game that created no controversy " award : the writers said " Rockstar 's Hot Coffee sex scandal and Bully 's boy @-@ on @-@ boy kissing 's got nothing on this PS2 role @-@ player 's suicide @-@ initiated battles or subplot involving student @-@ teacher dating . " GamesRadar included the series on its list of " Controversies Waiting to Happen " , saying that the lack of public outcry was due to its niche status when compared to other series with similar content . Writing for 1UP.com in a later article , Kalata traced this use of controversial content back to the Digital Devil Story novels , which depicted violence and rape committed by demons , and said that " Such violence is not particularly rare in the land of Japanese animation , but it became even more disturbing in [ Megami Tensei II ] " .
= Hurricane Juan =
Hurricane Juan was a significant tropical cyclone that heavily damaged Canada in late September 2003 . It was the tenth named storm and the sixth hurricane of the 2003 Atlantic hurricane season . Juan formed southeast of Bermuda on September 24 from a tropical wave that had tracked across the subtropical Atlantic Ocean . It tracked northward and strengthened over the warm waters of the Gulf Stream , reaching Category 2 strength on the Saffir @-@ Simpson hurricane scale on September 27 . The hurricane peaked in intensity with sustained winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) that same day , losing some strength as it raced over cooler waters toward the coast of Nova Scotia . Juan made landfall between Shad Bay and Prospect in the Halifax Regional Municipality early on September 29 as a Category 2 hurricane with winds of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) . Juan retained hurricane strength while crossing Nova Scotia from south to north , though it weakened to a tropical storm over Prince Edward Island . It was absorbed by another extratropical low later on September 29 near Anticosti Island in the northern Gulf of Saint Lawrence .
The hurricane inflicted extensive damage across central Nova Scotia and into Prince Edward Island , with lesser damage east and west of the storm centre . Most of the damage occurred as a result of the intense winds that buffeted the region . Juan 's passage resulted in eight fatalities and over CA $ 300 million ( US $ 200 million ) in damage . It was described as the worst storm to hit Halifax since 1893 .
= = Meteorological history = =
A large tropical wave accompanied by a broad area of low pressure moved off the coast of Africa on September 14 , 2003 . It initially tracked westward and remained disorganized due to unfavourable upper @-@ level wind shear . On September 20 , the convection around the system greatly increased during interaction with the circulation of a large upper @-@ level low , though unfavorable conditions caused the activity to remain disorganized . The system as a whole moved to the northwest around the upper @-@ level low and developed a mid @-@ level circulation . It interacted with a frontal zone , and became better organized on September 23 while located 450 mi ( 725 km ) south of Bermuda . Later that day , a low @-@ level circulation developed within the system , though its involvement with the proximate frontal zone prevented it from being classified a tropical depression . Deep convection increased near the centre on September 24 , and the system quickly developed banding features and distinct outflow . Based on the increase in organization , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) classified it as Tropical Depression Fifteen later that day while it was located about 345 miles ( 555 km ) southeast of Bermuda . Operationally , the agency did not initiate storm advisories until 27 hours after the time of its formation determined by post @-@ hurricane season analysis .
Initially , the depression possessed a combination of tropical and subtropical characteristics ; it remained attached to a nearby frontal zone , though the organization of the convection and a warm core within the system resulted in classification as a tropical cyclone . Forecasters had predicted the depression would only slowly strengthen and reach a peak intensity of 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) . However , the depression steadily organized and had strengthened into Tropical Storm Juan by early September 25 . Juan moved northwestward at around 10 mph ( 16 km / h ) in response to a developing subtropical ridge to its east . On September 26 , an eye feature developed , and very deep convection increased around the circulation . The cloud pattern continued to consolidate , and Juan attained hurricane status later on September 26 while located 165 mi ( 270 km ) southeast of Bermuda . The hurricane moved into an area of warm waters and light wind shear , allowing for additional strengthening ; by September 27 , Juan had attained a peak intensity of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) while located 635 mi ( 1 @,@ 020 km ) south of Halifax , Nova Scotia . At this peak strength , the eye of the hurricane was distinct and embedded within a well @-@ defined and round central dense overcast .
Hurricane Juan remained at peak intensity for over 24 hours . After moving northwestward for an extended period of time , it turned and accelerated to the north . The eye became less distinct on September 28 , and the hurricane weakened slightly . Due to its fast forward motion , Juan had little time to weaken over significantly colder waters before making landfall between Shad Bay and Prospect ( near Halifax ) on September 29 with winds of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) . It weakened quickly while rapidly moving across the southern Canadian Maritimes and crossing the Nova Scotia peninsula as a hurricane . Juan had diminished to a tropical storm as it moved over Prince Edward Island by early September 29 . Later that afternoon , the storm was absorbed by a large extratropical low over the northwestern Gulf of Saint Lawrence .
= = Preparations = =
The first advisories were issued by the Canadian Hurricane Centre on September 26 , although at that time they broadly suggested the possibility existed for wind and rain across Atlantic Canada . As Juan approached on September 27 , warning broadcasts on local media in Atlantic Canada were changed accordingly . The public and emergency officials in the expected landfall area were told to make preparations for a potential disaster , after the CHC bulletins indicated the possibility existed for significant wind damage and flooding from both heavy rain and storm surges , as well as power outages .
On the morning of September 28 , reports indicated that Juan would make landfall either as a tropical storm or marginal Category 1 hurricane . Weather broadcasts up to that time gave every indication that the storm would weaken prior to landfall . By 6 p.m. ADT ( 2100 UTC ) , additional warnings had been issued since Juan was expected to make landfall as a strong Category 1 or weak Category 2 hurricane . Most businesses in the areas affected were closed on Sundays , which meant that preparations could not be made at the last minute . Although no large @-@ scale evacuations were made , local evacuations for low @-@ lying areas were issued on the evening of September 28 . In all , several hundred people were affected by these evacuations . Utility workers also stood on standby before the storm hit , preparing for large @-@ scale power outages .
= = Impact = =
= = = Nova Scotia = = =
Hurricane Juan 's maximum sustained wind speed at landfall in Nova Scotia was measured at 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) . The urban concentration surrounding Halifax Harbour bore the brunt of the highest sustained winds and strongest wind gusts during the storm ; some unofficial estimates have placed gusts as high as 145 mph ( 230 km / h ) . Wave @-@ rider weather buoys off the entrance of Halifax Harbour snapped their moorings after reportedly recording waves in excess of 65 ft ( 20 m ) . Significant erosion occurred on the populated shores of the harbour , particularly in the Bedford Basin where residential properties and railway tracks received most of the wave action . Storm surges of 5 to 7 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 to 2 m ) were reported in the harbour ; it was the highest surge ever recorded in Halifax Harbour . Rainfall was fairly light due to the fast movement and dry air on the southern side of the storm . There were no rainfall reports greater than 2 inches ( 52 mm ) .
Juan caused widespread structural and vegetation damage across the region , particularly in and around the Halifax Regional Municipality . Extensive damage to trees was reported , which blocked many streets and knocked down power lines . Many homes and businesses suffered property damage , particularly roof damage on structures , and some weaker structures were destroyed . HRM estimated that 31 % of residential homes suffered some degree of damage and 27 % of homes had enough damage to warrant an insurance claim . In downtown Halifax , erosion @-@ control boulders the size of garbage cans were hurled from Halifax Harbour onto boardwalks and parking lots and piers . The Victoria General Hospital experienced roof and water damage and was evacuated during the storm , as were numerous tall apartment buildings and other multi @-@ family residences . Billboards and signs were also destroyed , and dozens of vehicles were crushed by trees and other debris . The city 's cherished Point Pleasant Park and Public Gardens suffered massive loss of trees and remained closed for months .
Juan set an all @-@ time maximum wind gust speed record at the Halifax Stanfield International Airport ; during the peak of the storm , a gust reached 143 km / h , a record which still stands to this day . Another high windspeed occurred at the McNabs Island autostation , which recorded a 2 @-@ minute sustained wind of 151 km / h , with gusts to 176 km / h . Hurricane @-@ force gusts extended as far east as Beaver Island , where gusts reached 132 km / h . The hurricane was strong enough to destroy the anemometers at Shannon Hill , Chebucto Head and Sambro Island , even though the Sambro Island instrument had survived a 193 km / h storm some years earlier .
At the harbour entrance , on Sambro Island , a historic building beside the oldest lighthouse in North America was badly damaged and remains unrepaired in 2007 . The hurricane caused severe damage to shipping in Halifax Harbour . A visiting recreational schooner named Larinda was sunk at the wharf beside the Maritime Museum of the Atlantic and a harbour tour ketch Mar was driven ashore in Eastern Passage on the opposite side of Halifax Harbour . Another harbour tour vessel , the tern schooner Silva , broke from her moorings and caused extensive damage to the Cable Wharf on the Halifax Waterfront . Dozens of smaller yachts were also driven ashore ; extensive damage occurred to yacht clubs in the Bedford Basin and Northwest Arm . Dozens of containers were knocked off two container ships at the South End Container Terminal . Wharves on the Halifax and Darmouth waterfront suffered large amounts of damage and several railcars were washed into the harbour at the Dartmouth railway yard ; one of the tracks for the double @-@ track main line was washed out in several places along the Bedford Basin near Millview . Coastal flooding was also reported around Halifax Harbour as a result of the storm surge , although inland flooding was minor as rainfall was not heavy due to Juan 's fast forward movement .
Less severe property damage was recorded west of the storm 's track into St. Margarets Bay and Mahone Bay . In addition to Halifax Regional Municipality 's urban core , the town of Truro and all of rural Colchester County as well as the western part of Pictou County experienced property damage and power outages from falling trees ; numerous barns and other agricultural buildings were damaged east of the storm 's path , including a replica of the Hector in Pictou Harbour . The severity of property damage in the metropolitan areas of Halifax and Dartmouth of Halifax Regional Municipality initially led some forecasters to believe that Juan was likely a Category 3 hurricane ; however , the sustained wind reports did not justify that suggestion . Many of the deciduous trees in central Nova Scotia still had leaves , which magnified the effects of wind damage . Overall , the number of damaged trees was estimated to be in the millions .
Juan claimed six lives ( two directly ) in Nova Scotia . Both of the direct deaths were due to fallen trees ; one was a Halifax paramedic and the other was a motorist in Enfield . Three of the four indirect deaths were as a result of a house fire started by candles when electricity was cut , and the fourth was in relief work after the storm .
= = = Rest of Atlantic Canada = = =
When the storm tracked across Nova Scotia and into the Northumberland Strait , it was still a Category 1 hurricane , weakening to a tropical storm as it emerged into the Gulf of Saint Lawrence . Wind gusts of 86 mph ( 139 km / h ) were reported in Charlottetown and 67 mph ( 107 km / h ) in the Iles de la Madeleine in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence .
Damage was also reported in Prince Edward Island as a result of the storm , particularly around Charlottetown , where its waterfront sustained heavy wave damage to pleasure craft and sea walls , as well as significant damage to the older urban forest in that city 's downtown core . Extensive tree damage was also reported across the island , as well as structural damage to weaker buildings , such as barns and silos . The hurricane left portions of the island without power . The narrow path meant that damage was quite localized ; little damage was reported in New Brunswick or western Prince Edward Island . Voting in the PEI general election on September 29 was also disrupted , though more than 80 % of voters made it to polling stations .
Two deaths were reported in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence off the remote Anticosti Island in Quebec . They were fishermen from New Brunswick operating near Anticosti Island .
= = Aftermath = =
In the hours following the storm a state of emergency was declared in Halifax Regional Municipality and parts of neighbouring East Hants Municipal District and Colchester County . The Government of Nova Scotia requested that the federal government deploy 600 Canadian Forces personnel to assist local authorities in HRM with cleanup in the urban area and to assist utility crews with electrical power restoration . Many utility workers , especially those employed by Nova Scotia Power and the dozens of crews from Maritime Electric and NB Power who responded under mutual assistance agreements , worked for almost three weeks without any considerable amount of rest . Many residents praised utility crews for their hard work in restoring the extensive damage .
The devastated Point Pleasant Park remained closed for cleanup after the storm before re @-@ opening in June 2004 , nine months after the storm hit , with a damaged shoreline and almost 85 % of its trees removed . A revitalization and reforestation program began in 2005 .
The Government of Nova Scotia pledged $ 10 million ( 2003 CAD ) in relief money after the hurricane hit , and private contributions were also made quickly after the storm hit . Prince Edward Island also pledged $ 200 @,@ 000 ( 2003 CAD ) immediately after the hurricane hit , and the federal government also announced their own package . The Mayor of Toronto at the time , Mel Lastman , also contributed $ 50 @,@ 000 ( 2003 CAD ) to replace damaged trees in Prince Edward Island .
Hurricane Juan alerted residents , governments , utilities , and emergency management agencies throughout Atlantic Canada to improve preparations for devastating events such as hurricanes , especially with climatological data pointing to possible increased frequency of major ocean storms and extratropical cyclones . In addition to Juan , three other storms — Fabian , Isabel and Kate — had a significant effect on land or offshore in Canada during the 2003 Atlantic hurricane season .
Preparations and planning have been underway since 2003 and were first tested when Hurricane Ophelia was forecast to brush near Nova Scotia in early September 2005 . Hurricane Juan has also resulted in several changes to the Meteorological Service of Canada 's Canadian Hurricane Centre , which has relocated from a vulnerable and exposed location in an office building in Dartmouth , Nova Scotia , to a more secure location that can withstand hurricane damage . CHC 's hurricane warning system has also been improved ; traditionally , CHC did not issue standard hurricane or tropical storm watches or warnings , just high wind and heavy rainfall warnings , which were often not heeded by local residents . Beginning in the 2004 Atlantic hurricane season , CHC began using standard hurricane warnings for storms potentially affecting Canada . Canada issued its first hurricane warning in 2008 in anticipation of Hurricane Kyle and in 2009 , issued its second hurricane watch in anticipation of Hurricane Bill .
Hurricane Juan lent its name to a severe blizzard that struck Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island a few months later in February 2004 which quickly became known as White Juan because the paralyzing effects of the massive snowfall evoked the recent hurricane .
= = = Retirement = = =
Because of its effects in Canada , the name Juan was retired in April 2004 and will never be used again for an Atlantic hurricane . Environment Canada noted that its request for retirement was " in consideration of the lost and damaged lives , the impact to economy , and the widespread destruction of trees throughout two provinces " . It was the first time that the Meteorological Service of Canada had specifically requested a hurricane name be retired . The name was replaced by Joaquin for the 2009 season , however it was not used during that year . For the 2015 season , when the tenth storm developed , the name Joaquin was used for the first time . That name was also retired following the season and was replaced with Julian for the 2021 season .
= Mam Sonando =
Mam Sonando ( Khmer : ម ៉ ម សូណង ់ ដូ ; born February 13 , 1942 ) is a Cambodian radio journalist with French dual citizenship . He is the owner and director of Phnom Penh 's Beehive Radio , which the Committee to Protect Journalists ( CPJ ) described in 2012 as " one of Cambodia 's few independent news outlets " . He also acts as a political commentator for the station .
Sonando has been imprisoned three times on charges related to his reporting : a 2003 arrest for " inciting riots " , a 2005 arrest for defamation , and a 2012 arrest for insurrection . His twenty @-@ year prison sentence for the latter was protested by human rights groups , and US President Barack Obama expressed concerns about the case in a meeting with Prime Minister Hun Sen. The sentence was overturned by an appeals court in March 2013 , and Sonando was instead given a five @-@ year suspended sentence on charges of causing civil unrest .
= = Biography = =
Mam Sonando was born on February 13 , 1942 in a small district called Kampong Siem in Kampong Cham Province , Cambodia . His father , Mam Soth , was a lawyer . His mother Eam Ouch was born in Battambang province . Sonando traveled to Paris in 1964 for school . He attended the Vaugirard State Technical College of Photography and Cinematography , in Paris , France , from 1969 to 1970 . In 1973 , he received a bachelor 's degree with major in sociology and cinematography and audio visuals , at the Paris XV University .
He left Cambodia again in 1975 to avoid the rule of the Khmer Rouge , remaining in France until 1993 . That year , he returned to Cambodia and acquired a broadcasting license for a new station which he named Beehive Radio . He used the station to advertise a new political party , the Beehive Democratic Society Party , and stood in the 1998 parliamentary election . According to the Asia Times , his campaign only won him " a reputation as an eccentric , spouting Buddhist philosophy , pleas for democracy and a personal campaign for attention . " After failing to be elected , Sonando dissolved his party , but continued broadcasting on Beehive Radio as an independent journalist .
Sonando is the owner and director of Beehive Radio . In 2012 , Human Rights Watch described Beehive Radio as " a key platform for promotion of human rights and democracy in Cambodia " . The station is one of the few to address controversial topics , including " Cambodian civil society , the fight against HIV / AIDS , maternal mortality and human trafficking , campaigns for women 's rights and gender equality , political and economic transparency , equitable and sustainable development , labor rights , environmental protection , the rule of law , and electoral education and election monitoring . " It also carries programming by Radio Free Asia , Voice of America , the Cambodian Center for Human Rights , and Radio France Internationale .
The station is funded by a combination of advertising and private donations . Some companies have declined to advertise with Beehive Radio due to its occasionally controversial reporting and political stances . Sonando also refuses to run advertisements for " vice " products , including cigarettes .
= = 2003 arrest = =
In January 2003 , riots broke out in Phnom Penh after a Cambodian newspaper incorrectly reported that a Thai actress had stated Angkor Wat properly belonged to Thailand . On 29 January , the Thai embassy was burned , and hundreds of Thai immigrants fled the country to avoid the violence . During the riots , a caller to Beehive Radio claimed incorrectly that Cambodian embassy officials were killed in Bangkok . On 31 January , Sonando was arrested and accused of " relaying false information " , " inciting discrimination " , and " inciting crime " . He stated to reporters , " They blame me for broadcasting an opinion of a listener which turned out to be untrue . But if I have to go to jail to allow people to express their opinion I am happy . "
Sonando was formally charged in court on 1 February ; ten days later , he was released on bail . The charges never came to trial .
= = 2005 arrest = =
Sonando was arrested again on 11 October 2005 after reporting on Prime Minister Hun Sen 's treaty with Vietnam settling the two nations ' border dispute ; the report included a discussion with a French @-@ based expert who criticized Hun Sen 's concessions . Sonando was charged with " criminal defamation " , " disseminating false information " , and " incitement " . On 3 November , he was denied bail .
Sonando 's arrest was criticized by the United Nations and the European Union . A coalition of 70 Cambodian civil society organizations also pushed for his release . CPJ condemned the arrest as part of a " broad crackdown on freedom of expression " , and Amnesty International named him a prisoner of conscience .
In late January 2006 , Sonando was granted bail ahead of a visit by US Assistant Secretary of State Christopher R. Hill . Hun Sen described the release as a " gift " to the visitor . The charges against Sonando were dropped before the end of the month .
= = 2012 arrest = =
In mid @-@ 2012 , Beehive Radio reported on an International Court of Justice complaint against Prime Minister Hun Sen blaming him for the 2010 Phnom Penh stampede , in which 347 people were killed . The report sparked a new series of disputes between Sonando and Hun Sen. On 26 June 2012 , Hun Sen called for Sonando 's arrest while Sonando was out of the country , accusing him of heading a separatist plot in Kratié Province to break it away from the rest of the nation . From 15 to 17 May , the province had been the site of a protest against evictions for a new rubber plant that residents accused of " land @-@ grabbing " . On the final day of the protests , soldiers opened fire on a crowd of families , killing a 14 @-@ year @-@ old girl . Though Sonando returned during the 2012 ASEAN meeting , he was not arrested until 15 July , a few days after its end .
Hun Sen accused Sonando of attempting to create a " state within a state " , and Sonando was formally charged with " insurrection " and " inciting people to take up weapons against state " . The charges carried a maximum sentence of 30 years in prison . Secessionist charges were also brought against several community activists from the province .
According to Ou Virak of the Cambodian Center for Human Rights , Sonando was then imprisoned in a cell shared with 17 other people , leaving him " half a square meter [ 5 square feet ] to sleep in " . On 22 July , he was moved to a prison hospital on account of illness .
Sonando 's arrest quickly generated domestic and international criticism . A coalition of 22 Cambodian rights groups , known as the Cambodian Human Rights Action Committee , called on the government to free Sonando " to save the country 's reputation " . Members of Beehive Radio and the Association of Democrats protested in front of Phnom Penh 's royal palace on 23 July .
CPJ called for Sonado 's immediate release , stating that Hun Sen had " a well @-@ worn history of leveling unsubstantiated anti @-@ state charges against journalists to stifle criticism of the administration . " Human Rights Watch said that " Sonando 's arrest on the heels of [ US Secretary of State Hillary ] Clinton 's visit is a brazen signal that Hun Sen thinks that the US wants his cooperation on other matters so much that he isn 't afraid to lower the boom on his critics " . Amnesty International again named Sonando a prisoner of conscience , " held for the peaceful exercise of his right to freedom of expression " . The International Federation for Human Rights and the World Organisation Against Torture issued a joint statement noting that they were " gravely concerned " about the charges and calling for Sonando 's immediate release . Reporters Without Borders described the arrest as " like a parting slap to all those who attended last week 's ASEAN summit in Phnom Penh . As soon the diplomats leave , the authorities arrest dissidents . " The Ireland @-@ based NGO Front Line Defenders included him on the short list for its 2013 Human Rights Defender at Risk award .
On 1 October 2012 , Sonando was found guilty by a Phnom Penh court . He was sentenced to twenty years ' imprisonment and fined 10 million riel ( US $ 2 @,@ 500 ) . In November , US President Barack Obama raised concerns about the case during a meeting with Hun Sen. French Prime Minister Jean @-@ Marc Ayrault also called for Sonando to be released .
An appeals court overturned Sonando 's conviction on anti @-@ state charges on 14 March 2013 , finding that there had been no evidence to convict him . The court instead gave Sonando a five @-@ year suspended sentence on charges that he had been involved in the Kratié unrest . A crowd of hundreds of Sonando supporters gathered outside the courthouse to hear the verdict . Amnesty International called the ruling " a positive step for freedom of expression in the country " , but added that " Mam Sonando should never have been imprisoned in the first place , and the convictions that stand appear baseless . " Sonando was released from prison on 15 March , the day after the ruling . Following his release , Sonando stated his intention to clear his name of the remaining charges .
= = 2014 protest = =
In January 2014 , Mam Sonando organized a mass demonstration , which demanded the government to expand his radio reach and open a TV station . The Minister of Information Khieu Kanharith denied the permission for the expansion but Mam Sonando told reporters the denial is unconstitutional . Protesters clashed with police on January 28 , injuring at least 9 of the demonstrators . In response to the violence , Human Rights Watch calls for the United Nations to pressure the Cambodian government . Reporters Without Borders and Freedom House have also condemned the violence .
= = Personal life = =
Sonando is married to Den Phanara . He is a devout Buddhist who constructed a Buddhist temple beside his radio station , and is an avid fan of jazz .
= John Bowker ( baseball ) =
John Brite Bowker ( born July 8 , 1983 ) is an American professional baseball outfielder and first baseman who is a free agent . He stands 6 feet 1 inch ( 1 @.@ 85 m ) tall and weighs 205 pounds ( 93 kg ) . He has played for the San Francisco Giants , Pittsburgh Pirates and Philadelphia Phillies of Major League Baseball ( MLB ) and the Yomiuri Giants and Tohoku Rakuten Golden Eagles of Nippon Professional Baseball ( NPB ) . He bats and throws left @-@ handed .
Bowker was drafted out of Long Beach State University in the third round of the 2004 MLB draft by the San Francisco Giants . He spent the next few years in their minor league system and ranked among the Eastern League leaders in several hitting categories in 2007 . He was called up by the Giants shortly after the 2008 season began , and he became the first San Francisco @-@ era Giant to hit a home run in his first two major league games . He was the Giants ' starting first baseman for much of the season and finished the year batting .255 with 10 home runs in 111 games . In 2009 , Bowker won the Pacific Coast League batting title with a .342 average . However , he batted .194 in 31 major league games . He began 2010 as the Giants ' right fielder but lost the job soon after the season started . He was optioned to Fresno in June and was traded to the Pittsburgh Pirates at the trade deadline . Bowker was called up by the Pirates in September and finished the 2010 season batting .219 with 5 home runs in 67 games . He started the 2011 season as a reserve outfielder on the Pirates ' team but was designated for assignment and sent to the minors after April . He batted .306 with 15 home runs and 76 RBI in 106 games with their International League team before getting traded to the Philadelphia Phillies at the end of August . Used mainly as a pinch hitter , Bowker had no hits in 13 at @-@ bats with Philadelphia . Following the season , he was released so he could sign with the Yomiuri Giants in Japan .
= = Early years = =
Bowker was born to Brite and Chris Bowker on July 8 , 1983 , in Sacramento , California . Growing up , he attended Mariemont Elementary School , Arden Middle School , and Rio Americano High School . He began his baseball career playing for an Arden Park Little League team coached by his father , and he played baseball at Rio Americano , along with football and basketball . He decided to concentrate on baseball as a sophomore . He lettered three seasons in baseball , two seasons in football and one season in basketball in addition to being named all @-@ league in each of these sports . He set Rio Americano 's single @-@ season records for batting average ( .463 ) hits ( 41 ) , home runs ( 8 ) and runs batted in ( RBI ) ( 41 ) .
After graduating from Rio Americano , Bowker enrolled at Long Beach State University . In 2004 , he led the LBSU Dirtbags to the NCAA Super Regionals and was included on the 1st Team All @-@ Big West . After batting .323 in his first two years at Long Beach , he entered the 2004 Major League Baseball ( MLB ) Draft and was selected in the third round by the San Francisco Giants .
= = Professional career = =
= = = San Francisco Giants = = =
= = = = 2004 – 2007 = = = =
To begin his minor league career , Bowker was assigned to the rookie @-@ league Arizona League Giants . After batting .512 with 22 hits , 2 home runs , and 11 RBI in 10 games for the Giants , he was promoted to the Salem @-@ Keizer Volcanoes of the single @-@ A short season Northwest League . With Salem @-@ Keizer , he batted .323 with 41 hits , 4 home runs , and 16 RBI in 31 games . Between the AZL Giants and Salem @-@ Keizer , he appeared in 41 games , batting .371 with 63 hits , 6 home runs , and 27 RBI in 41 games .
In 2005 , Bowker attended Giants ' spring training but was sent to the minors on March 2 . He spent the season with the single @-@ A advanced San Jose Giants . In 121 games , he had 124 hits , 27 doubles , 13 home runs , and 67 RBI while batting .267 . He batted .238 with a double , a home run , and 4 RBI in 5 playoff games as San Jose won the California League championship .
Bowker attended spring training with the Giants in 2006 , but he was sent to the minors on March 2 . He spent most of the season with San Jose , where he batted .284 with 131 hits , 6 triples , 7 home runs , and 66 RBI in 112 games . His 32 doubles ranked tenth overall in the league . In 5 playoff games , he batted .182 with 4 hits , 2 doubles , and 1 triple . He also appeared in two games for the triple @-@ A Fresno Grizzlies of the Pacific Coast League , where he had two hits in four at bats .
Bowker attended spring training with the Giants in 2007 but only appeared in two spring training games . He spent the entire season with the Connecticut Defenders , the Giants ' double @-@ A affiliate in the Eastern League . He set career highs with 139 games played , a .307 batting average , 160 hits , 22 home runs , 90 RBI , 35 doubles , and 6 triples . He ranked seventh in the league in batting average ( among qualifiers ) , first in games , second in hits ( to Jordan Brown ) , fifth in doubles ( tied with David Smith ) , fifth in triples ( tied with Clete Thomas and Michael Spidale ) , and third in RBI ( behind Jeff Larish and Oscar Salazar ) . His 22 home runs were tied for fifth in the league ( with Salazar and Luis Jiménez ) and set a Connecticut franchise record .
= = = = 2008 = = = =
Entering the 2008 season , Bowker was named the ninth best prospect in the Giants ' organization by Baseball America . He attended spring training again but was sent to Fresno on March 11 . On April 11 , Bowker was called up by the Giants , and he joined the team the next day after having only 3 hours of sleep the night before . In a 7 – 5 loss to the St. Louis Cardinals that day , he got his first hit ( a single ) and drove in three runs with his first home run , both against Todd Wellemeyer , as he became the eighth player in San Francisco Giants history to hit a home run in his debut . The next day , in the Giants ' 7 – 4 victory over the Cardinals , Bowker had four RBI and hit his second home run , against Joel Piñeiro , becoming the first player in San Francisco Giants history to hit a home run in each of his first two Major League games . He had seven RBI in his first two games , the most by any major leaguer in his first two games since Joe Cunningham had seven in 1954 . Bowker replaced Rich Aurilia as the Giants ' starting first baseman on April 21 . On June 7 , he hit the first grand slam of his career , against Luis Ayala , in a 6 – 0 victory over the Washington Nationals . On July 2 , Bowker hit a two @-@ run " Splash Hit " home run into McCovey Cove against Ryan Dempster in a 6 – 5 loss to the Chicago Cubs . He was batting .274 before the All @-@ Star break , but after batting .152 with two RBI in 21 games after the break , he was optioned to Fresno on August 13 to make room on the roster for Travis Ishikawa , who replaced him as the Giants ' first baseman . He was recalled by the Giants on September 2 after rosters expanded . Used mainly as a pinch @-@ hitter in September , he batted .346 with 1 home run in 15 games to finish the season with a .255 batting average ( 10th among NL rookies ) , 83 hits ( 9th among NL rookies ) , 14 doubles , 3 triples ( tied for 4th among NL rookies ) , 10 home runs ( tied for 4th among NL rookies ) , and 43 RBI ( 6th among NL rookies ) in 111 games . At Fresno , he batted .237 with 22 hits , 3 doubles , 1 triple , 2 home runs , and 9 RBI in 23 games .
= = = = 2009 = = = =
On March 29 , 2009 , Bowker was optioned to Fresno . In June , Bowker was named the Pacific Coast League player of the week for two straight weeks ( May 24 – 31 and June 1 – 7 ) after batting .519 with five doubles , six home runs , 16 runs scored , and 18 RBI over that span . He was called up to the Giants on July 9 when Ryan Sadowski was optioned to Fresno . On July 19 , he had a game @-@ winning sacrifice fly against Zach Duke in the Giants ' 4 – 3 victory over the Pittsburgh Pirates . Bowker split time in left field with Randy Winn and at first base with Ishikawa , but he was returned to Fresno on July 26 so the Giants could call up Eugenio Vélez after Bowker batted .156 with 4 RBI in 11 games . He was recalled at the beginning of August but was sent back to Fresno after appearing in two games . On August 16 , Bowker tied a Grizzlies ' record ( shared by Dante Powell ) by driving in seven runs in an 8 – 5 victory over the Nashville Sounds . He hit three @-@ run home runs against Tim Dillard and John Axford , and he was walked with the bases loaded by David Johnson . On September 1 , he was recalled when rosters expanded . He was used mainly as a pinch @-@ hitter until September 23 , when he took over left field after Vélez was moved from left field to second base to replace the injured Freddy Sanchez . In 31 games with the Giants that year , Bowker batted .194 with 13 hits , 2 doubles , 2 triples , 2 home runs , and 7 RBI in 67 at bats . In 104 games at Fresno , he batted .342 with 125 hits , 22 doubles , 4 triples , 21 home runs , and 83 RBI . He tied for ninth in the league in home runs ( with Prentice Redman ) and tied for eight in RBI ( with Allen Craig ) . He led the league in batting , becoming the first Fresno player to win the batting title since Brian Dallimore in 2003 . Bowker was named to the PCL 's regular @-@ season All @-@ Star team , post @-@ season All @-@ Star team , and All @-@ PCL team .
= = = = 2010 = = = =
Although Nate Schierholtz was expected to be the Giants ' Opening Day right fielder in 2010 , Bowker won the position after hitting six home runs in spring training . On April 7 , Bowker hit a two @-@ run home run against Brett Myers in a 10 – 4 victory over the Houston Astros . After batting .214 with four RBI in his first 10 games , Bowker was replaced by Schierholtz as the starting right fielder on April 17 . On May 7 , Bowker hit a ninth @-@ inning game @-@ tying home run against Francisco Rodríguez in an eventual 6 – 4 loss to the New York Mets . After batting .207 with 17 hits , 3 doubles , 3 home runs , and 8 RBI in 41 games , Bowker was optioned to Fresno on June 2 to make room for Pat Burrell on the roster . He was named the PCL Player of the Week from June 14 to June 21 after he had a 13 @-@ game hitting streak and a 6 @-@ game RBI streak end that week . After batting .310 with 61 hits , 12 doubles , 14 home runs , and 36 RBI in 51 games with Fresno , Bowker and Joe Martinez were traded to the Pittsburgh Pirates on July 31 for Javier López .
= = = Pittsburgh Pirates = = =
Upon being acquired , Bowker was assigned by the Pirates to the Indianapolis Indians of the triple @-@ A International League , where he batted .319 in 25 games with 29 hits , 7 doubles , 2 triples , 4 home runs , and 10 RBI . He was called up to the Pittsburgh club on September 1 as rosters expanded . By September 13 , he had taken over from Lastings Milledge as the Pirates ' everyday right fielder . He hit a two @-@ run home run against Barry Enright and had three hits on September 18 in a 9 – 6 victory over the Arizona Diamondbacks . Four days later , Bowker again had three hits and two RBI , including a solo home run against Kyle Lohse , in an 11 – 6 victory over the Cardinals . He had a pinch @-@ hit three @-@ run double against Mike MacDougal on September 28 in a 7 – 2 victory over the Cardinals . With the Pirates in 2010 , Bowker batted .232 with 16 hits , 5 doubles , 2 home runs , and 13 RBI in 26 games . His major league totals from 2010 were 33 hits , 5 doubles , 8 home runs , and 21 RBI in 67 games .
Bowker made the Pirates ' Opening Day roster in 2011 as a reserve oufielder . After he had 4 hits ( 1 double ) and 2 RBI in 17 at @-@ bats over 19 games , he was designated for assignment to make room on the roster for Xavier Paul on April 27 . On May 4 , he was assigned to Indianapolis after clearing waivers . In 106 games with Indianapolis , Bowker batted .306 with 129 hits , 27 doubles , 1 triple , 15 home runs , and 76 RBI ( ninth in the league ) . On August 30 , 2011 , Bowker was traded to the Philadelphia Phillies for a player to be named later or cash .
= = = Philadelphia Phillies = = =
Bowker was used almost exclusively as a pinch @-@ hitter with the Phillies . He had no hits in 13 at @-@ bats with the Phillies and was left off their postseason roster . With the Phillies and Pirates in 2011 , Bowker batted .133 with two RBI in 31 games .
= = = Yomiuri Giants = = =
On January 10 , 2012 , Bowker was released by the Phillies in order to pursue a career in Nippon Professional Baseball . Three days later , he signed a one @-@ year deal with the Yomiuri Giants .
He struggled in the regular season , having only .196 batting average , 3 home runs and 10 RBIs . But his performance in the Climax Series and Japan Series would be outstanding and were crucial to Giants ' both series ' Champion . Particularly in Japan Series , which included a near @-@ miss of a tie of Japan series record of 6 RBIs in a game ( which he had 5 ) and leading his Team with 7 RBI and 2 Home Runs . Despite losing to starting pitcher teammate Tetsuya Utsumi in Japan Series Most Valuable Player award , he was still awarded in Outstanding Player award .
= = = Second stint with the San Francisco Giants = = =
= = = = 2015 = = = =
In January 2015 , Bowker signed a minor league contract with the Giants to return to playing baseball in America . Along with Ryan Vogelsong , who had played for the Orix Buffaloes , he is the second Giants draftee to return to the Giants after playing in NPB .
On June 11 , 2015 Bowker was traded to the Pittsburgh Pirates organization for a PTBNL . He elected free agency on November 6 .
= = Personal life = =
Growing up , Bowker rooted for the San Francisco Giants , the team that drafted him . His uncle , Jeff Carmichael ( who coached him growing up ) , helps him train during the offseason .
= Action of 13 March 1806 =
The Action of 13 March 1806 was a naval engagement of the Napoleonic Wars , fought when a British and a French squadron met unexpectedly in the mid @-@ Atlantic . Neither force was aware of the presence of the other prior to the encounter and were participating in separate campaigns . The British squadron consisted of seven ships of the line accompanied by associated frigates , led by Rear @-@ Admiral Sir John Borlase Warren , were tasked with hunting down and destroying the French squadron of Contre @-@ Admiral Jean @-@ Baptiste Willaumez , which had departed Brest for raiding operations in the South Atlantic in December 1805 , at the start of the Atlantic campaign of 1806 . The French force consisted of one ship of the line and one frigate , all that remained of Contre @-@ Admiral Charles @-@ Alexandre Durand Linois ' squadron that had sailed for the Indian Ocean in March 1803 during the Peace of Amiens . Linois raided British shipping lanes and harbours across the region , achieving limited success against undefended merchant ships but repeatedly withdrawing in the face of determined opposition , most notably at the Battle of Pulo Aura in February 1804 . With his stores almost exhausted and the French ports east of the Cape of Good Hope that could have offered him replenishment eliminated , Linois decided to return to France in January 1806 , and by March was inadvertently sailing across the cruising ground of Warren 's squadron .
Linois had twice failed to capture , or even seriously engage , large and valuable British merchant convoys on his cruise . When he saw scattered sails in the distance at 03 : 00 on 13 March 1806 , he decided to investigate in his ship of the line Marengo , in the hope that the ships would again prove to be a merchant convoy . By the time he realised that the approaching ships were actually a powerful naval squadron , he was too close to outrun the lead ship , Warren 's flagship HMS London . As London engaged Marengo , the French frigate Belle Poule attempted to escape from the approaching squadron independently , but was also run down and brought to battle by the British frigate HMS Amazon . Both engagements lasted over three hours and were bloody , the French ships surrendering after three and a half hours and losing nearly 70 men between them .
The battle marked the end of Linois 's three @-@ year campaign against British trade and was the second British victory of the Atlantic campaign , following the Battle of San Domingo the previous month . Willaumez eventually returned to France , although without many of his squadron who were destroyed by British operations or Atlantic gales . Linois , despite the criticism levelled at him for his failures in the Indian Ocean , was considered to have fought hard and been unlucky to have encountered such an overwhelming force . Made a prisoner of war , Linois was not exchanged by Napoleon , who criticised his behaviour during the campaign and refused to employ him at sea again .
= = Background = =
By March 1806 , the French squadron under Contre @-@ Admiral Charles @-@ Alexandre Durand Linois had been operating against British trade in the Indian Ocean and elsewhere since the start of the Napoleonic Wars in 1803 . Despatched to India before war was declared , Linois left Brest in March 1803 , sailing to the South China Sea in an effort to intercept the China Fleet , a huge merchant convoy from Canton to Britain via Madras that carried goods worth in excess of £ 8 million . On 15 February 1804 , Linois encountered the China Fleet , which due to delays with the squadron in India had sailed without its Royal Navy escort . The loss of this undefended convoy could have devastated the British economy and been the highlight of Linois 's career , but instead the French admiral was fooled by a ruse of the convoy commander , Commodore Nathaniel Dance . Dance pretended that some of his East Indiaman merchant ships were disguised ships of the line and engaged Linois at long range , dissuading the French commander from pressing the attack . Dance 's merchant ships even pursued the fleeing French squadron for some distance , before resuming their original course . This affair , known as the Battle of Pulo Aura , was a humiliation for Linois and provoked Napoleon 's fury when the Emperor was informed of it by the governor of Île de France , Charles Decaen .
Six months later , Linois was operating off the Indian port of Vizagapatam when his squadron encountered the British warship HMS Centurion and two merchant ships under her protection . In the ensuing Battle of Vizagapatam , Centurion was badly damaged ; one of the merchant ships was captured and the other driven ashore . Rather than ensure the capture or destruction of Centurion , Linois refused further combat for fear of damaging his ships in shallow coastal waters and withdrew , again provoking censure from Napoleon . In August 1805 , Linois was engaged with another convoy of East Indiamen in the central Indian Ocean , but on this occasion was confronted by the ship of the line HMS Blenheim under Rear @-@ Admiral Sir Thomas Troubridge . After some ineffectual skirmishing , Linois withdrew again , unwilling to risk taking fatal damage to his ships so far from a safe port . Although he had seized five Indiamen and a number of small ships that had been sailing individually during his three @-@ year cruise , he failed to make a significant impact on British trade in the region and ruined his reputation as a successful naval commander . Deciding to switch his operations to the Atlantic after discovering that a squadron under Rear @-@ Admiral Sir Edward Pellew was searching for him , Linois visited the Cape of Good Hope , where one of his frigates was wrecked . He subsequently cruised the coast of West Africa , capturing two small ships but again failing to make a significant impact on British trade in the region . Learning from an American ship that a British expeditionary force had captured Cape Town , Linois decided to return to France with his remaining ships , the 74 @-@ gun ship of the line flagship Marengo and the frigate Belle Poule , sailing northwards and crossing the equator on 17 February .
Unknown to Linois , he was sailing directly into the middle of a complex series of manoeuvres by British and French squadrons known as the Atlantic campaign of 1806 . On 13 December , two large French squadrons sailed from Brest under orders to operate against British Atlantic trade . The first , under Vice @-@ Admiral Corentin @-@ Urbain Leissegues , consisting of the 120 @-@ gun Impérial , four other ships of the line and three smaller vessels , sailed for the Caribbean . The second under Contre @-@ Admiral Jean @-@ Baptiste Willaumez , who commanded six ships of the line and four smaller vessels , sailed for the South Atlantic . These squadrons were able to escape due to the reduction in the size and diligence of the British continental blockade that had been relaxed in the aftermath of the Trafalgar campaign of 1805 , in which 13 French and 12 Spanish ships of the line had been captured or destroyed . These losses significantly reduced the ability of the French and their allies to operate in the Atlantic . However , all of these ships came from the Mediterranean fleets : the Brest fleet had failed to even leave port in support of the campaign and thus survived unscathed . When the blockade was relaxed , the squadrons were able to break out into the Atlantic without resistance , following their orders to avoid combat with significant British forces and to cruise British trade routes in search of lightly protected merchant convoys . In response , the British rapidly mustered three squadrons of their own in pursuit . The first , under Rear @-@ Admiral Sir Richard Strachan , was ordered to the South Atlantic , to operate in the region of Saint Helena . The second under Rear @-@ Admiral Sir John Borlase Warren was sent to the mid @-@ Atlantic , based around Madeira , while the third under Sir John Thomas Duckworth was detached from the blockade of Cadiz . Duckworth pursued Lessigues to the Caribbean and on 6 February annihilated his force at the Battle of San Domingo , but Willaumez avoided encountering any of the squadrons sent to intercept him . Anticipating Willaumez 's return to France , the remaining British squadrons took up station in the Mid @-@ Atlantic .
= = Battle = =
On 13 March 1806 , Warren 's squadron was cruising in the Eastern Atlantic . Most of the squadron were grouped to the northwest , but HMS London under Captain Sir Harry Burrard @-@ Neale and the flagship HMS Foudroyant under Captain John Chambers White were sailing together some distance from the rest of the British force , in company with the frigate HMS Amazon under Captain William Parker . At 03 : 00 , sails were spotted to the north @-@ east by lookouts on London . Hastening in pursuit with the wind from the south @-@ west , Captain Neale signalled the location of the strange ships to Warren with blue lights , the admiral following with Amazon and the rest of the squadron trailing behind . To the north @-@ east , Linois had also sighted sails in the distance and turned Marengo south @-@ west in pursuit , anticipating a third encounter with a valuable merchant convoy . Captain Alain @-@ Adélaïde @-@ Marie Bruilhac of Belle Poule insisted that the sails were from British warships , but Linois over @-@ ruled him , arguing that any warships would be part of the convoy 's escort and could be avoided in the night . It was not until 05 : 30 , when London appeared from the gloom just ahead of Marengo that Linois realised his mistake . He attempted to escape , but his ships had been at sea for an extended period and were sluggish compared to the 98 @-@ gun London , which rapidly came alongside the French ship of the line and opened a heavy fire .
Linois returned London 's fire as best he could , but by 06 : 00 he realised that he was outmatched and swung away , issuing orders for Captain Bruilhac in Belle Poule to escape as best he could . The frigate however , which had been firing at London during the battle , continued engaging the larger ship to give Linois support as he attempted to pull away . At 06 : 15 , Bruilhac sighted Amazon bearing down and also withdrew , pulling ahead of Neale 's ship which continued to fire into Marengo . Both Marengo and London had suffered severe damage to their rigging , and neither were able to effectively manoeuvre : as a result , Linois was unable to avoid either Neale 's continued fire or shots from Amazon as Parker swept past in pursuit of Belle Poule . By 08 : 30 , Parker 's frigate was alongside Bruilhac 's and the ships exchanged fire over the next two hours , Amazon succeeding in damaging Belle Poule 's rigging to prevent her escape . Behind the battling frigates , Marengo had taken further battering from London and by 10 : 25 also came under fire from Foudroyant , and HMS Repulse under Captain Arthur Kaye Legge . HMS Ramillies under Captain Francis Pickmore was also rapidly coming into range . In the face of this overwhelming force , the French ship of the line had no option but to surrender , although by the time the tricolour was lowered at nearly 11 : 00 , both Linois and Captain Joseph @-@ Marie Vrignaud had been taken below with serious wounds .
Almost simultaneously with the surrender of Marengo , Captain Bruilhac surrendered Belle Poule , the damage inflicted by Amazon and the presence of Warren 's squadron persuading him that further resistance was hopeless . French losses in the engagement were severe , Marengo suffering extensive damage to her hull and rigging and losing 63 men killed and 83 wounded from a crew of 740 . The latter included both Linois and his son with serious wounds and Captain Vrignaud , who had to have an arm amputated . Losses on Belle Poule included six killed and 24 wounded from her complement of 330 . British losses were comparatively light , London suffering ten dead and 22 wounded and Amazon four killed and five wounded . London was the only British ship damaged , mainly in her rigging , which was hastily repaired in the aftermath of the battle .
= = Aftermath = =
On 23 April , a heavy storm swept the Eastern Atlantic , striking Warren 's squadron and their prizes . Marengo was seriously damaged , losing all three masts and taking on a large quantity of water that had to be pumped overboard by the understrength crew working in shifts . Five men were drowned . Ramilles also suffered in the high winds , losing almost all her masts and rolling for some hours , completely out of control . It was only when the storm had abated that jury masts could be raised and the scattered ships could rejoin the squadron for its journey back to Britain , arriving at Spithead . Willaumez eventually returned to the North Atlantic in the early summer , passing through the Caribbean before being dispersed in a hurricane , his ships scattered across the Western Atlantic . Most eventually reached France , but the campaign had been another disaster for the French Navy , with less than half of the ships sent out returning to Brest . The loss of Marengo and Belle Poule formed a footnote to the campaign , but the defeat of Linois was widely celebrated in Britain , where both ships were commissioned into the Royal Navy under their French names . Linois was praised for his defence of his ship in the face of overwhelming British force , and historian William James , writing in 1827 , considered that had Linois faced London alone he might have had the advantage . Four decades later the battle was among the actions recognised by a clasp attached to the Naval General Service Medal , awarded upon application to all British participants from London and Amazon still living in 1847 .
The engagement was not quite the end for Linois ' squadron : the last survivor , the frigate Sémillante had originally been ordered to sail for Mexico in March 1805 . This plan was foiled by an encounter with the British frigate HMS Phaeton in the Philippines , and Captain Léonard @-@ Bernard Motard returned to the Indian Ocean , operating for the next three years against British shipping from Île de France . Eventually the old frigate was assessed as worn out and sold from service in 1808 , operating as a privateer for a year before she was captured in 1809 . Napoleon refused to exchange Linois for a British prisoner , and the Emperor 's fury at the admiral 's failures in the Indian Ocean prevented any subsequent appointments . In 1814 , after Napoleon 's abdication , the new French regime made Linois governor of Martinique , but when the Hundred Days began , Linois declared for Napoleon and the British invaded and captured his island . His career over , Linois retired . He died some 34 years later , in 1848 .
= Interstate 590 =
Interstate 590 ( I @-@ 590 ) is a north – south auxiliary Interstate Highway that serves the immediate southeastern suburbs of the city of Rochester , New York , in the United States . It extends for 5 @.@ 07 miles ( 8 @.@ 16 km ) from an interchange with I @-@ 390 in Brighton to the Can of Worms , a complex interchange connecting I @-@ 590 to I @-@ 490 ( the Eastern Expressway ) just inside the Rochester city line . I @-@ 590 makes up the southeast quadrant of the Rochester Outer Loop , which continues west on I @-@ 390 and north past the Can of Worms on New York State Route 590 ( NY 590 ) . The highway is a spur route of I @-@ 90 ; the connection between the two is made via both I @-@ 390 and I @-@ 490 .
The portion of I @-@ 590 between Winton Road and the Can of Worms was originally constructed in the 1960s and designated as part of NY 47 from Elmwood Avenue northward . In the late 1970s , I @-@ 590 was proposed as a designation for the entire southern half of the Outer Loop . Ultimately , it was cut back to its current western terminus at the then @-@ proposed I @-@ 390 . I @-@ 590 was officially assigned in 1980 following the elimination of NY 47 , and the last segment of the freeway between Winton Road and I @-@ 390 was completed by the following year .
= = Route description = =
I @-@ 590 begins at a semi @-@ directional T interchange with I @-@ 390 in the town of Brighton , a southern suburb of the city of Rochester . The route heads east from the junction , passing under South Clinton Avenue ( which passes through the east half of the interchange but does not connect to either freeway ) and traveling east through open fields to its first interchange ( a diverging diamond interchange ) at South Winton Road . Here , the surroundings rapidly change from fields to densely populated residential areas as it passes through a more developed section of Brighton . As it approaches NY 31 ( Monroe Avenue ) at exit 2 , I @-@ 590 turns a full 90 degrees to the north . Past NY 31 , I @-@ 590 runs through the former Erie Canal and Rochester Subway bed .
The freeway travels due north along this stretch , flanked on both sides by residential neighborhoods separated from I @-@ 590 only by sound barriers . Not far to the north of the intersection with NY 31 is exit 3 , a partial diamond interchange for Elmwood Avenue permitting access from I @-@ 590 south and to I @-@ 590 north . Prior to 1980 , NY 47 entered the freeway at this point and followed both I @-@ 590 and NY 590 north to Sea Breeze . Another partial interchange with Highland Avenue follows at exit 4 — making the two connections that exit 3 omits — before I @-@ 590 enters the Can of Worms , a complex interchange connecting I @-@ 590 to I @-@ 490 . North of the ramps leading to I @-@ 490 , I @-@ 590 descends northeastward into a cut and passes below both I @-@ 490 and NY 96 as it becomes NY 590 , which continues onward toward Sea Breeze .
= = History = =
I @-@ 590 appeared on maps of the Rochester area as early as 1977 as a designation for the portion of the Rochester Outer Loop south of I @-@ 490 . At the time , only two portions of the loop — from I @-@ 490 in Gates southeast to NY 383 in Chili and from Winton Road in Brighton to I @-@ 490 in Rochester — were complete and open to traffic . The western portion was constructed c . 1965 and designated as part of NY 47 . The eastern section , which opened from Monroe Avenue ( NY 31 ) to the Can of Worms c . 1965 and from NY 31 west to Winton Road by 1968 , was part of NY 47 between Elmwood Avenue and I @-@ 490 . South of Elmwood Avenue , the expressway had no signed number as the Federal Highway Administration had yet to assign the I @-@ 590 designation . Construction on the missing section of the Outer Loop 's southern half began in the late 1970s .
Around the same time , the state of New York began to look into the possibility of changing the designations that were assigned to the Outer Loop . In one proposal submitted to the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials in the late 1970s , I @-@ 590 would be truncated to begin at the then @-@ proposed junction with I @-@ 390 in Brighton but also extended northward along the Sea Breeze Expressway to NY 104 in Irondequoit . The rest of the loop south of I @-@ 490 , meanwhile , would become part of an extended I @-@ 390 . NY 47 , the then @-@ current designation for much of the Outer Loop , would be eliminated entirely . Most of the plans went into effect when the NY 47 designation was eliminated on March 18 , 1980 . The southern half of the Outer Loop was signed as planned ; however , I @-@ 390 and I @-@ 590 were modified to end at their junctions with I @-@ 490 . The section of I @-@ 590 from Winton Road to I @-@ 390 — as well as the interchange connecting the two — was completed c . 1981 .
In 2012 , a diverging diamond interchange was added at the intersection of I @-@ 590 and Winton Road in the Brighton suburb of Rochester .
= = Exit list = =
The entire route is in Monroe County .
= Glass fiber =
Glass fiber ( or glass fibre ) is a material consisting of numerous extremely fine fibers of glass .
Glassmakers throughout history have experimented with glass fibers , but mass manufacture of glass fiber was only made possible with the invention of finer machine tooling . In 1893 , Edward Drummond Libbey exhibited a dress at the World 's Columbian Exposition incorporating glass fibers with the diameter and texture of silk fibers . This was first worn by the popular stage actress of the time Georgia Cayvan . Glass fibers can also occur naturally , as Pele 's hair .
Glass wool , which is one product called " fiberglass " today , was invented in 1932 – 1933 by Russell Games Slayter of Owens @-@ Corning , as a material to be used as thermal building insulation . It is marketed under the trade name Fiberglas , which has become a genericized trademark . Glass fiber when used as a thermal insulating material , is specially manufactured with a bonding agent to trap many small air cells , resulting in the characteristically air @-@ filled low @-@ density " glass wool " family of products .
Glass fiber has roughly comparable mechanical properties to other fibers such as polymers and carbon fiber . Although not as strong or as rigid as carbon fiber , it is much cheaper and significantly less brittle when used in composites . Glass fibers are therefore used as a reinforcing agent for many polymer products ; to form a very strong and relatively lightweight fiber @-@ reinforced polymer ( FRP ) composite material called glass @-@ reinforced plastic ( GRP ) , also popularly known as " fiberglass " . This structural material product contains little or no air or gas , is more dense , and is a much poorer thermal insulator than is glass wool .
= = Fiber formation = =
Glass fiber is formed when thin strands of silica @-@ based or other formulation glass are extruded into many fibers with small diameters suitable for textile processing . The technique of heating and drawing glass into fine fibers has been known for millennia ; however , the use of these fibers for textile applications is more recent . Until this time , all glass fiber had been manufactured as staple ( that is , clusters of short lengths of fiber ) .
The modern method for producing glass wool is the invention of Games Slayter working at the Owens @-@ Illinois Glass Co . ( Toledo , Ohio ) . He first applied for a patent for a new process to make glass wool in 1933 . The first commercial production of glass fiber was in 1936 . In 1938 Owens @-@ Illinois Glass Company and Corning Glass Works joined to form the Owens @-@ Corning Fiberglas Corporation . When the two companies joined to produce and promote glass fiber , they introduced continuous filament glass fibers . Owens @-@ Corning is still the major glass @-@ fiber producer in the market today .
Composition . The most common types of glass fiber used in fiberglass is E @-@ glass , which is alumino @-@ borosilicate glass with less than 1 % w / w alkali oxides , mainly used for glass @-@ reinforced plastics . Other types of glass used are A @-@ glass ( Alkali @-@ lime glass with little or no boron oxide ) , E @-@ CR @-@ glass ( Electrical / Chemical Resistance ; alumino @-@ lime silicate with less than 1 % w / w alkali oxides , with high acid resistance ) , C @-@ glass ( alkali @-@ lime glass with high boron oxide content , used for glass staple fibers and insulation ) , D @-@ glass ( borosilicate glass , named for its low Dielectric constant ) , R @-@ glass ( alumino silicate glass without MgO and CaO with high mechanical requirements as reinforcement ) , and S @-@ glass ( alumino silicate glass without CaO but with high MgO content with high tensile strength ) .
Naming and use . Pure silica ( silicon dioxide ) , when cooled as fused quartz into a glass with no true melting point , can be used as a glass fiber for fiberglass , but has the drawback that it must be worked at very high temperatures . In order to lower the necessary work temperature , other materials are introduced as " fluxing agents " ( i.e. , components to lower the melting point ) . Ordinary A @-@ glass ( " A " for " alkali @-@ lime " ) or soda lime glass , crushed and ready to be remelted , as so @-@ called cullet glass , was the first type of glass used for fiberglass . E @-@ glass ( " E " because of initial electrical application ) , is alkali free , and was the first glass formulation used for continuous filament formation . It now makes up most of the fiberglass production in the world , and also is the single largest consumer of boron minerals globally . It is susceptible to chloride ion attack and is a poor choice for marine applications . S @-@ glass ( " S " for " Strength " ) is used when high tensile strength ( modulus ) is important , and is thus an important building and aircraft epoxy composite . The same substance is known as R @-@ glass ( " R " for " reinforcement " ) in Europe ) . C @-@ glass ( " C " for " chemical resistance " ) and T @-@ glass ( " T " is for " thermal insulator " – a North American variant of C @-@ glass ) are resistant to chemical attack ; both are often found in insulation @-@ grades of blown fiberglass .
= = Chemistry = =
The basis of textile @-@ grade glass fibers is silica , SiO2 . In its pure form it exists as a polymer , ( SiO2 ) n . It has no true melting point but softens up to 1200 ° C , where it starts to degrade . At 1713 ° C , most of the molecules can move about freely . If the glass is extruded and cooled quickly at this temperature , it will be unable to form an ordered structure . In the polymer it forms SiO4 groups which are configured as a tetrahedron with the silicon atom at the center , and four oxygen atoms at the corners . These atoms then form a network bonded at the corners by sharing the oxygen atoms .
The vitreous and crystalline states of silica ( glass and quartz ) have similar energy levels on a molecular basis , also implying that the glassy form is extremely stable . In order to induce crystallization , it must be heated to temperatures above 1200 ° C for long periods of time .
Although pure silica is a perfectly viable glass and glass fiber , it must be worked with at very high temperatures , which is a drawback unless its specific chemical properties are needed . It is usual to introduce impurities into the glass in the form of other materials to lower its working temperature . These materials also impart various other properties to the glass that may be beneficial in different applications . The first type of glass used for fiber was soda lime glass or A @-@ glass ( " A " for the alkali it contains ) . It is not very resistant to alkali . A new type , E @-@ glass , was formed ; this is an alumino @-@ borosilicate glass that is alkali @-@ free ( < 2 % ) . This was the first glass formulation used for continuous filament formation . E @-@ glass still makes up most of the glass fiber production in the world . Its particular components may differ slightly in percentage , but must fall within a specific range . The letter E is used because it was originally for electrical applications . S @-@ glass ( S for " stiff " ) is a high @-@ strength formulation for use when tensile strength is the most important property . C @-@ glass was developed to resist attack from chemicals , mostly acids that destroy E @-@ glass . T @-@ glass is a North American variant of C @-@ glass . A @-@ glass is an industry term for cullet glass , often bottles , made into fiber . AR @-@ glass is alkali @-@ resistant glass . Most glass fibers have limited solubility in water but are very dependent on pH . Chloride ions will also attack and dissolve E @-@ glass surfaces .
E @-@ glass does not actually melt , but softens instead , the softening point being " the temperature at which a 0 @.@ 55 – 0 @.@ 77 mm diameter fiber 235 mm long , elongates under its own weight at 1 mm / min when suspended vertically and heated at the rate of 5 ° C per minute " . The strain point is reached when the glass has a viscosity of 1014 @.@ 5 poise . The annealing point , which is the temperature where the internal stresses are reduced to an acceptable commercial limit in 15 minutes , is marked by a viscosity of 1013 poise .
= = Properties = =
= = = Thermal = = =
Glass fibers are useful thermal insulators because of their high ratio of surface area to weight . However , the increased surface area makes them much more susceptible to chemical attack . By trapping air within them , blocks of glass fiber make good thermal insulation , with a thermal conductivity of the order of 0 @.@ 05 W / ( m · K ) .
= = = Tensile = = =
The strength of glass is usually tested and reported for " virgin " or pristine fibers — those that have just been manufactured . The freshest , thinnest fibers are the strongest because the thinner fibers are more ductile . The more the surface is scratched , the less the resulting tenacity . Because glass has an amorphous structure , its properties are the same along the fiber and across the fiber . Humidity is an important factor in the tensile strength . Moisture is easily adsorbed and can worsen microscopic cracks and surface defects , and lessen tenacity .
In contrast to carbon fiber , glass can undergo more elongation before it breaks . There is a correlation between bending diameter of the filament and the filament diameter . The viscosity of the molten glass is very important for manufacturing success . During drawing ( pulling of the glass to reduce fiber circumference ) , the viscosity must be relatively low . If it is too high , the fiber will break during drawing . However , if it is too low , the glass will form droplets rather than drawing out into fiber .
= = Manufacturing processes = =
= = = Melting = = =
There are two main types of glass fiber manufacture and two main types of glass fiber product . First , fiber is made either from a direct melt process or a marble remelt process . Both start with the raw materials in solid form . The materials are mixed together and melted in a furnace . Then , for the marble process , the molten material is sheared and rolled into marbles which are cooled and packaged . The marbles are taken to the fiber manufacturing facility where they are inserted into a can and remelted . The molten glass is extruded to the bushing to be formed into fiber . In the direct melt process , the molten glass in the furnace goes directly to the bushing for formation .
= = = Formation = = =
The bushing plate is the most important part of the machinery for making the fiber . This is a small metal furnace containing nozzles for the fiber to be formed through . It is almost always made of platinum alloyed with rhodium for durability . Platinum is used because the glass melt has a natural affinity for wetting it . When bushings were first used they were 100 % platinum , and the glass wetted the bushing so easily that it ran under the plate after exiting the nozzle and accumulated on the underside . Also , due to its cost and the tendency to wear , the platinum was alloyed with rhodium . In the direct melt process , the bushing serves as a collector for the molten glass . It is heated slightly to keep the glass at the correct temperature for fiber formation . In the marble melt process , the bushing acts more like a furnace as it melts more of the material .
Bushings are the major expense in fiber glass production . The nozzle design is also critical . The number of nozzles ranges from 200 to 4000 in multiples of 200 . The important part of the nozzle in continuous filament manufacture is the thickness of its walls in the exit region . It was found that inserting a counterbore here reduced wetting . Today , the nozzles are designed to have a minimum thickness at the exit . As glass flows through the nozzle , it forms a drop which is suspended from the end . As it falls , it leaves a thread attached by the meniscus to the nozzle as long as the viscosity is in the correct range for fiber formation . The smaller the annular ring of the nozzle and the thinner the wall at exit , the faster the drop will form and fall away , and the lower its tendency to wet the vertical part of the nozzle . The surface tension of the glass is what influences the formation of the meniscus . For E @-@ glass it should be around 400 mN / m .
The attenuation ( drawing ) speed is important in the nozzle design . Although slowing this speed down can make coarser fiber , it is uneconomic to run at speeds for which the nozzles were not designed .
= = = Continuous filament process = = =
In the continuous filament process , after the fiber is drawn , a size is applied . This size helps protect the fiber as it is wound onto a bobbin . The particular size applied relates to end @-@ use . While some sizes are processing aids , others make the fiber have an affinity for a certain resin , if the fiber is to be used in a composite . Size is usually added at 0 @.@ 5 – 2 @.@ 0 % by weight . Winding then takes place at around 1000 m / min .
= = = Staple fiber process = = =
For staple fiber production , there are a number of ways to manufacture the fiber . The glass can be blown or blasted with heat or steam after exiting the formation machine . Usually these fibers are made into some sort of mat . The most common process used is the rotary process . Here , the glass enters a rotating spinner , and due to centrifugal force is thrown out horizontally . The air jets push it down vertically , and binder is applied . Then the mat is vacuumed to a screen and the binder is cured in the oven .
= = Safety = =
Glass fiber has increased in popularity since the discovery that asbestos causes cancer and its subsequent removal from most products . However , the safety of glass fiber is also being called into question , as research shows that the composition of this material ( asbestos and glass fiber are both silicate fibers ) can cause similar toxicity as asbestos .
1970s studies on rats found that fibrous glass of less than 3 micrometers in diameter and greater than 20 micrometers in length is a " potent carcinogen " . Likewise , the International Agency for Research on Cancer found it " may reasonably be anticipated to be a carcinogen " in 1990 . The American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists , on the other hand , says that there is insufficient evidence , and that glass fiber is in group A4 : " Not classifiable as a human carcinogen " .
The North American Insulation Manufacturers Association ( NAIMA ) claims that glass fiber is fundamentally different from asbestos , since it is man @-@ made instead of naturally @-@ occurring . They claim that glass fiber " dissolves in the lungs " , while asbestos remains in the body for life . Although both glass fiber and asbestos are made from silica filaments , NAIMA claims that asbestos is more dangerous because of its crystalline structure , which causes it to cleave into smaller , more dangerous pieces , citing the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services :
Synthetic vitreous fibers [ fiber glass ] differ from asbestos in two ways that may provide at least partial explanations for their lower toxicity . Because most synthetic vitreous fibers are not crystalline like asbestos , they do not split longitudinally to form thinner fibers . They also generally have markedly less biopersistence in biological tissues than asbestos fibers because they can undergo dissolution and transverse breakage .
A 1998 study using rats found that the biopersistence of synthetic fibers after one year was 0 @.@ 04 – 10 % , but 27 % for amosite asbestos . Fibers that persisted longer were found to be more carcinogenic .
= = Glass @-@ reinforced plastic ( fiberglass ) = =
Glass @-@ reinforced plastic ( GRP ) is a composite material or fiber @-@ reinforced plastic made of a plastic reinforced by fine glass fibers . Like graphite @-@ reinforced plastic , the composite material is commonly referred to as fiberglass . The glass can be in the form of a chopped strand mat ( CSM ) or a woven fabric .
As with many other composite materials ( such as reinforced concrete ) , the two materials act together , each overcoming the deficits of the other . Whereas the plastic resins are strong in compressive loading and relatively weak in tensile strength , the glass fibers are very strong in tension but tend not to resist compression . By combining the two materials , GRP becomes a material that resists both compressive and tensile forces well . The two materials may be used uniformly or the glass may be specifically placed in those portions of the structure that will experience tensile loads .
= = Uses = =
Uses for regular glass fiber include mats and fabrics for thermal insulation , electrical insulation , sound insulation , high @-@ strength fabrics or heat- and corrosion @-@ resistant fabrics . It is also used to reinforce various materials , such as tent poles , pole vault poles , arrows , bows and crossbows , translucent roofing panels , automobile bodies , hockey sticks , surfboards , boat hulls , and paper honeycomb . It has been used for medical purposes in casts . Glass fiber is extensively used for making FRP tanks and vessels .
Open @-@ weave glass fiber grids are used to reinforce asphalt pavement . Non @-@ woven glass fiber / polymer blend mats are used saturated with asphalt emulsion and overlaid with asphalt , producing a waterproof , crack @-@ resistant membrane . Use of glass @-@ fiber reinforced polymer rebar instead of steel rebar shows promise in areas where avoidance of steel corrosion is desired .
= = Role of recycling in glass fiber manufacturing = =
Manufacturers of glass @-@ fiber insulation can use recycled glass . Recycled glass fiber has up to a 40 % recycled glass .
= Ayscoghe Boucherett =
Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Ayscoghe Boucherett , JP DL ( 16 April 1755 – 15 September 1815 ) was a British landowner , businessman and Member of Parliament for Great Grimsby from 1796 to 1803 .
Born into a family of the Lincolnshire landed gentry , Boucherett became involved in local politics in Lincolnshire , and ( owing mainly to his marriage ) with artistic and mercantile circles in London . He was the chairman of the Grimsby Haven Company , which oversaw the reopening and expansion of Grimsby 's first dock . He was a friend of the artist Sir Thomas Lawrence and the proprietor of Willingham , Lincolnshire , where he constructed his country seat , Willingham House , in 1790 . For his investment in the Haven Company , he received the support of Lord Yarborough , one of its main investors and a principal land @-@ owner in Grimsby ; owing largely to Lord Yarborough 's patronage , Boucherett was returned as the Member of Parliament for that borough at the 1796 election . He was not a frequent voter , but used his position to further the interests of his corporation . Nonetheless , the company met with financial difficulties after it opened the Harbour in 1800 . In 1803 , Boucherett resigned his seat in favour of Yarborough 's heir and pursued a quieter political life . He died in a carriage accident in 1815 .
= = Early life and family connections = =
Boucherett was born on 16 April 1755 , the son of Ayscoghe Boucherett of Willingham and Stallingborough , Lincolnshire , and his wife , Mary White . The elder Boucherett had been the High Sheriff of Lincolnshire in 1754 , and was a landed gentleman in Lincolnshire , whose family was descended from Huguenot merchants ; they married into the Ayscoghe family and inherited the Willingham estate through this marriage . The elder Boucherett 's daughter , Mary , had married Michael Barne of Sotterley , Suffolk , an army officer and a member of parliament for Dunwich .
The younger Boucherett was admitted at Queen 's College , Cambridge , in 1773 , aged 18 , but did not take a degree . He married , on 17 March 1789 , Emelia Crockatt , daughter of Charles Crockatt , a merchant , of London and of Luxborough Hall , Essex , and his wife , Anna Muilman , who married , when widowed , the insurance broker and art connoisseur John Julius Angerstein . This union helped the younger Boucherett to garner connexions in London merchant circles . Emilia Boucherett died on 5 February 1837 , aged 75 . The Boucheretts had one son and three daughters :
Emilia Mary Boucherett ( 7 August 1790 – 29 November 1870 ) . Died unmarried .
Ayscoghe Boucherett , J.P. , D.L. ( 24 September 1791 – 1857 ) , he was High Sheriff of Lincolnshire in 1820 . He married , on 11 May 1816 , Louisa Pigou , daughter of Frederick John Pigou of Dartford , Kent , and his wife Louisa , née Minchin . They had : Ayscoghe Boucherett ( 1817 – 32 ) , Henry Robert Boucherett , J.P. ( 1818 – 77 ) , who was High Sheriff of Lincolnshire in 1866 , Hugo Boucherett ( 1819 – c . 1839 ) , Louisa Boucherett ( 1821 – 95 ) , and Emilia Jessie Boucherett ( 1825 – 1905 ) , who was a noted women 's rights campaigner .
Maria Boucherett ( born 30 October 1795 ) . She married , on 15 August 1815 , Charles Parker Newdigate Newdegate of Harefield , Middlesex ; their only child was the Conservative politician and Member of Parliament for North Warwickshire , Charles Newdigate Newdegate .
Juliana Boucherett ( bapt . 27 April 1798 ) . Died unmarried .
Boucherett paid for the construction of a new family seat in 1790 ; Willingham House was a larger and grander mansion than the family 's previous seat closer to Willingham , and was constructed in the neoclassical style , most likely by Robert Mitchell , two miles west of the earlier house .
= = Friendship with Sir Thomas Lawrence = =
The family 's connection with the art connoisseur John Julius Angerstein led to them becoming acquainted with certain artistic circles in the late eighteenth century ; most notably , they established a close friendship with the portrait painter Sir Thomas Lawrence , who would go on to be President of the Royal Academy . He visited Willingham House , the Boucherett family 's country home , composing a number of studies in pastel of Boucherett 's young children , beginning in 1793 . The Boucherett family were also painted several times by Lawrence ; he painted a group portrait of Emilia Boucherett , and her two eldest children , Ayscoghe and Emilia Maria , alongside Mrs Boucherett 's half @-@ sister , Juliana Angerstein ; another group portrait , The Children of Ayscoghe Boucherett , depicting the four children of Boucherett and his wife , ( painted in 1808 and now held in the Louvre Museum ) , has been described as " one of Lawrence 's most celebrated group portraits " . A separate study of the three daughters , Emilia Mary , Maria and Juliana , was sold by the auction house Christie 's in 2012 for £ 121 @,@ 000 .
= = Member of Parliament and public service = =
In the 1790s , Boucherett began to rise through Lincolnshire 's civic and mercantile circles , especially in the north of the County , where the family had their seat ; his connexions helped him to become involved with a group of businessmen planning to reopen and expand Grimsby 's harbour . His rise is charted in his appointments to several civic posts : to be High Steward of Grimsby from 1794 ( he remained as such until his death ) , succeeding Christopher Clayton , and to be High Sheriff of Lincolnshire for 1795 – 6 . As these plans for the harbour came to fruition , he was appointed chairman of the company tasked with performing the required work ; it was the Grimsby Haven Company , which was created by an Act of Parliament in 1796 ( 36 Geo III , chap . 98 ) for the express purpose of building the dock and repairing the Haven . He secured the friendship and patronage of Charles Anderson Pelham , 1st Baron Yarborough , a prominent local land @-@ owner involved in the Haven Company , and was returned as the Member of Parliament for Great Grimsby in 1796 owing to this friendship .
Yarborough , Boucherett 's patron , was an opponent of the administration of William Pitt the Younger and supported the Duke of Portland during the 1790s . Boucherett was an infrequent voter , but he told the diarist Joseph Farington that , when he did vote , he tended to do so with Charles James Fox , rather than Pitt the Younger , although , he later became " disgusted " at Fox 's style of opposition ; he is also known to have voted against the Ferrol Expedition in 1801 . The seat did allow for him to further the interests of the Haven Company , with him proposing a bill to grant more funds in 1799 . He found , though , that his funds and the financial success of the company were both in decline by 1801 . Although re @-@ elected in 1802 , the following year he resigned in favour of Lord Yarborough 's eldest son and heir , the Hon. Charles Anderson Pelham , later 1st Earl and 2nd Baron Yarborough .
= = Later life = =
Although opened in 1800 at the cost of £ 100 @,@ 000 , the new harbour at Grimsby failed to attract the levels of trade the company had projected , caused largely by a lack of inland transport networks . The financial problems facing the Grimsby Haven Company led to factions and difficulty in its running and put strain on Boucherett 's relations with Yarborough ; having invested much money and time in the now failing company , Boucherett also found it draining of him financially .
Aside from Parliamentary and business commitments , he served as a Deputy Lieutenant for Lincolnshire and a Justice of the Peace . Boucherett was also an officer in the Yeoman volunteers , being a Captain the Market Raisin Yeomanry in 1798 and then a Lieutenant @-@ Colonel in and Commandant of the North Lincolnshire Yeomanry from 1814 until his death . He died in a carriage accident on 15 September 1815 . At his death , his assets barely covered the debts he had accrued in his lifetime . He was succeeded as the High Steward of Grimsby by the Hon. George Anderson Pelham , the second son of the first Lord Yarborough .
= NBN Television =
NBN Television , ( commonly known as NBN ) is an Australian television station based in Newcastle , Australia . The station was inaugurated on 4 March 1962 as the first regional commercial television station in New South Wales , and has since expanded to 39 transmitters throughout the northern half of New South Wales and parts of South East Queensland , including Tamworth , Tweed Heads , Lismore , Coffs Harbour , Hunter Region , Central Coast and the Gold Coast . It is owned by the Nine Network , with its schedule closely following those of metropolitan counterparts TCN in Sydney and QTQ in Brisbane .
The station callsign , NBN , is an acronym for Newcastle Broadcasting New South Wales . NBN is the only regional station in Australia to produce a one @-@ hour news bulletin seven days a week . Since 2007 , it has been owned by Nine 's parent company Nine Entertainment Co . ( formerly PBL Media ) , making it a sister station to its metropolitan counterparts . Prior to 1 July 2016 , NBN operated as an independent regional station , and not as part of the main network .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
NBN 's original owner , the Newcastle Broadcasting and Television Corporation ( NBTC ) was founded in May 1958 to begin preparations for the upcoming television licence allocations . The main shareholders in NBTC were United Broadcasting Company ( owned by the Lamb family , owners of radio station 2KO ) , Airsales Broadcasting Company ( owners of local radio station 2HD ) , and the Newcastle Morning Herald and Miners Advocate ( to be bought out by John Fairfax and Sons Ltd . ) . In accordance with the Australian Broadcasting Control Board regulations , at least 50 % of the company had to be locally owned . 750 @,@ 000 shares were made available by the NBTC ( at 10 shillings , equivalent to A $ 1 each ) . Approximately 2000 people bought shares .
The Australian Broadcasting Control Board awarded the commercial television licence for the Newcastle and Hunter Valley area to the NBTC on 1 August 1961 . NBN @-@ 3 would transmit on VHF channel 3 , from a transmitter atop Mount Sugarloaf near Newcastle . Council approval for the transmitter was issued on 17 July that year .
The call @-@ letters , NBN , were derived from the company 's name , Newcastle Broadcasting and Television Corporation , with the second N representing New South Wales , as required by law . Unofficially , it stood for Newcastle Broadcasting Network .
Construction began in November 1961 , supervised by engineers from RCA in the United States . It was a step backwards for RCA , building a new station transmitting in black and white while colour television was fast becoming the norm in the United States . Ninety per cent of the original equipment was imported from the United States , and held in bond until they were due to be installed . Equipment was purchased with colour production and transmission in mind , so that only 20 % modification would be required when colour came to NBN . Studios were to be built on a 3 @-@ acre ( 1 @.@ 2 ha ) block at Mosbri Crescent , near the city centre .
Work on the 142 m ( 466 ft ) transmitter was delayed by a combination of weather , the conditions for the road leading to Mount Sugarloaf , and excited sightseers blocking work trucks during the weekends . During that time , the technical team stayed at the top of the mountain . The construction took 8 months at a cost of A $ 1 @.@ 5 million , and required staff to work seven days a week ( except on Christmas Day ) to make the deadline .
Test transmissions took place in early 1962 , and could be seen as far away as Muswellbrook , Avalon , Katoomba , Lithgow , Gloucester and around Port Kembla .
= = = = Opening night = = = =
NBN Television commenced transmission on 4 March 1962 . The first programme on launch night began at 6pm , a taped welcome by the then @-@ Postmaster General Charles Davidson . Following that was a guided tour around the NBN studios by the original production manager , Matthew Tapp .
Murray Finlay began one of the longest newsreading careers in Australia with NBN 's first news bulletin at 6.30pm. This was followed by The Phil Silvers Show at 7pm , and the 1937 movie Green Light starring Errol Flynn at 7 @.@ 30 ; the George Sanders Theatre series followed at 9pm , with opening episode , The Man in the Elevator , followed by the first episode from the Halls of Ivy , then the first Mystery Theatre program , The Missing Head at 10 pm . Anglican Bishop James Housden gave the first evening meditation at 10.30pm , marking the end of the first night of transmission for NBN @-@ 3 in Newcastle . Commercials on the first night included Rothmans Cigarettes , Streets Ice Cream , Ampol , Commonwealth Bank , Shell , and W.D. & H.O. Wills , amongst others .
In the lead @-@ up to the opening night , the station promised at least two movies a week , as well as men 's interest programs each Saturday afternoon between 3pm and 4pm – a commitment successfully met , along with female @-@ targeted programming in the early afternoon , and children 's programming from 4.30pm to 6.30pm weekdays and mature programming thirty minutes before closedown each night . NBN Television broadcast fifty @-@ six hours in its first week of transmission , setting the Australian television record for the most time spent on air in a week for a new television station .
= = = 1960s to the 1970s = = =
Soon after launch night , NBN extended television coverage from Bungwahl to Broken Bay and as far west as Aberdeen . The station only operated eight hours per day , however several programs were produced locally including Home at Three , Let 's Cook With Gas , Tempo , Focus , as well as nightly news bulletins at 6.30pm.
In 1963 , Australian Consolidated Press and News Limited bought 200 @,@ 000 shares in the Newcastle Broadcasting and Television Corporation . Shortly after , United Broadcasting Company sold its shares to Neatherley Investments Limited in Adelaide , and Australian United Investments in Melbourne , with each company purchasing 100 @,@ 000 shares . Time Enterprises , purchased Australian United Investments 's shares in November 1967 .
During the period between 1968 and 1969 , NBN secured a relay from the Postmaster @-@ General to enhance their news service . In 1970 , NBN began upgrading its studios in preparation for the commencement of colour television at a cost of A $ 360 @,@ 000 . The improvements included an enlarged film department ; a film editing and cleaning equipment ; a larger master control with four video transfer machines ; a new telecine room with caption scanner and slide drums ; as well as an expansion of the administration and staff offices which also included new offices and a boardroom .
In 1972 , NBN was granted a licence to operate a translator in the Upper Hunter from Rossgole Lookout near Aberdeen , on VHF channel 10 . Concurrently in April 1972 , NBN expanded its nightly news service to one hour , becoming the first television station in Australia to have a one @-@ hour news bulletin . As a part of earlier preparations for colour production , between 1972 and 1973 , orders were placed with Rank Cintel and the EMI Group in the United Kingdom and Ampex in the United States for new colour equipment , in time for colour transmission tests on 7 October 1974 . On 1 March 1975 , the station began regular colour transmissions , whilst transmission was expanded to Banderra Downs , Merriwa , Mount Helen , and Murrurundi at a cost of A $ 180 @,@ 000 . In 1978 , the Newcastle Broadcasting and Television Corporation made a bid for local station ( and former owner ) 2HD , however was disallowed by the Australian Broadcasting Tribunal . Also during the same year more extensions were added to the studios , which included a new car park , and was officially opened on 17 November 1978 .
On 22 November 1979 the Newcastle Broadcasting and Television Corporation officially became NBN Limited , and the station itself renamed from Channel Three to NBN Television . By the late 1970s , NBN was producing twenty hours a week of local and networked programming from its studios , which in turn led the station to purchase a Bell Jet Ranger helicopter for news coverage purposes .
= = = 1980s to the 1990s = = =
In early 1980 , NBN purchased Southern Television Corporation Limited , owners of NWS @-@ 9 in Adelaide , for A $ 19 million . During the same year , NBN began a teletext service and also purchased the free local newspaper , the Newcastle Star . In 1981 , Hadjoin Pty . Ltd . , a subsidiary of Parry 's Esplanade Limited ( later Parry Corporation ) , purchased 19 @.@ 88 % of NBN Limited for A $ 6 @.@ 7 million .
Parry had then attempted to buy Michael Wansey 's stake in NBN , but was blocked by the Supreme Court of New South Wales . It was later revealed that the Lambs had opposed NBN 's purchase of the Star newspaper ( created and owned by Wansey ) and the attempt to buy 2HD . The company also faced possible suspension from the Australian Stock Exchange if a decision was not made soon . To resolve the tension , NBN sold NWS @-@ 9 to the Lambs in exchange for the majority stake in NBN in 1982 . With the buy @-@ out of community shares in NBN , the station ceased to be what Hunter residents considered to be " their own ' . It came at a cost . Wansey mortgaged his shares to Parry who called in the debt .
On 16 March 1983 , Hadjoin finally completed the purchase of NBN , officially delisting the company . It had cost Parry A $ 6 @.@ 76 per share to acquire 1 @,@ 285 @,@ 289 shares . Michael Wansey resigned from the board at the end of the year as a result . In 1984 , plans for a second independent station in Newcastle had failed . During that time , NBN and ABC Newcastle were asked to leave the VHF band to accommodate FM radio . NBN would have been on UHF channel 51 , and ABC on UHF channel 48 , however this did not eventuate . A proposal to launch a radiated subscription television service with community broadcasting during the daytime hours had also failed that year .
In the late 1980s , NBN 's Perth @-@ based owner , Parry Corporation , spun off NBN Limited into a new company , NBN Enterprises , and took a 40 % stake in the new company , with Security Pacific Capital Corporation buying 60 % . Parry sold their stake soon after , holding onto Papua New Guinea television station NTN , which NBN had helped to set up . Fulcrum Media 's move to later purchase the station was a source for confusion , as it was revealed that many companies , including the NSW State Superannuation Board and Westpac Banking Corporation , held substantial stakes in Fulcrum Media . Parry Corp 's new owner CityWest issued a court challenge to re @-@ acquire NBN , but it was revealed that CityWest was held by Hong Kong company Hung Lung Corporation , thereby violating foreign ownership laws . Following ownership changes , NBN Enterprises was sold to Washington H. Soul Pattinson for A $ 36 million .
NBN was one of many stations opposed to aggregation , and offered an alternative by opening up a second station which it would operate for a period of time before selling it . This proposal was however rejected , and aggregation occurred on 31 December 1991 , with NBN acquiring Nine Network affiliation . Following aggregation , the station 's coverage expanded to cover all of northern New South Wales , whilst concurrently programming extended to twenty @-@ four hours in a day , in stereophonic sound . In 1994 , NBN Television 's logo was updated to a pseudo @-@ Nine logo , similar to fellow affiliate WIN Television .
= = = 2000s = = =
Throughout the 2000s , NBN was regarded as one of the leaders in digital broadcasting , not only being the first to produce a nightly regional news bulletin in full digital format , using a digital friendly news set , but also Australia 's first fully digital outside broadcast van .
In 2004 , Washington H. Soul Pattinson began moves to transfer control of the station to its publicly listed subsidiary , Soul Pattinson Telecommunications , which became SP Telemedia as a result .
On 30 January 2006 , NBN adopted a new logo and on air graphics , in line with Nine 's new logo . However , the news department did not update its graphics until 15 March . During April 2007 , SP Telemedia announced that it would consider selling NBN Television , and had received at least two bids , one each from WIN Corporation and PBL Media . On 9 May 2007 , PBL Media 's ( now Nine Entertainment Co . ) A $ 250 million bid became final , winning the sale . However , upon acquiring NBN , PBL did not fold it into the main Nine Network , but continued to operate it as a regional station . The purchase also secured permanent status of supplying Nine 's content to the station 's entire coverage area , sparing any future affiliation switches ( particularly the 2016 Australian television shakeup involving Southern Cross Austereo and WIN Corporation ) .
Following Nine 's relaunch of their high definition simulcast as " Nine HD " on 17 March 2008 , NBN launched their own HD simulcast in mid @-@ 2008 called " NBN HD " .
On 9 August 2009 , NBN began transmission of the new digital channel GO ! ( now 9Go ! ) on channel 88 .
= = = 2010s = = =
In 2010 , it was announced that two of NBN 's inner Newcastle retransmitter sites in Charlestown and Cooks Hill were selected to carry 3D broadcasts of the 2010 State of Origin series .
On 26 September 2010 , NBN began transmission of the HD digital channel GEM ( now 9Gem ) on channel 80 .
On 26 March 2012 , NBN began transmission of Nine 's metropolitan informercial channel Extra on channel 84 .
On 27 January 2014 , along with the Nine Network , NBN switched from the Supertext logo to Nine 's Closed Captioning logo .
After Nine revived 9HD and launched new lifestyle channel 9Life on 26 November 2015 , NBN made no announcements of its intent to follow Nine 's move in regional areas , instead continuing to broadcast 9Gem 's HD feed on channel 80 . NBN released a statement on its website days before the 9HD relaunch , saying that efforts are made to upgrade its stations across the region . On 10 February 2016 , Nine Entertainment Co. announced that NBN would receive both 9HD and 9Life in " coming months " , with further confirmation on 16 February that they would launch on 1 March 2016 . As a result , their channel listing was reshuffled to match to Nine 's metropolitan listing with 9Gem on channel 82 , 9Go ! on channel 83 , 9Life on channel 84 and Extra on channel 85 .
On 9 February 2016 , it was announced that Kylie Blucher , managing director of QTQ Brisbane , would be appointed managing director of NBN while retaining her position at QTQ , stating that she would " be splitting [ her ] time between Brisbane and Newcastle " .
Alongside the launch of 9HD and 9Life on 1 March 2016 , NBN 's unique branding began to be phased out in favour of Nine 's mainstream branding already in place on its metropolitan stations and its Darwin station . The mainstream logos for Nine and 9HD were used with " NBN " written alongside in a smaller font . On 1 July 2016 , coinciding with the media shakeup of WIN and Southern Cross , NBN 's unique branding was completely phased out . However , NBN News remains under its unique name and the small " NBN " on the Nine watermark is still used in areas where NBN 's signal overlaps with TCN Sydney and QTQ Brisbane to differentiate between the stations .
= = News = =
NBN News is the only regional mainland news service to produce a nightly bulletin seven nights a week . The news service employs 60 staff and produces over 20 @,@ 000 local news stories annually , of which is combined with news reports from the Nine Network , the Australian Broadcasting Corporation and ITN ; with local stories in all of its sub @-@ markets . Throughout its history , NBN News produced Good Morning News , Good Evening News , News Night , NBN Evening News , and NBN Late Edition News and currently running NBN News .
NBN 's local news is presented from the station 's news studios at Mosbri Crescent in Newcastle , by Paul Lobb and Natasha Beyersdorf on weekdays , with Jane Goldsmith on weekends . Mitchell Hughes and Gavin Morris present sport and weather respectively on weekdays , whilst weekend sport is presented by Chris White .
NBN was the first to launch an hour @-@ long news bulletin in April 1972 , and from launch night until the 1980s , Murray Finlay was the face of NBN 's news bulletins , and was one of Australia 's longest serving newsreaders . In 1975 , Finlay was joined by Ray Dinneen at the news desk , who remained in that position until retirement in December 2010 . In 1979 , the news service received an award for its coverage of the Star Hotel riot .
On 1 March 1985 , Jim Sullivan began his career as news director for the service , which has ultimately led him to become Australia 's longest serving news director .
NBN News ' footage of the tragic events of the 1989 Newcastle earthquake was beamed throughout the world , with NBN 's reporters also being interviewed by international news services .
During the 1990s , the news service produced bulletins for the breakfast and late night timeslots , however this was later replaced by the Nine Network 's Nightline bulletin . Also , for a short period , the 4.30pm bulletin was broadcast coupled with introductions and weather reports produced by the station in Newcastle .
Liaising with NBN News director Jim Sullivan , NBN Late Edition News producer , Matt Carden secured a live feed through the Nine Network of ABC America enabling first pictures to be aired of the New York attacks within minutes . When NBN Late Edition News opened a short time later , newsreader Jodi McKay handed over to ABC News America 's coverage of events , anchored by Peter Jennings . The bulletin was extended until 1am when NBN handed over to TCN @-@ 9 for the start of almost five days of continuous national coverage .
NBN News is unique as it simulcasts live across all 6 markets . After the major national stories are presented , the program is split into six Local Window opt @-@ outs , featuring pre @-@ recorded local bulletins for each regional market and a live local news round @-@ up for Newcastle . After the first break , the bulletin continues as a live simulcast across the network with further Local Window opt @-@ outs for sport and weather . News , sport and weather presenters start early at NBN recording introductions to each of the local stories which will be inserted into the live broadcast at 6pm . Top Stories are produced by regional news bureaus at Port Macquarie , Coffs Harbour , Central Coast , Tamworth , Lismore and the Gold Coast .
In 2006 , NBN aired its 20,000th news bulletin during the week of 26 March ; commemorating the event , NBN News produced five news specials that summarised the prior 44 years of news production .
NBN also broadcasts Nine Network 's news content , including Nine 's Early Morning News , Today , Nine 's Morning News , Nine News Now , Nine 's Afternoon News , A Current Affair , and Nine News : First at Five . NBN , however , does not air Nine 's flagship 6PM Bulletin ( i.e. either Nine News Sydney or Nine News Queensland ) , since NBN News serves as the station 's flagship bulletin .
Paul Lobb took over as the network 's main male newsreader after Ray Dinneen retired on 17 December 2010 .
Following the appointment of Kylie Blucher as the station 's managing director , NBN News opener and graphics were relaunched , aligning with Nine 's metropolitan and Darwin stations , yet retaining the well @-@ known theme music composed by Laurence Schuberth . Although a " lite " version of the graphics were introduced in February 2014 , it did not became identical with Nine News until April 2016 .
= = Local programming = =
NBN has always produced some local programming , and had set a record for most local programming and transmission hours in its first week of operation . It was also a member of Australian Television Facilities , and had a hand in the production of drama series Silent Number .
In 1963 , NBN won the Logie Award for Enterprising Programming ( which was only for country stations ) , and another Outstanding Contribution by a Regional Station award in 1978 . NBN purchased the Romper Room franchise from Fremantle International in 1967 , which broadcast for over three decades . The original hostess was Miss Anne , followed by Miss Lyn , Miss Pauline and finally , Miss Kim who hosted the program until its demise due to ' political correctness ' . ( For example , a favourite feature called ' bounce @-@ the @-@ ball ' was deemed inappropriate because not all children could bounce a ball ) . At first the ' Miss 's ' were assisted by NBN 's station mascot , Buttons the Cat , who underwent a number of incarnations as its costume aged and became outdated . Later , Buttons was retired , being replaced by Humphrey B. Bear ( as NBN had gained the rights to the character through their purchase of Southern Television Corporation ) , A Local suited character was then determined to be more suitable for a regional Television Station and the concept of Big Dog was created , the character and suit were created in Wyong on the NSW Central Coast and Big Dog came into being .
Local travel agency Jayes presented their own travel show , Travel Time with Jayes , broadcast on Sunday nights for over 20 years , starting in 1962 . Also , every four years , NBN produces a live 24 @-@ hour telethon to raise money for local charities .
NBN premiered Today Extra in 1989 . The lifestyle program was broadcast three days per week as part of NBN 's day @-@ time line @-@ up . On 3 January 2007 , it was announced that NBN would axe Today Extra , claiming it was no longer economically viable , with a drop in ratings and a shrinking advertising base . The program 's axing ended the career for former weatherman Nat Jeffery , who presented the program for 18 years , and worked at the station for 28 years .
= = Community support = =
NBN has long been a supporter of many local events and groups in the northern New South Wales region . They are currently sponsors of the Newcastle Northstars in the Australian Ice Hockey League . The station has sponsored the Newcastle Knights NRL rugby league team for most of the 1990s and the 2000s , with the NBN logo visible on the team 's uniform . The former Hunter Pirates NBL basketball team ( and their predecessor , the Newcastle Falcons ) as well as the Newcastle United Jets soccer team ( and their predecessor , the Newcastle Breakers ) , have also both received sponsorship from NBN Television .
= = Logos = =
The original NBN logo , featuring the numeral three inside a ring was replaced by several others over the years . The three was used due to the station 's frequency allocation , being transmitted on VHF channel 3 from a transmitter atop Mount Sugarloaf near Newcastle . On 22 November 1979 the logo was updated with the letters NBN replacing the numeral three . The blue and green logo coincided with the renaming of the station from Channel Three to the current name , NBN Television , and its parent company renaming from the Newcastle Broadcasting and Television Corporation to NBN Limited .
Despite pressure from the Nine Network to adopt the nine dots , NBN Television retained its logo for a few years after aggregation . However , in 1994 , NBN added nine dots into a new logo designed similarly to the Nine Network 's , and also began using Nine 's on @-@ air promotion , with the NBN logo replacing Nine 's . In 1998 , the dots were changed to spheres .
Three @-@ dimensions were added to the letters NBN in 2002 , coinciding with a revamp of the station 's on @-@ air identity , concurrently with the Nine Network . On 30 January 2006 , the station relaunched its logo to coincide with the Nine Network 's fiftieth year of broadcasting . The new logo designed by Bruce Dunlop Associates saw the removal of the nine dots , with a blue square added to behind the letters NBN . However , in 2008 , the nine dots were reinstated into the logo and the dots are first 3D discs in 2008 , then 2D dots in January 2009 , then later spheres in September 2009 .
= Debian =
Debian ( / ˈdɛbiən / ) is a Unix @-@ like computer operating system that is composed entirely of free software , most of which is under the GNU General Public License , and packaged by a group of individuals called the Debian Project . Three main branches are offered : Stable , Testing , and Unstable .
The Debian Stable Linux distribution is one of the most popular for personal computers and network servers , and has been used as a base for several other distributions . The Debian Testing and Unstable branches are rolling release and eventually become the Stable distribution after development and testing . Packages are first uploaded to Unstable , from which they migrate to Testing . When Testing is mature enough it becomes Stable .
Debian was first announced in 1993 by Ian Murdock , Debian 0 @.@ 01 was released in August 1993 , and the first stable release was made in 1996 . The development is carried out over the Internet by a team of volunteers guided by the Debian Project Leader and three foundational documents : the Debian Social Contract , the Debian Constitution , and the Debian Free Software Guidelines . New distributions are updated continually , and the next candidate is released after a time @-@ based freeze .
As one of the earliest Linux distributions , it was envisioned that Debian was to be developed openly in the spirit of the GNU Project . This vision drew the attention and support of the Free Software Foundation , which sponsored the project for one year from November 1994 to November 1995 . Upon the ending of the sponsorship , the Debian Project formed the non @-@ profit organisation Software in the Public Interest .
= = Features = =
Debian has access to online repositories that contain over 50 @,@ 000 software packages making it one of the largest software compilations . Debian officially contains only free software , but non @-@ free software can be downloaded from the Debian repositories and installed . Debian includes popular free programs such as LibreOffice , Firefox web browser , Evolution mail , K3b disc burner , VLC media player , GIMP image editor , and Evince document viewer . Debian is a popular choice for web servers .
The cost of developing all of the packages included in Debian 5 @.@ 0 Lenny ( 323 million lines of code ) has been estimated to be about US $ 8 billion , using one method based on the COCOMO model . As of 2016 , Black Duck Open Hub estimates that the current codebase ( 74 million lines of code ) would cost about US $ 1 @.@ 4 billion to develop , using a different method based on the same model .
The current stable release , Debian 8 @.@ 5 code @-@ named Jessie , is officially supported on ten architecture ports . Notable changes in this release include using systemd as the default init system .
= = = Kernels = = =
Debian supports Linux officially , offered kFreeBSD for version 7 but not 8 , and GNU Hurd unofficially . GNU / kFreeBSD was released as a technology preview for IA @-@ 32 and x86 @-@ 64 architectures , and lacked the amount of software available in Debian 's Linux distribution . Official support for kFreeBSD was removed for version 8 , which did not provide a kFreeBSD @-@ based distribution .
Several flavors of the Linux kernel exist for each port . For example , the i386 port has flavors for IA @-@ 32 PCs supporting Physical Address Extension and real @-@ time computing , for older PCs , and for x86 @-@ 64 PCs . The Linux kernel does not officially contain firmware without sources , although such firmware is available in non @-@ free packages and alternative installation media .
= = = Installation and Live images = = =
Debian offers DVD and CD images for installation that can be downloaded using BitTorrent or jigdo . Physical disks can also be bought from retailers . The full sets are made up of several discs ( the amd64 port consists of 10 DVDs or 69 CDs ) , but only the first disc is required for installation , as the installer can retrieve software not contained in the first disc image from online repositories .
Debian offers different network installation methods . A minimal install of Debian is available via the netinst CD , whereby Debian is installed with just a base and later added software can be downloaded from the Internet . Another option is to boot the installer from the network .
Installation images are hybrid on some architectures and can be used to create a bootable USB drive ( Live USB ) .
The default desktop may be chosen from the DVD boot menu among GNOME , KDE Software Compilation , Xfce and LXDE , and from special disc 1 CDs .
= = = Desktop environments = = =
Debian offers CD images specifically built for GNOME ( the default in Wheezy ) , KDE Software Compilation , Xfce and LXDE . MATE is officially supported , while Cinnamon support was added with Debian 8 @.@ 0 Jessie . Less common window managers such as Enlightenment , Openbox , Fluxbox , IceWM , Window Maker and others are available .
The default desktop environment of version 7 @.@ 0 Wheezy was temporarily switched to Xfce , because GNOME 3 did not fit on the first CD of the set . The default for the version 8 @.@ 0 Jessie was changed again to Xfce in November 2013 , and back to GNOME in September 2014 .
= = = Debian Live = = =
Debian releases live install images for CDs , DVDs and USB thumb drives , for IA @-@ 32 and x86 @-@ 64 architectures , and with a choice of desktop environments . These Debian Live images allow users to boot from removable media and run Debian without affecting the contents of their computer .
A full install of Debian to the computer 's hard drive can be initiated from the live image environment .
Personalized images can be built with the live @-@ build tool for discs , USB drives and for network booting purposes .
= = = Package management = = =
Package management operations can be performed with different tools available on Debian , from the lowest level command dpkg to graphical front @-@ ends like Synaptic . The recommended standard for administering packages on a Debian system is the apt toolset .
dpkg provides the low @-@ level infrastructure for package management . The dpkg database contains the list of installed software on the current system . The dpkg command tool does not know about repositories . The command can work with local .deb package files , and information from the dpkg database .
= = = = APT tools = = = =
An Advanced Packaging Tool ( APT ) tool allows administering an installed Debian system to retrieve and resolve package dependencies from repositories . APT tools share dependency information and cached packages .
Aptitude is a command line tool that also offers a text @-@ based user interface . The program comes with enhancements such as better search on package metadata .
apt @-@ get and apt @-@ cache are command tools of the standard apt package. apt @-@ get installs and removes packages , and apt @-@ cache is used for searching packages and displaying package information .
= = = = = GDebi and other front @-@ ends = = = = =
GDebi is an APT tool which can be used in command @-@ line and on the GUI . GDebi can install a local .deb file via the command line like the dpkg command , but with access to repositories to resolve dependencies . Other graphical front @-@ ends for APT include Software Center , Synaptic and Apper .
= = = Branches = = =
Three branches of Debian ( also called releases , distributions or suites ) are regularly maintained :
Stable is the current release and targets stable and well @-@ tested software needs . Stable is made by freezing Testing for a few months where bugs are fixed and packages with too many bugs are removed ; then the resulting system is released as Stable . It is updated only if major security or usability fixes are incorporated . This branch has an optional backports service that provides more recent versions of some software . Stable 's CDs and DVDs can be found in the Debian website .
Testing is the preview branch that will eventually become the next major release . The packages included in this branch have had some testing in Unstable but they may not be fit for release yet . It contains newer packages than Stable but older than Unstable . This branch is updated continually until it is frozen . Testing 's CDs and DVDs can be found on the Debian website .
Unstable , always codenamed Sid , is the trunk . Packages are accepted without checking the distribution as a whole . This branch is usually run by software developers who participate in a project and need the latest libraries available , and by those who prefer bleeding @-@ edge software . Debian does not provide | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
izons as an actress . Portraying the role was a creative and physical challenge for her , and to achieve the physical requirements of her character she exercised extensively and followed a rigorous diet . Critics were divided in their opinion of the film , but particularly praised Padukone 's performance ; Devesh Sharma of Filmfare credited her as the " soul of the film " and wrote that she " excels in every scene , whether as a material girl who enjoys sex , drugs and rock and roll or as the jealousy ridden girl out to destroy herself . " Cocktail earned Padukone Best Actress nominations at several award ceremonies , including Filmfare , Screen , and IIFA . The film proved a box office hit as well .
In 2013 , Padukone established herself as a leading actress of contemporary Hindi cinema by featuring in four of the top @-@ grossing productions of the year . She collaborated with Saif Ali Khan for the fourth time ( alongside John Abraham , Jacqueline Fernandez , Ameesha Patel , and Anil Kapoor ) in Abbas @-@ Mustan 's Race 2 , an ensemble action thriller that served as a sequel to the 2008 film Race . The film received predominantly negative reviews from critics , but with a total collection of ₹ 1 @.@ 62 billion ( US $ 24 million ) , it proved to be a commercial success . In a particularly scathing review , Saibal Chatterjee of NDTV wrote that both Padukone and Fernandez " strut around like wound @-@ up automatons that are all decked @-@ up but have nowhere to go . "
Ayan Mukerji 's romantic comedy Yeh Jawaani Hai Deewani was Padukone 's next film release . Co @-@ starring alongside Ranbir Kapoor , Kalki Koechlin , and Aditya Roy Kapoor , she was cast as Naina Talwar , a " shy wallflower , " which marked a departure from the glamorous characters that she had a reputation for portraying . Film critics praised Padukone 's performance , though their response to the film was mixed . Raja Sen thought that the film " lacked a good story " but added that Padukone " acts within herself and eschews exaggeration , and the results are impressive ... This may be her most self @-@ aware performance so far " . The pairing of Padukone with her former boyfriend was highly anticipated , and the film proved a major success with a worldwide revenue of ₹ 3 @.@ 02 billion ( US $ 45 million ) . Her next appearance was opposite Shah Rukh Khan in Rohit Shetty 's action @-@ comedy film Chennai Express . She played Meenalochini Azhagusundaram , a Tamil girl on the run from her father ( a local don ) , which required that she adopt a Tamil accent . Critical opinion on her accent was mixed , but her performance received praise ; film critic Aseem Chhabra concluded , " Padukone is delightful in the film — beautiful , smiling , and often a lot more playful and funny than Khan . " Chennai Express was Padukone 's second consecutive release to earn over ₹ 3 billion ( US $ 45 million ) in worldwide ticket sales ; both Yeh Jawaani Hai Deewani and Chennai Express rank among the highest @-@ grossing Bollywood films of all time .
Padukone next played opposite Ranveer Singh in Goliyon Ki Raasleela Ram @-@ Leela , an adaptation of the Shakespearean tragedy of Romeo and Juliet from director Sanjay Leela Bhansali . Her role was Leela , a Gujarati girl based on the character of Juliet . Initially titled Ram @-@ Leela , the film 's title was changed after a court case was registered against Bhansali , Padukone , and Singh for " offending the religious sentiments " of the Hindu community by showcasing sex and violence under a title that referred to the life of Lord Rama . Goliyon Ki Raasleela Ram @-@ Leela released among protests across several states in India , but was generally well received by critics . Meena Iyer of The Times of India mentioned Padukone as " breathtaking " , and writing for Deccan Chronicle , Khalid Mohamed concluded that " it ’ s Deepika Padukone whom the film belongs to . Looking drop dead gorgeous and going at her part with a wallop , she ’ s the prime asset of Ram @-@ Leela . " The film earned ₹ 2 @.@ 02 billion ( US $ 30 million ) worldwide , making it Padukone 's fourth consecutive box office hit of the year . Her performances in Chennai Express and Goliyon Ki Raasleela Ram @-@ Leela won her several awards , including the Screen Award for Best Actress for both films and the Filmfare Award for Best Actress for the latter .
In 2014 , Padukone featured opposite Rajinikanth in the Tamil film Kochadaiiyaan , a period drama that was shot using motion capture technology . In Homi Adajania 's widely praised satire Finding Fanny , Padukone played a young widow who takes a road trip with her dysfunctional friends ( played by Arjun Kapoor , Naseeruddin Shah , Dimple Kapadia and Pankaj Kapur ) in search of a woman named Fanny . The film was screened at the 19th Busan International Film Festival ; critic Anuj Kumar of The Hindu wrote that Padukone successfully " takes off the fineries of Bollywood and you can sense the freedom from baggage in her performance " . Later that year , she starred opposite Shah Rukh Khan for the third time in Farah Khan 's renewal of Happy New Year . She played a bar dancer who trains a group of underachievers for a dance competition . Sanjukta Sharma of Mint found her role to be of minimal importance that required her only to be " a pretty thing to be laughed at and pitied " , but the film became one of her most successful , earning over ₹ 3 @.@ 4 billion ( US $ 51 million ) worldwide .
= = = Piku and beyond ( 2015 – present ) = = =
Following an appearance in an online video on feminism , entitled My Choice , under the direction of Homi Adajania , Padukone took on the role of a headstrong Bengali architect who cares for her hypochondriac father ( played by Amitabh Bachchan ) in Shoojit Sircar 's comedy @-@ drama Piku ( 2015 ) . Reviews for the film were positive ; Tanmaya Nanda of Business Standard praised the film 's feminist tone , and wrote that Padukone proves " what she is capable of when given something more to do than look pretty and be the crazy @-@ dance girl at parties " . NDTV 's Saibal Chatterjee opined that she " holds Piku together with a restrained star turn " . With a worldwide gross of over ₹ 1 @.@ 40 billion ( US $ 21 million ) , the film emerged as a box office hit , and garnered Padukone several awards , including second Best Actress awards at Filmfare and Screen .
Later that year , Padukone played the part of a businessperson who helps Ranbir Kapoor 's character overcome his conflicts in Imtiaz Ali 's romantic drama Tamasha . Despite poor financial returns , Sukanya Verma of Rediff.com named Padukone 's performance as the best by an actress that year , writing that she " is so potent in Tamasha , it ’ s almost as if you can hear her heartbeat across the screen " . In her final release of 2015 , Padukone reunited with Sanjay Leela Bhansali and Ranveer Singh in Bajirao Mastani , a historical drama about a tragic extramarital affair . Singh was cast as the maratha general Bajirao I , while Priyanka Chopra and Padukone featured as his first and second wife , respectively . In preparation for the role of the warrior @-@ princess Mastani , Padukone learnt sword @-@ fighting , horse @-@ riding and kalaripayattu . With a revenue of over ₹ 3 @.@ 3 billion ( US $ 49 million ) , Bajirao Mastani proved to be the fourth highest @-@ grossing Bollywood film of the year . Anupama Chopra found Padukone " riveting " in the film , but Subhash K. Jha while praising her " grace and dignity " thought that she was " way too subtle and silken , and not steely enough as [ a ] firebrand warrior @-@ princess " . At the 61st Filmfare Awards , Bajirao Mastani was named Best Film and Padukone received her second Best Actress nomination in that year .
As of June 2016 , Padukone has completed filming for her first project in Hollywood — the action film xXx : The Return of Xander Cage — in which she plays the lead female role opposite Vin Diesel . She has also filmed for an item number in Dinesh Vijan 's romance film Raabta . In addition , Padukone will collaborate with Bhansali and Singh for the third time in Padmavati , a historical drama based on the life of Rani Padmini .
= = Other work = =
In addition to acting , Padukone has written opinion columns and has been involved with women 's health and fitness magazines . She has also supported charitable organisations , and has performed for stage shows . In 2009 , she was hired by Hindustan Times to write weekly columns for their lifestyle section ; through these columns she interacted with her fans and passed details of her personal and professional life . That year , she participated in the World 10K Bangalore marathon , which raised ₹ 13 @.@ 1 million ( US $ 190 @,@ 000 ) in support of 81 NGOs . In 2010 , Padukone adopted the Maharashtrian village of Ambegaon as part of NDTV 's Greenathon Campaign , to provide the village with a regular supply of electricity . She visited Indian jawans ( troops ) in Jammu , for an Independence Day special episode of NDTV 's reality show Jai Jawaan .
Padukone took part in the opening ceremony of the third season of the Indian Premier League at the DY Patil Stadium in Navi Mumbai . Three years later , she performed alongside Shah Rukh Khan , Katrina Kaif , and Pitbull for the sixth edition of the Indian Premier League . In 2014 , she participated in a concert tour across North America , entitled " SLAM ! The Tour " , in which she performed alongside her co @-@ stars from Happy New Year . Padukone has also been involved with the Olympic Gold Quest team , established by her father and Geet Sethi to support Indian athletes at the Olympic Games , along with sports personalities such as Leander Paes and Viswanathan Anand and several other actors . In 2013 , she launched her own line of clothing for women , in association with the retail chain Van Heusen .
Padukone has also been outspoken on issues such as feminism and has said , " New feminism isn 't about being aggressive ; it 's about reaching the top yet being soft . It 's about being you — feminine , strong and full of will power . ” In a 2015 interview , Padukone spoke about her personal experience of overcoming depression , and in October that year she formed a foundation to create awareness on mental health in India , named The Live Love Laugh Foundation . The following year , she launched a campaign named More Than Just Sad to assist general physicians in their treatment of patients suffering from depression or anxiety . Also in 2016 , the foundation teamed with Facebook and the AASRA organisation to launch multilingual tools and educational resources in Facebook 's networking site to support people with suicidal tendencies .
= = Personal life = =
Padukone shares a close bond with her family , and visits them regularly in her hometown of Bangalore . She lives by herself in Prabhadevi , a neighbourhood in Mumbai , and admits to missing the presence of her family there . She says , " I miss them , but luckily I have a life of my own , which keeps me from getting homesick . I wouldn ’ t want them to uproot their lives from Bengaluru just to be with me . " A practicing Hindu , Padukone considers religion to be an important aspect of her life and makes frequent visits to temples and other religious shrines .
While filming Bachna Ae Haseeno in 2008 , Padukone began a romantic relationship with co @-@ star Ranbir Kapoor . She spoke openly about the relationship and sported a tattoo of his initials on the nape of her neck . She has said that the relationship had a profound effect on her , transforming her into a more confident and social person . The Indian media speculated on an engagement , and reported that this had occurred in November 2008 , although Padukone had stated that she had no plans to marry within the next five years . The couple broke up a year later ; she professed in an interview to feeling " angry " and " betrayed " for a long time , but insisted that they remained on good terms . In a 2010 interview , Padukone made a comment that the media speculated was a reference to her break @-@ up with Kapoor :
The first time he cheated on me , I thought there was something wrong with me or the relationship , but when someone makes a habit of it , you know the problem lies with him . Yet I was foolish enough to give him a second chance because he begged and pleaded , despite the fact that everyone around me said he was still straying . I guess I really wanted to believe in him . Then I actually caught him red @-@ handed . It took me a while to get out . But having done that , nothing can make me go back .
Kapoor initially denied the allegations , but according to The Times of India , he later admitted to the infidelity . In 2013 , following the production of Yeh Jawaani Hai Deewani , Padukone told Filmfare that she now " shares a great comfort level " with him .
In 2011 , a set of pictures showing Padukone kissing the actor Siddharth Mallya at an Indian Premier League match were made available on the web . This led to wide speculation in the media about the nature of their relationship , which Padukone declined to talk about publicly . The following year there were reports about a break @-@ up , to which she said : " Just because we are not seen together , it doesn 't mean that we are not friends anymore . " She has since denied reports of her link @-@ up to Ranveer Singh , stating that she is " not in a frame of mind to be in a relationship . "
= = In the media = =
The journalist Vir Sanghvi , in 2013 , described Padukone as " strong , someone who makes up her own mind , [ and ] has motivation within herself . " She is particularly known in the media as a professional , disciplined performer , whose " work takes precedence over everything else . " A reviewer for Rediff.com described her personality as " simple , " " grounded , " and " accessible , " and wrote , " She takes criticism in her stride , acknowledges her limitations and strives to work hard at getting better . She handles praise with equal composure . " Ayan Mukerji ( the director of Yeh Jawaani Hai Deewani ) considers her to be " a woman who will flirt with you but you will love to take her home to meet your mom as well . " Padukone has maintained a Twitter account since 2010 , and launched an official Facebook page in 2013 . She is the most followed Indian actress on Twitter and most liked Indian actor on Facebook .
One of the highest @-@ paid actresses in Bollywood , Padukone is considered among the most popular and high @-@ profile celebrities in India . Analysing her career , Reuters published that after making a successful debut with Om Shanti Om , she featured in a series of films for which critics labelled her as " wooden " and " mocked her accent . " The Indian Express added , " Not too long ago after a few unwise script calls and the public blow up of her high profile relationship with Ranbir Kapoor , Deepika was written off . Credit to her much touted professionalism , dedication , discipline and perseverance that she bounced back . " Following the major success of Cocktail , Yeh Jawaani Hai Deewani , and Chennai Express , several media publications began crediting her as the most successful contemporary actress in India . From 2012 – 15 , she has featured on the Indian edition of the Forbes ' " Celebrity 100 , " a list based on the income and popularity of India 's celebrities . She ranked among the top 25 each year , peaking at the eighth position in 2014 with an estimated annual earning of ₹ 672 million ( US $ 10 million ) .
Padukone is considered a sex symbol and style icon in India – the media cites her figure , height 1 @.@ 74 m ( 5 ft 8 1 ⁄ 2 in ) , smile , and eyes as her distinctive physical features . The actress ranks high on various listings of the most attractive Indian celebrities . In 2008 , she topped Indian Maxim 's " Hot 100 " list , and in 2012 , she was named " India 's Most Beautiful Woman " by the Indian edition of People magazine . Padukone was ranked first on The Times of India 's listing of the " Most Desirable Woman " in 2012 and 2013 , after being ranked third and fourth , respectively , for the preceding two years ; she was placed second in both 2014 and 2015 . In 2010 and 2014 , she was named the " World 's Sexiest Woman " by the Indian edition of FHM . She has additionally featured in the UK magazine Eastern Eye 's " World 's Sexiest Asian Women " list from 2009 to 2015 , ranking among the top ten each year . In 2013 , Filmfare declared her as the winner of the " Most Fashionable Star " poll , and credited her as one of the " few actresses who experiments with colours , cuts and silhouettes . " In the fitness book The Four @-@ Week Countdown Diet , the actress was cited by Namita Jain as " the ultimate role model for a healthy , fit and active lifestyle . "
Padukone is an active celebrity endorser for several brands and products , including Tissot , Sony Cyber @-@ shot , Nescafe , Vogue eyewear , Maybelline and Pepsi , among others . In 2012 , it was reported that Padukone had signed on for an endorsement deal with Garnier worth ₹ 60 million ( US $ 890 @,@ 000 ) , a record breaking remuneration for an Indian actress .
= = Filmography and awards = =
= = = Selected filmography = = =
= = = Awards = = =
Padukone has been the recipient of three Filmfare Awards : Best Female Debut for Om Shanti Om ( 2007 ) , and two Best Actress awards for Goliyon Ki Raasleela Ram @-@ Leela ( 2013 ) and Piku ( 2015 ) .
= The Big Bang ( Doctor Who ) =
" The Big Bang " is the thirteenth and final episode in the fifth series of British science fiction television programme Doctor Who , broadcast on 26 June 2010 on BBC One . It is the second part of the two @-@ part series finale started with " The Pandorica Opens " , written by Steven Moffat and directed by Toby Haynes .
Following the end of the previous episode , alien time traveller the Doctor ( Matt Smith ) is trapped in a prison from which escape is impossible , the TARDIS has blown up with River Song ( Alex Kingston ) inside , and the Doctor 's companion Amy Pond ( Karen Gillan ) has been shot and killed by an Auton replica of her fiancé Rory Williams ( Arthur Darvill ) . As the universe is collapsing , the Doctor uses time travel to solve these problems and ultimately reboot the universe .
The episode sees the climax of Amy 's character arc and the story arc of the series regarding the cracks in the universe , though Moffat chose to leave a few things unexplained . Taking place mainly in a museum , most scenes in the episode were shot at Brangwyn Hall in February 2010 . " The Big Bang " was seen by 6 @.@ 696 million viewers in the UK and received the highest Appreciation Index of the fifth series at 89 . It received mostly positive reviews from critics , though many commented on the complicated nature of the plot and whether some aspects made sense . The two @-@ part story won the 2011 Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation , Short Form .
= = Plot = =
Following on from " The Pandorica Opens " , the Doctor has been sealed in the Pandorica , a trap created by his greatest enemies ; River Song is trapped aboard the exploding TARDIS ; and an Auton version of Rory has shot and killed his fiancée Amy . The TARDIS 's explosion has caused the whole universe to have never existed , except for the Earth , its moon , and a sun @-@ like object , otherwise leaving a dark infinite void . Only stone versions of the Doctor 's foes surround the Pandorica .
As Rory is mourning over Amy , the Doctor appears using River 's vortex manipulator . He hands Rory his sonic screwdriver and explains how to use it to open the Pandorica and free his younger self . Following these instructions , Rory frees the Doctor , who then places Amy 's body inside the Pandorica . He explains that the Pandorica , being the " perfect prison " , will not allow its occupant to escape , not even by dying , and will restore her once given an imprint of her DNA . The Doctor then retrieves River 's manipulator and uses it to jump ahead nearly two millennia ; Rory , in his ageless Auton body , decides to stay with the Pandorica and guard it , creating the myth of " The Last Centurion " over the years , a myth that ends with him supposedly killed during the London Blitz .
In 1996 , seven @-@ year @-@ old Amelia Pond ( Caitlin Blackwood ) finds instructions from the Doctor leading her to the National Museum , where the Pandorica is on display . She touches the box , allowing it to revitalise Amy and release her . They are soon joined by the Doctor and Rory , now a museum guard who secretly survived the Blitz . After a tearful reunion , they are chased by a Dalek restored by the light of the Pandorica . The Doctor uses the vortex manipulator to go back and give Rory his screwdriver , as well as leave Amelia the clues to the museum . Amelia soon disappears : a sign , according to the Doctor , that the universe is collapsing rapidly . The injured body of a future version of the Doctor appears and whispers something to his earlier self . The Doctor takes off with Amy and Rory to the roof of the museum , where he discovers that the " sun " is the still @-@ exploding TARDIS . Rory hears a voice coming from the exploding TARDIS and the Doctor amplifies the voice and discovers it is River Song in a time @-@ loop , implemented by the TARDIS to keep her alive . The Doctor saves River , and as the quartet reunites , the Doctor is shot by the Dalek and sends himself backwards in time . Amy and Rory depart while River threatens the Dalek before shooting and destroying it .
Amy and Rory discover that the wounded Doctor had told his earlier self to create a diversion , allowing him to rig the Pandorica to fly into the TARDIS explosion . The Doctor postulates that enough of the original universe still exists in the Pandorica to completely restore it via the exploding TARDIS . After a tearful farewell to Amy , Rory , and River where he instructs Amy to focus on her family and Rory to restore them in the new universe , the Doctor engages the Pandorica and flies it into the exploding TARDIS . A second Big Bang occurs . The Doctor comes to consciousness and begins witnessing events in his life in reverse as the cracks in the universe close . The Doctor has to stay outside this new universe in order for that to happen . After a final goodbye to Amelia on the night they met , he enters the cracks and disappears .
Amy wakes on 26 June 2010 in her home to discover that her parents have been brought back into existence and she and Rory celebrate their wedding day . At the reception , River leaves her blank diary for Amy which prompts Amy to recall the Doctor and something he told her when she was seven during his rewind . She interrupts her father 's speech , imploring the " Raggedy " Doctor from her memories to come back . As she recites the old wedding proverb ( " something old , something new , something borrowed , and something blue " ) , relating that to what the Doctor had said about the TARDIS , the TARDIS and the Doctor appear . The Doctor comes out of the TARDIS and after a brief conversation with Amy , introduces himself by saying " Hello everyone ! I 'm Amy 's imaginary friend , but I came anyway ! " and joins the wedding festivities . Afterwards , he returns River 's diary and the vortex manipulator to her so she can return to her own time . She sadly tells him he will soon learn who she truly is and that it will change everything . Aboard the TARDIS , the Doctor explains to Amy and Rory that unanswered questions remain about the destruction of the TARDIS and the nature of " the silence " that will fall . The Doctor receives a telephone call alerting him to the presence of " an escaped Egyptian goddess on the Orient Express , in space " . He tells them that this will have to be goodbye . They agree that it is goodbye and Amy leans out of the TARDIS and yells " Goodbye ! " . The three then leave on their next adventure .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
Aspects of " The Big Bang " were outlined by lead writer and executive producer Steven Moffat as he planned the arc of the series . Moffat stated he left room to improvise on the story and was pleased with the result , describing it as " mad " and " amazing " . Moffat stated that the title " The Big Bang " is his favourite dirty Doctor Who joke as it is a reference to the fact that Amy and Rory conceive their child on the TARDIS that night , as revealed in the next series in " A Good Man Goes to War " . Gillan described Rory 's vigil for Amy as the " ultimate romantic gesture " which showed how much he loved Amy , and was where Amy realised how much she loved him . Moffat thought that standing guard for two thousand years would make up for shooting her . Moffat had always intended for Amy and Rory to get married " from the off " . Moffat described the conclusion as the story of how Amy has been changed by the Doctor and the Doctor 's success at restoring her spirit to the girl he first met , believing that a man could drop out of the sky and " fix everything " . However , he did not return for her as he had promised and she grew believing that he was a liar and could not be trusted ; Amy returns to her original belief when she stands up at her wedding and proclaims that the Doctor is real and that he will arrive . Though the episode is the end of the series , Moffat left questions to be answered in the next series , including the mystery of River Song 's identity and the " Silence " which appeared to cause the TARDIS to blow up .
" The Big Bang " deliberately revisits several scenes from earlier in the series . The first scene in the episode mirrors the start of " The Eleventh Hour " . As the Doctor rewinds through his life , he sees events which relate to " The Lodger " , but which were not shown in that episode . His conversation with Amy during the events of " Flesh and Stone " , however , appeared in that episode . It was shot in extreme close @-@ up but the Doctor 's tweed jacket is still visible , which the present Doctor in that episode had previously lost to the Weeping Angels .
Moffat found it interesting that the Doctor regularly experienced time out of order and was used to a whole different kind of causality . He believed that the Doctor would attempt to cheat and break his own rules to save the universe from collapsing . The time travel used in the episode is compatible with the theory of time travel . As the episode features many " time @-@ jumps " when the Doctor travels back to do things seen in the opening credits , Moffat decided to make it less complicated by allowing the audience to figure things out before they occurred . He did this by calling attention to the future @-@ Doctor in the opening scenes by having him wearing a fez and holding a mop , and as the viewers saw the Doctor later acquire these items they would begin to connect the events . Moffat mentioned the fez to fellow executive producers Piers Wenger and Beth Willis ; they both were worried that Smith would become too attached to the hat and want to incorporate it into his costume , but Moffat assured him that he was planning on destroying the fez . Wenger later stated that Smith was " one of the few people who can pull off a fez " .
= = = Filming and effects = = =
The read @-@ through for " The Big Bang " took place on 13 January 2010 in the Upper Boat Studios . The episode was filmed in the sixth production block along with " The Pandorica Opens " . The Doctor visits previous episodes as he is being erased from history ; these scenes , taking place in " Flesh and Stone " and " The Lodger " , were filmed with their respective episodes . The first scenes filmed for " The Big Bang " were shot in the TARDIS set , including the very last scene . The beginning of the episode , in which the fez @-@ wearing Doctor from the future confronts Rory , was filmed on 5 February 2010 at Margam Country Park , Port Talbot . As it was filmed near the end of production of the series , " The Big Bang " had a smaller effects budget than other episodes , but this was compensated with cinematic lighting . The TARDIS appears in the time vortex during the ending credits , an idea of director Toby Haynes .
Brangwyn Hall in Swansea was used as the museum . Haynes wanted the museum to feel " massive and eerie " , and coached Blackwood to " live in the moment " . The opening sequence featuring young Amelia is filmed from her height , and was inspired by Steven Spielberg films in which people would look at things in awe . During this scene Haynes played appropriate music to help Blackwood get into the mood , as he had done during similar scenes when directing " The Pandorica Opens " . The set was filled with things that would seem like typical exhibits in the daytime , but appeared spooky at night . The exhibits also included historical anomalies which were the result of history collapsing , such as penguins on the Nile . Though Blackwood appeared as the seven @-@ year @-@ old version of Amy in " The Eleventh Hour " , the episode marked the first time Gillan and Blackwood — who are actually cousins — acted together . Gillan initially found this " weird " , but she commented that they quickly got used to it . The two versions of Amy were purposely dressed in similar colours . The cold open ends with Amy telling her younger self " Okay kid , this is where it gets complicated " after she has been revealed in the Pandorica . Moffat , after viewing the rushes , ordered the sequence to be reshot as Gillan had said " really complicated " , which conveyed a different meaning . As they had run out of time filming in the museum , all of the shots looking into the Pandorica were filmed three weeks later in the Pandorica chamber set .
During the scene in which the Doctor and Rory are talking after Rory has let him out of the Pandorica , one of the stone Daleks was originally supposed to move , operated by Haynes himself . However , the scene was cut from the final episode . A stunt performer for Smith performed the sequence in which a future version of the Doctor who had been shot by a Dalek fell down the museum stairs ; he did the stunt three times before Haynes captured the angles and shots he wanted . On the DVD commentary , Haynes stated that the shot in the episode is mostly the first take . River 's costume in the episode was intended to resemble both the costumes of Princess Leia and Han Solo in the Star Wars films , so she appeared like a " female Han Solo " .
Originally there was a scene after the four had been reuinited in the museum where Amy had a " meltdown " and Rory assured her it was okay ; this was cut due to pacing issues , which pleased Darvill as he disliked his performance in the scene . Gillan stated that the episode was the " most difficult " for her , as it was " a big climax for Amy and her story that 's been building through the series ... it just required a lot of kind of concentration and emotion . " In August 2011 she stated that the Doctor and Amy 's farewell was the most emotional scene for her to film . The scene in which the Doctor gives a final speech to young Amelia was not filmed with Smith and Blackwood on the same set . Smith 's dialogue was shot first in the bedroom set , while the corner with the bed was recreated and filmed with Blackwood as a pick @-@ up . Blackwood fell asleep during filming . Amy and Rory 's wedding reception was filmed at Miskin Manor . Gillan found wearing the dress strange , while Darvill felt as if he was gate @-@ crashing someone else 's wedding , as he did not know any of the extras there . Haynes wanted to first show the revelation that the TARDIS would appear at the reception in a small way with minor changes such as the glasses tinkling and chandelier shaking , and build it up from there . Moffat thought that Amy would want a big wedding with a lot of dancing . In the script it was written that the Doctor was a " terrible dancer " and danced like a " drunk giraffe " , and Smith additionally came up with his own routine .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" The Big Bang " was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC One on 26 June 2010 . The extended 55 minute episode lasted from 6 : 05 p.m. to 7 : 00 . Possibly due to the early start time , overnight ratings showed that the episode was watched by 5 @.@ 09 million viewers , with 4 @.@ 64 million on BBC One and 445 @,@ 000 on a simulcast on BBC HD . Final consolidated ratings calculated by BARB reported that the episode had been watched by a total of 6 @.@ 696 million viewers , with 6 @.@ 118 million on BBC One and 578 @,@ 000 on BBC HD . The episode also received an Appreciation Index of 89 , the highest of the series and the four main channels the day it was broadcast .
A Region 2 DVD and Blu @-@ ray containing this episode together with " Vincent and the Doctor " , " The Lodger " and " The Pandorica Opens " was released on 6 September 2010 . It was then re @-@ released as part of the complete series five DVD on 8 November 2010 .
= = = Critical reception = = =
" The Big Bang " met with mostly positive reviews from critics . Richard Edwards of SFX gave the episode five out of five stars and wrote " Steven Moffat pulls off the remarkable feat of making it feel like the logical denouement of last week 's outing . " While he noted that the " end of the world " scenario was very common , he said that it had never " been quite so pleasingly complex " and that " even if there are several plot holes , it 's difficult to get too worried about them when the story packs such a strong emotional wallop " . Den of Geek 's Simon Brew also gave the episode a positive review , writing " if you were awaiting a simple , easy @-@ to @-@ explain blockbuster of a Doctor Who series finale , you simply didn 't get it here . Instead , if you were looking for something really very ambitious , often quite confusing , yet ultimately far more satisfying , then ' The Big Bang ' absolutely hit the mark . "
IGN 's Matt Wales gave the episode a 10 out of 10 rating of " Masterful " , describing it as " wonderfully wide @-@ eyed , genuinely magical adventure " and adding that it " ended the series on an unquestionable high " . Keith Phipps of The A.V. Club gave " The Big Bang " a B + , describing it as not " wholly successful ... the climactic action is a bit too rushed and the epilogue too relaxed " . While it was " still beyond @-@ statisfactory and filled with great moments " , he thought it felt " like a letdown after last week 's superb ' Pandorica Opens ' " . Zap2it 's Sam McPherson gave it an A and described it as " a great conclusion to a great season " and while " the entire universe @-@ rescue plot was a little boring ... the characters made the episode one of the best ever " . However , he did wish that it kept more of the darker tone from " The Pandorica Opens " , labelling " The Big Bang " as " a bit of a tonal letdown " .
Dan Martin of The Guardian wrote that the " finale was brilliant – a classic modern fairytale unfolding before our eyes " . Gavin Fuller , writing for The Daily Telegraph , summarised the episode as " interesting and enjoyable , but not quite the spectacular conclusion you might hope for . " He particularly praised Matt Smith 's portrayal of the Doctor in the scenes of his sacrifice and rewinding of his timeline , and also described the presentation of the universe collapsing as " effective " . However , Fuller had some criticisms of the plot , seeing it as potentially confusing . He also expressed disappointment with the " easy " solutions to some of the problems facing the Doctor in this episode . Fuller also wrote that the episode 's solutions were " rather paradoxical in nature [ since the Doctor ] only escapes as Rory lets him out once given the means to do so by the Doctor travelling back in time once he 's escaped . " , though Martin in The Guardian excused this paradox due to the episode being set " in the eye of the storm as history collapses [ and so ] ... hardly working to the same rulebook " .
Along with " The Pandorica Opens " , " The Big Bang " was awarded the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation ( Short Form ) , the fifth time Doctor Who has won the award , and the fourth time a Steven Moffat episode has won . In February 2013 , Moffat stated that " The Big Bang " was his personal favourite among the Doctor Who episodes he wrote . " I thought it was just a great , fun , funny , witty episode . I was proud of that . "
= Jerry Fodor =
Jerry Alan Fodor ( / ˈfoʊdər / ; born 1935 ) is an American philosopher and cognitive scientist . He holds the position of State of New Jersey Professor of Philosophy , Emeritus , at Rutgers University and is the author of many works in the fields of philosophy of mind and cognitive science , in which he has laid the groundwork for the modularity of mind and the language of thought hypotheses , among other ideas . He is known for his provocative and sometimes polemical style of argumentation and as " one of the principal philosophers of mind of the late twentieth and early twenty @-@ first century . In addition to having exerted an enormous influence on virtually every portion of the philosophy of mind literature since 1960 , Fodor ’ s work has had a significant impact on the development of the cognitive sciences . "
Fodor argues that mental states , such as beliefs and desires , are relations between individuals and mental representations . He maintains that these representations can only be correctly explained in terms of a language of thought ( LOT ) in the mind . Furthermore , this language of thought itself is an actually existing thing that is codified in the brain and not just a useful explanatory tool . Fodor adheres to a species of functionalism , maintaining that thinking and other mental processes consist primarily of computations operating on the syntax of the representations that make up the language of thought .
For Fodor , significant parts of the mind , such as perceptual and linguistic processes , are structured in terms of modules , or " organs " , which he defines by their causal and functional roles . These modules are relatively independent of each other and of the " central processing " part of the mind , which has a more global and less " domain specific " character . Fodor suggests that the character of these modules permits the possibility of causal relations with external objects . This , in turn , makes it possible for mental states to have contents that are about things in the world . The central processing part , on the other hand , takes care of the logical relations between the various contents and inputs and outputs .
Although Fodor originally rejected the idea that mental states must have a causal , externally determined aspect , he has in recent years devoted much of his writing and study to the philosophy of language because of this problem of the meaning and reference of mental contents . His contributions in this area include the so @-@ called asymmetric causal theory of reference and his many arguments against semantic holism . Fodor strongly opposes reductive accounts of the mind . He argues that mental states are multiply realizable and that there is a hierarchy of explanatory levels in science such that the generalizations and laws of a higher @-@ level theory of psychology or linguistics , for example , cannot be captured by the low @-@ level explanations of the behavior of neurons and synapses . He has also emerged as a prominent critic of what he characterizes as the ill @-@ grounded Darwinian and neo @-@ Darwinian theory of natural selection .
= = Biography = =
Jerry Fodor was born in New York City in 1935 , of Jewish descent . He received his A.B. degree ( summa cum laude ) from Columbia University in 1956 , where he studied with Sydney Morgenbesser , and a PhD in Philosophy from Princeton University in 1960 , under the direction of Hilary Putnam . From 1959 to 1986 Fodor was on the faculty of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge , Massachusetts . From 1986 to 1988 he was a full professor at the City University of New York ( CUNY ) . Since 1988 he has been State of New Jersey Professor of Philosophy and Cognitive Science at Rutgers University in New Jersey . Besides his interest in philosophy , Fodor passionately follows opera and regularly writes popular columns for the London Review of Books on that and other topics .
Philosopher Colin McGinn , who taught with Fodor at Rutgers , described him in these words :
" Fodor ( who is now a close friend ) is a gentle man inside a burly body , and prone to an even burlier style of arguing . He is shy and voluble at the same time ... a formidable polemicist burdened with a sensitive soul .... Disagreeing with Jerry on a philosophical issue , especially one dear to his heart can be a chastening experience .... His quickness of mind , inventiveness , and sharp wit are not to be tangled with before your first cup of coffee in the morning . Adding Jerry Fodor to the faculty at Rutgers [ University ] instantly put it on the map , Fodor being by common consent the leading philosopher of mind in the world today . I had met him in England in the seventies and ... found him to be the genuine article , intellectually speaking ( though we do not always see eye to eye ) . "
Fodor is a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences . He has received numerous awards and honors : New York State Regent 's Fellowship , Woodrow Wilson Fellowship ( Princeton University ) , Chancellor Greene Fellow ( Princeton University ) , Fulbright Fellowship ( Oxford University ) , Fellow at the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences , and a Guggenheim Fellowship . He won the first Jean Nicod Prize for philosophy of mind and cognitive philosophy in 1993 . His lecture series for the Prize , later published as a book by MIT Press in 1995 , was titled The Elm and the Expert : Mentalese and Its Semantics . In 1996 – 1997 , Fodor delivered the prestigious John Locke Lectures at the University of Oxford , titled Concepts : Where Cognitive Science Went Wrong , which went on to become his 1998 Oxford University Press book of the same name . He has also delivered the Patrick Romanell Lecture on Philosophical Naturalism ( 2004 ) and the Royce Lecture on Philosophy of Mind ( 2002 ) to the American Philosophical Association , of whose Eastern Division he has served as Vice President ( 2004 – 2005 ) and President ( 2005 – 2006 ) . In 2005 , he won the Mind & Brain Prize .
He lives in New York with his wife , the linguist Janet Dean Fodor , and has two grown children .
= = Fodor and the nature of mental states = =
In his article " Propositional Attitudes " ( 1978 ) , Fodor introduced the idea that mental states are relations between individuals and mental representations . Despite the changes in many of his positions over the years , the idea that intentional attitudes are relational has remained unchanged from its original formulation up to the present time .
In that article , he attempted to show how mental representations , specifically sentences in the language of thought , are necessary to explain this relational nature of mental states . Fodor considers two alternative hypotheses . The first completely denies the relational character of mental states and the second considers mental states as two @-@ place relations . The latter position can be further subdivided into the Carnapian view that such relations are between individuals and sentences of natural languages and the Fregean view that they are between individuals and the propositions expressed by such sentences . Fodor 's own position , instead , is that to properly account for the nature of intentional attitudes , it is necessary to employ a three @-@ place relation between individuals , representations and propositional contents .
Considering mental states as three @-@ place relations in this way , representative realism makes it possible to hold together all of the elements necessary to the solution of this problem . Further , mental representations are not only the objects of beliefs and desires , but are also the domain over which mental processes operate . They can be considered the ideal link between the syntactic notion of mental content and the computational notion of functional architecture . These notions are , according to Fodor , our best explanation of mental processes .
= = The functional architecture of the mind = =
Following in the path paved by linguist Noam Chomsky , Fodor developed a strong commitment to the idea of psychological nativism . Nativism postulates the innateness of many cognitive functions and concepts . For Fodor , this position emerges naturally out of his criticism of behaviourism and associationism . These criticisms also led him to the formulation of his hypothesis of the modularity of the mind .
Historically , questions about mental architecture have been divided into two contrasting theories about the nature of the faculties . The first can be described as a " horizontal " view because it sees mental processes as interactions between faculties which are not domain specific . For example , a judgment remains a judgment whether it is judgment about a perceptual experience or a judgment about the understanding of language . The second can be described as a " vertical " view because it claims that our mental faculties are domain specific , genetically determined , associated with distinct neurological structures , and so on .
The vertical vision can be traced back to the 19th century movement called phrenology and its founder Franz Joseph Gall . Gall claimed that mental faculties could be associated with specific physical areas of the brain . Hence , someone 's level of intelligence , for example , could be literally " read off " from the size of a particular bump on his posterior parietal lobe . This simplistic view of modularity has been disproved over the course of the last century .
Fodor revived the idea of modularity , without the notion of precise physical localizability , in the 1980s , and became one of the most vocal proponents of it with the 1983 publication of his monograph Modularity of Mind . Two properties of modularity in particular , informational encapsulation and domain specificity , make it possible to tie together questions of functional architecture with those of mental content . The ability to elaborate information independently from the background beliefs of individuals that these two properties allow Fodor to give an atomistic and causal account of the notion of mental content . The main idea , in other words , is that the properties of the contents of mental states can depend , rather than exclusively on the internal relations of the system of which they are a part , also on their causal relations with the external world .
Fodor 's notions of mental modularity , informational encapsulation and domain specificity have been taken up and expanded , much to Fodor 's chagrin , by cognitive scientists such as Zenon Pylyshyn and evolutionary psychologists such as Steven Pinker and Henry Plotkin , among many others . But Fodor complains that Pinker , Plotkin and other members of what he sarcastically calls " the New Synthesis " have taken modularity and similar ideas way too far . He insists that the mind is not " massively modular " and that , contrary to what these researchers would have us believe , the mind is still a very long way from having been explained by the computational , or any other , model .
= = Intentional realism = =
In A Theory of Content and Other Essays ( 1990 ) , Fodor takes up another of his central notions : the question of the reality of mental representations . Fodor needs to justify representational realism to justify the idea that the contents of mental states are expressed in symbolic structures such as those of the LOT .
= = = Fodor 's criticism of Dennett = = =
Fodor starts with some criticisms of so @-@ called standard realism . This view is characterized , according to Fodor , by two distinct assertions . One of these regards the internal structure of mental states and asserts that such states are non @-@ relational . The other concerns the semantic theory of mental content and asserts that there is an isomorphism between the causal roles of such contents and the inferential web of beliefs . Among modern philosophers of mind , the majority view seems to be that the first of these two assertions is false , but that the second is true . Fodor departs from this view in accepting the truth of the first thesis but rejecting strongly the truth of the second .
In particular , Fodor criticizes the instrumentalism of Daniel Dennett . Dennett maintains that it is possible to be realist with regard to intentional states without having to commit oneself to the reality of mental representations . Now , according to Fodor , if one remains at this level of analysis , then there is no possibility of explaining why the intentional strategy works :
" There is ... a standard objection to instrumentalism ... : it is difficult to explain why the psychology of beliefs / desires works so well , if the psychology of beliefs / desires is , in fact , false .... As Putnam , Boyd and others have emphasized , from the predictive successes of a theory to the truth of that theory there is surely a presumed inference ; and this is even more likely when ... we are dealing with the only theory in play which is predictively crowned with success . It is not obvious ... why such a presumption should not militate in favour of a realist conception ... of the interpretations of beliefs / desires . "
= = = Productivity , systematicity and thought = = =
Fodor also has positive arguments in favour of the reality of mental representations in terms of the LOT . He maintains that if language is the expression of thoughts and language is systematic , then thoughts must also be systematic . Fodor draws on the work of Noam Chomsky to both model his theory of the mind and to refute alternative architectures such as connectionism . Systematicity in natural languages was explained by Chomsky in terms of two more basic concepts : productivity and compositionality .
Productivity refers to a representational system 's unbounded ability to generate new representations from a given set of symbols . " John " , " loves " , and " Mary " allow for the construction of the sentences " John loves Mary " and " Mary loves John " . Fodor 's language of thought theorizes that representations are decomposable into constituent parts , and these decomposed representations are built into new strings .
More important than productivity is systematicity since it does not rely on questionable idealizations about human cognition . The argument states that a cognizer is able to understand some sentence in virtue of understanding another . For example , no one who understands " John loves Mary " is unable to understand " Mary loves John " , and no one who understands " P and Q " is unable to understand " P " . Systematicity itself is rarely challenged as a property of natural languages and logics , but some challenge that thought is systematic in the same way languages are . Still others from the connectionist tradition have tried to build non @-@ classical networks that can account for the apparent systematicity of language .
The fact that systematicity and productivity depend on the compositional structure of language means that language has a combinatorial semantics . If thought also has such a combinatorial semantics , then there must be a language of thought .
The second argument that Fodor provides in favour of representational realism involves the processes of thought . This argument touches on the relation between the representational theory of mind and models of its architecture . If the sentences of Mentalese require unique processes of elaboration then they require a computational mechanism of a certain type . The syntactic notion of mental representations goes hand in hand with the idea that mental processes are calculations which act only on the form of the symbols which they elaborate . And this is the computational theory of the mind . Consequently , the defence of a model of architecture based on classic artificial intelligence passes inevitably through a defence of the reality of mental representations .
For Fodor , this formal notion of thought processes also has the advantage of highlighting the parallels between the causal role of symbols and the contents which they express . In his view , syntax plays the role of mediation between the causal role of the symbols and their contents . The semantic relations between symbols can be " imitated " by their syntactic relations . The inferential relations which connect the contents of two symbols can be imitated by the formal syntax rules which regulate the derivation of one symbol from another .
= = The nature of content = =
From the beginning of the 1980s , Fodor adhered to a causal notion of mental content and of meaning . This idea of content contrasts sharply with the inferential role semantics to which he subscribed earlier in his career . As of 2010 Fodor criticizes inferential role semantics ( IRS ) because its commitment to an extreme form of holism excludes the possibility of a true naturalization of the mental . But naturalization must include an explanation of content in atomistic and causal terms .
= = = Anti @-@ holism = = =
Fodor has made many and varied criticisms of holism . He identifies the central problem with all the different notions of holism as the idea that the determining factor in semantic evaluation is the notion of an " epistemic bond " . Briefly , P is an epistemic bond of Q if the meaning of P is considered by someone to be relevant for the determination of the meaning of Q. Meaning holism strongly depends on this notion . The identity of the content of a mental state , under holism , can only be determined by the totality of its epistemic bonds . And this makes the realism of mental states an impossibility :
" If people differ in an absolutely general way in their estimations of epistemic relevance , and if we follow the holism of meaning and individuate intentional states by way of the totality of their epistemic bonds , the consequence will be that two people ( or , for that matter , two temporal sections of the same person ) will never be in the same intentional state . Therefore , two people can never be subsumed under the same intentional generalizations . And , therefore , intentional generalization can never be successful . And , therefore again , there is no hope for an intentional psychology . "
= = = The asymmetric causal theory = = =
Having criticized the idea that semantic evaluation concerns only the internal relations between the units of a symbolic system , Fodor can adopt an externalist position with respect to mental content and meaning . For Fodor , in recent years , the problem of naturalization of the mental is tied to the possibility of giving " the sufficient conditions for which a piece of the world is relative to ( expresses , represents , is true of ) another piece " in non @-@ intentional and non @-@ semantic terms . If this goal is to be achieved within a representational theory of the mind , then the challenge is to devise a causal theory which can establish the interpretation of the primitive non @-@ logical symbols of the LOT . Fodor 's initial proposal is that what determines that the symbol for " water " in Mentalese expresses the property H2O is that the occurrences of that symbol are in certain causal relations with water . The intuitive version of this causal theory is what Fodor calls the " Crude Causal Theory . " According to this theory , the occurrences of symbols express the properties which are the causes of their occurrence . The term " horse " , for example , says of a horse that it is a horse . In order to do this , it is necessary and sufficient that certain properties of an occurrence of the symbol " horse " be in a law @-@ like relation with certain properties which determine that something is an occurrence of horse .
The main problem with this theory is that of erroneous representations . There are two unavoidable problems with the idea that " a symbol expresses a property if it is ... necessary that all and only the presences of such a property cause the occurrences . " The first is that not all horses cause occurrences of horse . The second is that not only horses cause occurrences of horse . Sometimes the A ( horses ) are caused by A ( horses ) , but at other times — when , for example , because of the distance or conditions of low visibility , one has confused a cow for a horse — the A ( horses ) are caused by B ( cows ) . In this case the symbol A doesn ’ t express just the property A , but the disjunction of properties A or B. The crude causal theory is therefore incapable of distinguishing the case in which the content of a symbol is disjunctive from the case in which it isn ’ t . This gives rise to what Fodor calls the " problem of disjunction " .
Fodor responds to this problem with what he defines as " a slightly less crude causal theory " . According to this approach , it is necessary to break the symmetry at the base of the crude causal theory . Fodor must find some criterion for distinguishing the occurrences of A caused by As ( true ) from those caused by Bs ( false ) . The point of departure , according to Fodor , is that while the false cases are ontologically dependent on the true cases , the reverse is not true . There is an asymmetry of dependence , in other words , between the true contents ( A
= A ) and the false ones ( A =
A or B ) . The first can subsist independently of the second , but the second can occur only because of the existence of the first :
From the point of view of semantics , errors must be accidents : if in the extension of " horse " there are no cows , then it cannot be required for the meaning of " horse " that cows be called horses . On the other hand , if " horse " did not mean that which it means , and if it were an error for horses , it would never be possible for a cow to be called " horse . " Putting the two things together , it can be seen that the possibility of falsely saying " this is a horse " presupposes the existence of a semantic basis for saying it truly , but not vice versa . If we put this in terms of the crude causal theory , the fact that cows cause one to say " horse " depends on the fact that horses cause one to say " horse " ; but the fact that horses cause one to say " horse " does not depend on the fact that cows cause one to say " horse " ... "
= = Functionalism = =
During the 1960s , various philosophers such as Donald Davidson , Hilary Putnam , and Fodor tried to resolve the puzzle of developing a way to preserve the explanatory efficacy of mental causation and so @-@ called " folk psychology " while adhering to a materialist vision of the world which did not violate the " generality of physics " . Their proposal was , first of all , to reject the then @-@ dominant theories in philosophy of mind : behaviorism and the type identity theory . The problem with logical behaviorism was that it failed to account for causation between mental states and such causation seems to be essential to psychological explanation , especially if one considers that behavior is not an effect of a single mental event / cause but is rather the effect of a chain of mental events / causes . The type @-@ identity theory , on the other hand , failed to explain the fact that radically different physical systems can find themselves in the identical mental state . Besides being deeply anthropocentric ( why should humans be the only thinking organisms in the universe ? ) , the identity @-@ type theory also failed to deal with accumulating evidence in the neurosciences that every single human brain is different from all the others . Hence , the impossibility of referring to common mental states in different physical systems manifests itself not only between different species but also between organisms of the same species .
One can solve these problems , according to Fodor , with functionalism , a hypothesis which was designed to overcome the failings of both dualism and reductionism . What is important is the function of a mental state regardless of the physical substrate which implements it . The foundation for this view lies in the principle of the multiple realizability of the mental . Under this view , for example , I and a computer can both instantiate ( " realize " ) the same functional state though we are made of completely different material stuff ( see graphic at right ) . On this basis functionalism can be classified as a form of token materialism .
= = Evolution = =
Fodor has co @-@ written a book with the biolinguist Massimo Piattelli @-@ Palmarini called What Darwin Got Wrong ( 2010 ) which describes neo @-@ Darwinists as being " distressingly uncritical " and says of Darwin 's theory of evolution that " it overestimates the contribution the environment makes in shaping the phenotype of a species and correspondingly underestimates the effects of endogenous variables . " Evolutionary biologist Jerry Coyne describes this book as " a profoundly misguided critique of natural selection " and " as biologically uninformed as it is strident . " Moral philosopher and anti @-@ scientism author Mary Midgley praises What Darwin Got Wrong as " an overdue and valuable onslaught on neo @-@ Darwinist simplicities " . The book also received positive review by mathematician and Intelligent Design Theorist William Dembski .
= = Criticism = =
A wide variety of philosophers of diverse orientations have challenged many of Fodor 's ideas . For example , the language of thought hypothesis has been accused of either falling prey to an infinite regress or of being superfluous . Specifically , Simon Blackburn suggested in an article in 1984 that since Fodor explains the learning of natural languages as a process of formation and confirmation of hypotheses in the LOT , this leaves him open to the question of why the LOT itself should not be considered as just such a language which requires yet another and more fundamental representational substrate in which to form and confirm hypotheses so that the LOT itself can be learned . If natural language learning requires some representational substrate ( the LOT ) in order for it to be learned , why shouldn 't the same be said for the LOT itself and then for the representational substrate of this representational substrate and so on , ad infinitum ? On the other hand , if such a representational substrate is not required for the LOT , then why should it be required for the learning of natural languages ? In this case , the LOT would be superfluous . Fodor , in response , argues that the LOT is unique in that it does not have to be learned via an antecedent language because it is innate .
In 1981 Daniel Dennett had formulated another argument against the LOT . Dennett suggested that it would seem , on the basis of the evidence of our behavior toward computers but also with regard to some of our own unconscious behavior , that explicit representation is not necessary for the explanation of propositional attitudes . During a game of chess with a computer program , we often attribute such attitudes to the computer , saying such things as " It thinks that the queen should be moved to the left " . We attribute propositional attitudes to the computer and this helps us to explain and predict its behavior in various contexts . Yet no one would suggest that the computer is actually thinking or believing somewhere inside its circuits the equivalent of the propositional attitude " I believe I can kick this guy 's butt " in Mentalese . The same is obviously true , suggests Dennett , of many of our everyday automatic behaviors such as " desiring to breathe clear air " in a stuffy environment .
Some linguists and philosophers of language have criticized Fodor 's self @-@ proclaimed " extreme " concept nativism . Kent Bach , for example , takes Fodor to task for his criticisms of lexical semantics and polysemy . Fodor claims that there is no lexical structure to such verbs as " keep " , " get " , " make " and " put " . He suggests that , alternatively , " keep " simply expresses the concept KEEP ( Fodor capitalizes concepts to distinguish them from properties , names or other such entities ) . If there is a straightforward one @-@ to @-@ one mapping between individual words and concepts , " keep your clothes on " , " keep your receipt " and " keep washing your hands " will all share the same concept of KEEP under Fodor 's theory . This concept presumably locks on to the unique external property of keeping . But , if this is true , then RETAIN must pick out a different property in RETAIN YOUR RECEIPT , since one can 't retain one 's clothes on or retain washing one 's hands . Fodor 's theory also has a problem explaining how the concept FAST contributes , differently , to the contents of FAST CAR , FAST DRIVER , FAST TRACK , and FAST TIME . Whether or not the differing interpretations of " fast " in these sentences are specified in the semantics of English , or are the result of pragmatic inference , is a matter of debate . Fodor 's own response to this kind of criticism is expressed bluntly in Concepts : " People sometimes used to say that exist must be ambiguous because look at the difference between ' chairs exist ' and ' numbers exist ' . A familiar reply goes : the difference between the existence of chairs and the existence of numbers seems , on reflection , strikingly like the difference between numbers and chairs . Since you have the latter to explain the former , you don 't also need ' exist ' to be polysemic . "
Some critics find it difficult to accept Fodor 's insistence that a large , perhaps implausible , number of concepts are primitive and undefinable . For example , Fodor considers such concepts as EFFECT , ISLAND , TRAPEZOID , and WEEK to be all primitive , innate and unanalyzable because they all fall into the category of what he calls " lexical concepts " ( those for which our language has a single word ) . Against this view , Bach argues that the concept VIXEN is almost certainly composed out of the concepts FEMALE and FOX , BACHELOR out of SINGLE and MALE , and so on .
= = Books = =
What Darwin Got Wrong , with Massimo Piattelli @-@ Palmarini , Farrar , Straus and Giroux , 2010 , ISBN 0 @-@ 374 @-@ 28879 @-@ 8 .
LOT 2 : The Language of Thought Revisited , Oxford University Press , 2008 , ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 954877 @-@ 3 .
Hume Variations , Oxford University Press , 2003 , ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 928733 @-@ 3 .
The Compositionality Papers , with Ernie Lepore , Oxford University Press , 2002 , ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 925216 @-@ 5 .
The Mind Doesn 't Work That Way : The Scope and Limits of Computational Psychology , MIT Press , 2000 , ISBN 0 @-@ 262 @-@ 56146 @-@ 8 .
In Critical Condition , MIT Press , 1998 , ISBN 0 @-@ 262 @-@ 56128 @-@ X.
Concepts : Where Cognitive Science Went Wrong , The 1996 John Locke Lectures , Oxford University Press , 1998 , ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 823636 @-@ 0 .
The Elm and the Expert : Mentalese and Its Semantics , The 1993 Jean Nicod Lectures , MIT Press , 1994 , ISBN 0 @-@ 262 @-@ 56093 @-@ 3 .
Holism : A Consumer Update , with Ernie Lepore ( eds . ) , Grazer Philosophische Studien , Vol 46 . Rodopi , Amsterdam , 1993 , ISBN 90 @-@ 5183 @-@ 713 @-@ 5 .
Holism : A Shopper 's Guide , with Ernie Lepore ( eds . ) , Blackwell , 1992 , ISBN 0 @-@ 631 @-@ 18193 @-@ 8 .
A Theory of Content and Other Essays , MIT Press , 1990 , ISBN 0 @-@ 262 @-@ 56069 @-@ 0 .
Psychosemantics : The Problem of Meaning in the Philosophy of Mind , MIT Press , 1987 , ISBN 0 @-@ 262 @-@ 56052 @-@ 6 .
The Modularity of Mind : An Essay on Faculty Psychology , MIT Press , 1983 , ISBN 0 @-@ 262 @-@ 56025 @-@ 9 .
Representations : Philosophical Essays on the Foundations of Cognitive Science , Harvard Press ( UK ) and MIT Press ( US ) , 1979 , ISBN 0 @-@ 262 @-@ 56027 @-@ 5 .
The Language of Thought , Harvard University Press , 1975 , ISBN 0 @-@ 674 @-@ 51030 @-@ 5 .
The Psychology of Language , with T. Bever and M. Garrett , McGraw Hill , 1974 , ISBN 0 @-@ 394 @-@ 30663 @-@ 5 .
Psychological Explanation , Random House , 1968 , ISBN 0 @-@ 07 @-@ 021412 @-@ 3 .
The Structure of Language , with Jerrold Katz ( eds . ) , Prentice Hall , 1964 , ISBN 0 @-@ 13 @-@ 854703 @-@ 3 .
= Celebration ( Madonna song ) =
Celebration is a song recorded by American singer and songwriter Madonna for her third greatest hits album of the same name ( 2009 ) . It was written and produced by Madonna , Paul Oakenfold and Ian Green , with additional writing from Ciaran Gribbin . The song was released digitally on July 31 , 2009 by Warner Bros. Records . Madonna collaborated with Oakenfold to develop a number of songs . Amongst all the songs developed by them , two were chosen for the greatest hits album with " Celebration " being released as the first single from it . It is a dance @-@ oriented song with influences of Madonna 's singles from the 1980s and 1990s , and consisting of a speak @-@ sing format bridge . The lyrics of the song invites one to come and join a party .
" Celebration " received mixed reviews from contemporary critics . It peaked at number one in Bulgaria , Finland , Israel , Italy , Slovakia and Sweden , while reaching the top five in other nations , including Canada , France , Germany , Japan and the United Kingdom where it debuted at number three on the UK Singles Chart . It became Madonna 's 55th entry on the US Billboard Hot 100 , where it debuted and peaked at number 71 , and her 40th number @-@ one song on the dance chart .
The music video used the Benny Benassi remix of the song . It portrayed Madonna and her tour dancers solo dancing to the song . Cameo appearances were made by model Jesus Luz and in an alternative video by her daughter Lourdes . At the 2010 Grammy Awards , the song received a nomination in the Best Dance Recording category . The song was used as a closing for The MDNA Tour in which Madonna energetically danced in a glittery outfit , and at one point put on a pair of headphones and pantomimed scratching records with colored cubes falling in the backdrop .
= = Background = =
In March 2009 , Madonna 's representative Liz Rosenberg confirmed that Madonna wrote three new tracks for the compilation album , with Paul Oakenfold being confirmed as producer for two of the new songs . Attitude magazine reported in an interview with Oakenfold that the tracks he produced with Madonna are called " Broken ( I 'm Sorry ) " and " Celebrate " . He stated that the new music is " lyrically classic Madonna with an edgy modern sound . " The song " Celebrate " , later renamed as " Celebration " , has backing music composed by Ciaran Gribbin , Ian Green and Paul Oakenfold , with lyrics and vocal melody composed by Madonna .
According to Gribbin , Madonna approached Oakenfold , asking him what he was working on and whether he would be interested in sending her some material for which she could write lyrics . Oakenfold , along with Green and Gribbin had been working on new tracks for Oakenfold 's upcoming album . They sent fifteen of those tracks to Madonna . She chose " Broken " and " Celebration " from them . Then Oakenfold , Gribbin and Green developed the chord structure , arranged the backing track and added guitars , keyboards and drums . Madonna then wrote the lyrics and melody based on this backing track .
Warner Bros. Records announced " Celebration " as the lead single from the album . It was released to radio stations on August 3 , 2009 , with remixes having been released to dance clubs on July 24 , 2009 . A world premiere of the Paul Oakenfold 12 " Dub version was played on the Pete Tong BBC Radio 1 show on July 24 , 2009 .
= = Composition = =
" Celebration " has been described as a sleek dance @-@ oriented track with influences of previous dance singles by Madonna from the early 90s such as , " Vogue " ( 1990 ) and " Deeper and Deeper " ( 1992 ) . It consists of a pumping , house style music in it . Paul Oakenfold described the composition as " lyrically classic Madonna with an edgy modern sound . " Influences of Europop are found in the song , but not to the extent of previous single , " Hung Up " ( 2005 ) . According to a writer from the Los Angeles Times , the song has a highly energetic synth @-@ pop groove while referencing 80s Madonna songs . The bridge is in a speak @-@ sing format , where Madonna 's voice , consisting of a little edge , declares that " I [ didn 't ] recognize you with your clothes on . "
" Celebration " is set in the time signature of common time with a dance beat tempo of 126 beats per minute . It is set in the key of B minor with Madonna 's voice spanning from F ♯ 3 to B4 . The song has a basic sequence of Em – F ♯ m – Bm – Bm as its chord progression . The lyrics call the listener to join in a party and celebrate . They are written in the form of an invitation , which asks one to come and join " the dance of life . " Stephen M. Deusner of Pitchfork Media explained that the song is " personality @-@ driven pop " , meaning that the lyrics and the melody becomes immaterial to the fact that Madonna is singing the song .
= = Critical reception = =
Todd Martens from the Los Angeles Times stated that " Celebration " works as a throwaway , midsummer dance pop number . However , he felt that the song had modest goals , " at least by Madonna 's standards . Even when it gets a bit risque [ ... ] silliness rules the day . She invites us ' to the dance of life , ' and coasts over the chorus . " He went on to add that the song " is an effective look back , a gliding , reassuring number that she [ Madonna ] hasn 't forgotten her beginning . But rather than instill a sense of nostalgia , everything feels a bit obligatory . The sound of an artist , hopefully , ready for the next chapter . " Michael Slezak from Entertainment Weekly called the song " unapologetically dance @-@ y " but felt " disappointed that lyrically , Madonna seems to be revisiting the ' Party ! Get on the floor ! ' theme for the umpteenth time without even the slightest bit of linguistic flair . " Chris Williams from Billboard said that " Madonna 's latest single won 't start any new trends , but it does return the singer to her dance @-@ floor roots . " It further added that " ' Celebration ' [ is ] a score for Madonna 's retro @-@ futuristic fan base and a nice bookend to her collection of chart glories . "
James Montogomery from MTV commented : " [ The song is ] all pulsing sirens , wobbly bass and four @-@ on @-@ the @-@ floor beat , with an expansive electro chorus that sounds like a truckload of Nintendo Entertainment Systems exploding in unison ( only sexier ) . " Frase McAlpine from BBC gave the song three out five stars and said : " I can 't be the only person in the world who is slightly disappointed that this song isn 't a jaunty ' 80 syn @-@ disco rave up , in which Madge skips around in a big pink wig , like she used to in the olden days . " He went on to add that " Celebration " is a decent dance track for Madonna to play on | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
growth . Lack of plant cover makes the Chinle especially susceptible to weathering .
About 60 million years ago , tectonic movements of Earth ’ s crust began to uplift the Colorado Plateau , of which the Painted Desert is part . Eventually parts of the plateau rose to 10 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) above sea level . This warping of Earth ’ s surface led to the gradual and continuing destruction of the plateau by erosion . An unconformity ( break in the rock record ) of about 200 million years occurs within the park , where erosion has removed all the rock layers above the Chinle except geologically recent ones . The Bidahochi Formation , laid down only 8 to 4 million years ago , rests directly atop the Chinle , and rocks laid down in the Jurassic , Cretaceous , and much of the Tertiary are absent .
During the period of the Bidahochi deposition , a large lake basin covered much of northeastern Arizona . The older ( lower ) layers of the formation consist of fluvial and lacustrine ( lake @-@ related ) deposits of silt , sand , and clay . The younger ( upper ) Bidahochi contains ash and lava from volcanoes that erupted nearby and as far away as southwestern Nevada . Although much of the Bidahochi has since eroded , a small part of it outcrops in the northern part of the park — on Pilot Rock in the park ’ s wilderness section and along the rim of the Painted Desert between Pintado and Tawa points . Exposed by erosion of the Bidahochi are volcanic landforms called maars ( flat @-@ bottomed , roughly circular volcanic craters of explosive origin ) . A maar vent can be seen from the Pintado Point lookout .
During the Quaternary Period ( 2 @.@ 6 million years ago up to today ) , deposits of windblown sand and alluvium covered much of the Chinle and Bidahochi . Older dunes range in age from 500 @,@ 000 years at higher elevations in the northern part of the park to about 10 @,@ 000 years in sandy drainage areas such as Lithodendron Wash . Stabilized by grasses and other vegetation , young dunes of about 1 @,@ 000 years old are found throughout the park .
= = = Fossils = = =
During the Late Triassic , downed trees accumulating in river channels in what became the park were buried periodically by sediment containing volcanic ash . Groundwater dissolved silica ( silicon dioxide ) from the ash and carried it into the logs , where it formed quartz crystals that gradually replaced the organic matter . Traces of iron oxide and other substances combined with the silica to create varied colors in the petrified wood .
In Petrified Forest National Park , most of the logs in the park retained their original external form during petrification but lost their internal structure . However , a small fraction of the logs and most of the park ’ s petrified animal bones have cells and other spaces that are mineral @-@ filled but still retain much of their original organic structure . With these permineralized fossils , it is possible to study the cellular make @-@ up of the original organisms with the aid of a microscope . Other organic matter — typically leaves , seeds , cones , pollen grains , spores , small stems , and fish , insect , and animal remains — have been preserved in the park as compression fossils , flattened by the weight of the sediments above until only a thin film remains in the rock .
Much of the park ’ s petrified wood is from Araucarioxylon arizonicum trees , while some found in the northern part of the park is from Woodworthia arizonica and Schilderia adamanica trees . At least nine species of fossil trees from the park have been identified ; all are extinct . The park has many other kinds of fossils besides trees . The Chinle , considered one of the richest Late Triassic fossil @-@ plant deposits in the world , contains more than 200 fossil plant taxa . Plant groups represented in the park include lycopods , ferns , cycads , conifers , ginkgoes , as well as unclassified forms . The park has also produced many fossil vertebrates — including giant crocodile @-@ like reptiles called phytosaurs , large salamander @-@ like amphibians called Buettneria , and early dinosaurs — and invertebrates , including freshwater snails and clams .
= = Climate = =
Average summer daytime temperatures range in the mid- to high 90s Fahrenheit . Because the clear skies of the park allow for rapid cooling at night , summer lows are sometimes 40 ° F ( 22 ° C ) below the daily highs . July is the warmest month , with an average high of 92 ° F ( 33 ° C ) and an average low of 60 ° F ( 16 ° C ) . January is the coldest month , when highs average 48 ° F ( 9 ° C ) and lows average 21 ° F ( − 6 ° C ) . The highest recorded temperature was 107 ° F ( 42 ° C ) in 1998 , and the lowest was − 27 ° F ( − 33 ° C ) in 1971 .
Winter winds can reach 60 miles per hour ( 97 km / h ) . Summer breezes are lighter , but the 10 @-@ mile @-@ per @-@ hour ( 16 km / h ) average wind causes frequent sandstorms and dust devils , some of which reach altitudes of several thousand feet .
Rain is heaviest from July through September , when about half of the park 's annual average precipitation falls during short , violent thunderstorms . August is generally the wettest month . At an elevation of more than 5 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 500 m ) , Petrified Forest National Park has a chance of light snow from October through March , although snow cover rarely persists . The average relative humidity of the area is well below 50 percent and at times less than 15 percent .
= = History = =
= = = Pre @-@ U.S. = = =
More than 600 archeological sites have been found inside the boundaries of Petrified Forest National Park . Evidence suggests that the earliest inhabitants of the park arrived at least 8 @,@ 000 years ago . Two Folsom @-@ type spear points , the earliest artifacts of Paleo @-@ Indians found in the park , are at least that old . Between 6000 BCE and 1 CE , the Archaic – Early Basketmaker Era , nomadic groups established seasonal camps in the Petrified Forest from which they hunted small game such as rabbits , pronghorn antelope , and deer and harvested seeds from Indian ricegrass and other wild plants . Around 150 BCE , they began to grow corn in the area . By 1 CE , as their farming techniques improved , some built houses in the Petrified Forest and began to stay there year @-@ round .
The early farmers from the Early Basketmaker II Era , lived in the Petrified Forest from about 1 CE to about 800 CE . They occupied pit houses at fewer than 100 sites , at first on mesas or other vantage points and later at the base of bluffs and in lowlands , where the soil was better . As climatic conditions worsened for farming between 750 and 900 CE , the settlements changed with the Pueblo I Era . Rather than below @-@ ground pits , the Pueblo Builders constructed above @-@ ground houses and storerooms that may have been capable of storing food for more than one year . At the same time , climatic conditions changed again , this time for the better , between 900 and 1275 CE . More than 200 pueblo @-@ builder sites have been identified in the park at a wide variety of locations — at the mouths of washes , near seeps , and on moisture @-@ holding sand dunes .
During the Pueblo I Era , most sites were single @-@ family homes , but as soils became exhausted many sites were abandoned by 1250 CE in favor of very large multi @-@ room pueblos close to more dependable sources of water . The Pueblo Builders constructed two of these large pueblos , one called Stone Axe , about 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) east of the park , and the other at Puerco Pueblo , which overlooks the Puerco River near the middle of the park . There they built about 100 one @-@ story rooms around an open plaza . The rooms had no windows or doors but each could be entered by climbing a ladder and descending through a hole in the roof . At its peak , perhaps 200 people lived in this pueblo . Over time , however , a persistently dry climate led to out @-@ migration , and the last residents abandoned Puerco Pueblo in about 1380 CE .
At Puerco Pueblo and many other sites within the park , petroglyphs — images , symbols , or designs — have been scratched , pecked , carved , or incised on rock surfaces , often on a patina known as desert varnish . Most of the petroglyphs in Petrified Forest National Park are thought to be between 650 and 2 @,@ 000 years old .
From the 16th through the 18th centuries , explorers looking for routes between Spanish colonies along the Rio Grande to the southeast and other Spanish colonies on the Pacific coast to the west passed near or through the area , which they called El Desierto Pintado , the Painted Desert . However , the park 's oldest Spanish inscriptions , left by descendants of the region 's early Spanish colonists , date only to the late 19th century .
= = = U.S. = = =
After the Southwest became part of the U.S. , explorers continued to look for good east – west routes along the 35th parallel . In 1853 , a crew led by U.S. Army Lieutenant Amiel Whipple surveyed along a sandy wash in the northern part of the Petrified Forest . So impressed was Whipple by the petrified wood along the banks of the arroyo that he named it Lithodendron Creek ( Stone Tree Creek ) . Geologist Jules Marcou , a member of the Whipple expedition , observed that the petrified trees were from the Triassic .
A slightly later route along the parallel was a wagon road , built between 1857 and 1860 , that involved experimental use of camels as transport . In the late 19th century , settlers and private stagecoach companies followed similar east – west routes . Homesteaders who stayed in the area developed cattle ranches on the grasslands , and cattle grazed in the Petrified Forest until the mid @-@ 20th century .
Also close to the 35th parallel was the Atlantic and Pacific Railroad . Its opening in the early 1880s led to the founding of towns like Holbrook and Adamana . Visitors could stop at the Adamana train station , book a hotel room , and take a tour of what was then called the Chalcedony Forest . Over the years , the line changed hands , becoming the Atchison , Topeka and Santa Fe Railway , and then the BNSF . More than 60 BNSF trains , mostly carrying freight , pass through the park every day . U.S. Route 66 , a former transcontinental auto highway developed in 1926 from part of the National Old Trails Road , ran parallel to the railroad tracks until it was decommissioned in 1985 . The park has preserved within its boundaries a small grassy section of the road . Interstate 40 , which crosses the park , replaced the older highway .
Increasing tourist and commercial interest in petrified wood during the late 19th century began to alarm residents of the region . In 1895 , the Arizona Territorial Legislature asked the U.S. Congress to create a petrified forest national park . Although this first attempt failed , in 1906 the Antiquities Act signed by President Theodore Roosevelt was used to create the Petrified Forest National Monument . Between 1934 and 1942 , the federal Civilian Conservation Corps built road , trails , and structures in the monument , and the government acquired additional land in the Painted Desert section . The monument became a national park in 1962 . Six years after the signing of the Wilderness Act in 1964 by President Lyndon B. Johnson , wilderness areas ( where human activity is limited ) , were designated in the park . In 2004 , President George W. Bush signed a bill authorizing the eventual expansion of the park from 93 @,@ 353 acres ( about 146 mi2 or 378 km2 ) to 218 @,@ 533 acres ( about 341 mi2 or 884 km2 ) . Theft of petrified wood is still a problem . Despite a guard force of seven National Park Service rangers , fences , warning signs , and the threat of a $ 325 fine , an estimated 12 short tons ( 11 @,@ 000 kg ) of the fossil wood is stolen from the Petrified Forest every year .
Jessee Walter Fewkes , the first archeologist to visit Puerco Ruin , predicted in the late 19th century that it would yield many artifacts . Conservationist John Muir conducted the first excavations of the ruin in 1905 – 06 . Although he did not publish his findings , he urged the federal government to preserve Petrified Forest . Professional archeological work in the park began in the early 20th century when Walter Hough conducted excavations at Puerco Ruin and other sites . In 1919 , a phytosaur skull was discovered near Blue Mesa in the Petrified Forest and sent to the Museum of Paleontology in Berkeley , California . In 1921 , Annie Alexander , founder of the museum , visited Blue Mesa to collect more of the phytosaur and other specimens ; this led to further excavations by paleontologist Charles Camp . Since then , more than 250 fossil sites have been documented in the park . In the 1930s , the Civil Works Administration funded research in the park by archeologists H.P. Mera and C.B. Cosgrove . A National Park Service resurvey of the Petrified Forest in the early 1940s identified most of the large sites with stone ruins , and subsequent surveys since 1978 have identified a total of more than 600 artifact sites , many of them small . Research in paleontology and archeology continues at the park in the 21st century .
= = Biology = =
= = = Flora = = =
A 2005 survey found that 447 species of flora , of which 57 species are invasive , occur in the park . Although the park is known for its fossils and eroded badlands , its main environment is semi @-@ desert shrub steppe . Protected from development and overgrazing for many years , the park has some of the best grassland in northeastern Arizona . In the northern part of the park , the volcanic soils of the Bidahochi Formation support abundant plant life along the Painted Desert rim . In contrast to the relatively bare badlands below , the rim is covered with shrubs , small trees , grasses , and herbs .
The dominant plants in the park include more than 100 grass species , many native to the region . Growing among the grasses are flowering species such as evening primrose , mariposa lily , and blue flax , and shrubs such as sagebrush , saltbush , and rabbitbrush . Among the wide variety of grasses are native perennial bunchgrass , blue grama , sacaton , sideoats grama , bearded sprangletop , and bush muhly . Invasive species that crowd out slower @-@ spreading natives include annual lovegrass and brome ( cheat grass ) .
Trees and shrubs grow in riparian zones along the park 's washes . Willows and cottonwoods are the larger plants , joined by rushes and sedges . Here the invasive Eurasian tamarisk , also known as saltcedar , threatens native plants by crowding , using most of the available water , and increasing soil salinity by exuding salt through its leaves .
= = = Fauna = = =
Some of the larger animals roaming the grasslands include pronghorns , black @-@ tailed jackrabbits ( hares ) , Gunnison 's prairie dogs , coyotes , bobcats and foxes . Pronghorns , the fastest land animals in North America , are capable of 60 @-@ mile @-@ per @-@ hour ( 97 km / h ) sprints . The blood vessels in the huge , thin @-@ walled ears of the jackrabbits act as heat exchangers . These hares are known for their bursts of speed , long leaps , and zigzag routes , all of which protect them from being eaten by golden eagles and other predators . The prairie dogs live in large colonies or " towns " , near which many other species find food and shelter . Coyotes dine largely on rodents but also eat fruits , reptiles , insects , small mammals , birds , and carrion .
Bobcats and bullsnakes hunt smaller animals , such as deer mice and white @-@ tailed antelope squirrels in the park 's riparian zones . Western pipistrelle bats feast on insects , and pallid bats eat beetles , centipedes , cicadas , praying mantises , scorpions , and other arthropods . On the Painted Desert rim , small animals find food and shelter among the denser foliage , and mule deer sometimes frequent the area .
More than 16 kinds of lizards and snakes live in various habitats in the park and consume large quantities of insects , spiders , scorpions , other reptiles , and small mammals . The collared lizard , which occurs in every habitat , is the largest and most often seen .
Plateau striped whiptails , a species consisting entirely of females , prefer grasslands and developed areas . Side @-@ blotched lizards live in rocky areas of the park but are seldom seen . Gopher snakes , which sometimes imitate rattlesnakes when disturbed , are among the most common snakes in the park . The Western rattlesnake , the only venomous snake found in the park , prefers grasslands and shrub areas .
Seven kinds of amphibians , which drink no water but absorb it through their permeable skins , have been identified in Petrified Forest National Park . Tiger salamanders , found in grassland and near major drainages , are the only salamander species known in Arizona . Woodhouse ’ s toads , which are seldom seen , are the largest toads in the park . They like grasslands , riparian corridors , and developed areas . Red @-@ spotted toads , most active in the rainy season , July through September , are found in rocky areas near streams and in canyons . The Great Plains toad , the most common toad in the park , prefers grasslands . Resident spadefoot toads include the New Mexico , plains , and Couch 's varieties .
A survey conducted in 2006 identified 216 species of birds known to have occurred in Petrified Forest National Park since the park became a protected area in 1906 . Of those , 33 species breed within the park , 6 other species probably do , and 18 species live in the park year @-@ round . Thirty @-@ five species live in the park only during the summer and 11 species only during the winter . The greatest diversity of birds occurs during fall and winter migrations .
Raptors , songbirds , and ground birds are found in the park 's grassland , while the Puerco River 's riparian corridor is a good place for year @-@ round residents as well as migrants such as warblers , vireos , avocets , and killdeer . Developed areas around the visitor center and museum attract western tanagers , hermit warblers , house finches , and others . Occasional shorebirds and eastern birds also visit the park .
Birds commonly seen in the park include the common raven and the western meadowlark , known for its charming song . Anna 's hummingbird , which can hover and fly backwards as well as forwards , is among the smallest birds in the park . The largest is the golden eagle , with a wingspan of up to 7 feet ( 2 m ) .
= = Activities = =
The park is open every day except Christmas ( December 25 ) on a schedule that varies slightly with the seasons . In 2010 , it and its Painted Desert Visitor Center and Rainbow Forest Museum were open from 7 a.m. to 7 p.m. from May 9 through September 6 but opened as early as 8 a.m. and closed as late as 5 p.m. during other parts of the year . The Painted Desert Inn ( an historic museum and bookstore ) is open from 9 a.m. to 5 p.m. year @-@ round except Christmas . Park clocks are always set to Mountain Standard Time , as Arizona does not observe Daylight Saving Time .
The Painted Desert Visitor Center , designed by modernist architect Richard Neutra , is part of the Painted Desert Community Complex Historic District and is on the National Register of Historic Places . Eight other sites within the park are also on the National Register , including the Painted Desert Inn and associated cabins , the Agate House Pueblo , the Painted Desert Petroglyphs and Ruins Archeological District , Newspaper Rock Petroglyphs Archeological District , Puerco Ruins and Petroglyphs , the Flattops Site ( an archeological site ) , the Twin Buttes Archeological District , and the 35th Parallel Route ( also known as the Beale Camel Trail ) . The Painted Desert Inn was upgraded to a National Historic Landmark in 1987 .
The visitor center , which is near the north entrance to the park , offers visitor information and shows a 20 @-@ minute orientation movie , " Timeless Impressions " , once every half @-@ hour . It has a bookstore , exhibits , a restaurant open from 8 a.m. to 3 p.m. , a gift shop , a gas station , a post office open from 11 a.m. to 1 p.m. Monday through Friday , a postal drop box , and public restrooms . The Rainbow Forest Museum complex 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) north of the park 's south entrance offers services including information and " Timeless Impressions " showings once every half @-@ hour . It has a bookstore , fossil exhibits , an interactive Triassic Virtual Tour , limited food service , a gift shop , and public restrooms . The Painted Desert Inn , 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) north of the Painted Desert Visitor Center , offers visitor information . It has a bookstore , museum exhibits ( including the building itself ) , and public restrooms .
No campgrounds or overnight lodging are available in the park , although nearby communities such as Holbrook offer motels and other accommodations . Overnight parking is not allowed except in the case of backpackers with wilderness hiking permits . Sightseeing is available by private automobile , motorcycle , commercial tour , bicycle , and hiking . The park road , parking lots , and turn @-@ outs are big enough to accommodate large recreational vehicles . Off @-@ road vehicle travel , including by mountain bike , is not allowed . With a few exceptions such as unpaved Old Highway 66 , bicycles must stay on paved roads such as the 28 @-@ mile ( 45 km ) main park road and stay off trails and unpaved surfaces .
The park 's seven maintained hiking trails , some paved , vary in length from less than 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) to nearly 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) . Pets are allowed on these trails if kept on a leash , but bicycles are not . These named trails are Painted Desert Rim , Puerco Pueblo , Blue Mesa , Crystal Forest , Giant Logs , Long Logs , and Agate House . Hikers and backpackers may also visit the park 's wilderness areas . Free permits are required for overnight stays ; they are issued from the Painted Desert Visitor Center , Painted Desert Inn , and Rainbow Forest Museum . Most backpackers enter the wilderness at the north end of the park , where parking and an access trail are available at Painted Desert Inn . Group camping is limited to eight people . Horseback riding is allowed in the wilderness areas ; water for horses is available at the service station near the Painted Desert Visitor Center . Riders and hikers are asked to travel along dry washes as much as possible to reduce the impact on fragile desert soils .
Rangers offer a variety of programs about the park . Regularly scheduled events include a Painted Desert Inn tour , a Triassic program at the Rainbow Forest Museum sunroom , a talk or walk along the Giant Logs Trail behind the museum , and a Puerco Pueblo guided walk . The park hosts special events related to Earth Science Week and National American Indian Heritage Month . On Saturdays from Memorial Day weekend through Labor Day at the Painted Desert Inn , artisans from the region give cultural demonstrations related to ancient peoples , intertribal relationships , and European @-@ descent cultures . For students and teachers , the rangers offer educational materials and field @-@ trip talks . In some years during the summer months , artists @-@ in @-@ residence work in the park .
= Italian battleship Dante Alighieri =
Dante Alighieri was the first dreadnought battleship built for the Regia Marina ( Royal Italian Navy ) . Completed in 1913 , she was the first battleship built with her main armament in triple @-@ gun turrets . The ship served as a flagship during World War I , but saw very little action other than the Second Battle of Durazzo in 1918 where she did not engage enemy forces . She never fired her guns in anger during her career . Dante Alighieri was refitted in 1923 , stricken from the Navy List in 1928 and subsequently sold for scrap .
= = Description = =
Dante Alighieri was designed by Rear Admiral Engineer Edoardo Masdea , Chief Constructor of the Regia Marina , based on the ideas of General Vittorio Cuniberti who advocated a battleship with main guns of a single caliber and optimized for broadside fire . In addition , the ship 's superstructure and funnels were to be kept to a minimum .
The dreadnought was 158 @.@ 4 meters ( 519 ft 8 in ) long at the waterline , and 168 @.@ 1 meters ( 551 ft 6 in ) overall . The ship had a beam of 26 @.@ 6 meters ( 87 ft 3 in ) , and a draft of 8 @.@ 8 meters ( 28 ft 10 in ) . She displaced 19 @,@ 552 tonnes ( 19 @,@ 243 long tons ) at normal load , and 21 @,@ 600 tonnes ( 21 @,@ 300 long tons ) at deep load . Dante Alighieri had two rudders , one behind the other , and a crew of 31 officers and 950 enlisted men .
The ship was propelled by four propeller shafts driven by Parsons steam turbines . Steam for the turbines was provided by 23 Blechynden water @-@ tube boilers , seven of which burned oil and the remaining 16 burned a mixture of oil and coal . The boilers were widely separated in two compartments , each with two funnels , and the turbines were positioned between the two center turrets . Designed to reach a maximum speed of 23 knots ( 43 km / h ; 26 mph ) from 35 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 26 @,@ 000 kW ) , Dante Alighieri failed to reach this goal on her sea trials . The ship only made a maximum speed of 22 @.@ 83 knots ( 42 @.@ 28 km / h ; 26 @.@ 27 mph ) using 32 @,@ 190 shp ( 24 @,@ 000 kW ) . The ship could store a maximum of 3 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 3 @,@ 000 long tons ) of coal and an unknown quantity of fuel oil that gave her a range of 4 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 900 km ; 5 @,@ 500 mi ) at 10 kn ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) , and 1 @,@ 000 nmi ( 1 @,@ 900 km ; 1 @,@ 200 mi ) at 22 knots ( 41 km / h ; 25 mph ) .
= = = Armament = = =
Dante Alighieri 's main armament consisted of a dozen 46 @-@ caliber 305 @-@ millimeter ( 12 inch ) guns , in four triple @-@ gun turrets positioned on the ship 's centerline . None of the turrets were superfiring . While the later classes of battleships and battlecruisers designed for the Imperial Russian Navy shared the turret layout of the Dante Alighieri , all surviving evidence shows that the Russians decided on this layout for their own reasons .
Sources disagree regarding these guns ' performance , but naval historian Giorgio Giorgerini claims that they fired 452 @-@ kilogram ( 996 lb ) armor @-@ piercing ( AP ) projectiles at the rate of one round per minute and that they had a muzzle velocity of 840 metres per second ( 2 @,@ 800 ft / s ) which gave a maximum range of 24 @,@ 000 meters ( 26 @,@ 000 yd ) .
The ship 's secondary armament consisted of twenty 50 @-@ caliber 120 @-@ millimeter ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) guns . Eight of these guns were fitted in twin @-@ gun turrets abreast the forward and aft main gun turrets while the remaining 12 guns were mounted in casemates on the sides of the hull . These guns could depress to − 10 degress and had a maximum elevation of + 15 degrees ; they had a rate of fire of six shots per minute . They could fire a 22 @.@ 1 @-@ kilogram ( 49 lb ) high @-@ explosive projectile with a muzzle velocity of 850 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 800 ft / s ) to a maximum distance of 12 @,@ 000 yards ( 11 @,@ 000 m ) . For defense against torpedo boats , Dante Alighieri carried thirteen 50 @-@ caliber 76 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) guns mounted on the turret tops . These guns had the same range of elevation as the secondary guns , although their rate of fire was higher at 10 rounds per minute . They fired a 6 @-@ kilogram ( 13 lb ) AP projectile with a muzzle velocity of 815 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 670 ft / s ) to a maximum distance of 10 @,@ 000 yards ( 9 @,@ 100 m ) . The ship was also fitted with three submerged 45 @-@ centimeter ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes , one on each broadside and the third in the stern .
Dante Alighieri had a complete waterline armor belt that had a maximum thickness of 254 millimeters ( 10 @.@ 0 in ) . The ship 's armored deck was 38 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) thick . The main turrets were protected by a maximum of 254 millimeters of armor while the secondary turrets and the casemates had 98 millimeters ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) of armor . The conning tower had walls 305 millimeters ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) thick .
= = Construction and service = =
Dante Alighieri , named after the medieval Italian poet , was the only battleship ever named for a poet . She was laid down at the naval shipyard in Castellammare di Stabia on 6 June 1909 , launched on 20 August 1910 , and completed on 15 January 1913 . The ship was used to evaluate Curtiss floatplanes in 1913 – 14 . When Italy entered World War I in May 1915 , Dante Alighieri was the flagship of the 1st Battle Squadron based at Taranto and remained with the squadron through 1916 . For the rest of the war , the ship was assigned to the Southern Adriatic and Ionian Sea forces . Under the command of Vice Admiral Paolo Thaon di Revel , the ship was positioned to intercept any Austro @-@ Hungarian ships based at Cattaro if they sortied to attack the Allied ships bombarding Durazzo on 2 October 1918 . The Austro @-@ Hungarians remained in harbor and Dante Alighieri did not fire her guns during the battle .
King Victor Emmanuel III entertained delegates to the Genoa Conference aboard Dante Alighieri in 1922 . The ship was refitted in 1923 with a tripod foremast , an aircraft flying @-@ off platform on Turret No. 3 , and her forward funnels was made taller to reduce smoke interference with the bridge . She tested a new fire @-@ control system in 1924 at ranges up to 26 @,@ 000 meters ( 28 @,@ 000 yd ) ; her new tripod mast was not sturdy enough for the weight of the system , but it was judged to be successful and subsequently installed in the Conte di Cavour @-@ class battleships . That same year , the ship transported Benito Mussolini to Palermo , Sicily . The Italian economy had been weakened by fighting World War I , and by the late 1920s , it could no longer afford to maintain a sizable fleet . As a result , Admiral Sechi decided to scrap Dante Alighieri and the salvaged battleship Leonardo da Vinci to reduce the naval budget . The ship was stricken on 1 July 1928 and was subsequently scrapped .
= My Sweet Lord =
" My Sweet Lord " is a song by English musician and former Beatle George Harrison that was released in November 1970 on his triple album All Things Must Pass . Also issued as a single , Harrison 's first as a solo artist , " My Sweet Lord " topped charts worldwide and was the biggest @-@ selling single of 1971 in the UK . In America and Britain , the song was the first number 1 single by an ex @-@ Beatle . Harrison originally gave the song to his fellow Apple Records artist Billy Preston to record ; this version , which Harrison co @-@ produced , appeared on Preston 's Encouraging Words album in September 1970 .
Harrison wrote " My Sweet Lord " in praise of the Hindu god Krishna , while at the same time intending the lyrics to serve as a call to abandon religious sectarianism through his deliberate blending of the Hebrew word hallelujah with chants of " Hare Krishna " and Vedic prayer . The recording features producer Phil Spector 's Wall of Sound treatment and heralded the arrival of Harrison 's much @-@ admired slide guitar technique , which one biographer described as being " musically as distinctive a signature as the mark of Zorro " . Preston , Ringo Starr , Eric Clapton and the group Badfinger are among the other musicians appearing on the recording .
Later in the 1970s , " My Sweet Lord " was at the centre of a heavily publicised copyright infringement suit , due to its similarity to the Ronnie Mack song " He 's So Fine " , a 1963 hit for the New York girl group the Chiffons . In 1976 , Harrison was found to have subconsciously plagiarised the earlier tune , a verdict that had repercussions throughout the music industry . He claimed to have used the out @-@ of @-@ copyright " Oh Happy Day " , a Christian hymn , as his inspiration for the song 's melody .
Harrison performed " My Sweet Lord " at the Concert for Bangladesh in August 1971 , and it remains the most popular composition from his post @-@ Beatles career . He reworked the song as " My Sweet Lord ( 2000 ) " for inclusion as a bonus track on the 30th anniversary reissue of All Things Must Pass . Many artists have covered the song including Andy Williams , Peggy Lee , Edwin Starr , Johnny Mathis , Nina Simone , Julio Iglesias , Richie Havens , Megadeth , Boy George , Elton John , Jim James , Bonnie Bramlett and Elliott Smith . " My Sweet Lord " is ranked 460th on Rolling Stone magazine 's list of " the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time " . The song reached number 1 in Britain for a second time when re @-@ released in January 2002 , two months after Harrison 's death .
= = Background = =
George Harrison began writing " My Sweet Lord " in December 1969 , when he , Billy Preston and Eric Clapton were in Copenhagen , Denmark , as guest artists on Delaney & Bonnie 's European tour . By this time , Harrison had already written the gospel @-@ influenced " Hear Me Lord " and " Gopala Krishna " , and ( with Preston ) the African @-@ American spiritual " Sing One for the Lord " . He had also produced two religious @-@ themed hit singles on the Beatles ' Apple record label : Preston 's " That 's the Way God Planned It " and Radha Krishna Temple ( London ) ' s " Hare Krishna Mantra " . The latter was a musical adaptation of the 5000 @-@ year @-@ old Vaishnava Hindu mantra , performed by members of the International Society for Krishna Consciousness ( ISKCON ) , colloquially known as " the Hare Krishna movement " . Harrison now wanted to fuse the messages of the Christian and Gaudiya Vaishnava faiths into what musical biographer Simon Leng terms " gospel incantation with a Vedic chant " .
The Copenhagen stopover marked the end of the Delaney & Bonnie tour , with a three @-@ night residency at the Falkoner Theatre on 10 – 12 December . According to Harrison 's 1976 court testimony , " My Sweet Lord " was conceived while the band members were attending a backstage press conference and he had ducked out to an upstairs room at the theatre . Harrison recalled vamping chords on guitar and alternating between sung phrases of " hallelujah " and " Hare Krishna " . He later took the idea to the others , and the chorus vocals were developed further . Band leader Delaney Bramlett 's more recent version of events is that the idea originated from Harrison asking him how to go about writing a genuine gospel song , and that Bramlett demonstrated by scat singing the words " Oh my Lord " while wife Bonnie and singer Rita Coolidge added gospel " hallelujah " s in reply . British music journalist John Harris has questioned the accuracy of Bramlett 's account , however , comparing it to a fisherman 's " It was this big " -type bragging story .
Using as his inspiration the Edwin Hawkins Singers ' rendition of an eighteenth @-@ century Christian hymn , " Oh Happy Day " , Harrison continued working on the theme . He completed the song , with some help from Preston , once they had returned to London .
= = Composition = =
The song 's lyrics reflect Harrison 's often @-@ stated desire for a direct relationship with God , expressed in simple words that all believers could affirm , regardless of their religion . Author Ian Inglis observes a degree of " understandable " impatience in the first verse 's line , " Really want to see you , Lord , but it takes so long , my Lord " . By the end of the song 's second verse , Harrison declares a wish to " know " God also and attempts to reconcile the impatience :
I really want to know you
Really want to go with you
Really want to show you , Lord , that it won 't take long , my Lord
Following this verse , in response to the main vocal 's repetition of the song title , Harrison devised a choral line singing the Hebrew word of praise , " hallelujah " , common in the Christian and Jewish religions . Later in the song , after an instrumental break , these voices return , now chanting the first twelve words of the Hare Krishna mantra , known more reverentially as the Maha mantra :
Hare Krishna , Hare Krishna
Krishna Krishna , Hare Hare
Hare Rama , Hare Rama
These Sanskrit words are the main mantra of the Hare Krishna faith , with which Harrison identified , although he did not belong to any spiritual organisation . In his 1980 autobiography , I , Me , Mine , Harrison explained that he intended repeating and alternating " hallelujah " and " Hare Krishna " to show that the two terms meant " quite the same thing " , as well as to have listeners chanting the mantra " before they knew what was going on ! "
Following the Sanskrit lines , " hallelujah " is sung twice more before the mantra repeats , along with an ancient Vedic prayer . According to Hindu tradition , this prayer is dedicated to a devotee 's spiritual teacher , or guru , and equates the teacher to the divine Trimurti – Brahma , Vishnu and Shiva ( or Maheshvara ) – and to the Godhead , Brahman .
Gurur Brahmā , gurur Viṣṇur
gurur devo Maheśvaraḥ
gurus sākṣāt , paraṃ Brahma
tasmai śrī gurave namaḥ .
Former Krishna devotee Joshua Greene translates the lines as follows : " I offer homage to my guru , who is as great as the creator Brahma , the maintainer Vishnu , the destroyer Shiva , and who is the very energy of God . " The prayer is the third verse of the Guru Stotram , a fourteen @-@ verse hymn in praise of Hindu spiritual teachers .
Some Christian fundamentalist anti @-@ rock activists objected that chanting " Hare Krishna " in " My Sweet Lord " was anti @-@ Christian or satanic , while some born @-@ again Christians adopted the song as an anthem . Several commentators cite the mantra and the simplicity of Harrison 's lyrics as central to the song 's universality . The " lyrics are not directed at a specific manifestation of a single faith 's deity , " Inglis writes , " but rather to the concept of one god whose essential nature is unaffected by particular interpretations and who pervades everything , is present everywhere , is all @-@ knowing and all @-@ powerful , and transcends time and space ... All of us – Christian , Hindu , Muslim , Jew , Buddhist – can address our gods in the same way , using the same phrase [ ' my sweet Lord ' ] . "
= = Billy Preston 's version = =
With the Beatles still together officially in December 1969 , Harrison had no plans to make a solo album of his own and reportedly intended to offer " My Sweet Lord " to Edwin Hawkins . Instead , following the Delaney & Bonnie tour , he decided to record it with Billy Preston , for whom Harrison was co @-@ producing a second Apple album , Encouraging Words . Recording took place at Olympic Studios in London , in January 1970 , with Preston as principal musician , supported by the guitarist , bass player and drummer from the Temptations ' backing band . The Edwin Hawkins Singers happened to be on tour in the UK as well , so Harrison invited them to participate ; Hawkins ' gospel group also overdubbed vocals onto the Harrison – Preston collaboration " Sing One for the Lord " at this time .
Preston 's version of " My Sweet Lord " differs from Harrison 's later reading in that the " hallelujah " refrain appears from the start of the song and , rather than the full mantra section , the words " Hare Krishna " are sung only twice throughout the whole track . With the Vedic prayer likewise absent , Simon Leng views this original recording as a possible " definitive ' roots ' take ' " of the song , thanks to its " pure gospel groove " and Hawkins ' participation . In his review of Encouraging Words , Bruce Eder of AllMusic describes " My Sweet Lord " and " All Things Must Pass " ( another Harrison composition originally given to Preston to record ) as " stunning gospel numbers ... that make the Harrison versions seem pallid " .
Preston 's " My Sweet Lord " was a minor hit in Europe when issued as a single there in September 1970 , but otherwise , Encouraging Words made little impression commercially . The album and single releases were delayed for at least two months in the United States , where " My Sweet Lord " would climb to number 90 on the Billboard Hot 100 by the end of February 1971 , helped by the enormous success of Harrison 's version .
= = Recording = =
Five months after the Olympic session , with the Beatles having now broken up , " My Sweet Lord " was one of 30 or more tracks that Harrison recorded for his All Things Must Pass triple album . It was a song he had been reluctant to record , for fear of committing himself publicly to such an overt religious message . " I was sticking my neck out on the chopping block because now I would have to live up to something , " Harrison explained in I Me Mine , " but at the same time I thought ' Nobody 's saying it ; I wish somebody else was doing it . ' "
With Phil Spector co @-@ producing the sessions at Abbey Road Studios , Preston again played on the track , along with Clapton , Ringo Starr , Jim Gordon and all four members of Badfinger . The identity of the remaining musicians has traditionally been open to question , with drummer Alan White once claiming he played on the song , with Carl Radle on bass , Starr on tambourine and John Lennon among the rhythm guitarists . The common view , following research by Simon Leng , is that Harrison and Spector chose from a number of rhythm tracks before selecting the master take , which featured , among others , Klaus Voormann on bass and Gary Wright on a second keyboard ; Bruce Spizer suggests that Peter Frampton may have added acoustic guitar after the main session . Harrison 's original vocal appears to have been acceptable , according to notes written by Spector in August , but the chorus vocals ( all sung by Harrison and credited to " the George O 'Hara @-@ Smith Singers " ) , his harmonised slide guitar parts , and John Barham 's orchestral arrangement were overdubbed during the next two months , partly at Trident Studios in central London .
Leng describes the recording as a " painstakingly crafted tableau " of sound , beginning with a bank of " chiming " acoustic guitars and the " flourish " of zither strings that introduces Harrison 's slide @-@ guitar motif . At close to the two @-@ minute mark , after the tension @-@ building bridge , a subtle two @-@ semitone shift in key ( from E major to the rarely used key of F @-@ sharp major , via a C # dominant seventh chord ) signals the song 's release from its extended introduction . This higher register is then complemented by Harrison 's " increasingly impassioned " vocal and the subsequent " timely reappearance " of his twin slide guitars , before the backing vocals " deftly " switch to the Sanskrit mantra and prayer . Leng also notes the Indian music aspects of the production , in the " swarmandal @-@ like " zithers , representing the sympathetic strings of a sitar , and the slide guitars ' evocation of sarangi , dilruba and other string instruments . In an interview for Martin Scorsese 's 2011 documentary on George Harrison , Spector recalls that he liked the results so much , he insisted that " My Sweet Lord " be the lead single from the album .
This later , rock version of the song was markedly different from the " Oh Happy Day " -inspired gospel arrangement in musical and structural terms , aligning Harrison 's composition with pop music conventions , but also drawing out the similarities of its melody line with that of the Chiffons ' 1963 hit " He 's So Fine " . Spizer suggests that this was due to Harrison being " so focused on the feel of his record " , while Record Collector editor Peter Doggett wrote in 2001 that , despite Harrison 's inspiration for " My Sweet Lord " having come from " Oh Happy Day " , " in the hands of producer and arranger Phil Spector , it came out as a carbon copy of the Chiffons ' [ song ] " . Chip Madinger and Mark Easter remark on the " sad " fact that Spector , as " master of all that was ' girl @-@ group ' during the early ' 60s " , failed to recognise the similarities .
= = Release = =
Before arriving in New York on 28 October to carry out mastering on All Things Must Pass , Harrison had announced that no single would be issued – so as not to " detract from the impact " of the triple album . Apple 's US executive , Allan Steckler , together with business manager Allen Klein and Spector all pushed for " My Sweet Lord " to be released immediately , however , even though Billy Preston 's version was already scheduled for release as a single in America the following month . Film director Howard Worth recalls a preliminary finance meeting for the Raga documentary ( for which Harrison would provide emergency funding through Apple Films ) that began with the ex @-@ Beatle asking him to listen to a selection of songs and pick his favourite , which was " My Sweet Lord " .
Harrison relented , and " My Sweet Lord " was issued as the album 's lead single around the world , but not in Britain ; the release date was 23 November 1970 in the United States . The mix of the song differed from that found on All Things Must Pass by featuring less echo and a slightly altered backing @-@ vocal track . Both sides of the North American picture sleeve consisted of a Barry Feinstein photo of Harrison taken through a window at his recently purchased Friar Park home , with some of the estate 's trees reflected in the glass . Released as a double A @-@ side with " Isn 't It a Pity " , with Apple catalogue number 2995 in America , both sides of the disc featured a full Apple label .
Public demand via constant airplay in Britain led to a belated UK release , on 15 January 1971 . There , as Apple R 5884 , the single was backed by " What Is Life " , a song that Apple soon released elsewhere internationally as the follow @-@ up to " My Sweet Lord " .
Harrison 's version of " My Sweet Lord " was an international number 1 hit by the end of 1970 and through the early months of 1971 – the first solo single by a Beatle to reach the top , and the biggest seller by any of the four throughout the 1970s . Without the support of any concert appearances or promotional interviews by Harrison , the single 's commercial success was due to its impact on radio , where , Harrison biographer Gary Tillery writes , the song " rolled across the airwaves like a juggernaut , with commanding presence , much the way Dylan 's ' Like a Rolling Stone ' had arrived in the mid @-@ sixties " . Elton John recalls first hearing " My Sweet Lord " in a taxi and names it as the last of the era 's great singles : " I thought , ' Oh my God , ' and I got chills . You know when a record starts on the radio , and it 's great , and you think , ' Oh , what is this , what is this , what is this ? ' The only other record I ever felt that way about [ afterwards ] was ' Brown Sugar ' ... " In his 40 @-@ page Harrison tribute article for Rolling Stone in 2002 , Mikal Gilmore credited " My Sweet Lord " as being " as pervasive on radio and in youth consciousness as anything the Beatles had produced " .
The single was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America on 14 December 1970 for sales of over 1 million copies . It reached number 1 on the US Billboard Hot 100 on 26 December , remaining on top for four weeks , three of which coincided with All Things Must Pass 's seven @-@ week reign atop the Billboard albums chart . In Britain , " My Sweet Lord " entered the charts at number 7 , before hitting number 1 on 30 January and staying there for five weeks . It was the biggest @-@ selling single of 1971 in the UK and performed similarly well around the world , particularly in France and Germany , where it held the top spot for nine and ten weeks , respectively . In his 2001 appraisal of Harrison 's Apple recordings , for Record Collector , Doggett described Harrison as " arguably the most successful rock star on the planet " over this period , adding : " ' My Sweet Lord ' and All Things Must Pass topped charts all over the world , easily outstripping other solo Beatles projects later in the year , such as Ram and Imagine . "
The single 's worldwide sales amounted to 5 million copies by 1978 , making it one of the best @-@ selling singles of all time . By 2010 , according to Inglis , " My Sweet Lord " had sold over 10 million copies . The song returned to the number 1 position again in the UK when reissued in January 2002 , two months after Harrison 's death from cancer at the age of 58 .
= = Reception = =
Peter Lavezzoli , author of The Dawn of Indian Music in the West , has written of Harrison 's first solo single : " ' My Sweet Lord ' was everything that people wanted to hear in November 1970 : shimmering harmonies , lustrous acoustic guitars , a solid Ringo Starr backbeat , and an exquisite [ Harrison ] guitar solo . " Reviewing the single for Rolling Stone , Jon Landau called the track " sensational " . In an era when songs by Radha Krishna Temple and adaptations of the Christian hymns " Oh Happy Day " and " Amazing Grace " were all worldwide hits , Ben Gerson of Rolling Stone observed that the substituting of Harrison 's " Hare Krishna " refrain for the trivial " Doo @-@ lang , doo @-@ lang , doo @-@ lang " s of " He 's So Fine " was " a sign of the times " . ( As John Lennon famously told a reporter around this time , " Every time I put the radio on , it 's ' Oh my Lord ' – I 'm beginning to think there must be a God ! " ) In his December 1970 album review for NME , Alan Smith bemoaned the apparent lack of a UK single release for " My Sweet Lord " and noted that the song " seems to owe something " to " He 's So Fine " . To Gerson , it was an " obvious re @-@ write " of the Chiffons hit , and within two months US music publisher Bright Tunes had served a writ on Harrison citing unauthorised copyright infringement . In a January 1971 review for NME , Derek Johnson expressed surprise at Apple 's delay in releasing the single in the UK , before declaring : " In my opinion , this record – finally and irrevocably – establishes George as a talent equivalent to either Lennon or McCartney . "
More recently , AllMusic 's Richie Unterberger explains the international popularity of Harrison 's single : " ' My Sweet Lord ' has a quasi @-@ religious feel , but nevertheless has enough conventional pop appeal to reach mainstream listeners who may or may not care to dig into the spiritual lyrical message . " Added to this was a slide guitar riff that Simon Leng describes as " among the best @-@ known guitar passages in popular music " . Ian Inglis highlights the combination of Harrison 's " evident lack of artifice " and Spector 's " excellent production " , such that " My Sweet Lord " can be heard " as a prayer , a love song , an anthem , a contemporary gospel track , or a piece of perfect pop " .
Due to the ensuing plagiarism suit , " My Sweet Lord " became somewhat stigmatised by association , to the point where no mention of the song was complete without a reference to " He 's So Fine " . " My Sweet Lord " was ranked 460th on Rolling Stone magazine 's list of " the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time " in 2004 , yet the accompanying text only briefly mentioned the success of the single and Harrison 's " teardrop slide licks " before concentrating on the controversial lawsuit . While acknowledging the common ground between the two songs , music critic David Fricke describes Harrison 's composition as " the honest child of black American sacred song " . Writing around the time of All Things Must Pass 's 2001 reissue , again for Rolling Stone , Anthony DeCurtis described " My Sweet Lord " as " capturing the sweet satisfactions of faith " , while to Mikal Gilmore , it is an " irresistible devotional " .
At the end of 1971 , " My Sweet Lord " topped the Melody Maker reader 's polls for both " Single of the Year " and " World 's Single of the Year " ; in the US publication Record World , the song was also voted best single and Harrison was honoured as " Top Male Vocalist of 1971 " . In June 1972 , Harrison won two Ivor Novello songwriter 's awards for " My Sweet Lord " . In 2010 , AOL Radio listeners voted " My Sweet Lord " the best song from George Harrison 's solo years , ahead of " Blow Away " and " What Is Life " . Mick Jagger and Keith Richards have both named it among their personal favourites of all Harrison 's songs , along with " While My Guitar Gently Weeps " . According to the website Acclaimed Music , " My Sweet Lord " has also appeared in the following critics ' best @-@ song lists and books , among others : The 7 @,@ 500 Most Important Songs of 1944 – 2000 by author Bruce Pollock ( 2005 ) , Dave Thompson 's 1000 Songs That Rock Your World ( 2011 ; ranked at number 247 ) , Ultimate Classic Rock 's " Top 100 Classic Rock Songs " ( 2013 ; number 56 ) , the NME 's " 100 Best Songs of the 1970s " ( 2012 ; number 65 ) , and the same magazine 's " 500 Greatest Songs of All Time " ( 2014 ; number 270 ) .
= = Copyright infringement suit = =
= = = Initial action = = =
On 10 February 1971 , Bright Tunes filed suit against Harrison and associated organisations ( including Harrisongs , Apple Records and BMI ) , alleging copyright infringement of the late Ronnie Mack 's song " He 's So Fine " . In I Me Mine , Harrison admits to having thought " Why didn 't I realise ? " when others started pointing out the similarity between the two songs ; by June that year , country singer Jody Miller had released a cover of " He 's So Fine " incorporating Harrison 's " My Sweet Lord " slide @-@ guitar riffs , thus " really putting the screws in " from his point of view . On Harrison 's behalf , manager Allen Klein entered into negotiations with Bright Tunes to resolve the issue , by offering to buy the financially ailing publisher 's entire catalogue , but no settlement could be reached before the company was forced into receivership .
While comparing the two compositions , author and musicologist Dominic Pedler writes that both songs have a three @-@ syllable title refrain ( " My sweet Lord " , " He 's so fine " ) followed by a 5 @-@ 3 @-@ 2 descent of the major scale in the tonic key ( E major for " My Sweet Lord " and G major for " He 's So Fine " ) ; respective tempos are similar : 121 and 145 beats per minute . In the respective B sections ( " I really want to see you " and " I dunno how I 'm gonna do it " ) , there is a similar ascent through 5 @-@ 6 @-@ 8 , but the Chiffons distinctively retain the G tonic for four bars and , on the repeat of the motif , uniquely go to an A @-@ note 9th embellishment over the first syllable of " gonna " . Harrison , on the other hand , introduces the more complex harmony of a relative minor ( C # m ) , as well as the fundamental and distinctly original slide @-@ guitar motif .
While the case was on hold , Harrison and his former bandmates Lennon and Starr chose to sever ties with Klein at the end of March 1973 – an acrimonious split that led to further lawsuits for the three ex @-@ Beatles . Bright Tunes and Harrison later resumed their negotiations ; his final offer of 40 per cent of " My Sweet Lord " ' s US composer 's and publisher 's royalties , along with a stipulation that he retain copyright for his song , was viewed as a " good one " by Bright 's legal representation , yet the offer was rejected . It later transpired that Klein had renewed his efforts to purchase the ailing company , now solely for himself , and to that end was supplying Bright Tunes with insider details regarding " My Sweet Lord " ' s sales figures and copyright value . In the build @-@ up to the case going to court , the Chiffons recorded a version of " My Sweet Lord " , with the aim of drawing attention to the lawsuit . Beatles author Alan Clayson has described the plagiarism suit as " the most notorious civil action of the decade " , the " extremity " of the proceedings provoked by a combination of the commercial success of Harrison 's single and the intervention of " litigation @-@ loving Mr Klein " .
= = = Court hearing and ruling = = =
Bright Tunes Music v. Harrisongs Music finally went to the United States district court on 23 February 1976 , to hear evidence on the allegation of plagiarism . Harrison attended the proceedings in New York , with a guitar , and each side called musical experts to support its argument .
After reconvening in September 1976 , the court found that Harrison had " subconsciously " copied the earlier tune , since he admitted to having been aware of the Chiffons ' recording . Judge Richard Owen said in his conclusion to the proceedings :
Did Harrison deliberately use the music of He 's So Fine ? I do not believe he did so deliberately . Nevertheless , it is clear that My Sweet Lord is the very same song as He 's So Fine with different words , and Harrison had access to He 's So Fine . This is , under the law , infringement of copyright , and is no less so even though subconsciously accomplished .
= = = Damages and subsequent litigation = = =
With liability established , the court then recommended an amount for the damages to be paid by Harrison and Apple to Bright Tunes , which Owen totalled at $ 1 @,@ 599 @,@ 987 – amounting to three @-@ quarters of the royalty revenue raised in North America from " My Sweet Lord " , as well as a significant proportion of that from the All Things Must Pass album . This figure has been considered over @-@ harsh and unrealistic by some observers , since it both underplayed the unique elements of Harrison 's recording – the universal spiritual message of its lyrics , the signature guitar hook , and its production – and ignored the critical acclaim his album received in its own right . Elliot Huntley observes : " People don 't usually hear a single and then automatically go and buy an expensive boxed @-@ set triple album on the off @-@ chance . " The award factored in the royalty revenue raised from " My Sweet Lord " ' s inclusion on the recent Best of George Harrison compilation , though at a more moderate percentage than for the 1970 album .
The ruling set new legal precedents and was a personal blow for Harrison , who admitted he was too " paranoid " to write anything new for some time afterwards . Early reaction in the music industry saw Little Richard claim for breach of copyright in a track recorded by the Beatles in 1964 for the Beatles for Sale album , as well as Ringo Starr credit songwriter Clifford T. Ward as the inspiration for his Ringo 's Rotogravure song " Lady Gaye " . In the UK , the corresponding damages suit , brought by Peter Maurice Music , was swiftly settled out of court in July 1977 .
During the drawn @-@ out damages portion of the US suit , events played into Harrison 's hands when Klein 's ABKCO Industries finally purchased the copyright to " He 's So Fine " , and with it all litigation claims , after which Klein proceeded to negotiate sale of the song to Harrison . On 19 February 1981 , the court decided that due to Klein 's duplicity in the case , Harrison would only have to pay ABKCO $ 587 @,@ 000 instead of the $ 1 @.@ 6 million award and he would also receive the rights to " He 's So Fine " – $ 587 @,@ 000 being the amount Klein had paid Bright Tunes for the song in 1978 . The court ruled that the former manager 's actions had been in breach of the fiduciary duty owed to Harrison , a duty that continued " even after the principal – agent relationship ended " . The litigation continued through to the early 1990s , however , as the finer points of the settlement were ironed out ; in his 1993 essay on Bright Tunes v. Harrisongs , Joseph Self describes it as " without question , one of the longest running legal battles ever to be litigated in [ the United States ] " . Matters would not ultimately be concluded until March 1998 .
Subsequent charges of plagiarism in the music industry have resulted in a policy of swift settlement and therefore limited damage to an artist 's credibility : the Rolling Stones ' " Anybody Seen My Baby ? " , Oasis ' " Shakermaker " , " Whatever " and " Step Out " , and the Verve 's " Bitter Sweet Symphony " are all examples of songs whose writing credits were hastily altered to acknowledge composers of a plagiarised work , with the minimum of litigation .
Shortly before the ruling was handed down in September 1976 , Harrison wrote and recorded a song inspired by the court case – the upbeat " This Song " – which includes the line " This tune has nothing ' Bright ' about it " . The 1960s soul hits " I Can 't Help Myself ( Sugar Pie Honey Bunch ) " and " Rescue Me " , as well as his own composition " You " , are all name @-@ checked in the lyrics , as if to demonstrate the point that , as he later put it , " 99 % of the popular music that can be heard is reminiscent of something or other . "
In a 1980 interview with Playboy magazine , John Lennon expressed his doubts about the notion of " subconscious " plagiarism , saying : " He must have known , you know . He 's smarter than that ... He could have changed a couple of bars in that song and nobody could ever have touched him , but he just let it go and paid the price . Maybe he thought God would just sort of let him off . " Ringo Starr 's reaction was more charitable : " There 's no doubt that the tune is similar but how many songs have been written with other melodies in mind ? George 's version is much heavier than The Chiffons – he might have done it with the original in the back of his mind , but he 's just very unlucky that someone wanted to make it a test case in court . "
Speaking to his friend and I , Me , Mine editor Derek Taylor in 1979 , Harrison said of the episode : " I don 't feel guilty or bad about it , in fact it saved many a heroin addict 's life . I know the motive behind writing the song in the first place and its effect far exceeded the legal hassle . "
= = Re @-@ releases and alternative versions = =
Since its initial release on All Things Must Pass , " My Sweet Lord " has appeared on the 1976 compilation The Best of George Harrison and 2009 's career @-@ spanning Let It Roll : Songs by George Harrison . The original UK single ( with " What Is Life " as the B @-@ side ) was reissued on Christmas Eve 1976 in Britain – a " provocative " move by EMI , given the publicity the lawsuit had attracted that year for the song .
= = = 1975 – " The Pirate Song " = = =
On 26 December 1975 , Harrison made a guest appearance on his friend Eric Idle 's BBC2 comedy show Rutland Weekend Television , sending up his serious public image , and seemingly about to perform " My Sweet Lord " .
As a running gag throughout the half @-@ hour show , Harrison interrupts the sketches , trying to land an acting role as a pirate ( and dressed accordingly ) , but gets turned down each time by RWT regulars Idle and Neil Innes , who simply want him to play the part of " George Harrison " . He then reappears at the end in more normal attire , strumming the well @-@ known introduction to " My Sweet Lord " on an acoustic guitar , and backed by the house band ; instead of continuing with the song , Harrison finally takes his chance to play " Pirate Bob " by abruptly segueing into a sea shanty – to the horror of the " greasy " compère , played by Idle . The other musicians follow Harrison 's lead , after which a group of dancers appear on stage and the show 's closing credits roll .
This performance is known as " The Pirate Song " , co @-@ written by Harrison and Idle , and the recording is only available unofficially on bootleg compilations such as Pirate Songs . Observing the parallels with Harrison 's real @-@ life reluctance to play the pop star , Simon Leng writes , " there was great resonance within these gags . "
= = = 2001 – " My Sweet Lord ( 2000 ) " = = =
In January 2001 , Harrison included a new version of the song as a bonus track on the remastered All Things Must Pass album . " My Sweet Lord ( 2000 ) " featured Harrison sharing vocals with Sam Brown , daughter of his friend Joe Brown , backed by mostly new instrumentation , including acoustic guitar by his son Dhani and tambourine by Ray Cooper . The track opens with a " snippet " of sitar , to " emphasize its spiritual roots " , Leng suggests . On release , Harrison explained that his motivation for remaking the song was partly to " play a better slide guitar solo " ; he also cited the " spiritual response " that the song had traditionally received , together with his interest in reworking the tune to avoid the contentious musical notes , as further reasons . Of the extended slide @-@ guitar break on " My Sweet Lord ( 2000 ) " , Leng writes : " [ Harrison ] had never made so clear a musical statement that his signature bottleneck sound was as much his tool for self @-@ expression as his vocal cords . " Elliot Huntley opines that Harrison 's vocal was more " gospel inflected " and perhaps even more sincere than on the original recording , " given his deteriorating health " during the final year of his life .
This version also appeared on the January 2002 posthumous release of the " My Sweet Lord " single – a three @-@ song charity CD comprising the original 1970 – 71 hit , the acoustic run @-@ through of " Let It Down " ( with recent overdubs , another 2001 bonus track ) , and Harrison 's reworking of the title song . Proceeds from the single went to the Material World Charitable Foundation , set up by Harrison in April 1973 . For some months after the single 's release , a portion of " My Sweet Lord ( 2000 ) " played on Harrison 's official website , on a constant loop , over screen images of lotus petals scattering and then re @-@ forming . The song also appears on the 2014 Apple Years 1968 – 75 reissue of All Things Must Pass .
= = = 2011 – Demo version = = =
In November 2011 , a demo of " My Sweet Lord " , with Harrison backed by just Voormann and Starr , was included on the deluxe edition CD accompanying the British DVD release of Martin Scorsese 's George Harrison : Living in the Material World documentary . Described as an early " live take " by compilation producer Giles Martin , and an " acoustic hosanna " by David Fricke of Rolling Stone , it was recorded at the start of the All Things Must Pass sessions and was later released internationally on Early Takes : Volume 1 in May 2012 .
= = Live versions = =
Harrison performed " My Sweet Lord " at every one of his relatively few solo concerts , starting with the two Concert for Bangladesh shows at New York 's Madison Square Garden on 1 August 1971 . The recording released on the subsequent live album was taken from the evening show and begins with Harrison 's spoken " Hare Krishna " over his opening acoustic @-@ guitar chords . Among the 24 backing musicians was a " Soul Choir " featuring singers Claudia Linnear , Dolores Hall and Jo Green , but it was Harrison who sung the end @-@ of @-@ song Guru Stotram prayer in his role as lead vocalist , unlike on the studio recording ( where it was sung by the backing chorus ) ; the slide guitar parts were played by Eric Clapton and Jesse Ed Davis .
During his 1974 North American tour , Harrison 's only one there as a solo artist , " My Sweet Lord " was performed as the encore at each show . In contrast with the subtle shift from " hallelujah " s to Sanskrit chants on his 1970 original , Harrison used the song to engage his audience in the practice of " chanting the holy names of the Lord " , or kirtan – from " Om Christ ! " and Krishna , to Buddha and Allah – with varying degrees of success . Backed by a band that again included Billy Preston , Harrison turned " My Sweet Lord " into an " R & B @-@ styled " extended gospel @-@ funk piece , closer in its arrangement to Preston 's Encouraging Words version and lasting up to ten minutes . The performance of the song at Tulsa 's Assembly Center on 21 November marked the only guest appearance of the tour when Leon Russell joined the band on stage .
Harrison 's second and final solo tour took place in Japan in December 1991 , with Clapton 's band . A live version of " My Sweet Lord " recorded at the Tokyo Dome , on 14 December , was released the following year on the Live in Japan album .
= = Personnel = =
The following musicians are believed to have played on Harrison 's original version of " My Sweet Lord " :
George Harrison – vocals , acoustic guitar , slide guitars , backing vocals
Eric Clapton – acoustic guitar
Pete Ham – acoustic guitar
Tom Evans – acoustic guitar
Joey Molland – acoustic guitar
Billy Preston – piano
Gary Wright – electric piano
Klaus Voormann – bass
Ringo Starr – drums , percussion
Jim Gordon – drums , percussion
Mike Gibbins – tambourine
John Barham – harmonium , string and woodwind arrangements
uncredited – zithers
= = Cover versions = =
Andy Williams covered " My Sweet Lord " on his 1971 Love Story album , backed by members of the choir of the Wee Kirk o ' the Valley of Reseda , California .
Ronnie Aldrich , British easy listening pianist , covered the song , as well as Harrison 's " What Is Life " , on his 1971 album , also entitled Love Story ( after the equally popular theme song to the 1970 movie Love Story , by Francis Lai ) .
Tony Orlando and Dawn performed the song on their television series in the 1970s .
Homer Louis Randolph III recorded a version of " My Sweet Lord " for his eponymous 1971 album .
Peggy Lee recorded " My Sweet Lord " in April 1971 for her album Where Did They Go , arranged by Don Sebesky ; it was issued on CD in 2008 .
Phil Allen covered the song on his 1971 album The Happy Hammond Goes Pop .
Ray Coniff 's version was released on another 1971 album titled Love Story .
Bola Sete 's version was released on his 1971 album Shebaba .
Johnny Mathis covered " My Sweet Lord " on his Love Story album .
Edwin Starr recorded a version in 1971 , produced by Norman Whitfield , which was released as a single and appeared on his Involved album .
A version by Eddy Arnold appeared on his 1971 album Welcome to My World .
Also in 1971 , John Holt recorded a reggae version of " My Sweet Lord " , without the background chorus of " hallelujahs " and Krishna references .
Another 1971 easy listening version of " My Sweet Lord " was recorded by Stu Phillips & The Hollyridge Strings , for their Beatles tribute album The George , John , Paul & Ringo Songbook .
Marion Williams covered " My Sweet Lord " on her 1971 album Standing Here Wondering Which Way to Go ; the song was later released on Daytrippers : Songs of the Beatles .
French orchestral leader Franck Pourcel recorded the song for his Friends album in 1971 .
Swedish jazz singer Monica Zetterlund recorded the Swedish @-@ language cover " Du mitt liv " in 1971 .
Another French orchestrator , Paul Mauriat , recorded " My Sweet Lord " for his 1972 album Le Grand Orchestre de Paul Mauriat Joue Les Beatles .
Italian singer Iva Zanicchi covered the song on her album Fantasia n . 2 : The Beatles in 1972 .
Nina Simone performed an 18 @-@ minute gospel reworking of " My Sweet Lord " at Fort Dix before a group of African @-@ American soldiers , a version released on her 1972 album Emergency Ward ! ( along with her cover of Harrison 's " Isn 't It a Pity " ) . She interspersed the song with the David Nelson poem " Today Is a Killer " , at the end of which , God is accused of being a killer , giving the otherwise exuberant atmosphere of the performance an apocalyptic ending . No references to Krishna appear in Simone 's version .
Richie Havens covered the song on his 1972 live album Richie Havens on Stage , a version later released on the 1987 album Sings Beatles and Dylan .
Also in 1972 , The Tribe recorded the song for an album titled Bangla Desh , which included cover versions of other highlights from The Concert for Bangladesh .
In 1973 , The Violinaires covered " My Sweet Lord " on their album Groovin ' with Jesus .
Marjorie McCoy released her version of the song on the 1973 album The Other Side .
In 1975 , Julio Iglesias covered the song on his album El Amor , singing it in English even though the song was retitled in Spanish as " Mi Dulce Señor ( My Sweet Lord ) " .
The Chiffons ' version of the song was released as a non @-@ album single in 1975 .
Larry Norman covered " My Sweet Lord " on his 1977 album Streams of White Light into Darkened Corners , and like John Holt , omitted the " hallelujah " refrains and references to Krishna .
On her 1978 Christmas TV special , Dolly Parton performed the song as part of a spiritual medley , with guest Cher and a choir , with only " hallelujah " being chanted .
The song was briefly included in Stars on 45 's medley of songs , released as a single in May 1981 .
For his 1981 Don 't Give In album , Leon Patillo recorded a heavily revised version of " My Sweet Lord " . ( Among other things , because this was a Christian release , the entire background " hallelujah " section is replaced with the refrain " Jesus " . )
Five Thirty covered the song for the anti @-@ poll tax album Alvin Lives ( In Leeds ) , released in 1990 .
Boy George recorded a version of the song in 1992 for the Ruby Trax : The NME 's Roaring Forty compilation album .
Spanish house music band PCA released their version of " My Sweet Lord " as a single in 1995 .
Stacey Q covered " My Sweet Lord " on her 1997 album Boomerang .
Swedish band Brainpool recorded the song as a medley with " He 's So Fine " and released it as a single in 1997 , titled " My Sweet Lord ( She 's So Fine ) " .
In December 1997 , Megadeth played the song live ( with modified lyrics ) at their concert at the Centro Cultural Recoleta in Buenos Aires .
The Wailing Souls covered " My Sweet Lord " for their 1998 album Psychedelic Souls .
In 1999 , an instrumental version of " My Sweet Lord " was included on Aretha Franklin 's Amazine Grace : The Complete Recordings collection , a repackaging of her bestselling album Amazing Grace , recorded live in a Los Angeles Baptist church in January 1972 .
David Young recorded the song for his 2000 covers album Songbook .
At the American Music Awards in January 2002 , soul singer Luther Vandross performed a medley of " Something " and " My Sweet Lord " in tribute to Harrison , among others who died in 2001 .
In April 2002 , Elton John , Sting , James Taylor , Ravi Shankar , Anoushka Shankar and others performed " My Sweet Lord " to close the Harrison @-@ tribute opening portion of the Rock for the Rainforest benefit concert , held at Carnegie Hall in New York City .
Crown of Thorns covered this track on their 2002 album Karma .
Richard Clayderman recorded a cover of " My Sweet Lord " for his 2002 album Everybody Loves Somebody Sometime .
At the Concert for George on 29 November 2002 , the song was performed by Billy Preston , with Sam Brown joining on backing vocals .
In 2003 , Brazilian artist Emmerson Nogueira included a cover of " My Sweet Lord " on his album Versão Acústica 3 .
BeBe Winans recorded a version with specifically Christian , additional verses ( and without Krishna references ) on his album My Christmas Prayer .
Girlyman also covered this song , released on their 2003 album Remember Who I Am .
Danny Colfax Mallon included " My Sweet Lord " on his album George : Harrison 's Compositions Interpreted on Piano in 2004 .
Reggae artist Little Roy ( Earl Lowe ) , a Rastafarian , recorded the song for his 2005 album Children of the Most High , replacing the background chorus with sung references to Rastafari .
Les Fradkin 's cover was released in 2005 on his Something for George tribute album , featuring guest appearances from Richie Furay and former Apple recording artist Lon Van Eaton .
Joel Harrison covered " My Sweet Lord " on his album Harrison on Harrison : Jazz Explanations of George Harrison , released in October 2005 .
Nina Hagen recorded a version of " My Sweet Lord " ( with Loka Nunda ) in 2008 .
John Mayer performed the song live throughout 2008 , notably during his performance at that year 's Glastonbury Festival .
A version by Gary Christian & Desa Basshead appeared on the 2008 charity album Liverpool : The Number Ones Album .
Osibisa covered this track on their 2009 album Osee Yee .
Jim James ( under the name Yim Yames ) covered six of Harrison 's songs , including " My Sweet Lord " , on his 2009 EP Tribute To .
Klaus Voormann , who had played bass on Harrison 's studio version and on the Concert for Bangladesh performance of the song , included a cover of " My Sweet Lord " on his 2009 solo album A Sideman 's Journey ; Bonnie Bramlett supplied lead vocals on the track .
Kevin Max has covered this song , with no references to Krishna , for Christian audiences .
Elliott Smith performed " My Sweet Lord " live with Grandaddy .
Jose Feliciano has also played this song live .
Hurray for the Riff Raff contributed " My Sweet Lord " to Harrison Covered , a tribute CD accompanying the November 2011 issue of Mojo magazine .
In 2014 , Brian Wilson played this song with his band ( including Al Jardine ) live during a tribute to George Harrison .
= = Accolades = =
= = = Grammy Awards = = =
= = Chart performance = =
= = = Weekly singles charts = = =
= = = Year @-@ end charts = = =
= = = Certifications and sales = = =
= Thích Quảng Đức =
Thích is a Buddhist honorary title and Quảng Đức is descriptive of meritorious attributes : see dharma name .
Thích Quảng Đức ( 1897 — 11 June 1963 , born Lâm Văn Túc ) , was a Vietnamese Mahayana Buddhist monk who burned himself to death at a busy Saigon road intersection on 11 June 1963 . Quang Duc was protesting the persecution of Buddhists by the South Vietnamese government led by Ngô Đình Diệm . Photographs of his self @-@ immolation were circulated widely across the world and brought attention to the policies of the Diệm government . John F. Kennedy said in reference to a photograph of Duc on fire , " No news picture in history has generated so much emotion around the world as that one . " Malcolm Browne won a Pulitzer Prize for his photograph of the monk 's death .
Quảng Đức 's act increased international pressure on Diệm and led him to announce reforms with the intention of mollifying the Buddhists . However , the promised reforms were not implemented , leading to a deterioration in the dispute . With protests continuing , the ARVN Special Forces loyal to Diệm 's brother , Ngô Đình Nhu , launched nationwide raids on Buddhist pagodas , seizing Quảng Đức 's heart and causing deaths and widespread damage . Several Buddhist monks followed Quảng Đức 's example , also immolating themselves . Eventually , an Army coup toppled Diệm , who was assassinated on 2 November 1963 .
= = Biography = =
Accounts of the life of Quảng Đức are derived from information disseminated by Buddhist organizations . He was born in the village of Hội Khánh , in Vạn Ninh District of Khánh Hòa Province in central Vietnam as Lâm Văn Túc , one of seven children of Lâm Hữu Ứng and his wife , Nguyễn Thị Nương . At the age of seven , he left to study Buddhism under Hòa thượng Thích Hoằng Thâm , who was his maternal uncle and spiritual master . Thích Hoằng Thâm raised him as a son and Lâm Văn Túc changed his name to Nguyễn Văn Khiết . At age 15 , he took the samanera ( novice ) vows and was ordained as a monk at age 20 under the dharma name Thích Quảng Đức . The Vietnamese name Thích ( 釋 ) is from " Thích Ca " or " Thích Già " ( 釋迦 ) , means " of the Shakya clan . " After ordination , he traveled to a mountain near Ninh Hòa , vowing to live the life of a solitary Buddhism @-@ practicing hermit for three years . He returned in later life to open the Thien Loc pagoda at his mountain retreat .
After his self @-@ imposed isolation ended , he began to travel around central Vietnam expounding the dharma . After two years , he went into retreat at the Sac Tu Thien An pagoda near Nha Trang . In 1932 , he was appointed an inspector for the Buddhist Association in Ninh Hòa before becoming the inspector of monks in his home province of Khánh Hòa . During this period in central Vietnam , he was responsible for the construction of 14 temples . In 1934 , he moved to southern Vietnam and traveled throughout the provinces spreading Buddhist teachings . During his time in southern Vietnam , he also spent two years in Cambodia studying the Theravada Buddhist tradition .
After his return from Cambodia , he oversaw the construction of a further 17 new temples during his time in the south . The last of the 31 new temples that he was responsible for constructing was the Quan The Am pagoda in the Phú Nhuận District of Gia Định Province on the outskirts of Saigon . The street on which the temple stands was later renamed Quảng Đức Street by Communists in 1975 . After the temple @-@ building phase , Đức was appointed to serve as the Chairman of the Panel on Ceremonial Rites of the Congregation of Vietnamese Monks , and as abbot of the Phuoc Hoa pagoda , which was the initial location of the Association for Buddhist Studies of Vietnam ( ABSV ) . When the office of the ABSV was relocated to the Xá Lợi Pagoda , the main pagoda of Saigon , Đức resigned .
= = Self @-@ immolation = =
= = = Religious background = = =
In a country where surveys of the religious composition at the time estimated the Buddhist majority to be between 70 and 90 percent , President Diệm was a member of the Catholic minority , and pursued discriminatory policies favoring Catholics for public service and military promotions , as well as in the allocation of land , business arrangements and tax concessions . Diệm once told a high @-@ ranking officer , forgetting that the officer was from a Buddhist family , " Put your Catholic officers in sensitive places . They can be trusted . " Many officers in the Army of the Republic of Vietnam converted to Roman Catholicism as their military prospects depended on it . Additionally , the distribution of firearms to village self @-@ defense militias saw weapons given only to Roman Catholics , with some Buddhists in the army being denied promotion if they refused to convert to Roman Catholicism .
Some Roman Catholic priests ran their own private armies , and there were forced conversions and looting , shelling , and demolition of pagodas in some areas , to which the government turned a blind eye . Some Buddhist villages converted en masse to receive aid or avoid being forcibly resettled by Diệm 's regime . The " private " status that was imposed on Buddhism by the French , which required official permission to be obtained by those wishing to conduct public Buddhist activities , was not repealed by Diệm . Catholics were also de facto exempt from corvée labor , which the government obliged all citizens to perform , and United States aid was distributed disproportionately to Catholic majority villages by Diệm 's regime .
The Roman Catholic Church was the largest landowner in the country and enjoyed special exemptions in property acquisition , and land owned by the Roman Catholic Church was exempt from land reform . The white and gold Vatican flag was regularly flown at all major public events in South Vietnam , and Diệm dedicated his country to the Virgin Mary in 1959 .
Buddhist discontent erupted following a ban in early May on flying the Buddhist flag in Huế on Vesak , the birthday of Gautama Buddha . Just days before , Catholics had been encouraged to fly the Vatican flag at a celebration for Archbishop Ngô Đình Thục of Huế , Diệm 's elder brother . A large crowd of Buddhists protested the ban , defying the government by flying Buddhist flags on the Buddhist holy day of Vesak and marching on the government broadcasting station . Government forces fired into the crowd of protesters , killing nine people . Diệm 's refusal to take responsibility — he blamed the Viet Cong for the deaths — led to further Buddhist protests and calls for religious equality . As Diem remained unwilling to comply with Buddhist demands , the frequency of protests increased .
= = = Day of the act = = =
On 10 June 1963 , U.S. correspondents were informed that " something important " would happen the following morning on the road outside the Cambodian embassy in Saigon . Most of the reporters disregarded the message , since the Buddhist crisis had at that point been going on for more than a month , and the next day only a few journalists turned up , including David Halberstam of The New York Times and Malcolm Browne , the Saigon bureau chief for the Associated Press . Đức arrived as part of a procession that had begun at a nearby pagoda . Around 350 monks and nuns marched in two phalanxes , preceded by an Austin Westminster sedan , carrying banners printed in both English and Vietnamese . They denounced the Diệm government and its policy towards Buddhists , demanding that it fulfill its promises of religious equality . Another monk offered himself , but Đức 's seniority prevailed .
The act occurred at the intersection of Phan Đình Phùng Boulevard ( now Nguyễn Đình Chiểu Street ) and Lê Văn Duyệt Street ( now Cách Mạng Tháng Tám Street ) a few blocks Southwest of the Presidential Palace ( now the Reunification Palace ) . Duc emerged from the car along with two other monks . One placed a cushion on the road while the second opened the trunk and took out a five @-@ gallon petrol can . As the marchers formed a circle around him , Duc calmly sat down in the traditional Buddhist meditative lotus position on the cushion . A colleague emptied the contents of the petrol container over Đức 's head . Đức rotated a string of wooden prayer beads and recited the words Nam mô A di đà Phật ( " Homage to Amitābha Buddha " ) before striking a match and dropping it on himself . Flames consumed his robes and flesh , and black oily smoke emanated from his burning body .
Quảng Đức 's last words before his self @-@ immolation were documented in a letter he had left :
Before closing my eyes and moving towards the vision of the Buddha , I respectfully plead to President Ngô Đình Diệm to take a mind of compassion towards the people of the nation and implement religious equality to maintain the strength of the homeland eternally . I call the venerables , reverends , members of the sangha and the lay Buddhists to organize in solidarity to make sacrifices to protect Buddhism .
David Halberstam wrote :
I was | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
27610 To Messers Run " and " Trib 27609 To Messers Run " . The former is entirely in Kline Township , while the latter flows through Delano Township and Kline Township .
= = Hydrology = =
Messers Run is infertile and acidic upstream of the Lofty Reservoir . The stream has the potential to be affected by acid precipitation in this part of it . The stream also has these attributes from the Lofty Reservoir downstream to the Blue Head Reservoir and from the Blue Head Reservoir downstream to the mouth .
The pH of Messers Run upstream of the Lofty Reservoir is 6 @.@ 3 . The total concentration of alkalinity in this part of the stream is 3 milligrams per liter . These values are similar to those measured in a similar area during a 1990 survey of the stream . The concentration of water hardness in this part of the stream is 47 milligrams per liter . A 1997 report noted that this value was very high considering the concentration of alkalinity .
The pH of Messers Run between the Lofty Reservoir and the Blue Head Reservoir is 6 @.@ 6 . The concentration of alkalinity in this portion of the stream is 4 milligrams per liter and the total water hardness is 18 milligrams per liter . The pH of the stream below the Blue Head Reservoir is 6 @.@ 6 . The concentration of alkalinity in this part of the stream is 5 milligrams per liter and the water hardness is 13 milligrams per liter .
The air temperature in the vicinity of Messers Run 3 @.@ 94 miles ( 6 @.@ 34 km ) upstream of its mouth was measured to be 24 ° C ( 75 ° F ) at 3 : 40 P.M. on July 23 , 1997 . The water temperature at that time and location was 15 @.@ 1 ° C ( 59 @.@ 2 ° F ) . The air temperature near the stream 1 @.@ 85 miles ( 2 @.@ 98 km ) upstream of its mouth was measured to be 22 ° C ( 72 ° F ) at 2 : 55 P.M. on July 22 , 1997 and the water temperature was measured to be 16 @.@ 8 ° C ( 62 @.@ 2 ° F ) . The air temperature in the vicinity of the stream was measured to be 23 ° C ( 73 ° F ) at 4 : 20 P.M. on July 23 , 1997 at a point 0 @.@ 50 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) upstream of its mouth . The water temperature at this time and location was measured to be 16 @.@ 5 ° C ( 61 @.@ 7 ° F ) .
The specific conductivity of the waters of Messers Run 3 @.@ 94 miles ( 6 @.@ 34 km ) upstream of its mouth is 223 micromhos . The specific conductivity of the stream 's waters 1 @.@ 85 miles ( 2 @.@ 98 km ) upstream of its mouth is 71 micromhos and the specific conductivity 0 @.@ 50 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) upstream of its mouth is 45 micromhos .
= = Geography and geology = =
The elevation near the mouth of Messers Run is 1 @,@ 053 feet ( 321 m ) above sea level . The elevation of the stream 's source is just under 1 @,@ 600 feet ( 490 m ) above sea level .
Most of the watershed of Messers Run is on rock of the Mauch Chunk Formation . This rock formation consists of siltstone , sandstone , grayish @-@ red shale , and conglomerate . However , areas that are on the Pottsville Formation are scattered throughout the watershed , mainly along its southern and northern edges . This rock formation is especially common in the sub @-@ watershed of Negro Hollow and near the upper reaches of " Trib 27609 To Messers Run " . The Pottsville Formation contains claystone , limestone , conglomerate , shale , and gray sandstone .
The main soils in the watershed of Messers Run are the Leck Kill soil and the Hazleton soil . The Leck Kill soil occurs in the northwestern part of the watershed ( in its lower reaches ) . The Hazleton soil is found throughout the rest of the watershed .
Messers Run is flanked by areas prone to flooding during a 100 year flood from the mouth of Negro Hollow upstream to its headwaters . Negro Hollow and its unnamed tributaries are also surrounded by areas prone to flooding during a 100 @-@ year flood for much of their length . Both of the unnamed tributaries of Messers Run are surrounded by such areas for the majority of their length .
Messers Run has a width of 2 @.@ 3 metres ( 7 @.@ 5 ft ) upstream of the Lofty Reservoir . The gradient of the stream at this location is 194 feet per mile ( 36 @.@ 7 m / km ) . Its width between the Lofty Reservoir and the Blue Head Reservoir is 11 feet ( 3 @.@ 3 m ) . The gradient of the stream at this location is 106 feet per mile ( 20 @.@ 0 m / km ) . Its width below the Blue Head Reservoir is 19 feet ( 5 @.@ 8 m ) . The gradient of the stream at this location is 84 feet per mile ( 16 @.@ 0 m / km ) .
A mountain known as Spring Mountain is at the headwaters of Messers Run . A mountain known as Locust Mountain is also found in the watershed .
= = Watershed and history = =
The watershed of Messers Run has an area of 5 @.@ 98 square miles ( 15 @.@ 5 km2 ) . The stream passes through the United States Geological Survey quadrangles of Conyngham and Delano . Much of the watershed is in Kline Township . However , significant areas in the western part of the watershed are in East union Township , Delano Township , and Mahanoy Township . Interstate 81 passes through the watershed in its easternmost part .
A reservoir known as the Lofty Reservoir is situated on Messers Run . It is owned by the Pennsylvania Game Commission and is used as a supply of drinking water . Additionally , the Blue Head Reservoir is in the watershed .
There is some agricultural land in the lower reaches of the watershed of Messers Run . A large part of the watershed is on land that is part of a Nature Conservancy Priority Forest Hub . The stream flows through Pennsylvania State Game Lands Number 308 for most of its length . There are 1 @,@ 070 acres ( 432 ha ) of forested land in Pennsylvania State Game Lands number 308 . The watershed of the stream is almost entirely on forested land .
Between the Lofty Reservoir and the Blue Head Reservoir , Messers Run is mostly accessible by State Game Lands roads , which are only open seasonally . It is also difficult to access the stream upstream of the Lofty Reservoir or downstream of the Blue Head Reservoir . No part of Messers Run upstream of the Lofty Reservoir is within 1 @,@ 600 feet ( 500 m ) of a road . 18 percent of the stream 's length between the Lofty Reservoir and the Blue Head Reservoir is within 330 feet ( 100 m ) of a road , 95 percent is within 980 feet ( 300 m ) of a road , and 100 percent is within 1 @,@ 600 feet ( 500 m ) of one . 16 percent of the its length between the Blue Head Reservoir and the mouth is within 330 feet ( 100 m ) of a road , 23 percent is within 980 feet ( 300 m ) of a road , and 31 percent is within 1 @,@ 600 feet ( 500 m ) of one .
In 1990 , the population density of the watershed of Messers Run upstream of the Lofty Reservoir was 140 people per square mile ( 54 people per square kilometer ) . The population density of the watershed between the Lofty and Blue Head Reservoirs was 80 people per square mile ( 31 people per square kilometer ) . The population density of the watershed downstream of the Blue Head Reservoir was 52 people per square mile ( 20 people per square kilometer ) .
The Mahanoy Water Company sought permission to construct a dam on Messers Run as early as 1913 . The stream was used as a water supply as early as the early 1900s . Messers Run was surveyed once by the environmental services branch of the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission . This survey was carried out by Young in November 1990 .
= = Biology = =
Messers Run is considered by the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection to be a High @-@ Quality Coldwater Fishery , as is its tributary Negro Hollow . Both Messers Run ( from Lofty Reservoir downstream to Blue Head Reservoir ) and Negro Hollow ( between its headwaters and its mouth ) are also considered by the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission to be Class A Wild Trout Waters . A 1997 report advised against stocking Messers Run .
Seven species of fish inhabit Messers Run . These include a highly substantial population of brook trout . Upstream of the Lofty Reservoir , there are two species of fish inhabiting the stream : brook trout , blacknose dace . The 1990 survey observed these two species as well as white suckers and pumpkinseeds . Three species of fish inhabit the stream between the Lofty Reservoir and the Blue Head Reservoir . These species are brook trout , brown trout , and blacknose dace . Six species of fish inhabit the stream below the Blue Head Reservoir : brook trout , blacknose dace , tessellated darters , brown trout , white suckers , and sculpins . However , only the first three species were observed during the 1990 survey of the stream .
The biomass of wild brook trout in Messers Run upstream of the Lofty Reservoir is estimated to be 26 pounds per acre ( 29 kg / ha ) , including 54 @.@ 1 pounds ( 24 @.@ 55 kg ) per hectare of brook trout less than 6 @.@ 9 inches ( 175 mm ) long and 3 @.@ 97 pounds per acre ( 4 @.@ 45 kg / ha ) of brook trout more than 6 @.@ 9 inches ( 175 mm ) long . These trout range from 0 @.@ 98 to 8 @.@ 82 inches ( 25 to 224 mm ) in length .
The biomass of wild brook trout in the stream between the Lofty Reservoir and the Blue Head Reservoir is 34 @.@ 25 pounds per acre ( 38 @.@ 39 kg / ha ) , including 20 @.@ 40 pounds per acre ( 22 @.@ 87 kg / ha ) of brook trout less than 6 @.@ 9 inches ( 175 mm ) long and 13 @.@ 85 pounds per acre ( 15 @.@ 52 kg / ha ) of brook trout more than 6 @.@ 9 inches ( 175 mm ) long . These trout range from 0 @.@ 98 to 10 @.@ 79 inches ( 25 to 274 mm ) in length . The biomass of wild brown trout in this part of the stream is 0 @.@ 080 pounds per acre ( 0 @.@ 09 kg / ha ) , of which all is from brown trout less than 6 @.@ 9 inches ( 175 mm ) long . These trout range from 2 @.@ 0 to 2 @.@ 9 inches ( 50 to 74 mm ) in length . The total biomass of wild trout between the Lofty Reservoir and the Blue Head Reservoir is 34 @.@ 33 pounds per acre ( 38 @.@ 48 kg / ha ) .
The biomass of brook trout in the stream below the Blue Head Reservoir is 13 @.@ 18 pounds per acre ( 14 @.@ 77 kg / ha ) , including 8 @.@ 32 pounds per acre ( 9 @.@ 33 kg / ha ) of brook trout less than 6 @.@ 9 inches ( 175 mm ) long and 4 @.@ 85 pounds per acre ( 5 @.@ 44 kg / ha ) of brook trout more than 6 @.@ 9 inches ( 175 mm ) long . The biomass of brown trout in this part of the stream is 2 @.@ 44 pounds per acre ( 2 @.@ 73 kg / ha ) , including 0 @.@ 42 pounds per acre ( 0 @.@ 47 kg / ha ) of brown trout less than 6 @.@ 9 inches ( 175 mm ) long and 2 @.@ 02 pounds per acre ( 2 @.@ 26 kg / ha ) of brown trout more than 6 @.@ 9 inches ( 175 mm ) long . The brook trout in this part of the stream range from 2 @.@ 0 to 8 @.@ 8 inches ( 50 to 224 mm ) in length and the brown trout range from 2 @.@ 0 to 10 @.@ 8 inches ( 50 to 274 mm ) in length .
Upstream of the Lofty Reservoir , there are 484 brook trout per mile ( 300 per kilometer ) that are less than 6 @.@ 9 inches ( 175 mm ) long and 13 per mile ( 8 per kilometer ) that are more than 6 @.@ 9 inches ( 175 mm ) long . There are 728 per acre ( 1800 per hectare ) that are less than 6 @.@ 9 inches ( 175 mm ) long and 20 per acre ( 50 per hectare ) that are more than 6 @.@ 9 inches ( 175 mm ) long . Between the Lofty Reservoir and the Blue Head Reservoir , there are 1848 brook trout per mile ( 1146 per kilometer ) that are less than 6 @.@ 9 inches ( 175 mm ) long , 110 per mile ( 68 per kilometer ) that are more than 6 @.@ 9 inches ( 175 mm ) long , 16 brown trout per mile ( 10 per kilometer ) that are less than 6 @.@ 9 inches ( 175 mm ) long , and none that are more than 6 @.@ 9 inches ( 175 mm ) long . This section of the stream has 1406 brook trout per acre ( 3474 per hectare ) that are less than 6 @.@ 9 inches ( 175 mm ) long and 84 per acre ( 207 per hectare ) that are more than 6 @.@ 9 inches ( 175 mm ) long . It has 12 brown trout per acre ( 30 per hectare ) that are less than 6 @.@ 9 inches ( 175 mm ) long and none that are more than 6 @.@ 9 inches ( 175 mm ) long . Between the Blue Head Reservoir and the stream 's mouth , there are 1153 brook trout per mile ( 715 per kilometer ) that are less than 6 @.@ 9 inches ( 175 mm ) long , 65 per mile ( 40 per kilometer ) that are more than 6 @.@ 9 inches ( 175 mm ) long , 118 brown trout per kilometer ( 73 per mile ) that are less than 6 @.@ 9 inches ( 175 mm ) long , and 9 that are more than 6 @.@ 9 inches ( 175 mm ) long . This section of the stream has 579 brook trout per acre ( 1430 per hectare ) that are less than 6 @.@ 9 inches ( 175 mm ) long and 32 per acre ( 80 per hectare ) that are more than 6 @.@ 9 inches ( 175 mm ) long . It has 59 brown trout per acre ( 147 per hectare ) that are less than 6 @.@ 9 inches ( 175 mm ) long and 8 per acre ( 21 per hectare ) that are more than 6 @.@ 9 inches ( 175 mm ) long .
Brook trout and sculpins are present in the tributary Negro Hollow . The biomass of brook trout in this tributary is 49 @.@ 76 pounds per acre ( 55 @.@ 77 kg / ha ) .
= = Recreation = =
A 1997 report stated that Messers Run was a poor site for angling upstream of the Lofty Reservoir . The same report stated that the stream was an excellent site for angling between the Lofty Reservoir and the Blue Head Reservoir . Additionally , the Pennsylvania State Game Lands Number 308 are in the stream 's watershed . These state game lands contain 432 hectares of forested land .
= The Rocky Horror Picture Show =
The Rocky Horror Picture Show is a 1975 British @-@ American musical horror comedy film directed by Jim Sharman . The screenplay was written by Sharman and Richard O 'Brien based on the 1973 musical stage production The Rocky Horror Show , music , book and lyrics by O 'Brien . The production is a parody tribute to the science fiction and horror B movies of the 1930s through early 1970s . The film stars Tim Curry , Susan Sarandon and Barry Bostwick along with cast members from the original Royal Court Theatre , Roxy Theatre and Belasco Theatre productions .
The story centres on a young engaged couple whose car breaks down in the rain near a castle where they seek a telephone to call for help . The castle is occupied by strangers in elaborate costumes celebrating an annual convention . They discover the head of the house is Frank N. Furter , an apparent mad scientist who actually is an alien transvestite who creates a living muscle man in his laboratory . The couple is seduced separately by the mad scientist and eventually released by the servants who take control .
The film was shot in the United Kingdom at Bray Studios and on location at an old country estate named Oakley Court , best known for its earlier use by Hammer Film Productions . A number of props and set pieces were reused from the Hammer horror films . Although the movie is both a parody and tribute to many of the kitsch science fiction and horror films , costume designer Sue Blane conducted no research for her designs . Blane stated that costumes from the film have directly impacted the development of punk music fashion trends such as ripped fishnets and dyed hair .
Although largely critically panned on initial release , it soon became known as a midnight movie when audiences began participating with the film at the Waverly Theater in New York City in 1976 . Audience members returned to the cinemas frequently and talked back to the screen and began dressing as the characters , spawning similar performance groups across the United States . At almost the same time , fans in costume at the King 's Court Theater in Pittsburgh began performing alongside the film . This " shadow cast " mimed the actions on screen above and behind them , while lip @-@ syncing their character 's lines . Still in limited release four decades after its premiere , it is the longest @-@ running theatrical release in film history . Today , the film has a large international following . It was selected for preservation in the US National Film Registry by the Library of Congress in 2005 .
The film 's creative team also produced Shock Treatment in 1981 , a standalone feature using the characters of Brad and Janet and featuring some of the same cast . This second film was produced as a musical stage production for a 2015 premier on the London stage . A modern @-@ day reimagining of the film , directed by Kenny Ortega and tentatively titled The Rocky Horror Picture Show Event , is set to air on television in the fall of 2016 . The special will feature an ensemble cast starring Laverne Cox as Dr. Frank N. Furter , Ryan McCartan and Victoria Justice as Brad and Janet , and Tim Curry as The Criminologist .
= = Plot = =
A criminologist narrates the tale of the newly engaged couple Brad Majors and Janet Weiss who find themselves lost and with a flat tire on a cold and rainy late November evening , somewhere near Denton , Ohio . Seeking a telephone , the couple walk to a nearby castle where they discover a group of strange and outlandish people who are holding an Annual Transylvanian Convention . They are soon swept into the world of Dr. Frank N. Furter , a self @-@ proclaimed " sweet transvestite from Transsexual , Transylvania " . The ensemble of convention attendees also includes servants Riff Raff , his sister Magenta , and a groupie named Columbia .
In his lab , Frank claims to have discovered the " secret to life itself " . His creation , Rocky , is brought to life . The ensuing celebration is soon interrupted by Eddie ( an ex @-@ delivery boy , both Frank and Columbia 's ex @-@ lover , as well as partial brain donor to Rocky ) who rides out of a deep freeze on a motorcycle . In a jealous rage , Frank corners him and kills him with an ice axe . He then departs with Rocky to a bridal suite .
Brad and Janet are shown to separate bedrooms where each is visited and seduced by Frank , who poses as Brad ( when visiting Janet ) and then as Janet ( when visiting Brad ) . Janet , upset and emotional , wanders off to look for Brad , who she discovers , via a television monitor , is in bed with Frank . She then discovers Rocky , cowering in his birth tank , hiding from Riff Raff , who has been tormenting him . While tending to his wounds , Janet becomes intimate with Rocky , as Magenta and Columbia watch from their bedroom monitor .
After discovering that his creation is missing , Frank returns to the lab with Brad and Riff Raff , where Frank learns that an intruder has entered the building . Brad and Janet 's old high school science teacher , Dr. Everett Scott , has come looking for his nephew , Eddie . Frank suspects that Dr. Scott investigates UFOs for the government . Upon learning of Brad and Janet 's connection to Dr. Scott , Frank suspects them of working for him . Frank , Dr. Scott , Brad , and Riff Raff then discover Janet and Rocky together under the sheets in Rocky 's birth tank , upsetting Frank and Brad . Magenta interrupts the reunion by sounding a massive gong and stating that dinner is prepared .
Rocky and the guests share an uncomfortable dinner , which they soon realize has been prepared from Eddie 's mutilated remains . Janet runs screaming into Rocky 's arms and is slapped and chased through the halls of the castle by a jealous Frank . Janet , Brad , Dr. Scott , Rocky and Columbia all meet in Frank 's lab , where Frank captures them with the Medusa Transducer , transforming them into nude statues . After dressing them in cabaret costume , Frank " unfreezes " them , from which they spontaneously perform a live cabaret floor show with Frank as the leader .
Riff Raff and Magenta interrupt the performance , revealing themselves and Frank to be aliens from the planet Transsexual in the galaxy of Transylvania . They stage a coup and announce a plan to return to their homeworld . In the process , they kill Columbia , Rocky and Frank , who has " failed his mission " . They release Brad , Janet and Dr. Scott , then depart by lifting off in the castle itself . The survivors are then left crawling in the dirt , and the narrator concludes that the human race is equivalent to insects crawling on the planet 's surface .
= = Cast = =
Tim Curry as Dr. Frank N. Furter , a scientist
Susan Sarandon as Janet Weiss , a heroine
Barry Bostwick as Brad Majors , a hero
Richard O 'Brien as Riff Raff , a handyman
Patricia Quinn as Magenta , a domestic
Nell Campbell as Columbia , a groupie
Jonathan Adams as Dr. Everett V. Scott , a rival scientist
Peter Hinwood as Rocky Horror , a creation
Meat Loaf as Eddie , an ex @-@ delivery boy
Charles Gray as The Criminologist , an expert
Jeremy Newson as Ralph Hapschatt
Hilary Labow as Betty Hapschatt ( née Munroe )
= = Production = =
= = = Concept and development = = =
Richard O 'Brien was living as an unemployed actor in London during the early 1970s . He wrote most of The Rocky Horror Show during one winter just to occupy himself . Since his youth , O 'Brien had loved science fiction and B horror movies . He wanted to combine elements of the unintentional humour of B horror movies , portentous dialogue of schlock @-@ horror , Steve Reeves muscle flicks and fifties rock and roll into his musical .
O 'Brien showed a portion of the unfinished script to Australian director Jim Sharman , who decided to direct it at the small experimental space Upstairs at the Royal Court Theatre , Sloane Square , Chelsea , London , which was used as a project space for new work . O 'Brien had appeared briefly in Andrew Lloyd Webber 's Jesus Christ Superstar , directed by Sharman and the two also worked together in Sam Shepard 's The Unseen Hand . Sharman would bring in production designer Brian Thomson . The original creative team was then rounded out by costume designer Sue Blane and musical director Richard Hartley , and stage producer Michael White was also brought in to produce . As the musical went into rehearsal , the working title , They Came from Denton High , was changed just before previews at the suggestion of Sharman to The Rocky Horror Show .
Having premiered in the small sixty @-@ seat Royal Court Theatre , it quickly moved to larger venues in London , transferring to the 230 @-@ seat Chelsea Classic Cinema on Kings Road on 14 August 1973 , before finding a quasi @-@ permanent home at the 500 @-@ seat King 's Road Theatre from 3 November 1973 , running for six years . The musical made its U.S. debut in Los Angeles in 1974 before being played in New York City as well as other cities . Producer and Ode Records owner Lou Adler attended the London production in the winter of 1973 , escorted by friend Britt Ekland . He immediately decided to purchase the U.S. theatrical rights . His production would be staged at his Roxy Theatre in L.A. In 1975 , The Rocky Horror Show premiered on Broadway at the 1 @,@ 000 @-@ seat Belasco Theatre .
= = = Filming and locations = = =
The film was shot at Bray Studios , and Oakley Court , a country house near Maidenhead , Berkshire , England and Elstree Studios for post production , from 21 October to 19 December 1974 . Oakley Court , built in 1857 in the Victorian Gothic style , is known for a number of Hammer films . Much of the location shooting took place there , although at the time the manor was not in good condition . Fox insisted on casting the two characters of Brad and Janet with American actors , Barry Bostwick and Susan Sarandon . Filming took place during autumn , which made conditions worse , and during filming , Sarandon fell ill with pneumonia . Filming of the laboratory scene and the title character 's creation occurred on 30 October 1974 .
The film is both a parody and tribute to many of the science fiction and horror movies from the 1930s up to the 1970s . The film production retains many aspects from the stage version such as production design and music , but adds new scenes not featured in the original stage play . The film 's plot , setting , and style echo those of the Hammer Horror films , which had their own instantly recognizable style ( just as Universal Studios ' horror films did ) . The originally proposed opening sequence was to contain clips of various films mentioned in the lyrics , as well as the first few sequences shot in black and white , but this was deemed too expensive , and scrapped .
= = = Costumes , make @-@ up and props = = =
In the stage productions , actors generally did their own make @-@ up ; however , for the film , the producers chose Pierre La Roche , who had previously been a make @-@ up artist for Mick Jagger , to redesign the make @-@ up for each character . Production stills were taken by rock photographer Mick Rock , who has published a number of books from his work . In Rocky Horror ; From Concept to Cult , designer Sue Blane discusses the Rocky Horror costumes ' influence on punk music style . " [ It was a ] big part of the build @-@ up [ to punk ] . " She states that ripped fishnet stockings , glitter and coloured hair were directly attributable to Rocky Horror .
Some of the costumes from the film had been originally used in the stage production . Props and set pieces were reused from old Hammer horror productions and others . The tank and dummy used for Rocky 's birth originally appeared in The Revenge of Frankenstein ( 1958 ) . These references to earlier productions , in addition to cutting costs , enhanced the cult status of the film .
Costume designer Sue Blane was not keen on working for the film until she became aware that Curry , an old friend , was committed to the project . Curry and Blane had worked together in Glasgow 's Citizens Theatre in a production of The Maids , where Curry had worn a woman 's corset in the production . Blane arranged it with the theatre to loan her the corset from the other production for Rocky Horror . Blane admits that she did not conduct research for her designing and had never seen a science fiction film , and is acutely aware that her costumes for Brad and Janet may have been generalizations .
" When I designed Rocky , I never looked at any science fiction movies or comic books . One just automatically knows what spacesuits look like , the same way one intuitively knows how Americans dress . I had never been to the United States , but I had this fixed idea of how people looked there . Americans wore polyester so their clothes wouldn 't crease , and their trousers were a bit too short . Since they 're very keen on sports , white socks and white T @-@ shirts played an integral part in their wardrobe . Of course , since doing Rocky I have been to the United States and admit it was a bit of a generalization , but my ideas worked perfectly for Brad and Janet . "
The budget for the film 's costumes was $ 1 @,@ 600 , far more than the stage production budget , but having to double up on costumes for filming was expensive . For filming , corsets for the finale had to be doubled for the pool scene , with one version drying while the other was worn on set . While many of the costumes are exact replicas from the stage productions , other costumes were new to filming , such as Columbia 's gold sequined swallow @-@ tail coat and top hat and Magenta 's maid 's uniform .
Blane was amazed by the recreation and understanding of her designs by fans . When she first heard that people were dressing up , she thought it would be tacky , but she was surprised to see the depth to which the fans went to recreate her designs . Rocky Horror fan Mina Credeur , who designs costumes and performed as Columbia for Houston ’ s performance group , states that " the best part is when everyone leaves with a big smile on their face " , noting that there 's " such a kitschiness and campiness that it seems to be winking at you " . The film still plays at many theatre locations , and Rocky Horror costumes are often made for Halloween , although many require much time and effort to make .
= = = Title sequence = = =
The film starts with the screen fading to black and over @-@ sized , disembodied female lips appear overdubbed with a male voice , establishing the androgynous theme to be repeated as the film unfolds . The opening scene and song , " Science Fiction / Double Feature " , consists of the lips of Patricia Quinn ( who appears in the film later as the character Magenta ) , but has the vocals of actor and Rocky Horror creator , Richard O 'Brien ( who appears as Magenta 's brother Riff Raff ) . The lyrics reference science fiction and horror films of the past and list several film titles from the 1930s to the 1970s , including The Day the Earth Stood Still , Flash Gordon , The Invisible Man , King Kong , It Came from Outer Space , Doctor X , Forbidden Planet , Tarantula , The Day of the Triffids , Curse of the Demon and When Worlds Collide . The disembodied lips are featured on posters and other merchandise for the film , with the tagline " A Different Set of Jaws " , a spoof of the poster for the film Jaws , which was also produced in 1975 .
= = Music = =
The soundtrack was released in 1975 by Ode Records and produced by Richard Hartley . The album peaked at # 49 on the Billboard 200 in 1978 . It reached No. 40 on the Australian albums chart and No. 11 on the New Zealand albums chart . The album is described as the " definitive version of the [ Rocky Horror ] score . "
= = Release = =
The film opened in the United Kingdom at Rialto Theater in London 14 August 1975 and in the United States on 26 September , premiering at the UA Westwood in Los Angeles , California . It did well at that location , but not elsewhere . Prior to the midnight screenings ' success , the film was withdrawn from its eight opening cities due to very small audiences , and its planned New York City opening on Halloween night was cancelled . Fox re @-@ released the film around college campuses on a double @-@ bill with another rock music film parody , Brian De Palma 's Phantom of the Paradise , but again it drew small audiences .
With Pink Flamingos ( 1972 ) and Reefer Madness ( 1936 ) making money in midnight showings nationwide , a Fox executive , Tim Deegan , was able to talk distributors into midnight screenings , starting in New York City on April Fools ' Day of 1976 . The cult following started shortly after the film began its midnight run at the Waverly Theater in New York City.Rocky Horror was not only found in the larger cities but throughout the United States where many attendees would get in free if they arrived in costume . The western division of the film 's release included The U.A. Cinema in Fresno and Merced , The Cinema J in Sacramento , California and the Covell in Modesto . In New Orleans , an early organized performance group was active with the release there as well as in such cities as Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania , and Chicago ( at the Biograph Theater ) . Before long nearly every screening of the film was accompanied by a live fan cast .
The film is considered to be the longest @-@ running release in film history . It has never been pulled by 20th Century Fox from its original 1975 release , and it continues to play in cinemas .
= = = Home media = = =
A Super 8 version of selected scenes of the film was made available . In 1983 , Ode Records released " The Rocky Horror Picture Show , Audience Par @-@ Tic @-@ I @-@ Pation Album " , recorded at the 8th Street Playhouse . The recording consisted of the film 's audio and the standardized call @-@ backs from the audience .
A home video release was made available in 1987 in the UK . In the US , the film ( including documentary footage and extras ) was released on VHS in 1990 , retailing for $ 89 @.@ 95 and had its US broadcast premiere on the Fox Broadcasting Company , including audience participation edited into the film , on October 25 , 1993 .
The film was released on DVD in 2000 for the film 's 25th anniversary . A 35th Anniversary edition Blu @-@ ray was released in the US on October 19 , 2010 . The disc includes a newly created 7 @.@ 1 surround sound mix , the original theatrical mono sound mix , and a 4K / 2K image transfer from the original camera negative . In addition , new content featuring karaoke and a fan performance were included .
= = Reception and reaction = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Chicago Sun @-@ Times critic Roger Ebert noted that when first released , The Rocky Horror Picture Show was " ignored by pretty much everyone , including the future fanatics who would eventually count the hundreds of times they 'd seen it " . He considered it more a " long @-@ running social phenomenon " than a movie , rating it 2 @.@ 5 out of 4 stars . Bill Henkin noted that Variety thought that the " campy hijinks " of the film seemed labored , and also mentioned that the San Francisco Chronicle 's John Wasserman , who had liked the stage play in London , found the film " lacking both charm and dramatic impact " . Newsweek called the film " tasteless , plotless and pointless " in 1978 .
Review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a rating of 80 % based on 41 reviews . A number of contemporary critics find it compelling and enjoyable because of its offbeat and bizarre qualities ; the BBC summarized : " for those willing to experiment with something a little bit different , a little bit outré , The Rocky Horror Picture Show has a lot to offer " . The New York Times called it a " low @-@ budget freak show / cult classic / cultural institution " and considered the songs featured in the film to be " catchy " . Geoff Andrew of Time Out noted that the " string of hummable songs gives it momentum , Gray 's admirably straight @-@ faced narrator holds it together , and a run on black lingerie takes care of almost everything else " , rating it 4 out of 5 stars . Dave Kehr of Chicago Reader on the other hand considered the wit to be " too weak to sustain a film " , and thought that the " songs all sound the same " .
In 2005 , the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being " culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant " .
= = = Cult phenomenon = = =
= = = = New York City origins = = = =
The Rocky Horror Picture Show helped shape conditions of cult film 's transition from art @-@ house to grind @-@ house style . The film developed a cult following in 1976 at the Waverly Theatre in New York , which developed into a standardized ritual . According to J. Hoberman , author of Midnight Movies , it was after five months into the film 's midnight run when lines began to be shouted by the audience . Louis Farese Jr . , a normally quiet teacher who , upon seeing the character Janet place a newspaper over her head to protect herself from rain yelled , " Buy an umbrella you cheap bitch " . Originally Louis and along with the other Rocky Horror pioneers Amy Lazarus , Theresa Krakauskas and Bill O 'Brian who all sat in the balcony , did this to entertain each other . Each week trying to come up with something new to make each other laugh . This quickly caught on with other theater goers and thus began this self @-@ proclaimed " counter point dialogue " became standard practice and was repeated nearly verbatim at each screening . Performance groups became a staple at Rocky Horror screenings due in large part to the prominent New York City fan cast , and fans are credited with the talk back lines . The cast was originally run by former schoolteacher and stand @-@ up comic , Sal Piro and friend Dori Hartley . Dori was one of several performers in a flexible , rotating cast to portray the character of Frank N. Furter , shadowing the film above . The performances of the audience was scripted and actively discouraged improvising , being conformist in a similar way to the repressed characters .
On Halloween in 1976 , people attended in costume and talked back to the screen , and by mid @-@ 1978 , Rocky Horror was playing in over 50 locations on Fridays and Saturdays at midnight . Newsletters were published by local performance groups , and fans gathered for Rocky Horror conventions . By the end of 1979 , there were twice @-@ weekly showings at over 230 theatres . The National Fan Club was established in 1977 and later merged with the International Fan Club . The fan publication The Transylvanian printed a number of issues , and a semi @-@ regular poster magazine was published as well as an official magazine .
= = = = Los Angeles , Hollywood = = = =
The Los Angeles area performance groups originated in 1977 at the Fox Theatre , where Michael Wolfson won a look @-@ alike contest as Frank N. Furter , and won another at the Tiffany Theater on Sunset Boulevard . Wolfson 's group eventually performed in all of the LA area theaters screening Rocky Horror , including the Balboa Theater in Balboa , The Cove at Hermosa Beach and The Sands in Glendale . He was invited to perform at the Sombrero Playhouse in Phoenix , Arizona .
At the Tiffany Theatre , the audience performance cast had the theater 's full cooperation ; the local performers entered early and without charge . The fan playing Frank for this theatre was a transgender performer , D. Garret Gafford , who was out of work in 1978 and trying to raise enough funds for a sex change operation while spending the weekends performing at the Tiffany .
= = = = San Francisco = = = =
In San Francisco , Rocky Horror moved from one location to the Strand Theatre located near the Tenderloin on Market Street . The performance group there would act out and perform almost the entire film , unlike the New York cast at that time . The Strand cast was put together from former members of the Berkeley group , disbanded due to less than enthusiastic management . Their Frank N. Furter was portrayed by Marni Scofidio , who , in 1979 , attracted many of the older groups from Berkeley . Other members included Mishell Erickson and her twin sister Denise Erickson who portrayed Columbia and Magenta , Kathy Dolan playing Janet and Linda Woods as Riff Raff . The Strand group had performed at two large science fiction conventions in Los Angeles and San Francisco . They were offered a spot at The Mabuhay , a local punk club , and even performed for children 's television of Argentina .
= = = = Fan following = = = =
Rocky Horror is one of the last few western rites left that pertain to the carnivalesque . Annual Rocky Horror conventions are held in varying locations lasting days . Tucson , Arizona has been host a number of times , including 1999 with “ El Fishnet Fiesta ” , and “ Queens of the Desert ” held in 2006 . To the fans , Rocky Horror is ritualistic and comparable to a religious event , with a compulsive , repeated cycle of going home and coming back to see the film each weekend . The audience call backs are similar to responses in church during a mass . Many theatre troupes exist across the United States that produce shadow @-@ cast performances where the actors play each part in the film in full costume and props , and the movie plays on the big screen in a movie theatre . These showings are typically once a week or once a month on a Saturday at midnight .
The film has a global following and remains popular well into the 21st century . Sub cultures such as Rocky Horror have also found a place on the internet . Audience participation scripts for many cities are available to download on the Internet . The internet has a number of Rocky Horror fan run websites with various quizzes and information specializing in different content allowing fans to participate at a unique level .
= = Sequels = =
In 1981 , Sharman reunited with O 'Brien to do Shock Treatment , a stand @-@ alone feature that was not a direct sequel to the original film . This film reunites characters Brad and Janet and was originally conceived and written to depict the characters filmed in normal settings until the production changed to work around a Screen Actor 's Guild strike . The eventual production would now entail the full film being shot entirely within a sound stage and purposely blending that into the story line . Shock Treatment has a cult following but not nearly as strong as the first film , and was a commercial failure in no small part due to the principal cast of Curry , Sarandon and Bostwick not returning .
Ten years later , O 'Brien wrote another script intended as a direct sequel to the cult classic entitled Revenge of the Old Queen . Producer Michael White had hoped to begin work on the production and described the script as being " in the same style as the other one . It has reflections of the past in it . " Although the script has not been published , bootleg copies can be read on the Internet . The script is currently owned by Fox , which produced the two original films . Most individuals associated with the project , including O 'Brien , agree that the film will probably never be made , owing to the failure of Shock Treatment and the aging of the cast .
In 2014 , it was announced that O 'Brien would produce Shock Treatment for the theatrical stage . The production will premiere at the King ’ s Head theatre in Islington , London in the United Kingdom in the spring of 2015 .
= = Remake = =
On 10 April 2015 , it was announced that the Fox Broadcasting Company would air a modern @-@ day reimagining of the film , tentatively titled The Rocky Horror Picture Show Event . On 22 October 2015 , it was announced that the role of Dr. Frank N. Furter will be played by actress Laverne Cox . Ryan McCartan and Victoria Justice will play the roles of Brad and Janet , alongside Reeve Carney as Riff Raff and singer / model Staz Nair as Rocky . Adam Lambert will portray Eddie . Tim Curry , who portrayed Dr. Frank N. Furter in the film , will portray The Criminologist . On 1 February 2016 , it was announced that Broadway veteran Annaleigh Ashford will portray Columbia . On 5 February 2016 , Ben Vereen joined the cast as Dr. Everett von Scott .
Kenny Ortega , best known for the High School Musical franchise and Michael Jackson 's This Is It , will direct , choreograph and executive @-@ produce ; Lou Adler , who was an executive producer on the original film , will have the same role on the new film , which is set to air on Fox in the fall of 2016 .
= = Cultural impact = =
The Rocky Horror Picture Show has been featured in a number of other feature films and television series over the years . Episodes of The Venture Bros. Glee , The Drew Carey Show , That ' 70s Show and American Dad ! spotlight Rocky Horror , as well as films like Vice Squad , Halloween II and The Perks of Being a Wallflower . The 1980 film Fame featured the audience reciting their callback lines to the screen and dancing the Time Warp , the dance from the stage show and film , which has become a common novelty dance at parties .
" The Rocky Horror Glee Show " aired on October 26 , 2010 as part of the second season of the TV series Glee , which recreated several scenes from the film , including the opening credits , and featured Barry Bostwick and Meat Loaf in cameo roles .
" Bisexuality , The Rocky Horror Picture Show , and Me " , by Elizabeth Reba Weise , is a piece in Bi Any Other Name : Bisexual People Speak Out ( 1991 ) , an anthology edited by Loraine Hutchins and Lani Ka 'ahumanu which is one of the seminal books in the history of the modern bisexual rights movement .
Rocky Horror remains a cultural phenomenon in both the U.S. and U.K. Cult film participants are often people on the fringe of society that find connection and community at the screenings although the film attracts fans of differing backgrounds all over the world .
= TWA Flight 159 =
Trans World Airlines ( TWA ) Flight 159 was a regularly scheduled passenger flight from New York to Los Angeles , California , with a stopover in Cincinnati / Northern Kentucky International Airport , Kentucky , that crashed after an aborted takeoff from Cincinnati on 6 November 1967 . The Boeing 707 attempted to abort takeoff when the copilot became concerned that the aircraft had collided with a disabled DC @-@ 9 on the runway . The aircraft overran the runway , struck an embankment and caught fire . One passenger died as a result of the accident .
The NTSB concluded that the crash occurred due to the TWA flight crew 's inability to successfully abort takeoff due to the speed of the aircraft , and that a runway overrun was unavoidable at the 707 's speed . The disabled DC @-@ 9 , a Delta Air Lines flight which had reported that it had cleared the runway when in fact it had not , was a contributing factor in the crash . The NTSB recommended that the FAA establish and publicize standards of safe clearance from runway edges for both aircraft and ground vehicles which also take into account the exhaust fumes of jet engines . The Board also recommended a reevaluation of training manuals and aircraft procedures in regards to abort procedures .
= = Aircraft and flight crew = =
The aircraft was a Boeing 707 which had accumulated 26 @,@ 319 airframe hours since its first flight in 1959 . It was piloted by Captain Volney D. Matheny , 45 , who had 18 @,@ 753 hours of pilot time . The copilot was First Officer Ronald G. Reichardt , 26 , with 1 @,@ 629 total piloting hours , and the flight engineer was Robert D. Barron , 39 , who had accumulated 11 @,@ 182 hours as a flight engineer . The stewardesses were Janan Perkins , 21 , Roswitha Neal , 25 , Kathleen Fankhouser , 21 , and Sara Muir , 25 .
= = Flight history and crash = =
Flight 159 was a New York @-@ Los Angeles flight with an intermediate stop at Greater Cincinnati Airport . The flight operated from New York to Cincinnati without incident .
At 18 : 38 Eastern Standard Time , Flight 159 was approaching Cincinnati 's runway 27L for takeoff , and was instructed by the tower controller to " taxi into position and hold " short of the runway . As Flight 159 approached Runway 27L , another flight , Delta Air Lines Flight 379 ( DAL 379 ) , a DC @-@ 9 , was coming in to land on the same runway . After landing , DAL 379 received permission to turn 180 ° to reach an intersection they had apssed , but the DC @-@ 9 was unable to complete the turn and ran off the paved runway . While most of the aircraft was stuck in the mud well away from the runway , the tail was only approximately 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) from the edge of the runway . The rearmost exterior light on DAL 379 was 45 feet ( 14 m ) from the edge of the runway , which might have caused DAL 379 to appear at a distance to be farther from the runway than it actually was .
At 18 : 39 , while DAL 379 was in the process of clearing the runway , Flight 159 was cleared for takeoff . Before Flight 159 began moving , the tower controller observed that DAL 379 had stopped moving , and called DAL 379 to confirm they were clear of the runway . The captain of the Delta DC @-@ 9 replied , " Yeah , we 're in the dirt though . " The tower controller then advised TWA that DAL 379 was clear of the runway , and that Flight 159 was cleared for takeoff . With the first officer operating the controls , Flight 159 then began its takeoff roll down runway 27L .
Neither pilot aboard Flight 159 initially saw how close DAL 379 was to the runway . As Flight 159 sped down the runway , the captain observed that the DC @-@ 9 was " off the runway " by only " five , six , seven feet or something of that nature . " As the Boeing 707 passed the Delta plane , the pilots heard a loud bang which coincided with a movement of the flight controls and a yawing motion of the aircraft . Thinking he had hit the DC @-@ 9 , Flight 159 's first officer attempted to abort the takeoff , and both pilots attempted to use their aircraft 's thrust reversers , brakes , and spoilers to stop the aircraft .
The aircraft overran the end of the runway , went over the edge of a hill , and became airborne for 67 feet ( 20 m ) . It then struck the ground again , shearing off the main landing gear and displacing the nosewheel rearward . The Boeing 707 slid down an embankment and came to rest 421 feet ( 128 m ) from the end of the runway . The fuselage ruptured , and the structure of one wing failed during the crash . The right side wing of the plane caught fire as it left the runway . All 29 passengers and 7 crew members escaped the aircraft , with two passengers requiring hospitalization . One of the hospitalized passengers died as a result of their injuries four days after the accident . The 707 was damaged beyond repair and regarded as a complete write off after the fire damaged right wing and broken fuselage .
= = Aftermath = =
The National Transportation Safety Board ( NTSB ) investigated the accident . Although the tail of the Delta DC @-@ 9 was several feet from the runway , the NTSB determined that DAL 379 's engines were still operating at idle when Flight 159 attempted to take off , and DAL 379 's idling jet engines were directing hot jet exhaust over the runway . The NTSB determined that neither Federal Aviation Administration ( FAA ) regulations nor the Terminal Air Traffic Control Procedures Manual defined the phrase " clear of the runway , " and found that the pilots of each plane and the air traffic controller each had their own slightly different definition of the term . The NTSB concluded that DAL 379 was not actually " clear of the runway " because its jet exhaust continued to pose a hazard to aircraft attempting to use runway 27L .
The jet blast from DAL 379 caused a compressor stall in Flight 159 's number four engine . The compressor stall caused a loud noise heard by the pilots , and the jet blast caused a movement of the Boeing 707 's flight controls during the takeoff . The 707 did not make contact with the DC @-@ 9 , but the noise and movement convinced the first officer that a collision had occurred . The NTSB concluded that the first officer 's decision to abort was reasonable under the circumstances .
TWA company manuals indicated that aborting a takeoff at high speeds is dangerous , and should only be attempted if an actual engine failure occurs before V1 speed . " V1 " speed is the maximum speed at which the takeoff can be safely aborted ; after V1 speed is exceeded , the plane must take off to avoid overrunning the runway . The captain of Flight 159 failed to announce that Flight 159 had achieved V1 speed , and the first officer believed the plane was at or near V1 ( rather than having substantially exceeded V1 ) when he aborted the takeoff . On a Boeing 707 , the V1 speed is 132 knots ( 244 km / h ; 152 mph ) ; Flight 159 achieved a peak speed of 145 knots ( 269 km / h ; 167 mph ) . However , the NTSB determined that V1 was not relevant to this incident because it is only intended to advise pilots on whether they can abort after engine failure , and the first officer believed that his aircraft had been physically damaged and might not be capable of flight . As a result , the NTSB found the first officer 's decision to abort was reasonable , but criticized the pilots for failing to execute the abort rapidly . One NTSB board member , Francis H. McAdams , wrote in a separate minority report that he would have concluded that an abort was both reasonable and necessary under the circumstances , despite the fact that the aircraft had exceeded V1 and was certain to overrun the runway .
The majority opinion presented by the NTSB accident report determined that the cause of the accident was the TWA flight crew 's inability to successfully abort takeoff procedures due to an excess of speed . The NTSB recommended revisions and expansions to airline abort procedures and new FAA regulations defining runway clearance and procedures , taking into account jet engine exhaust . In his minority report , Mr. McAdams ' said that he would have found the probable cause of the accident to be the Delta crew 's failure to adequately advise the tower of the proximity to the runway , and the tower 's failure to request additional and precise information prior to clearing TWA 159 for takeoff .
The family of the deceased passenger received a $ 105 @,@ 000 settlement from Delta Air Lines in civil court . TWA also sued Delta for the loss of the Boeing 707 aircraft , and reached a settlement of $ 2 @,@ 216 @,@ 000 .
= 1994 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1994 Atlantic hurricane season produced seven named tropical cyclones and three hurricanes , a total below the Atlantic hurricane season average . It officially started on June 1 and ended on November 30 , dates which conventionally limit the period during which most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic Ocean . The first tropical cyclone , Tropical Storm Alberto , developed on June 30 , while the last storm , Hurricane Gordon , dissipated on November 21 . The season was unusual in that it produced no major hurricanes , which are those of Category 3 status or higher on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane scale . The most intense hurricane , Hurricane Florence , peaked as a Category 2 storm with winds of 110 mph ( 180 km / h ) . Aside from Chris , Florence , and Gordon , none of the storms exceeded tropical storm intensity .
Tropical Storm Alberto produced significant rainfall and flooding in the Southeastern United States , damaging or destroying over 18 @,@ 000 homes . In August , Tropical Storm Beryl produced heavy rainfall in Florida , Georgia , South Carolina , and North Carolina , with moderate to heavy rainfall throughout several other states . Beryl caused numerous injuries , many of which occurred from a tornado associated with the tropical storm . Tropical Storm Debby killed nine people in the Caribbean in September . Hurricane Gordon was the most significant storm of the season , causing damage from Costa Rica to North Carolina among its six landfalls . Extreme flooding and mudslides from Gordon caused approximately 1 @,@ 122 fatalities in Haiti . In addition , a nor 'easter in December may have had tropical characteristics , though due to the uncertainty , it was not classified as a tropical system .
= = Seasonal forecasts and activity = =
Forecasts of hurricane activity are issued before each hurricane season by noted hurricane experts such as Dr. William M. Gray and his associates at Colorado State University . A normal season , as defined by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration , has six to fourteen named storms , with four to eight of those reaching hurricane strength , and one to three major hurricanes . The 1994 forecast predicted that a total of 10 storms would form , of which six of the storms would reach hurricane status . The forecast also projected that three of the hurricanes would reach major hurricane status .
In terms of tropical cyclone activity , the season was below average , with only seven named storms , three hurricanes , and no major hurricanes . It was one of only five Atlantic hurricane seasons without major hurricanes , the others being the 1968 , 1972 , 1986 and 2013 seasons , although records before 1944 are incomplete . No storms of hurricane intensity formed within the months of September and October for the first time since reliable records began in the 1940s . The season did not produce any major hurricanes , storms of Category 3 status , the first such occurrence since 1986 . The low seasonal activity is attributed to the presence of El Niño , which is a global coupled ocean @-@ atmosphere phenomenon . The season officially began on June 1 , and ended on November 30 . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when the majority of tropical cyclones tend to form in the Atlantic Ocean .
The season 's activity was reflected in a low cumulative accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) rating of 32 . ACE is , broadly speaking , a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed , so storms that last a long time , as well as particularly strong hurricanes , have high ACEs . ACE is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 34 knots ( 39 mph , 63 km / h ) or tropical storm strength .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Storm Alberto = = =
The first storm of the season formed on June 30 near the western tip of Cuba . Initially tracking westward , the depression turned towards the north , though it remained poorly defined . Early on July 2 , the depression organized into Tropical Storm Alberto . Alberto peaked as a tropical storm with winds of 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) , and made landfall near Destin , Florida on July 3 . The storm quickly weakened to a tropical depression over Alabama as it continued to the northeast , but retained a well @-@ organized circulation . High pressures built to its north and east , causing the remnant tropical depression to stall over northwestern Georgia . It began a westward drift and dissipated over central Alabama on July 7 .
Alberto triggered some of the worst flooding ever observed across portions of Georgia , Alabama , and Florida . As a result of the storm 's slow motion , 27 inches ( 690 mm ) of rain fell in some locations . Due to flash flooding , 33 deaths were reported , primarily in Georgia . Over 18 @,@ 000 homes were damaged or destroyed , and in excess of 1 @,@ 000 roads sustained damage . About 900 @,@ 000 acres ( 360 @,@ 000 ha ) of crops were affected by the storm , and 218 dams failed . Total damage from the storm amounted to $ 750 million ( 1994 USD ; $ 1 @.@ 2 billion 2016 USD ) . The flooding from Alberto was considered the worst natural disaster in Georgia 's history .
= = = Tropical Depression Two = = =
The origins of the depression were from a broad upper @-@ level trough that extended northeastward from The Bahamas . An area of convection developed near the Bahamas , spawning a low @-@ pressure area on July 19 . The next day , the system organized into Tropical Depression Two , after confirmation from the Hurricane Hunters . Upon developing , the depression was poorly organized , with most of the thunderstorms located south of the center . On July 20 , the circulation became better organized as the convection increased ; however , the depression moved ashore near Georgetown , South Carolina at 1400 UTC without intensifying beyond winds of 35 miles per hour ( 55 km / h ) . As it moved inland , it turned to the north , dissipating on July 21 near Charlotte , North Carolina . The remnant low continued northeastward across the northeastern United States , becoming unidentifiable on July 22 while entering Nova Scotia .
The depression was never forecast to attain tropical storm status . Officials issued flash flood watches for portions of the southeastern United States . Tropical Depression Two dropped light rainfall throughout the Southeastern United States , the Mid @-@ Atlantic , and parts of New England . It was the first tropical system to make landfall in South Carolina since Hurricane Hugo . Rainfall peaked at 6 @.@ 84 in ( 173 @.@ 7 mm ) in Hamlet , North Carolina . There were no reports of damage or casualties associated with Tropical Depression Two .
= = = Tropical Storm Beryl = = =
After a slow start to the season , Tropical Storm Beryl formed as a tropical depression on August 14 in the Gulf of Mexico . The center moved slowly and erratically in response to an approaching trough , and after moving towards the north , the storm made landfall near Panama City , Florida as a tropical storm . The weakening storm accelerated towards the north @-@ northeast , and the system was identifiable as a low @-@ pressure system as far north as Connecticut .
Tropical Storm Beryl produced heavy rainfall in Florida , Georgia , South Carolina , and North Carolina , with moderate to heavy rainfall throughout several other states . Several rivers from Florida to New York approached or exceeded flood stage . Although no fatalities were directly related to Beryl , several injuries were reported , including 37 due to an associated tornado . Property damage was estimated at $ 73 million ( 1994 USD ; $ 117 million 2016 USD ) .
= = = Hurricane Chris = = =
Hurricane Chris originated from a tropical wave that emerged from the west coast of Africa on August 11 and tracked westward . The associated disturbance organized and was declared a tropical depression on August 16 , while Tropical Storm Beryl was over land . The depression intensified into a tropical storm on August 17 , and the next day it acquired hurricane intensity . Chris maintained hurricane strength for two days , before increased wind shear caused the cyclone to weaken . The storm remained away from land , passing to the east of Bermuda on August 21 , before it merged with an extratropical baroclinic zone to the southeast of Newfoundland .
Hurricane Chris dropped 2 @.@ 83 inches ( 72 mm ) of rain on Bermuda , though no damage or fatalities were reported .
= = = Tropical Depression Five = = =
A tropical wave that was first noted on August 17 tracked westward and reached the Caribbean on August 26 . The wave moved across the Yucatán Peninsula , and developed into a tropical depression on August 29 in the Bay of Campeche . Moving west @-@ northwestward , the system remained below tropical storm status , and made landfall near Tampico on August 31 .
Mexico was affected by rainfall from Tropical Depression Five , which peaked at 16 @.@ 18 inches ( 411 mm ) , while associated moisture from the depression affected San Antonio , Texas .
= = = Tropical Storm Debby = = =
A tropical depression developed from another tropical wave on September 9 . Surface observations and ship reports suggested that it developed into Tropical Storm Debby on September 10 , despite poor organization evidenced by satellite imagery . Peaking with winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) , the storm moved westward through the Leeward Islands and encountered wind shear which limited the storm 's intensity and organization . Wind shear caused the system to deteriorate , and the circulation degenerated into a tropical wave on September 11 .
Tropical Storm Debby killed four people and injured 24 on St. Lucia . Heavy rainfall caused flooding and mudslides , which washed away hillside shacks , eight bridges , and parts of roads . Flood waters were chest @-@ high in some locations , and the storm 's winds damaged banana plantations . Mudslides caused by the storm blocked roads , and water supply was disrupted . On Martinique , one person drowned and some towns were flooded . Downed trees made roads impassable , and up to 20 @,@ 000 people on the island lost power . Three deaths occurred in the Dominican Republic , and a fisherman drowned off of Puerto Rico . Throughout the areas affected by Debby , it is estimated that hundreds of people were homeless .
= = = Tropical Storm Ernesto = = =
A tropical wave exited Africa on September 18 with an area of organized deep convection . The wave was in a series of strong waves that exited Africa later than the climatological peak of the season . Dvorak classifications began on September 21 , and later that day the system developed into Tropical Depression Seven about 500 miles ( 806 km ) southwest of Cape Verde . Wind shear was marginally favorable for development , and the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Ernesto on September 22 . The next morning , the storm attained its peak intensity , with winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) and a minimum atmospheric pressure of 997 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 53 inHg ) .
After peaking , Ernesto entered an area of increasing wind shear and stronger upper @-@ tropospheric flow , resulting in a steady weakening trend . After most of the convection diminished over the center , the storm weakened to a tropical depression on September 24 . Subsequently , it decelerated and turned to a west @-@ northwest drift . The last public advisory was issued on Tropical Depression Ernesto at 2100 UTC September 25 , although it did not dissipate until early the next day , about 450 miles ( 725 km ) west of Cape Verde . The remnants continued generally westward , occasionally redeveloping deep convection but never regenerating into a tropical cyclone . The remnants were no longer identifiable as of September 29 .
= = = Tropical Depression Eight = = =
The eighth depression of the season formed with little convection on September 19 in the southwestern Caribbean . The area of convection lasted for several days moving from northwestern direction to the northeastern . The wave was estimated to have strengthened into Tropical Depression Eight on September 24 near the coast of Honduras . An Air Force aircraft found the depression with a poorly organized circulation and a pressure of 1 @,@ 007 mbar ( 29 @.@ 7 inHg ) . The depression moved west at 7 to 10 mph ( 11 to 16 km / h ) on September 25 . Just before landfall in Belize on September 25 , Eight hit its peak intensity of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) and 1 @,@ 004 mbar ( 29 @.@ 6 inHg ) . The depression made landfall in Mexico and dissipated the next day over Guatemala . Reports show that the remnants of Eight became Tropical Depression Ten . The storm dropped heavy precipitation in and around Belize .
= = = Tropical Depression Nine = = =
Tropical Depression Nine started out as a well @-@ defined cloud circulation that moved off the coast of Africa on September 26 . The circulation was upgraded to the ninth depression of the 1994 season , 174 miles ( 280 km ) southeast of Cape Verde the next day at 1200 UTC when banding cloud patterns became evident on satellite imagery . The depression moved toward the north @-@ northwest at 12 mph ( 19 km / h ) or less , reaching peak intensity early on September 28 , around 0600 UTC , but the LLCC became exposed and the depression lost much of its deep convection later that day . The NHC declared Nine dissipated early on September 29 , near Sal in the Cape Verde Islands .
= = = Tropical Depression Ten = = =
The remnants of Tropical Depression Eight persisted over the northwestern Caribbean in late September . Convection increased and organized after a tropical wave reached the area . A circulation soon developed within the low @-@ pressure area . It was estimated that Tropical Depression Ten formed on September 29 at 0600 UTC . A reconnaissance aircraft did not indicate a closed circulation due to the proximity with Cuba , which caused difficulties with satellite intensity estimates . The system was relatively disorganized , potentially moving ashore in western Cuba near Cabo San Antonio . The tropical depression entered the Gulf of Mexico on September 30 as it turned to the northwest . On September 30 at 0600 UTC , the tropical depression attained its peak intensity , winds had reached 35 mph ( 56 km / h ) and the minimum central pressure had dropped down to 1004 mbar . The depression was soon becoming absorbed by a larger non @-@ tropical system in the southern Gulf of Mexico . By 1800 UTC on September 30 , Tropical Depression Ten had been completely absorbed by the non @-@ tropical system . Initial predictions from the National Hurricane Center estimated that the depression would rapidly develop into a tropical storm . The depression dropped heavy rainfall in Cuba , reaching 12 inches ( 300 mm ) in a 24 hour period in Giron . Rainfall from the tropical depression in the Florida Keys was around 5 inches ( 130 mm ) . The remnants of the depression dropped heavy rains in Florida , causing $ 5 million in damage ( 1994 USD ) .
= = = Hurricane Florence = = =
After a quiet October , the month of November began with the formation of a subtropical depression on November 2 . The storm intensified into a subtropical storm shortly thereafter before weakening to a depression the next day . The subtropical system transitioned into a tropical cyclone about 875 miles ( 1 @,@ 408 km ) east @-@ southeast of Bermuda , and the depression quickly strengthened into Tropical Storm Florence . Florence rapidly intensified and was upgraded to a hurricane on November 4 . The intensification ceased shortly after it started and minor fluctuations in intensity took place over the following three days . Florence was subsequently upgraded to a Category 2 hurricane . A large extratropical system located to the north absorbed the storm on November 8 .
= = = Hurricane Gordon = = =
Hurricane Gordon was the final storm of the season . The system formed near Panama in the southwestern Caribbean Sea on November 9 . Strengthening into a tropical storm , Gordon wound its way north into the Greater Antilles . Despite warm waters , persistent wind shear prevented significant strengthening . Executing a slow turn to the north and then the northwest , Gordon made two more landfalls , on eastern Jamaica and eastern Cuba . As Tropical Storm Gordon made its fourth landfall crossing the Florida Keys , it interacted with a cyclone in the upper troposphere and a series of cyclonic lows which lent the storm some sub @-@ tropical characteristics . After a few days as an unusual hybrid of a tropical and a subtropical system in the Gulf of Mexico , the storm re @-@ claimed its tropical storm status and it made another landfall across the Florida peninsula and continued into the Atlantic Ocean . In the Atlantic , Gordon rapidly strengthened to a Category 1 hurricane . Gordon 's characteristic briefly approached North Carolina , but ultimately the storm headed south , weakening into a minor tropical storm before making its sixth and final landfall on Florida 's east coast . Overall , the storm made six separate landfalls .
Hurricane Gordon caused heavy damage and 1 @,@ 122 fatalities in Haiti ; the storm 's effects extended from Costa Rica to North Carolina in the United States . Over Hispaniola , the persistent southerly flow to the east of the storm , combined with the steep upslope motion of the land , generated prolonged rainfall which triggered disastrous flooding and mudslides . The extreme flooding led to an estimated 1 @,@ 122 fatalities in Haiti , although some reports indicate that up to 2 @,@ 000 people died . Six deaths were also reported in Costa Rica . Elsewhere , five fatalities were reported in the Dominican Republic , two in Jamaica , and two in Cuba . In Florida , the storm caused eight fatalities and 43 injuries . In Volusia County , 1 @,@ 236 buildings reported flood damage . In the state , damage totaled $ 400 million ( 1994 USD ; $ 639 million 2016 USD ) .
= = = Other storms = = =
A weak and broad frontal low absorbed the remnants of Tropical Depression Ten in the central Gulf of Mexico . The Hydrometeorological Prediction Center identified the system as a subtropical storm on October 1 . The subtropical storm moved across Florida and the Southeastern United States on October 2 and 3 ; when it reached the Atlantic Coast , it became an extratropical frontal wave . However , the National Hurricane Center does not confirm the existence of the subtropical cyclone .
In addition to the seven named storms , a nor 'easter formed in late December . As it entered the warm waters of the Gulf Stream in the Atlantic Ocean , it began to rapidly intensify , exhibiting signs of tropical development , including the formation of an eye . It attained a pressure of 970 millibars on December 23 and 24 , and after moving northward , it came ashore near New York City on Christmas Eve . However , due to the uncertain nature of the storm , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) did not classify it as a tropical cyclone .
= = Season effects = =
This is a table of all of the storms that formed in the 1994 Atlantic hurricane season . It includes their duration , names , landfall ( s ) – denoted by bold location names – damage , and death totals . Deaths in parentheses are additional and indirect ( an example of an indirect death would be a traffic accident ) , but are still related to that storm . Damage and deaths include totals while the storm was extratropical or a wave or low , and all of the damage figures are in 1994 USD .
= = Storm names = =
During the season the following names were used for tropical storms , that formed within the north Atlantic Ocean . This was the same list of names that had been used during the 1988 season except for Gordon and Joyce , which replaced Gilbert and Joan . After the season there were no names retired from this list of names and it was subsequently reused during the 2000 season .
= M @-@ 85 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 85 , also known as Fort Street or Fort Road for its entire length , is a state trunkline highway in the U.S. state of Michigan . The highway serves several Downriver suburbs of Detroit , as well as neighborhoods in the city itself . From its southern terminus at exit 28 on Interstate 75 ( I @-@ 75 ) to its second interchange with exit 43 on I @-@ 75 in southwest Detroit , M @-@ 85 is part of the Lake Erie Circle Tour . In between , it serves mostly residential areas running parallel to a pair of rail lines ; the highway carries between 5 @,@ 000 and 43 @,@ 000 vehicles per day on average . Once in the city of Detroit , Fort Street runs parallel to I @-@ 75 for several miles before they separate near the Ambassador Bridge . The northern end of M @-@ 85 is at the intersection with Griswold Street in downtown Detroit , one block away from Campus Martius Park .
Two previous unrelated highways bore the M @-@ 85 designation . The first was in Montcalm County and the second near Caro . These uses were retired in the 1930s and the 1940s , respectively . The current M @-@ 85 was created in 1956 after the construction of the Detroit @-@ Toledo Freeway ; the original northern end was at an intersection with US Highway 25 ( US 25 ) in downtown . The northern end was truncated in the late 1960s to the northern junction with I @-@ 75 . The highway was then extended back into downtown Detroit in the first year of the 21st century .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 85 starts a directional interchange with I @-@ 75 in near Rockwood ; traffic to or from southbound I @-@ 75 must use Gibraltar Road instead . M @-@ 85 runs north from this interchange to Gibraltar Road as a full freeway ; north of that intersection the highway becomes a boulevard . There are many businesses directly adjacent to Fort Street in the Downriver area with residential subdivisions on either side of them . The trunkline parallels lines of the Norfolk Southern and Canadian National railways . In this area , M @-@ 85 is also running parallel to , but inland from , the southern part of the Detroit River . The highway runs northeasterly through Gibraltar to Trenton , where it turns due north . Fort Street forms the boundary between Riverview and Trenton in the area near the Riverview Landing Shopping Center ; north of here , Riverview extends along both sides of the road . At Pennsylvania Road , Fort Street crosses into the city of Southgate and curves to the northeast . The highway returns to a due northerly course near Memorial Park and continues along the Southgate – Wyandotte city line . This area is mainly residential neighborhoods that extend in street grids on either side of the Fort Street boulevard .
The highway crosses the South Branch of the Ecorse River and enters the city of Lincoln Park . Through this Detroit suburb , Fort Street angles slightly northeasterly before turning sharply to the northeast at Champaign Road . M @-@ 85 's new direction keeps it parallel to the Detroit River about one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) away . When the trunkline crosses the North Branch of the Ecorse River , M @-@ 85 enters the city of Detroit near Outer Drive . Fort Street runs parallel to I @-@ 75 through the Boynton – Oakwood Heights neighborhoods of the city . North of the intersection with Schaefer Highway , M @-@ 85 meets an interchange with I @-@ 75 and passes under the freeway , crossing to its northwest side . At this interchange , the LECT designation is transferred from M @-@ 85 to I @-@ 75 . Fort Street continues running between an industrial area and I @-@ 75 . In this area , the highway crosses more rail lines belonging to Norfolk Southern and Conrail before crossing the River Rouge and turning east @-@ northeast . Fort Street continues through the Delray neighborhood and crosses under I @-@ 75 again ; there is no interchange at this location . These two highways continue in parallel to the north of Fort Wayne and the Detroit Harbor Terminals / Boblo Island Detroit Dock Building ; M @-@ 85 intersects Grand Boulevard and passes under the approaches for the Ambassador Bridge ; I @-@ 75 turns inland near the bridge 's toll plaza north of Fort Street . M @-@ 85 continues along the river into the Corktown neighborhood .
As M @-@ 85 approaches downtown , it crosses over the Michigan Central Railway Tunnel . Several blocks later , the highway passes over M @-@ 10 ( Lodge Freeway ) without an interchange near Joe Louis Arena . Fort Street continues carrying the M @-@ 85 designation as far east as the intersection with Griswold Street ; this intersection is also the location of the Chase Tower and the Cadillac Tower one block west of Cadillac Square .
M @-@ 85 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) like other state highways in Michigan . As a part of these maintenance responsibilities , the department tracks the volume of traffic that uses the roadways under its jurisdiction . These volumes are expressed using a metric called annual average daily traffic , which is a statistical calculation of the average daily number of vehicles on a segment of roadway . MDOT 's surveys in 2010 showed that the highest traffic levels along M @-@ 85 were the 42 @,@ 786 vehicles daily in Wyandotte ; the lowest count was 5 @,@ 976 vehicles per day at the southern terminus . All of M @-@ 85 has been listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility . Between the two I @-@ 75 interchanges , M @-@ 85 is the closest state trunkline to Lake Erie and the Detroit River , making it a part of the Lake Erie Circle Tour ( LECT ) .
= = History = =
= = = Previous designations = = =
In 1919 , the first version of M @-@ 85 ran from then M @-@ 66 east to M @-@ 43 at Stanton in Montcalm County . This highway was later extended in 1929 from Stanton north to Edmore . By the end of 1930 , this designation was removed when M @-@ 57 was extended through the area . A new M @-@ 85 was then designated between Mayville and Caro . This second designation was supplanted by an extended and rerouted M @-@ 24 in late 1941 or early 1942 .
= = = Current designation = = =
When the Detroit – Toledo Freeway opened in 1956 , several local roads were given the M @-@ 85 designation between the new freeway in Woodhaven into downtown Detroit to end at US 25 / M @-@ 17 . The northern end was truncated in 1968 to the interchange with I @-@ 75 in Detroit when that freeway was completed in the area . In the 1980s , the Great Lakes Circle Tours were created by the state of Michigan in consultation with neighboring states and the province of Ontario ; after the tours were created in 1986 , M @-@ 85 was added to the LECT .
At the end of 2000 , MDOT proposed several highway transfers in Detroit . Some of these involved transferring city streets in the Campus Martius Park area under the department 's jurisdiction to city control ; another part of the proposal involved MDOT assuming control over a section of Fort Street from the then northern terminus of M @-@ 85 to the then southern terminus of M @-@ 3 at Clark Street . When these transfers were completed the following year , M @-@ 3 was severed into two discontinuous segments by the Campus Martius changes , and the southern segment between Clark and Griswold streets was added to an extended M @-@ 85 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Wayne County .
= German nationalism in Austria =
German nationalism ( German : Deutschnationalismus ) is a political ideology and historical current in Austrian politics . It arose in the 19th century as a nationalist movement amongst the German @-@ speaking population of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Empire . It favours close ties with Germany , which it views as the nation @-@ state for all ethnic Germans , and the possibility of the incorporation of Austria into a Greater Germany .
Over the course of Austrian history , from the Austrian Empire , to Austria @-@ Hungary , and the First and the Second Austrian Republics , several political parties and groups have expressed pan @-@ German nationalist sentiment . National liberal and pan @-@ Germanist parties have been termed the " Third Camp " ( German : Drittes Lager ) of Austrian politics , as they have traditionally been ranked behind mainstream Catholic conservatives and socialists . The Freedom Party of Austria , a far @-@ right political party with representation in the Austrian parliament , has pan @-@ Germanist roots . After the Second World War , both pan @-@ Germanism and the idea of political union with Germany were discredited by their association with Nazism , and by the rising tide of a civic Austrian national identity .
= = During the imperial period = =
Within the context of rising ethnic nationalism during the 19th century in the territories of the multi @-@ ethnic Austrian Empire , the " German National Movement " ( German : Deutschnationale Bewegung ) sought the creation of a Greater Germany , along with the implementation of anti @-@ semitic and anti @-@ clerical policies , in an attempt to entrench the German ethnic identity . Starting with the revolutions of 1848 , many ethnic groups under imperial rule , including the Czechs , Italians , Croats , Slovenes , and Poles , amongst others , demanded political , economic , and cultural equality . Traditionally , the German @-@ speaking population of the Empire enjoyed societal privileges dating back to the reign of Empress Maria Theresa , and that of her son , Joseph II . German was considered the lingua franca of the Empire , and Empire 's elite consisted primarily of German @-@ speakers . The struggle between the many ethnic groups of the Empire and German @-@ speakers defined the social and political landscape of the Empire from the 1870s , after the Compromise of 1867 , which granted renewed sovereignty to the Kingdom of Hungary , until the dissolution of the Empire after the First World War . After the Austrian defeat in the Battle of Königgrätz of 1866 , and the unification of the what was known as " Lesser Germany " under Prussian stewardship in 1871 , German @-@ speakers in the Empire felt that they had been excluded from the German nation @-@ state , whilst other ethnicities within the Empire were tearing at its fabric . Conflict between Germans and Czechs grew particularly tense in 1879 , when minister @-@ president Viscount Taaffe did not include the German @-@ Liberal Party ( German : Deutschliberale Partei ) in the government of Cisleithania . This party was considered the main representative of the German @-@ speaking middle class , and as such , the German National Movement went on to accuse the Party of not fighting for the rights of German @-@ speakers within the Empire . The " German School League " ( German : Deutscher Schulverein ) was formed in 1880 to protect German @-@ language schools in parts of the Empire where German speakers were a minority . It promoted the establishment of German @-@ language schools in communities where public funding was used for non @-@ German schools .
A consortium of German nationalist groups and intellectuals published the Linz Program in 1882 , which demanded the recognition of German predominance in the Empire , along with the complete Germanisation of the Empire . This manifesto was signed by the radical German nationalist Georg von Schönerer , Vienna 's populist , pro @-@ Catholic , and royalist mayor Karl Lueger , and the Jewish social democrat Victor Adler . The diverse signatories of the Linz manifesto split ideologically after Schönerer revised it to add an " Aryan paragraph " in 1885 .
Schönerer founded the " German National Society " , and later , in 1891 , the " Pan @-@ German Society " . He demanded the annexation of all German @-@ speaking territories of Austria @-@ Hungary to the Prussian @-@ led German Empire and rejected any form of Austrian pan @-@ ethnic identity . His radical racist German nationalism was especially popular amongst the well @-@ educated intelligentsia : professors , grammar school teachers , and students . School administrations tried to counteract these sentiments by encouraging civic pride , along with a " cult of personality " around the Emperor , but these efforts were largely unsuccessful . Vienna mayor Karl Lueger even tried to dismiss all " Schönerians " from city school administrations , but this too failed . National @-@ minded students rather identified with the Prussian @-@ led German Empire than with the multiethnic Dual Monarchy . Many idolised the German chancellor Otto von Bismarck , victor in the Battle of Königgrätz . Members of the pan @-@ German movement wore blue cornflowers , known to be the favourite flower of German Emperor William I , in their buttonholes , along with cockades in the German national colours ( black , red , and yellow ) . Both symbols were temporarily banned in Austrian schools . By contrast with the German National Society , the " German Club " accepted the Habsburg dynasty , and the sovereignty of Austria . The majority of German nationalists and liberals adhered to this more moderate ideology .
German nationalists protested vehemently against minister @-@ president Kasimir Count Badeni 's language decree of 1897 , which made German and Czech co @-@ official languages in Bohemia and required new government officials to be fluent in both languages . This meant in practice that the civil service would almost exclusively hire Czechs , because most educated Czechs knew German , but not the other way around . The support of ultramontane Catholic politicians and clergy for this reform triggered the launch of the " Away from Rome " ( German : Los @-@ von @-@ Rom ) movement , which was initiated by supporters of Schönerer and called on " German " Christians to leave the Roman Catholic Church .
From the 1880s , the pan @-@ Germanist movement was fragmented into several splinter parties and factions . The most radical was the German Workers ' Party , formed in 1903 , which later transformed into the Austrian wing of the Nazi Party . Other pan @-@ Germanist parties that contested elections during the first decade of the 20th century include the German People 's Party and the German Radical Party . A broad coalition of all ethnic German national and liberal political parties known as the Deutscher Nationalverband ( lit . German National Association ) was formed to contest the 1911 election to the Cisleithanian Imperial Council . It went on to gain the most seats in lower house of the Council , the House of Deputies ( German : Abgeordnetenhaus ) , replacing the previously dominant Christian Social Party . Despite this victory , the German National Association was always a very loose coalition with little unity amongst its ranks , and collapsed in 1917 at the height of First World War . It disintegrated into seventeen scattered German liberal and national parties . This disintegration , combined with dissolution of Austria @-@ Hungary at the end of the First World War , led to the total fragmentation of pan @-@ Germanist movement .
= = Dissolution of Austria @-@ Hungary ( 1918 – 1919 ) = =
After the end of the First World War , which saw the collapse of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Empire , German @-@ speaking parts of the former Empire established a new republic under the name " German Austria " ( German : Deutsch @-@ Österreich ) . The republic was proclaimed on the principle of self @-@ determination , which had been enshrined within American president Woodrow Wilson 's Fourteen Points . A provisional national assembly was convened on 11 November , at which the Republic of German Austria was proclaimed . The assembly drafted a constitution that stated that " German Austria is a democratic republic " ( Article 1 ) and " German Austria is a component of the German Republic " ( Article 2 ) . This phrase referenced the establishment of the Weimar Republic in the former lands of the German Empire , and intended to unite German @-@ speaking Austrians with the German nation @-@ state , completing the Greater Germany plan . Plebiscites held in Tyrol and Salzburg yielded majorities of 98 % and 99 % respectively in favour of unification with Germany .
Despite this , the victors of the First World War , who drafted the treaties of Versailles and Saint @-@ Germain @-@ en @-@ Laye , strictly forbid any attempt by German Austria to unify with Germany . They also gave some lands that had been claimed by German Austria to newly formed nation @-@ states . An example of this was the giving of the provinces of German Bohemia and the Sudetenland to the Czecho @-@ Slovak Republic . These lands , having German @-@ speaking majorities , were prevented from being within their own nation @-@ state . Instead , they were trapped in the nation @-@ states of other ethnicities . This grievance would play a fundamental part in the rise of pan @-@ Germanism during the Interwar period . Karl Renner , a member of the Social Democratic Workers ' Party , served as chancellor of German Austria . Renner himself was a proponent of the idea of " Greater Germany " , and penned the unofficial anthem Deutschösterreich , du herrliches Land ( " German Austria , you wonderful country " ) . Renner was born in southern Moravia , which was one of the lands claimed by German Austria , but instead given to the Czecho @-@ Slovak Republic . Despite his background , however , he signed the Treaty of Saint @-@ Germain on 10 September 1919 , which established the Allied @-@ drawn borders of the new Austrian republic , and formally forbid any attempt to unify the German @-@ speaking lands of the former Austria @-@ Hungary with Germany . The name " German Austria " was changed to " Austria " , removing any hint of pan @-@ Germanist sentiment from the name of the state . Nevertheless , the Social Democrats would not forget their pan @-@ Germanist roots . To them , the Weimar Republic was regarded with " exaggerated sympathy " , whilst the Czecho @-@ Slovak Republic was viewed with " exaggerated suspicion " .
= = During the First Republic and Austrofascist period ( 1919 – 1938 ) = =
During the First Austrian Republic , pan @-@ Germanists were represented by the Greater German People 's Party and the agrarian Landbund . Although initially influential , these two groups soon lost most of their voters to the Christian Social Party and the Social Democratic Party . Both the Christian Socials and the Social Democrats accepted that unification between Austria and Germany was forbidden by the Treaty of Saint @-@ Germain . A conflict would develop , however , between those who supported an Austrian national identity , such as the Christian Socials , and those rooted in German nationalism , such as the Social Democrats .
One of the foundational problems of the First Republic was that those who had supported the concept of a democratic republic from the German Austria period onward , such as the Social Democrats , did not consider themselves " Austrian " , but instead were German nationalists . Those who supported an Austrian national identity , an Austria without the word " German " attached , were conservative and largely undemocratic in persuasion : former Imperial bureaucrats , army officers , priests , aristocrats , and affiliated with the Christian Social Party . In the words of historian A. J. P. Taylor , " The democrats were not ' Austrian ' ; the ' Austrians ' were not democrats . " These two groups , the German nationalist democrats , and the Austrian nationalist conservatives , would squabble throughout the first decade of the First Republic . Ultimately , the Austrian nationalist faction would overthrow the democratic republic in 1934 and establish a regime rooted in " Austrofascism " under the protection of Fascist Italy .
While most of right @-@ wing Heimwehren paramilitary groups active during the First Republic were rooted in Austrian nationalism , and either affiliated with the conservative Christian Socials , or inspired by Italian Fascism , there was also a German nationalist faction . This faction was most notable within the Styrian Heimatschutz ( " homeland protection " ) . Its leader , Walter Pfrimer , attempted a putsch against a Christian Social government in September 1931 . The putsch was directly modelled on the Benito Mussolini 's March on Rome , but failed almost instantly due to lack of support from other Heimwehr groups . Pfrimer subsequently founded the " German Heimatschutz " , which would later merge into the Nazi Party .
The idea of an Anschluss , that is , annexation of Austria to Germany in an attempt to create a Greater Germany , was one of the principle ideas of the Austrian branch of the National Socialist ( Nazi ) Party . Nazism can be seen as descended from the radical branches of the pan @-@ Germanist movement . In 1933 , the Nazis and the Greater German People 's Party formed a joint working @-@ group , and eventually merged . During the period while the Nazi Party and its symbols were banned in Austria , from 1933 to 1938 , Austrian Nazis resumed the earlier pan @-@ Germanist tradition of wearing a blue cornflower in their buttonhole .
The Nazis firmly fought the austrofascist regime of chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss , and orchestrated his assassination . They continued this battle against his successor , Kurt Schuschnigg . Austrofacism was strongly supported by Benito Mussolini , leader of Fascist Italy . Mussolini 's support for an independent Austria can be seen in a discussion he had with Prince Ernst Rüdiger Starhemberg , an important Austrian nationalist and Heimwehr leader . He said that " an Anschluss with Germany must never be permitted ... Austria is necessary to the maintenance of Europe ... the day that Austria falls and is swallowed up by Germany will mark the beginning of European chaos . " The austrofascist party , Fatherland Front , would echo the sentiments of Mussolini , and continue to struggle for an independent Austria . Nazis in both Germany and Austria intended that the German Reich would quickly annex Austria , the homeland of its leader , Adolf Hitler . They attempted to bribe many low @-@ ranking Heimwehr leaders , and also attempted to bring Starhemberg into their fold , in effect merging the Heimwehr with the Nazi Freikorps . Gregor Strasser , a prominent Nazi figure , was charged with this effort . When Starhemberg , a fervent believer in an independent Austria , rejected his merger proposal , Strasser said " Don 't talk to me about Austria . There is no Austria ... there was once a living corpse which called itself Austria ... that this Austria collapsed in 1918 was a blessing ... particularly for the German people , who were thereby given the chance to create a Greater Germany . "
After this , tensions between the Nazis and austrofascists worsened , culminating in the July Putsch of 1934 , when Nazis attempted to overthrow the government . Whilst they managed to assassinate chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss , the putsch was quickly crushed by the police , army , and Heimwehren . In the aftermath of the putsch , conflict between the Social Democrats and the ruling austrofascists led to the Austrian Civil War later in the year . After their defeat , the Social Democratic Party was outlawed entirely . This , in tandem with a continued a campaign of violence and propaganda by the Nazis , destabilised the austrofascist regime , and rallied many to support the idea of Anschluss . The Nazi campaign was ultimately successful , and Hitler would go on to annex Austria in 1938 with the Anschluss . The historical aim of the pan @-@ Germanist movement in Austria was achieved . The pan @-@ Germanists were then fully absorbed into the Nazi Party ( NSDAP ) .
= = During the Second Republic ( since 1945 ) = =
After the end of the Second World War , when Austria was re @-@ established as an independent state , the German nationalist movement was discredited because of its links to the former Nazi regime . The dominant parties of the new republic were the Christian conservative Austrian People 's Party and the Socialist Party . Both promoted Austrian independence , and considered the idea of a " Greater Germany " an anachronism . All former members of the Nazi party were banned from any political activity , and disenfranchised . The pan @-@ Germanist and liberal " Third Camp " was later revived in the form of the Federation of Independents ( German : Verband der Unabhängigen ) , which fought De @-@ Nazification laws imposed by the Allies , and represented the interests of former Nazis , Wehrmacht , and SS soldiers . In 1956 , the Federation was transformed into the Freedom Party of Austria . In the 1950s and 1960s , the German nationalist movement , represented by the Freedom Party and its affiliated organisations , was very active in universities , where the Burschenschaften , a type of student fraternity , helped spread German nationalist and liberal views . Inside the Freedom Party , the liberal wing grew to overtake the pan @-@ Germanist wing , and Austrian patriotism was gradually incorporated into the party 's ideology . During Norbert Steger 's party leadership during 1980 – 1986 , and the Freedom Party 's participation in a coalition government with the Social Democrats , the pan @-@ Germanist faction was weakened further .
By contrast , Jörg Haider 's assumption of party leadership in 1986 was considered a triumph by the German nationalist faction . However , Haider 's right @-@ wing populism did not stress pan @-@ Germanist traditions , as doing so would have cost votes . In 1987 , only six percent of Austrian citizens identified themselves as " Germans " . While Haider had branded Austrian national identity as an ideological construct , going so far to refer to it as a " monstrosity " ( German : Mißgeburt ) in 1988 , he launched the " Austria First " petition in 1993 , and claimed two years later that the Freedom Party was a " classical Austrian patriotic party " , expressly renouncing his earlier " monstrosity " statement . The influence of German nationalism was still present , however , and could be seen in hostile actions against Slavic minorities in Austria , such as in conflicts over bilingual road sign with the Carinthian Slovenes , along with hostility to immigration and European integration . Traditional Greater German ideas have therefore been replaced by a German @-@ Austrian concept ( i.e. only considering Austrians of German origin and tongue as " real " Austrians ) . This may be summarised as an " amalgamation of traditional German nationalism with Austrian patriotism " .
Presently , the pan @-@ Germanist wing is only a minor faction within the Freedom Party . In 2008 , fewer than seventeen percent of the Freedom Party 's voters questioned the existence of a unique Austrian national identity . German nationalists , including Andreas Mölzer and Martin Graf , now refer to themselves as " cultural Germans " ( Kulturdeutsche ) , and stress the importance of their identity as ethnic Germans , in contrast to the distinct Austrian national identity . In 2006 , FPÖ members of parliament reaffirmed the party 's root in the pan @-@ Germanist tradition , at least symbolically , by wearing blue cornflowers in their buttonholes , along with ribbons in Austria 's national colours ( red and white ) , during the initial meeting of the National Council . This caused controversy , as the media interpreted the flower as a former Nazi symbol .
= 2010 Food City 500 =
The 2010 Food City 500 was held on March 21 , 2010 at Bristol Motor Speedway in Bristol , Tennessee as the fifth race of the 2010 NASCAR Sprint Cup Series season . This race marked the last appearance of the rear wing on the Car of Tomorrow , with the spoiler returning the following race .
This race also was the first of three in Carl Edwards ' probation following his altercation with Brad Keselowski at the previous race at Atlanta Motor Speedway , in which Keselowski went airborne , subsequently crashing on his side door . The race had 39 lead changes among 13 different leaders and 10 cautions .
The race attendance of 138 @,@ 000 marked the end of a long streak of sellout seats at the track , which has a capacity of 158 @,@ 000 . The race had been a sellout since 1982 . Draconian regulations kept intact since the 1970s along with rising ticket prices and unexciting restrictor plate races at Talladega and Daytona helped to contribute to the empty seats at NASCAR races in addition to declining TV ratings .
= = Race report = =
= = = Practices and qualifying = = =
In the first practice , the fastest were Joey Logano , Matt Kenseth , Mark Martin , Jimmie Johnson , and Kasey Kahne ; the practice also had three red flags because Kyle Busch , Bobby Labonte , and Jimmie Johnson spun on the frontstretch . During qualifying , Joey Logano won his first Sprint Cup Series pole position while Kurt Busch , Dave Blaney , Jimmie Johnson , and Jeff Gordon rounded out the top @-@ five . There were only two drivers who failed to qualify : Mike Bliss and Max Papis . In the second practice , the fastest were Jimmie Johnson , Juan Pablo Montoya , Jeff Gordon , Dale Earnhardt , Jr . , and Joey Logano . During final practice , the fastest were Jimmie Johnson , Juan Pablo Montoya , Matt Kenseth , Jamie McMurray , and Joey Logano .
= = = Race summary = = =
For pre @-@ race concerts , the musical group 4TROOPS , a military band , and Lee Greenwood performed for the fans . Afterward , 4TROOPS performed the National Anthem , and Rev. Mike Rife , of Vansant Church of Christ , gave the Invocation . Steve Austin gave the command " Gentlemen , start your engines ! " . Before the race , Terry Cook moved to the back of the field because he missed driver introductions . For the first time in his young career , Joey Logano led the field for the green flag . Immediately after the start , Kurt Busch passed him for the lead . On lap 6 , Jimmie Johnson passed Busch for the lead . While Logano fell back , Johnson continued to lead until lap 30 ; Busch passed him in heavy traffic . Busch kept the lead until lap 40 , at the first caution . The caution came out when Dave Blaney had a flat tire . Brad Keselowski stayed out while other drivers came in to change tires and add gasoline which resulted him getting the lead . On lap 46 , the green flag came out again . Keselowski kept the lead until lap 53 when Jimmie Johnson passed him . Five laps later , the second caution came out because Clint Bowyer slammed into the wall from a blown engine . Few drivers went to change tires and add gasoline on this caution ; Johnson led the field to the green flag on lap 62 . Johnson kept the lead until lap 99 when Busch passed him in traffic . After Kurt Busch led for seventeen laps , the third caution came out because Denny Hamlin hit the wall in turn two . Most drivers went to pit road to change their tires , but Busch was first off pit road and led them to the green flag on lap 123 . Busch 's lead would not continue for long as Greg Biffle passed him on lap 124 . Three laps later , the fourth caution came out because of rain . With the few rain drops at the track , NASCAR decided to keep the cars on the track to help make sure the track would stay dry . After a sixteen lap caution period , the race resumed on lap 143 with Biffle as the leader . On lap 158 , Jimmie Johnson attempted to get the lead but Biffle remained the leader . On lap 191 he was passed by Juan Pablo Montoya for the lead , but four laps later Biffle retook it .
Nine laps later , on lap 204 , Biffle was still the leader , but the fifth caution flag came out because Kasey Kahne hit the wall . On lap 210 the green flag came out with Juan Pablo Montoya the leader . After some switching positions on lap 223 Kurt Busch took the lead . Soon after the lead change , there was a green flag run until lap 263 when the sixth yellow came out because Kyle Busch slammed the outside wall . The race resumed on lap 271 with Kurt Busch the leader .
At lap 300 , the top three drivers were Kurt Busch , Mark Martin , and Jimmie Johnson . Then on lap 323 the seventh caution flag waved because Regan Smith had tire troubles . Kurt Busch won the race out of pit road to lead the field to the green flag on lap 331 . Ten laps later , on lap 342 , the eighth caution came out because of a large wreck . The wreck started with Mark Martin and Greg Biffle colliding ; thirteen more cars were involved . On lap 358 , the green flag came out with Kurt Busch the leader . By lap 370 , the top three positions were occupied by Kurt Busch , Jimmie Johnson , and Jamie McMurray . Rain brought out the ninth caution twenty laps later .
On lap 411 , the green flag came back out with Brad Keselowski the leader ; Kurt Busch passed him three laps later . By lap 433 , Jimmie Johnson caught Kurt Busch . Johnson tried to pass Busch on lap 444 , but did not get the lead . During the longest green flag run of the race , Joey Logano hit the turn two wall on lap 479 ; there was no caution . Three laps later , the tenth caution came out because of debris on the track . During pit stops , Greg Biffle beat everyone out of pit road to lead the field to the green flag on lap 490 . Busch and Johnson were fifth and sixth . On lap 492 , Tony Stewart took the lead from Biffle ; Johnson passed him on the outside a lap later . Jimmie Johnson kept the lead to earn his first career win at Bristol . It was his fiftieth win in his Sprint Cup Series career , and his third win of 2010 .
= = Race results = =
= Operation Fustian =
Operation Fustian was an airborne forces operation undertaken during the Allied invasion of Sicily in July 1943 in the Second World War . The operation was carried out by Brigadier Gerald Lathbury 's 1st Parachute Brigade , part of the British 1st Airborne Division . Their objective was the Primosole Bridge across the Simeto River . The intention was for the brigade , with glider @-@ borne forces in support , to land on both sides of the river . They would then capture the bridge and secure the surrounding area until relieved by the advance of British XIII Corps , which had landed on the south eastern coast three days previously . Because the bridge was the only crossing on the river and would give the British Eighth Army access to the Catania plain , its capture was expected to speed the advance and lead to the defeat of the Axis forces in Sicily .
Many of the aircraft carrying the paratroopers from North Africa were shot down or were damaged and turned back by friendly fire and enemy action . Evasive action taken by the pilots scattered the brigade over a large area and only the equivalent of two companies of troops were landed in the correct locations . Despite this and the defence by German and Italian forces , the British paratroops captured the bridge , repulsed attacks and held out against increasing odds until nightfall . The relief force led by the 50th ( Northumbrian ) Infantry Division , under Major @-@ General Sidney C. Kirkman , which was short of transport , were still 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) away when they halted for the night . By this time , with casualties mounting and supplies running short , the parachute brigade commander , Gerald Lathbury , had relinquished control of the bridge to the Germans . The following day the British units joined forces and the 9th Battalion , Durham Light Infantry , with tank support , attempted to recapture the bridge . The bridge was not finally secured until three days after the start of the operation , when another battalion of the Durham Light Infantry , led by the paratroopers , established a bridgehead on the north bank of the river .
The capture of Primosole Bridge did not lead to the expected rapid advance , as by this time the Germans had gathered their forces and established a defensive line . It was not until early the following month that the Eighth Army captured Catania . By this time the 1st Parachute Brigade had been withdrawn to Malta and took no further part in the conquest of Sicily . Lessons were learned from the operation and were put into practice in Allied airborne operations .
= = Background = =
After the Axis powers were defeated in North Africa , the Allied armies ' next logical objective was to cross the Mediterranean , landing in either the south of France , the Balkans , Sicily or Italy . The objective chosen was Sicily , with the landing scheduled for 10 July 1943 . The Allied 15th Army Group was commanded by General Sir Harold Alexander . It consisted of the United States Seventh Army , commanded by Lieutenant General George S. Patton , which would land in the west between Licata and Scoglitti , and the veteran British Eighth Army , commanded by the experienced General Bernard Montgomery , which would land in the south east between Cape Passero and Syracuse .
In addition to the seaborne landings , there were also airborne landings during the invasion . The US 82nd Airborne Division would land in support of the Seventh Army , while the British 1st Airborne Division conducted brigade @-@ sized landings along the eastern coast to support the Eighth Army .
The first British airborne landing was Operation Ladbroke , which was carried out by the 1st Airlanding Brigade during the night of 9 – 10 July . Their objective was to seize and hold the Ponte Grande bridge just outside Syracuse . The second British airborne mission , Operation Glutton , was to have been undertaken by the 2nd Parachute Brigade on the night of 10 – 11 July , aiming to capture a bridge beside Augusta . However circumstances changed and the second operation was cancelled .
The third British airborne mission planned was Operation Fustian , to be carried out by the 1st Parachute Brigade , and scheduled for the night of 13 – 14 July . The 1st Parachute Brigade 's objective was the Primosole bridge , crossing the Simeto River , south of Catania . The bridge was a vital objective , as it was the only crossing point over the Simeto . Its capture would give the Eighth Army access to the Catania plain , to enable them to continue their advance northwards ; its destruction would seriously hamper the advance . Once the parachute brigade had captured the bridge , they would then have to defend it until relieved by units of the Eighth Army advancing from the landing beaches .
= = = British forces = = =
The 1st Parachute Brigade was commanded by Brigadier Gerald Lathbury and comprised the 1st Parachute Battalion , the 2nd Parachute Battalion , the 3rd Parachute Battalion , the 16th ( Parachute ) Field Ambulance , the 1st ( Parachute ) Squadron , Royal Engineers and the 1st ( Airlanding ) Anti @-@ Tank Battery , Royal Artillery . The airlanding anti @-@ tank battery were equipped with the 1st Para Brigade 's only anti @-@ tank guns , the British 6 pounder . Despite the formation being a parachute brigade , the only way to transport the anti @-@ tank guns and the jeeps required to pull them when they had landed , was by glider . Transporting artillery by air was something new to the British or any other army , and this would be the first time that any artillery guns had ever been flown into combat .
The 1st Parachute Brigade was an experienced formation , initially under command of the 1st Airborne Division before being detached from the division to fight in North Africa . The brigade had taken part in the landings in Algeria in November 1942 and the subsequent Battle of Tunisia , during which each of the brigade 's three parachute battalions had taken part in their own battalion @-@ sized parachute landings . It was during this campaign that the 1st Parachute Brigade had been given their nickname the Red Devils by the Germans . A British parachute battalion had an establishment of 556 men in three rifle companies . Each of the companies were divided into a small headquarters and three platoons . The platoons had three sections ; each section had a Bren machine gun and a 2 @-@ inch mortar as well as the men 's own personal weapons . The only heavy weapons in the parachute battalion were in the 3 @-@ inch Mortar platoon and the Vickers machine gun platoon which were part of the battalion headquarters .
It was decided that the brigade 's paratroops would land on four separate drop zones and that the gliders would land at two landing zones . The paratroops of the 1st Parachute Battalion were divided into two groups , one of which would land at ' Drop zone One ' to the north of the river , and the second at ' Drop zone Two ' to the south of it . Once they had landed the two groups would head for their assembly points , before conducting an assault on the bridge from both sides simultaneously . The 2nd Parachute Battalion were to be landed south of the bridge on ' Drop zone Three ' , in the area between the Gornalunga Canal and the main highway . The 2nd Battalion then had to assault and occupy three small hills , which had been given the codenames ' Johnny I ' , ' Johnny II ' and ' Johnny III ' . The hills were believed to be occupied by an Italian force of around platoon strength . Once the battalion had secured the three hills , they were to dig in and prepare to defend the hills against an attack from the south . The 3rd Parachute Battalion would land at ' Drop zone Four ' , 1 @,@ 000 yards ( 910 m ) north of the bridge . Their objective was to secure the ground in this area , defending against any counterattack from the direction of Catania . The brigade 's glider force had two landing areas , ' Landing zone Seven ' north of the river and ' Landing zone Eight ' south of the river . Owing to the complexity of the landing plan and the short time between inception and execution , the pathfinders belonging to the 21st Independent Parachute Company , Army Air Corps , would be deployed to mark the correct drop zones . This was the first occasion this had been done in British airborne operations . The pathfinder company had special marker lights and Rebecca and Eureka beacons that the transport aircraft and gliders would be able to identify and home in on .
The senior officers of the 1st Airborne Division had estimated that there would be around 450 casualties during the capture of the bridge , of which 25 per cent would be killed or missing , and the other 75 per cent wounded . It was appreciated that by themselves the three battalions ' medical officers and staff would be unable to cope with the expected numbers of casualties , so one section from the 16th ( Parachute ) Field Ambulance , consisting of one doctor and 16 other ranks , would be attached to each of the parachute battalions . The remainder of the field ambulance , comprising the headquarters with two surgical teams , would be co @-@ located with the brigade and establish their main dressing station in farm buildings to the south of the bridge .
After problems with the first two airborne operations in Sicily , the Royal Air Force advisor assigned to the 1st Airborne Division suggested that the American C @-@ 47 pilots adopt the Royal Air Force bomber stream formation . This entailed the aircraft flying in pairs one behind the other with one minute between each aircraft , instead of flying in their normal ' V ' formation . The suggestion was dismissed by the American pilots , who were mostly pre @-@ war airline pilots , not least because their training had not included any instruction in night time navigation and the inexperienced crews relied heavily on following the aircraft in front .
Unconnected with Operation Fustian , but being conducted at the same time , No. 3 Commando would carry out a separate operation 8 miles ( 13 km ) to the south of the Simeto River . The commando unit were to carry out an amphibious landing from the sea , then assault and capture the Malati Bridge over the Leonardo River .
The relieving force for both the commandos and paratroopers would be from British XIII Corps , commanded by Lieutenant @-@ General Miles C. Dempsey . The corps consisted of the 5th Infantry Division , 50th ( Northumbrian ) Infantry Division and the 4th Armoured Brigade . The armoured brigade , with three tank regiments , was equipped with the American built Sherman tank . Early on 13 July the commander of the 50th Division , Major @-@ General Sidney C. Kirkman , was called to General Montgomery 's Eighth Army headquarters . Here he was informed about the two missions by the British Commandos and the 1st Parachute Brigade , and the requirement for the bridges to be captured intact . Montgomery 's intention was for the 50th Division to lead the Eighth Army 's advance and relieve the commandos and the paratroopers . To assist Kirkman in the task , Montgomery placed the 4th Armoured Brigade under his command . Montgomery was insistent that he wanted the infantry division to relieve the parachute brigade early on 14 July , which would require the division to advance around 25 miles ( 40 km ) in 24 hours . The 50th Division had landed on 10 July and by this time had been fighting for three days non @-@ stop . With the daily temperature most of the time reaching 100 ° F ( 38 ° C ) , many of the men in the division were physically exhausted and suffering from heat exhaustion . The division 's situation was not improved by a grave error of judgement by Montgomery . During the planning for the invasion , he had overestimated the strength of the German and Italian resistance to the Allied landings . The British Eighth Army consisted mainly of infantry , tanks and heavy weapons but were light on any form of mechanical transport , so any advance by the 50th Division would have to be conducted on foot .
= = = Axis forces = = =
The Italian Army force in the area of Primosole Bridge came from the 213 Coastal Division commanded by General Carlo Gotti . Coastal divisions were second line divisions , usually formed from men in their forties and fifties , and were intended to perform labour or other second line duties . Recruited from the local population , their officers were mostly men who had retired but had then been called up again . Their morale was low , not least because of their second rate equipment and weapons . It had been intended to improve their armaments with equipment seized from the recently disbanded Vichy French army , but when the arms arrived in Sicily , many of them had been made unusable , and some had the wrong type of ammunition or no ammunition at all .
The Italians were supported by German paratroopers of the 1st Parachute Division , who were ordered to move to Sicily from France , and if necessary were to parachute in on 9 July . The 1st Fallschirmjäger Machine Gun Battalion commanded by Major Werner Schmidt had landed at Catania during an Allied air raid early on 13 July . Their aircraft and anti @-@ tank guns were destroyed during the raid , so the battalion left on foot for Primosole Bridge . When Schmidt informed the divisional commander of his intentions , he was warned to expect a sea or airborne landing that night . If the Allies landed to the rear of the division , Schmidt 's battalion had to hold Primosole Bridge so that the division could escape . Forewarned in this way , the machine gun battalion started to dig in and prepare a defence around 2 @,@ 000 yards ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) to the south of the bridge once they arrived , well located to deal with any parachute or glider landing in that area .
= = = Primosole Bridge = = =
The Primosole Bridge is built from steel girders . It has a span of 400 feet ( 120 m ) , and is raised 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) above the Simeto River . The land to the north of the bridge is mainly olive and almond groves in tree @-@ lined fields . Immediately to the south of the bridge is the Gornalunga canal , and beyond that three prominent hills . The road crossing the bridge is Highway 114 , running from Lentini 10 miles ( 16 km ) to the south to Cantini 7 miles ( 11 km ) to the north . To assist the Italians defending the bridge , four pillbox bunkers had been constructed , two on the north bank and two on the south bank .
= = Fustian = =
At 19 : 30 on 12 July 1943 , the first aircraft carrying the 1 @,@ 856 men of the 1st Parachute Brigade took off from North Africa . The aircraft used consisted of 105 Douglas C @-@ 47 Skytrains belonging to the 51st Troop Carrier Wing , 51 each from the 60th and the 62d Troop Carrier Groups , while the 64th Troop Carrier Group supplied the other three . No. 38 Wing Royal Air Force supplied eleven Armstrong Whitworth Albemarles . Following behind the parachute force were the glider towing aircraft . These aircraft , again supplied by No. 38 Wing , comprised 12 Albemarles and seven Handley Page Halifaxes , towing 11 Horsa gliders and eight Waco gliders . The gliders were used to carry 77 men , mostly from the anti @-@ tank battery , ten 6 pounder anti @-@ tank guns and 18 jeeps .
The aircraft 's flight path took them around the south eastern corner of Malta and up the eastern coast of Sicily . The route was measured to ensure that the first planes arrived over the drop zones at 22 : 20 . When the planes arrived off Sicily , they were supposed to stay 10 miles ( 16 km ) offshore until reaching the Simeto River , when they would head inland for the drop zones . Somehow , 33 aircraft strayed off course and approached an Allied convoy . The naval gunners had been warned to expect an air raid , and opened fire on the American and British aircraft . Two of the planes , trying to avoid the unexpected anti @-@ aircraft fire , collided and crashed into the sea . Another two were shot down , and nine were so badly shot up , with wounded crew and passengers , that they were forced to turn back towards their airfields in North Africa .
Those aircraft that did reach the Sicilian coast were engaged by Axis anti @-@ aircraft guns , which shot down 37 of them . Another ten were damaged and were forced to abort their mission . Some of the inexperienced pilots now refused to go any further , and on his aircraft Lieutenant Colonel Alastair Pearson , commanding officer of the 1st Parachute Battalion , realising his plane was flying round in circles , had to threaten to shoot the crew to make them continue . The anti @-@ aircraft fire and the evasive action taken by the pilots had dispersed the aircraft formations , and the parachute drop was scattered over a large area . The violent evasive manoeuvring left some of the paratroopers in heaps on the aircraft floor , and they were unable to jump when ordered . When safely back out to sea , some of the pilots refused to try again , considering the risk too great . Of the surviving aircraft which carried on with the mission , only 39 managed to drop their paratroops within .5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) of the correct drop zone . The furthest off course were some groups from the 3rd Parachute Battalion and Royal Engineers who landed 12 miles ( 19 km ) to the south of the bridge , while another four aircraft landed their paratroops on the slopes of Mount Etna 20 miles ( 32 km ) to the north .
Those men of the 1st Parachute Brigade that landed on the southern drop zone were well within range of the 1st Fallschirmjäger Machine Gun Battalion . In the darkness , the Germans initially thought that the paratroopers were their own reinforcements landing , but they soon realised their mistake and opened fire . Some of those who escaped the machine gun fire were rounded up on the drop zone , and about 100 of them became prisoners of war as soon as they had touched ground . In the confusion of the landing , 50 men of the 1st Parachute Battalion had assembled , assaulted and managed to capture the bridge before the 50 Italian defenders could destroy it with the attached demolition charges . The Italians were taken prisoner , just as a second group of 40 paratroopers led by Brigadier Lathbury arrived at the bridge . Lathbury organised the safe removal of the demolition charges and set up a defensive perimeter . More paratroopers continued to gather at the bridge , and soon they numbered around 120 men , who dug in to the north and south .
The Brigade Headquarters and the field ambulance main dressing station were established to the south of the bridge , where the brigade 's casualties started arriving for treatment . Away from the main dressing station , the medics on the 2nd Battalion drop zone had 29 wounded as a result of the parachute drop , and there were 15 wounded on drop zone one from the 1st Battalion .
The first glider casualties had occurred on take off , when two aircraft towing Waco gliders crashed . While on route , one of the gliders was released early by its towing aircraft , and crashed into the sea . When they did arrive over Sicily , the element of surprise was gone , and four gliders were shot down by the coastal anti @-@ aircraft batteries . By the time the gliders arrived at their landing zones , two hours had lapsed since the parachute landings had started . One glider pilot later commented that they did not need the pathfinders , as the tracer and lights from explosions were brighter than any of the landing markers . Of the surviving glider force , only four gliders managed to land relatively unscathed , all the others being caught by the Fallschirmjäger machine gun fire and destroyed on their approach . The four intact gliders had been carrying three of the anti @-@ tank guns , which were now included in the bridge 's defences . Including the men from the gliders , the 1st Parachute Brigade had 295 men at the bridge . Shortage of manpower was not their only problem ; their only support weapons were the anti @-@ tank guns , two 3 @-@ inch mortars and a Vickers machine gun .
= = = Daybreak = = =
By 04 : 30 on 14 July , the 1st Parachute Battalion was in control of Primosole Bridge , but the Fallschirmjäger Machine Gun Battalion were well dug in to the south . Beyond them , 140 men of the 2nd Parachute Battalion had occupied the three small hills , and taken 500 Italian prisoners . In numbers , both battalions had little more than company strength . The 3rd Parachute Battalion had suffered the worst in the scattered parachute drop , and only a few of their men had arrived at the bridge . With no command structure , they were attached to the 1st Parachute Battalion to help defend the bridge . To the north , the Italian 372nd Coastal Battalion and the Blackshirt Arditi Battalion had been informed of the parachute landings . Many of the 372nd Battalion had disappeared , while the Blackshirts mounted the first of a number of attacks on the British positions . Without the support of any heavy weapons , they were easily fought off .
Also at dawn the first attack by the Fallschirmjäger Machine Gun Battalion to the south began , when they opened fire with their machine guns and mortars . Their first assault was against the 2nd Parachute Battalion 's positions , and was unsuccessful . However , their next assault , later in the morning , succeeded in capturing Johnny II , the second of the small hills . Lieutenant Colonel John Frost , in command of the 2nd Parachute Battalion , immediately counterattacked , but his men were repulsed after sustaining a number of casualties . At 09 : 00 a forward observation officer attached to the 2nd Parachute Battalion managed to make radio contact with the British cruiser HMS Newfoundland , which then used its 6 @-@ inch guns to target the Fallschirmjäger positions . The naval gunfire had the desired effect , causing the Germans some casualties and keeping them under cover . From then on , German resistance from the south was restricted to harassing machine gun fire . A grass fire they started did force the 2nd Parachute Battalion to abandon Johnny I , and the remnants of the battalion now concentrated on Johnny III .
To the north of the bridge , a German battle group of 350 men , including the 1st Company , 1st Fallschirmjäger Signal Battalion , an anti @-@ aircraft battery and some anti @-@ tank guns , was gathered under the command of Captain Franz Strangenberg . Strangenberg was in position to launch his first assault on the bridge at 14 : 00 . This first attack was driven off by the British paratroopers . For his second attempt Strangenberg brought up three 88 mm anti @-@ aircraft guns in support . This assault was more successful , taking some prisoners , and almost succeeded in reaching the bridge . It also secured a position for the 88s to engage the two pillboxes on the north bank . By 17 : 00 the men of the 1st Parachute Battalion were almost out of ammunition , and were forced to withdraw to the southern side of the bridge . The German 88s were moved forward again , and this time demolished the pillboxes on the south side . Running short of supplies and with his casualties mounting , Brigadier Lathbury made the decision to relinquish control of the bridge to the Germans , and the parachute brigade moved back 1 @,@ 200 yards ( 1 @,@ 100 m ) . Of the 295 men who had been at the bridge , 115 had become casualties . The 16th ( Parachute ) Field Ambulance main dressing station could not be moved or evacuated , and remained behind in no man 's land .
An Italian officer entered the station , and informed the medical staff they were now prisoners of war . But since they were treating casualties from both sides , they were allowed to remain and continue operating . Treatment of the wounded continued all day , and by 22 : 00 the surgeons had carried out 21 surgical operations and were looking after 62 British and 29 German or Italian patients . At 18 : 30 , in the darkness , Lathbury led the remainder of his men to join the 2nd Parachute Battalion .
By dawn , the 50th ( Northumbrian ) Infantry Division had only managed to advance 10 miles ( 16 km ) , and were still 8 miles ( 13 km ) from No. 3 Commando at the Melati bridge and 15 miles ( 24 km ) from Primosole Bridge . It was not until 17 : 00 that the 5th Battalion , East Yorkshire Regiment , part of the 69th Infantry Brigade , eventually reached Malati Bridge , although by now the commandos had been forced to withdraw . The bridge was quickly captured ; the commandos had dismantled the demolition charges so that it could not be demolished . With their first objective secured , the British infantry continued their advance on foot towards the parachute brigade . The tanks and small amount of motor transport belonging to the 4th Armoured Brigade had been held up even further back . They had been stopped in Carlentini by a destroyed bridge , and the 4th Armoured Brigade did not start moving again until after 19 : 00 .
The 50th ( Northumbrian ) Division eventually reached Lentini , about half way from their start point to Primosole Bridge , in the afternoon . Here the streets were blocked by debris , covered by snipers and machine gunners left as a rearguard by the retreating Germans . By nightfall only one of the 50th ( Northumbrian ) Division 's infantry battalions , the 6th Battalion , Durham Light Infantry , of 151st Infantry Brigade , with some tanks in support , had reached a position 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) from Johnny II . Despite their orders to advance at all speed , they halted for the night .
= = = Recapture of the bridge = = =
After the parachute brigade withdrew , the Axis forces gathered at the bridge . They now comprised the Italian 372nd Coastal Battalion and the Blackshirt Arditi Battalion , with the German 1st Fallschirmjäger Machine Gun Battalion and Captain Stangenberg 's Battle group . The German High Command was aware of the importance of holding the bridge , and overnight they dispatched reinforcements who arrived by parachute . These came from the 1st Fallschirmjäger Division , and consisted of the 1st Fallschirmjäger Engineer Battalion , the 1st Battalion , 4th Fallschirmjäger Regiment and a battalion of the 1st Fallschirmjäger Artillery Regiment . The Fallschirmjäger engineers started to form a defensive line | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
on Minnesota 's numerous lakes are a way of life for many residents . Activities include water sports such as water skiing , which originated in the state , boating , canoeing , and fishing . More than 36 percent of Minnesotans fish , second only to Alaska .
Fishing does not cease when the lakes freeze ; ice fishing has been around since the arrival of early Scandinavian immigrants . Minnesotans have learned to embrace their long , harsh winters in ice sports such as skating , hockey , curling , and broomball , and snow sports such as cross @-@ country skiing , alpine skiing , snowshoeing , and snowmobiling . Minnesota is the only U.S. state where bandy is played .
State and national forests and the seventy @-@ two state parks are used year @-@ round for hunting , camping , and hiking . There are almost 20 @,@ 000 miles ( 32 @,@ 000 km ) of snowmobile trails statewide . Minnesota has more miles of bike trails than any other state , and a growing network of hiking trails , including the 235 @-@ mile ( 378 km ) Superior Hiking Trail in the northeast . Many hiking and bike trails are used for cross @-@ country skiing during the winter .
= Punk rock =
Punk rock ( or simply punk ) is a rock music genre that developed between 1974 and 1976 in the United States , United Kingdom , and Australia . Rooted in garage rock and other forms of what is now known as protopunk music , punk rock bands rejected perceived excesses of mainstream 1970s rock . Punk bands typically use short or fast @-@ paced songs , with hard @-@ edged melodies and singing styles , stripped @-@ down instrumentation , and often political , anti @-@ establishment lyrics . Punk embraces a DIY ethic ; many bands self @-@ produced recordings and distributed them through informal channels .
The term " punk " was first used in relation to rock music by some American critics in the early 1970s , to describe garage bands and their devotees . By late 1976 , bands such as Television and the Ramones in New York City , and the Sex Pistols , the Clash , and the Damned in London were recognized as the vanguard of a new musical movement . The following year saw punk rock spreading around the world , and it became a major cultural phenomenon in the United Kingdom . For the most part , punk took root in local scenes that tended to reject association with the mainstream . An associated punk subculture emerged , expressing youthful rebellion and characterized by distinctive styles of clothing and adornment ( ranging from deliberately offensive T @-@ shirts , leather jackets , spike bands and other studded or spiked jewelry to bondage and S & M clothes ) and a variety of anti @-@ authoritarian ideologies .
By the beginning of the 1980s , faster , more aggressive styles such as hardcore ( e.g. Dead Kennedys ) and street punk ( e.g. The Exploited ) had become the predominant mode of punk rock . Musicians identifying with or inspired by punk also pursued a broad range of other variations , giving rise to post @-@ punk and the alternative rock movement . At the end of the 20th century , punk rock had been adopted by the mainstream , as pop punk and punk rock bands such as Green Day , the Offspring and Blink @-@ 182 brought the genre widespread popularity .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Philosophy = = =
The first wave of punk rock was aggressively modern , distancing itself from the bombast and sentimentality of early 1970s rock . According to Ramones drummer Tommy Ramone , " In its initial form , a lot of [ 1960s ] stuff was innovative and exciting . Unfortunately , what happens is that people who could not hold a candle to the likes of Hendrix started noodling away . Soon you had endless solos that went nowhere . By 1973 , I knew that what was needed was some pure , stripped down , no bullshit rock ' n ' roll . " John Holmstrom , founding editor of Punk magazine , recalls feeling " punk rock had to come along because the rock scene had become so tame that [ acts ] like Billy Joel and Simon and Garfunkel were being called rock and roll , when to me and other fans , rock and roll meant this wild and rebellious music . " In critic Robert Christgau 's description , " It was also a subculture that scornfully rejected the political idealism and Californian flower @-@ power silliness of hippie myth . "
Technical accessibility and a DIY spirit are prized in punk rock . In the early days of punk rock , this ethic stood in marked contrast to what those in the scene regarded as the ostentatious musical effects and technological demands of many mainstream rock bands . Musical virtuosity was often looked on with suspicion . According to Holmstrom , punk rock was " rock and roll by people who didn 't have very much skills as musicians but still felt the need to express themselves through music " . In December 1976 , the English fanzine Sideburns published a now @-@ famous illustration of three chords , captioned " This is a chord , this is another , this is a third . Now form a band " . The title of a 1980 single by the New York punk band Stimulators , " Loud Fast Rules ! " inscribed a catchphrase for punk 's basic musical approach .
Some of British punk rock 's leading figures made a show of rejecting not only contemporary mainstream rock and the broader culture it was associated with , but their own most celebrated music predecessors : " No Elvis , Beatles or the Rolling Stones in 1977 " , declared the Clash song " 1977 " . The previous year , when the punk rock revolution began in Great Britain , was to be both a musical and a cultural " Year Zero " . Even as nostalgia was discarded , many in the scene adopted a nihilistic attitude summed up by the Sex Pistols slogan " No Future " ; in the later words of one observer , amid the unemployment and social unrest in 1977 , " punk 's nihilistic swagger was the most thrilling thing in England . " While " self @-@ imposed alienation " was common among " drunk punks " and " gutter punks " , there was always a tension between their nihilistic outlook and the " radical leftist utopianism " of bands such as Crass , who found positive , liberating meaning in the movement . As a Clash associate describes singer Joe Strummer 's outlook , " Punk rock is meant to be our freedom . We 're meant to be able to do what we want to do . "
The issue of authenticity is important in the punk subculture — the pejorative term " poseur " is applied to those who associate with punk and adopt its stylistic attributes but are deemed not to share or understand the underlying values and philosophy . Scholar Daniel S. Traber argues that " attaining authenticity in the punk identity can be difficult " ; as the punk scene matured , he observes , eventually " everyone got called a poseur " .
= = = Musical and lyrical elements = = =
Punk rock bands often emulate the bare musical structures and arrangements of 1960s garage rock . Typical punk rock instrumentation includes one or two electric guitars , an electric bass , and a drum kit , along with vocals . Songs tend to be shorter than those of other popular genres . Most early punk rock songs retained a traditional rock ' n ' roll verse @-@ chorus form and 4 / 4 time signature . However , later bands have often broken from this format . In critic Steven Blush 's description , " The Sex Pistols were still rock 'n'roll ... like the craziest version of Chuck Berry . Hardcore was a radical departure from that . It wasn 't verse @-@ chorus rock . It dispelled any notion of what songwriting is supposed to be . It 's its own form . "
Punk rock vocals sometimes sound nasal , and lyrics are often shouted instead of sung in a conventional sense , particularly in hardcore styles . Shifts in pitch , volume , or intonational style are relatively infrequent . Complicated guitar solos are considered self @-@ indulgent and unnecessary , although basic guitar breaks are common . Guitar parts tend to include highly distorted power chords or barre chords , creating a characteristic sound described by Christgau as a " buzzsaw drone " . Some punk rock bands take a surf rock approach with a lighter , twangier guitar tone . Others , such as Robert Quine , lead guitarist of the Voidoids , have employed a wild , " gonzo " attack , a style that stretches back through the Velvet Underground to the 1950s recordings of Ike Turner . Bass guitar lines are often uncomplicated ; the quintessential approach is a relentless , repetitive " forced rhythm " , although some punk rock bass players — such as Mike Watt of the Minutemen and Firehose — emphasize more technical bass lines . Bassists often use a pick due to the rapid succession of notes , which makes fingerpicking impractical . Drums typically sound heavy and dry , and often have a minimal set @-@ up . Compared to other forms of rock , syncopation is much less the rule . Hardcore drumming tends to be especially fast . Production tends to be minimalistic , with tracks sometimes laid down on home tape recorders or simple four @-@ track portastudios . The typical objective is to have the recording sound unmanipulated and " real " , reflecting the commitment and " authenticity " of a live performance .
Punk rock lyrics are typically frank and confrontational ; compared to the lyrics of other popular music genres , they frequently comment on social and political issues . Trend @-@ setting songs such as the Clash 's " Career Opportunities " and Chelsea 's " Right to Work " deal with unemployment and the grim realities of urban life . Especially in early British punk , a central goal was to outrage and shock the mainstream . The Sex Pistols ' " Anarchy in the U.K. " and " God Save the Queen " openly disparaged the British political system and social mores . Anti @-@ sentimental depictions of relationships and sex are common , as in " Love Comes in Spurts " , written by Richard Hell and recorded by him with the Voidoids . Anomie , variously expressed in the poetic terms of Hell 's " Blank Generation " and the bluntness of the Ramones ' " Now I Wanna Sniff Some Glue " , is a common theme . Identifying punk with such topics aligns with the view expressed by V. Vale , founder of San Francisco fanzine Search and Destroy : " Punk was a total cultural revolt . It was a hardcore confrontation with the black side of history and culture , right @-@ wing imagery , sexual taboos , a delving into it that had never been done before by any generation in such a thorough way " .
= = = Visual and other elements = = =
The classic punk rock look among male American musicians harkens back to the T @-@ shirt , motorcycle jacket , and jeans ensemble favored by American greasers of the 1950s associated with the rockabilly scene and by British rockers of the 1960s . The cover of the Ramones ' 1976 debut album , featuring a shot of the band by Punk photographer Roberta Bayley , set forth the basic elements of a style that was soon widely emulated by rock musicians both punk and nonpunk . Richard Hell 's more androgynous , ragamuffin look — and reputed invention of the safety @-@ pin aesthetic — was a major influence on Sex Pistols impresario Malcolm McLaren and , in turn , British punk style . ( John D Morton of Cleveland 's Electric Eels may have been the first rock musician to wear a safety @-@ pin @-@ covered jacket ) . McLaren 's partner , fashion designer Vivienne Westwood , credits Johnny Rotten as the first British punk to rip his shirt , and Sex Pistols bassist Sid Vicious as the first to use safety pins , although few of those following Punk could afford to buy McLaren and Westwood 's designs so famously worn by the Pistols , so they made their own , diversifying the ' look ' with various different styles based on these designs . Young women in punk demolished the typical female types in rock of either " coy sex kittens or wronged blues belters " in their fashion . Early female punk musicians displayed styles ranging from Siouxsie Sioux 's bondage gear to Patti Smith 's " straight @-@ from @-@ the @-@ gutter androgyny " . The former proved much more influential on female fan styles . Over time , tattoos , piercings , and metal @-@ studded and -spiked accessories became increasingly common elements of punk fashion among both musicians and fans , a " style of adornment calculated to disturb and outrage " . Among the other facets of the Punk Rock scene , a punks hair is an important way of showing their freedom of expression . The typical male punk haircut was originally short and choppy ; the Mohawk later emerged as a characteristic style . Along with the mohawk , long spikes have been associated with the punk rock genre .
The characteristic stage performance style of male punk musicians does not deviate significantly from the macho postures classically associated with rock music . Female punk musicians broke more clearly from earlier styles . Scholar John Strohm suggests that they did so by creating personas of a type conventionally seen as masculine : " They adopted a tough , unladylike pose that borrowed more from the macho swagger of sixties garage bands than from the calculated bad @-@ girl image of bands like the Runaways . " Scholar Dave Laing describes how bassist Gaye Advert adopted fashion elements associated with male musicians only to generate a stage persona readily consumed as " sexy " . Laing focuses on more innovative and challenging performance styles , seen in the various erotically destabilizing approaches of Siouxsie Sioux , the Slits ' Ari Up , and X @-@ Ray Spex ' Poly Styrene .
The lack of emphatic syncopation led punk dance to " deviant " forms . The characteristic style was originally the pogo . Sid Vicious , before he became the Sex Pistols ' bassist , is credited with initiating the pogo in Britain as an attendee at one of their concerts . Moshing ( Slam Dancing ) is typical at hardcore shows . The lack of conventional dance rhythms was a central factor in limiting punk 's mainstream commercial impact .
Breaking down the distance between performer and audience is central to the punk ethic . Fan participation at concerts is thus important ; during the movement 's first heyday , it was often provoked in an adversarial manner — apparently perverse , but appropriately " punk " . First @-@ wave British punk bands such as the Sex Pistols and the Damned insulted and otherwise goaded the audience into intense reactions . Laing has identified three primary forms of audience physical response to goading : can throwing , stage invasion , and spitting or " gobbing " . In the hardcore realm , stage invasion is often a prelude to stage diving . In addition to the numerous fans who have started or joined punk bands , audience members also become important participants via the scene 's many amateur periodicals — in England , according to Laing , punk " was the first musical genre to spawn fanzines in any significant numbers " .
= = Precursors = =
= = = 1960s progenitors = = =
In the early- to mid @-@ 1960s , garage rock bands , often recognized as punk rock 's progenitors , began springing up around North America . The Kingsmen , from Portland , Oregon , had a hit with their 1963 cover of " Louie , Louie , " considered by some as punk rock 's defining " ur @-@ text . " The iconic song was originally written and performed by Richard Berry as an ode to the lovelorn confessions of a drunken Jamaican sailor and displays Latin influences , with its " El Loco Cha @-@ Cha " riffs that were later pared down to a more simple and primitive rock arrangement in the Kingsmen 's version providing a stylistic model for countless garage rock bands to come . After the Beatles ' first appearance on the Ed Sullivan Show , and then with the subsequent string of other successful British acts , the garage band phenomenon gathered increased momentum . The minimalist sound of many garage rock combos was influenced by the harder @-@ edged wing of the British Invasion , exemplified by groups such as the Rolling Stones and the Yardbirds . After 1967 , U.S. garage rock began to fall out of favor , but the raw sound and outsider attitude of groups , such as the Sonics , the Seeds , the Remains , the Standells , and the Shadows of Knight predicted the style of later bands such as MC5 and the Stooges . In the early 1970s , certain rock critics began to speak of the mid @-@ 1960s garage bands ( as well bands that they considered continuing in their line , such as MC5 and the Stooges ) as a genre that they called " punk rock . " However , since the advent of New York and London scenes of 1975 @-@ 1978 and the subculture that grew out of them , the term has become most commonly applied to music emerging after 1974 . Sixties garage bands are now typically described as garage rock , or , especially in the case of their immediate successors , proto @-@ punk .
From England in 1964 , largely under the grip of the mod youth movement and beat group explosion , came the Kinks ' hit singles , " You Really Got Me " and " All Day and All of the Night , " both influenced by " Louie , Louie " . They have been described as " predecessors of the whole three @-@ chord genre . " For instance , the Ramones ' 1978 ' I Don 't Want You , ' was largely Kink 's @-@ influenced . In 1965 , the Who progressed from their first single , " I Can 't Explain , " a virtual Kinks clone , to " My Generation " . Though it had little impact on the American charts , the Who 's mod anthem pre @-@ figured the kind of " cerebral mix of musical ferocity and rebellious posture " that would characterize much of the later British punk rock of the 1970s . John Reed describes the Clash 's emergence as a " tight ball of energy with both an image and rhetoric reminiscent of a young Pete Townshend — speed obsession , pop @-@ art clothing , art school ambition . " The Who and fellow mods the Small Faces were among the few rock elders acknowledged by the Sex Pistols .
The garage and beat phenomenon was not exclusive to North America and Great Briton . Various countries experienced grass @-@ roots rock movements which essentially served as counterparts to what was happening in the North America and Britain , several of which are sometimes retroactively referred to as Nederbeat ( Netherlands ) , Uruguayan Invasion ( Uruguay ) , or Group Sounds ( Japan ) , or in other cases as " beat " or " garage rock " . Australia and New Zealand had active beat / garage scenes , procuring a host of bands , such as the Missing Links whose brazenly primitivistic " Wild About You " would be covered a decade later by fellow compatriots , the Saints . There were numerous garage rock bands in India during the 1960s , perpetuating the style even into the early 1970s . Los Saicos out of Peru recoded 1965 's " Demolicion " , which is a notable early example of protopunk . AllMusic , writing about Los Saicos , noted that " The guitars sound like nothing so much as fountains of sparks , the drums have a tribal post @-@ surf throb , and the vocals are positively unhinged " and " These guys were a punk rock band , even if nobody outside Lima knew it at the time " . The garage and beat boom dissipated in the late 1960s , but a handful of maverick acts , carried its influence into the 1970s , seizing on its protopunk elements , but brandishing them with greater intensity .
= = = Late 1960s to mid 1970s = = =
In August 1969 , the Stooges , from Ann Arbor , premiered with a self @-@ titled album . According to critic Greil Marcus , the band , led by singer Iggy Pop , created " the sound of Chuck Berry 's Airmobile — after thieves stripped it for parts " . The album was produced by John Cale , a former member of New York 's experimental rock group the Velvet Underground . Having earned a " reputation as the first underground rock band , " the Velvet Underground inspired , directly or indirectly , many of those involved in the creation of punk rock .
In the early 1970s , the New York Dolls updated the original wildness of 1950 's rock ' n ' roll in a fashion that later became known as glam punk . The New York duo Suicide played spare , experimental music with a confrontational stage act inspired by that of the Stooges . At the Coventry club in the New York City borough of Queens , the Dictators used rock as a vehicle for wise @-@ ass attitude and humor . In Boston , the Modern Lovers , led by Velvet Underground devotee Jonathan Richman , gained attention with a minimalistic style . In 1974 , an updated garage rock scene began to coalesce around the newly opened Rathskeller club in Kenmore Square . Among the leading acts were the Real Kids , founded by former Modern Lover John Felice ; Willie Alexander and the Boom Boom Band , whose frontman had been a member of the Velvet Underground for a few months in 1971 ; and Mickey Clean and the Mezz . In 1974 , as well , the Detroit band Death — made up of three African @-@ American brothers — recorded " scorching blasts of feral ur @-@ punk , " but couldn 't arrange a release deal . In Ohio , a small but influential underground rock scene emerged , led by Devo in Akron and Kent and by Cleveland 's Electric Eels , Mirrors and Rocket from the Tombs . In 1975 , Rocket from the Tombs split into Pere Ubu and Frankenstein . The Electric Eels and Mirrors both broke up , and the Styrenes emerged from the fallout .
Britain 's Deviants , in the late 1960s , played in a range of psychedelic styles with a satiric , anarchic edge and a penchant for situationist @-@ style spectacle presaging the Sex Pistols by almost a decade . In 1970 , the act evolved into the Pink Fairies , which carried on in a similar vein . With his Ziggy Stardust persona , David Bowie made artifice and exaggeration central — elements , again , that were picked up by the Sex Pistols and certain other punk acts . The Doctors of Madness built on Bowie 's presentation concepts , while moving musically in the direction that would become identified with punk . Bands in London 's pub rock scene stripped the music back to its basics , playing hard , R & B @-@ influenced rock ' n ' roll . By 1974 , the scene 's top act , Dr. Feelgood , was paving the way for others such as the Stranglers and Cock Sparrer that would play a role in the punk explosion . Among the pub rock bands that formed that year was the 101ers , whose lead singer would soon adopt the name Joe Strummer .
Bands anticipating the forthcoming movement were appearing as far afield as Düsseldorf , West Germany , where " punk before punk " band NEU ! formed in 1971 , building on the Krautrock tradition of groups such as Can . In Japan , the anti @-@ establishment Zunō Keisatsu ( Brain Police ) mixed garage @-@ psych and folk . The combo regularly faced censorship challenges , their live act at least once including onstage masturbation . A new generation of Australian garage rock bands , inspired mainly by the Stooges and MC5 , was coming even closer to the sound that would soon be called " punk " : In Brisbane , the Saints also recalled the raw live sound of the British Pretty Things , who had made a notorious tour of Australia and New Zealand in 1975 .
= = = Etymology = = =
Between the late 16th and the 18th centuries , punk was a common , coarse synonym for prostitute ; William Shakespeare used it with that meaning in The Merry Wives of Windsor ( 1602 ) and Measure for Measure ( 1623 ) . The term eventually came to describe " a young male hustler , a gangster , a hoodlum , or a ruffian " . As Legs McNeil explains , " On TV , if you watched cop shows , Kojak , Baretta , when the cops finally catch the mass murderer , they 'd say , ' you dirty Punk . ' It was what your teachers would call you . It meant that you were the lowest . " The first known use of the phrase punk rock appeared in the Chicago Tribune on March 22 , 1970 , attributed to Ed Sanders , cofounder of New York 's anarcho @-@ prankster band the Fugs . Sanders was quoted describing a solo album of his as " punk rock — redneck sentimentality " . In the December 1970 issue of Creem , Lester Bangs , mocking more mainstream rock musicians , ironically referred to Iggy Pop as " that Stooge punk " . Suicide 's Alan Vega credits this usage with inspiring his duo to bill its gigs as a " punk mass " for the next couple of years .
Dave Marsh was the first music critic to employ the term punk rock : In the May 1971 issue of Creem , he described ? and the Mysterians , one of the most popular 1960s garage rock acts , as giving a " landmark exposition of punk rock " . Later in 1971 , in his fanzine Who Put the Bomp , Greg Shaw wrote about " what I have chosen to call " punkrock " bands — white teenage hard rock of ' 64 – 66 ( Standells , Kingsmen , Shadows of Knight , etc . ) " . Robert Christgau writing for the Village Voice in October , 1971 refers to " mid @-@ 60s punk " as a historical period of rock @-@ and @-@ roll . Lester Bangs would use the term " punk rock " in several articles written in the early 1970s to refer to mid @-@ 1960s garage acts . In his June , 1971 piece in Creem , " Psychotic Reactions and Carburetor Dung , " he wrote , " then punk bands started cropping up who were writing their own songs but taking the Yardbirds ' sound and reducing it to this kind of goony fuzztone clatter . ... oh , it was beautiful , it was pure folklore , Old America , and sometimes I think those were the best days ever . " In several places in a 1971 article in Who Put the Bomp , Bangs refers to Britain 's the Troggs and bands of their ilk as " punk . " In June 1972 , the fanzine Flash included a " Punk Top Ten " of 1960s albums . By that December , the term was in circulation to the extent that The New Yorker 's Ellen Willis , contrasting her own tastes with those of Flash and fellow critic Nick Tosches , wrote , " Punk @-@ rock has become the favored term of endearment . " In the liner notes of the 1972 anthology LP , Nuggets , musician and rock journalist Lenny Kaye , later a member of the Patti Smith Group , used variations of the term in two places : first " punk rock , " in the essay liner notes , to describe the genre of 1960s garage bands , and then , later , " classic garage @-@ punk , " in the track @-@ by @-@ track notes , to describe a song recorded in 1966 by the Shadows of Knight . In the January 1973 Rolling Stone review of Nuggets , Greg Shaw commented " Punk rock at its best is the closest we came in the ' 60s to the original rockabilly spirit of Rock ' n Roll ... " In February 1973 , Terry Atkinson of the Los Angeles Times , reviewing the debut album by a hard rock band , Aerosmith , declared that it " achieves all that punk @-@ rock bands strive for but most miss . " Three months later , Billy Altman launched the short @-@ lived punk magazine , which pre @-@ dated the better @-@ known 1975 publication of the same name , but , unlike the later magazine , was largely devoted to discussion of 1960s garage and psychedelic acts .
In May 1974 , Los Angeles Times critic Robert Hilburn reviewed the second New York Dolls album , Too Much Too Soon . " I told ya the New York Dolls were the real thing , " he wrote , describing the album as " perhaps the best example of raw , thumb @-@ your @-@ nose @-@ at @-@ the @-@ world , punk rock since the Rolling Stones ' Exile on Main Street . " Bassist Jeff Jensen of Boston 's Real Kids reports of a show that year , " A reviewer for one of the free entertainment magazines of the time caught the act and gave us a great review , calling us a ' punk band . ' ... [ W ] e all sort of looked at each other and said , ' What 's punk ? ' "
By 1975 , punk was being used to describe acts as diverse as the Patti Smith Group , the Bay City Rollers , and Bruce Springsteen . As the scene at New York 's CBGB club attracted notice , a name was sought for the developing sound . Club owner Hilly Kristal called the movement " street rock " ; John Holmstrom credits Aquarian magazine with using punk " to describe what was going on at CBGBs " . Holmstrom , McNeil , and Ged Dunn 's magazine Punk , which debuted at the end of 1975 , was crucial in codifying the term . " It was pretty obvious that the word was getting very popular " , Holmstrom later remarked . " We figured we 'd take the name before anyone else claimed it . We wanted to get rid of the bullshit , strip it down to rock ' n ' roll . We wanted the fun and liveliness back . "
= = Early history = =
= = = North America = = =
= = = = New York City = = = =
The origins of New York 's punk rock scene can be traced back to such sources as late 1960s trash culture and an early 1970s underground rock movement centered on the Mercer Arts Center in Greenwich Village , where the New York Dolls performed . In early 1974 , a new scene began to develop around the CBGB club , also in lower Manhattan . At its core was Television , described by critic John Walker as " the ultimate garage band with pretensions " . Their influences ranged from the Velvet Underground to the staccato guitar work of Dr. Feelgood 's Wilko Johnson . The band 's bassist / singer , Richard Hell , created a look with cropped , ragged hair , ripped T @-@ shirts , and black leather jackets credited as the basis for punk rock visual style . In April 1974 , Patti Smith , a member of the Mercer Arts Center crowd and a friend of Hell 's , came to CBGB for the first time to see the band perform . A veteran of independent theater and performance poetry , Smith was developing an intellectual , feminist take on rock ' n ' roll . On June 5 , she recorded the single " Hey Joe " / " Piss Factory " , featuring Television guitarist Tom Verlaine ; released on her own Mer Records label , it heralded the scene 's do it yourself ( DIY ) ethic and has often been cited as the first punk rock record . By August , Smith and Television were gigging together at another downtown New York club , Max 's Kansas City .
Out in Forest Hills , Queens , several miles from lower Manhattan , the members of a newly formed band adopted a common surname . Drawing on sources ranging from the Stooges to the Beatles and the Beach Boys to Herman 's Hermits and 1960s girl groups , the Ramones condensed rock ' n ' roll to its primal level : " ' 1 @-@ 2 @-@ 3 @-@ 4 ! ' bass @-@ player Dee Dee Ramone shouted at the start of every song , as if the group could barely master the rudiments of rhythm . " The band played its first gig at CBGB on August 16 , 1974 , on the same bill as another new act , Angel and the Snake , soon to be renamed Blondie . By the end of the year , the Ramones had performed seventy @-@ four shows , each about seventeen minutes long . " When I first saw the Ramones " , critic Mary Harron later remembered , " I couldn 't believe people were doing this . The dumb brattiness . " The Dictators , with a similar " playing dumb " concept , were recording their debut album . The Dictators ' Go Girl Crazy ! came out in March 1975 , mixing absurdist originals such as " Master Race Rock " and loud , straight @-@ faced covers of cheese pop like Sonny & Cher 's " I Got You Babe " .
That spring , Smith and Television shared a two @-@ month @-@ long weekend residency at CBGB that significantly raised the club 's profile . The Television sets included Richard Hell 's " Blank Generation " , which became the scene 's emblematic anthem . Soon after , Hell left Television and founded a band featuring a more stripped @-@ down sound , the Heartbreakers , with former New York Dolls Johnny Thunders and Jerry Nolan . The pairing of Hell and Thunders , in one critical assessment , " inject [ ed ] a poetic intelligence into mindless self @-@ destruction " . A July festival at CBGB featuring over thirty new groups brought the scene its first substantial media coverage . In August , Television — with Fred Smith , former Blondie bassist , replacing Hell — recorded a single , " Little Johnny Jewel " , for the tiny Ork label . In the words of John Walker , the record was " a turning point for the whole New York scene " if not quite for the punk rock sound itself — Hell 's departure had left the band " significantly reduced in fringe aggression " .
Other bands were becoming regulars at CBGB , such as Mink DeVille and Talking Heads , which moved down from Rhode Island . More closely associated with Max 's Kansas City were Suicide and the band led by Jayne County , another Mercer Arts Center alumna . The first album to come out of this downtown scene was released in November 1975 : Smith 's debut , Horses , produced by John Cale for the major Arista label . The inaugural issue of Punk appeared in December . The new magazine tied together earlier artists such as Velvet Underground lead singer Lou Reed , the Stooges , and the New York Dolls with the editors ' favorite band , the Dictators , and the array of new acts centered on CBGB and Max 's . That winter , Pere Ubu came in from Cleveland and played at both spots .
Early in 1976 , Hell left the Heartbreakers ; he soon formed a new group that would become known as the Voidoids , " one of the most harshly uncompromising bands " on the scene . That April , the Ramones ' debut album was released by Sire Records ; the first single was " Blitzkrieg Bop " , opening with the rally cry " Hey ! Ho ! Let 's go ! " According to a later description , " Like all cultural watersheds , Ramones was embraced by a discerning few and slagged off as a bad joke by the uncomprehending majority . " At the instigation of Ramones lead singer Joey Ramone , the members of Cleveland 's Frankenstein moved east to join the New York scene . Reconstituted as the Dead Boys , they played their first CBGB gig in late July . In August , Ork put out an EP recorded by Hell with his new band that included the first released version of " Blank Generation " .
Other New York venues apart from CBGB included the Lismar Lounge ( 41 First Avenue ) and Aztec Lounge ( 9th Street ) .
At this early stage , the term punk applied to the scene in general , not necessarily a particular stylistic approach as it would later — the early New York punk bands represented a broad variety of influences . Among them , the Ramones , the Heartbreakers , Richard Hell and the Voidoids , and the Dead Boys were establishing a distinct musical style . Even where they diverged most clearly , in lyrical approach — the Ramones ' apparent guilelessness at one extreme , Hell 's conscious craft at the other — there was an abrasive attitude in common . Their shared attributes of minimalism and speed , however , had not yet come to define punk rock .
= = = = Other U.S. cities = = = =
Chickasha , Oklahoma gave birth to avant garde , glam @-@ punk bands Victoria Vein and the Thunderpunks in 1974 and Debris ' in 1975 whose self @-@ released underground classic Static Disposal was released in 1976 . The album has been touted as an inspiration by numerous bands including Scream , Nurse With Wound , the Melvins and Sonic Youth . In 1975 , the Suicide Commandos formed in Minneapolis . They were one of the first U.S. bands outside of New York to play in the Ramones @-@ style harder @-@ louder @-@ faster mode that would define punk rock . Detroit 's Death self @-@ released one of their 1974 recordings , " Politicians in My Eyes " , in 1976 . As the punk movement expanded rapidly in the United Kingdom that year , a few bands with similar tastes and attitude appeared around the United States . The first West Coast punk scenes emerged in San Francisco , with the bands Crime and the Nuns , and Seattle , where the Telepaths , Meyce , and the Tupperwares played a groundbreaking show on May 1 . Rock critic Richard Meltzer cofounded VOM ( short for " vomit " ) in Los Angeles . Meanwhile , in Los Angeles , performer Alice Bag formed the punk music group The Bags in 1977 . Alice influenced the Hollywood punk scene by incorporating Mexican and Chicano musical culture into her music through canción ranchera — which translates to " country song " and is associated with mariachi ensembles — as well as estilo bravío , a wild style of performance often seen in punk . In Washington , D.C. , raucous roots @-@ rockers the Razz helped along a nascent punk scene featuring Overkill , the Slickee Boys , and the Look . Around the turn of the year , White Boy began giving notoriously crazed performances . In Boston , the scene at the Rathskeller — affectionately known as the Rat — was also turning toward punk , though the defining sound retained a distinct garage rock orientation . Among the city 's first new acts to be identified with punk rock was DMZ . In Bloomington , Indiana , the Gizmos played in a jokey , raunchy , Dictators @-@ inspired style later referred to as " frat punk " .
Like their garage rock predecessors , these local scenes were facilitated by enthusiastic impresarios who operated nightclubs or organized concerts in venues such as schools , garages , or warehouses , advertised via inexpensively printed flyers and fanzines . In some cases , punk 's do it yourself ethic reflected an aversion to commercial success , as well as a desire to maintain creative and financial autonomy . As Joe Harvard , a participant in the Boston scene , describes , it was often a simple necessity — the absence of a local recording industry and well @-@ distributed music magazines left little recourse but DIY .
= = = Australia = = =
At the same time , a similar music @-@ based subculture was beginning to take shape in various parts of Australia . A scene was developing around Radio Birdman and its main performance venue , the Oxford Tavern ( later the Oxford Funhouse ) , located in Sydney 's Darlinghurst suburb . In December 1975 , the group won the RAM ( Rock Australia Magazine ) / Levi 's Punk Band Thriller competition . By 1976 , the Saints were hiring Brisbane local halls to use as venues , or playing in " Club 76 " , their shared house in the inner suburb of Petrie Terrace . The band soon discovered that musicians were exploring similar paths in other parts of the world . Ed Kuepper , co @-@ founder of the Saints , later recalled :
One thing I remember having had a really depressing effect on me was the first Ramones album . When I heard it [ in 1976 ] , I mean it was a great record ... but I hated it because I knew we ’ d been doing this sort of stuff for years . There was even a chord progression on that album that we used ... and I thought , " Fuck . We ’ re going to be labeled as influenced by the Ramones " , when nothing could have been further from the truth .
On the other side of Australia , in Perth , germinal punk rock act the Cheap Nasties , featuring singer @-@ guitarist Kim Salmon , formed in August . In September 1976 , the Saints became the first punk rock band outside the U.S. to release a recording , the single " ( I 'm ) Stranded " . As with Patti Smith 's debut , the band self @-@ financed , packaged , and distributed the single . " ( I 'm ) Stranded " had limited impact at home , but the British music press recognized it as a groundbreaking record . At the insistence of their superiors in the UK , EMI Australia signed the Saints . Meanwhile , Radio Birdman came out with a self @-@ financed EP , Burn My Eye , in October . Trouser Press critic Ian McCaleb later described the record as the " archetype for the musical explosion that was about to occur " .
= = = United Kingdom = = =
By 1975 the movement was already well established in London and had been growing for a number of years , with non @-@ gigging and recording bands like The Flowers of Romance who went on to gain near mythical status . Inspired by music from The Velvet Underground , Iggy Pop and early David Bowie at one point the band featured Sid Vicious , Marco Pirroni and Viv Albertine , who later joined The Slits . Following a brief period unofficially managing the New York Dolls , Briton Malcolm McLaren returned to London in May 1975 , inspired by the new scene he had witnessed at CBGB . The Kings Road clothing store he co @-@ owned , recently renamed Sex , was building a reputation with its outrageous " anti @-@ fashion " . Among those who frequented the shop were members of a band called the Strand , which McLaren had also been managing . In August , the group was seeking a new lead singer . Another Sex habitué , Johnny Rotten , auditioned for and won the job . Adopting a new name , the group played its first gig as the Sex Pistols on November 6 , 1975 , at Saint Martin 's School of Art and soon attracted a small but ardent following . In February 1976 , the band received its first significant press coverage ; guitarist Steve Jones declared that the Sex Pistols were not so much into music as they were " chaos " . The band often provoked its crowds into near @-@ riots . Rotten announced to one audience , " Bet you don 't hate us as much as we hate you ! " McLaren envisioned the Sex Pistols as central players in a new youth movement , " hard and tough " . As described by critic Jon Savage , the band members " embodied an attitude into which McLaren fed a new set of references : late @-@ sixties radical politics , sexual fetish material , pop history , ... youth sociology " .
Bernard Rhodes , a sometime associate of McLaren and friend of the Sex Pistols , was similarly aiming to make stars of the band London SS . Early in 1976 , London SS broke up before ever performing publicly , spinning off two new bands : the Damned and the Clash , which was joined by Joe Strummer , former lead singer of the 101'ers . On June 4 , 1976 , the Sex Pistols played Manchester 's Lesser Free Trade Hall in what came to be regarded as one of the most influential rock shows ever . Among the approximately forty audience members were the two locals who organised the gig — they had formed Buzzcocks after seeing the Sex Pistols in February . Others in the small crowd went on to form Joy Division , the Fall , and — in the 1980s — the Smiths .
In July , the Ramones crossed the Atlantic for two London shows that helped spark the nascent UK punk scene and affected its musical style — " instantly nearly every band speeded up " . On July 4 , they played with the Flamin ' Groovies and the Stranglers before a crowd of 2 @,@ 000 at the Roundhouse . That same night , the Clash debuted , opening for the Sex Pistols in Sheffield . On July 5 , members of both bands attended a Ramones gig at Dingwalls club . The following night , the Damned performed their first show , as the Sex Pistols opening act in London . In critic Kurt Loder 's description , the Sex Pistols purveyed a " calculated , arty nihilism , [ while ] the Clash were unabashed idealists , proponents of a radical left @-@ wing social critique of a sort that reached back at least to ... Woody Guthrie in the 1940s " . The Damned built a reputation as " punk 's party boys " . This London scene 's first fanzine appeared a week later . Its title , Sniffin ' Glue , derived from a Ramones song . Its subtitle affirmed the connection with what was happening in New York : " + Other Rock ' n ' Roll Habits for Punks ! "
Another Sex Pistols gig in Manchester on July 20 , with a reorganized version of Buzzcocks debuting in support , gave further impetus to the scene there . In August , the self @-@ described " First European Punk Rock Festival " was held in Mont de Marsan in the southwest of France . Eddie and the Hot Rods , a London pub rock group , headlined . The Sex Pistols , originally scheduled to play , were dropped by the organizers who said the band had gone " too far " in demanding top billing and certain amenities ; the Clash backed out in solidarity . The only band from the new punk movement to appear was the Damned .
Over the next several months , many new punk rock bands formed , often directly inspired by the Sex Pistols . In London , women were near the center of the scene — among the initial wave of bands were the female @-@ fronted Siouxsie and the Banshees and X @-@ Ray Spex and the all @-@ female the Slits . There were female bassists Gaye Advert in the Adverts and Shanne Bradley in the Nipple Erectors . Other groups included Subway Sect , Eater , the Subversives , the aptly named London , and Chelsea , which soon spun off Generation X. Farther afield , Sham 69 began practicing in the southeastern town of Hersham . In Durham , there was Penetration , with lead singer Pauline Murray . On September 20 – 21 , the 100 Club Punk Festival in London featured the four primary British groups ( London 's big three and Buzzcocks ) , as well as Paris 's female @-@ fronted Stinky Toys , arguably the first punk rock band from a non @-@ Anglophone country . Siouxsie and the Banshees and Subway Sect debuted on the festival 's first night ; that same evening , Eater debuted in Manchester . On the festival 's second night , audience member Sid Vicious was arrested , charged with throwing a glass at the Damned that shattered and destroyed a girl 's eye . Press coverage of the incident fueled punk 's reputation as a social menace .
Some new bands , such as London 's Alternative TV , Edinburgh 's Rezillos , and Leamington 's the Shapes , identified with the scene even as they pursued more experimental music . Others of a comparatively traditional rock ' n ' roll bent were also swept up by the movement : the Vibrators , formed as a pub rock – style act in February 1976 , soon adopted a punk look and sound . A few even longer @-@ active bands including Surrey neo @-@ mods the Jam and pub rockers the Stranglers and Cock Sparrer also became associated with the punk rock scene . Alongside the musical roots shared with their American counterparts and the calculated confrontationalism of the early Who , the British punks also reflected the influence of glam rock and related bands such as Slade , T.Rex , and Roxy Music . One of the groups openly acknowledging that influence were the Undertones , from Derry in Northern Ireland .
In October , the Damned became the first UK punk rock band to release a single , the romance @-@ themed " New Rose " . The Vibrators followed the next month with " We Vibrate " and , backing long @-@ time rocker Chris Spedding , " Pogo Dancing " . The latter was hardly a punk song by any stretch , but it was perhaps the first song about punk rock . On 26 November , the Sex Pistols ' " Anarchy in the U.K. " came out — with its debut single the band succeeded in its goal of becoming a " national scandal " . Jamie Reid 's " anarchy flag " poster and his other design work for the Sex Pistols helped establish a distinctive punk visual aesthetic . On December 1 , an incident took place that sealed punk rock 's notorious reputation : On Thames Today , an early evening London TV show , Sex Pistols guitarist Steve Jones was goaded into a verbal altercation by the host , Bill Grundy . Jones called Grundy a " dirty fucker " on live television , triggering a media controversy . Two days later , the Sex Pistols , the Clash , the Damned , and the Heartbreakers set out on the Anarchy Tour , a series of gigs throughout the UK . Many of the shows were cancelled by venue owners in response to the media outrage following the Grundy confrontation .
= = Second wave = =
By 1977 , a second wave of the punk rock movement was breaking in the three countries where it had emerged , as well as in many other places . Bands from the same scenes often sounded very different from each other , reflecting the eclectic state of punk music during the era . While punk rock remained largely an underground phenomenon in North America , Australia , and the new spots where it was emerging , in the UK it briefly became a major sensation .
= = = North America = = =
The California punk scene was in full swing by early 1977 . In Los Angeles , there were the Weirdos , the Zeros , Black Randy and the Metrosquad , the Germs , X , the Dickies , Bags , and the relocated Tupperwares , now dubbed the Screamers . San Francisco 's second wave included the Avengers , Negative Trend , the Mutants , and the Sleepers. the Dils , from Carlsbad , moved between the two major cities . The Wipers formed in Portland , Oregon . In Seattle , there was the Lewd . Often sharing gigs with the Seattle punks were bands from across the Canadian border . A major scene developed in Vancouver , spearheaded by the Furies and Victoria 's all @-@ female Dee Dee and the Dishrags. the Skulls spun off into D.O.A. and the Subhumans . The K @-@ Tels ( later known as the Young Canadians ) and Pointed Sticks were among the area 's other leading punk acts .
In eastern Canada , the Toronto protopunk band Dishes had laid the groundwork for another sizable scene , and a September 1976 concert by the touring Ramones had catalyzed the movement . Early Ontario punk bands included the Diodes , the Viletones , Battered Wives , the Demics , Forgotten Rebels , Teenage Head , the Poles , and the Ugly . Along with the Dishrags , Toronto 's the Curse and B Girls were North America 's first all @-@ female punk acts . In July 1977 , the Viletones , Diodes , Curse , and Teenage Head headed down to New York City to play " Canada night " at CBGB .
By mid @-@ 1977 in downtown New York , punk rock was already ceding its cutting @-@ edge status to the anarchic sound of Teenage Jesus and the Jerks and Mars , spearheads of what became known as no wave , although several original punk bands continued to perform and new ones emerged on the scene . The Cramps , whose core members were from Sacramento , California by way of Akron , had debuted at CBGB in November 1976 , opening for the Dead Boys . They were soon playing regularly at Max 's Kansas City . The Misfits formed in nearby New Jersey . Still developing what would become their signature B movie – inspired style , later dubbed horror punk , they made their first appearance at CBGB in April 1977 .
Leave Home , the Ramones ' second album , had come out in January . The Dead Boys ' debut LP , Young , Loud and Snotty , was released at the end of August . October saw two more debut albums from the scene : Richard Hell and the Voidoids ' first full @-@ length , Blank Generation , and the Heartbreakers ' L.A.M.F. One track on the latter exemplified both the scene 's close @-@ knit character and the popularity of heroin within it : " Chinese Rocks " — the title refers to a strong form of the drug — was written by Dee Dee Ramone and Hell , both users , as were the Heartbreakers ' Thunders and Nolan . ( During the Heartbreakers ' 1976 and 1977 tours of Britain , Thunders played a central role in popularizing heroin among the punk crowd there , as well . ) The Ramones ' third album , Rocket to Russia , appeared in November 1977 .
The Ohio protopunk bands were joined by Cleveland 's the Pagans , Akron 's Bizarros and Rubber City Rebels , and Kent 's Human Switchboard . Bloomington , Indiana , had MX @-@ 80 Sound and Detroit had the Sillies . The Suburbs came together in the Twin Cities scene sparked by the Suicide Commandos . The Feederz formed in Arizona . Atlanta had the Fans . In North Carolina , there was Chapel Hill 's H @-@ Bombs and Raleigh 's Th ' Cigaretz . The Chicago scene began not with a band but with a group of DJs transforming a gay bar , La Mere Vipere , into what became known as America 's first punk dance club . The Crucified , Tutu and the Pirates and Silver Abuse were among the city 's first punk bands . In Boston , the scene at the Rat was joined by the Nervous Eaters , Thrills , and Human Sexual Response . In Washington , D.C. , the Controls played their first gig in spring 1977 , but the city 's second wave really broke the following year with acts such as Urban Verbs , Half Japanese , D 'Chumps , Rudements and Shirkers . By early 1978 , the D.C. jazz @-@ fusion group Mind Power had transformed into Bad Brains , one of the first bands to be identified with hardcore punk .
= = = United Kingdom = = =
The Sex Pistols ' live TV skirmish with Bill Grundy was the signal moment in British punk 's transformation into a major media phenomenon , even as some stores refused to stock the records and radio airplay was hard to come by . Press coverage of punk misbehavior grew intense : On January 4 , 1977 , The Evening News of London ran a front @-@ page story on how the Sex Pistols " vomited and spat their way to an Amsterdam flight " . In February 1977 , the first album by a British punk band appeared : Damned Damned Damned ( by the Damned ) reached number thirty @-@ six on the UK chart . The EP Spiral Scratch , self @-@ released by Manchester 's Buzzcocks , was a benchmark for both the DIY ethic and regionalism in the country 's punk movement . The Clash 's self @-@ titled debut album came out two months later and rose to number twelve ; the single " White Riot " entered the top forty . In May , the Sex Pistols achieved new heights of controversy ( and number two on the singles chart ) with " God Save the Queen " . The band had recently acquired a new bassist , Sid Vicious , who was seen as exemplifying the punk persona .
Scores of new punk groups formed around the United Kingdom , as far from London as Belfast 's Stiff Little Fingers and Dunfermline , Scotland 's the Skids . Though most survived only briefly , perhaps recording a small @-@ label single or two , others set off new trends . Crass , from Essex , merged a vehement , straight @-@ ahead punk rock style with a committed anarchist mission , and played a major role in the emerging anarcho @-@ punk movement . Sham 69 , London 's Menace , and the Angelic Upstarts from South Shields in the Northeast combined a similarly stripped @-@ down sound with populist lyrics , a style that became known as street punk . These expressly working @-@ class bands contrasted with others in the second wave that presaged the post @-@ punk phenomenon . Liverpool 's first punk group , Big in Japan , moved in a glam , theatrical direction . The band didn 't survive long , but it spun off several well @-@ known post @-@ punk acts . The songs of London 's Wire were characterized by sophisticated lyrics , minimalist arrangements , and extreme brevity . By the end of 1977 , according to music historian Clinton Heylin , they were " England 's arch @-@ exponents of New Musick , and the true heralds of what came next . "
Alongside thirteen original songs that would define classic punk rock , the Clash 's debut had included a cover of the recent Jamaican reggae hit " Police and Thieves " . Other first wave bands such as the Slits and new entrants to the scene like the Ruts and the Police interacted with the reggae and ska subcultures , incorporating their rhythms and production styles . The punk rock phenomenon helped spark a full @-@ fledged ska revival movement known as 2 Tone , centered on bands such as the Specials , the Beat , Madness , and the Selecter .
June 1977 saw the release of another charting punk album : the Vibrators ' Pure Mania . In July , the Sex Pistols ' third single , " Pretty Vacant " , reached number six and the Saints had a top @-@ forty hit with " This Perfect Day " . Recently arrived from Australia , the band was now considered insufficiently " cool " to qualify as punk by much of the British media , though they had been playing a similar brand of music for years . In August , the Adverts entered the top twenty with " Gary Gilmore 's Eyes " . As punk became a broad @-@ based national phenomenon in the summer of 1977 , punk musicians and fans were increasingly subject to violent assaults by Teddy boys , football yobbos , and others . A Ted @-@ aligned band recorded " The Punk Bashing Boogie " .
In September , Generation X and the Clash reached the top forty with , respectively , " Your Generation " and " Complete Control " . X @-@ Ray Spex ' " Oh Bondage Up Yours ! " didn 't chart , but it became a requisite item for punk fans . In October , the Sex Pistols hit number eight with " Holidays in the Sun " , followed by the release of their first and only " official " album , Never Mind the Bollocks , Here 's the Sex Pistols . Inspiring yet another round of controversy , it topped the British charts . In December , one of the first books about punk rock was published : The Boy Looked at Johnny , by Julie Burchill and Tony Parsons .
= = = Australia = = =
In February 1977 , EMI released the Saints debut album , ( I 'm ) Stranded , which the band recorded in two days . The Saints had relocated to Sydney ; in April , they and Radio Birdman united for a major gig at Paddington Town Hall . Last Words had also formed in the city . The following month , the Saints relocated again , to Great Britain . In June , Radio Birdman released the album Radios Appear on its own Trafalgar label .
The Victims became a short @-@ lived leader of the Perth scene , self @-@ releasing " Television Addict " . They were joined by the Scientists , Kim Salmon 's successor band to the Cheap Nasties . Among the other bands constituting Australia 's second wave were Johnny Dole & the Scabs , the Hellcats , and Psychosurgeons ( later known as the Lipstick Killers ) in Sydney ; The Leftovers , the Survivors , and Razar in Brisbane ; and La Femme , the Negatives , and the Babeez ( later known as the News ) in Melbourne . Melbourne 's art rock – influenced Boys Next Door featured singer Nick Cave , who would become one of the world 's best @-@ known post @-@ punk artists .
= = = Rest of the world = = =
Meanwhile , punk rock scenes were emerging around the globe . In France , les punks , a Parisian subculture of Lou Reed fans , had already been around for years . Following the lead of Stinky Toys , Métal Urbain played its first concert in December 1976 . In August 1977 , Asphalt Jungle played at the second Mont de Marsan punk festival . Stinky Toys ' debut single , " Boozy Creed " , came out in September . It was perhaps the first non @-@ English @-@ language punk rock record , though as music historian George Gimarc notes , the punk enunciation made that distinction somewhat moot . The following month , Métal Urbain 's first 45 , " Panik " , appeared . After the release of their minimalist punk debut , " Rien à dire " , Marie et les Garçons became involved in New York 's mutant disco scene . Asphalt Jungle 's " Deconnection " and Gasoline 's " Killer Man " also came out before the end of the year , and other French punk acts such as Oberkampf and Starshooter soon formed .
1977 also saw the debut album from Hamburg 's Big Balls and the Great White Idiot , arguably West Germany 's first punk band . Other early German punk acts included the Fred Banana Combo and Pack . Bands primarily inspired by British punk sparked what became known as the Neue Deutsche Welle ( NDW ) movement . Vanguard NDW acts such as the Nina Hagen Band and S.Y.P.H. featured strident vocals and an emphasis on provocation . Before turning in a mainstream direction in the 1980s , NDW attracted a politically conscious and diverse audience , including both participants of the left @-@ wing alternative scene and neo @-@ Nazi skinheads . These opposing factions were mutually attracted by a view of punk rock as " politically as well as musically ... ' against the system ' . "
Scandinavian punk was propelled early on by tour dates by bands such as the Clash and the Ramones ( both in Stockholm in May 1977 ) , and the Sex Pistols ' tour through Denmark , Sweden and Norway in July the same year . The band Briard jump @-@ started Finnish punk with its November 1977 single " I Really Hate Ya " / " I Want Ya Back " ; other early Finnish punk acts included Eppu Normaali and singer Pelle Miljoona . The first Swedish punk single was " Vårdad klädsel " / " Förbjudna ljud " released by Kriminella Gitarrer in February 1978 , which started an extensive Swedish punk scene featuring act such as Ebba Grön , KSMB , Rude Kids , Besökarna , Liket Lever , Garbochock , Attentat , and many others . Within a couple of years , hundreds of punk singles were released in Sweden .
In Japan , a punk movement developed around bands playing in an art / noise style such as Friction , and " psych punk " acts like Gaseneta and Kadotani Michio . In New Zealand , Auckland 's Scavengers and Suburban Reptiles were followed by the Enemy of Dunedin . I. Punk rock scenes also grew in other countries such as Belgium ( the Kids , Chainsaw ) , the Netherlands ( the Suzannes , the Ex ) , Spain ( La Banda Trapera Del Río , Kaka De Luxe ) , and Switzerland ( Nasal Boys , Kleenex ) .
Indonesia was a part of the largest punk movement in Southeast Asia , heavily influenced by Green Day , Rancid , and the Offspring . Young people created their own underground sub @-@ culture of punk , which over time developed into a style that was completely different to the original movement .
Punk emerged in South Africa as direct opposition to the conservative apartheid government and racial segregation enforcement of the time . Bands like Wild Youth and National Wake led the way in the late 1970s and early 1980s , followed by Powerage and Screaming Foetus from Durban and Toxik Sox in Johannesburg in the mid 1980s .
= = Schism and diversification = =
By 1979 , the hardcore punk movement was emerging in Southern California . A rivalry developed between adherents of the new sound and the older punk rock crowd . Hardcore , appealing to a younger , more suburban audience , was perceived by some as anti @-@ intellectual , overly violent , and musically limited . In Los Angeles , the opposing factions were often described as " Hollywood punks " and " beach punks " , referring to Hollywood 's central position in the original L.A. punk rock scene and to hardcore 's popularity in the shoreline communities of South Bay and Orange County .
As hardcore became the dominant punk rock style , many bands of the older California punk rock movement split up , although X went on to mainstream success and the Go @-@ Go 's , part of the Hollywood punk scene when they formed in 1978 , adopted a pop sound and became major stars . Across North America , many other first and second wave punk bands also dissolved , while younger musicians inspired by the movement explored new variations on punk . Some early punk bands transformed into hardcore acts . A few , most notably the Ramones , Richard Hell and the Voidoids , and Johnny Thunders and the Heartbreakers , continued to pursue the style they had helped create . Crossing the lines between " classic " punk , post @-@ punk , and hardcore , San Francisco 's Flipper was founded in 1979 by former members of Negative Trend and the Sleepers . They became " the reigning kings of American underground rock , for a few years " .
Radio Birdman broke up in June 1978 while touring the UK , where the early unity between bohemian , middle @-@ class punks ( many with art school backgrounds ) and working @-@ class punks had disintegrated . In contrast to North America , more of the bands from the original British punk movement remained active , sustaining extended careers even as their styles evolved and diverged . Meanwhile , the Oi ! and anarcho @-@ punk movements were emerging . Musically in the same aggressive vein as American hardcore , they addressed different constituencies with overlapping but distinct anti @-@ establishment messages . As described by Dave Laing , " The model for self @-@ proclaimed punk after 1978 derived from the Ramones via the eight @-@ to @-@ the @-@ bar rhythms most characteristic of the Vibrators and Clash . ... It became essential to sound one particular way to be recognized as a ' punk band ' now . " In February 1979 , former Sex Pistols bassist Sid Vicious died of a heroin overdose in New York . If the Sex Pistols ' breakup the previous year had marked the end of the original UK punk scene and its promise of cultural transformation , for many the death of Vicious signified that it had been doomed from the start .
By the turn of the decade , the punk rock movement had split deeply along cultural and musical lines , leaving a variety of derivative scenes and forms . On one side were new wave and post @-@ punk artists ; some adopted more accessible musical styles and gained broad popularity , while some turned in more experimental , less commercial directions . On the other side , hardcore punk , Oi ! , and anarcho @-@ punk bands became closely linked with underground cultures and spun off an array of subgenres . Somewhere in between , pop punk groups created blends like that of the ideal record , as defined by Mekons cofounder Kevin Lycett : " a cross between Abba and the Sex Pistols " . A range of other styles emerged , many of them fusions with long @-@ established genres . The Clash album London Calling , released in December 1979 , exemplified the breadth of classic punk 's legacy . Combining punk rock with reggae , ska , R & B , and rockabilly , it went on to be acclaimed as one of the best rock records ever . At the same time , as observed by Flipper singer Bruce Loose , the relatively restrictive hardcore scenes diminished the variety of music that could once be heard at many punk gigs . If early punk , like most rock scenes , was ultimately male @-@ oriented , the hardcore and Oi ! scenes were significantly more so , marked in part by the slam dancing and moshing with which they became identified .
= = = New wave = = =
In 1976 — first in London , then in the United States — " New Wave " was introduced as a complementary label for the formative scenes and groups also known as " punk " ; the two terms were essentially interchangeable . NME journalist Roy Carr is credited with proposing the term 's use ( adopted from the cinematic French New Wave of the 1960s ) in this context . Over time , " new wave " acquired a distinct meaning : Bands such as Blondie and Talking Heads from the CBGB scene ; the Cars , who emerged from the Rat in Boston ; the Go @-@ Go 's in Los Angeles ; and the Police in London that were broadening their instrumental palette , incorporating dance @-@ oriented rhythms , and working with more polished production were specifically designated " new wave " and no longer called " punk " . Dave Laing suggests that some punk @-@ identified British acts pursued the new wave label in order to avoid radio censorship and make themselves more palatable to concert bookers .
Bringing elements of punk rock music and fashion into more pop @-@ oriented , less " dangerous " styles , new wave artists became very popular on both sides of the Atlantic . New wave became a catch @-@ all term , encompassing disparate styles such as 2 Tone ska , the mod revival inspired by the Jam , the sophisticated pop @-@ rock of Elvis Costello and XTC , the New Romantic phenomenon typified by Ultravox , synthpop groups like Tubeway Army ( which had started out as a straight @-@ ahead punk band ) and Human League , and the sui generis subversions of Devo , who had gone " beyond punk before punk even properly existed " . New wave became a pop culture sensation with the debut of the cable television network MTV in 1981 , which put many new wave videos into regular rotation . However , the music was often derided at the time as being silly and disposable .
= = = Post @-@ punk = = =
During 1976 – 77 , in the midst of the original UK punk movement , bands emerged such as Manchester 's Joy Division , the Fall , and Magazine , Leeds ' Gang of Four , and London 's the Raincoats that became central post @-@ punk figures . Some bands classified as post @-@ punk , such as Throbbing Gristle and Cabaret Voltaire , had been active well before the punk scene coalesced ; others , such as the Slits and Siouxsie and the Banshees , transitioned from punk rock into post @-@ punk . A few months after the Sex Pistols ' breakup , John Lydon ( no longer " Rotten " ) cofounded Public Image Ltd . Lora Logic , formerly of X @-@ Ray Spex , founded Essential Logic . Killing Joke formed in 1979 . These bands were often musically experimental , like certain new wave acts ; defining them as " post @-@ punk " was a sound that tended to be less pop and more dark and abrasive — sometimes verging on the atonal , as with Subway Sect and Wire — and an anti @-@ establishment posture directly related to punk 's . Post @-@ punk reflected a range of art rock influences from Captain Beefheart to David Bowie and Roxy Music to Krautrock and , once again , the Velvet Underground .
Post @-@ punk brought together a new fraternity of musicians , journalists , managers , and entrepreneurs ; the latter , notably Geoff Travis of Rough Trade and Tony Wilson of Factory , helped to develop the production and distribution infrastructure of the indie music scene that blossomed in the mid @-@ 1980s . Smoothing the edges of their style in the direction of new wave , several post @-@ punk bands such as New Order ( descended from Joy Division ) and the Cure. crossed over to a mainstream U.S. audience . Bauhaus was one of the formative gothic rock bands . Others , like Gang of Four , the Raincoats and Throbbing Gristle , who had little more than cult followings at the time , are seen in retrospect as significant influences on modern popular culture .
A number of U.S. artists were retrospectively defined as post @-@ punk ; Television 's debut album Marquee Moon , released in 1977 , is frequently cited as a seminal album in the field . The no wave movement that developed in New York in the late 1970s , with artists such as Lydia Lunch and James Chance , is often treated as the phenomenon 's U.S. parallel . The later work of Ohio protopunk pioneers Pere Ubu is also commonly described as post @-@ punk . One of the most influential American post @-@ punk bands was Boston 's Mission of Burma , who brought abrupt rhythmic shifts derived from hardcore into a highly experimental musical context . In 1980 , Australia 's Boys Next Door moved to London and changed their name to the Birthday Party , which evolved into Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds . Led by the Primitive Calculators , Melbourne 's Little Band scene would further explore the possibilities of post @-@ punk . Later alternative rock musicians found diverse inspiration among these post @-@ punk predecessors , as they did among their new wave contemporaries .
= = = Hardcore = = =
A distinctive style of punk , characterized by superfast , aggressive beats , screaming vocals , and often politically aware lyrics , began to emerge in 1978 among bands scattered around the United States and Canada . The first major scene of what came to be known as hardcore punk developed in Southern California in 1978 – 79 , initially around such punk bands as the Germs and Fear . The movement soon spread around North America and internationally . According to author Steven Blush , " Hardcore comes from the bleak suburbs of America . Parents moved their kids out of the cities to these horrible suburbs to save them from the ' reality ' of the cities and what they ended up with was this new breed of monster " .
Among the earliest hardcore bands , regarded as having made the first recordings in the style , were Southern California 's Middle Class and Black Flag . Bad Brains — all of whom were black , a rarity in punk of any era — launched the D.C. scene . Austin , Texas 's Big Boys , San Francisco 's Dead Kennedys , and Vancouver 's D.O.A. were among the other initial hardcore groups . They were soon joined by bands such as the Minutemen , Descendents , Circle Jerks , Adolescents , and T.S.O.L. in Southern California ; D.C. ' s Teen Idles , Minor Threat , and State of Alert ; and Austin 's MDC and the Dicks . By 1981 , hardcore was the dominant punk rock style not only in California , but much of the rest of North America as well . A New York hardcore scene grew , including the relocated Bad Brains , New Jersey 's Misfits and Adrenalin O.D. , and local acts such as the Nihilistics , the Mob , Reagan Youth , and Agnostic Front . Beastie Boys , who would become famous as a hip @-@ hop group , debuted that year as a hardcore band . They were followed by the Cro @-@ Mags , Murphy 's Law , and Leeway . By 1983 , St. Paul 's Hüsker Dü , Willful Neglect , Chicago 's Naked Raygun , Indianapolis 's Zero Boys , and D.C. ' s the Faith were taking the hardcore sound in experimental and ultimately more melodic directions . Hardcore would constitute the American punk rock standard throughout the decade . The lyrical content of hardcore songs is often critical of commercial culture and middle @-@ class values , as in Dead Kennedys ' celebrated " Holiday in Cambodia " ( 1980 ) .
Straight edge bands like Minor Threat , Boston 's SS Decontrol , and Reno , Nevada 's 7 Seconds rejected the self @-@ destructive lifestyles of many of their peers , and built a movement based on positivity and abstinence from cigarettes , alcohol , drugs , and casual sex .
Skate punk innovators also pointed in other directions : Big Boys helped establish funkcore , while Venice , California 's Suicidal Tendencies had a formative effect on the heavy metal – influenced crossover thrash style . Toward the middle of the decade , D.R.I. spawned the superfast thrashcore genre . Both developed in multiple locations . Sacramento 's Tales of Terror , which mixed psychedelic rock into their hardcore sound , were an early influence on the grunge genre . D.C. ' s Void was one of the first punk @-@ metal crossover acts and influenced thrash metal .
= = = Oi ! = = =
Following the lead of first @-@ wave British punk bands Cock Sparrer and Sham 69 , in the late 1970s second @-@ wave units like Cockney Rejects , Angelic Upstarts , the Exploited , Anti @-@ Establishment and the 4 @-@ Skins sought to realign punk rock with a working class , street @-@ level following . For that purpose , they believed , the music needed to stay " accessible and unpretentious " , in the words of music historian Simon Reynolds . Their style was originally called " real punk " or street punk ; Sounds journalist Garry Bushell is credited with labelling the genre Oi ! in 1980 . The name is partly derived from the Cockney Rejects ' habit of shouting " Oi ! Oi ! Oi ! " before each song , instead of the time @-@ honored " 1 @,@ 2 @,@ 3 @,@ 4 ! "
The Oi ! movement was fueled by a sense that many participants in the early punk rock scene were , in the words of the Business guitarist Steve Kent , " trendy university people using long words , trying to be artistic ... and losing touch " . According to Bushell , " Punk was meant to be of the voice of the dole queue , and in reality most of them were not . But Oi was the reality of the punk mythology . In the places where [ these bands ] came from , it was harder and more aggressive and it produced just as much quality music . " Lester Bangs described Oi ! as " politicized football chants for unemployed louts " . One song in particular , the Exploited 's " Punks Not Dead " , spoke to an international constituency . It was adopted as an anthem by the groups of disaffected Mexican urban youth known in the 1980s as bandas ; one banda named itself PND , after the song 's initials .
Although most Oi ! bands in the initial wave were apolitical or left wing , many of them began to attract a white power skinhead following . Racist skinheads sometimes disrupted Oi ! concerts by shouting fascist slogans and starting fights , but some Oi ! bands were reluctant to endorse criticism of their fans from what they perceived as the " middle @-@ class establishment " . In the popular imagination , the movement thus became linked to the far right . Strength Thru Oi ! , an album compiled by Bushell and released in May 1981 , stirred controversy , especially when it was revealed that the belligerent figure on the cover was a neo @-@ Nazi jailed for racist violence ( Bushell claimed ignorance ) . On July 3 , a concert at Hamborough Tavern in Southall featuring the Business , the 4 @-@ Skins , and the Last Resort was firebombed by local Asian youths who believed that the event was a neo @-@ Nazi gathering . Following the Southall riot , press coverage increasingly associated Oi ! with the extreme right , and the movement soon began to lose momentum .
= = = Anarcho @-@ punk = = =
Anarcho @-@ punk developed alongside the Oi ! and American hardcore movements . Inspired by Crass , its Dial House commune , and its independent Crass Records label , a scene developed around British bands such as Subhumans , Flux of Pink Indians , Conflict , Poison Girls , and the Apostles that was concerned as much with anarchist and DIY principles as it was with music . The acts featured ranting vocals , discordant instrumental sounds , primitive production values , and lyrics filled with political and social content , often addressing issues such as class inequalities and military violence . Anarcho @-@ punk musicians and fans disdained the older punk scene from which theirs had evolved . In historian Tim Gosling 's description , they saw " safety pins and Mohicans as little more than ineffectual fashion posturing stimulated by the mainstream media and industry .... Whereas the Sex Pistols would proudly display bad manners and opportunism in their dealings with ' the establishment , ' the anarcho @-@ punks kept clear of ' the establishment ' altogether " .
The movement spun off several subgenres of a similar political bent . Discharge , founded back in 1977 , established D @-@ beat in the early 1980s . Other groups in the movement , led by Amebix and Antisect , developed the extreme style known as crust punk . Several of these bands rooted in anarcho @-@ punk such as the Varukers , Discharge , and Amebix , along with former Oi ! groups such as the Exploited and bands from father afield like Birmingham 's Charged GBH , became the leading figures in the UK 82 hardcore movement . The anarcho @-@ punk scene also spawned bands such as Napalm Death , Carcass , and Extreme Noise Terror that in the mid @-@ 1980s defined grindcore , incorporating extremely fast tempos and death metal – style guitarwork . Led by Dead Kennedys , a U.S. anarcho @-@ punk scene developed around such bands as Austin 's MDC and Southern California 's Another Destructive System .
= = = Pop punk = = =
With their love of the Beach Boys and late 1960s bubblegum pop , the Ramones paved the way to what became known as pop punk . In the late 1970s , UK bands such as Buzzcocks and the Undertones combined pop @-@ style tunes and lyrical themes with punk 's speed and chaotic edge . In the early 1980s , some of the leading bands in Southern California 's hardcore punk rock scene emphasized a more melodic approach than was typical of their peers . According to music journalist Ben Myers , Bad Religion " layered their pissed off , politicized sound with the smoothest of harmonies " ; Descendents " wrote almost surfy , Beach Boys – inspired songs about girls and food and being young ( ish ) " . Epitaph Records , founded by Brett Gurewitz of Bad Religion , was the base for many future pop punk bands . Bands that fused punk with light @-@ hearted pop melodies , such as the Queers and Screeching Weasel , began appearing around the country , in turn influencing bands like Green Day and the Offspring , who brought pop punk wide popularity and major record sales . Bands such as the Vandals and Guttermouth developed a style blending pop melodies with humorous and offensive lyrics . Eventually , the geographically large midwest U.S. punk scene , anchored largely in places like Chicago and Minneapolis , would spawn bands like Dillinger Four who would talk a catchy , hooky pop @-@ punk approach and reinfuse it with some of punk 's earlier grit and fury , creating a distinctive punk rock sound with a regional tag . This particular substrate still maintains an identity today . The mainstream pop punk of latter @-@ day bands such as Blink @-@ 182 is criticized by many punk rock devotees ; in critic Christine Di Bella 's words , " It 's punk taken to its most accessible point , a point where it barely reflects its lineage at all , except in the three @-@ chord song structures . "
= = = Other fusions and directions = = =
From 1977 on , punk rock crossed lines with many other popular music genres . Los Angeles punk rock bands laid the groundwork for a wide variety of styles : the Flesh Eaters with deathrock ; the Plugz with Chicano punk ; and Gun Club with punk blues . The Meteors , from South London , and the Cramps , who moved from New York to Los Angeles in 1980 , were innovators in the psychobilly fusion style . Milwaukee 's Violent Femmes jumpstarted the American folk punk scene , while the Pogues did the same on the other side of the Atlantic , influencing many Celtic punk bands . Hardcore punk was combined with hip hop , creating rapcore .
Other bands pointed punk rock toward future rock styles or its own foundations . New York 's Suicide , L.A. ' s the Screamers and | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
view " reached number one on Billboard 's Modern Rock Tracks chart and became a top forty airplay hit , arguably the first ever American punk song to do so ; just one month later , the Offspring 's " Come Out and Play " followed suit . MTV and radio stations such as Los Angeles ' KROQ @-@ FM played a major role in these bands ' crossover success , though NOFX refused to let MTV air its videos .
Following the lead of Boston 's Mighty Mighty Bosstones and two California bands , Anaheim 's No Doubt and Long Beach 's Sublime , ska punk and ska @-@ core became widely popular in the mid @-@ 1990s . By 1996 , genre acts such as Reel Big Fish and Less Than Jake were being signed to major labels . The original 2 Tone bands had emerged amid punk rock 's second wave , but their music was much closer to its Jamaican roots — " ska at 78 rpm " . Ska punk bands in the third wave of ska created a true musical fusion between the genres . ... And Out Come the Wolves , the 1995 album by Rancid — which had evolved out of Operation Ivy — became the first record in this ska revival to be certified gold ; Sublime 's self @-@ titled 1996 album was certified platinum early in 1997 . In Australia , two popular groups , skatecore band Frenzal Rhomb and pop punk act Bodyjar , also established followings in Japan .
Green Day and Dookie 's enormous sales paved the way for a host of bankable North American pop punk bands in the following decade . With punk rock 's renewed visibility came concerns among some in the punk community that the music was being co @-@ opted by the mainstream . They argued that by signing to major labels and appearing on MTV , punk bands like Green Day were buying into a system that punk was created to challenge . Such controversies have been part of the punk culture since 1977 , when the Clash was widely accused of " selling out " for signing with CBS Records . The Vans Warped Tour and the mall chain store Hot Topic brought punk even further into the U.S. mainstream .
= = In the mainstream = =
By early 1998 , the punk revival had commercially stalled , but not for long . That November , the Offspring 's Americana on the major Columbia label debuted at number two on the album chart . A bootleg MP3 of its first single , " Pretty Fly ( for a White Guy ) " , made it onto the Internet and was downloaded a record 22 million times — illegally . The following year , Enema of the State , the first major @-@ label release by pop punk band Blink @-@ 182 , reached the top ten and sold four million copies in under twelve months . In January 2000 , the album 's second single , " All the Small Things " , hit the sixth spot on the Billboard Hot 100 . While they were viewed as Green Day " acolytes " , critics also found teen pop acts such as Britney Spears , the Backstreet Boys , and ' N Sync suitable points of comparison for Blink @-@ 182 's sound and market niche . The band 's Take Off Your Pants and Jacket ( 2001 ) and Blink @-@ 182 ( 2003 ) respectively rose to numbers one and three on the album chart . In November 2003 , The New Yorker described how the " giddily puerile " act had " become massively popular with the mainstream audience , a demographic formerly considered untouchable by punk @-@ rock purists . "
Other new North American pop punk bands , though often critically dismissed , also achieved major sales in the first decade of the 2000s . Ontario 's Sum 41 reached the Canadian top ten with its 2001 debut album , All Killer , No Filler , which eventually went platinum in the United States . The record included the number one U.S. Alternative hit " Fat Lip " , which incorporated verses of what one critic called " brat rap . "
The effect of commercialization on the music became an increasingly contentious issue . As observed by scholar Ross Haenfler , many punk fans " ' despise corporate punk rock ' , typified by bands such as Sum 41 and Blink 182 " . At the same time , politicized and independent @-@ label punk continued to thrive in the United States . Since 1993 , Anti @-@ Flag had been putting progressive politics at the center of its music . The administration of George W. Bush provided them and similarly minded acts eight years of conservative government to excoriate . Rise Against was the most successful of these groups , registering top ten records in 2006 with The Sufferer & the Witness and two years later with Appeal to Reason . Leftist punk band Against Me ! ' s New Wave was named best album of 2007 by Spin .
Elsewhere around the world , " punkabilly " band the Living End became major stars in Australia with their self @-@ titled 1998 debut .
The Yeah Yeah Yeahs 's album Mosquito has been classified as art @-@ punk .
= Cutthroat trout =
The cutthroat trout ( Oncorhynchus clarkii ) is a fish species of the family Salmonidae native to cold @-@ water tributaries of the Pacific Ocean , Rocky Mountains , and Great Basin in North America . As a member of the genus Oncorhynchus , it is one of the Pacific trout , a group that includes the widely distributed rainbow trout . Cutthroat trout are popular gamefish , especially among anglers who enjoy fly fishing . The common name " cutthroat " refers to the distinctive red coloration on the underside of the lower jaw . The specific name clarkii was given to honor explorer William Clark , coleader of the Lewis and Clark Expedition .
Cutthroat trout usually inhabit and spawn in small to moderately large , clear , well @-@ oxygenated , shallow rivers with gravel bottoms . They also reproduce in clear , cold , moderately deep lakes . They are native to the alluvial or freestone streams that are typical tributaries of the rivers of the Pacific basin , Great Basin and Rocky Mountains . Cutthroat trout spawn in the spring and may inadvertently but naturally hybridize with rainbow trout , producing fertile cutbows . Some populations of the coastal cutthroat trout ( O. c. clarkii ) are semi @-@ anadromous .
Several subspecies of cutthroat trout are currently listed as threatened in their native ranges due to habitat loss and the introduction of non @-@ native species . Two subspecies , O. c. alvordensis and O. c. macdonaldi , are considered extinct . Cutthroat trout are raised in hatcheries to restore populations in their native range , as well as stock non @-@ native lake environments to support angling . The cutthroat trout type species and several subspecies are the official state fish of seven western U.S. states .
= = Taxonomy = =
The scientific name of the cutthroat trout is Oncorhynchus clarkii . Cutthroat trout were the first New World trout encountered by Europeans when in 1541 , Spanish explorer Francisco de Coronado recorded seeing trout in the Pecos River near Santa Fe , New Mexico . These were most likely Rio Grande cutthroat trout ( O. c. virginalis ) The species was first described in the journals of explorer William Clark from specimens obtained during the Lewis and Clark Expedition from the Missouri River near Great Falls , Montana , and these were most likely the westslope cutthroat trout ( O. c. lewisi ) . As one of Lewis and Clark 's many missions was to describe the flora and fauna encountered during their expedition , cutthroat trout were given the name Salmo clarkii in honor of William Clark . In 1836 , the type specimen of S. clarkii was described by naturalist John Richardson from a tributary of the lower Columbia River , identified as the " Katpootl " , which was perhaps the Lewis River as there was a Multnomah village of similar name at the confluence . This type specimen was most likely the coastal cutthroat trout subspecies O. c. clarkii . Until the 1960s , populations of westslope cutthroat trout and Yellowstone cutthroat trout were lumped into one subspecies ; Salmo clarkii lewisii . Biologists later split the group into two subspecies , christening the name westslope cutthroat trout with the lewisii name which honors explorer Meriwether Lewis and renaming the Yellowstone cutthroat trout Salmo bouvierii , the first name given to the Yellowstone cutthroat trout by David Starr Jordan in 1883 honoring a U.S. Army Captain Bouvier .
In 1989 , morphological and genetic studies indicated trout of the Pacific basin were genetically closer to Pacific salmon ( Oncorhynchus species ) than to the Salmos – brown trout ( S. trutta ) or Atlantic salmon ( S. salar ) of the Atlantic basin . Thus , in 1989 , taxonomic authorities moved the rainbow , cutthroat and other Pacific basin trout into the genus Oncorhynchus .
= = = Subspecies = = =
Behnke in his salmon and trout handbook of 2002 recognized 14 subspecies of cutthroat trout that are each native to a separate geographic area . Not all of them were scientifically described , and different views on the taxonomic identities have been presented in some cases . It has been suggested that the cutthroat trout evolved from a common Oncorhynchus ancestor that migrated along the Pacific coast and into the mountain west primarily via the Columbia and Snake river basins 3 @-@ 5 million years ago , in the late Pliocene or early Pleistocene epochs . These epochs had repeated glacial and interglacial periods that would have caused repeated fracturing and isolation of cutthroat trout populations , eventually resulting in the different subspecies found today . The 14 subspecies are found in four evolutionary groups — Coastal , Westslope , Yellowstone and Lahontan .
= = Description = =
Throughout their native and introduced ranges , cutthroat trout vary widely in size , coloration and habitat selection . Their coloration can range from golden to gray to green on the back . Cutthroat trout can generally be distinguished from rainbow trout by the presence of basibranchial teeth at the base of tongue and a maxillary that extends beyond the posterior edge of the eye . Depending on subspecies , strain and habitat , most have distinctive red , pink , or orange linear marks along the underside of their mandibles in the lower folds of the gill plates . These markings are responsible for the common name " cutthroat " , first given to the trout by outdoor writer Charles Hallock in an 1884 article in The American Angler . These markings are not unique to the species , some coastal rainbow trout ( Oncorhynchus mykiss irideus ) and Columbia River redband trout ( O. m. gairdneri ) populations also display reddish or pink throat markings .
At maturity , different populations and subspecies of cutthroat trout can range from 6 to 40 inches ( 15 to 102 cm ) in length , depending on habitat and food availability . Sea @-@ run forms of coastal cutthroat trout average 2 to 5 pounds ( 0 @.@ 9 to 2 @.@ 3 kg ) . The length and weights of mature inland forms vary widely depending on their particular environment and availability of food . Stream @-@ resident fish are much smaller , 0 @.@ 4 to 3 @.@ 2 ounces ( 11 to 91 g ) , while lacustrine populations have attained weights ranging from 12 to 17 lb ( 5 @.@ 4 to 7 @.@ 7 kg ) in ideal conditions . The largest cutthroat trout subspecies is the Lahontan cutthroat trout ( O. c. henshawi ) . These fish average 8 to 9 in ( 20 to 23 cm ) in small streams and 8 to 22 in ( 20 to 56 cm ) in larger rivers and lakes . In ideal environments , the Lahontan cutthroat trout attains typical weights of 0 @.@ 25 to 8 lb ( 0 @.@ 11 to 3 @.@ 63 kg ) . The world record cutthroat trout is a Lahontan at 39 in ( 99 cm ) and 41 lb ( 19 kg ) .
= = = Lifecycle = = =
Cutthroat trout usually inhabit and spawn in small to moderately large , clear , well @-@ oxygenated , shallow rivers with gravel bottoms . They are native to the alluvial or freestone streams typical of tributaries of the Pacific Basin , Great Basin and Rocky Mountains . They spawn in the spring , as early as February in coastal rivers and as late as July in high mountain lakes and streams . Spawning begins when water temperatures reach 43 to 46 ° F ( 6 to 8 ° C ) . Cutthroat trout construct a redd in the stream gravel to lay eggs . The female selects the site for and excavates the redd . Females , depending on size , lay between 200 and 4 @,@ 400 eggs . Eggs are fertilized with milt ( sperm ) by an attending male . Eggs hatch into alevins or sac fry in about a month and spend two weeks in the gravel while they absorb their yolk sack before emerging . After emergence , fry begin feeding on zooplankton . Juvenile cutthroat trout typically mature in three to five years . Lake @-@ resident cutthroat trout are usually found in moderately deep , cool lakes with adequate shallows and vegetation for good food production . Lake populations generally require access to gravel @-@ bottomed streams to be self @-@ sustaining , but occasionally spawn on shallow gravel beds with good water circulation .
Cutthroat trout naturally interbreed with the closely related rainbow trout , producing fertile hybrids commonly called " cutbows " . This hybrid generally bears similar coloration and overall appearance to the cutthroat trout , usually retaining the characteristic orange @-@ red slash . Cutbow hybrids often pose a taxonomic difficulty when trying to distinguish any given specimen as a rainbow or cutthroat trout . In addition , cutthroat trout may hybridize with O. gilae the Gila trout and O. apache the Apache trout in regions where their ranges overlap .
= = Ecology = =
= = = Range = = =
Cutthroat trout are native to western North America and have evolved through geographic isolation into 14 subspecies , each native to a different major drainage basin . Native cutthroat trout species are found along the Pacific Northwest coast from Alaska through British Columbia into northern California , in the Cascade Range , the Great Basin and throughout the Rocky Mountains including southern Alberta . Some coastal populations of the coastal cutthroat trout ( O. c. clarkii ) are semianadromous , spending a few months in marine environments to feed as adults and returning to fresh water from fall through early spring to feed on insects and spawn . Cutthroat trout have the second @-@ largest historic native range of North American trout ; the lake trout ( Salvelinus namaycush ) having the largest . Ranges of some subspecies , particularly the westslope cutthroat trout ( O. c. lewisi ) have been reduced to less than 10 percent of their historic range due to habitat loss and introduction of non @-@ native species .
Although members of Oncorhynchus , the Pacific trout / salmon species , three subspecies — the westslope ( O. c. lewisi ) , the greenback ( O. c. stomias ) and Yellowstone cutthroat trout ( O. c. bouvierii ) — evolved populations east of the Continental Divide in the upper Missouri River basin , upper Arkansas and Platte River basins and upper Yellowstone River basin , each which drain into the Atlantic basin via the Mississippi River ( in 2005 , researchers published a report stating that a natural distribution of ( O. mykiss ) , the Conchos trout , is also located in an Atlantic basin drainage ) . Scientists believe that the climatic and geologic conditions 3 to 5 million years ago allowed cutthroat trout from the Snake River to migrate over the divide into the Yellowstone plateau via Two Ocean Pass . There is also evidence that Yellowstone Lake once drained south into the Snake River drainage . Evidence suggests that the westslope cutthroat trout was able to establish populations east of the divide via Summit Lake at Marias Pass which at one time connected the Flathead River drainage with the upper Missouri River drainage . Scientists speculate that there are several mountain passes associated with the headwaters of the Colorado River drainage and Arkansas / Platte River drainages that would have allowed migration of cutthroat trout east of the divide .
Cutthroat trout have been introduced into non @-@ native waters outside their historic native range , but not to the extent of the rainbow trout ( O. mykiss ) . Within the native range of the Yellowstone cutthroat trout , U.S. Fisheries Bureau and National Park Service authorities introduced Yellowstone cutthroat trout into many fishless lakes in Yellowstone National Park . Cutthroat trout were introduced into Lake Michigan tributaries in the 1890s and sporadically in the early 20th century , but never established wild populations . A population of Yellowstone cutthroat trout purportedly has been established in Lake Huron . Although cutthroat trout are not native to Arizona , they are routinely introduced by the Arizona Game and Fish Department into high mountain lakes in the White Mountains in the northeastern region of that state .
= = = Habitat = = =
Cutthroat trout require cold , clear , well @-@ oxygenated , shallow rivers with gravel bottoms or cold , moderately deep lakes . Healthy stream @-@ side vegetation that reduces siltation is typical of healthy cutthroat trout habitat and beaver ponds may provide refuge during periods of drought and over winter . Most populations stay in fresh water throughout their lives and are known as nonmigratory , stream @-@ resident or riverine populations . The coastal cutthroat trout ( O. c. clarkii ) is the only cutthroat trout subspecies to coevolve through its entire range with the coastal rainbow trout ( O. m. irideus ) . Portions of the westslope cutthroat trout 's ( O. c. lewisi ) range overlap with the Columbia River redband trout ( O. m. gairdneri ) , but the majority of its native range is in headwater tributary streams above major waterfalls and other barriers to upstream migration . At least three subspecies are confined to isolated basins in the Great Basin and can tolerate saline or alkaline water .
Cutthroat trout are opportunistic feeders . Stream @-@ resident cutthroat trout primarily feed on larval , pupal and adult forms of aquatic insects ( typically caddisflies , stoneflies , mayflies and aquatic dipterans ) , and adult forms of terrestrial insects ( typically ants , beetles , grasshoppers and crickets ) that fall into the water , fish eggs , small fish , along with crayfish , shrimp and other crustaceans . As they grow the proportion of fish consumed increases in most populations . In saltwater estuaries and along beaches , Coastal cutthroat trout feed on small fish such as sculpins , sand lance , salmon fry and herring . They also consume shrimp , small squid and krill . In fresh water they consume the same diet as stream resident trout — aquatic insects and crustaceans , amphibians , earthworms , small fish and fish eggs . Within the range of the bull trout ( Salvelinus confluentus ) the cutthroat trout is a forage fish for the piscivorous bull trout .
= = = Artificial propagation = = =
Various subspecies of cutthroat trout are raised in commercial , state and federal hatcheries for introduction into suitable native and non @-@ native riverine and lacustrine environments . In the early 20th century , several hatcheries were established in Yellowstone National Park by the U.S. Bureau of Fisheries . These hatcheries not only produced stocks of the Yellowstone cutthroat trout ( O. c. bouvierii ) for the park , but also took advantage of the great spawning stock of cutthroat trout to supply eggs to hatcheries around the U.S. Between the years 1901 and 1953 a total of 818 million trout eggs were exported from the park to hatcheries throughout the U.S. The Lahontan National Fish Hatchery operated by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service exists to restore populations of the Lahontan cutthroat trout ( O. c. henshawi ) in Pyramid , Walker , Fallen Leaf , June , Marlette , and Gull Lakes and the Truckee River in California and Nevada . The hatchery produces about 300 @,@ 000 – 400 @,@ 000 Lahontan cutthroat trout fry annually . The Jackson National Fish Hatchery produces around 400 @,@ 000 Snake River fine @-@ spotted cutthroat trout ( O. c. behnkei ) annually to support fisheries in Idaho and Wyoming . The Leadville National Fish Hatchery produces 125 @,@ 000 – 200 @,@ 000 Snake River fine @-@ spotted , greenback cutthroat and rainbow trout annually to support fishing in the Fryingpan and Arkansas River drainages and other Colorado waters . The Bozeman Fish Technology Center , formerly a cutthroat trout fish hatchery in Bozeman , Montana , plays a major role in the restoration of the greenback ( O. c. stomias ) and westslope cutthroat trout ( O. c. lewisi ) subspecies .
= = Population threats = =
The historic native range of cutthroat trout has been reduced by overfishing , urbanization and habitat loss due to mining , livestock grazing and logging . Population densities have been reduced and in some cases populations have disappeared though competition with non @-@ native brook , brown , lake and rainbow trout , kokanee salmon , lake whitefish and mysis shrimp which were introduced in the late 19th and early 20th centuries . Scientists believe the westslope cutthroat trout will eventually be extirpated from the large lakes in Western Montana due to the trophic cascades resulting from lake trout and mysis shrimp introductions . The most serious current threats to several subspecies are interspecific breeding with introduced rainbow trout creating hybrid cutbows and intraspecific breeding with other introduced cutthroat trout subspecies . In the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem , the presence of lake trout ( Salvelinus namaycush ) in Yellowstone Lake in Yellowstone National Park has caused a serious decline in ( O. c. bouvierii ) . Outbreaks of whirling disease in major spawning tributaries within the native ranges have also caused declines . Most subspecies of cutthroat trout are highly susceptible to whirling disease , although the Snake River fine @-@ spotted cutthroat trout ( O. c. behnkei ) appears to be resistant to the parasite .
= = = Interspecific and intraspecific breeding = = =
The most serious impact on the genetic purity of most cutthroat trout subspecies results from interspecific and intraspecific breeding resulting in hybrids that carry the genes of both parents . In inland populations , the introduction of rainbow trout from hatchery stocks have resulted in cutbow hybrids that continue to diminish the genetic purity of many cutthroat trout subspecies . The introduction of hatchery @-@ raised Yellowstone cutthroat trout into native ranges of other cutthroat trout subspecies , particularly the westslope cutthroat trout , has resulted in intraspecific breeding and diminished genetic purity of the westslope subspecies . As such , populations of genetically pure westslope cutthroat trout are very rare and localized in streams above barriers to upstream migrations by introduced species . Fisheries biologist Robert J. Behnke attributes the extinction of the yellowfin cutthroat trout ( O. c. macdonaldi ) and Alvord cutthroat trout ( O. c. alvordensis ) subspecies to the introduction of non @-@ native rainbow trout .
= = = Decline of the Yellowstone subspecies = = =
The population at the core of the Yellowstone cutthroat trout 's native range , in Yellowstone Lake , declined significantly in the 1960s due to overharvest of mature cutthroat trout by anglers , as well as overharvesting of eggs by hatcheries in the early 20th century . Managers implemented catch and release , which required anglers to return their catches to the lake , and they terminated hatchery operations in the park which allowed the cutthroat trout to recover . Then , in 1994 , park officials discovered lake trout ( Salvelinus namaycush ) in Yellowstone Lake . Although lake trout were established in Shoshone , Lewis and Heart lakes in the Snake River drainage from U.S. government stocking operations in 1890 , they were never officially introduced into the Yellowstone River drainage and their presence there is probably the result of accidental or illegal introductions . By 2000 , the cutthroat trout population had declined to less than 10 percent of its early 20th century abundance . However , aggressive lake trout eradication programs have killed over one million lake trout since 1996 , and the hope is that this will lead to a restoration of cutthroat numbers . Cutthroat trout co @-@ exist with lake trout in Heart Lake , an isolated back @-@ country lake at the head of the Heart River that gets little angling pressure .
= = Angling = =
Cutthroat trout are prized as a gamefish , particularly by fly anglers . They are regulated as a gamefish in every state and province they occur in . From the Yellowstone cutthroat trout fishery in Yellowstone National Park , the unique Lahontan cutthroat trout fishery in Pyramid Lake in Nevada , and the small stream fisheries of the westslope cutthroat trout to saltwater angling for sea @-@ run cutthroat trout on the Pacific coast , cutthroat trout are a popular quarry for trout anglers throughout their ranges . The all @-@ tackle world record is 41 lb ( 19 kg ) caught in Pyramid Lake in December 1925 . Their propensity to feed on aquatic and terrestrial insects make them an ideal quarry for the fly angler .
= = = Sea @-@ run fishing along the Pacific coast = = =
From Alaska to Northern California , coastal cutthroat trout in sea @-@ run , resident stream and lacustrine forms are sought by anglers . Puget Sound in Washington is a stronghold of sea @-@ run cutthroat trout fishing with its many tributaries and protected saltwater inlets and beaches . Fly anglers search for sea @-@ run cutthroat trout along beaches , river mouths and estuaries year round . In the lower reaches of larger rivers , anglers in drift boats float the rivers searching for trout along the wooded shorelines . In addition to a cutthroat trout sport fishery managed by the Alaska Department of Fish and Game , the Federal Subsistence Management Program manages coastal cutthroat trout subsistence fisheries in Southeast Alaska .
= = = Yellowstone fishery = = =
Yellowstone National Park was established in 1872 . By the 1890s , the Yellowstone cutthroat trout fishery in the Yellowstone River and Yellowstone Lake were well known and being promoted in national guidebooks .
Fishing Grounds . — In the river at the lake outlet are the fishing grounds , about a mile from the hotel , while at many places between the lake and canyon excellent fishing is had from shore . The best results in the outlet are had from row boats ; they can be rented from the steamboat company who have a supply , as well as competent and experienced oarsmen . Not more than two can successfully fish from one boat . When the grounds are reached , have the oarsman occupy the " stern , " as from this position he can manipulate the landing net to a better advantage , the anchor is attached to the " bow . " During the trout season ( July to September ) , no better fishing can be found . They average about one and one @-@ half pounds each and are of the salmon myhiss [ sic ] variety — a catch of 100 , three or four hours before sundown , is not unfrequent .
In 1902 , anticipating the completion of the east entrance road from Cody , Wyoming , Captain Hiram M. Chittenden supervised the construction of the first " Fishing Bridge " across the outlet of Yellowstone Lake . Fishing Bridge was rebuilt in 1919 , and reconstructed in 1937 , primarily to accommodate vehicle traffic . Between 1916 and 1931 , a large development of campgrounds , cabins , stores and service facilities were built just east of the bridge to support anglers . This area is now known as the Fishing Bridge Historic District . The 1937 bridge boasted pedestrian walkways on either side of the roadway to give more room to anglers . Angling in the river , at Fishing Bridge and in the lake , boomed during the 1950s and 1960s and over harvest caused a significant decline in the fishery . Consequently , in 1973 , fishing was no longer permitted from Fishing Bridge .
= = = Pyramid Lake Lahontan subspecies fishery = = =
The Pyramid Lake strain of Lahontan cutthroat trout , source of the 41 @-@ pound ( 19 kg ) world record and native to Pyramid Lake , Lake Tahoe and the Truckee River , was brought to near @-@ extinction in the two decades between the 1920s @-@ 40s from overharvest , introduced species and loss of spawning habitat . In the 1970s , Pyramid Lake was stocked with Lahontan cutthroat trout strains still surviving in some nearby lakes , but they were not the large Pyramid Lake strain . Although the Paiute tribe had been successful in reestablishing a cutthroat trout fishery on the reservation in Pyramid Lake , the cutthroat trout were not the large fish of the late 19th and early 20th century . In the late 1970 , biologists discovered a surviving population of a pure Pyramid Lake strain in a small headwaters stream on the Nevada @-@ Utah border that had at some point around 1900 been introduced into the stream . In 1995 , the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service began rearing these fish in the Lahontan National Fish Hatchery in Gardnerville , Nevada . In 2006 , the Pyramid Lake strain of Lahontan cutthroat trout were reintroduced into the lake . As Pyramid Lake has a very shallow shoreline , anglers use ladders to stand comfortably in 3 to 4 feet ( 0 @.@ 9 to 1 @.@ 2 m ) of water and cast to trout cruising along shoreline breaks . Considered a " world @-@ class " fishery , anglers routinely catch cutthroat trout exceeding 10 lb ( 4 @.@ 5 kg ) .
= = As a symbol = =
The cutthroat trout is the state fish of Idaho , Montana and Wyoming , while particular subspecies of cutthroat are the state fish of Colorado , Nevada , New Mexico and Utah .
Idaho Montana and Wyoming – Cutthroat trout ( O. clarki )
Colorado – Greenback cutthroat trout ( O. c. stomias )
Nevada – Lahontan cutthroat trout O. c. henshawi
New Mexico – Rio Grande cutthroat trout ( O. c. virginalis )
Utah – Bonneville cutthroat trout ( O. c. utah )
= Longtown Castle =
Longtown Castle , also termed Ewias Lacey in early accounts , is a ruined Norman motte @-@ and @-@ bailey fortification in Longtown , Herefordshire . Built around 1175 by Hugh de Lacy , possibly reusing former Roman earthworks , the castle had an unusual design with three baileys and two large enclosures to protect the neighbouring town . Early in the next century the castle was rebuilt in stone , with a circular keep erected on the motte and a gatehouse constructed between the inner and outer western baileys . By the 14th century , Longtown Castle had fallen into decline . Despite being pressed back into use during the Owain Glyndŵr rising in 1403 , it became ruined . In the 21st century the castle is maintained by English Heritage and operated as a tourist attraction .
= = History = =
= = = Earlier sites = = =
It is uncertain when the first fortification at Longtown was built . The first defences may have been built during either the Iron Age or Roman , or Anglo @-@ Saxon periods , but this remains uncertain . If Roman defences were constructed at the site , it was probably because of a Roman road that may have run nearby , and the defences may well have then been reused in the building of the current castle , parts of whose earthworks have square , angular corners , similar to those of Roman forts but otherwise unusual in 12th century English castles .
= = = Initial construction = = =
After the Norman invasion of England and Wales in the late 11th century , a small castle was built at Pont Hedre , close to the site of the current castle , by either Roger de Lacy or Pain fitzJohn in order to protect the river crossing there . Longtown was then probably built to replace this older castle , probably around 1175 , by Hugh de Lacy , a successful favourite of Henry II and an administrator in newly conquered Ireland . Hugh had acquired the local lands around Ewias Lacey , an important Marcher Lord territory , in the 1160s and early 1170s . The early castle was occasionally also called Ewias Lacey , named after the wider lordship ; " Ewias " was a term meaning " sheep district " .
Longtown Castle was designed as a motte and bailey castle , on high ground alongside the River Monnow . More defensible sites on higher ground existed nearby , but this location was strategically well located close to the River , an important transport route . It had a 10 @-@ metre ( 33 ft ) high motte and an unusual rectangular bailey design around 125 metres ( 410 ft ) by 110 metres ( 360 ft ) , divided into three parts , two baileys in the west and one in the east , each capable of being defended independently and enclosing around 1 @.@ 21 hectares ( 3 @.@ 0 acres ) in total . The 12th @-@ century castle was built primarily of timber with at least some stone in its design , but this stone was then reused when the castle was rebuilt in the 13th century . Two circuits of earthworks to the north and south of the castle , possibly with wooden palisades , enclosed the early settlement of Longtown . The region was troubled for the rest of the century , with revolts by the local Welsh against Anglo @-@ Norman rule .
= = = Expansion and decline = = =
The castle was extensively rebuilt in stone during the early 13th century . The stone keep , dating from the 1220s or 1230s , was constructed in the form of a circular great tower , with walls 5 @-@ metre ( 16 ft ) thick and three turrets spaced evenly around the outside and a hall on the first floor . This circular design is particular to the Welsh Marches , and is also seen at Skenfrith and Caldicot . The reason for this choice is unclear , as it appears to have carried few military advantages . The stonework is made up of shale rubble with cut ashlar detailing ; the walls are around 4 @-@ metre ( 13 ft ) thick , but the keep 's foundations are extremely shallow . An inner gate to the western baileys was built to a simple design with two small turrets , and seems to have been fitted with a portcullis , while a 3 @-@ metre ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) thick wall encircled the rest of the inner western bailey ; another stone wall seems to have protected the outer half of the bailey . Inside the inner western bailey appears to have been the castle 's great hall and other service buildings . The work on the castle cost the de Lacys around £ 37 , a large sum of money for the time . The settlement of Longtown was probably established at the same time as the castle , and initially prospered .
The de Lacy family controlled Longtown Castle until Walter de Lacy 's death in 1234 . John Fitzgeoffrey then acquired the castle , during a period of increased conflict and tension between the Welsh princes Llywelyn the Great and Dafydd ap Llywelyn and the English marcher lords . The castle then passed to John Verdon and his sons , who struggled with local lawlessness and the Welsh revolts which continued until the end of the century . Edward temporarily confiscated the castle and estates from John 's son , Theobald Verdon , and in 1316 the castle passed to Bartholomew de Berghersh . The castle continued to be used as a fortification , and in 1317 orders were given to garrison it with 30 men .
The castle began to decline in importance , however , and in 1369 passed to the Despensers and then the Beauchamps , neither of whom used the castle . It was temporarily refortified by Henry IV in response to the Owain Glyndŵr uprising in North Wales in 1403 . The Nevilles acquired the property in the 15th century and it remained in the control of the Lords of Abergavenny until the 1970s . After the Black Death the town 's population fell away sharply as well , the protected area north of the castle was abandoned , and by the 16th century it was no longer a functioning trading centre .
It is unclear if the castle and town played any part in the English Civil War between 1642 – 45 , although cannon balls from the period have been discovered within the castle . Local oral tradition states that the castle was slighted , or deliberately destroyed , during the war . Stones from the castle were used for local building work by the 17th century onwards , and by the 18th century a house and shop had been constructed in the eastern bailey of the castle , along with a yard and garden . A gallows operated at the castle until 1790 . Buildings continued to encroach on the castle . By the end of the 19th century a school and a house , Castle Lodge , had been built in the castle grounds . Other buildings were built as lean @-@ to 's against the castle walls .
= = = 20th - 21st centuries = = =
Longtown Castle was acquired by the Ministry of Works in the 1970s . It was in a poor condition and extensive restoration work was carried out , including the removal of many of the buildings that had encroached on the walls . In the 21st century , the central parts of Longtown Castle , including the ruined keep , the internal gatehouse and fragments of the curtain wall , are maintained by English Heritage as a tourist attraction , although the wider earthworks lie on common land . The castle is protected as a scheduled monument .
= The St. James =
The St. James is a luxury residential skyscraper in Washington Square West , Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , United States . The 498 feet ( 152 m ) , 45 @-@ story high @-@ rise stands along Walnut Street and Washington Square and is the 12th tallest building in Philadelphia .
The Chicago @-@ style , glass @-@ and @-@ concrete skyscraper incorporated into its design several historic 19th @-@ century buildings that lined Walnut Street . These buildings included three Federal @-@ style rowhouses built in 1807 called York Row and the Italianate @-@ style former headquarters of the Philadelphia Savings Fund Society , built in 1868 – 1869 . After lying vacant and neglected for years , the only part of York Row preserved were the rowhouses ' facades . Only a back portion of the Philadelphia Savings Fund Society building was demolished , the rest being incorporated as retail and office space .
Developer P & A Associates first attempted to develop the site in 1995 , but was delayed because of a lack of investor confidence in the project . When the Philadelphia residential market improved in the late 1990s , St. James Associates Joint Venture , a joint venture of P & A Associates and others , began construction in November 2001 . The high @-@ rise building , completed in 2004 , features 306 units , with each but the studio apartments having a private balcony . Its amenities include a 60 feet ( 18 m ) swimming pool , a private courtyard , and a nine @-@ story parking garage that makes up the base of the building .
= = History = =
= = = PSFS headquarters and York Row = = =
The site of The St. James was formerly occupied by a group of historic 19th @-@ century buildings that lined Walnut Street in the Washington Square West neighborhood in Center City , Philadelphia , Pennsylvania . The most notable of these was the former headquarters of the Philadelphia Savings Fund Society ( PSFS ) . Designed in 1868 by Addison Hutton , the granite @-@ faced Italianate @-@ style building was the second headquarters building that PSFS had built . Construction began on the building on June 13 , 1868 and it was opened for business on October 11 , 1869 . An addition designed by Hutton was added in 1885 , and another designed by Frank Furness in 1895 . The building served as the PSFS headquarters until 1932 when the company moved to the PSFS Building on Market Street .
The other buildings are a group of three brick three @-@ story rowhouses called York Row . Built in 1807 in the Federal style , they are an early example of speculative housing development . York Row was built at a time when Philadelphia 's population was shifting westward , away from the Delaware River .
The buildings were bought for US $ 4 @.@ 7 million in 1988 by real estate investor Samuel A. Rappaport . Rappaport , who made a fortune by buying , improving , and then selling run @-@ down properties , announced in 1989 that he planned to turn the building into his own personal headquarters and add a glass @-@ enclosed ballroom on its top . Rappaport also planned to have an apartment in one of the York Row houses . However , like many other Rappaport @-@ owned buildings , they ended up being left vacant and neglected , becoming a target for vandals and the homeless .
Rappaport died in 1994 , and in January 1995 developer P & A Associates announced its agreement to buy the properties from his estate . The developer also disclosed plans to build a luxury residential tower at the site . The plan called for dismantling part of Furness 's additions to the PSFS headquarters , which would serve as the tower 's lobby . The York Row houses would have been completely demolished . The plan was controversial as preservationists wanted the buildings to remain unchanged . P & A Associates met with representatives of the Preservation Alliance for Greater Philadelphia and in February 1995 advanced a new plan that would preserve most of the PSFS headquarters and the York Row facade . The new plan , which was approved by the Philadelphia Historical Commission , included renovating the PSFS headquarters and converting it into restaurant and office space . The York Row building interiors had been stripped of everything except for one fireplace mantle and could not be restored . P & A Associates would instead preserve the front facade of the houses , back to the roof ridge line .
= = = Construction = = =
After its announcement in 1995 , the project stalled because P & A Associates was unable to find investors to finance the project . Investors were skeptical that luxury residential apartments outside the Rittenhouse Square neighborhood in Center City could be successful . The delay allowed another developer to announce an agreement to acquire the property . In March 1999 , Chicago @-@ based developer the Barton Group announced its plan to build a 37 @-@ story , 322 @-@ unit luxury residential tower . The Barton Group 's plan would also incorporate the PSFS headquarters building and York Row into the tower .
At the end of the 1990s , Philadelphia was experiencing a condominium boom , with more than 70 Center City office and manufacturing buildings being converted into rental and condominium apartments between 1998 and 2004 . With the residential market in Center City growing , P & A Associates found financing by going into a partnership with real estate firm Boston Financial to fund its planned residential tower . Around the same time , the Barton Group ended its intentions with the site and sold its interest in the property to P & A Associates and Boston Financial . The tower announced by P & A Associates and Boston Financial would be a 300 @-@ unit luxury rental tower called St. James Court , named after an adjacent street . The high @-@ rise would still incorporate the preservation efforts for the 19th @-@ century buildings it agreed to in 1995 .
P & A Associates received final approval from the city zoning board and the historical commission in August 1999 , but continued to seek more financing , which it was able to secure from Corus Bank of Chicago in September 2001 . To develop the tower , now called The St. James , P & A Associates formed the St. James Associates Joint Venture with Clark Realty Capital LLC and Lend Lease Real Estate Investments , which represented an undisclosed client . With financial backing from its partners and tax breaks for new residential construction passed in 2000 , construction began on November 28 , 2001 . BACE Construction ( Philadelphia based ) was awarded the construction of the project . Philadelphia had not seen any residential high @-@ rise development since the 1980s , and The St. James was one of the first to begin construction in the city , preceded only by the 16 @-@ story Residences at the Dockside , which broke ground in 2000 . It became the largest residential building in the city .
By the beginning of March 2004 , 20 percent of the 306 units in The St. James had been leased . Construction was completed later that month , with finishing touches added later in the year . In March 2005 , a year after the building was completed , P & A Associates and Clark Realty Capital , under the name of 700 Walnut LP , announced The St. James was for sale . At the time , 45 percent of its units were being rented . P & A Associates sold off its interest in the building that same year .
= = Building = =
The St. James is a 45 @-@ story , high @-@ rise luxury residential skyscraper in Center City . At 498 feet ( 152 m ) tall , it is the 12th tallest building in Philadelphia . The US $ 80 million , Chicago @-@ style high @-@ rise was designed by Solomon Cordwell Buenz & Associates Inc. with assistance by architectural firm Bower Lewis Thrower . Located between 8th Street , Walnut Street , St. James Street , and Washington Square , The St. James stands two blocks from Independence Hall . The glass and concrete skyscraper 's east and west facade is split between a curved wall , a squared @-@ off wing , and a strip of blue glass that separates them .
The St. James contains 415 @,@ 790 square feet ( 39 @,@ 000 m2 ) of residential and commercial space . This includes 8 @,@ 290 square feet ( 770 m2 ) of office space , 14 @,@ 500 square feet ( 1 @,@ 300 m2 ) of retail space , and 393 @,@ 000 square feet ( 37 @,@ 000 m2 ) of residential space . The 306 residential units feature 9 feet ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) ceilings and floor @-@ to @-@ ceiling windows . The building features a four @-@ pipe heating and air @-@ conditioning system , and every unit , except for the studio apartments , has a private balcony . Building amenities include an 11th @-@ floor health club and a 60 feet ( 18 m ) swimming pool .
The first nine floors of The St. James house private parking for building residents . The street @-@ level retail floor is occupied by a Starbucks and an Oceanaire seafood restaurant . Along Walnut Street , The St. James incorporated the front facades of the York Row houses , while the rest of the buildings were demolished . The main tower is set 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) from the York Row facades to preserve the Row 's original look . All but the rear wing of the PSFS headquarters building was incorporated into the tower . The demolished portion of the PSFS building was converted into a hidden courtyard for residents .
Preservationists were critical of how the York Row houses were preserved . Calling them " facadectomies " , vice president of the Preservation Alliance for Greater Philadelphia J. Randall Cotton felt that saving the facades did not preserve the essence of the buildings , but that it was better than nothing . Cotton said , " At the eyeball level , it will give something of the coherence of the Philadelphia cityscape , which is a human scale . The beauty of Philadelphia is that its lots were 20 to 25 feet , which allowed for a door and two windows . It 's a falsehood to put a big building behind them . But it 's preferable to demolition . " The Philadelphia Inquirer architecture critic Inga Saffron was critical of the parking garage on the lower floors , saying it " detracts from [ The St. James 's ] crisp , vertical lines and bumps clumsily against the historic buildings . The garage also makes the tower feel distant from the life of the city . " The St. James has won several awards , including the 2006 National Association of Home Builders awards for Best Luxury Rental Apartment Primary Market and Best High @-@ Rise Rental Apartment .
= Oxygen =
Oxygen is a chemical element with symbol O and atomic number 8 . It is a member of the chalcogen group on the periodic table and is a highly reactive nonmetal and oxidizing agent that readily forms oxides with most elements as well as other compounds . By mass , oxygen is the third @-@ most abundant element in the universe , after hydrogen and helium . At standard temperature and pressure , two atoms of the element bind to form dioxygen , a colorless and odorless diatomic gas with the formula O
2 . This is an important part of the atmosphere and diatomic oxygen gas constitutes 20 @.@ 8 % of the Earth 's atmosphere . Additionally , as oxides the element also makes up almost half of the Earth 's crust .
Oxygen is necessary to sustain most terrestrial life . Oxygen is used in cellular respiration and many major classes of organic molecules in living organisms contain oxygen , such as proteins , nucleic acids , carbohydrates , and fats , as do the major constituent inorganic compounds of animal shells , teeth , and bone . Most of the mass of living organisms is oxygen as a component of water , the major constituent of lifeforms . Conversely , oxygen is continuously replenished by photosynthesis , which uses the energy of sunlight to produce oxygen from water and carbon dioxide . Oxygen is too chemically reactive to remain a free element in air without being continuously replenished by the photosynthetic action of living organisms . Another form ( allotrope ) of oxygen , ozone ( O
3 ) , strongly absorbs ultraviolet UVB radiation and the high @-@ altitude ozone layer helps protect the biosphere from ultraviolet radiation . But ozone is a pollutant near the surface where it is a by @-@ product of smog . At low earth orbit altitudes , sufficient atomic oxygen is present to cause corrosion of spacecraft .
Oxygen was discovered independently by Carl Wilhelm Scheele , in Uppsala , in 1773 or earlier , and Joseph Priestley in Wiltshire , in 1774 , but Priestley is often given priority because his work was published first . The name oxygen was coined in 1777 by Antoine Lavoisier , whose experiments with oxygen helped to discredit the then @-@ popular phlogiston theory of combustion and corrosion . Its name derives from the Greek roots ὀξύς oxys , " acid " , literally " sharp " , referring to the sour taste of acids and -γενής -genes , " producer " , literally " begetter " , because at the time of naming , it was mistakenly thought that all acids required oxygen in their composition .
Common use of oxygen includes residential heating , internal combustion engines , production of steel , plastics and textiles , brazing , welding and cutting of steels and other metals , rocket propellant , oxygen therapy , and life support systems in aircraft , submarines , spaceflight and diving .
= = History = =
= = = Early experiments = = =
One of the first known experiments on the relationship between combustion and air was conducted by the 2nd century BCE Greek writer on mechanics , Philo of Byzantium . In his work Pneumatica , Philo observed that inverting a vessel over a burning candle and surrounding the vessel 's neck with water resulted in some water rising into the neck . Philo incorrectly surmised that parts of the air in the vessel were converted into the classical element fire and thus were able to escape through pores in the glass . Many centuries later Leonardo da Vinci built on Philo 's work by observing that a portion of air is consumed during combustion and respiration .
In the late 17th century , Robert Boyle proved that air is necessary for combustion . English chemist John Mayow ( 1641 – 1679 ) refined this work by showing that fire requires only a part of air that he called spiritus nitroaereus or just nitroaereus . In one experiment , he found that placing either a mouse or a lit candle in a closed container over water caused the water to rise and replace one @-@ fourteenth of the air 's volume before extinguishing the subjects . From this he surmised that nitroaereus is consumed in both respiration and combustion .
Mayow observed that antimony increased in weight when heated , and inferred that the nitroaereus must have combined with it . He also thought that the lungs separate nitroaereus from air and pass it into the blood and that animal heat and muscle movement result from the reaction of nitroaereus with certain substances in the body . Accounts of these and other experiments and ideas were published in 1668 in his work Tractatus duo in the tract " De respiratione " .
= = = Phlogiston theory = = =
Robert Hooke , Ole Borch , Mikhail Lomonosov , and Pierre Bayen all produced oxygen in experiments in the 17th and the 18th century but none of them recognized it as a chemical element . This may have been in part due to the prevalence of the philosophy of combustion and corrosion called the phlogiston theory , which was then the favored explanation of those processes .
Established in 1667 by the German alchemist J. J. Becher , and modified by the chemist Georg Ernst Stahl by 1731 , phlogiston theory stated that all combustible materials were made of two parts . One part , called phlogiston , was given off when the substance containing it was burned , while the dephlogisticated part was thought to be its true form , or calx .
Highly combustible materials that leave little residue , such as wood or coal , were thought to be made mostly of phlogiston ; non @-@ combustible substances that corrode , such as iron , contained very little . Air did not play a role in phlogiston theory , nor were any initial quantitative experiments conducted to test the idea ; instead , it was based on observations of what happens when something burns , that most common objects appear to become lighter and seem to lose something in the process . The fact that a substance like wood gains overall weight in burning was hidden by the buoyancy of the gaseous combustion products . Indeed , one of the first clues that the phlogiston theory was incorrect was that metals gain weight in rusting ( when they were supposedly losing phlogiston ) .
= = = Discovery = = =
Oxygen was first discovered by Swedish pharmacist Carl Wilhelm Scheele . He had produced oxygen gas by heating mercuric oxide and various nitrates by about 1772 . Scheele called the gas " fire air " because it was the only known supporter of combustion , and wrote an account of this discovery in a manuscript he titled Treatise on Air and Fire , which he sent to his publisher in 1775 . That document was published in 1777 .
In the meantime , on August 1 , 1774 , an experiment conducted by the British clergyman Joseph Priestley focused sunlight on mercuric oxide ( HgO ) inside a glass tube , which liberated a gas he named " dephlogisticated air " . He noted that candles burned brighter in the gas and that a mouse was more active and lived longer while breathing it . After breathing the gas himself , he wrote : " The feeling of it to my lungs was not sensibly different from that of common air , but I fancied that my breast felt peculiarly light and easy for some time afterwards . " Priestley published his findings in 1775 in a paper titled " An Account of Further Discoveries in Air " which was included in the second volume of his book titled Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air . Because he published his findings first , Priestley is usually given priority in the discovery .
The French chemist Antoine Laurent Lavoisier later claimed to have discovered the new substance independently . Priestley visited Lavoisier in October 1774 and told him about his experiment and how he liberated the new gas . Scheele also posted a letter to Lavoisier on September 30 , 1774 that described his discovery of the previously unknown substance , but Lavoisier never acknowledged receiving it ( a copy of the letter was found in Scheele 's belongings after his death ) .
= = = Lavoisier 's contribution = = =
What Lavoisier did ( although this was disputed at the time ) was to conduct the first adequate quantitative experiments on oxidation and give the first correct explanation of how combustion works . He used these and similar experiments , all started in 1774 , to discredit the phlogiston theory and to prove that the substance discovered by Priestley and Scheele was a chemical element .
In one experiment , Lavoisier observed that there was no overall increase in weight when tin and air were heated in a closed container . He noted that air rushed in when he opened the container , which indicated that part of the trapped air had been consumed . He also noted that the tin had increased in weight and that increase was the same as the weight of the air that rushed back in . This and other experiments on combustion were documented in his book Sur la combustion en général , which was published in 1777 . In that work , he proved that air is a mixture of two gases ; ' vital air ' , which is essential to combustion and respiration , and azote ( Gk. ἄζωτον " lifeless " ) , which did not support either . Azote later became nitrogen in English , although it has kept the name in French and several other European languages .
Lavoisier renamed ' vital air ' to oxygène in 1777 from the Greek roots ὀξύς ( oxys ) ( acid , literally " sharp " , from the taste of acids ) and -γενής ( -genēs ) ( producer , literally begetter ) , because he mistakenly believed that oxygen was a constituent of all acids . Chemists ( such as Sir Humphry Davy in 1812 ) eventually determined that Lavoisier was wrong in this regard ( hydrogen forms the basis for acid chemistry ) , but by then the name was too well established .
Oxygen entered the English language despite opposition by English scientists and the fact that the Englishman Priestley had first isolated the gas and written about it . This is partly due to a poem praising the gas titled " Oxygen " in the popular book The Botanic Garden ( 1791 ) by Erasmus Darwin , grandfather of Charles Darwin .
= = = Later history = = =
John Dalton 's original atomic hypothesis presumed that all elements were monatomic and that the atoms in compounds would normally have the simplest atomic ratios with respect to one another . For example , Dalton assumed that water 's formula was HO , giving the atomic mass of oxygen was 8 times that of hydrogen , instead of the modern value of about 16 . In 1805 , Joseph Louis Gay @-@ Lussac and Alexander von Humboldt showed that water is formed of two volumes of hydrogen and one volume of oxygen ; and by 1811 Amedeo Avogadro had arrived at the correct interpretation of water 's composition , based on what is now called Avogadro 's law and the diatomic elemental molecules in those gases .
By the late 19th century scientists realized that air could be liquefied and its components isolated by compressing and cooling it . Using a cascade method , Swiss chemist and physicist Raoul Pierre Pictet evaporated liquid sulfur dioxide in order to liquefy carbon dioxide , which in turn was evaporated to cool oxygen gas enough to liquefy it . He sent a telegram on December 22 , 1877 to the French Academy of Sciences in Paris announcing his discovery of liquid oxygen . Just two days later , French physicist Louis Paul Cailletet announced his own method of liquefying molecular oxygen . Only a few drops of the liquid were produced in each case and no meaningful analysis could be conducted . Oxygen was liquified in a stable state for the first time on March 29 , 1883 by Polish scientists from Jagiellonian University , Zygmunt Wróblewski and Karol Olszewski .
In 1891 Scottish chemist James Dewar was able to produce enough liquid oxygen for study . The first commercially viable process for producing liquid oxygen was independently developed in 1895 by German engineer Carl von Linde and British engineer William Hampson . Both men lowered the temperature of air until it liquefied and then distilled the component gases by boiling them off one at a time and capturing them . Later , in 1901 , oxyacetylene welding was demonstrated for the first time by burning a mixture of acetylene and compressed O
2 . This method of welding and cutting metal later became common .
In 1923 , the American scientist Robert H. Goddard became the first person to develop a rocket engine that burned liquid fuel ; the engine used gasoline for fuel and liquid oxygen as the oxidizer . Goddard successfully flew a small liquid @-@ fueled rocket 56 m at 97 km / h on March 16 , 1926 in Auburn , Massachusetts , US .
Oxygen levels in the atmosphere are trending slightly downward globally , possibly because of fossil @-@ fuel burning .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Properties and molecular structure = = =
At standard temperature and pressure , oxygen is a colorless , odorless , and tasteless gas with the molecular formula O
2 , referred to as dioxygen .
As dioxygen , two oxygen atoms are chemically bound to each other . The bond can be variously described based on level of theory , but is reasonably and simply described as a covalent double bond that results from the filling of molecular orbitals formed from the atomic orbitals of the individual oxygen atoms , the filling of which results in a bond order of two . More specifically , the double bond is the result of sequential , low @-@ to @-@ high energy , or Aufbau , filling of orbitals , and the resulting cancellation of contributions from the 2s electrons , after sequential filling of the low σ and σ * orbitals ; σ overlap of the two atomic 2p orbitals that lie along the O @-@ O molecular axis and π overlap of two pairs of atomic 2p orbitals perpendicular to the O @-@ O molecular axis , and then cancellation of contributions from the remaining two of the six 2p electrons after their partial filling of the lowest π and π * orbitals .
This combination of cancellations and σ and π overlaps results in dioxygen 's double bond character and reactivity , and a triplet electronic ground state . An electron configuration with two unpaired electrons , as is found in dioxygen ( see the filled π * orbitals in the diagram ) orbitals that are of equal energy — i.e. , degenerate — is a configuration termed a spin triplet state . Hence , the ground state of the O
2 molecule is referred to as triplet oxygen . The highest energy , partially filled orbitals are antibonding , and so their filling weakens the bond order from three to two . Because of its unpaired electrons , triplet oxygen reacts only slowly with most organic molecules , which have paired electron spins ; this prevents spontaneous combustion .
In the triplet form , O
2 molecules are paramagnetic . That is , they impart magnetic character to oxygen when it is in the presence of a magnetic field , because of the spin magnetic moments of the unpaired electrons in the molecule , and the negative exchange energy between neighboring O
2 molecules . Liquid oxygen is so magnetic that , in laboratory demonstrations , a bridge of liquid oxygen may be supported against its own weight between the poles of a powerful magnet .
Singlet oxygen is a name given to several higher @-@ energy species of molecular O
2 in which all the electron spins are paired . It is much more reactive with common organic molecules than is molecular oxygen per se . In nature , singlet oxygen is commonly formed from water during photosynthesis , using the energy of sunlight . It is also produced in the troposphere by the photolysis of ozone by light of short wavelength , and by the immune system as a source of active oxygen . Carotenoids in photosynthetic organisms ( and possibly animals ) play a major role in absorbing energy from singlet oxygen and converting it to the unexcited ground state before it can cause harm to tissues .
= = = Allotropes = = =
The common allotrope of elemental oxygen on Earth is called dioxygen , O
2 , the major part of the Earth 's atmospheric oxygen ( see Occurrence ) . O2 has a bond length of 121 pm and a bond energy of 498 kJ · mol − 1 , which is smaller than the energy of other double bonds or pairs of single bonds in the biosphere and responsible for the exothermic reaction of O2 with any organic molecule . Due to its energy content , O2 is used by complex forms of life , such as animals , in cellular respiration ( see Biological role ) . Other aspects of O
2 are covered in the remainder of this article .
Trioxygen ( O
3 ) is usually known as ozone and is a very reactive allotrope of oxygen that is damaging to lung tissue . Ozone is produced in the upper atmosphere when O
2 combines with atomic oxygen made by the splitting of O
2 by ultraviolet ( UV ) radiation . Since ozone absorbs strongly in the UV region of the spectrum , the ozone layer of the upper atmosphere functions as a protective radiation shield for the planet . Near the Earth 's surface , it is a pollutant formed as a by @-@ product of automobile exhaust . The metastable molecule tetraoxygen ( O
4 ) was discovered in 2001 , and was assumed to exist in one of the six phases of solid oxygen . It was proven in 2006 that this phase , created by pressurizing O
2 to 20 GPa , is in fact a rhombohedral O
8 cluster . This cluster has the potential to be a much more powerful oxidizer than either O
2 or O
3 and may therefore be used in rocket fuel . A metallic phase was discovered in 1990 when solid oxygen is subjected to a pressure of above 96 GPa and it was shown in 1998 that at very low temperatures , this phase becomes superconducting .
= = = Physical properties = = =
Oxygen dissolves more readily in water than nitrogen , and in freshwater more readily than seawater . Water in equilibrium with air contains approximately 1 molecule of dissolved O
2 for every 2 molecules of N
2 ( 1 : 2 ) , compared with an atmospheric ratio of approximately 1 : 4 . The solubility of oxygen in water is temperature @-@ dependent , and about twice as much ( 14 @.@ 6 mg · L − 1 ) dissolves at 0 ° C than at 20 ° C ( 7 @.@ 6 mg · L − 1 ) . At 25 ° C and 1 standard atmosphere ( 101 @.@ 3 kPa ) of air , freshwater contains about 6 @.@ 04 milliliters ( mL ) of oxygen per liter , and seawater contains about 4 @.@ 95 mL per liter . At 5 ° C the solubility increases to 9 @.@ 0 mL ( 50 % more than at 25 ° C ) per liter for water and 7 @.@ 2 mL ( 45 % more ) per liter for sea water .
Oxygen condenses at 90 @.@ 20 K ( − 182 @.@ 95 ° C , − 297 @.@ 31 ° F ) , and freezes at 54 @.@ 36 K ( − 218 @.@ 79 ° C , − 361 @.@ 82 ° F ) . Both liquid and solid O
2 are clear substances with a light sky @-@ blue color caused by absorption in the red ( in contrast with the blue color of the sky , which is due to Rayleigh scattering of blue light ) . High @-@ purity liquid O
2 is usually obtained by the fractional distillation of liquefied air . Liquid oxygen may also be condensed from air using liquid nitrogen as a coolant .
Oxygen is a highly reactive substance and must be segregated from combustible materials .
The spectroscopy of molecular oxygen is associated with the atmospheric processes of aurora , airglow and nightglow . The absorption in the Herzberg continuum and Schumann – Runge bands in the ultraviolet produces atomic oxygen that is important in the chemistry of the middle atmosphere . Excited state singlet molecular oxygen is responsible for red chemiluminescence in solution .
= = = Isotopes and stellar origin = = =
Naturally occurring oxygen is composed of three stable isotopes , 16O , 17O , and 18O , with 16O being the most abundant ( 99 @.@ 762 % natural abundance ) .
Most 16O is synthesized at the end of the helium fusion process in massive stars but some is made in the neon burning process . 17O is primarily made by the burning of hydrogen into helium during the CNO cycle , making it a common isotope in the hydrogen burning zones of stars . Most 18O is produced when 14N ( made abundant from CNO burning ) captures a 4He nucleus , making 18O common in the helium @-@ rich zones of evolved , massive stars .
Fourteen radioisotopes have been characterized . The most stable are 15O with a half @-@ life of 122 @.@ 24 seconds and 14O with a half @-@ life of 70 @.@ 606 seconds . All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half @-@ lives that are less than 27 s and the majority of these have half @-@ lives that are less than 83 milliseconds . The most common decay mode of the isotopes lighter than 16O is β + decay to yield nitrogen , and the most common mode for the isotopes heavier than 18O is beta decay to yield fluorine .
= = = Occurrence = = =
Oxygen is the most abundant chemical element by mass in the Earth 's biosphere , air , sea and land . Oxygen is the third most abundant chemical element in the universe , after hydrogen and helium . About 0 @.@ 9 % of the Sun 's mass is oxygen . Oxygen constitutes 49 @.@ 2 % of the Earth 's crust by mass as part of oxide compounds such as silicon dioxide and is the most abundant element by mass in the Earth 's crust . It is also the major component of the world 's oceans ( 88 @.@ 8 % by mass ) . Oxygen gas is the second most common component of the Earth 's atmosphere , taking up 20 @.@ 8 % of its volume and 23 @.@ 1 % of its mass ( some 1015 tonnes ) . Earth is unusual among the planets of the Solar System in having such a high concentration of oxygen gas in its atmosphere : Mars ( with 0 @.@ 1 % O
2 by volume ) and Venus have much less . The O
2 surrounding those planets is produced solely by ultraviolet radiation on oxygen @-@ containing molecules such as carbon dioxide .
The unusually high concentration of oxygen gas on Earth is the result of the oxygen cycle . This biogeochemical cycle describes the movement of oxygen within and between its three main reservoirs on Earth : the atmosphere , the biosphere , and the lithosphere . The main driving factor of the oxygen cycle is photosynthesis , which is responsible for modern Earth 's atmosphere . Photosynthesis releases oxygen into the atmosphere , while respiration , decay , and combustion remove it from the atmosphere . In the present equilibrium , production and consumption occur at the same rate of roughly 1 / 2000th of the entire atmospheric oxygen per year .
Free oxygen also occurs in solution in the world 's water bodies . The increased solubility of O
2 at lower temperatures ( see Physical properties ) has important implications for ocean life , as polar oceans support a much higher density of life due to their higher oxygen content . Water polluted with plant nutrients such as nitrates or phosphates may stimulate growth of algae by a process called eutrophication and the decay of these organisms and other biomaterials may reduce the O
2 content in eutrophic water bodies . Scientists assess this aspect of water quality by measuring the water 's biochemical oxygen demand , or the amount of O
2 needed to restore it to a normal concentration .
= = = Analysis = = =
Paleoclimatologists measure the ratio of oxygen @-@ 18 and oxygen @-@ 16 in the shells and skeletons of marine organisms to determine the climate millions of years ago ( see oxygen isotope ratio cycle ) . Seawater molecules that contain the lighter isotope , oxygen @-@ 16 , evaporate at a slightly faster rate than water molecules containing the 12 % heavier oxygen @-@ 18 , and this disparity increases at lower temperatures . During periods of lower global temperatures , snow and rain from that evaporated water tends to be higher in oxygen @-@ 16 , and the seawater left behind tends to be higher in oxygen @-@ 18 . Marine organisms then incorporate more oxygen @-@ 18 into their skeletons and shells than they would in a warmer climate . Paleoclimatologists also directly measure this ratio in the water molecules of ice core samples as old as hundreds of thousands of years .
Planetary geologists have measured the relative quantities of oxygen isotopes in samples from the Earth , the Moon , Mars , and meteorites , but were long unable to obtain reference values for the isotope ratios in the Sun , believed to be the same as those of the primordial solar nebula . Analysis of a silicon wafer exposed to the solar wind in space and returned by the crashed Genesis spacecraft has shown that the Sun has a higher proportion of oxygen @-@ 16 than does the Earth . The measurement implies that an unknown process depleted oxygen @-@ 16 from the Sun 's disk of protoplanetary material prior to the coalescence of dust grains that formed the Earth .
Oxygen presents two spectrophotometric absorption bands peaking at the wavelengths 687 and 760 nm . Some remote sensing scientists have proposed using the measurement of the radiance coming from vegetation canopies in those bands to characterize plant health status from a satellite platform . This approach exploits the fact that in those bands it is possible to discriminate the vegetation 's reflectance from its fluorescence , which is much weaker . The measurement is technically difficult owing to the low signal @-@ to @-@ noise ratio and the physical structure of vegetation ; but it has been proposed as a possible method of monitoring the carbon cycle from satellites on a global scale .
= = Biological role of O2 = =
= = = Photosynthesis and respiration = = =
In nature , free oxygen is produced by the light @-@ driven splitting of water during oxygenic photosynthesis . According to some estimates , green algae and cyanobacteria in marine environments provide about 70 % of the free oxygen produced on Earth , and the rest is produced by terrestrial plants . Other estimates of the oceanic contribution to atmospheric oxygen are higher , while some estimates are lower , suggesting oceans produce ~ 45 % of Earth 's atmospheric oxygen each year .
A simplified overall formula for photosynthesis is :
6 CO2 + 6 H
2O + photons → C
6H
12O
6 + 6 O
2
or simply
carbon dioxide + water + sunlight → glucose + dioxygen
Photolytic oxygen evolution occurs in the thylakoid membranes of photosynthetic organisms and requires the energy of four photons . Many steps are involved , but the result is the formation of a proton gradient across the thylakoid membrane , which is used to synthesize adenosine triphosphate ( ATP ) via photophosphorylation . The O
2 remaining ( after production of the water molecule ) is released into the atmosphere .
Molecular dioxygen , O
2 , is essential for cellular respiration in all aerobic organisms . Oxygen is used in mitochondria to generate ATP during oxidative phosphorylation . The reaction for aerobic respiration is essentially the reverse of photosynthesis and is simplified as :
C
6H
12O
6 + 6 O
2 → 6 CO2 + 6 H
2O + 2880 kJ · mol − 1
In vertebrates , O
2 diffuses through membranes in the lungs and into red blood cells . Hemoglobin binds O
2 , changing color from bluish red to bright red ( CO
2 is released from another part of hemoglobin through the Bohr effect ) . Other animals use hemocyanin ( molluscs and some arthropods ) or hemerythrin ( spiders and lobsters ) . A liter of blood can dissolve 200 cm3 of O
2 .
Until the discovery of anaerobic metazoa , oxygen was thought to be a requirement for all complex life .
Reactive oxygen species , such as superoxide ion ( O −
2 ) and hydrogen peroxide ( H
2O
2 ) , are dangerous by @-@ products of oxygen use in organisms . Parts of the immune system of higher organisms create peroxide , superoxide , and singlet oxygen to destroy invading microbes . Reactive oxygen species also play an important role in the hypersensitive response of plants against pathogen attack . Oxygen is toxic to obligately anaerobic organisms , which were the dominant form of early life on Earth until O
2 began to accumulate in the atmosphere about 2 @.@ 5 billion years ago during the Great Oxygenation Event , about a billion years after the first appearance of these organisms .
An adult human at rest inhales 1 @.@ 8 to 2 @.@ 4 grams of oxygen per minute . This amounts to more than 6 billion tonnes of oxygen inhaled by humanity per year .
= = = Living organisms = = =
The free oxygen partial pressure in the body of a living vertebrate organism is highest in the respiratory system , and decreases along any arterial system , peripheral tissues , and venous system , respectively . Partial pressure is the pressure that oxygen would have if it alone occupied the volume .
= = = Build @-@ up in the atmosphere = = =
Free oxygen gas was almost nonexistent in Earth 's atmosphere before photosynthetic archaea and bacteria evolved , probably about 3 @.@ 5 billion years ago . Free oxygen first appeared in significant quantities during the Paleoproterozoic eon ( between 3 @.@ 0 and 2 @.@ 3 billion years ago ) . For the first billion years , any free oxygen produced by these organisms combined with dissolved iron in the oceans to form banded iron formations . When such oxygen sinks became saturated , free oxygen began to outgas from the oceans 3 – 2 @.@ 7 billion years ago , reaching 10 % of its present level around 1 @.@ 7 billion years ago .
The presence of large amounts of dissolved and free oxygen in the oceans and atmosphere may have driven most of the extant anaerobic organisms to extinction during the Great Oxygenation Event ( oxygen catastrophe ) about 2 @.@ 4 billion years ago . Cellular respiration using O
2 enables aerobic organisms to produce much more ATP than anaerobic organisms . Cellular respiration of O
2 occurs in all eukaryotes , including all complex multicellular organisms such as plants and animals .
Since the beginning of the Cambrian period 540 million years ago , atmospheric O
2 levels have fluctuated between 15 % and 30 % by volume . Towards the end of the Carboniferous period ( about 300 million years ago ) atmospheric O
2 levels reached a maximum of 35 % by volume , which may have contributed to the large size of insects and amphibians at this time .
Variations of oxygen shaped the climates of the past . When oxygen declined , atmospheric density dropped and this in turn increased surface evaporation , and led to precipitation increases and warmer temperatures .
At the current rate of photosynthesis it would take about 2 @,@ 000 years to regenerate the entire O
2 in the present atmosphere .
= = Industrial production = =
One hundred million tonnes of O
2 are extracted from air for industrial uses annually by two primary methods . The most common method is fractional distillation of liquefied air , with N
2 distilling as a vapor while O
2 is left as a liquid .
The other primary method of producing O
2 is passing a stream of clean , dry air through one bed of a pair of identical zeolite molecular sieves , which absorbs the nitrogen and delivers a gas stream that is 90 % to 93 % O
2 . Simultaneously , nitrogen gas is released from the other nitrogen @-@ saturated zeolite bed , by reducing the chamber operating pressure and diverting part of the oxygen gas from the producer bed through it , in the reverse direction of flow . After a set cycle time the operation of the two beds is interchanged , thereby allowing for a continuous supply of gaseous oxygen to be pumped through a pipeline . This is known as pressure swing adsorption . Oxygen gas is increasingly obtained by these non @-@ cryogenic technologies ( see also the related vacuum swing adsorption ) .
Oxygen gas can also be produced through electrolysis of water into molecular oxygen and hydrogen . DC electricity must be used : if AC is used , the gases in each limb consist of hydrogen and oxygen in the explosive ratio 2 : 1 . Contrary to popular belief , the 2 : 1 ratio observed in the DC electrolysis of acidified water does not prove that the empirical formula of water is H2O unless certain assumptions are made about the molecular formulae of hydrogen and oxygen themselves . A similar method is the electrocatalytic O
2 evolution from oxides and oxoacids . Chemical catalysts can be used as well , such as in chemical oxygen generators or oxygen candles that are used as part of the life @-@ support equipment on submarines , and are still part of standard equipment on commercial airliners in case of depressurization emergencies . Another air separation method is forcing air to dissolve through ceramic membranes based on zirconium dioxide by either high pressure or an electric current , to produce nearly pure O
2 gas .
In large quantities , the price of liquid oxygen in 2001 was approximately $ 0 @.@ 21 / kg . Since the primary cost of production is the energy cost of liquefying the air , the production cost will change as energy cost varies .
= = Storage = =
Oxygen storage methods include high pressure oxygen tanks , cryogenics and chemical compounds . For reasons of economy , oxygen is often transported in bulk as a liquid in specially insulated tankers , since one liter of liquefied oxygen is equivalent to 840 liters of gaseous oxygen at atmospheric pressure and 20 ° C ( 68 ° F ) . Such tankers are used to refill bulk liquid oxygen storage containers , which stand outside hospitals and other institutions that need large volumes of pure oxygen gas . Liquid oxygen is passed through heat exchangers , which convert the cryogenic liquid into gas before it enters the building . Oxygen is also stored and shipped in smaller cylinders containing the compressed gas ; a form that is useful in certain portable medical applications and oxy @-@ fuel welding and cutting .
= = Applications = =
= = = Medical = = =
Uptake of O
2 from the air is the essential purpose of respiration , so oxygen supplementation is used in medicine . Treatment not only increases oxygen levels in the patient 's blood , but has the secondary effect of decreasing resistance to blood flow in many types of diseased lungs , easing work load on the heart . Oxygen therapy is used to treat emphysema , pneumonia , some heart disorders ( congestive heart failure ) , some disorders that cause increased pulmonary artery pressure , and any disease that impairs the body 's ability to take up and use gaseous oxygen .
Treatments are flexible enough to be used in hospitals , the patient 's home , or increasingly by portable devices . Oxygen tents were once commonly used in oxygen supplementation , but have since been replaced mostly by the use of oxygen masks or nasal cannulas .
Hyperbaric ( high @-@ pressure ) medicine uses special oxygen chambers to increase the partial pressure of O
2 around the patient and , when needed , the medical staff . Carbon monoxide poisoning , gas gangrene , and decompression sickness ( the ' bends ' ) are sometimes addressed with this therapy . Increased O
2 concentration in the lungs helps to displace carbon monoxide from the heme group of hemoglobin . Oxygen gas is poisonous to the anaerobic bacteria that cause gas gangrene , so increasing its partial pressure helps kill them . Decompression sickness occurs in divers who decompress too quickly after a dive , resulting in bubbles of inert gas , mostly nitrogen and helium , forming in the blood . Increasing the pressure of O
2 as soon as possible helps to redissolve the bubbles back into the blood so that these excess gasses can be exhaled naturally through the lungs .
Oxygen is also used medically for patients who require mechanical ventilation , often at concentrations above the 21 % found in ambient air .
= = = Life support and recreational use = = =
An application of O
2 as a low @-@ pressure breathing gas is in modern space suits , which surround their occupant 's body with pressurized air . These devices use nearly pure oxygen at about one third normal pressure , resulting in a normal blood partial pressure of O
2 . This trade @-@ off of higher oxygen concentration for lower pressure is needed to maintain suit flexibility .
Scuba divers and submariners also rely on artificially delivered O
2 , but most often use normal pressure , and / or mixtures of oxygen and air . Pure or nearly pure O
2 use in diving at higher @-@ than @-@ sea @-@ level pressures is usually limited to rebreather , decompression , or emergency treatment use at relatively shallow depths ( ~ 6 meters depth , or less ) . Deeper diving requires significant dilution of O
2 with other gases , such as nitrogen or helium , to prevent oxygen toxicity .
People who climb mountains or fly in non @-@ pressurized fixed @-@ wing aircraft sometimes have supplemental O
2 supplies . Pressurized commercial airplanes have an emergency supply of O
2 automatically supplied to the passengers in case of cabin depressurization . Sudden cabin pressure loss activates chemical oxygen generators above each seat , causing oxygen masks to drop . Pulling on the masks " to start the flow of oxygen " as cabin safety instructions dictate , forces iron filings into the sodium chlorate inside the canister . A steady stream of oxygen gas is then produced by the exothermic reaction .
Oxygen , as a supposed mild euphoric , has a history of recreational use in oxygen bars and in sports . Oxygen bars are establishments found in Japan , California , and Las Vegas , Nevada since the late 1990s that offer higher than normal O
2 exposure for a fee . Professional athletes , especially in American football , sometimes go off @-@ field between plays to don oxygen masks to boost performance . The pharmacological effect is doubted ; a placebo effect is a more likely explanation . Available studies support a performance boost from enriched O
2 mixtures only if it is breathed during aerobic exercise .
Other recreational uses that do not involve breathing include pyrotechnic applications , such as George Goble 's five @-@ second ignition of barbecue grills .
= = = Industrial = = =
Smelting of iron ore into steel consumes 55 % of commercially produced oxygen . In this process , O
2 is injected through a high @-@ pressure lance into molten iron , which removes sulfur impurities and excess carbon as the respective oxides , SO
2 and CO
2 . The reactions are exothermic , so the temperature increases to 1 @,@ 700 ° C.
Another 25 % of commercially produced oxygen is used by the chemical industry . Ethylene is reacted with O
2 to create ethylene oxide , which , in turn , is converted into ethylene glycol ; the primary feeder material used to manufacture a host of products , including antifreeze and polyester polymers ( the precursors of many plastics and fabrics ) .
Most of the remaining 20 % of commercially produced oxygen is used in medical applications , metal cutting and welding , as an oxidizer in rocket fuel , and in water treatment . Oxygen is used in oxyacetylene welding burning acetylene with O
2 to produce a very hot flame . In this process , metal up to 60 cm ( 24 in ) thick is first heated with a small oxy @-@ acetylene flame and then quickly cut by a large stream of O
2 .
= = Compounds = =
The oxidation state of oxygen is − 2 in almost all known compounds of oxygen . The oxidation state − 1 is found in a few compounds such as peroxides . Compounds containing oxygen in other oxidation states are very uncommon : − 1 / 2 ( superoxides ) , − 1 / 3 ( ozonides ) , 0 ( elemental , hypofluorous acid ) , + 1 / 2 ( dioxygenyl ) , + 1 ( dioxygen difluoride ) , and + 2 ( oxygen difluoride ) .
= = = Oxides and other inorganic compounds = = =
Water ( H
2O ) is an oxide of hydrogen and the most familiar oxygen compound . Hydrogen atoms are covalently bonded to oxygen in a water molecule but also have an additional attraction ( about 23 @.@ 3 kJ · mol − 1 per hydrogen atom ) to an adjacent oxygen atom in a separate molecule . These hydrogen bonds between water molecules hold them approximately 15 % closer than what would be expected in a simple liquid with just van der Waals forces .
Due to its electronegativity , oxygen forms chemical bonds with almost all other elements to give corresponding oxides . The surface of most metals , such as aluminium and titanium , are oxidized in the presence of air and become coated with a thin film of oxide that passivates the metal and slows further corrosion . Many oxides of the transition metals are non @-@ stoichiometric compounds , with slightly less metal than the chemical formula would show . For example , the mineral FeO ( wüstite ) is written as Fe
1 − xO , where x is usually around 0 @.@ 05 .
Oxygen is present in the atmosphere in trace quantities in the form of carbon dioxide ( CO
2 ) . The Earth 's crustal rock is composed in large part of oxides of silicon ( silica SiO
2 , as found in granite and quartz ) , aluminium ( aluminium oxide Al
2O
3 , in bauxite and corundum ) , iron ( iron ( III ) oxide Fe
2O
3 , in hematite and rust ) , and calcium carbonate ( in limestone ) . The rest of the Earth 's crust is also made of oxygen compounds , in particular various complex silicates ( in silicate minerals ) . The Earth 's mantle , of much larger mass than the crust , is largely composed of silicates of magnesium and iron .
Water @-@ soluble silicates in the form of Na
4SiO
4 , Na
2SiO
3 , and Na
2Si
2O
5 are used as detergents and adhesives .
Oxygen also acts as a ligand for transition metals , forming transition metal dioxygen complexes , which feature metal – O
2 . This class of compounds includes the heme proteins hemoglobin and myoglobin . An exotic and unusual reaction occurs with PtF
6 , which oxidizes oxygen to give O2 + PtF6 − .
= = = Organic compounds and biomolecules = = =
Among the most important classes of organic compounds that contain oxygen are ( where " R " is an organic group ) : alcohols ( R @-@ OH ) ; ethers ( R @-@ O @-@ R ) ; ketones ( R @-@ CO @-@ R ) ; aldehydes ( R @-@ CO @-@ H ) ; carboxylic acids ( R @-@ COOH ) ; esters ( R @-@ COO @-@ R ) ; acid anhydrides ( R @-@ CO @-@ O @-@ CO @-@ R ) ; and amides ( R @-@ C ( O ) -NR
2 ) . There are many important organic solvents that contain oxygen , including : acetone , methanol , ethanol , isopropanol , furan , THF , diethyl ether , dioxane , ethyl acetate , DMF , DMSO , acetic acid , and formic acid . Acetone ( ( CH
3 )
2CO ) and phenol ( C
6H
5OH ) are used as feeder materials in the synthesis of many different substances . Other important organic compounds that contain oxygen are : glycerol , formaldehyde , glutaraldehyde , citric acid , acetic anhydride , and acetamide . Epoxides are ethers in which the oxygen atom is part of a ring of three atoms .
Oxygen reacts spontaneously with many organic compounds at or below room temperature in a process called autoxidation . Most of the organic compounds that contain oxygen are not made by direct action of O
2 . Organic compounds important in industry and commerce that are made by direct oxidation of a precursor include ethylene oxide and peracetic acid .
The element is found in almost all biomolecules that are important to ( or generated by ) life . Only a few common complex biomolecules , such as squalene and the carotenes , contain no oxygen . Of the organic compounds with biological relevance , carbohydrates contain the largest proportion by mass of oxygen . All fats , fatty acids , amino acids , and proteins contain oxygen ( due to the presence of carbonyl groups in these acids and their ester residues ) . Oxygen also occurs in phosphate ( PO3 −
4 ) groups in the biologically important energy @-@ carrying molecules ATP and ADP , in the backbone and the purines ( except adenine ) and pyrimidines of RNA and DNA , and in bones as calcium phosphate and hydroxylapatite .
= = Safety and precautions = =
The NFPA 704 standard rates compressed oxygen gas as nonhazardous to health , nonflammable and nonreactive , but an oxidizer . Refrigerated liquid oxygen ( LOX ) is given a health hazard rating of 3 ( for increased risk of hyperoxia from condensed vapors , and for hazards common to cryogenic liquids such as frostbite ) , and all other ratings are the same as the compressed gas form .
= = = Toxicity = = =
Oxygen gas ( O
2 ) can be toxic at elevated partial pressures , leading to convulsions and other health problems . Oxygen toxicity usually begins to occur at partial pressures more than 50 kilopascals ( kPa ) , equal to about 50 % oxygen composition at standard pressure or 2 @.@ 5 times the normal sea @-@ level O
2 partial pressure of about 21 kPa . This is not a problem except for patients on mechanical ventilators , since gas supplied through oxygen masks in medical applications is typically composed of only 30 % – 50 % O
2 by volume ( about 30 kPa at standard pressure ) . ( although this figure also is subject to wide variation , depending on type of mask ) .
At one time , premature babies were placed in incubators containing O
2 @-@ rich air , but this practice was discontinued after some babies were blinded by the oxygen content being too high .
Breathing pure O
2 in space applications , such as in some modern space suits , or in early spacecraft such as Apollo , causes no damage due to the low total pressures used . In the case of spacesuits , the O
2 partial pressure in the breathing gas is , in general , about 30 kPa ( 1 @.@ 4 times normal ) , and the resulting O
2 partial pressure in the astronaut 's arterial blood is only marginally more than normal sea @-@ level O
2 partial pressure ( for more information on this , see space suit and arterial blood gas ) .
Oxygen toxicity to the lungs and central nervous system can also occur in deep scuba diving and surface supplied diving . Prolonged breathing of an air mixture with an O
2 partial pressure more than 60 kPa can eventually lead to permanent pulmonary fibrosis . Exposure to a O
2 partial pressures greater than 160 kPa ( about 1 @.@ 6 atm ) may lead to convulsions ( normally fatal for divers ) . Acute oxygen toxicity ( causing seizures , its most feared effect for divers ) can occur by breathing an air mixture with 21 % O
2 at 66 m ( 217 ft ) or more of depth ; the same thing can occur by breathing 100 % O
2 at only 6 m ( 20 ft ) .
= = = Combustion and other hazards = = =
Highly concentrated sources of oxygen promote rapid combustion . Fire and explosion hazards exist when concentrated oxidants and fuels are brought into close proximity ; an ignition event , such as heat or a spark , is needed to trigger combustion . Oxygen is the oxidant , not the fuel , but nevertheless the source of most of the chemical energy released in combustion . Combustion hazards also apply to compounds of oxygen with a high oxidative potential , such as peroxides , chlorates , nitrates , perchlorates , and dichromates because they can donate oxygen to a fire .
Concentrated O
2 will allow combustion to proceed rapidly and energetically . Steel pipes and storage vessels used to store and transmit both gaseous and liquid oxygen will act as a fuel ; and therefore the design and manufacture of O
2 systems requires special training to ensure that ignition sources are minimized . The fire that killed the Apollo 1 crew in a launch pad test spread so rapidly because the capsule was pressurized with pure O
2 but at slightly more than atmospheric pressure , instead of the 1 ⁄ 3 normal pressure that would be used in a mission .
Liquid oxygen spills , if allowed to soak into organic matter , such as wood , petrochemicals , and asphalt can cause these materials to detonate unpredictably on subsequent mechanical impact . As with other cryogenic liquids , on contact with the human body it can cause frostbites to the skin and the eyes .
= Mirai no Museum =
" Mirai no Museum " ( Translation : " Future Museum " ) is a song by Japanese girl group Perfume from their fourth studio album Level 3 ( 2013 ) . The song was released as the album 's third single on 27 February 2013 . It was written , composed and produced by Yasutaka Nakata . The song is a dance pop track , which features instrumentation from synthesizers and keyboards . The track is translated to " Future Museum " and was used as the theme song for the Doraemon film , Nobita no Himitsu Dougu Museum .
" Mirai no Museum " received negative reviews from music critics , who felt it was childish and interrupted the composition sequence of the album . The song became their eighth consecutive single to stall at number two in Japan . The track became their first charting single in Korea since their 2011 single " Laser Beam / Kasuka na Kaori " . Yusuke Tanaka commissioned the accompanying music video for the single , which shows Perfume inside a comic book – style world . Perfume have performed the song in a number of live performances throughout Japan .
= = Background and composition = =
Japanese producer and Capsule musician Yasutaka Nakata wrote , arranged , and composed " Mirai no Museum " . Nakata has collaborated with all of Perfume 's records and songs from 2003 onwards . It was recorded in Tokyo , Japan and was mixed and mastered by Nakata . It is a dance and electropop song , and incorporates instrumentation of a drum machine , synthesizer and keyboards .
= = Reception = =
" Mirai no Museum " received mostly negative reviews from music critics . Writing for Land of Rising , Alex Shenmue said the song was one to skip . He felt that while the song was sung and produced well and catchy , “ it doesn 't fit the role of middle @-@ section track in this album , ” and “ breaks the musical delivery . ” He labelled it the “ one true issue on the album . ” Patrick St. Michael , writing for The Japan Times , said it was his least favorite single from the album and felt it was “ painfully out of place . ” Selective Hearings writer Nia labelled it a “ dud ” and “ childish . ” She said the song was the weakest and preferred their track " Hurly Burly " to replace the song , which was not featured on the album . A writer from CDJournal praised the “ dreamy ” and catchy production , but criticized the composition . Ian Martin , who had written their extended biography at Allmusic , had highlighted the song as an album and career standout .
The song charted in Japan , South Korea and Taiwan . Reaching number two on the Oricon Singles Chart , it became the group 's eighth consecutive single to stall at number two . It was the group 's last single to reach number two until their 2014 single " Cling Cling " reached the position and is their eleventh best @-@ selling single there . The track also peaked at two on Japan Hot 100 chart . The song reached number twenty @-@ three and thirteen in South Korea . The song was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) for shipments of 100 @,@ 000 units .
= = Release and promotion = =
Selected as the third single of Level 3 , the song was released as an extended play digital download on 27 February 2013 . Universal Music then released the single in the United Kingdom , New Zealand , Australia , Canada and the US . Two CD singles were issued ; a standalone CD with all four songs , and a digipak that included a bonus DVD , a lyric sheet and a music video comic book .
" Mirai no Museum " was used as the ending theme song for the film Doraemon : Nobita no Himitsu Dōgu Museum , released in March 2013 . Perfume debuted the track on Music Japan TV , where they sported the same outfit on the CD cover and performed the track . The group shot a promotional video for the film 's release . The official music video was directed by Japanese director Yusuke Tanaka and premiered on Perfume 's YouTube channel in June 2013 . It features Perfume inside a comic book , trying to defeat a heavily armored warrior . They are accompanied by a mysterious mascot man , who tries to hide away from the warrior when it attacks .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Details adapted from the liner notes of the " Mirai no Museum " CD single .
= = = Song credits = = =
Ayano Ōmoto ( Nocchi ) – vocals
Yuka Kashino ( Kashiyuka ) – vocals
Ayaka Nishiwaki ( A @-@ Chan ) – vocals
Yasutaka Nakata – producer , composer , arranger , mixing , mastering .
= = = Visual credits = = =
Yusuke Tanaka – director
Takahiko Kajima – video producer
Kazunali Tajima – camera
Tetsu Moridera – lighting director
Mikiko – choreographer
Shinichi Miter – stylist
Masako Osuga – make @-@ up
Yuki Shhimajiri – hair stylist
Drop – animation designer
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Yasutaka Nakata .
= = Charts , peaks and positions = =
= = Release history = =
= Gagak Item =
Gagak Item ( [ ɡaˈɡaʔ iˈtəm ] ; Vernacular Malay for Black Raven , also known by the Dutch title De Zwarte Raaf ) is a 1939 bandit film from the Dutch East Indies ( now Indonesia ) directed by Joshua and Othniel Wong for Tan 's Film . Starring Rd Mochtar , Roekiah , and Eddy T. Effendi , it follows a masked man known only as " Gagak Item " ( " Black Raven " ) . The black @-@ and @-@ white film , which featured the cast and crew from the 1937 hit Terang Boelan ( Full Moon ) , was a commercial success and received positive reviews upon release . It is likely lost .
= = Production = =
Gagak Item was directed by brothers Joshua and Othniel Wong ; filming the work in black @-@ and @-@ white , they also handled sound editing . It was produced by Tan Khoen Yauw of Tan 's Film and starred Rd Mochtar , Roekiah , Eddy T. Effendi , and Kartolo . The Wongs and cast had first worked together on Albert Balink 's 1937 blockbuster Terang Boelan ( Full Moon ) , before joining Tan 's Film in 1938 for the highly successful Fatima ; Gagak Item was their second production with the company , which hoped to mirror Terang Boelan 's success . Through these prior films Mochtar and Roekiah had become an established screen couple .
Saeroen , a journalist @-@ turned @-@ screenwriter for Terang Boelan and Fatima , returned to write the script to Gagak Item . The film , a love story , followed a girl and a masked man known as " Gagak Item " ( " Black Raven " ) and was set in rural Buitenzorg ( now Bogor ) . The titular bandit was similar to Zorro , a character popular in the Indies at the time ; such figures had been a staple of travelling theatre troupes beginning in the early 1930s . When writing the script Saeroen continued the formula he had used in Terang Boelan , including action , music , beautiful vistas and physical comedy . The film had six songs performed by Hugo Dumas ' musical troupe Lief Java ; the troupe was known for its keroncong performances , mixing traditional music with Portuguese influences . Gagak Item featured vocals by kroncong singer Annie Landouw .
= = Release and reception = =
Gagak Item was released in late 1939 and was screened in Batavia ( now Jakarta ) , the capital of the Indies ; Medan , North Sumatra ; and Surabaya , eastern Java . Some screenings of the film , also advertised under the Dutch title De Zwarte Raaf , had Dutch @-@ language subtitles . A novelisation of the film , published by the Yogyakarta @-@ based Kolff @-@ Buning , soon followed . Gagak Item was one of four domestic productions released in 1939 ; the film industry had undergone a significant downturn following the onset of the Great Depression , during which time cinemas mainly showed Hollywood productions , and had only begun recovering following the release of Terang Boelan .
Gagak Item was a commercial and critical success , although not as much as Tan 's earlier production . An anonymous review in Bataviaasch Nieuwsblad praised the film , especially its music . The reviewer opined that the film would be a great success and that the film industry in the Indies was showing promising developments . Another review in the same paper found that , although " one may shake one 's head over the cultural value of indigenous films " , the film was a step forward for the industry . The review praised Roekiah 's " demure " acting .
Following the success of Gagak Item the Wongs , Saeroen , Roekiah , and Mochtar continued to work with Tan 's Film . Their next production , Siti Akbari ( 1940 ) , was similarly successful , although again not as profitable as Terang Boelan or Fatima . Saeroen , Joshua Wong , and Mochtar left the company in 1940 : Wong and Mochtar after payment disputes , and Saeroen to return to journalism . Through 1941 Tan 's Film produced fewer movies than its competitors , and was ultimately shut down following the Japanese occupation in early 1942 .
Gagak Item was screened as late as January 1951 . The film is likely lost . Movies in the Indies were recorded on highly flammable nitrate film , and after a fire destroyed much of Produksi Film Negara 's warehouse in 1952 , old films shot on nitrate were deliberately destroyed . The American visual anthropologist Karl G. Heider writes that all Indonesian films from before 1950 are lost . However , JB Kristanto 's Katalog Film Indonesia ( Indonesian Film Catalogue ) records several as having survived at Sinematek Indonesia 's archives , and film historian Misbach Yusa Biran writes that several Japanese propaganda films have survived at the Netherlands Government Information Service .
= = Explanatory notes = =
= Frederik Magle =
Frederik Reesen Magle ( Danish pronunciation : [ ˈfʁæðˀʁæɡ ̊ ˈma ̝ ʊ ̯ lə ] ; born 17 April 1977 ) is a Danish composer , concert organist , and pianist . He writes contemporary classical music as well as fusion of classical music and other genres . His compositions include orchestral works , cantatas , chamber music , and solo works ( mainly for organ ) , including several compositions commissioned by the Danish Royal Family . Magle has gained a reputation as an organ virtuoso , and as a composer and performing artist who does not refrain from venturing into more experimental projects – often with improvisation – bordering jazz , electronica , and other non @-@ classical genres .
His best @-@ known works include his concerto for organ and orchestra The Infinite Second , his brass quintet piece Lys på din vej ( Light on your path ) , composed for the christening of Prince Nikolai , The Hope for brass band and choir , his symphonic suite Cantabile , and a collection of improvisations for organ titled Like a Flame .
= = Life = =
Frederik Magle was born in Stubbekøbing , the son of actress and writer Mimi Heinrich and organist , painter and sculptor Christian Reesen Magle ( 1925 – 96 ) . He is the great @-@ nephew of the composer Emil Reesen ( his grandmother 's brother ) . Recognized early as a child prodigy , he appeared on television and in the news media at the age of 9 .
Magle was educated as a private student of Leif Thybo ( composition and music theory ) , and Ib Bindel ( organ ) . He was taught piano , score reading , and music theory from the age of six . At the age of 16 , he was admitted to the Royal Danish Academy of Music , where he was taught music theory by Yngve Jan Trede , but after one and a half years he decided to leave the music academy , explaining that he " could not both study at the conservatory and work independently as a composer at the same time . " He later stated that the decision " was difficult , and there was a lot to think through , " but that he did not regret it .
He received the scholarship of countess Erna Hamilton in 1993 . In 1994 , as an organ soloist , he won the Danish qualification rounds and national final of the Eurovision Young Musicians competition . He was one of eight winners of the 24 national competitions that year to be selected for the European final , held at the Philharmonic Concert Hall in Warsaw , Poland on 14 June 1994 . He performed Francis Poulenc 's Organ Concerto , but was not placed in the top 3 . The Polish organizers originally planned the qualifying round to be held elsewhere , but moved it to the Philharmonic Hall ( which contains a pipe organ ) to accommodate Magle 's participation .
Magle 's father died in 1996 , shortly before the first performance of Frederik Magle 's Christmas cantata A newborn child , before eternity , God ! , which is dedicated to him . Magle was awarded the Freemason 's Arts Prize in 2001 . In 2006 he took ownership of the classical music internet forum " Talk Classical " .
He has said that he often gets his ideas in dreams and always have a notebook next to him when he sleeps , in case he gets an idea for a " musical phrase or an orchestral build @-@ up " during the night .
= = Music = =
= = = 1985 – 1999 = = =
The first public performance of one of Frederik Magle 's compositions took place on Easter morning 7 April 1985 , in Stubbekøbing church , where a children 's choir performed an Easter hymn he had composed . Two years later , in 1987 , six of his hymns with texts by his mother Mimi Heinrich were performed by actress and singer Annie Birgit Garde at a concert in Lyngby church , and the same year he played on television for the first time . In 1988 , two of his larger works , the cantata We are afraid , and the " mini @-@ musical " A Christmas Child , were premiered in Grundtvig 's Church in Copenhagen before an audience of 2 @,@ 000 people . He began a collaboration with the violinist Nikolaj Znaider in 1990 , and they performed a series of concerts together . Later , Znaider gave the first performance of Magle 's variations for violin and piano in the Concertgebouw , Amsterdam , with the pianist Daniel Gortler : Journey in time describes a " kind of scenes or musical images " with the use of sharp dissonances , complicated rhythms and dramatic transitions and thematic formations .
In 1993 Magle composed music for the experimental theatre performance Der Die Das by the theatrical group Hotel Pro Forma , directed by Kirsten Dehlholm , which was performed at the 4th international Dance Festival in Munich , Germany . Other artists involved were the architect Thomas Wiesner , sculptors Anders Krüger and Frans Jacobi , painter Tomas Lahoda , and the costume designer Annette Meyer ; it was presented as a contemporary " Gesamtkunstwerk " comprising architecture , art , music , and performance .
Magle 's concerto for organ and orchestra The Infinite Second was given its first performance and recorded in 1994 at the 3rd international music festival in Riga Cathedral , Latvia by the Latvian Philharmonic Chamber Orchestra , conducted by Dzintars Josts , with Frederik Magle himself as organ soloist . The reviewer of Berlingske Tidende , Steen Chr . Steensen , described the organ concerto as " a long process from darkness to light " tonally " founded in the French school of organ music " . It was released on CD in 1996 along with his second symphony for organ Let there be light which had been premiered in Riga Cathedral in 1993 . The culture journalist Jakob Levinsen wrote of Magle 's method of structuring the two works :
... while his music appears quite conventional in terms of the traditional musical parameters , such as a preference for arch forms and a relatively conservative use of free tonality in terms of melody and harmony , what could be labelled the dramatic characters of his music are very definitely developed from the specific possibilities of the church organ itself . That goes for the often occurring contrast between very bright and very dark timbres , between clearly defined melodic lines and closely woven fields of sound , between huge pillars of chords and energetically moving patterns of rhythm . And it goes for his two dominating ways of structuring his music as well ( ... ) the gradual building of dynamic tensions through adding more and more layers of sound , the abrupt changes between light and dark , force and calm , clear and veiled . Including the courage to extend some of the parameters into the extremes – such as when a rhythmic pattern becomes so dense as to almost blurring the contours of the figurations involved , and only the outline of movement remains ...
The Christmas cantata A newborn child , before eternity , God ! was given its first performance in 1996 , commissioned by Kulturby 96 – the European Capital of Culture 1996 . In 1997 it was released on CD , in a recording made in Messiaskirken in Charlottenlund by the soloists Ingibjörg Gudjonsdottir , soprano , Elisabeth Halling , alto , Gert Henning @-@ Jensen , tenor , Christian Christiansen , bass , two mixed choirs , two children 's choirs , brass band , organ and percussion , conducted by Steen Lindholm . The cantata was described by the reviewer of Jyllands @-@ Posten as hard to classify , with a " religiously narrative robustness " . The work sets text from a kontakion by the 6th century hymnographer Romanos the Melodist , translated into Danish by the theology professor Christian Thodberg , and edited by the priest Kristian Høeg .
In 1995 @-@ 96 Magle composed a symphonic Lego Fantasia in three movements for piano and symphony orchestra , commissioned by the Lego Group . It was premiered on 24 August 1997 at a concert in St George 's Chapel , Windsor Castle by the London Philharmonic Orchestra conducted by David Parry , with Magle himself on piano . In 1998 the same performers recorded the work for a CD released by the Lego Group . Also in 1998 he was commissioned to write a work for Amnesty International : he composed Flammer for Frihed ( Flames for Freedom ) for solo piano . The piece was printed in a book of the same title containing essays by 24 Danes ( including then prime minister Poul Nyrup Rasmussen , former prime minister Poul Schlüter , Tøger Seidenfaden , Ghita Nørby , and others ) . Edited by Monica Ritterband , the book was published on the 50th anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights . On 22 November 1998 Magle 's Cantata to Saint Cecilia for soloists , choir , children 's choir , and chamber orchestra was given its first performance at the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek in Copenhagen . The following year it was recorded and released on the album Cæciliemusik ( Music for Saint Cecilia ) by the Danish Cæciliekoret ( The Cecilia Choir ) conducted by Gunnar Svensson with the soloists Birgitte Ewerlöf ( soprano ) , Tuva Semmingsen ( alto ) , and Jørgen Ditlevsen ( bass ) . The cantata 's text is by the author Iben Krogsdal ; based on the story of Saint Cecilia , who died in a gruesome way for her Christian faith , it has been described as " moderate modernism " with a special " Danish tone " and a transparent chamber musical instrumentation .
= = = 2000 – present = = =
In 2001 his work , The Hope , for brass band , choir , organ and percussion , was given its first performance during the commemoration of the 200th anniversary of the Battle of Copenhagen . The composition was commissioned by the Admiral Danish Fleet in cooperation with the Reformed Church in Copenhagen , where the premiere performance took place on 1 April . The Hope was subsequently recorded and released by the Royal Danish Navy on the album Søværnet Ønsker God Vind ( The Royal Danish Navy Wishes Godspeed ) in 2005 .
The Danish organ builders Frobenius commissioned a new work by Magle for their centennial jubilee in 2009 . Magle premiered the work , his Rhapsody for organ Viva Voce , at two gala concerts on 12 – 14 May 2009 in Aarhus Cathedral and Vangede church , in collaboration with Dame Gillian Weir .
In October that same year , a new pipe organ was inaugurated in Jørlunde church . Magle created its specifications and tonal design , after the old organ had perished in a fire five years earlier while in storage ; he gave the instrument 's inauguration concert on 8 November . In 2010 he released a double album of free improvisations on the Jørlunde @-@ organ , Like a Flame . Reviews of the album were predominantly favorable , described in MusicWeb International as " highly creative , sometimes visionary , [ and ] surprisingly unpompous " , but a scathing review in the Danish organ magazine ORGLET argued for traditional fugal and choral forms instead of free improvisation . One critic complained about the length of the album , finding it too long at more than two hours . The organist , jazz @-@ pianist , and composer Henrik Sørensen defended Magle 's free improvisational form in an article in Danish organ @-@ magazine Orgelforum .
In 2011 Magle composed an Allehelgenmesse ( All Hallows Mass ) , intended to be performed at the All Hallows service on the first Sunday of November , where people are invited to remember relatives who have died in the past year . Its text is by the hymn @-@ writer Iben Krogsdal and the pastor Morten Skovsted . Funded by the Danish Ministry Ecclesiastical Affairs , the Mass was made freely available online . After a performance in St Nicolas ' Church , Rønne , a music critic described the music as " intimate " and with " finish " .
= = = Works for the Danish Royal Family = = =
Magle played the organ at the christening of Prince Nikolai at Fredensborg Castle in 1999 and gave the first performance of his composition Lys på din vej ( Light on your path ) for organ and brass quintet , with the Brass Ensemble of the Royal Danish Guards , as postlude . Lys på din vej was released on an album with the same title the following year , which received mixed reviews , being criticized especially by the newspaper Politiken for consisting of " endless repetitions of the same melodic material without development " . The piece was re @-@ recorded in 2013 by the Brass Ensemble of the Royal Danish Guards in a new version on their album Nordisk Musik ( Nordic Music ) . At the christening of Prince Felix in Møgeltønder church in 2002 another work by Frederik Magle was also premiered as postlude .
Magle composed a symphonic suite Cantabile , based on poems by Prince Henrik of Denmark ( the Prince Consort ) of which the first movement " Souffle le vent " was first performed in 2004 , and the remaining two movements " Cortège & Danse Macabre " and " Carillon " , in June 2009 in the Koncerthuset ( Copenhagen ) , on both occasions by the Danish National Symphony Orchestra conducted by Thomas Dausgaard . The score specifies a real giraffe thigh bone as a percussion instrument in the " Cortège & Danse Macabre " movement .
= = = Fusion / crossover = = =
Magle 's first CD , Sangen er et eventyr – Sange over H.C. Andersens eventyr ( The song is a fairytale – Songs based on fairytales by Hans Christian Andersen ) , of 1994 was recorded with the jazz double bassist Niels @-@ Henning Ørsted Pedersen , the jazz @-@ pianist Niels Lan Doky , the percussionist Alex Riel , Trio Rococo , and vocalist Thomas Eje . He also participated on the 2005 avant garde album Hymn to Sophia by the jazz saxophonist John Tchicai , where he improvised on pipe organ with Tchicai and the percussionist Peter Ole Jørgensen .
In 2011 Magle composed symphonic music for the album Elektra by the Danish hip hop group Suspekt . Emil Simonsen from Suspekt characterised Magle 's contribution as " essential for the development of the new album " , and described Frederik Magle as " one of the greatest musical sources of inspiration " the group had worked with . The collaboration received positive reviews in the Danish press , with Jyllands @-@ Posten calling the track " Nyt Pas " from Elektra " glowing orchestral hip hop with mature ambitions " , and the music magazine Gaffa describing the contrasts between Frederik Magle 's classical compositions and Suspekt 's hip hop as " extreme opposites that helped to make the evening special " in their review of the release concert in Koncerthuset , September 2011 . The orchestral music was recorded by the Czech Film Orchestra in the Rudolfinum Concert Hall , Prague .
Magle 's fusion @-@ work Polyphony , which combines rock music with contemporary classical music , was published in the Australian music textbook In Tune With Music , written by Ian Dorricott and Bernice Allan in 2013 .
= = List of works = =
This is a selective list of Magle 's major works , including all that have been recorded as of 2014 . For a complete list of his works , see List of compositions by Frederik Magle .
= = = Orchestra = = =
Concerto for organ and orchestra The infinite second ( 1994 )
Symphonic Lego Fantasia for piano and orchestra , commissioned by the Lego Group ( 1995 – 96 )
Rising of a new day ( 1998 )
Lys på din vej ( Light on your path ) – orchestral version ( 1999 @-@ 2000 )
Cantabile , symphonic suite consisting of three symphonic poems for orchestra , choir , and soloists ( 2004 – 2009 )
= = = Choir = = =
We Are Afraid Cantata for choir , flute , clarinet , percussion , strings , piano , and organ ( 1988 )
Der Die Das , opera for 2 soloists and choir ( by Hotel Pro Forma ) ( 1993 )
A newborn child , before eternity , God ! Christmas cantata , for brass band , choir , soloists , organ and percussion ( 1996 )
Cantata to Saint Cecilia for soloists , choir , children 's choir , and chamber orchestra ( 1998 )
The Hope for brass band , choir , organ and percussion , written in memory of the battle of Copenhagen ( 2001 )
Phoenix for mixed choir and organ or piano four @-@ hands ( 2003 )
Allehelgenmesse ( All Hallows Mass ) for soprano , choir , cello and organ ( 2011 )
= = = Songs and Hymns = = =
30 hymns ( 1985 )
20 songs based on fairy tales by Hans Christian Andersen ( 1986 – 92 )
= = = Organ = = =
Symphony for organ No. 1 ( 1990 )
Symphony for organ No. 2 Let there be light ( 1993 )
Fantasia for organ Forårssol ( 1999 )
Cantilena ( 2003 )
Viva Voce ( 2008 )
At Blive ( To Become ) ( 2009 )
Like a Flame , 22 pieces for organ ( 2009 @-@ 2010 )
= = = Piano = = =
Flammer for Frihed ( Flames for Freedom ) ( 1998 )
= = = Chamber music = = =
Lys på din vej ( Light on your path ) for organ and brass quintet , written for the christening of Prince Nikolai of Denmark ( 1999 )
Variations and theme Rejse i Tid ( Journey in Time ) for violin and piano ( 1999 )
Decet Dage og Nætter ( Days and Nights ) ( 1999 )
Intermezzo for brass quintet ( 2001 )
Kosmos for trumpet and organ ( 2001 )
Dåbens Pagt ( Pact of the Baptism ) for brass quintet , written for the christening of Prince Felix of Denmark ( 2002 )
= = = Other = = =
Handle with care – Life inside ballet . HD recording ( tape ) with song , synthesizers and sound effects ( 1995 )
En Anden Verden – Indgangen ( Another World – The Entrance ) for brass band ( 1997 )
= = Discography = =
1993 Sangen er et eventyr ( The song is a fairytale ) . Thomas Eje , The Danish Boys ' Choir , Trio Rococo , Niels Lan Doky , Niels @-@ Henning Ørsted Pedersen , Alex Riel . BMG 74321 24537 @-@ 2
1994 The Infinite Second . Latvian Philharmonic Chamber Orchestra , Dzintars Josts , Frederik Magle ( The organ in Riga Cathedral ) . EMI Classics 5555972
1997 Et nyfødt barn , før evighed , Gud ! ( A newborn child , before eternity , God ) . Christmas cantata . EMI Classics 5565942
1998 Symphonic Lego Fantasia . London Philharmonic Orchestra , David Parry , Frederik Magle ( piano ) . Released by the Lego Group .
1999 Cæciliemusik ( Music for Saint Cecilia ) . Danacord DACOCD 520
2000 Lys på din vej ( Light on your path ) . Frederik Magle ( piano and organ ) , The Brass Ensemble of the Royal Danish Guards , Danish National Chamber Orchestra , Frans Rasmussen . EMI Classics 5571152
2004 Kosmos . ClassicO CLASSCD 478
2005 Søværnet Ønsker God Vind ( The Royal Danish Navy wishes godspeed ) . The Royal Danish Naval Band . Released by the Royal Danish Navy
2005 Hymne til Sofia ( Hymn to Sophia ) . John Tchicai , Peter Ole Jørgensen , Frederik Magle . Calibrated CALI012
2010 Like | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
, for warmth , and coarser outer hairs . Infant marmots ' fur is dark gray in color ; this changes in the yearling period to grayish brown with lighter patches . The adult coat is brown on the body with some smaller white or pale brown patches for most of the year , becoming darker overall as the year progresses . The first molt of the year occurs in June , commencing with two black patches of fur forming on the back of the shoulders . This black coloration then spreads to the rest of the body , and by the fall the coat is almost black . A second molt is thought to occur during hibernation , and upon emergence from hibernation in the spring Olympic marmots may be tan or yellowish . The Olympic marmot 's muzzle is almost always white , with a white band in front of the eyes .
The Olympic marmot can be readily distinguished from the hoary marmot , with which it shares almost every other physical trait , by the lack of contrasting black feet and a black spot on the head . The Vancouver Island marmot has a similar coat color , chocolate brown with white patches .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Olympic marmots are native to the Olympic Mountains in the Olympic Peninsula of Washington state . About 90 % of Olympic marmots ' total habitat is located in Olympic National Park , where they are often sighted , especially on Hurricane Ridge . Marmots are in decline in some areas of the park due to the encroachment of trees into meadows as well as predation by coyotes , and they are seldom seen in the wetter southwestern part .
Within the park , Olympic marmots inhabit lush sub @-@ alpine and alpine meadows , fields , and montane scree slopes . They live in colonies spread out in various locations in the mountains and containing the burrows of differing numbers of marmot families . Some meadows can contain as few animals as one marmot family , and some can have multiple families adding up to 40 marmots in total . There is a higher risk of inbreeding and death from random events in meadows with fewer marmots , making migration essential to the survival of the species . Burrows can be found at various elevations , ranging from 920 m ( 3 @,@ 020 ft ) to 1 @,@ 990 m ( 6 @,@ 530 ft ) ; they are most often found in the range of 1 @,@ 500 m ( 4 @,@ 900 ft ) to 1 @,@ 750 m ( 5 @,@ 740 ft ) . Burrows are more frequently located on south @-@ facing slopes , which generally receive more precipitation , 75 cm ( 30 in ) per year ( mostly snow ) , and thus have more available flora . The home range of a family of marmots usually covers from half an acre to five acres ( 0 @.@ 2 – 2 hectares ) . The Olympic marmot is well @-@ adapted to its generally cold natural habitat , where there is snowfall almost every month of the year on the mountain slopes and barren grasslands .
= = Ecology = =
= = = Feeding = = =
Olympic marmots eat meadow flora such as avalanche and glacier lilies , heather blossoms , sub @-@ alpine lupine , mountain buckwheat , harebells , sedges , and mosses . They prefer green , tender , flowering plants over other sources of food , but roots are a large part of their diets in the early spring when other plants have not yet appeared . During May and June , they may resort to gnawing on trees for food . They also occasionally eat fruits and insects . Their water requirements are met from the juice in the vegetation they eat and dew on the plants ' surfaces .
When snowfall covers vegetation , marmots have a more carnivorous diet , consuming carrion encountered while digging for roots and possibly killing late hibernating chipmunks . At this time , they also obtain water from melted snow . Hibernating Olympic marmots do not keep food in their burrows ; instead , they gain fat before hibernating and can double their body weight to survive eight months without eating .
= = = Predation = = =
The Olympic marmot 's predators are mostly terrestrial mammals such as coyotes , cougars , and bobcats ; however , it is also preyed on by avian raptors such as golden eagles . Black bears probably rarely prey on marmots , as evidenced by the fact that their presence close to colonies generally does not generate alarm calls unless the bear advances to within 6 m ( 20 ft ) of the colony . The coyote is the primary predator and studies have shown that marmots make up approximately 20 % of coyotes ' diet during the summer months . During a study in the Olympic Mountains , 36 coyote droppings were collected and two of them contained marmot hairs .
In common with all other marmots , Olympic marmots use the trill as an alarm call to alert other marmots to predators . Continuing alarm calls indicate that a predator is close , and thus increase vigilance in the marmots ; a single alarm call results in the marmots curiously looking around for the predator . Sightings of land predators , coyotes in particular , receive more alarm calls than aerial predators . Fishers are viewed as predators by Olympic marmots , eliciting alarm calls when just passing by a colony . It has also been observed that these trills can be used as a mechanism to trick and frustrate predators . An additional behavior that takes place when a marmot becomes nervous or bothered by a predator is that it retracts its top lip to show its upper incisors . It is almost like a greeting for predators .
It was reported during a study by David P. Barash that when hunting Olympic marmots as prey , coyotes and cougars approach the marmot within about 15 m ( 49 ft ) , advance to an alpine fir close to the victim , and then chase the marmot downhill to its colony . If the marmot is able to flee into a burrow and sound an alarm call , other marmots will scurry to their burrows for safety . But the predator does not stop here ; it is usually persistent and will scratch outside the entrance to try to dig out its prey . Minutes later , when a marmot from a nearby burrow peers out to see if the predator has gone , it will sometimes sound another alarm call , which summons the predator to its burrow . It dives back underground and the predator usually remains frustrated as these alarm calls continue and force it to run around from burrow to burrow , getting tired and aggravated , and finally giving up .
As humans in the Olympic National Park do not hunt the marmot , but simply observe them , they do not pose a threat . When researchers intrude on colonies to observe behavior , the families living in burrows there initially vocalize ascending calls , showing surprise , but later adjust to the presence of humans , allowing studies to proceed .
The ectoparasites of the Olympic marmot include the cestode Diandrya composita , and fleas of the genus Oropsylla .
= = Behavior = =
= = = Colonies = = =
Olympic marmots are gregarious burrowing animals , living in colonies typically containing multiple burrows . Activity varies with the weather , time of day , and time of year ; owing to rainfall and fog cover during June , July , and August , the marmots spend most of the day inside their burrows , and forage for food mostly in the morning and evening . In between these times , Olympic marmots can sometimes be found lying on rocks where they sun themselves for warmth , grooming each other , playing , chirping , and feeding together . Burrows are multi @-@ purpose structures , used for hibernation , protection from bad weather and predators , and to raise newborn pups .
A typical colony of marmots consists of a male , two to three females , and their young , sometimes living in groups of more than a dozen animals ; young marmots stay with their family for at least two years , so a burrow is often home to a newly born litter and a litter of two @-@ year @-@ olds . Marmots seldom move to other colonies with the exception of sub @-@ adults of two to three years old , which may leave the home colony to start a new family elsewhere ; females move only a few hundred meters , though males often move several kilometers away from their birth burrow .
A colony may have a subordinate or " satellite " male , smaller and younger than the colony male , who may take over as the dominant male if the incumbent dies . The satellite male lives in a separate burrow , 55 to 150 m ( 200 to 500 ft ) away from the rest of the colony . After emergence from hibernation , if the satellite male and the colony male are both still living in the same colony , the dominant colony male may chase the satellite around multiple times per day . The satellite male 's feeding area is limited to areas far from the rest of the marmots in the colony , and he must stay away from the other marmots ' burrows as long as the colony male is near . While the satellite male does not approach the other marmots in the colony , they sometimes make trips over to the satellite male 's burrow , often about two times an hour . After more time has passed since hibernation , males will become less hostile towards each other , and less avoidance and chasing will occur . Male @-@ male competition ends around the same time that the reproductive season does . The diminution of hostile behavior is only temporary , as the satellite male becomes assigned to its subordinate status again the following spring after emergence from hibernation and the ritual begins again .
= = = Communication = = =
When greeting each other , these very sociable animals will usually touch noses or nose to cheek ; in courtship rituals they may inter @-@ lock teeth and nibble each other 's ears and necks . They may also engage in play fighting , in which two marmots on their hind legs push each other with their paws ; this play fighting is more aggressive between older marmots . In fights that have been observed during a study , only about 10 % of fights had distinct outcomes .
When communicating vocally , they have four different types of whistles , differing in this from their close relatives , the hoary marmot and the Vancouver Island marmot . The Olympic marmot 's whistles include flat calls , ascending calls , descending calls , and trills ; all of these are in a small frequency range of about 2 @,@ 700 Hz . Flat , ascending , and descending calls are most often voiced singly . The ascending call has a duration of about half a second , starting with a " yell " on one note and ending with a " chip " on a higher note ; it is often used as a distress or warning call for unfamiliar smells and noises . These same " yips " are heard when Olympic marmots are play fighting , along with low growls and chattering of teeth . The descending call ends on a lower note than it started on . The trill , which sounds like multiple ascending calls put together as one longer sound , consists of multiple ranging notes and is voiced as an alarm call to communicate to other marmots in the area that danger may be approaching and they should return to their burrows . Females with young have the responsibility to watch out for their young and other relatives near the burrow , and therefore voice the trill more often than other Olympic marmots . If marmots are not accustomed to human contact in a certain area , they may also sound a trill when seeing a person , in order to alert other marmots . At places like Hurricane Ridge , where seeing humans is a frequent occurrence , most marmots will not acknowledge human presence at all .
Olympic marmots also communicate through the sense of smell . A gland located in their cheek exudes chemicals which they rub on scenting points , such as shrubs and rocks , which can be smelt by other marmots in the area .
= = = Hibernation = = =
Olympic marmots start to enter hibernation in early September . Before hibernating , the marmots bring dry grasses into the burrow for bedding or food . Sometimes in early September marmots will stay in their burrows for a few consecutive days , with only brief outings that allow for a little foraging . During this period , they do not play fight or socialize with other marmots ; they limit themselves to peeking out and casually sitting outside their burrows . Nonparous females ( those who have not given birth yet ) and adult males become inactive first , because they do not need to store as much fat beforehand . The parous females , yearlings , and young of the year become inactive a few weeks later , because they have to gain more weight . The marmots of a colony hibernate in a single burrow space , which they keep closed with dirt . Adults emerge in May , and the young in June . Marmots do not eat during hibernation , so they have to store fat before becoming inactive .
Olympic marmots are " deep hibernators " ; they cannot easily be awoken ; their body temperature drops to below 40 ° F ( 4 ° C ) and heart rate can slow to three beats per minute . Marmots warm their bodies about every ten days . Olympic marmots lose 50 % of their body mass over the seven to eight months of winter hibernation . Hibernation is the most dangerous time for the Olympic marmot as , in years of light snowfall , as many as 50 % of the young born that year will die from the cold because of the lack of insulation that is provided by good snow cover . When Olympic marmots emerge in early May , thick snow cover is still present from the preceding winter , so they are not very active at this time . Sometimes they are so disoriented after awaking from hibernation that they have to relearn the colony 's landmarks ( which are now covered in snow , which obscures them even more ) ; they wander around aimlessly until they find their burrows .
= = = Life cycle = = =
The Olympic marmot , along with the hoary marmot , has the lowest reproductive rate of any rodent . A female Olympic marmot has a litter of from one to six young ( 3 @.@ 3 on average ) in alternate years . In a given year , a third of females will have a litter . Half of the pups die before the following spring . Those pups that survive the following spring can live into their teens . Both males and females mature sexually at three years , but females generally do not reproduce until they are four and a half years old . The marmot comes out from hibernation at the beginning of May , and estrus ( heat ) occurs about two weeks later . After hibernation ends , both male and female Olympic marmots attempt to entice the opposite sex with courtship rituals . Females who have never produced a litter before tend to be more aggressive and will chase or instigate fights with males ; females which have already produced young tend to greet the male with nasal to nasal or nasal to genital contact , with copulation following shortly afterwards . This approach is more successful than the aggressive manner of the non @-@ parous female , with mating taking place within 11 to 20 days after hibernation . The relationship between a sexually mature male and female Olympic marmot is polygynous ; males tend to breed with three or four females in each mating season .
Approximately four weeks after mating , the female gives birth to her young in a grass @-@ lined burrow underground . Newborn pups cannot see , have no fur , and are pink in color . At first , the young exhibit no sexual dimorphism . It is about a month before the young Olympic marmots first leave the burrow ; around the same time , they begin to be weaned . Even after they are allowed to emerge , the young initially stay within the immediate vicinity of the burrow , where they can be found chasing each other and wrestling playfully . Within a few weeks after first emerging from the burrow , the young are fully weaned and can feed themselves . Olympic marmots are not completely independent from their mothers until they reach two years of age . Breeding @-@ age female marmots are extremely important to marmot populations . If a female of breeding age dies it can take years to replace her ; marmots are usually limited to six pups in a litter , the maturation period is long , and many marmots die before reaching maturity .
= = Interaction with humans = =
The Olympic marmot is the second @-@ rarest North American marmot , behind the critically endangered Vancouver Island marmot . Marmots were first sighted in the Olympic Peninsula in the 1880s . In the 1960s , David P. Barash conducted a three @-@ year study of Olympic marmots after which he reported that there was an abundance of marmots in the mountains . In 1989 , the total Olympic marmot population was calculated to be only about 2 @,@ 000 , but this low number was due to poor data collection . Other than this population census , little further research was done on the Olympic marmot until the late 1990s , when concerns arose about population status .
Rangers and frequent visitors to the Olympic National Park had noticed that some populations of Olympic marmots had disappeared from their usual habitats . In response to this , the University of Michigan began a population study in 2002 , in which the marmot population continued to decline by about 10 % a year until 2006 . Predation by coyotes that had not been present in the area before the 20th century was found to be the main cause of death of females , inhibiting population re @-@ growth . By 2006 , numbers had dropped to 1 @,@ 000 individuals ; this figure increased to around 4 @,@ 000 from 2007 to 2010 , when colonies stabilized and survival rates rose . In 2010 , volunteers started to collect and store data about marmot populations in the park through a monitoring program . The Olympic marmot has been considered a species of least concern on the IUCN Red List since first being included in 1996 . Its range is small , but 90 % of its total habitat is protected due to being in Olympic National Park . The park , which holds multiple other endemic species , has been designated a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve and a World Heritage Site . State law declares that the Olympic marmot is a protected wildlife species and cannot be hunted .
Olympic marmots are readily affected by climate change because of their sensitivity to changed habitats . When meadows in Olympic National Park dried out , marmots there died or moved . In the long term , meadows may be superseded by forests . Climate change will alter the timing , composition , and quality of the marmots ' food . Olympic marmots can become more vulnerable to predators when daytime temperatures rise too high for foraging , causing them to forage in the cooler evenings when predators are more difficult to notice . In warm winters , there is heavier predation by coyotes . Marmots become more accessible to coyotes as lower banks of snow allow coyotes to move up higher on mountains where marmots dwell , into areas which they could not usually reach during an average cold winter . Climate change could also have positive effects ; a warmer climate would result in a longer growing season in which marmots could mature more quickly and thus breed more often .
In 2009 , the Olympic marmot was designated a state symbol of Washington : the official " endemic mammal . " Governor Chris Gregoire 's signing of Senate Bill 5071 was the result of a two @-@ year effort by the fourth and fifth graders of Wedgwood Elementary School in Seattle . The students researched the marmot 's habits , and answered legislators ' questions to overcome initial bipartisan opposition to another state symbol .
= Felt Mountain =
Felt Mountain is the debut studio album by English electronic music duo Goldfrapp , released on 11 September 2000 by Mute Records . The album takes influence from a variety of music styles such as 1960s pop , cabaret , folk and electronica .
Felt Mountain peaked at number 57 in Goldfrapp 's native United Kingdom , and was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) in October 2001 . It was generally well received by music critics , and it was described as " simultaneously smarmy and seductive , yet elegant and graceful " . In 2001 , the album was shortlisted for the Mercury Prize , an annual music prize awarded for the best British or Irish album from the previous year .
= = Recording and production = =
Goldfrapp signed a recording contract with London @-@ based record label Mute Records in August 1999 . The pair began recording their debut album over a six @-@ month period , beginning in September 1999 , in a rented bungalow in the Wiltshire countryside . The recording process was difficult for Alison Goldfrapp , who was often alone and disturbed by the mice and insects in the bungalow . Gregory described their recording sessions as intense because he was unaccustomed to composing with others . Goldfrapp contributed the album 's lyrics , and Gregory and Goldfrapp composed the music together . The lyrics are abstract obsessional tales inspired by films , Goldfrapp 's childhood , and the loneliness she felt while recording the album . Musically , the album takes influence from a variety of styles including 1960s pop , cabaret , folk , and electronica .
= = Songs = =
" Lovely Head " , Felt Mountain 's opening track , features high lonesome whistling and heavily processed vocals . The song was described as influenced by Shirley Bassey and released as the album 's lead single . The second track , " Paper Bag " , is about being obsessed with someone and not being able to have them . It is followed by the third single " Human " , a track with a mambo @-@ style beat . The fourth song , " Pilots " , which describes travelers floating in the atmosphere above the earth , was inspired by John Barry 's James Bond theme songs . In the United Kingdom , a remixed version of the song was released as a single , reaching number 68 on the UK Singles Chart .
The ballad " Deer Stop " features childlike vocals and sexually suggestive lyrics . The title track was influenced by Goldfrapp 's " idea of a wolf being whipped in this little Tudor house overlooking a snowy landscape " . " Oompa Radar " , the seventh track , was inspired by Roman Polanski 's 1966 film Cul @-@ de @-@ Sac . The cabaret @-@ influenced song uses a flugelhorn and a cuckoo clock to switch between tempos . " Utopia " was released as the album 's second single . The album closes with " Horse Tears " , a minimalist piano ballad with filtered vocals .
= = Critical reception = =
AllMusic reviewer Heather Phares referred to the album as a " strange and beautiful mix of the romantic , eerie , and world @-@ weary " and named it " one of 2000 's most impressive debuts " . Eric Wittmershaus of Flak Magazine called Felt Mountain " an enchanting , accessible debut " , citing " Human " and " Deer Stop " as its best songs . In a review for Pitchfork , Matt LeMay described the album as " elegant and graceful " , but felt that the " songs aren 't all that different from one another . " Sacha Esterson of musicOMH compared Felt Mountain to Portishead and wrote that it could be a " contender for the year 's best album " . Yahoo ! Music 's Ken Micallef commented that the duo " make elegiac music as elegant as ' Diamonds Are Forever ' and as haunting as Bobbie Gentry 's ' Ode to Billie Joe ' " , concluding that the album 's " dark night of the soul is mostly bleak , beautiful , and deliciously bizarre . " Andrew Lynch of entertainment.ie noted that " [ a ] lthough at times it feel [ sic ] a little contrived , for the most part this is stylishly decadent music that should appeal to all fans of film noir . " The NME viewed the album as " cold , desolate and old @-@ fashioned " and argued that Felt Mountain was not a " bad concept " except that " Portishead got there first , and managed to update the spy @-@ film vibe with a hefty dose of break @-@ driven twilight melancholia . "
Q magazine included the album on its list of the top 50 albums of 2000 . The following year , Felt Mountain was shortlisted for the Mercury Prize , an annual music prize awarded for the best British or Irish album from the previous year . In 2006 , the album was included in Robert Dimery 's book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die . In November 2009 , The Times ranked Felt Mountain at number 16 on its list of the 100 best pop albums of the 2000s . The album was placed at number 94 on Slant Magazine 's list of the best albums of the 2000s .
= = Commercial performance = =
Felt Mountain debuted at number 144 on the UK Albums Chart , selling 914 copies in its first week . In September 2001 , the album peaked at number 57 , and had sold 177 @,@ 096 copies by August 2005 . Felt Mountain was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) on 12 October 2001 . In France , the album reached number 48 , and remained on the albums chart for 11 weeks . It reached the top 40 in Germany and the top 50 in Australia and Austria . Despite not appearing on any major charts in North America due to limited promotion , Felt Mountain had sold 52 @,@ 000 copies in the United States as of August 2006 .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Alison Goldfrapp and Will Gregory , except where noted .
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Felt Mountain .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= United States Bill of Rights =
The Bill of Rights is the collective name for the first ten amendments to the United States Constitution . Proposed following the oftentimes bitter 1787 – 88 battle over ratification of the U.S. Constitution , and crafted to address the objections raised by Anti @-@ Federalists , the Bill of Rights amendments add to the Constitution specific guarantees of personal freedoms and rights , clear limitations on the government 's power in judicial and other proceedings , and explicit declarations that all powers not specifically delegated to Congress by the Constitution are reserved for the states or the people . The concepts codified in these amendments are built upon those found in several earlier documents , including the Virginia Declaration of Rights and the English Bill of Rights 1689 , along with earlier documents such as Magna Carta ( 1215 ) .
On June 8 , 1789 , Representative James Madison introduced nine amendments to the constitution in the House of Representatives . Among his recommendations Madison proposed opening up the Constitution and inserting specific rights limiting the power of Congress in Article One , Section 9 . Seven of these limitations would become part of the ten ratified Bill of Rights amendments . Ultimately , on September 25 , 1789 , Congress approved twelve articles of amendment to the Constitution and submitted them to the states for ratification . Contrary to Madison 's original proposal that the articles be incorporated into the main body of the Constitution , they were proposed as supplemental additions ( codicils ) to it . Articles Three through Twelve were ratified as additions to the Constitution on December 15 , 1791 , and became Amendments One through Ten of the Constitution . Article Two became part of the Constitution on May 7 , 1992 , as the Twenty @-@ seventh Amendment . Article One is technically still pending before the states .
Although Madison 's proposed amendments included a provision to extend the protection of some of the Bill of Rights to the states , the amendments that were finally submitted for ratification applied only to the federal government . The door for their application upon state governments was opened in the 1860s , following ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment . Since the early 20th century both federal and state courts have used the Fourteenth Amendment to apply portions of the Bill of Rights to state and local governments . The process is known as incorporation .
There are several original engrossed copies of the Bill of Rights still in existence . One of these is on permanent public display at the National Archives in Washington , D.C.
= = Background = =
= = = The Philadelphia Convention = = =
Prior to the ratification and implementation of the United States Constitution , the thirteen sovereign states followed the Articles of Confederation , created by the Second Continental Congress and ratified in 1781 . However , the national government that operated under the Articles of Confederation was too weak to adequately regulate the various conflicts that arose between the states . The Philadelphia Convention set out to correct weaknesses of the Articles that had been apparent even before the American Revolutionary War had been successfully concluded .
The convention took place from May 14 to September 17 , 1787 , in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania . Although the Convention was purportedly intended only to revise the Articles , the intention of many of its proponents , chief among them James Madison of Virginia and Alexander Hamilton of New York , was to create a new government rather than fix the existing one . The convention convened in the Pennsylvania State House , and George Washington of Virginia was unanimously elected as president of the convention . The 55 delegates who drafted the Constitution are among the men known as the Founding Fathers of the new nation . Thomas Jefferson , who was Minister to France during the convention , characterized the delegates as an assembly of " demi @-@ gods . " Rhode Island refused to send delegates to the convention .
On September 12 , George Mason of Virginia suggested the addition of a Bill of Rights to the Constitution modeled on previous state declarations , and Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts made it a formal motion . However , the motion was defeated by a unanimous vote of the state delegations after only a brief discussion . Madison , then an opponent of a Bill of Rights , later explained the vote by calling the state bills of rights " parchment barriers " that offered only an illusion of protection against tyranny . Another delegate , James Wilson of Pennsylvania , later argued that the act of enumerating the rights of the people would have been dangerous , because it would imply that rights not explicitly mentioned did not exist ; Hamilton echoed this point in Federalist No. 84 . Because Mason and Gerry had emerged as opponents of the proposed new Constitution , their motion — introduced five days before the end of the convention — may also have been seen by other delegates as a delaying tactic . The quick rejection of this motion , however , later endangered the entire ratification process . Author David O. Stewart calls the omission of a Bill of Rights in the original Constitution as " a political blunder of the first magnitude " while historian Jack N. Rakove calls it " the one serious miscalculation the framers made as they looked ahead to the struggle over ratification " .
Thirty @-@ nine delegates signed the finalized Constitution . Thirteen delegates left before it was completed , and three who remained at the convention until the end refused to sign it : Mason , Gerry , and Edmund Randolph of Virginia . Afterward , the Constitution was presented to the Articles of Confederation Congress with the request that it afterwards be submitted to a convention of delegates , chosen in each State by the people , for their assent and ratification .
= = = The Anti @-@ Federalists = = =
Following the Philadelphia Convention , some leading revolutionary figures such as Patrick Henry , Samuel Adams , and Richard Henry Lee publicly opposed the new frame of government , a position known as " Anti @-@ Federalism " . Elbridge Gerry wrote the most popular Anti @-@ Federalist tract , " Hon. Mr. Gerry 's Objections " , which went through 46 printings ; the essay particularly focused on the lack of a bill of rights in the proposed constitution . Many were concerned that a strong national government was a threat to individual rights and that the president would become a king . Jefferson wrote to Madison advocating a Bill of Rights : " Half a loaf is better than no bread . If we cannot secure all our rights , let us secure what we can . " The pseudonymous Anti @-@ Federalist " Brutus " wrote ,
We find they have , in the ninth section of the first article declared , that the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended , unless in cases of rebellion — that no bill of attainder , or ex post facto law , shall be passed — that no title of nobility shall be granted by the United States , etc . If every thing which is not given is reserved , what propriety is there in these exceptions ? Does this Constitution any where grant the power of suspending the habeas corpus , to make ex post facto laws , pass bills of attainder , or grant titles of nobility ? It certainly does not in express terms . The only answer that can be given is , that these are implied in the general powers granted . With equal truth it may be said , that all the powers which the bills of rights guard against the abuse of , are contained or implied in the general ones granted by this Constitution .
He continued with this observation :
Ought not a government , vested with such extensive and indefinite authority , to have been restricted by a declaration of rights ? It certainly ought . So clear a point is this , that I cannot help suspecting that persons who attempt to persuade people that such reservations were less necessary under this Constitution than under those of the States , are wilfully endeavoring to deceive , and to lead you into an absolute state of vassalage .
= = = The Federalists = = =
Supporters of the Constitution , known as Federalists , opposed a bill of rights for much of the ratification period , in part due to the procedural uncertainties it would create . Madison argued against such an inclusion , suggesting that state governments were sufficient guarantors of personal liberty , in No. 46 of The Federalist Papers , a series of essays promoting the Federalist position . Hamilton opposed a bill of rights in The Federalist No. 84 , stating that " the constitution is itself in every rational sense , and to every useful purpose , a bill of rights . He stated that ratification did not mean the American people were surrendering their rights , making protections unnecessary : " Here , in strictness , the people surrender nothing , and as they retain everything , they have no need of particular reservations . " Patrick Henry criticized the federalist point of view , writing that the legislature must be firmly informed " of the extent of the rights retained by the people ... being in a state of uncertainty , they will assume rather than give up powers by implication . " Other anti @-@ federalists pointed out that earlier earlier political documents , in particular the Magna Carta had protected specific rights . In response , Hamilton argued that the Constitution was inherently different :
Bills of rights are in their origin , stipulations between kings and their subjects , abridgments of prerogative in favor of privilege , reservations of rights not surrendered to the prince . Such was the Magna Charta , obtained by the Barons , swords in hand , from King John .
= = = Massachusetts compromise = = =
In December 1787 and January 1788 , five states — Delaware , Pennsylvania , New Jersey , Georgia , and Connecticut — ratified the Constitution with relative ease , though the bitter minority report of the Pennsylvania opposition was widely circulated . In contrast to its predecessors , the Massachusetts convention was angry and contentious , at one point erupting into a fistfight between Federalist delegate Francis Dana and Anti @-@ Federalist Elbridge Gerry when the latter was not allowed to speak . The impasse was resolved only when revolutionary heroes and leading Anti @-@ Federalists Samuel Adams and John Hancock agreed to ratification on the condition that the convention also propose amendments . The convention 's proposed amendments included a requirement for grand jury indictment in capital cases , which would form part of the Fifth Amendment , and an amendment reserving powers to the states not expressly given to the federal government , which would later form the basis for the Tenth Amendment .
Following Massachusetts ' lead , the Federalist minorities in both Virginia and New York were able to obtain ratification in convention by linking ratification to recommended amendments . A committee of the Virginia convention headed by law professor George Wythe forwarded forty recommended amendments to Congress , twenty of which enumerated individual rights and another twenty of which enumerated states ' rights . The latter amendments included limitations on federal powers to levy taxes and regulate trade .
A minority of the Constitution 's critics , such as Maryland 's Luther Martin , continued to oppose ratification . However , Martin 's allies , such as New York 's John Lansing , Jr . , dropped moves to obstruct the Convention 's process . They began to take exception to the Constitution " as it was , " seeking amendments . Several conventions saw supporters for " amendments before " shift to a position of " amendments after " for the sake of staying in the Union . The New York Anti @-@ Federalist " circular letter " was sent to each state legislature proposing a second constitutional convention for " amendments before " , but it failed in the state legislatures . Ultimately , only North Carolina and Rhode Island waited for amendments from Congress before ratifying .
Article Seven of the proposed Constitution set the terms by which the new frame of government would be established . The new Constitution would become operational only when ratified by at least nine states ( three @-@ quarters of the thirteen states ) , and would only be established between the states ratifying it .
The new Constitution would be inoperative unless ratified by at least nine states ( three @-@ quarters of the thirteen states ) . Only then would it replace the existing government under the Articles of Confederation . It would apply only to those states that ratified it , and it would be valid for all states joining after . Following contentious battles in several states , the proposed Constitution reached that nine state ratification plateau in June 1788 . On September 13 , 1788 , the Articles of Confederation Congress certified that the new Constitution had been ratified by more than enough states for the new system to be implemented and directed the new government to meet in New York City on the first Wednesday in March the following year . On March 4 , 1789 , the new frame of government came into force with eleven of the thirteen states participating .
= = Proposal and ratification = =
= = = Anticipating amendments = = =
The 1st United States Congress , which met in New York City 's Federal Hall , was a triumph for the Federalists . The Senate of eleven states contained 20 Federalists with only two Anti @-@ Federalists , both from Virginia . The House included 48 Federalists to 11 Anti @-@ Federalists , the latter of whom were from only four states : Massachusetts , New York , Virginia and South Carolina . Among the Virginia delegation to the House was James Madison , Patrick Henry 's chief opponent in the Virginia ratification battle . In retaliation for Madison 's victory at that convention , Henry and other Anti @-@ Federalists , who controlled the Virginia House of Delegates had gerrymandered a hostile district for Madison 's planned congressional run and recruited Madison 's future presidential successor , James Monroe , to oppose him . Madison defeated Monroe after offering a campaign pledge that he would introduce constitutional amendments comprising a Bill of Rights at the First Congress .
Originally opposed to the inclusion of a bill of rights in the Constitution , he had gradually come to understand the importance of doing so during the often contentious ratification debates . By taking the initiative to propose amendments himself through the Congress , he hoped to preempt a second constitutional convention that might , it was feared , undo the difficult compromises of 1787 , and open the entire Constitution to reconsideration , thus risking the dissolution of the new federal government . Writing to Jefferson , he stated , " The friends of the Constitution , some from an approbation of particular amendments , others from a spirit of conciliation , are generally agreed that the System should be revised . But they wish the revisal to be carried no farther than to supply additional guards for liberty . " He also felt that amendments guaranteeing personal liberties would " give to the Government its due popularity and stability " . Finally , he hoped that the amendments " would acquire by degrees the character of fundamental maxims of free government , and as they become incorporated with the national sentiment , counteract the impulses of interest and passion " . Historians continue to debate the degree to which Madison considered the amendments of the Bill of Rights necessary , and to what degree he considered them politically expedient ; in the outline of his address , he wrote , " Bill of Rights — useful — not essential — " .
On the occasion of his April 30 , 1789 inauguration as the nation 's first president , George Washington addressed the subject of amending the Constitution . He urged the legislators ,
whilst you carefully avoid every alteration which might endanger the benefits of an united and effective government , or which ought to await the future lessons of experience ; a reverence for the characteristic rights of freemen , and a regard for public harmony , will sufficiently influence your deliberations on the question , how far the former can be impregnably fortified or the latter be safely and advantageously promoted .
= = = Crafting amendments = = =
James Madison introduced a series of Constitutional amendments in the House of Representatives for consideration . Among his proposals was one that would have added introductory language stressing natural rights to the preamble . Another would apply parts of the Bill of Rights to the states as well as the federal government . Several sought to protect individual personal rights by limiting various Constitutional powers of Congress . Like Washington , Madison urged Congress to keep the revision to the Constitution " a moderate one " , limited to protecting individual rights .
Madison was deeply read in the history of government and used a range of sources in composing the amendments . The English Magna Carta of 1215 inspired the right to petition and to trial by jury , for example , while the English Bill of Rights of 1689 provided an early precedent for the right to keep and bear arms ( although this applied only to Protestants ) and prohibited cruel and unusual punishment .
The greatest influence on Madison 's text , however , was existing state constitutions . Many of his amendments , including his proposed new preamble , were based on the Virginia Declaration of Rights drafted by Anti @-@ Federalist George Mason in 1776 . To reduce future opposition to ratification , Madison also looked for recommendations shared by many states . He did provide one , however , that no state had requested : " No state shall violate the equal rights of conscience , or the freedom of the press , or the trial by jury in criminal cases . " He did not include an amendment that every state had asked for , one that would have made tax assessments voluntary instead of contributions .
James Madison 's proposed amendments to the Constitution :
First . That there be prefixed to the constitution a declaration that all power is originally vested in , and consequently derived from the people .
That government is instituted , and ought to be exercised for the benefit of the people ; which consists in the enjoyment of life and liberty , with the right of acquiring and using property , and generally of pursuing and obtaining happiness and safety .
That the people have an indubitable , unalienable , and indefeasible right to reform or change their government , whenever it be found adverse or inadequate to the purposes of its institution .
Secondly . That in article 1st , section 2 , clause 3 , these words be struck out , to wit : " The number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand , but each State shall have at least one Representative , and until such enumeration shall be made ; " and in place thereof be inserted these words , to wit : " After the first actual enumeration , there shall be one Representative for every thirty thousand , until the number amounts to — , after which the proportion shall be so regulated by Congress , that the number shall never be less than — , nor more than — , but each State shall , after the first enumeration , have at least two Representatives ; and prior thereto . "
Thirdly . That in article 2nd , section 6 , clause 1 , there be added to the end of the first sentence , these words , to wit , " But no law varying the compensation last ascertained shall operate before the next ensuing election of representatives . "
Fourthly . That in article 2nd , section 9 , between clauses 3 and 4 , be inserted these clauses , to wit , The civil rights of none shall be abridged on account of religious belief or worship , nor shall any national religion be established , nor shall the full and equal rights of conscience by in any manner , or on any pretext infringed .
The people shall not be deprived or abridged of their right to speak , to write , or to publish their sentiments ; and the freedom of the press , as one of the great bulwarks of liberty , shall be inviolable .
The people shall not be restrained from peaceably assembling and consulting for their common good , nor from applying to the legislature by petitions , or remonstrances for redress of their grievances .
The right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed ; a well armed , and well regulated militia being the best security of a free country : but no person religiously scrupulous of bearing arms , shall be compelled to render military service in person .
No soldier shall in time of peace be quartered in any house without the consent of the owner ; nor at any time , but in a manner warranted by law .
No person shall be subject , except in cases of impeachment , to more than one punishment , or one trial for the same office ; nor shall be compelled to be a witness against himself ; nor be deprived of life , liberty , or property without due process of law ; nor be obliged to relinquish his property , where it may be necessary for public use , without a just compensation .
Excessive bail shall not be required , nor excessive fines imposed , nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted .
The rights of the people to be secured in their persons , their houses , their papers , and their other property from all unreasonable searches and seizures , shall not be violated by warrants issued without probable cause , supported by oath or affirmation , or not particularly describing the places to be searched , or the persons or things to be seized .
In all criminal prosecutions , the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial , to be informed of the cause and nature of the accusation , to be confronted with his accusers , and the witnesses against him ; to have a compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor ; and to have the assistance of counsel for his defense .
The exceptions here or elsewhere in the constitution , made in favor of particular rights , shall not be so construed as to diminish the just importance of other rights retained by the people ; or as to enlarge the powers delegated by the constitution ; but either as actual limitations of such powers , or as inserted merely for greater caution .
Fifthly . That in article 2nd , section 10 , between clauses 1 and 2 , be inserted this clause , to wit : No state shall violate the equal rights of conscience , or the freedom of the press , or the trial by jury in criminal cases
Sixthly . That article 3rd , section 2 , be annexed to the end of clause 2nd , these words to wit : but no appeal to such court shall be allowed where the value in controversy shall not amount to — dollars : nor shall any fact triable by jury , according to the course of common law , be otherwise re @-@ examinable than may consist with the principles of common law .
Seventhly . That in article 3rd , section 2 , the third clause be struck out , and in its place be inserted the classes following , to wit :
The trial of all crimes ( except in cases of impeachments , and cases arising in the land or naval forces , or the militia when on actual service in time of war or public danger ) shall be by an impartial jury of freeholders of the vicinage , with the requisite of unanimity for conviction , of the right of challenge , and other accustomed requisites ; and in all crimes punishable with loss of life or member , presentment or indictment by a grand jury shall be an essential preliminary , provided that in cases of crimes committed within any county which may be in possession of an enemy , or in which a general insurrection may prevail , the trial may by law be authorized in some other county of the same State , as near as may be to the seat of the offence .
In cases of crimes committed not within any county , the trial may by law be in such county as the laws shall have prescribed . In suits at common law , between man and man , the trial by jury , as one of the best securities to the rights of the people , ought to remain inviolate .
Eighthly . That immediately after article 6th , be inserted , as article 7th , the clauses following , to wit :
The powers delegated by this constitution , are appropriated to the departments to which they are respectively distributed : so that the legislative department shall never exercise the powers vested in the executive or judicial ; nor the executive exercise the powers vested in the legislative or judicial ; nor the judicial exercise the powers vested in the legislative or executive departments .
The powers not delegated by this constitution , nor prohibited by it to the states , are reserved to the States respectively .
Ninthly . That article 7th , be numbered as article 8th .
Federalist representatives were quick to attack Madison 's proposal , fearing that any move to amend the new Constitution so soon after its implementation would create an appearance of instability in the government . The House , unlike the Senate , was open to the public , and members such as Fisher Ames warned that a prolonged " dissection of the constitution " before the galleries could shake public confidence . A procedural battle followed , and after initially forwarding the amendments to a select committee for revision , the House agreed to take Madison 's proposal up as a full body beginning on July 21 , 1789 .
The eleven @-@ member committee made some significant changes to Madison 's nine proposed amendments , including eliminating most of his preamble , adding the phrase " freedom of speech , and of the press " , and adding what would become the Tenth Amendment , reserving powers to the states . The House debated the amendments for eleven days . Roger Sherman of Connecticut persuaded the House to place the amendments at the Constitution 's end so that the document would " remain inviolate " , rather than adding them throughout , as Madison had proposed . The amendments , revised and condensed from twenty to seventeen , were approved and forwarded to the Senate on August 24 , 1789 .
The Senate edited these amendments still further , making 26 changes of its own . Madison 's proposal to apply parts of the Bill of Rights to the states as well as the federal government was eliminated , and the seventeen amendments were condensed to twelve , which were approved on September 9 , 1789 . The Senate also eliminated the last of Madison 's proposed changes to the preamble .
On September 21 , 1789 , a House – Senate Conference Committee convened to resolve the numerous differences between the two Bill of Rights proposals . On September 24 , 1789 , the committee issued this report , which finalized 12 Constitutional Amendments for House and Senate to consider . This final version was approved by joint resolution of Congress on September 25 , 1789 , to be forwarded to the states on September 28 .
By the time the debates and legislative maneuvering that went into crafting the Bill of Rights amendments was done , many personal opinions had shifted . A number of Federalists came out in support , thus silencing the Anti @-@ Federalists ' most effective critique . Many Anti @-@ Federalists , in contrast , were now opposed , realizing that Congressional approval of these amendments would greatly lessen the chances of a second constitutional convention . Anti @-@ Federalists such as Richard Henry Lee also argued that the Bill left the most objectionable portions of the Constitution , such as the federal judiciary and direct taxation , intact .
Madison remained active in the progress of the amendments throughout the legislative process . Historian Gordon S. Wood writes that " there is no question that it was Madison 's personal prestige and his dogged persistence that saw the amendments through the Congress . There might have been a federal Constitution without Madison but certainly no Bill of Rights . "
= = = Ratification process = = =
The twelve articles of amendment approved by congress were officially submitted to the Legislatures of the several States for consideration on September 28 , 1789 . The following states ratified some or all of the amendments :
New Jersey — November 20 , 1789 • Articles One and Three through Twelve ( Ratified Article Two on May 7 , 1992 )
Maryland — December 19 , 1789 • Articles One through Twelve
North Carolina — December 22 , 1789 • Articles One through Twelve
South Carolina — January 19 , 1790 • Articles One through Twelve
New Hampshire — January 25 , 1790 • Articles One and Three through Twelve ( Ratified Article Two on March 7 , 1985 )
Delaware — January 28 , 1790 • Articles Two through Twelve
New York — February 24 , 1790 • Articles One and Three through Twelve
Pennsylvania — March 10 , 1790 • Articles One and Three through Twelve
Rhode Island — June 7 , 1790 • Articles One and Three through Twelve ( Ratified Article Two on June 10 , 1993 )
Vermont — November 3 , 1791 • Articles One through Twelve
Virginia — December 15 , 1791 • Articles One through Twelve
Having been approved by the requisite three – fourths of the several states , there being 14 States in the Union at the time ( as Vermont had been admitted into the Union on March 4 , 1791 ) , the ratification of Articles Three through Twelve was completed and they became Amendments 1 through 10 of the Constitution . Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson certified their adoption on March 1 , 1792 .
As they had not yet been approved by 11 of the 14 states , the ratification of Article One ( ratified by 10 ) and Article Two ( ratified by 6 ) remained incomplete . The ratification plateau they needed to reach soon rose to 12 of 15 states when Kentucky joined the Union ( June 1 , 1792 ) . On June 27 , 1792 , the Kentucky General Assembly ratified all 12 amendments , however this action did not come to light until 1997 .
Article One came within one state of the number needed to become adopted into the Constitution on two occasions between 1789 and 1803 . Despite coming close to ratification early on , it has never received the approval of enough states to become part of the Constitution . As Congress did not attach a ratification time limit to the article , it is still technically pending before the states . Since no state has approved it since 1792 , ratification by an additional 27 states would now be necessary for the article to be adopted .
Article Two , initially ratified by seven states through 1792 ( including Kentucky ) , was not ratified by another state for eighty years . The Ohio General Assembly ratified it on May 6 , 1873 in protest of an unpopular Congressional pay raise . A century later , on March 6 , 1978 , the Wyoming Legislature also ratified the article . Gregory Watson , a University of Texas at Austin undergraduate student , started a new push for the article 's ratification with a letter @-@ writing campaign to state legislatures . As a result , by May 1992 , enough states had approved Article Two ( 38 of the 50 states in the Union ) for it to become the Twenty @-@ seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution . The amendment 's adoption was certified by Archivist of the United States Don W. Wilson and subsequently affirmed by a vote of Congress on May 20 , 1992 .
Three states did not complete action on the twelve articles of amendment when they were initially put before the states . Connecticut and Georgia found a Bill of Rights unnecessary and so refused to ratify . Both chambers of the Massachusetts General Court ratified a number of the amendments ( the Senate adopted 10 of 12 and the House 9 of 12 ) , but failed to reconcile their two lists or to send official notice to the Secretary of State of the ones they did agree upon . All three later ratified the Constitutional amendments originally known as Articles 3 through 12 as part of the 1939 commemoration of the Bill of Rights ' sesquicentennial : Massachusetts on March 2 , Georgia on March 18 , and Connecticut on April 19 . Connecticut and Georgia would also later ratify Article Two , on May 13 , 1987 and February 2 , 1988 respectively .
= = Application = =
The Bill of Rights had little judicial impact for the first 150 years of its existence ; in the words of Gordon S. Wood , " After ratification , most Americans promptly forgot about the first ten amendments to the Constitution . " The Court made no important decisions protecting free speech rights , for example , until 1931 . Historian Richard Labunski attributes the Bill 's long legal dormancy to three factors : first , it took time for a " culture of tolerance " to develop that would support the Bill 's provisions with judicial and popular will ; second , the Supreme Court spent much of the 19th century focused on issues relating to intergovernmental balances of power ; and third , the Bill initially only applied to the federal government , a restriction affirmed by Barron v. Baltimore ( 1833 ) . In the twentieth century , however , most of the Bill 's provisions were applied to the states via the Fourteenth Amendment — a process known as incorporation — beginning with the freedom of speech clause , in Gitlow v. New York ( 1925 ) . In Talton v. Mayes ( 1896 ) , the Court ruled that Constitutional protections , including the provisions of the Bill of Rights , do not apply to the actions of American Indian tribal governments .
= = = First Amendment = = =
Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion , or prohibiting the free exercise thereof ; or abridging the freedom of speech , or of the press ; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble , and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances .
The First Amendment prohibits the making of any law respecting an establishment of religion , impeding the free exercise of religion , abridging the freedom of speech , infringing on the freedom of the press , interfering with the right to peaceably assemble or prohibiting the petitioning for a governmental redress of grievances . Initially , the First Amendment applied only to laws enacted by Congress , and many of its provisions were interpreted more narrowly than they are today .
In Everson v. Board of Education ( 1947 ) , the Court drew on Thomas Jefferson 's correspondence to call for " a wall of separation between church and State " , though the precise boundary of this separation remains in dispute . Speech rights were expanded significantly in a series of 20th- and 21st @-@ century court decisions that protected various forms of political speech , anonymous speech , campaign financing , pornography , and school speech ; these rulings also defined a series of exceptions to First Amendment protections . The Supreme Court overturned English common law precedent to increase the burden of proof for defamation and libel suits , most notably in New York Times Co. v. Sullivan ( 1964 ) . Commercial speech is less protected by the First Amendment than political speech , and is therefore subject to greater regulation .
The Free Press Clause protects publication of information and opinions , and applies to a wide variety of media . In Near v. Minnesota ( 1931 ) and New York Times v. United States ( 1971 ) , the Supreme Court ruled that the First Amendment protected against prior restraint — pre @-@ publication censorship — in almost all cases . The Petition Clause protects the right to petition all branches and agencies of government for action . In addition to the right of assembly guaranteed by this clause , the Court has also ruled that the amendment implicitly protects freedom of association .
= = = Second Amendment = = =
A well regulated Militia , being necessary to the security of a free State , the right of the people to keep and bear Arms , shall not be infringed .
The Second Amendment protects the right to keep and bear arms . The concept of such a right existed within English common law long before the enactment of the Bill of Rights . First codified in the English Bill of Rights of 1689 ( but there only applying to Protestants ) , this right was enshrined in fundamental laws of several American states during the Revolutionary era , including the 1776 Virginia Declaration of Rights and the Pennsylvania Constitution of 1776 . Long a controversial issue in American political , legal , and social discourse , the Second Amendment has been at the heart of several Supreme Court decisions .
In United States v. Cruikshank ( 1875 ) , the Court ruled that " [ t ] he right to bear arms is not granted by the Constitution ; neither is it in any manner dependent upon that instrument for its existence . The Second Amendment means no more than that it shall not be infringed by Congress , and has no other effect than to restrict the powers of the National Government . "
In United States v. Miller ( 1939 ) , the Court ruled that the amendment " [ protects arms that had a ] reasonable relationship to the preservation or efficiency of a well regulated militia " .
In District of Columbia v. Heller ( 2008 ) , the Court ruled that the Second Amendment " codified a pre @-@ existing right " and that it " protects an individual right to possess a firearm unconnected with service in a militia , and to use that arm for traditionally lawful purposes , such as self @-@ defense within the home " but also stated that " the right is not unlimited . It is not a right to keep and carry any weapon whatsoever in any manner whatsoever and for whatever purpose " .
In McDonald v. Chicago ( 2010 ) , the Court ruled that the Second Amendment limits state and local governments to the same extent that it limits the federal government .
= = = Third Amendment = = =
No Soldier shall , in time of peace be quartered in any house , without the consent of the Owner , nor in time of war , but in a manner to be prescribed by law .
The Third Amendment restricts the quartering of soldiers in private homes , in response to Quartering Acts passed by the British parliament during the Revolutionary War . The amendment is one of the least controversial of the Constitution , and , as of 2016 , has never been the primary basis of a Supreme Court decision .
= = = Fourth Amendment = = =
The right of the people to be secure in their persons , houses , papers , and effects , against unreasonable searches and seizures , shall not be violated , and no Warrants shall issue , but upon probable cause , supported by Oath or affirmation , and particularly describing the place to be searched , and the persons or things to be seized .
The Fourth Amendment guards against unreasonable searches and seizures , along with requiring any warrant to be judicially sanctioned and supported by probable cause . It was adopted as a response to the abuse of the writ of assistance , which is a type of general search warrant , in the American Revolution . Search and seizure ( including arrest ) must be limited in scope according to specific information supplied to the issuing court , usually by a law enforcement officer who has sworn by it . The amendment is the basis for the exclusionary rule , which mandates that evidence obtained illegally cannot be introduced into a criminal trial . The amendment 's interpretation has varied over time ; its protections expanded under left @-@ leaning courts such as that headed by Earl Warren and contracted under right @-@ leaning courts such as that of William Rehnquist .
= = = Fifth Amendment = = =
No person shall be held to answer for a capital , or otherwise infamous crime , unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury , except in cases arising in the land or naval forces , or in the Militia , when in actual service in time of War or public danger ; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb ; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself , nor be deprived of life , liberty , or property , without due process of law ; nor shall private property be taken for public use , without just compensation .
The Fifth Amendment protects against double jeopardy and self @-@ incrimination and guarantees the rights to due process , grand jury screening of criminal indictments , and compensation for the seizure of private property under eminent domain . The amendment was the basis for the court 's decision in Miranda v. Arizona ( 1966 ) , which established that defendants must be informed of their rights to an attorney and against self @-@ incrimination prior to interrogation by police .
= = = Sixth Amendment = = =
In all criminal prosecutions , the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial , by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed , which district shall have been previously ascertained by law , and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation ; to be confronted with the witnesses against him ; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor , and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defence .
The Sixth Amendment establishes a number of rights of the defendant in a criminal trial :
to a speedy and public trial
to trial by an impartial jury
to be informed of criminal charges
to confront witnesses
to compel witnesses to appear in court
to assistance of counsel
In Gideon v. Wainwright ( 1963 ) , the Court ruled that the amendment guaranteed the right to legal representation in all felony prosecutions in both state and federal courts .
= = = Seventh Amendment = = =
In suits at common law , where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars , the right of trial by jury shall be preserved , and no fact tried by a jury , shall be otherwise re @-@ examined in any court of the United States , than according to the rules of the common law .
The Seventh Amendment guarantees jury trials in federal civil cases that deal with claims of more than twenty dollars . It also prohibits judges from overruling findings of fact by juries in federal civil trials . In Colgrove v. Battin ( 1973 ) , the Court ruled that the amendment 's requirements could be fulfilled by a jury with a minimum of six members . The Seventh is one of the few parts of the Bill of Rights not to be incorporated ( applied to the states ) .
= = = Eighth Amendment = = =
Excessive bail shall not be required , nor excessive fines imposed , nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted .
The Eighth Amendment forbids the imposition of excessive bails or fines , though it leaves the term " excessive " open to interpretation . The most frequently litigated clause of the amendment is the last , which forbids cruel and unusual punishment . This clause was only occasionally applied by the Supreme Court prior to the 1970s , generally in cases dealing with means of execution . In Furman v. Georgia ( 1972 ) , some members of the Court found capital punishment itself in violation of the amendment , arguing that the clause could reflect " evolving standards of decency " as public opinion changed ; others found certain practices in capital trials to be unacceptably arbitrary , resulting in a majority decision that effectively halted executions in the United States for several years . Executions resumed following Gregg v. Georgia ( 1976 ) , which found capital punishment to be constitutional if the jury was directed by concrete sentencing guidelines . The Court has also found that some poor prison conditions constitute cruel and unusual punishment , as in Estelle v. Gamble ( 1976 ) .
= = = Ninth Amendment = = =
The enumeration in the Constitution , of certain rights , shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people .
The Ninth Amendment declares that there are additional fundamental rights that exist outside the Constitution . The rights enumerated in the Constitution are not an explicit and exhaustive list of individual rights . It was rarely mentioned in Supreme Court decisions before the second half of the 20th century , when it was cited by several of the justices in Griswold v. Connecticut ( 1965 ) . The Court in that case voided a statute prohibiting use of contraceptives as an infringement of the right of marital privacy . This right was , in turn , the foundation upon which the Supreme Court built decisions in several landmark cases , including , Roe v. Wade ( 1973 ) , which overturned a Texas law making it a crime to assist a woman to get an abortion , and Planned Parenthood v. Casey ( 1992 ) , which invalidated a Pennsylvania law that required spousal awareness prior to obtaining an abortion .
= = = Tenth Amendment = = =
The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution , nor prohibited by it to the States , are reserved to the States respectively , or to the people .
The Tenth Amendment reinforces the principles of separation of powers and federalism by providing that powers not granted to the federal government by the Constitution , nor prohibited to the states , are reserved to the states or the people . The amendment provides no new powers or rights to the states , but rather preserves their authority in all matters not specifically granted to the federal government .
= = Display and honoring of the Bill of Rights = =
George Washington had fourteen handwritten copies of the Bill of Rights made , one for Congress and one for each of the original thirteen states . The copies for Georgia , Maryland , New York , and Pennsylvania went missing . The New York copy is thought to have been destroyed in a fire . Two unidentified copies of the missing four ( thought to be the Georgia and Maryland copies ) survive ; one is in the National Archives , and the other is in the New York Public Library . North Carolina 's copy was stolen from the State Capitol by a Union soldier following the Civil War . In an FBI sting operation , it was recovered in 2003 . The copy retained by the First Congress has been on display ( along with the Constitution and the Declaration of Independence ) in the Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom room at the National Archives Building in Washington , D.C. since December 13 , 1952 .
After fifty years on display , signs of deterioration in the casing were noted , while the documents themselves appeared to be well preserved . Accordingly , the casing was updated and the Rotunda rededicated on September 17 , 2003 . In his dedicatory remarks , President George W. Bush stated , " The true [ American ] revolution was not to defy one earthly power , but to declare principles that stand above every earthly power — the equality of each person before God , and the responsibility of government to secure the rights of all . "
In 1941 , President Franklin D. Roosevelt declared December 15 to be Bill of Rights Day , commemorating the 150th anniversary of the ratification of the Bill of Rights . In 1991 , the Virginia copy of the Bill of Rights toured the country in honor of its bicentennial , visiting the capitals of all fifty states .
= Intimacy ( Bloc Party album ) =
Intimacy is the third studio album by British indie rock band Bloc Party . It was recorded in two weeks at several locations in London and Kent during 2008 and was produced by Jacknife Lee and Paul Epworth . Inspired by the release options available in the Internet age , the band members made the album available for purchase on their website as a digital download on 21 August 2008 . Minimal promotion was undertaken in the UK . The record was released in compact disc form on 24 October 2008 , with Wichita Recordings as the primary label . It peaked at number 8 on the UK Albums Chart and entered the Billboard 200 in the United States at number 18 .
Bloc Party wanted to create an album that further distanced the band from the traditional rock set @-@ up by incorporating more electronic elements and unconventional musical arrangements . As the record 's title suggests , its tracks are about personal relationships and are loosely based on one of frontman Kele Okereke 's break @-@ ups in 2007 . Three songs were released as singles : " Mercury " , " Talons " , and " One Month Off " ; the first two tracks entered the UK Top 40 . Intimacy was generally well received by critics . Reviewers often focused on its rush @-@ release and central theme , and considered them either bold steps or poor choices .
= = Origins and recording = =
Bloc Party 's second album A Weekend in the City , released in 2007 , allowed the quartet to evolve sonically by including more electronically tampered soundscapes , but the band members were not entirely comfortable with more daring musical arrangements when making the record . According to multi @-@ instrumentalist Gordon Moakes , the impromptu November 2007 single " Flux " " opened a door to the fact that we could go in any direction " in future works . After the NME Big Gig in February 2008 , the band members took a month off from touring and did not interact with each other during that period . Moakes felt that there were no rules when the band re @-@ assembled for studio work . Chief lyricist Okereke completed most of the songwriting before the recording process .
In mid @-@ 2008 , Bloc Party attended secret sessions at studios in the south @-@ east of England . The band aimed to use a similar process to the creation of " Flux " , which was crafted in a week . Paul Epworth and Jacknife Lee — from Bloc Party 's previous albums , Silent Alarm and A Weekend in the City , respectively — returned to the production staff for Intimacy , because the band members felt that they had " unfinished business " with both . Okereke has stated that having two producers allowed for musical experimentation . Epworth focused on capturing the dynamic of a live band by working on fully developed songs and emphasising the rhythm section in the mix . Lee aided the band members ' evolution towards a more electronic style by creating tracks with them . Each producer worked on five of the record 's original ten tracks .
According to Okereke , Bloc Party wanted to make something as stylised as R & B or electronica , combining the rawness of Silent Alarm and the recording experience gained from A Weekend in the City . The frontman drew inspiration from Siouxsie and the Banshees ' 1988 song " Peek @-@ a @-@ Boo " and aimed to create " rock interpretations of dance " . The band worked by initially performing sound checks with only guitar chords , keyboard notes , and drum beats . Discussing the interplay between rhythm guitarist Okereke and lead guitarist Russell Lissack , Epworth has stated that " Kele will do one thing that creates a great deal of impact , whereas Russell 's very good at subtle embellishments and leading the melodic side of things outside of the vocal " . The band members decided to record the first ten tracks crafted after judging first ideas to often be the best . They " thrived " under the pressure of timed sessions , which lasted only two weeks .
Moakes has indicated that there was no worry about whether a song could be recreated live in concert in the same way as it would appear on record . A brass section and a chamber choir were hired as additional musicians . Drum machines and distorted guitars were used more extensively than in Bloc Party 's previous works to create a sense of manipulation to the basic rock palette . Drummer Matt Tong was initially sceptical of moulding songs with programmed drums , as opposed to using his physical output , but agreed to the idea when the band recorded some of the tracks in their entirety . On some songs , the guitars were disregarded and the band focused solely on the beat . Okereke 's voice was often used as an instrument by being looped , vocoded , or run through effects pedals .
= = Promotion and release = =
After the studio sessions , Bloc Party embarked on a tour of North American and European summer festivals . One of the recorded tracks , " Mercury " , was released as a single on 11 August 2008 and peaked at number 16 on the UK Singles Chart . At the time , the band confirmed the existence of further material , but noted that a record release date was scheduled for the end of 2008 at the earliest . Bloc Party unexpectedly announced the completion of Intimacy on 18 August 2008 via a webcast and confirmed a release within 60 hours . The band members wanted to revive the importance of a new album 's release in an era in which the excitement has dissipated because of extensive Internet coverage . They were inspired by Radiohead 's marketing of In Rainbows in 2007 , but did not consider a " free " sale option . Little press was undertaken in the UK to promote the record because of Okereke 's reluctance to discuss personal aspects of his life .
Intimacy was made available for download on Bloc Party 's website on 21 August 2008 . Ten MP3 tracks were sold with a plain black JPEG cover for £ 5 , and a £ 10 option for the online songs and the future expanded CD was also available . The album title was picked as a " double bluff " with regard to people 's expectations ; Okereke has explained , " You 'd think of wet balladeering . You don 't think it 's gonna be ugly or harsh . But that 's what relationships are really like . It 's not just about good times . " The release was called " rushed " by publications such as Billboard and The Independent . Tong disagreed with the label and stated that Bloc Party wanted to make a statement that was surprising to anyone interested in their work .
The band showcased tracks from Intimacy at Reading Festival at the end of August 2008 and embarked on a North American tour during September . UK appearances on the MTV2 Gonzo Tour and the release of the second single , " Talons " , preceded the physical release of the album in October , which entered the UK Albums Chart at number eight . In the U.S , the record sold 24 @,@ 000 copies during the first week of release and debuted at number 18 on the Billboard 200 . Comprehensive sales figures have not been published because the digital download data has not been publicly reported by Bloc Party . The chosen cover art is a stylised shot of a couple kissing , taken by freelance photographer Perry Curties . It was ranked at number 23 on Gigwise 's list of The Best Album Covers of 2008 , in which the publication called it " intimate and rather ambiguous " .
= = Content = =
= = = Lyrics = = =
The lyrics of Intimacy were inspired by a relationship break @-@ up Okereke went through at the end of 2007 . The lyricist told Rolling Stone , " I wouldn 't want anyone to think it 's the clichéd break @-@ up record but I haven 't written about true , personal experiences all that much in the past . " The move to more intimate subject matter was " semi @-@ conscious " because the band members did not want to focus on socio @-@ political issues as they had in their previous works . Three tracks allude to Greek mythology : " Ares " draws its name from the god of war , " Trojan Horse " is named after the Trojan War military ruse , and " Zephyrus " draws its name from the god of the west wind . The narrative in the songs occurs between two people and focuses on the relations between lovers , friends , and enemies ; Okereke indicated that " it 's about moments of shared vulnerability " . " Better Than Heaven " references the Garden of Eden and Corinthians ( 15 : 22 ) , because the lyricist wanted to explore the themes of sex and death , especially in a biblical context .
" Biko " means " Please " ( or more accurately " I implore you " ) in Igbo — a language spoken in Nigeria , the homeland of Okereke 's parents — and is used " when you 're beseeching someone to do something " . Okereke denied that it is about the murdered South African anti @-@ apartheid protester Steve Biko . The lyrics of " One Month Off " reference feelings of anger and are about being in love with someone younger and unfaithful , while " Zephyrus " concerns an apology following neglect . The lyrics in the chorus of " Ion Square " , the last track on the original download release , are based on E. E. Cummings ' poem " I Carry Your Heart with Me " . Okereke considers the song a personal favourite because it evokes the initial exciting stages of a new relationship when everything is going right .
= = = Composition = = =
Okereke has discussed a natural progression in Bloc Party 's compositional style to a more explorative , electronic direction . For the opening track on Intimacy , " Ares " , Okereke was inspired to rap his lyrics after listening to the old @-@ school hip hop of Afrika Bambaataa . According to Heather Phares of AllMusic , the song includes siren @-@ like guitar chords and loud , complex drumming in the vein of dance acts The Prodigy and The Chemical Brothers . " Mercury " continues the complex drumming theme by incorporating layered percussion and contains a vocally manipulated chorus . The track is an attempt at drum and bass and features brass dissonance , effects Okereke has called " harsh , glacial , layered and energetic " . " Zephyrus " begins with a solitary vocal line accompanied only by a drum machine pattern , while the Exmoor Singers provide background vocals in the rest of the composition . " Signs " is the only song that does not include guitars ; instead , it is made up of a synthesiser pulse and multitracked samples of glockenspiel and mbira resembling the work of minimalist composer Steve Reich .
Okereke has conceded that Intimacy covers Bloc Party 's typical indie rock elements , but noted that the guitars have an artificial and manipulated sound , " almost like all the humanity has been bleached out " . " Halo " has a fast tempo coupled with a guitar melody that uses only four chords , while " Trojan Horse " features syncopated guitars and distortion . " Talons " also incorporates distortion from both lead and rhythm guitars , while the final single " One Month Off " consists of tribal rhythms and sixteenth note guitar riffs . " Biko " has a slower tempo and includes guitar arpeggi throughout , while " Ion Square " incorporates guitar overdubbing and the use of hi @-@ hat patterns throughout . According to Nick Southall of Drowned in Sound , " Better Than Heaven " encapsulates what Bloc Party had been trying to achieve in their previous works , " namely aligning all their different directional desires : to swoon , to rock , and to experiment all at once " . The track features broken beats and layered vocals .
= = Critical reception = =
Media response to Intimacy was generally favourable ; aggregating website Metacritic reports a normalised rating of 69 % based on 27 critical reviews . Steven Robertshaw of Alternative Press described the album as arguably Bloc Party 's finest career moment and noted that it offers " sweat and circuitry , savagery and submission , and a captivating energy that 's severely lacking in many music scenes on the planet " . Kyle Anderson of Rolling Stone claimed that by " replacing Bloc Party 's distant cool with vivid honesty , Okereke makes Intimacy a confident new peak for his band " , while PopMatters ' Ross Langager explained that the record " might not actually be all that intimate , but it is a thing of rough , recycled beauty " . Adam Mazmanian of The Washington Times commented that the album 's final mix showed that producers Epworth and Lee preserved the essence of Bloc Party 's signature sound — " minor key rock thrumming with rhythmic intensity " — while taking the band in new musical directions . Dave Simpson of The Guardian concluded that it would please old and new fans alike by being " brave , individual and heartfelt " .
Pitchfork Media 's Ian Cohen was less receptive and asserted that the record seems like a document of a band disconnected from its musical strengths . Josh Modell of Spin felt that Intimacy sometimes gets " sonically or lyrically precarious " , while John Robinson of Uncut commented that " there 's an air of slightly hedged bets " . Drowned in Sound 's Nick Southall claimed that the record is not quite the radical statement Bloc Party set out to achieve , but concluded that it is " definitely a little bit of invigorating redemption at a time when doubts were beginning to cloud what was , initially , a flawless reputation " . In its year @-@ end music review for 2008 , Under the Radar stated about the band members , " They are so solid and so confident that it seems inevitable that they will get many chances to slowly drift into more daring lands . But without more risk , they may be destined to make albums like Intimacy – accomplished and intriguing , but not life changing , not classic . " The record figured in several publications ' end @-@ of @-@ year best album lists for 2008 — notably , at number 14 by Gigwise , at number 36 by Drowned in Sound , and at number 49 by NME .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Bloc Party .
The download @-@ only release in August 2008 did not include " Talons " .
The iTunes version of the October release included an extra Bloc Party EP , Live from London , which contains six songs from Intimacy performed live .
The deluxe edition includes access to an online exclusive film , Live and Intimate , which contains footage of Bloc Party performing several Intimacy tracks plus " Banquet " live at The Pool , Miloco Studios .
In 2009 , the deluxe edition of Intimacy was remixed as Intimacy Remixed by artists including Mogwai , Armand Van Helden , and No Age .
The Gold Panda remix of " Letter to My Son " was erroneously labelled as being by Golden Panda on the Rolling Stone CD .
= = = Vinyl = = =
A standard black LP copy in a gatefold sleeve was released in October 2008 with the normal track listing , but with an original mix of " Mercury " instead of the CD version . The North American edition also included a code for the free online download of the tracks in MP3 format .
A limited edition picture disc vinyl version was additionally released in the UK ; it had the album cover printed on Side A and the track listing printed on Side B.
= = Personnel = =
The people involved in the making of Intimacy are the following :
= = Release history = =
= = Chart positions = =
= Deep vein thrombosis =
Deep vein thrombosis , or deep venous thrombosis , ( DVT ) is the formation of a blood clot ( thrombus ) within a deep vein , predominantly in the legs . Non @-@ specific signs may include pain , swelling , redness , warmness , and engorged superficial veins . Pulmonary embolism , a potentially life @-@ threatening complication , is caused by the detachment ( embolization ) of a clot that travels to the lungs . Together , DVT and pulmonary embolism constitute a single disease process known as venous thromboembolism . Post @-@ thrombotic syndrome , another complication , significantly contributes to the health @-@ care cost of DVT . Prevention options for at @-@ risk individuals include early and frequent walking , calf exercises , anticoagulants , aspirin , graduated compression stockings , and intermittent pneumatic compression .
In 1856 , German pathologist Rudolf Virchow postulated the interplay of three processes resulting in venous thrombosis , now known as Virchow 's triad : a decreased blood flow rate ( venous stasis ) , increased tendency to clot ( hypercoagulability ) , and changes to the blood vessel wall . DVT formation typically begins inside the valves of the calf veins , where the blood is relatively oxygen deprived , which activates certain biochemical pathways . Several medical conditions increase the risk for DVT , including cancer , trauma , and antiphospholipid syndrome . Other risk factors include older age , surgery , immobilization ( as with bed rest , orthopedic casts , and sitting on long flights ) , combined oral contraceptives , pregnancy , the postnatal period , and genetic factors . Those genetic factors include deficiencies with antithrombin , protein C , and protein S , the mutation of Factor V Leiden , and the property of having a non @-@ O blood type . The rate of new DVTs increases dramatically from childhood to old age ; in adulthood , about 1 in 1000 adults develops it annually .
Individuals suspected of having DVT may be assessed using a clinical prediction rule such as the Wells score . A D @-@ dimer test may also be used to assist with excluding the diagnosis ( because of its high sensitivity ) or to signal a need for further testing . Diagnosis is most commonly done with ultrasound of the suspected veins . Anticoagulation is the standard treatment ; typical medications include a low @-@ molecular @-@ weight heparin and a vitamin K antagonist . Wearing graduated compression stockings appears to reduce the risk of post @-@ thrombotic syndrome .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
Common signs and symptoms of DVT include pain or tenderness , swelling , warmth , redness or discoloration , and distention of surface veins , although about half of those with the condition have no symptoms . Signs and symptoms alone are not sufficiently sensitive or specific to make a diagnosis , but when considered in conjunction with known risk factors can help determine the likelihood of DVT . In most suspected cases , DVT is ruled out after evaluation , and symptoms are more often due to other causes , such as cellulitis , Baker 's cyst , musculoskeletal injury , or lymphedema . Other differential diagnoses include hematoma , tumors , venous or arterial aneurysms , and connective tissue disorders .
Phlegmasia cerulea dolens is a very large and dangerous type of DVT . It is characterized by an acute and almost total venous occlusion of the entire extremity outflow , including the iliac and femoral veins . The leg is usually painful , blue tinged in color , and swollen , which may result in venous gangrene .
= = Causes = =
The three factors of Virchow 's triad — venous stasis , hypercoagulability , and changes in the endothelial blood vessel lining ( such as physical damage or endothelial activation ) — contribute to DVT and are used to explain its formation . Other related causes include activation of immune system components , the state of microparticles in the blood , the concentration of oxygen , and possible platelet activation . Various risk factors contribute to DVT , though many at high risk never develop it .
Acquired risk factors include the strong risk factor of older age , which alters blood composition to favor clotting . Other important acquired risk factors include major surgery and trauma , both of which may increase the risk because of tissue factor from outside the vascular system entering the blood . In orthopedic surgery , venous stasis may be temporarily provoked by a cessation of blood flow as part of the procedure . Cancer can grow in and around veins , causing venous stasis , and can also stimulate increased levels of tissue factor . Pregnancy causes blood to favor clotting , and in the postpartum , placental tearing releases substances that favor clotting . Oral contraceptives and hormonal replacement therapy increase the risk through a variety of mechanisms , including altered blood coagulation protein levels and reduced fibrinolysis .
The disease term venous thromboembolism ( VTE ) includes the development of either DVT or pulmonary embolism ( PE ) . Genetic factors that increase the risk of VTE include deficiencies of three proteins that normally prevent blood from clotting — protein C , protein S , and antithrombin — in addition to non @-@ O blood type and mutations in the factor V and prothrombin genes . Deficiencies in antithrombin , protein C , and protein S are rare but strong , or moderately strong , risk factors . These three thrombophilia increase the risk of VTE by about 10 times . Factor V Leiden , which makes factor V resistant to inactivation by activated protein C , and the genetic variant prothrombin G20210A , which causes increased prothrombin levels , are predominantly expressed in Caucasians . They moderately increase risk for VTE , by three to eight times for factor V Leiden and two to three times for prothrombin G20210A . Having a non @-@ O blood type approximately doubles VTE risk . Non @-@ O blood type is common in all races , making it an important risk factor . Individuals without O blood type have higher blood levels of von Willebrand factor and factor VIII than those with O blood type , increasing the likelihood of clotting .
Some risk factors influence the location of DVT within the body . In isolated distal DVT , the profile of risk factors appears distinct from proximal DVT . Transient factors , such as surgery and immobilization , appear to dominate whereas thrombophilias and age do not seem to increase risk . In upper @-@ extremity DVT , the most important risk factor is having a central venous catheter , and thoracic outlet syndrome also increases risk .
= = = Risk factors = = =
= = Pathophysiology = =
DVT often develops in the calf veins and " grows " in the direction of venous flow , towards the heart . When DVT does not grow , it can be cleared naturally and dissolved into the blood ( fibrinolysis ) . Veins in the calf or thigh are most commonly affected , including the femoral vein , the popliteal vein , and the iliofemoral vein ( as with May – Thurner syndrome ) . Extensive lower @-@ extremity DVT can reach into the iliac vein of the pelvis or the inferior vena cava . Occasionally the veins of the arm are affected , as after central venous catheter placement and with the rare Paget – Schrötter disease .
The mechanism behind arterial thrombosis , such as with heart attacks , is more established than the steps that cause venous thrombosis . With arterial thrombosis , blood vessel wall damage is required , as it initiates coagulation , but clotting in the veins mostly occurs without any such damage . The beginning of venous thrombosis is thought to be caused by tissue factor , which leads to conversion of prothrombin to thrombin , followed by fibrin deposition . Red blood cells and fibrin are the main components of venous thrombi , and the fibrin appears to attach to the blood vessel wall lining ( endothelium ) , a surface that normally acts to prevent clotting . Platelets and white blood cells are also components . Platelets are not as prominent in venous clots as they are in arterial ones , but they may play a role . Inflammation is associated with VTE , and white blood cells play a role in the formation and resolution of venous clots .
Often , DVT begins in the valves of veins . The blood flow pattern in the valves can cause low oxygen concentrations in the blood ( hypoxemia ) of a valve sinus . Hypoxemia , which is worsened by venous stasis , activates pathways — ones that include hypoxia @-@ inducible factor @-@ 1 and early @-@ growth @-@ response protein 1 . Hypoxemia also results in the production of reactive oxygen species , which can activate these pathways , as well as nuclear factor @-@ κB , which regulates hypoxia @-@ inducible factor @-@ 1 transcription . Hypoxia @-@ inducible factor @-@ 1 and early @-@ growth @-@ response protein 1 contribute to monocyte association with endothelial proteins , such as P @-@ selectin , prompting monocytes to release tissue factor @-@ filled microvesicles , which presumably begin clotting after binding to the endothelial surface .
= = Diagnosis = =
DVT diagnosis requires the use of imaging devices such as ultrasound . Clinical assessments , which predict DVT likelihood , can help determine if a D @-@ dimer test is useful . In those not highly likely to have DVT , a normal D @-@ dimer result can rule out a diagnosis .
= = = Classification = = =
Provoked DVTs occur in association with acquired risk factors , such as surgery , oral contraceptives , trauma , immobility , obesity , or cancer ; cases without acquired states are called unprovoked or idiopathic . Acute DVT is characterized by pain and swelling and is usually occlusive , which means that it obstructs blood flow , whereas non @-@ occlusive DVT is less symptomatic . The label of chronic has been applied to symptomatic DVT that persists longer than 10 or 14 days . DVT that has no symptoms , but is found only by screening , is labeled asymptomatic or incidental .
DVT in the legs is proximal ( or iliofemoral ) when above the knee and distal ( or calf ) when below the knee . DVT below the popliteal vein , a proximal vein behind the knee , is classified as distal and has limited clinical significance compared to proximal DVT . An initial episode of DVT is called incident and any subsequent DVT is termed recurrent . Bilateral DVT refers to clots in both legs while unilateral means that only a single leg is affected .
= = = Probability = = =
In those with suspected DVT , a clinical assessment of probability can be useful to determine which tests to perform . The most studied clinical prediction rule is the Wells score .
Wells score or criteria : ( possible score − 2 to 9 )
Active cancer ( treatment within last 6 months or palliative ) : + 1 point
Calf swelling ≥ 3 cm compared to asymptomatic calf ( measured 10 cm below tibial tuberosity ) : + 1 point
Swollen unilateral superficial veins ( non @-@ varicose , in symptomatic leg ) : + 1 point
Unilateral pitting edema ( in symptomatic leg ) : + 1 point
Previous documented DVT : + 1 point
Swelling of entire leg : + 1 point
Localized tenderness along the deep venous system : + 1 point
Paralysis , paresis , or recent cast immobilization of lower extremities : + 1 point
Recently bedridden ≥ 3 days , or major surgery requiring regional or general anesthetic in the past 12 weeks : + 1 point
Alternative diagnosis at least as likely : − 2 points
Those with Wells scores of two or more have a 28 % chance of having DVT , those with a lower score have 6 % odds . Alternatively , Wells scores can be categorized as high if greater than two , moderate if one or two , and low if less than one , with likelihoods of 53 % , 17 % , and 5 % respectively .
= = = D @-@ dimer = = =
D @-@ dimers are a fibrin degradation product , and an elevated level can result from plasmin dissolving a clot — or other conditions . Hospitalized patients often have elevated levels for multiple reasons . When individuals are at a high @-@ probability of having DVT , diagnostic imaging is preferred to a D @-@ dimer test . For those with a low or moderate probability of DVT , a D @-@ dimer level might be obtained , which excludes a diagnosis if results are normal . An elevated level requires further investigation with diagnostic imaging to confirm or exclude the diagnosis .
For a suspected first leg DVT in a low @-@ probability situation , the American College of Chest Physicians ( ACCP ) recommends testing either D @-@ dimer levels with moderate or high sensitivity or compression ultrasound of the proximal veins . These options are suggested over whole @-@ leg ultrasound , and D @-@ dimer testing is the suggested preference overall . The UK National Institute for Health and Care Excellence ( NICE ) recommends D @-@ dimer testing prior to proximal vein ultrasound .
For a suspected first leg DVT in a moderate @-@ probability scenario , a high @-@ sensitivity D @-@ dimer is suggested as a recommended option over ultrasound imaging , with both whole @-@ leg and compression ultrasound possible . The NICE guideline uses a two @-@ point Wells score and does not refer to a moderate probability group .
= = = Imaging = = =
Imaging tests of the veins are used in the diagnosis of DVT , most commonly either proximal compression ultrasound or whole @-@ leg ultrasound . Each technique has drawbacks : a single proximal scan may miss a distal DVT , while whole @-@ leg scanning can lead to distal DVT overtreatment . Doppler ultrasound , CT scan venography , MRI venography , or MRI of the thrombus are also possibilities .
The gold standard for judging imaging methods is contrast venography , which involves injecting a peripheral vein of the affected limb with a contrast agent and taking X @-@ rays , to reveal whether the venous supply has been obstructed . Because of its cost , invasiveness , availability , and other limitations this test is rarely performed .
A fibrinogen uptake test was formerly used to detect deep vein thrombosis . [ move to history section ? ]
= = Prevention = =
Depending upon the risk for DVT , different preventive measures are used . Walking and calf exercises reduce venous stasis because leg muscle contractions compress the veins and pump blood up towards the heart . In immobile individuals , physical compression methods improve blood flow . Anticoagulation , which increases the risk of bleeding , might be used in high @-@ risk scenarios . The risk of major bleeding with long @-@ term anticoagulation is about 3 % per year , and the point where annual VTE risk is thought to warrant long @-@ term anticoagulation is estimated to be between 3 and 9 % . Usually , only when individuals exceed a 9 % annual VTE risk is long @-@ term anticoagulation a common consideration . Antithrombin deficiency , a strong or moderately strong risk factor , carries an annual risk of VTE of only 0 @.@ 8 – 1 @.@ 5 % ; as such , asymptomatic individuals with thrombophilia do not warrant long @-@ term anticoagulation .
Aside from anticoagulation , the anti @-@ platelet drug aspirin might be used in some people following orthopedic surgery and in those with a previous VTE . Statins might decrease the risk for people who are otherwise healthy , but the evidence is not clear . Following the completion of warfarin long term aspirin is useful to prevent re occurrence .
= = = Hospital = = =
In 2011 , the American College of Physicians ( ACP ) issued a clinical practice guideline making three strong recommendations based on moderate @-@ quality evidence : that hospitalized patients be assessed for their risk of thromboembolism and bleeding before prophylaxis is started ; that heparin or a related drug be used if potential benefits are thought to outweigh potential harms ; and that graduated compression stockings not be used . The ACP also drew attention to a lack of support for any performance measures encouraging physicians to apply universal prophylaxis without regard to the risks .
A 2014 Cochrane review found that using heparin in medical patients did not change the risk of death or pulmonary embolism . While its use decreased people 's risks of DVTs it also increased people 's risks of major bleeding . The review thus recommended the need to balance risks and benefits .
The 2012 ACCP guidelines for non @-@ surgical patients recommend anticoagulation for the acutely ill in cases of elevated risk when there is neither bleeding nor a high risk of bleeding . Mechanical prophylaxis is suggested when risks for bleeding and thrombosis are elevated . For the critically ill , either pharmacological or mechanical prophylaxis is suggested depending upon the risk . Heparin is suggested in outpatients with cancer who have solid tumors and additional risk factors for VTE — listed as " previous venous thrombosis , immobilization , hormonal therapy , angiogenesis inhibitors , thalidomide , and lenalidomide " — and a low risk of bleeding .
= = = Post @-@ surgery = = =
Major orthopedic surgery — total hip replacement , total knee replacement , or hip fracture surgery — has a high risk of causing VTE . If prophylaxis is not used after these surgeries , symptomatic VTE has about a 4 % chance of developing within 35 days . Options for VTE prevention in people follow non @-@ orthopedic surgery include early walking , mechanical prophylaxis ( intermittent pneumatic compression or graduated compression stockings ) , and drugs ( low @-@ molecular @-@ weight heparin [ LMWH ] and low @-@ dose @-@ unfractionated heparin [ LDUH ] ) depending upon the risk of VTE , risk of major bleeding , and person 's preferences . Following major orthopedic surgery , the ACCP recommends treatment with drugs that reduce the risk of clots ( such as fondaparinux and aspirin ) with LMWH suggested as a preference . Intermittent pneumatic compression is also an option . Graduated compression stockings are effective after both general and orthopedic surgery .
= = = Pregnancy = = =
The risk of VTE is increased in pregnancy by about five times because of a more hypercoagulable state , a likely adaptation against fatal postpartum hemorrhage . Additionally , pregnant women with genetic risk factors are subject to an approximate three to thirty times increased risk for VTE . Preventative treatments for pregnancy @-@ related VTE in hypercoagulable women were suggested by the ACCP . Homozygous carriers of factor V Leiden or prothrombin G20210A with a family history of VTE were suggested for antepartum LMWH and either LMWH or a vitamin K antagonist ( VKA ) for the six weeks following childbirth . Those with another thrombophilia and a family history but no previous VTE were suggested for watchful waiting during pregnancy and LMWH or — for those without protein C or S deficiency — a VKA . Homozygous carriers of factor V Leiden or prothrombin G20210A with no personal or family history of VTE were suggested for watchful waiting during pregnancy and LMWH or a VKA for six weeks after childbirth . Those with another thrombophilia but no family or personal history of VTE were suggested for watchful waiting only . Warfarin , a common VKA , can cause harm to the fetus and is not used for VTE prevention during pregnancy .
= = = Travelers = = =
The 2012 ACCP guidelines offered weak recommendations . For at @-@ risk long @-@ haul travelers — those with " previous VTE , recent surgery or trauma , active malignancy , pregnancy , estrogen use , advanced age , limited mobility , severe obesity , or known thrombophilic disorder " — suggestions included calf exercises , frequent walking , and aisle seating in airplanes to ease walking . The use of graduated compression stockings that fit below the knee and give 15 – 30 mm Hg of pressure to the ankle was suggested , while aspirin or anticoagulants were not . Compression stockings have sharply reduced the levels of asymptomatic DVT in airline passengers , but the effect on symptomatic VTE is unknown , as none of the individuals studied developed symptomatic VTE .
= = Treatment = =
= = = Anticoagulation = = =
Anticoagulation , which prevents further coagulation but does not act directly on existing clots , is the standard treatment for DVT . Balancing risk vs. benefit is important in determining the duration of anticoagulation , and three months is generally the standard length of treatment . In those with an annual risk of VTE in excess of 9 % , as after an unprovoked episode , extended anticoagulation is a possibility . Those who finish VKA treatment after idiopathic VTE with an elevated D @-@ dimer level show an increased risk of recurrent VTE ( about 9 % vs. about 4 % for normal results ) , and this result might be used in clinical decision @-@ making . Thrombophilia test results rarely play a role in the length of treatment .
For acute cases in the leg , the ACCP recommended a parenteral anticoagulant ( such as LMWH , fondaparinux , or unfractionated heparin ) for at least five days and a VKA , the oral anticoagulant , the same day . LMWH and fondaparinux are suggested over unfractionated heparin , but both are retained in those with compromised kidney function , unlike unfractionated heparin . The VKA is generally taken for a minimum of three months to maintain an international normalized ratio of 2 @.@ 0 – 3 @.@ 0 , with 2 @.@ 5 as the target . The benefit of taking a VKA declines as the duration of treatment extends , and the risk of bleeding increases with age .
The ACCP recommended treatment for three months in those with proximal DVT provoked by surgery . A three @-@ month course is also recommended for those with proximal DVT provoked by a transient risk factor , and three months is suggested over lengthened treatment when bleeding risk is low to moderate . Unprovoked DVT patients should have at least three months of anticoagulation and be considered for extended treatment . Those whose first VTE is an unprovoked proximal DVT are suggested for anticoagulation longer than three months unless there is a high risk of bleeding . In that case , three months is sufficient . Those with a second unprovoked VTE are recommended for extended treatment when bleeding risk is low , suggested for extended treatment when bleeding risk is moderate , and suggested for three months of anticoagulation in high @-@ risk scenarios .
= = = Home treatment , stockings , walking , and repeat imaging = = =
The ACCP recommended initial home treatment instead of hospital treatment for those with acute leg DVT . This applies as long as individuals feel ready for it , and those with severe leg symptoms or comorbidities would not qualify . An appropriate home environment is expected : one that can provide a quick return to the hospital if necessary , support from family or friends , and phone access .
In addition to anticoagulation , the ACCP suggested graduated compression stockings — which apply higher pressure ( 30 – 40 mm Hg ) at the ankles and a lower pressure around the knees — for those with symptomatic DVT . Use should begin as soon as possible after anticoagulation . Evidence however does not support that these stockings reduce the risk of post @-@ thrombotic syndrome nor do they indicate a reduction in recurrent VTE . Use is suggested for two years , though inconvenience and discomfort can reduce compliance . Walking is also suggested for those without severe pain or edema .
Unless a person has medical problems preventing movement , after a person starts anti @-@ coagulation therapy bed rest should not be used to treat acute deep vein thrombosis . There are clinical benefits associated with walking and no evidence that walking is harmful , but people with DVT are harmed by bed rest except when it is medically necessary .
Instead of anticoagulation , a follow @-@ up imaging test ( typically ultrasound ) about one @-@ week post @-@ diagnosis is an option for those with an acute isolated distal DVT without a high risk for extension ; if the clot does not grow , the ACCP does not recommend anticoagulation . This technique can benefit those at a high risk for bleeding . Patients may choose anticoagulation over serial imaging , however , to avoid the inconvenience of another scan if concerns about the risk of bleeding are insignificant . When applied to symptomatic patients with a negative initial ultrasound result , serial testing is inefficient and not cost effective .
= = = IVC filters , thrombolysis , and thrombectomy = = =
Inferior vena cava filters ( IVC filters ) are used on the presumption that they reduce PE , although their effectiveness and safety profile are not well established . In general , they are only recommended in some high risk scenarios . The ACCP recommended them for those with a contraindication to anticoagulant treatment but not in addition to anticoagulation , unless an individual with an IVC filter but without a risk for bleeding develops acute proximal DVT . In this case , both anticoagulation and an IVC filter are suggested . NICE recommends caval filters in settings where someone with an acute proximal DVT or PE cannot receive anticoagulation , and that the filter is removed when anticoagulation can be safely started . While IVC filters themselves are associated with a long @-@ term risk of DVT , they are not reason enough to maintain extended anticoagulation .
Thrombolysis is the administration of an enzyme ( intravenous or directly into the affected vein through a catheter ) , which acts to enzymatically break up clots . This may reduce the risk of post @-@ thrombotic syndrome by a third , and possibly reduce the risk of leg ulcers , but is associated with an increased risk of bleeding . The ACCP currently suggests anticoagulation rather than thrombolysis , but patients may choose thrombolysis if prevention of post @-@ thrombotic syndrome outweighs concerns over the complexity , bleeding risk , and cost of the procedure . NICE recommends that thrombolysis is considered in those who have had symptoms for less than two weeks , are normally well , have a good life expectancy and a low risk of bleeding .
A mechanical thrombectomy device can remove venous clots , although the ACCP considers it an option only when the following conditions apply : " iliofemoral DVT , symptoms for < 7 days ( criterion used in the single randomized trial ) , good functional status , life expectancy of ≥ 1 year , and both resources and expertise are available . " Anticoagulation alone is suggested over thrombectomy .
= = Prognosis = =
The most frequent complication of proximal DVT is post @-@ thrombotic syndrome , which is caused by a reduction in the return of venous blood to the heart . Some symptoms of post @-@ thrombotic syndrome are pain , edema , paresthesia , and in severe cases , leg ulcers . An estimated 20 – 50 % of those with DVT will develop it , and 5 – 10 % will develop the severe form . PE is the most serious complication of proximal DVT , and the risk of PE is higher when clots are present in the thigh and pelvis . Distal DVT itself is hardly if ever associated with post @-@ thrombotic syndrome or PE . Untreated lower extremity DVT has a 3 % PE @-@ related mortality rate , while deaths associated with upper extremity DVT are extremely rare . The presence of a remaining thrombus after a DVT frequently occurs in a minority of people , and it increases the risk of recurrence , though to a lesser extent than an elevated D @-@ dimer . In the 10 years following a VTE , approximately a third of individuals will have a recurrent episode .
= = Epidemiology = =
About 1 in 1000 adults per year has DVT , but as of 2011 , available data is dominated by North American and European populations . VTE is rare in children , with an incidence of about 1 in 100 @,@ 000 a year . From childhood to old age , incidence increases by a factor of about 1000 , with almost 1 % of the elderly experiencing VTE yearly . During pregnancy and after childbirth , acute VTE occurs about once per 1000 deliveries . After surgery with preventative treatment , VTE develops in about 10 of 1000 people after total or partial knee replacement , and in about 5 of 1000 after total or partial hip replacement . About 300 @,@ 000 – 600 @,@ 000 Americans develop VTE each year , with about 60 @,@ 000 – 100 @,@ 000 deaths attributable to PE . In England , an estimated 25 @,@ 000 a year die from hospital @-@ related VTE . For unclear reasons , people of Asian descent have a lower VTE risk than whites .
In North American and European populations , around 4 – 8 % of people have a thrombophilia , most commonly factor V leiden and prothrombin G20210A . For populations in China , Japan , and Thailand , deficiences in protein S , protein C , and antithrombin predominate . Non @-@ O blood type is present in around 50 % of the general population and varies with ethnicity , and it is present in about 70 % of those with VTE . Altogether , global data is incomplete .
= = Economics = =
Initial DVT costs for an average hospitalized patient in the U.S. are around $ 7 @,@ 700 – $ 10 @,@ 800 . VTE follow @-@ up costs at three months , six months , and a year are about $ 5 @,@ 000 , $ 10 @,@ 000 , and $ 33 @,@ 000 respectively ; in Europe , the three and six @-@ month figures are about € 1 @,@ 800 and € 3 @,@ 200 . Post @-@ thrombotic syndrome is a significant contributor to DVT follow @-@ up costs . Annual DVT costs in the U.S. are an estimated $ 5 billion or in excess of $ 8 billion , and the average annual cost per treated individual is thought to be about $ 20 @,@ 000 . As an example , if 300 @,@ 000 symptomatic DVT patients were treated at costs averaging $ 20 @,@ 000 annually , that would cost $ 6 billion a year .
= = History = =
The earliest case of DVT was described by Sushruta in his book Sushruta Samhita around 600 – 900 BC . Another documented case is thought to have occurred in the 13th century , in the leg of a 20 @-@ year @-@ old male . At some point , the increased incidence of DVT in women after childbirth was noticed , and in the late 1700s , a public health recommendation was issued to encourage women to breastfeed as a means to prevent this phenomenon ; the DVT was called " milk leg " , as it was thought to result from milk building up in the leg .
In 1856 , German physician and pathologist Rudolf Virchow published what is referred to as Virchow 's triad , the three major causes of thrombosis . The triad provides the theoretical framework for the current explanation of venous thrombosis , although it was focused on the effect of a foreign body in the venous system and the conditions required for clot propagation .
Multiple pharmacological therapies for DVT were introduced in the 20th century : oral anticoagulants in the 1940s , subcutaneous LDUH in 1962 and subcutaneous LMWH in 1982 . Diagnoses were commonly performed by impedance plethysmography in the 1970s and 1980s , but the use of Doppler ultrasound techniques , with their increased sensitivity and specificity , largely superseded this method .
= = Research directions = =
As of 2011 , three large randomized controlled trials — the Norwegian CaVent trial , the North American ATTRACT trial , and the Dutch CAVA trial — are studying the effectiveness and safety of catheter @-@ directed thrombolysis . In 2012 , two studies found a clinical benefit in taking aspirin to prevent recurrent VTE .
= = = Cited literature = = =
= Dan Bain =
Donald Henderson " Dan " Bain ( February 14 , 1874 – August 15 , 1962 ) was a Canadian amateur athlete and merchant . Though he competed in and excelled in numerous sports , Bain is most notable for his ice hockey career . While a member of the Winnipeg Victorias hockey team , with whom he played for from 1894 until 1902 , Bain helped the team win the Stanley Cup thrice as champions of Canada . A skilled athlete , Bain won championships and medals in several other sports , and was the Canadian trapshooting champion in 1903 . In recognition of his play , Bain was inducted into multiple halls of fame , including the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1949 , and was also voted Canada 's top athlete of the last half of the 19th century .
In his professional life Bain was a prominent Winnipeg businessman and community leader . He became wealthy as a result of operating Donald H. Bain Limited , a grocery brokerage firm . Bain was an active member of numerous community associations , the president of the Winnipeg Winter Club and an avid outdoorsman . The Mallard Lodge , a building on the shores of Lake Manitoba built by Bain as a personal retreat , today serves as a research facility for the University of Manitoba .
= = Early life = =
The son of Scottish immigrants , Bain was born in Belleville , Ontario and moved with his family to Winnipeg , Manitoba , as a young child . His father , James Henderson Bain , was a horse buyer for the British government and upon his arrival in Canada lived in Montreal before moving west . His mother , Helen Miller , was a seamstress . Bain was the sixth of seven children , having four sisters and two brothers .
= = Sporting career = =
Bain 's first championship came in 1887 when he captured the Manitoba roller skating championship at the age of 13 by winning the three @-@ mile race . At the age of 17 he won the provincial gymnastics competition , and at 20 he won the first of three consecutive Manitoba cycling championships . In addition Bain was a top lacrosse player in his home province .
In 1895 Bain first played competitive ice hockey when he answered a classified ad placed in a newspaper by the Winnipeg Victorias , who were looking for new players . Though he played with a broken stick held together by wire , he made the team five minutes into his tryout . Bain quickly became a star centre and leader for the Victorias . This was exemplified during a February 14 , 1896 game against the Montreal Victorias for the Stanley Cup , given to the national hockey champion in Canada . It was a 2 – 0 victory for Winnipeg that gave them the Cup . This victory marked the first time a team outside of Quebec had won the trophy . The team was greeted by a huge crowd at the Canadian Pacific Railway station when their train , decorated with hockey sticks and the Union Jack , returned to Winnipeg . They were led to a feast in their honour in a parade of open sleighs as fans gathered to celebrate the championship .
The Montreal Victorias played Winnipeg in a challenge to reclaim the Cup in December 1896 , a game described by the local press as " the greatest sporting event in the history of Winnipeg " . Though Bain scored two goals in the game , Montreal recaptured the Cup with a 6 – 5 victory . Winnipeg was involved in numerous further Stanley Cup challenges with Bain serving as the team 's captain and manager . They again lost to their Montreal counterparts in 1898 before a record crowd of over 7 @,@ 000 fans .
During a 1900 challenge series against the Montreal Shamrocks Bain scored four goals in three games , but Winnipeg again lost the title . The Victorias challenged the Shamrocks again in 1901 in a best @-@ of @-@ three series . Winnipeg won the series in two games after Bain scored the clinching goal in overtime . It was the first time in Stanley Cup history that the winning goal was scored in extra time . Bain did so while playing with a broken nose that required him to wear a wooden face mask , earning the nickname " the masked man " as a result . When the Victorias defended their title in a series against the Toronto Wellingtons in January 1902 , Bain did not play in the series . The team lost their next challenge , against the Montreal Hockey Club , in March of that year , which marked the end of Bain 's hockey career .
Throughout his sporting career , Bain also earned medals in lacrosse and snowshoeing . He was the Canadian trapshooting champion in 1903 . An avid figure skater throughout much of his life , Bain won over a dozen titles , the last of which came at the age of 56 , and he continued to skate until the age of 70 ; he remained a competitive athlete until 1930 . On his skill in a variety of sports , Bain once said that " I couldn 't see any sense in participating in a game unless I was good . I kept at a sport just long enough to nab a championship , then I 'd try something else . "
In recognition of his sporting skill , Bain was inducted into several halls of fame . The first came in 1949 when he was elected a member of the Hockey Hall of Fame . This was followed in 1971 with his induction into Canada 's Sports Hall of Fame , the Manitoba Sports Hall of Fame and Museum in 1981 , and the Manitoba Hockey Hall of Fame . He was also voted as Canada 's top sportsman of the last half of the 19th century .
= = Personal life = =
Outside of sports , Bain was a well known businessman in Winnipeg . He served as the president of Donald H. Bain Limited , a grocery brokerage firm headquartered in Winnipeg and operated in numerous cities . It was through his firm that he amassed a large fortune . Known as a community leader , he helped found the Winnipeg Winter Club on land that is now the HMCS Chippawa naval reserve division , and after World War II he organized the current Winter Club . Bain also belonged to many community groups and was the life governor of the Winnipeg General Hospital . He was also one of Western Canada 's first automobile enthusiasts and owned many British vehicles .
As a result of his trap @-@ shooting career , Bain developed an appreciation for nature . He bought an ownership share of the Portage Country Club , on the Delta Marsh near the south shore of Lake Manitoba , and later donated the land to Ducks Unlimited . Bain built the Mallard Lodge as a personal retreat on land adjacent to the club . He strictly enforced his privacy , even building a road to his lodge that he allowed no one else to use ; members of the Portage Country Club were required to take a different route . Bain intended to donate his lodge to the government of Manitoba for preservation , though he died before he could do so . The lodge passed into the control of the government regardless , and was donated to the University of Manitoba as a research facility in 1966 that remains active today . Bain was also a member of the Manitoba Game and Fish Association and the Winnipeg Humane Society .
Bain never married and had no children . He was fond of his pets , in particular his Curly Coated Retriever dogs that he was said to value above human company . On August 15 , 1962 Bain died in Winnipeg , aged 88 . He left behind an estate in excess of C $ 1 million , ( $ 7 @.@ 97 million in 2016 dollars ) , the majority of which he donated to charity and former employees .
= = Career statistics = =
= Landing at Scarlet Beach =
The Landing at Scarlet Beach ( Operation Diminish ) ( 22 September 1943 ) took place in New Guinea during the Huon Peninsula campaign of the Second World War , involving forces from Australia , the United States and Japan . Allied forces landed at Scarlet Beach , north of Siki Cove and south of the Song River , to the east of Katika and about 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) north of Finschhafen . The capture of Finschhafen allowed the construction of air base and naval facilities to assist Allied air and naval forces to conduct operations against Japanese bases in New Guinea and New Britain .
After Lae had fallen sooner than the Allies had anticipated , they exploited the advantage . As a result of faulty intelligence , which underestimated the size of the Japanese force in the area , the assault force chosen consisted of only Brigadier Victor Windeyer 's 20th Infantry Brigade . The landing at Scarlet Beach that took place on 22 September 1943 was the first opposed amphibious landing that Australian forces had made since the Landing at Anzac Cove in the Gallipoli Campaign of 1915 . Navigational errors resulted in the troops being landed on the wrong beach , with some of them coming ashore at Siki Cove and taking heavy fire from the strong Japanese defences in pillboxes . After re @-@ organising , the Australians pushed inland . The Japanese put up stiff resistance on the high ground at Katika , but were forced back . By the end of the day , the Australians had secured their objectives . The Japanese launched a retaliatory air raid on the ships of the VII Amphibious Force , but US fighter aircraft defended the convoy and no ships were hit . Continued Japanese air attacks on the beachhead inflicted numerous casualties over the course of the battle .
The next day the Australians commenced their advance south towards the village of Finschhafen , about 5 @.@ 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 0 km ) south of the landing beach , with the 2 / 15th Infantry Battalion leading the way to the Bumi River . The Japanese had established strong defences along the river 's southern bank , which the Australians attempted to outflank by sending a force to the west , climbing through steep terrain . Once they had located a suitable place to cross the river , they began wading across but were fired upon by a group of Japanese naval infantry who were positioned on a high feature overlooking the river . Despite taking casualties , the Australians were able to establish themselves south of the Bumi and at that point the 2 / 13th Infantry Battalion began to advance on Finschhafen from the west . Meanwhile , the 2 / 15th attacked the left flank of the Japanese that had opposed their crossing . After advancing up the steep slope under fire , sometimes on their hands and knees , the 2 / 15th took the position at the point of the bayonet , killing 52 Japanese in close combat .
Australian fears of a Japanese counter @-@ attack grew and they requested reinforcements from General Douglas MacArthur . The request was denied as his intelligence staff believed that there were only 350 Japanese in the vicinity . Actually , there were already 5 @,@ 000 Japanese around Sattelberg and Finschhafen . The Australians received some reinforcements in the shape of the 2 / 43rd Infantry Battalion . The arrival of this unit meant that the entire 20th Infantry Brigade could concentrate on Finschhafen . The Japanese naval troops which were holding Finschhafen began to withdraw and Finschhafen fell to the Australians on 2 October . The 20th Infantry Brigade then linked up with the 22nd Infantry Battalion , a Militia infantry battalion that had cleared the coastal area in the south of the Huon Peninsula , advancing from Lae over the mountains . The Japanese withdrew into the mountains around Sattelberg .
= = Strategy = =
= = = Allied = = =
At the Pacific Military Conference in Washington , D.C. , in March 1943 , the Joint Chiefs of Staff approved plans by General Douglas MacArthur , the Supreme Commander , South West Pacific Area ( SWPA ) , for an advance on the Japanese base at Rabaul . On 13 June 1943 , MacArthur 's General Headquarters ( GHQ ) in Brisbane instructed General Sir Thomas Blamey 's New Guinea Force to
... seize the Lae @-@ Salamaua @-@ Finschhafen @-@ Markham River Valley area and establish major elements of the [ Air Force ] therein to provide from the Markham Valley area general and direct air support of subsequent operations in northern New Guinea and western New Britain , and to control Vitiaz Strait and protect the north @-@ western flank of subsequent operations in western New Britain .
Following the successful seaborne landing at Lae and airborne landing at Nadzab , Salamaua , Lae , and the Markham River Valley were all in Allied hands by 16 September 1943 . Blamey then turned his attention to his next objective : Finschhafen .
= = = Japanese = = =
The bombing of Wewak , in which 100 Japanese aircraft were lost in August 1943 , caused Imperial General Headquarters ( IGHQ ) in Tokyo to reconsider whether Eastern New Guinea and the Solomon Islands could be held . Concluding that it could not , IGHQ authorised the commander of the Japanese Eighth Area Army to conduct a fighting withdrawal to a new defensive position in Western New Guinea , which it hoped would be ready in 1944 .
Lieutenant General Hatazō Adachi , the commander of the Japanese XVIII Army in New Guinea , recognised the importance of the Finschhafen area , and had placed Major General Eizo Yamada , the commander of the 1st Shipping Group , in charge of defending it . To strengthen the defences there , Adachi ordered the 80th Infantry Regiment and a battalion of field artillery from the 20th Division at Madang to move to Finschhafen on 7 August 1943 . The headquarters , artillery , and heavy weapons departed Bogadjim on 15 August , and travelled by sea , but the remainder marched along the coast .
On 26 August , he assigned the 2nd Battalion , 238th Infantry Regiment , part of the 41st Division , which was in the area en route to join the rest of the 238th Infantry Regiment at Salamaua , to remain in the Finschhafen area under Yamada 's command . The landing at Lae on 4 September made an Australian advance on Finschhafen appear imminent , and Adachi ordered the rest of the 20th Division , less the Nakai detachment in the Markham Valley , to move to Finschhafen . The main body , under Lieutenant General Shigeru Katagiri , left Bogadjim bound for Finschhafen on 10 September , but was not expected to arrive before October . In the event of an Allied attack before he arrived , Yamada was to hold the high ground around Sattelberg and prepare for a counter @-@ attack .
= = Geography = =
The Huon Peninsula is situated along the north @-@ east coast of Papua New Guinea , and stretches from Lae in the south on the Huon Gulf to Sio in the north along the Vitiaz Strait . Along the coast , between these two points , numerous rivers and streams cut the terrain . Of these , the most prominent are the Song , Bumi , and Mape Rivers . These waterways flow from the mountainous interior , | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
" The Australians proved to be right ; ' Uncle Dan 's ' outfit was not prepared for a neat night landing . The usual snafu developed " .
= = Landing = =
= = = First wave = = =
USS APc @-@ 15 produced 140 mimeograph copies of the VII Amphibious Force operation order , which was distributed by PT boat . They then departed for G Beach , 14 miles ( 23 km ) east of Lae . While they were en route during the night , a Japanese raid on Buna sank an LCS ( S ) , and damaged a dock and two merchant ships ; nine people were killed and 27 wounded . USS LCI @-@ 31 developed engine trouble , and was forced to return to Buna . This left A Company of the 2 / 13th Infantry Battalion without its transport . The battalion commander , Lieutenant Colonel G. E. Colvin , arranged for them to travel on USS LCI @-@ 337 , LCI @-@ 338 , and LCI @-@ 342 . Around sunset , six Sally bombers attacked the escorting destroyers . They dropped their bombs but scored no hits .
The ships arrived off Scarlet beach on time , and the destroyers conducted a short 11 @-@ minute preliminary bombardment . It was doubtful if any Japanese positions were hit or any casualties inflicted . Low cloud trapped the smoke and dust produced by the bombardment . To the Australians , it was " dark as the inside of a cow " . Scarlet Beach and Siki Cove were covered by bunker @-@ type pillboxes made of logs , spaced about 50 yards ( 46 m ) apart , and connected by shallow trenches . They held about 300 Japanese defenders . Japanese tracer fire started pouring from the shore . At this point , one Australian recalled " I realised that this was not an unopposed landing . " It was the first opposed landing by Australian troops since the Landing at Anzac Cove in the Gallipoli Campaign of 1915 .
Almost all the LCP ( R ) s in the first wave veered off course to the left , landing between Siki Creek and the rocks of the headland between Siki Cove and Arndt Point . All the boats landed successfully except for one carrying 11 Platoon of the 2 / 15th Infantry Battalion , which had broken down and was towed by the LCP ( R ) carrying 10 Platoon , delaying both . Another LCP ( R ) appeared and took the platoon in . But only three of the sixteen landed on Scarlet Beach . In some ways this was good , as it meant that the plywood landing craft were not subjected to intense machine gun fire , which might have caused heavy casualties ; but there were still serious disadvantages to landing on the wrong beach . On the right , Captain T. C. Sheldon 's B Company , 2 / 17th Infantry Battalion , accompanied by the anti @-@ tank platoon and 10 Platoon the Papuan Infantry Battalion , landed roughly where they were supposed to , and pushed on to their objective , North Hill .
The rest of the first wave was jumbled up . Major P.H. Pike found his A Company of the 2 / 17th mixed up with Captain Paul Deschamps ' B Company of the 2 / 13th . Since the latter had further to travel , and there was no Japanese opposition , Pike agreed to hold his company back while Deschamps ' moved on to his objective . Pike then moved his men inland 100 yards ( 91 m ) and waited for daylight . C Company 's task was to seize Arndt Point , but part of it was already there , facing a steep cliff . The only platoon to encounter serious opposition was Lieutenant C. Huggett 's platoon , which had veered off to the right , and landed on Scarlet Beach near the mouth of the Song River . It came under fire from two Japanese machine gun posts there . With the help of an American Amphibian Scout , Lieutenant Herman A. Koeln , Huggett attacked the posts with grenades and small arms . Another Amphibian Scout , Lieutenant Edward K. Hammer , encountered a party of Japanese that he fired on . Koeln and Hammer were conspicuous because they were carrying the 10 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) red canvas signs to mark the beach . The beachmaster , Lieutenant Commander J. M. Band , was fatally wounded making his way to Scarlet Beach . He was posthumously awarded the US Navy Cross .
= = = Follow @-@ up = = =
The second wave came in LCIs . These were craft that had no ramps ; infantry disembarked from the down gangways . That they were not suitable for an assault landing was not overlooked , but they were all that was available . The first wave 's mission had been to capture Scarlet Beach and the foreshore . Since that had not been done , they came under fire from the Japanese bunkers . Despite explicit orders not to , they replied with their Oerlikon 20 mm cannon . Some helped to suppress the Japanese machine guns , while others fired wildly and caused casualties among the Australian troops ashore . Like the first wave , they veered off to the left , adding to the chaos . At least three of the LCIs grounded on a sand bar , but were able to retract and make better landings , although still on the wrong beach .
The Military Landing Officer , Major J. R. Broadbent landed with the first wave in the same LCP ( R ) as Pike . With him was an Amphibian Scout carrying the red signal light that was to mark the centre of the beach for later waves . They were unable to reach the correct location in time for the second wave , but were able to place it and switch it on in time for the third , so it was the first to land on Scarlet Beach . Although the first wave had landed seven minutes late , the second was fifteen , and the third was half an hour behind schedule . In the confusion , two LCIs collided , killing two soldiers and injuring eight . Some of the LCI captains were reluctant to drive their ships in hard enough , and many troops disembarked into water that was over their heads . Sergeant Iaking Iwagu , of the Royal Papuan Constabulary , landing with 9 Platoon of the Papuan Infantry Battalion , was awarded the George Medal for attempting to save Captain A. B. Luetchford , who was hit in deep water . The third wave found the Japanese bunkers still manned , and assaulted them . Most of the Japanese defenders withdrew rather than fight to the finish .
Four LCMs of Lieutenant Colonel E. D. Brockett 's Boat Battalion of the 532nd Engineer Boat and Shore Regiment carrying Bofors 40 mm guns were supposed to arrive with the second wave , but due to some navigational difficulties , they were an hour late . They came in with the six LCMs and four LCVPs of the fourth wave , which was itself 40 minutes late , arriving at 06 : 10 . The 11 LCVPs of the fifth wave reached the Scarlet Beach ten minutes later . By 06 : 30 , the beach and the foreshore were clear of Japanese , and the destroyer transports and LCIs were on their way back to Buna . The amphibian engineers set up a portable surgical hospital to treat the wounded . Windeyer and his brigade major , Major B. V. Wilson , arrived in a landing craft from the destroyer USS Conyngham , and he established brigade headquarters in a Kunai patch 200 yards ( 180 m ) from the beach . A Japanese soldier threw a hand grenade at them that killed one man and wounded the brigade intelligence officer , Captain Barton Maughan . The Japanese soldier was killed with an Owen gun .
The sixth and final wave consisted of USS LST @-@ 18 , LST @-@ 168 , and LST @-@ 204 . They had instructions to wait until the smaller craft had cleared the beach , and beached at 06 : 50 . Each carried an unloading party of 100 men , drawn from the 2 / 23rd and 2 / 48th Infantry Battalions , and 2 / 2nd Machine Gun Battalion , who would return with the LSTs . The unloading proceeded at a rapid pace . All the cargo was unloaded from two of the three when they retracted at 09 : 30 , and headed off escorted by ten destroyers and the fleet tug USS Sonoma . The 2 / 3rd Field Company , 2 / 1st Mechanical Equipment Company , 2 / 3rd Pioneer Battalion , and the Shore Battalion of the 532nd Engineer Boat and Shore Regiment prepared four beach exits . Stores were quickly moved off the beach to inland dumps . Some 5 @,@ 300 troops , 180 vehicles , 32 25 @-@ pounders and Bofors 40 mm guns , and 850 measurement tons ( 960 m3 ) of bulk stores had been unloaded .
Fifth Air Force fighters provided air cover from 06 : 45 . A Japanese reconnaissance aircraft flew over the beachhead at 09 : 10 , and was shot down . A lone bomber showed up ten minutes later and attacked the LSTs on the beach , but missed . Two dive bombers attacked at 09 : 30 , and were driven off , but not before inflicting casualties . The Bofors guns of the 10th Light Anti Aircraft Battery were attacked , and five men were wounded , one fatally . Over the next two weeks there was at least one air raid on the beachhead every day . The air raids proved an effective way of clearing the beach . A large attack by 39 aircraft of the 4th Air Army ran into bad weather and had to return to Wewak , but a naval air forces attack with 38 Zeke fighters and eight Betty bombers found the LSTs and destroyers near the Tami Islands on their way back to Buna at 12 : 40 . The fighter cover was being changed over , so the Fifth Air Force fighter controller on board the destroyer USS Reid could deploy five squadrons instead of just three . They claimed to have shot down 29 fighters and 10 bombers . Antiaircraft gunners from the destroyers , LSTs , and Sonoma also engaged the bombers . While torpedo wakes were seen , no hits were suffered . Three Lockheed P @-@ 38 Lightning fighters were shot down , but at least one pilot was rescued . The Japanese pilots claimed to have sunk two cruisers , two destroyers , and two transports .
= = = Consolidation = = =
A shortage of 9 mm ammunition for the Owen Guns was discovered , apparently because the ammunition was in the LST that had not been completely unloaded . An emergency airdrop was requested at 10 : 30 . In Port Moresby , the 1st Air Maintenance Company prepared 30 parachutes , each attached to two boxes containing 2 @,@ 560 rounds of 9 mm ammunition , a total of 153 @,@ 600 rounds . This was loaded onto three USAAF B @-@ 24 Liberator bombers at Wards Airfield that took off at 16 : 55 . They arrived over the Finschhafen area after dark at 19 : 15 , where a drop zone in a Kunai patch was marked by men holding hand torches . Of the 115 @,@ 000 rounds that were dropped , about 112 @,@ 000 were recovered .
Around daybreak , Pike 's A Company , 2 / 17th Infantry Battalion , reached the village of Katika , which turned out to be a clearing with some dilapidated huts . His company came under fire from Katika Spur , the high ground to the west , which was strongly held by the 9th Company , 80th Infantry Regiment and a company of the 238th Infantry Regiment . The Japanese attempted to outflank A Company on its left , but ran into Capitan L. Snell 's D Company , 2 / 15th Infantry Battalion .
The Japanese positions were well @-@ sited on the spur for an attack from the east along the track from Katika to Sattelberg , but at this point , Captain B. G. Cribb , the commander of D Company , 2 / 13th Infantry Battalion , came on the radio and announced that he was in contact with the Japanese to the west , and was going to attack from that direction . A furious fight ensured . The Japanese held their fire until the Australians were almost on top of them . Realising that the position was stronger than he had thought , Cribb withdrew after suffering eight dead and twenty wounded . Windeyer ordered the 2 / 17th to bypass the position and proceed to its objective , the high ground south of the Song River . The 2 / 15th was ordered to attack Katika Spur . The attack was delivered at 15 : 15 after a preliminary bombardment by 3 inch mortars , but the Japanese defenders had withdrawn , leaving behind eight dead . By nightfall , most of the brigade was on their objectives .
The seventh wave , made up of USS LST @-@ 67 , LST @-@ 452 , and LST @-@ 454 , arrived at Scarlet Beach at midnight . As with the previous wave , each carried an Australian labour force which unloaded the LSTs under the direction of the Shore Battalion . The LSTs retracted at 03 : 00 in order to be well clear before dawn . During the first day , Australian casualties were 20 killed , 65 wounded , and nine missing , all of whom were eventually found to be either dead or wounded . The VII Amphibious Force reported that three men had been wounded .
= = Reinforcement = =
Blamey relinquished command of New Guinea Force on 22 September , handing over to Lieutenant General Sir Iven Mackay . As one of his final actions before returning to LHQ in Brisbane , Blamey instructed Herring to arrange for the reinforcement of Finschhafen with an extra brigade and 9th Division Headquarters . That day , though , MacArthur , who also returned to Brisbane on 24 September , had issued an instruction that operations at Finschhafen were " to be so conducted as to avoid commitment of amphibious means beyond those allotted " . Barbey therefore declined to arrange for the reinforcement of Finschhafen . Mackay took up the matter with Carpender , who likewise demurred . MacArthur feared that committing additional resources would tie them up , and perhaps result in losses , that would delay upcoming operations , relinquishing the initiative to the Japanese . Ironically , the delay in reinforcing Finschhafen would cause just that .
Windeyer sent a signal on 27 September asking for another infantry battalion and a squadron of tanks , and Carpender agreed to ship the additional battalion . The following day Herring flew to Milne Bay to confer with Barbey about this . On takeoff from Dobodura , the B @-@ 25 Mitchell he was travelling in crashed . A flying fragment killed his chief of staff , Brigadier R. B. Sutherland , instantly . Everyone else on board escaped shaken but unscathed . The meeting was cancelled . Willoughby still clung to his original estimate of 350 Japanese in the Finschhafen area , but MacArthur authorised the extra battalion . It was arranged that the first LST departing Lae on the night of 28 / 29 September would stop at G Beach and collect the 2 / 43rd Infantry Battalion and a platoon of the 2 / 13th Field Company , a total of 838 men . They were taken to Buna where they transferred to the destroyer transports USS Brooks , Gilmer , and Humphreys . The next night they made a run to Scarlet Beach . The troops were landed and 134 wounded were taken back , but surf conditions prevented the most seriously wounded from being evacuated .
While the 20th Infantry Brigade was engaged at Finschhafen , the 22nd Infantry Battalion , a Militia infantry battalion from Victoria , advanced along the coast from the Hopoi Mission Station towards Finschhafen . This advance , " constituting a minor epic in New Guinea operations " , traversed increasing difficult terrain . Supply using vehicles was impossible ; the 22nd Infantry Battalion was supplied by boats of the 532nd Engineer Boat and Shore Regiment . Stores were dropped off at advanced beaches and then carried from there by native porters . The 22nd Infantry Battalion fought a number of skirmishes against the Japanese 2nd Battalion , 80th Infantry Regiment , which was under orders to withdraw . The 22nd Infantry Battalion therefore discovered a series of well @-@ prepared and strong positions which were either unmanned or soon abandoned . Along the way two Type 41 75 mm Mountain Guns that had been disabled were found , along with the bodies of the six natives who had hauled the guns , who had been bound and shot . The battalion reached Dreger Harbour on 1 October , where it made contact with the 20th Infantry Brigade .
= = Advance on Finschhafen = =
On 23 September , Windeyer ordered an advance on Finschhafen . Lieutenant Colonel Colin Grace 's 2 / 15th Infantry Battalion reached the Bumi River at 12 : 40 . It was 15 to 20 yards ( 14 to 18 m ) wide and appeared fordable , but the banks contained barbed wire and strongly fortified Japanese positions . While Yamada was withdrawing towards Sattelberg , the Japanese marines of the 85th Garrison Unit remained in place . Yamada had no authority over the marines , and its commander , Captain Tsuzuki , saw no reason to conform to Yamada 's actions . He intended to hold Finschhafen for as long as possible . Grace ordered Major Ron Suthers to outflank the Japanese position by moving through the foothills of the Kreutberg Range , as previously instructed by Windeyer . While not high , these were very steep and covered in thick vegetation .
Suthers halted on the ridge for the night but resumed his advance in the morning , reaching the Bumi at 10 : 00 . They again found the north bank defended but the south occupied , so attempted to find a crossing 150 yards ( 140 m ) upstream . A Japanese sniper with a light machine gun killed B Company 's commander , Captain E. Christie , and Lieutenant N. Harphain . Suthers then ordered Snell to make an assault crossing with D Company . This was done at 13 : 30 , with the company crossing in waist @-@ deep water . Only one man was killed in the crossing . During the afternoon , the 2 / 13th Infantry Battalion crossed the river to the bridgehead secured by B and D Companies .
A large Japanese air raid at 12 : 30 by 20 fighters and 12 bombers struck the Australian positions around Launch Jetty and the Finschhafen airstrip . About 60 bombs were dropped . There were heavy casualties . The 2 / 3rd Field Company lost 14 killed and 19 wounded ; the 2 / 12th Field Regiment lost two killed and 16 wounded , and the air liaison party 's headquarters was hit , knocking out its radio set and killing Captain Ferrel , its commander . Another eight men were killed and 40 wounded in air raids on 25 September . During the night of 25 / 26 September , Japanese barges and a submarine were spotted offshore . Windeyer had to bring a company of the 2 / 17th Infantry Battalion back to protect the brigade area .
Meanwhile , D Company of the 2 / 17th Infantry Battalion had moved along the track to Sattelberg with the intent of capturing that position . D Company reported that Sattelberg was unoccupied , but in fact had captured Jivevenang , not Sattelberg . When the mistake was realised and it attempted to take Sattelberg , it was found to be strongly defended . D Company therefore withdrew to Jivevenang . Unfortunately , the news of the capture of Sattelberg was passed all the way up the line to GHQ in Brisbane .
The advance on Finschhafen continued on 26 September . Since the Salankaua Plantation was still reported to be heavily defended , Windeyer attempted to force the defenders to withdraw . He started with attacks on two hills to the south west of the plantation . B and D Companies of the 2 / 15th Infantry Battalion attacked what came to be called Snell 's Hill . It was captured in hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat using bayonets . The Australians captured three 13 mm heavy machine guns and seven light machine guns , and buried the bodies of 52 dead Japanese defenders . The other feature , which came to be called Starvation Hill , was taken by C Company . However , their capture did not prompt the Japanese to leave the Salankaua Plantation .
Windeyer realised that he needed to capture Kakakog Ridge . Torrential rain was falling , making it difficult to resupply the forward positions , particularly Starvation Hill . On 1 October eight Douglas A @-@ 20 Havoc bombers of the US 89th Bombardment Squadron attacked the Japanese positions in the Salankaua Plantation and Kakakog Ridge area at 10 : 35 , followed by ten Vultee Vengeance dive bombers of No. 24 Squadron RAAF . This was followed by twenty 25 @-@ pounders of the 2 / 12th Field Regiment firing 30 rounds per gun .
The attack was delivered but the assault companies were soon pinned down . " When a situation seemed desperate " , historian David Dexter noted , " the Australian Army appeared to have the knack of producing a leader of the necessary character " . Sergeant G. R. Crawford led 11 and 12 Platoons of the 2 / 13th Infantry Battalion in a bayonet charge on the Japanese positions covering Ilebbe Creek . Private A. J. Rofle , firing a Bren gun from the hip , silenced one of the Japanese posts causing the most trouble . He went on to silence another , but was wounded trying to take out a third . Crawford 's furious assault swept all before it . One post remained on Crawford 's left , which was attacked with 2 @-@ inch mortars and attacked by 8 Platoon . The Japanese abandoned the post and withdrew into the Salankaua Plantation . Rolfe and Crawford were awarded the Distinguished Conduct Medal . The 2 / 13th Infantry Battalion lost 10 killed and 70 ; between 80 and 100 Japanese marines died .
The arrival of the 2 / 43rd Infantry Battalion meant that the 2 / 17th Infantry Battalion could be reassembled for the advance on Finschhafen , thus enabling the entire 20th Infantry Brigade to concentrate on that objective . On 2 October the 2 / 17th Infantry Battalion crossed the Bumi without opposition , and found the Salankaua Plantation unoccupied . In mopping up the area , it captured two Japanese stragglers and killed three . By evening Finschhafen was in Australian hands . Between 22 September and 2 October , the 20th Infantry Brigade had taken its objectives . It had lost 73 dead , 276 wounded and nine missing , all of whom were later accounted for as dead or wounded . The 532nd Engineer Boat and Shore Regiment had eight dead and 42 wounded . Two Americans were also killed in the Air Liaison Party .
= = Aftermath = =
MacArthur 's decision to move swiftly against Finschhafen , coupled with Blamey 's to envelop the Japanese defences by landing at Scarlet Beach , and Yamada 's to avoid a decisive engagement that might result in the loss of all or part of his force , gave Windeyer the time and space he needed to take Finschhafen . Blamey 's objective was therefore in Allied hands ; but it was of limited use without Sattelberg . The Allied intelligence failure and subsequent dithering meant that the Japanese reinforced their position faster , and thus were able to seize the initiative .
The Japanese launched a counter @-@ attack on the Allied lodgement around Scarlet Beach . A three @-@ pronged action , the counter @-@ attack saw a diversionary attack to the north , while the Sugino Craft Raiding Unit attacked from the sea , and two infantry regiments assaulted the centre aiming towards the beach and the Heldsbach plantation . It had been intended that once the beachhead was overwhelmed , that the 79th and 80th Infantry Regiments would link up and then clear the Finschhafen and Langemark Bay areas ; but the assault was poorly co @-@ ordinated and failed to achieve sufficient weight to overcome the Australians , while also suffering from a lack of artillery . The seaborne assault was interdicted by US Navy PT boats , which inflicted heavy casualties , and was destroyed by Allied machine gunners on the beach . In the centre , though , the Japanese were able to break through to Siki Cove , and in the process isolated several Australian units , including those fighting on the western flank around Jivevenang , forcing the Australians to resort to air drops to keep their forces supplied .
While the Japanese briefly managed to force the Australians to contract their forces around the beachhead , and Japanese aircraft were able to attack the Allied ground troops around the area over three successive nights between 19 and 21 October , the attack eventually ran out of momentum on 24 October , at which point the Japanese commander , Yamada , ordered his forces to concentrate around the high ground at Sattelberg , where they planned to make further attacks . Meanwhile , the Australians prepared for an assault against the Japanese strong hold that had been established around the abandoned Lutheran mission atop the Sattelberg heights before advancing towards the Wareo plateau to cut off key Japanese lines of communication .
= Animal House =
National Lampoon 's Animal House is a 1978 American comedy film from Universal Pictures , produced by Ivan Reitman and Matty Simmons , directed by John Landis , and starring John Belushi , Tim Matheson , John Vernon , Verna Bloom , Thomas Hulce , and Donald Sutherland . The film , a direct spin @-@ off from National Lampoon magazine , is about a misfit group of fraternity members who challenge the authority of the dean of Faber College .
The screenplay was adapted by Douglas Kenney , Chris Miller , and Harold Ramis from stories written by Miller and published in National Lampoon magazine . The stories were based on Ramis 's experience in the Zeta Beta Tau fraternity at Washington University in St. Louis , as well as Miller 's experience in the Alpha Delta Phi fraternity at Dartmouth College , and producer Ivan Reitman 's experiences at Delta Upsilon at McMaster University in Hamilton , Ontario . Of the younger lead actors , only John Belushi was an established star , but even he had not yet appeared in a film , having gained fame mainly from his Saturday Night Live television appearances . Several of the actors who were cast as college students , including Karen Allen , Tom Hulce , and Kevin Bacon , were just beginning their film careers , although Tim Matheson had recently appeared as one of the vigilante motorcycle cops in the second Dirty Harry film , Magnum Force .
Upon its initial release , Animal House received generally mixed reviews from critics , but Time and Roger Ebert proclaimed it one of the year 's best . Filmed for $ 2 @.@ 8 million , it is one of the most profitable movies in history , garnering an estimated gross of more than $ 141 million in the form of theatrical rentals and home video , not including merchandising .
The film , along with 1977 's The Kentucky Fried Movie , also directed by Landis , was largely responsible for defining and launching the gross @-@ out genre of films , which became one of Hollywood 's staples . It is also now considered one of the greatest comedy films ever made by many fans and critics . In 2001 the United States Library of Congress deemed Animal House " culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant " and selected it for preservation in the National Film Registry . It was No. 1 on Bravo 's " 100 Funniest Movies " . It was No. 36 on AFI 's " 100 Years ... 100 Laughs " list of the 100 best American comedies . In 2008 Empire magazine selected it as one of " The 500 Greatest Movies of All Time " .
= = Plot = =
In 1962 , Faber College freshmen Lawrence " Larry " Kroger and Kent Dorfman seek to join a fraternity . Finding themselves out of place at the prestigious Omega Theta Pi house 's party , they visit the slovenly Delta Tau Chi house next door , where Kent is a " legacy " who cannot be rejected due to his brother having been a member . John " Bluto " Blutarsky welcomes them , and they meet other Deltas , including biker Daniel Simpson " D @-@ Day " Day , ladies ' man Eric " Otter " Stratton , and Otter 's best friend Donald " Boon " Schoenstein , whose girlfriend Katy is constantly pressuring him to stop drinking with the Deltas and do something with his life . Larry and Kent are invited to pledge and given the fraternity names " Pinto " and " Flounder " , respectively , by Bluto , Delta 's sergeant @-@ at @-@ arms .
College Dean Vernon Wormer wants to remove the Deltas , who are already on probation , so he invokes his emergency authority and places the fraternity on " double @-@ secret probation " due to various campus conduct violations and their abysmal academic standing . He directs the clean @-@ cut , smug Omega president Greg Marmalard to find a way for him to remove the Deltas from campus . Various incidents , including the prank @-@ related accidental death of a horse belonging to Omega member and ROTC cadet commander Douglas Neidermeyer , and an attempt by Otter to date Marmalard 's girlfriend , further increase the Dean 's and the Omegas ' animosity toward the Deltas .
Bluto and D @-@ Day steal the answers to an upcoming test from the trash , not realizing that the Omegas have planted a fake set of answers for them to find . The Deltas fail the exam , and their grade @-@ point averages fall so low that Wormer tells them he needs only one more incident to revoke their charter . To cheer themselves up , the Deltas organize a toga party and bring in Otis Day and the Knights to provide live music . Wormer 's wife attends at Otter 's invitation and has sex with him . Pinto hooks up with Clorette , a girl he met at the supermarket . They make out , but do not have sex because she passes out drunk . Pinto takes her home in a shopping cart and later discovers that she is the mayor 's daughter .
Outraged by his wife 's escapades and the mayor 's threat of personal violence , Wormer organizes a kangaroo court and revokes Delta 's charter . To take their minds off this action , Otter , Boon , Flounder , and Pinto go on a road trip . Otter is successful in picking up four young women from Emily Dickinson College as dates for himself and his Delta brothers . He elicits sympathy by posing as the fiancé of a young woman at the college who died in a recent kiln explosion . They stop at a roadhouse bar where Day 's band is performing , not realizing it has an exclusively African @-@ American clientele . A couple of hulking patrons intimidate the Deltas and they quickly exit , smashing up Flounder 's borrowed car and leaving their dates behind .
Marmalard and other Omegas lure Otter to a motel and beat him up , believing that Otter is having an affair with Marmalard 's girlfriend , Mandy . The Deltas ' midterm grades are so poor that an ecstatic Wormer expels them all , having already notified their local draft boards that they are now eligible for military service . The news shocks Flounder so badly that he vomits on Wormer .
The Deltas are despondent , but Bluto rallies them with an impassioned , if historically inaccurate , speech ( " Was it over when the Germans bombed Pearl Harbor ? Hell no ! " ) , and so they decide to take action against Wormer , the Omegas , and the college . They convert Flounder 's damaged car into an armored vehicle and hide it inside a cake @-@ shaped breakaway float in order to sneak into the annual homecoming parade . As they wreak havoc on the event , the futures of several of the student main characters are revealed using freeze @-@ frame labels . Most of the Deltas become respectable professionals , while their adversaries suffer less fortunate outcomes .
= = Cast = =
= = = Delta Tau Chi ( ΔΤΧ ) = = =
John Belushi as John " Bluto " Blutarsky : A drunken degenerate with his own style , in his seventh year of college , with a GPA of 0 @.@ 0 . He eventually became a United States senator and married Mandy Pepperidge , a sorority girl .
Tim Matheson as Eric " Otter " Stratton : A confident womanizer whose room is a hotel room look @-@ a @-@ like and a pristine seduction den amid the sheer filth of the rest of the Delta house . Otter is the fraternity 's rush chairman and essentially the fraternity 's unofficial leader . After graduation from Faber in 1963 , he became a gynecologist in Beverly Hills .
Peter Riegert as Donald " Boon " Schoenstein : Otter 's nice @-@ guy best friend , who has to decide between his Delta pals and girlfriend Katy . He marries Katy in 1964 , but they divorce in 1969 . ( In the book adaptation Boon becomes a taxi driver and part @-@ time writer in New York City . In Where Are They Now ? , he and Katy got married , divorced , and remarried a final time after a fling resulted in the conception of their son Otis . He also works as a documentarian . )
Thomas Hulce as Lawrence " Pinto " Kroger : A shy but friendly guy and new pledge at Delta with a 1 @.@ 2 GPA . After graduating from Faber in 1966 , he became editor of National Lampoon magazine . ( " Pinto " was screenwriter Chris Miller 's nickname at his Dartmouth fraternity . )
Stephen Furst as Kent " Flounder " Dorfman : An overweight , naive , clumsy legacy pledge who is Pinto 's best friend and roommate with a GPA of 0 @.@ 2 . After graduating from Faber in 1966 , he became a sensitivity trainer in Cleveland , Ohio .
Bruce McGill as Daniel Simpson " D @-@ Day " Day : A tough motorcycle biker with no grade point average ; all classes incomplete . Immediately after the Faber homecoming parade fiasco , he leaves town , his subsequent whereabouts unknown .
James Widdoes as Robert Hoover : The affable , level @-@ headed , reasonably clean @-@ cut president of the fraternity , who desperately struggles to maintain a façade of normality to placate the Dean . He is at the top of his fraternity with a 1 @.@ 6 GPA . After graduating from Faber in 1963 , he became a public defender in Baltimore .
Douglas Kenney as " Stork " : A Delta member whose real name is never revealed . He is often seen in the background alongside Bluto and other Deltas . During his first year , Stork was thought to be brain @-@ damaged . He speaks two lines in the entire film . ( In the book adaptation , Stork is revealed to be independently wealthy , a result of him holding several patents . )
Chris Miller as Curtis Wayne " Hardbar " Fuller : A Delta member who is often seen in the background . He is best friends with Stork , and has only one line in the film . ( He plays a larger role in the " Where Are They Now ? " short , which reveals his real name . " Hardbar " is based on a member of Chris Miller 's fraternity , also sharing his nickname . )
= = = Omega Theta Pi ( ΩΘΠ ) = = =
James Daughton as Gregory " Greg " Marmalard : The president of Omega House and boyfriend of Mandy Pepperidge . After graduation from Faber in 1963 , he became a Nixon White House aide and was subsequently raped in prison in 1974 after being convicted for his involvement in the Watergate scandal .
Mark Metcalf as Douglas C. Neidermeyer : The rush chairman of Omega as well as an Army ROTC cadet officer and scion of a military family who personally hates the Deltas . After graduation from Faber in 1963 , he was commissioned in the U. S. Army and later was killed by his own platoon in Vietnam .
Kevin Bacon as Chip Diller : A smarmy Omega pledge and ROTC cadet , who gets trampled into the pavement during the homecoming parade . ( In Where Are They Now ? he became a born @-@ again Christian missionary in Africa . )
= = = Supporting characters = = =
John Vernon as Vernon Wormer : the Dean of Faber College . He wants to revoke the Deltas ' charter and kick them off campus because of their partying ways and poor grade point averages . He will do anything underhanded in his quest to do so . ( In Where Are They Now ? he was fired after the homecoming parade debacle and is now residing in a nursing home . )
Verna Bloom as Marion Wormer : The Dean 's alcoholic and neglected wife who briefly hooks up with Otter . A newspaper article reports she has left on a trip to visit Sarasota Springs . ( Dean Wormer sends her there to " dry out " at treatment facility . )
Donald Sutherland as Professor Dave Jennings : A bored English professor who tries to turn his students on to left @-@ wing politics and marijuana . ( In Where Are They Now ? , it is revealed he became Chairman of Faber 's English Department the same year that Dean Wormer entered the nursing home . )
Karen Allen as Katy : Boon 's frustrated girlfriend who has a dalliance with Jennings but subsequently goes on to marry , then divorce , Boon . ( In Where Are They Now ? it is revealed that she and Boon got married , then divorced , and then remarried . )
Sarah Holcomb as Clorette DePasto : The mayor 's 13 @-@ year @-@ old daughter who hooks up with Pinto . ( She ends up getting pregnant by him as well . )
DeWayne Jessie as Otis Day : The leader of a R & B band that plays at the toga party and later at the roadhouse bar . ( Jessie adopted the " Otis Day " name in his private life and toured with the band ) .
Mary Louise Weller as Mandy Pepperidge : A cheerleader and sorority girl who dates Greg , but is not satisfied with the relationship . She is later abducted by Bluto when he throws her into the convertible he uses to drive of town while the homecoming parade debacle unfolds . She ends up marrying Bluto .
Martha Smith as Barbara Sue " Babs " Jansen : A Southern belle cheerleader and Mandy 's best friend who secretly wants Greg for herself . An ally of the Omegas , she finds the Deltas repulsive . After being indecently exposed in public by the Deltas during their homecoming parade disruption , she becomes a tour guide at Universal Studios Hollywood .
Cesare Danova as Mayor Carmine DePasto : The shady local mayor implied to be a crime boss . He controls the town 's police and business , and extorts Wormer in order for the latter to hold Faber 's homecoming parade in the town . ( The Animal House book states that he went missing in 1971 , and was rumored to have become " part of the Emil Faber Memorial Highway . " )
Sean McCartin as " Lucky Boy " : The Playboy @-@ reading child who shouts " Thank you , God ! " after a Playboy Bunny flies through his bedroom window onto his bed during the homecoming parade disruption . ( McCartin later became pastor of a Eugene church . )
Stephen Bishop as " a Charming Guy with a Guitar " on the stairs at the toga party , who gets his guitar smashed by folk music @-@ hating Bluto .
Blues musician Robert Cray had an uncredited , non @-@ speaking role as a bassist in Otis Day 's band .
Lisa Baur played Shelly Dubinsky , the naive college girl Otter dupes into a date . ( Lisa now uses her given name , Cynthia , and owns a candle shop in New Zealand . )
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Animal House was the first film produced by National Lampoon , the most popular humor magazine on college campuses in the mid @-@ 1970s . The periodical specialized in humor , and satirized politics and popular culture . Many of the magazine ’ s writers were recent college graduates , hence their appeal to students all over the country . Doug Kenney was a Lampoon writer and the magazine ’ s first editor @-@ in @-@ chief . He graduated from Harvard University in 1969 and had a college experience closer to the Omegas in the film ( he had been president of the university 's elite Spee Club ) . Kenney was responsible for the first appearances of three characters that would appear in the film , Larry Kroger , Mandy Pepperidge , and Vernon Wormer . They made their debut in 1975 's National Lampoon ’ s High School Yearbook , a satire of a Middle America 1964 high school yearbook . Kroger 's and Pepperidge 's characters in the yearbook were effectively the same as their characters in the movie , whereas Vernon Wormer was a P. E. and civics teacher as well as an athletic coach in the yearbook .
However , Kenney felt that fellow Lampoon writer Chris Miller was the magazine 's expert on the college experience . Faced with an impending deadline , Miller submitted a chapter from his then @-@ abandoned memoirs entitled " The Night of the Seven Fires " about pledging experiences from his fraternity days in Alpha Delta ( associated with the national Alpha Delta Phi during Miller 's undergraduate years , the fraternity subsequently disassociated itself from the national organization and is now called Alpha Delta ) at the Ivy League 's Dartmouth College , in Hanover , New Hampshire . The antics of his fellow fraternities , coupled with experiences like that of a road trip to UMass Amherst and its Delta Chi Fraternity , became the inspiration for the Delta Tau Chis of Animal House and many characters in the film ( and their nicknames ) were based on Miller 's fraternity brothers . Filmmaker Ivan Reitman had just finished producing David Cronenberg 's first film , Shivers , and called the magazine 's publisher Matty Simmons about making movies under the Lampoon banner . Reitman had put together The National Lampoon Show in New York City featuring several future Saturday Night Live cast members , including John Belushi . When most of the Lampoon group moved on to SNL except for Harold Ramis , Reitman approached him with an idea to make a film together using some skits from the Lampoon Show .
= = = Screenplay = = =
Kenney met Lampoon writer Ramis at the suggestion of Simmons . Ramis drew from his own fraternity experiences as a member of Zeta Beta Tau fraternity at Washington University in St. Louis and was working on a film treatment about college called " Freshman Year " , but the magazine 's editors were not happy with it . Kenney and Ramis started working on a new film treatment together , positing Charles Manson in a high school , calling it Laser Orgy Girls . Simmons was cool to this idea so they changed the setting to a " northeastern college ... Ivy League kind of school " . Kenney was a fan of Miller ’ s fraternity stories and suggested using them as a basis for a movie . Kenney , Miller and Ramis began brainstorming ideas . They saw the film 's 1962 setting as " the last innocent year ... of America " , and the homecoming parade that ends the film as occurring on November 21 , 1963 , the day before President Kennedy 's assassination . They agreed that Belushi should star in it and Ramis wrote the part of Bluto specifically for the comedian , having been friends with him while at Chicago 's The Second City .
The writers were new to screenwriting , so their film treatment ran to 110 @-@ pages , the average was 15 pages . Reitman and Simmons pitched it to various Hollywood studios . Simmons met with Ned Tanen , an executive at Universal Studios . He was encouraged by younger executives Sean Daniel and Thom Mount who were more receptive to the Lampoon type of humor ; Mount had discovered the " Seven Fires " film treatment as Tanen 's assistant , while investigating projects left by a fired studio executive . Tanen hated the idea . Ramis remembers , " We went further than I think Universal expected or wanted . I think they were shocked and appalled . Chris ' fraternity had virtually been a vomiting cult . And we had a lot of scenes that were almost orgies of vomit ... We didn 't back off anything " . As the writers created more drafts of the screenplay ( nine in total ) , the studio gradually became more receptive to the project , especially Mount , who championed it . Surprisingly , the studio green @-@ lighted the film and set the budget at a modest $ 3 million . Simmons remembers , " They just figured , ' Screw it , it 's a silly little movie , and we ’ ll make a couple of bucks if we 're lucky — let them do whatever they want . ' "
= = = Casting = = =
Initially , Reitman had wanted to direct but had made only one film , Cannibal Girls , for $ 5 @,@ 000 . The film 's producers approached Richard Lester and Bob Rafelson before considering John Landis , who got the director job based on his work on Kentucky Fried Movie . That film 's script and continuity supervisor was the girlfriend of Sean Daniel , an assistant to Mount . Daniel saw Landis ' movie and recommended him . Landis then met with Mount , Reitman and Simmons and got the job . Landis remembers , " When I was given the script , it was the funniest thing I had ever read up to that time . But it was really offensive . There was a great deal of projectile vomiting and rape and all these things " . There was also friction between Landis and the writers early on because Landis was a high @-@ school dropout from Hollywood and they were college graduates from the East Coast . Ramis remembers , " He sort of referred immediately to Animal House as ' my movie . ' We 'd been living with it for two years and we hated that " . According to Landis , he drew inspiration from classic Hollywood comedies featuring the likes of Buster Keaton , Harold Lloyd , and the Marx Brothers .
The initial cast was to feature Chevy Chase as Otter , Bill Murray as Boon , Brian Doyle @-@ Murray as Hoover , Dan Aykroyd as D @-@ Day , and John Belushi as Bluto , but only Belushi wanted to do it . Chase was a star from Saturday Night Live , which had recently become a cultural phenomenon . His name would have added credibility to the project , but he turned the film down to do Foul Play ; Landis , who wanted to cast unknown dramatic actors such as Bacon and Allen ( the first film for both ) instead of famous comedians , takes credit for subtly discouraging Chase by describing the film as an " ensemble " . Landis has also stated that he was not interested in directing a Saturday Night Live movie and that unknowns would be the better choice . The character of D @-@ Day was based on Aykroyd , who was a motorcycle aficionado . Aykroyd was offered the part , but he was already committed to Saturday Night Live . Belushi , who had worked on The National Lampoon Radio Hour before Saturday Night Live , was also committed to the show , but spent Monday through Wednesday making the film and then flying back to New York to do the show on Thursday through Saturday . Ramis originally wrote the role of Boon for himself , but Landis felt that he looked too old for the part and Riegert was cast instead . Landis did offer Ramis a smaller part , but he declined . Landis met with Jack Webb to play Dean Wormer and Kim Novak to play his wife . Webb ultimately backed out due to concerns over his clean @-@ cut image , and was replaced by John Vernon .
Belushi received only $ 35 @,@ 000 for Animal House , with a bonus after it became a hit . Landis also met with Meat Loaf in case Belushi did not want to play Bluto . Landis worked with Belushi on his character , who " hardly had any dialogue " ; they decided that Bluto was a cross between Harpo Marx and the Cookie Monster . Despite Belushi 's presence , he was considered a supporting actor and Universal wanted another star .
Landis had been a crew member on Kelly 's Heroes and had become friends with actor Donald Sutherland , sometimes babysitting his son Kiefer . Landis asked Sutherland , one of the biggest stars of the 1970s , to be in the film . For two days work , Sutherland declined the initial offer of $ 20 @,@ 000 plus " points " ( a percentage of the gross or net income ) . Universal then offered him either a set amount ( $ 25 @,@ 000 or $ 35 @,@ 000 ) or 2 % of the film 's gross , assuming that the movie would be quickly forgotten . Sutherland took the guaranteed money ; although this made him the highest @-@ paid member of the cast ( other than Neidemeyer 's horse ) , the decision cost Sutherland what he estimates as $ 14 million . The star 's participation , however , was crucial ; Landis later said " It was Donald Sutherland who essentially got the film made . "
= = = Locations = = =
The filmmakers ' next problem was finding a college that would let them shoot the film on their campus . They submitted the script to a number of colleges and universities but " nobody wanted this movie " due to the script ; according to Landis , " I couldn 't find ' the look ' . Every place that had ' the look ' said , ' no thank you . ' "
The president of the University of Oregon in Eugene , William Beaty Boyd , had been a senior administrator of a major California university when his campus was considered for a location of the film The Graduate . After he consulted with other senior administrative colleagues who advised him to turn it down due to the lack of artistic merit , production moved to Berkeley and USC . The Graduate went on to become a classic , and Boyd was determined not to make the same mistake twice when the producers inquired about filming at Oregon . After consulting with student government leaders and officers of the Pan Hellenic Council , the Director of University Relations advised the president that the script , although raunchy and often tasteless , was a very funny spoof of college life . Boyd even allowed the filmmakers to use his office as Dean Wormer 's .
The actual house depicted as the Delta House was originally a residence in Eugene , the Dr. A.W. Patterson House . Around 1959 , it was acquired by the Psi Deuteron chapter of Phi Sigma Kappa fraternity and was their chapter house until 1967 , when the chapter was closed due to low membership . The house was sold and slid into disrepair , with the spacious porch removed and the lawn graveled over . At the time of the shooting , the Phi Kappa Psi and Sigma Nu fraternity houses sat next to the old Phi Sigma Kappa house . The interior of the Phi Kappa Psi house and the Sigma Nu house were used for many of the interior scenes , but the individual rooms were filmed on a soundstage . The Patterson house was demolished in 1986 . The site is now occupied by Northwest Christian University 's school of Education and Counseling . A large boulder placed to the west of the parking entrance displays a bronze plaque commemorating the Delta House location . The parade scene takes place in downtown Cottage Grove , Oregon on Main Street .
= = = Principal photography = = =
Landis brought the actors who played the Deltas up five days early in order to bond . Staying at the Rodeway Inn they moved an old piano from the lobby into McGill 's room , which became known as " party central " . Actor James Widdoes remembers , " It was like freshman orientation . There was a lot of getting to know each other and calling each other by our character names " . This tactic encouraged the actors playing the Deltas to separate themselves from the actors playing the Omegas , helping generate authentic animosity between them on camera . Belushi and his wife , Judy , had a house in the suburbs in order to keep him away from alcohol and drugs .
Although the cast members were warned against mixing with the college students , one night , some girls invited several of the cast members to a fraternity party . They arrived assuming they had been invited and were greeted with open hostility . As they were leaving , Widdoes threw a cup of beer at a group of drunk football players and a fight " like a scene from the movie " broke out . Tim Matheson , Bruce McGill , Peter Riegert , and Widdoes narrowly escaped , with McGill suffering a black eye and Widdoes getting several teeth knocked out .
Other than Belushi 's opening yell , the food fight was filmed in one shot , with the actors encouraged to fight for real . Flounder 's groceries handling in the supermarket was another single shot ; Furst deftly caught the many items Landis and Matheson threw at him , amazing the director . By filming the long courtroom scene in one day Landis won a bet with Reitman .
The film 's budget was so small that during the 32 days of shooting in Eugene , Landis had no trailer or office and could not watch dailies for three weeks . His wife Deborah Nadoolman purchased most of the costumes at local thrift stores , and she and Judy Belushi made the party togas . Landis and Bruce McGill staged a scene for reporters visiting the set where the director pretended to be angry at the actor for being difficult on the set . Landis grabbed a breakaway pitcher and smashed it over McGill 's head . He fell to the ground and pretended to be unconscious . The reporters were completely fooled , and when Landis asked McGill to get up , he refused to move .
Black extras had to be bused in from Portland for the segment at the Dexter Lake Club due to their scarcity around Eugene . More seriously , the segment alarmed Tanen and other studio executives , who perceived it as racist and warned that " ' black people in America are going to rip the seats out of theaters if you leave that scene in the movie . ' " Richard Pryor 's approval helped retain the segment in the film . The studio became more enthusiastic about the film when Reitman showed executives and sales managers of various regions in the country a 10 @-@ minute production reel that was put together in two days . The reaction was positive and the studio sent 20 copies out to exhibitors . The first preview screening for Animal House was held in Denver four months before it opened nationwide . The crowd loved it and the filmmakers realized they had a potential hit on their hands .
Original cut of the movie was 175 minutes long . Some of the deleted scenes include ; John Landis cameo scene where he plays dishwasher who tries to stop Bluto from eating all the food and gets pulled across the table and thrown on the floor by Bluto who then says " You don 't fuck with the eagles unless you know how to fly . " Scene where Boon and Hoover tell Pinto the tales of legendary Delta House frat brothers from years before who had names like Tarantula , Bulldozer , Giraffe , and his girlfriend , Gross Kay . Two different deleted scenes with Otter and couple of his girlfriends , one was played by Sunny Johnson who is listed in the credits as " Otter 's Co @-@ Ed " although her scene was deleted , and other one was played by location scout Katherine Wilson and her deleted scene can be seen in theatrical trailer . Extended version of the scene where Bluto pours mustard on himself and starts singing " I am the Mustard Man . " Deltas going through a medical screening after having to register for the draft after being expelled , during the screening D @-@ Day turns his feet around backwards because his ankles are double @-@ jointed , this scene was removed a few months after release due to many young men hurting themselves while trying to emulate him .
= = Soundtrack and score = =
The soundtrack is a mix of rock and roll and rhythm and blues with the original score created by film composer Elmer Bernstein , who had been a Landis family friend since John Landis was a child . Bernstein was easily persuaded to score the film , but was not sure what to make of it . Similar to his preferring dramatic actors for the comedy , Landis asked Bernstein to score it as though it were serious . He adapted the " Faber College Theme " from the Academic Festival Overture by Brahms , and said that the film opened yet another door in his diverse career , to scoring comedies .
The soundtrack was released as a vinyl album in 1978 , and then as a CD in 1998 .
Soundtrack album listing
Additional music in the film
" Theme from A Summer Place " , composed by Max Steiner ; performed by Percy Faith and his Orchestra
" Who 's Sorry Now ? " , written by Ted Snyder , Bert Kalmar and Harry Ruby ; performed by Connie Francis
" The Washington Post March " , composed by John Philip Sousa
" Tammy " , by Jay Livingston and Ray Evans
= = Reception = =
In its opening weekend , Animal House grossed $ 276 @,@ 538 in 12 theaters . It grossed $ 120 @.@ 1 million in North America and went on to achieve a domestic lifetime gross of $ 141 @.@ 6 million .
= = = Critical reception = = =
At the time of its release , Animal House received mixed reviews from critics but several immediately recognized its appeal , and it has since been recognized as one of the best films of 1978 . The film holds a 91 % positive rating on the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes . Roger Ebert gave the film four stars out of four and wrote , " It 's anarchic , messy , and filled with energy . It assaults us . Part of the movie 's impact comes from its sheer level of manic energy . ... But the movie 's better made ( and better acted ) than we might at first realize . It takes skill to create this sort of comic pitch , and the movie 's filled with characters that are sketched a little more absorbingly than they had to be , and acted with perception " . Ebert later placed the film on his 10 best list of 1978 , the only National Lampoon film to have received this honor . In his review for Time , Frank Rich wrote , " At its best it perfectly expresses the fears and loathings of kids who came of age in the late ' 60s ; at its worst Animal House revels in abject silliness . The hilarious highs easily compensate for the puerile lows " . Gary Arnold wrote in his review for The Washington Post , " Belushi also controls a wicked array of conspiratorial expressions with the audience . ... He can seem irresistibly funny in repose or invest minor slapstick opportunities with a streak of genius " . David Ansen wrote in Newsweek , " But if Animal House lacks the inspired tastelessness of the Lampoon 's High School Yearbook Parody , this is still low humor of a high order " . Robert Martin wrote in The Globe and Mail , " It is so gross and tasteless you feel you should be disgusted but it 's hard to be offended by something that is so sidesplittingly funny " . Time magazine proclaimed Animal House one of the year 's best .
When the film was released , Landis , Widdoes and Allen went on a national promotional tour . Universal Pictures spent about $ 4 @.@ 5 million promoting the film at selected college campuses and helped students organize their own toga parties . One such party at the University of Maryland attracted some 2 @,@ 000 people , while students at the University of Wisconsin – Madison tried for a crowd of 10 @,@ 000 people and a place in the Guinness Book of World Records . Thanks to the film , toga parties became one of the favorite college campus happenings during 1978 and 1979 .
= = = American Film Institute Lists = = =
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movies — Nominated
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Laughs — # 36
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Songs :
Shout — Nominated
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movie Quotes :
" Toga ! Toga ! " — # 82
" Over ? Did you say ' over ? ' Nothing is over until we decide it is ! Was it over when the Germans bombed Pearl Harbor ? Hell , no ! " — Nominated
" Fat , drunk , and stupid is no way to go through life , son . " — Nominated
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movies ( 10th Anniversary Edition ) — Nominated
= = Spin @-@ offs = =
The film inspired a short @-@ lived half @-@ hour ABC television sitcom , Delta House , in which Vernon reprised his role as the long @-@ suffering , malevolent Dean Wormer . The series also included Furst as Flounder , McGill as D @-@ Day , and Widdoes as Hoover . The pilot episode was written by the film 's screenwriters , Kenney , Miller , and Ramis . Michelle Pfeiffer made her acting debut in the series ( playing a new character , " Bombshell " ) , and Peter Fox was cast as Otter . Belushi 's character from the film , John " Bluto " Blutarsky , is in the army , but his brother , Blotto , played by Josh Mostel , transfers to Faber to carry on Bluto 's tradition .
Animal House inspired Co @-@ Ed Fever , another sitcom but without the involvement of the film 's producers or cast . Set in a dorm of the formerly all @-@ female Baxter College , the pilot of Co @-@ Ed Fever was aired by CBS on February 4 , 1979 , but the network canceled the series before airing any more episodes . NBC also had its Animal House @-@ inspired sitcom , Brothers and Sisters , in which three members of Crandall College 's Pi Nu fraternity interact with members of the Gamma Iota sorority . Like ABC 's Delta House , Brothers and Sisters lasted only three months .
The film 's writers planned a film sequel set in 1967 ( the so @-@ called " Summer of Love " ) , in which the Deltas have a reunion for Pinto 's marriage in Haight @-@ Ashbury , San Francisco . The only Delta to have become a hippie is Flounder , who is now called Pisces . Later , Chris Miller and John Weidman , another Lampoon writer , created a treatment for this screenplay , but Universal rejected it because the sequel to American Graffiti , which contained some hippie @-@ 1967 sequences , had not done well . When John Belushi died , the idea was indefinitely shelved .
A second attempt at a sequel was made in 1982 with producer Matty Simmons co @-@ authoring a script which saw some of the Deltas returning to Faber College five years after the events of the film . The project got no further than a first draft script dated May 6 , 1982 .
= = Where Are They Now ? = =
The 2003 " Double Secret Probation Edition " DVD included a short film , Where Are They Now ? : A Delta Alumni Update , a mockumentary purporting that the original film had been a documentary and Landis was catching up with some of the cast ( played by their original actors ) . It was never shown theatrically .
It shows the main Animal House characters 30 years on , following Landis to cities all over America in search of the former Deltas , Omegas , and Dean Wormer , and describes the various locales and professions the characters have settled into :
Donald Schoenstein – Film editor , New York City . Currently in his third marriage to Katy . He has a son named Otis .
Babs Jansen – Tour guide , Universal Studios Hollywood . She mentions to Landis that she is organizing an upcoming Faber reunion , and seems to be successful at her job .
Marion Wormer – Seemingly unemployed in Chicago . She tells Landis of how her husband Vernon accepted the blame for the parade debacle , and was subsequently fired , leading to their divorce . She becomes progressively more tipsy throughout the interview , eventually falling off her chair .
Kent Dorfman – Executive director , Encounter Groups of Cleveland , Inc . , Cleveland , Ohio . He recalls trying to diet during the 1970s with a special program requiring him to shoot up the urine of pregnant women .
Robert Hoover – Assistant district attorney , Baltimore , Maryland . Hoover tells the tale of how he quit being a public defender after he realized many of his clients were insane . He also boasts of how his legal advice was sought during the O.J. Simpson murder case .
Chip Diller – Landis receives a letter from Diller , who is currently serving as a missionary in Africa . He recalls how he was prevented from going to Vietnam as his father was a prime donor to several right @-@ wing political campaigns . When he learned of Doug Neidermeyer 's fragging in Vietnam , he fell into alcoholism and despair . When he began seeing Jesus in his food , he became a born @-@ again Christian and fell into his current profession as minister and missionary .
Dean Vernon Wormer – Wormer is seen at a nursing home in Florida , under the watchful eye of a male nurse . He appears to be senile , not recognizing Landis at first ( calling him " Larry " ) , and not remembering his tenure as Dean of Faber . When Landis mentions the Deltas , Wormer erupts into a violent , profanity @-@ laced tirade against the boys who cost him his job . He lashes out against the nurse and then physically attacks Landis , knocking out the camera in the process .
Eric Stratton – Gynecologist , Beverly Hills , California . Otter is depicted as still being the affable , suave gentleman he was in his college days . He remarks that gynecology has been very enjoyable for him and that he has straightened up a bit since leaving Faber . An attractive , blonde patient in her underwear then tells Otter she 's ready for her examination . Otter politely cuts the interview off and goes into the exam room .
Daniel Simpson Day – Landis remarks in a voiceover that D @-@ Day has been the hardest to track down for the documentary , saying that rumors have flown around , with his whereabouts ranging from a Buddhist monastery in Nepal to the Yukon Territory . Landis eventually approaches a house in Modesto , California , where a man opens the door by a crack and claims , in a Hispanic accent , " I don 't know no D @-@ Day person ! I don 't know him ! " He slams the door in Landis ' face and then bursts out of the garage in a car . He pulls out onto the street to the strains of the William Tell Overture , gives a manic laugh exactly like D @-@ Day 's , and speeds off .
John Blutarsky – In a final voice @-@ over a shot of the White House , Landis remarks that the viewers all know what happened to Bluto and Mandy Pepperidge : they became the President of the United States and First Lady of the United States .
= = Home media = =
Animal House became one of the most profitable films in history . Since its initial release , the film has garnered an estimated return of more than $ 141 million in the form of video and DVDs , not including merchandising .
Animal House was released on videodisc in 1979 . It was released on VHS in 1980 , 1983 , 1988 , and 1990 . In 1992 , it was released in a 2 pack VHS Set that included The Blues Brothers . It was first released on DVD in February 1998 in a " bare bones " full screen presentation . A 20th anniversary widescreen Collector 's Edition DVD and a coinciding THX special edition VHS and a widescreen Signature Collection Laserdisc was released later that year , with a 45 @-@ minute documentary entitled " The Yearbook – An Animal House Reunion " by producer JM Kenny with production notes , theatrical trailer , and new interviews with director Landis , writers Harold Ramis and Chris Miller , composer Elmer Bernstein , and stars Tim Matheson , Karen Allen , Stephen Furst , John Vernon , Verna Bloom , Bruce McGill , James Widdoes , Peter Riegert , Mark Metcalf and Kevin Bacon . In 2000 , the collector 's edition DVD was packaged along with The Blues Brothers and 1941 in a John Belushi 3 pack box set . The " Double Secret Probation Edition " DVD released in 2003 features cast members reprising their respective roles in a " Where Are They Now ? " mockumentary , which posited the original film as a documentary . One major change shown in this mockumentary from the epilogue of the original film is that Bluto went on from his career in the U.S. Senate to become the President of the United States , with a voiceover on a shot of the north portico of the White House , since by then Belushi had died . This DVD also includes " Did You Know That ? Universal Animated Anecdotes " , a subtitle trivia track , the making of documentary from the Collector 's Edition , MXPX " Shout " music video , a theatrical trailer , production notes , and cast and filmmakers biographies . In August 2006 , the film was released on an HD DVD / DVD combo disc , which featured the film in a 1080p high @-@ definition format on one side , and a standard @-@ definition format on the opposite side . Along with the film Unleashed , Animal House was one of Universal 's first two HD / DVD combo releases , but was later discontinued in 2008 after Universal decided to switch to the Blu @-@ ray Disc format following the conclusion of the high definition optical disc format war .
It is currently available on Blu @-@ ray .
= = Precursors and legacy = =
Animal House was a great box office success despite its limited production costs and started an industry trend , inspiring countless other comedies such as Porky 's , the Police Academy films , the American Pie films , and Old School among others . Belushi became the most successful male comedy star in the world until his 1982 death ; Bacon also became a star , and he , Matheson , and Allen are among those who have had lengthy acting careers . Reitman , Landis , and Ramis became successful filmmakers ; Landis ' use of dramatic actors and soundtrack to make the comedy believable became the traditional approach for film comedies .
On the left @-@ wing and counterculture side , the film included references to topical political matters like Kent State shootings , President Harry S. Truman 's decision to drop atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki , Richard Nixon , the Vietnam war , and the civil rights movement . Precursors of this counterculture subversive humor in film were two non- " college movies " , M * A * S * H , a 1970 satirical dark comedy , and The Kentucky Fried Movie , a 1977 formless comedy consisting of a series of sketches ( which was also directed by Landis ) .
In 2012 Universal Pictures Stage Productions announced it was developing a stage musical version of the movie . Barenaked Ladies were originally announced to write the score , but they were replaced by composer David Yazbek . Casey Nicholaw will direct ; author Michael Mitnick is also reportedly involved .
In 2001 the United States Library of Congress deemed the film culturally significant and selected it for preservation in the National Film Registry . Animal House is first on Bravo 's 100 Funniest Movies . In 2000 , the American Film Institute ranked the film No. 36 on 100 Years ... 100 Laughs , a list of the 100 best American comedies . In 2006 , Miller wrote a more comprehensive memoir of his experiences in Dartmouth 's AD house in a book entitled , The Real Animal House : The Awesomely Depraved Saga of the Fraternity That Inspired the Movie , in which Miller recounts hijinks that were considered too risqué for the movie . In 2008 , Empire magazine selected Animal House as one of The 500 Greatest Movies of All Time . The film was also selected by The New York Times as one of The 1000 Best Movies Ever Made .
= Walmer Castle =
Walmer Castle is an artillery fort originally constructed by Henry VIII in Walmer , Kent , between 1539 and 1540 . It formed part of the King 's Device programme to protect against invasion from France and the Holy Roman Empire , and defended the strategically important Downs anchorage off the English coast . Comprising a keep and four circular bastions , the moated stone castle covered 0 @.@ 61 acres ( 0 @.@ 25 ha ) and had 39 firing positions on the upper levels for artillery . It cost the Crown a total of £ 27 @,@ 092 to build the three castles of Walmer , Sandown , and Deal , which lay adjacent to one another along the coast and were connected by earthwork defences . The original invasion threat passed , but during the Second English Civil War of 1648 – 49 , Walmer was seized by pro @-@ Royalist insurgents and was only retaken by Parliamentary forces after several months ' fighting .
In the 18th century , Walmer became the official residence of the Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports and was gradually modified from a military fortification into a private residence . Various Prime Ministers and prominent politicians were appointed as Lord Warden , including William Pitt , the Duke of Wellington and Lord Granville , who adapted parts of the Tudor castle as living spaces and constructed extensive gardens around the property . By 1904 , the War Office agreed that Walmer had no remaining military utility and it passed to the Ministry of Works . Successive Lord Wardens continued to use the property but it was also opened to the public . Walmer was no longer considered a particularly comfortable or modern residence , however , and Lord Curzon blamed the poor condition of the castle for his wife 's death in 1906 .
Lord Wardens since the Second World War have included Winston Churchill , Robert Menzies and Queen Elizabeth the Queen Mother , but they have made only intermittent use of Walmer Castle . In the 21st century , Walmer Castle is run as a tourist attraction by English Heritage . The interior of the castle displays a range of historical objects and pictures associated with the property and its Lord Wardens , protected since the 19th century by special legislation . The grounds include the Queen Mother 's Garden , designed by Penelope Hobhouse as a 95th birthday gift for Elizabeth in 1997 .
= = History = =
= = = 16th century = = =
Walmer Castle was built as a consequence of international tensions between England , France and the Holy Roman Empire in the final years of the reign of King Henry VIII . Traditionally the Crown had left coastal defences to the local lords and communities , only taking a modest role in building and maintaining fortifications , and while France and the Empire remained in conflict with one another , maritime raids were common but an actual invasion of England seemed unlikely . Modest defences , based around simple blockhouses and towers , existed in the south @-@ west and along the Sussex coast , with a few more impressive works in the north of England , but in general the fortifications were very limited in scale .
In 1533 , Henry broke with Pope Paul III in order to annul the long @-@ standing marriage to his wife , Catherine of Aragon and remarry . Catherine was the aunt of Charles V , the Holy Roman Emperor , and he took the annulment as a personal insult . This resulted in France and the Empire declaring an alliance against Henry in 1538 , and the Pope encouraging the two countries to attack England . An invasion of England appeared certain . In response , Henry issued an order , called a " device " , in 1539 , giving instructions for the " defence of the realm in time of invasion " and the construction of forts along the English coastline .
Walmer and the adjacent castles of Deal and Sandown were constructed to protect the Downs in east Kent , an important anchorage formed by the Goodwin Sands which gave access to Deal Beach , on which enemy soldiers could easily be landed . The stone castles were supported by a line of four earthwork forts , known as the Great Turf , the Little Turf Bulwark , the Great White Bulwark of Clay and the Walmer Bulwark , and a 2 @.@ 5 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) defensive ditch and bank . Collectively the castles became known as the " castles of the Downs " and cost the Crown a total of £ 27 @,@ 092 to build .
Walmer was built between April 1539 and autumn 1540 , by a team including Richard Benese as the surveyor , William Clement as the master carpenter , and Christopher Dickenson as the master mason . It was initially garrisoned by a captain , two lieutenants , two porters , ten gunners and three soldiers , at an annual cost of £ 174 . It was probably equipped with a range of brass and cast @-@ iron guns , along with arquebuses and bows for close defence . In 1597 , a report listed the castle 's artillery as comprising a cannon , a culverin , five demi @-@ culverins , a saker , a minion and a falcon .
= = = 17th century = = =
Walmer Castle was left to decline in the early 17th century , with little money being made available for repairs and the garrison receiving low pay , leading some members to reside in nearby Deal rather the fort itself , and to take on additional employment to supplement their wages . Walmer Castle was seized by Parliamentary forces at the start of the first English Civil War between the supporters of King Charles I and Parliament , but did not play a significant role in the remainder of the initial conflict . After the few years of unsteady peace after 1645 , the Second Civil War broke out in 1648 , this time with Charles ' Royalist supporters joined by Scottish allies . The Parliamentary navy was based in the Downs , protected by Walmer and the other Henrician castles , but by May a Royalist insurrection was under way across Kent .
Vice @-@ Admiral William Batten had been forced to resign from his post as Commander of the Fleet the previous year by Parliamentary officials , and he now encouraged the fleet to join the Royalist faction . Sir Henry Palmer , a former sailor , accompanied by other members of the Kentish gentry , also called on the fleet to revolt , taking advantage of the many fellow Kentish men in the crews . Walmer and Deal Castle declared for the King , shortly after the garrisons at Sandown . With both the coastal fortresses and the navy now under Royalist control , Parliament feared that foreign forces might be landed along the coast or aid sent to the Scots .
Parliament defeated the wider insurgency at the Battle of Maidstone at the start of June , and then sent a force under the command of Colonel Rich to deal with Walmer and the other castles along the Downs . Walmer Castle was the first to be besieged , and surrendered on 12 July . Deal was attacked in late July , and in August artillery assaults began on Sandown as well , leading to the surrender of both remaining fortifications . Walmer was badly damaged during the conflict and it was estimated by Rich , responsible for carrying out the repairs , that the work would cost at least £ 500 .
In 1649 , Parliament ordered new supplies of ammunition and powder be sent to Walmer and the other castles of the Downs , which were brought back into good order . The garrison at Walmer remained substantial during the period , with a governor , a corporal and 20 soldiers , but when Charles II was restored to the throne in 1660 he reduced the numbers again to a captain , lieutenant , porter and 16 men . In the Glorious Revolution of 1688 against Charles ' brother , King James II , the townsfolk of Deal seized Walmer Castle on behalf of William III , the Prince of Orange . By the end of the century , however , the castle was increasingly regarded as out of date from a military perspective .
= = = 18th – 19th centuries = = =
= = = = 1700 – 1828 = = = =
In the 18th century , Walmer Castle became the official residence of the Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports . The Lord Warden was originally a medieval title linked to five key ports along the coast of England ; the position 's prominence had faded , but it still retained important judicial and military functions . When Lionel Sackville , the Duke of Dorset , was appointed to the post in 1708 he decided that the existing residence in Dover Castle was unsatisfactory , probably because of the semi @-@ ruinous state of the castle , and moved into Walmer Castle instead .
The Duke occupied the post of Lord Warden until 1765 , save for two periods when it was filled by James Butler , the Duke of Ormonde and John Sidney , the Earl of Leicester . He carried out extensive work to make the castle more habitable , building extensions towards the north bastion and constructing a small house in the south bastion for the soldiers . Under the subsequent Lord Wardens , the politicians Robert Darcy , the Earl of Holderness , and Francis North , the Earl of Guildford , the castle continued to house artillery but it became increasingly less military in character .
The Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger was then made the Lord Warden in 1792 . Pitt was badly in debt and King George III believed that the post , which came with a salary of £ 3 @,@ 000 a year , would usefully supplement Pitt 's income . Pitt made extensive use of the castle and by 1803 he used it as his main residence in an effort to reduce his living costs . Pitt 's niece , Lady Hester Stanhope , joined him at Walmer between 1803 and 1806 ; together with Pitt , she carried out extensive work on the castle gardens , transforming them from a simple kitchen garden into a set of landscaped ornamental enclosures ; Stanhope enlisted the Dover militia to help with the landscaping and planting .
With the outbreak of the French Revolutionary Wars , Pitt became energetically involved in the protection of the ports along the coast , entertaining the local garrison commanders , naval captains and the local gentry at Walmer on a regular basis . After Pitt resigned as Prime Minister in 1801 , fears remained of a French invasion and he formed a volunteer cavalry unit at Walmer Castle , where he lived with his new officers . He also formed a unit of bombardier infantry and a fleet of 35 fishing boats called luggers , which he armed with 12 @-@ pound ( 5 @.@ 4 kg ) or 18 @-@ pound ( 8 @.@ 2 kg ) guns , reviewing them from the castle . Stanhope remarked on the constant drilling of army units around the castle during her time there .
Robert Jenkinson , the Earl of Liverpool , took possession of Walmer Castle following the death of Pitt in 1806 . Liverpool was a favourite of King George 's , and his appointment as Lord Warden was again intended to provide a valuable income and a country retreat . As Prime Minister , Liverpool used Walmer as a personal retreat and as a location for private political discussions with selected guests .
= = = = 1829 – 99 = = = =
On Lord Liverpool 's death , Arthur Wellesley , the Duke of Wellington and the current Prime Minister , asked King George IV for the post of Lord Warden , primarily because he was seeking the use of Walmer Castle . Wellington took up post in 1829 and considered Walmer to be " the most charming marine residence " . He made use of the castle each autumn , entertaining extensively there but living and sleeping in a single room . He was visited there twice by Victoria , once when she was still a princess and later as queen . Wellington let the gardens fall into a poor condition . Wellington died in his room at Walmer on 14 September 1852 . His body was kept in a death chamber in his room to lie in state until 10 November , and when the room was opened for public visitors during the final two days , around 9 @,@ 000 attended . The Duke 's body was finally removed to London via Deal , complete with a military escort .
James Broun @-@ Ramsay , the Marquess of Dalhousie became Lord Warden ; on his death , the Prime Minister Henry Temple , the Viscount Palmerston , took over the castle in 1861 . Palmerston initially declined to buy the contents of the castle from his predecessor 's estate on taking up the post , a practice which had become traditional for the Lords Warden , complaining about the high price being proposed . This raised the risk that the historical contents of the castle might be sold off at open auction ; and some of Wellington 's former belongings were therefore removed by his family for safekeeping .
The politician Lord Granville was offered the post of Lord Warden by the new Prime Minister , John Russell in 1865 . Russell noted that the role would be expensive for Granville to perform — the salary had been abolished in 1828 — but that it would provide him with a property by the sea , which Granville had been seeking to acquire for a while . Granville took over Walmer in 1865 . He expanded the gardens , built new kennels for a hunting pack and spent many years reassembling the furniture and other objects that Pitt and Wellington had used at the castle . He received large numbers of visitors , many of whom stopped off while travelling to or from France . The diplomat Baron de Malortie visited Granville and his family at Walmer , and later praised the homely atmosphere in the castle . He described how , after breakfast , the family and guests would all gather in the drawing room , which was the only large room in the house , and Granville would answer government correspondence amid the daily life of the rest of the household .
The businessman and politician William Smith was appointed Lord Warden in 1891 , but died in Walmer Castle during his first visit here in October of that year . Smith had proposed that the historical artefacts in the castle should be protected from being removed by later Lord Wardens and suggested that government pass an Indenture of Heirlooms Bill . The government carried out the plan after Smith 's death , protecting almost 70 pieces of furniture and 50 artworks at the castle and forbidding them being moved from the castle without the Secretary of State for War 's approval . Robert Gascoyne @-@ Cecil , the Marquess of Salisbury , became the next Lord Warden ; with adequate legal protection now in place , the 3rd Duke of Wellington suggested returning his grandfather 's possessions to the castle , but Lady Salisbury declined the offer .
= = = 20th – 21st centuries = = =
By 1904 the War Office had concluded that Walmer had no remaining military value and agreed to transfer the castle to the Office of Works , who accepted it on the condition that they were paid £ 2 @,@ 400 in order to carry out repairs . The Office 's survey noted that " the lower floor ... is very inconvenient , dark and not conducive to health while the women servants have to sleep in a sort of dormitory in the slopes of the roof ... The principal floor is , generally speaking , badly arranged and badly lighted and the Dining Room is very small " ; the report suggested that it would be best to demolish the building and rebuild it .
Proposals were made to find the next Lord Warden , George Curzon , the Marquess Curzon , alternative accommodation and the Royal Marines were approached as replacement tenants for the castle , but declined the offer . The Ministry acquired agreement for most of the castle to be opened to the public , with various historical objects related to the property being put on display , including some donated by King Edward VII . Lord Curzon moved into the castle when returned from India in 1905 . His wife , Mary , fell ill , which Curzon believed to be a result of their poor accommodation , and despite being moved to a new residence , she died shortly afterwards . As a result Curzon decided to resign the post of Lord Warden , leaving the castle , and subsequently the Prince of Wales , the future George V , took up the post .
William Lygon , the Earl Beauchamp , became the Lord Warden in 1913 , building a Roman Catholic chapel at the castle and holding large parties there each summer . His children later commented that they found the castle was chilly and cramped . The Prime Minister , Asquith , was invited by Beauchamp to use the castle during the First World War as a weekend retreat , as it had good communication links with the front line in France . Asquith 's wife , Margot , was not initially impressed by Walmer , noting in her diary that while it was " very distinguished " and had " great charm " , it was " terribly exposed " with " cold ... noisy corridors and small rooms " ; she later came to like the castle and noted that she was sad to finally leave it .
Lygon had sexual relations with men , which was illegal in England during this period . Rumours spread about the parties that he had held at Walmer Castle after the war , where , according to the historian Richard Davenport @-@ Hines , he had " behaved indiscreetly with young men " . The King was informed about his lifestyle and Lygon fled the country in 1931 , resigning the appointment of Lord Warden the following year .
Lygon 's successor , the politician Rufus Isaacs , the Marquess of Reading , became the Lord Warden in 1934 , holding jovial family gatherings there . His wife , Stella , attempted to restore Wellington 's old bedroom to its earlier appearance during the Duke 's tenure and , as part of this project , the 4th Duke of Wellington agreed to send the original contents of the room back to the castle , where they still remain . The politician Freeman Freeman @-@ Thomas , the Marquess of Willingdon , became Lord Warden in 1936 , followed by Sir Winston Churchill who followed him in 1941 during the Second World War . Churchill noted to the Minister of Works and Buildings that he had told King George V on taking up the position that he doubted that he would be able to live at Walmer Castle during the war , as it was within range of the German artillery along the French coast , or indeed that he would able to afford to live there afterwards , and for that reason he hoped that the state would maintain the castle and gardens , and decide what use it should be put to after the war .
Sir Robert Menzies , the Australian politician , became the Lord Warden in 1965 and visited the castle on an annual basis , staying in the flat there . Elizabeth the Queen Mother followed Menzies in 1978 , initially visiting the castle from the Royal Yacht , but from 1986 onwards taking over the entire castle for three days each July . This required moving furniture , silverware and other furnishings from London and caused difficulties for English Heritage , who managed the property . The current Lord Warden , Admiral the Lord Boyce , took up his post in 2004 .
In the 21st century , the property is managed by English Heritage , attracting 77 @,@ 828 visitors in 2014 . English Heritage carried out a £ 674 @,@ 000 programme of improvements to the castle in 2015 intended to improve the visitor experience . The castle is protected under UK law as a scheduled monument , while the surrounding gardens are protected with a grade II listing .
= = Architecture = =
= = = Castle = = =
Walmer Castle retains most of its original 16th @-@ century structure , with a tall keep , 83 feet ( 25 m ) across , at the centre , flanked by four rounded bastions , one of which served as a gatehouse , and a moat , surrounded in turn by a curtain wall . Its curved walls are 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) thick . It was nearly identical to its sister castle at Sandown and was approximately 167 by 167 feet ( 51 by 51 m ) across , covering 0 @.@ 61 acres ( 0 @.@ 25 ha ) . The historian John Hale considered the original castle to form a transitional design between older medieval English designs and newer Italian styles of defence .
The castle had three tiers of artillery – the heaviest and longest range weapons occupying the upper levels , including the keep – with a total of 39 firing positions , and 31 gunloops in the basement for handguns should close defence be required . The embrasures in the walls were all widely splayed to provide the maximum possible space for the guns to operate and traverse , and the interior of the castle was designed with vents to allow the smoke from its guns to escape .
From the 18th century onwards , the interior of the castle was converted to provide accommodation for the Lord Wardens , almost all of which is now open to visitors . The castle is still entered through the ground floor of the gatehouse in the western bastion , which contains the original porter 's lodge . In the middle of the castle is the keep , which originally housed the Servants ' Hall and now a set of tea rooms . In the southern bastion is a set of rooms which are reached through the Hall Room , originally built as gunners ' lodgings in the 18th century and converted into the entrance hall to the castle in the 1930s . On the far side of the bastion are the Sackville and Willingdon Rooms , built in the 18th century ; the Willingdon Room is now used as a museum for objects relating to William Pitt . The Lucas Room has been redecorated in a mid @-@ 19th century style and is used to present various items of Wellington memorabilia . The north and east bastions are filled in , providing solid foundations for the gun platforms above .
The second floor contains the Lord Warden 's private apartments in the west bastion and the western half of the keep . In the southern bastion is the Duke of Wellington 's Room and the Lucas Room , originally part of an apartment of rooms selected by William Pitt for his use , as they formed the warmest part of the castle . The corridor running across the castle through the keep was built by Pitt to link the north and south halves of the castle .
The Prince Consort 's and Queen Victoria 's rooms in the keep are named after their use during the royal visit of 1842 , although their decoration today dates from the interwar period . The Dining Room , Drawing Room and Ante Room , which overlook the northern bastion , date from the 1730s , when the Duke of Dorset constructed them to form a private set of chambers . These rooms feature a range of pink and purple window glass , which tradition says was installed by the Earl of Liverpool to protect his wife 's eyesight ; recent analysis shows that some of the pink @-@ tinted glass dates from the 1730s , and discoloured naturally over time , while other panes were intentionally purchased around 1800 in these hues , but probably as status symbols and not for any medical purpose .
= = = Gardens = = =
The gardens of Walmer Castle date mainly from the 1790s and 1860s and comprise around 32 acres ( 13 ha ) of land , split evenly between formal ornamental gardens and parkland . The main body of the gardens stretches away from the castle towards the north @-@ west , and is made up of protected , well @-@ drained , chalk @-@ based soil , forming a maritime microclimate .
The castle is approached through the castle meadow , an area of open parkland , lined with Holm oaks planted in the 1860s , and is surrounded by the dry moat , now a garden dating from at least the 1850s and planted with trees and shrubs . Adjacent to the castle are the Queen Mother 's Garden and the kitchen garden and glasshouses . The Queen Mother 's Garden was built by English Heritage as a 95th birthday gift for the then Lord Warden in 1997 , the site having been originally part of the wider kitchen gardens , before being turned into a tennis court in the 1920s . Designed by Penelope Hobhouse , the garden incorporates classical and Islamic themes , with a 92 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 28 m ) pool , a viewing mound and a classical pavilion . The two glasshouses have been restored , functioning as cold greenhouses , while the remainder of the kitchen garden is planted with a mixture of vegetables , fruit trees and flowers .
The 262 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 80 m ) Broadwalk is the main axis of the gardens and separates the glasshouses from the 328 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 100 m ) Oval Lawn , planted with lime trees and yews . The Broadwalk is lined by the " Cloud Hedge " , a formal 19th @-@ century yew hedge that grew out of control in the Second World War and was left in its current , undulating style . Two terraces in the middle of the garden , designed by William Masters in an Italianate style , separate the further half of the garden . On the other side are the paddock , planted with Holm oaks , and a curved belt of woodland of beech , ash and chestnut trees , badly damaged in the storms of 1987 and 1990 . At the far end is the Glen , a woodland hollow formed from an old chalk quarry in the 19th century .
= Traditions of Texas A & M University =
The traditions of Texas A & M University are a key aspect of the culture of Texas A & M University . Some of the school traditions date to the 1890s , shortly after the opening of the school , while others have been introduced more recently . These traditions encourage current students and alumni ( Aggies ) to cultivate the Aggie Spirit , a sense of loyalty and respect for the school , and dictate many aspects of student life , including how to greet others , how to act at an A & M sporting event , and what words a student may use in conversation . The most visible tradition among senior class students and alumni is the wearing of the Aggie Ring , whose design has been relatively unchanged since its introduction in 1894 . Not all Aggie traditions are recognized by the university , and some , like Bonfire , have been discontinued for safety reasons . Texas Monthly states that the students ' respect for school traditions and values is the university 's greatest strength .
Incoming students are generally first exposed to traditions when they are greeted with the official Texas A & M greeting " Howdy " . Since the 1950s , incoming students have been offered orientations , led by current students , which teach the various traditions , songs , and yells in current use . On campus , the Texas A & M University Corps of Cadets is known as the " Keepers of the Spirit " for its staunch defense of Aggie traditions . A subset of the Corps , the Fightin ' Texas Aggie Band , is the official marching band of the university .
Many school traditions revolve around sporting events , especially football . Before games , university yell leaders host yell practice , similar to other schools ' pep rallies . Instead of cheers , students learn yells . Since 1922 , students , known as the 12th Man , stand throughout football games , symbolizing their willingness to step in and assist the team . The official mascot , a dog named Reveille , is present at most official university activities , including sporting events .
= = Aggie Spirit = =
Current students and alumni at Texas A & M University , nicknamed Aggies after the school 's agricultural roots , are known for their loyalty and respect for their alma mater . They cultivate " the Aggie Spirit " through " an almost religious devotion to the traditions " of the school , some over 100 years old . As Texas Monthly noted , " Every Aggie is a self @-@ appointed guardian of the Aggie spirit , eternally on the alert for signs of slippage . " To Aggies , Texas A & M is " not just a university but a ... family , ... defined and united by a unique culture . " The school song is titled The Spirit of Aggieland , and proclaims in its first verse that the " spirit can ne 'er be told . "
The Texas A & M culture is a product of the university 's founding as a rural military and agricultural school . Although the school and surrounding community have grown , and military training is no longer required , the school 's history has instilled in students " the idealized elements of a small @-@ town life : community , tradition , loyalty , optimism , and unabashed sentimentality . " This respect for Aggie traditions and values is the university 's greatest strength .
Many of these traditions are part of what Aggies call " The Other Education " , activities designed to make students well @-@ rounded and " moral , ethical people " . Students who attend Texas A & M feel " that they receive ' more ' from Texas A & M than just the knowledge one acquires from the formal classroom and books . " Freshmen are introduced to these traditions and to the Aggie spirit at Fish Camp , a four @-@ day extended orientation retreat held during the summer . Current students organize and run Fish Camp , leading sessions on the Aggie Spirit , school yells , and other school traditions so that new students can " begin the process of feeling part of the extended Aggie family . " Fish Camp began in 1954 as a simple camping trip involving several new students and Gordon Gay , a former Student Activities director . The program has since evolved to accommodate approximately 70 % of incoming freshmen ; over 5 @,@ 600 Texas A & M students attended in 2008 . The program has been emulated by several schools , including Virginia Tech . In 1987 , Texas A & M established a parallel orientation for summer and fall transfer students called Transfer Camp , or T @-@ Camp . Howdy Camp also serves as a campus orientation program . Modeled after T @-@ Camp and Fish Camp , it is intended for freshman and transfer students who enter A & M in the spring semester . Students who choose not to participate in The Other Education are known on campus as " 2 Percenters , " because going to class is only a small portion of experiencing Texas A & M.
= = = Howdy = = =
Many incoming students at Texas A & M choose to attend the campus because they feel that the students are friendlier than those at other universities . This perception is created partly by the Aggie tradition " Howdy " , the official greeting of Texas A & M University . Students are encouraged to greet everyone they pass on campus with a smile and a howdy . Howdy is the preferred method for a speaker to get a large group 's attention , as the members of the group are expected to return the " Howdy " back to the speaker .
= = = Gig ' em = = =
Aggies today will often end public addresses and emails to other Aggies with a hearty " Thanks and Gig ' em ! " . The " Gig ' em " tradition began at a 1930 Midnight Yell Practice held before the football game against the Texas Christian University Horned Frogs . In an attempt to excite the crowd , Pinky Downs , a 1906 Texas A & M graduate and member of the school 's Board of Regents , asked " What are we going to do to those Horned Frogs ? " Using a term for frog hunting , he answered his own question , " Gig ' em , Aggies ! " For emphasis , he made a fist with the thumb extended . The phrase and hand signal proved popular , and it became the first hand sign of the Southwest Conference . Gig ' em is also the name of one of the school yells , which is used during football kickoffs .
The university 's traditions council recognizes another possible origin for the expression . The word " gig " is used in the US Army to indicate an infraction of the uniform code , and the A & M cadets used the same vocabulary . New cadets would quickly learn to fear being " gigged " during inspection for having unshined shoes , unpolished brass , or a non @-@ aligned " gig line " .
= = = Aggie Ring = = =
The most visible way for graduates of Texas A & M to recognize each other is by the Aggie Ring . The Aggie Ring is worn by current students and alumni , and is one of the most well @-@ known symbols of the Aggie Network . The first Aggie Ring was designed by E. C. Jonas in 1894 , and the design has remained relatively unchanged since- the only major change came when the school 's name was changed from the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas to Texas A & M University in 1963 .
The Aggie Ring cannot be purchased unless specific requirements are met : a current student must be in good standing with a minimum 2 @.@ 00 GPA on a 4 @.@ 00 scale . In addition , the student must have completed 90 hours of coursework , including at least 45 hours at A & M. Graduate students may receive a Ring after 75 % of their graduate coursework is completed . If your graduate degree requires a thesis , your Ring will be delivered on Aggie Ring Day if the thesis has been defended by the deadline set by the Office of Graduate Studies . If the thesis has not been defended by this date , the Aggie Ring will be held until the qualification is met . A Ph.D. student may receive their Ring if they have completed all formal coursework in the degree plan , has a cumulative GPA of 3 @.@ 0 or above , has successfully completed the residency requirement , has successfully passed the preliminary exam , and has an approved research proposal on file . A Ring may be purchased upon graduation if a student , either undergraduate or graduate , did not meet these criteria while pursuing the degree .
The top of the Ring depicts an eagle and shield . The shield at the top of the Ring symbolizes protection of the reputation of the alma mater . The thirteen stripes in the shield represent the thirteen original states and symbolize patriotism . The five stars in the shield refer to the facets of student development : mind , body , spiritual attainment , emotional poise , and integrity of character . The eagle denotes agility , power , and ability to reach great heights .
On one side of the Ring is a large star , borrowed from the seal of the state of Texas . The oak leaves symbolize strength . On the other side of the Ring are a cannon , a saber , and a rifle , symbolizing Aggies ' preparedness and valor in defending their land . The crossed flags of the United States and Texas symbolize allegiance to both nation and state .
Traditionally , students wear their Rings with the class year facing them to signify the fact that their time at A & M is not yet complete . At the annual Ring Dance , or at the end of the student 's collegiate career , the student turns his Ring around so that the class year faces away , symbolizing readiness to " face the world . "
Many students receive their Rings on Aggie Ring Day , which is held at the Clayton W. Williams , Jr . Alumni Center three times yearly . Aggie Ring Day is a special time for Aggies , their family and friends to celebrate being a part of the Aggie Network . The Association of Former Students gave out over 11 @,@ 000 Rings at Aggie Ring Days in 2012 .
For decades , though unsanctioned and discouraged by the University , an unofficial tradition among willing students involves " dunking " the newly acquired Aggie Ring . The Ring is dropped in a pitcher of beer and the student chugs the entire pitcher and catches the Ring in his or her teeth . The Dixie Chicken , among other bars , has been one of the more popular venues for dunking Aggie Rings , though it no longer endorses the activity . Some students choose to dunk their Rings in alternative substances , including ice cream or nonalcoholic beverages .
= = Honoring the deceased = =
In keeping with the idea that all current students and alumni comprise a family , Aggies have created two traditions to honor members of the Aggie family who have died . Aggie Muster is held annually to honor any current students or alumni who died during the previous year , while Silver Taps is held monthly as a special tribute to deceased current students .
According to the Houston Chronicle , " perhaps the best , most meaningful Aggie tradition of all is one you wish never happened . " While students at many schools prize their individuality , " Aggies are all about unity and loyalty . When an Aggie falls , the family comes together to remember . " This remembrance occurs annually on April 21 as Aggies observe Muster , a solemn event to honor current students and alumni who died during the previous year . Over 300 Musters are held around the world , with the largest taking place at Reed Arena on the Texas A & M University campus . All Muster ceremonies feature the Roll Call for the Absent . As the names of the deceased Aggies are called , a family member or friend answers " Here , " and lights a candle , to symbolize that although their loved one is not present in body , his or her spirit will shine forever .
The first Aggie Muster was held June 26 , 1883 , seven years after the school opened . Rather than a memorial service , the event was intended as a reunion to allow alumni to gather and remember their college days . During the day , the alumni also established a " Roll Call for the Absent " to honor their classmates who could not attend . In 1889 , the gathering was moved to April 21 and became an official school holiday , set aside for the annual cadet track and field competition . On April 21 , 1903 , the tradition evolved into a celebration of Texas 's victory at the battle of San Jacinto . Gatherings would include field games and banquets so Aggies could reflect on their days in Aggieland .
The field day events were cancelled in 1922 , although alumni were still expected to congregate annually for camaraderie and to remember their fellow Aggies . The March 1923 Texas Aggie urged , " If there is an A & M man in one @-@ hundred miles of you , you are expected to get together , eat a little , and live over the days you spent at the A & M College of Texas . " The event received worldwide attention during World War II , when 25 Aggies " mustered " during the battle for the island of Corregidor .
Students who die while enrolled at Texas A & M are also honored at Silver Taps , a ceremony held , when necessary , on the first Tuesday of the month . This tradition began as a memorial for former Texas A & M president Lawrence Sullivan Ross . In the modern incarnation , on the morning of Silver Taps , a small card with the deceased student 's name , class , major , and birthdate is placed as a notice at the base of the flagpole in Academic Plaza . At 10 : 15 p.m. , all lights on campus are extinguished , and Albritton Tower begins to chime hymns . When the music begins , students gather in silence in front of the statue of Lawrence Sullivan Ross at Academic Plaza . At 10 : 30 pm , the Ross Volunteers march into the plaza and fire a 3 @-@ volley salute . Buglers stationed at the top of the Academic Building then play a special rendition of Taps , known as Silver Taps . The song is played three times ; once to the north , once to the south , and once to the west . It is never played to the east , " because the sun will never rise on that Aggie again . " Once the buglers have finished their tribute , the crowd disperses . Generally , students remain silent until reaching their homes .
= = Texas A & M Corps of Cadets = =
The Corps of Cadets ( or the Corps ) is known as the " Keepers of the Spirit " for its staunch defense of Aggie traditions . The Corps is a link to the early days of Texas A & M 's history , when all students were required to be members and receive military training . Although Corps membership became voluntary in 1965 , as of 2001 it was the United States ' largest uniformed student body outside the service academies , with an enrollment of 2 @,@ 318 cadets at the beginning of the 2006 – 2007 school year .
Members of the Corps have served in every armed conflict fought by the United States since 1876 , and over 225 have served as Generals or Flag Officers . Many members participate in ROTC programs and earn commissions in the United States Armed Forces upon graduation . As of fall 2012 , the Corps is composed of three Air Force Wings , three Army Brigades , and two Navy and Marine Regiments , in addition to veteran @-@ based outfits , as well as the Fightin ' Texas Aggie Band , whose members may be affiliated with any military branch . Among its notable units is Parson 's Mounted Cavalry , the only mounted ROTC unit in the United States . The Ross Volunteer Company , the oldest student @-@ run organization in the state , is the official honor guard for the Governor of Texas . The Fish Drill Team , a precision , close @-@ order rifle drill team composed entirely of Corps freshmen , represents the Corps and A & M in local and national competitions . They have won the national championship almost every year since their creation in 1946 , and have appeared in several Hollywood productions with prominent roles in the movies A Few Good Men and Courage Under Fire .
Members of the Corps are often referred to as " C.T.s " or " B.Q.s " . While these terms originally stood for " Cadet in Training " and " Band Qualified " , respectively , they are more commonly and derisively used to abbreviate " Corps Turd " and " Band Queer " . Freshmen in the Corps are required to " whip out " to upperclassmen . This tradition requires the freshmen to extend their hand and introduce themselves to the upperclassman . From then on , they are expected to know the name of the person to whom they " whipped out . " The tradition applies only to upperclassmen in the Corps , and not to " non @-@ regs " , students who are not in the Corps .
One of a senior cadet 's " most cherished possessions " are his Senior Boots . Only seniors are allowed to wear these knee @-@ high riding boots , and most consider receiving their boots to be a rite of passage . All Senior Boots are custom @-@ made to fit the cadet and are a dark tan to brown color . Students wear their Senior Boots for the first time after Final Review as juniors while saluting the outgoing seniors . Final review is the last activity that Corps members participate in as a unit . This full military review takes place at the end of the spring semester on Simpson Drill Field , and is in two parts . The entire Corps march past a reviewing stand , which consists of high @-@ ranking military and university officials , for inspection . The Corps then returns to their dorms to change into the uniforms they will wear the following year , with the juniors donning their Senior Boots . The freshmen , sophomores , and juniors then march in formation past the reviewing stand , which is now filled with the senior cadets , saluting their former leaders .
= = Fightin ' Texas Aggie Band = =
The Fightin ' Texas Aggie Band ( also known as The Noble Men of Kyle , The Pulse of Aggieland or the Aggie Band ) is the official marching band of Texas A & M University . Composed of over 400 men and women from the school 's Corps of Cadets , it is the largest military marching band in the world . The band 's complex straight @-@ line marching maneuvers are performed exclusively to traditional marches . Some of these maneuvers are so complex , some computer programs used to create marching drills say they cannot be performed because they require two people to be in the same place at the same time .
Since its inception in 1894 , its members , known as BQs ( for Band Qualified or Band Queer ) , eat together , sleep in the same dormitories , and practice up to 40 hours per week on top of a full academic schedule . The Aggie Band performs at all home football games , some away games , and university and Corps functions throughout the year . Other events in which the band participated include inauguration parades for many United States Presidents and Texas Governors , major annual parades across the country , and the dedication ceremony for the George H. W. Bush Presidential Library .
= = Sports traditions = =
= = = 12th Man = = =
Aggie football fans call themselves the 12th Man , meaning they are there to support the 11 players on the field . To further symbolize their " readiness , desire , and enthusiasm " , the entire student body stands throughout the game . In a further show of respect , the students step " off the wood " ( step off of the bleachers onto the concrete ) whenever a player is injured or when the band plays the Aggie War Hymn or The Spirit of Aggieland . At the end of the Aggie War Hymn , fans sway back and forth , causing the upper deck of the stadium to move . The Aggie War Hymn was named the No. 1 college fight song by USA Today in 1997 .
The 12th Man tradition began in Dallas on January 2 , 1922 , at the Dixie Classic , the forerunner of the Cotton Bowl Classic . A & M played defending national champion Centre College in the first postseason game in the southwest . In this hard @-@ fought game , which produced national publicity , an underdog Aggie team was slowly defeating a team which had allowed fewer than six points per game . The first half produced so many injuries for A & M , Coach D. X. Bible feared he would not have enough men to finish the game . At that moment , he called into the Aggie section of the stands for E. King Gill , a student who had left football after the regular season to play basketball . Gill , who was spotting players for a Waco newspaper and was not in football uniform , donned the uniform of injured player Heine Weir and stood on the sidelines to await his turn . Although he did not actually play in the game , his readiness to play symbolized the willingness of all Aggies to support their team to the point of actually entering the game . When the game ended in a 22 @-@ 14 Aggie victory , Gill was the only man left standing on the sidelines for the Aggies . Gill later said , " I wish I could say that I went in and ran for the winning touchdown , but I did not . I simply stood by in case my team needed me . " A statue of E. King Gill stands to the north of Kyle Field to remind Aggies of their constant obligation to preserve the spirit of the 12th Man .
In the 1980s , the tradition was expanded as coach Jackie Sherrill created the 12th Man squad . Composed solely of walk @-@ on ( nonscholarship ) players , the squad would take the field for special teams performances . This squad only allowed one kick return for a touchdown by Texas Tech 's Rodney Blackshear . Sherrill 's successor , R. C. Slocum , amended the tradition in the 1990s to allow one walk @-@ on player , wearing the No. 12 jersey , to take the field for special teams plays . The player is chosen based on the level of determination and hard work shown in practices . Coach Dennis Franchione continued Slocum 's model , while also keeping an all @-@ walk @-@ on kickoff team that played three times in the 2006 season .
12th Man Towel The 12th Man Towel was created in the fall of 1985 by Rusty Riley and Kyle Harris , then president and vice president of the 12th Man Student Aggie Club , respectively , with the help of Gary Leach and Larry Leach , then club secretary and treasurer . The concept was presented to the Aggie Club faculty managers Harry Green Jr . , executive director of the 12th Man Foundation , and Jackie Sherrill , Texas A & M University athletic director and head football coach . Once their approval was given , Rusty and Kyle found a manufacturer in New York City through a local distributor in Bryan , Texas , and authorization was given to sell the towels on campus by school management and Chic Sell , who had the concession rights in Kyle Field . The first 1 @,@ 000 towels were purchased and delivered in time for the first home game of the 1985 college football season . Kyle and Rusty , along with a handful of Aggie Club members , sold the towels for $ 2 each in makeshift booths at strategic locations within Kyle Field . It was an immediate success , with all towels being sold at the first game . The A & M Yell Squad initially resisted the towels , claiming the Aggie Club was breaking tradition , but the Battalion staff supported the concept and began a successful selling and media campaign to help the towel gain acceptance throughout the A & M student body . Rusty worked with the Head Yell Leader on accepting the towel and once the Yell Squad accepted it , a press conference was held with Rusty , Coach Sherrill , and the Head Yell Leader . As the football season carried on , the 12th Man Towel continued selling in large quantities . The Aggie Club hired students to sell the towels at the MSC and on Aggie Club property , which at the time was located right outside of the main entrance to Kyle Field . The towel also gained an important supporting cast when Coach Sherrill 's 12th man kick @-@ off team squad began carrying them to motivate the student body in the stands . The 1985 regular college football season ended with a home game versus the Texas Longhorns . At that game , a sea of white 12th Man Towels filled the stadium , cheering the Aggies to a 42 @-@ 10 victory . The Aggies went on to win the Southwest Conference Title and defeat Auburn in the Cotton Bowl on January 1 , 1986 , with the 12th Man Towels proudly displayed to a national audience . During the 1988 Cotton Bowl Classic , which A & M played against Notre Dame , another towel was a point of contention . Twice during that game , Warren Barhorst , a member of Sherrill 's 12th Man Kickoff Team , tackled Heisman Trophy winner Tim Brown , and then grabbed Brown 's towel and waved it over his head . An infuriated Brown tackled Barhorst , earning himself a 15 @-@ yard unsportsman @-@ like conduct penalty .
Because the students are always waiting for the opportunity to support their team , they are also willing to take the credit for the team 's good deeds . A popular Aggie tradition is that " when the team scores , everybody scores " . Whenever the Aggies score points during the game , students kiss their dates .
Seniors wearing either their Senior Boots or Aggie Rings are also encouraged to join the " Boot Line " . As the Fightin ' Texas Aggie Band leaves the field after their half @-@ time performances , seniors line up at the south end of Kyle Field to welcome the team back onto the field for the second half .
= = = Yells = = =
Unlike many schools , which have a large group of cheerleaders to rally their fans during sporting events , Texas A & M has five student Yell Leaders . Consisting of three seniors and two juniors , historically all male , the Yell Leaders are elected to their positions annually by the student body . These students do not perform gymnastic feats , but instead use hand signals , known as " pass backs " , to direct and intensify crowds . After the signals are passed through the crowd , the Yell Leaders give the signal to " hump it " , where the crowd leans forward and places their hands on their knees to maximize the noise . The Yell Leaders have a dozen yells that they can choose from depending on the situation . While some yells are designed to praise and motivate the team , others exist solely to make fun of the opposing side .
Students practice the yells at Midnight Yell Practice . Held at Kyle Field at midnight the night before a football game , Midnight Yell is similar to a pep rally . Over 20 @,@ 000 Aggies attend each session , practicing the yells that will be used in the following day 's game and generating an excitement for the game . At the conclusion of the yell practice , the stadium lights are extinguished and fans kiss their dates . This is also done as practice , because Aggies are expected to " mug down " , or kiss their dates , every time the football team scores on the field . Sports Illustrated named Midnight Yell as one of the " 100 Things You Gotta Do Before You Graduate . "
Aggies practice their yells again after each football game . If the team is victorious , the freshmen in the Corps of Cadets capture the Yell Leaders on Kyle Field and march them across campus to be dunked in Fish Pond . The wet Yell Leaders then make their way to the YMCA Building , where the Fightin ' Texas Aggie Band and members of the crowd join them for a short yell practice in preparation for the next week 's game . If the team is " outscored " or " runs out of time " ( Aggies never lose ) , a mini @-@ Yell Practice is held in Kyle Field before the crowd disperses .
The most well @-@ known Aggie yell is the simple " Beat the Hell Outta " the opposing school . In writing , this is often abbreviated as BTHO . For the annual game against the University of Texas at Austin ( no longer played after A & M 's 2012 move to the Southeastern Conference ) , students yell " Beat the Hell Outta t.u. " Booing is strongly discouraged , and an upset Aggie will instead hiss their opponents or the referees . If a referee call is especially egregious in the minds of the Aggies , the Yell Leaders will call for the " Horse Laugh , " a yell that ends with a stadium wide hissing .
After each yell , students make a noise and a hand motion that is known as a wildcat . Each class has a separate wildcat , and students caught " pulling out , " or using the wildcat of a higher class , are often forced to do pushups as punishment . Freshmen raise their hands above their heads and yell " AAAA " . Sophomores , symbolically pushing back on the seniors , chant " A ! " five times , waving their hands up and down in front of the torso with their index fingers extended and thumbs perpendicular . Juniors yell " A ! A ! A ! Whoop ! " wrapping their left hand over their right fist , with both index fingers extended and pointing towards the ground , " shooting the ground " once for each " A " and holding the position on the " whoop ! " As a symbol of their expert marksmanship , seniors yell a single " A ! " and then " Whoop ! " while interlocking their fingers with their index fingers extended and pointed into the air . At the same time , the left foot is raised and tucked behind the right knee . The fingers are interlocked rather than covering the right hand so that the Aggie Ring is visible .
= = = Mascots = = =
Texas A & M 's official mascot is Reveille , now a purebred Rough collie . The first Reveille , a mixed breed dog , was adopted by students in 1931 after they found her on the side of the road . As of 2015 , the current mascot is Reveille IX . She is considered a Cadet General , the highest @-@ ranking member in the Corps of Cadets , and must be addressed by cadets as " Miss Reveille , ma 'am . "
Reveille accompanies her handlers , members of the E @-@ 2 unit of the Corps of Cadets , everywhere , including classes . It is a long @-@ held tradition that if Reveille decides to sleep on a cadet 's bed , that cadet is required to sleep on the floor . In truth , however , this only applied to the early mascots who were allowed to freely roam the campus . The contemporary mascots , certainly since the 1980s and likely earlier , are under the constant supervision of the Mascot Corporal and not allowed to freely roam about the cadet 's quarters . Another tradition is that if she chooses to bark in class , that session is cancelled . Upon the death of a current or former mascot , a full military funeral is held at Kyle Field , which usually attracts several thousand mourners .
Texas A & M also has an unofficial mascot , Ol ' Sarge , who is displayed only in graphics . Ol ' Sarge is portrayed as a tough @-@ looking corps drill sergeant and is considered one of the many icons representing Texas A & M 's long standing military history . The drawing was first seen in the 1940s , when The Battalion ran a caricature of one of the Yell Leaders . That caricature , of a rough and tough military man , quickly became used throughout campus .
= = = The Spirit of ' 02 = = =
The Corps of Cadets marks any Aggie scores during football games by firing The Spirit of ' 02 , a 3 @-@ inch M1902 field gun 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) . Issued to Field Artillery Units of the Reserve Officers ' Training Corps between the World Wars , the gun was believed to be one of several that were hidden by Corps members to prevent them from being scrapped during WWII . The Spirit of ' 02 was found buried in a ditch by students cutting wood for the annual Aggie Bonfire in the fall of 1974 . Only the rusted steel rims from the wooden wheels were showing above ground . Students mounted antique wagon wheels on the axles and brought the gun back to a place of honor in the Quad . Cadets later restored the gun , which has been fired to celebrate touchdowns since 1984 .
= = = Maroon Out = = =
One of Texas A & M 's newer traditions is Maroon Out , which began in 1998 . The football team had ended their 1997 season with a lopsided defeat to Nebraska in the Big 12 Championship Game . Kyle Valentine , Class of 2000 Junior President and a member within Class Councils , noticed how united the Nebraska fans seemed , all dressed in red . He proposed to Class Councils the idea to " Maroon Out " Kyle Field for the October 10 , 1998 rematch against Nebraska by selling a low @-@ cost , high @-@ quality maroon t @-@ shirt . This resulted in the sale of 31 @,@ 000 Maroon Out shirts , leading to a temporary national shortage of maroon colored t @-@ shirts .
The Aggies defeated Number 2 Nebraska 28 @-@ 21 , the first time in six seasons that Nebraska had lost a regular @-@ season conference game . The Daily Nebraskan noted that " A game that was dubbed a ' maroon @-@ out ' for Texas A & M fans proved to be lights out for Nebraska . The fans dressed themselves in maroon T @-@ shirts in an attempt to wash out the red and white that opponents have gotten used to . It worked . "
Since then , one football game each season is dubbed an official Maroon Out and discounted maroon t @-@ shirts are for sale for fans . Through 2010 , Texas A & M has been 7 @-@ 6 in Maroon Out games , beating 6 teams ranked in the Top 25 , despite being the underdog in each of the games . The basketball team has a similar tradition , called a " White Out , " where fans are encouraged to wear white t @-@ shirts .
Perhaps the most memorable Maroon Out moment was not maroon at all . After the events of September 11 , 2001 , five Aggie students wished to help honor America . They decided to ask the attendees of the next A & M football game , which would be held at Kyle Field on September 22 , 2001 , to wear patriotic colors . The colors would be divided by deck , with the upper deck wearing red , the middle deck wearing white , and the lower deck in blue . Within a five @-@ day period the students had contracted with several printers to create special t @-@ shirts which read " Standing for America " and the date . Despite initial concerns about not being able to sell enough shirts to be effective , the students sold about 70 @,@ 000 of these shirts , raising over $ 150 @,@ 000 for the relief efforts .
= = Aggie Bonfire = =
Aggie Bonfire was a long @-@ standing tradition at Texas A & M University as part of a college rivalry with the University of Texas at Austin , known as t.u. by Texas A & M students . For ninety years , Texas A & M students built and burned a large bonfire on campus each fall . Known within the Aggie community simply as Bonfire , the annual fall event symbolized the students ' " burning desire to beat the hell outta t.u. " The bonfire was traditionally lit around Thanksgiving in conjunction with the festivities surrounding the annual college football game between the schools .
The first on @-@ campus Aggie Bonfire was burned in 1909 , and the tradition continued for the next 90 years . For almost two decades , Bonfire was constructed from debris and pieces of wood that Aggies " found , " including lumber intended for a dormitory that students appropriated in 1912 . The event became school @-@ sanctioned in 1936 , and , for the first time , students were provided with axes , saws , and trucks and pointed towards a grove of dead trees on the edge of town . In the following years the Bonfire became more elaborate , and in 1967 the flames could be seen 25 miles ( 40 km ) away . In 1969 , the stack set the world record at 111 feet ( 30 m ) tall .
While the Bonfires of the 1960s were constructed in five to ten days , working primarily in daylight , by the late 1970s a more elaborate construction schedule had been implemented . Construction began in late October with " Cut " , with several weekends devoted to cutting down the logs with axes . The logs were brought to campus during " Load . " In early November , crews began " Stack " , a three @-@ week period in which the logs were wired together and Bonfire took shape . Near the end of stack , known as " Push " , students worked around the clock in rotating shifts . Although between two and five thousand students participated in the construction of Bonfire each year , most of them were unable to devote themselves full @-@ time to the task , and many worked only one or two shifts . While participating , the students wore " grodes , " old t @-@ shirts , jeans , and boots . By tradition , grodes were either not washed until after Bonfire burned or not washed at all .
In 1978 , Bonfire shifted to a wedding @-@ cake style , in which upper stacks of logs were wedged on top of lower stacks . The structure was built around a fortified centerpole , made from two telephone poles . Although tradition stated that if Bonfire burned through midnight A & M would win the following day 's game , with the introduction of the wedding cake design Bonfire began to fall quickly , sometimes burning for only 30 or 45 minutes .
At 2 : 42 AM on November 18 , 1999 , the partially completed Aggie Bonfire , standing 40 feet ( 10 m ) tall and consisting of about 5000 logs , collapsed during construction . Of the 58 students and alumni working on the stack , 12 were killed and 27 others were injured . On November 25 , 1999 , the date that Bonfire would have burned , Aggies instead held a vigil and remembrance ceremony . Over 40 @,@ 000 people , including former President George H.W. Bush and his wife Barbara and then @-@ Texas governor George W. Bush and his wife Laura , lit candles and observed up to two hours of silence at the site of the Bonfire collapse . The Bonfire Memorial was officially dedicated on November 18 , 2004 .
Bonfire was postponed until 2002 to restructure it to make it safer . Delays in the development of a safety plan and a high estimated cost ( mainly due to liability insurance ) , led A & M president Ray Bowen to postpone Bonfire indefinitely . Despite the university 's refusal to allow Bonfire to take place on campus , since 2002 a non @-@ university sanctioned Bonfire has burned annually . Known as Student Bonfire , the off @-@ campus event draws between 8 @,@ 000 and 15 @,@ 000 fans .
= = Elephant Walk = =
Every November , in the week of the football game against the University of Texas , the senior class gathers together for Elephant Walk . The seniors link arms and " wander aimlessly " through campus . The University of Texas game was always the last football game of the regular season , so Elephant Walk has come to symbolize the end of the seniors ' " usefulness " to the 12th Man and the passing of the torch to the junior class . In a reference to Elephant Walk , seniors in their last semester of study are often called " dead elephants . "
Elephant Walk began in 1926 , when a group of students decided to take one last walk around campus to remember their experiences at the school . Because they walked single file , with a hand on the shoulder of the person in front , an observer remarked that they " looked like elephants , about to die . " The day now begins at Kyle Field with a yell practice and speaker , and then the senior yell leaders lead the class through campus . Leaders of the graduating class also announce the class gift at Elephant Walk .
= = Service projects = =
Texas A & M provides many opportunities for students to participate in volunteer and service activities . Students at Texas A & M originated The Big Event , the largest one @-@ day student @-@ run service project in the nation . The annual event began in 1983 after the Texas A & M Student Government Association passed a resolution encouraging students to show their gratitude to the community by giving of their time . From its beginnings of six individual students wanting to contribute back to the local community , The Big Event has expanded to allow over twenty @-@ two thousand students to participate in over 2500 jobs , such as raking leaves , painting houses , and trimming trees . The concept for The Big Event has spread throughout the nation , and as of 2015 , 110 schools across the nation participate each year including 1 middle school , 2 high schools , and 68 universities . The 2008 Big Event attracted 10 @,@ 600 students who worked a record number of 1 @,@ 000 jobs .
Aggies also participate annually in Replant , a one @-@ day environmental service . In 2006 , 1 @,@ 000 students participated , planting 250 trees in three public parks . The event has been an annual tradition since 1991 , when the Texas A & M Environmental Issues Committee began planting trees to replace those that had been cut down for Bonfire . Although Bonfire has been officially disbanded , Replant continues . Its goals are now to beautify the Bryan @-@ College Station area and to " creat [ e ] harmony between students and the residents . " In 2000 , the group planted twelve live oak trees at the Texas A & M Polo Grounds in memory of the twelve victims of the 1999 Bonfire collapse . That year the group was awarded the Community Forestry Award from the Texas Forest Service . The group provides their own trees , grown at the Texas A & M Riverside campus in Bryan , Texas and has its own Student Government committee .
The Corps of Cadets annually conducts the March to the Brazos , a 14 miles ( 20 km ) round @-@ trip road march that serves as both a ceremony to transfer leadership as well as a fundraiser for the March of Dimes . The Corps hold various fundraisers and solicits donations throughout the year . On a Saturday morning , generally in April , each year , all members of the Corps gather at the Quadrangle , near their dormitories , and march en masse across campus and down Highway 60 to Texas A & M 's Animal Science Teaching , Research & Extension Complex near the east bank of the Brazos River . There , the cadets learn who will fill each leadership position for the following year . The current seniors are allowed to ride a bus back to campus while the newly promoted cadets lead their outfits back to campus . The event is the largest and most successful student @-@ run fundraising event in the United States for the March of Dimes . In its first 27 years , from 1977 through 2003 , the event raised a combined US $ 1 @.@ 3 million .
= = Asking for luck = =
Many students believe that they will do well on exams if they make an offering to Lawrence Sullivan " Sul " Ross . Ross , the president of Texas A & M in the 1890s , is credited with saving the school from closure . Affectionately known as " Sully , " many believe him to be " the embodiment of Aggie Spirit and tradition . " A & M legend states that Ross would often tutor students , and as payment would accept only a penny for their thoughts . At exam time his statue , located in Academic Plaza , is often covered in pennies .
Another spot in Academic Plaza is also believed to be lucky . Tradition says that if a couple walks together under the branches of the Century Tree , one of the oldest trees on campus , they will eventually marry . If the proposal takes place under the Century Tree , the marriage is supposed to last forever .
= = Privileged words = =
For much of its first 100 years , Texas A & M was a small , all @-@ male , military academy . The school became coeducational in the 1960s , and membership in the Corps of Cadets became voluntary . In military tradition , privileges are meted out as one climbs the ranks , and Texas A & M has several such traditions . The most obvious are the uniforms worn by the Corps of Cadets . Corps members wear different uniforms for each year , culminating in the prized Senior boots .
Vocabulary is also restricted by class . Freshmen may not say the word Pisshead , a nickname for sophomores . Juniors are known as " Serge Butts " , so neither freshmen nor sophomores can say any form of either word ( accordingly , words such as " button " must be replaced with roundabout euphemisms , such as " circular fastener " ) . Juniors are also the first class to be allowed to say " Whoop ! " Seniors , known as " Zips " for the black and gold braid on their garrison caps , which resembles a zipper , have reserved the word elephant and all forms of the words " death , " " dying , " " shoot , " or " reload " in reference to the traditions surrounding Elephant Walk . However , saying the phrases " pass away , " " decease , " " fire , " " load again , " etc . , are all acceptable substitutes .
Students caught " pulling out " , or saying words that are reserved for other classes , are forced to " push . " Traditionally , this means the students must do a " class set " of pushups , one for each year of their class . The Class of 1945 did only 45 pushups and an extra pushup has been added for each subsequent year ; the Fighting Texas Aggie Class of 2012 | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
is largely ignored in the historiography of Argentina . Most historians focus instead on the disputes between Mariano Moreno and Cornelio Saavedra in the Junta , with Castelli described in passing as a supporter of Moreno . Despite of his role in the May Revolution , he was not the clear leader of it , as José Gervasio Artigas was for the Cry of Asencio or Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla for the Cry of Dolores . The May Revolution was instead the result of the convergence of diverse factions that shared the desire to remove the viceroy , and different historians highlight different specific factions . Castelli is largely ignored in Bolivia as well . His support of indigenous rights — still an ongoing issue in the country — and his religious ideas strongly affect the way he is perceived there .
The most notable biography of Castelli was Castelli , el adalid de Mayo ( Spanish : Castelli , the champion of May ) , written by the Paraguayan Julio César Chaves . Andrés Rivera increased the public awareness about Castelli with the historical novel La revolución es un sueño eterno ( Spanish : The revolution is an eternal dream ) . The famous divulgator Felipe Pigna wrote a whole chapter about Castelli at the book Los mitos de la historia argentina , which was then moved to television in the documentary film Algo habrán hecho por la historia argentina .
= Julius Schreck =
Julius Schreck ( 13 July 1898 – 16 May 1936 ) was a senior Nazi official and close confidant of Adolf Hitler .
Born on 13 July 1898 in Munich , Schreck served in World War I and shortly afterwards joined right @-@ wing paramilitary units . He joined the Nazi Party in 1920 and developed a close friendship with Adolf Hitler . Schreck was a founding member of the Sturmabteilung ( " Storm Department " ; SA ) and was active in its development . Later in 1925 , he became the first leader of the Schutzstaffel ( " Protection Squadron " ; SS ) . He then served for a time as a chauffeur for Hitler . Schreck developed meningitis in 1936 and died on 16 May . Hitler gave him a state funeral which was attended by several members of the Nazi elite with Hitler delivering the eulogy .
= = Early life = =
Julius Schreck was born on 13 July 1898 in Munich , a largely Catholic city in Bavaria . He served in the German Army during World War I. After the war ended in November 1918 , he became a member of Freikorps Epp , a right @-@ wing paramilitary unit formed to combat the communistic revolution . Schreck was an early member of the National Socialist German Workers ' Party ( Nazi Party ; NSDAP ) , having joined in 1920 and documented as member # 53 . Schreck developed a friendship with the party 's leader Adolf Hitler during its early years .
= = Career in the SA = =
Schreck was a founding member of the Sturmabteilung ( " Storm Department " ; SA ) , being involved in its growth and development . This was a paramilitary wing of the party designed to disrupt political opponents and provide muscle for security tasks . Hitler , in early 1923 , ordered the formation of a small separate bodyguard dedicated to his service and protection rather than an uncontrolled mass of the party , such as the SA . Originally the unit was composed of only eight men , commanded by Schreck and Joseph Berchtold . It was designated the Stabswache ( " Staff Guard " ) . The Stabswache were issued unique badges , but at this point the Stabswache was still under overall control of the SA , whose membership continued to increase . Schreck resurrected the use of the Totenkopf ( " death 's head " ) as the unit 's insignia , a symbol various elite forces had used in the past , including specialized assault troops of Imperial Germany in World War I who used Hutier infiltration tactics .
In May 1923 , the unit was renamed Stoßtrupp @-@ Hitler ( " Shock Troop @-@ Hitler " ) . The unit was solely responsible for Hitler 's protection . On 9 November 1923 the Stoßtrupp , along with the SA and several other paramilitary units , took part in the Beer Hall Putsch in Munich . The plan was to seize control of the city in a coup d 'état and then challenge the government in Berlin . The putsch was quickly crushed by the local police and resulted in the death of 16 Nazi supporters and 4 police officers . In the aftermath of the failed putsch both Hitler , Schreck , and other Nazi leaders were incarcerated at Landsberg Prison . The Nazi Party and all associated formations , including the Stoßtrupp , were officially disbanded .
= = Career in the SS = =
After Hitler 's release from prison on 20 December 1924 , the Nazi Party was officially refounded . In 1925 , Hitler ordered Schreck to organise the formation of a new bodyguard unit , the Schutzkommando ( " Protection Command " ) . Hitler wanted a small group of tough ex @-@ soldiers like Schreck , who would be loyal to him . The unit included old Stoßtrupp members like Emil Maurice and Erhard Heiden . The unit made its first public appearance in April 1925 . That same year , the Schutzkommando was expanded to a national level . It was also successively renamed the Sturmstaffel ( " Storm Squadron " ) and then finally the Schutzstaffel ( " Protection Squadron " ; SS ) on 9 November 1925 . Schreck became SS member # 5 . He was asked by Hitler to command the bodyguard company and , as such , became the first Reichsführer @-@ SS , although Schreck never referred to himself by this title .
In 1926 , Schreck stood down as Reichführer @-@ SS and Berchtold took over the leadership . He remained on the SS rolls as an SS @-@ Führer and worked as Hitler 's private chauffeur after Maurice until 1934 . In 1930 , after the SS had begun to expand under Heinrich Himmler , Schreck was appointed an SS @-@ Standartenführer , but had little actual power . He served at Hitler 's side and they were on very good terms .
= = Death = =
In 1936 , Schreck developed meningitis and died on 16 May in Munich . He was a well @-@ liked man and Hitler was distraught when Schreck died . His final rank was SS @-@ Oberführer , a rank between colonel and general . Schreck was accorded a Nazi state funeral with Hitler delivering his eulogy . Schreck 's funeral was attended by many senior Nazi officials , including Hermann Göring , Joseph Goebbels , Rudolf Hess , Joachim von Ribbentrop , Konstantin von Neurath , Emil Maurice , Hans Baur , Heinrich Hoffmann and Baldur von Schirach . As with many other buried Nazi Party members , Schreck 's grave marker was removed after World War II and there is a stone without inscription on the spot where he was buried .
= = = Online = = =
" How Hitler 's Bodyguard Worked " . World Media Rights . Retrieved 23 May 2015 .
" Schreck , Julius " . World War II Gravestones . Retrieved 23 May 2015 .
= Virginia State Route 253 =
State Route 253 ( SR 253 ) is a primary state highway in the U.S. state of Virginia . Known as Port Republic Road , the state highway runs 12 @.@ 18 miles ( 19 @.@ 60 km ) from U.S. Route 11 ( US 11 ) in Harrisonburg east to US 340 near Port Republic . SR 253 is a northwest – southeast highway that connects Harrisonburg with Cross Keys and Port Republic in southeastern Rockingham County . The state highway also provides access to portions of James Madison University on either side of Interstate 81 ( I @-@ 81 ) . SR 253 is maintained by the Virginia Department of Transportation except for the portion in the independent city of Harrisonburg , which is municipally maintained .
A small portion of Port Republic Road through Port Republic was included in the state highway system by the late 1920s as part of the highway between Waynesboro and Elkton . This section was paved in the early 1930s and carried three different route numbers until it was transferred to the secondary system in the early 1940s . Port Republic Road was placed on its modern alignment through Port Republic in the mid @-@ 1950s , by which time almost all of the highway was paved . SR 659 , which was assigned to Port Republic Road from Harrisonburg to near Cross Keys , was extended southeast through Port Republic by the mid @-@ 1970s . Port Republic Road was expanded to four lanes within Harrisonburg in the mid @-@ 1990s and mid @-@ 2000s and along a short stretch south from the city limits in the early 2010s . SR 659 was brought into the primary highway system as SR 253 in 2005 .
= = Route description = =
SR 253 begins at an intersection with US 11 ( Main Street ) south of downtown Harrisonburg and southwest of the campus of James Madison University . The highway heads southeast as a four @-@ lane undivided highway that intersects Bluestone Drive , which heads north to the campus and Bridgeforth Stadium and Zane Showker Field , just before meeting I @-@ 81 at a diamond interchange . SR 253 's next intersection is with Forest Hill Road , which leads to the James Madison University Convocation Center , the Edith J. Carrier Arboretum , and the rest of the portion of James Madison University east of I @-@ 81 . The highway gains a center turn lane at Devon Lane and passes several university athletic fields at Neff Avenue . SR 253 's center turn lane ends and the road expands to a four @-@ lane divided highway at the boundary between the independent city of Harrisonburg and Rockingham County . The highway intersects SR 280 ( Stone Spring Road ) next to Rockingham Memorial Hospital .
South of SR 704 ( Boyer Road ) , SR 253 drops to two lanes and the surroundings transition from suburban to rural . The highway intersects SR 276 ( Cross Keys Road ) a short distance northeast of the village of Cross Keys and crosses Mill Creek east of the village . SR 253 curves southwest and crosses the North River into the village of Port Republic , then curves back southeast and exits the village by crossing the South River just west of the confluence of the two rivers to form the South Fork Shenandoah River . SR 253 has an intersection with the northern end of SR 825 ( South River Road ) and a level crossing of Norfolk Southern Railway 's Roanoke District before reaching its eastern terminus at US 340 ( East Side Highway ) ; Port Republic Road continues as SR 659 .
= = History = =
The first portion of Port Republic Road to become a part of the state highway system was from Main Street ( now SR 605 ) in Port Republic north to Pineville Road ( now SR 672 ) . That highway , SR 809 , ran from Greenville through Waynesboro and Grottoes to SR 17 ( now US 33 ) at Montevideo between Harrisonburg and Elkton by 1928 . In 1930 , the state highway was relocated to the east side of the South River from Grottoes to Port Republic along South River Road ( now SR 825 ) . SR 809 was not paved along Port Republic Road until 1932 . As of 1932 , the remainder of Port Republic Road followed highways maintained by the city of Harrisonburg and Rockingham County . These included county route ( CR ) 31 from Harrisonburg through the junction with CR 12 ( now SR 276 ) near Cross Keys to Goods Mill Road ( now SR 708 ) , on which CR 31 continued . Port Republic Road continued along CR 214 to Battlefield Road ( then CR 7 , now SR 679 ) . The road continued along CR 7 to the junction with SR 809 . CR 31 was paved from Harrisonburg to about the modern city limits of Harrisonburg , and CR 7 was paved from SR 809 to the Battlefield Road split . By July 1933 , after the passage of the Byrd Road Act that established Virginia 's secondary highway system and transferred maintenance responsibility for local highways from the county to the state , all of Port Republic Road 's route numbers changed . SR 807 became part of SR 340 , which became SR 12 in 1936 . After the East Side Highway , the modern route of US 340 , was completed from Grottoes to Elkton in 1941 , SR 12 was moved to the new highway by 1944 ; the old highway became SR 865 .
SR 865 's modern bridges across the South River and North River and their approaches were constructed in 1955 and 1956 . These bridges were upstream from the old bridges . SR 865 's bridge across Mill Creek and its approaches were constructed in 1956 and 1957 . By 1958 , Port Republic Road consisted of SR 659 from Harrisonburg to Goods Mill Road , SR 675 south from there to Battlefield Road , SR 679 from there to SR 865 ( Pineville Road ) , SR 865 through Port Republic , and SR 629 from SR 865 just south of the South River to beyond US 340 ( East Side Highway ) . The county highways were all paved except for SR 675 , which was gravel . Port Republic Road 's interchange with I @-@ 81 was completed when the Interstate was completed between interchanges with US 11 on either side of Harrisonburg in 1961 . By 1974 , SR 659 was extended southeast so that all of Port Republic Road was one route number . Port Republic Road was relocated at its intersection with SR 680 ( Oak Ridge Road ) in 1971 . The intersection had formerly been a T intersection that required a turn to remain on Port Republic Road . SR 659 was reconstructed from SR 689 ( Spaders Church Road ) to just south of I @-@ 81 by 1978 . The highway 's intersections with SR 708 and SR 679 were revised and SR 659 was reconstructed between them by 1987 .
Port Republic Road was widened by the city of Harrisonburg to four lanes from US 11 to I @-@ 81 in 1994 , from I @-@ 81 to Neff Avenue in 2004 , and from Neff Avenue to the city limit by 2006 . Port Republic Road in the city of Harrisonburg and SR 659 in Rockingham County from the city to US 340 were transferred from the secondary system to the primary highway system as SR 253 by a resolution passed by the Commonwealth Transportation Board on March 17 , 2005 . The transfer was supported in part by the planned relocation of Rockingham Memorial Hospital from north of the James Madison University campus in the city to southeast of the city in Rockingham County , a process that began in 2004 and was completed when the hospital opened in 2010 . SR 253 was expanded to a four @-@ lane divided highway from SR 704 ( Boyers Road ) north to the city limit , thus connecting with the four @-@ lane highway built by the city , starting in early 2010 . The expansion project was completed in early 2012 , although the new divided highway opened to traffic in June 2011 . The project included construction of a small piece of SR 280 — a highway planned as the Southeast Connector that is intended to connect SR 42 , US 11 , SR 253 , and US 33 south of Harrisonburg — at its intersection with SR 253 next to Rockingham Memorial Hospital .
= = Major intersections = =
= Brentwood Academy v. Tennessee Secondary School Athletic Ass 'n =
Brentwood Academy v. Tennessee Secondary School Athletic Association , 531 U.S. 288 ( 2001 ) , is a United States Supreme Court case concerning whether the actions of an interscholastic sport @-@ association that regulated sports among Tennessee schools could be regarded as a state actor for First Amendment and Due Process purposes . The Court held that the sport @-@ association can be sued as a state actor because its actions and history have been " entangled " with state action . While the Supreme Court would reconsider this same case in the future , this specific decision became important in articulating a new principle of what entities are bound by the First Amendment .
= = Background = =
The Tennessee Secondary School Athletic Association ( TSSAA ) is a non @-@ profit membership corporation organized to regulate interscholastic sports among its members ( a large portion of the public and private high schools in Tennessee ) . The Association 's role in regulating interscholastic competition in public schools was recognized by the state 's Board of Education in the case . Brentwood Academy is a private high school that fields interscholastic teams as a member of TSSAA . Brentwood was highly successful in sports competition , winning nine state football championships between 1969 , when it was founded , and 1997 . This success fostered resentment among opponent schools , which questioned the Academy 's tactics for recruiting players .
In 1997 , TSSAA investigated rumors that Brentwood Academy was engaging in illegal practices to recruit public school athletes to the school . No such practices were identified , but TSSAA discovered that Brentwood Academy 's football coach had invited eighth grade boys who would be enrolling in the school the following school year to attend spring football practice . TSSAA identified this as a violation of its rules and fined the school $ 3 @,@ 000 for contacting student athletes prior to their official enrollment at the school and for violating a TSSAA policy prohibiting " undue influence on a student ( or ) his or her parents ... to secure or to retain a student for athletic purposes . " The Association also placed the school on four years ' probation and banned it from participating in state playoff games for two years .
Brentwood Academy sued the Association over this action . Brentwood argued that the enforcement of the rule constituted state action which they claimed violated the First Amendment and the Fourteenth Amendment 's Due Process Clause . The school asserted that their due process rights had been violated because there were no evidentiary hearings to determine the validity of the claim that they inappropriately recruited football players . Further , they argued that the rule violated their freedom of speech because it restricted the ways the Academy could recruit . In July 1998 , the District Court agreed with this argument and granted summary judgement to the Academy , while enjoining the Association from enforcing the rule . A year later , the Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals reversed the lower court 's decision , finding that the actions of the Association did not constitute ' state action ' . The United States Supreme Court granted certiorari of the case to review this question .
= = Opinion of the Court = =
Before any questions of First Amendment law could be decided , the Court had to first determine wither TSSAA was a state entity ( as the First Amendment only applies to the government ) . The Court issued a divided decision , splitting 5 @-@ 4 in favor of reversing the Sixth Circuit and finding the actions of the Association as ' state action ' .
Justice Souter wrote for the five @-@ justice majority , holding that " The nominally private character of the Association is overborne by the pervasive entwinement of public institutions and public officials in its composition and workings , and there is no substantial reason to claim unfairness in applying constitutional standards to it . " Part of the basis for this determination were historical statements by the Tennessee Board of Education which had granted regulatory authority to the Association and recognition of its own independent authority . For example , the Board explicitly approved the TSSAA 's rules and reserved the right to continuously review them in the future . Further , employees at the Association were given state pensions . Because the Association could essentially " coerce " the member schools to follow its rules , and that the state would back this up , it was utilizing state police power . Therefore , Souter concluded , the restrictions on denial of due process would apply to the Association , and the lawsuit could proceed in the lower courts .
= = = Dissenting opinion = = =
Justice Clarence Thomas wrote a dissenting opinion , joined by three other Justices . He criticized the usage of a new " entwinement " standard for determining state action , which he said " stretched the doctrine beyond its permissible limits " . He attacked the majority 's decision as breaking a prohibition on extending the Fourteenth Amendment to " merely private conduct " , relying on similar cases which did not extend ' state action ' to collegiate sports associations . Further , he said the meaning of ' entwinement ' is " unclear " because it was left undefined and possibly too expansive . He concluded by stating that the Court should have affirmed the Sixth Circuit 's opinion .
= = Subsequent history = =
This case created the " entwinement test " , the principle that a private organization could be connected in such a way with state organizations that the private organization itself exercises state power . With this new rule announced , the Court sent the case back to lower courts to reconsider the arguments of Brentwood Academy .
The case was sent back to the Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals who instructed the Association that they could prevail if they showed the enforced rule was narrowly defined to " promote governmental interests " . A second District Court trial on this factor again resulted in a finding in favor of Brentwood Academy . The Sixth Circuit this time affirmed . In 2007 , the Supreme Court again granted review and this time reversed in favor of the Association . In a unanimous decision , Justice John Paul Stevens held that the actual rule did not violate the First Amendment and that the tactics used to recruit football players rose to the level of a governmental interest . On other claims though , the case was sent back again to the Sixth Circuit . The Sixth Circuit rejected the remaining claims and the Supreme Court denied review , ending the case .
= Animals ( Pink Floyd album ) =
Animals is the tenth studio album by English progressive rock group Pink Floyd , released in January 1977 . A concept album , it provides a scathing critique of the social @-@ political conditions of late 1970s Britain , and presents a marked change in musical style from their earlier work . Animals was recorded at the band 's studio , Britannia Row , in London , but its production was punctuated by the early signs of discord that three years later would culminate in keyboardist Richard Wright leaving the band . The album 's cover image , a pig floating between two chimneys on Battersea Power Station , was conceived by bassist and writer Roger Waters , and photographed by long @-@ time collaborators Hipgnosis .
The album was released to generally positive reviews in the United Kingdom , where it reached number 2 . It was also a success in the United States , reaching number 3 on the Billboard 200 , and although it scored on the American charts for only six months , steady sales have resulted in its certification by the RIAA at four times platinum . The size of the venues on the band 's In the Flesh Tour , and an incident in which Waters spat at a fan , prompted him to conceive the band 's subsequent album , The Wall .
= = Background = =
In 1975 Pink Floyd bought a three @-@ story block of church halls at 35 Britannia Row in Islington , north London . Their deal with record company EMI , for unlimited studio time in return for a reduced percentage of sales , had expired , and they converted the building into a recording studio and storage facility . Its construction took up most of 1975 , and in April 1976 the band started work on their tenth studio album , Animals , at the new facility .
= = Concept = =
Loosely based on George Orwell 's political fable Animal Farm , the album 's lyrics describe various classes in society as different kinds of animals : the combative dogs , despotic ruthless pigs , and the " mindless and unquestioning herd " of sheep . Whereas the novella focuses on Stalinism , the album is a critique of capitalism and differs again in that the sheep eventually rise up to overpower the dogs . The album was developed from a collection of unrelated songs into a concept which , in the words of author Glenn Povey , " described the apparent social and moral decay of society , likening the human condition to that of mere animals " .
Apart from its critique of society , the album is also a part @-@ response to the punk rock movement , which grew in popularity as a nihilistic statement against the prevailing social and political conditions , and also a reaction to the general complacency and nostalgia that appeared to surround rock music . Pink Floyd were an obvious target for punk musicians , notably Johnny Rotten of The Sex Pistols , who wore a Pink Floyd T @-@ shirt on which the words " I hate " had been written in ink ; Lydon , however , has constantly said it was done for a laugh ( he was a fan of several progressive rock bands of the era , including Magma and Van Der Graaf Generator ) . Drummer Nick Mason later stated that he welcomed the " Punk Rock insurrection " and viewed it as a welcome return to the underground scene from which Pink Floyd had grown . In 1977 he produced The Damned 's second album , Music for Pleasure , at Britannia Row .
In his 2008 book Comfortably Numb , author Mark Blake argues that " Dogs " contains some of David Gilmour 's finest work ; although the guitarist sings only one lead vocal , his performance is " explosive " . The song also contains notable contributions from keyboardist Richard Wright , which echo the funereal synthesizer sounds used on the band 's previous album , Wish You Were Here . " Pigs ( Three Different Ones ) " is audibly similar to " Have a Cigar " , with bluesy guitar fills and elaborate bass lines . Of the song 's three pigs , the only one directly identified is morality campaigner Mary Whitehouse , who amongst other things is described as a " house @-@ proud town mouse " . " Sheep " contains a modified version of Psalm 23 , which continues the traditional " The Lord is my shepherd " with words like " he maketh me to hang on hooks in high places and converteth me to lamb cutlets " ( referring to the sheep of the title ) . Towards the end of the song , the eponymous sheep rise up and kill the dogs , but later retire back to their homes . The album is book @-@ ended by each half of " Pigs on the Wing " , a simple love song in which a glimmer of hope is offered despite the anger expressed in the album 's three other songs . Described by author Andy Mabbett as " [ sitting ] in stark contrast to the heavyweight material between them " , the two halves of the song were heavily influenced by Waters ' relationship with his then @-@ wife .
= = Recording = =
Animals was engineered by a previous Floyd collaborator , Brian Humphries , and recording took place at Britannia Row from April to December 1976 , continuing into early 1977 . " Raving and Drooling " and " You 've Got to Be Crazy " , two songs previously performed live and considered for Wish You Were Here , reappeared as " Sheep " and " Dogs " respectively . They were reworked to fit the new concept , and separated by a Waters @-@ penned composition , " Pigs ( Three Different Ones ) " . With the exception of " Dogs " ( co @-@ written by Gilmour ) the album 's five tracks were written by Waters . The song contains references to Waters ' private life ; his new romantic interest was Carolyne Anne Christie ( married to Rock Scully , manager of the Grateful Dead ) . Gilmour was distracted by the birth of his first child , and contributed little else towards the album . Similarly , neither Mason nor Wright contributed as much as they had on previous albums , and Animals was the first Pink Floyd album not to contain a composer 's credit for Wright .
The band had discussed employing another guitarist for future tours , and Snowy White was therefore invited into the studio . When Waters and Mason inadvertently erased one of Gilmour 's completed guitar solos , White was asked to record a solo on " Pigs on the Wing " . Although his performance was omitted from the vinyl release , it was included on the eight @-@ track cartridge version . White later performed on the Animals tour . Mason recalled that he enjoyed working on Animals more than he had working on Wish You Were Here .
= = Packaging = =
Once the album was complete , work began on its cover . Hipgnosis , designer of the band 's previous album covers , offered three ideas , one of which was a small child entering his parents ' bedroom to find them having sex : " copulating , like animals ! " The final concept was , unusually , designed by Waters . At the time he lived near Clapham Common , and regularly drove past Battersea Power Station , which was by then approaching the end of its useful life . A view of the building was chosen for the cover image , and the band commissioned German company Ballon Fabrik ( who had previously constructed Zeppelin airships ) and Australian artist Jeffrey Shaw to build a 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) porcine balloon ( known as Algie ) . The balloon was inflated with helium and maneuvered into position on 2 December 1976 , with a marksman ready to fire if it escaped . Unfortunately inclement weather delayed work , and the band 's manager Steve O 'Rourke neglected to book the marksman for a second day ; the balloon broke free of its moorings and disappeared from view . It eventually landed in Kent and was recovered by a local farmer , who was apparently furious that it had " scared his cows " . The balloon was recovered and filming continued for a third day , but as the early photographs of the power station were considered better , the image of the pig was later superimposed onto one of those .
During the " Isles of Wonder " short film shot by Danny Boyle and shown as part of the Opening Ceremonies of the 2012 Summer Olympics in London , the camera zooms down the length of the River Thames , from a small spring in the countryside all the way to the Olympic venue . During the fly @-@ by , a pig can be seen floating above Battersea Power Station .
The album 's theme continues onto the record 's picture labels . Side one 's label shows a fisheye lens view of a dog and the English countryside , and side two features a pig and sheep , in the same setting . Mason 's handwriting is used as a typeface throughout the packaging . The gatefold features monochrome photographs of the dereliction around the power station .
= = Release = =
The album 's release followed Capital Radio 's broadcast two days earlier of The Pink Floyd Story , and an evening press conference held at the power station two days before that . The broadcast was originally to have been an exclusive for the London @-@ based station , who since mid @-@ December had been broadcasting The Pink Floyd Story , but a copy was given to John Peel , who played side one of the album in its entirety a day earlier .
Animals was released in the UK on 23 January 1977 , and in the US on 12 February . It reached number two in the UK , and three in the US . Thanks to the album and the band 's back catalogue , noted The Guinness Book of British Hit Albums , " Pink Floyd bested Abba for most weeks on chart ( in 1977 ) , 108 to 106 . "
NME called Animals " one of the most extreme , relentless , harrowing and downright iconoclastic hunks of music to have been made available this side of the sun " , and Melody Maker 's Karl Dallas described it as " [ an ] uncomfortable taste of reality in a medium that has become in recent years , increasingly soporific " . Rolling Stone 's Frank Rose was unimpressed , writing : " The 1977 Floyd has turned bitter and morose . They complain about the duplicity of human behavior ( and then title their songs after animals – get it ? ) . They sound like they 've just discovered this – their message has become pointless and tedious . " Robert Christgau of The Village Voice gave the album a " B + " rating and found the negative reaction overly cynical , reasoning that the album functions simply as " a piece of well @-@ constructed political program music ... lyrical , ugly , and rousing , all in the right places " .
In his 2004 autobiography Inside Out , Nick Mason suggests that the album 's perceived harshness , when compared to previous Floyd releases , may be a result of a " workman @-@ like mood in the studio " , and an unconscious reaction to the accusations from the aforementioned punk genre that bands like Pink Floyd represented " dinosaur rock " . Animals was certified by the RIAA as 4 × Platinum on 31 January 1995 .
= = = Reissues = = =
Originally released on Harvest Records in the UK and Columbia Records in the US , Animals was issued on Compact Disc ( CD ) in 1985 , and in the US in 1987 . It was reissued as a digitally remastered CD with new artwork in 1994 , and as a digitally remastered limited @-@ edition vinyl album in 1997 . An anniversary edition was released in the US in the same year , followed in 2000 by a reissue from Capitol Records . The album was also included in the Shine On box set .
= = = Tour = = =
The album became the subject material for the band 's In the Flesh Tour , which began in Dortmund on the same day the album was released . The tour continued through continental Europe in February , the UK in March , the US for three weeks in April and May , and another three weeks in the US in June and July . Algie became the inspiration for a number of pig themes used throughout . An inflatable pig was floated over the audience , and during each performance was replaced with a cheaper , but explosive version . On one occasion the mild propane gas was replaced with an oxygen @-@ acetylene mixture , producing a massive ( and dangerous ) explosion . German promoter Marcel Avram presented the band with a piglet in Munich , only for it to leave a trail of broken mirrors and excrement across its mirrored hotel room , leaving manager O 'Rourke to deal with the resulting fallout .
The band were joined by familiar figures such as Dick Parry and Snowy White , but relations within the band became fraught . Waters took to arriving at the venues alone , departing as soon as each performance was over . On one occasion , Wright flew back to England , threatening to leave the band . The size of the venues was also an issue ; in Chicago , the promoters claimed to have sold out the 67 @,@ 000 person regular capacity of the Soldier Field stadium ( after which ticket sales should have been ended ) , but Waters and O 'Rourke were suspicious . They hired a helicopter , photographer and attorney , and discovered that the actual attendance was 95 @,@ 000 ; a shortfall to the band of $ 640 @,@ 000 . The end of the tour was a low point for Gilmour , who felt that they had by now achieved the success they originally sought , and that there was nothing else they could look forward to . In July 1977 – on the final date at the Montreal Olympic Stadium – a small group of noisy and excited fans in the front row of the audience irritated Waters to such an extent that he spat at one of them . He was not the only person who felt depressed about playing to such large audiences , as Gilmour refused to perform a third encore . Waters later spoke with producer Bob Ezrin and told him of his sense of alienation on the tour , and how he sometimes felt like building a wall to separate himself from the audience . The spitting incident would later form the basis of a new concept , which would eventually become one of the band 's most successful album releases , The Wall .
= = Track listing = =
All lead vocals performed by Roger Waters , except where noted
All songs written and composed by Roger Waters , except where noted .
= = Personnel = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
= Die Elenden sollen essen , BWV 75 =
Die Elenden sollen essen ( The miserable shall eat ) , BWV 75 , is a church cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach . He composed it for the first Sunday after Trinity and first performed it in Leipzig on 30 May 1723 . The complex work in two parts of seven movements each marks the beginning of his first annual cycle of cantatas .
Bach composed the cantata at a decisive turning point in his career . After various positions in churches and courts , he assumed his post of Thomaskantor in Leipzig on the first Sunday after Trinity , performing this cantata . He began the ambitious project of composing a new cantata for every occasion of the liturgical year .
The work is structured in an unusual layout of 14 movements in two symmetrical parts , to be performed before and after the sermon . The unknown poet begins his text with a quotation from Psalm 22 and departs from its ideas on wealth and poverty , rich and poor , and illustrates the contrasts . The focus of the second part is on being poor or rich in spirit . Both parts are concluded by a stanza of Samuel Rodigast 's hymn " Was Gott tut , das ist wohlgetan " .
= = Background = =
Johann Sebastian Bach had served in several churches as Kantor and organist , and at the courts of Weimar and Köthen , when he applied for the post of Thomaskantor in Leipzig . He was 38 years old and had a reputation as an organist and organ expert . He had composed church cantatas , notably the funeral cantata Actus tragicus around 1708 . In Weimar , he had begun a project to cover all occasions of the liturgical year by providing one cantata a month for four years , including works such as Weinen , Klagen , Sorgen , Zagen , BWV 12 , and Erschallet , ihr Lieder , BWV 172 .
= = History and words = =
Bach composed the cantata for the First Sunday after Trinity and first performed it in the service in the Nikolaikirche on 30 May 1723 , to take up his position as Thomaskantor . From then he was responsible for the education of the Thomanerchor , performances in the regular services in the Thomaskirche , the Nikolaikirche , Neue Kirche and Petrikirche . He started a project of composing one cantata for each Sunday and holiday of the liturgical year , termed by Christoph Wolff " an artistic undertaking on the largest scale " .
The prescribed readings for the Sunday were from the First Epistle of John , " God is Love " ( 1 John 4 : 16 – 21 ) , and from the Gospel of Luke , the parable of the Rich man and Lazarus ( Luke 16 : 19 – 31 ) . An unknown poet begins the cantata with a verse from a psalm , Psalms 22 : 26 ( verse 27 in the Luther Bible ) , " The meek shall eat and be satisfied : they shall praise the Lord that seek him : your heart shall live for ever " , connecting the gospel to the Old Testament as a starting point . The later cantata for the same occasion , Brich dem Hungrigen dein Brot , BWV 39 ( Break your bread for the hungry ) , begins similarly with a quotation from the Old Testament . The poet expands on the contrast of " Reichtum und Armut " ( wealth and poverty , rich and poor ) in fourteen elaborate movements , arranged in two parts to be performed before and after the sermon . The poet expands the contrast of " Reichtum und Armut " ( wealth and poverty , rich and poor ) Both parts are concluded by a stanza of Samuel Rodigast 's hymn " Was Gott tut , das ist wohlgetan " , stanza 2 in movement 7 , stanza 6 in movement 14 .
The autograph score is written neatly on non @-@ Leipzig paper , probably while Bach still lived in Köthen . A Leipzig chronicle , " Acta Lipsiensium academica " , reported the social event : " ... führte ... Hr. Joh . Sebastian Bach ... mit gutem applauso seine erste Music auf " ( ... performed ... with good applause his first music ) . " Good applause " means " great approval " rather than clapping of hands . A different translation renders the note as " ... the new Cantor and Director of the Collegium Musicum , Herr Johann Sebastian Bach , who has come hither from the Prince 's court of Cöthen , produced his first music here with great success . "
= = Scoring and structure = =
The cantata is structured in two parts of seven movements each , to be performed before and after the sermon . It is scored for four vocal soloists ( soprano ( S ) , alto ( A ) , tenor ( T ) and bass ( B ) ) , a four @-@ part choir SATB , trumpet ( Tr ) , two oboes ( Ob ) , oboe d 'amore ( Oa ) , two violins ( Vl ) , viola ( Va ) , and basso continuo ( Bc ) including bassoon . The two parts of seven movements each are composed as the same arrangement of alternating recitatives and arias with a concluding chorale , only Part II is opened by a sinfonia instead of a chorus . The duration is given as 35 minutes .
In the following table of the movements , the scoring follows the Neue Bach @-@ Ausgabe . The keys and time signatures are taken from Alfred Dürr , using the symbol for common time ( 4 / 4 ) . The instruments are shown separately for winds and strings , while the continuo , playing throughout , is not shown .
= = Music = =
Bach marked the occasion , creating the opening chorus reminiscent of a French overture , with a slow first section in dotted rhythm and a fast fugue . He chose the same form one year later to begin his second annual cycle of chorale cantatas with O Ewigkeit , du Donnerwort , BWV 20 . The composition can also be seen as a prelude and fugue on a large scale . The prelude is again in two sections separated by a short interlude , in the way of a motet according to the different ideas of the text . In the fugue on the words " Euer Herz soll ewiglich leben " ( your heart shall live for ever ) , the subject is developed three times , again separated by interludes .
Four of the recitatives are " secco " , accompanied only by the continuo , but the first one of each part is " accompagnato " , brightened by the strings . In the arias , the voice and the instruments mostly share the themes . The arias can be considered as a suite of French dance movements , the tenor a Polonaise , the soprano aria a Minuet , the alto aria a Passepied and the bass aria a Gigue . In the last aria , the trumpet opens the setting and then accompanies the bass in virtuoso figuration , adding splendour to the words " Mein Herze glaubt und liebt " ( My heart believes and loves ) .
The music of the two stanzas of the chorale is identical . The tune is not a simple four @-@ part setting as in most of Bach 's later cantatas , but the voices are embedded in a concerto of the orchestra , led by violin I and oboe I. The instrumental theme is derived from the first line of the chorale tune .
The sinfonia beginning Part II , rare in Bach 's cantatas , is especially remarkable because it is a chorale fantasia on the same chorale melody . The tune is played by the trumpet which was silent throughout Part I , as the cantus firmus against a polyphonic string setting , emphasizing once more " Was Gott tut , das ist wohlgetan " ( What God does is well done ) .
= = Selected recordings = =
A list of recordings is provided by Aryeh Oron on the Bach @-@ Cantatas website . The type of choir and orchestra is roughly shown as a large group by red background , and as an ensemble with period instruments in historically informed performance by green background .
= Rubidium =
Rubidium is a chemical element with symbol Rb and atomic number 37 . Rubidium is a soft , silvery @-@ white metallic element of the alkali metal group , with an atomic mass of 85 @.@ 4678 . Elemental rubidium is highly reactive , with properties similar to those of other alkali metals , including rapid oxidation in air . On Earth , natural rubidium comprises two isotopes : 72 % is the stable isotope , 85Rb ; 28 % is the slightly radioactive 87Rb , with a half @-@ life of 49 billion years — more than three times longer than the estimated age of the universe .
German chemists Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff discovered rubidium in 1861 by the newly developed technique , flame spectroscopy .
Rubidium 's compounds have various chemical and electronic applications . Rubidium metal is easily vaporized and has a convenient spectral absorption range , making it a frequent target for laser manipulation of atoms .
Rubidium is not a known nutrient for any living organisms . However , rubidium ions have the same charge as potassium ions , and are actively taken up and treated by animal cells in similar ways .
= = Characteristics = =
Rubidium is a very soft , ductile , silvery @-@ white metal . It is the second most electropositive of the non @-@ radioactive alkali metals and melts at a temperature of 39 @.@ 3 ° C ( 102 @.@ 7 ° F ) . Similar to other alkali metals , rubidium metal reacts violently with water . As with potassium ( which is slightly less reactive ) and caesium ( which is slightly more reactive ) , this reaction is usually vigorous enough to ignite the hydrogen gas it produces . Rubidium has also been reported to ignite spontaneously in air . It forms amalgams with mercury and alloys with gold , iron , caesium , sodium , and potassium , but not lithium ( even though rubidium and lithium are in the same group ) .
Rubidium has a very low ionization energy of only 406 kJ / mol . Rubidium and potassium show a very similar purple color in the flame test , and distinguishing the two elements requires something more sophisticated , such as spectroscopy .
= = = Compounds = = =
Rubidium chloride ( RbCl ) is probably the most used rubidium compound : among several other chlorides , it is used to induce living cells to take up DNA ; it is also used as a biomarker , because in nature , it is found only in small quantities in living organisms and when present , replaces potassium . Other common rubidium compounds are the corrosive rubidium hydroxide ( RbOH ) , the starting material for most rubidium @-@ based chemical processes ; rubidium carbonate ( Rb2CO3 ) , used in some optical glasses , and rubidium copper sulfate , Rb2SO4 · CuSO4 · 6H2O . Rubidium silver iodide ( RbAg4I5 ) has the highest room temperature conductivity of any known ionic crystal , a property exploited in thin film batteries and other applications .
Rubidium forms a number of oxides when exposed to air , including rubidium monoxide ( Rb2O ) , Rb6O , and Rb9O2 ; rubidium in excess oxygen gives the superoxide RbO2 . Rubidium forms salts with halides , producing rubidium fluoride , rubidium chloride , rubidium bromide , and rubidium iodide .
= = = Isotopes = = =
Although rubidium is monoisotopic , rubidium in the Earth 's crust is composed of two isotopes : the stable 85Rb ( 72 @.@ 2 % ) and the radioactive 87Rb ( 27 @.@ 8 % ) . Natural rubidium is radioactive , with specific activity of about 670 Bq / g , enough to significantly expose a photographic film in 110 days .
Twenty four additional rubidium isotopes have been synthesized with half @-@ lives of less than 3 months ; most are highly radioactive and have few uses .
Rubidium @-@ 87 has a half @-@ life of 48 @.@ 8 × 109 years , which is more than three times the age of the universe of ( 13 @.@ 799 ± 0 @.@ 021 ) × 109 years , making it a primordial nuclide . It readily substitutes for potassium in minerals , and is therefore fairly widespread . Rb has been used extensively in dating rocks ; 87Rb beta decays to stable 87Sr . During fractional crystallization , Sr tends to concentrate in plagioclase , leaving Rb in the liquid phase . Hence , the Rb / Sr ratio in residual magma may increase over time , and the progressing differentiation results in rocks with elevated Rb / Sr ratios . The highest ratios ( 10 or more ) occur in pegmatites . If the initial amount of Sr is known or can be extrapolated , then the age can be determined by measurement of the Rb and Sr concentrations and of the 87Sr / 86Sr ratio . The dates indicate the true age of the minerals only if the rocks have not been subsequently altered ( see rubidium @-@ strontium dating ) .
Rubidium @-@ 82 , one of the element 's non @-@ natural isotopes , is produced by electron @-@ capture decay of strontium @-@ 82 with a half @-@ life of 25 @.@ 36 days . With a half @-@ life of 76 seconds , rubidium @-@ 82 decays by positron emission to stable krypton @-@ 82 .
= = = Occurrence = = =
Rubidium is the twenty @-@ third most abundant element in the Earth 's crust , roughly as abundant as zinc and rather more common than copper . It occurs naturally in the minerals leucite , pollucite , carnallite , and zinnwaldite , which contain as much as 1 % rubidium oxide . Lepidolite contains between 0 @.@ 3 % and 3 @.@ 5 % rubidium , and is the commercial source of the element . Some potassium minerals and potassium chlorides also contain the element in commercially significant quantities .
Seawater contains an average of 125 µg / L of rubidium compared to the much higher value for potassium of 408 mg / L and the much lower value of 0 @.@ 3 µg / L for caesium .
Because of its large ionic radius , rubidium is one of the " incompatible elements . " During magma crystallization , rubidium is concentrated together with its heavier analogue caesium in the liquid phase and crystallizes last . Therefore , the largest deposits of rubidium and caesium are zone pegmatite ore bodies formed by this enrichment process . Because rubidium substitutes for potassium in the crystallization of magma , the enrichment is far less effective than that of caesium . Zone pegmatite ore bodies containing mineable quantities of caesium as pollucite or the lithium minerals lepidolite are also a source for rubidium as a by @-@ product .
Two notable sources of rubidium are the rich deposits of pollucite at Bernic Lake , Manitoba , Canada , and the rubicline ( ( Rb , K ) AlSi3O8 ) found as impurities in pollucite on the Italian island of Elba , with a rubidium content of 17 @.@ 5 % . Both of those deposits are also sources of caesium .
= = Production = =
Although rubidium is more abundant in Earth 's crust than caesium , the limited applications and the lack of a mineral rich in rubidium limits the production of rubidium compounds to 2 to 4 tonnes per year . Several methods are available for separating potassium , rubidium , and caesium . The fractional crystallization of a rubidium and caesium alum ( Cs , Rb ) Al ( SO4 ) 2 · 12H2O yields after 30 subsequent steps pure rubidium alum . Two other methods are reported , the chlorostannate process and the ferrocyanide process .
For several years in the 1950s and 1960s , a by @-@ product of potassium production called Alkarb was a main source for rubidium . Alkarb contained 21 % rubidium , with the rest being potassium and a small amount of caesium . Today the largest producers of caesium , such as the Tanco Mine , Manitoba , Canada , produce rubidium as a by @-@ product from pollucite .
= = History = =
Rubidium was discovered in 1861 by Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff , in Heidelberg , Germany , in the mineral lepidolite through spectroscopy . Because of the bright red lines in its emission spectrum , they chose a name derived from the Latin word rubidus , meaning " deep red " .
Rubidium is a minor component in lepidolite . Kirchhoff and Bunsen processed 150 kg of a lepidolite containing only 0 @.@ 24 % rubidium oxide ( Rb2O ) . Both potassium and rubidium form insoluble salts with chloroplatinic acid , but those salts show a slight difference in solubility in hot water . Therefore , the less @-@ soluble rubidium hexachloroplatinate ( Rb2PtCl6 ) could be obtained by fractional crystallization . After reduction of the hexachloroplatinate with hydrogen , the process yielded 0 @.@ 51 grams of rubidium chloride for further studies . Bunsen and Kirchhoff began their first large @-@ scale isolation of caesium and rubidium compounds with 44 @,@ 000 litres ( 12 @,@ 000 US gal ) of mineral water , which yielded 7 @.@ 3 grams of caesium chloride and 9 @.@ 2 grams of rubidium chloride . Rubidium was the second element , shortly after caesium , to be discovered by spectroscopy , just one year after the invention of the spectroscope by Bunsen and Kirchhoff .
The two scientists used the rubidium chloride to estimate that the atomic weight of the new element was 85 @.@ 36 ( the currently accepted value is 85 @.@ 47 ) . They tried to generate elemental rubidium by electrolysis of molten rubidium chloride , but instead of a metal , they obtained a blue homogeneous substance which " neither under the naked eye nor under the microscope showed the slightest trace of metallic substance . " They presumed it was a subchloride ( Rb
2Cl ) ; however , the product was probably a colloidal mixture of the metal and rubidium chloride . In a second attempt to produce metallic rubidium , Bunsen was able to reduce rubidium by heating charred rubidium tartrate . Although the distilled rubidium was pyrophoric , they were able to determine the density and the melting point . The quality of this research in the 1860s can be appraised by the fact that their determined density differs less than 0 @.@ 1 g / cm3 and the melting point by less than 1 ° C from the presently accepted values .
The slight radioactivity of rubidium was discovered in 1908 , but that was before the theory of isotopes was established in 1910 , and the low level of activity ( half @-@ life greater than 1010 years ) made interpretation complicated . The now proven decay of 87Rb to stable 87Sr through beta decay was still under discussion in the late 1940s .
Rubidium had minimal industrial value before the 1920s . Since then , the most important use of rubidium is research and development , primarily in chemical and electronic applications . In 1995 , rubidium @-@ 87 was used to produce a Bose – Einstein condensate , for which the discoverers , Eric Allin Cornell , Carl Edwin Wieman and Wolfgang Ketterle , won the 2001 Nobel Prize in Physics .
= = Applications = =
Rubidium compounds are sometimes used in fireworks to give them a purple color . Rubidium has also been considered for use in a thermoelectric generator using the magnetohydrodynamic principle , where rubidium ions are formed by heat at high temperature and passed through a magnetic field . These conduct electricity and act like an armature of a generator thereby generating an electric current . Rubidium , particularly vaporized 87Rb , is one of the most commonly used atomic species employed for laser cooling and Bose – Einstein condensation . Its desirable features for this application include the ready availability of inexpensive diode laser light at the relevant wavelength , and the moderate temperatures required to obtain substantial vapor pressures .
Rubidium has been used for polarizing 3He , producing volumes of magnetized 3He gas , with the nuclear spins aligned rather than random . Rubidium vapor is optically pumped by a laser and the polarized Rb polarizes 3He through the hyperfine interaction . Such spin @-@ polarized 3He cells are useful for neutron polarization measurements and for producing polarized neutron beams for other purposes .
The resonant element in atomic clocks utilizes the hyperfine structure of rubidium 's energy levels , and rubidium is useful for high @-@ precision timing . It is used as the main component of secondary frequency references ( rubidium oscillators ) in cell site transmitters and other electronic transmitting , networking , and test equipment . These rubidium standards are often used with GPS to produce a " primary frequency standard " that has greater accuracy and is less expensive than caesium standards . Such rubidium standards are often mass @-@ produced for the telecommunication industry .
Other potential or current uses of rubidium include a working fluid in vapor turbines , as a getter in vacuum tubes , and as a photocell component . Rubidium is also used as an ingredient in special types of glass , in the production of superoxide by burning in oxygen , in the study of potassium ion channels in biology , and as the vapor in atomic magnetometers . In particular , 87Rb is used with other alkali metals in the development of spin @-@ exchange relaxation @-@ free ( SERF ) magnetometers .
Rubidium @-@ 82 is used for positron emission tomography . Rubidium is very similar to potassium and tissue with high potassium content will also accumulate the radioactive rubidium . One of the main uses is myocardial perfusion imaging . As a result of changes in the blood brain barrier in brain tumors , rubidium collects more in brain tumors than normal brain tissue , allowing the use of radioisotope rubidium @-@ 82 in nuclear medicine to locate and image brain tumors . Rubidium @-@ 82 has a very short half @-@ life of 76 seconds , and the production from decay of strontium @-@ 82 must be done close to the patient .
Rubidium was tested for the influence on manic depression and depression . Dialysis patients suffering from depression show a depletion in rubidium and therefore a supplementation may help during depression . In some tests the rubidium was administered as rubidium chloride with up to 720 mg per day for 60 days .
= = Precautions and biological effects = =
Rubidium reacts violently with water and can cause fires . To ensure safety and purity , this metal is usually kept under a dry mineral oil or sealed in glass ampoules in an inert atmosphere . Rubidium forms peroxides on exposure even to small amount of air diffused into the oil , and storage is subject to similar precautions as the storage of metallic potassium .
Rubidium , like sodium and potassium , almost always has + 1 oxidation state when dissolved in water , even in biological contexts . The human body tends to treat Rb + ions as if they were potassium ions , and therefore concentrates rubidium in the body 's intracellular fluid ( i.e. , inside cells ) . The ions are not particularly toxic ; a 70 kg person contains on average 0 @.@ 36 g of rubidium , and an increase in this value by 50 to 100 times did not show negative effects in test persons . The biological half @-@ life of rubidium in humans measures 31 – 46 days . Although a partial substitution of potassium by rubidium is possible , when more than 50 % of the potassium in the muscle tissue of rats was replaced with rubidium , the rats died .
= Gilberto Silva =
Gilberto Aparecido da Silva ( Brazilian Portuguese : [ ʒiwˈbɛʁtu ˈsiwvɐ ] ; born 7 October 1976 ) is a Brazilian former footballer known for his time with Arsenal where he played as a defensive midfielder or defender .
Gilberto was raised in a poor family and as a child he balanced playing football with various labour jobs . He began his football career in 1997 with América Mineiro , where good form earned him a move to Atlético Mineiro in 2000 . He became a star player for Atlético , playing for three years in the Brazilian Campeonato Brasileiro Série A. He came to particular prominence when he helped the Brazilian national team win the 2002 FIFA World Cup , playing in all seven of Brazil 's matches .
In August 2002 , for a fee of £ 4 @.@ 5 million , he joined Arsenal , with whom he won the 2003 – 04 Premier League as an ' Invincible ' , and two FA Cup trophies . In his first five seasons with the club , he played 208 games and scored 23 goals . On 19 August 2006 , he scored Arsenal 's first competitive goal at the newly built Emirates Stadium . He was made vice @-@ captain of Arsenal in 2006 . He has also scored Arsenal 's fastest ever goal coming in at just 20 seconds in a game against PSV in the 2002 – 03 UEFA Champions League . During his time with the Gunners , Gilberto developed into one of the best defensive midfielders in Europe . In 2007 , he was selected as Brazil captain for the Copa América tournament , which Brazil went on to win . In 2012 , Gilberto returned to Atlético Mineiro , where he won the Copa Libertadores .
= = Early life = =
As a child , Gilberto lived in the city of Lagoa da Prata with his father ( a blacksmith ) , his mother ( a housewife ) and three sisters . His family lived in a small house which his father built , in the district of Usina Luciânia . Despite financial hardship , causing his sisters and him to share a single room , he had a relatively carefree childhood : he describes it as " [ a time when ] I had no responsibility in my life , I played football on the street with cousins and friends , and we never had any contact with drugs or violence " . In 1988 ( aged 12 ) , he got the chance to break out of poverty by playing football , joining América Mineiro as a youth player . It was during these years at América Mineiro that Gilberto was taught defensive discipline by playing as a central defender . When not playing football , Gilberto was taught furniture @-@ making skills by his father , which he would come to use in the following years . In 1991 , Gilberto 's father retired leaving the 15 @-@ year @-@ old to provide financially for his whole family , a task made more difficult by his mother 's ill @-@ health .
Because of the low wage at América Mineiro , he was forced to quit football to take various jobs as a labourer , a carpenter , and a worker in a sweet factory . It looked as if this would be the end of his childhood dream . As a factory @-@ worker Gilberto earned the equivalent of about £ 50 a month by 2002 rates . After three years of working in a factory , the 18 @-@ year @-@ old decided to try his luck at football again by enrolling in the local club 's youth academy . His time in the academy did not last long due to the worsening situation at home as a result of his mother 's ill health ; he returned to work in the sweet factory with little hope of resurrecting his football career .
= = Club career = =
= = = Early career = = =
In 1997 , Gilberto 's friends convinced him to give football another try , which led to him re @-@ signing for América Mineiro on 1 June 1997 , this time as a full @-@ time professional . Aged 22 , Gilberto played as a central defender for the first team . During his first season for América Mineiro he was regarded as a key player by the club , despite being criticised by some fans for inconsistency . He helped them win the Série B division , and consequently gain promotion to Série A.
During Gilberto 's third season at América Mineiro , with the team back to Série B after relegation in Série A in 1999 , he played 20 games and scored one goal , helping the club to finish runners @-@ up in the league . In 2000 , aged 24 , he joined rival club Atlético Mineiro . In his first season for the club , he fractured his right tibia and , as a result , missed a number of games . In his second season , he was moved by the manager Carlos Alberto Parreira from central defence to a defensive midfield role where he flourished . He scored three goals in the 2001 season and became a revelation in Brazilian club football .
= = = Arsenal = = =
Gilberto 's performance in the 2002 FIFA World Cup caught the attention of many coaches . Gilberto expressed a desire to move to England , saying , " It would be fantastic to play against the likes of David Beckham again . " As a result , FA Premier League clubs Aston Villa and Arsenal led the chase to sign him . In August , while still under contract to Atlético Mineiro , Gilberto joined Arsenal on their pre @-@ season tour of Austria ; while he had not yet signed for Arsenal the deal looked set to go ahead . However , complications arose when a transfer embargo was placed on Atlético Mineiro due to unpaid wages to some players at the club , including Gilberto . There was also an issue of obtaining a UK work permit for Gilberto . Despite the complications , Gilberto ended a summer of speculation and joined Arsenal on 7 August 2002 for a fee of £ 4 @.@ 5 million . Upon signing Gilberto , Arsenal manager Arsène Wenger said , " What I like was the fact that he kept things simple . He can play all across the midfield but the holding role just in front of the defence is what he does best . "
When Gilberto moved to England and began training with Arsenal , he bought a house in St Albans , South Hertfordshire . Having been used to life in small Brazilian towns , he initially struggled to adapt to the new way of life in London . However , on the pitch , he settled in very quickly . On 11 August 2002 he made his Arsenal debut as a substitute against Liverpool in the second half of the FA Community Shield game in which he scored the winning goal . As the 2002 – 03 FA Premier League season began , Gilberto faced stiff competition for a place in midfield from compatriot Edu . After two substitute appearances , Gilberto finally broke into the starting eleven on 27 August , helping Arsenal to a 5 – 2 win against West Bromwich Albion . Gilberto 's good form continued as he set a new record for the fastest goal scored in the UEFA Champions League , scoring after 20 @.@ 07 seconds against PSV on 25 September 2002 . However , his legal problems continued , since his transfer to England still was not fully resolved . As a result , Gilberto instructed his lawyers to start legal proceedings against Atlético Mineiro for unpaid wages in November 2002 . For the second half of the 2002 – 03 season , he remained a regular starter in the Arsenal side . Even though he suffered a lapse in form towards the end of the season , he won an FA Cup winner 's medal , playing in the final at the Millennium Stadium as Arsenal beat Southampton 1 – 0 .
2003 – 04 was an even better season for Gilberto , as he was instrumental in helping Arsenal win the Premier League title whilst going the entire season unbeaten . He played in 32 of Arsenal 's 38 unbeaten Premier League games during the season . His next season started equally impressively , as he scored the first goal in Arsenal 's 3 – 1 Community Shield win over Manchester United at the Millennium Stadium . During the opening games of the season , he started to experience severe pain in his back , and after a match at Bolton Wanderers on 27 September 2004 , a scan revealed he had fractured his back . At first it was reported that he would be out of action for a month . Later reports suggested the injury could be season @-@ threatening .
Gilberto 's doctor ordered him to wear a back brace for three months to aid the healing of the fractured bone . Gilberto returned to his native Brazil for the duration of his rehabilitation . During his time there , he doubted whether he would ever be able to play football again , due to speculation that his injury could threaten his career . Despite his concerns , his long rehabilitation time paid off as he made a full recovery . He made his footballing comeback in Arsenal 's 4 – 1 victory over Norwich City on 22 April 2005 . During the whole 2004 – 05 season , Gilberto was injured for 7 months and played only 17 games . His absence , combined with Arsenal 's slump in form at the time , led to much discussion regarding the importance of Gilberto to the Arsenal team ; some suggesting that Arsenal struggled without him . Gilberto 's difficult 2004 – 05 season ended in consolation as Arsenal finished runners @-@ up in the Premier League and won the FA Cup against Manchester United in a penalty shoot @-@ out .
In June 2005 , football agent Jacques Lichtenstein took Atlético Mineiro to court over Gilberto 's transfer in 2002 . Lichtenstein 's lawyer argued that he and his informal partner , Ronny Rosenthal , never received an allegedly agreed 10 % commission from Gilberto 's £ 4 @.@ 5 million transfer to Arsenal from Atlético Mineiro in July 2002 . Arsène Wenger and Arsenal vice @-@ chairman David Dein both gave evidence in court , saying that Arsenal dealt directly with Atlético Mineiro and that no agent was involved in the deal . The case was conducted before The Hon. Mr Justice Jack , who on 29 June ruled against Lichtenstein , and ordered the claimants pay Atletico Minéiro £ 94 @,@ 000 in legal costs . A year later , the case could have caused problems for Arsenal , when former player Ashley Cole criticised the club for " hypocrisy and double standards " in the way they approached Gilberto .
With legal matters subsided , the 2005 – 06 season began . Following midfielder and team captain Patrick Vieira 's departure from Arsenal , Gilberto became a senior member of the Arsenal team . Shortly into the season , in September 2005 , his desire to see his career out with the club led to Gilberto extending his Arsenal contract to June 2009 . A month later this loyalty was repaid when , on 18 October 2005 , Gilberto made his first appearance for Arsenal as captain , against Sparta Prague . Although Gilberto had a period of bad form during the winter months of the season , his good defensive performances during the latter stages of the UEFA Champions League ( in particular , games against Real Madrid , Juventus and Villarreal ) gained him praise . On 17 May 2006 Gilberto played for Arsenal in the UEFA Champions League Final against FC Barcelona , which Arsenal lost 2 – 1 .
Following the departure of defender Sol Campbell and retirement of striker Dennis Bergkamp in the summer of 2006 , Gilberto was announced as Arsenal 's vice @-@ captain for the 2006 – 07 season . He began the season well , as he scored the first ever goal at the Dutch DSB Stadion in a pre @-@ season friendly match . He then scored Arsenal 's first ever goal in a competitive match at the Emirates Stadium in a 1 – 1 draw with Aston Villa . His good form continued for Arsenal as he scored several league goals , garnering praise for his performances as stand @-@ in captain while Thierry Henry was injured . Gilberto and his agent ( Paulo Villana ) also reiterated the player 's desire to honour his contract with the Gunners . Meanwhile , Gilberto 's good form carried through to the second half of the season . Even though Arsenal only managed to finish fourth in the league , he ended the season as Arsenal 's second highest scorer with 10 Premier League goals . The explanation for his unusually high tally is the fact that Henry suffered two lengthy injury spells , in which Gilberto stepped up as captain to take penalties . Gilberto 's goal scoring record combined with his own good form in midfield and his leadership of Wenger 's youthful squad led some Arsenal fans and football pundits to label Gilberto as Arsenal 's best player of the season , and one of the best in the Premier League .
The buildup of the 2007 – 08 season saw Arsenal captain Thierry Henry leave the club to join Barcelona . This coupled with the fact that Gilberto was Arsenal 's vice @-@ captain during the 2006 – 07 season led many people to assume that Gilberto would take over Henry 's role . However , to the surprise of Gilberto , William Gallas was given the captain 's armband instead . In August , after returning to Arsenal 's pre @-@ season training late due to his involvement in the Copa América tournament ( and thus missing the start of the season ) , Gilberto then lost his place in the first team to young midfielder Mathieu Flamini . This reignited speculation linking Gilberto to Italy due to rumours that he was unhappy being on the bench at Arsenal . However , reports that he was being snubbed at the club were dismissed by Wenger , who insisted that Gilberto would remain at Arsenal to fight for his place . Despite this , in October 2007 , rumours in the press reemerged that Gilberto was angry at Wenger for being asked to play in defence in a League Cup game against Sheffield United , and had resultantly refused to play . Gilberto ended up playing the game in midfield though , with he and Wenger both denying rumours of a rift with each other . Gilberto subsequently commented that while he was not happy being a substitute , he would remain professional and fight for his place at the club . Also in October , Gilberto ceded the Brazilian captaincy to Lúcio upon his compatriot 's return from injury .
Through the winter months of the 2007 – 08 season , Gilberto started a limited number of games for the Gunners , though he kept his place in the Brazil team , starting several games for A Seleção . After becoming more and more frustrated with not playing regularly , Gilberto admitted in February 2008 that he had been made to feel " totally useless " by Wenger . Despite this , he declined to make a decision on his future ; something which prompted Wenger to promise talks with Gilberto . Amidst Gilberto 's frustration at Arsenal , he targeted playing in Brazil 's Olympic team in Beijing during August 2008 ; a competition which he had never played in . Off the pitch , Gilberto was reported to have passed his UK Citizenship test , and that he would subsequently apply for a British passport . April saw Gilberto 's season take a turn for the better ; making 5 starts – a substantial portion of his seasonal total of 12 – even managing to score a goal . The goal came against Reading on 19 April , and despite its deflective nature leading to some classing it as a possible own goal , the Premier League 's Dubious Goals Committee eventually credited the goal to Gilberto . However , Gilberto 's return to favour did not stop Arsenal 's 2007 – 08 season ending trophyless . The club subsequently faced the possibility of several players leaving ; among those rumoured to leave was Flamini , the player who had kept Gilberto out of the first team . The Frenchman ended up moving to A.C. Milan on 6 May , and a subsequent gap was left in the Arsenal midfield . Gilberto became less likely to leave the club during Summer 2008 as a result , and Wenger remarked that he wanted to keep Gilberto ; Gilberto saying he wanted to stay and possibly even renew his contract at Arsenal . Gilberto finished the 2007 – 08 season with 36 appearances for Arsenal , albeit only 12 of these being Premier League starts .
= = = Panathinaikos = = =
Following Brazil 's summer international games , he was seriously linked with a move to Greek club Panathinaikos . The speculation concluded when Gilberto agreed terms with the Athenian side on 17 July 2008 , for an undisclosed fee . During his first season at the club , Gilberto helped the side reach the UEFA Champions League Round of 16 . He managed to win both the 2009 – 10 Greek Championship and Cup with Panathinaikos , being the starting holding midfielder and producing numerous solid displays . In Gilberto 's final home game for Panathinaikos on 23 May 2011 , he scored the winning goal in a 1 – 0 victory over PAOK , for the Greek UEFA Champions League playoffs . Two days later , he played his final game for the team , winning 2 – 0 against AEK Athens .
= = = Later career = = =
On 23 May 2011 , Gilberto ended his 9 @-@ year career in Europe by signing an 18 @-@ month deal with Grêmio , of Porto Alegre .
In the past , Gilberto has hinted that he may one day return to Brazil to play for Atlético Mineiro . After his football career finishes , he has said that he would like to , " Live in a small farm and ride a horse and have all of my family next to me . " On 10 November 2012 , it was confirmed that Gilberto 's wish would be granted , as he signed a pre @-@ contract with Galo .
On 9 December 2012 , Silva was welcomed at Aeroporto dos Confins by fans of Atlético Mineiro , returning to the Belo Horizonte side after 11 years away . Silva spoke of winning the 2013 Copa Libertadores title upon his return . Silva achieved this wish on 24 July 2013 , with a final victory over Club Olimpia of Paraguay .
On 11 December 2015 , after two years without a club , he officially announced his retirement as a footballer , intending to pursue a career as an international consultant for clubs and players .
= = International career = =
In October 2001 , his good performances from that year earned Gilberto a call @-@ up to the Brazilian national team ( " A Seleção " ) by Luiz Felipe Scolari for the 2002 World Cup qualification games . He made his international debut against Chile on 7 October , coming on as a substitute . On 7 November , he made his debut in the starting line @-@ up of the national team against Bolivia . His international career continued to flourish in early 2002 : he scored twice against Bolivia and once against Iceland . In 2002 , he was a surprise inclusion in the Brazil squad for the 2002 FIFA World Cup in South Korea and Japan . He was expected to play a small part in the tournament . However , defensive midfielder and Brazilian team captain Emerson was injured in training just before the first World Cup game . In light of the setback , coach Scolari called upon Gilberto to fill the gap which Emerson left . Gilberto ended up playing in every minute of every match of the tournament , which Brazil went on to win . In the words of Veja magazine , Gilberto " carried the piano for Ronaldo and Rivaldo to play their tunes on " . He was not without attacking use either , setting up Ronaldo 's semi @-@ final goal to put Brazil through to the final . It was Gilberto 's performance in this tournament which led to him being classed as one of the top defensive midfielders in the world .
On 22 June 2005 , Gilberto played in Brazil 's 1 – 1 draw against Japan , in his only game of the 2005 FIFA Confederations Cup . His absence as a first team regular could be explained by his lack of games , and thus match fitness , for Arsenal during the season leading up to the tournament . Gilberto 's appearance in the tournament gained him a winners medal , as Brazil went on to win the competition . On the back of his good Champions League form , Gilberto was selected for the Brazil national football team for the 2006 FIFA World Cup . Gilberto was substituted on in two games , and started twice due to another injury to Emerson . Brazil were beaten 1 – 0 by France in the quarter final . Following Brazil 's World Cup disappointment , midfielder Juninho called for the older members of the Brazil squad ( including Gilberto ) to retire from international football . On the back of Gilberto 's childhood idol Dunga being appointed Brazil coach , Gilberto did not take Juninho 's advice , and subsequently continued his international career .
On 1 June 2007 , Gilberto captained Brazil against England at the first senior international match at the new Wembley Stadium . Having had a seemingly good headed goal disallowed after 20 minutes , he set up Brazil 's only goal as the game ended 1 – 1 . During the summer of 2007 Gilberto played in the Copa América tournament , in which he was chosen to captain Brazil in the absence of Lúcio . They went on to beat Argentina 3 – 0 in the final , though he missed the final game through suspension . Following the end of the 2007 – 08 Premier League season , Gilberto was called up to the Brazil national team for 2010 FIFA World Cup qualifiers during the summer as well as a tour of the United States .
= = Style of play = =
Gilberto is often called " the invisible wall " in Brazil . His play often goes unnoticed as he positions himself between the two centre backs and the rest of midfield , breaking up opposition attacks before they gather momentum . In this role , he is a part of the defensive unit for both club and country . When playing , he is more passive than most players in defense . Rather than tackle an opponent , he is more likely to shadow him , thus pushing him back . As a result , he has an unusually clean record for a defensive midfielder : he has twice gone 45 games or more without receiving a single booking during his Arsenal career .
Gilberto is good at helping to defend against opponents who play a long ball game because he often man marks the opposition 's attacking target @-@ man . This cuts off the opposition 's supply to the strikers , and thus forces the long @-@ ball team to play through the midfield , something to which long @-@ ball teams are not particularly suited .
Despite Gilberto 's high pass completion rate , his passing has been described as erratic in the past .
According to ProZone ( a data analysis system used by football managers ) figures cited by The Sunday Times in January 2007 , Gilberto was , together with Paul Scholes of Manchester United and Frank Lampard of Chelsea , one of the few midfielders in England to attain " the elite Champions League level " of performance .
= = Outside football = =
He is a patron of The Street League , a UK based charity which organises football matches for homeless people , refugees and asylum seekers . In June 2003 , Gilberto travelled to Brazil on tour with 17 Street League players . The tour included a visit to his home town Lagoa da Prata and games against local shanty town teams at the Maracanã stadium .
Gilberto is a keen musician . In his spare time , he plays the mandolin and the guitar . When he first moved to England he took up mandolin lessons and played publicly at his local pub in St Albans . He later started learning the guitar instead .
He has a Giant Anteater named after him at London Zoo . Gilberto is an adoptee of the animal , which he received from a London Zoo competition winner . The footballer described the South American animal as " my slightly more hairy brother ! "
= = Career statistics = =
( Statistics correct as of 17 October 2011 )
( Brackets indicate appearances in non @-@ FIFA matches , and do not count towards total )
= = = International goals = = =
= = Honours = =
Club
América ( MG )
Série B : 1997
Copa Sul @-@ Minas : 2000
Atlético Mineiro
Campeonato Mineiro : 2000 , 2013
Copa Libertadores : 2013
Arsenal
FA Premier League : 2003 – 04
FA Cup : 2003 , 2005
FA Community Shield : 2002 , 2004
UEFA Champions League Runner @-@ up : 2005 – 06
Panathinaikos
Super League Greece : 2009 – 10
Greek Football Cup : 2010
International
Brazil
FIFA World Cup : 2002
Copa América : 2007
FIFA Confederations Cup : 2005 , 2009
= William Tailer =
William Tailer ( February 25 , 1675 / 6 – March 1 , 1731 / 2 ) was a military officer and politician in the Province of Massachusetts Bay . Born into the wealthy and influential Stoughton family , he twice married into other politically powerful families . He served as lieutenant governor of the province from 1711 until 1716 , and again in the early 1730s . During each of these times he was briefly acting governor . He was a political opponent of Governor Joseph Dudley , and was a supporter of a land bank proposal intended to address the province 's currency problems . During his first tenure as acting governor he authorized the erection of Boston Light , the earliest lighthouse in what is now the United States .
He was active in the provincial defense , and commanded a regiment in the 1710 siege of Port Royal , the capital of French Acadia , during Queen Anne 's War . He was responsible for overseeing the defenses of Boston in the 1720s , and was sent to negotiate with the Iroquois and Abenaki during Dummer 's War . Jonathan Belcher , initially a political opponent , later became an ally , and selected him to serve as his lieutenant governor in 1730 . Tailer held the post until is death , and was interred in the tomb of his uncle , William Stoughton .
= = Early life and military service = =
William Tailer was born in Dorchester , Massachusetts Bay Colony on February 25 , 1675 / 6 to William Tailer and Rebecca Stoughton Tailer . His mother was the daughter of early Massachusetts settler Israel Stoughton and sister to magistrate William Stoughton . His father was a wealthy landowner and merchant . His father owned commercial real estate in Boston and was a member of the Atherton Company , one of New England 's most powerful and well @-@ connected land development partnerships . He was also one of " a selected fraternity " of merchants engaged in the " eastward trade " with neighboring French Acadia , one of whose leading members was Boston merchant John Nelson . Tailer 's father committed suicide in 1682 , apparently suffering from depression which may have been brought on by financial reverses .
The younger Tailer inherited a substantial estate ; it was reported that in 1695 his guardians operated five mills on his behalf . He was also a beneficiary of the large estate of his uncle , who died a childless bachelor . By 1702 Tailer had married Sarah Byfield , daughter to Nathaniel Byfield , another leading colonial magistrate . She died childless in about 1708 . Byfield and Tailer 's father had been business partners , a relationship that Tailer continued .
He served in the provincial militia during Queen Anne 's War . In 1710 he commanded a militia regiment that saw action at the capture of Port Royal , Acadia . Following the victory he went London with Francis Nicholson , the expedition 's leader , where he was " bigg with expectation " of advancement . His expectations were rewarded with a commission as lieutenant governor of the Province of Massachusetts Bay , serving under Governor Joseph Dudley . He then returned to Massachusetts , where he was again active in the defense of the colonies , serving at Fort William and Mary in New Hampshire , and reporting on the frontier defenses in what is now southern Maine ( but was then part of Massachusetts ) .
In early 1711 / 2 he married Abigail Gillam Dudley , widow of Joseph Dudley 's grandson Thomas . The couple had six children , who they raised in the old Stoughton homestead in Dorchester . Tailer joined the Ancient and Honorable Artillery Company in 1712 and was elected as its captain the same year .
= = Acting governor of Massachusetts = =
Tailer was elected to the Governor 's Council from 1712 to 1729 , and was on three separate occasions commissioned as lieutenant governor of Massachusetts . Despite his connection by marriage to the Dudleys , he had an awkward political relationship with the governor during the period of his first two commissions . A number of Anglicans in the colony , Tailer among them , were skeptical of Dudley 's faith . ( Dudley had been raised in the Puritan way , and had formally adopted Anglican practices while in England in the 1690s . ) He and Dudley were also on opposite sides of the debate on the province 's currency problems . Dudley favored the issuance of public bills of credit as a means to circumvent the inflationary issuance of paper currency that had become a serious problem by the end of Queen Anne 's War in 1713 , while Tailer , along with his father @-@ in @-@ law Nathaniel Byfield and others , favored the establishment of a private land bank , that would issue bills secured by the lands of its investors .
Byfield in 1714 went to London to lobby on behalf of the land bank interests , and to seek for himself the post of governor , which was open for consideration after the accession of King George I to the throne . He was unsuccessful in acquiring the governorship , but was able to convince Colonel Elizeus Burges , who had been chosen to replace Dudley , to keep Tailer on as lieutenant governor . Burges , however , was bribed by land bank opponents to resign his post before leaving England . The commissions of Burges and Tailer had by then been sent to Massachusetts , and Tailer became acting governor in November 1715 after they were formally proclaimed .
Immediately after taking office Tailer engaged in political housecleaning , eliminating land bank opponents and Dudley supporters from a number of provincial positions . His efforts , however , backfired : the provincial assembly elected Joseph Dudley 's son Paul as attorney general , and London agents of the anti @-@ bank party worked to ensure Tailer 's replacement . ( One of those agents , Jonathan Belcher , would ironically become a Tailer ally in later years and secure the lieutenant governorship for him the third time . ) Through their efforts the king chose Colonel Samuel Shute , a land bank opponent , to replace Burges , and William Dummer as Shute 's lieutenant governor . Tailer was turned out of office with Shute 's arrival in October 1716 . Shute deliberately snubbed Tailer upon his arrival , choosing to first meet with the Dudleys instead .
The only major long @-@ term accomplishment of Tailer 's tenure as acting governor was the establishment of Boston Light , the first lighthouse built in what is now the United States . While a member of the assembly , Tailer had sat on the legislative committee that drafted the enabling and funding bills , and he signed them after he became governor .
= = Provincial military service = =
He next traveled to England . There he lobbied , on behalf of John Nelson , heir to Sir Thomas Temple 's claims to Nova Scotia . Nelson sought recompense for the loss of the territory in the 1667 Treaty of Breda , but Tailer 's efforts were in vain . He also lobbied on his own behalf for a military pension . He successfully convinced Lord Cobham that he deserved one for his service at Port Royal in 1710 , and was awarded the half pay of a colonel , amounting to £ 400 per year . John Nelson observed that Tailer 's loss of the lieutenant governorship ( worth £ 50 per year ) " has proved much to his advantage " .
Tailer eventually returned to Massachusetts . Under Shute 's governorship he was several times involved in negotiations with Indians on the northern frontiers , and continued to be active in the provincial militia . Tailer accompanied Shute on an expedition to Maine to negotiate with the Abenaki of northern New England in 1717 . Shute handled the negotiations poorly , raising tensions between the Abenaki and British settlers . In 1720 Tailer was one of several commissioners sent to mediate between the settlers and Abenaki . Although a potential basis for agreement was identified , continued raiding and disagreement on the details of proposed terms caused the situation to deteriorate further . Shute declared war on the Abenaki in July 1722 following raids against British settlements on the Maine coast .
Shute 's ongoing conflicts with the provincial assembly prompted him to leave for England in early 1723 , leaving handling of the war in Lieutenant Governor Dummer 's hands . Tailer was one of the lead members of a party sent in 1723 to Albany , New York in an attempt to convince the Iroquois to join the conflict against the Abenaki . The embassy was unsuccessful : the Iroquois resisted all attempts to bring them into the war against the Abenaki . Tailer continued to be involved in the war , where he was responsible for maintaining Boston 's defenses .
= = Reprise as acting governor = =
Tailer 's politics shifted during the 1720s , and he and Byfield came to align more closely with the populist faction . As a result he and one @-@ time opponent Jonathan Belcher became allies . When Governor William Burnet died in 1729 , Belcher was in London , acting as agent for Connecticut and assisting in lobbying against Burnet 's unpopular insistence on a permanent salary . Belcher successfully gained for himself the post of governor , and then secured for Tailer another appointment as lieutenant governor . Tailer 's commission was proclaimed before Belcher 's arrival , and he briefly served as acting governor while awaiting his superior 's arrival . The few months were uneventful , as the province was then suffering from an outbreak of smallpox , because of which Tailer prorogued the assembly .
Tailer died in Dorchester , while serving as lieutenant governor , in March 1731 / 2 . His pallbearers included Governor Belcher and other leading political figures . He is buried in the tomb of his uncle , Willam Stoughton , in what is now called the Dorchester North Burying Ground .
= David Freese =
David Richard Freese ( born April 28 , 1983 ) is an American professional baseball third baseman for the Pittsburgh Pirates of Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . He began his MLB career with the St. Louis Cardinals , where he was a key player during the 2011 postseason , batting .545 with 12 hits in the 2011 National League Championship Series ( NLCS ) . He also set an MLB postseason record of 21 runs batted in ( RBI ) , earning the NLCS MVP Award and World Series MVP Award . In addition , Freese won the Babe Ruth Award , naming him the MVP of the 2011 MLB postseason .
A star high school player , Freese declined a college baseball scholarship from the University of Missouri . Needing a break from baseball , he sat out his freshman year of college before feeling a renewed urge to play the game . He transferred to St. Louis Community College – Meramec , a junior college , where he played for one season before transferring to the University of South Alabama . The San Diego Padres selected Freese in the ninth round of the 2006 MLB draft .
The Cardinals acquired Freese before the 2008 season . He made his MLB debut on Opening Day 2009 due to an injury to starting third baseman Troy Glaus . Despite suffering his own injuries in the minor leagues and in his first two MLB seasons , Freese batted .297 with 10 home runs and 55 RBI during the Cardinals ' 2011 World Series championship season . The next season , he batted .293 with 20 home runs and was selected to his first MLB All @-@ Star Game . Freese authored a 20 @-@ game hitting streak in 2013 , but back injuries limited his effectiveness , and the Cardinals traded him to the Angels following the season . He played for the Angels for two seasons before signing with the Pirates in March 2016 .
= = Early life = =
Born in Corpus Christi , Texas , Freese was raised in the Greater St. Louis area , in Wildwood , Missouri . He grew up a fan of the St. Louis Cardinals . He graduated in 2001 from Lafayette High School in Wildwood . Freese recorded a Lafayette @-@ record .533 batting average and 23 home runs during his senior season . He was considered to be the best shortstop in the state .
As a senior in high school , Freese was offered a scholarship to play college baseball for the University of Missouri 's baseball team . Feeling burned out , Freese decided to quit the sport , but he studied computer science at Missouri and was a member of the Sigma Alpha Epsilon fraternity .
During the summer after his freshman year , Freese worked for the Rockwood School District maintenance department . When he visited Lafayette High School towards the end of the summer , he realized how much he missed baseball . Freese asked Tony Dattoli , the coach at St. Louis Community College – Meramec , for a roster spot . In one season at St. Louis Community College , Freese hit .396 with 41 runs batted in ( RBI ) and 10 home runs and was named to the National Junior College Athletic Association All @-@ America second team .
Dattoli recommended Freese to Steve Kittrell , the head coach of the Jaguars baseball team at the University of South Alabama . At South Alabama , opposing teams respected his hitting ability ; scouts told their pitchers : " Don 't let Freese beat us . " As a junior in 2005 , Freese hit .373 , with a .443 on @-@ base percentage ( OBP ) , .525 slugging percentage ( SLG ) , and 52 runs scored in 56 games . He was seventh in the Sun Belt Conference ( SBC ) in average and led the school one year after Adam Lind had done so . Freese was even better in 2006 , hitting .414 with a .503 OBP and .661 SLG with 73 runs and 73 RBI in 60 games . He won the SBC batting title and led the conference in RBI . He tied for ninth in Division I in RBI , was 12th in average and just missed the top 10 in runs scored . He made the All @-@ Conference team at third base and was named SBC Player of the Year . He was named an American Baseball Coaches Association All @-@ American as the top third baseman in NCAA Division I , ahead of Evan Longoria and Pedro Alvarez , among others . Kittrell considers Freese to be the best player he coached at South Alabama , where he also coached Lind , Luis Gonzalez and Juan Pierre .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Minor leagues : 2006 – 2008 = = =
Prior to the 2006 Major League Baseball Draft , the Boston Red Sox attempted to sign Freese for $ 90 @,@ 000 . However , South Alabama made the College World Series regional playoffs , which extended their season past the pre @-@ draft signing deadline .
Freese was drafted by the San Diego Padres in the ninth round ( 273rd overall ) of the draft . Freese played for the Eugene Emeralds of the Class @-@ A Short Season Northwest League , Fort Wayne Wizards of the Class @-@ A Midwest League and Lake Elsinore Storm of the Class @-@ A Advanced California League in the San Diego farm system in 2006 and 2007 . He batted .379 with a .465 OBP , .776 SLG , 19 runs and 26 RBI in 18 games for the Emeralds and .299 with a .374 OBP , .510 SLG and 44 RBI in 53 games for the Wizards in 2006 . Freese batted .302 with a .400 OBP and .489 SLG for Lake Elsinore in 128 games during the 2007 season . He scored 104 runs and drove in 96 . He ranked seventh in the California League in OBP , seventh in RBI and tied with Tony Granadillo for third in runs . He made the California League All @-@ Star team . However , the Padres had third basemen Chase Headley and Kevin Kouzmanoff as well , potentially blocking Freese 's path to the majors . As a result , Freese began to practice as a catcher .
Before the 2008 season , Freese was traded by the Padres to the Cardinals for Jim Edmonds . He spent the season with the Memphis Redbirds of the Triple @-@ A Pacific Coast League ( PCL ) , where he batted .306 with a .361 OBP and .550 SLG , hit 26 home runs and recorded 91 RBI . He led PCL third basemen in fielding percentage ( .967 ) and double plays ( 26 ) .
= = = St. Louis Cardinals = = =
= = = = Early MLB career : 2009 – 2010 = = = =
Freese emerged as a potential starter when an injury seemed likely to put Cardinals starting third baseman Troy Glaus on the disabled list at the beginning of the 2009 season . Freese made his MLB debut on Opening Day of the 2009 season , coming off the bench and hitting a go @-@ ahead sacrifice fly in the Cardinals ' home opener against the Pittsburgh Pirates . Freese was expected to be the team 's starting third baseman , but was quickly passed over by Brian Barden and Joe Thurston . He was optioned to Triple @-@ A Memphis on April 20 , 2009 to make room for newly acquired reliever Blaine Boyer . He later had surgery to repair a left ankle injury that hampered him during spring training . He missed two months of the season . He was activated and assigned to the Springfield Cardinals of the Double @-@ A Texas League in late July , before he was assigned to Memphis . He led the Memphis Redbirds to a PCL division championship . He was recalled in the September call @-@ up on September 23 , 2009 . Freese played only 17 games for the Cardinals in 2009 , in addition to 56 games for Triple @-@ A Memphis .
Freese began the 2010 season as the Cardinals ' starting third baseman . However , he suffered a right ankle injury in June . This injury required him to have two ankle surgeries and ended his season after 70 games .
= = = = Breakout season : 2011 = = = =
Freese was projected to start the 2011 season , and he was named the starter on Opening Day , despite suffering minor ailments during spring training . He started off the year batting over .320 , but he missed 51 games after being hit by a pitch that fractured his left hand . After returning to the starting lineup , he finished the season with a .297 batting average , 10 home runs , and 55 RBI . He recorded hits in eight of the final nine regular @-@ season games . Freese credited his improvement in power hitting to hitting coach Mark McGwire , who helped him refine his stroke .
= = = = = 2011 postseason = = = = =
In his first playoff series , he drove in 4 runs against Philadelphia in Game 4 to force a fifth game . In the National League Championship Series ( NLCS ) against Milwaukee , Freese had a .545 batting average , hit 3 home runs , drove in 9 runs , and scored 7 runs . He was named the NLCS Most Valuable Player . Through Game 3 of the World Series against Texas , Freese had a 13 @-@ game postseason hitting streak , a Cardinals record and just two short of matching the all @-@ time National League record . The hitting streak was snapped in Game 4 .
In Game 6 of the 2011 World Series , with the Texas Rangers leading the game 7 – 5 , and leading the series by 3 games to 2 , Freese came to bat in the bottom of the ninth with two out and two men on base . With a count of one ball and two strikes , Freese hit a two @-@ run triple off Neftalí Feliz just out of the reach of Nelson Cruz to tie the game and send it to extra innings . In the 11th inning , again with two strikes , Freese hit a game @-@ winning lead @-@ off , walk @-@ off , solo home @-@ run to deep center field ( 420 feet ) , to send the World Series to its first Game 7 since 2002 . Freese joined Jim Edmonds , the man he was traded for , as the only players in Cardinals history to hit an extra @-@ inning walk @-@ off home run in the postseason . He joined Aaron Boone ( 2003 ) , David Ortiz ( 2004 ) and Hall of Famers Carlton Fisk ( 1975 ) and Kirby Puckett ( 1991 ) as the only players to hit an extra @-@ inning walk @-@ off home run when their team was facing postseason elimination .
In Game 7 of the World Series , Freese hit a two @-@ run double in the bottom of the first inning , bringing his 2011 postseason RBI total to 21 , an MLB record . The Cardinals went on to win the game and the series , making Freese a World Series champion for the first time . For his efforts , Freese was named the World Series MVP . He became the sixth player to win the LCS and World Series MVP awards in the same year . Freese also won the Babe Ruth Award as the postseason MVP .
= = = = 2012 season = = = =
Freese won the All @-@ Star Final Vote in 2012 , joining the All @-@ Star roster with teammates Lance Lynn , Carlos Beltrán , Rafael Furcal , and Yadier Molina for the National League in the 2012 MLB All @-@ Star Game . Freese had a .294 batting average , along with 13 home runs and 50 RBI in the first half of the season . After being injury @-@ plagued in previous years , Freese played in a career @-@ high 144 games in 2012 , finishing the season with 79 RBIs , 20 home runs and a .293 batting average . In the 2012 NLCS against the San Francisco Giants , Freese hit a two @-@ run home run off Madison Bumgarner in Game 1 . Through this point in his postseason career , Freese had played 25 games , batting .386 with 11 doubles , six home runs , 25 RBIs and a .739 slugging percentage in 100 plate appearances . Only Carlos Beltrán ( .824 ) and Babe Ruth ( .744 ) had higher slugging percentages among players with 100 or more plate appearances in the postseason . However , he slumped after that game , batting just .192 for the series as the Giants won in seven games and advanced to the 2012 World Series .
= = = = 2013 season = = = =
On February 8 2013 , Freese and the Cardinals reached agreement on a one @-@ year contract , avoiding arbitration . This was the first season he was arbitration @-@ eligible and when filing he had requested a 2013 salary of $ 3 @.@ 75 million . The Cardinals counter @-@ offered $ 2 @.@ 4 million . After suffering a back injury in spring training and starting the 2013 season on the disabled list , Freese struggled at the plate for much of the first six weeks of the season , having only four RBIs by mid @-@ May . However , on 17 May , Freese began a twenty @-@ game hitting streak , the longest of any MLB player to that point in the 2013 season . The streak ended on June 12 .
On August 16 , the Cardinals promoted Kolten Wong to play second base , intending for Matt Carpenter to play third base , reducing Freese 's playing time . In the postseason , he collected just 10 hits in 56 at @-@ bats as the Cardinals fell to the Boston Red Sox in the 2013 World Series .
= = = Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim = = =
= = = = 2014 season = = = =
After the 2013 season , the Cardinals traded Freese and Fernando Salas to the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim for Peter Bourjos and Randal Grichuk . Again eligible for salary arbitration for the 2014 season , Freese filed for a $ 6 million salary while the Angels countered with $ 4 @.@ 1 million ; they settled on a $ 5 @.@ 05 million salary . Freese had a slow start , ending May with a .203 batting average , and improved from June through August , batting .292 in those months . He hit a home run against the Kansas City Royals in the first game of the 2014 American League Division Series for his 24th postseason extra @-@ base hit and 30th RBI .
= = = = 2015 season = = = =
In his last year of arbitration before becoming eligible for free agency , Freese requested a $ 7 @.@ 6 million salary for the 2015 season , while the Angels filed for $ 5 @.@ 25 million . The two sides avoided arbitration by agreeing on a $ 6 @.@ 425 million salary . Freese entered the 2015 season as the Angels everyday third baseman , and hit .240 with 11 homers and 43 RBI in 90 games . He broke his right index finger when it was hit by a pitch on July 22 , and went on the disabled list .
= = = Pittsburgh Pirates = = =
Freese entered free agency after the 2015 season . Rather than re @-@ sign Freese , the Angels chose to trade for Yunel Escobar . Unsigned at the beginning of spring training in 2016 , Freese signed a one @-@ year contract with the Pittsburgh Pirates worth $ 3 million on March 11 . Neal Huntington , the Pirates ' general manager , indicated that Freese would play third base while Jung @-@ ho Kang rehabilitated from an injury , and would join John Jaso in a platoon at first base after Kang 's return .
= = Personal life = =
Freese 's father , Guy , is a civil engineer . His mother , Lynn , is a retired teacher . Freese also has a sister , Pam . According to his mother , Freese — a professed lifelong Cardinals fan — had an original Ozzie Smith glove , and while pitching in his younger years always used number 45 in honor of another Cardinals legend , pitcher Bob Gibson . Freese is a Christian . He is of German descent , the Freese family originally hailing from Westerkappeln , Westphalia .
In December 2009 , Freese was arrested for driving under the influence in Maryland Heights , Missouri , a suburb of St. Louis . Breath tests indicated a .232 blood alcohol content ; the state 's legal limit is .08 . Freese had also been arrested in November 2002 in Maryland Heights for driving while intoxicated . The 2009 arrest was a violation of Freese 's probation , due to a September 2007 arrest for resisting arrest ( amongst other charges ) in Lake Elsinore , California .
Freese crashed his Range Rover SUV into a tree in Wildwood , Missouri , a suburb of St. Louis , on November 22 , 2012 . Local investigators stated that the crash was a result of Freese 's swerving to avoid hitting a wild deer . Alcohol was not a factor in the crash .
In June 2013 , Freese signed a three @-@ year deal to endorse and serve as spokesman for Imo 's Pizza , a Midwestern pizza chain headquartered in the St. Louis area . No financial terms of the deal were announced other than as part of the contract Imo 's would also donate $ 10 @,@ 000 to a St. Louis area charity in Freese 's name .
During the offseason , he lives in St. Louis .
= Richard Mentor Johnson =
Richard Mentor Johnson ( October 17 , 1780 [ a ] – November 19 , 1850 ) was the ninth Vice President of the United States , serving in the administration of Martin Van Buren ( 1837 – 41 ) . He is the only vice president ever elected by the United States Senate under the provisions of the Twelfth Amendment . Johnson also represented Kentucky in the U.S. House of Representatives and Senate ; he began and ended his political career in the Kentucky House of Representatives .
Johnson was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1806 . He became allied with fellow Kentuckian Henry Clay as a member of the War Hawks faction that favored war with Britain in 1812 . At the outset of the War of 1812 , Johnson was commissioned a colonel in the Kentucky Militia and commanded a regiment of mounted volunteers from 1812 to 1813 . He and his brother James served under William Henry Harrison in Upper Canada . Johnson participated in the Battle of the Thames . Some reported that he personally killed the Shawnee chief Tecumseh , which he later used to his political advantage .
After the war , Johnson returned to the House of Representatives . The legislature appointed him to the Senate in 1819 to fill the seat vacated by John J. Crittenden . As his prominence grew , his interracial relationship with Julia Chinn , an octoroon slave , was more widely criticized . It worked against his political ambitions . Unlike other upper class leaders who had African American mistresses but never mentioned them , Johnson openly treated Chinn as his common law wife . He acknowledged their two daughters as his children , giving them his surname , much to the consternation of some of his constituents . The relationship is believed to have led to the loss of his Senate seat in 1829 , but his Congressional district returned him to the House the next year .
In 1836 , Johnson was the Democratic nominee for vice @-@ president on a ticket with Martin Van Buren . Campaigning with the slogan " Rumpsey Dumpsey , Rumpsey Dumpsey , Colonel Johnson killed Tecumseh " , Johnson fell just short of the electoral votes needed to secure his election . Virginia 's delegation to the Electoral College went against the state 's popular vote and refused to endorse Johnson . However , he was elected to the office by the Senate , which was dominated by Democrats .
Johnson proved such a liability for the Democrats in the 1836 election that they refused to renominate him for vice @-@ president in 1840 . Van Buren campaigned without a running mate . He lost to William Henry Harrison , a Whig . Johnson tried to return to public office but was defeated . He finally was elected to the Kentucky House of Representatives in 1850 , but he died on November 19 , 1850 , just two weeks into his term .
= = Early life and education = =
Richard Mentor Johnson was born on October 17 , 1780 , the fifth of Robert and Jemima ( Suggett ) Johnson 's eleven children . At the time , the family was living in the newly founded settlement of " Beargrass " , near present @-@ day Louisville , Kentucky ; Kentucky was part of Virginia until organized and admitted as a state in 1792 .
By 1782 , the Johnsons had moved to Bryan 's Station ( future Lexington ) in Fayette County . Johnson 's mother was considered among the heroic women of the community because of her actions during Simon Girty 's raid on Bryan 's Station in August 1782 . According to tradition , as Girty 's forces surrounded the fort , the occupants discovered that they had almost no water inside to withstand a siege . Several Indians had concealed themselves near the spring outside the fort . The Kentuckians reasoned that the Indians would stay hidden until they attacked . Jemima Johnson approved a plan for the women to go alone and collect water from the spring as usual . Many men disapproved of the plan , fearing the women would be attacked and killed . However , faced with no other option they finally agreed . Shortly after sunrise , the women went to the spring and returned without incident .
Not long after they had returned , the attack began . Indian warriors set fire to several houses and stables , but a favorable wind kept the fires from spreading . Children used the water drawn by the women to put out the fires . A flaming arrow landed in baby Richard Johnson 's crib , but it was doused by his sister Betsy . Help arrived from Lexington and Boone Station , and the Indians retreated .
By 1784 , the Johnson family was at Great Crossing in Scott County . In 1779 , Johnson purchased 2000 acres from Patrick Henry and a large portion of James Madison 's 3000 @-@ acre land grant in the area . As a surveyor , Robert Johnson became successful through well @-@ chosen land purchases and being early in the region when huge land grants were made .
The son Richard Johnson did not begin his formal education until age fifteen , since there were no schools on the frontier . He entered Transylvania University in Lexington , Kentucky . By 1799 , he was studying law ( reading the law ) as a legal apprentice with George Nicholas and James Brown . They were professors of law at the University in addition to being in private practice . This was the customary way for many young men to enter the law .
At least two of Johnson 's brothers had notable careers as well : the eldest , James Johnson , went into shipping and stagecoach lines . A younger brother , John T. Johnson , became a minister and prominent in the Christian Churches , a 19th @-@ century movement in the Protestant congregations .
= = Career = =
Johnson was admitted to the Kentucky bar in 1802 , and opened his office at Great Crossing . Later , he owned a retail store and pursued a number of business ventures with his brothers . Johnson often worked pro bono for poor people , prosecuting their cases when they had merit . He also opened his home to disabled veterans , widows , and orphans .
= = Marriage and family = =
Family tradition holds that Johnson broke off an early marital engagement when he was about sixteen years old because of his mother 's disapproval . Purportedly Johnson vowed revenge for his mother 's interference . Despite the fact that the engagement was broken off , a daughter named Celia was born . She was raised by the Johnson family and later married to Wesley Fancher , one of the men who served in Johnson 's regiment at the Battle of the Thames .
After his father died , Richard Johnson inherited Julia Chinn , an octoroon slave ( one @-@ eighth African , seven @-@ eighths European in ancestry ) . Johnson began a long @-@ term relationship with her and treated her as his common @-@ law wife . They were prohibited from marrying because she was a slave . When Johnson was away from his Kentucky plantation , he authorized Chinn to manage his business affairs . She died in an epidemic of cholera in the summer of 1833 , to Johnson 's great grief .
Johnson and Chinn had two daughters , Adaline ( or Adeline ) Chinn Johnson and Imogene Chinn Johnson , whom he acknowledged and gave his surname . He provided for their education . Both daughters married white men . Johnson gave them large farms as dowries from his own holdings . There is confusion about whether Adeline Chinn Scott had children ; a 2007 account by the Scott County History Museum said she had at least one son , Robert Johnson Scott . Meyers said that she was childless . There is also disagreement about the year of her death . Bevins writes that Adeline died in the 1833 cholera epidemic . Meyers wrote she died in 1836 . The Library of Congress notes that she died in February 1836 .
Although Johnson treated these two daughters as his own , according to Meyers , the surviving Imogene was prevented from inheriting his estate at the time of his death . The court noted she was illegitimate , and so without rights in the case . Upon Johnson 's death , the Fayette County Court found that " he left no widow , children , father , or mother living . " It divided his estate between his living brothers , John and Henry .
Bevins ' account , written for the Georgetown & Scott County Museum , says that Adeline 's son Robert Johnson Scott ; a nephew , Richard M. Johnson , Jr . ; and Imogene 's family " acquired " Johnson 's remaining land after his death . This could mean that his brothers settled some property on Adeline 's son and Imogene and her husband Daniel , as well as Johnson 's nephew , but such generosity would have been unusual for white families to extend to an interracial branch of the family at the time .
After his wife 's death , Johnson began an intimate relationship with another family slave . When she left him for another man , Johnson had her picked up and sold at auction . Afterward he began a similar relationship with her sister , also a slave .
= = Political career = =
Johnson entered politics in 1804 , when he was elected to represent Scott County in the Kentucky House of Representatives . He was twenty @-@ three years old . Although the Kentucky Constitution imposed an age requirement of twenty @-@ four for members of the House of Representatives , Johnson was so popular that no one raised questions about his age , and he was allowed to take his seat . He was placed on the Committee on Courts of Justice . During his tenure , he supported legislation to protect settlers from land speculators . On January 26 , 1807 , he delivered an address condemning the Burr conspiracy .
In 1806 , Johnson was elected as a Democratic @-@ Republican to the United States House of Representatives . At the time of his election in August 1806 , he did not meet the U.S. Constitution 's age requirement for service in the House ( 25 ) , but by the time the congressional session began the following March , he met the required age . He was re @-@ elected and served six consecutive terms . From 1807 to 1813 , he represented Kentucky 's Fourth District .
He secured one of Kentucky 's at @-@ large seats in the House from 1813 to 1815 , and represented Kentucky 's Third District from 1815 to 1819 . He continued to represent the interests of the poor as a member of the House . He first came to national attention with his opposition to rechartering the First Bank of the United States .
Johnson served as chairman of the Committee on Claims during the Eleventh Congress ( 1809 – 1811 ) . The committee was charged with adjudicating financial claims made by veterans of the Revolutionary War . He sought to influence the committee to grant the claim of Alexander Hamilton 's widow to wages which Hamilton had declined when serving under George Washington . Although Hamilton was a champion of the rival Federalist Party , Johnson had compassion for Hamilton 's widow ; before the end of his term , he secured payment of the wages .
= = = War of 1812 = = =
The War of 1812 was extraordinarily popular in Kentucky ; Kentuckians depended on sea trade through the port of New Orleans and feared that the British would stir up another Indian war . [ b ] After the election of 1808 , Johnson was one of the War Hawks , a group of legislators who clamored for war with the British .
Congress declared war in June 1812 , and after its adjournment , Johnson returned to Kentucky to recruit volunteers . So many men responded that he chose only those with horses , and raised a body of mounted rifles . Johnson recruited 300 men , divided into three companies , who elected him major . They merged with another battalion , forming a regiment of 500 men , with Johnson as colonel . [ c ]
Johnson 's force was originally intended to join General William Hull at Detroit , but Hull surrendered Detroit on August 16 and his army was captured . Johnson reported to William Henry Harrison , Territorial Governor of Indiana , then in command of the entire Northwest frontier . He was ordered to relieve Fort Wayne in the northeast of the Territory , which was already being attacked by the Indians . On September 18 , 1812 , Johnson 's men reached Fort Wayne in time to save it , and turned back an Indian ambush . They returned to Kentucky and disbanded , going out of their way to burn Potawatomi villages along the Elkhart River .
Johnson returned to his seat in Congress in the late fall of 1812 . Based on his experience , he proposed a plan to defeat the mobile , guerrilla warfare of the Indians . American troops moved slowly , dependent on a supply line . Indians would evade battle and raid supplies until the American forces withdrew or were overrun . Mounted riflemen could move quickly , carry their own supplies , and live off the woods . If they attacked Indian villages in winter , the Indians would be compelled to stand and fight for the supplies they used to wage war , and could be decisively defeated . Johnson submitted this plan to President James Madison and Secretary of War John Armstrong , who approved it in principle . They referred the plan to Harrison , who found winter operations impracticable . Johnson was permitted to try the tactics in the summer of 1813 ; later the US conducted Indian wars in winter with his strategy .
Johnson left Washington , D.C. just before Congress adjourned . He raised one thousand men , nominally part of the militia brigade under Kentucky Governor Isaac Shelby , but largely operating independently . He disciplined his men , required that every man have arms in prime condition and ready to hand , and hired gunsmiths , blacksmiths , and doctors at his own expense . He devised a new tactical system : when any group of men encountered the enemy , they were to dismount , take cover , and hold the enemy in place . All groups not in contact were to ride to the sound of firing , and dismount , surrounding the enemy when they got there . Between May and September , Johnson raided throughout the Northwest , burning the war supply centers of Indian villages , surrounding Indian fighting units and scattering them , killing some Indian warriors each time .
In September , Oliver Hazard Perry destroyed most of the British fleet at the Battle of Lake Erie , taking control of the lake . This put the British army , then at Fort Malden ( now Amherstburg , Ontario ) out of supply , and threatened to cut it off from the rest of Canada by a landing to the east . The British , under General Henry Procter , withdrew to the northeast , followed by Harrison , who had advanced through Michigan while Johnson kept the Indians engaged . The Indian chiefTecumseh and his tribe , hired as mercenaries , covered the British retreat , but were countered by Johnson , who had been called back from a raid on Kaskaskia that had taken the post where the British had distributed arms and money to their hired Indians .. Johnson 's cavalry defeated Tecumseh 's main force on September 29 , took British supply trains on October 3 , and was one of the factors inducing Procter to stand and fight at the Battle of the Thames on October 5 , as Tecumseh had been demanding he do .
At the battle itself , Johnson 's forces were the first to attack . One battalion of five hundred men , under Johnson 's elder brother , James Johnson , engaged the British force of eight hundred regulars ; simultaneously , Richard Johnson , with the other , now somewhat smaller battalion , attacked the fifteen hundred Indians led by Tecumseh . There was too much tree cover for the British volleys to be effective against James Johnson ; three quarters of the regulars were killed or captured .
The Indians were a harder fight ; they were out of the main field of battle , skirmishing on the edge of an adjacent swamp . Richard Johnson eventually ordered a suicide squad of twenty men to ride forward and draw the Indians ' fire , planning to charge with the rest as they reloaded . But the ground before the Indian position was too swampy to support many cavalry . Johnson had to order his men to dismount and hold until Shelby 's infantry came up . But eventually they broke , and fled into the swamp . At some point in that fight , Tecumseh was slain .
Richard Johnson was credited later with killing Tecumseh personally . Indian reports were that Tecumseh was killed by a man on horseback , and Johnson was one of the few mounted men at that side of the battle . ( His own men had dismounted , and Shelby 's were infantry . ) Furthermore , Johnson , who had been wounded four times already , had been shot in the shoulder by an Indian chief who was advancing to tomahawk Johnson , when he shot back and killed the Indian instantly with a single pistol shot . A nineteenth @-@ century source asserts that Tecumseh 's body was found , near Johnson 's hat and scabbard , shot from above ( as from horseback ) , and wounded with Johnson 's usual load of two buckshot and a pistol ball . [ d ]
Johnson fell unconscious after this duel and was dragged from the battlefield ; in addition to his five wounds , twenty other bullets had hit his horse and gear . But the war in the Northwest was over . Although there was no organized resistance to his presence in Canada , Harrison withdrew to Detroit because of supply problems . ( The Canadians would not feed his men . ) Johnson eventually recovered , except for a crippled hand , but he was still suffering from his wounds when he returned to the House in February 1814 .
On April 4 , 1818 an act of Congress requested that the President of the United States present to Johnson a sword in honor of his " daring and distinguished valor " at the Battle of the Thames . Johnson was only one of 14 military officers to be presented a sword by an act of Congress prior to the American Civil War .
In August 1814 , British forces attacked Washington , D.C. and burned the White House . Congress formed a committee to investigate the circumstances that allowed Washington to be captured . Johnson chaired this committee , and delivered its final report . After the sacking of Washington , the tide of battle turned against the British , and the Treaty of Ghent ended the war even as Johnson prepared to return to Kentucky to raise another military unit . With the end of the war , he turned his legislative attention to issues such as securing pensions for widows and orphans and funding internal improvements in the West .
= = = Post @-@ war career in the House = = =
Johnson believed that Congressional business was too slow and tedious , and that the per diem system of compensation encouraged delays on the part of members . To remedy this , he sponsored the Compensation Act of 1816 . The measure proposed paying annual salaries of $ 1 @,@ 500 to congressmen rather than a $ 6 per diem for the days the body was in session . ( At the time , this had the effect of increasing the total compensation from about $ 900 to $ 1500 . Johnson noted that congressmen had not had a pay increase in 27 years , and that $ 1500 was less than the salaries of the 28 clerks employed by the government . ) Johnson 's bill provided that if a congressman was absent , his salary would be reduced proportionally .
The bill passed the House and Senate quickly and was made law on March 19 , 1816 . But , the measure proved extremely unpopular with voters , in | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
idae , Dysderidae , Geometridae , Pyralidae , Saturniidae , Thyatiridae , Urodidae and Zygaenidae . In choosing names , Edwards favored female characters from the plays of William Shakespeare , such as Ophelia from Hamlet , Hermia from A Midsummer Night 's Dream , and Desdemona from Othello . For example , Edwards collected , classified and named the moth species Catocala ophelia and Catocala hermia in 1880 , and Catocala desdemona in 1882 .
= = = Birth dates = = =
The birth date that Edwards gave as his own varied depending on the time and place he was asked . Parish records show he was christened in England on September 14 , 1827 , and corroborating this date he gave his age as 25 in June 1853 when he first arrived in Australia . However , when questioned in San Francisco for the 1870 United States Census , he gave his birth year as 1830 . Ten years later in Boston , he reported his age as 45 , implying a birth year of 1835 , but he returned to supplying the year 1830 along with the date August 27 for the brief biographical sketches used by theater and entomological publications . Two years before he died , he told a reporter from the Lorgnette that he was born in 1832 . A prominent obituary in The New York Times reported that his family gave his birthday as September 23 , 1830 , but that some published lists of actors ' ages , " not always trustworthy " , put his birth year at 1824 .
= Conisbrough Castle =
Conisbrough Castle is a medieval fortification in Conisbrough , South Yorkshire , England . The castle was initially built in the 11th century by William de Warenne , the Earl of Surrey , after the Norman conquest of England in 1066 . Hamelin Plantagenet , the illegitimate , parvenu son of Henry II , acquired the property by marriage in the late 12th century . Hamelin and his son William rebuilt the castle in stone , including its prominent 28 @-@ metre ( 92 ft ) -high keep . The castle remained in the family line into the 14th century , despite being seized several times by the Crown . The fortification was then given to Edmund of Langley , passing back into royal ownership in 1461 .
Conisbrough fell into ruin , its outer wall badly affected by subsidence , and was given to the Carey family in the 16th century . Its derelict state prevented it from involvement in the English Civil War of the 17th century and the remains were bought by the Duke of Leeds in 1737 . Sir Walter Scott used the location for his 1819 novel Ivanhoe and by the end of the 19th century the ruins had become a tourist attraction , despite the increasing industrial character of the area .
The state took over the management of the property in 1950 , but by the 1980s the visitor facilities were felt to be unsuitable , leading to a three @-@ way partnership being created between the local council , the state agency English Heritage and a local charitable trust to develop the castle . The keep was re @-@ roofed and re @-@ floored in the 1990s with the help of European Union funding . English Heritage took over control of the castle in 2008 and continue to operate the property as a tourist attraction .
The castle is made up of an inner and an outer bailey , the former surrounded by a stone curtain wall defended by six mural towers and the castle keep . The inner bailey would have included a hall , solar , chapel and other service buildings of which only the foundations survive . The design of Conisbrough 's keep is unique in England , and the historians Oliver Creighton and Stephen Johnson consider it an " architectural gem " and " one of the finest examples of late Norman defensive architecture " . The keep comprises a circular central tower with six massive buttresses ; its four floors would have included a main chamber and a private chamber for the lord above it . Although militarily weak , the design would have been a powerful symbol of Hamelin Plantagenet 's new social status as a major lord .
= = History = =
= = = 11th – 12th centuries = = =
Conisbrough Castle was founded by William de Warenne , the first Earl of Surrey , who had taken part in the Norman conquest of England in 1066 and was rewarded by his father @-@ in @-@ law , William the Conqueror , with extensive estates in Yorkshire , Norfolk and Sussex . As part of these , Earl William was given the manor of Conisbrough , which had previously been owned by the late Harold Godwinson . The manor took its name from the Anglo @-@ Saxon name for the settlement , Cyningesburh , meaning " the king 's fortress " , and formed a large estate comprising 28 townships , centred on an Anglo @-@ Saxon fortified burh at Conisbrough itself .
William built his castle on a rocky Magnesian Limestone spur surrounded by steep banks , and the fortification included a motte , an inner bailey protected by an earth bank and palisades , an outer bailey , and possibly a timber keep . The castle was located around 175 feet ( 53 m ) above the river and would have dominated this part of the Don Valley . It was positioned directly opposite the village , which had probably contained the old Anglo @-@ Saxon burh .
The castle was held by William 's son , also called William , from 1088 to 1138 , and then by his son , another William , until his death in 1147 . Conisbrough and the earldom then passed through Isabel , William 's daughter , to her first husband , William de Blois , and then onto to her second husband , Hamelin Plantagenet , whom she married in 1163 . Hamelin was the illegitimate half @-@ brother of King Henry II , who had arranged the marriage , and the union brought him great wealth . Hamelin extensively rebuilt the castle around 1180 to 1190 , including constructing the stone keep ; given his parvenu status , he probably hoped to reinforce perceptions of his new elevated rank . King John visited the castle in 1201 .
= = = 13th – 15th centuries = = =
The castle continued in the ownership of Hamelin Plantagenet 's family , passing to his son William de Warenne in 1202 . William was probably responsible for the construction of new stone curtain walls around the inner bailey , destroying the former earthwork defences in the process . The inner bailey was levelled and William built a hall and service buildings inside the castle , again in stone . Conisbrough was inherited by William 's young son John de Warenne in 1239 , but he was still a minor and the castle was initially managed by his mother , Maud .
Under John , Conisbrough 's constables carried out a range of what the historian Stephen Johnson terms " colourful if rather unlawful dealings " ; one was ultimately charged with having conducted " devilish and innumerable oppressions " . Further work was carried out in the castle during John 's ownership , including modernising the castle hall and solar .
The castle passed to John 's grandson , also called John , in 1304 , who married Joan de Barr . The marriage broke down but John 's attempts to gain a divorce in 1316 failed in the law courts . John blamed Thomas , the Earl of Lancaster , for this and in response he kidnapped Thomas 's wife ; Thomas then retaliated by seizing Conisbrough Castle . Edward II intervened in the dispute and confirmed Thomas as the new owner of the castle . In 1322 , however , Thomas rebelled against the King and was executed , resulting in Edward taking control of Conisbrough himself . The King visited the castle in 1322 , and spent 40 marks on repairing both Conisbrough and the neighbouring castle of Pontefract . Edward was overthrown by his wife Isabella in 1326 and the castle was returned to John . John had hoped to pass the property to his mistress and two illegitimate sons , but he outlived them and on his death in 1347 it reverted to the control of the Crown .
Edward III gave the castle to his own son , Edmund of Langley , the Duke of York , who controlled it until 1402 . Edmund 's eldest son , Edward , owned it until 1415 , when it passed to Maud Clifford , the widow of Edmund 's younger son Richard , who lived there until 1446 . Richard of York then inherited the castle , and on his death in 1460 during the Wars of the Roses it passed to his son Edward , who seized the throne in 1461 , bringing Conisbrough back into Crown ownership once again .
= = = 16th – 19th centuries = = =
By the 16th century Conisbrough Castle was in a poor state of repair , and a royal survey carried out in 1537 and 1538 showed that the gates , bridge and parts of the walls had collapsed in a spectacular land slippage , and that one floor of the keep had also fallen in . The collapse of the walls was a consequence of the instability of the top soil on top of the limestone spur , which was a mixture of clay and sandstone ; once the clay was washed away over time , the remaining sandstone proved extremely unstable and liable to crack .
Henry VIII gave the ruins to the Carey family , who retained it until it passed by marriage into first the Heviningham and then the Coke families . The castle was not involved in the events of the English Civil War in the 17th century , and escaped the slighting that affected many similar properties , probably because the collapse of the outer walls had already made it indefensible and of little military value . In 1737 , after the death of Edward Coke , the castle and the surrounding manor were bought by Thomas Osborne , the Duke of Leeds , for £ 22 @,@ 500 .
In 1811 the novelist Sir Walter Scott passed by the castle and later used it as the location for his novel Ivanhoe , published in 1819 . Scott only had a partial view of the property from the road and the events portrayed in the novel , set at the end of the 12th century , are fictitious ; Scott believed the castle to have been Saxon in origin , a view shared by many 19th century commentators . Although the writer John Wainwright was still able to praise the " picturesque view " around the castle in 1826 , the antiquarian Ecroyd Smith commented with concern in 1887 on the changing character of the location , in particular the factories that were growing up around the new railway line and the " murky atmosphere " the industrial works created .
In 1859 Francis D 'Arcy @-@ Osborne , the Duke of Leeds , died , leaving Conisbrough to his nephew , Sackville Lane @-@ Fox , the Baron Conyers . The keep remained in good condition , but by 1884 it was apparent that repairs were needed and the antiquarian George Clark recommended urgent work to repair the stonework . If finances allowed it , he also urged the reinstallation of a roof and wooden floors . Limited repairs were subsequently approved by the trustees of Lord Conyers , although Clark 's colleague , A. Ellis , expressed concerns that railings to protect the visitors who routinely climbed to the top of the keep had not been funded . A reported £ 500 was spent by the trustees renovating the castle ruins , including the construction of a lodge in the outer bailey for the castle keeper , completed in 1885 , and improvements to the footpaths .
= = = 20th – 21st centuries = = =
Conisbrough Castle was bought by the Conisbrough local council in the 1940s , who placed the castle into the guardianship of the Ministry of Public Works in 1949 , but retained the freehold ownership of the land . Two sets of archaeological excavations were carried out on the site between 1967 and 1969 , exposing the foundations of the buildings in the inner bailey , and then from 1973 to 1977 , examining options for future visitor facilities . By 1984 , when the government agency English Heritage took over the management of the property , the condition of the visitor services was unsatisfactory and the industrial character of the surrounding area was discouraging tourists .
In response , English Heritage and Doncaster Metropolitan Borough Council formed a three @-@ way agreement in 1988 with the Ivanhoe Trust , a local charity designed to generate new employment in the region . Under this agreement the trust would manage the site , English Heritage would maintain the historic fabric of the castle , while the council would construct a new visitors ' centre . A new , controversial visitor 's centre was built in the style of a collection of jousting tents , while the floors and roof of the keep were reinstalled between 1993 and 1995 with European Union funding , in an attempt to limit the erosion of the castle stonework .
Visitor numbers following the investments fell far short of expectations , however , and by 2006 had settled at around 30 @,@ 000 each year , only slightly above the level in the early 1980s . The external facilities did not age well and funding shortages led to the new audio @-@ visual effects in the keep being turned off to save money . Discussions between the three partners about the future of the castle took place , but relations broke down and English Heritage resumed the direct management of the castle in 2008 .
The castle was closed for a £ 1 @.@ 1 million programme of renovations in 2013 , funded by the Heritage Lottery Fund , as part of which a new visitors ' centre and visitor facilities were constructed . The castle is protected under UK law as a Grade I listed building and as an Ancient Monument .
= = Architecture = =
= = = Inner and outer baileys = = =
Conisbrough Castle has an outer and an inner bailey , approximately 260 by 120 feet ( 79 by 37 m ) and 290 by 205 feet ( 88 by 62 m ) across respectively . The castle was entered through the outer bailey , a rectangular enclosure protected by earthworks , which would have contained the castle 's barns , stables and other service facilities . A drawbridge on the northern side of the outer bailey , now replaced by an earth causeway , linked it with the inner bailey .
The oval inner bailey was formed by scarping and counter @-@ scarping the natural contours of the hill , producing a bank , now largely destroyed , and a protective ditch . The early 13th @-@ century curtain wall is mostly of roughly dressed , coursed stone , up to 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) thick and 35 feet ( 11 m ) high , with two sections repaired with ashlar facings . The wall was defended by six mural towers along its southern and western sides , of which three still survive reasonably intact , and strengthened with pilaster buttresses along the northern edge . The bases of the walls and the towers were splayed , spreading their weight out more broadly , but their footings are only 0 @.@ 6 metres ( 2 ft 0 in ) deep in places . A barbican protected the link from the drawbridge to the gatehouse of the inner bailey , complete with an additional corner turret . The remains of the collapse of the curtain wall are still visible in the ditch .
Various buildings were constructed along the inside of the inner bailey wall of similar rough stonework to the curtain wall , but only their foundations remain today . In the south @-@ west corner was the solar block , containing the solar and various chambers . Along the north side was the hall , pushed into an awkward corner of the curtain wall , 70 by 30 feet ( 21 @.@ 3 by 9 @.@ 1 m ) in size and originally probably built two storeys high . Initially constructed with a central hearth , a fireplace was added into the outer wall in the later 13th century . Alongside the hall were a kitchen and pantry , the former with a cellar . On the south @-@ east side of the inner bailey was the castle chapel , 20 by 40 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 by 12 @.@ 2 m ) across .
= = = Keep = = =
Conisbrough 's keep was positioned on the north @-@ east side of the inner bailey . It is an important medieval survival : the historian Sidney Toy considered it to be " one of the finest keeps in England " , the historian Oliver Creighton describes it as an " architectural gem " and Stephen Johnson as " one of the finest examples of late Norman defensive architecture " .
The keep comprises a central circular tower , 62 feet ( 19 m ) in diameter , with six , large solid buttresses projecting outwards to form an hexagonal design , unique in England . It was made from magnesian limestone and 28 metres ( 92 ft ) tall with walls up to 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) thick in places . It has four floors : a ground floor that serves as a basement and a vaulted stone support for the chamber above ; the first floor , through which the keep was accessed ; two upper floors and a roof walk , which was probably covered by a pentice and defended by battlements .
The current concrete stairs to the keep are modern , and the original medieval stairway , made from timber and stone , would have incorporated a drawbridge just before the castle doors . The basement contained a well , which could also be drawn from the 1st floor through a hole in the stone floor .
The keep was designed as a private tower for Hamelin Plantagenet , rather than a grander residence . As a result , it was not designed to accommodate several different households and its layout was simpler than that seen at the contemporary keep of Orford Castle , for example . The 2nd and the 3rd floor would have served as the main chamber and the lord 's private chamber , forming a vertical sequence of rooms , with a vaulted , hexagonal chapel leading off the private chamber , cut into one of the buttresses .
Most of the castle would have been very dark due to the lack of natural light . The main chamber , however , had a large window , 1 foot 10 inches ( 0 @.@ 56 m ) by 4 feet 8 inches ( 1 @.@ 42 m ) , with deep recesses to allow for the thickness of the walls ; two carved seats sat alongside the window . A similar window was placed above it in the private chamber . The keep had relatively advanced fireplaces and flues for this period , the fireplace in the main chamber being exceptionally large and decorated with stone columns and carved capitals .
Conisbrough Castle was probably similar to two other castles owned by the Warren earls . Hamelin Plantagenet was also responsible for the development of Mortemer Castle in France , where a similar keep was built on top of a motte , and Conisbrough might also have had resemblances to Sandal Castle in the north of England , also owned by the earls . The keep 's design was poor from a military perspective , as although the central circular tower would have had defensive advantages , the buttresses introduced 12 vulnerable corners into the stonework , and the keep itself had no arrow slots to permit the defenders to fire on any attackers . Rather than being designed primarily for military defence , it was intended to symbolise and reinforce Hamelin 's lordship and new social status .
= Mr. Lisa Goes to Washington =
" Mr. Lisa Goes to Washington " is the second episode of The Simpsons ' third season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on September 26 , 1991 . In the episode , Lisa enters in an essay contest to write an essay about America 's greatness . When she wins it , she and the family travel to Washington , D.C. where the finals are to be held . Lisa is dismayed after witnessing a bribery scandal in the Senate . In her final essay , she disdains and condemns the government system , which leads to the arrest of the corrupt congressman who accepted the bribe . While Lisa fails to win the contest , her faith in government is restored .
The episode was written by George Meyer and directed by Wes Archer , and it was the first episode for which Al Jean and Mike Reiss served as show runners . It features multiple references to the 1939 film Mr. Smith Goes to Washington , including the scene in which Lisa appeals to Lincoln 's statue at the Lincoln Memorial for advice . Other Washington landmarks referenced in the episode include the Jefferson Memorial , the Watergate Hotel , the Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts , the White House , the National Air and Space Museum , and the Washington Monument .
The episode acquired a Nielsen rating of 12 @.@ 9 , and was the third highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network the week it aired . It received mostly positive reviews from television critics , who praised the episode for its satire on American politics . However , the timber industry criticized the scene in which Lisa witnesses a timber industry lobbyist offering a bribe to the congressman in order to demolish the Springfield Forest . The scene was described as " an easy shot at hard @-@ working people whose only crime is to have been born in a timber town . "
= = Plot = =
Homer takes an interest in the Reading Digest magazine after a copy is sent to the Simpson family 's residence . In the magazine , he notices an ad for a children 's contest in which an essay must be written about what makes America great . Lisa chooses to enter , takes a trip to Springfield Forest , and is inspired to write her essay when she sees the forest 's natural beauty and when a bald eagle lands right by the branch she is sitting under . Lisa 's article is approved for entry in the national finals in Washington , D.C. after the contest judge observes Homer 's poor vocabulary and realizes that he could not have written Lisa 's essay for her .
While Bart and Homer abuse the all @-@ expense @-@ paid perks of their trip , Lisa visits famous monuments for inspiration . At one particular monument , she overhears a corrupt congressman , Bob Arnold , taking a bribe from a representative of a logging industry to demolish Springfield Forest . Heartbroken and disillusioned by the dishonesty of government officials , Lisa tears up her essay and writes a more painful yet truthful essay to show the patriotic judges . The new essay , entitled " Cesspool on the Potomac " , disdains and condemns the government system of corruption and greed , and mentions the names of those involved in the bribery . Lisa 's essay causes a ruckus and elicits a hostile reaction from the judges and audience . Messages are quickly sent around the capital regarding Lisa 's speech and Arnold is arrested , expelled from his job , and sent to jail . Lisa 's essay does not win because of its content , but with the news of the congressman arrested and having become a born @-@ again Christian while in prison , her faith in government is restored , while the contest winner commends Lisa for her courage and honesty . The episode ends with Bart slingshotting the annoying pianist that performed at the contest and as Lisa berates him , Bart tells her that she was the one who inspired him to stand up for what he believes in .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by George Meyer . It is one of The Simpsons creator Matt Groening 's favorite episodes of the earlier seasons because he thought it took the show to another level . Meyer said he has a " deep suspicion of social institutions and tradition in general , " which affected the way he wrote the episode . Al Jean and Mike Reiss , who had written for The Simpsons since the start of the show , took over as show runners for the third season . Their first episode as show runners was " Mr. Lisa Goes to Washington " and they felt a lot of pressure about running the show . Jean and Reiss were so pressured that they did six to seven rewrites of the script to make it funnier . Jean said " one reason for doing all these rewrites is because I kept thinking ' It 's not good enough . It 's not good enough ' , " and Reiss added that " we were definitely scared . We had never run anything before , and they dumped us on this . "
Wes Archer directed " Mr. Lisa Goes to Washington " , which was one of the first episodes to feature the Simpson family traveling to a real @-@ life location . Because much of the episode takes place outside of Springfield , new background and character designs had to be animated . The Simpson family visits several real @-@ life landmarks in Washington , which the animators were able to draw with the help of photographs from the animation studio 's library . The Simpsons director David Silverman grew up in the Washington area so he was able to help out with the designs . Marge 's voice actor , Julie Kavner , said she loved the charm of the family " just being on a trip and experiencing the hotel room they 're staying at , and the integrity of Bart 's character . You know , you just want to kill him for doing all those tricks and pranks . " Jean believes this is one of the secrets of show 's success , the fact that it is about a family and the writers can use experiences from their own or their family 's life as an inspiration in their writing . He thought " Mr. Lisa Goes to Washington " was a perfectly constructed episode in that sense .
= = Cultural references = =
The title and plot of the episode is a parody of the 1939 film Mr. Smith Goes to Washington , in which the character Jefferson Smith comes to Washington with patriotic enthusiasm , but is shocked to see evidence of corruption in the government . The Tampa Tribune 's Curtis Ross called this reference one of the best film references in The Simpsons ' history . Lisa 's visit to the Lincoln Memorial is a direct reference to Mr. Smith Goes to Washington , in which Smith appeals to Lincoln 's statue for inspiration like Lisa did in the episode . In his book Abraham Lincoln in the Post @-@ Heroic Era , Barry Schwartz writes that the scene with Lisa at the crowded monument shows how " thoroughly Lincoln 's moral and emotional significance has waned . " Mark Reinhart writes in the book Abraham Lincoln on Screen that the scene sums up " with brilliant wit " the American society 's " annoying and ultimately useless tendency to ask [ themselves ] ' What would Lincoln have done ? ' whenever [ they ] face a political or social dilemma . " Mr. Smith Goes to Washington was once again referenced on The Simpsons in the season fourteen episode " Mr. Spritz Goes to Washington " .
In addition to the Lincoln Memorial , other Washington , D.C. landmarks visited include the Jefferson Memorial , the Watergate Hotel ( where the family stays ) , the Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts , the White House , the National Air and Space Museum , and the Washington Monument . When the family visits the White House , they encounter former First Lady Barbara Bush in the bathtub of one of the many bathrooms . Another American landmark mentioned in the episode is Mount Rushmore . The scene mentioning that landmark could imply that Springfield is Springfield , South Dakota since Mount Rushmore is in South Dakota . In addition , Lisa proposes that the family attend the memorial of the fictional Winifred Beecher Howe , an early crusader for women 's rights who later appeared on the unpopular 75 @-@ cent coins according to Lisa . This is a reference to the Susan B. Anthony dollar coin , which was only minted for three years and never became popular .
The episode makes references to several real @-@ life persons . The piano @-@ playing satirist who annoys Bart is a reference to Mark Russell and / or Tom Lehrer . Bob Arnold , the corrupt congressman , tells Lisa that there are quite a few women senators , but Lisa asserts that there are only two . At the time of airing there were indeed only two female senators : Nancy Landon Kassebaum of Kansas and Barbara Mikulski of Maryland . Then @-@ President George H. W. Bush is featured briefly in the episode . Shortly after it aired , Bush disparaged The Simpsons in a speech during his re @-@ election campaign on January 27 , 1992 . At that point family values were the cornerstone of Bush 's campaign platform , so he gave the following speech at the National Religious Broadcasters ' convention in Washington : " We are going to keep on trying to strengthen the American family , to make American families a lot more like the Waltons and a lot less like the Simpsons . " As a result , Bush appeared in future episodes in a more negative light .
= = Themes and analysis = =
" Mr. Lisa Goes to Washington " has been labeled as a satire on American politics . Michael Bitzer , in an edited book by Joseph Foy and Stanley Schultz entitled Homer Simpson Goes to Washington , said this episode " espouses the virtues , vices , and varieties of American political culture , public opinion , and ultimately the American Dream . " Bitzer also wrote that The Simpsons , through " skillful " use of satire , demonstrates with this episode " insights into the underlying political culture and public opinion of the United States ' governing system ( and , more broadly , society at large ) . " In his book Gilligan Unbound : Pop Culture in the Age of Globalization , Paul Arthur Cantor said he was amazed by how far the episode " willing to take its corrosive satire of national politics . " He said it " attacks the federal government at its foundation , the patriotic myths upon which its legitimacy lies . It makes fun of the very process by which patriotism is inculcated in the nation 's youth , the hokey contests that lead children to outdo each other in progovernment effusions . " When the corrupt congressman is arrested , Lisa proclaims " The system works ! " Benedict Anderson wrote in the book The Spectre of Comparisons that series creator Matt Groening " assumes that his tickled audience is confident that the system barely works [ ... ] So why does he need to show a patriot at all , especially one who is a deluded little female block @-@ head ? Probably because he , too , wishes to be seen as giving America another chance . Mr. Lisa guarantees his good intentions . "
Günter Beck , a lecturer for the German Academic Exchange Service ( DAAD ) at the Haifa Center for German and European Studies at the University of Haifa in Israel , compared Lisa 's role in the episode to the nineteenth @-@ century American poet and philosopher Henry David Thoreau . He writes that Lisa stands up against the public 's indifference towards the political system that Thoreau criticized , and comments that the emphasis should be " on the brave moral decision to stand up for principles and against the broad public . By this courageous act , ' to do what is right ' , an individual could save the well @-@ being of the whole community . And indeed , Lisa ’ s bravery is the impulse for the state ’ s representatives to carry out their democratic obligations , so she can gladly notice ' The system works ! ' — her trust in democracy and its institutions is restored . Thoreau on the other hand , had no lasting trust in the system but only in the people themselves and in the individual ’ s capacity to realize development and democracy . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Broadcast and re @-@ releases = = =
" Mr. Lisa Goes to Washington " originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on September 26 , 1991 . The episode finished 36th in the ratings for the week of September 23 – 29 , 1991 , with a Nielsen rating of 12 @.@ 9 , equivalent to approximately 11 @.@ 9 million viewing households . The Simpsons was the third highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following Married ... with Children and In Living Color . " Mr. Lisa Goes to Washington " and the episode " When Flanders Failed " were released on videocassette in 1999 , entitled The Best of the Simpsons . The episode was later included on the Simpsons season three DVD set that was released on August 26 , 2003 . Wes Archer , David Silverman , Matt Groening , Al Jean , Mike Reiss , and Julie Kavner participated in the DVD 's audio commentary of the episode .
= = = Critical reviews = = =
Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . It was named the third best episode of The Simpsons by Sarah Culp of The Quindecim , and one of the ten best episodes by Jim Schembri of The Age . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , praised the episode for being one of the best Lisa @-@ centric episodes , and called Lisa 's talk with Thomas Jefferson and her nightmare vision of politicians as pigs " especially worthy of note . " Nate Meyers of Digitally Obsessed gave the episode a 4 @.@ 5 rating and said it is one of the best episodes featuring Lisa , " complete with poignant observations about politics . " He particularly enjoyed the appearance of Barbara Bush at the White House . The Austin American @-@ Statesman 's Steven Stein said this was the first episode of The Simpsons he saw . Even though he did not understand half of the pop culture references , by the end of the episode he was a " Simpsons convert . " He thought there was " something exotic about an issue as serious as political corruption being dealt with in a cartoon and being interrupted by jokes about beer and , yes , doughnuts . "
The episode was praised for its political satire . Bill Gibron of DVD Verdict called the episode a " biting political satire in the guise of a children 's oratory contest " , that " signifies that this season of the series will be all over the map , both emotionally and logically . " Gibron added : " Everything , from the Reader 's Digest rants to the formulaic speeches of the youths , has a resounding ring of truth . And once the story moves to Washington D.C , our nation 's capital is in for a royal reaming as well . " Bryce Wilson of Cinema Blend said the episode solidified the series ' politically satirical voice as it " bitch slapped the Bush administration " that would later badmouth The Simpsons . DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson , however , gave the episode a more negative review , stating that it " has its moments but never seems like one of the series ’ better programs . Part of that stems from its somewhat icky ending . The show exhibits a tone that feels more appropriate to a less biting and cynical series . It starts well with Homer ’ s obsession with Reading Digest . After that , the show seems more erratic , and it remains pretty average overall . "
= = = Response from the timber industry = = =
According to The Plain Dealer 's Rodney Ferguson , the timber industry was insulted by the scene in which a timber industry lobbyist offers a bribe to the corrupt congressman so that he can demolish Springfield Forest . The Oregon Lands Coalition , a pro @-@ timber group in Salem , Oregon , " bombarded " the producers of the show with phone calls and mail protesting the episode . The coalition said it portrayed loggers unfairly and is " allowing itself to be used by environmental extremists . " In an open letter to The Simpsons executive producer James L. Brooks , the coalition wrote : " Rather than approach this issue with genuine concern for Mother Earth , you took an easy shot at hard @-@ working people whose only crime is to have been born in a timber town . " Karen Clark , a payroll clerk for a timber company in Stayton , Oregon , said : " The Simpsons portrayed us as greedy , bribery @-@ type people . It didn 't portray us as the everyday people — mothers , fathers , good members of society — that we are . " Luke Popovich , vice president of the American Forest Council , wrote a letter to the show 's producer to protest " the fuzzy @-@ headed characterizations that pass for political correctness , the thinking in Hollywood where people are not very serious about these issues , but interested in pushing the right hot buttons , scoring the right points with audiences . "
The Simpsons creator Matt Groening responded to the criticism in an interview with TV Guide , in which he said he did " research on the ecological damage caused by clear @-@ cutting and over @-@ logging [ and ] it 's really appalling . " Jackie Lang , a timber industry activist in Salem who helped lead the protest against the Fox network and Groening , said she was appalled by Groening 's response , and " he will be sorry he ever made it . " Jake Hogan , supervising producer of the show , defended Groening : " [ The episodes ] are just little stories , little comedies — stories that make people laugh . " On October 15 , 1991 , Groening issued another statement the public , in which he said : " So now a few lumber companies have joined the nuclear power industry , right @-@ wing preachers and high @-@ ranking Republicans in attacking The Simpsons . We must be doing something right . I must point out The Simpsons is a cartoon show — not 60 Minutes . Later in the show , the same lobbyist proposed drilling for oil in Teddy Roosevelt 's head at Mount Rushmore . Please don 't tell the oil companies about this . "
David Reinhard of The Oregonian commented on the criticism : " Hollywood sharpsters can always make a group from the great American hinterland look ridiculous when it zeroes in on one show , particularly if that show is a cartoon . And the Oregon Lands Coalition 's protest was a bit of an overreaction . But the environmental sloganeering of The Simpsons as well as Groening 's cartoon commentary are symptomatic of a Hollywood and a popular culture that are hostile to the concerns and values of most Americans . " After the episode aired , media researchers Robert Lichter and Linda S. Lichter found in a study of prime @-@ time television that when shows dealt with business themes , 89 percent portrayed businessmen as swindlers or liars .
The same day Groening released his second statement , The Simpsons publicist Antonia Coffman was invited by Wayne Giesy , sales manager of Hull @-@ Oakes Lumber Co. in Bellfountain , Oregon , to visit Oregon and see " responsible timber management . " Giesy said they wanted to show the producers " how we log , how we manufacture , what goods we produce for everyone and how we replant for future generations . What most timber companies are interested in is a balanced program . "
= History of the flags of Romania =
The colors of the national flag of Romania ( Romanian : Drapelul României ) have a long history . Red , yellow and blue were found on late 16th @-@ century royal grants of Michael the Brave , as well as shields and banners . Thus , the late 13th century Wijbergen armorial shows the coat of arms of the Wallachian ruler Litovoi as consisting of a shield of ten vertically alternating gold @-@ and @-@ red bands , which were the colors of the coat of arms of the Second Bulgarian Empire , of which Wallachia was part . The same two colors , gules and or , also appeared on the late 15th century flag and coat of arms of Moldavia , during the reign of Stephen the Great [ 1 ] . Then , from the late 16th century until the mid @-@ 17th century , the historical coat of arms of Transylvania gradually developed as a shield party per fess , consisting of a black eagle on blue background in the upper field , a dividing red band in the middle , and seven red towers on golden background in the lower field . Finally , in the last quarter of the 18th century , Bukovina gets its own coat of arms from the Habsburg Empire , a blue @-@ and @-@ red shield party per pale with a black aurochs ' head in the middle , and three golden six @-@ pointed stars surrounding it . During the Wallachian uprising of 1821 , they were present on the canvas of the revolutionaries ' flag and its fringes ; for the first time a meaning was attributed to them : " Liberty ( sky @-@ blue ) , Justice ( field yellow ) , Fraternity ( blood red ) " .
= = Tricolor = =
The tricolor was first adopted in Wallachia in 1834 , when the reforming domnitor Alexandru II Ghica submitted naval and military colors designs for the approval of Sultan Mahmud II . The latter was a “ flag with a red , blue and yellow face , also having stars and a bird ’ s head in the middle ” . Soon , the order of colors was changed , with yellow appearing in the center . When the flags were handed over for use , Ghica remarked :
In 1840 , in order to differentiate the military colors from the war flag , Ghica adopted a new design for the former : a red @-@ yellow @-@ blue tricolor , with red on top and stripes of equal width . In the center was a white shield bordered with gold and decorated with the Wallachian eagle , wearing the princely crown and with a cross in its beak .
In 1848 , the flag adopted for Wallachia by the revolutionaries that year was a blue @-@ yellow @-@ red tricolor ( with blue above , in line with the meaning “ Liberty , Justice , Fraternity ” ) . Already on 26 April , according to Gazeta de Transilvania , Romanian students in Paris were hailing the new government with a blue , gold and red national flag , “ as a symbol of union between Moldavians and Muntenians ” .
Decree nr . 1 of 14 / 26 June 1848 of the provisional government mentioned that “ the National Flag will have three colors : blue , yellow , red ” , emblazoned with the words “ DPEПTATE ФPЪЦIE ” ( Dreptate , Frăţie or “ Justice , Fraternity ” , in the Romanian transitional alphabet ) . It differed from earlier tricolors in that the blue stripe was on top , the princely symbol was eliminated from the corners , as was the crown atop the eagle at the end of the flagpole , while a motto was now present . These flags were blessed the following day , being intended for use by the National Guard . Today only the Slatina city guard ’ s flag survives . On the blue stripe appear the words ( Frăţie Dreptate or “ Fraternity , Justice ” ) , on the yellow — ( Judeţul Oltŭ or “ Olt County ” ) and on the red — ( Oraşul Slatina or “ The City of Slatina ” ) . It is 124 centimeter long and 110 centimeter wide . The existence of similar flags is confirmed by records , which in some cases even mention the manufacturer ’ s price . Thus , the police observer ’ s flag ( made of chalon or cloth friezed on both sides ) and that of the Bucharest dorobanţi detachment ( made of Tibet wool ) together cost 192 lei and 10 parale . Decree nr . 5 of 18 June ordered garrisons to store old flags in warehouses : “ it being necessary to change flags , new flags will soon be sent to you ” . On 25 June , General Christian Tell asked the provisional government to approve the manufacture of six flags ( three for the infantry and three for the cavalry ) , following which they would be “ submitted to the provisional government for approval ” . His request was granted on 11 July , though the flags were not distributed until 11 September , in a solemn ceremony . On 30 June , Metropolitan Neofit , as prime minister , gave the following disposition : “ the standards of liberty will be raised on all buildings , and the insignia will be carried ” . These symbols were widely employed in demonstrations and raised on public buildings , boats , warships , etc .
Nevertheless , decree nr . 252 of 13 / 25 July 1848 , issued because “ it has not [ yet ] been agreed how the national standards should be designed ” , defined the flag as three vertical stripes , possibly influenced by the French model . The shades were “ dark blue , light yellow and carmine red ” ; as for order , “ near the wood comes blue , then yellow and then red fluttering ” .
Petre Vasiliu @-@ Năsturel observes that from a heraldic point of view , on the French as well as the revolutionary Wallachian flag , the middle stripe represents a heraldic metal ( argent and or respectively ) . Other writers believe that the tricolor was not an imitation of the French flag , instead embodying an old Romanian tradition . This theory is supported by a note from the revolutionary foreign minister to Emin Pasha : “ the colors of the band that we the leaders wear , as well as all our followers , are not of modern origin . We have had our flags since an earlier time . When we received the tricolor insignia and bands we did not follow the spirit of imitation or fashion ” .
Earlier , at the Sibiu Conference of 26 April / 8 May 1848 , Transylvanian revolutionaries had also adopted a blue @-@ white @-@ red national flag ( vertical , according to the memoirs of George Bariţ ) . It was emblazoned with the words “ VIRTUTEA ROMANĂ REÎNVIATĂ ” ( “ ROMAN VIRTUE RESURRECTED ” ) . A number of contemporary sources attests these colors ( including the Blaj newspaper Organul naţionale and Alexandru Papiu Ilarian ’ s Istorie a românilor din Dacia superioară ) . They had a twofold significance : their importance in Romanian costume and their union of the Transylvanian principality ’ s old colors ( blue and red ) with the white symbolizing peace . It appears that the two specimens with blue @-@ yellow @-@ red stripes preserved today at the National Museum of Romanian History were made later to commemorate the events at Blaj ; yellow replaced white as a symbol of Romanian Transylvanians ’ desire to join Romania .
After the revolution was quelled , the old flags were restored and the revolutionaries punished for having worn the tricolor . In 1849 , domnitor Barbu Dimitrie Ştirbei adopted a new design for military colors that nevertheless preserved the colors ’ horizontal layout and only changed decorative elements . Similar to the 1834 flag , this one lasted until 1856 .
During the Caimacam of three ( October 1858 @-@ January 1859 ) , as the acting regents did not have the right to inscribe their initials on military flags , the monograms of the Wallachian domnitori were replaced by eagles .
= = = Merger legend = = =
After 1860 , a legend arose stating that the national tricolor had been formed by merging the colors of the Moldavian and Wallachian flags , probably out of a desire to reconcile all parties to the choice of the Wallachian revolutionary flag of 1848 for all of Romania . This legend was also convenient with respect to the colors attributed to the two principalities ’ flags at the time ( red and blue for Moldavia and blue and yellow for Wallachia ) .
The legend inspired a number of artworks , including a painting by Constantin Lecca . Wishing to depict the brotherhood between Moldavians and Wallachians , he chose a passage from the Bistriţa Chronicle : “ In the year 7015 ( 1506 ) , October 28 , prince Ioan Bogdan Voievod entered the Muntenian land with all his troops to the place Rătezat , near the hillock Căiata , on that side of the Râmnic ; and there arrived an emissary from Radu Voievod [ ... ] who begged prince Bogdan Voievod to make peace with Radu Voievod , because ‘ you are Christians and from the same people ’ ( said he ) ; and many words were exchanged between them and much begging was made [ ... ] and prince Bogdan Voievod , seeing so much begging , followed his wishes and made peace ” . Lecca ’ s painting shows the two domnitori shaking hands in the center . The flags of Moldavia ( blue @-@ red ) and of Wallachia ( yellow @-@ blue ) can also be seen , although these color combinations have not been attested prior to 1832 – 34 .
P. V. Năsturel contests this legend , noting that the red @-@ yellow @-@ blue tricolor predated the union of the principalities and that the three colors , arrayed vertically , represent the flag of the Romanian nation in all lands inhabited by Romanians .
In 1848 , the tricolor was present in Focşani and Râmnicu Sărat ( on opposite sides of the principalities ’ border ) during demonstrations of fraternity held by Moldavians and Wallachians , while in 1857 , around the time of the Moldavian Ad hoc Divan , the civilian population adopted the tricolor as a symbol of union , a fact observed by Count Alexandre Walewski , French foreign minister .
Also that year , the minister of foreign affairs of the Wallachian provisional government assured the extraordinary envoy of the Porte , Suleiman Pasha , that the flag 's three colors had existed “ for a long time ; our ancestors bore them on their standard and their flags . So they are not a borrowing or an imitation from the present or a threat for the future ” .
Another of Lecca ’ s paintings shows the assassination of Michael the Brave in 1601 . Also depicted is the united standard of the three provinces , with yellow on top ( Wallachia ) , red in the middle ( Moldavia ) and blue below ( Transylvania ) . This hypothesis of the three colors ' union has appeared in historical literature , also engendering skepticism regarding the arguments deployed in its favor .
= = Flags of the United Principalities = =
On 6 February 1859 , on his first journey to Bucharest since being elected domnitor of Wallachia , Alexandru Ioan Cuza was greeted at the edge of the city of Buzău by the commander of the dorobanţi , who was carrying a tricolor flag . The sight deeply moved Cuza .
Until 1861 the old flags of Moldavia and Wallachia were used alongside the tricolor . On 22 June of that year , Cuza decreed the tricolor as the United Principalities ’ official civil flag .
The flag was the red @-@ yellow @-@ blue Romanian tricolor , with horizontal stripes . Neither the order of stripes nor the proportion of the civil flag are known . This is first described in Almanahul român din 1866 : “ the tricolor flag , divided in three stripes , red , yellow and blue and laid out horizontally : red above , blue below and yellow in the middle ” . Some sources suggest that the top stripe was blue until 1862 ( as in the revolutionary Wallachian tricolor of 1848 ) , replaced that year by red . An approximate ratio of 1 : 3 has been suggested , although the princely and army flags , both preserved , had a 2 : 3 proportion . As for symbolism , P. V. Năsturel asserts that “ from 1859 to 1866 it represented just what it had done in 1848 : liberty , justice , fraternity " .
The flag gained a degree of international recognition . Relating prince Cuza ’ s May – June 1864 journey to Constantinople , doctor Carol Davila observed : “ The Romanian flag was raised on the great mast , the Sultan ’ s kayaks awaited us , the guard was armed , the Grand Vizier at the door ... The Prince , quiet , dignified , concise in his speech , spent 20 minutes with the Sultan , who then came to review us ... Once again , the Grand Vizier led the Prince to the main gate and we returned to the Europe Palace , the Romanian flag still fluttering on the mast ... ”
= = = Princely flag = = =
A rather worn tricolor is found today in the collections of the National Museum of Romanian History , with inventory number 75045 . Rectangular in shape ( with a 2 : 3 ratio ) , it is made up of three silk strips laid out horizontally ( with red on top . In the center @-@ right of the flag is painted the Wallachian eagle , a cross in its beak and clutching the symbols of princely power , while the Moldavian aurochs appears on the center @-@ left , a six @-@ pointed star between its horns . Six inclined tricolor flags surround the two symbols ( three on the left and three on the right ) ; their flagpoles probably crossed near the bottom , which is now lost . Each flag has a blue ribbon above it and at the tips of their flagpoles are found , one on each side , a Wallachian eagle , the edge of a lance and a Moldavian aurochs . On the red strip are found stitched a princely crown , situated in the center so as to mark the two coats of arms , and the statement “ UNIREA PRINCIPATELOR — FERICIREA ROMÂNILOR . TRĂIASCĂ A. IOAN I ! ” ( “ The Union of the Principalities — the joy of Romanians . Long Live A. Ioan I ! ” ) on both sides of the crown and now partially faded . The flagpole ends in a metal sphere topped by an eagle .
Researchers differ on the origin and date of this flag . Col. Dr. Alexandru Vasile and Dr. Maria Ioniţă consider that this was the United Principalities ’ official flag . The latter dates it to 1859 , the period immediately after the Union , as does Dan Cernovodeanu . Mario to believes it was a military colors used between 1859 and 1861 .
Elena Pălănceanu and Cornelia Apostol believe it was a princely flag designed in 1862 , after the full union of the two entities , proclaimed on 11 / 24 December 1861 . Indeed , Cuza only adopted the title “ Alexandru Ion I ” after this date .
After Cuza ’ s abdication , the flag was kept at the Bucharest Army Arsenal until 1919 , when it was transferred to the National Military Museum . It has been at its present location since 1971 .
It seems that this specimen was preceded by another , dating to 1859 , featuring a tricolor canvas with somewhat smaller dimensions . In this flag , the blue strip is on top , while the two principalities ’ coats of arms are no longer surrounded by flags . Today the inscription on the blue strip is illegible , but differed from that found on the other flag .
Another princely flag , rather different from contemporary designs , is a silk tricolor with vertical stripes ( blue hoist ) and a princely crown painted in the center . It was raised whenever the domnitor was present at Ruginoasa Castle . Today it is found at the Suceava History Museum , part of the Bukovina Museum Complex .
= = = Military colors = = =
Article 45 of the Paris Convention ( 1858 ) provided that “ the armies of both countries will keep their present flags ; but these flags will feature , in the future , a blue banderole , in conformity with the design attached to the present Convention ” .
On 18 March 1863 , the War Minister , General Ion Emanuel Florescu , asked Cuza to approve a design for army flags , agreed upon by the government in its session of 12 March . The flags featured the national tricolor ( horizontal stripes , with red on top ) , over which was a Roman eagle with a cross in its beak . In a solemn order of the day on 19 March , Cuza decided : “ Considering that the army , following the union , should have but one flag ; keeping in mind that the true emblem of Romania can only be the Roman eagle , [ ... ] we have decreed and do decree what follows : the Roman eagle with cross in its mouth shall be placed , as the emblem of Romania , above the army ’ s flags [ ... ] ”
The resulting designs , distributed on 1 September 1863 , differ somewhat from those legislated in March . This , the Roman eagle , wings outstretched , wearing the princely crown , carries the princely scepter in its right talon and the sword in its left ; on its breast appears an open shield topped by the princely crown . On the left of the shield , over azure and gold , is the Wallachian eagle ( a cross in its beak , in left profile and wearing the princely crown ) ; on the right , over red and azure , is the Moldavian aurochs with a star between its horns . Hanging from the scepter and sword is a red ribbon with gold @-@ embossed letters : “ HONOR ET PATRIA ” ( “ honor and Fatherland ” ) . In the fly corners the prince ’ s initial is stitched , surrounded by a laurel wreath ; all are golden . Each flag also had inscribed the unit that bore it . The cloth part was 122 centimeter long and 100 centimeter wide . A metal Roman eagle was affixed to the tip of the flagpole . Although the order of 19 March had the Moldavian symbol in the right , nevertheless the first on the shield is the Wallachian eagle . The design was most likely adopted due to customary usage that arose after Bucharest became the single capital in February 1862 .
These flags were distributed to the following units :
With the occasion of handing over the flags , Cuza delivered the following speech :
These flags were used until 1866 when , after Cuza ’ s abdication , they were changed . Four army flags of the 1863 design are preserved today .
= = Romanian flags until 1918 = =
Article 124 of the 1866 Constitution of Romania provided that “ the colors of the United Principalities will be Blue , Yellow and Red ” . The order and placement of the colors were decided by the Assembly of Deputies in its session of 26 March 1867 . Thus , following a proposal by Nicolae Golescu , they were placed just as in 1848 . The commission ’ s work continued on 30 March as well ; following an affirmative vote by the Senate , these wrapped up with the adoption , on 12 / 24 April 1867 , of the “ Law for fixing the arms of Romania ” .
According to this , the flag ’ s colors had to be placed vertically in the following order : blue hoist , yellow in the middle and red fly . The country ’ s coat of arms was placed only on army and princely flags , in the center ; civilian flags remained without a coat of arms . The same distinction was made between flags for the naval war fleet and the civilian fleet .
The rapporteur Mihail Kogălniceanu , who also conveyed the opinion of Cezar Bolliac , Dimitrie Brătianu , Constantin Grigorescu , Ion Leca , Nicolae Golescu and Gheorghe Grigore Cantacuzino , said : “ The tricolor flag as it is today is not ( as the minister claims ) the flag of the Union of the principalities . It is much more : it is itself the flag of the Romanian nation in all lands inhabited by Romanians ” .
The “ Law for modifying the country ’ s arms ” of 11 / 23 March 1872 did not change these provisions , only the design of the coat of arms . The design proposed by Ştefan Dimitrie Grecianu was adopted .
= = = Princely and royal standard = = =
According to the laws of 1867 and 1872 , the princely ( later royal ) standard was identical to that of the army , with the country ’ s coat of arms in the center .
Nevertheless , when these were produced a slightly different design was adopted : the yellow stripe was twice as wide as the red and blue ones , and the canvas had a 1 : 1 ratio . Each corner of the flag had sewn into it a silver royal crown . The crown prince ’ s standard was identical except that it lacked the crowns in the corners .
An album dating to the end of the 19th century and the October 1917 National Geographic Magazine show the flags as having stripe ratios of 1 : 3 : 1 .
= = = Military colors = = =
Right after Alexander John Cuza ’ s abdication , the military units ’ military colors were replaced with a new 1866 design ; instead of the coat of arms , the name of the company appeared on the standards . However , the eagle at the edge of the flagpole was preserved .
The flags distributed to the Civic Guard , re @-@ established in March 1866 , had a different design — the colors were vertical , in the center was found the respective city ’ s coat of arms and not the national one , and the eagle at the end of the lance was larger and featured the shield of the United Principalities on its breast . P. V. Năsturel classifies these as 1867 design flags and describes them in detail : the canvas was 114 centimeter long and 95 centimeter wide ( so a 5 : 6 ratio ) and in the center was painted the respective city ’ s coat of arms , covered with a golden mural crown . In the corners , surrounded by laurel wreaths , the number of the legion was stitched in Roman numerals . Golden fringes surrounded the canvas , with tassels from the same fabric hanging at the corners . The eagle at the end of the flagpole had its wings facing downward , had the princely crown on its head and carried a sceptre in its right hand and a sword in its left ; all were made of gold . A shield was carved into the eagle ’ s breast , with the Wallachian eagle in the first half and the Moldavian aurochs ’ head in the second . Above the sword and sceptre a ribbon passed bearing the inscription “ Honor et Patria ” . On 11 September 1867 , Prince Carol I solemnly handed over these flags to the Civic Guards .
In 1873 it was decided that the 1866 design military flags would be replaced with the 1872 design , following the Law for the modification of the national coat of arms of 1872 . Design @-@ wise , these fall into several generations .
Flags produced in 1873 ( 24 flags and 10 standards ) , of which only one , the Firemen ’ s , survived in 1900 , were square , 150 centimeter on each side . In its center was painted , on a maroon background surrounded by a closed wreath of silver laurels , Romania ’ s middle coat of arms . The monogram of Prince Carol was in the corners , surrounded by a laurel crown , while the flagpole was topped by a metal eagle with the motto “ Onóre şi Patria ” ( " honor and Fatherland " ) as well as the unit ’ s number and name . The cavalry flags had canvases of reduced dimensions ( 45 centimeter ) , while the decorative elements were embroided and not painted . All these insignia were distributed to the units on 14 October 1874 , on the field at Băneasa .
Flags produced between 1877 and 1882 differ slightly from the preceding ones . On 17 July 1877 , just ten units created after 1874 received this design , at the Poiana army headquarters . On this occasion , Prince Carol addressed the following words to his troops : “ In giving you the corps ’ flag , I entrust the honor of Romania , which I thus place under the shield of courage , to your devotion and self @-@ denial . For the first time the solemn occasion arises where you receive the flag on the day before going onto the field of honor ; seek to crown it with an undying glory . Never forget that the flag is the symbol of the fatherland ... ”
These two categories of flags were replaced with new ones in 1902 , on the 25th anniversary of the Romanian War of Independence .
Small details differentiate flags produced between 1882 and 1897 from their predecessors . The canvas was square , 156 centimeter to a side ; a ribbon of tricolored thread ending in tassels was attached to the flagpole . The lions holding up the coat of arms had gold teeth and claws this time , while the coat of arms was no longer bordered in maroon . In the middle of the shield , the coat of arms of the House of Hohenzollern was surrounded by a gold border .
These three generations were realized by the Romanian state at Berlin ’ s Collani et Comp house . In 1896 , war minister Anton Berindei , observing that “ the way in which [ the flags ] are woven and the materials used leave something to be desired , as their canvas gets cut and breaks ” , addressed an order to General Ioan Argetoianu , president of the joint commission and inspector general of the military engineers : “ I have the honor of asking you to take measures so that the commission over which you preside can make a detailed description of the flags and standards in existence , on the materials from which they must be produced , dimensions , etc . In the work to be done the law of 8 March 1872 [ ... ] which decided the national insignia and flag , will be kept in mind ” .
Thus , beginning with the 1897 design flags , the ratio was 2 : 3 , the entire national coat of arms appeared in the center ( with modifications made after 1881 ) , and the wreath that surrounded it was sometimes open .
Most of the flags belonging to divisions that took part in World War I were handed to them in 1902 or in 1908 @-@ 1916 , and were used until 1929 when they were transferred to the Military Museum . These are similar to the 1897 design , although after King Carol died on 10 October 1914 , King Ferdinand ’ s monogram began appearing in the corners . Their dimensions vary from 90 × 65 centimeter to 115 × 73 centimeter .
Along with the military colors , through High decrees nr . 355 of February 1871 and nr . 1467 of 21 August 1873 , designs for stakes were defined for each infantry corps , as well as battalion pennants . The latter substituted for military colors where necessary ( each regiment had just a single flag ) , and were vertical tricolors , as provided by the 1867 and 1872 laws regarding Romania ’ s coats of arms .
A flag was also established for Romania ’ s Coast Guard . According to the October 1917 National Geographic , this was identical to the national flag , except that the yellow stripe featured a blue anchor and cable , above which was a silver royal crown .
Also in this period there appeared laws and regulations providing how the military colors should be used , guarded and saluted . Thus , High decree nr . 1451 of 18 August 1873 specified that the flag should be carried by the regiment ’ s adjutant junior officer , aided by the flag @-@ bearing officer . Likewise , the composition of the infantry ’ s flag guard was regulated . This was composed of five sergeants , of whom two in the first row , flanking the adjutant junior officer and having the assistant officer on the right , and three in the second row , behind the first . The “ Regulation concerning infantry exercises and maneuvers ” provided that during military maneuvers the flag ( or pennant ) should be in the center of the second battalion if the regiment was composed of three battalions or in the center of the first battalion if the regiment had only two . The flag @-@ bearer , chosen by the colonel , was not integrated into any subdivision of the battalion . The same regulation listed in its index the honors due to the flag , as well as the manner of saluting with the flag , with the specification that this was reserved for the princely family .
= = = Romanian flags in Transylvania , Banat , Bukovina and Bessarabia = = =
Transylvania , Banat , Bukovina and Bessarabia were provinces of the Austro @-@ Hungarian and Russian empires with substantial Romanian populations . In 1918 , the year they joined Romania , favorable conditions arose for the Romanians there to express openly their desire to unite with the “ Motherland ” .
In Bessarabia , the Moldavian Democratic Republic was created on 2 December 1917 and declared independence on 24 January 1918 . In May 1917 , the heraldist Paul Gore had written a Russian @-@ language study , “ The National colors of the Romanians in Bessarabia ” , which sought to demonstrate that Bessarabians should use the Romanian tricolor correctly : “ A certain esteem for the national past and just a little courage are needed to defend your national legal rights . In no way do I insist that our national flag composed of three stripes colored blue , yellow and red have these stripes arranged vertically . Let these stripes , in the order indicated , be horizontal . But the colors and their order we must preserve , especially because all three of these colors are also in the Coat of Arms of Bessarabia , which represents , if we eliminate the border made up of the Imperial colors , precisely the ancient coat of arms of the Moldavian Principality , and it is known that flags must be designed according to the exact rules of heraldry , according to the colors of the field and the emblems of the corresponding coats of arms ” .
With this perspective in mind , the heraldist Silviu Andrieş @-@ Tabac considers Gore the moral author of the flag of the Moldavian Democratic Republic . This was a blue @-@ yellow @-@ red tricolor with horizontal stripes and the coat of arms in the center of the yellow field and the inscription “ Republica Democratică Moldovenească şi Independentă ” ( “ The Moldavian and Independent Democratic Republic ” ) in the center of the blue field . The flag of Sfatul Ţării was similar , except that “ Sfatul Ţării ” was written on the blue field and the coat of arms , with larger dimensions , was placed in the middle , over yellow and red .
The republic ’ s military colors were fashioned “ several weeks before 6 December [ 1917 ] , when the parade of Moldavian troops from Bessarabia took place ” . These were also tricolors ; on one side was written the regiment ’ s number in silver thread , and on the other , stretching all across the flag , the letters “ R M ” .
In Transylvania , many Romanian flags were produced in anticipation of the Great National Assembly at Alba Iulia . These were horizontal blue @-@ yellow @-@ red tricolors , echoing the 1848 revolution . The images on glass captured at the Assembly by photographer Samoilă Mârza show a massive throng above whom flutter numerous such flags , some of the canvases inscribed with a motto .
The National Museum of Romanian History holds three flags from Assembly participants and the coat of arms of a fourth , which belonged to the Alba Iulia national guard . The first tricolor has dimensions of 235 × 100 centimeter , and each of its stripes ends on the fly in a corner with the tip turned outside . The wooden flagpole is painted black . On second tricolor , 130 × 75 centimeter , just the yellow and red stripes survive , and both end in a corner with the tip on the outside . The third flag is woolen and 190 × 120 centimeter . Its colored stripes all end in a sharp angle with the tip outside ; to each one is sewn a tassel in the respective color . A tricolor ribbon with a tassel on either end is attached to the flagpole .
= = Flags of Greater Romania = =
After Greater Romania came into being , the tricolor remained the official flag , with stripes arranged vertically and without a coat of arms in the center .
= = = Royal standards = = =
On 24 April 1922 new designs for royal standards were adopted .
The king ’ s standard consisted of a red @-@ maroon square flag , bordered by a yellow strip with blue triangles . There were thirteen blue triangles to a side , with an additional four in the corners . The country ’ s lesser coat of arms was found in the middle of the flag ; beneath it was placed the cross of the Order of Michael the Brave . After ascending the throne in 1930 , King Carol II stretched the cross to the edge of the standard , “ as a symbol of heroic royalty ” , and placed the lesser coat of arms above it . When his remains were returned to Romania in 2003 , his coffin was draped in this standard .
The queen ’ s standard was similar to the king ’ s , but the cross was missing . The crown prince ’ s standard was dark blue , with a red border and yellow triangles ; the lesser coat of arms was in the center . The royal princes ’ flag was similar but lacked a border . In 1940 , when Queen Helen returned to Romania , a flag was designed for the queen mother . This was similar to the queen ’ s standard but also lacked a border .
= = = Flags and standards of public officials = = =
Contemporary vexilological albums ( for instance the 1939 edition of Flaggenbuch ) display a number of flags and standards of interwar Romanian public officials . The war minister ’ s flag was a tricolor square with the letter “ M ” in white found on the blue stripe . The other ministers had similar flags but without the “ M ” . The jack employed by Romanian vessels was a yellow square bordered red with the coat of arms in the center . The ship captains ’ standard was the national flag with a royal crown in the center . Pilot boats ’ standard consisted of a national flag bordered in white . The flag ’ s ratio was 3 : 6 and the thickness of the border 2 ; altogether , it had a 10 : 13 ratio . River police had as their standard a blue square with a white “ P ” in the center . The standard of the postal division of the Romanian Maritime Service had a white field ( ratio 4 : 5 ) , with the fly ending in a sharp interior angle . A square national flag with the royal crown in the center appeared in the canton . A blue cord hung from the tricolor , catching a golden postal horn .
= = = Military colors = = =
Military flags were tricolors with the national coat of arms painted in the center . In the corners were found the golden monograms of Kings Ferdinand I , Carol II ( two designs ) or Michael I , crowned and surrounded by a wreath of golden oak leaves . The flagpoles ended in a metal eagle with wings facing downward , crowned and carrying a cross in its beak .
= = = Naval flags = = =
Admirals ’ flags ( including vice- and rear admirals ’ ) , shown in the 1939 Flaggenbuch , were square Romanian tricolors . The Chief of the Naval General Staff had two white stars on the blue stripe of his flag and two crossed anchors ; the three elements were one beneath the other . The vice admiral ’ s flag did not have the anchors , while the rear admiral ’ s standard had just one star on the blue stripe .
Naval captains and commanders had a longer red stripe on their standard , ending in an angle pointing inward ; the ratio was about 11 : 13 . Deputy commanders of ships had a tricolored triangle for their emblem , in a 2 : 3 ratio .
= = = Naval flags of World War II = = =
Shortly before World War II , the flags of military vessels were changed . A specific design was adopted , the yellow portion taking the form of a cross with widened arms . The following models are shown in Flaggenbuch , 1939 :
= = Flags of the Romanian People ’ s Republic = =
On 30 December 1947 , Romania was proclaimed a people ’ s republic and all the kingdom ’ s symbols were outlawed , including the coats of arms and the tricolor flags that showed them . On 8 January 1948 , Decree nr . 3 was issued , regarding specifications for the powers of the Presidium of the Romanian People ’ s Republic . At article 7 , this provided that the republic ’ s new coat of arms should be “ composed of : a tractor , a group of three chimneys against the field of a rising sun , surrounded by bound ears of wheat , tied by a ribbon with the inscription Republica Populară Română and the initials R. P. R. at the end of the ears ” . Article 8 dealt with the national flag : “ the colors of the Romanian People ’ s Republic are : blue , yellow and red , arranged vertically , and having in the center of the yellow field the Coat of Arms of the Republic ” .
According to article 101 of the 1948 Constitution , “ The flag of the Romanian People ’ s Republic is composed of the colors : blue , yellow and red , arranged vertically . In the middle is placed the national coat of arms ” . The 1952 Constitution , at article 103 , added a little detail : “ The flag of the Romanian People ’ s Republic has the colors red , yellow and blue , arranged vertically with blue near the lance . In the middle is placed the coat of arms of the Romanian People ’ s Republic ” . Neither the colors ’ shades nor the flag ’ s proportions were specified . According to provisions of the 1952 Constitution , a five @-@ pointed red star appeared at the upper edge of the coat of arms ( itself altered in March 1948 ) , something that was also reflected on flags and official Romanian standards .
= = = Military colors ; standards = = =
On 28 July 1950 the Great National Assembly issued Decree nr . 189 for the establishment of the military colors of the Armed Forces of the Romanian People ’ s Republic , as well as standards for the Military Air Force and the Naval Forces . Article 2 defined the units ’ military colors as follows : “ three silk stripes colored red , yellow and blue , arranged vertically with blue situated near the flagpole . On the edges the flag has yellow metal fringes of wire , while the fly corners each have a tassel of the same wire . On the side oriented from the flagpole to the right , in the middle , is placed the coat of arms of the R. P. R. in natural colors . Above the coat of arms , on the same side , in an arched line , is written with letters of golden wire : ‘ Pentru Patria noastră ’ ( ‘ For our Fatherland ’ ) . On the other side and in the middle of the flag , the emblem worn on the uniforms of officers of the Armed Forces of the R. P. R. is applied . Under the emblem is written straight , with letters of golden wire , the unit ’ s name . The flagpole ends in an ogive @-@ shaped tip , within which is found a five @-@ pointed star , in the center of which are written the initials RPR ” . The law ’ s annex also specified the dimensions of the flag ( 100 centimeter long by 60 centimeter wide ) , the coat of arms and the emblem ( 20 centimeter high ) , the fringes ( 5 centimeter long ) , the flagpole ( 250 centimeter long ) and of the ogive ( 15 centimeter long by 7 centimeter wide ) .
Article 3 described the Air Force ensign : “ it is made of sky @-@ blue silk . The ensign is rectangular , with each face having applied to it 18 red silk strips in the form of sunrays . On the edges , the ensign has fringes and tassels the same as on the military colors . In the middle of the face oriented from the flagpole to the right is affixed the coat of arms of the R. P. R. , while in the middle of the other face is affixed the emblem worn on the uniforms of officers belonging to the Armed Forces of the R. P. R. The coat of arms of the R. P. R. , the emblem and the inscriptions are identical to those of the military colors ” . The annex specified the dimensions of the ensign and the decorative elements , which were identical to those of the military colors . In the center of the flag , a ray had an angle of 10 ˚ . Also specified was the shade of blue to be used on the flag : “ iron blue ” .
Article 4 described the Romanian Navy ’ s ensign thus : “ made of two pieces of white and blue silk , rectangular , laid horizontally , the blue one , beneath , having a width of 20 centimeter , while the white one , above , having a width of 40 centimeter . The coat of arms of the R. P. R. is applied to the middle of the white surface on the face oriented from the flagpole to the right , while on the other face , also in the middle of the while surface , the emblem worn on the uniforms of officers belonging to the Armed Forces of the R. P. R. is applied . The coat of arms , the emblem , the inscriptions , the fringes and the tassels are the same as those of the military colors ” . The annex specified the flag ’ s dimensions ( also 100 × 60 centimeter ) and those of the coat of arms ( also 20 centimeter high ) , as well as its distance to the edges of the white strip ( 11 centimeter above and 9 centimeter below ) . The words “ Pentru Patria noastră ” ( “ For our Fatherland ” ) were found on the white strip above the coat of arms , while “ Republica Populară Română ” and the unit ’ s name were placed in the middle of the blue strip .
Decree nr . 190 of 1950 , published in the same issue of Buletinul Oficial , established the design of Army soldiers ’ , officers ’ and generals ’ emblems . The officers ’ emblem was a five @-@ pointed , red @-@ enamelled star 34 centimeter in diameter . In the center were two circles : the first , with a radius of 15 centimeter , was enamelled yellow and touched the star ’ s interior angles , while the second , which had a radius of 11 centimeter , was enamelled blue and in the center had the golden initials “ R. P. R. ”
The following year , Decree nr . 124 of 20 July 1951 for the modification of art . 4 of Decree nr . 189 altered the Navy ’ s ensign . The new regulation provided for three separate insignia : the flag of Navy land units , the flag of Navy ships and the flag of Coast Guard ships .
The Navy ’ s land units had as their flag “ two pieces of silk , colored white and blue , rectangular in shape , laid horizontally , the blue piece below , and the white one above . In the middle of the white area facing from the flagpole to the right is affixed the coat of arms of the Romanian People ’ s Republic , in natural colors , while on the other side , also in the middle of the white area , is affixed the symbol worn on the uniforms of officers belonging to the Armed Forces of the Romanian People ’ s Republic . The coat of arms , emblem , inscriptions , fringes and tassels are the same as those of the military colors described in article 2 [ of Decree nr . 189 of 1950 ] ” . According to this decree ’ s annex , the flag ’ s dimensions were 100 × 60 centimeter , the blue strip being 20 centimeter wide and the white 40 centimeter , the coat of arms was 20 centimeter high and it was 11 centimeter away from the top edge of the white strip and 9 centimeter away from the bottom .
Navy ships had an ensign consisting of a “ piece of ordinary rectangular canvas , with the colors white and blue printed on either side , in two stripes laid horizontally , the blue one below . The coat of arms of the Romanian People ’ s Republic , in natural colors , is affixed to the middle of the white area on both sides . The ensign does not have fringes or tassels [ and ] is supplied with cords and a mechanism for raising it on the stern beam or the mast ” . The ensign for Coast Guard ships was different from that of Navy ships only in the color of the lower stripe — Coast Guard green . The law ’ s annex described proportions for the ensign ’ s various elements ; the actual dimensions were to be fixed by the Armed Forces Ministry and the Interior Ministry depending on the ship ’ s size and the place where the ensign was raised . Thus , the flag was 0 @.@ 6 times as wide as it was long , being divided thus : 1 ⁄ 3 colored stripe and 2 ⁄ 3 white stripe . The coat of arms was to be 1 ⁄ 3 the height of the flag ’ s width , being placed 1 ⁄ 6 of this width away from the edges of the white stripe .
Between 1953 and 1964 , due to a spelling reform , the country ’ s name was written on flags as Romînia and not România .
Decree nr . 93 of 17 April 1954 for the modification of art . 4 of Decree nr . 189 established new vexillological devices : the ensign of auxiliary Navy ships ( the previous ensign continuing in use only for battleships ) and pennants for Navy battleships , auxiliary Navy ships and Coast Guard vessels .
The ensign of auxiliary Navy ships was made of an “ ordinary canvas , rectangular and blue . In the upper corner on the side where it attaches to the cord , it has imprinted on both sides the colors white and light blue , in two horizontal stripes , the white one above . To the middle of the white area , on both sides , is affixed the coat of arms of the Romanian People ’ s Republic , in natural colors ” . This ensign ’ s proportions were indicated in the annex . It was 0 @.@ 6 times as wide as it was long : the upper left part of the standard was similar in proportion to the basic elements of the battleship standard , while its dimensions were 0 @.@ 5 of the flag ’ s length and 0 @.@ 3 of its width .
Navy and Coast Guard vessels had a masthead pennant made of an “ ordinary rectangular canvas , red for Navy battleships , blue for auxiliary Navy ships and green for Coast Guard ships [ the width is 0 @.@ 6 of the length ] . At the edge near the cord , the colors white and light blue are imprinted on both sides , in two horizontal stripes , for Navy ships and white and light green on Coast Guard ships [ in proportions of 2 ⁄ 3 and 1 ⁄ 3 respectively ; this area ’ s length is 0 @.@ 075 that of the pennant ’ s length ] . In both cases white shall be above . The coat of arms of the Romanian People ’ s Republic , in natural colors is affixed to the middle of the white area on both sides [ with a height 1 ⁄ 3 of the pennant ’ s width and located 1 ⁄ 4 and 1 ⁄ 6 of this width away from the edges of the white area ] . At the other end , the pennant is cut in the form of a sharp angle pointing inward [ the cut was 1 @.@ 2 times as deep as the length of the white and colored area near the cord ] . The ships ’ pennany is provided with a cord and a mechanism for being raised on a tall mast ” . The proportions of the pennant ’ s component elements were indicated in the annex , with the actual dimensions remaining to be decided by the Armed Forces Ministry and the Interior Ministry .
= = Flags of the Socialist Republic of Romania = =
The Constitution of the Socialist Republic of Romania , adopted in 1965 , provided the following in article 118 : “ The flag of the Socialist Republic of Romania has the colors red , yellow and blue , arranged vertically , with blue near the flagpole . The coat of arms of the Socialist Republic of Romania is affixed to the middle ” .
Decree nr . 972 of 5 November 1968 regarding the insignia of the Socialist Republic of Romania ( RSR ) described in detail the coat of arms , seal , flag and state anthem of the republic . The attached commentary noted that , in the absence of corresponding regulations , “ there have appeared mistaken interpretations of these [ constitutional specifications ] , incorrect or diverging usages of the state insignia ” . Chapter IV of the decree is entirely devoted to describing the flag and the protocol for its use . Thus , the flag is defined | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
The release received mixed reviews from critics , with one group of reviewers commending the technicality and the visuals attached with the show , while others noting the absence of Madonna 's hit songs from the set list . After the release , news outlets around the world wrote about bad manufacturing of the CD and DVD , with many buyers reportedly choosing to return their purchase . Within a week Interscope released a statement , redacting the Blu @-@ ray discs in the United States .
MDNA World Tour was a moderate success commercially . It reached the top of the album charts in Hungary , and top @-@ ten in France , Israel , Italy , Russia , and Spain , though failed to achieve high chart positions similar to the singer 's previous live releases in the United States and United Kingdom . However , MDNA World Tour became a success on the DVD charts of most nations , earning a triple platinum certification in Brazil , platinum certifications in Canada and Portugal , and finally a gold certification in Poland . The release topped the US Billboard Top Music Videos chart with sales of 11 @,@ 000 copies , becoming her sixth consecutive and tenth video to top the chart — the most for any artist .
= = Background and tour = =
On March 23 , 2012 , Madonna released her twelfth studio album , entitled MDNA , by Interscope Records . The singer worked with a variety of producers such as Alle Benassi , Benny Benassi , Demolition Crew , Free School , Michael Malih , Indiigo , William Orbit and Martin Solveig on the album . An electronic album , MDNA lyrically explores themes such as partying , love for music , infatuation , as well as heartbreak , revenge and separation . The album received generally positive reviews from music critics . Upon its release , it debuted at number one in many countries worldwide , including Australia , Canada , Italy , Spain , the United Kingdom and the United States .
To promote the album , Madonna embarked on The MDNA Tour , which was her ninth concert tour . The tour visited America , Europe and the Middle East , while also marking the singer 's first performances in the United Arab Emirates , Ukraine , Scotland and Colombia . Described by her as " the journey of a soul from darkness to light " , The MDNA Tour was divided into four sections : Transgression , where guns and violence was the main theme , Prophecy , where a mix of joyful songs that bring people together are performed , Masculine / Feminine , a combination of sensuality and fashion with a few of Madonna 's classic songs performed in a French Cabaret @-@ style , and Redemption , which Madonna labelled as " a big party and celebration " . The tour received positive reviews , but courted many controversial subjects such as violence , firearms , human rights , nudity and politics . Nevertheless , it was a commercial success and many venues were instantly sold out . After completion , it was dubbed the highest @-@ grossing tour of 2012 by Billboard . Total gross was $ 305 @.@ 2 million from 88 sold @-@ out shows , becoming the tenth highest @-@ grossing tour of all time and surpassing Celine Dion 's Taking Chances World Tour as the second highest @-@ grossing tour among female artists , behind Madonna 's own Sticky & Sweet Tour .
= = Development and release = =
Initially , the filming of the concert was planned for the shows in Colombia , but due to conflicts with the directors ' schedule , those shows were not filmed . Instead , Madonna announced on her Facebook page that the November 19 and 20 shows in Miami , at the American Airlines Arena , will be filmed for the upcoming tour DVD and Blu @-@ ray release . After accepting the award for Top Touring Artist at the 2013 Billboard Music Awards , Madonna confirmed that she had just finished editing the DVD of the concert , with Billboard predicting the video release to be in September 2013 . It was officially announced by Madonna 's website that the video album for the tour will be released on August 26 , 2013 , by Live Nation and Interscope Records ; the date was later changed to September 6 and 9 for non @-@ US countries and September 10 for US . It documented the November 19 and 20 shows at the American Airlines Arena , but also will include footage from other concert dates . The documentary was directed by Danny B. Tull and Stephane Sennour — who also directed the YouTube concert special MDNA : Live à l 'Olympia and the behind @-@ the @-@ scenes documentary Inside the DNA of MDNA — and was produced by Madonna . MDNA World Tour is Madonna 's tenth live video album and was released on both DVD and Blu @-@ ray . Madonna had spent six months editing the footage from the films and together with Tull and Seymour she constructed each of the performances in the video as a mini @-@ movie .
According to Entertainment Weekly , MDNA World Tour shed light on the impact Madonna has had on the younger generation of artists , dancers , and general fans " who refuse to conform for conformity 's sake " . Tull took the best moments from the 88 different concerts of the tour , to create a cohesive documentary . He recalled that there were numerous footage available from the tour and they had to find the " perfect " shot for Madonna . He gave an example that the performance of " Like a Prayer " had cuts from 50 countries alone . " It was really intense . I think I looked down one day and I was like , ' Oh , my fingers are about to fall off ' . But it was worth it " , Tull concluded . A preview for the DVD was first shown at the Billboard Music Awards and another preview was released in June 2013 , showing the singer performing " Give Me All Your Luvin ' " on the tour , the lead single from MDNA . Another video showed Madonna auditioning for the dancers , while singing an acoustic version of her 2001 single , " Don 't Tell Me " .
A television broadcast of the concert , titled Madonna : The MDNA Tour , aired on Epix in the United States on June 22 , 2013 . The concert premiered at 8 p.m. EST on Epix 's TV network and online at EpixHD.com and on Epix apps . On June 18 , the concert special had a world premiere screening at The Paris Theater , in New York City , with Madonna attending the event in a press conference with the media , celebrities , and fans . A contest was released just for US residents , who had the chance to win two invitations for the special event . The singer wore a black tuxedo and a top hat to the premiere , the ensemble being a tribute to actress Marlene Dietrich and her similar attire in the 1930 film , Morocco . During the Q & A , Madonna recalled how difficult it was to sometimes perform on the tour , but she and her troupe nevertheless did it . At the end of the session , she showed a trailer from her secretprojectrevolution film with photographer Steven Klein ; the one @-@ minute clip featured her background dancers and showed the singer being dragged on the floor . Other shots included Madonna wielding a gun , her dancers in underwear , and religious iconography .
= = Reception = =
Arnold Wayne Jones from the Dallas Voice gave the album four out of five stars , writing that the show " has all of the Material Girl 's majesty and fetishistic eroticism , merged with lots of disturbing , violent imagery and a huge catalog of songs " . Jones concluded that Madonna was more provocative than before with the release . Chuck Campbell from The Republic gave the album three and a half stars out of five , writing that " an ambitious woman like Madonna will not let herself become a nostalgia act " . He added that Madonna makes that clear every time she goes on tour : " she 's living in the moment , and she 's all about her newest material . " The Advocate 's review for the release was positive , saying that the DVD affirms the fact that Madonna 's " musical reign continues " . Entertainment Focus ' Pip Ellwood felt that the highlights of the record were the live performances of " Human Nature " and " Like a Prayer " . He concluded the review by saying that " Making perfect use of her dancers , the video screens and the sets , the MDNA World Tour is one of [ Madonna 's ] most spectacular to date and she still performs with the passion and the energy she always has done . If you went to the show then get your copy of this and treat it like a souvenir . If you didn 't you need to check it out as it 's one of the best shows she 's ever done . " Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic awarded the release three out of five stars , saying that " there are unexpected musical moments that do make MDNA World Tour worth hearing " , including the performance of " Like a Virgin " and " Like a Prayer " . However , he felt that the CD release was unnecessary since the album would be a better experience with its video .
The North Jersey Media Group gave the DVD 2 @.@ 5 starts out of five , saying that Madonna felt to be " overly " attached to her contemporary songs than her classic releases . They added " that plodding through overlong arrangements of inconsequential songs — from the annoyingly vocoder @-@ treated ' Revolver ' early to the throwaway dance cut ' Celebration ' at the end — will leave listeners wondering why so many substantial hits were given only a nod , if anything at all . " A review by Kevin Taft in online website " Edge on the Net " was overall negative . Taft noticed that Madonna 's vocals were altered and mixed so much that it sounded disembodied and did not match the singer 's lips . He was " shocked " to find that the audio CDs also contained the badly mixed songs . The reviewer explained that " The choice to have the backing track turned down so low doesn 't help much either . In fact , it makes it sound as if Madonna is on a cabaret stage with a five @-@ piece band ... For the six months it took Madge to edit her concert , one would wish she got her vocals to match her lips . " However , Taft commended the overall show and the technical brilliance accompanying it .
In an online chat with website Reddit , Madonna addressed the concerns regarding the mastering issues with the DVD and Blu @-@ ray in Europe , saying that she was horrified about the glitches and her record label was solving it . She concluded by saying that " [ I ] spent 6 months editing and doing the sound mix for the DVD the last thing I want to hear is that the fans aren 't getting the fruits of my labor . " On September 23 , 2013 , Interscope Records announced that they were recalling all the Blu @-@ ray discs issued in US , after hearing continuous reports of glitches in the sound from consumers , adding that an " error in manufacturing " compromised the 5 @.@ 1 audio of the discs . The announcement also added the following :
" Interscope Records would like to make consumers of Madonna 's MDNA World Tour Blu @-@ ray disc aware that the concert will be seen at its most optimal quality by properly adjusting the settings on your television to ' Normal / Movie ' mode rather than ' Dynamic / Enhanced ' mode . Older Blu @-@ ray players or those without a firmware upgrade may experience glitches when navigating the Blu @-@ ray menu . Follow the manufacturer 's instructions to upgrade firmware .
= = Commercial performance = =
In the United States , MDNA World Tour failed to debut within the top @-@ forty of the Billboard 200 , unlike her previous live albums , and entered at number 90 with 4 @,@ 000 copies sold becoming her 26th entry on the chart . However , it entered at number one on the Top Music Videos chart with sales of 11 @,@ 000 copies , becoming her sixth consecutive and tenth video to top the chart — the most for any artist . MDNA World Tour was preceded by Madonna ( four weeks at number @-@ one in 1985 ) , Madonna Live : The Virgin Tour ( 10 weeks in 1986 ) , Ciao Italia : Live from Italy ( eight weeks in 1988 ) , The Immaculate Collection ( four weeks in 1991 ) , Drowned World Tour 2001 ( one week in 2001 ) , I 'm Going to Tell You a Secret ( two weeks in 2006 ) , The Confessions Tour ( two weeks in 2007 ) , Celebration : The Video Collection ( one week in 2009 ) and Sticky & Sweet Tour ( one week in 2010 ) . Keith Caulfield from Billboard noted that the debut on the Billboard 200 was with considerably lesser sales than the preceding album , Sticky & Sweet Tour , which entered the chart at number ten with sales of 28 @,@ 000 copies and atop the Top Music Videos with 5 @,@ 000 copies . Caulfield theorized that the only availability of MDNA World Tour as a digital album and CD on demand from Amazon.com hindered its ranking on the chart and issuing the album on the traditional music release formats of CD @-@ DVD combo would have increased sales . The following week , MDNA World Tour held on to the top spot of the Top Music Videos chart , with an additional sales of 3 @,@ 000 copies . MDNA World Tour became the 29th best selling music video on the year end tabulation of Billboard .
A midweek prediction by Music Week magazine had MDNA World Tour listed at position 37 of the UK Albums Chart . It ultimately debuted at number 55 on the chart with sales of 1 @,@ 759 copies while topping the DVD chart of the country with bigger first week sales of 5 @,@ 599 copies . MDNA World Tour became Madonna 's first live release not to enter the top @-@ twenty of the UK Albums Chart , after the top @-@ twenty placements at number 18 ( 14 @,@ 449 sales ) with I 'm Going to Tell You a Secret ( 2006 ) , number seven ( 22 @,@ 227 sales ) with The Confessions Tour ( 2007 ) and number 17 ( 12 @,@ 405 sales ) with Sticky & Sweet Tour ( 2010 ) . The album 's highest placement was in Hungary , where it reached the top of the chart . It also attained top ten positions in France , Israel , Italy , Russia and Spain , while reaching top twenty in Poland and Portugal . Its lowest position was attained in Belgium Flanders region , where it failed to enter the top 100 of the Ultratop chart , reaching a peak of number 116 . MDNA World Tour was successful on the DVD listings of most of the nations , reaching the top of the charts of 17 providers . However , in Australia the album version was disqualified from charting in the ARIA Albums Chart , but it reached the top of the DVD charts for the issue of September 16 , 2013 .
= = Track listings = =
Notes
^ a signifies additional lyrics by
Track list adapted from AllMusic .
" Express Yourself " also contains a sample of Lady Gaga 's song " Born This Way " but the use is not credited in the album 's liner notes .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Directors – Danny B. Tull , Stephane Sennour
Production company – Semtex Films
Producer – Madonna
Executive producers – Arthur Fogel , Guy Oseary , Sara Zambreno
Photography – Mark Ritchie
Film editing – Madonna , Danny Tull
Costume designer – Arianne Phillips , Jean Paul Gaultier , Riccardo Tisci
Credits adapted from MDNA World Tour CD liner notes :
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Indirect land use change impacts of biofuels =
The indirect land use change impacts of biofuels , also known as ILUC , relates to the unintended consequence of releasing more carbon emissions due to land @-@ use changes around the world induced by the expansion of croplands for ethanol or biodiesel production in response to the increased global demand for biofuels .
As farmers worldwide respond to higher crop prices in order to maintain the global food supply @-@ and @-@ demand balance , pristine lands are cleared to replace the food crops that were diverted elsewhere to biofuels ' production . Because natural lands , such as rainforests and grasslands , store carbon in their soil and biomass as plants grow each year , clearance of wilderness for new farms translates to a net increase in greenhouse gas emissions . Due to this change in the carbon stock of the soil and the biomass , indirect land use change has consequences in the GHG balance of a biofuel .
Other authors have also argued that indirect land use changes produce other significant social and environmental impacts , affecting biodiversity , water quality , food prices and supply , land tenure , worker migration , and community and cultural stability .
= = History = =
The estimates of carbon intensity for a given biofuel depend on the assumptions regarding several variables . As of 2008 , multiple full life cycle studies had found that corn ethanol , cellulosic ethanol and Brazilian sugarcane ethanol produce lower greenhouse gas emissions than gasoline . None of these studies , however , considered the effects of indirect land @-@ use changes , and though land use impacts were acknowledged , estimation was considered too complex and difficult to model . A controversial paper published in February 2008 in Sciencexpress by a team led by Searchinger from Princeton University concluded that such effects offset the ( positive ) direct effects of both corn and cellulosic ethanol and that Brazilian sugarcane performed better , but still resulted in a small carbon debt .
After the Searchinger team paper , estimation of carbon emissions from ILUC , together with the food vs. fuel debate , became one of the most contentious issues relating to biofuels , debated in the popular media , scientific journals , op @-@ eds and public letters from the scientific community , and the ethanol industry , both American and Brazilian . This controversy intensified in April 2009 when the California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) set rules that included ILUC impacts to establish the California Low @-@ Carbon Fuel Standard that entered into force in 2011 .
In May 2009 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) released a notice of proposed rulemaking for implementation of the 2007 modification of the Renewable Fuel Standard ( RFS ) . EPA 's proposed regulations also included ILUC , causing additional controversy among ethanol producers . EPA 's February 3 , 2010 final rule incorporated ILUC based on modelling that was significantly improved over the initial estimates .
The UK Renewable Transport Fuel Obligation program requires the Renewable Fuels Agency ( RFA ) to report potential indirect impacts of biofuel production , including indirect land use change or changes to food and other commodity prices . A July 2008 RFA study , known as the Gallager Review , found several risks and uncertainties , and that the " quantification of GHG emissions from indirect land @-@ use change requires subjective assumptions and contains considerable uncertainty " , and required further examination to properly incorporate indirect effects into calculation methodologies . A similarly cautious approach was followed by the European Union . In December 2008 the European Parliament adopted more stringent sustainability criteria for biofuels and directed the European Commission to develop a methodology to factor in GHG emissions from indirect land use change .
= = Studies and controversy = =
Before 2008 , several full life cycle ( " Well to Wheels " or WTW ) studies had found that corn ethanol reduced transport @-@ related greenhouse gas emissions . In 2007 a University of California , Berkeley team led by Farrel evaluated six previous studies , concluding that corn ethanol reduced GHG emissions by only 13 percent . However , 20 to 30 percent reduction for corn ethanol , and 85 to 85 percent for cellulosic ethanol , both figures estimated by Wang from Argonne National Laboratory , are more commonly cited . Wang reviewed 22 studies conducted between 1979 and 2005 , and ran simulations with Argonne 's GREET model . These studies accounted for direct land use changes . Several studies of Brazilian sugarcane ethanol showed that sugarcane as feedstock reduces GHG by 86 to 90 percent given no significant land use change . Estimates of carbon intensity depend on crop productivity , agricultural practices , power sources for ethanol distilleries and the energy efficiency of the distillery . None of these studies considered ILUC , due to estimation difficulties . Preliminary estimates by Delucchi from the University of California , Davis , suggested that carbon released by new lands converted to agricultural use was a large percentage of life @-@ cycle emissions .
= = = Searchinger and Fargione studies = = =
In 2008 Timothy Searchinger , a lawyer from Environmental Defense Fund , concluded that ILUC affects the life cycle assessment and that instead of saving , both corn and cellulosic ethanol increased carbon emissions as compared to gasoline by 93 and 50 percent respectively . Ethanol from Brazilian sugarcane performed better , recovering initial carbon emissions in 4 years , while U.S. corn ethanol required 167 years and cellulosic ethanol required a 52 years payback period . The study limited the analysis a 30 @-@ year period , assuming that land conversion emits 25 percent of the carbon stored in soils and all carbon in plants cleared for cultivation . Brazil , China , and India were considered among the overseas locations where land use change would occur as a result of diverting U.S. corn cropland , and it was assumed that new cropland in each of these regions correspond to different types of forest , savanna or grassland based on the historical proportion of each converted to cultivation in these countries during the 1990s .
Fargione and his team published a separate paper in the same issue of Sciencexpress claiming that clearing lands to produce biofuel feedstock created a carbon deficit . This deficit applies to both direct and indirect land use changes . The study examined six conversion scenarios : Brazilian Amazon to soybean biodiesel , Brazilian Cerrado to soybean biodiesel , Brazilian Cerrado to sugarcane ethanol , Indonesian or Malaysian lowland tropical rainforest to palm biodiesel , Indonesian or Malaysian peatland tropical rainforest to palm biodiesel , and U.S. Central grassland to corn ethanol . The carbon debt was defined as the amount of CO2 released during the first 50 years of this process of land conversion . For the two most common ethanol feedstocks , the study found that sugarcane ethanol produced on natural cerrado lands would take about 17 years to repay its carbon debt , while corn ethanol produced on U.S. central grasslands would result in a repayment time of about 93 years . The worst @-@ case scenario is converting Indonesian or Malaysian tropical peatland rainforest to palm biodiesel production , which would require about 420 years to repay .
= = = = Criticism and controversy = = = =
The Searchinger and Fargione studies created controversy in both the popular media and in scientific journals . Robert Zubrin observed that Searchinger 's " indirect analysis " approach is pseudo @-@ scientific and can be used to " prove anything " .
Wang and Haq from Argonne National Laboratory claiming : the assumptions were outdated ; they ignored the potential of increased efficiency ; and no evidence showed that " U.S. corn ethanol production has so far caused indirect land use in other countries . " They concluded that Searchinger demonstrated that ILUC " is much more difficult to model than direct land use changes " . In his response Searchinger rebutted each technical objection and asserted that " ... any calculation that ignores these emissions , however challenging it is to predict them with certainty , is too incomplete to provide a basis for policy decisions . "
Another criticism , by Kline and Dale from Oak Ridge National Laboratory , held that Searchinger et al. and Fargione et al . " ... do not provide adequate support for their claim that bioufuels cause high emissions due to land @-@ use change " , as their conclusions depends on a misleading assumption because more comprehensive field research found that these land use changes " ... are driven by interactions among cultural , technological , biophysical , economic , and demographic forces within a spatial and temporal context rather than by a single crop market " . Fargione et al. responded in part that although many factors contributed to land clearing , this " observation does not diminish the fact that biofuels also contribute to land clearing if they are produced on existing cropland or on newly cleared lands " . Searching disagreed with all of Kline and Dale arguments .
The U.S. biofuel industry also reacted , claiming that the " Searchinger study is clearly a ' worst case scenario ' analysis ... " and that this study " relies on a long series of highly subjective assumptions ... " Searchinger rebutted each claim , concluding that NFA 's criticisms were invalid . He noted that even if some of his assumptions are high estimates , the study also made many conservative assumptions .
= = = Brazil = = =
In February 2010 , Lapola estimated that planned expansion of Brazilian sugarcane and soybean biofuel plantations through 2020 would replace rangeland , with small direct land @-@ use impact on carbon emissions . However , the expansion of the rangeland frontier into Amazonian forests , driven by cattle ranching , would indirectly offset the savings . " Sugarcane ethanol and soybean biodiesel each contribute to nearly half of the projected indirect deforestation of 121 @,@ 970 km2 by 2020 , creating a carbon debt that would take about 250 years to be repaid .... "
The research also found that oil palm would cause the least land @-@ use changes and associated carbon debt . The analysis also modeled livestock density increases and found that " a higher increase of 0 @.@ 13 head per hectare in the average livestock density throughout the country could avoid the indirect land @-@ use changes caused by biofuels ( even with soybean as the biodiesel feedstock ) , while still fulfilling all food and bioenergy demands . " The authors conclude that intensification of cattle ranching and concentration on oil palm are required to achieve effective carbon savings , recommending closer collaboration between the biofuel and cattle @-@ ranching sectors .
The main Brazilian ethanol industry organization ( UNICA ) commented that such studies missed the continuing intensification of cattle production already underway .
A study by Arima et al. published in May 2011 used spatial regression modeling to provide the first statistical assessment of ILUC for the Brazilian Amazon due to soy production . Previously , the indirect impacts of soy crops were only anecdotal or analyzed through demand models at a global scale , while the study took a regional approach . The analysis showed a strong signal linking the expansion of soybean fields in settled agricultural areas at the southern and eastern rims of the Amazon basin to pasture encroachments for cattle production on the forest frontier . The results demonstrate the need to include ILUC in measuring the carbon footprint of soy crops , whether produced for biofuels or other end @-@ uses .
The Arima study is based on 761 municipalities located in the Legal Amazon of Brazil , and found that between 2003 and 2008 , soybean areas expanded by 39 @,@ 100 km ² in the basin 's agricultural areas , mainly in Mato Grosso . The model showed that a 10 % ( 3 @,@ 910 km ² ) reduction of soy in old pasture areas would have led to a reduction in deforestation of up to 40 % ( 26 @,@ 039 km ² ) in heavily forested municipalities of the Brazilian Amazon . The analysis showed that the displacement of cattle production due to agricultural expansion drives land use change in municipalities located hundreds of kilometers away , and that the Amazonian ILUC is not only measurable but its impact is significant .
= = Implementation = =
= = = United States = = =
= = = = California LCFS = = = =
On April 23 , 2009 , California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) approved the specific rules and carbon intensity reference values for the California Low @-@ Carbon Fuel Standard ( LCFS ) that take effect January 1 , 2011 . CARB 's rulemaking included ILUC . For some biofuels , CARB identified land use changes as a significant source of additional GHG emissions . It established one standard for gasoline and alternative fuels , and a second for diesel fuel and its replacements .
= = = = = Controversy = = = = =
The public consultation process before the ruling , and the ruling itself were controversial , yielding 229 comments . ILUC was one of the most contentious issues . On June 24 , 2008 , 27 scientists and researchers submitted a letter saying , " As researchers and scientists in the field of biomass to biofuel conversion , we are convinced that there simply is not enough hard empirical data to base any sound policy regulation in regards to the indirect impacts of renewable biofuels production . The field is relative new , especially when compared to the vast knowledge base present in fossil fuel production , and the limited analyses are driven by assumptions that sometimes lack robust empirical validation . " The New Fuels Alliance , representing more than two @-@ dozen biofuel companies , researchers and investors , questioned the Board intention to include indirect land use change effects into account , wrote " While it is likely true that zero is not the right number for the indirect effects of any product in the real world , enforcing indirect effects in a piecemeal way could have very serious consequences for the LCFS .... The argument that zero is not the right number does not justify enforcing a different wrong number , or penalizing one fuel for one category of indirect effects while giving another fuel pathway a free pass . "
On the other side , more than 170 scientists and economists urged that CARB , " include indirect land use change in the lifecycle analyses of heat @-@ trapping emissions from biofuels and other transportation fuels . This policy will encourage development of sustainable , low @-@ carbon fuels that avoid conflict with food and minimize harmful environmental impacts .... There are uncertainties inherent in estimating the magnitude of indirect land use emissions from biofuels , but assigning a value of zero is clearly not supported by the science . "
Industry representatives complained that the final rule overstated the environmental effects of corn ethanol , and also criticized the inclusion of ILUC as an unfair penalty to domestic corn ethanol because deforestation in the developing world was being tied to U.S. ethanol production . The 2011 limit for LCFS means that Mid @-@ west corn ethanol failed , unless current carbon intensity was reduced . Oil industry representatives complained that the standard left oil refiners with few options , such as Brazilian sugarcane ethanol , with its accompanying tariff . CARB officials and environmentalists counter that time and economic incentives will allow produces to adapt .
UNICA welcomed the ruling , while urging CARB to better reflect Brazilian practices , lowering their estimates of Brazilian emissions .
The only Board member who voted against the ruling explained that he had a " hard time accepting the fact that we 're going to ignore the comments of 125 scientists " , referring to the letter submitted by a group of scientists questioning the ILUC penalty . " They said the model was not good enough ... to use at this time as a component part of such an historic new standard . " CARB advanced the expected date for an expert working group to report on ILUC with refined estimates from January 2012 to January 2011 .
On December 2009 the Renewable Fuels Association ( RFA ) and Growth Energy , two U.S. ethanol lobbying groups , filed a lawsuit challenging LCFS ' constitutionality . The two organizations argued that LCFS violated both the Supremacy Clause and the Commerce Clause , jeopardizing the nationwide ethanol market .
= = = = EPA Renewable Fuel Standard = = = =
The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 ( EISA ) established new renewable fuel categories and eligibility requirements , setting mandatory lifecycle emissions limits . EISA explicitly mandated EPA to include " direct emissions and significant indirect emissions such as significant emissions from land use changes . "
EISA required a 20 % reduction in lifecycle GHG emissions for any fuel produced at facilities that commenced construction after December 19 , 2007 to be classified as a " renewable fuel " ; a 50 % reduction for fuels to be classified as " biomass @-@ based diesel " or " advanced biofuel " , and a 60 % reduction to be classified as " cellulosic biofuel " . EISA provided limited flexibility to adjust these thresholds downward by up to 10 percent , and EPA proposed this adjustment for the advanced biofuels category . Existing plants were grandfathered in .
On May 5 , 2009 , EPA released a notice of proposed rulemaking for implementation of the 2007 modification of the Renewable Fuel Standard , known as RFS2 . The draft of the regulations was released for public comment during a 60 @-@ day period , a public hearing was held on 9 June 2009 , and also a workshop was conducted on 10 – 11 June 2009 .
EPA 's draft analysis stated that ILUC can produce significant near @-@ term GHG emissions due to land conversion , but that biofuels can pay these back over subsequent years . EPA highlighted two scenarios , varying the time horizon and the discount rate for valuing emissions . The first assumed a 30 @-@ year time period uses a 0 percent discount rate ( valuing emissions equally regardless of timing ) . The second scenario used a 100 @-@ year time period and a 2 % discount rate .
On the same day that EPA published its notice of proposed rulemaking , President Obama signed a Presidential Directive seeking to advance biofuels research and commercialization . The Directive established the Biofuels Interagency Working Group , to develop policy ideas for increasing investment in next @-@ generation fuels and for reducing their environmental footprint .
The inclusion of ILUC in the proposed ruling provoked complaints from ethanol and biodiesel producers . Several environmental organizations welcomed the inclusion of ILUC but criticized the consideration of a 100 @-@ year payback scenario , arguing that it underestimated land conversion effects . American corn growers , biodiesel producers , ethanol producers and Brazilian sugarcane ethanol producers complained about EPA 's methodology , while the oil industry requested an implementation delay .
On June 26 , 2009 , the House of Representatives approved the American Clean Energy and Security Act 219 to 212 , mandating EPA to exclude ILUC for a 5 @-@ year period , vis a vis RFS2 . During this period , more research is to be conducted to develop more reliable models and methodologies for estimating ILUC , and Congress will review this issue before allowing EPA to rule on this matter . The bill failed in the U.S. Senate .
On February 3 , 2010 , EPA issued its final RFS2 rule for 2010 and beyond . The rule incorporated direct and significant indirect emissions including ILUC . EPA incorporated comments and data from new studies . Using a 30 @-@ year time horizon and a 0 % discount rate , EPA concluded that multiple biofuels would meet this standard .
EPA 's analysis accepted both ethanol produced from corn starch and biobutanol from corn starch as " renewable fuels " . Ethanol produced from sugarcane became an " advanced fuel " . Both diesel produced from algal oils and biodiesel from soy oil and diesel from waste oils , fats , and greases fell in the " biomass @-@ based diesel " category . Cellulosic ethanol and cellulosic diesel met the " cellulosic biofuel " standard .
The table summarizes the mean GHG emissions estimated by EPA modelling and the range of variations considering that the main source of uncertainty in the life cycle analysis is the GHG emissions related to international land use change .
= = = = = Reactions = = = = =
UNICA welcomed the ruling , in particular , for the more precise lifecycle emissions estimate and hoped that classification the advanced biofuel designation would help eliminate the tariff .
The U.S. Renewable Fuels Association ( RFA ) also welcomed the ruling , as ethanol producers " require stable federal policy that provides them the market assurances they need to commercialize new technologies " , restating their ILUC objection .
RFA also complained that corn @-@ based ethanol scored only a 21 % reduction , noting that without ILUC , corn ethanol achieves a 52 % GHG reduction . RFA also objected that Brazilian sugarcane ethanol " benefited disproportionally " because EPA 's revisions lowered the initially equal ILUC estimates by half for corn and 93 % for sugarcane .
Several Midwestern lawmakers commented that they continued to oppose EPA 's consideration of the " dicey science " of indirect land use that " punishes domestic fuels " . House Agriculture Chairman Collin Peterson said , " ... to think that we can credibly measure the impact of international indirect land use is completely unrealistic , and I will continue to push for legislation that prevents unreliable methods and unfair standards from burdening the biofuels industry . "
EPA Administrator Lisa P. Jackson commented that the agency " did not back down from considering land use in its final rules , but the agency took new information into account that led to a more favorable calculation for ethanol " . She cited new science and better data on crop yield and productivity , more information on co @-@ products that could be produced from advanced biofuels and expanded land @-@ use data for 160 countries , instead of the 40 considered in the proposed rule .
= = = Europe = = =
As of 2010 , European Union and United Kingdom regulators had recognized the need to take ILUC into account , but had not determined the most appropriate methodology .
= = = = UK Renewable Transport Fuel Obligation = = = =
The UK Renewable Transport Fuel Obligation ( RTFO ) program requires fuel suppliers to report direct impacts , and asked the Renewable Fuels Agency ( RFA ) to report potential indirect impacts , including ILUC and commodity price changes . The RFA 's July 2008 " Gallager Review " , mentioned several risks regarding biofuels and required feedstock production to avoid agricultural land that would otherwise be used for food production , despite concluding that " quantification of GHG emissions from indirect land @-@ use change requires subjective assumptions and contains considerable uncertainty " . Some environmental groups argued that emissions from ILUC were not being taken into account and could be creating more emissions .
= = = = European Union = = = =
On December 17 , 2008 , the European Parliament approved the Renewable Energy Sources Directive ( COM ( 2008 ) 19 ) and amendments to the Fuel Quality Directive ( Directive 2009 / 30 ) , which included sustainability criteria for biofuels and mandated consideration of ILUC . The Directive established a 10 % biofuel target . A separate Fuel Quality Directive set the EU 's Low Carbon Fuel Standard , requiring a 6 % reduction in GHG intensity of EU transport fuels by 2020 . The legislation ordered the European Commission to develop a methodology to factor in GHG emissions from ILUC by December 31 , 2010 , based on the best available scientific evidence .
In the meantime , the European Parliament defined lands that were ineligible for producing biofuel feedstocks for the purpose of the Directives . This category included wetlands and continuously forested areas with canopy cover of more than 30 percent or cover between 10 and 30 percent given evidence that its existing carbon stock was low enough to justify conversion .
The Commission subsequently published terms of reference for three ILUC modeling exercises : one using a General Equilibrium model ; one using a Partial Equilibrium model and one comparing other global modeling exercises . It also consulted on a limited range of high @-@ level options for addressing ILUC to which 17 countries and 59 organizations responded . The United Nations Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food and several environmental organizations complained that the 2008 safeguards were inadequate . UNICA called for regulators to establish an empirical and " globally accepted methodology " to consider ILUC , with the participation of researchers and scientists from biofuel crop @-@ producing countries .
In 2010 some NGOs accused the European Commission of lacking transparency given its reluctance to release documents relating to the ILUC work . In March 2010 the Partial and General Equilibrium Modelling results were made available , with the disclaimer that the EC had not adopted the views contained in the materials . These indicate that a 1 @.@ 25 % increase in EU biofuel consumption would require around 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 hectares ( 12 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acres ) of land globally .
The scenarios for varied from 5 @.@ 6 @-@ 8 @.@ 6 % of road transport fuels . The study found that ILUC effects offset part of the emission benefits , and that above the 5 @.@ 6 % threshold , ILUC emissions increase rapidly increase . For the expected scenario of 5 @.@ 6 % by 2020 , the study estimated that biodiesel production increases would be mostly domestic , while bioethanol production would take place mainly in Brazil , regardless of EU duties . The analysis concluded that eliminating trade barriers would further reduce emissions , because the EU would import more from Brazil . Under this scenario , " direct emission savings from biofuels are estimated at 18 Mt CO
2 , additional emissions from ILUC at 5 @.@ 3 Mt CO
2 ( mostly in Brazil ) , resulting in a global net balance of nearly 13 Mt CO
2 savings in a 20 years horizon . The study also found that ILUC emissions were much greater for biodiesel from vegetable oil and estimated that in 2020 even at the 5 @.@ 6 % level were over half the greenhouse gas emissions from diesel .
As part of the announcement , the Commission stated that it would publish a report on ILUC by the end of 2010 .
= = = = = Certification system = = = = =
On June 10 , 2010 , the EC announced its decision to set up certification schemes for biofuels , including imports as part of the Renewable Energy Directive . The Commission encouraged E.U. nations , industry and NGOs to set up voluntary certification schemes . EC figures for 2007 showed that 26 % of biodiesel and 31 % of bioethanol used in the E.U. was imported , mainly from Brazil and the United States .
= = = = = Reactions = = = = =
UNICA welcomed the EU efforts to " engage independent experts in its assessments " but requested that improvements because " ... the report currently contains a certain number of inaccuracies , so once these are corrected , we anticipate even higher benefits resulting from the use of Brazilian sugarcane ethanol . " UNICA highlighted the fact that the report assumed land expansion that " does not take into consideration the agro @-@ ecological zoning for sugarcane in Brazil , which prevents cane from expanding into any type of native vegetation . "
Critics said the 10 % figure was reduced to 5 @.@ 6 % of transport fuels partly by exaggerating the contribution of electric vehicles ( EV ) in 2020 , as the study assumed EVs would represent 20 % of new car sales , two and six times the car industry 's own estimate . They also claimed the study " exaggerates to around 45 percent the contribution of bioethanol — the greenest of all biofuels — and consequently downplays the worst impacts of biodiesel . "
Environmental groups found that the measures " are too weak to halt a dramatic increase in deforestation " . According to Greenpeace , " indirect land @-@ use change impacts of biofuel production still are not properly addressed " , which for them was the most dangerous problem of biofuels
Industry representatives welcomed the certification system and some dismissed concerns regarding the lack of land use criteria . UNICA and other industry groups wanted the gaps in the rules filled to provide a clear operating framework .
The negotiations between the European Parliament and the Council of European Ministers continue . A deal is not foreseen before 2014
= Endgame ( Megadeth album ) =
Endgame is the twelfth studio album by American thrash metal band Megadeth . It was released on September 15 , 2009 through Roadrunner Records and was produced by Dave Mustaine and Andy Sneap . Endgame was the first album to feature guitarist Chris Broderick , following Glen Drover 's departure in 2008 , and was the band 's last studio album with bassist James LoMenzo ; original bassist David Ellefson rejoined the band several months after the album 's release .
There are eleven tracks on the album , with lyrics inspired by subjects ranging from The Lord of the Rings and the financial crisis of 2007 – 08 , to insanity , torture and crime . Two singles were released from the album : " Head Crusher " and " The Right to Go Insane " ; the former was nominated for " Best Metal Performance " at the 2010 Grammy Awards . Endgame entered the Billboard 200 at number nine , and reached number one on the U.S. Top Hard Rock Albums chart . As of April 2011 it has sold about 150 @,@ 000 copies in the U.S. The album received generally positive reviews from music critics , and was thought to continue the success of the band 's previous album , United Abominations ( 2007 ) .
= = Writing and recording = =
On May 27 , 2009 , Megadeth frontman and guitarist Dave Mustaine confirmed twelve songs were complete and the group was currently mixing and mastering the record . The first preview from Endgame was a six @-@ minute video featuring Sneap describing the process of mixing " Head Crusher " at his studio in Derbyshire , England . In the video , he called the upcoming album " old @-@ school " . Endgame was recorded at the band 's studio , " Vic 's Garage " , in San Marcos , California . The track listing was initially revealed on July 2 , 2009 , although several track titles were later shortened for the final release . The album was produced by Andy Sneap , who also produced Megadeth 's previous album , United Abominations .
Mustaine said of the album : " It is fast , it is heavy , there is singing , yelling , speaking , and guest voices ( maybe not singing – more like in " Captive Honour " ) , the soloing is insane . " He described it as a riff @-@ oriented album , less melodic than the band 's mid @-@ to @-@ late 90s material . Mustaine had saved a number of old rehearsal tapes , which were used as the album 's starting point . The band members had online chats with fans on their website while recording , which according to Mustaine , helped lift the band 's enthusiasm .
= = = Title = = =
On the September 10 , 2009 edition of the Alex Jones Show , Jones suggested the title and cover of Endgame was inspired by the film Endgame , which he wrote and directed . Jones stated he had sent Mustaine a copy of the film after Mustaine made an appearance on the Alex Jones Show in 2008 . This was later confirmed by Mustaine in a subsequent appearance on Jones ' show .
= = Release and promotion = =
Megadeth finished recording the album on May 19 , and on June 18 , the album title was announced to be Endgame . The cover artwork was released online on July 27 , 2009 . John Lorenzi , who designed the cover for United Abominations , returned for the album cover for Endgame The release date for Endgame was announced on the Megadeth official website as September 15 , 2009 , and Metal Hammer was the first to review the album track by track . A week after its release , the album had sold 45 @,@ 000 copies in the United States and 8 @,@ 200 copies in Canada , debuting at number nine on the Billboard 200 , one place lower than the debut of United Abominations in 2007 . The album placed first on the Hard Rock Albums chart and second on the Rock Albums chart .
On May 10 , 2009 , Mustaine announced on TheLiveLine that some music from Megadeth would appear in the film Land of the Lost to help promote Endgame . Whether the music was to be from the album was not clear . During the message Mustaine left on TheLiveLine , it was stated there was new music playing in the background of the message . Ultimately , parts of the song " The Right To Go Insane " , can be heard near the end of the film . Another song from the album , " This Day We Fight ! " , was used as a playable song on Guitar Hero : Warriors of Rock . As promotion for Endgame , Megadeth performed " Head Crusher " on the September 17 , 2009 , edition of Late Night with Jimmy Fallon .
Megadeth toured in support of the album , beginning in Grand Rapids , Michigan , in November 2009 and ending on December 13 , in Las Vegas , Nevada . The tour featured Machine Head , Suicide Silence , Warbringer , and Arcanium . Megadeth , Slayer , and Testament were set to embark on the American Carnage tour on January 18 , but it was postponed until summer due to Slayer frontman Tom Araya 's undergoing back surgery .
= = Songs = =
Endgame 's lyrical themes are diverse . " This Day We Fight ! " drew inspiration by Aragorn 's plea to his fighters from the Lord of the Rings trilogy . " 44 Minutes " is about the North Hollywood shootout of 1997 and the title is derived from the film 44 Minutes : The North Hollywood Shoot @-@ Out based on the event . " 1 @,@ 320 " was written about nitro fuel funny cars . Mustaine said " Bite the Hand " was written " about the greed of the fiduciary leaders of the financial world and how they just didn 't care about the responsibility they had to the public . " The title track was written " about a bill that ex @-@ President George W. Bush signed into law that gave him the power to put American citizens in detention centers here in the United States " .
" The Hardest Part of Letting Go … Sealed With a Kiss " is a two @-@ part song which Mustaine wrote for his wife . PopMatters reviewer Adrien Begrand called it a " twisted love song " . " Head Crusher " , describes the medieval torture device of the same name . Mustaine said " How The Story Ends " was inspired by the teachings of Sun Tzu . Begrand describes " The Right to Go Insane " as " [ Mustaine 's ] usual ' I ’ m slowly going nuts ' shtick " ; however , Mustaine stated the song was " about having been wiped out , like so many Americans , from the recession and potential depression years of 2000 [ sic ] " .
= = = Singles = = =
The album 's lead single was " Head Crusher " . According to Roadrunner Records ' website , a download of " Head Crusher " was available for 24 hours on July 7 , starting at 11 : 00 AM Eastern Time Zone . The availability of the download ended the morning of July 8 . The track was previously available for listening by calling Dave Mustaine 's number through the TheLiveLine.com , a service he launched that enables musicians to connect to their audience over the phone . The song was nominated for " Best Metal Performance " at the 52nd annual Grammy Awards – the band 's first Grammy nomination since the 1997 song " Trust " – and received a music video directed by Bill Fishman .
The second single , " The Right to Go Insane " , was released eight months later . A music video for it was released in April 2010 and featured then @-@ recently @-@ returned bass player David Ellefson . The video 's plot is roughly based on the story of Shawn Nelson , an unemployed plumber who rampaged through San Diego in a stolen M60 Patton tank . The video premiered at a show in Austin , Texas on March 26 during the anniversary tour for Rust in Peace . The song hit position 34 on the Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks .
= = Critical reception = =
Endgame received generally positive reviews from critics . Stephanie Burkett from BBC Music said the album is " their most reliable and proficient album since Rust in Peace . " She also noted that Megadeth " are once again asserting their right to be considered one of the best and most consistent heavy metal groups on the planet . " Chad Bowar of About.com awarded four and a half stars saying , " Megadeth is still at the top of their game . Endgame has some old @-@ school moments , but also modern ones . 2007 ’ s United Abominations garnered a lot of critical praise and was on many year @-@ end best of lists that year ... Endgame is even better . " AllMusic 's Eduardo Rivadavia said " Megadeth 's second release for Roadrunner , Endgame , whose title apparently refers to " coming full circle " rather than any sort of goodbye , and finds the latest iteration of Megadeth – debuting new guitarist Chris Broderick ( ex @-@ Nevermore , Jag Panzer ) – working primarily within their technical thrash comfort zone ( think Peace Sells through Rust in Peace ) , with only a few latter @-@ day elements and rare experimental diversions . "
Adrien Begrand of Popmatters noted " not a moment is wasted on Endgame " and said " it 's all due to Mustaine sticking to his strengths , and with the extraordinarily talented Broderick as his new wingman , the record positively scorches with an intensity we haven ’ t heard since Rust in Peace . With its furious back @-@ and @-@ forth solos , opening instrumental ' Dialectic Chaos ' wastes no time in showcasing that dynamic between Mustaine and Broderick , and combined with the pure speed of ' This Day We Fight ! ' , longtime fans will be instantly reminded of the bracing ' Into the Lungs of Hell ' / ' Set the World Afire ' one @-@ two punch that kicks off 1988 's great So Far , So Good ... So What ! . " Mark Eglinton of The Quietus described the album as " a return to form " for Megadeth . Rock guitarist Slash gave a favorable review to Endgame via Twitter . Also , Q gave the album three stars out of five and said : " Endgame starts with an instrumental before hitting the kind of rhythms that once earned Megadeth the tag ' state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art speed @-@ metal @-@ band ' . "
Endgame has since been regarded as a high point of the band 's later career . It follows upon two well @-@ received predecessors , while the band started to change its musical direction on the following two albums . In 2013 , WhatCulture included Endgame as number five on its " Top 5 Megadeth albums " list , behind Killing is My Business ... and Business is Good ! .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Dave Mustaine except where noted .
= = Personnel = =
Production and performance credits are adapted from the album liner notes .
= = Chart performance = =
= Miran Pastourma =
Miran Pastourma is a famed pastourma and sujuk charcuterie business and market in Athens , Greece . The market has been in operation since 1922 . It is considered the charcuterie of the connoisseurs . Despite the Greek economic crisis , Miran is expanding its business and has doubled in size to accommodate increased demand . The founder of the shop , Miran Kourounlian , is thought to be the man who brought pastourma to Athens for the first time . Miran is considered the largest company of its kind in the European Union . The flavour of pastourma coming from the historical enterprise permeates Euripides Street in the centre of Athens . Miran and its neighbor Arapian Cold Cuts are considered two of the historical establishments of Athens . Miran has been in the same spot in Euripidou Street since its opening in 1922 . Miran is the recipient of multiple gourmet prizes .
= = History = =
The Miran Pastourma market was founded in Athens in 1922 by Miran Kourounlian , a refugee of the Armenian genocide who managed to escape to Constantinople from his native Kayseri . He eventually settled in Athens , Greece via Chios and then Peiraias . At the time , Miran Kourounlian was already experienced in making pastirma and sujuk and decided to establish a self @-@ named charcuterie business on 45 Evripidou Street near the Omonoia Square of Athens .
The market soon became popular throughout Athens , as it was one of the few pastourma and soutzouki sellers in the city . The company became even more popular when Miran Kourounlian 's son Bedros took over management in 1960 and began distributing the products throughout Greece . The store originally occupied an area of 3 m2 . In 1983 Bedros expanded the Miran product factory to 1300 m2 . After the death of Bedros in the 1990s , the family business was passed to his heirs , brothers Miran and Krikor Kourounlian , who manage the business today .
= = Today = =
Miran Pastourma serves pastourma and soutzouki in its original location on 45 Evripidou Street . In 1994 , the third generation of the Kourounlian pastourma makers has started a further expansion of the business both inside Greece and to the European Union . Under the management of Miran and Krikor Kourounlian , the company obtained a European Union export code in 1994 . It is now distributing products throughout the European Union and other countries . Miran has taken control of the Athens store while his brother Krikor oversees the factory , which produces between seven and ten tons of processed meat products yearly .
According to current manager Miran Kourounlian , the company 's success is due to its traditional preparation methods and the quality of the beef , which is superior overall to that found in Greece , since it is imported from Argentina . He believes that Greek meat lacks a " consistent quality " . Miran Kourounlian has stated in an interview that some of the customers of his store have been patrons since the 1940s and 1950s .
Miran has continued to grow despite Greece 's economic crisis , doubling in size . To celebrate the occasion , the grandson of Miran along with his brother Krikor and their father Bedros organised a party where they introduced their new product , pastourma made of camel meat .
Milan 's products include imported and Greek processed meats , cheese and spices . The Kourounlians have also signed agreements with similar enterprises in Europe under which the foreign enterprises will tailor their recipes according to the Miran product specifications so that their products will appeal to Greek consumers . The company 's products can now be found in major Greek supermarket chains . A postal @-@ delivery system for their products has been established to reach the internal Greek market . The delivery is free inside Greece and the meat is packed in special polystyrene packaging with dry ice to preserve freshness .
= = Reception = =
The Greek edition of Elle magazine includes Miran 's charcuterie in its list of the best of its kind .
According to the Ethnos newspaper , Miran 's meat for pastourma has been described as excellent . Ethnos and Elle praise Miran for cutting the pastourma by hand rather than with a cutting machine . Miran is also commended for aging the meat naturally and not in a warehouse .
Real Taste and Style magazine praises Miran Pastourmas as " the historical place for those seeking rare tastes " and " an art which started with Miran Kourounlian and which has been continued by his progeny " . The same magazine mentions that the Miran store is found in the best tourist guidebooks for Athens .
Lifo magazine describes Miran as the " Mecca of soutzouki " and mentions that the Miran soutzouki is made from lamb as well as beef and has been mixed with all the " beautiful and hot spices of planet Earth " .
= = Prizes = =
Gold medal for soutzouki .
Gold medal for rural sausage of partial maturation .
Silver medal for pastourmas .
Eleftherotypia Gourmet Prize .
= = Products = =
Miran products include :
= Grave Circle A , Mycenae =
Grave Circle A in Mycenae is a 16th @-@ century BC royal cemetery situated to the south of the Lion Gate , the main entrance of the Bronze Age citadel of Mycenae , southern Greece . This burial complex was initially constructed outside the fortification walls of Mycenae , but was ultimately enclosed in the acropolis when the fortifications were extended during the 13th century BC . Grave Circle A and Grave Circle B , the latter found outside the walls of Mycenae , represent one of the major characteristics of the early phase of the Mycenaean civilization .
The circle has a diameter of 27 @.@ 5 m ( 90 ft ) and contains six shaft graves , where a total of nineteen bodies were buried . It has been suggested that a mound was constructed over each grave , and funeral stelae were erected . Among the objects found were a series of gold death masks , additionally beside the deceased were full sets of weapons , ornate staffs as well as gold and silver cups . The site was excavated by the archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann in 1876 , following the descriptions of Homer and Pausanias . One of the gold masks he unearthed became known as the " The Death Mask of Agamemnon " , ruler of Mycenae according to Greek mythology . However , it has been proved that the burials date circa three centuries earlier , before Agamemnon is supposed to have lived .
= = Background = =
During the end of the 3rd millennium BC ( circa 2200 BC ) , the indigenous inhabitants of mainland Greece underwent a cultural transformation attributed to climate change , local events and developments ( i.e. destruction of the " House of Tiles " ) , as well as to continuous contacts with various areas such as western Asia Minor , the Cyclades , Albania , and Dalmatia . These Bronze Age people were equipped with horses , surrounded themselves with luxury goods , and constructed elaborate shaft graves . The acropolis of Mycenae , one of the main centers of Mycenaean culture , located in Argolis , northeast Peloponnese , was built on a defensive hill at an elevation of 128 m ( 420 ft ) and covers an area of 30 @,@ 000 m2 ( 320 @,@ 000 sq ft ) . The Shaft Graves found in Mycenae signified the elevation of a new Greek @-@ speaking royal dynasty whose economic power depended on long @-@ distance sea trade . Grave Circles A and B , the latter found outside the walls of Mycenae , represent one of the major characteristics of the early phase of the Mycenaean civilization .
= = History = =
Mycenaean shaft graves are essentially an Argive variant of the rudimentary Middle Helladic funerary tradition with features derived from Early Bronze Age traditions developed locally in mainland Greece . Grave Circle A , formed circa 1600 BC as a new elite burial place , was probably first restricted to men and seems to be a continuation of the earlier Grave Circle B and correlates with the general social trend of higher burial investment taking place throughout entire Greece that time . The Grave Circle A site was part of a larger funeral place from the Middle Helladic period . At the time it was built , during the Late Helladic I ( 1600 BC ) , there was probably a small unfortified palace on Mycenae , while the graves of the Mycenaean ruling family remained outside of the city walls . There is no evidence of a circular wall around the site during the period of the burials . The last interment took place circa 1500 BC .
Immediately after the last interment , the local rulers abandoned the shaft graves in favour of a new and more imposing form of tomb already developing in Messenia , south Peloponessus , the tholos . Around 1250 BC , when the fortifications of Mycenae were extended , the Grave Circle was included inside the new wall . A double ring peribolos wall was also built around the area . It appears that the site became a temenos ( sacred precinct ) , while a circular construction , possibly an altar was found above one grave . The burial site had been replanned as a monument , an attempt by the 13th century BC Mycenean rulers to appropriate the possible heroic past of the older ruling dynasty . Under this context , the land surface was built up to make a level precinct for ceremonies , with the stelae over the graves being re @-@ erected . A new entrance , the Lion Gate , was constructed near the site .
= = Findings = =
Grave Circle A , with a diameter of 27 @.@ 5 m ( 90 ft ) , is situated on the acropolis of Mycenae southeast of the Lion Gate . The site is surrounded by two rows of slabs , while the space between the rows was filled with earth and roofed with slabs . The Grave Circle contains six shaft graves , the smallest of which is measured at 3 @.@ 0 m by 3 @.@ 5 m and the largest measured at 4 @.@ 50 m by 6 @.@ 40 m ( the depth of each shaft grave ranges from 1 @.@ 0 m to 4 @.@ 0 m ) . Over each grave a mound was constructed and stelae were erected . These stelae had been probably erected in memory of the Mycenaean rulers buried there ; three of them depict chariot scenes .
A total of nineteen bodies – eight men , nine women and two children – were found in the shafts , which contained two to five bodies each ( with the exception of Grave II , which was a single burial ) . Among the findings , boars ' tusks were found in Grave IV , as well as five golden masks in Graves IV and V. One of them , the supposed Mask of Agamemnon , was found in Grave V. Additionally , gold and silver cups , including Nestor 's Cup and the Silver Siege Rhyton , were found by the side of the deceased . A number of gold rings , buttons and bracelets were also found . Most of the graves were equipped with full sets of weapons , especially swords , and the figural depictions of the objects show fighting and hunting scenes .
Many objects were designed to signify the social rank of the deceased , for instance , decorated daggers , which were objects d 'art and cannot be considered real weapons . Ornate staffs as well as a scepter from Grave IV clearly indicate a very significant status of the deceased . Items such as bulls ' heads with a double axe display clear Minoan influences . At the time that the Grave Circle was built , the Mycenaeans had not yet conquered Minoan Crete . Although it seems that they recognized the Minoans as the providers of the finest in design and craftsmanship , most of the objects decorated in Minoan style and buried in Grave Circle A are not of Minoan but of indigenous craftsmanship . On the other hand , certain motifs such as fighting and hunting scenes are clearly of Mycenaean style .
= = Excavations = =
The site of Mycenae was the first in Greece to be subjected to modern archaeological excavation . It was excavated by the German archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann in 1876 . Schliemann , inspired by Homer ’ s descriptions in the Iliad , in which Mycenae is termed " abounding in gold " , began digging there . He was also following the accounts of the ancient geographer Pausanias who , during the 2nd century AD , described the once prosperous site and mentioned that according to a local tradition , the graves of Agamemnon and his followers , including his charioteer Eurymedon and the two children of Cassandra , were buried within the citadel . What Schliemann discovered in his excavation satisfied both his opinion of Homer 's historical accuracy and his craving for valuable treasures . Among the objects he unearthed in Grave Circle A was a series of gold death masks , including one he proclaimed " The Death Mask of Agamemnon " . Schliemann cleared five shafts and recognized them as the graves mentioned by Pausanias . He stopped his exploration after the fifth grave was explored , believing that he had finished excavating the Grave Circle , however a year later Panagiotis Stamatakis found a sixth shaft grave .
It has since been proven that the burials in Grave Circle A date from 16th century BC , before the traditional time of the Trojan War ( 13th @-@ 12th century BC ) , in which Agamemnon is supposed to have participated .
= = Historical inferences = =
The valuable objects found in the graves suggest that powerful rulers were buried in this site . Although Agamemnon was supposed to have lived centuries later , these graves might have belonged to the former ruling dynasty of Mycenae – according to Greek mythology , the Perseides .
In the 2006 History Channel documentary , The Exodus Decoded , it was suggested that some of the objects are related to the events of the Exodus , the departure of the Israelites from ancient Egypt . It was argued that the Tribe of Dan is linked with the Danaans of the Greek mythology , though this view is not widely supported .
= Patterns in nature =
Patterns in nature are visible regularities of form found in the natural world . These patterns recur in different contexts and can sometimes be modelled mathematically . Natural patterns include symmetries , trees , spirals , meanders , waves , foams , tessellations , cracks and stripes . Early Greek philosophers studied pattern , with Plato , Pythagoras and Empedocles attempting to explain order in nature . The modern understanding of visible patterns developed gradually over time .
In the 19th century , Belgian physicist Joseph Plateau examined soap films , leading him to formulate the concept of a minimal surface . German biologist and artist Ernst Haeckel painted hundreds of marine organisms to emphasise their symmetry . Scottish biologist D 'Arcy Thompson pioneered the study of growth patterns in both plants and animals , showing that simple equations could explain spiral growth . In the 20th century , British mathematician Alan Turing predicted mechanisms of morphogenesis which give rise to patterns of spots and stripes . Hungarian biologist Aristid Lindenmayer and French American mathematician Benoît Mandelbrot showed how the mathematics of fractals could create plant growth patterns .
Mathematics , physics and chemistry can explain patterns in nature at different levels . Patterns in living things are explained by the biological processes of natural selection and sexual selection . Studies of pattern formation make use of computer models to simulate a wide range of patterns .
= = History = =
Early Greek philosophers attempted to explain order in nature , anticipating modern concepts . Plato ( c 427 – c 347 BC ) — looking only at his work on natural patterns — argued for the existence of universals . He considered these to consist of ideal forms ( εἶδος eidos : " form " ) of which physical objects are never more than imperfect copies . Thus , a flower may be roughly circular , but it is never a perfect mathematical circle . Pythagoras explained patterns in nature like the harmonies of music as arising from number , which he took to be the basic constituent of existence . Empedocles to an extent anticipated Darwin 's evolutionary explanation for the structures of organisms .
In 1202 , Leonardo Fibonacci ( c 1170 – c 1250 ) introduced the Fibonacci number sequence to the western world with his book Liber Abaci . Fibonacci gave an ( unrealistic ) biological example , on the growth in numbers of a theoretical rabbit population . In 1917 , D 'Arcy Wentworth Thompson ( 1860 – 1948 ) published his book On Growth and Form . His description of phyllotaxis and the Fibonacci sequence , the mathematical relationships in the spiral growth patterns of plants , is classic . He showed that simple equations could describe all the apparently complex spiral growth patterns of animal horns and mollusc shells .
The Belgian physicist Joseph Plateau ( 1801 – 1883 ) formulated the mathematical problem of the existence of a minimal surface with a given boundary , which is now named after him . He studied soap films intensively , formulating Plateau 's laws which describe the structures formed by films in foams .
The German psychologist Adolf Zeising ( 1810 – 1876 ) claimed that the golden ratio was expressed in the arrangement of plant parts , in the skeletons of animals and the branching patterns of their veins and nerves , as well as in the geometry of crystals .
Ernst Haeckel ( 1834 – 1919 ) painted beautiful illustrations of marine organisms , in particular Radiolaria , emphasising their symmetry to support his faux @-@ Darwinian theories of evolution .
The American photographer Wilson Bentley ( 1865 – 1931 ) took the first micrograph of a snowflake in 1885 .
In 1952 , Alan Turing ( 1912 – 1954 ) , better known for his work on computing and codebreaking , wrote The Chemical Basis of Morphogenesis , an analysis of the mechanisms that would be needed to create patterns in living organisms , in the process called morphogenesis . He predicted oscillating chemical reactions , in particular the Belousov – Zhabotinsky reaction . These activator @-@ inhibitor mechanisms can , Turing suggested , generate patterns of stripes and spots in animals , and contribute to the spiral patterns seen in plant phyllotaxis .
In 1968 , the Hungarian theoretical biologist Aristid Lindenmayer ( 1925 – 1989 ) developed the L @-@ system , a formal grammar which can be used to model plant growth patterns in the style of fractals . L @-@ systems have an alphabet of symbols that can be combined using production rules to build larger strings of symbols , and a mechanism for translating the generated strings into geometric structures . In 1975 , after centuries of slow development of the mathematics of patterns by Gottfried Leibniz , Georg Cantor , Helge von Koch , Wacław Sierpiński and others , Benoît Mandelbrot wrote a famous paper , How Long Is the Coast of Britain ? Statistical Self @-@ Similarity and Fractional Dimension , crystallising mathematical thought into the concept of the fractal .
= = Causes = =
Living things like orchids , hummingbirds , and the peacock 's tail have abstract designs with a beauty of form , pattern and colour that artists struggle to match . The beauty that people perceive in nature has causes at different levels , notably in the mathematics that governs what patterns can physically form , and among living things in the effects of natural selection , that govern how patterns evolve .
Mathematics seeks to discover and explain abstract patterns or regularities of all kinds . Visual patterns in nature find explanations in chaos theory , fractals , logarithmic spirals , topology and other mathematical patterns . For example , L @-@ systems form convincing models of different patterns of tree growth .
The laws of physics apply the abstractions of mathematics to the real world , often as if it were perfect . For example , a crystal is perfect when it has no structural defects such as dislocations and is fully symmetric . Exact mathematical perfection can only approximate real objects . Visible patterns in nature are governed by physical laws ; for example , meanders can be explained using fluid dynamics .
In biology , natural selection can cause the development of patterns in living things for several reasons , including camouflage , sexual selection , and different kinds of signalling , including mimicry and cleaning symbiosis . In plants , the shapes , colours , and patterns of flowers like the lily have evolved to optimise insect pollination ( other plants may be pollinated by wind , birds , or bats ) . European honey bees and other pollinating insects are attracted to flowers by a radial pattern of colours and stripes ( some visible only in ultraviolet light ) that serve as nectar guides that can be seen at a distance ; by scent ; and by rewards of sugar @-@ rich nectar and edible pollen .
= = Types of pattern = =
= = = Symmetry = = =
Symmetry is pervasive in living things . Animals mainly have bilateral or mirror symmetry , as do the leaves of plants and some flowers such as orchids . Plants often have radial or rotational symmetry , as do many flowers and some groups of animals such as sea anemones . Fivefold symmetry is found in the echinoderms , the group that includes starfish , sea urchins , and sea lilies .
Among non @-@ living things , snowflakes have striking sixfold symmetry : each flake is unique , its structure forming a record of the varying conditions during its crystallisation , with nearly the same pattern of growth on each of its six arms . Crystals in general have a variety of symmetries and crystal habits ; they can be cubic or octahedral , but true crystals cannot have fivefold symmetry ( unlike quasicrystals ) . Rotational symmetry is found at different scales among non @-@ living things including the crown @-@ shaped splash pattern formed when a drop falls into a pond , and both the spheroidal shape and rings of a planet like Saturn .
Symmetry has a variety of causes . Radial symmetry suits organisms like sea anemones whose adults do not move : food and threats may arrive from any direction . But animals that move in one direction necessarily have upper and lower sides , head and tail ends , and therefore a left and a right . The head becomes specialised with a mouth and sense organs ( cephalisation ) , and the body becomes bilaterally symmetric ( though internal organs need not be ) . More puzzling is the reason for the fivefold ( pentaradiate ) symmetry of the echinoderms . Early echinoderms were bilaterally symmetrical , as their larvae still are . Sumrall and Wray argue that the loss of the old symmetry had both developmental and ecological causes .
= = = Trees , fractals = = =
Fractals are infinitely self @-@ similar , iterated mathematical constructs having fractal dimension . Infinite iteration is not possible in nature so all ' fractal ' patterns are only approximate . For example , the leaves of ferns and umbellifers ( Apiaceae ) are only self @-@ similar ( pinnate ) to 2 , 3 or 4 levels . Fern @-@ like growth patterns occur in plants and in animals including bryozoa , corals , hydrozoa like the air fern , Sertularia argentea , and in non @-@ living things , notably electrical discharges . Lindenmayer system fractals can model different patterns of tree growth by varying a small number of parameters including branching angle , distance between nodes or branch points ( internode length ) , and number of branches per branch point .
Fractal @-@ like patterns occur widely in nature , in phenomena as diverse as clouds , river networks , geologic fault lines , mountains , coastlines , animal coloration , snow flakes , crystals , blood vessel branching , and ocean waves .
= = = Spirals = = =
Spirals are common in plants and in some animals , notably molluscs . For example , in the nautilus , a cephalopod mollusc , each chamber of its shell is an approximate copy of the next one , scaled by a constant factor and arranged in a logarithmic spiral . Given a modern understanding of fractals , a growth spiral can be seen as a special case of self @-@ similarity .
Plant spirals can be seen in phyllotaxis , the arrangement of leaves on a stem , and in the arrangement ( parastichy ) of other parts as in composite flower heads and seed heads like the sunflower or fruit structures like the pineapple and snake fruit , as well as in the pattern of scales in pine cones , where multiple spirals run both clockwise and anticlockwise . These arrangements have explanations at different levels – mathematics , physics , chemistry , biology – each individually correct , but all necessary together . Phyllotaxis spirals can be generated mathematically from Fibonacci ratios : the Fibonacci sequence runs 1 , 1 , 2 , 3 , 5 , 8 , 13 ... ( each subsequent number being the sum of the two preceding ones ) . For example , when leaves alternate up a stem , one rotation of the spiral touches two leaves , so the pattern or ratio is 1 / 2 . In hazel the ratio is 1 / 3 ; in apricot it is 2 / 5 ; in pear it is 3 / 8 ; in almond it is 5 / 13 . In disc phyllotaxis as in the sunflower and daisy , the florets are arranged in Fermat 's spiral with Fibonacci numbering , at least when the flowerhead is mature so all the elements are the same size . Fibonacci ratios approximate the golden angle , 137 @.@ 508 ° , which governs the curvature of Fermat 's spiral .
From the point of view of physics , spirals are lowest @-@ energy configurations which emerge spontaneously through self @-@ organizing processes in dynamic systems . From the point of view of chemistry , a spiral can be generated by a reaction @-@ diffusion process , involving both activation and inhibition . Phyllotaxis is controlled by proteins that manipulate the concentration of the plant hormone auxin , which activates meristem growth , alongside other mechanisms to control the relative angle of buds around the stem . From a biological perspective , arranging leaves as far apart as possible in any given space is favoured by natural selection as it maximises access to resources , especially sunlight for photosynthesis .
= = = Chaos , flow , meanders = = =
In mathematics , a dynamical system is chaotic if it is ( highly ) sensitive to initial conditions ( the so @-@ called " butterfly effect " ) , which requires the mathematical properties of topological mixing and dense periodic orbits .
Alongside fractals , chaos theory ranks as an essentially universal influence on patterns in nature . There is a relationship between chaos and fractals — the strange attractors in chaotic systems have a fractal dimension . Some cellular automata , simple sets of mathematical rules that generate patterns , have chaotic behaviour , notably Stephen Wolfram 's Rule 30 .
Vortex streets are zigzagging patterns of whirling vortices created by the unsteady separation of flow of a fluid , most often air or water , over obstructing objects . Smooth ( laminar ) flow starts to break up when the size of the obstruction or the velocity of the flow become large enough compared to the viscosity of the fluid .
Meanders are sinuous bends in rivers or other channels , which form as a fluid , most often water , flows around bends . As soon as the path is slightly curved , the size and curvature of each loop increases as helical flow drags material like sand and gravel across the river to the inside of the bend . The outside of the loop is left clean and unprotected , so erosion accelerates , further increasing the meandering in a powerful positive feedback loop .
= = = Waves , dunes = = =
Waves are disturbances that carry energy as they move . Mechanical waves propagate through a medium – air or water , making it oscillate as they pass by . Wind waves are sea surface waves that create the characteristic chaotic pattern of any large body of water , though their statistical behaviour can be predicted with wind wave models . As waves in water or wind pass over sand , they create patterns of ripples . When winds blow over large bodies of sand , they create dunes , sometimes in extensive dune fields as in the Taklamakan desert . Dunes may form a range of patterns including crescents , very long straight lines , stars , domes , parabolas , and longitudinal or Seif ( ' sword ' ) shapes .
Barchans or crescent dunes are produced by wind acting on desert sand ; the two horns of the crescent and the slip face point downwind . Sand blows over the upwind face , which stands at about 15 degrees from the horizontal , and falls on to the slip face , where it accumulates up to the angle of repose of the sand , which is about 35 degrees . When the slip face exceeds the angle of repose , the sand avalanches , which is a nonlinear behaviour : the addition of many small amounts of sand causes nothing much to happen , but then the addition of a further small amount suddenly causes a large amount to avalanche . Apart from this nonlinearity , barchans behave rather like solitary waves .
= = = Bubbles , foam = = =
A soap bubble forms a sphere , a surface with minimal area — the smallest possible surface area for the volume enclosed . Two bubbles together form a more complex shape : the outer surfaces of both bubbles are spherical ; these surfaces are joined by a third spherical surface as the smaller bubble bulges slightly into the larger one .
A foam is a mass of bubbles ; foams of different materials occur in nature . Foams composed of soap films obey Plateau 's laws , which require three soap films to meet at each edge at 120 ° and four soap edges to meet at each vertex at the tetrahedral angle of about 109 @.@ 5 ° . Plateau 's laws further require films to be smooth and continuous , and to have a constant average curvature at every point . For example , a film may remain nearly flat on average by being curved up in one direction ( say , left to right ) while being curved downwards in another direction ( say , front to back ) . Structures with minimal surfaces can be used as tents . Lord Kelvin identified the problem of the most efficient way to pack cells of equal volume as a foam in 1887 ; his solution uses just one solid , the bitruncated cubic honeycomb with very slightly curved faces to meet Plateau 's laws . No better solution was found until 1993 when Denis Weaire and Robert Phelan proposed the Weaire – Phelan structure ; the Beijing National Aquatics Center adapted the structure for their outer wall in the 2008 Summer Olympics .
At the scale of living cells , foam patterns are common ; radiolarians , sponge spicules , silicoflagellate exoskeletons and the calcite skeleton of a sea urchin , Cidaris rugosa , all resemble mineral casts of Plateau foam boundaries . The skeleton of the Radiolarian , Aulonia hexagona , a beautiful marine form drawn by Haeckel , looks as if it is a sphere composed wholly of hexagons , but this is mathematically impossible . The Euler characteristic states that for any convex polyhedron , the number of faces plus the number of vertices ( corners ) equals the number of edges plus two . A result of this formula is that any closed polyhedron of hexagons has to include exactly 12 pentagons , like a soccer ball , Buckminster Fuller geodesic dome , or fullerene molecule . This can be visualised by noting that a mesh of hexagons is flat like a sheet of chicken wire , but each pentagon that is added forces the mesh to bend ( there are fewer corners , so the mesh is pulled in ) .
= = = Tessellations = = =
Tessellations are patterns formed by repeating tiles all over a flat surface . There are 17 wallpaper groups of tilings . While common in art and design , exactly repeating tilings are less easy to find in living things . The cells in the paper nests of social wasps , and the wax cells in honeycomb built by honey bees are well @-@ known examples . Among animals , bony fish , reptiles or the pangolin , or fruits like the Salak are protected by overlapping scales or osteoderms , these form more @-@ or @-@ less exactly repeating units , though often the scales in fact vary continuously in size . Among flowers , the Snake 's Head Fritillary , Fritillaria meleagris , have a tessellated chequerboard pattern on their petals . The structures of minerals provide good examples of regularly repeating three @-@ dimensional arrays . Despite the hundreds of thousands of known minerals , there are rather few possible types of arrangement of atoms in a crystal , defined by crystal structure , crystal system , and point group ; for example , there are exactly 14 Bravais lattices for the 7 lattice systems in three @-@ dimensional space .
= = = Cracks = = =
Cracks are linear openings that form in materials to relieve stress . When an elastic material stretches or shrinks uniformly , it eventually reaches its breaking strength and then fails suddenly in all directions , creating cracks with 120 degree joints , so three cracks meet at a node . Conversely , when an inelastic material fails , straight cracks form to relieve the stress . Further stress in the same direction would then simply open the existing cracks ; stress at right angles can create new cracks , at 90 degrees to the old ones . Thus the pattern of cracks indicates whether the material is elastic or not . In a tough fibrous material like oak tree bark , cracks form to relieve stress as usual , but they do not grow long as their growth is interrupted by bundles of strong elastic fibres . Since each species of tree has its own structure at the levels of cell and of molecules , each has its own pattern of splitting in its bark .
= = = Spots , stripes = = =
Leopards and ladybirds are spotted ; angelfish and zebras are striped . These patterns have an evolutionary explanation : they have functions which increase the chances that the offspring of the patterned animal will survive to reproduce . One function of animal patterns is camouflage ; for instance , a leopard that is harder to see catches more prey . Another function is signalling — for instance , a ladybird is less likely to be attacked by predatory birds that hunt by sight , if it has bold warning colours , and is also distastefully bitter or poisonous , or mimics other distasteful insects . A young bird may see a warning patterned insect like a ladybird and try to eat it , but it will only do this once ; very soon it will spit out the bitter insect ; the other ladybirds in the area will remain unmolested . The young leopards and ladybirds , inheriting genes that somehow create spottedness , survive . But while these evolutionary and functional arguments explain why these animals need their patterns , they do not explain how the patterns are formed .
= = = Pattern formation = = =
Alan Turing , and later the mathematical biologist James Murray , described a mechanism that spontaneously creates spotted or striped patterns : a reaction @-@ diffusion system . The cells of a young organism have genes that can be switched on by a chemical signal , a morphogen , resulting in the growth of a certain type of structure , say a darkly pigmented patch of skin . If the morphogen is present everywhere , the result is an even pigmentation , as in a black leopard . But if it is unevenly distributed , spots or stripes can result . Turing suggested that there could be feedback control of the production of the morphogen itself . This could cause continuous fluctuations in the amount of morphogen as it diffused around the body . A second mechanism is needed to create standing wave patterns ( to result in spots or stripes ) : an inhibitor chemical that switches off production of the morphogen , and that itself diffuses through the body more quickly than the morphogen , resulting in an activator @-@ inhibitor scheme . The Belousov – Zhabotinsky reaction is a non @-@ biological example of this kind of scheme , a chemical oscillator .
Later research has managed to create convincing models of patterns as diverse as zebra stripes , giraffe blotches , jaguar spots ( medium @-@ dark patches surrounded by dark broken rings ) and ladybird shell patterns ( different geometrical layouts of spots and stripes , see illustrations ) . Richard Prum 's activation @-@ inhibition models , developed from Turing 's work , use six variables to account for the observed range of nine basic within @-@ feather pigmentation patterns , from the simplest , a central pigment patch , via concentric patches , bars , chevrons , eye spot , pair of central spots , rows of paired spots and an array of dots . More elaborate models simulate complex feather patterns in the Guinea fowl , Numida meleagris , in which the individual feathers feature transitions from bars at the base to an array of dots at the far ( distal ) end . These require an oscillation created by two inhibiting signals , with interactions in both space and time .
Patterns can form for other reasons in the vegetated landscape of tiger bush and fir waves . Tiger bush stripes occur on arid slopes where plant growth is limited by rainfall . Each roughly horizontal stripe of vegetation effectively collects the rainwater from the bare zone immediately above it . Fir waves occur in forests on mountain slopes after wind disturbance , during regeneration . When trees fall , the trees that they had sheltered become exposed and are in turn more likely to be damaged , so gaps tend to expand downwind . Meanwhile , on the windward side , young trees grow , protected by the wind shadow of the remaining tall trees . Natural patterns are sometimes formed by animals , as in the Mima mounds of the Northwestern United States and some other areas , which appear to be created over many years by the burrowing activities of pocket gophers .
In permafrost soils with an active upper layer subject to annual freeze and thaw , patterned ground can form , creating circles , nets , ice wedge polygons , steps , and stripes . Thermal contraction causes shrinkage cracks to form ; in a thaw , water fills the cracks , expanding to form ice when next frozen , and widening the cracks into wedges . These cracks may join up to form polygons and other shapes .
= = = Pioneering authors = = =
Fibonacci , Leonardo . Liber Abaci , 1202 .
----- translated by Sigler , Laurence E. Fibonacci 's Liber Abaci . Springer , 2002 .
Haeckel , Ernst . Kunstformen der Natur ( Art Forms in Nature ) , 1899 – 1904 .
Thompson , D 'Arcy Wentworth . On Growth and Form . Cambridge , 1917 .
= = = General books = = =
Adam , John A. Mathematics in Nature : Modeling Patterns in the Natural World . Princeton University Press , 2006 .
Ball , Philip . Nature 's Patterns : a tapestry in three parts . 1 : Shapes . 2 : Flow . 3 : Branches . Oxford , 2009 .
Murphy , Pat and Neill , William . By Nature 's Design . Chronicle Books , 1993 .
Rothenberg , David . Survival of the Beautiful : Art , Science and Evolution . Bloomsbury Press , 2011 .
Stevens , Peter S. Patterns in Nature . Little , Brown & Co , 1974 .
Stewart , Ian . What Shape is a Snowflake ? Magical Numbers in Nature . Weidenfeld & Nicolson , 2001 .
= = = Patterns from nature ( as art ) = = =
Edmaier , Bernard . Patterns of the Earth . Phaidon Press , 2007 .
Macnab , Maggie . Design by Nature : Using Universal Forms and Principles in Design . New Riders , 2012 .
Nakamura , Shigeki . Pattern Sourcebook : 250 Patterns Inspired by Nature .. Books 1 and 2 . Rockport , 2009 .
O 'Neill , Polly . Surfaces and Textures : A Visual Sourcebook . Black , 2008 .
Porter , Eliot , and Gleick , James . Nature 's Chaos . Viking Penguin , 1990 .
= Crabble Athletic Ground =
The Crabble Athletic Ground , also known as The Crabble or simply Crabble. is a football stadium located in the northern Dover suburb of River , Kent , England . It was the home of the various incarnations of Dover F.C. from 1931 until the club folded in 1983 . Since then it has been the home of Dover Athletic F.C. , and it was also the temporary home of Margate F.C. between 2002 and 2004 , when the club 's Hartsdown Park stadium was being redeveloped . The stadium has two seated stands and two covered terraces and holds a total of 5 @,@ 745 fans ( including 1 @,@ 010 seats and 3 @,@ 642 covered terracing ) , although in the past , crowds larger than that figure could be accommodated . It also has a clubhouse , which the club completely redeveloped in 2008 .
= = History = =
In 1896 , a syndicate of local businessmen began a project to create a sports complex at the site known as Crabble Meadows on the outskirts of Dover . The word Crabble , which is also found in the name of a local corn mill , derives from the Old English crabba hol , meaning a hole in which crabs are found . The project was an extremely costly one but was completed in 1897 , and football was first played on the Crabble site in the same year . In 1902 , the original owners of the site , beset by financial problems , contemplated selling the land for redevelopment but eventually sold the site to the town council for £ 5 @,@ 500 . The pitch was shared by the town 's cricket and football teams , with the cricketers being given priority , which meant that the football team was forced to begin and end its season either with a long run of consecutive away matches or by playing matches at other , less satisfactory , venues in the town . To resolve the issue , the council opted to lay out a new football pitch further up the hillside , behind the lower pitch 's pavilion . The first match played on the " upper pitch " took place in September 1931 , with a small stand being constructed the following year . The football club then used the upper pitch whenever the lower pitch was unavailable due to cricket commitments .
Dover F.C. applied for permission to build a grandstand on the southern side of the " upper pitch " in 1947 , but the application was rejected . Three years later , the club was permitted to extend the existing small stand on the opposite side and in 1951 , Dover F.C. moved to the upper pitch on a permanent basis , initially paying the council rent of £ 300 a year . The final match on the lower pitch took place on 26 March 1951 , and the first on the upper pitch was held eleven days later , when Fulham were Dover 's opponents in a friendly . Due to a shortage of bolts , the grandstand had not actually been completed at this time . Covered terracing at the Town End , where fans had previously stood on the hillside , was added soon afterwards . Floodlights were added in 1961 and inaugurated with a match against a Chelsea XI .
Dover F.C folded in 1983 , but the newly formed Dover Athletic took over the ground and continued to make improvements . When the team won the Southern League championship in 1990 , however , promotion to the Football Conference was refused on the grounds that the stadium did not meet the standard required by the higher division . Subsequently , new turnstiles were installed and two new terraces were built behind the goals . The seating in the main stand was replaced and a second grandstand was added on the opposite side of the pitch . These improvements meant that the club was able to gain promotion after its second Southern League title in 1993 . In the 2002 – 03 and 2003 – 04 seasons , Margate F.C. played home fixtures at the stadium while redevelopment work took place at their own Hartsdown Park ground . What was originally intended to be a short @-@ term arrangement ended up lasting for two years as the redevelopment work stalled .
Between 2003 and 2004 , the ground was known as the Hoverspeed Stadium under the terms of a sponsorship deal . In 2007 , the club announced that under another such arrangement , the stadium would be known as the SeaFrance Crabble Stadium , however a year later it was announced that the deal would not be renewed due to the ferry operator 's financial constraints . On 1 July 2008 , the club announced local car dealership Perry 's as the club 's new main sponsor , with the stadium being rebranded as the Perry 's Crabble Stadium . In 2008 the club launched a project to replace the existing clubhouse with a new £ 200 @,@ 000 building featuring a larger bar , better audio @-@ visual facilities and a high quality kitchen . The club hopes the new building will become a popular venue for social and business functions .
= = Other uses = =
The lower pitch at Crabble was used by Kent County Cricket Club as one of its home venues for first @-@ class cricket matches from 1907 to 1976 , a total of 106 first @-@ class matches being played there .
= = Structure and facilities = =
The stadium is known for its unusual location , being set into the side of a hill . It has two seated stands and two covered terraces . The Main Stand , which has been in place since 1951 , occupies the length of one side of the pitch and has a roof supported by numerous columns , which obscure the view for some fans . Identical covered terraces for standing spectators are behind both goals , which also suffer from an obstructed view . The small Family Stand occupies a portion of the side opposite the Main Stand . The remainder of this side of the ground is taken up by the clubhouse , toilets and other club facilities . Unlike most football stadiums , the club directors ' lounge is set atop one of the stands . In December 2009 the Football Association gave the stadium 's facilities an A grade , meaning that it meets the minimum standard for entry to the Football League .
The stadium is approximately 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 km ) from Kearsney railway station , which lies on Southeastern 's Chatham Main Line from London Victoria to Dover Priory . Dover Priory itself is further away , but connecting bus services are available . Parking is available around the perimeter of the adjacent rugby club .
= = Records = =
The highest attendance ever recorded at the ground was recorded when " just under 7 @,@ 000 " fans were in attendance for a match between Dover F.C. and Folkestone on 13 October 1951 . Current club Dover Athletic 's record home attendance is the crowd of 5 @,@ 645 for the match against Crystal Palace in the FA Cup on 4 January 2015 .
= Dan Paul =
Daniel " Dan " Perkins Smith Paul ( July 22 , 1924 – January 24 , 2010 ) was an American attorney best known for arguing the landmark case Miami Herald Publishing Co. v. Tornillo before the Supreme Court of the United States . The decision established the principle that government could not force a newspaper to publish content .
Paul was born in Jacksonville , Florida , grew up in Daytona , Florida , and was educated at Harvard University , receiving degrees in law and public administration . Setting up practice in Miami , Florida , he specialized in First Amendment and environmental law . His clients included the Miami Dolphins of American football and newspapers such as The Miami Herald and the Wall Street Journal . For his active role in city politics , Paul was nicknamed " the father of Metro " . On June 13 , 2015 supporters led by Emerge Miami , the Urban Environment League and New Tropics named a four ( 4 ) acre Biscayne Bay waterfront site after Dan Paul . The site , owned by Miami @-@ Dade County , was formerly called Parcel B and in 1996 the Miami Heat had promised to turn the site into a public park including a mini @-@ soccer field . Supporters , now including several elected officials , demand the County force the Heat to honor its promise . The site will now be called the Dan Paul park . ( 16 )
= = Early life = =
Dan Paul was born in Jacksonville , Florida on July 22 , 1924 , to Henry Paul , a pharmacist , and Cornelia Smith Paul , a county tax collector . After growing up in Daytona , he attended Harvard University , receiving a law degree in 1948 and a master 's degree in public administration in 1949 .
= = Legal career = =
Paul began to practice in Miami , Florida in 1949 with the firm of Loftin , Anderson , Scott , McCarthy and Preston . In 1954 he formed a partnership with Francis Sams , specializing in corporate law . Over the next decade , he established himself as one of Miami 's most prominent attorneys . In 1966 , the Miami News called him " Dade 's knight " and wrote of him that " the name Dan Paul comes up in so many civic controversies that it is hard to keep up with him " . Paul eventually became known as " the father of Metro " .
In 1967 , a suit filed by Paul against a plan to reapportion and expand the Florida Legislature reached the US Supreme Court . The Court struck down the plan . Paul stated that he had filed the suit because " it would greatly hurt the future of Florida to let the Legislature grow to such monstrous proportions that we would cease to have effective government . "
One of Paul 's specialties was environmental law , and he represented the National Audubon Society in a late @-@ 1960s lawsuit to stop an airport from being constructed in the Florida Everglades , a protected region of subtropical wetlands . He also acted as a parks activist , protesting the removal of sidewalks designed by Brazilian architect Roberto Burle Marx . Paul played a major role in amending Miami 's city code to block the construction of buildings within fifty feet of the shore .
Paul worked for a time in partnership with Parker Thomson in one of the most prominent legal practices in Miami , Paul and Thomson . By the end of their practice , 28 percent of Paul and Thomson 's time was devoted to pro bono work . However , the partners split acrimoniously in 1983 . In the 1970s and ' 80s , Paul also acted as general counsel for the Miami Dolphins of American football .
In 2001 , Harvard established a professorship in his name at the John F. Kennedy School of Government .
= = = First Amendment law = = =
Paul represented the Miami Herald for more than three decades , as well as working for the New York Times , Wall Street Journal , and NBC . James Goodale , a First Amendment specialist , described Paul after his death as " an important figure in freedom @-@ of @-@ press matters nationally and particularly in Florida ... In Florida , in particular , he was a leader in resisting subpoenas for reporters ' sources . "
Paul is best known for acting as the chief lawyer for the Herald in Miami Herald Publishing Co. v. Tornillo , a 1974 US Supreme Court case . In the case , a political candidate , Pat Tornillo Jr . , had requested that the Herald print his rebuttal to an editorial criticizing him , citing Florida 's " right @-@ to @-@ reply " law , which mandated that newspapers print such responses . The Herald challenged the law , and the case was appealed to the Supreme Court .
The Court unanimously overturned the Florida statute under the Press Freedom Clause of the First Amendment , ruling that " Governmental compulsion on a newspaper to publish that which ' reason ' tells it should not be published is unconstitutional . " The decision showed the limitations of a 1969 decision , Red Lion Broadcasting Co. v. Federal Communications Commission — in which a similar " Fairness Doctrine " had been upheld for radio and television — establishing that broadcast and print media had different Constitutional protections . The decision is considered a landmark in First Amendment law .
= = Personal life = =
Paul never married . For hobbies , he enjoyed tennis , speedboating , and waterskiing .
On January 9 , 1980 , Paul was attacked by an 18 @-@ year @-@ old guest , Bradley Schlegel , at his home in Star Island . Schlegel stabbed Paul in the face , chest , arms , and back , and Paul subsequently underwent plastic surgery to repair the wounds . Schlegel was charged with attempted murder , possession of a weapon , and attempted robbery . He initially contended that Paul had made aggressive sexual advances to him , prompting him to stab Paul in self @-@ defense . Schlegel later pleaded no contest to a charge of aggravated battery .
Paul died at his home in Miami on January 24 , 2010 , of Parkinson 's disease .
= Gulf Stream =
The Gulf Stream , together with its northern extension towards Europe , the North Atlantic Drift , is a powerful , warm , and swift Atlantic ocean current that originates in the Gulf of Mexico and stretches to the tip of Florida , and follows the eastern coastlines of the United States and Newfoundland before crossing the Atlantic Ocean . The process of western intensification causes the Gulf Stream to be a northward accelerating current off the east coast of North America . At about 40 ° 0 ′ N 30 ° 0 ′ W , it splits in two , with the northern stream , the North Atlantic Drift , crossing to Northern Europe and the southern stream , the Canary Current , recirculating off West Africa .
The Gulf Stream influences the climate of the east coast of North America from Florida to Newfoundland , and the west coast of Europe . Although there has been recent debate , there is consensus that the climate of Western Europe and Northern Europe is warmer than it would otherwise be due to the North Atlantic drift which is the northeastern section of the Gulf Stream . It is part of the North Atlantic Gyre . Its presence has led to the development of strong cyclones of all types , both within the atmosphere and within the ocean . The Gulf Stream is also a significant potential source of renewable power generation .
The Gulf Stream is typically 100 kilometres ( 62 mi ) wide and 800 metres ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) to 1 @,@ 200 metres ( 3 @,@ 900 ft ) deep . The current velocity is fastest near the surface , with the maximum speed typically about 2 @.@ 5 metres per second ( 5 @.@ 6 mph ) .
= = History = =
European discovery of the Gulf Stream dates to the 1512 expedition of Juan Ponce de León , after which it became widely used by Spanish ships sailing from the Caribbean to Spain . A summary of Ponce de León 's voyage log , on April 22 , 1513 , noted , " A current such that , although they had great wind , they could not proceed forward , but backward and it seems that they were proceeding well ; at the end it was known that the current was more powerful than the wind . " Its existence was also known to Peter Martyr d 'Anghiera .
Benjamin Franklin became interested in the North Atlantic Ocean circulation patterns . In 1768 , while in England , Franklin heard a curious complaint from the Colonial Board of Customs : Why did it take British packets several weeks longer to reach New York from England than it took an average American merchant ship to reach Newport , Rhode Island , despite the merchant ships leaving from London and having to sail down the River Thames and then the length of the English Channel before they sailed across the Atlantic , while the packets left from Falmouth in Cornwall ?
Franklin asked Timothy Folger , his cousin twice removed ( Nantucket Historical Society ) , a Nantucket island whaling captain , for an answer . Folger explained that merchant ships routinely crossed the then @-@ unnamed Gulf Stream — identifying it by whale behavior , measurement of the water 's temperature and the speed of bubbles on its surface , and changes in the water 's color — while the mail packet captains ran against it . Franklin worked with Folger and other experienced ship captains , learning enough to chart the Gulf Stream and giving it the name by which it is still known today . He offered this information to Anthony Todd , secretary of the British Post Office , but it was ignored by British sea captains .
Franklin 's Gulf Stream chart was published in 1770 in England , where it was mostly ignored . Subsequent versions were printed in France in 1778 and the U.S. in 1786 .
= = Properties = =
The Gulf Stream proper is a western @-@ intensified current , driven largely by wind stress . The North Atlantic Drift , in contrast , is largely thermohaline circulation – driven . In 1958 the oceanographer Henry Stommel noted that " very little water from the Gulf of Mexico is actually in the Stream " . By carrying warm water northeast across the Atlantic , it makes Western and especially Northern Europe warmer than it otherwise would be .
However , the extent of its contribution to the actual temperature differential between North America and Europe is a matter of dispute , as there is a recent minority opinion within the science community that this temperature difference ( beyond that caused by contrasting maritime and continental climates ) is mainly due to atmospheric waves created by the Rocky Mountains .
= = Formation and behaviour = =
A river of sea water , called the Atlantic North Equatorial Current , flows westward off the coast of Central Africa . When this current interacts with the northeastern coast of South America , the current forks into two branches . One passes into the Caribbean Sea , while a second , the Antilles Current , flows north and east of the West Indies . These two branches rejoin north of the Straits of Florida .
The trade winds blow westward in the tropics , and the westerlies blow eastward at mid @-@ latitudes . This wind pattern applies a stress to the subtropical ocean surface with negative curl across the north Atlantic Ocean . The resulting Sverdrup transport is equatorward .
Because of conservation of potential vorticity caused by the northward @-@ moving winds on the subtropical ridge 's western periphery and the increased relative vorticity of northward moving water , transport is balanced by a narrow , accelerating poleward current , which flows along the western boundary of the ocean basin , outweighing the effects of friction with the western boundary current known as the Labrador current . The conservation of potential vorticity also causes bends along the Gulf Stream , which occasionally break off due to a shift in the Gulf Stream 's position , forming separate warm and cold eddies . This overall process , known as western intensification , causes currents on the western boundary of an ocean basin , such as the Gulf Stream , to be stronger than those on the eastern boundary .
As a consequence , the resulting Gulf Stream is a strong ocean current . It transports water at a rate of 30 million cubic meters per second ( 30 sverdrups ) through the Florida Straits . As it passes south of Newfoundland , this rate increases to 150 million cubic metres per second . The volume of the Gulf Stream dwarfs all rivers that empty into the Atlantic combined , which barely total 0 @.@ 6 million cubic metres per second . It is weaker , however , than the Antarctic Circumpolar Current .
The Gulf Stream is typically 100 kilometres ( 62 mi ) wide and 800 metres ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) to 1 @,@ 200 metres ( 3 @,@ 900 ft ) deep . The current velocity is fastest near the surface , with the maximum speed typically about 2 @.@ 5 metres per second ( 5 @.@ 6 mph ) . As it travels north , the warm water transported by the Gulf Stream undergoes evaporative cooling . The cooling is wind @-@ driven : Wind moving over the water causes evaporation , cooling the water and increasing its salinity and density . When sea ice forms , salts are left out of the ice , a process known as brine exclusion . These two processes produce water that is denser and colder ( or , more precisely , water that is still liquid at a lower temperature ) . In the North Atlantic Ocean , the water becomes so dense that it begins to sink down through less salty and less dense water . ( The convective action is not unlike that of a lava lamp . ) This downdraft of cold , dense water becomes a part of the North Atlantic Deep Water , a southgoing stream . Very little seaweed lies within the current , although seaweed lies in clusters to its east .
= = Localised effects = =
The Gulf Stream is influential on the climate of the Florida peninsula . The portion off the Florida coast , referred to as the Florida current , maintains an average water temperature at or above 13 ° C ( 55 ° F ) during the winter . East winds moving over this warm water move warm air from over the Gulf Stream inland , helping to keep temperatures milder across the state than elsewhere across the Southeast during the winter . Also , the Gulf Stream 's proximity to Nantucket , Massachusetts adds to its biodiversity , as it is the northern limit for southern varieties of plant life 2002 , and the southern limit for northern plant species , Nantucket being warmer during winter than the mainland .
The North Atlantic Current of the Gulf Stream , along with similar warm air currents , helps keep Ireland and the western coast of Great Britain a couple of degrees warmer than the east . However , the difference is most dramatic in the western coastal islands of Scotland . A noticeable effect of the Gulf Stream and the strong westerly winds ( driven by the warm water of the Gulf Stream ) on Europe occurs along the Norwegian coast . Northern parts of Norway lie close to the Arctic zone , most of which is covered with ice and snow in winter . However , almost all of Norway 's coast remains free of ice and snow throughout the year . Weather systems warmed by the Gulf Stream drift into Northern Europe , also warming the climate behind the Scandinavian mountains .
= = Effect on cyclone formation = | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
using broad brush strokes . He uses a 8 @-@ by @-@ 10 @-@ inch ( 20 by 25 cm ) Deardorff , which forces him to interact with his subjects .
= = Personal life = =
Johnson is married to artist Sheree Hovsepian . They live in New York City and have one child .
= = Selected exhibitions = =
= = = Solo = = =
2002 : " 12x12 : New Artist / New Work , " Museum of Contemporary Art , Chicago , IL
2005 : " The Production of Escapism , " Indianapolis Museum of Contemporary Art , Indianapolis , IN
2008 : " Sharpening My Oyster Knife , " Kunstmuseum Magdeberg , Germany
2009 : " The Dead Lecturer : Laboratory , Dojo , and Performance Space , " Power House Memphis , Memphis , TN
2009 : " Smoke and Mirrors , " Sculpture Centre , Long Island City , NY
2012 : " A Message to Our Folks , " Museum of Contemporary Art , Chicago , IL
2012 : " Rumble , " Hauser & Wirth , New York , NY
2013 : " New Growth , " Ballroom Marfa , TX
2015 : " Smile , " Hauser & Wirth ( South Gallery ) , London ( 28 January – 7 March 2015 )
= = = Group = = =
2000 : " A Decade of Acquisitions , " Detroit MI
2001 : " Freestyle , " Studio Museum in Harlem , New York NY
2004 : " Inside Out : Portrait Photographs from the Permanent Collection , " New York NY
2005 : " International Biennale of Contemporary Art 2005 , " Prague , Czech Republic
2006 : " A noir , E blanc , I rouge , U vert , O bleu : colors , " Magdeburg , Germany
2008 : " 30 Americans , " Rubell Family Collection , Miami FL
2009 : " Beg , Borrow and Steal " Rubell Family Collection , Miami FL
2010 : " Selected Works from the MCA Foundation ; Focus on UBS 12x12 , " Museum of Contemporary Art , Chicago IL
2010 : " From Then to Now : Masterworks of African American Art , " MOCA , Cleveland OH
2011 : " ILLUMInations " 54th Venice Biennale , Venice , Italy
2011 : " American Exuberance , " Rubell Family Collection , Miami FL
= = Awards = =
2012 : David C. Driskell Prize
= Sauropelta =
Sauropelta ( / ˌsɔːroʊˈpɛltə / SAWR @-@ o @-@ PEL @-@ tə ; meaning ' lizard shield ' ) is a genus of nodosaurid dinosaur that existed in the Early Cretaceous Period of North America . One species ( S. edwardsorum ) has been named although others may have existed . Anatomically , Sauropelta is one of the most well @-@ understood nodosaurids , with fossilized remains recovered in the U.S. states of Wyoming , Montana , and possibly Utah . It is also the earliest known genus of nodosaurid ; most of its remains are found in a section of the Cloverly Formation dated to 108 @.@ 5 million years ago .
It was a medium @-@ sized nodosaurid , measuring about 5 @.@ 2 metres ( 17 @.@ 1 ft ) long . Sauropelta had a distinctively long tail which made up about half of its body length . Although its body was smaller than a modern black rhinoceros , Sauropelta was about the same mass , weighing in at about 1 @,@ 500 kilograms ( 3 @,@ 300 lb ) . The extra weight was largely due to its extensive covering of bony armor , including the characteristically large spines projecting from its neck .
= = Description = =
Sauropelta was a heavily built quadrupedal herbivore with a body length of approximately 5 @.@ 2 m ( 17 @.@ 1 ft ) . The skull was triangular when viewed from above , with the rear end wider than the tapering snout . One skull measured 35 centimeters ( 13 @.@ 75 in ) in width at its widest point , behind the eyes . Unlike some other nodosaurids , the roof of the skull was characteristically flat , not domed . The roof of the skull was very thick and covered in flat , bony plates that are so tightly fused that there appear to be no sutures ( boundaries ) like the ones seen in Panoplosaurus , Pawpawsaurus , Silvisaurus , and many other ankylosaurs . This could also be an artifact of preservation or preparation . As in other ankylosaurs , thick triangular scutes projected from the postorbital bone , above and behind the eyes , as well as the jugal bone , below and behind the eyes . More typically for nodosaurids , leaf @-@ shaped teeth lined both upper and lower jaws , used for cutting plant material . The front end of the skull is unknown , but there would have been a sharp bony ridge ( tomium ) at the end of both upper and lower jaws , as seen in other ankylosaurs . This ridge probably would have supported a keratinous beak .
The tail of Sauropelta was characteristically long and made up nearly half of the body length . One skeleton preserved forty caudal ( tail ) vertebrae , although some were missing , suggesting that the true number of caudal vertebrae may have exceeded fifty . Ossified tendons stiffened the tail along its length . Like other ankylosaurs , Sauropelta had a wide body , with a very broad pelvis and ribcage . The forelimbs were shorter than the hindlimbs , which resulted in an arched back , with the highest point over the hips . Its feet , limbs , shoulders , and pelvis were all very stoutly constructed and reinforced to support a great deal of weight . American paleontologist Ken Carpenter estimated the mass of S. edwardsorum at 1 @,@ 500 kilograms ( 3 @,@ 300 lb ) .
Like other nodosaurids , Sauropelta was covered in armor formed from bony masses embedded in the skin ( osteoderms ) . The discovery of a skeleton with the body armor preserved in situ allowed Carpenter and other scientists to accurately describe this protection . Two parallel rows of domed scutes ran down the top of the neck , along the anteroposterior axis ( front to back ) . On the upper surface of the back and tail , the skin was covered in small , bony nodules ( ossicles ) , which separated larger conical scutes arranged in parallel rows along the mediolateral axis ( side to side ) . Over the hips , the ossicles and larger domed plates were interlocked very tightly to form a structure called a sacral shield . This shield is also found in ankylosaurs like Polacanthus and Antarctopelta . Large , pointed spines lined the sides of the neck , increasing in size towards the shoulders , and then decreasing in size again along the side of the body until they stopped just before the hips . Behind the hips , flat triangular plates lined the tail on both sides , pointing laterally ( outwards ) and decreasing in size towards the end of the tail . Carpenter originally described the cervical ( neck ) spines and caudal plates as belonging to a single row on each side , although more recently he and Jim Kirkland reconstructed them in two parallel rows on each side , one above the other . The upper row of cervical spines pointed backwards and upwards ( posterodorsally ) , while the lower row pointed backwards and outwards ( posterolaterally ) . The bases of each pair of cervical spines and each pair of caudal plates were fused together , greatly restricting mobility in both the neck and upper tail .
= = Classification and systematics = =
Since John Ostrom first described Sauropelta in 1970 , it has been recognized as a member of the family Nodosauridae . The nodosaurids , along with the family Ankylosauridae , belong within the infraorder Ankylosauria . Nodosaurids are characterized by certain features of the skull , including the mandible ( lower jaw ) , which curves downwards at the end . Overall , nodosaurids had narrower snouts than the ankylosaurids , and also lacked the heavy ankylosaurid tail clubs . Nodosaurids , like ankylosaurids , are found in North America , Asia , and Europe .
While the systematics ( evolutionary relationships ) of nodosaurids have not been firmly established , the genera Sauropelta , Silvisaurus and Pawpawsaurus are sometimes considered to be basal to geologically younger nodosaurids like Panoplosaurus , Edmontonia , and Animantarx . In a 2001 analysis , Carpenter included the former three genera in a sister clade to a group containing the latter three , although he found that Panoplosaurus could belong to either clade , depending which taxa and characters were chosen .
= = Discovery and naming = =
In the early 1930s , famed dinosaur hunter and paleontologist Barnum Brown collected the holotype specimen of Sauropelta ( AMNH 3032 , a partial skeleton ) from the Cloverly Formation in Big Horn County , Montana . The locality is inside the Crow Indian Reservation . Brown also discovered two other specimens ( AMNH 3035 and 3036 ) . The latter is one of the best @-@ preserved nodosaurid skeletons known to science , includes a large amount of in situ armor , and is on display in the American Museum of Natural History in New York City . AMNH 3035 preserves the cervical armor and most of a skull , missing only the end of the snout . Expeditions in the 1960s led by the equally renowned John Ostrom of Yale University 's Peabody Museum of Natural History recovered additional incomplete specimens from the Cloverly . In 1970 , Ostrom coined the genus Sauropelta to include remains discovered by both expeditions . Derived from the Greek σαυρος / sauros ( ' lizard ' ) and πελτε / pelte ( ' shield ' ) , this name is a reference to its bony armor . Although Ostrom originally named the species S. edwardsi , nomenclaturist George Olshevsky corrected the spelling to S. edwardsorum in 1991 to conform to Latin grammar rules .
Despite the naming of Sauropelta two years earlier , confusion arose in 1972 when the name " Peltosaurus " was inadvertently published as the caption of a photograph of AMNH 3036 . Although Brown never published a name or description for the remains which are now known as Sauropelta edwardsorum , " Peltosaurus " was the name he informally used in lectures and museum exhibits . However , the name Peltosaurus was preoccupied by a genus of North American lizard from an extinct branch of the modern family Anguidae ( the alligator lizards and the legless glass lizards ) and is no longer used to refer to the dinosaur .
In 1999 , Carpenter and colleagues described material of a large nodosaurid from Utah , discovered in a member of the Cedar Mountain Formation called the Poison Strip Sandstone , which is contemporaneous with the Cloverly Formation . He originally referred it to Sauropelta as a possible new species , but it was never named . In more recent publications , Carpenter no longer refers the Poison Strip animal to Sauropelta , only to the family Nodosauridae .
Other recent , but undescribed , discoveries include a complete skull from the Cloverly of Montana and a huge fragmentary skeleton from the Cedar Mountain Formation of Utah . These discoveries have been published only as abstracts for the annual Society of Vertebrate Paleontology conference , and may or may not prove to belong to S. edwardsorum or even Sauropelta when formally published .
= = = Footprint discoveries = = =
In 1932 , Charles Mortram Sternberg reported the presence of the footprints of a large , four @-@ footed dinosaur from Lower Cretaceous rocks in British Columbia , Canada . He described a new ichnogenus and species for these tracks , Tetrapodosaurus borealis , and attributed them to ceratopsians . However , in 1984 paleontologist Kenneth Carpenter re @-@ examined the British Columbian Tetrapodosaurus prints and argued that they were made by ankylosaurs rather than ceratopsians . Specifically , Carpenter concluded that these were probably the footprints of Sauropelta . Five years later , large numbers of Tetrapodosaurus tracks were discovered at the Smoky River Coal Mine near Grande Cache , Alberta . This site is considered the most important ankylosaur track site in the world .
= = Paleoecology = =
Sauropelta was one of the earliest known nodosaurids . All specimens of S. edwardsorum were recovered from the Little Sheep Mudstone section of the Cloverly Formation in Wyoming and Montana , which has been dated to 108 @.@ 5 million years ago , during the Early Cretaceous . Sauropelta lived in wide floodplains around rivers that drained into the shallow inland sea to the north and east , carrying sediment eroded from the low mountains to the west . Periodic flooding of these rivers covered the surrounding plains with new muddy sediments , creating the Cloverly Formation and burying the remains of many animals , some of which would be fossilized . At the end of Cloverly times , the shallow sea would expand to cover the entire region and would eventually split North America completely in half , forming the Western Interior Seaway . Abundant fossil remains of coniferous trees suggest that these plains were covered in forests . Grasses would not evolve until later in the Cretaceous , so Sauropelta and other Early Cretaceous dinosaurian herbivores browsed from a variety of conifers and cycads . Nodosaurids like Sauropelta had narrow snouts , an adaptation seen today in animals that are selective browsers as opposed to the wide muzzles of grazers .
While Sauropelta was an important part of the Cloverly herbivore guild , the most abundant herbivorous dinosaur of the time was the large ornithopod Tenontosaurus . The smaller ornithopod Zephyrosaurus , rare titanosaur sauropods , and an unknown type of ornithomimosaur also lived alongside Sauropelta . The dromaeosaurid theropod Deinonychus fed upon some of these herbivores , and the sheer number of Deinonychus teeth scattered throughout the formation are a testament to its abundance . Microvenator , a small basal oviraptorosaur , hunted smaller prey , while the apex predators of the Cloverly was the large allosauroid theropod Acrocanthosaurus . Lungfish , triconodont mammals , and several species of turtles lived in the Cloverly , while crocodilians prowled the rivers , lakes , and swamps , providing evidence of a year @-@ round warm climate . The Late Jurassic fauna dominated by allosauroids , stegosaurs , and many varieties of huge sauropods gave way by Cloverly times to an Early Cretaceous fauna in which dromaeosaurs , ornithopods , and nodosaurs like Sauropelta were predominant . After the Cloverly ended , a large wave of Asian animals , including tyrannosaurids , ceratopsians , and ankylosaurids would disperse into western North America , forming the mixed fauna seen throughout the Late Cretaceous .
= Miguel Cotto =
Miguel Ángel Cotto Vázquez ( born October 29 , 1980 ) , best known as Miguel Cotto , is a Puerto Rican professional boxer . He is the first and only Puerto Rican to win world titles in four different weight classes . The Transnational Boxing Rankings Board ( TBRB ) currently ranks him as the world 's fourth best middleweight .
As an amateur , Cotto represented Puerto Rico in the lightweight and light welterweight divisions at various international events including the 1999 Pan American Games , the 2000 Olympics and the 1998 Junior World Championships , where he won a silver medal . Having begun his professional career in 2001 , Cotto defeated Kelson Pinto for the WBO light welterweight title in 2004 . He made six successful defenses before vacating the title when he ascended to welterweight .
In his first welterweight fight , in 2006 , he defeated Carlos Quintana for the vacant WBA welterweight title . Cotto successfully defended this title four times before losing it to Antonio Margarito in 2008 . The following year , Cotto won the vacant WBO welterweight title , defending it once before losing it to Manny Pacquiao . In 2010 , Cotto moved up another division to light middleweight and won the WBA title . Two successful defenses were made in 2011 , one of them including a rematch against Antonio Margarito . Cotto lost the WBA title to Floyd Mayweather Jr. in 2012 , which was one of the most anticipated fights in modern boxing history . The year would end on a sour note for Cotto , as he lost to Austin Trout .
Two years later , Cotto defeated Sergio Martínez to win capture the WBC , Ring magazine and lineal middleweight titles . In doing so , he became the first Puerto Rican fighter in history to win a world title in four different weight classes . In 2015 , he defended his titles once before losing to Canelo Álvarez .
Cotto started out his career as a hard @-@ hitting pressure fighter , but has evolved over the years into a more refined boxer @-@ puncher . Many former opponents name Cotto as their hardest punching opponent , with Paulie Malignaggi ( whom Cotto fought at light welterweight ) going as far as to call Cotto 's power " near superhuman " . Cotto is considered to be one of the greatest fighters of his generation and also to be one of the best Puerto Rican boxers ever , among the likes of Félix Trinidad , Wilfred Benitez , Hector Camacho , Wilfredo Gomez , and Carlos Ortiz .
= = Early years and amateur career = =
Cotto was born in Rhode Island , to Puerto Rican parents , and relocated to Caguas , Puerto Rico with his family before he was two . There are several figures linked to boxing in his family , including his late father Miguel Cotto Sr. , his brother José Miguel Cotto , his second cousin Abner Cotto , and his uncle and former boxing trainer Evangelista Cotto . Cotto began boxing as a child to help lose weight , not anticipating it to end up being his career path . He was taken to the Bairoa Gym in Caguas . There , he was able to develop into a top amateur fighter . The young Cotto participated in several international tournaments , these include : The 1998 Junior World Championships that took place in Buenos Aires , Argentina , where he finished in second place while competing in the Lightweight division . His three victories here were by points , the results were : Andrey Kolevin of Ukraine by points 15 @-@ 3 ; Dana Laframboise of Canada by points 6 @-@ 1 , and Darius Jasevicius representing Lithuania 9 @-@ 5 . His only loss was to Anton Solopov of Russia by points with a score of 8 @-@ 9 . In 1999 , Cotto competed in the Pan American Games that took place in Winnipeg , Canada . He only fought once in a loss to Dana Laframboise of Canada by points with a final score of 2 @-@ 5 . Following his participation in the Pan American tournament , Cotto was part of the Boxing World Championships in Houston , Texas . He lost his only fight by points to Robertas Nomeikas . In his final amateur tournament , Cotto represented Puerto Rico as a Light Welterweight at 2000 Sydney Olympic Games where he lost to Mahamadkadir Abdullayev of Uzbekistan by points . Cotto decided to turn professional after the loss to Abdulaev , ending his amateur career with a record of 125 @-@ 23 .
= = Professional career = =
Early in his career Cotto defeated former world title contender John Brown by decision in the tenth round . He led the score through the entire fight and scored a knockdown in the second round . The judges gave Cotto scores of 100 @-@ 89 twice and 100 @-@ 88 .
In 2001 , Cotto suffered a dangerous injury that threatened his boxing career . As he was driving to the gymnasium at 5 a.m. , he apparently fell asleep and crashed , breaking his arm and requiring hospitalization .
On September 13 , 2003 , Cotto defeated Demetrio Ceballos by knockout in the seventh round at Las Vegas . In a fight where Cotto injured Ceballos with numerous combinations in the sixth round , switching between the orthodox and southpaw stances . In the seventh round Cotto displayed an aggressive style that led to the referee stopping the fight with 0 : 32 remaining in the round . With this , he was ranked number one in his division by the World Boxing Association .
Cotto 's first fight of 2004 , was a fourth round knockout victory over the former world title contender Victoriano Sosa . This was after an eventful week prior to the fight , which included Cotto having to wait four hours for his luggage to arrive ( after a 2 a.m. local time arrival ) at McCarran International Airport in Las Vegas , and almost being removed from the Mandalay Bay Hotel , where the fight was held , by a security guard who thought he was an unaccompanied minor .
On April 8 , 2004 , he defeated the former world title challenger , Lovemore N 'dou , by unanimous decision in Las Vegas . The first three rounds of the fight had a slow pace with neither of the boxers establishing control of the fight . Cotto dominated the fourth and fifth rounds managing to land combinations on N 'dou 's head . N 'dou won the seventh and eighth rounds after landing more accurate hits than Cotto . The last three rounds were even with both fighters establishing short periods of control in the fight . The judges gave Cotto scores of 117 @-@ 111 , 116 @-@ 112 and 115 @-@ 113 .
= = = Junior Welterweight = = =
On September 11 , 2004 , Cotto faced Kelson Pinto from Brazil , for the vacant World Boxing Organization junior welterweight title . This represented the third fight between them , with Pinto being victorious in their two previous encounters , both of which took place while they were still amateurs . The fight was televised by HBO from San Juan , Puerto Rico . During this card Cotto utilized a defensive stance with his hands in a high position instead of his usual aggressive orthodox stance . Over the course of the fight Cotto scored three knockdowns and won the World Boxing Organization Junior Welterweight Championship by knockout in the sixth round .
On December 11 , 2004 , he successfully defended his title , beating former world champion Randall Bailey by knockout in the sixth round , as part of the Vitali Klitschko @-@ Danny Williams undercard in Las Vegas . Cotto 's performance was described as a result of hand speed and accuracy . During the fight Bailey received punches in his face that opened cuts over and under both of his eyes . As a result of the cuts Bailey was examined by the ringside physician . Following this Bailey expressed that he didn 't want to continue and the referee stopped the fight at 1 : 39 of the sixth round . Eleven days later , on December 22 , 2004 the Puerto Rican boxing commission named Cotto as Puerto Rico 's fighter of the year for 2004 . Cotto 's second title defense took place on February 26 , 2005 in the Rubén Rodríguez in Bayamón , Puerto Rico against Demarcus Corley . During the fight Cotto practiced a boxing style that was more aggressive than usual , trading hits with Corley over the course of the first round . During the fight both boxers were deducted one point following illegal low blows . Cotto scored three knockdowns before the fight was stopped by the referee at 2 : 45 of the fifth round following a combination by Miguel . Corley claimed that the referee stopped the fight prematurely stating that " the ref just stopped the fight premature . If he wanted to stop the fight , he could have stopped it when I had [ Cotto ] hurt . " Just a few days after retaining the crown versus Corley , Cotto received a personal blow , when his stablemate and friend , former 2004 Olympian Joseph Serrano , was shot in the head upon leaving the Bairoa gym . Serrano survived the shot , but was in critical but stable condition at a local hospital .
On June 11 , 2005 , Cotto faced the last man to beat him as an amateur , former Olympic gold medalist Mohamed Abdulaev from Uzbekistan . As amateurs , Abdulaev eliminated Cotto from the first round of the 2000 Sydney Olympics . This time they met as professionals in New York City 's Madison Square Garden . Before the beginning of the fight Cotto received a positive ovation from the public . During the first round Miguel went on the offensive scoring hits on Abdullaev 's head and body while he was in a defensive stance . In the fourth round a left hook by Miguel hurt Abdullaev , who proceeded to focus his hits on Cotto 's body . Abdullaev 's offense was effective in the sixth and seventh rounds and as a result of this Cotto assumed a defensive stance . Following the eighth round Abdullaev 's eye was swollen to the point of being almost entirely closed . In the ninth round following accurate punches by Cotto the fight 's referee paused the fight and asked the ringside doctor to examine Abdullaev 's eye . After being examined by the doctor Abdullaev indicated to the referee that he could not continue , this way Cotto retained the Welterweight division championship .
Miguel 's third championship defense took place on September 24 , 2005 at Boardwalk Hall in Atlantic City , New Jersey , against Ricardo Torres of Colombia . In the first round Cotto had an offensive advantage and scored a knockdown on Torres . In the second round after trading hits Torres scored a knockdown on Miguel . The last seconds of the round were evenly matched with both boxers finishing the round injured . Cotto was apparently in better condition when the third round began and was dominating the fight at that point . With two minutes remaining in the round one of Cotto 's punches landed in Torres ' beltline . Following this Torres was granted thirty seconds to recover by the referee . Cotto dominated the fourth round and Torres won the fifth . Cotto won and scored a knockdown in the sixth round . At 1 : 24 of the seventh round a left hook by Cotto knocked Torres out .
On March 4 , 2006 , Cotto defended his WBO Junior Welterweight title by knocking out Gianluca Branco , who had to give up during the eighth round of their bout due to a shoulder injury . Cotto dominated the fight as a result of jab combinations in a card that took place in Bayamón , Puerto Rico . Cotto 's next scheduled match was against the then @-@ undefeated Paul Malignaggi in a fight that took place on June 10 , 2006 in Madison Square Garden . Cotto opened a cut over Malignaggi 's right eye in the first round , which , according to Malignaggi , affected his performance over the course of the fight , by stating " this was the first time in which I was cut , and the blood kept going into my eye . And it bothered me the entire fight . I was not able to see very well . Cotto 's a great fighter , but I 'm disappointed , as I wanted to be the champion " . Cotto won the fight by unanimous decision with scores of 116 @-@ 111 and 115 @-@ 112 . Malignaggi suffered a fractured right orbital bone and his jaw was injured , he was taken to Roosevelt Hospital after the fight 's outcome was announced .
= = = Welterweight = = =
Cotto relinquished his title in late 2006 and announced his intention to move to the welterweight division to challenge Carlos Quintana for the WBA 's championship . The fight took place on December 2 , 2006 . Cotto defeated Quintana by technical knockout in the fifth round . Following a punch to the body , Quintana surrendered prior to the start of the sixth round and Cotto won the vacant World Boxing Association Welterweight Championship . Cotto 's Welterweight reign began successfully on March 3 , 2007 when he retained his belt with a technical knock out victory in the eleventh round over Oktay Urkal . Urkal 's corner threw in the towel because he was apparently down in the fight , and had just had a second point deducted for a head butt , leading to his corner 's belief that the referee was unfair . On June 9 , 2007 , Cotto defended the WBA Welterweight Title against Zab Judah in New York City , performing before a sellout crowd at Madison Square Garden . The bout included a knockdown and a point deduction registered for Cotto , who established dominance on the offensive following a close start . At the moment of the stoppage , the judges had Cotto leading 97 @-@ 91 . Cotto won by technical knockout in the eleventh round when the referee stopped the fight .
Miguel Cotto and Shane Mosley fought on November 10 , 2007 at Madison Square Garden in a card made possible by a legal settlement between Top Rank Boxing , Cotto 's promoter , and Mosley 's promoter , Golden Boy Promotions . The fight was broadcast on HBO Pay @-@ Per @-@ View and was won by Cotto via unanimous decision . During the course of the fight Cotto pursued Mosley who was reacting in a slow fashion . Late in the fight Mosley displayed more aggression at one point becoming the aggressor . Cotto 's performance was described as " a rare moment in sports when a sudden star rises from what is categorically termed as goodness , to the cusp of greatness . " On April 12 , 2008 , Cotto successfully defended the championship against Alfonso Gómez . Throughout the fight Cotto scored three knockdowns before the fight was stopped following the fifth round , when the doctor indicated to the referee that Gómez couldn 't continue . Cotto was selected the World Boxing Association 's " Boxer of the Year " , during the organization 's annual award celebration , which took place in Buenos Aires .
On July 26 , 2008 , at the MGM Grand in Las Vegas , Cotto suffered his first loss as a professional to Antonio Margarito in an unsuccessful title defense . Cotto had taken the early initiative , frequently landing a series of punches on Margarito during the early rounds while using his footwork to avoid danger . However , Margarito presented constant offensive pressure of Cotto and eventually began to wear down Cotto 's resistance by trapping him against the ropes . Cotto was hurt in the seventh round after a pair of Margarito uppercuts caused his nose to bleed . Margarito continued to chase his opponent down and inflicted further damage towards the end of the tenth round . Margarito then threw a series of punches at the start of the eleventh round , with Cotto against the ropes and bleeding profusely . A combination from Margarito finally forced Cotto to his knee . He got up , but Margarito continued landing combinations . Evangelista Cotto threw in the towel after Cotto again fell to the canvas in the corner of the ring . Two judges had Margarito ahead by a score of 96 – 94 at the time of the stoppage , while the third scored the fight even . HBO analyst Harold Lederman had also scored the fight even . Cotto 's loss to Margarito has since come under suspicion due to Margarito 's subsequent attempted use of illegal hand @-@ wraps in a fight against Shane Mosley .
= = = Corner changes = = =
Cotto returned to action on February 21 , 2009 , in a card held at the Madison Square Garden , sporting the first of his trademark tattoos which he has expanded on ever since . This time competing against Michael Jennings for the vacant WBO welterweight title . After both pugilists used the first round to study their opponent 's style , the tempo accelerated during the second . In the third , Cotto pursued the offensive more fluidly , connecting with jabs and hooks . One round later , Cotto scored two knockdowns on Jennings , who was able to continue until the recess . In the fifth , Jennings was trapped against the ropes , which Cotto utilized to connect a right hook to score a third knockdown . Jennings incorporated , but the referee decided to stop the fight . With this action , Cotto was awarded a technical knockout victory , in the process winning his second championship in the welterweight division . On April 8 , 2009 , Cotto fired his uncle from the team 's staff , following a violent discussion where his property was damaged . However , neither side expressed interest in pursuing any sort of legal action . Consequently , Cotto named Joe Santiago , who had served as the team 's nutritionist as his new trainer .
On June 13 , 2009 , Cotto defended this championship against Joshua Clottey , in a fight that was originally intended to be an unification that also included the International Boxing Federation 's title . In the first round he scored a knockdown after connecting a jab . In the third round an accidental head clash opened a severe laceration over Cotto 's left eye . The injury bled profusely during the fourth round , but he was able to control the pace . In the fifth round , Clottey was pushed to the floor during an exchange and was injured in his left knee , receiving time to recover before the contest resumed . In the sixth , Cotto trapped Clottey in a corner and gained offensive advantage . During the next two rounds , Clottey controlled the offensive , noticing that Cotto was unable to see right punches . During the last rounds , Cotto decided to employ his technique from outside , while the fight 's tempo remained close . The judges decided the fight 's outcome by split decision , awarding scores of 115 @-@ 112 and 116 @-@ 111 for Cotto and 114 @-@ 113 for Clottey .
Immediately after this fight , negotiations began to pursue a contest against Manny Pacquiao . Even before Pacquiao defeated Ricky Hatton , Bob Arum , who represents both Cotto and Pacquiao , stated that he was interested in this matchup . Subsequently , Pacquiao expressed interest in fighting Cotto . The fight was sanctioned as a world title fight in the welterweight division , where the weight limit is 147 pounds , however Cotto 's camp agreed to fight at a catchweight of 145 pounds to accommodate Pacquiao 's smaller physique . Cotto 's camp also conceded the larger share of the purse to Pacquiao , who received a 65 % share of pay @-@ per @-@ view buys , compared to Cotto 's 35 % share .
On November 14 , 2009 , Pacquiao defeated Cotto by TKO 55 seconds into the 12th round , dethroning Cotto as a WBO welterweight champion . The fight generated 1 @.@ 25 million buys and 70 million dollars in domestic pay @-@ per @-@ view revenue , making it the most watched boxing event of 2009 . Pacquiao earned around 22 million dollars for his part in the fight , whilst Cotto earned around 12 million dollars . Pacquiao @-@ Cotto also generated a live gate of $ 8 @,@ 847 @,@ 550 from an official crowd of 15 @,@ 930 .
= = = Light Middleweight = = =
= = = = Cotto vs. Foreman = = = =
After the Pacquiao fight , Cotto moved to the light middleweight division . On June 5 , 2010 , he fought against undefeated Israeli WBA Light Middleweight Champion Yuri Foreman at Yankee Stadium in New York . Bob Arum had said that if Cotto were to win , he would become a frontrunner to defend the WBA belt against Manny Pacquiao in November . Cotto stated that he would consider a return to the welterweight division , in case of an interesting fight .
Cotto ended up knocking Foreman down with a signature left hook to the body in the ninth round , after Foreman tore his knee , Cotto , claiming the WBA Light Middleweight title , his fourth overall in three different weight divisions .
On March 12 , 2011 , Cotto defeated Ricardo Mayorga in a 12th round TKO , retaining his WBA Light Middleweight title on the MGM Grand Garden Arena in Las Vegas , Nevada .
= = = = Cotto vs. Margarito II = = = =
On December 3 , 2011 , Cotto defeated Antonio Margarito via TKO in the 10th round . The fight was stopped at the start of the 10th round because of the condition of Margarito 's right eye , which was swollen shut . This was the same eye that was badly damaged in his fight with Manny Pacquiao and the one that almost kept the New York State Athletic Commission from granting him his boxing license because of the special procedure that was performed on it in 2010 .
= = = = Cotto vs. Mayweather = = = =
On May 5 , 2012 , Floyd Mayweather , Jr. faced Miguel Cotto for the WBA ( Super ) Light Middleweight / Super Welterweight belt . Mayweather came in at 151 , while Cotto came in at 154 pounds . The fight started off with Cotto establishing himself as the fight 's aggressor , but with Mayweather winning the first two rounds using effective counter @-@ punching and body movement to block most of Cotto 's punches . However , in the third round Cotto seemed to successfully swarm Mayweather and land decent flurries to steal himself the round . Then from rounds 4 @-@ 9 the action was closely contested , with both fighters using their partially contrasting styles in attempts to one @-@ up the other . Ultimately though , Mayweather managed to adjust to Cotto 's new rhythm of attacking in flurries and used his now @-@ newly tweaked counter @-@ punching style to win a lot of the final rounds , in what people thought had secured Mayweather the decision victory . Cotto had Mayweather against the ropes many times , resulting in some damage and a lot of bleeding from Mayweather 's nose . Cotto 's eyes had some partial swelling . Mayweather won via unanimous decision . When they hugged at the end , Mayweather told Cotto , " You are a hell of a champion — the toughest guy I fought . "
= = = = Cotto vs. Trout , Rodríguez = = = =
Cotto 's next fight was on December 1 , 2012 , at Madison Square Garden in New York City . His opponent was the undefeated WBA Super Welterweight Champion Austin Trout . Cotto lost the fight via unanimous decision .
Cotto faced Delvin Rodríguez on October 5 , 2013 , at the Amway Center in Orlando , Florida . Cotto looked like the Cotto of old , by displaying an aggressive style early on in the fight and landing powerful body shots . One punch in his arsenal that was brought back to life , was the vicious left hook which he was known for in his days of dominance in the junior welterweight and welterweight divisions . The second round saw Cotto landing body shots at will and with less than 10 seconds left in the round he staggered Rodriguez with a sharp left hook . In the beginning of the third round , with Rodriguez still feeling the effects of the left hook at the end of round two , Cotto forced Rodriguez in to the ropes landed a left hook to the temple , followed by flurry of punches which knocked Rodriguez onto the canvas . The referee then stopped the fight and gave Cotto a third @-@ round TKO victory .
= = = Middleweight = = =
= = = = Cotto vs. Martinez = = = =
Cotto faced WBC and The Ring Middleweight champion Sergio Martinez for the titles on June 7 , 2014 in his first fight in the middleweight division at Madison Square Garden . It should be noted that Martinez was inactive for a year before this bout and had two separate surgeries performed on his right knee . Throughout the fight , journalists and fans alike , noticed Martinez was unable to bend , flex and support his own weight while moving in the ring . Martinez himself proclaimed that his knee had nothing to do with the outcome of the fight and his struggles were a result of a body shot . Cotto knocked Martinez down 3 times in the first round and once in the ninth round before Martinez retired on his stool before the tenth round , giving Cotto the win by ninth @-@ round corner retirement . With the win , Cotto became the first Puerto Rican boxer to win world titles in four different weight classes .
= = = = Cotto vs. Alvarez = = = =
Cotto lost to Saul " Canelo " Alvarez on November 21 , 2015 via unanimous decision . The fight was close throughout as both boxers were cautious in their attacks , neither fighter was seriously hurt . As Cotto attacked with a jab the whole fight , and didn 't sit down on his punches , instead deciding to employ movement . Álvarez responded with power punches , landing especially to the body . Both fighters showed iron chins , with Cotto repeatedly coming back after hard shots to the head . The scorecards at the end of the night were highly controversial as they did not show the competitiveness of the fight , with many boxing pundits having Álvarez winning by a round or two , others called it a draw . There was a fraction of the boxing world that felt Cotto won by both a small margin , while others felt he won decisively . Cotto left immediately after hearing the scorecards , with his team and family .
Cotto did not attend the post @-@ fight press conference , but Freddie Roach in his place stated that he believed his fighter won , by outscoring Canelo and blocking many of his shots . Cotto later told reporters in Puerto Rico that he felt he won .
= = = = WBC withdraws recognition of Cotto = = = =
On November 17 , 2015 in the week leading up to his fight with Alvarez , the WBC announced that they were withdrawing recognition of Cotto as their Middleweight World Champion . The WBC 's reasoning was " After several weeks of communications , countless attempts and good faith time extensions trying to preserve the fight as a WBC World Championship , Miguel Cotto and his promotion did not agree to comply with the WBC Rules & Regulations , while Saúl Alvarez has agreed to do so . " This meant that , though Cotto was stripped of his title , Alvarez still had the opportunity to win the championship . Cotto then stated publicly that the reason the WBC stripped him of his title was because he refused to pay their sanctioning fees , which he believed to be excessive .
= = Professional boxing record = =
= = Personal life = =
Cotto is married to Melissa Guzmán with whom he has two children , Alondra and Miguel Cotto III . Cotto has another daughter from a previous relationship , who was born in November 2006 .
Still an active boxer , Cotto also owns and presides a boxing promotion named " Promociónes Miguel Cotto " , which organizes fight cards in Puerto Rico . Similarly he founded " El Ángel " , a non @-@ profit organization that promotes physical activity and measures against infant obesity . Marc Ecko , fashion designer and owner of Eckō , selected Cotto when promoting the brand within the sport , citing the boxer 's " fearless " demeanor as one of the main reasons behind this agreement . As a product of this partnership , Eckō produced boxing gear for him as well as mainstream clothing accessories for the general public .
= = Titles in boxing = =
Major World Titles :
WBO Light Welterweight Champion ( 140 lbs )
WBA Welterweight Champion ( 147 lbs )
WBO Welterweight Champion ( 147 lbs )
WBA Light Middleweight Champion ( 154 lbs )
WBA ( Super ) Light Middleweight Champion ( 154 lbs )
WBC Middleweight Champion ( 160 lbs )
Minor World Titles :
WBB Light Middleweight Champion ( 154 lbs )
The Ring / Lineal Championship Titles :
The Ring Middleweight Champion ( 160 lbs )
Lineal Middleweight Champion ( 160 lbs )
Regional / International Titles :
WBC International Light Welterweight Champion ( 140 lbs )
WBA Fedelatin Light Welterweight Champion ( 140 lbs )
WBO NABO Light Welterweight Champion ( 140 lbs )
= = Pay @-@ per @-@ view bouts = =
= Follow Me Home ( song ) =
" Follow Me Home " is a song by English girl group Sugababes from their fourth studio album , Taller in More Ways ( 2005 ) . The electropop and R & B ballad was written by band members Keisha Buchanan , Mutya Buena and Heidi Range , with Jony Rockstar , Karen Poole and Jeremy Shaw . The producer , Rockstar , developed the idea of a close person as its inspiration . Buena wrote a verse about her daughter , while Buchanan wrote a verse based on her close friend . The song was released as the album 's fourth single on 5 June 2006 and contains vocals from Amelle Berrabah in replacement of Buena 's , who left the band in December 2005 .
" Follow Me Home " received mixed reviews from critics . Although its instrumentation and the group 's vocals were praised , the song was criticised as tedious and uninspiring . The single reached the top forty in Ireland and the United Kingdom , and also charted in Romania , Slovakia , and on the European Hot 100 singles chart . The music video for " Follow Me Home " was directed by Tony Tremlett and filmed in Prague , the Czech Republic . It features the Sugababes in a winter environment and contains various scenes of the group in a large house . The Sugababes performed " Follow Me Home " at the O2 ABC Glasgow , the NIA Academy and on Top of the Pops .
= = Development and composition = =
" Follow Me Home " was written by the Sugababes — Keisha Buchanan , Mutya Buena , and Heidi Range — in collaboration with Jonathan Lipsey , Karen Poole , and Jeremy Shaw , for the group 's fourth studio album , Taller in More Ways ( 2005 ) . Lipsey developed the idea of a close person as the song 's inspiration . Buena wrote the first verse based upon her daughter Tahlia , who was born in March 2005 . While writing the verse , she pondered questions such as ' What would you say to her if she was ever in trouble ? ' , and ' How would you say , I ’ ll always be there for you ? ' . Buena wanted people to interpret the verse in different ways , and stated that the lyrics came naturally . Buchanan drew inspiration from her close friend when she wrote the other verse . Lipsey produced the song under his production name Jony Rockstar . " Follow Me Home " was mixed and engineered at Metropolis Studios by Tom Elmhirst and Richard Wilkinson , respectively .
" Follow Me Home " is a electropop and R & B ballad . Stuart Heritage of the website HecklerSpray described it as an " R & B @-@ tinged ballad " . Instrumentation consists of keyboards , a guitar , beats and bass , which were provided by Shaw , Rockstar and Cameron McVey . According to Alex Roginski of Sydney Morning Herald , the song is " fleshed out with the string grandeur " of Welsh producers Hybrid , and channels European electropop music . The main concept of " Follow Me Home " is romance , and the song 's lyrical content is about protecting your loved one . During the chorus , the Sugababes sing : " I won 't walk away / I 'll stand by your side / I 'm here for you / For the rest of our lives " .
= = Release and reception = =
In December 2005 , Buena left the Sugababes due to " personal reasons " , and was replaced by Amelle Berrabah in the same month . Some tracks on Taller in More Ways were subsequently re @-@ recorded to feature Berrabah 's vocals in replacement of Buena 's ; these included " Gotta Be You " , " Follow Me Home " and " Red Dress " . Buena expressed her disappointment with the re @-@ recording of " Follow Me Home " , saying : " My verse was talking about my daughter , it was personal . " The song was announced as the fourth and final single from Taller in More Ways , and was released as a CD single and digital download on 5 June 2006 . The CD single contains the radio edit of the song in addition to two remixes . The digital release features a cover of English band Hard @-@ Fi 's single " Living for the Weekend " .
= = = Critical response = = =
" Follow Me Home " received mixed reviews from critics . K. Ross Hoffman of AllMusic described it as an " aptly pitched inspirational mini @-@ epic " , while Stylus Magazine 's Nick Southall complimented the song 's " luscious , romantic strings . " Talia Kraines of BBC noted the song as having a near @-@ level standard of the group 's 2003 single , " Too Lost in You " . QX gave the song seven out of ten stars , writing : " With this film themed track they ’ re staying true to their roots and retain their position as leaders amidst the all @-@ girl band rankings " . Stuart Heritage of Hecklerspray wrote that the song " benefits from some lovely strings and gorgeous , sultry vocals " , although admitted that the single is not as exciting as the album 's previous ones . Daily Record 's Rick Fulton described the song as one of the group 's more thoughtful tracks , but admitted that it lacks " bite " . He applauded the Soul Seekerz Vocal Mix version as " breathing life " into it . Alexis Petridis of The Guardian criticised the song as tedious and stated that it " is every bit as gripping as new parents foisting their baby photos on you " . Linda McGee of RTÉ.ie considered it " nothing special " .
= = = Commercial performance = = =
" Follow Me Home " debuted and peaked at number 32 on the UK Singles Chart in the issue dated 17 June 2006 . The following week , the song dropped ten places to number 42 , and in its third and last week on the chart , it fell to number 72 . It is the group 's lowest @-@ charting single in the UK , and one of their lowest @-@ selling singles . The song achieved more success on the Irish Singles Chart , where it peaked at number 25 and spent four weeks on the chart . The song debuted at number 88 on the Romanian Top 100 singles chart , and peaked at number 64 the following week . " Follow Me Home " achieved minor success on the Slovakian Singles Chart , where it peaked at number 93 . The single 's performance throughout Europe allowed it to chart on the European Hot 100 singles chart , peaking at number 91 .
= = Promotion = =
= = = Music video = = =
The music video for " Follow Me Home " was directed by Toby Tremlett , who collaborated with the group on the video for their single " Ugly " . Filming of the video took place in Prague , the Czech Republic , and most scenes take place in a large house . It is set in winter time and features the Sugababes wearing winter clothing such as thick coats and scarves . The video was released onto the iTunes Store on 23 May 2006 and is featured on the song 's CD release . The video opens with a scene of an alcohol bottle and a glass next to it . It then cuts to a scene of Berrabah on a couch , while follow @-@ up scenes show Buchanan against a wall and Range on a bed .
An elderly man is shown by a pool located in the house , while a young girl in a swimsuit is on the other side of it . Another elderly man enters a room in the house where there is another girl . Throughout the video , various scenes of older men and younger women appear . Towards the end of the video , Berrabah , Buchanan and Range are shown standing outside in the dark . A car stops next to the trio and they enter it . In the last scene , an elderly man watches by as the car drives off . Avril Cadden from the Sunday Mail praised the video as " great " . Former group member Buena expressed her dissatisfaction with it , saying : " I just saw a bunch of perverted men and paedophile guys " . The video reached number eight on the UK TV airplay chart .
= = = Live performances = = =
The Sugababes performed " Follow Me Home " in October 2005 at the O2 ABC Glasgow , where they played to a crowd of 300 competition winners to promote the release of Taller in More Ways . The song was included in the set list for the group 's Taller in More Ways tour . Gurdip Thandi from the Birmingham Mail described their performance at Birmingham 's NIA Academy as " polished " . In June 2006 , following its release as a single , the group performed " Follow Me Home " on Top of the Pops .
= = Track listings and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Recorded and mixed at Metropolis Studios , London
Personnel
Songwriting – Keisha Buchanan , Mutya Buena , Heidi Range , Jonathan Lipsey , Karen Poole , Jeremy Shaw
Production – Jony Rockstar
Mixing – Tom Elmhirst
Engineering – Richard Wilkinson
Keyboards and guitar – Jeremy Shaw
Beats – Jony Rockstar
Bass – Cameron McVey
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Taller in More Ways .
= = Charts = =
= Battle of Setauket =
The Battle of Setauket ( August 22 , 1777 ) was a failed attack during the American Revolutionary War on a fortified Loyalist outpost in Setauket , Long Island , New York , by a force of Continental Army troops from Connecticut under the command of Brigadier General Samuel Holden Parsons .
In an attempt to repeat the success of the earlier Meigs Raid against Sag Harbor , Parsons ' force crossed Long Island Sound to attack the Loyalist position . Alerted by spies to the planned assault , Lieutenant Colonel Richard Hewlett strongly fortified the local Presbyterian church , surrounding it with a stockade and earthworks . After Hewlett rejected Parsons ' demand to surrender , a brief firefight ensued that did no significant damage . Parsons then withdrew and returned to Connecticut .
= = Background = =
The American Revolutionary War was a qualified success for the British in 1776 . After being forced to abandon Boston , they captured New York City , but were unable to hold New Jersey when General George Washington surprised them at Trenton and Princeton . The British consolidated their hold on New York City and Long Island during the winter months of early 1777 , while the Continental Army established a land blockade around the city in New Jersey , southern New York , and southwestern Connecticut .
In the spring of 1777 Lieutenant General William Howe launched raiding expeditions against Continental Army and local militia storage depots near the city . A successful raid against Peekskill , New York in March prompted him to organize a more ambitious expedition to raid a depot in Danbury , Connecticut . This expedition , led by the former royal governor of New York , William Tryon , successfully reached Danbury from a landing point in Westport , Connecticut , on April 26 , and destroyed provisions and supplies . The Connecticut militia had mobilized , and over the next two days skirmished with the British as they marched back to their ships , most notably on April 27 at Ridgefield . General Samuel Holden Parsons , leading Connecticut 's defenses , decided to organize an act of reprisal . The raid executed with great success by Colonel Return Jonathan Meigs against Sag Harbor on eastern Long Island prompted Parsons to consider further such actions against other Loyalist positions on the island . On August 16 , Parsons , whose brigade was stationed at Peekskill , New York , received orders from Major General Israel Putnam authorizing an expedition against Loyalist targets on Long Island . Parsons immediately ordered Colonel Samuel Blachley Webb to muster his regiment , numbering about 500 men , and march to Fairfield , Connecticut . Parsons followed , reaching Fairfield on August 21 .
Loyalists recruited from Queens County , New York by Lieutenant Colonel Richard Hewlett for the 3rd battalion DeLancey 's Brigade had established a fortified position in early August on the central north shore of Long Island at Setauket , just across Long Island Sound from Fairfield . Hewlett 's force took over the town 's Presbyterian meeting house , which they fortified . When spies informed Hewlett that Parsons was mustering troops at Fairfield , he set his force to improving the defenses , building a breastwork six feet ( about 2 meters ) high at a distance of 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) all around the meeting house . Upon these works he mounted four small swivel guns .
= = Battle = =
On the night of August 21 , Parsons and Webb set out across Long Island Sound in whaleboats , taking with them a few small brass cannons . Early the next morning they landed at Crane 's Neck ( in present @-@ day Old Field , just west of Setauket ) , and marched to Setauket . Finding the Loyalists strongly entrenched , Parsons first sent a truce flag to demand their surrender . Hewlett refused the demand , and the two forces began a three @-@ hour exchange of gunfire . Neither side incurred significant casualties ( Colonel Webb reported one man wounded ) , and the small American cannons failed to make an impression on the fortifications . Concerned that armed British ships in the Sound would hear the battle and come to investigate , Parsons called off the assault and retreated , taking with him a dozen captured horses and some blankets .
= = Aftermath = =
The attackers successfully recrossed the Sound , and Parsons assigned Webb 's regiment to patrol the Connecticut shore . In December 1777 Parsons , Webb , and Meigs were involved in a more elaborate attempt at taking British military stores at Setauket . This one failed , because rough seas prevented Meigs from crossing , and Webb 's boat was captured by a British ship .
Lieutenant Colonel Hewlett was favorably mentioned in general orders for his defense of the post , although it was abandoned several months later . Although Setauket was never again the target of a major expedition , it was frequently the target of small @-@ scale raids . It was also a significant waypoint for intelligence that made its way from American spies in New York to Washington 's spy chief , Setauket native Benjamin Tallmadge . Tallmadge operated what has since been called the Culper Ring , in which a number of Setauket residents figured prominently .
A Patriot refugee from Long Island , Zachariah Greene , was a member of Parsons ' expedition , and later served as minister to the Setauket Presbyterian congregation . A new building was erected on the site in 1812 .
= = Portrayal = =
A fictionalized portrayal of the battle appears in the season 1 finale of the series Turn : Washington 's Spies . In this portrayal , Major Benjamin Tallmadge led the Continental forces against the British garrison led by a Major Edmund Hewlett .
= Transfusion ( EP ) =
Transfusion is the second EP by the Australian rock group Powderfinger . It was released on 27 September 1993 by Polydor . The album was the group 's first recording with Polydor , as the group had signed with the label due to the success of the previous EP by the band , Powderfinger .
The song " Reap What You Sow " is the first song by Powderfinger to have a music video . The EP received minor chart success , though not achieving a mainstream ARIA Singles Chart position . It reached the # 1 position on the ARIA Alternative Chart , taking the place of Nirvana 's single " Heart Shaped Box " .
= = History = =
Transfusion was recorded and produced by Powderfinger in 1993 under the Polydor label , at Red Zeds studios in Brisbane . Despite working with Polydor , the group did not sign any contract prior to work on the EP . Says lead singer Bernard Fanning , " We haven ’ t signed anything ... we certainly haven ’ t signed with them ( Polydor ) " . This statement also refuted rumours that the band had signed with various labels including " Red Eye , Emily , Polydor , and Imago " , according to Fanning .
In producing Transfusion , the band aimed to move away from the " sixties " tag that had been placed on them by the musical community . According to Fanning , it is human nature that " you really can ’ t help but categorise " , and this instinct was something the EP attempted to move away from . He went on to say that " it ’ d be nice , in a perfect world , just to be judged on your own merits " , whilst hitting back at those who gave Powderfinger the " sixties " tag by saying that " people that say that aren ’ t really listening , I think " .
= = Release = =
= = = Publicity = = =
In order to publicise the release , Powderfinger decided to film a music video its first track , " Reap What You Sow " . The music video was directed by the advertisement director David Barker of Film Headquarters . This work with Barker proved amicable , and lead to the band 's following seven music videos also being directed by him . The " Reap What You Sow " video used black @-@ and @-@ white footage of Fanning lying in a creek floating and leaning on rocks . These scenes are intercut with more black @-@ and @-@ white scenes of the band performing the song , in one setting on the side of a mountain overlooking their home city of Brisbane . In another setting , the band is shownin full colour playing live to an audience . Later in the video , the whole band are recreating in the creek seen earlier in the video . The video uses a range of filters and effects , including reversed scenes and visual filters .
= = = Response = = =
Transfusion replaced " Heart Shaped Box " by Nirvana at the top of the ARIA alternative music chart in 1993 . Despite appearing a notable achievement , Fanning overlooked its significance , telling Rolling Stone magazine , " All it did was make us aware of how few people buy records . " He estimated that it had taken 1 @,@ 000 sales for the EP to top the alternative music chart . However , Fanning said he hoped that the EP ’ s chart success would open doors for Powderfinger to play at renowned concerts such as the Big Day Out .
" Reap What You Sow " , the opening track on Transfusion , received some air time on Triple M in Brisbane , and on Triple J nationwide in Australia , but its airplay was incomparable to future singles by the band . The song did , however , win the band much local popularity , topping local community radio station and indie record store charts . It was recognisable and appreciated for " ( establishing ) the band 's tone and moral stance from the outset " .
= = = Charts = = =
= = Track listing = =
All music and lyrics written by Bernard Fanning , John Collins , Ian Haug , Darren Middleton , Jon Coghill .
" Reap What You Sow " – 5 : 29
" Change the Tide " – 4 : 40
" Blind to Reason " – 6 : 11
" Mama Harry " – 3 : 11
" Rise Up " – 5 : 00
= = Personnel = =
= Muslim conquest of Sicily =
The Muslim conquest of Sicily began in June 827 and lasted until 902 , when the last major Byzantine stronghold on the island , Taormina , fell . Isolated fortresses remained in Byzantine hands thereafter , but the island was henceforth under Muslim rule until conquered in turn by the Normans in the 11th century .
Although Sicily had been raided by the Muslims since the mid @-@ 7th century , these raids did not threaten Byzantine control over the island , which remained a largely peaceful backwater . The opportunity for the Aghlabid emirs of Ifriqiya came in 827 , when the commander of the island 's fleet , Euphemius , rose in revolt . Defeated by loyalist forces and driven from the island , Euphemius sought the aid of the Aghlabids . The latter regarded this as an opportunity for expansion and for diverting the energies of their own fractious military establishment and alleviate the criticism of the Islamic scholars by championing jihad , and dispatched an army to aid him . Following the Arab landing on the island , Euphemius was quickly sidelined . An initial assault on the island 's capital , Syracuse , failed , but the Muslims were able to weather the subsequent Byzantine counter @-@ attack and hold on to a few fortresses . With the aid of reinforcements from Ifriqiya and al @-@ Andalus , in 831 they took Palermo , which became the capital of the new Muslim province .
The Byzantine government sent a few expeditions to aid the locals against the Muslims , but preoccupied with the struggle against the Abbasids on their eastern frontier and with the Cretan Saracens in the Aegean Sea , it was unable to mount a sustained effort to drive back the Muslims , who over the next three decades raided Byzantine possessions almost unopposed . The strong fortress of Enna in the centre of the island was the main Byzantine bulwark against Muslim expansion , until its capture in 859 . Following its fall , the Muslims increased their pressure against the eastern parts of the island , and after a long siege captured Syracuse in 878 . The Byzantines retained control of some fortresses in the north @-@ eastern corner of the island for some decades thereafter , and launched a number of efforts to recover the island until well into the 11th century , but were unable to seriously challenge Muslim control over Sicily . The fall of the last major Byzantine fortress , Taormina , in 902 , is held to mark the completion of the Muslim conquest of Sicily .
Under Muslim rule , Sicily prospered and eventually detached itself from Ifriqiya to form a semi @-@ independent emirate . The island 's Muslim community survived the Norman conquest in the 1060s and even prospered under the Norman kings , giving birth to a unique cultural mix , until it was deported to Lucera in the 1220s after a failed uprising .
= = Background = =
Throughout the imperial Roman period , Sicily was a quiet , prosperous backwater . Only in the 5th century did it suffer from raids by the Vandals operating from the coasts of North Africa . In 535 , the island came under Byzantine control and was raided by the Ostrogoths in the Gothic War , but calm returned thereafter . Protected by the sea , the island was spared the ravages inflicted on Byzantine Italy through the Lombard invasions of the late 6th and early 7th centuries , and retained a still flourishing urban life and a civilian administration . It was only the increasing threat of the Muslim expansion that thrust it into the limelight . As John Bagnell Bury writes , " A fruitful land and a desirable possession in itself , Sicily 's central position between the two basins of the Mediterranean rendered it an object of supreme importance to any Eastern sea @-@ power which was commercially or politically aggressive ; while for an ambitious ruler in Africa it was the steppingstone to Italy and the gates of the Adriatic . "
Consequently , the island was early on targeted by the Muslims , the first raid occurring in 652 , only a few years after the establishment of the first Muslim navy . Following the onset of Muslim attacks against North Africa , it became a crucial strategic base , and for a while , in 661 – 668 , it was the residence of the imperial court under Constans II . Constituted as a theme around 690 , its governing strategos also came to assume control over the scattered imperial possessions in the southern Italian mainland . The island was raided thereafter , especially in the first half of the 8th century , but did not come under serious threat until the Muslims completed their conquest of North Africa and moved into Hispania as well . It was Abd al @-@ Rahman al @-@ Fihri , the Abbasid governor of Ifriqiya , who first made plans to invade the island in force and attempt to capture it and Sardinia in 752 – 753 , but he was thwarted by a Berber rebellion .
In 799 , the founder of the Aghlabid dynasty , Ibrahim ibn al @-@ Aghlab , secured recognition of his position as autonomous emir of Ifriqiya by the Abbasid caliph , Harun al @-@ Rashid , thereby marking the establishment of a practically independent state centred on modern Tunisia . In 805 , Ibrahim concluded a ten @-@ year truce with the Byzantine governor of Sicily , which was renewed by Ibrahim 's son and successor Abdallah I in 813 . During this time , the Aghlabids were too preoccupied with their rivalry with the Idrisids to the west to plan any serious assault on Sicily . Instead , there are testimonies of commercial traffic between Sicily and Ifriqiya , and of the presence of Arab traders on the island .
= = Euphemius ' rebellion = =
The occasion for the invasion of Sicily was provided by the rebellion of the tourmarches Euphemius , commander of the island 's fleet . According to later and possibly fictional accounts , driven by lust for a nun , he had forced her to marry him . Her brothers protested to Emperor Michael II , and the Byzantine ruler ordered the island 's strategos , Constantine Soudas , to investigate the matter and if the charges were found true , to cut off Euphemius ' nose as punishment . Thus it came that Euphemius , returning from a naval raid against the African coast , learned that he was to be arrested . Instead , he sailed for Syracuse , occupying the city , while the governor sought refuge in Catana . Euphemius soon managed to gain the support of a large part of the island 's military leadership . Euphemius not only repulsed an attempt by Constantine to recover Syracuse , but pursued him and drove him out of Catana , and eventually captured and executed him . Euphemius was then proclaimed emperor . The historian Alexander Vasiliev doubts the " romantic " story of the origin of Euphemius ' revolt , and believes that the ambitious general simply used an opportune moment , when the central Byzantine government was weakened by the recent Revolt of Thomas the Slav , and by its preoccupation with the contemporary Muslim conquest of Crete , to seize power for himself .
At this point , however , Euphemius was deserted by one of his closest and most powerful allies , a man known through Arab sources as " Balata " ( according to Vasiliev probably a corruption of his title , while Treadgold holds that he was named Plato ) , and his cousin Michael , commander of Palermo . The two men denounced Euphemius ' usurpation of the imperial title and marched against Syracuse , defeated Euphemius and took the city .
Like one of his predecessors , Elpidius , who had rebelled under Irene of Athens , Euphemius resolved to seek refuge among the Empire 's enemies and with a few supporters sailed to Ifriqiya . There he sent a delegation to the Aghlabid court , which pleaded with the Aghlabid emir Ziyadat Allah for an army to help Euphemius conquer Sicily , after which he would pay the Aghlabids an annual tribute . This offer came as a great opportunity for the Aghlabids , who faced long @-@ simmering ethnic tensions between Arab settlers and Berbers , dissension and rebellions within the Arab ruling elite ( the jund ) , and criticism for their preoccupation with worldly concerns , their " un @-@ Islamic " system of taxation and their luxurious lifestyle from the jurists of the Malikite school . Indeed , at the time of Euphemius ' arrival , Ziyadat Allah had just suppressed a dangerous three @-@ year revolt of the jund under Mansur al @-@ Tunbudhi . As Alex Metcalfe writes , " by undertaking a jihad to expand the frontiers of Islam at the expense of the infidels by conquest – the first major undertaking since the invasion of the Iberian Peninsula from 711 – they could silence the criticism of the jurists . At the same time , they could redirect the destructive energies of a restless jund across the Ifriqiyan – Sicilian channel to secure new sources of manpower and wealth " .
Ziyadat Allah 's council was divided over the issue , but in the end the exhortations of the respected qadi of Kairouan , Asad ibn al @-@ Furat , who used quotations from the Quran to support his case , swayed them . Asad was placed at the head of the expedition even while retaining his office of qadi , normally incompatible with a military post . The Muslim expeditionary forces is said to have consisted of ten thousand foot soldiers and seven hundred cavalry , mostly Ifriqiyan Arabs and Berbers , but possibly also some Khurasanis . The fleet comprised seventy or a hundred ships , to which were added Euphemius ' own vessels .
= = Initial operations and conquest of Palermo = =
= = = Muslim landing and siege of Syracuse , 827 – 828 = = =
On 14 June 827 , the allied fleets sailed from the Bay of Sousse , and after three days they reached Mazara in southwestern Sicily , where they landed . There they were met with soldiers loyal to Euphemius , but the alliance soon began to show rifts : a Muslim detachment mistook some of Euphemius ' partisans for loyalist troops , and a skirmish ensued . Although Euphemius ' troops were ordered to place a twig on their helmets as a distinctive mark , Asad announced his intention to wage the campaign without them . Soon after that , Balata , who seems to have taken over the functions , if not the title , of the imperial strategos on the island , appeared nearby with a Byzantine force . The two armies clashed on a plain south @-@ east of Mazara , where Asad 's men , after exhortations by their leader , gained a victory . Balata retreated first to Enna and from there to Calabria on the Italian mainland , where he may have hoped to gather more troops . Instead , he died there shortly after his arrival .
Asad then left Mazara under Abu Zaki al @-@ Kinani , and turned to Syracuse : the Muslim army advanced along the southern shore towards the island 's capital , but at Qalat al @-@ Qurrat ( possibly ancient Acrae ) , it was met by an embassy from the city which offered tribute if the Muslims halted their advance . The proposal was probably designed to buy time for the city to better prepare itself for a siege , but Asad , either persuaded by the emissaries ' assurances or needing to rest his army , halted his advance for a few days . At the same time , Euphemius began to regret his alliance with the Aghlabids , and opened secret contacts with the imperials , urging them to resist the Arabs . The Muslims recommenced their advance soon after , and laid siege to the city . Byzantium , which at the same time was forced to face a threat much closer to home at Crete , was unable to send much aid to the beleaguered island , while the Muslims received reinforcements from Africa . Giustiniano Participazio , the dux of the imperial protectorate of Venice , came to the city 's aid , but was not able to raise the siege . The besiegers however suffered from lack of supplies as well as the outbreak of a disease in spring 828 , which cost Asad his life . He was replaced by Muhammad ibn Abu 'l @-@ Jawari . When a Byzantine fleet arrived , the Arabs raised the siege and tried to sail back to Africa , but were hindered by the Byzantine ships . Thwarted , the Muslim army burned its ships and retreated over land to the castle of Mineo , which surrendered to them after three days .
= = = First siege of Enna and the Byzantine counterattack , 828 – 829 = = =
Despite his contacts with the imperials , Euphemius was now willing to serve as their guide , evidently hoping that the Muslims , humbled by their failure and without the strong will of Asad to guide them , could now be made to serve his purposes . After Mineo surrendered , the Muslim army divided in two : one part took Agrigento in the west , while the other , along with Euphemius , attacked Enna . The garrison of Enna began negotiations , offering to acknowledge Euphemius ' authority , but when Euphemius with a small escort met with their emissaries , he was murdered . It is unknown what happened to Euphemius ' supporters after his death , whether they dispersed or continued fighting alongside the Muslims .
In spring 829 , Michael II sent a new fleet to Sicily under Theodotus , who was well acquainted with the island , having already served as its strategos in the past . After landing , Theodotus marched his army to Enna , where the Arabs were continuing the siege . He was defeated in the subsequent battle , but was able to find refuge in the fortress with most of his men . The Muslims now became so confident of victory that they struck their first coins on the island , in the name of Ziyadat Allah and Muhammad ibn Abu 'l @-@ Jawari , who however died a short while after and was replaced by Zubayr ibn Gawth . Shortly after that , Theodotus managed to reverse the situation : he led a sally that routed a Muslim raiding party and then defeated the main Muslim army on the next day , killing 1 @,@ 000 men and pursuing the rest up to the Muslims ' fortified encampment , which he placed under siege . The Muslims tried to break out in a night sortie , but Theodotus was expecting such a move and routed them in an ambush .
The remains of the Muslim army once again sought refuge in Mineo , where Theodotus blockaded them and soon reduced them to the point of eating their horses and even dogs . When they heard of this reversal , the Arab garrison of Agrigento abandoned the city and retreated to Mazara . Thus , by the autumn of 829 , Sicily had almost been cleared of the Muslim invaders .
= = = Umayyad assistance and death of Theodotus 830 = = =
Theodotus ' success was not to be completed , however as in early summer 830 , a fleet from the Umayyad Emirate of Córdoba in al @-@ Andalus , under Asbagh ibn Wakil , arrived in Sicily despite the political difference and rivalry between Abbasid Caliphate and the Umayyad Emirate of Cordoba , the latter sent military assistance for Aghlabids to conquer Sicily although the Aghlabids was clearly serving under Abbasid interest . Ibn Kathir recorded that 300 ships of Umayyad and Aghlabids joint forces were present . Theodotus did not confront them , hoping that they would depart after raiding , but the beleaguered garrison at Mineo managed to get into contact with the raiders and proposed joint action . The Andalusians agreed , provided that Asbagh was recognized as the overall commander , and together with fresh troops from Ifriqiya marched on Mineo . Unable to confront them , Theodotus retreated to Enna and the siege of Mineo was broken ( July or August 830 ) . The combined Ifriqiyan and Andalusian army then torched Mineo and laid siege to another town , possibly Calloniana ( modern Barrafranca ) . However , once again a plague broke out in their camp , killing Asbagh and many others . The town fell later , in autumn , but the Arabs ' numbers were so depleted that they had to abandon it and retreat west . Theodotus launched a pursuit and inflicted heavy casualties , so that most of the Andalusians departed the island . However , Theodotus too was killed at this time , possibly in one of these skirmishes .
= = = Fall of Palermo 831 = = =
Meanwhile , the Ifriqiyans of Mazara , together with some of the Andalusians , had advanced across the island and laid siege to Palermo . The city held out for a year until September 831 , when its commander , the spatharios Symeon , surrendered it in exchange for safe departure for the city 's senior officials and possibly the garrison as well . The city suffered greatly during the siege ; the Arab historian Ibn al @-@ Athir , records with exaggeration that the city 's population fell from 70 @,@ 000 to 3 @,@ 000 , who were taken as slaves . The city 's bishop , Luke , managed to escape and reach Constantinople , where he informed Emperor Theophilos of the disaster . The fall of Palermo marks a decisive step in the Muslim conquest of Sicily : the Muslims gained not only an important military base , but possession of the city — henceforth known simply as al @-@ Madina ( " the City " ) — allowed them to consolidate their control over the western portion of the island , which was established as a regular Aghlabid province . Thus , in March 832 , the first Aghlabid governor ( wali ) , Abu Fihr Muhammad ibn Abdallah , arrived in Palermo . Abu Fihr was a capable man , and was able to assuage the often violent dissensions between Ifriqiyans and Andalusians .
= = Expansion of the Muslim province = =
The western third of Sicily fell relatively quickly into Muslim hands , but conquest of the eastern portion of the island was a protracted and haphazard affair . There is little evidence of large @-@ scale campaigns or pitched battles , and warfare was dominated by repeated Arab attacks on Byzantine citadels , coupled with raids ( sa 'ifa ) in the surrounding countryside , aimed at looting or the extraction of tribute and prisoners from the threatened localities . In this type of warfare , the south @-@ eastern third of the island ( Val di Noto ) suffered comparatively more than the more mountainous and inaccessible north @-@ eastern portion .
= = = Expeditions of 832 – 836 = = =
No operations are reported in Sicily for the first two years after the fall of Palermo . The Muslims were probably preoccupied with organizing their new province , while the Byzantines were too weak to react , and could not expect any reinforcements : the Empire faced mounting pressure in the East , where the Abbasid Caliph al @-@ Ma 'mun launched repeated invasions of the Byzantine borderlands and threatened to march on Constantinople itself until his sudden death in August 833 .
The struggle during the next few years focused on Enna , which became the main Byzantine stronghold in central Sicily . In early 834 , Abu Fihr campaigned against Enna , defeated its garrison in the field and forced it to withdraw within the town 's fortifications . In spring , the garrison sallied forth , but was again defeated and driven back . In 835 , Abu Fihr again raided central Sicily , and defeated the army under a Byzantine patrikios ( probably the island 's strategos ) that opposed him , taking the Byzantine commander 's wife and son captive in the process . After his success , Abu Fihr sent Muhammad ibn Salim in a raid against the eastern parts of the island , which reached as far as Taormina . However , dissensions broke out once again among the Muslims : Abu Fihr was murdered , and his killers found refuge among the Byzantines .
The Aghlabids replaced Abu Fihr with al @-@ Fadl ibn Yaqub , who displayed great energy : immediately after his arrival he led a raid against the environs of Syracuse , and then another into central Sicily , around Enna . The Byzantine strategos marched out to meet them , but the Muslims withdrew to a mountainous and thickly forested area where the Byzantines could not pursue . After waiting in vain for the Muslims to accept battle , the strategos turned his army back , but was ambushed by the Muslims who put his men to flight . The Muslims seized most of the Byzantines ' arms , equipment and animals , and almost managed to capture the severely wounded strategos himself . Despite his success , Ibn Yaqub was replaced in September by a new governor , the Aghlabid prince Abu 'l @-@ Aghlab Ibrahim ibn Abdallah ibn al @-@ Aghlab , a first cousin of the emir Ziyadat Allah . At the same time , the long @-@ awaited Byzantine reinforcements arrived . The Byzantine fleet contested the passage of Abu 'l @-@ Aghlab 's small fleet , which lost ships both to the Byzantine attack and to storms ; the Byzantines however could not prevent it from reaching Palermo , and were driven off by a squadron from the city under Muhammad ibn al @-@ Sindi . Abu 'l @-@ Aghlab avenged himself by launching naval raids against Pantelleria and other localities , beheading the Christians taken prisoner . At the same time , a Muslim cavalry raid reached the eastern parts of the island around Mount Etna , burning the villages and crops and taking captives .
In 836 , Abu 'l @-@ Aghlab launched fresh attacks . A Muslim force seized the fortress known in Arabic as Qastaliasali ( probably Castelluccio on the island 's northern coast ) , but were driven away by a Byzantine counter @-@ attack . The Muslim fleet , under al @-@ Fadl ibn Yaqub , raided the Aeolian Islands and seized a number of forts on the northern coast of Sicily , most notably Tyndaris . In the meantime , another cavalry raid was dispatched against the region of Etna and was so successful that the price for Byzantine captives plummeted .
= = = Expeditions of 837 – 841 = = =
In 837 , a Muslim army under Abd al @-@ Salam ibn Abd al @-@ Wahhab attacked Enna , but was defeated by the Byzantines , and Abd al @-@ Salam himself was taken prisoner . The Muslims responded by reinforcing their position around Enna , which they placed under siege . During the following winter , one of the besiegers discovered an unguarded path leading to the town , allowing the Muslims to take the entire lower town . The Byzantines however managed to maintain control of the citadel , and after negotiations secured a Muslim withdrawal in exchange for a large ransom .
Theophilos now undertook a serious effort to relieve Sicily : he assembled a large army and placed it under the command of his son @-@ in @-@ law , the Caesar Alexios Mousele . Mousele arrived in Sicily in spring 838 , in time to relieve the fortress of Cefalù from a Muslim attack . Mousele scored a number of successes against Muslim raiding parties but , back in Constantinople , his enemies launched accusations of contacts with the Arabs and designs on the throne . Furthermore , the death of his infant wife , Maria , cut his link to Theophilos , and the Emperor sent the archbishop of Syracuse , Theodore Krithinos , to recall the Caesar to Constantinople in 839 .
On 11 June 838 the emir Ziyadat Allah had died , and was succeeded by his brother , Abu Iqal ibn al @-@ Aghlab . The new emir sent fresh troops to Sicily , where the Muslims regained the upper hand after Mousele 's departure : in 839 – 840 , the Muslims captured the fortresses of Corleone , Platani , Caltabellotta , and possibly also Marineo , Geraci and other forts , and in 841 , they raided from Enna as far as Grotte .
In the same period , the Sicilian Muslims also established footholds in the Italian mainland . The Muslims were asked to assist the beleaguered Duchy of Naples against Sicard of Benevento in 839 , but then they sacked Brindisi and , following Sicard 's murder and the outbreak of civil war in the Principality of Benevento , seized Tarentum in 840 and Bari in 847 , which they made their bases . Until well into the 880s , the Muslims would launch destructive raids along the coasts of Italy and into the Adriatic Sea from their bases on the Italian mainland — most notably from the Emirate of Bari , until its destruction in 871 .
= = = Muslim advances and the fall of Enna , 842 – 859 = = =
In late 842 or 843 , with Neapolitan support , the Muslims conquered Messina . In 845 , the fortress of Modica also fell , while the Byzantines , now at peace with the Abbasid Caliphate , received reinforcements from the eastern theme of Charsianon . The two armies met near Butera , where the Byzantines suffered a crushing defeat , losing about 10 @,@ 000 men . In the wake of this disaster , the Byzantine position deteriorated rapidly : al @-@ Fadl ibn Ja 'far took Leontini by a ruse in 846 , and the fortress of Ragusa followed in 848 , when its garrison was forced by severe famine to surrender it to the Muslims , who razed it to the ground . At about the same time ( late 847 or 848 ) , an attempt by the Byzantine fleet to land troops near Palermo failed , and subsequently the Byzantines lost seven out of their ten ships in a storm .
In 851 , the capable Muslim governor and general Abu 'l @-@ Aghlab Ibrahim died , and the local Muslims elected Abu 'l @-@ Aghlab al @-@ Abbas ibn al @-@ Fadl , the victor of Butera , as his successor . Without waiting for confirmation of his appointment from Ifriqiya , the new governor attacked and captured the northern fortress of Caltavuturo , and then turned south towards Enna , whose Byzantine commander refused to meet him in the field . Abbas continued his raid , and in 852 – 853 he devastated the Val di Noto . Butera was besieged for five or six months , until its inhabitants came to terms and secured his withdrawal by delivering 5 @,@ 000 – 6 @,@ 000 prisoners . Little details are known about the events of the next four years , but the picture painted by the sources is one of unopposed Muslim raids across the remaining Byzantine territories . Abbas captured several fortresses , including Cefalù in 857 , whose population was allowed safe departure and which was then razed . Gagliano was also besieged , but not taken . In summer 858 , the two sides were engaged in naval combat , probably off Apulia ; Abbas ' brother Ali managed to defeat the Byzantine fleet of 40 ships in the first engagement , but was in turn defeated and forced to flee in the second .
Then , in January 859 , the Muslims scored a major success through the capture , with the aid of a Byzantine prisoner , of hitherto impregnable Enna . As Metcalfe remarks , the capture of the fortress was of major importance , for Enna was the key to Muslim expansion in eastern Sicily : " without bringing it under their control , the Muslims were not able to capture and consolidate towns further to the eastwithout the risk of losing their gains in counteroffensives . ... Its fall , followed by its comprehensive sacking and the slaughter of its defenders on 24 January 859 was thus , in military terms , the crowning achievement of the early Aghlabids in Sicily since the fall of Palermo " .
The fall of Enna reduced the Byzantines to the eastern coastal strip between Syracuse and Taormina , and forced the emperor to send a large army and a fleet of reportedly 300 ships , under Constantine Kontomytes , which arrived at Syracuse in autumn 859 . Soon after , the Byzantine navy was defeated a major battle with the Muslims , in which the Byzantines lost a third of their fleet . Nevertheless , the arrival of a large Byzantine army induced several settlements , which had previously submitted to the Muslims , to rise in revolt . Abbas soon suppressed these uprisings , and marched against Kontomytes . The two armies met near Cefalù , and in the ensuing battle , the Byzantines were heavily defeated and retired to Syracuse , while Abbas strengthened his position by refortifying and colonizing Enna .
= = Fall of Malta and Syracuse = =
= = = Governorship of Khafaja ibn Sufyan , 861 – 869 = = =
Abbas died in autumn 861 , after another raid into Byzantine territory , and was buried at Caltagirone ; the Byzantines later exhumed and burned his corpse . As his replacement , the Sicilian Muslims chose his uncle Ahmad ibn Ya 'qub . His tenure was short , as in February 862 he was deposed in favour of Abdallah , son of Abbas . Abdallah 's general Rabah was able to capture a few Byzantine fortresses , despite suffering a defeat in battle at first . Abdallah 's elevation , however , was not acknowledged by the Aghlabids , and he was replaced , after only five months in office , by Khafaja ibn Sufyan .
In 863 , Khafaja sent his son Muhammad to raid the environs of Syracuse , but he was defeated by the Byzantines and forced to retire . In February / March 864 , however , with the aid of a Byzantine renegade , the Muslims captured Noto and Scicli . In 865 , Khafaja led in person an expedition against the environs of Enna — which may signify that the Byzantines had retaken it , or that they still held forts in its vicinity — before moving onto Syracuse , but again his son Muhammad was defeated in an ambush , losing 1 @,@ 000 men .
In 866 , Khafaja marched once more against Syracuse . From there he marched along the coast towards the north . There he met a delegation of the citizens of Taormina , who concluded a treaty with him , but soon broke it . In the same year , the Muslims retook Noto and Ragusa , which the Byzantines had apparently recaptured , or which had simply failed to renew their tribute payments after previous capitulations . Khafaja also captured the fortress called " al @-@ Giran " and a few other towns , before an illness forced him to return to Palermo . In the summer of 867 , after the illness had passed , Khafaja led his army towards Syracuse and Catania again , raiding their environs .
In September 867 , the Byzantine emperor Michael III was killed and succeeded by Basil I the Macedonian . The new emperor was more energetic than his predecessor , and the relative peace on his eastern frontier allowed him to soon turn his full attention to the west : in 868 – 869 admiral Niketas Ooryphas was sent to relieve an Arab siege of Ragusa and re @-@ establish imperial authority in Dalmatia , after which he sailed to Italy in an abortive attempt to conclude a marriage alliance and co @-@ ordinate a joint siege of Bari with the western emperor , Louis II . Another fleet was dispatched to Sicily in spring 868 , but the Byzantines were heavily defeated by Khafaja in battle , after which the Muslims freely raided the environs of Syracuse . After Khafaga 's return to Palermo , his son Muhammad launched a raid against mainland Italy , possibly besieging Gaeta .
On his return to Sicily , in January – February 869 , Muhammad led an attempt to capture Taormina through treason , but although a small Muslim detachment gained control of the gates , Muhammad tarried to arrive with the main army and the detachment , fearing capture , abandoned the city . A month later , Khafaja launched an attack on the region of Mount Etna , probably against the town of Tiracia ( modern Randazzo ) , while Muhammad raided around Syracuse . The Byzantines , however , sortied from the city and defeated Muhammad 's men , inflicting heavy casualties , forcing Khafaja to turn on Syracuse himself . He reportedly laid siege to the city for a few weeks , before turning back towards Palermo in June . On his march home , however , he was assassinated by a dissatisfied Berber soldier , who then fled to Syracuse . It was a heavy loss for the Sicilian Muslims . The motives for the murder remain unclear : Metcalfe suggests a dispute over the division of spoils between the various sections of the Muslim army , but Alexander Vasiliev suggested the possibility that the Berber soldier was in the Byzantines ' pay .
= = = Muslim capture of Malta and Syracuse , 870 – 878 = = =
Khafaja was succeeded by his son Muhammad , elected by the Sicilian army and confirmed by the Aghlabid emir . In contrast to his previous energy , Muhammad was a sedentary governor , preferring to remain in his capital rather than campaign in person . His tenure was furthermore cut short when he was assassinated by his court eunuchs on 27 May 871 .
Nevertheless , his tenure is associated with a major success of long @-@ term significance , the capture of Malta . Of all the islands around Sicily , this was the last to remain in Byzantine hands , and in 869 a fleet under Ahmad ibn Umar ibn Ubaydallah ibn al @-@ Aghlab al @-@ Habashi attacked it . The Byzantines , having received timely reinforcements , resisted successfully at first , but in 870 Muhammad sent a fleet from Sicily to the island , whose fortress fell on 29 August 870 . The local governor fell , and the town was plundered — Ahmad al @-@ Habashi reportedly took along the local cathedral 's marble columns to decorate his palace — and its fortifications razed . The fall of Malta had important ramifications for the defence of what remained of Byzantine Sicily : with Reggio in Calabria and now Malta in their hands , the Muslims completed their encirclement of the island , and could easily interdict any aid sent from the east .
From 872 to 877 there was apparently a period of calm , since the sources are silent on any military operations in Sicily . This was probably chiefly due to internal turmoil in Muslim Sicily , with six governors reported as having taken office during this period , as well as the weakness of the Aghlabid government on the Ifriqiyan metropolis . In Italy , Muslim raids continued , but the Byzantines had a major success in 875 or 876 , after the death of Louis II , when they took possession of Bari .
In 875 , the unwarlike and pleasure @-@ loving Aghlabid emir Muhammad II ibn Ahmad ( r . 864 – 875 ) died , and was succeeded by his more energetic brother , Ibrahim II ( r . 875 – 902 ) . The new Emir of Ifriqiya was determined to finally capture Syracuse . He appointed a new governor for the island , Ja 'far ibn Muhammad , and sent a fleet from Ifriqiya to his assistance . Ja 'far began his campaign in 877 , raiding the Byzantine territories and occupying some outlying forts around Syracuse , before settling down to besiege the city . The Muslims , well supplied with siege weapons , launched incessant attacks on the city 's defenders , but Syracuse received scant reinforcements from Constantinople , where the bulk of the imperial fleet was apparently occupied with carrying building materials for a sumptuous new church built by Emperor Basil . During nine months of siege , the Arabs gradually occupied the outer defences , and finally , on 21 May 878 , stormed the city . The population was massacred or enslaved , and the city thoroughly looted over two months .
= = Completion of the Muslim conquest = =
= = = Dissension among the Sicilian Muslims , 878 – 900 = = =
Despite the major success of capturing Syracuse , the Muslim province in Sicily now degenerated into internal strife . Soon after the city 's fall , Ja 'far ibn Muhammad was murdered by his own slaves , at the instigation of his uncle and his brother , who then usurped the governorship . They were in turn overthrown in September 878 , and sent to Ifriqiya where they were executed .
Ibrahim II then briefly named his own son as governor , before the appointment of the Sicilian Husayn ibn Rabah . Husayn renewed the campaigns against the remaining Byzantine strongholds in the northeast , especially Taormina , in 879 – 880 , but without success . Indeed , the Byzantines were able to launch a limited counteroffensive in 880 , when the admiral Nasar defeated an Aghlabid fleet in a daring night attack in the Ionian Sea , and then proceeded to raid the environs of Palermo , before defeating another Aghlabid fleet at the Battle of Stelai . In 881 – 882 , Taormina was again the target of a determined Muslim attack , but held out , and a Muslim army under Abu 'l @-@ Thawr was annihilated by the Byzantines , causing a large @-@ scale mobilization of the Sicilian Muslims . Over the next years , the Muslims launched several raids , against Catania , Taormina and " the king 's city " ( possibly Polizzi ) in 883 , against Rometta and Catania in 884 , and again against Catania and Taormina in 885 . These expeditions were successful in so far as they yielded sufficient booty or tribute to pay the army , but failed to capture any Byzantine strongholds . The same period , 885 – 886 , also saw a resurgence of Byzantine strength in the Italian mainland , where Nikephoros Phokas the Elder won a string of victories against the Muslims .
It was in this climate of military failure that the discontent among broad sections of the Sicilian Muslim population , hitherto kept in check by successful raiding , erupted into open rebellion . In the later narrative sources , this conflict between the ruling elite and the lower classes is often simplified to an " ethnic " struggle between the ( ruling ) " Arabs " and the ( rebel ) " Berbers " . In December 886 , the people of Palermo deposed the governor , Sawada ibn Khafaja , and sent him to Ifriqiya . Emir Ibrahim II appointed a new governor , who was able to calm the situation temporarily through successful raids and the victory over a Byzantine fleet off Milazzo in 888 , which enabled the Sicilian Muslims to launch destructive raids into Calabria .
In the next year , Sawada returned , with fresh Ifriqiyan troops , and launched yet another failed attack on Taormina . However , in March 890 , another rebellion broke out in Palermo , this time apparently among the Sicilian Arabs , and directed against Sawada 's Ifriqiyans . Coupled with a major rebellion in Ifriqiya itself in 894 – 895 , this put an end to Muslim raids against the Byzantines , and resulted in the conclusion of a truce in 895 – 896 . According to its terms , in exchange for peace , over 40 months the Byzantines would gradually release their Muslim prisoners , by turns a group of " Arabs " and a group of " Berbers " , in total some 1 @,@ 000 men . As Metcalfe remarks , " not only does this show the extent of Christian military success against the Aghlabids in eastern Sicily , but it may also have been deliberately aimed at exacerbating tensions within the Muslim army by playing off one faction against another in negotiating their staggered release " .
In the event , a full @-@ scale civil war between " Arabs " and " Berbers " erupted in 898 , prompting the dispatch of Ibrahim II 's son Abu 'l @-@ Abbas Abdallah , who had previously suppressed the rebellion in Iriqiya , to the island at the head of an army in summer 900 . By then , the Muslims ' infighting had acquired a regional dimension , with the Palermitans pitted against the Agrigentans . After negotiations between the Ifriqiyans and the rival Sicilian parties failed , Abu 'l @-@ Abbas Abdallah marched on Palermo , which he captured on 18 September 900 . A great number of the rebels fled the city to the Byzantines in Taormina , with some reaching even Constantinople itself .
= = = Ibrahim II 's arrival and the fall of Taormina , 901 – 902 = = =
The Byzantines tried to take advantage of the revolt , and began assembling forces at Messina and Reggio , while a fleet was dispatched from Constantinople . Abu 'l @-@ Abbas , however , did not tarry and as soon as he had suppressed the rebellion , marched against the Byzantines , ravaging the environs of Taormina and launching an unsuccessful siege of Catania before returning to winter in Palermo . In the next spring , he resumed his attack and assaulted Demona . To disrupt the Byzantine preparations , his forces then crossed over to the mainland . Reggio was captured on 10 July , and was subjected to a savage sack ; a vast booty was collected , over 15 @,@ 000 of its inhabitants were carted off as slaves , and the jizya imposed on the remainder . On his return to Sicily , Abu 'l @-@ Abbas came across a Byzantine fleet that had just arrived from Constantinople and thoroughly defeated it , capturing thirty of its vessels .
In early 902 , Emir Ibrahim II was forced into abdication by his subjects , through the intervention of the Abbasid caliph . Ibrahim exchanged places with Abu 'l @-@ Abbas , who was named as his successor : Abu 'l @-@ Abbas left Sicily for Ifriqiya , while Ibrahim now resolved to take up the mantle of the Holy War , and accompanied a group of volunteers to Sicily in the summer . In an act that broke the long @-@ standing stalemate on the island , Ibrahim and his followers advanced on Taormina , defeated the Byzantine garrison before its walls and laid siege to it . Left unsupported by the imperial government , the town fell on 1 August 902 . Ibrahim then capitalized on his success by sending raiding parties against various strongholds in the vicinity , forcing either their capitulation and destruction or the payment of tribute .
Indefatigable , Ibrahim now crossed over into the mainland , where cities as far as Naples began to prepare to resist his attack . In the end , his advance was stopped at the siege of Cosenza , where Ibrahim died of dysentery on October 24 . His grandson stopped the military campaign and returned to Sicily .
= = Aftermath = =
Although few strongholds in the northeast remained unconquered and in Christian hands , the fall of Taormina marked the effective end of Byzantine Sicily , and the consolidation of Muslim control over the island . However , it did not signal the end of Arab – Byzantine warfare on and around the island .
In 909 , Sicily , like Ifriqiya itself , passed under the control of the Fatimids . The Fatimids ( and after the 950s the Kalbid hereditary governors ) continued the tradition of jihad , both against the Christian strongholds in the northeast ( the Val Demone ) and , more prominently , against the Byzantine possessions in southern Italy , punctuated by truces . Taormina itself threw off Muslim control soon after 902 , and it was not until 962 , possibly in response to the Byzantine reconquest of Crete the previous year , that the Fatimids retook the town , following a 30 @-@ week siege . In the next year , the Muslims attacked the last remaining Christian stronghold on the island , Rometta , which prompted an expedition sent by the Byzantine emperor , Nikephoros II Phokas , to recover Sicily . The Byzantines were at first successful , recapturing Messina and other fortresses in the northeast , but were repulsed before Rometta itself , and retreated back to Calabria . In the next year , they tried to resume their offensive , but were annihilated in the " Battle of the Straits " ( waqi 'at al @-@ majaz ) off Messina . As a result , a lasting truce was concluded by the two powers in 967 .
Sicilian raids on Italy continued , and prompted the intervention of the Western Emperor , Otto II in the peninsula in 982 , where he was defeated at the Battle of Stilo . It was not until the 1020s that the Byzantines turned their attention to Sicily again , after a period of consolidation of their position in southern Italy under the capable Catepan Basil Boioannes . A large force landed in Messina in 1025 , but the expedition was called off when news came of the death of Emperor Basil II . A final effort was made in 1038 , when the talented young general George Maniakes was dispatched to Sicily , taking advantage of internal conflicts between the Kalbids and the Zirids . Maniakes quickly recaptured the entire eastern coast , but the conquest was left incomplete when he was recalled to Constantinople by jealous rivals . The Kalbids soon recovered their losses , and Messina , the last Byzantine outpost , fell in 1042 .
The Arabs remained in control of Sicily until the Norman conquest of the island , which was also a prolonged affair , lasting from the first invasion in 1061 to the surrender of Noto in 1091 .
= = Impact = =
The long Arab – Byzantine struggle left abiding traces on the island 's subsequent history : although under Muslim rule , Sicilian culture quickly became Arabicized , the Christian communities in the central and eastern parts largely resisted islamization . The level of Arab influence , as attested through surviving toponyms , also varied across the island depending on the length of resistance and the extent of Arab settlement : there are many Arab @-@ derived names in the western third ( the medieval Val di Mazara ) , are more mixed in the southeastern third ( Val di Noto ) , while Christian identities survived strongest in the northeastern third of the island ( Val Demone ) , which was the last to fall , where Christian refugees from other parts of Sicily had assembled , and which furthermore remained in contact with Byzantine southern Italy .
= Greater scaup =
The greater scaup ( Aythya marila ) , just scaup in Europe or , colloquially , " bluebill " in North America , is a mid @-@ sized diving duck , larger than the closely related lesser scaup . It spends the summer months breeding in Alaska , northern Canada , Siberia , and the northernmost reaches of Europe . During the winter , it migrates south to the coasts of North America , Europe , and Japan .
Drake greater scaup are larger and have more rounded heads than the females ; they have a bright blue bill and yellow eyes . Their heads are dark , with a green gloss ; the breast is black , the belly white and the wing shows a white stripe . The females are mostly brown , again with white on the wing . They have dull blue bills and white on the face .
Greater scaup nest near water , typically on islands in northern lakes or on floating mats of vegetation . They begin breeding at age two , but start building nests in the first year . The drakes have a complex courtship , which takes place on the return migration to the summer breeding grounds and concludes with the formation of monogamous pairs . Females lay a clutch of six to nine olive @-@ buff colored eggs . The eggs hatch in 24 to 28 days . The down @-@ covered ducklings are able to follow their mother in her search for food immediately after hatching .
Greater scaup eat aquatic molluscs , plants , and insects , which they obtain by diving underwater . They form large groups , called " rafts " , that can number in the thousands . Their main threat is human development , although they are preyed upon by owls , skunks , raccoons , foxes , coyotes , and humans . Greater scaup populations have been declining since the 1980s ; however , they are still listed as a species of least concern on the IUCN Red List .
= = Taxonomy = =
The genus name Aythya is derived from the Ancient Greek aithuia which refers to a seabird mentioned by Aristotle and others and is thought to refer to a duck , auklet or other seabird . The species name marila is from the Greek word for charcoal embers or coal dust . The greater scaup was first studied by Linnaeus in 1761 . Male greater scaup from America are distinguishable from those in Europe and Asia by the stronger vermiculations , worm @-@ like carvings or marks on the mantle and scapulars , and are considered a separate subspecies , A. m. nearctica . Females of the two subspecies are indistinguishable . Based on size differences , a Pleistocene paleosubspecies , Aythya marila asphaltica , has also been described by Serebrovskij in 1941 from fossils recovered at Binagady , Azerbaijan . The greater scaup 's name may come from " scalp " , a Scottish and Northern English word for a shellfish bed , or from the duck 's mating call : " scaup scaup " .
A phylogenetic analysis of the diving ducks , examining the skeletal anatomy and skin , found that the greater and lesser scaups are each other 's closest relatives , with the tufted duck as the next closest relative of the pair .
= = Description = =
The adult greater scaup is 39 – 56 cm ( 15 – 22 in ) long with a 71 – 84 cm ( 28 – 33 in ) wingspan and a body mass of 726 – 1 @,@ 360 g ( 1 @.@ 601 – 2 @.@ 998 lb ) . It has a blue bill and yellow eyes and is 20 % heavier and 10 % longer than the closely related lesser scaup . The male has a dark head with a green sheen , a black breast , a light back , a black tail , and a white underside . The drake or male greater scaup is larger and has a more rounded head than the female . The drake 's belly and flanks are a bright white . Its neck , breast , and tail feathers are a glossy black , while its lower flanks are vermiculated gray . The upper wing has a white stripe starting as the speculum and extending along the flight feathers to the wingtip . Legs and feet of both sexes are gray . The adult female has a brown body and head , with white wing markings similar to those of the male but slightly duller . It has a white band and brown oval shaped patches at the base of the bill , which is a slightly duller shade of blue than the drake 's . Juvenile greater scaup look similar to adult females . The greater scaup drake 's eclipse plumage looks similar to its breeding plumage , except the pale parts of the plumage are a buffy gray . Distinguishing greater from lesser scaups can be difficult in the field . The head of the greater tends to be more rounded , and the white wing stripe is more extensive .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The greater scaup has a circumpolar distribution , breeding within the Arctic Circle both in the Old World ( the Palearctic ) and in North America ( the Nearctic ) . It spends the summer months in Alaska , Siberia , and the northern parts of Europe . It is also found in Asia and is present in the Aleutian Islands year round . The summer habitat is marshy lowland tundra and islands in fresh water lakes . In the fall , greater scaup populations start their migration south for the winter . They winter along the Pacific and Atlantic coasts of North America , the coasts of northwest Europe , the Caspian Sea , the Black Sea , the coast of Japan , Yellow Sea and East China Sea . During the winter months , they are found in coastal bays , estuaries , and sometimes inland lakes , such as the lakes of Central Europe and the Great Lakes .
In Europe , the greater scaup breeds in Iceland , the northern coasts of the Scandinavian peninsula , including much of the northern parts of the Baltic Sea , the higher mountains of Scandinavia and the areas close to the Arctic Sea in Russia . These birds spend the winters in the British Isles , western Norway , the southern tip of Sweden , the coast from Brittany to Poland , including all of Denmark , the Alps , the eastern Adriatic Sea , the northern and western Black sea and the southwestern Caspian Sea .
In North America , the greater scaup summers in Newfoundland and Labrador , Ungava Bay , Hudson Bay , Lake Winnipeg , northern Yukon , northern Manitoba , and northern Saskatchewan . It winters along the coasts of North America from northern British Columbia south to the Baja Peninsula and from Nova Scotia and New Brunswick south to Florida , as well as the shores of the Great Lakes and the Gulf of Mexico .
= = Behaviour = =
= = = Breeding = = =
Greater scaup breed in the tundra and the boreal forest ; it is estimated that 75 % of the North American population breed in Alaska . They typically nest on islands in large northern lakes . Greater scaup begin breeding when they are two years old , although they may start nesting at age one . Drake greater scaup have a soft , quick whistle they use to attract the attention of hens during courtship , which takes place from late winter to early spring , on the way back to their northern breeding grounds . Female greater scaup have a single pitch , a raspy “ arrr @-@ arrr @-@ arrr @-@ arrr @-@ arrr ” vocalization . The courtship is complex and results in the formation of monogamous pairs . Pairs nest in close proximity to each other in large colonies , usually near water , on an island or shoreline , or on a raft of floating vegetation . The nest consists of a shallow depression made by the female and lined with her down . After the female lays the eggs , the drake abandons the female and goes with other drakes to a large , isolated lake to molt . These lakes can be close to the breeding grounds or miles away . The lakes chosen are used yearly by the same ducks . The optimal molting lake is fairly shallow and has an abundance of food sources and cover . The female lays six to nine olive @-@ buff @-@ colored eggs , which she incubates for 24 – 28 days . A larger clutch could indicate brood parasitism by other greater scaups or even ducks of other species . Newly hatched chicks are covered with down and are soon able to walk , swim , and feed themselves ; however , they are not able to fly until 40 – 45 days after hatching . The vulnerable small chicks follow their mother , who protects them from predators .
= = = Feeding = = =
The greater scaup dive to obtain food , which they eat on the surface . They mainly eat molluscs , aquatic plants , and aquatic insects . During the summer months , the greater scaup will eat small aquatic crustaceans . There is a report of four greater scaups swallowing leopard frogs ( with body length about 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) ) , which they dredged out of a roadside freshwater pond . In freshwater ecosystems , the greater scaup will eat seeds , leaves , stems and roots , along with sedges , pondweeds , muskgrass , and wild celery . Owing to the greater scaup 's webbed feet and weight , it can dive up to 6 metres ( 20 ft ) and stay submerged for up to a minute , allowing it to reach food sources that are unobtainable to other diving ducks . The greater scaup forms large flocks , some of which can contain thousands of birds . When flocks are in water , they will face the current , and as the ducks float backwards , some fly to the front of the flock to maintain position .
= = Threats = =
Common predators of the greater scaup are owls , skunks , raccoons , foxes , coyotes , and humans . Greater scaup often find themselves entangled in fishing nets , thus large numbers of them drown in nets each year . Greater scaup can catch avian influenza , so future outbreaks have the potential to threaten greater scaup populations .
Although the greater scaup faces numerous threats , the most significant challenge to their survival is habitat degradation caused by a mix of human development and runoff . Greater scaup , when moulting and during the winter , are threatened by escalated levels of organochloride contaminants . Oil and sewage pollution also threaten this duck . Since 80 % of the greater scaup population winters in the urbanized part of the Atlantic Flyway , these ducks are subject to high levels of organic contaminates , along with increased levels of heavy metals in foods and habitat .
A joint group of American and Canadian scientists researching scaup migration across the Great Lakes found that 100 % of female greater scaup , and 77 % of female lesser scaup , had escalated levels of selenium in their bodies . Selenium is an occurring semimetallic trace element that occurs naturally in some soils and minute amounts are necessary for animal life . However excessive selenium can cause reproductive harm and is highly toxic . On their migration across the Great Lakes , greater scaups are at risk of ingesting selenium by eating the invasive zebra mussels , which can render a hen infertile . This sterilization of hens is causing the population to decrease .
In a study of 107 scaup , they all had traces of iron , zinc , manganese , copper , lead , cadmium , cobalt and nickel in their tissue samples with varying concentrations of metals in different types of tissues . Further analysis revealed that the kidneys had the highest levels of cadmium , the liver had the highest levels of copper and manganese , the liver and the stomach had the highest levels of zinc , and the lungs and liver had the highest levels of iron . There was no difference in concentration when comparing genders .
= = Conservation = =
Greater scaup are rated as a species of least concern by the IUCN Redlist . During aerial population surveys greater and lesser scaup are counted together , because they look almost identical from the air . It was estimated that the greater scaup made up about 11 % of the continental scaup population . Since the 1980s , scaup populations have been steadily decreasing . Some of the primary factors contributing to this decline are habitat loss , contaminants , changes in breeding habitat , and a lower female survival rate . The 2010 American scaup population survey was 4 @.@ 2 million scaup , however , the worldwide greater scaup population survey estimated 1 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 to 1 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 mature greater scaup . Along with the aerial population surveys , there is a banding program for the greater scaup . Metal leg bands are placed on them , so that if the scaup is killed by a hunter or if it is captured by another banding group , the number on the band can be reported to biologists and wildlife organizations . These banding programs yield valuable data about migration patterns , harvest rates , and survival rates .
= = Human interactions = =
Greater scaup are a popular game bird in North America and Europe . They are hunted in Denmark , Germany , Greece , France , the United Kingdom , and Ireland , and in Iran for both sport and commercial reasons . Greater scaup are hunted with shotguns because they must be shot on the fly , a challenging task , as they can fly at up to 121 km / h ( 75 mph ) . Greater scaup are hunted from shorelines and in open water hunting blinds or layout boats , low @-@ profile kayak @-@ like boats that hunters lie inside . Hunters frequently use decoys to attract the birds , often arranged to simulate a raft of greater scaup and featuring an open area to attract the birds to land . In most countries where greater scaup are hunted , a duck stamp is required along with the normal hunting licences that are required to pursue other game . In America and Canada , waterfowl must be hunted with non @-@ toxic shot .
= Metroid Prime : Trilogy =
Metroid Prime : Trilogy is a compilation of action @-@ adventure games developed by Retro Studios and published by Nintendo for the Wii video game console . It features three games from the Metroid series : Metroid Prime , Metroid Prime 2 : Echoes , and Metroid Prime 3 : Corruption . Prime and Echoes , which were originally released for the GameCube , were updated with many of the features that were first implemented in Corruption , such as a new control scheme based on the Wii Remote and a credits system that was supported by WiiConnect24 .
The compilation was first announced by Nintendo in May 2009 , and was released in North America on August 24 , 2009 ; in Europe on September 4 , 2009 ; and in Australia on October 15 , 2009 . It was not released in Japan , because the Prime and Echoes ports were released as standalone games in the New Play Control ! collection for that region . In January 2010 , Nintendo discontinued the title in both North America and Australia . Metroid Prime : Trilogy was well received by critics , with much praise to the new controls . In January 2015 , the compilation was made available for download from the Wii U 's Nintendo eShop .
= = Overview = =
The updated Wii versions of Prime and Echoes , which were released separately in Japan as part of the New Play Control ! series , utilize the same Wii Remote control scheme introduced in Corruption . Other updates include shorter load times , upgraded textures , bloom lighting , altered visual effects , and 16 : 9 widescreen capabilities ; however , the heads @-@ up display is always displayed at the original aspect ratio , causing it to be stretched horizontally when in widescreen mode .
Additionally , the award system from Corruption was incorporated into the first two games . Players earn credits by accomplishing certain tasks , allowing them to unlock in @-@ game items such as artwork , music , a screenshot feature , decorative items for Samus ' ship in Corruption and the Fusion Suit in Prime , in which the latter was previously unlocked by connecting the Game Boy Advance title Metroid Fusion to the game . Credits could also be shared with registered Wii friends , who also have a copy of Trilogy , via WiiConnect24 which used the Wii 's own 16 @-@ digit number as opposed to a separate Friend Code . Save files from the original version of Corruption cannot be transferred to the Trilogy version due to changes made to the source code .
The game also featured the multiplayer mode from Echoes , but was limited to local four @-@ player games and did not feature online play , which is faithful to the original . In response to complaints from players and critics about Echoes 's high difficulty during some of the boss battles , the difficulty of the encounters was lowered . All three games were printed on a single disc , and accessible via a new , unified start menu designed differently from any of the previous editions of the included games . The menu also allows independent access to the Echoes multiplayer mode , the extras menu , and other settings .
= = = Metroid Prime = = =
Originally released in 2002 for the GameCube , Metroid Prime was the first 3D title in the series , changing the perspective from sidescrolling third person to first @-@ person view , with third @-@ person being used on the Morph Ball gameplay . The game starts with protagonist Samus Aran receiving a distress signal from Space Pirate Frigate Orpheon . After an accident causes the ship to be destroyed , Samus lands on the nearby planet , Tallon IV , where the Space Pirates discovered a powerful radioactive substance known as Phazon . Samus fights off the Pirates and their biological experiments , eventually leading to a battle with Metroid Prime , a highly mutated Metroid that had been feeding off the core of a Phazon meteorite . The game received universal acclaim by critics , winning several Game of the Year awards , and sold over two million units worldwide .
= = = Metroid Prime 2 : Echoes = = =
Released in 2004 , Metroid Prime 2 : Echoes continues from the events of the first Prime , and featured a multiplayer mode . Samus is sent to rescue Galactic Federation Marines from a ship near Aether , a planet inhabited by a race known as the Luminoth . There , she discovers that the troops were slaughtered by the Ing , an evil race that came from an alternate dimension of Aether created by a Phazon meteor . Samus travels to three temples to ensure the destruction of the Ing , while battling Space Pirates and her mysterious doppelgänger called Dark Samus . Although it was positively received , criticism of the game was driven on the steep difficulty and multiplayer components . Sales for Echoes were lower than the first , with a total of 800 @,@ 000 units .
= = = Metroid Prime 3 : Corruption = = =
Released in 2007 , Metroid Prime 3 : Corruption was the first title in the series to be released on the Wii . While fending off a Space Pirate assault , Samus and her fellow bounty hunters are attacked by Dark Samus . After Samus loses contact with the other hunters , the Galactic Federation sends Samus on a mission to determine what happened to them . During the course of the game , Samus works to prevent the Phazon from spreading from planet to planet while being slowly corrupted by the Phazon herself . The game received high critical acclaim , and as of March 2008 , 1 @.@ 31 million copies of the game were sold worldwide .
= = Development = =
In 2004 , while Retro Studios was finishing Echoes , senior producer Bryan Walker suggested to studio president Michael Kelbaugh to " do something for the fans by putting all the games together on a single disc in a collector [ ' ] s ' trilogy ' edition " . Kelbaugh sent the proposal to Nintendo , which the company accepted . Development on the compilation started shortly before the release of Corruption , and used only a few of Retro Studios ' staff , as most of the crew was busy with Donkey Kong Country Returns . Prime series producer Kensuke Tanabe asked the staff to resolve most of the glitches for the Trilogy release to prevent sequence breaking .
Walker considered the compilation to be " an almost unheard of opportunity to take something you had already released and make it better " . Senior designer Mike Wikan said most of the content additions were subtle changes , such as streamlining the engines for steady framerates and shorter loading times , and higher resolution textures . Prime had the addition of light bloom , and Echoes had difficulty tweaks to make it " more accessible to those who were really intimidated early on " . For Corruption , the code was examined to find ways to make it run faster and better than in the original Wii release . Besides the changes , the particle and water ripple effects found in the original versions of Prime were reduced . The word " damn " uttered by the character Admiral Dane in Corruption 's original release was also replaced with " no " . Corruption voice actor Timothy Patrick Miller recalled on a minor dialogue alteration for his voice work : " I realize that video games even more than film is a Director [ ' ] s medium . The Director will take any actor [ ' ] s performance , edit it , cut it and in general mold it to fit his vision of the overall project . Not only do I not have a problem with that , I don ’ t see how it can be any other way . Should they find it not to work I expect the voice will be dropped . "
On October 2 , 2008 , Nintendo presented the New Play Control ! series of GameCube ports , with Prime and Echoes among the initial Japan titles . In May 2009 , Nintendo announced that all three games would be packaged in a single @-@ disk compilation internationally . In April 2011 , a copy of Trilogy — signed by Retro Studios staff and the Prime series producer — was auctioned on Amazon , with 100 percent of proceeds to be donated to the relief efforts for the Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami . Initially at the 2011 Game Developers Conference , Kelbaugh stated that the studio had no plans for the Trilogy to be re @-@ released . However it was later announced in a Nintendo Direct on January 14 , 2015 , that the Trilogy would see a re @-@ release alongside Super Mario Galaxy 2 on the Wii U eShop .
= = Release = =
Metroid Prime : Trilogy was released in North America on August 24 , 2009 , packaged in a steel @-@ book case , along with an art booklet . The European release in the following month maintained the booklet , while the Australian release in October only had a metallic cardboard slip cover . On January 8 , 2010 , it was reported that Nintendo of America was no longer producing or shipping Metroid Prime : Trilogy , and stated that players may still be able to find second @-@ hand copies of Trilogy via video game stores . On January 11 , 2010 , it was reported that Nintendo Australia had also discontinued the game . Following Nintendo of America 's announcement , Nintendo of Europe assured that the game was not discontinued in their region . Although , the game had since been out of stock at most retailers .
In August 2013 , U.S.-based retailer GameStop announced they acquired a significant stock of pre @-@ owned copies of Metroid Prime : Trilogy , along with Xenoblade Chronicles , another game that Nintendo published with a limited print cycle . GameStop stated that the game is available for purchase exclusively via their website as a " vintage " title ( despite being released merely four years prior ) for $ 84 @.@ 99 , and " with no shrink wrap " , suggesting their pre @-@ owned copies are slightly or never used , including intact Club Nintendo redeeming codes . Whilst the price is high for a pre @-@ owned game , it relatively much cheaper than other copies of the game being offered by other resellers via trade sites such as eBay , as demand remains high for Metroid Prime : Trilogy against the low supply .
In the January 2015 Nintendo Direct , it was announced that Metroid Prime : Trilogy would be released for download through the Wii U 's Nintendo eShop . It was made available in North America and Europe on January 29 , 2015 , and in Australia and New Zealand on January 30 , 2015 .
= = = Technical issues = = =
Metroid Prime : Trilogy uses a dual @-@ layer disc to allow all three games to fit on a single disc due to the size of the game data . Nintendo of America has stated that some Wii consoles may have difficulty reading the high @-@ density software due to a contaminated laser lens . Nintendo offered a free repair for owners who experienced this issue .
= = Reception = =
Metroid Prime : Trilogy was released to critical acclaim . GameSpy 's Phil Theobald praised it for being the compilation of three great games for the price of one . Matt Casamassina of IGN awarded Trilogy a score of 9 @.@ 5 out of 10 , citing the " fantastic gameplay " and " brilliant presentation values " , while Martin Kitts of NGamer UK complimented the addition of achievements system , and said the package had a good money value , calling it a " massive amount of gameplay per pound " . Eurogamer 's Kristan Reed thought the new implementations made it attractive to newcomers and old @-@ time fans , and declared that " not since Super Mario All Stars in the SNES era has Nintendo taken an opportunity to unite one of its great series in such an irresistible way " . 1UP.com 's Jeremy Parish liked the implementation of the new control scheme , stating that " the smooth precision of the Wii Remote makes the older games well worth revisiting " .
Metroid Prime : Trilogy has also been subject to criticism . GamePro 's Ashley Schoeller said that graphically , " the games do look a bit dated " and complained that the HUD was " out of aspect " to fit the widescreen . Official Nintendo Magazine 's Fred Dutton said that some aspects of Prime and Echoes had aged , saying the backtracking " feels like more of a chore than it did seven years ago , " and that it is " not until [ Echoes ] enters its final third that things really start to pick up " . GamesRadar considered the achievements too expensive , and that the similarity between the three games gives " an inescapable sense of déjà vu " . Edge noted that the control scheme was not very innovative , and that Echoes and Corruption " favoured graphical flourishes over design innovation " . While Ben Reeves of Game Informer praised the game , the " second opinion " reviewer , Adam Biessener , considered the collection " subpar " , saying it lacked innovation , and that the Wii control scheme , particularly aiming and panning , " is inferior in every way to the traditional scheme from the GameCube titles " .
In IGN 's Top 25 Wii Games list , Metroid Prime : Trilogy ranked third ( 2011 ) , and fourth ( 2012 ) . In a feature article regarding games collections , Bob Mackey of 1UP.com listed Trilogy as the " Hardest @-@ to @-@ find Work of Greatness " , noting that it " had a conspicuously low print run ; finding a copy in the wild proves difficult , and eBay prices often reach 100 dollars . "
= Siege of St. John 's =
The Siege of St. John 's was a failed attempt by French forces led by Daniel d 'Auger de Subercase to take the fort at St. John 's , Newfoundland during the winter months of 1705 , in Queen Anne 's War . Leading a mixed force of regulars , militia , and Indians , Subercase burned much of the town and laid an ineffectual siege against the fort for five weeks between late January and early March 1705 . Subercase lifted the siege after running out of provisions and gunpowder .
The siege was part of a larger @-@ scale expedition that was an attempt to repeat the highly destructive expedition led by Pierre Le Moyne d 'Iberville in 1696 . Many outlying English communities were destroyed by Subercase 's men , leading to reprisal raids by the English . Fishing activities on both sides suffered for the duration of the war , which ended with the French cession of its claims to Newfoundland .
= = Background = =
The island of Newfoundland had been contested territory between France and England for some time before Queen Anne 's War broke out in 1702 . French raids during King William 's War in the 1690s had completely destroyed almost all of the English settlements , including the principal port of St. John 's , located on the east side of the Avalon Peninsula of southeastern Newfoundland . However , an English squadron led by Sir John Gibson and Sir John Morris persuaded the displaced fishermen to return and rebuild along their side of the peninsula . The Treaty of Ryswick signed in September 1697 led to the English receiving Newfoundland and the French retaining Acadia . However , the terms of the treaty became void when the French re @-@ established their capital in Plaisance , on the Avalon Peninsula 's west side .
In 1702 | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
02 NHL season , a slight fall from his career highs set in his third season with the Oilers .
With the Oilers unwilling to pay what he was expecting , Brewer decided to go to salary arbitration to get a new contract . However , on August 4 , 2004 , Brewer signed a one @-@ year , $ 2 @.@ 65 million contract with the Oilers , avoiding his arbitration hearing set for only a few days later . Brewer was unable to play out his new contract due to the 2004 – 05 NHL lockout .
= = = St. Louis Blues = = =
In August 2005 , following the lockout , the Oilers traded Brewer , Jeff Woywitka and Doug Lynch to the St. Louis Blues in exchange for defenceman Chris Pronger . At the time of the trade , Brewer was a restricted free agent , so on August 15 , 2005 , Brewer accepted the Blues ' qualifying offer , signing a one @-@ year , $ 2 @-@ million contract . Brewer 's first season with the Blues was a particularly poor one . After playing the first 18 games of the season , Brewer separated his shoulder on November 16 , 2005 , in a 2 – 0 victory over the Columbus Blue Jackets . Brewer missed ten games before being activated from the injured reserve list , returning to the St. Louis line @-@ up for a game on December 20 , 2005 , against the Phoenix Coyotes . Less than a month later , in a game on January 13 , 2006 , against the Atlanta Thrashers , Brewer collided with the Thrashers ' centre Karl Stewart , and dislocated his left shoulder , which ended his season . In just 32 games , Brewer finished his season with nine points , including six goals , two shy of his career best of eight set in the 2002 – 04 season . Despite his limited play , the Blues re @-@ signed Brewer to a one @-@ year , $ 2 @.@ 014 million contract for the 2006 – 07 season .
Brewer 's second season with the Blues began as a disappointment . By the first half of December 2006 , Brewer had only amassed six points and a plus @-@ minus rating of – 11 , often referred to as " the worst player on the ice " by both the media and Blues fans alike . Brewer was often involved in trade rumours , as he was set to become an unrestricted free agent following the completion of the season . Brewer believed his performance was the result of having only played in 32 NHL games since the 2003 – 04 season . However , after the firing of head coach Mike Kitchen on December 11 , 2006 , Brewer began playing much better under new head coach , Andy Murray . Over the next nineteen games , Brewer changed his – 11 into a + 2 and became an integral part of the Blues ' defence . His turnaround was rewarded on February 24 , 2007 , when , rather than being traded as was previously rumoured , Brewer signed a four @-@ year , $ 17 @-@ million contract extension with the Blues . Brewer continued his turnaround through the end of the season , finishing the year with six goals and 23 assists for 29 points , tying his career high for points set in the 2002 – 03 season and setting a new career high for assists .
In his third season with the Blues , Brewer continued to do well under Andy Murray . Brewer evolved into one of the top two @-@ way defencemen in the NHL , with comparisons being made between him and former first overall draft pick Chris Phillips of the Ottawa Senators . His play and leadership abilities were recognized , when on February 8 , 2008 , Brewer was named as the nineteenth captain in the history of the St. Louis Blues , filling the vacancy created when former Blues captain Dallas Drake had his contract bought out following the 2006 – 07 season . On February 17 , 2008 , in a game against the Columbus Blue Jackets , Brewer set a career high for points in a game with four , all assists , eclipsing his previous career high of three points set on January 16 , 2007 . Brewer finished the season with only one goal in his 77 games played , his lowest goal total since the 1999 – 2000 season , although he added 21 assists , three short of a career high . At the completion of the season , Brewer underwent reconstructive surgery on his right shoulder to repair damage suffered in a fight in the Blues ' season opening game against the Phoenix Coyotes on October 4 , 2007 .
= = = Tampa Bay Lightning = = =
On February 18 , 2011 , Brewer was traded to the Tampa Bay Lightning for Brock Beukeboom and Tampa Bay 's third @-@ round selection in the 2011 NHL Entry Draft . In 22 games with Tampa Bay , he notched a goal and an assist . He also led the Lightning in average ice time per game , with 21 : 34 . At the end of the 2010 – 11 season , Brewer recorded a career @-@ high nine goals and also amassed 81 penalty minutes , good for the second @-@ highest total of his NHL career . He also appeared in a career @-@ high 18 post @-@ season contests with the Lightning in the 2011 playoffs , registering three goals and 17 points , helping the Bolts in their first playoff appearance in four seasons . During the 2011 playoffs , he set a career @-@ high with three points in Game 2 of the Eastern Conference Quarter @-@ finals against the Pittsburgh Penguins and ranked third among all post @-@ season skaters with 51 blocked shots . On June 24 , 2011 , Brewer signed a four @-@ year , $ 15 @.@ 4 million contract extension with the Lightning .
= = = Anaheim Ducks = = =
In the final year of his contract with the Lightning during the 2014 – 15 season , Brewer was traded after 17 games to the Anaheim Ducks in exchange for a third @-@ round draft pick in 2015 on November 28 , 2014 . At the time , he was playing in his fifth season with the Lightning . He appeared in 17 games , and had four assists on the year . Brewer played in 246 games with Tampa , scoring 10 goals and 46 assists . He also had 180 penalty minutes in his four @-@ and @-@ a quarter seasons with Tampa Bay . On December 3 , 2014 , the Ducks announced that Brewer was expected to miss four @-@ to @-@ six weeks with a broken bone in his foot from a blocked shot .
= = = Toronto Maple Leafs = = =
On March 2 , 2015 , Brewer was traded to the Toronto Maple Leafs , along with a fifth @-@ round draft pick in the 2016 NHL Entry Draft , in exchange for defenceman Korbinian Holzer . On March 21 , 2015 , Brewer skated in his 1,000th NHL game in a Toronto Maple Leafs 5 – 3 loss to the Ottawa Senators . On March 23 , 2015 , the Maple Leafs honored Brewer with his 1,000th game ceremony prior to their game against the Minnesota Wild .
= = International play = =
Throughout his career , Brewer has represented Canada at various international ice hockey tournaments . He first competed internationally as a member of Team Pacific Canada at the 1995 World U @-@ 17 Hockey Challenge in Moncton , New Brunswick . Three years later , he represented Canada as a whole as a member of the national junior team at the 1998 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships , where he was named an alternate captain . This was the tournament in which Canada had its worst ever showing , an eighth @-@ place finish including a loss to Kazakhstan , giving Brewer an unkind welcome to IIHF international ice hockey . Although eligible for the 1999 edition of the same tournament , Brewer was unable to play due to NHL commitments with the New York Islanders .
Brewer made his debut with the Canadian national men 's team on April 24 , 2001 , when he joined Canada for the 2001 Men 's World Ice Hockey Championships in Nuremberg , Cologne , and Hanover , Germany . Later that year , on July 24 , 2001 , Brewer was invited to the orientation camp for the Canadian team for the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City , Utah . Five months later , on December 12 , 2001 , Brewer was named to the final Canadian roster for the tournament . In the opening game of the tournament against Sweden , Brewer scored Canada 's second goal of the game in a 5 – 2 loss , while in the semi @-@ finals of the tournament , Brewer scored the game @-@ winning goal against Belarus in a 7 – 1 victory , helping send Canada to the gold medal game against the host United States . Canada would go on to defeat the Americans by a score of 5 – 2 , winning their first Olympic gold medal in fifty years .
Shortly after his Olympic experience , Brewer was named to the Canadian roster for the 2002 Men 's World Ice Hockey Championships in Gothenburg , Karlstad and Jönköping , Sweden , his second consecutive Ice Hockey World Championships . He represented Canada once again the following year , when on April 22 , 2003 , Brewer was named to the Canadian roster for the 2003 Men 's World Ice Hockey Championships . In the tournament quarterfinals versus Germany , Brewer scored the game @-@ winning goal 37 seconds into overtime to give Canada a 3 – 2 victory . Canada would go on to win their first Ice Hockey World Championships gold medal since the 1997 tournament , defeating Sweden 3 – 2 in overtime in the final . Brewer once again participated for Canada at the 2004 Men 's World Ice Hockey Championships , his fourth consecutive Ice Hockey World Championships , where he helped Canada win its second consecutive championship after defeating Sweden 5 – 3 in the gold medal game .
On May 15 , 2004 , Brewer was named to the Canadian roster for the 2004 World Cup of Hockey . In the semifinal of the tournament , Brewer scored Canada 's first goal of the game in 4 – 3 overtime victory against the Czech Republic . Team Canada would go on to win the tournament on home ice in Toronto , defeating Finland 3 – 2 in the final . Just under one year following his World Cup appearance , Brewer was named to the orientation camp for the Canadian team at the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin , Italy held from August 15 – 20 , 2005 , in Vancouver and Kelowna , British Columbia . Following the camp , on October 18 , 2005 , Brewer was named to the preliminary 81 @-@ man Canadian roster for the tournament . However , when the final roster was announced on December 21 , 2005 , Brewer was not among the 26 players listed . As a result , it would be nearly three years before Brewer would next suit up for his country , when on April 3 , 2007 , Brewer was among the first five players named to play for Canada at the 2007 IIHF World Championship in Moscow and Mytishchi , Russia . For the tournament , Brewer was named as the team 's only permanent alternate captain and helped the team to its third gold medal at the tournament in the past five years .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
= = Awards and achievements = =
= = Transactions = =
June 21 , 1997 – Drafted in the first round , fifth overall by the New York Islanders in the 1997 NHL Entry Draft .
June 24 , 2000 – Traded by the New York Islanders with Josh Green and the Islanders ' second round selection ( Brad Winchester ) in the 2000 NHL Entry Draft to the Edmonton Oilers for Roman Hamrlík .
August 2 , 2005 – Traded by the Edmonton Oilers with Jeff Woywitka and Doug Lynch to the St. Louis Blues for Chris Pronger .
February 18 , 2011 – Traded by the St. Louis Blues to the Tampa Bay Lightning for Brock Beukeboom and the Blues ' third round selection ( Jordan Binnington ) in the 2011 NHL Entry Draft .
November 28 , 2014 - Traded by the Tampa Bay Lightning to the Anaheim Ducks for a third round selection in the 2015 NHL Entry Draft .
March 2 , 2015 - Traded by the Anaheim Ducks to the Toronto Maple Leafs , along with a fifth round selection in the 2016 NHL Entry Draft , in exchange for Korbinian Holzer .
= Epilepsy =
Epilepsy is a group of neurological diseases characterized by epileptic seizures . Epileptic seizures are episodes that can vary from brief and nearly undetectable to long periods of vigorous shaking . These episodes can result in physical injuries including occasionally broken bones . In epilepsy , seizures tend to recur , and have no immediate underlying cause . Isolated seizures that are provoked by a specific cause such as poisoning are not deemed to represent epilepsy . People with epilepsy in some areas of the world experience stigma due to the condition .
The cause of most cases of epilepsy is unknown , although some people develop epilepsy as the result of brain injury , stroke , brain tumors , infections of the brain , and birth defects . Known genetic mutations are directly linked to a small proportion of cases . Epileptic seizures are the result of excessive and abnormal nerve cell activity in the cortex of the brain . The diagnosis involves ruling out other conditions that might cause similar symptoms such as fainting and determining if another cause of seizures is present such as alcohol withdrawal or electrolyte problems . This may be partly done by imaging the brain and performing blood tests . Epilepsy can often be confirmed with an electroencephalogram ( EEG ) , but a normal test does not rule out the condition .
Epilepsy that occurs as a result of other issues can be prevented . Seizures are controllable with medication in about 70 % of cases . Inexpensive options are often available . In those whose seizures do not respond to medication , then surgery , neurostimulation , or dietary changes may be considered . Not all cases of epilepsy are lifelong , and many people improve to the point that treatment is no longer needed .
As of 2013 about 22 million people have epilepsy . Nearly 80 % of cases occur in the developing world . In 2013 it resulted in 116 @,@ 000 deaths up from 112 @,@ 000 deaths in 1990 . Epilepsy becomes more common as people age . In the developed world , onset of new cases occurs most frequently in babies and the elderly . In the developing world onset is more common in older children and young adults , due to differences in the frequency of the underlying causes . About 5 – 10 % of people will have an unprovoked seizure by the age of 80 , and the chance of experiencing a second seizure is between 40 and 50 % . In many areas of the world those with epilepsy either have restrictions placed on their ability to drive or are not permitted to drive until they are free of seizures for a specific length of time . The word epilepsy is from Ancient Greek : ἐεπιλαμβάνειν " to seize , possess , or afflict " .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
Epilepsy is characterized by a long @-@ term risk of recurrent seizures . These seizures may present in several ways depending on the part of the brain involved and the person 's age .
= = = Seizures = = =
The most common type ( 60 % ) of seizures are convulsive . Of these , one @-@ third begin as generalized seizures from the start , affecting both hemispheres of the brain . Two @-@ thirds begin as partial seizures ( which affect one hemisphere of the brain ) which may then progress to generalized seizures . The remaining 40 % of seizures are non @-@ convulsive . An example of this type is the absence seizure , which presents as a decreased level of consciousness and usually lasts about 10 seconds .
Partial seizures are often preceded by certain experiences , known as auras . They include sensory ( visual , hearing , or smell ) , psychic , autonomic , and motor phenomena . Jerking activity may start in a specific muscle group and spread to surrounding muscle groups in which case it is known as a Jacksonian march . Automatisms may occur , which are non @-@ consciously @-@ generated activities and mostly simple repetitive movements like smacking of the lips or more complex activities such as attempts to pick up something .
There are six main types of generalized seizures : tonic @-@ clonic , tonic , clonic , myoclonic , absence , and atonic seizures . They all involve loss of consciousness and typically happen without warning .
Tonic @-@ clonic seizures occur with a contraction of the limbs followed by their extension along with arching of the back which lasts 10 – 30 seconds ( the tonic phase ) . A cry may be heard due to contraction of the chest muscles , followed by a shaking of the limbs in unison ( clonic phase ) . Tonic seizures produce constant contractions of the muscles . A person often turns blue as breathing is stopped . In clonic seizures there is shaking of the limbs in unison . After the shaking has stopped it may take 10 – 30 minutes for the person to return to normal ; this period is called the " postictal state " or " postictal phase . " Loss of bowel or bladder control may occur during a seizure . The tongue may be bitten at either the tip or on the sides during a seizure . In tonic @-@ clonic seizure , bites to the sides are more common . Tongue bites are also relatively common in psychogenic non @-@ epileptic seizures .
Myoclonic seizures involve spasms of muscles in either a few areas or all over . Absence seizures can be subtle with only a slight turn of the head or eye blinking . The person does not fall over and returns to normal right after it ends . Atonic seizures involve the loss of muscle activity for greater than one second . This typically occurs on both sides of the body .
About 6 % of those with epilepsy have seizures that are often triggered by specific events and are known as reflex seizures . Those with reflex epilepsy have seizures that are only triggered by specific stimuli . Common triggers include flashing lights and sudden noises . In certain types of epilepsy , seizures happen more often during sleep , and in other types they occur almost only when sleeping .
= = = Postictal = = =
After the active portion of a seizure , there is typically a period of confusion referred to as the postictal period before a normal level of consciousness returns . It usually lasts 3 to 15 minutes but may last for hours . Other common symptoms include feeling tired , headache , difficulty speaking , and abnormal behavior . Psychosis after a seizure is relatively common , occurring in 6 – 10 % of people . Often people do not remember what happened during this time . Localized weakness , known as Todd 's paralysis , may also occur after a partial seizure . When it occurs it typically lasts for seconds to minutes but may rarely last for a day or two .
= = = Psychosocial = = =
Epilepsy can have adverse effects on social and psychological well @-@ being . These effects may include social isolation , stigmatization , or disability . They may result in lower educational achievement and worse employment outcomes . Learning disabilities are common in those with the condition , and especially among children with epilepsy . The stigma of epilepsy can also affect the families of those with the disorder .
Certain disorders occur more often in people with epilepsy , depending partly on the epilepsy syndrome present . These include depression , anxiety , obsessive – compulsive disorder ( OCD ) , and migraine . Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder affects three to five times more children with epilepsy than children without the condition . ADHD and epilepsy have significant consequences on a child 's behavioral , learning , and social development . Epilepsy is also more common in children with autism .
= = Causes = =
Epilepsy can have both genetic and acquired causes , with interaction of these factors in many cases . Established acquired causes include serious brain trauma , stroke , tumours and problems in the brain as a result of a previous infection . In about 60 % of cases the cause is unknown . Epilepsies caused by genetic , congenital , or developmental conditions are more common among younger people , while brain tumors and strokes are more likely in older people .
Seizures may also occur as a consequence of other health problems ; if they occur right around a specific cause , such as a stroke , head injury , toxic ingestion or metabolic problem , they are known as acute symptomatic seizures and are in the broader classification of seizure @-@ related disorders rather than epilepsy itself .
= = = Genetics = = =
Genetics is believed to be involved in the majority of cases , either directly or indirectly . Some epilepsies are due to a single gene defect ( 1 – 2 % ) ; most are due to the interaction of multiple genes and environmental factors . Each of the single gene defects is rare , with more than 200 in all described . Most genes involved affect ion channels , either directly or indirectly . These include genes for ion channels themselves , enzymes , GABA , and G protein @-@ coupled receptors .
In identical twins , if one is affected there is a 50 – 60 % chance that the other will also be affected . In non @-@ identical twins the risk is 15 % . These risks are greater in those with generalized rather than partial seizures . If both twins are affected , most of the time they have the same epileptic syndrome ( 70 – 90 % ) . Other close relatives of a person with epilepsy have a risk five times that of the general population . Between 1 and 10 % of those with Down syndrome and 90 % of those with Angelman syndrome have epilepsy .
= = = Acquired = = =
Epilepsy may occur as a result of a number of other conditions including tumors , strokes , head trauma , previous infections of the central nervous system , genetic abnormalities , and as a result of brain damage around the time of birth . Of those with brain tumors , almost 30 % have epilepsy , making them the cause of about 4 % of cases . The risk is greatest for tumors in the temporal lobe and those that grow slowly . Other mass lesions such as cerebral cavernous malformations and arteriovenous malformations have risks as high as 40 – 60 % . Of those who have had a stroke , 2 – 4 % develop epilepsy . In the United Kingdom strokes account for 15 % of cases and it is believed to be the cause in 30 % of the elderly . Between 6 and 20 % of epilepsy is believed to be due to head trauma . Mild brain injury increases the risk about two @-@ fold while severe brain injury increases the risk seven @-@ fold . In those who have experienced a high @-@ powered gunshot wound to the head , the risk is about 50 % .
Some evidence links epilepsy and coeliac disease and non @-@ celiac gluten sensitivity , while other evidence does not . There appears to be a specific syndrome which includes coeliac disease , epilepsy and calcifications in the brain . A 2012 review estimates that between 1 % and 6 % of people with epilepsy have CD while 1 % of the general population has the condition .
The risk of epilepsy following meningitis is less than 10 % ; that disease more commonly causes seizures during the infection itself . In herpes simplex encephalitis the risk of a seizure is around 50 % with a high risk of epilepsy following ( up to 25 % ) . Infection with the pork tapeworm , which can result in neurocysticercosis , is the cause of up to half of epilepsy cases in areas of the world where the parasite is common . Epilepsy may also occur after other brain infections such as cerebral malaria , toxoplasmosis , and toxocariasis . Chronic alcohol use increases the risk of epilepsy : those who drink six units of alcohol per day have a two and a half fold increase in risk . Other risks include Alzheimer 's disease , multiple sclerosis , tuberous sclerosis , and autoimmune encephalitis . Getting vaccinated does not increase the risk of epilepsy . Malnutrition is a risk factor seen mostly in the developing world , although it is unclear however if it is a direct cause or an association . People with cerebral palsy have an increased risk of epilepsy , with half of people with spastic quadriplegia and spastic hemiplegia having the disease .
= = Mechanism = =
Normally brain electrical activity is non @-@ synchronous . Its activity is regulated by various factors both within the neuron and the cellular environment . Factors within the neuron include the type , number and distribution of ion channels , changes to receptors and changes of gene expression . Factors around the neuron include ion concentrations , synaptic plasticity and regulation of transmitter breakdown by glial cells .
= = = Epilepsy = = =
The exact mechanism of epilepsy itself is unknown . A little , however , is known about both the cellular and network mechanisms of epilepsy . However , it is unknown under which circumstances the brain shifts into the activity of a seizure with its excessive synchronization .
In epilepsy , the resistance of excitatory neurons to fire during this period is decreased . This may occur due to changes in ion channels or inhibitory neurons not functioning properly . This then results in a specific area from which seizures may develop , known as a " seizure focus " . Another mechanism of epilepsy may be the up @-@ regulation of excitatory circuits or down @-@ regulation of inhibitory circuits following an injury to the brain . These secondary epilepsies occur through processes known as epileptogenesis . Failure of the blood – brain barrier may also be a causal mechanism as it would allow substances in the blood to enter the brain .
= = = Seizures = = =
There is evidence that epileptic seizures are usually not a random event . Seizures are often brought on by factors such as stress , alcohol abuse , flickering light , or a lack of sleep , among others . The term seizure threshold is used to indicate the amount of stimulus necessary to bring about a seizure . Seizure threshold is lowered in epilepsy .
In epileptic seizures a group of neurons begin firing in an abnormal , excessive , and synchronized manner . This results in a wave of depolarization known as a paroxysmal depolarizing shift . Normally , after an excitatory neuron fires it becomes more resistant to firing for a period of time . This is due in part to the effect of inhibitory neurons , electrical changes within the excitatory neuron , and the negative effects of adenosine .
Partial seizures begin in one hemisphere of the brain while generalized seizures begin in both hemispheres . Some types of seizures may change brain structure , while others appear to have little effect . Gliosis , neuronal loss , and atrophy of specific areas of the brain are linked to epilepsy but it is unclear if epilepsy causes these changes or if these changes result in epilepsy .
= = Diagnosis = =
The diagnosis of epilepsy is typically made based on observation of the seizure onset and the underlying cause . An electroencephalogram ( EEG ) to look for abnormal patterns of brain waves and neuroimaging ( CT scan or MRI ) to look at the structure of the brain are also usually part of the workup . While figuring out a specific epileptic syndrome is often attempted , it is not always possible . Video and EEG monitoring may be useful in difficult cases .
= = = Definition = = =
Epilepsy is a disorder of the brain defined by any of the following conditions :
Furthermore , epilepsy is considered to be resolved for individuals who had an age @-@ dependent epilepsy syndrome but are now past that age or those who have remained seizure @-@ free for the last 10 years , with no seizure medicines for the last 5 years .
This 2014 definition of the International League Against Epilepsy is a clarification of the ILAE 2005 conceptual definition , according to which epilepsy is " a disorder of the brain characterized by an enduring predisposition to generate epileptic seizures and by the neurobiologic , cognitive , psychological , and social consequences of this condition . The definition of epilepsy requires the occurrence of at least one epileptic seizure . "
It is , therefore , possible to outgrow epilepsy or to undergo treatment that causes epilepsy to be resolved . Resolution of epilepsy , unfortunately , does not guarantee that it will not return . In the definition , epilepsy is now called a disease , rather than a disorder . This was a decision of the executive committee of the ILAE , taken because the word " disorder , " while perhaps having less stigma than does " disease , " also does not express the degree of seriousness that epilepsy deserves .
The definition is practical in nature and is designed for clinical use . In particular , it aims to clarify when an " enduring predisposition " according to the 2005 conceptual definition is present . Researchers , statistically @-@ minded epidemiologists , and other specialized groups may choose to use the older definition or a definition of their own devising . The ILAE considers doing so is perfectly allowable , so long as it is clear what definition is being used .
= = = Classification = = =
In contrast to the classification of seizures which focuses on what happens during a seizure , the classification of epilepsies focuses on the underlying causes . When a person is admitted to hospital after an epileptic seizure the diagnostic workup results preferably in the seizure itself being classified ( e.g. tonic @-@ clonic ) and in the underlying disease being identified ( e.g. hippocampal sclerosis ) . The name of the diagnosis finally made depends on the available diagnostic results and the applied definitions and classifications ( of seizures and epilepsies ) and its respective terminology .
The International League Against Epilepsy ( ILAE ) provided a classification of the epilepsies and epileptic syndromes in 1989 as follows :
This classification was widely accepted but has also been criticized mainly because the underlying causes of epilepsy ( which are a major determinant of clinical course and prognosis ) were not covered in detail . In 2010 the ILAE Commission for Classification of the Epilepsies addressed this issue and divided epilepsies into three categories ( genetic , structural / metabolic , unknown cause ) that were refined in their 2011 recommendation into four categories and a number of subcategories reflecting recent technologic and scientific advances .
= = = Syndromes = = =
Cases of epilepsy may be organized into epilepsy syndromes by the specific features that are present . These features include the age that seizure begin , the seizure types , EEG findings , among others . Identifying an epilepsy syndrome is useful as it helps determine the underlying causes as well as what anti @-@ seizure medication should be tried .
The ability to categorize a case of epilepsy into a specific syndrome occurs more often with children since the onset of seizures is commonly early . Less serious examples are benign rolandic epilepsy ( 2 @.@ 8 per 100 @,@ 000 ) , childhood absence epilepsy ( 0 @.@ 8 per 100 @,@ 000 ) and juvenile myoclonic epilepsy ( 0 @.@ 7 per 100 @,@ 000 ) . Severe syndromes with diffuse brain dysfunction caused , at least partly , by some aspect of epilepsy , are also referred to as epileptic encephalopathies . These are associated with frequent seizures that are resistant to treatment and severe cognitive dysfunction , for instance Lennox – Gastaut syndrome and West syndrome . Genetics is believed to play an important role in epilepsies by a number of mechanisms . Simple and complex modes of inheritance have been identified for some of them . However , extensive screening have failed to identify many single gene variants of large effect . More recent exome and genome sequencing studies have begun to reveal a number of de novo gene mutations that are responsible for some epileptic encephalopathies , including CHD2 and SYNGAP1 and DMN1 , GABBR2 , FASN and RYR3 .
Syndromes in which causes are not clearly identified are difficult to match with categories of the current classification of epilepsy . Categorization for these cases was made somewhat arbitrarily . The idiopathic ( unknown cause ) category of the 2011 classification includes syndromes in which the general clinical features and / or age specificity strongly point to a presumed genetic cause . Some childhood epilepsy syndromes are included in the unknown cause category in which the cause is presumed genetic , for instance benign rolandic epilepsy . Others are included in symptomatic despite a presumed genetic cause ( in at least in some cases ) , for instance Lennox @-@ Gastaut syndrome . Clinical syndromes in which epilepsy is not the main feature ( e.g. Angelman syndrome ) were categorized symptomatic but it was argued to include these within the category idiopathic . Classification of epilepsies and particularly of epilepsy syndromes will change with advances in research .
= = = Tests = = =
An electroencephalogram ( EEG ) can assist in showing brain activity suggestive of an increased risk of seizures . It is only recommended for those who are likely to have had an epileptic seizure on the basis of symptoms . In the diagnosis of epilepsy , electroencephalography may help distinguish the type of seizure or syndrome present . In children it is typically only needed after a second seizure . It cannot be used to rule out the diagnosis , and may be falsely positive in those without the disease . In certain situations it may be useful to perform the EEG while the affected individual is sleeping or sleep deprived .
Diagnostic imaging by CT scan and MRI is recommended after a first non @-@ febrile seizure to detect structural problems in and around the brain . MRI is generally a better imaging test except when bleeding is suspected , for which CT is more sensitive and more easily available . If someone attends the emergency room with a seizure but returns to normal quickly , imaging tests may be done at a later point . If a person has a previous diagnosis of epilepsy with previous imaging , repeating the imaging is usually not needed even if there are subsequent seizures .
For adults , the testing of electrolyte , blood glucose and calcium levels is important to rule out problems with these as causes . An electrocardiogram can rule out problems with the rhythm of the heart . A lumbar puncture may be useful to diagnose a central nervous system infection but is not routinely needed . In children additional tests may be required such as urine biochemistry and blood testing looking for metabolic disorders .
A high blood prolactin level within the first 20 minutes following a seizure may be useful to help confirm an epileptic seizure as opposed to psychogenic non @-@ epileptic seizure . Serum prolactin level is less useful for detecting partial seizures . If it is normal an epileptic seizure is still possible and a serum prolactin does not separate epileptic seizures from syncope . It is not recommended as a routine part of the diagnosis of epilepsy .
= = = Differential diagnosis = = =
Diagnosis of epilepsy can be difficult . A number of other conditions may present very similar signs and symptoms to seizures , including syncope , hyperventilation , migraines , narcolepsy , panic attacks and psychogenic non @-@ epileptic seizures ( PNES ) . In particular a syncope can be accompanied by a short episode of convulsions . Nocturnal frontal lobe epilepsy , often misdiagnosed as nightmares , was considered to be a parasomnia but later identified to be an epilepsy syndrome . Attacks of the movement disorder paroxysmal dyskinesia may be taken for epileptic seizures . The cause of a drop attack can be , among many others , an atonic seizure .
Children may have behaviors that are easily mistaken for epileptic seizures but are not . These include breath @-@ holding spells , bed wetting , night terrors , tics and shudder attacks . Gastroesophageal reflux may cause arching of the back and twisting of the head to the side in infants , which may be mistaken for tonic @-@ clonic seizures .
Misdiagnosis is frequent ( occurring in about 5 to 30 % of cases ) . Different studies showed that in many cases seizure @-@ like attacks in apparent treatment @-@ resistant epilepsy have a cardiovascular cause . Approximately 20 % of the people seen at epilepsy clinics have PNES and of those who have PNES about 10 % also have epilepsy ; separating the two based on the seizure episode alone without further testing is often difficult .
= = Prevention = =
While many cases are not preventable , efforts to reduce head injuries , provide good care around the time of birth , and reduce environmental parasites such as the pork tapeworm may be effective . Efforts in one part of Central America to decrease rates of pork tapeworm resulted in a 50 % decrease in new cases of epilepsy .
= = Management = =
Epilepsy is usually treated with daily medication once a second seizure has occurred , but for those at high risk , medication may be started after the first seizure . In some cases , a special diet , the implantation of a neurostimulator , or neurosurgery may be required .
= = = First aid = = =
Rolling a person with an active tonic @-@ clonic seizure onto their side and into the recovery position helps prevent fluids from getting into the lungs . Putting fingers , a bite block or tongue depressor in the mouth is not recommended as it might make the person vomit or result in the rescuer being bitten . Efforts should be taken to prevent further self @-@ injury . Spinal precautions are generally not needed .
If a seizure lasts longer than 5 minutes or if there are more than two seizures in an hour without a return to a normal level of consciousness between them , it is considered a medical emergency known as status epilepticus . This may require medical help to keep the airway open and protected ; a nasopharyngeal airway may be useful for this . At home the recommended initial medication for seizure of a long duration is midazolam placed in the mouth . Diazepam may also be used rectally . In hospital , intravenous lorazepam is preferred . If two doses of benzodiazepines are not effective , other medications such as phenytoin are recommended . Convulsive status epilepticus that does not respond to initial treatment typically requires admission to the intensive care unit and treatment with stronger agents such as thiopentone or propofol .
= = = Medications = = =
The mainstay treatment of epilepsy is anticonvulsant medications , possibly for the person 's entire life . The choice of anticonvulsant is based on seizure type , epilepsy syndrome , other medications used , other health problems , and the person 's age and lifestyle . A single medication is recommended initially ; if this is not effective , switching to a single other medication is recommended . Two medications at once is recommended only if a single medication does not work . In about half , the first agent is effective ; a second single agent helps in about 13 % and a third or two agents at the same time may help an additional 4 % . About 30 % of people continue to have seizures despite anticonvulsant treatment .
There are a number of medications available . Phenytoin , carbamazepine and valproate appear to be equally effective in both partial and generalized seizures . Controlled release carbamazepine appears to work as well as immediate release carbamazepine , and may have fewer side effects . In the United Kingdom , carbamazepine or lamotrigine are recommended as first @-@ line treatment for partial seizures , with levetiracetam and valproate as second @-@ line due to issues of cost and side effects . Valproate is recommended first @-@ line for generalized seizures with lamotrigine being second @-@ line . In those with absence seizures , ethosuximide or valproate are recommended ; valproate is particularly effective in myoclonic seizures and tonic or atonic seizures . If seizures are well @-@ controlled on a particular treatment , it is not usually necessary to routinely check the medication levels in the blood .
The least expensive anticonvulsant is phenobarbital at around $ 5 USD a year . The World Health Organization gives it a first @-@ line recommendation in the developing world and it is commonly used there . Access however may be difficult as some countries label it as a controlled drug .
Adverse effects from medications are reported in 10 to 90 % of people , depending on how and from whom the data is collected . Most adverse effects are dose @-@ related and mild . Some examples include mood changes , sleepiness , or an unsteadiness in gait . Certain medications have side effects that are not related to dose such as rashes , liver toxicity , or suppression of the bone marrow . Up to a quarter of people stop treatment due to adverse effects . Some medications are associated with birth defects when used in pregnancy . Valproate is of particular concern , especially during the first trimester . Despite this , treatment is often continued once effective , because the risk of untreated epilepsy is believed to be greater than the risk of the medications .
Slowly stopping medications may be reasonable in some people who do not have a seizure for two to four years ; however , around a third of people have a recurrence , most often during the first six months . Stopping is possible in about 70 % of children and 60 % of adults .
= = = Surgery = = =
Epilepsy surgery may be an option for people with partial seizures that remain a problem despite other treatments . These other treatments include at least a trial of two or three medications . The goal of surgery is total control of seizures and this may be achieved in 60 – 70 % of cases . Common procedures include cutting out the hippocampus via an anterior temporal lobe resection , removal of tumors , and removing parts of the neocortex . Some procedures such as a corpus callosotomy are attempted in an effort to decrease the number of seizures rather than cure the condition . Following surgery , medications may be slowly withdrawn in many cases .
Neurostimulation may be another option in those who are not candidates for surgery . Three types have been shown to be effective in those who do not respond to medications : vagus nerve stimulation , anterior thalamic stimulation , and closed @-@ loop responsive stimulation .
= = = Diet = = =
A ketogenic diet ( high @-@ fat , low @-@ carbohydrate , adequate @-@ protein ) appears to decrease the number of seizures by half in about 30 – 40 % of children . It is a reasonable option in those who have epilepsy that is not improved with medications and for whom surgery is not an option . About 10 % stay on the diet for a few years due to issues of effectiveness and tolerability . Side effects include stomach and intestinal problems in 30 % , and there are long term concerns of heart disease . Less radical diets are easier to tolerate and may be effective . It is unclear why this diet works . Exercise has been proposed as possibly useful for preventing seizures with some data to support this claim .
In people with coeliac disease or non @-@ celiac gluten sensitivity and occipital calcifications , a gluten @-@ free diet may decrease the frequency of seizures .
= = = Other = = =
Avoidance therapy consists of minimizing or eliminating triggers . For example , in those who are sensitive to light , using a small television , avoiding video games , or wearing dark glasses may be useful . Operant @-@ based biofeedback based on the EEG waves has some support in those who do not respond to medications . Psychological methods should not , however , be used to replace medications . Some dogs , commonly referred to as seizure dogs , may help during or after a seizure . It is not clear if dogs have the ability to predict seizures before they occur .
= = = Alternative medicine = = =
Alternative medicine , including acupuncture , psychological interventions , routine vitamins , and yoga , have no reliable evidence to support their use in epilepsy . There is not enough evidence to support the use of cannabis . Melatonin , as of 2016 , is insufficiently supported by evidence . The trials were of poor methodological quality and it was not possible to draw any definitive conclusions .
= = Prognosis = =
Epilepsy cannot usually be cured , but medication can control seizures effectively in about 70 % of cases . Of those with generalized seizures , more than 80 % can be well controlled with medications while this is true in only 50 % of people with partial seizures . One predictor of long @-@ term outcome is the number of seizures that occur in the first six months . Other factors increasing the risk of a poor outcome include little response to the initial treatment , generalized seizures , a family history of epilepsy , psychiatric problems , and waves on the EEG representing generalized epileptiform activity . In the developing world , 75 % of people are either untreated or not appropriately treated . In Africa , 90 % do not get treatment . This is partly related to appropriate medications not being available or being too expensive .
= = = Mortality = = =
People with epilepsy are at an increased risk of death . This increase is between 1 @.@ 6 and 4 @.@ 1 fold greater than that of the general population and is often related to : the underlying cause of the seizures , status epilepticus , suicide , trauma , and sudden unexpected death in epilepsy ( SUDEP ) . Death from status epilepticus is primarily due to an underlying problem rather than missing doses of medications . The risk of suicide is increased between two and six times in those with epilepsy . The cause of this is unclear . SUDEP appears to be partly related to the frequency of generalized tonic @-@ clonic seizures and accounts for about 15 % of epilepsy related deaths . It is unclear how to decrease its risk . The greatest increase in mortality from epilepsy is among the elderly . Those with epilepsy due to an unknown cause have little increased risk . In the United Kingdom , it is estimated that 40 – 60 % of deaths are possibly preventable . In the developing world , many deaths are due to untreated epilepsy leading to falls or status epilepticus .
= = Epidemiology = =
Epilepsy is one of the most common serious neurological disorders affecting about 22 million people as of 2013 . It affects 1 % of the population by age 20 and 3 % of the population by age 75 . It is more common in males than females with the overall difference being small . Most of those with the disorder ( 80 % ) are in the developing world .
The estimated prevalence of active epilepsy ( as of 2012 ) is in the range 3 – 10 per 1 @,@ 000 , with active epilepsy defined as someone with epilepsy who has had a least one unprovoked seizure in the last five years . Epilepsy begins each year in 40 – 70 per 100 @,@ 000 in developed countries and 80 – 140 per 100 @,@ 000 in developing countries . Poverty is a risk and includes both being from a poor country and being poor relative to others within one 's country . In the developed world epilepsy most commonly starts either in the young or in the old . In the developing world its onset is more common in older children and young adults due to the higher rates of trauma and infectious diseases . In developed countries the number of cases a year has decreased in children and increased among the elderly between the 1970s and 2003 . This has been attributed partly to better survival following strokes in the elderly .
= = History = =
The oldest medical records show that epilepsy has been affecting people at least since the beginning of recorded history . Throughout ancient history , the disease was thought to be a spiritual condition . The world 's oldest description of an epileptic seizure comes from a text in Akkadian ( a language used in ancient Mesopotamia ) and was written around 2000 BC . The person described in the text was diagnosed as being under the influence of a Moon god , and underwent an exorcism . Epileptic seizures are listed in the Code of Hammurabi ( c . 1790 BC ) as reason for which a purchased slave may be returned for a refund , and the Edwin Smith Papyrus ( c . 1700 BC ) describes cases of individuals with epileptic convulsions .
The oldest known detailed record of the disease itself is in the Sakikku , a Babylonian cuneiform medical text from 1067 – 1046 BC . This text gives signs and symptoms , details treatment and likely outcomes , and describes many features of the different seizure types . As the Babylonians had no biomedical understanding of the nature of disease , they attributed the seizures to possession by evil spirits and called for treating the condition through spiritual means . Around 900 BC , Punarvasu Atreya described epilepsy as loss of consciousness ; this definition was carried forward into the Ayurvedic text of Charaka Samhita ( about 400 BC ) .
The ancient Greeks had contradictory views of the disease . They thought of epilepsy as a form of spiritual possession , but also associated the condition with genius and the divine . One of the names they gave to it was the sacred disease . Epilepsy appears within Greek mythology : it is associated with the Moon goddesses Selene and Artemis , who afflicted those who upset them . The Greeks thought that important figures such as Julius Caesar and Hercules had the disease . The notable exception to this divine and spiritual view was that of the school of Hippocrates . In the fifth century BC , Hippocrates rejected the idea that the disease was caused by spirits . In his landmark work On the Sacred Disease , he proposed that epilepsy was not divine in origin and instead was a medically treatable problem originating in the brain . He accused those of attributing a sacred cause to the disease of spreading ignorance through a belief in superstitious magic . Hippocrates proposed that heredity was important as a cause , described worse outcomes if the disease presents at an early age , and made note of the physical characteristics as well as the social shame associated with it . Instead of referring to it as the sacred disease , he used the term great disease , giving rise to the modern term grand mal , used for tonic – clonic seizures . Despite his work detailing the physical origins of the disease , his view was not accepted at the time . Evil spirits continued to be blamed until at least the 17th century .
In most cultures , persons with epilepsy have been stigmatized , shunned , or even imprisoned ; in the Salpêtrière , the birthplace of modern neurology , Jean @-@ Martin Charcot found people with epilepsy side @-@ by @-@ side with the mentally ill , those with chronic syphilis , and the criminally insane . In ancient Rome , epilepsy was known as the Morbus Comitialis ( ' disease of the assembly hall ' ) and was seen as a curse from the gods . In northern Italy , epilepsy was once traditionally known as Saint Valentine 's malady .
In the mid @-@ 1800s , the first effective anti @-@ seizure medication , bromide , was introduced . The first modern treatment , phenobarbital , was developed in 1912 , with phenytoin coming into use in 1938 .
= = Society and culture = =
= = = Stigma = = =
Stigma is commonly experienced , around the world , by those with epilepsy . It can affect people economically , socially and culturally . In India and China , epilepsy may be used as justification to deny marriage . People in some areas still believe those with epilepsy to be cursed . In Tanzania , as in other parts of Africa , epilepsy is associated with possession by evil spirits , witchcraft , or poisoning and is believed by many to be contagious , for which there is no evidence . Before 1970 the United Kingdom had laws which prevented people with epilepsy from marrying . The stigma may result in some people with epilepsy denying that they have ever had seizures .
= = = Economics = = =
Seizures result in direct economic costs of about one billion dollars in the United States . Epilepsy resulted in economic costs in Europe of around 15 @.@ 5 billion Euros in 2004 . In India epilepsy is estimated to result in costs of 1 @.@ 7 billion USD or 0 @.@ 5 % of the GDP . It is the cause of about 1 % of emergency department visits ( 2 % for emergency departments for children ) in the United States .
= = = Vehicles = = =
Those with epilepsy are at about twice the risk of being involved in a motor vehicular collision and thus in many areas of the world are not allowed to drive or only able to drive if certain conditions are met . In some places physicians are required by law to report if a person has had a seizure to the licensing body while in others the requirement is only that they encourage the person in question to report it themselves . Countries that require physician reporting include Sweden , Austria , Denmark and Spain . Countries that require the individual to report include the UK and New Zealand and the physician may report if they believe the individual has not already . In Canada , the United States and Australia the requirements around reporting vary by province or state . If seizures are well controlled most feel allowing driving is reasonable . The amount of time a person must be free from seizures before they can drive varies by country . Many countries require one to three years without seizures . In the United States the time needed without a seizure is determined by each state and is between three months and one year .
Those with epilepsy or seizures are typically denied a pilot license . In Canada if an individual has had no more than one seizure , they may be considered after five years for a limited license if all other testing is normal . Those with febrile seizures and drug related seizures may also be considered . In the United States , the Federal Aviation Administration does not allow those with epilepsy to get a commercial pilot license . Rarely , exceptions can be made for persons who have had an isolated seizure or febrile seizures and have remained free of seizures into adulthood without medication . In the United Kingdom , a full national private pilot license requires the same standards as a professional driver 's license . This requires a period of ten years without seizures while off medications . Those who do not meet this requirement may acquire a restricted license if free from seizures for five years .
= = = Support organizations = = =
There are organizations that provide support for people and families affected by epilepsy . The Out of the Shadows campaign , a joint effort by the World Health Organization , the International League Against Epilepsy and the International Bureau for Epilepsy , provides help internationally . The Joint Epilepsy Council serves the UK and Ireland . In the United States , the Epilepsy Foundation is a national organization that works to increase the acceptance of those with the disease , their ability to function in society and to promote research for a cure . The Epilepsy Foundation , some hospitals , and some individuals also run support groups in the United States .
= = Research = =
Seizure prediction refers to attempts to forecast epileptic seizures based on the EEG before they occur . As of 2011 , no effective mechanism to predict seizures has been developed . Kindling , where repeated exposures to events that could cause seizures eventually causes seizures more easily , has been used to create animal models of epilepsy .
Gene therapy is being studied in some types of epilepsy . Medications that alter immune function , such as intravenous immunoglobulins , are poorly supported by evidence . Noninvasive stereotactic radiosurgery is , as of 2012 , being compared to standard surgery for certain types of epilepsy .
Common locations for the start of seizures and neural networks have been found to be affected in the majority of epilepsy . Efforts to figure out how epilepsy occurs is working to take into account the different regions of the brain and the timing of their activity .
= = Other animals = =
Epilepsy occurs in a number of other animals including dogs and cats and is the most common brain disorder in dogs . It is typically treated with anticonvulsants such as phenobarbital or bromide in dogs and phenobarbital in cats . Imepitoin is also used in dogs . While generalized seizures in horses are fairly easy to diagnose , it may be more difficult in non @-@ generalized seizures and EEGs may be useful .
= Rather Ripped =
Rather Ripped is the 14th studio album by the American experimental rock band Sonic Youth , released on June 13 , 2006 by Geffen Records . It is the band 's first album after the departure of multi @-@ instrumentalist Jim O 'Rourke , who joined the group as a fifth member in 1999 . Unlike its immediate predecessors , the album was produced by John Agnello and recorded at Sear Sound in New York City , the same studio where the band 's 1994 album Experimental Jet Set , Trash and No Star was recorded . It also completed Sonic Youth 's contract with Geffen , which released the band 's previous eight records .
Rather Ripped is generally considered one of the band 's most accessible albums , featuring an abundance of concise and catchy songs that deal with melancholic topics about adultery , sexual frustration and infidelity . Upon release , the album peaked at No. 71 on the US Billboard 200 chart and No. 64 on the UK Albums Chart . The album 's only single , " Incinerate " , was released in 2006 , alongside an accompanying music video by French director and writer Claire Denis . Rather Ripped received very positive reviews and was ranked at No. 12 in The Village Voice 's 2006 Pazz & Jop critics ' poll . Journalists generally praised the vocal delivery of singer and bassist Kim Gordon and the album 's simpler and cleaner melodies .
= = Background and recording = =
Rather Ripped is the follow @-@ up to Sonic Youth 's 2004 album Sonic Nurse and the band 's first record after the departure of multi @-@ instrumentalist Jim O 'Rourke , who joined the group as a fifth member in 1999 . According to guitarist Lee Ranaldo , O 'Rourke left the band to pursue film work and other recording projects . His departure affected the sound of Rather Ripped , with singer and guitarist Thurston Moore stating that the new record " is just a far more straight up rock and roll album " , in contrast to the " darker , twisted , complex quality " of O 'Rourke 's contributions . Moore also explained that he decided to write simpler songs " for everybody to plug into immediately " . The album 's working titles were Sonic Life and Do You Believe in Rapture ? The name " Rather Ripped " came from a Berkeley , California record store that later moved to Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania .
Unlike its immediate predecessors , which were recorded at the band 's own Echo Canyon studio in Lower Manhattan , Rather Ripped was recorded at Sear Sound in New York City ( the same studio where their 1994 album Experimental Jet Set , Trash and No Star was recorded ) , from December 2005 to January 2006 . The album was quickly produced and much of the material was not reworked due to the band 's limited time in the studio . During the recording sessions , Moore 's gear included two Fender Jazzmasters and a Fender Princeton . Ranaldo , on the other hand , played a Gibson Les Paul guitar for half of the album and used his Fender Telecaster Deluxe , " Jazzmaster copy @-@ made " by Saul Koll , and modified Fender Jazzmaster with humbuckers for the remaining tracks . Guitars were directly plugged into the mixer with no guitar amplifier in the signal chain . The band chose John Agnello as the album 's engineer due to his work with Don Fleming on albums by Screaming Trees in the early 1990s . He was also recommended by fellow musician J Mascis of Dinosaur Jr . , who had been working with Agnello for years . Additional work was done in early 2006 at Echo Canyon , as well as J Mascis 's Bisquiteen studio in Amherst , Massachusetts . The album was mastered by Greg Calbi at Sterling Sound in New York City in March 2006 .
= = Music and lyrics = =
Rather Ripped is generally considered one of the band 's most accessible albums , featuring an abundance of concise and catchy melodies . Moore described it as " a super song record " that contains " rockers and ballads " . In addition , seven of the album 's 12 tracks have a duration of less than four minutes , a feature that is uncommon in previous Sonic Youth releases . The album generally favors guitar textures over feedback or noise , which typically characterized the band 's earlier works . Dave Heaton of PopMatters remarked that the guitars on Rather Ripped are joined together to form a vibrant and mysterious sound , stating that " it often feels like Sonic Youth are taking all the instrumental tricks they 've learned over the years and putting them in the service of building a lasting landscape of guitar sounds , one that reverberates with the sounds of the past but also feels eternally youthful " .
Lyrically , Rather Ripped deals with melancholic topics about adultery , sexual frustration and infidelity . In the opening track , " Reena " , whose working title was " Stonesy " , singer and bassist Kim Gordon is involved in a secondary relationship with a woman . Lead single " Incinerate " is built on a conventional love @-@ as @-@ fire metaphor , while " What a Waste " attributes sexual lust . " Pink Steam " , which is the longest track of the album , features a lengthy instrumental part that was described as " gorgeously windswept and violently romantic " . Its title was taken from a book by San Francisco author Dodie Bellamy . The song " Do You Believe in Rapture ? " is a political reflection on Christians in the office , while " Rats " , which is the only song on the album written by Ranaldo , was described as a " fulfilling ghost @-@ narrative " . The album ends with the semi @-@ acoustic ballad " Or " , which starts with strip @-@ club imagery and ends with Moore recounting various interview @-@ like questions such as " What comes first ? The music or the words ? "
= = Release = =
Rather Ripped was released on June 13 , 2006 and completed Sonic Youth 's contract with major label Geffen Records , which also released the band 's previous eight albums . The UK edition of the album includes two outtakes , " Helen Lundeberg " and " Eyeliner " , which were previously released as a 7 " single on the band 's own label , Sonic Youth Records . To promote the album , the band embarked on a tour across the United States , starting at New York 's famed CBGB on June 13 , 2006 , where the band had not performed since 1992 , and ending at the Bank of America Pavilion in Boston on September 3 , 2006 . Bassist Mark Ibold , formerly of the indie rock band Pavement , joined the band as part of the touring group .
Upon release , Rather Ripped peaked at No. 71 on the US Billboard 200 chart and No. 64 on the UK Albums Chart . The album also charted in other countries , including Australia , Belgium , Finland , France and Norway . The song " Incinerate " was released as a single in France and Australia in 2006 . Additionally , five music videos , one for " Incinerate " and four for " Jams Run Free " , were directed by French director and writer Claire Denis . The video for " Incinerate " is a performance of the band that was recorded at Le Nouveau Casino in Paris prior to their 2006 tour in support of the album , while the others are set in an apartment and repeat images of cats , roofing tiles and TV antennas . The videos were shot with a consumer @-@ grade digital video camera and feature a dissolving image resolution and fluctuating color palette .
= = Critical reception = =
Rather Ripped received generally very positive reviews from critics . PopMatters editor Dave Heaton felt that the album was a graceful and elegant way to end Sonic Youth 's unique relationship with Geffen , describing it as a " cohesive story about a band seeking the best way to take the reckless , brave spirits of free jazz , punk , and experimental music , and generate them within the confines of traditional rock song structure " . He also praised Moore 's lyrics , stating that " his Beat @-@ style poetry is especially evocative , and especially terse — a quality that fits well with an album that musically seems to be doing much the same , communicating a lot with a little " . Similarly , Dave Simpson of The Guardian felt that the band reinvented themselves with poppier songs , calling Rather Ripped " an extraordinary state of affairs in Sonic Youth 's 25th year " .
Writing for Rolling Stone , Rob Sheffield highlighted Moore 's guitar playing for giving the album " a sense of emotional urgency " and considered " Incinerate " and " Pink Steam " some of the album 's highlights . Gordon 's vocal delivery was widely praised , with Ben Ratliff of The New York Times comparing it favorably to The Velvet Underground singer and collaborator Nico . Prominent music critic Robert Christgau also remarked that Gordon sounds " breathlessly girlish " despite being 53 at the time , and that both she and Moore " evoke visions of dalliance , displacement , recrimination , and salvation that never become unequivocally literal " . Sheffield concluded that the album features her first worthwhile songs in a decade .
Steve Hochman of Los Angeles Times credited the album 's catchy melodies for being smartly and effectively handled , commenting that " it almost makes you wonder what would have happened if Television and Peter Frampton had worked together " . Tom Sinclair of Entertainment Weekly wrote that , although the band " can still knock out a noisy punk stomper when the mood strikes " like on the track " Sleepin Around " , the cleaner and quieter melodies are the ones that " really rip up your emotions " . Slant 's Jimmy Newlin stated similar pros , noting that " quiet is the new loud " , and felt that the band 's shift towards romantic poignancy was " a welcome growth as the band advances well into its second decade of existence " .
Other reviews were less enthusiastic . Spin editor Joe Gross criticized Rather Ripped for its lack of expansive songs , stating that the album " is about three- or four @-@ minute songcraft — never the highlight of their résumé , even when [ Gordon ] lends her singular rasp " . Brandon Stosuy of Pitchfork Media felt that the second half of the album was weaker than the first and criticized the lyrics of the closer " Or " . AllMusic reviewer Heather Phares remarked that the band 's playing can occasionally outpace their songwriting , but nevertheless judjed Rather Ripped as " a solidly good album " that " shows that Sonic Youth is still in a comfortable yet creative groove , not a rut " . In February 2007 , Rather Ripped was ranked at No. 12 in The Village Voice 's 2006 Pazz & Jop critics ' poll . Additionally , Rolling Stone editors ranked the album third on their Top 50 Albums of 2006 list , while Pitchfork ranked it 43rd on a similar list .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Sonic Youth .
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= Italian cruiser Coatit =
Coatit was a torpedo cruiser of the Italian Regia Marina built in the late 1890s . She was the second and final member of the Agordat class . The ship , which was armed with twelve 76 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) guns and two 450 mm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes , was too slow and short @-@ ranged to be able to scout effectively for the fleet , so her career was limited . She saw action during the Italo @-@ Turkish War in 1911 – 12 , where she provided gunfire support to Italian troops in North Africa . She also caused a minor diplomatic incident from an attack on retreating Ottoman soldiers in Anatolia . Coatit was part of an international fleet sent to Constantinople when the city appeared to be at risk of falling to the Bulgarian Army during the First Balkan War . In 1919 , she was converted into a minelayer and was sold for scrap in 1920 .
= = Design = =
Coatit was 91 @.@ 6 meters ( 301 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 9 @.@ 32 m ( 30 @.@ 6 ft ) and a draft of 3 @.@ 54 m ( 11 @.@ 6 ft ) . She displaced up to 1 @,@ 292 metric tons ( 1 @,@ 272 long tons ; 1 @,@ 424 short tons ) at full load . Her propulsion system consisted of a pair of horizontal triple @-@ expansion steam engines each driving a single screw propeller , with steam supplied by eight Blechynden water @-@ tube boilers . Her engines were rated at 8 @,@ 215 indicated horsepower ( 6 @,@ 126 kW ) and produced a top speed of 23 knots ( 43 km / h ; 26 mph ) . The ship had a cruising radius of about 300 nautical miles ( 560 km ; 350 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . She had a crew of between 153 – 185 .
Coatit was armed with a main battery of twelve 76 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) L / 40 guns mounted singly . She was also equipped with two 450 mm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes . The ship was only lightly armored , with a 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) thick deck .
= = Service history = =
The keel for Coatit was laid down at the Castellammare shipyard on 8 April 1897 and her completed hull was launched on 15 November 1899 . After completing fitting @-@ out work , the new cruiser was commissioned into the Italian fleet on 1 October 1900 . She proved to be too slow and short @-@ legged to be useful as a fleet scout , which limited her active duty career . She served in the main fleet in 1903 – 1904 , during which time the fleet was kept in a state of readiness for seven months . For the remaining five months , the ships had reduced crews . In 1904 , the ship was transferred to the Red Sea and stationed in Italy 's colony in Eritrea along with three other small vessels . Coatit was assigned to the hostile force that was tasked with simulating an attempt to land troops on Sicily during the 1908 fleet maneuvers .
At the outbreak of the Italo @-@ Turkish War against the Ottoman Empire in September 1911 , Coatit was stationed in the 4th Division of the 2nd Squadron , under Rear Admiral Paolo Thaon di Revel , the commander of the division . Coatit protected several battleships and armored cruisers while they bombarded the defenses of Tripoli on 3 – 4 October . Coatit , the armored cruiser Varese , and sixteen destroyers were tasked with patrolling the flanks of the bombardment force to prevent a surprise attack by the Ottoman Navy , which did not materialize . On 15 October , Coatit and her sister joined the battleship Napoli , the armored cruisers Pisa , Amalfi , and San Marco , three destroyers , and several troop transports for an attack on the port of Derna . Negotiators were sent ashore to attempt to secure the surrender of the garrison , which was refused . Napoli and the armored cruisers bombarded the Ottoman positions throughout the day , and on 18 October the Ottomans withdrew , allowing the Italian troops to come ashore and take possession of the port . The fleet remained offshore and helped to repel Ottoman counterattacks over the following two weeks . On 3 October 1912 , Coatit bombarded the port of Kalkan . She thereafter shelled an Ottoman infantry battalion in the area , which fled ; she nevertheless continued to fire on the retreating troops , expending around 200 rounds during the attack . The French cruiser Bruix was nearby and witnessed the attack , which her commander protested as a breach of international law .
Coatit was among an international force that entered the Ottoman capital city , Constantinople , during the First Balkan War in November 1912 , less than a month after the end of the Italo @-@ Turkish War . She and the battleship Emanuele Filiberto entered the straits on 11 November , along with the French armored cruisers Victor Hugo and Léon Gambetta , where they joined a pair of British cruisers . Warships from Germany , including the battlecruiser Goeben , Russia — the battleship Rostislav — and Spain arrived thereafter . The ships put a force of about 3 @,@ 000 men ashore to protect their nationals , though by the end of the month , the Bulgarian advance on the city had been halted . The international fleet nevertheless remained in the Sea of Marmara for a time until it was withdrawn to the island of Crete and subsequently dispersed . Coatit was converted into a minelayer in 1919 . Eight of the 76 mm guns and her torpedo tubes were removed and a pair of 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) L / 40 guns were installed . She served only briefly in this role and she was sold to ship breakers on 11 June 1920 .
= Alicia Fox =
Victoria Elizabeth Crawford ( born June 30 , 1986 ) is an American model , actress , and professional wrestler currently signed to WWE under the ring name Alicia Fox , performing on the Raw brand .
Crawford signed a contract with WWE in 2006 , and debuted in Ohio Valley Wrestling ( OVW ) , a WWE developmental territory , in July . That same year , on October 20 , she won the OVW Women 's Championship , but lost it the following day ; her reign is not officially recognized by OVW . The following year , she moved to Florida Championship Wrestling ( FCW ) , another WWE developmental territory , where she competed regularly until 2009 . Crawford debuted on SmackDown in June 2008 , using the Alicia Fox name and the gimmick of a wedding planner . In November , she moved to the ECW brand , where she managed DJ Gabriel . The following year , Fox began challenging for the WWE Divas Championship , which she won in June 2010 , holding the title for two months , and becoming the first ever African American Divas Champion in WWE history .
In October 2014 , she began starring in the reality television series Total Divas on the E ! network as part of the main cast . In June 2015 , Fox aligned herself with The Bella Twins in the " Diva 's Revolution " , thus forming " Team Bella " .
= = Professional wrestling career = =
= = = World Wrestling Entertainment / WWE = = =
= = = = Ohio Valley Wrestling ( 2006 – 2007 ) = = = =
In 2006 , Crawford signed a developmental contract with World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) and was assigned to Ohio Valley Wrestling ( OVW ) , WWE 's then @-@ developmental territory . She debuted on July 1 , 2006 , as a special guest referee , under her real name , in a match between Shelly Martinez and ODB . On September 6 , Crawford made her in @-@ ring debut , under the new ring name Tori , in an OVW women 's battle royal , in which she was eliminated by ODB . She spent the following month competing regularly in both singles and tag team matches , against opponents including Mickie James , ODB , and Katie Lea . In late September , she began managing Elijah Burke , accompanying him to the ring for matches against Chet The Jet . At the OVW television tapings on October 18 , having reverted to her real name , Crawford challenged Beth Phoenix for the OVW Women 's Championship , but lost following interference from Serena Deeb . Two days later , on October 20 , Crawford won a gauntlet match at an OVW house show to win the OVW Women 's Championship . The following night , however , Crawford lost the championship back to Phoenix , who won an eight @-@ woman elimination match . Crawford 's championship win is unrecognized by OVW , and the promotion considers Phoenix 's two reigns as champion as a single , uninterrupted reign . Crawford continued to feud with Phoenix in early 2007 , facing her in several tag team matches , in which Phoenix teamed with ODB and Crawford teamed with Lea or Deeb . Simultaneously , Crawford participated in the " Miss OVW " contest , which was won by ODB . Crawford had a series of matches with Milena Roucka in April , before moving onto a feud with Maryse Ouellet . Her final appearance in OVW was on July 21 , when she participated in a three @-@ way match for the OVW Women 's Championship , which was won by ODB .
= = = = Florida Championship Wrestling ( 2007 – 2009 ) = = = =
Crawford debuted for WWE 's new developmental territory Florida Championship Wrestling ( FCW ) on September 2 , 2007 , participating in a best body contest . Her FCW in @-@ ring debut came on September 25 , where she and Nattie Neidhart defeated The Bella Twins ( Brianna and Nicole ) in a tag team match . She quickly began feuding with The Bella Twins , while allying herself with Neidhart . The Bella Twins defeated Crawford and Neidhart on two consecutive occasions , and on October 23 , Crawford lost to Nicole in a singles match . A week later , she and Sheamus O 'Shaunessy were defeated by Brianna and Kofi Kingston in a mixed tag team match . In December , Crawford teamed with Tommy Taylor in a loss to Brianna and Robert Anthony . The feud continued into 2008 , with the Bellas defeating Crawford and Maryse Ouellet on January 8 , and Crawford and Neidhart on January 19 and 29 . Following the completion of the feud , Crawford began competing regularly against her former tag team partner , Neidhart . Neidhart won their first singles encounter on February 5 and was on the winning side of a tag team match on February 23 , before Crawford won a singles match against her on February 26 . Following her debut on SmackDown , Crawford changed her ring name to Alicia Fox . She began managing Jack Gabriel in September , and teamed with Gabriel in mixed tag team matches against Mike Kruel and Wesley Holiday and Gabe Tuft and Melina , while continuing to compete in singles competition as well . Fox competed in the Queen of FCW tournament between December 2008 and February 2009 , defeating Jenny Quinn and Tiffany en route to the final , where she lost to Angela Fong .
= = = = Brand switches ( 2008 – 2010 ) = = = =
Crawford debuted on WWE 's main roster on the June 13 , 2008 episode of SmackDown , as Alicia Fox , in a backstage segment with Vickie Guerrero , which saw her portraying Guerrero and Edge 's wedding planner . During their wedding reception the following month , Triple H revealed Edge kissing Fox the day before the wedding on camera . Fox involved herself in the WWE Championship match at The Great American Bash when she attempted to help Edge , but she was stopped by Guerrero . The confusion surrounding her interference caused Edge to accidentally spear Guerrero .
After a three @-@ month hiatus from television , Fox resurfaced on the November 18 episode of ECW , managing English wrestler DJ Gabriel , in a fan favorite role . Their on @-@ screen association was explained by WWE claiming that Fox had moved her wedding planning business to England during her hiatus from WWE television , where she had met Gabriel . Gabriel and Fox began feuding with the Burchill siblings ( Paul and Katie Lea ) in late December 2008 . Fox made her ECW in @-@ ring debut on January 6 , 2009 , in a loss to Katie Lea . The following week , Gabriel and Fox defeated the Burchill siblings in a mixed tag team match , giving Fox her first win as part of the brand . In March , Fox and Gabriel feuded with Tyson Kidd and Natalya , with Natalya defeating Fox on March 3 episode of ECW . Fox competed in the 25 Diva battle royal at WrestleMania XXV , which was ultimately won by Santina Marella .
Fox was drafted to the SmackDown brand as a part of the 2009 Supplemental Draft on April 15 . She made her in @-@ ring debut as a villainous SmackDown Diva on the April 30 episode of WWE Superstars , teaming with Michelle McCool to defeat Maria and Gail Kim . After winning her debut match , Fox aligned herself with Michelle McCool , with the pair teaming together in tag team matches as well as accompanying each other to the ring for singles matches . Fox was in the corner of McCool when McCool won the WWE Women 's Championship at The Bash . Alicia Fox then went on to have a several week feud with SmackDown Diva Maria Kanellis . However , the rivalry wasn 't aired due to time difficulties . It was mostly Fox who won most the matches proving to be the best out of the two Divas . The rivalry came to an end after a No. 1 # Contendors match won by Alicia Fox . The main reason the rivalry didn 't continue was because Michelle McCool was the champion at the time and Alicia Fox was in an alliance with her .
On June 29 it was announced that Fox had been traded to the Raw brand . The following week , she made her Raw debut in a tag team match , teaming with Maryse against Gail Kim and Mickie James in a losing effort . She gained her first victory on Raw on July 13 , when Fox , Maryse , and Rosa Mendes won a six @-@ Diva tag team match . Fox picked up her first pinfall victory by defeating Kelly Kelly during a tag team match on the July 20 episode of Raw . On the August 10 episode of Raw , Fox was involved in a fatal four @-@ way match to determine the number one contender for the WWE Divas Championship , but was unsuccessful . The following month , on September 14 , she defeated Gail Kim to become the number one contender to the Divas Championship . She received a match for the championship at Hell in a Cell against Mickie James on October 4 , but was unsuccessful . Fox became the number one contender to the Divas Championship again on the November 2 episode of Raw , by winning a battle royal which involved The Bella Twins , Eve Torres , Gail Kim , and Kelly Kelly . She challenged Melina two weeks later for the championship , but was unsuccessful . Melina then vacated the Divas Championship due to injury , and a tournament was set up to determine the new champion in early January 2010 . Fox defeated Kelly Kelly in the first round of the tournament , but later lost to Gail Kim in the semi @-@ finals . Fox was on the winning team in a 10 @-@ Diva tag team match at WrestleMania XXVI , but on the losing side the following night in a rematch on Raw . On the April 5 episode of Raw , Fox was involved in a " Dress to Impress " battle royal to determine the number one contender to the WWE Divas Championship , but was unsuccessful , and the match was won by Eve Torres .
In May 2010 , Fox began a storyline with Zack Ryder , after he requested that she and Gail Kim be ringside on several occasions to watch his matches , so he could impress them and find a new valet . During his match with Evan Bourne on May 10 , Fox interfered on Ryder 's behalf , but was stopped by Gail Kim . The following week , Bourne and Kim defeated Ryder and Fox in a mixed tag team match . After the match , the evil Fox attacked Ryder in order to collect a " bounty " from the Raw guest host , Ashton Kutcher .
= = = = Divas Champion and various storylines ( 2010 – 2013 ) = = = =
On June 20 , 2010 , at the Fatal 4 – Way pay – per – view , Fox competed in a fatal four – way match for the WWE Divas Championship , which also involved Gail Kim , Eve Torres , and Maryse . Fox pinned Maryse to win the championship for the first time , and as a result became the first African American Diva to win the title . In her first title defence , on the July 5 episode of Raw , Fox successfully defended the championship against Eve after feigning an ankle injury and as a result , Eve was granted a rematch at Money in the Bank by Raw 's anonymous General Manager , where Fox was again able to successfully retain the championship . In August , Melina returned from an injury and attacked Fox , after the latter declared herself to be undefeatable and the greatest champion in history . After defeating Fox in a non – title match on Raw , Melina was granted a title shot , on August 15 , at SummerSlam , which she won , ending Fox 's reign at 56 days .
On August 31 , Fox was announced as the mentor of Maxine for the all – female third season of NXT but Maxine failed to win the competition , and was the second rookie Diva to be eliminated . Fox received a rematch for the Divas Championship against Melina on the September 6 episode of Raw , which she lost . In December , Fox competed in a battle royal to determine the winner of the " Diva of the Year " Slammy Award , but was eliminated by Natalya and also took part of a triple – threat number one contender 's match , which was won by Melina .
On April 26 , 2011 , Fox was drafted back to the SmackDown brand as part of the 2011 supplemental draft and in her first match back for the brand , acting as a villainess , she was defeated by Layla and suffered a shoulder injury . On the May 27 episode of SmackDown , in her return , Fox and Tamina Snuka defeated the team of Kaitlyn and AJ Lee , which later transitioned into a feud between the two sets of Divas , with Fox and Tamina regularly winning tag team matches and allying with Rosa Mendes . The alliance between Fox and Tamina ended on the August 11 episode of WWE Superstars , when Fox defeated Tamina in a singles match .
After a tag team match , which they lost , on the August 19 episode of SmackDown , Fox was attacked by Natalya , which provoked a feud between the two . She began acting as a face while wrestling alongside several different Divas to face Natalya and Beth Phoenix , collectively known as The Divas of Doom , in tag team matches , and also regularly competing against them in singles matches . As part of the storyline , Fox also prevented Natalya and Phoenix from attacking other Divas , including Kelly Kelly and AJ . The storyline continued sporadically throughout the first half of 2012 , with Fox losing tag team and singles matches to Phoenix and Natalya . Fox spent the remainder of 2012 and early 2013 competing in sporadic matches , usually on the losing side . In mid – 2013 , Fox appeared on the rebooted WWE NXT , entering a tournament to determine the inaugural NXT Women 's Champion , where she defeated Bayley in the first round , but lost to Paige in the semi – finals .
= = = = Total Divas Alliances ( 2013 – 2016 ) = = = =
In September , Fox took part of the WWE Divas Champion AJ Lee 's team which feuded with the cast of the Total Divas reality television show , which led to a traditional seven – on – seven elimination tag team match , in which Fox was the first to be eliminated , courtesy of Naomi .
Since January 2014 , Fox formed a tag team with Aksana , later dubbed " Foxsana " . In April , Fox participated in the " Vickie Guerrero Divas Championship Invitational " match at WrestleMania XXX , which was won by defending champion AJ Lee . After that , Fox started a feud with the newly crowned WWE Divas Champion Paige , losing to her in a series of matches on Raw , Main Event , and WWE Superstars . Her losses provoked a storyline , in which she lost her temper after matches , taunting the ring announcers , ringside crew , and crowd and defacing the ringside area . Fox was eventually able to defeat Paige on Raw on May 19 in a non – title match and celebrated by taking Jerry Lawler 's crown afterwards . Her victory set up a title match between the two at Payback , on June 1 , which Fox lost . Following a further loss to Paige on June 9 , Fox attacked tag team partner Aksana , before defeating her in a match on SmackDown , officially disbanding Foxsana .
After a hiatus , Fox returned to WWE television , on the September 29 episode of Raw , where she defeated AJ Lee , with the help of her former rival Paige and subsequently , formed an alliance with her , and went on to pick up another win over AJ on October 20 . However , when Fox inadvertently cost Paige a title match at Hell in a Cell , Paige dissolved the alliance by attacking her the following night on Raw . This prompted a traditional four – on – four elimination tag team match , with each captaining a side , at the Survivor Series pay – per – view in November , where Fox 's team won the match with a clean sweep . In January 2015 , Fox developed a rivalry with Naomi , during which she formed a brief alliance with The Miz and Damien Mizdow , and the trio went on to defeat Naomi and The Usos in a series of mixed tag team matches . On the April 13 episode of Raw , Fox competed in a number one contender 's battle royal for Nikki Bella 's WWE Divas Championship , which would be won by Paige .
On the June 15 episode of Raw , Fox was a part of the Divas that Paige tried to rally in an attempt to take a stand against The Bella Twins and join her , but no one accepted the offer . Three days later on SmackDown , Fox assisted Brie Bella in her match against Paige , and thus aligning herself with The Bella Twins and formed " Team Bella " . After weeks of Team Bella outnumbering Paige , Naomi , and Tamina , Stephanie McMahon called for a " revolution " in the WWE Divas Division by introducing the debuting Charlotte and Becky Lynch as Paige 's allies , and NXT Women 's Champion Sasha Banks aligning with Naomi and Tamina , leading to a brawl between the three teams . The three teams would ultimately face off , on August 23 , at SummerSlam in a three team elimination match . Team Bella would first eliminate Team B.A.D. when Brie Bella pinned Tamina , however Team PCB would win the match after Brie was pinned by Becky Lynch . On the August 25 episode of Tough Enough , Fox make a special appearance on the finale of the sixth season , wrestling finalists Amanda and eventual winner Sara Lee . Fox spent the remainder of 2015 competing occasionally in singles matches and tag team matches with Brie Bella , while Nikki Bella was off television with an injury .
After defeating Charlotte in a non – title match on the February 1 episode of Raw , Brie was granted a match for the WWE Divas Championship at Fastlane on February 21 , where she failed to capture the title . During that time , Team Bella quietly disbanded and both Fox and Brie transitioned into fan favorites .
Upon the fading of Team Bella , Fox teamed up with Brie against Team B.A.D. on the March 14 episode of Raw , where both of them were defeated after a distraction provided by Lana , transitioning herself into a face . On the March 22 episode of Main Event , alongside Natalya she accompanied Paige to her match against Naomi , accompanied by Tamina and Lana . Later in the match , she and Natalya were viciously attacked by Summer Rae and a returning Emma , distracting Paige as they aligned themselves with Lana and Team B.A.D. The following week , she along with Brie and Natalya accompanied Paige to her match against Emma on the March 28 episode of Raw , where she was defeated after Lana attacked Paige . Post @-@ match , she along her allies were attacked by Emma , Summer , Lana , Tamina and Naomi , before they were saved by a returning Eva Marie . As a result , a 10 @-@ Diva tag team match between the Total Divas team ( Brie , Fox , Natalya , Eva and Paige ) and the newly dubbed team B.A.D. & Blonde ( Naomi , Tamina , Lana , Emma , and Rae ) was announced for the WrestleMania 32 's pay @-@ per @-@ view pre @-@ show . At the event on April 3 , Fox 's team won after Naomi submitted to Brie Bella .
= = = = Singles competition ( 2016 – present ) = = = =
After a hiatus , Fox returned to WWE television on the July 15 episode of Main Event , losing to Becky Lynch . On July 19 , at the 2016 WWE Draft , Fox was drafted to Raw .
= = Other media = =
Fox made guest appearances for the reality television show Total Divas produced by WWE and E ! during the first two seasons , which began airing in July 2013 . In October 2014 , she joined the main cast of the program for the second half of the third season , which began airing in January 2015 . In 2013 , she made an appearance on the television series Cupcake Wars , as a guest judge along with fellow WWE Diva Layla . The following year , Fox and WWE Superstar The Miz presented an award at Cartoon Network 's Hall of Game Awards . Fox made her acting debut guest starring in two episodes of Syfy series Dominion that aired in July 2015 .
Fox has appeared in four WWE video games . She made her in @-@ game debut at WWE SmackDown vs Raw 2011 and appears in WWE ' 12 ( DLC ) , WWE 13 and WWE 2K16 .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Television = = =
= = Personal life = =
Crawford has a younger sister named Christina , who was also a professional wrestler and is now a Tampa Bay Buccaneers cheerleader . Prior to becoming a professional wrestler , Crawford was a model , and signed with WWE after being seen in a fashion catalogue by John Laurinaitis .
On Total Divas , Crawford revealed that she was previously in a relationship with fellow wrestler Stu Bennett , known on @-@ screen as Wade Barrett and King Barrett . In 2016 , Total Divas featured Crawford being in a relationship with a man named Darryl .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
Watch Yo ' Face ( Scissors kick , to a bent over or kneeling opponent ) — 2010 – present ; adopted from Booker T
Foxy Bomb ( Powerbomb ) — 2010
Officer Nasty ( Somersault leg drop ) — 2011 – 2013 ; used as a signature move thereafter
Foxy Buster ( Modified leg drop bulldog , to a kneeling opponent ) — 2014 – 2015 ; used as a signature move thereafter
Signature moves
Big boot , sometimes to an cornered or oncoming opponent
Bridging Northern Lights suplex
Canadian backbreaker rack
Corner slingshot back elbow
Elevated surfboard stretch
Handstand headsissors takedown , to an oncoming opponent
Knee drop , to the back of a face @-@ down opponent , sometimes done repeatedly in succession
Matrix evasion
Monkey flip
Multiple head smashes , to the top turnbuckle
Multiple pinning variations
Roll @-@ up , sometimes while bridging
Schoolgirl
Small package
Split legged sunset flip , from out of the corner
Reverse chinlock
Single leg dropkick , to an oncoming opponent
Single leg Boston crab , sometimes transitioned into an over the shoulder single leg Boston crab
Tilt @-@ a @-@ whirl backbreaker , sometimes to an oncoming opponent
With Nikki Bella
Double team signature moves
Double axe handle , to an opponent 's midsection , sometimes followed by a legsweep ( Nikki )
Diving double axe handle , from the second rope , to the opponent 's arm
Double suplex
Nicknames
" The Bona @-@ fide Diva "
" The Foxy Floridian "
Managers
DJ Gabriel
Michelle McCool
Nikki Bella
Brie Bella
Wrestlers managed
Elijah Burke
DJ Gabriel
Michelle McCool
Zack Ryder
JTG
Nikki Bella
Brie Bella
Paige
Entrance themes
" Party On " By Jim Johnston ( November 18 , 2008 – April 30 , 2009 ; used with DJ Gabriel )
" Shake Yo Tail " by Billy Lincoln ( April 30 , 2009 – 2011 )
" Pa @-@ Pa @-@ Pa @-@ Pa @-@ Party " by Jim Johnston ( 2011 – present )
" You Can Look ( But You Can 't Touch ) " by Jim Johnston and performed by Kim Sozzi ( June 25 , 2015 – October 26 , 2015 ; used as part of Team Bella )
" Beautiful Life " by CFO $ ( January 11 , 2016 – February 1 , 2016 ; used while accompanying Brie Bella )
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
Ohio Valley Wrestling
OVW Women 's Championship ( 1 time )
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
PWI ranked her 17 of the best 50 female singles wrestlers in the PWI Female 50 in 2010
World Wrestling Entertainment
WWE Divas Championship ( 1 time )
Wrestling Observer Newsletter
Worst Feud of the Year ( 2015 ) Team PCB vs. Team B.A.D. vs. Team Bella
Worst Worked Match of the Year ( 2013 ) with AJ Lee , Aksana , Kaitlyn , Rosa Mendes , Summer Rae , and Tamina Snuka vs. Brie Bella , Cameron , Eva Marie , JoJo , Naomi , Natalya , and Nikki Bella on November 24
= USS Conyngham ( DD @-@ 58 ) =
USS Conyngham ( Destroyer No. 58 / DD @-@ 58 ) was a Tucker @-@ class destroyer built for the United States Navy prior to the American entry into World War I. The ship was the first U.S. Navy vessel named for Gustavus Conyngham .
Conyngham was laid down by the William Cramp and Sons of Philadelphia , in July 1914 and launched in July of the following year . The ship was a little more than 315 feet ( 96 m ) in length , just over 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) abeam , and had a standard displacement of 1 @,@ 090 long tons ( 1 @,@ 110 t ) . She was armed with four 4 @-@ inch ( 10 cm ) guns and had eight 21 @-@ inch ( 530 mm ) torpedo tubes . Conyngham was powered by a pair of steam turbines that propelled her at up to 29 @.@ 5 knots ( 54 @.@ 6 km / h ) .
After her January 1916 commissioning , Conyngham sailed in the Atlantic and the Caribbean . After the United States entered World War I in April 1917 , Conyngham was part of the first U.S. destroyer squadron sent overseas . Patrolling the Irish Sea out of Queenstown , Ireland , Conyngham made several rescues of passengers and crew from ships sunk by U @-@ boats . Conyngham 's commander was commended for actions related to what was thought at the time to be a " probable " kill of a German submarine .
Upon returning to the United State in December 1918 , Conyngham underwent repairs at the Boston Navy Yard . She remained there in reduced commission through 1921 , with only brief episodes of activity . After returning to active service for about a year , she was decommissioned in June 1922 . In June 1924 , Conyngham was transferred to the United States Coast Guard to help enforce Prohibition as a part of the " Rum Patrol " . She operated under the name USCGC Conyngham ( CG @-@ 2 ) until 1933 , when she was returned to the Navy . Later that year , the ship was renamed DD @-@ 58 to free the name Conyngham for another destroyer . She was sold for scrap in August 1934 .
= = Design and construction = =
Conyngham was authorized in 1913 as the second ship of the Tucker class which , like the related O 'Brien class , was an improved version of the Cassin @-@ class destroyers authorized in 1911 . Construction of the vessel was awarded to William Cramp and Sons of Philadelphia , which laid down her keel on 27 July 1914 . Twelve months later , on 8 July 1915 , Conyngham was launched by sponsor Miss A. C. Stevens , a great @-@ great @-@ granddaughter of the ship 's namesake , Gustavus Conyngham ( 1744 – 1819 ) , a Continental Navy officer . As built , Conyngham was 315 feet 3 inches ( 96 @.@ 09 m ) in length and 30 feet 6 inches ( 9 @.@ 30 m ) abeam and drew 9 feet 4 inches ( 2 @.@ 84 m ) . The ship had a standard displacement of 1 @,@ 090 long tons ( 1 @,@ 110 t ) and displaced 1 @,@ 205 long tons ( 1 @,@ 224 t ) when fully loaded .
Conyngham had two Curtis steam turbines that drove her two screw propellers , and an additional steam turbine geared to one of the propeller shafts for cruising purposes . The power plant could generate 18 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 13 @,@ 000 kW ) and move the ship at speeds up to 29 @.@ 5 knots ( 54 @.@ 6 km / h ) .
Conyngham 's main battery consisted of four 4 @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) / 50 Mark 9 guns , with each gun weighing in excess of 6 @,@ 100 pounds ( 2 @,@ 800 kg ) . The guns fired 33 @-@ pound ( 15 kg ) armor @-@ piercing projectiles at 2 @,@ 900 feet per second ( 880 m / s ) . At an elevation of 20 ° , the guns had a range of 15 @,@ 920 yards ( 14 @,@ 560 m ) .
Conyngham was also equipped with eight 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedo tubes . The General Board of the United States Navy had called for two anti @-@ aircraft guns for the Tucker @-@ class ships , as well as provisions for laying up to 36 floating mines . From sources , it is unclear if these recommendations were followed for Conyngham or any of the other ships of the class .
= = Early career = =
USS Conyngham was commissioned into the United States Navy on 21 January 1916 under the command of Lieutenant Commander A. W. Johnson . Following her commissioning , Conyngham joined in tactics and war maneuvers off the east coast in 1916 and in the beginning of 1917 sailed to the Caribbean for war games and fleet maneuvers . Returning to Norfolk , Virginia on 23 March , she joined 5th Naval District Patrol Force and with Wadsworth and Sampson patrolled the approaches to Chesapeake Bay .
= = World War I = =
On 24 April 1917 Conyngham sailed from Boston , Massachusetts with her division for Queenstown , Ireland , the first destroyers to join English forces for duty after the entry of the United States into World War I earlier that month . This force patrolled off the Irish coast and escorted convoys through the danger zone where German submarine operated .
The destroyers also providing rescue services for stricken ships . When the British ship Karina was torpedoed and sunk by German submarine UC @-@ 75 on 17 August 1917 , Conyngham sped to her assistance and rescued 39 survivors . A similar distress call from the British ship Hartland on 22 November — torpedoed by German submarine U @-@ 97 — resulted in the rescue of her 30 @-@ man crew by Conyngham .
The British Armed merchant cruiser Orama and ten destroyers , including Conyngham , were escorting an eastbound convoy of twenty steamers on 19 October , when German submarine U @-@ 62 surfaced in the midst of the group . The submarine launched its only remaining torpedo at Orama , sinking that vessel . Lookouts on Conyngham saw U @-@ 62 's periscope and quickly launched a depth charge attack on the spot where the U @-@ boat had submerged , bringing oil and debris to the surface . Conyngham 's commanding officer was commended for his prompt and effective action , and the British Admiralty awarded Conyngham a " probable " kill on the submarine . Unfortunately for Conyngham 's record , though , U @-@ 62 had survived the encounter .
= = Post @-@ war = =
After the hostilities had ended on 11 November 1918 with Germany signing the Armistice , Conyngham sailed from Queenstown on 14 December 1918 for Boston to have an overhaul . From February to April 1919 , the destroyer participated in fleet exercises and division maneuvers in the Caribbean . Returning to Boston , she was placed in reduced commission until 1921 .
In June 1921 , Conyngham accompanied a Cuban warship that was repatriating the remains of former Cuban President Jose Miguel Gómez to Havana . She returned to Newport , Rhode Island , for summer exercises with her squadron and , after wintering at Charleston , South Carolina , reported to Philadelphia Navy Yard in March 1922 for inactivation . She was decommissioned there on 23 June 1922 .
= = United States Coast Guard career = =
On 17 January 1920 , Prohibition was instituted by law in the United States . Soon , the smuggling of alcoholic beverages along the coastlines of the United States became widespread and blatant . The Treasury Department eventually determined that the United States Coast Guard simply did not have the ships to constitute a successful patrol . To cope with the problem , President Calvin Coolidge in 1924 authorized the transfer from the Navy to the Coast Guard of twenty old destroyers that were in reserve and out of commission . Conyngham was reactivated and transferred to the Treasury Department on 7 June 1924 for use by the Coast Guard . Designated CG @-@ 2 , Conyngham was commissioned on 8 March 1925 , and joined the " Rum Patrol " to aid in the attempt to enforce prohibition laws .
After the United States Congress proposed the Twenty @-@ first Amendment to end prohibition in February 1933 , plans were made for Conyngham to be returned to the Navy . On 27 May 1933 , Conyngham arrived at the Philadelphia Navy Yard , and was decommissioned nine days later , on 5 June . Conyngham was transferred back to the Navy on 30 June . Later in 1933 , the ship was renamed DD @-@ 58 in order to free the name Conyngham for a new destroyer of the same name . DD @-@ 58 remained in noncommissioned status until struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 5 July 1934 . She was sold for scrap on 22 August in accordance with the London Naval Treaty .
= Blood Drive ( The Office ) =
" Blood Drive " is the eighteenth episode of the fifth season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the 90th overall episode of the series . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on March 5 , 2009 .
In the episode , a lonely Michael strikes up a pleasant conversation with a woman while giving blood , but passes out before he can learn her name . He holds a Valentine 's Day singles party at the Dunder Mifflin office with the hopes of meeting her . Meanwhile , Jim and Pam go on an awkward double date with Phyllis and Bob Vance .
The episode was written by Brent Forrester and directed by Randall Einhorn . It featured the first appearance of actress Lisa K. Wyatt as Lynne , who would make recurrent appearances as a love interest for Kevin . The episode received generally mixed reviews and , according to Nielsen ratings , was watched by 8 @.@ 63 million viewers during its original broadcast .
= = Plot = =
Michael ( Steve Carell ) is depressed because it is the first Valentine 's Day since he and Holly broke up . Michael donates blood at a mobile blood drive being held in the business park 's parking lot and has a nice conversation with a female donor ( Kathryn Aselton ) sitting next to him . When they both finish at the same time , Michael passes out because he did not eat much before giving blood , and when he wakes up she is gone . A disappointed Michael finds a glove he assumes she left behind and takes it , hoping she will come back for it . When Michael goes back into the office , he decides to gather all the single employees into the conference room to discuss their own personal romantic dilemmas . After becoming further depressed by their sad dating stories , Michael decides to try lifting their spirits by holding a singles mixer . He puts up flyers which also advertise the finding of a missing glove , and Michael hopes his mystery woman will come to the party as a result .
When Jim ( John Krasinski ) and Pam ( Jenna Fischer ) are threatened with banishment by Michael after they constantly gaze happily on each other , Phyllis ( Phyllis Smith ) invites them to have lunch with her and her husband Bob Vance ( Robert R. Shafer ) . Their meal initially goes well , but Phyllis and Bob disappear for a while after their food arrives . Hungry and not wanting to be rude by eating before they get back , Jim and Pam check the bathrooms and hear Phyllis and Bob having sex in the disabled bathroom . Phyllis and Bob finally come back to their table and Jim and Pam lose their appetites and look on in disgust as Phyllis and Bob seductively put food in each other 's mouths .
Back at the office , a few outsiders attend Michael 's party . One of the attendees ( Tate Hanyok ) strikes up a conversation with Dwight ( Rainn Wilson ) , who tries to sell her paper ; Dwight becomes angry when she tells him she already has a paper supplier . Another attendee named Lynne ( Lisa K. Wyatt ) converses with Kevin ( Brian Baumgartner ) , who is still somewhat depressed over his breakup with his fiancée Stacy and walks away when he admits it was she who broke it off . Kevin returns later to apologize to Lynne and admits he gets nervous talking to pretty girls ; Lynne is flattered and gives Kevin her e @-@ mail address . Afterwards , Michael is disappointed the woman who lost her glove does not show up and tells the employees they can go home early , but the empathetic staff decide to stay and later encourage Michael to leave with them .
The episode ends when Stanley ( Leslie David Baker ) attempts to get a cookie from a blood drive nurse at the drive by claiming he gave blood earlier and showing a cotton ball taped to his arm as proof . The nurse recognizes he is lying because they are using band @-@ aids ; a frustrated Stanley leaves , and tells Phyllis , who is about to try the same trick . In the final scene , Creed ( Creed Bratton ) is seen leaving the blood mobile with a bag of donated blood in his coat pocket .
= = Production = =
" Blood Drive " was written by Brent Forrester and directed by Randall Einhorn . It featured the first appearance of actress Lisa K. Wyatt as Lynne , who would continue to make frequent appearances as a romantic interest for Kevin . During the episode , the Ed Helms character Andy is described as attending solo honeymoons in Napa Valley , The Bahamas and Walt Disney World Resort , which he previously booked before breaking off his engagement with Angela . Following the episode , NBC posted fake photos of Ed Helms visiting those locations on the show 's official Angela Martin and Andrew Bernard wedding website . The photos included Helms scuba @-@ diving , standing in front of a hot air balloon and visiting Disney 's Epcot Center , and includes an assurance by Andy that he " wanted all my bros and bras in cyberspace to know that the Ol ' Nard Dog is doing just fine . ”
The official website for The Office included three cut scenes from " Blood Drive " within a week of its original release . In the first 85 @-@ second clip , Dwight assures his office @-@ mates that the blood taken in the bloodmobile will not be used in any " ritualistic ways " . Later , while giving blood himself , he asks the hospital employee , " How do I know it 's not going to go into a person who will later come back to kill me ? " The second clip was two minutes of extended footage from the singles party . Meredith talks about her husband leaving her for a garbage @-@ woman whom her kids now consider their real mother instead of herself , and Dwight said he believes his soulmate , " probably died 700 years ago in feudal Japan after having impersonated a samurai , or at the very least she lives somewhere outside the Scranton Wilkes @-@ Barre corridor . " In the final 90 @-@ second clip , Dwight shows off his bobblehead doll collection to a woman , Creed tries unsuccessfully to pick up Lynne , and Dwight gets rid of an attractive male visitor who Michael fears could be competition . Dwight tells him the party is cancelled " due to a death in the elevator " .
= = Cultural references = =
During the singles party , Angela mentions that two men previously had a duel over her in Ohio , which is the second duel fought over her . This is a reference to " The Duel " , an Office episode from earlier in the fifth season , in which Andy and Dwight duel for her affections in the Dunder Mifflin parking lot . In the beginning of the " Blood Drive " episode , Jim , Michael and Dwight drive a phone salesman away by repeatedly saying " Ayyyy ! " in the style of Fonzie , the popular character from the sitcom Happy Days . The mysterious woman leaves a single pink glove behind after meeting Michael , in a similar fashion to the classic folk tale Cinderella . Kelly refers to the encounter as " like a modern @-@ day Enchanted " . Michael says he was hit by " Cupid 's sparrow " , a mistaken reference to the Roman mythological god who would inspire love by shooting people with arrows .
Michael makes jokes about feeling like a human juice box , describing himself as " Type O @-@ Cean Spray " , a combination of type O blood and the Ocean Spray juice company , and as " Hawaiian Blood Punch " , a reference to the fruit punch drink Hawaiian Punch . Jim says , " I have a lot of work to do this afternoon . Those mines aren 't going to sweep themselves , " a reference to the computer game Minesweeper . Ryan is said to be " sleeping with random prostitutes " in Thailand ; prostitution in the Southeast Asian nation is technically illegal , but is in practice tolerated and regulated . Kevin said his previous engagement ended immediately after he remarked that the Philadelphia Eagles , a National Football League football team , might have a chance at winning the NFC East division championship .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast on March 5 , 2009 , " Blood Drive " was watched by 8 @.@ 63 million overall viewers , which was about average for the series at the time . The episode received a 5 @.@ 1 rating / 14 share among viewers aged between 18 and 34 , and a 4 @.@ 5 rating / 11 share among viewers between 18 and 49 . The episode of 30 Rock , which aired at 9 : 30 p.m. directly after The Office , was seen by 7 @.@ 35 million viewers , an increase of 30 percent in viewership from the previous week 's 6 @.@ 3 million . Commentators said " Blood Drive " was directly responsible for this ratings increase for 30 Rock because the lead @-@ in Office episode was new , whereas the previous week 's episode was a repeat .
The episode received generally mixed reviews . Brian Howard of The Journal News described it as " classic Office " and praised the camaraderie the staff showed for each other and the " bizarre discomfort " of the double date with Jim , Pam , Phyllis and Bob . Howard described Dwight and Kevin as the episode 's stand @-@ outs . Alan Sepinwall of The Star @-@ Ledger said the episode lacked many laugh @-@ out @-@ loud moments , but was effective because the characters are so well developed : " The Office has , over the years , become as much of a kitchen sink drama as it is a comedy . ... The characters are so well @-@ drawn by now , and for the most part so likable , that a sweet , low @-@ key episode about Michael and the staff bonding over their singlehood worked even without a lot of memorable jokes . " Travis Fickett of IGN described the episode as " familiar territory , but it has plenty of fun moments . " Fickett praised the scene with Carell and the mystery woman , and Jim and Pam 's lunch . But Fickett said the series needed to address why Pam was staying with the company : " Jim and Pam still work there because , well , that 's part of the show - but there really isn 't a very good reason as to why these two would still be at this dead end job . "
Will Leitch of New York magazine described " Blood Drive " as " mostly a placeholder episode " , although he said it was " legitimately touching " when the cast stays late with Michael during the party . Nathan Rabin of The A.V. Club , who gave the episode a B + grade , said the episode included both pathos and " big laughs " . He particularly liked the joke of Andy attending all his honeymoons : " The thought of Andy forlornly embarking on a couple ’ s massage solo or sharing a romantic hot air balloon ride with himself was funny and sad in the best Office tradition . " Entertainment Weekly writer Jeff Labrecque said the episode was " unusually sweet " , but said the double date with Pam , Jim , Phyllis and Bob " felt slightly undercooked " . Josh McAuliffe of The Times @-@ Tribune of Scranton , Pennsylvania , said the episode was " a highly amusing , if not fantastic , half @-@ hour " and particularly praised the opening scene involving the phone system salesman .
Several reviewers described Dwight 's quote , " I can retract my penis up into itself , " as the most memorable line of the episode . Phyllis and Bob Vance 's sexual rendezvous in the handicapped restroom during the double date ranked number 8 in phillyBurbs.com 's top ten moments from the fifth season of The Office . " Blood Drive " was voted the seventeenth highest @-@ rated episode out of 26 from the fifth season , according to an episode poll at the fansite OfficeTally ; the episode was rated 7 @.@ 86 out of 10 .
= Robert and Thomas Wintour =
Robert Wintour ( 1568 – 30 January 1606 ) and Thomas Wintour ( 1571 or 1572 – 31 January 1606 ) , also spelt Winter , were members of the Gunpowder Plot , a failed conspiracy to assassinate King James I. Both were related to other conspirators , such as their cousin , Robert Catesby , and a half @-@ brother , John Wintour , also joined them following the plot 's failure . Thomas was an intelligent and educated man , fluent in several languages and trained as a lawyer , but chose instead to become a soldier , fighting for England in the Low Countries , France , and possibly in Central Europe . By 1600 , however , he changed his mind and became a fervent Catholic . On several occasions he travelled to the continent and entreated Spain on behalf of England 's oppressed Catholics , and suggested that with Spanish support a Catholic rebellion was likely .
As a momentum was building behind a peace settlement between the two countries , Thomas 's pleas fell on deaf ears . Instead , in 1604 he decided to join with Catesby , who planned to restore England to Catholicism by killing the king , and inciting a popular revolt in the Midlands , during which James 's daughter , Princess Elizabeth , would be installed as titular queen . Thomas returned to the continent and again failed to elicit Spanish support , but instead met Guy Fawkes , with whom he returned to England . Robert , a devout Catholic who inherited Huddington Court near Worcester , joined the conspiracy the following year .
The plot began to unravel following the delivery of an anonymous letter to William Parker , 4th Baron Monteagle , warning him to stay away from Parliament . Thomas and Catesby confronted Monteagle 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , the recently recruited Francis Tresham , threatening to kill him , but Tresham managed to convince them of his innocence . At that stage Thomas reportedly asked Catesby to abandon the scheme , to no avail . When Fawkes was captured at about midnight on 4 November 1605 , Thomas fled to Robert 's house at Huddington . Catesby and most of the others spent two days travelling across the Midlands attempting to incite a rebellion , but with an ever @-@ diminishing group of supporters they eventually settled at Holbeche House in Staffordshire , and waited for government forces to arrive . Thomas , by then reintegrated into the group , chose to remain with them , and in the ensuing firefight was shot in the shoulder , and captured . Robert , who had left before the battle , evaded capture until January 1606 .
Much of what is written about the plot is based on Thomas 's confessions , given in the Tower of London in November 1605 . The brothers were tried on 27 January 1606 , and hanged , drawn and quartered several days later in London .
= = Family and life before 1604 = =
Robert ( b . 1568 ) and Thomas Wintour ( b . 1571 – 72 ) were sons of George Wintour of Huddington Court in Worcestershire , and his wife Jane ( née Ingleby ) , daughter of Sir William Ingleby of Ripley Castle near Knaresborough . A sister , Dorothy , married another conspirator , John Grant . Two agnate half @-@ siblings , John and Elizabeth , resulted from their father 's marriage to Elizabeth Bourn , following Jane 's death . Their paternal grandparents were Robert Wintour of Cavewell in Gloucestershire , and his wife Catherine , daughter of Sir George Throckmorton of Coughton in Warwickshire . As scions of the Throckmortons , they could therefore claim a kinship with plotters like Robert Catesby and Francis Tresham . Their maternal uncle Francis Ingleby , a Catholic priest , was hanged , drawn and quartered at York in 1586 , a fact which in the opinion of historian and author Antonia Fraser , " could hardly have failed to leave a stark impression upon the Wintour family . " The Wintours took their name from the Welsh Gwyn Tour ( White Tower ) . ' Wyntour ' was sometimes used in signatures , but not ' Winter ' ( as the brothers are commonly named ) .
A faithful Catholic , Robert was married to Gertrude Talbot , daughter of the recusant John Talbot of Grafton . He inherited the Tudor Huddington Court near Worcester , along with a significant fortune with which he was known to be generous . Under Robert , Huddington Court became a known refuge for priests . The proclamation for his capture , issued following the plot 's failure , described him as " a man of mean stature , and rather low than otherwise ; square made , somewhat stooping ; near 40 years of age ; his hair and beard brown ; his beard not much , and his hair short . " The Jesuit John Gerard wrote that he was " esteemed in his life to be one of the wisest and most resolute and sufficient gentlemen in Worcestershire " . Gerard 's appraisal of Thomas was just as complimentary . He was apparently an intelligent , witty and educated man , who could speak Latin , Italian , Spanish and French . " He was of mean stature , but strong and comely and very valient , about 33 years old or somewhat more . " Thomas worked as a servant to William Parker , 4th Baron Monteagle . He was educated as a lawyer , but following several years of dissipation travelled to Flanders and enrolled in the English army . He fought against Catholic Spain in the Low Countries , France and possibly against the Turks in Central Europe . However , by 1600 his views had changed ; citing his belief in the injustice of fighting against the power of Catholic Spain , like his elder brother he became a passionate Catholic . Travelling as ' Mr Winter of Worcestershire ' , from 24 February 1601 he spent 13 days in Rome for the jubilee , and later that year and into 1602 travelled to Spain , to petition the Council on behalf of the Catholic rebels left leaderless by the execution of Robert Devereux , 2nd Earl of Essex . Father Henry Garnet , perhaps thinking that the purpose behind Thomas 's visit was to gain financial support for impoverished English Catholics , sent him to Superior Father Joseph Creswell , who made the introductions to the Spanish . This trip to Spain later became the first of two visits to be dubbed by the English government as the Spanish Treason , but Thomas 's timing was unfortunate , coming as it did so soon after Spain 's failed attack in Ireland , and he received only vague assurances of their support . In England he met with the Spanish embassy Don Juan de Tassis , who in August 1603 landed at Dover to help negotiate an Anglo @-@ Spanish treaty . Tassis quickly realised that any chance of a successful Catholic rebellion was unlikely , and discounted Thomas 's claim that , with funding , " 3 @,@ 000 Catholics " would be available for the cause . After meeting with King James he wrote to Spain emphasising the need to prioritise peace with England over the freedom of her Catholics .
= = Thomas meets with Robert Catesby and John Wright = =
According to contemporary accounts late in February 1604 Thomas 's cousin , Robert Catesby , invited him to his house in Lambeth , but Thomas was indisposed and could not attend . Catesby sent a second letter that Thomas did respond to , and when he arrived he found his cousin with John Wright , a devout Catholic and a renowned swordsman . Catesby planned to re @-@ establish Catholicism in England by blowing up the House of Lords during the State Opening of Parliament , killing the king . Thomas did not immediately recoil from the idea . As a former soldier he was a practical man , and he agreed with Catesby that should the plot succeed , it would " breed a confusion fit to beget new alterations " . He also offered a warning of the price of failure : " the scandal would be so great which the Catholic religion might hereby sustain , as not only our enemies , but our friends also would with good reason condemn us . " He nevertheless agreed to join the conspiracy , and as Catesby had not entirely given up hope of foreign support — " because we will leave no peaceable and quiet way untried " — Thomas returned to the continent .
In Flanders he met Juan Fernández de Velasco , 5th Duke of Frías and Constable of Castile , who was holding court there before his journey to England to conclude the Treaty of London . Thomas again stressed the plight of English Catholics , hoping to influence the forthcoming treaty negotiations due to take place at Somerset House in London . The Constable was " friendly rather than forthcoming " . Thomas also met the Welsh spy Hugh Owen , and Sir William Stanley , who were both disparaging of Catesby 's hopes of Spanish assistance . Owen did , however , introduce Thomas to Guy Fawkes , a committed Catholic who had served under Stanley as a soldier in the Southern Netherlands . Although at that time the plotters had no detailed plans , Thomas told Fawkes of their ambition to " do somewhat in England " , should Spanish support be lacking . In late April therefore the two men returned together to Catesby 's lodgings at Lambeth , and told him that despite positive noises from the Spanish , " the deeds would nott answere " .
= = Robert joins = =
With the addition to the conspiracy of Thomas Percy ( John Wright 's brother @-@ in @-@ law ) , the five plotters met at the Duck and Drake inn , in the fashionable Strand district of London , on 20 May 1604 . From hereon Thomas Wintour remained at the heart of the conspiracy . The group leased properties in London , one in Lambeth for storing the gunpowder that was rowed across the Thames to its destination . His confession has the plotters digging a tunnel toward their target during one of the several prorogations of Parliament , abandoned when the chamber directly beneath the House of Lords became available .
Following the meeting in May Catesby enlisted the aid of several more Catholic men , including Robert | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
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